: eee : ; : oe ; stot =a : apn ae YS tet 2 Bete AE: tS Z mea 2 Baler it : Eordehar bs cry ete gh, : reste A coyperisae! diam ds - So : eS ‘ be : 2 : 5 wo Nee avole tiie ay : i teakyiirial ; ; Pama : 5 Grerseenree thy (Rant Riettigiari western EE Mi) PRL AN Satins ee ey ; fot : <— re Noa ; 2 a : THE MADRAS JOURNAL OF LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. EDITED BY THE COMMITTEE OF THE SMaveras Literary Society AUXILIARY ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY. - Vol. IIT. New Series. or, Vol. MIX. Old Series. October—December 1857. Jan.—March 1858. MADRAS: PRINTED BY PHAROAH AND CO. ATHENZZUM PRESS—MOUNT ROAD. EROS. 1858. \ Le Gass ra 4 Der. ¢ CONTENTS. | I1I.—Notice of the occurrence of Crystalline Limestone in the District of Coimbatore. By H. F. Blanford, Esq., of the Geological Sur- vey of India. - - - - - - - | IV.—Description of a Cyclone at Nellore, on 9nd November 1857. By Lieut. John Mullins, Madras Engineers. - - - - V.—Notice of the same Cyclone at Cuddapab, on 2nd November 1857. : By Lieut. E. Hemery, Madras Engineers. . - - | VI.—On the line selected for the Madras Railway. By Colonel T. T. Pears, Consulting Engineer. - - - : - | VIL.—A List of Neilgherry Ferns. By the Revd. Dr. B. Schmid. - | -VIIL.—A List of Neilgherry Mosses. By the Revd. Dr. B. Schmid. - IX .—Introductory Report en the Natural History of the Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. By E.F Kelaart, M. D. - ° - . X.—Report on the Tamblegam Pearl Oyster Fishery. By H.-F. - Kelaart, M.D. - - - 2 | SELECTIONS. 1.—Moths and Bees. 2.—Mode of protecting Timber from Fire - - SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1.—Scientific Mission to India. 9.—Poisoning with the Seeds of Thevetia neriifolia. 3-—Coal in Sciade. 4,.—Death of Mr. Purdie - - - OBITUARY NOTICES. ) 1.—The Revd. Dr. Schmid. 2.—Charles Drew. 3.— Henry Walker = - NOTICES OF BOOKS. | 1.—Thwaites’s Enumeration of the Plants of Ceylon. 2.—Livingstone’s Travels and Researches in South Africa. 3.-—Decandolle’s Prodromus Systematis naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. 4,—Hooker’s Journal of Botany. 5.—Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society. 6.—The Plant Scenery of the World. - - : - | PROCEEDINGS. | 1.—The Managing Committe of the Madras Literary Society and Auxili- ary of the Royal Asiatic Society, Thursday evening, November 12th, and 10th December 1897. - - - - - - | METEOROLOGY. | Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Observatory for October, November and December 1857 . - - I.—Report upon the Oils of Southern India. By Lieut. H. P. es oe C.G- - - hee 3 Sea) II.—Description of the method adopted in the Coimbatore District for catching Wild Elephants. By Captain D. Hamilton, Assistant Conservator of Forests. = 2 - -- os - 58 60 65 (Oy. 71 73 84 89 105 117 142 147 154 160 Wetieg CONTENTS. XI.—Extract from Report on the Vegetable Products of the Pulney Hills. By Lieutenant R. H. Beddome, Assistant Conservator of Forests. - - - - - - XII.—Notes of an excursion along the Travancore Backwater. By Capt. Heber Drury, 45th N. I. - = o : XIII.—Numismatic Gleanings. By Walter Elliot, Madras Civil Service. X1V.—Notes on various subjects. By Lieutenant H. P. Hawkes, Sub- Assist. Comy. General. - = = SELECTIONS. 1,—The Royal Society. 2.—The Geographical Society. - : 5 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCHE. 1.—The Scientific Expedition of the Austrian Frigate ‘‘ Novara.” 2.— Notes and Queries. 3.—Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India. 4,—The Late Dr. Stocks of the Bombay Army. > = PROCEEDINGS. 1.—The Managing Committee of the Madras Literary Society and Auxi- liary of the Royal Asiatic Society, Thursday evening, February lith, and 18th March 1808. - ~ - - METEOROLOGY. Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Observa- tory for January, February, March, April and May 1898. ayer 256 271 280 < Si CONTENTS or Vor. II. Page. I. A Vocabulary of the Dialect spoken by the Todars of the Nilagiri Mountains. By the Rev. P. Metz, German Evangelical Mission. (Continued from Page 146, Vol. 1.) - : = - l II. A Memoir on the Ancient Reservoirs at Aden. By Lieut. R. L. Play- fair, Madras Artillery, Assistant Political Resident, Aden. - 95 III. The Tamil Epic Chintamanf. By the Rev. P. Percival. - 43 LY. Entomological Papers, being descriptions of New Ceylon Coleoptera, with observations on their habits, &c. By John Nietner, Colombo, Ceylon, (No. IV.) - - - = a 60 Vv. Observations.on Provincial Exhibitions, and the improvement of the Resources of the Madras Presidency. By J. Forbes Royle, M. D., 64 VI. Journal of an Expedition over the Anamullay Mountains for the pur- pose of examining the Teak Forests, and ascertaining by what line the Timber could best be carried to the Coast. By Capt. F.C. Cotton, Engineers. - - - - SU = 80 VII. On the Relationship existing between the Animal and Plant. By G. Bidie, M.D., Assistant Surgeon, Madras. & < 3 175 VIII. Suggestions for a uniform system of Weights and Measures throughout India. By W.H. Bayley, Esq., Madras Civil Service. - - 183 IX. The Study of Living Languages. By Colonel Arthur Cotton, Madras Tingineers. - - : - - 214 X. A mode of taking Stereoscopic Portraits with a common Camera. By Lieut, L. Paxton. : - - - - 253 XI. Report on a reputed Coal Formation at Kota on the Upper Godavery River. By Philip W. Wall, Mineral Viewer at Madras. - 256 XII. On the Oxymel process in Photography. By J. Tawse,Madras. - 270 SELECTIONS. Page. 1.—New Cinghalese Planss, No. I. - - - - ° 102 Do. do. do. No. II. - ° * - 273 2.—ObserVations on Free Labor Cotton of Honduras and Yucatan, in the West Indies, and of Western Africa, and Natal; also relative to East Indian and Slavegrown Cotton of the United States. By James Banks, late of Honduras. - - = - - 110 3.—Aska Sugar Factory. - = = - 276 4.—Wood Oil. 2 - = = 283 il CONTENTS. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. : 1.—Fall of Meteoric Stones. ~ - : - 130 2.—Report upon Captain Taylor’s proposed Jetty over the Surf at Madras. 133 3.—Report of the Committee appointed to examine Messrs. Saunders’ and Mitchells’ project for erecting an Iron Pile Pier at Madras. = 135 4.—Colonel Cotton’s project fora Breakwater at Madras. - - 146 5.—Appearance of Coal at Nellore . + - - - 291 6.—Specimens of Cotton and information desired with a view to the Chemical investigation of the Cotton Plant. - - - 294 7.—Graphite in Travancore. - - : c 295 8.—Memorandum on the Government Garden, Ootacamund. - 297 9.—Preservation of Timber. - - - - - 3038 10.—Height of the Himalayas. - - - = 304 11.—Effects of the Sting of Scorpions. - - =i 58 304 12,—How to get rid of Musquitos. : - - - 304 13.—The Mulberry Tree with reference to the culture of Silk. - 305 14.—The Volvox Globator. - - - - - 3806 NOTICES OF BOOKS. i1.—Oriental. = - > : - - 158,311 2.—Natural History, - - - - 161,312 3-—Miscellaneous - = Shes = > - _ 162,312 PROCEEDINGS. 1,—Proceedings of the Managing Committee of the Madras Literary Society, April 9th, 1857. 186 2.— Do. do. do. May 14th, 1857. 169 2 = Do. do. do. June 11th, 1857, 171 4.— Do. do. do. Aug. 10th, and Sept. 10th, 1857, 315 METEOROLOGY. Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Observatory, for March, April & May 1857, - 173 Do. do. do. for June, July, August & Sept. 1857, 318 CONTENTS oF Vor, ITI. Page. I.—Report upon the Oils of Southern India. By Lieut. H. P. Hawkes, S. A.C. G. - - - - 5 1 II.—Description of the method adopted in the Coimbatore District for catching Wild Elephants. By Captain T. Hamilton, Assistant Conservator of Forests. - - : - - 68 III.—Notice of the occurrence of Crystalline Limestone, in the District of Coimbatore. By H. F. Blanford, Esq. of the Geological Sur- vey of India. - - - - - - - 60 IV.—Description cf a Cyclone at Nellore, on 2nd November 1857. By Lieut. John Mullins, Madras Engineers. - - - 69 V.—Notice of the same Cyclone at Cuddapah, on 2nd November 1857. By Lieut. EH. Hemery, Madras Engineers. ; - : : 70 VI.—On the Line selected for the Madras Railway. By Colonel T. T. Pears, Consulting Engineer. - - - - 71 VII.—A List of Neilgherry Ferns. By the Revd. Dr. B. Schmid. - - 79 VIII.—A List of Neilgherry Mosses. By the Revd. Dr. B. Schmid. - - 84 IX.—Introductory Report on the Natural History of the Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. By E. F. Kelaart, M. D. - = - ait BO) X.—Report on the Tamblegam Pearl Oyster Fishery. By E. F. Ke- laart, M. D. - - = - - 105 X1I.—Extract from Report on the Vegetable Products of the Pulney Hills. By Lieutenant R. H. Beddome, Assistant Conservator of Forests. = - > = - - 168 XII.—Notes of an excursion along the Travancore Breakwater, By Capt. Heber Drury, 45th N. If. - - - - 203 XIII.—Numismatie Gleanings. By Walter Elliot, Madras Civil Service. 220 X1IV.—Notes on various subjects. By Lieutenant H. P. Hawkes, Sub- Assist. Commissary General. - - - - 249 SELECTIONS. 1.—Moths and Bees. - = - = - 110 2.—Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. : - - 117 3.—Account of some recent Geological Researches near Cairo. - - 252 4,.—Letter from Captain Burton, Leader of an Expedition into Eastern Intertropical Africa. - - - - - 256 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1.—Scientific Mission to India. : : . : a ey, 2.—Poisoning with the seeds of Thevetia neriifolia. - - - 140 8.—Coal in Scinde. - “ - - - 142 il CONTENTS. Page. 4.—Death of Mr. Purdie - ee = z - 4142 5.—The Scientifie Expedition of the Austrian Frigate ‘* Novara.” Bie PYF 6.—Notes and Queries. - - - = =a 9G6 7.—Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India. - - 268 OBITUARY NOTICES. 1.—The Revd. Dr. Schmid. - - - . = AS 2.—Assistant Surgeon Charles Drew. - - - - 146 3.—Mr. Henry Walker, Professor of Anatomy, &c. Calcutta. - - 74147 4,—E. Stocks, Esq., M. D. Bombay Medical Service. - Sri oly NOTICES OF BOOKS. 1,—Thwaites’ Enumeration of the Plants of Ceylon. = =. 1499 2.—Livingstone’s Travels and Researches in South Africa. - - 149 3.—Decandolle’s Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis - 152 4,—Hooker’s Journal of Botany. - - - ». 53 5.—Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society - Pipe Vy 6.—The Plant Scenery of the World. - - = eae 6512) PROCEEDINGS. 1.—Proceedings of the Managing Committee of the Madras Literary So- ciety, November 12th, 1857. - - - = 2 54 2. Do. do. do. December 10th, 1857. - 187 3 Do. do. do. February llth, 1858. - 274 3. Do. do. do. March 18th, 1858. - 2785 METEOROLOGY. Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Observa- tory for January, February, March, April and May 1808. - - 280 TABLE OF ERRATA In No. V. Vot. III. Page. 4 line last for Portia Nut read Portia Seed. 6, 4 for Star arise read Star Anise. 14 Table of Exports opposite Cocoanuts fresh for 5°340°493 sead 340-493 and in the same line for 6°333 490 read 333 490. Total—for 5:957 999 read 957 999 and in the same line for 7:503 292 read Page. 1-503 292. 20 Add the following Note at the foot of the page. Note.—The Numbers appended to each of the Oils throughout this Section refer to those of the Index at page 49—many Oils, being of little note, are omitted, but their names will be found in the Index. 138 line last but one—omit the Comma after Turkistan. TABLE OF ERRATA In No. VI. Vot. III. Page. 163 line 9 for Shorea robusta read a Dipterocarpaceous tree. 215 ,, 8 Insert Scevota Taccada before Excoecaria Camettia to which and not to the former the succeeding remarks refer. 218 ,, 23 for houses read waves. », 29 for mile pond read Mill Pond. 219 ,, 1 Add at after shifting. 224 ,, 12 Note for oboti read oboloi. », 13 do for oBedot read oBodot 226 ,, 15 for two read toc. 228 ,, last—although should not be in parenthesis. 230 ,, 9 add of after consist. » > 21 for cadeuceus read caduceus. 234 ,, 20 for th read the. » 9» last for off read of. 209 ,, 9 for Observe read Obverse. 246 ,, 13 for face read pace. 257 ,, 38 for be read by. 258 ,, 16 for till read then. ees 4h, add till, after Star. 261 ., 6 for acacios read acacias. 263 ,, 1 for loose read lose. 264 ,, 4 for by read of. 264 ,, 17 for where read whose. 265 ,, 9 for accompany read accompanies. 266 ,, 12 for seriatum read seriatim. 267 ,, ‘6 omitcomma after fastening. 267 ,, 25 for by read of. 2738 ,, 7 for neuralgie read neuralgic. 273 ,, 14 for taste read state. 274 ,, 3 for Balsom read Balsam. 274 ,, 10 for and read of. MADRAS JOURNAL OF LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. NO. 5.—NEW SERIES. October—December, 1857. I. Report upon the Orls of Southern India. By Linu. H. P. Hawxss, 8. A. C. G. The following Report upon the oils of Southern India has been drawn up from notes taken during the formation of a collection of oils for the Madras Government. The statistics have been fur- -nished by the Civil and Military authorities throughout the Presi- dency.* The subject may be conveniently arranged under the following sections. Sect. 1. Oil considered as an article of export trade. 2. Abstract of oil cultivation in the several districts of the Presidency. 8. A descriptive list of the oils of Southern India. 4. Remarks on the economical uses of oil in India. * Nore.— It will be observed that in many parts, especially in Section 3, this report is almost identical with that in Class IV. of the J ury Reports of the Ma- dras Exhibition of 1855. This arises from the writer of the present paper having been requested to perform the duties of reporter in that section, and from his hav- ing embodied in that report all the information on this subject coliected up to that date. 2 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, SECTION. I. OIL CONSIDERED AS AN ARTICLE OF EXPORT TRADE. Although the number of oil producing plants in Southern India, is very large, yet upon examination it will be observed, that of these but few are culiivated to any great extent; the larger propor- tion consisting of trees, shrubs, &c. growing in a wild state, the fruits of which are gathered by the poorer classes, and the oils ex- pressed as necessity requires. These latter (with some exceptions) do not form articles of trade, nor are they usually procurable in the native bazaars. Of animal oils, that extracted from the liver and other parts of various species of fish, chiefly on the Malabar Coast, now forms a source of considerable trade; whilst Petroleum is largely exported from our Burmese possessions to the manufacturing towns of Li- verpool and Glasgow. In taking a general view of these substances it seems advanta- geous to consider them under the following classes. 1st Class.—Those plants which are cultivated for the sake of their products.—Of these, the oil and cake form in some cases the only valuable part, whilst in others, as the Poppy, the plant serves many other purposes. This class includes the bulk of the oils export-. ed from, and consumed in India, and comprises the following— Cocoanut, Gingely and its varieties, Lamp and Castor,* Groundnut, Linseed, Ramtill, Mustard erroneously called Rape, and Poppy; the essential oils of Cinnamon (from the bark and leaf,) and Cassia, Cloves and Sandalwood.{ Fish oil and Petroleum being also valu- able commercial products will be considered in this Section, First in importance is Cocoanut oil which is yearly exported to a large extent from Malabar and the Western Coast, and in smaller * Norr.—Throughout this report the word ‘‘ Lamp oil” will be used to denote the oil obtained from the large seeded variety of the Ricinus communis used al- most exclusively for burning in lamps, whilst the term ‘‘ Castor oil’’ will be un- derstood to refer to the medicinal product extracted from the Ricinus communis fructibus minoribus. + For the Botanical names of these plants, see Section 3. ocT.—DEc. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 3 quantities from Rajahmundry and Tanjore. During the last five years (from 1850-51 to 54-5) not less than 70,09,818 gallons, valu- ed at 15,73,528 Rupees (according to the custom house valuation) have been exported from this Presidency, the demand having in the same time increased from 6% to 212 lacs of gallons. In addition to this, dried kernels have been exported from Malabar alone to the value of 23,78,888 Rupees, and the fresh nut to the extent of Ru- pees 20,438,669, thus presenting a total of Rupees 59,96,085 in five years, or an average of nearly 12 lacs per annum on this one com- modity alone. ‘This is exclusive of the dried kernels and fresh nuts exported from Rajahmundry, Tanjore and Vizagapatam, which ap- pear to be sent chiefly to other Indian ports. Gingeley oil and its varieties are next in value as articles of com- merce. They are very generally grown in all parts of the country, and enter more largely than any other oil into the home consump- tion of every class of natives. They are exported in large quantities chiefly in the shape of seed. The quantity and value of oil and seed exported from the Madras territories for the last five years is as follows :— Oil, gallons.. 332,384..Rs. 2,05,290 Seed, cwt.. ..19,54,209..Rs. 23,96,894 Rupees. .26,02,184 making an average of 5 lacs of Rupees per annum. Of this a very large portion is sent to France as will be seen by the following ab- stract of the quantity exported in 1852-53. United Kingdom....Seed. Cwt., 12,713 Oil. gall. 42,043 ROOM crcisis ele soe se s.'wie 35 m9 2 eis 2,968 MMC O RE rigs ov cca ses! 59° 250 ly 220 5, EGU ieicisisic ss lew asses 55 Vic la aes 19,698 DOMME tek. coecse cc +++ 93 tise, Malacca......-seseee0er 39 oo ,, 3,099 MravanCOle. = sea cde. ay. +s 148, BS CIMA ee ee ea o's ete 98 Oras 46 French Indian Ports. .. ,, Orde. 27 Ors: 4,232 Mauritius and Bourbon... ,, 4, Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, “‘ Lamp oil” is grown very generally throughout the country. It was exported from Rajahmundry to the value of 32,607 Rupees in 1854-55; and from Guntoor, Nellore and Tanjore to the value of from 10 to 15,000 Rupees each yearly. Little, if any, is sent to England. The total exports for the last five years are as follows : Oil. Gall. 1,97,977 Rs. 98,875 | Seed. Cwt. 99,471 Rs. 1,138,370 making an average of about 42,349 Rupees per annum. Castor oil, extracted from the small seeded variety of Licinus is exported to a small extent for medicinal purposes. Ground nut oil is exported chiefly from South Arcot and Madras, In 1850-51, the demand arose to no less than 1,10,566 gallons, but with the exception of the year 1853-54 the export has never sub- sequently much exceeded half that amount. The abovementioned oils and seeds, until within the last few years comprised the bulk of the exports from this Presidency. Now however the following begin to be exported. Mustard seed, to the amount of Cwt. 50,746, Rupees 11,5,477 has been shipped during the last five years, from the Ganjam and Vizagapatam Districts. The cultivation and export of Linseed is on the increase. It is sent from the Guutoor, Nellore and Masulipatam Districts to the value of from 2 to 9,000 Rupees per annum. The manufacture of Fish oil has lately become a very valuable source of industry. The trade is chiefly confined to the Western coasts, although small quantities for home consumption are made in the Northern Circars. Omitting the year 1854-55 which is un- favorable on account of the failure of fish, the average value of this export for the last five years, is Rs. 78,126. | Petroleum is sent from our Burmese possessions, but no correct statistics are at present available. The oils of Cassia, Cinnamon and Sandalwood are chiefly export- ed from the Western Coast, the wood from which much of the latter is extracted, is obtained from Mysore. oct.—pbEc. 1857.] Ozls of Southern India. 9) 2nd Class.—Those plants, &c. which grow spontaneously and are found in sufficient quantities to admit of the produce becoming an article of inland trade. These are generally to be procured in large bazaars and include Margosa, Illoopoo, Pinnacottay, Kurunj, Coorookoo, Cat amunak, Piney tallow, Gamboge butter, the various Wood oils, the essential oils of Lemon grass, Roosa grass, Cageput and Camphorwood. The increasing attention which has been given to this subject has resulted in the manufacture and export of the following oils, which were previously unknown to the market. Piney tallow exported to the value of Rupees 4,350 in 1854-55 from Canara. Lemon grass and Roosa grass oil exported from Malabar and Travancore (sometimes under the fictitious name of Oil of Geranium or Verbena. ) Gamboge butter, employed successfully as a lubricating agent for Railway carriages. Illoopoo, Margosa and Pinnacottay EEpoL ted to a limited extent for household purposes. 3rd Class.—Those plants &c. which grow spontaneously but to a limited extent in many parts of the country, the oils from which are sometimes extracted by the poorer classess for home consumption and are seldom procurable in the bazaar. This class comprises the oils of Safflower, Belgaum wallnut, Poovana, Neeradimootoo, Addale (J. Glauca), Country-cress, Cheeronjie, Cucumber, Melon and Pumpkin, Coorgapilly, Stercu- lia, Wild olive, Cheeroo pinnacottay (Cal. colaba,) Sandal seed, Mooroogana tallow, Naga Sumpaghy and Caat Urraloo.* 4th Class.—Those plants &c. from which small quantities of oil are extracted chiefly for medicinal purposes and perfumery, includ- ing Soap nut, Cashew nut, Ben nut, Cotton seed, Silk Cotton seed, Sweet Fennel, Rosebay, Malkunganee, Hemp Seed, Portia nut, Vis- * For the Botanical names of these plants, see Section 3. 6 Oils of Southern India. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES, cid Cleome, Thortay, Fenugreck, Abelmoschus seed, Gutta Percha seed, Croton, Bryony, Colocynth, Wild cummin, Bonduc nut, Mi- musops, Moodooga, Thevetia, Oodul, Garlic, Sunflower, Wild al- mond, Star arise, Gayapa, Nutmeg (wild), Thorny Trichilia, Cy- perus, Thorn apple, Condamminee, Sand box tree, Saul seed, Hu- genia, Belleric Myrobalan, Chebulic Myrobalan, Kikuel, Bergera Keenigii, Balanites Gigyptiaca, Radish seed, Cabbage seed, Car- damom, Poondy, Cordia, Girghitly, Jogyhulloo, Nux Vomica, Marking nut, Cashew husk, Oleum nigrum, Tobacco seed, Alli- gator pear oil, Cinnamon tallow, Cocculus oil, &c. &c. This class will also include, Neat’s foot oil and oil of wax. Excepting Croton oil which is manufactured for medicinal pur- poses to a small extent, none of the oils of the last two classes form articles of trade. A reference to the table of exports will give a good idea of the extent of the trade in these commodities, the total value of oils and seeds exported for the last five yearsisas follows: (For the items vide Appendix A.) Year 1850-1 Rupees §8,11,057 duty 24,331 vy) SRS: 642,439 19,273 ee ISEEES 11,31,578 O47 a Ag 53-4 15,58,222 46,746 ERS 5 4e5 11,41,617 34,248 A duty of 3 per cent. is levied on oils and oil seeds of all sorts, yielding an average annual revenue (for last 5 years) of 31,709 Ru- pees. The quantity of the four principal oils annually imported into Great Britain is as under. Palm oil. Cocoanut oil. Castor oil. Olive oil. 1848 Cwts. 510,218 Cwts. 85,463 Cwts. 4,588 Tons. 10,086 1849 493,331 64,452 9,681 16,964 1850 448,589 98,040 20,738 1851 608,550 55,995 F 11,5038 1852 523,231 . 101,863 x 8,898 oct.—pDEC. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 7 The total value of oils exported from India exhibits an annual increase, the demand however for the various items of which the whole export is composed, fluctuates considerably. In 1848-49 the quantity of oil shipped was less than in the pre- ceding year, but Linseed and Ground nuts first formed regular ar- ticles of export. 3 In 1849-50 the demand for Cocoanut oil was doubled, that for Ground nuts trebled, and that for Gingely much increased. In 1850-51 Gingely was exported to twice the amount of the previous year, and Ground nut continued to be largely shipped. Fish oil, was also made in large quantities. In 1851-52 there was an increase of one-third in demand for Co- coanut, and of 100 per cent. for Fish oil, but Ground nut declined to one-third of its former export, Gingeley oil and seed also decreas- ed, the latter to the extent of nearly one half of the former demand. This was on the whole a bad year for this branch of trade. In 1852-53 there was a further increase in demand for Cocoanut oil which now more than doubled its export for 1850-51, also an immense increase in the export of Fish oil of upwards of 300 per cent. Mustard was exported to five times its former figure and Lamp oil and Ground nut advanced, Gingeley oil and seed remain- ed the same as in 1850-51. In 1853-54 the demand for oils of all sorts consequent on the war rose to an enormous extent, the quantity of ail oils exported and especially of Fish, Ground nut and Gingeley, increased largely. In 1854-55 the demand decreased considerably in consequence of the large supplies sent the previous year. A remarkable specimen of the rise and progress of a new branch of industry is to be seen in that of the manufacture of Fish oil, the export of which has increased from 3,500 gallons in 1847-48, to 7,21,095 gallons in 1853-54. From the above summary it will, I think, be sufficiently evident that the discovery or introduction of new articles of produce how- ever desirable, is by no means so indispensable as is so often sup- posed, Efforts should rather be made to extend and improve the 8 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, cultivation of those oil seeds for which there is already a steady de- mand. The oil cultivation seems in a remarkable manner to ac- commodate itself to the demand, and there is but little fear of a de- ficiency of supply as long as remunerative prices are offered. SECTION II. ABSTRACT OF OIL CULTIVATION IN THE SEVERAL DISTRICTS OF THE PRESIDENCY.* NORTH ARCOT. The principal oils of this Collectorate are Gingeley and Lamp, both of which are cultivated very generally throughout the District. Castor, Cocoanut and Ground nut are produced to a limited extent. The plants yielding Kurunj and Brumadundo also grow sparing- ly, the latter from its cheapness being frequently used in this and other collectorates to adulterate more expensive oils. Exports, none. SOUTH ARCOT. Ground nut is the chief oil produced and exported in this Dis- trict. Gingeley oil is also sent in tolerably large quantities to Eu- rope, but the demand for both appears to fluctuate considerably. Mustard oil and seed have been lately exported, and the cultiva- tion is on the increase. Cotton is grown on from 15 to 20,000 caw- nies of land, but’the oil of the seed is not extracted. Illoopoo oil is prepared to a limited extent and sold at Rupees 25 per Candy, and oil is obtained from both kinds of Physic nut and burned by the poorer classes. * NotE.—The difficulty of obtaining accurate statistics of Agricultural Produce in India is very great; the system of sowing several crops in one field also tends to augment the labour. Although therefore the following returns are believed to represent a very fair approximation to the average amount of cultivation and export, yet too much reliance should not be placed upon these figures. As re- gards prices also some idea may be formed of their fluctuation and of the impossi- bility of basing any calculations on such data, by a return received from North Arcot, in which the prices of the same oil are shown to vary to the extent of one- third in different towns of the district, _ ocT.—pEc. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 9 ' Exports. 1850-1 1851-2 | 1852-3 | 1858-4. | 1854-5. NAMU&S. ——— | | | eee || No. Rs Nolo Bs-4 Now Re: (No. b Rs. Now Rs: CUDDALORE. Cocoanut Oil..|Candies. 6 0} 0 0 0 0} 0 0} 35] 1,860 Cocoanut ICer- ’ MENS SS Sistaics Do. 0) 0}; 0 0 0 0 0; 610 368 Gingely Oil....|° Do. 311/12,154)/103 391 1 41; 3384/14,3832; 13 728 Gingely Seed...iGarces, 0 109; O 92 0 One 0 6 0 Lamp Oil..... Do. 0 ise G 0 0 0 0 67 0 0 Ground nut Oil| Candies. |1,428/42,831|382/ 11, 120| 1,038) 28,754) 640] 2,759/2,393) 18,672 Ground nuts..|Garce. 0 109; ¢ 92 0 0 0 0 Mustard Oil.../Candies. 0 0; 0 0 @ 0 0 24 0 0 Mustard Seed..|Garce. 0 0| 0 0 58 667| 62 823 0 0 Pinnacotay Oil/Candies. 0 0; 0 0 0 26 0 0 0 0 Porto Novo. Gingely Oil...|Candies. Bi) 3 2a0 Bi) daa 8} 329) 0 0 0 0 {Gingely Seed..|Garce. 0 0} O 12 0 0 0} 0 0 () Lamp Oil .. .|Candies. 0 0} 0 0 0 740) 28 0 0 Ground nuts../Garce. Q 0; 0 3 0 140 1 154 0 1G |Margosa Oil..|Candies. 0 Bad 37 0 a a) 0 0 69 Total...| e+ | 50,263] «.| 12,012} .. |380,004| .. |48,441} .. /21,658 / BELLARY. The cultivation of Lamp and Gingely seeds extends over 88,950 and 7,177 acres respectively. Linseed, Safflower and Iloopoo oils are obtainable in small quantities. The Cocoanut oil consumed in this district is chiefly made from imported nuts. CANARA. Cocoanut oil and kernels, Gingely seed, Fish oil, Cassia and Sandalwood oils form the staple oil products of this district. Piney tallow has of late risen rapidly in demand. Fish oil is largely made and exported. This district is moreover rich in oil bearing trees, many of the oils of which if obtainable in sufficient quantities, appear likely te become valuable. A list of some of these is subjoined, 10 Oils of Southern India. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES, TABLE OF Exports. 1850-1 1851-2 1852-3 1853-4 1854-5 NAMES. ; No. | Rs. | No.| Rs | No.| Rs. | No.|. Rs. | No.| Rs. Cocoanut oil...|Candies. 6| 381]; 18} 838) 20) 914} 22) 1,082) 103) 5,932 Cocoanut ker- NOMS earaeeis Do e oy 238 182 4, pee BD 1,345) 29 857| 83) 3,117 Gingely oil.. Do. 129 2 86! 48) 2,671 Gingely seed... “|In. Mads. |2 at 4, 307 | 08 3; 584 Jap 989 3,584|4,052 5,382|3,778 9,045 Castor oil...... Candies. 3 13 ; 207 4) 196 2 13 6 306 Castor seed.....{In. Mds 0 ) 19 19 0 0 0 0 Fish oil........|Candies 82) 1,632 53 1137 1,144|18,214|2,996| 61,284; *75| 1,988 Linseed ......./In. Mds 0 0 0 0 0 0 0} 189) 4,202 Cassia oil......|Candies 11} 2,445 4) 1,127 8} 2,159 3 964 5| 1,590} Sandalwood oil.| Do. 14'38,946| 13/86,722,; 16)42,552| 23) 65,203) 28) 81,495] Pinnacotay oil.| Do. Zi) LOW 3 18 4 7 3}~ 115 8 112} Piney tallow...| Do. 0 0 0 6 ) Zi 3 23} 71] 4,350 ToTAL.. 50,159| «» |47,739] .. |69,126) .. 1135,109 114,858 ae ongequent on the failure of the fish the quantity of oil exported this year was small. List of Medicinal and other oils, §c. produced in Canara. VERNACULAR NAMES, Mooroogana oil... Arasinagoorghy oil... Thoronagulloo oil Kungan... @rcaane Cat Ghaitoom. fn aceeiee e ee Girghitly.:. .. ae) < pee Nagasumpaghy. .. Thortay.. Jogyhulloo. . eens inte 2 OOUGY (OM arent ict SUMCOMAY. same ss mies Mahnalod .. casein ose .|Mesua ferrea... BOTANICAL Nene REMARKS. x altsed as a cure for cattle wounded by Tigers. Garcinia pictoria...|Lamps and Food. Dalbergia.,.... ?|/For skin diseases. .|Celastrus panicu- For ulcers and wounds. lata. ?| For sores in cattle. P'Extracted from the pulp of the tree and considered va- luable in Rheumatism. > Fcr Lamps, sold at 4 Rs. per maund. . ?|For sores. 2 For skin diseases. Myr istica “Malaba-|Of two sorts, extracted from rica. the seed and fruit. For burning in lamps. ?| For skin diseases. °/For lamps. Soorty (or Neeradimoo-|Hydnocarpus ine-|For cutaneous diseases. too). CatUrraloo( wildCastor) brians. ?}For lamps andin medicine. a oct.—DEc. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 11 CHINGLEPUT. As there are no exports from this district, the oils in most gene- ral request for local consumption are those chiefly grown. Gin- geley is sown to the extent of about 3,700 acres, Lamp oil 830 acres, and Illoopoo is produced over about 890 acres of ground. In addition to the above, small quantities of Ground nut, Castor, Pinnacotay, Brumadundeo, Cat amunak and Neeradimootoo are produced, but not to a sufficient extent to form articles of trade. COIMBATORE. The Cocoanut oil used in this Collectorate is imported from Paul- ghaut. Gingeley and Lamp are grown for home consumption, Kurunj, Neem and Illoopoo trees grow wild, and the oils of the seed are extracted by the poorer classes. CUDDAPAH. Lamp oil seed is cultivated to the extent of about 75,000 acres, yielding 120 measures per acre, and Gingeley to the amount of about 10,000 acres, yielding 150 measures per acre. The Cocoanuts grown in the district are sold for culinary purposes, and the Cocoanut oil consumed on the spot is extracted from kernels imported from Ca- nara. Kurunj, Linseed, Safflower, Illoopoo and Cat amunak oils are pre- pared in small quantities. GANJAM. The relative proportion of land under cultivation in this district, with the following oils, appears to stand thus. Cocoanut........ 12,098 acres. Giueeley. tuts 0 Owod Miistandes. ce. 2,006 Ramtilly......-. 2,700 For some years past, large exportations of Gingéley oil have been made by French merchants. The Ramtill is said to be chiefly used (on account of its cheap- ness) to adulterate the Gingeley and Castor oils, for this purpose it is mixed with those seeds before being put into the oil press. 12 Cocoanut oil is largely made at two places in the district, but Oils of Southern India. little is exported except to Moulmein. Kurunj oil, though rarely made, is sometimes exported to Madras. Mustard oil is extracted to a small extent, the seeds however are exported largely — ee meee | coe eo eee OSS Cocoanut oil.. Cocoanutker- NCIS gaisietee Gingeley oil.. Gingeley seed Rape seed.... Lamp oil.. .. Lamp oilseeds Ramtill: =. < ci. Mustard oil.. Mustard seed. llloopoo oil.. Illoopoo seed. Wood oil.... TOTAL. * In addition to this, 2(),000 dry nuts valued at 300 Rupees, and large quantities ef the fresh nut for edible purposes, are produced annually. With the exception of a little Linseed, Lamp is almost the TABLE oF Exports. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 1850-1 1851-2. 1852.3. 1853-4. Mds.| Rs. |Mds. Rs. Rs. |Mds. Rs, 6) 45 0 0 26] 260 Slower! 0 0 0 0 10 15 2) 1,209 46 248) 36 0 34 87 41,659,51,433 60,267 100,480/145 531 949,561 107, On6 174, 982 0 q 0| 27663| 2°290] 4,764) 3,97 Elie en) Q 0 "30 7 135} 135 0 0 661| 551i 34 28 6 0 0 0 8,697|13,045] 5 31 7,966 318| 2,123 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 51,538|57,697 65,639! 108,923 170,73 732 277,27 2761116, 588 187, 209 106, 106,121 168,892 } GUNTOOR. only oil plant cultivated in this district. exported by sea and land. Linseed is sown rather extensively in furrows on the borders of fields in the Western Talooks. Other oils, such as Cocoanut and Gingeley, are imported from Ra- jahmundry and other districts. < The quantity of land under cultivation with this latter is 31,242 acres, the produce being about 4,400 candies, of which 1,400 candies have been annually 1854-5. Mads. | Rs 34, 261 0 0 160| 187} 92,592/150,431 | 4,223) 3,519] 58| 246] 116) - 116] 1,014, 845} 0 0} 7,874 11,812] 48] 823 0 0 0 0 ocT.—pDEc. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 13 TABLE OF EXPoRTs. 1850-1, 1851-2. 1852-3. 1853-4. | 1854-5. NAMES a Lea aad ed EN Mds.| Rs. (Mds. | Rs. | Mds.| Rs. |Mds. | Rs. | Mds. | Rs. Lamp andi | Castoroil..| 47! 316 78} =520 73; ~=490 47) 314 40} 279 Lamp and! Castorseeds 8,326 13,136 17,858|27,292) 16,364. 25, 095 |28,174|38,891)21,133)28,672 Linseed..... 1 462 1,594) 1,609) 1,777| 3,414| 3,583) 2, 956 3, 208| 583 659 Tora. . 9,835 15,046 19,545 29,589 19 sali 29,168 31,177 49, 413121 ,75 629, 610 KURNOOL. Lamp oil is most largely produced in this district The extent of cultivation is 26,200 acres, and the average crop (at 140 measures per acre) is 36,68,000 measures. Gingeley covers about 8,050 acres, the average produce is estimated at 80 measures per acre. Castor oil (medicinal variety) does not thrive well, and is therefore but little cultivated, Illoopoo and Safflower oils are produced in small quan- ties. MADURA. Gingeley and Lamp are the chief oil products of this district, the cultivation of each being 14,653 and 11,046 acres respectively. Illoopoo, Neem and Kurunj are extracted to the extent of from one to three thousand gallons annually, and Brumadundoo and Cat amunak in smaller quantities. TaBLE oF Exports. 1850-1 1851-2 1852-3 | 1853-4 | 1854-5. NAMES. MeN isl eS IMB YR a i, AS No. Rs. No. | Rs. No. |Rs. No.| R. |No. |Rs. Gingeley oil..|wt. | 18} 102} | 66) 7| 72) 0| O| a; 18 Gingeley seed. Cwt. 0 0 0 OO OV 20 CO me Ole. 0 Lamp oil.....|Cwt. 99| 165 19) 143] 650} 363] 120] 864) Oo] 6 Lamp oil seed |Cwt. Mier: 19 0 Oe Ole Oh} sais 13 Olea Margosa oil..|Cwt. 9 90 0 Oe Oa Gh 9 GELS |F609 669298 ws ee ot ce | es A i ee 0& 0 (18‘T FL: g Ol 992° G19'S 6LE‘GF StS I COT 898‘ 0ZP OZF‘S @ 1981 “SLUOdX Sy 10 ATAVT, 60¢°% F883 O11 666°%E 880‘I SIL, 66081 |808°966 ose‘e |S29‘T *L-0S81 ae a i ei eee ieeme Aedes 8 ae See ‘SPJA| Pees WowRUUID ‘spwl|**'peas 103309 ‘SPIN “Po0s paeqsnyy EDM). * 5? Os BOOS SPIN] *”* “fo poosury "* "110 103889 "yeieg|****poes dur] Severe *{10 duvry ‘sqviegq|*poes Aojosuty ‘SPIA|** “Tro Aoposuiyy "SPIA|| PetApsynueov0g “ON |YSeajsynuvoo0g "SPIN |° [tO ynuvoo0g OcT.=—-DEC. 1857.) Oils of Southern India. ee SALEM. Lamp and Gingeley are cultivated throughout the district, the former to the extent of 39,300 acres, yielding on an average 160 measures per acre, and of the latter 18,525 acres yielding 150 measures per acre. Ramtill is also cultivated in the Oosoor, Den- kencotta and Tripatore talooks. MJloopoo, Cat amunak, Kurunj, Neem and Brumadundoo grow spontaneously, and the latter is said to be also cultivated to a small extent. TANJORE. Cocoanuts form the chief oil product of this fertile district, the quantity of ground under cultivation being estimated at 4,369 acres, producing on an average 5,447 nuts per acre. Next in importance are [loopoo grown over.6,000 acres, Castor occupying 1,493 acres, and Gingely cultivated to the extent of 1,207 acres. Pinnacotay and Ground nut oils are produced to a limit- ed extent. A great variety of Medicinal oils &c. are obtainable in this district. | TABLE oF EXPpoRTs. 1850-1. 1851-2. 1852-3. 1853-4 1854-5. NAMES. No. | Rs. | No. Rs. | No.| Rs. | No.| Rs. | No. Rs. Cwt. 54| 549 169, 1,712} 125] 1,264; 64} 647)18,104|19,194 No. (41,875) 580/29,375| 384 0 0 0 0) 0 0 Gingeley oil..|Cwt.| 623) 6,288 455 4,588| 556| 5,609/1,085|10 966} 202] 2,765 Gingeley seed../Cwt.| 67 176] 81! 226| 265) 691/7,654/20,925 0] 0 Lamp oil. oe. “| Owt. 796) 5,707) 1,175) 8, na 1,866| 9,797; 448/16,124| 2,268)16,264 Lamp seed . Cwt. 1 3 0 () 0 0 0 0 0 Illoopoo oil. vOut 5 27 4 36 De et ae 0 0 3 35 Margosa cil....:Cwt.} 109} 857| 1,207] 1,002} 35] 1,689) 46} 362) 197) 1,546 Pinnacotay oil. ‘Cwt. 12 84 92| 210] 130| 866 0 Ol Si Ak 30 Pinnacotay seed Uwt. 10 19 46} 108] 88) 153) 10 30 12 2) Ground nuts... Cwt. 72) 165 42 96| 866] 1,002} 90! 299 15 60 - a Fre | a es ee eee San clan 14,454... 16,791 21,182" .. 149,358 39,915 Cocoanut oil... Cocoanuts .... otal. TINNEVELLY. The oils in general demand for local consumption are here large- ly cultivated. Lamp to the amount of 34,785 acres and Gingeley 18,222 acres. 18 Oils of Southern India. [NO.5, NEW SERIES, Illoopoo oil is procurable in large quantities (about 16,000 Gal- lons,) and if advances are made to the manufacturers of Wood oil, a good supply is obtainable, the quantity however at present extract- ed for home consumption is very small. Castor, Safflower, Margosa, Pinnacotay, Kurunj, Brumadundoo, CAt amunak and Poovana oils are all procurable in quantities vary- ing from 5 to 250 Gallons. TABLE OF EXPoRTs. 1850-1. 1851-2. | 1852-3. | 1853-4. | 1854-5. NAMES. SAE 7 ee PE No. | Rs. | No. | Rs.| No. | Rs. | No. | Rs. | No. | Rs. By Sea. Gingeley oil.|Mercal 40; 107 15| 67 69) 180 oa ae 143} 135) 365 Gingeley BEGG i <<), 0; 0, 0 0 50 36 ss ae ae 1,887 Lamp oil Do 0 0 0 0 44 3 108 Lamp oil | ! Seed... 6: Do. 6) C 0 2) 1 a 28 Margosa oil..| Do. 5) 42) 431107 94) : 170 To Travan- core. Gingeley oil.!Mercal} 1,094| 2,872) 591)1,553| 1427) 3 . 2,020) 4, 303) 1,171) 3,075 Gingeley seed...ee-| Do. { 14,462) 9,900) 5,043)/3 Toate, ar) 14, 52 17, ee 14, 2 iG Aa iar Lamp oil....| Do. 72| 189 14 0 Lamp seed..} Do. 363} 148) 190 od 0| Margosa oil..| Do. 19! 48 01290 6 0 Margosaseed Do. oe 474 Oo} 60 0 Tora | S, US71B| Le BSE ee 118,839! .. [21,063 11,171 TRICHINOPOLY. Most of the oils usually grown are produced in this district. The supply however being insufficient to meet the local demand, the de- ficiency is imported from Salem, Coimbatore and the neighbouring Collectorates. VIZAGAPATAM. According to the returns furnished from this district the follow- ing appears to be the proportion in which the several oils therein mentioned are cultivated. Owing however to the great difficulty of obtaining correct information, these numbers must be considered only as an approximation. 19 OcT.—DEC. 1857.] Ozls of Southern India. Lamp oil 40,000 acres, Gingeley 27,000 acres. Mustard, 25,000 acres, Putty Gingaloo 10,000 acres. Ramtill, 3,500 acres. Tlloopoo, Margosa, Brumadundoo, and Cat amunak oils are also procurable in quantities of from 200 to 1,000 maunds. cg aren ae Ena ee a pene gE ee a bt mt RD REL ot et et ORAL NAA A ER REY RR tel OFS'76) °) LZLG0c! "GLE OLIN. "= APeSisel =° \C8GGrl) of | avnOT 0 0 0 0 Sol {8% 0 0 0 0 ‘SPI | °° TEO WO}OIH 0 0 0 0 ial I 0 0 0 0 “SPIN | ‘SSvis UOT i Nerd 0 0 0 Oo 0 Oe (0 ion cst Oe ‘SPIN |" “Tl Bsoa'y GLO OLFILS OLL'S [660% |IT6 FZ \ZGL'TT |G0L 91/698 -L |PLP FT |1289 | “od [pees pregsnty O1E'h FSGS [OST |g99'oT |PeL'G j96s's FS 09 {Sher j0GG'S |syeavg|**poos duiey ee |9L {ZZy'T (882 |Pes‘t {416 1901'S |E90°T |SIT j2¢ ‘SPIN |" “109889 pure dwurey GL |8SS‘OT/GFO'ST [99091 \290'% [910° |FC0‘T [9FO'T |FOS*T SPST jsyereg)** pees odery 0 0 0 0 Isl [28h |00¢'T 008 (0 0 | ‘sp (7° ** rode 9GP‘BLIGGL ‘0G 6SF TOT FSP'OL [986 SELILIL G8 |h6Z°LL/COPGF|898 60T6IS ‘OL | syereg ke 197% POI {2SI'T 999 0F0'S OTOL jLeh [81S [20r'G |ZOL> | “SPIT! Aopo8uty 0 () 089° 000‘0LZ|160'9 0¢8"E9F)0 0 189°% |G¢7 499) “ON |" *‘s}nUBvOD0p KG MWA 0 0) Ov tT 0 0 0 0 "SPIN [10 JNUBOD0H ‘SY | ‘ON | ‘SU | ON | ‘SU | ‘ON | ‘SH | ON | ‘SH | “ON Pee aes ee ‘| “‘SHINVN "G- F981 PSG81 | "S-Z981 “C198 "1-098 ‘SLUOUXY LO MIAVY, MALWA. Opium being the staple product of this province, Poppy oil and seed (the former at 9 seers, and the latter at 25 seers per Rupee) are procurable to a very large extent, Poppy oil is here more ge- nerally used than any other both in Lamps and as food. 20 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, Mahowa oil selling at 1 anna 6 pie per seer, and a little Mus- tard oil are the only other oils made in this province, excepting two very inferior ones extracted from the seeds of the Ramayen and the Kunjee (Dalbergia ?) and burnt in lamps by the poorer classes. MYSORE. Lamp and Castor, Gingeley and Ramtill appear to be the chief oil products of Mysore. Most of the oils however in Classes 2 and 3 are procurable. Of these the Kurunj, Brumadundoo (largely used for lamps), Cat amu- nak and Neem are the principal, the latter is said to grow most plentifully in the Chittledroog Division. The Poppy is cultivated in the Chickmugaloor talook, and Lin- seed, Safflower and Mustard in various parts of the country. San- dalwood oil is largely made. Cassia, nutmegs and pepper grow wild in the jungles. The Garcinia pictoria is plentiful in the jungles in the West of Mysore, and yields a valuable solid oil. A very sweet tasted edible oil is also obtainable from the seeds of the Chirongia sapida. SECTION III. DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF THE OILs oF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. > Crass 1. No. 1. Cocoanut oil. (Cocos nucifera.) The Cocoanut Palm grows almost every where within the tropics. It is plentifully cultivated in the districts of Malabar and Canara, Ganjam and Rajahmundry. The oil is generally prepared from the dried kernel of the nut, by expression in the ordinary Native mills. When carefully made it is colorless; solid at low temperatures but possesses a rancid dis- agreeable smell. When required for edible purposes, the kernel of the fresh nut is taken, rasped and mixed with a little boiling water. This yields oct.—DEC. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. QI by pressure a milky fluid which, on being boiled until all the water has evaporated, produces a clear edible oil. Only just sufficient water to moisten the pulp should be added, asa larger proportion pro- longs the operation and deteriorates the product. When fresh prepared, this oil is comparatively free fromsmell, but it speedily aequires an unpleasant odour; many attempts have been made to divest the oil of this smell, which renders it inapplicable for the perfumers’ use, but only with partial success. The prices of this oil vary most considerably in different parts of the country.. For the quarter ending 31st October 1854, the max- imum and minimum prices at nineteen large stations in all parts of the Presidency were Rs. 8-5-4 at Jubbulpore, and Rs. 2-14-0 at Bangalore, per maund. The average of twenty-one large stations in the Madras Presidency gives Rs. 4-9-5 per maund or about £41-2 per ton. The market value of ‘ Cochin oil” in London in January 1855 was £46-10 per ton, the average being from £46 to £48. It is used very largely in England in the manufacture of candles and soap. For the candle maker the stearine is separated from the olein, the former product being used for candles, for which itis most applicable on account of the high temperature required to fusevit. The olein is then made over to the soap boiler for conversion into soap. Soap made from Cocoanut oil is lighter than water, and con- sequently floatsin that medium, whilst from its being the only soap which will dissolve freely in salt water itis usually called “‘ Marine soap.” In India this oil is made into soap by boiling with a proper pro- portion of dhobies’ earth, salt, saltpetre, quicklime, and water. It is also burnt in lamps by the higher classes, used for anointing the body, and in cookery. The best oil is exported from Cochin and the neighbouring ports on the Malabar coast. It usually fetches 20s. per ton more than the Ceylon or Coromandel coast article. The average annual quantity exported from this Presidency from 1850-1 to 1854-5 is about 14,10,963 gallons. Of this by far the largest portion is sent to the United Kingdom and France, the remainder finding its way to Ara- bia, Mauritius, Bombay and the French (Indian) Ports. 22 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEWSERIES, The Cocoanut palm thrives best near the sea coast, although it sometimes grows favorably on inland plains, the soil of which contains a large proportion of silex and soda or salt which are the sub- stances chiefly required for its nourishment. In South America salt is largely used as amanure. The tree begins to bear about the 7th or 8th year, the annual produce being from 70 to 100 nuts. Atthe Tanjore local Exhibition in March 1856, a bunch of Cocoanuts con- taining no less than 70 nuts on a single stalk was exhibited. Each tree is calculated toyield at least 24 gallons of oil per annum, and the coir obtained from the nuts is estimated to yield one fourth of the value of the oil, whilst the oil cake is very valuable for cattle and as amanure. The Hlephant beetle (Oryctes Rhinoceros) is a great enemy of this tree, it begins by nibbling the leaves into the shape of a fan, and then attacks the main shoot into which it bores, and unless speedily extracted, infallibly destroys the tree. No. 2. Guingeley oil. (Sesamum orientale.) The Sesamum and its varieties are grown throughout the coun- try. So universal is the use of this oil, that its name in almost all the vernacular languages signifies ‘* the oil.” The mode of extraction sometimes adopted is that of throwing the fresh seeds without any cleansing process, into the common mill and expressing in the usual way. The oil thus becomes mixed with a large portion of the coloring matter of the epidermis of the seed, and is neither so pleasant to the eye nor so agreeable to the taste as that obtained by first repeatedly washing the seeds in cold water, or by boiling them for a short time until the whole of the reddish brown coloring matter is removed, and the seeds have be- come perfectly white; they are then dried in the sun, and the oil ex- tracted as usual. In expressing this oil, the Natives of the Northern division always add the bark of the Tanghedi (Cassia auriculata), or the Babool gum to the seed to be pressed, this is probably done with a view of — enhancing the value of the cake, which is used as an article of food for man and beast. The value of this oil in England was £47-10 per ton in January 1855, and £49 to £53-10 in January 1856. In different parts of ocr.—pDxc. 1857 j Oils of Southern India. 23 the Presidency, the price of this oil varies from Rs. 1-5-0 to Rs. 6-0-0 per maund of 25 lbs. In South Arcot it is procurable at | Rs. 27-12-5 per candy. The prices per maund at the undermentioned stations, for the quarter ending 31st October 1854, were as follows: BEA LP! Rus. Bs SOONG 5 0 0 OO DR OR Peo se.0 Madura. ccs <3 0. 8149 Pet OU cass... . 0 -? S| Mangalore....ci..... 4 1 8 eerie o. 2 0 | Nagpore:..)........ 112 9 Beraampote:......... 2 8 0O.| Palamcottah..,...... 412 0 Cmnanorenwy.c...s 6 0 01 Paulghaut........6.0 3.7 0 Siddajaiecss...4...; 215 Oj] Samulcottah........ 210 8 Pdoulna) 65... ae een ©. .0)| Secunderabad... .... 2.3.11 MO MUNGOtese ess. 1.5 0 | Trichinopoly,....... 4 1 8 Madtas. <'..,< i. Mee seco £4 OH Nellore a ys vacua (3) 145.0 Mesuiipatmess...,. o 0 O| Vizagapatam......... 3 2 0 In England this oil is chiefly used for the manufacture of soap, and for burning in Table lamps, for which itis better suited than Cocoanut oil, owing to the lower temperature at which it congeals, although the light it givesis not so bright. In India it is chiefly used in cooking, for anointing the body, for making soap, for burn- ing in lamps, &e. by the dyer to brighten and fix his colors. The following tables will show the quantity and the destinations of the exports of this oil. Year 1847-8. Year 1848-9. Oil....Gals. 19,520 Rs. 14,776 Oil....Gals. 52,721 Rs. 36,294 Seed. »,Qr. 17,518 Rs. 160,134 Seed, Cwt. 1,44,125 Rs, 299,412 Year 1852-4. Year 1854-5. Gals.....- 119,180 Rs. 73,635 Gals..... 17,1389 Rs. 12,720 Cwt ....1,198,079 Rs. 693,760 Owt..... 167,324 Rs. 431,726 Seed. Oil. Exported to the United Kingdom Cwt. 12,718 Gals. 42,048 CNPOUU Tidal s eases cccccscceseecs 590 — 2,968 PRAMICO siya sss oe co os aS Sica ne rc eePD) Me EC ralesla se iiss se) axe Oo alse 6 vivic ge sc» « 741 — 19,698 BROMUS ose 'e'ea/e sisle aie eials se che Veo cine ce 113 RMC EA ee re os cera chee tale ele ile ce 88 — 3,598 RCAC ONC. «ssc cece cc ccusest eros d 148 Mauritius and Bourbon..sesssegeveeee ve = 4,232 é 24 Owls of Southern India. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES,. No. 3. Bastard Gingeley ail. (Sesamum orientale var.) The “second sort Gingeley” sometimes called “ bastard Gin- geley’”’ is extracted from a variety of the Sesamum above mentioned. It differs but little from the true Gingeley; the quantity of oil yielded by an equal amount of seed is somewhat less, but there appears to be no difference in the quality of the product. The following remarks upon the cultivation of the true Gingeley, and its varieties in the Rajahmundry district, have been furnished by. F. Coplestone, Esq. . Gingeley, or first sort Gingeley. (The black seed.) This is the pro- duce of the Hill-country called Reddyseema in the Rajahmundry district. Itis generally sown at the commencement of the mon-— soon (June) and ripens in four months, 160 seers of seed yield 50 seers of oil which is clear and sweet. ‘The current value of the seed is Rupees 50 per candy of 500\bs. Bastard Gingeley, or second sort Gingeley, is the worst variety of this plant, the seeds are of mixed colors, white, red and black. It is usually sown in the month of Chyteari (April) and ripens in three months, 160 seers of seed yield 35 seers of oil, which is of a brown color and bitter. The current value of this seed is 35 Rupees per candy of 500|bs. | White Gingeley, is sown inthe month of Myglam (January, Fe- bruary) and ripensin three months andahalf. The oil is clean and sweet, 160 seers of seed yield 44 seers of oil, the current value of the seed is 44 Rupees per candy. Pyroo Nosvooloo is the red seed sown generally on the islands called Lunkaloo. It ripens in three months, 160 seers of seed yield 45 seers of oil. The current price of the seed is Rupees 42 per candy. The term “ Pyroo” is applied to the season after the gene- ral harvest in January, viz. February, March, and April, and has no reference to these seeds except as indicating the time of their sowing. The exports of this oil and seed are included in those of Gingeley. No. 4. Lamp oil. (Ricinus communis fructibus majoribus.) The oil obtained from the large seeded variety of the Ricinus: oct.—peEC. 1857.] Ozls of Southern India. 25 communis has obtained the above name from the fact of its being used almost solely for burning in the commonest lamps and for feeding torches. For this purpose the seeds are sometimes partially roasted to coagulate the albumen and liquify the oil, and then pressed in the ordinary mill, or boiled with water, or the roasting process is omit- ted ; in either case the coloring matter of the husks of the seed and other impurities gives the oil a dark color, and if the roasting pro- cess is carried too far, a slightly empyreumatic odour is communi- cated. By carefully shelling the seed and rejecting all impurities, the Natives prepare a clear oil for medicinal purposes (by boiling) near- ly equal to that extracted from the small seeded variety. The price of this oil varies in different parts of the country from Rupees 1-10-0 to Rupees 8-13-6 per maund of 25 lbs. The aver- age of nineteen large stations in all parts of the Presidency for the Quarter ending 31st October 1854, was Rupees 2-8-6 per maund. It is chiefly used for burning in lamps, and from its viscidity and drying qualities only in those of the simplest description. The average export of this oil for the last 6 years has been 97,561 Gallons per annum. Lamp oil made into a kind of palmine by agitation with nitrie acid, is largely used as a lubricating agent for Railway locomotives in India. No. 5. Castor oil. (hicinus communis, fructibus minoribus.) The small seeded variety of the Ricinus communis is supposed to yield the best product, and is therefore universally employed in preparing the oil exported to Europe for medicinal purposes. The fresh seeds after having been sifted and cleaned from dust, stones, and all extraneous matters, are slightly crushed between two rollers, freed by hand from husks and colored grains, and en- closed in squares of clean gunny or canvass. The packets of seed then receive a slight pressure in an oblong mould which gives an uniform shape and density to them. The “ bricks’ as they are 26 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, technically called, are then placed alternately with plates of sheet iron in the ordinary Screw or Hydraulic press. On the application ofa gradually increasing pressure, the oil exudes through the pores of the gunny and is received into clean tins. Water in the proportion of a pint to a gallon of oil being added, the whole is boiled until the water has evaporated, the mucilage will be found to have sub- sided and encrusted, the bottom of the pan whilst the albumen soli- dified by the heat forms a thin layer between the oil and the water. Great care must be taken to remove the pan from the fire the instant the whole of the water has evaporated, which may be known by the bubbles having ceased, for if allowed to remain longer, the oil which has hitherto been of the temperature of boiling water or 212°, suddenly rises to that of oil or nearly 600°, thereby heightening the color and communicating an empyreumatic taste and odour. The oil is then filtered through blanket, flannel or American drill, and put into cans for exportation. Itis usually of a light straw color, sometimes approaching a greenish tinge. The cleansed seeds yield from 47 to 50 per cent. of oil. The fol- lowing is the result of experiments made at Madras and Calcutta to ascertain the per-centage of oil in Castor seed (January 27th, 1853.) Calcutta—1,400lbs. of seed yielded kernels and raw oil as follows : < Kernels. Oil, LSC SSOLb see cis ae OOelbs: wivece (OOSLBS. MC SOP ia rcrpatte ESAlbS Mare eee 872 l]bs. ord sort 020.) PG4lbS. a. ies evo Making a total of 980lbs. of Kernels and 483lbs. of Raw oil from 1,400lbs. of seed. Madras—1,400|bs. of seed yield raw oil as follows: Ist sort. 818lbs. 2nd sort. S88lbs. Std sort. 74lbs. Making a total of 480lbs. of oil from 1,400lbs. of seed. The cost of the Madras oil is as follows:— ocr.—peEc. 1857.1 Oils of Southern India. QT 1,400lbs. of seed at Rs. 3-5-0 per bag of 164lbs. Rs. 27 3 4 Husking and selecting Kernels and cooly hire...... oO! eo Crushing, moulding, pressing, boiling.,,.......000 dee [pats | Filtering and Sundries....... 5H. choo 580-016 cog PN toy 4) Overseer’s pay, Godown rent.......... Joh 66 Gc Bh, (G5 a98 300 Empty Quart bottles, Corks, &c.............- 34 4 8 Cleaning and Packing Charges.........cs00+ Beeiocue 4 8 0 —t Total Rees Foo 6 Deducting the price of the bottles, this gives an average of annas 1 pies 4<7per quart of first, second, and third sort oil. This oil is chiefly used as a mild purgative, and by Natives for anointing the head. Soap of good quality may be made from if, but the cost and disagreeable smell which it communicates, preclude its general use. The average export from the year 1849-50 to 1852-3 was 11,325 gallons per annum. The method of extracting this oil by the boiling process is thus given by Ainslie. ‘“ The seeds are boiled for two hours in water, dried for 3 days in the sun, husked and pounded. They are then boiled in fresh water until the whole of the oil has risen to the surface.” Castor oil being entirely soluble in highly rectified alcohol of sp. gray. °825, any adulteration of it with other fixed oils may be ascer- tained by dissolving a sample in 8 times its weight of spirit, the fixed oil is not dissolved but floats on the surface. This however is not an infallible test. | No. 6, Ground nut oil. (Arachis hypogea.) The Ground nut or “ Manilla” nut, and the oil extracted there- from, has of late years been exported to a considerable extent. It is now grown in all parts of the Peninsula. The oil is seldom used by the Natives, although large quantities of the nut are eaten after being slightly roasted over a charcoal fire. The cleaned seeds yield about 43 per cent. of a clear straw colored edible oil possessing a 28 Oils of Southern India. [xo. 5, NEW SERIES, — slight bean-like taste and smell, which makes a good soap, indeed it is a perfect substitute for olive oil in all its uses. Its value in London in January 1855 was £47-10 per ton. In North Arcot, where it is largely cultivated, the oil is precurable at from Rs. 1-8-0 to 2-12-0 per maund. In the Nellore district the seed costs 1-8-0 per maund, and in Tanjore about 200 acres are cul- tivated with this plant yielding annually 75 candies of oil at Rs. 2-6-0 per maund. In the year 1848-49, 37,000 gallons of this oil were shipped, but in the two following years the exports exceeded 1,00,000 gallons. It however fell to 75,207 gallons in 1852-3. According to Simmonds, 1,950 parts of seed give 1,405 of blanched kernels and 703 of oil, by cold pressure. It is produced to a very large extent in Africa, from whence England and France draw large supplies. No. 7. Linseed ol. (Linum usitatissimum.) The seed from which this oil is expressed has long been culti- vated to a limited extent at Nagpore, Bellary, Guntoor and other parts of the Presidency. Itis usually sown in furrows on the bor- ders of fields, and the extent of cultivation is consequently difficult to ascertain. The oil is seldom used for painting in India perhaps from an im- pression which seems to be general, that the oil obtained from In- dian seed is inferior to that imported from England: It will how- ever be found on experiment, that this arises from the former hay- ing been imperfectly freed from the mucilage which prevents its drying, or from some admixture of a non-drying oil. In the year 1852-3 English Linseed oil to the amount of gallons 4,552 valued at Rs. 8,763 was imported into Madras, whilst at the same time 1,045 cwt. of the seed was exported hence, mostly to England. The fact that it can be made on the spot equal in qua- lity and considerably less in price than the English article, needs only to be known to be taken advantage of. It would be necessary to guard against its adulteration with any of the greasy oils, which would of course infallibly destroy its drying properties. The value of this oilin England was from £61 to £66 in Ja- nuary 1856. Itis said tobe procurablein Bellary at Rs, 3-8-0 per oct.—pDEc. 1857.) Ourls of Southern India. 29 maund. It was imported into England in 1851 to the amount of 608,986 Quarters. Some energetic efforts have been made to improve the cultivation of Linseed in the Punjab chiefly for the sake of fibre. The Agri- Horticultural Society having obtained a grant of money from Go- vernment offered rewards for its cultivation, and a considerable in- crease immediately took place. In 1853-4 there were 3,485 acres under cultivation in eight districts, whereas in the next year no less than 19,039 acres were so taken up, and it is estimated that the whole cultivation through- out the Punjab during that season was 50,135 acres producing 146,508 mds. of fibre, and the increased produce of seed is esti- mated at 130,000 mds. valued at 160,000 Rs. The seed sold by auction atan average rate of Rs 4-6 per maund of 80lbs.” (Specta- tor, Oct. 14, 1856.) The following extract froma late number of the “ Sindian’’ newspaper, will give some idea of the progress made in Linseed cultivation in Scinde. “‘ We are glad to observe that the growth of Linseed in Scinde is attracting the attention of the authorities. Major Wormald tried an experiment at Jemadar-ka-Landee, and gives a very favorable report, which has been placed by the Commissioner in Scinde at the disposal of the Press. We have seen a specimen of the Linseed, and the following is a description of its culture and growth. “‘ At Landee, the quantity of land prepared for seed was 4,658 square yards, on which was sown 126lbs. of Linseed, part on the 28th October, and the rest on the Ist November 1856. In four months the crop was pulled up and stacked; and the produce was one thousand pounds of Linseed, being as far as may be judged, much above the average yield of flax crops in different parts of Kurope, and certainly finer Linseed than any yet seen here. A sample of this Linseed has been forwarded to Mr. Warwick, a merchant in Kurrachee, who pronounces it to be very fine. It is intended that the sample be forwarded to Bombay, when an opinion will be formed on it by competent judges. 30 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, — ‘The stalks of thisseed grew strong, and ranged from two to three feet. No opportunity has as yet been afforded of converting the stems into flax, and as the stackage will not deteriorate from their quali- ty, opportunity may be found to complete the experiment. “ Major Wormald, from past experience, considers the soil in the Mulleer Valley particularly suited for the growth of Linseed and Flax, and feels confident that if cultivated on a large scale a for- tune might soon be realized. “ The ten-fold yielding of this valuable seed in the Mulleer valley, owing to rich soil, should operate as an inducement to the Com- missioner to promote the growth of an article, that bids fair to make so respectable a figure in the revenue of the Province. The sample we have seen appears to possess the properties of the best kind. The seeds are small, bright, grayish-brown, slippery, elongated bodies, containing a full amount of that mealy, oleaginous albumen, which yields the oil in such abundance. In short we consider the specimen we have seen as well worthy the attention of those whose hearts are with the prosperity of Scinde.”’ No. 8. Ramil oil. (Verbesima sativa or Grurzotia oletfera. ) This sweet tasted edible oil is plentiful in the Mysore, Vizaga- patam, Nagpore and Ganjam districts. It is used for nearly the’ same purposes as the Gingeley oil, and from its inferior quality and low price is frequently used to adulterate both this and Castor oil. Tt is exported from Ganjam. | The oil is said to mix with colors as well as linseed and to dry without litharge, although a little improves it. No. 9. Mustard oil. (Sinapis varieties.) Improperly called “ Rape’ in India. Five or six kinds of Sinapis are cultivated in various parts of Southern India. The seed is chiefly used asa condiment, but the oil which is sometimes extracted is much prized by the Natives, and apart from its edible qualities is supposed to possess many virtues. The different kinds of seed yield from 28 to 36 per cent. of a bright yellow edible oil, having a strong smell and aslight taste of mustard. The average price of Mustard seed in eighteen large stations, in all _ ocr.—DEC. 1857.] Ovls of Southern India. 31 parts of the Presidency for the quarter ending 31st October 1854, was Ks. 1-2-8 per maund of 25lbs., the maximum being Rs. 1-11-6 at Cannanore, and the minimum As. 10-6 at Nagpore. In Vizaga- patam it costs Rs. 208 per sicca garce. The oil is not exported, but the seeds have been annually shipped as follows: Years ) 1847-8. 1848-9. 1849-50. 1850-1. 1851-2. 1858-4. 1854-5. Cwt.. } Bees), 6767. 9,435 9,909 16075. — is Although seldom procurable in the market, this oil is neverthe- less generally made, and usedin cooking and in the manufacture of pickles, condiments, &c. It is considered by the Natives supe- rior to all other oils for anointing the body which it is supposed to invigorate. In medicine itis sometimes given internally as a remedy for fla- tulent colic, but is more frequently applied as a rubefacient, and as a cure for burns and wounds. Rape oil (Srassica) properly so called, was imported into Eng- land in 1851 to the amount of 107,029 Qrs. or 21,606 tons from France and Germany, the oil is valued at £34 per ton. No. 10. Poppy oil. (Papaver somniferum.) The Poppy is largely cultivated throughout Malwa and the Opium districts, where the drying oil obtained from the seed is more ex- tensively used than any other, both inlamps and asfood. The fol- lowing statistics regarding the cultivation of the Poppy plant, are furnished by C. Timmins, Hsq., Sehore. “‘Thereare three lacs of beegahs under Poppy cultivation in Malwa, the average produce of seed per beegah being two maunds,*each of 40 seers, or 82lbs, which gives a total of 6,00,000 maunds of seed worth from Rs. 1 to 12 per maund. From these six lacs, deduct 11 seer per beegah required for seed, and there remains 5,90,623 maunds of seed for oil. The oil extracted from 1 maund of seed being about 13 seers, the above quantity of seed would yield a total of 1,91,952 * Notr.— The seer in use here is more than three times the weight of the Ma- dras seer. It weighs 324 ounces, that of Bombay being 111 oz., and Madras 10 ounces. 32 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, maunds of oil, which sells at from Rs. 4-8-0 to 5 Rs. per maund or £40-6 per ton. The whole of the oil at present made here appears to be consumed in Malwa. Mr. Anson, the first Assistant to the Governor General and Superintendent of the Opium department at InJore, concludes that 5,000 maunds might be available for export at Indore alone. : ‘* The hire of a cart from Indore to Bombay would be about 20 or 25 Rupees. The carts are much smaller than those used in the Ma. dras territory, and will carry from 20 to 24 maunds. There would appear to be no difficulty in establishing an export of this oil, pro- vided there were a remunerating demand for it; the extent of sup- ply must however be regulated by the demand for Opium, the high price obtainable for which alone supports this expensive and hazar- dous cultivation. «« Perhaps Calcutta presents greater facilities for the export of the seed or oil from the advantage of the water carriage afforded by the Ganges and other rivers of Bengal ; but the railway now progressing from Bombay will materially facilitate the transit of goods from this part of India, but as before remarked the production of Poppy oil must ever be dependent on the demand for opium which may pos- sibly be extensively affected by the extraordinary revolution now progressing in China. By simple exposure to the rays of the sun, in shallow vessels, this oil is rendered perfectly colorless. It is supposed by the Natives to produce sleep and strengthen the brain. Poppy oil is peculiar- ly suitable for mixing with paints; ‘ with white lead it leaves a beautiful surface which does not afterwards change by the action of light into a dirty yellow.” See Crass 2. a No. 11. Margosa or Neem oil. (Azadirachta Indica and Meha azadirach. Two species of the Neem grow in Southern India. The Azadi- rachta Indica, or white flowered Neem, is exceedingly graceful, and forms an excellent ayenue tree. The Melia azadirach or Per- ocr.—pkEc. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 33 sian lilac, is a tall wide-spreading tree, of quick growth, the branches of which are very brittle and liable to be broken in high winds. The blossoms are of a lilac color, possessing a very sweet smell, and the fruits as well as the extracted oil of both varieties are much alike. A bitter principle prevails in all parts of the tree, and is present in the oil, which is much used by Native practitioners as an anthel- mintic and vermifuge, and externally as a liniment in rheumatism, headache, &c. it is of a deep yellow color, unpleasant smell, and bitter taste ; it forms an article of export, although the demand fluctuates considerably. Besides the uses above mentioned, itisalso burnt in lamps, and is knownin the market by the name of the “ bitter oil.” No. 12. Illoopoo and Mahowa oils. (Bassia longifolia et species.) Several varieties of the Bassia yield semi-solid oils known by thesenames. The B: longifolia isthe most common in Southern India, and although the oilis seldom to be met with in the bazaar, yet large quantities of the seeds are gathered, and the oil extracted for private consumption. Excellent candles and soap may be made from it, and as asubstitute for butter and for burning in lamps, it is much employed by the poorer classes. It is sometimes exported in small quantities. The Bassia butyracea is abundant in the hills of Kumaon, and produces an oil known by the names of Fulwah, Phulwarah, Choo- ree fooliel and Phooliel ka tael. This solid oil dissolves readily in alcohol, and is said to keep an indefinite time without becoming rancid. No. 18. Pinnacotay oil. (Calophylium inophyllum.) The fresh seeds of the “ Alexandrian laurel’ when shelled and subjected to pressure, yield a dark green oil ofa peculiar odour. Old seeds yield a higher colored and thicker product, It is occasionally shipped in small quantities to Ceylon, but cannot be considered a regular article of export. Itis burnt in lamps. No. 14. Kurunj ol. (Dalbergia arborea.) This oil, which in some parts of the country is used toa large extent in adulterating lamp oil, is expressed from the seeds of a o4 Ouls of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, tree common in most parts of India. Its fluidity at ordinary (Indian) temperatures renders it very suitable for burning in lamps, whilst its comparative cheapness leads to its use as an adulteration with other more expensive oils. No. 15. Coorookoo or Brumadundoo oil. (Argemone mexicana.) This pale yellow limpid oil may be obtained from the round corrugated seeds of the “ prickly poppy” which was originally intro- duced from Mexico in ballast, but now flourishes luxuriantly in all parts of Southern India. It is especially suited for lamps, and is also employed in the process dying red thread, and as an external application in cutaneous diseases. The seeds yield 123 per cent. ofoil. W. Hamilton, Esq. uw. p. remarks of this oil, ‘ that the Materia Medica hardly presents a more valuable purgative, or one which answers so many apparently conflicting circumstances at one and the same time. In that excruciating complaint, so common in all climates, colic arising from constipation of the bowels, 30 drops of the oil taken upon a lump of sugar allay the pain as if by magic, throw the patient into a profound sleep, and after a little time pro- duces a copious and unpainful evacuation of the bowels. ‘The mi- nuteness of the requisite dose, the instantaneousness of the relief, and the mild and gentle though effectual action it produces upon the intestinal canal, seem peculiarly to adapt it for cases of Cholera, su- perseding the use of Chloroform and Opium for subduing the cramps and mitigating the more urgent symptoms.” No. 16. Cdtamunak oil. (Curcas purgans.) — This oil has of late been exported to Europe as a substitute for Linseed oil, but the results of the experiment have not as yet trans- pired. The shrub is plentiful all over the Presidency, and the oil can be obtained in some parts of the country for little more than the expense of the collection of the seeds and cost of extraction. It is used by the Natives in lamps, &c. “ Under the name of “ seed oil” ithas been imported into Eng- land to the amount of nearly 1000 tons per annum from Lisbon, where it was first used by the contractor in lighting the public streets, and so useful was it found, that it soon usurped the place ofall other oils. It has been found to answer in England for cloth dressing, oct.— DEC. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 35 which in consequence of the irregular supply of olive oil makes it a valuable acquisition, the only objection to its employment being its highly drastic property.’’ (Simmonds.) No. 17. Piney tallow. (Vateria Indica.) The Vateria Indica or Doopada tree, grows plentifully in the jun- gles of the western coasts, and besides the product under consideration yields a resin nearly equal to copal, and a valuable building wood. The oil which is perfectly solid even in hot climates, is prepared by cleaning the seeds, then roasting and grinding them into a mags. To five seers of seed 12 seers of water are added, and the whole is boiled until the oil rises to the surface. Remove the oil, stir the contents of the vessel and allow it to stand until the following day, when a further portion of oil will be found on the surface. This substance has been pronounced by the Railway Agent very suitable for the lubrication of the wheels and axles of Railway car- riages, it is not however at present procurable in sufficient quantity to be used for that purpose, except to order. It is equally appli- cable to the manufacture of soap and candles. The next mention- ed oil is very similar in quality to the above. No. 18. Gamboge Butter. (Garcinia pictoria.) A semi solid oil obtained from the seeds of the Garcinia pictoria, growing abundantly in certain parts of Mysore and in the Western coast jungles, especially near Cooly Droog. The oil which is pro- curable in moderate quantities, is prepared by pounding the seed in a stone mortar, and boiling the mass until the butter or oil rises to the surface; or by first roasting the seeds, and then proceeding as above. Two anda half measures of seed should yield one and a half seers of butter. In the Nugger division of Mysore it is sold at the rate of As. 1-4. per seer of 24 Rs. weight, or £36-6 per ton, it is used asa lamp oil, and by. the poorer classes as a substitue for ghee. The butter thus prepared does not seem to possess any of the purgatiye properties of the Gamboge resin. 36 Ouls of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, Crass 8. No. 19. Safflower oil. (Carthamus tinctorius.) The Carthamus is principally grown for the sake of the dye yielded by the petals of the flower, oil is however plentiful in the seeds and is expressed to a small extent. In Europe it is in demand for the manufacture of fancy soaps, &c. It grows plentifully in black cotton soil in Mysore and Tinnevelly. The oil which is of a clear yellow color, is edible. No. 20. Belgaum Walnut oil. (Aleurttes triloba.) The tree which produces the Lumbang or “ candle nut” grows plentifully in Hyderabad, Mysore and other parts, also in Ceylon where the oil is called ‘‘ Kekune,” and in the Sandwich Islands where it is named ‘ Kickui.’”’ (Szmmonds.) The iree is very prolific, and the nuts yield so large a per-centage of oil, that when strung upon a thin strip of bamboo and lighted, they burn like a candle. (£iddle.) No. 21. Poovana oil. (Sarcostigma Kleiniz.) This oil is as yet known only in Tinnevelly, Travancore and the Western coast. It has a very peculiar but not disagreeable odour, is burnt in lamps, and sold in the Tencausy talook of Tinnevelly, at Rs. 4 per maund. It is known in Travancore under the name of Poovengah. No. 22. Neeradimootoo oil. (Hydnocarpus inebrians.) This tree is produced abundantly in Travancore, and is met with on the Eastern side of the Ghats, especially near Shencotta at the entrance to the pass leading to Quilon. The oil is also known under the various names of Jungle almond, Maroty, Tamana, Mara- vettie, Neervittie and Soorty. It isin great repute amongst Native medical practitioners, and the oil appears somewhat drastic. The kernel has much the taste of the Brazil nut, and the shell, although differing from it in other particulars, has the same corrugated sur- face. It might probably be found very useful in the arts, as it much resembles Almond oil, but is much thicker. The seed yields 44 per sent. of oil, and cost As. 2-6 per seer at Madras. oct.—DEO. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 87 No. 28. Addale oil. (Jatropha glauca.) This seed is somewhat smaller than that of the ricinus, which however it much resembles. It grows wild on waste lands in South Arcot, and is cultivated in Tinnevelly, where the oil sells at Rs. 2-8 per maund. It is limpid, of a light straw color, and if procura- ble in sufficient quantities, would prove a very serviceable lamp oil. No. 24. Cress seed oil. (Lepidium sativum.) The Tamil name of the seeds of this plant, is the same as that of the Linseed, probably from its being like it of a mucilagenous na- ture. Its qualities and uses have yet to be ascertained. 25. Cheeronjee oil. (Chirongia sapida vel Buchanania latifolia.) The kernels of this nut mixed with milk are eaten by the higher classes of Natives to promote fatness. They abound in a straw- colored, sweet tasted and limpid oil, which, although edible, is sel- dom extracted. The tree grows plentifully in Mysore, Cuddapah and other parts. Dr. Riddle states the method of separating the kernel from its shell to be as follows : ‘‘ The fruit, when ripe in May, is gathered and soaked in water to soften the outer pulp which is then rubbed off by the hand. The little nut, after being dried in the sun, is broken between a common ‘ chuckee’ or mill, such as is used for grinding wheat, it is then shifted and winnowed.”’ No. 26. Cucumber seed oil. (Cucumis sativa.) No. 27. Melon seed ott. (Cucumis meio.) No. 28. Pumpkin seed oil. (Cucurbita pepo.) The various species of the Cucurbitaceze are extensively cultivat- ed in the dry beds of rivers, or on sand banks in their vicinity, in all parts of India. The seed is sown in the hot weather, and the fruit perfected before the rains. Oilis made from the seeds in the Masulipatam and Guntoor districts, but the bulk of the fruit is sold and eaten before it arrives at maturity. No. 29. Coorgapilly oil. (Inga dulcis.) The “ Manilla tamarind” is extensivly used in all parts of the 38 Oils of Southern india, [No. 5, NEWSERIES, Presidency as a hedge plant. If permitted however, it grows to a small sized tree, the pods of which contain several flattened black seeds, from which an oil of the consistence of castor oil may be extracted. . No. 80. Sterculia oil. (Sterculia fetida.) The seeds of this forest tree yield by expression a clear oil containing much stearine. No. 31. Wild Olive oil. (Pootrunjiva Roxburghi..) This tree grows plentifully in Mysore and Canara, the fruit much resembles an Olive, and the kemel contains an olive brown oil. No. 82. Cherroo Pinnacotay oil. (Calophyllum colaba.) A. clear yellow oil obtained from this tree was forwarded to the — Madras Exhibition of 1855 from Cochin. No. 83. Sandal seed oil. (Santalum album.) The kernel of the nut of the Sandal wood tree, yields by ex- pression, a viscid oil, which does not give much promise ofusefule ness. No. 84. JMoorgana tallow. ( : Py This valuable substance, which, even at high temperatures, is perhaps the most solid oil with which we are acquainted, is produced in Canara. If procurable in sufficient quantity and at a moderate cost, if would be doubtless an excellent material for the manufac- ture of candles, &c. - On the Western coast it is used medicinally as a cure for cattle wounded by tigers. No. 85. Naga sumpaghee oil. (Mesua ferrea.) This oil is procurable in Canara, at Rs. 4 per maund. It is chiefly used as a Lamp oil, and as a healing application to sores. No. 86. CGturraloo oil. { Ei, An oblong, flattened and corrugated seed sent from Canara under the names of “Wild Castor seed” hag not yet been identified. It yields alamp oil, oct.—pic.1857.] Oils of Southern India. 39 Crass 4. No. 37. Soapnut ol, (Sapindus emarginatus.) This oil is extracted from the kernels of the seed, and ig used medicinally. No. 88. Cashew nut oil. (Anacardium occidentale.) The nuts of this tree yield by expression a very sweet tasted edible oil, much superior to European Olive oil, but not so cheap as the Ground nut oil. The nuts howéver being generally roasted and eaten, the oil is seldom expressed. No. 39. Ben nut oil. (Moringa pterygosperma. } This oil has long been considered valuable on account of the long period which it may be kept without contracting rancidity. This quality, as well as the very low temperature required to freeze it, renders it exceedingly useful to the watch maker and perfumer. The tree grows in all parts of the country, and flowers at all seasons, the blossoms, green and ripe fruit being often seen on the same tree at the same time. The young leaves and green legumes are eaten both by Natives and Huropeans, and the rasped root forms an excellent substitute for horse-radish, to which circumstance it owes its common name of “ horse-radish tree.”’ The oil is seldom manufactured in India. No. 40. Cotton seed orl. (Gossypium species.) The seeds of the various varieties of Gossypium contain a large proportion of oil, but the remains of the fibre adhere with such tenacity to the seed of almost all the varieties at present generally cultivated in India, that it is found to absorb the whole of the oil expressed, from which it cannot be separated without much difficulty. The oilis consequently never made in India, although the seed is a nourishing food for cattle. Should however, any of the varieties of Cotton with loose seeds, such as the G. aewminatum come into ge- neral cultivation, the oil would then become of much importance. At present this oil is manufactured at Marsellies from seed im- ported from Africa, and could some cheap and easy method of ridding the ordinary cotton seed from the adherent fibre be de- 40 Oils of Southern India. (no. 5, NEW SERIES, — vised, thousands of maunds of seed which are now comparatively useless, could be worked up. No. 41. Silk Cotton seed oil. (Bombaz.) A dark brown but clear oil, is obtained by expression from the seeds of the silk cotton tree, the pappus of which is sometimes used as a stuffing for pillows, although it is by some supposed to pro- duce deafness. No. 42. Sweet Fennel oil. (Nigella sativa.) The black aromatic seeds generally known by the name of “ Siah Danah” yield by expression a dark colored fragrant oil. No. 43. Jtosebay ol. (Wrightia antidysenterica.) Various parts of this plant are reputed to possess medicinal vir- tues. The oil obtained by expression from the seeds, is of a deep red color and viscid consistence, probably possessing some of the medicinal properties of the seed. No. 44. Malkungunee otl. (Celastrus paniculata.) The oil expressed from the seeds of this shrub is of a bright scar- let color, and when mixed with other ingredients and subjected to destructive distillation, yields an empyreumatic product useful in Beri-beri. ‘ No. 45. Hemp seed oil. (Cannabis sativa.) Obtained by expression from the seed of the common hemp which is cultivated in several parts of the country for the sake of the intox- icating drugs it yields. In Russia the oil is much used for lamps but it is comparatively unknown to the Natives of India. No. 46. Portia nut oil. (Thespesia populnea.) From 8 to 10 per cent. of a deep red and somewhat thick oil is obtained by expression from the seeds of this tree, which grows in great abundance in the vicinity of Madras and other parts of the Presidency. Itis extensively planted as an avenue tree for which its quick growth and the beauty of its flowers render it a general fa- vorite, it is howeyer very liable to injury from high winds (as may ocT.—DEC. 1857.| Ozls of Southern India. 41 be seen on reference to the Journal of the Madras Literary Society. No. 1. New Series.) The greater injury almost invariably suffered by trees grown from cuttings, has been frequently remarked. The wood is said to be capable of being worked, when fresh cut. The juice is used on the western coast as a remedy for various cutaneous affections. No. 47. Vuscid Cleome owl. (Cleome viscosa. )* This warm and pungent little seed when subjected to a very pow- erful pressure, yields 13 per cent. of a light olive, green limpid oil. No. 48. Thortay oil. ( ?) Is obtainable in ‘small quantities in Canara, it is a solid oil and used as a native remedy for sores. No. 49. Fenugreck oil. (Trigonella feanum grecum.) The fresh seeds of this plant are said to yield a small per-cent- age of oil. No. 50. Abelmoschus oil. (Abelmoschus ficulneus.) In addition to its fibre, for which the plant is used, the seeds yield a smali quantity of oil. No. 51. Gutta percha seed oil. (Isonandra gutta.) Yielded by expression. Oil but little known. No. 52. Croton oil. (Croton tighum.) This well-known medicinal oil, the use of which as a drastic pur- gative appears to be on the decline, is seldom extracted in India, the powdered seed, being usually administered by native practiti- oners. It is also used in veterinary medicine. Nos. 53 and 54. Bryony and Colocynth oils. These plants grow wild in most parts of the country. The seeds are collected by shepherd boys, and boiled to obtain the oil, which is only used for lighting purposes. * Now Polanisia tcosandra, W. and A.—Ep. 42 No. 55. Oils of Southern India. [xo.5, NEW SERIES, — Wild Cummin oil. (Vernonia anthelmintica.) This black seed grows plentifully in Mysore, and yields an oil, which however is never prepared for sale. The following oils being used only in Native medicine, an enu- meration of their names will be sufficient. No. 56. No. 57. No. 58. No. 59. No. 60. No. 61. No. 62. No. 63. No. 64. No. 65, No. 66. No. 67. No. 68. No. 69. No. 70. No. 71. Bonduc nut ol. (Guilandina bonduc.) Mimusops ott. (Mimusops elengt.) Moodooga oil. (Butea frondosa.) Thevetia oil. ( Thevetia neriifolia.) Oodul oil, (Sarcostigma Kleinii.) Garlic oil, (Allium sativum.) Sunflower oil. (Helianthus annuus.) Wild almond ol, (Terminalia catappa.) Star anise ott, (Lllicium anisatum.) 5 Gayapa oul, : Wild nutmeg oil. (Myristica malabarica.) 3 Thorny trichiha oil. (Trichilia spinosa.) Empyreumatic. Cyperus or Mat grass oil. (Cyperus junerfolius.) Thorn apple oil. (Datura stramonium.) Empyreumatic. Condamunnee oil. (Abrus precatorius.) Sand box tree oil. Huracrepitans. The seeds of this tree (which has been introduced from Jamaica,) yield by expression, a clear oil. The whole tree, abounds in poisonous matter, but it has not yet been ascertained whether the oil possesses similar proper- ties, the tree grows in the Horticultural gardens. No. 72. Saul seed oil. (Shorea robusta.) In places where this tree abounds, the oil is expressed from the ripe seed, vulgarly called the * dammer tree nut.” oct.— DEC. 1857.] Ozls of Southern India. A$ Woop OILs. 91 #0 100. Wood oils. The class of substances called “‘ Wood oils” form the connecting link between the oils and resins of the natural kingdom. They consist of a volatile oil, holding in solution a resin, and are gene- rally classed under the head of Balsams. They are obtained from various trees of the order Dipterocarpez, some of which also yield the dammers of commerce. The mode of extracting the oil, is similar to that adopted for ob- taining the solid resin. It is best described, in the words of a con- tributor to the Madras Exhibition of 1855, who says ‘ About the end of the dry season, that is in March or April, several deep in- cisions are made with an axe into the trunk of the tree, anda good sized piece, scooped out. Into these holes, fire is placed and kept burning until the oil begins to run, when it is received into a bamboo, and allowed to run slowly drop by drop.” The oil, when freshly obtained from the tree and allowed to rest, Separates into two layers, the upper consisting of aclear chesnut eolored liquid balsam, and the lower being a flocculent deposit of the more solid resin, of a light ash color. They are much used as natural varnishes for in-door work, but are very brittle, and require constant renewal. Perhaps the admix- ture of a certain proportion of some drying oil, would remedy this defect. They are said to be used also in the manufacture of Li- thographic inks. These oils are chiefly imported from our Burmese possessions and the Islands in the Straits of Malacca, and are usually known by the name of the districts, from whence they are brought. The Camphor wood oil is a purely volatile substance, without any admixture of resin. Itis the produce of the Dryobalanops Camphora. Itis used in the Straits as a substitute for turpen- fine, and sells at 15 to 20 cents a bottle. Many substances called ,, wood oil’? by Native doctors, are little else than varieties of tar obtained by the destructive distillation 44 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, of chips of various woods. For the names of these see Index to Section 3. MInuRAL OIL. 101 Petroleum or naptha. Naphtha is a limpid colorless oil, which is collected in wells, or pits dug into certain clay soils in Media and Persia. It is also found in the European state of Parma, and is used to illuminate the city of Genoa. A substance similar to this product is obtained during the pro-« cess of making coal gas, and is called coal naphtha. It is a sol- vent of India rubber and is extensively used in the arts. Petroleum is a more solid product, produced largely in our Bur- mese possessions near Rainanghong. It is burnt in lamps, and used instead of tar for shipping. ANIMAL OILs. 102 and 108. Fish oils. The only oil of any importance which comes under the head. of animal oils, is fish oil, which is largely prepared on the Western Coast. Forthe mode of preparation, see “ Jury Reports Madras Exhibition of 1855, page 39. : 104 and 105. Neats foot oi and oil of waz. These two oils are seldom prepared, the former is, however, some- times used for softening leather, and the latter, which is an empy- reumatic product, obtained by the destructive distillation of wax, is used in Native medicine. VOLATILE AND PERFUMED OIts. 106 to 133. Of these the only oils, made in any quantity, are those of Le- mon grass, Roosa grass, Citronelle, Bishopsweed, Cinnamon, Cassia bark and Cajeput. Their properties and uses are well known. A list of the oils, in this class which are sometimes used to a small extent in Native medicine, will be found in the Index, The oil from the Guava leaf is said to be used in Ceylon. ocr.—DEc. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. : 45 The exports of Citronelle oil, from Ceylon are as follows : 1850 86,0480z, £3,344 1851 114,9590z. £5,742 1852 181,780o0z. £2,806 INDEX TO SECTION III. VEGETABLE FIXED OILS. { 1 Cocoanut oil. Cocos nucifera. j 2 Gingeley oil. Sesamum orientale. i 3 Bastard gingeley oil. Sesamum orientale. variety. saa | 4 Lamp oil. Ricinus communis. fr. maj : ua y 5 Castor oil. Ricinus communis. fr. min. < } 6 Groundnut oil. Arachis hypogea. 3 7 Linseed oii. Linum usitatissimum. | 8 Ramtill oil. Guizotia oleifera. 9 Mustard or ‘‘rape’’ oil. Sinapis species. |. 10 Poppy oil. Papaver somniferum. ( 11 Margosa or Neem oil. Melia azadirach, and q Azadirachta Indica. 12 Illoopoo and Mahowa oils, _ Bassia species. e | 13 Pinnacotay oil. Calophyllum inophyllum. w t+ 14 Kurunj oil. Dalbergia arborea. + @% 15 Coorookoo or Brumadun- 5 doo oil. Argemone Mexicana. 16 Cat amunak oil. Curcas purgans. | 17 Piney tallow. Vateria Indica. 18 Gamboge butter. Garcinia pictoria. ( 19 Safflower oil. Carthamus tinctorius. 20 Belgaum walnut oil. Aleurites triloba. 21 Poovana oil. — ? 22 Neeradimootoo oil. Hydnocarpus inebrians. 23 Addale oil. Jatropha glauca. 24 Cress seed oil. Lepidium sativum 25 Chironjee oil. Chirongia sapida. * e | 26 Cucumber seed oil. Cucumis sativus. zi } 27 Melonseed oil. melo. <= ) 28 Pumpkin seed oil. Cucurbita: citrullus. c> | 29 Coorkapilly oil. Inga dulcis. | 30 Sterculia oil. Sterculia fetida. 31 Wild olive oil. Putranjiva Roxburghil. | 32 Cherroo piniacotay oil. Calophyllum calaba. 33 Sandal seed oil. Santalum album. 34. Mooroogana tallow. 35 Naga sumpaghee oil. Mesua ferrea, 36 Cat urraloo oil. Jatropha.— * Now Buchanania latifolia, W. and A.—Ep. + Pongamia glabra, W. and A.—ED. 46 Crass. 4. Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, ( 37 Soap nut oil. 38 Cashew nut oil. 39 Ben nut oil. 40 Cotton seed oil. 41 Silk cotton seed oil. 42 Fennel flower oil. 43 Rosebay oil. 44 Malkungunee oil. 45 Hemp seed oil. 46 Portia seed oil. 47 Viscid cleome oil. 48 Thortay oil. 49 Foenugreck oil. 50 Abelmoschus seed oil. 51 Gutta percha seed oil. 52 Croton oil. 53 Bryony oil. 54 Colocynth oil. 55 Wild cummin oil. 56 Bonduc nut oil. 57 Mimusops oil. 58 Moodooga oil. 59 Thevetia oil. 60 Oodul oil. 61 Garlic oil. 62 Sunflower oil. 63 Wild almond oil, 64 Star anise oil. 65 Gayapa oil. 66 Nutmeg (wild) oil. 67 Thorny trichilia oil. 68 Cyperus bulb oil. 69 Thorn apple oil. 70 Condamunnee seed oil, 71 Sand-box seed oil. 72 Saul seed oil. 73 Eugenia oil. 74 Belleric myrabolan oil. 75 Chebulic. do. oil. 76 Kikuel oil. 77 Balanites AXgyytiaca oil. 78 Radish seed oil. 79 Cabbage seed oil. 80 Cardamom oil (fixed.) 81 Poondy oil. 82 Cordia or Nochie oil. 83 Girghitly oil. 84 Jogyhulloo oil. 85 Nux vomica oil. 86 Marking nut oil. 87 Cashew husk oil. 88 Oleum nigrum oil. 89 Tobacco seed oil. 90 Alligator pear oil. (902 Cinnamon tallow. * Now Thespesia populnea.—Ep. Sapindus emarginatus. Anacardium occidentale. Moringa pterygosperma. Gossypium sp. Bombax malabarica. Nigella sativa. Wrightea antidysenterica. Celastrus paniculata. Cannabis sativa. Hibiscus populneus.* Cleome viscosa. Trigonella foenum grecum. Abelmoschus ficulneus. Isonandra gutta. Croton tiglium. Bryonia callosa. Cucumis colocynthis. Vernonia anthelmintica. Guilandina bonduc. Mimusops elengi. Butea frondosa. Thevetia neriifolia. Sarcostigma Kleinii. Allium sativum. Helianthus annuus. Terminalia catappa. Illicium anisatum. Swietenia ?? Myristica malabarica. Trichilia spinosa. Cyperus juncifolius. Datura stramonium Abrus precatorius. Hura crepitans Shorea robusta. Eugenia. Terminalia bellerica. Terminalia chebula. Bergera keenigil Balanites Ai.gyptiaca. Raphanus sativus. Brassica oleracea. Elettaria cardamomum. Sebestana officinalis. —= Deere Srychnos nux vomica. Semecarpus anacardium. i Anacardium occidentale. e: Celastrus &c. 7 Nicotiana tabacum. a Persea gratissima ne Cinnamomum Zeylanicum. ocT.—DEC. 1857. ] Woop OILS. 91 Teakwood oil. 92 Wood oil from Pegu. 93 do. Rangoon. oe do. Chittagong. 95 do. Moulmein. 96 Shemanathee wood oil. 97 Sissoo wood oil. 98 Camphor wood oil. 99 Wood oil. 100 Wood oil. Minerat Or. 101 Petroleum and Naptha. Anima. OIts. 102 Fish oil. 103 Fish liver oil. 9 oe Neats foot oil. Oils of Southern India. 47 Tectona grandis. Dipterocarpus alatus. do. do. do. Seth ia indica. Dalbergia sissoo. Dryobalanops camphora. i s eel ae SSS Gee VoLATILE AND PERFUMED OILS. 105 Oil of wax. 106 Cinnamon bark oil. 107 Cinnamon leaf oil. 108 Cassia oil. 109 Clove oil. 110 Lemon grass oil. 111 Roosa grass oil. 112 Cajeput oil. 113 Camphor tree oil. Crass. 2. Crass, 1. 115 Fennel flower oil 116 Nutmeg (wild) oil. 117 Sassafras oil. 118 Bishop’s weed or omum oil. 119 Cardamom oil. + 120 Cummin seed oil. 121 Spikenard or jatamansi oil. (114 Anise seed oil, = | 122 Cuscus root oil. zd 123 Tobacco leaf oil. < | 124 Sweet flag oil. ts | 125 Pepper oil. 126 Cubebs oil. 127 Lime peel. and leaf oil. 128 Orange flower, or neroli oil. 129 Orange peel, and leaf oil. 130 Citron peel, and leaf oil. 131 Mustard oil (volatile. ) 132 Sandal wood oil. 183 Guava leaf oil. | gaia . Cinnamomum Zeylanicum. do. Cinnamomum cassia. Caryophyllus aromaticus. Andropogon schcenanthus Andropogon iwarancusa. Melaleuca cajaputi. Dryobalanops camphora. Pimpinella anisum. Nigella sativa Myristica malabarica. Sassafras officinale. Ptychotis ajowan. Elettaria cardamomum. Cuminum cyminum. Valeriana jatamansi. Anatherum muricatum. Nicotiana tabacum. Acorus calamus. Piper nigrum. Piper cubeba. Citrus limonum. Citrus aurantium. do, Citrus medica. Sinapis species. Santalum album, Psidium pyriferum. N. B.—This list is not to be taken as by any means including the whole of our » indigenous oil plants. 48 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, SECTION IV. REMARKS ON THE ECONOMICAL USES OF O1Ls IN INDIA. The value of the commercial oils of India, being already so generally known to Merchants and Manufacturers, both at home and in this country, any remarks on this head would be superflu- ous ; it remains, however, to consider in what ways, we may become the consumers as well as the exporters of oils. I would more particularly refer to their uses in the raw state for currying leather and making buff, for burning in lamps, for lubri- cating machinery, for anointing the person, and as an article of food,—to their value in asomewhat modified form, as a vehicle for paints, and varnishes,—and lastly to their employment in the ma- nufacture of candles and soap. Oil—as used for currying and buffing leather.—Lxperience has shown that the kinds of oil most suited for the preparation of leather, are those derived from the animal kingdom. Of these, fish oil, neats foot oil, and the solid fats of oxen, sheep and pigs, are those most generally used. Some one of these, or a mixture of se- veral of them as the case may be, is rubbed over the underside of the tanned skin whilst still wet. The leather being then hung up in an airy loft to dry, the evaporation of the moisture enables the composition to penetrate through the substance of the hide until it appears on the surface or grain side, The beef, mutton and pigs fat used in this process are procurable with difficulty and at high prices. At present, but little leather is curried in India, and the de- mand for these substances is consequently limited, but should this branch of trade rise into importance (of which there can be no reasonable doubt,) and should hides be tanned and finished on the spot, instead of being sent to Europe in the raw state, and re-im- ported when dressed, the supply of these substances will become of greater moment, and it will be a question for the practical manu- facturer to decide, whether it is more to his interest to pay the cur- rent Indian prices, or to import his materials direct from Australia, Fish oil, however, is procurable in abundance at reasonable prices, _ ocT.—prc. 1857.] Ozls of Southern India. 49 indeed, the Indian article has entirely superseded the use of English oil, which, until the establishment of this manufacture on the Western coast, was imported at a high price for the use of the Government Buffing establishment at Hoonsoor. A comparison of the price of the Indian and English article is shown below, and as regards quality, it has been found that the Na- tive oil, if made with care, is fully equal to the English product. Cost of English oil per gallon Rs. 2 4 0 Cost of Malabar oil per gallon Rs. 110 O The saving thus effected in this one article alone, in this large establishment, is very great. Oil—as used for burning in lamps.—Almost all the oils procur- able in India, are burned to a greater or less extent by the native population in the rude contrivances which serve as lamps. For the finer description of European lamps, however, only the fluid non-drying oils should be used. Of these Cocoanut, Ground nut, Coorookoo, Kurunj, and a few others are to be preferred. The first is decidedly the best, but in cold climates, it requires to be mixed with a due proportion of some other oil to prevent its tendency to congeal at low temperatures. Drying oils, such as Castor, Lamp, and Linseed oil are unsuitable for these lamps, as the oil becoming viscid, clogs the tubes; they may, however, in common with many other sorts of oil, be burned with advantage in open vessels or nighé lamps. Some of them emit much smoke. In the preparation of these oils for burning in lamps, much im- provement might be effected. Excepting Cocoanut, the generality of oils as sold in the market, are contaminated with mucilage and extraneous substances, which much impair their burning qualities. The usual mode of purifying oil, is to add to 100 parts of oil one part of Sulphuric acid, and agitate the mixture ; the acid immediately attacks and chars the slimy parts of the oil. In half an hour add 50 parts of water with agitation, and allow the whole to settle for some days. Decant the clear oil, and wash with water to get rid of the acid. The same object may be effected in a less degree by keeping the oil for some time ina quiet place, this improves it by 50 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, allowing the mucilage to subside ; for this reason, old oil is prefer- able to new for lamps. The manufacture of oil gas for illumi- nating purposes must not be passed over in silence. Oil dropped on ared hot surface is instantly converted into gas, (oil gas) and With the aid of very simple machinery, can be made by the most inexperienced person. It was at one time made to some extent in England, but the high cost of the oil and other causes, led to its abandonment in favor of coal gas. Oil,—as a lubricating agent.—Any of the fluid non-drying oils, may be used as lubricants for machinery. For fine work, the Ben oil (Hyperanthera moringa) being free from any disposition to ran- cidity, 1s to be preferred, but for Railway carriages, a more solid substance, such as Piney tallow or Gamboge butter is more suitable. At present, however, a composition prepared by agitating lamp oil with nitric acid, for which the maker holds a pa- tent, is employed successfully. ‘The Gamboge butter, has been re- ported on favorably, by the Railway agent, as ‘ very clear and free from grit, and suitable for lubricating axles.’”’ A more extended experiment with this substance is in contemplation. A locomotive engine is said to consume between eighty and one hundred gallons annually. A mixture of grease and tar is used for Native carts. Oil—for anointing the person.—As an application for rendering the skin supple, which in tropical climates, is an almost indispen- sible necessary of life, any of the greasy oils will answer. Those generally preferred by the natives are Cocoanut, Gingeley, and Mustard oils. The former has been sometimes used by the Euro- pean perfumer in the manufacture of scented oils for the hair, but the difficulty of preventing its acquiring the well known disagreea- ble odour, or of disguising it with the most powerful scents, is the chief objection to its use. The Moringa or Ben oil, from the great length of time, it keeps without acquiring rancidity, is well suited to the perfumer’s use. | Oils—as articles of food. Oilis largely used as an article of food in all tropical countries, and as the qualities of most edible oils are well known, little need be added on this head further than to recommend greater cleanliness in the expression, and a more profita- ble use of the oil cake; which, however, valuable as a manure is SE SS TS TT ES Cl ST TS SS Dee a ee ee ™é ocT.—DEC. 1857.] Odls of Southern India. 51 still more useful for fattening cattle. As an ingredient in salads and similar dishes, for which it is used to a limited extent by Huropeans in India, there is every reason to hope, that the native product, will ere long entirely supersede the imported article. Numerous indigenous plants such as the Poppy, Mustard, Gingeley, Ground nut, Chironjie, Cucumber, Cashew nut, &c. yield oils fully equal to the best product of Italy, with the advantage of superior freshness. Indeed, they are even now frequently used in preference to the English oil, and the only bar to their general adoption, is the difficulty of getting them extracted, in a pure state by the native press. | It is a well known fact, that a large portion of the oil pre- pared from seeds yearly exported from India, is consumed as ** salad oil” in Europe, and part finds its way back to India, under the same name, although the fresh product is procurable on the spot, at a tenth part of the price of the re-imported article. The amount of Salad oil imported at Madras during two years was as follows: In 1849-50, Galls. 268, value Rs. 1,139. In 1850-51, Galls. 399, value Rs. 1,809. The imports of Olive oil into England in 1851 amounted to 20,783 tons of 252 gallons each. O1l,—as used im the preparation of woollen cloths, §¢.—As a dres- sing for woollen cloth, oilis seldom if ever used in India, nor indeed is it probable that it ever will be, many of the indigenous oils, are however well suited for this purpose. Orl,—as @ vehicle for paints, varnishes, §c.—Poppy and Linseed oils, are in general repute in Europe for paints and varnishes. The former may be cheaply prepared in the opium districts of India, and from its perfect clearness and limpidity (when bleached) it 1s most valuable to the portrait and miniature painter, whilst the price at which it can be made renders it available for more common descriptions of work. From the fact, of no vegetable oils, (except wood oils,) being used as ingredients in paints by the Natives of India, it has not yet been ascertained which of the many varieties procurable in various parts are useful for this pur- pose. Linseed, as will be seen on reference, to the first part of this 52 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEWSERIES, port, is now becoming a large article of produce and export trade, the oil however still continues to be imported from England, for the publicservice and private use. Trials have been made of the relative value of oil, obtained from seed grown in the country, and of the im- ported article, the results of which, have established the perfect similarity of the two products, there are however several precau- tions to be observed, in the preparation of this oil, the neglect of which has caused the country article to be less esteemed. The oil must be obtained perfectly pure, and unadulterated by the admix- ture of any greasy oil,which would of course destroy its drying qualities and render it useless for paint, it should not therefore be prepared in a press which has been used for other oils, unless it has been first thoroughly cleansed, a matter of some difficulty with the ordi- nary native press. To render the oil drywng, the process although very simple, is one which requires some practice to succeed fully. It is generally effected by boiling 100lbs. of Linseed oil with 1b. litharge, and maintaining the mixture for an hour at a temperature of 100. Cent. Indian oil thus prepared, is perfectly equal to that obtained from England for paints and varnishes. The imports of Linseed oil, and the exports of seed for the last six years, have been as follows. OIL IMPORTED. In 1849-50 Gallons. 1,311 value Rs. 2,623 from England 1850-51 ,, 2,832 6,358 ~ do. 1851-52 , 2,898 5,978 do. 1852-53, «= 4,582 8,763 do. 6,505 13,060 do. Fe eas 237 474 from Indian ports. 2,879 5,270 from England. 668 1,883 from Indian ports. SEED EXPORTED. 1849-50 Cwt. 401 value Rs. 1,539 1854-55, 1S50-51 oy vie ae R01 2,271 1851-52 ,, 1,067 2,927 1852-53 ,, 1,106 3,275 1858-54 ,, 2,898 9,588 1854-55 Quarters 293 5,914 ocr.—pDEC. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 53 The imports of Linseed oil into England in 1851, amounted to Quarters 608,986. As a great variety of pigments and of resins for varnishes are procurable in India, the present large item of imports under the head of ‘‘ paints and colors’’ might be materially diminished. The wood oils of India are in themselves natural varnishes, being composed of a mixture of a resin and a volatile oil, they are not however so durable as the Linseed oil varnish, being more brittle and liable to scale off, though they answer well for in-door work ; the addition of a due proportion of any good drying oil, would perhaps render them more durable. Oil,—as used in the manufacture of Candles and Soaps. We now proceed to consider oils in a higher state of manufacture, or when converted into candles and soap. As regards the former article, it is doubtful whether candles can be manufactured in India at a sufficiently remunerating price to en- able a local company successfully to compete with the imported article. This question indeed is one for the practical manufacturer to determine. Candles might be made with ease, but to make them cheaply would involve a large outlay for machinery, &c. The im- ports of wax and candles (almost entirely the latter,) and the ex- ports of bees’ wax are as follows. IMPORTS. 1849-50 lbs.62.720 Rs. 45,953 from England. 1850-51 ibs. —— Rs. 4,778 from England. : Ibs. —— Rs, 2,549 from Bengal and Bombay. 1851-52 lbs.52,478 Rs. 28,720 from England. a 6,272 Rs. 4,178 from Bengal and Bombay. (1bs.85,866 Rs, 18,213 from England. 1853-52 lbs. 2,977 Rs. 1,808 from Indian ports. 1853-54 lbs.41,914 Rs. 21,690 from England. . a. 4,255 Rs. 2,869 from Indian ports. lbs.61,386 Rs. 31,528 from England. 1854.55 5 Ibs.10,194 Rs. 3,739 from Indian ports. 54 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, EXPORTS. 1849-50 —Ibs.2,64,096 Rs. 1,12,270 1850-51 1bs.3,13,697 Rs. 86,614 1851-52 i Gade Rs. 95,286 to England. lbs.1,07,260 Rs. 44,726 to Bengal and Bombay. lbs.2,82,000 Rs. 99,718 to England. 1852-98 a 65,609 Rs. 27,083 to Bengal and Bombay. Ibs. 43,000 Rs. 15,484 to England. MENS ths. 10,602 Rs. 38,760 to Indian ports. 1853-54 lbs.1,89,886 Rs. 76,834 to England. lbs. 19,776 Rs: 16,377 to Indian ports. lbs. 85,615 Rs. 31,054 to England. Ibs. 87,010 Rs. 35,646 to Indian ports. Candles. 1854-55 Wax... e IMFORTS RE-EXPORTED. 1849-50 lbs. 10,976 Rs. 4,048 1e505 2 24127 8 8F 1951252 5° 44820 3966 1852-53, 6,660 ,, 2,623 the larger proportion went to Pegu. Soap.—The ingredients for making soap are ever at hana, and available to the most humble workman. Although the quantity of this substance used by the native population is, it is to be feared, very small, yet the trade would afford ample employment, to a large establishment. A large quantity of the common chunam or coun- try soap, is imported from Bombay, and sold at 1 anna per lb., and upwards. The amount of hard soap annually manufactured in England is stated to be 58,400 tons, of which about 17,800 tons, are made from palm oil, which is imported for this and other pur- poses to the extent of 50,000 tons per annum. We are not, however entirely without soap manufactcries in South India; Messrs. Kohlhoff, and Prudhomme at Tanjore; Dr. Flynn, and C. Bauloo Moodelly, at Madras, make soap to a greater or less extent. Mr. Kohlhoff of Tanjore, who manufactures soap on a large scale, (chiefly from Illoopoo oil,) for exportation to the Mauritius, as well as for local sale, at 80 Rs. per candy, of 500 lbs., has kindly placed the following remarks on the relative value of soaps, made of various Indian oils at my disposal. I can also add my testimony, to the superiority of the soap made from Illoopoo oil, ocr.—prc. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 55 according to his method over all other soaps; fora quantity of this soap, exhibited by Mr. Kohlhoff at the Madras Exhibition of 1855, was purchased and kept in an open place exposed to all weathers till the present time, (June 1857.) It does not appear to have sen- sibly diminished in weight, or to have been affected by heat or damp, but remains perfectly firm and good, whilst English bar soap, under the same circumstances has shrivelled up to two-thirds of its origi- nal size. I prefer it therefore to ordinary English bar soap,which does not stand the test of extremes of temperature, nearly so well, Mr Kohlhoff observes—‘* Cocoanut owl soap is of inferior quality, if exposed to damp it will melt away, and if allowed to dry it will shrink, wherefore it is the object of the manufacturer to prevent loss by making only such a quantity at a time, as he is likely to sell immediately. Castor oil soap is too clammy, and from its offensive smell, is unfit for use. Gingeley and ground nut oil soap, are like each other, they are certainly better than the Cocoanut oil soap, but not so good as thatmade from J//loopoo owl, which is decidedly supe- rior to all. Pinnay ot soap, may be considered as good as that manufactured from Gingeley and Ground nut oils for washing linen, &c. but it has a dirty brown color which is unfavorable to the seller. Margosa ol soap is on a par with the above in utility, but may be classed with the Gingeley and Ground nut soaps in point of color, which will be a pale yellow, but the smell of the Margosa soap is unpleasant.” — The process of manufacturing the above mentioned soaps, is as follows: ‘ Two cisterns being built one above another, two-thirds of chunam, mixed with one third of Fuller’s earth is pressed very tightly into the upper cistern. Water being poured thereon, the lye will slowly filter through, and be received into the lower reservoir. About two-thirds or three-quarters of this lye (according to the nature of the oil, employed,) is mixed with the oil, and allow- ed to remain three days with occasional stirring. The whole is then boiled in a copper cauldron, until the soap separates from the lye water. A small quantity of pure cold water, is then poured in and stirred up to clarify. The soap is then poured into moulds, and cutinto bars, when cold. 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"spas [Io] “[10 e “Sp99S [IO] "[IO jo! . ‘Spoes [IO] “TrO Jo} . “spoas ]0} “TIO Jo; . ‘spac IO} [Io Jo] . ‘Spaes [I10| [IO Jo md 1P90L JO eny[eA | mn[VA T80L JO on[VA FO an[vA [P90.L jo aen[vA See TOL jo. onpeA| Alea TOL jo onjeA| eujleA TOL Bi BAI ane A TOD jo anieVA| On[eA S aa Ca ak | | Fd " ‘ADVUAAV IV.LOL "Co-PS81 "7o-ES81 "89-C981 “Gio T TS 0981 BR oO ° is quaMmlaqnizy ‘cog ‘unr y7Q0g buepua ‘sanah ¢ ysv) ay) of pajsodwa ‘spaag jtQ pup pig fo anjna 1070} AY? bun ‘d XIGNdddV 58 Method of catching [no. 5, NEW SERIES, II. Description of the method adopted in the Coimbatore District for catching wild Elephants. By Captain D. Ha- MILTON, Assistant Conservator of Forests. — I beg to enclose some rough sketches (Plates I, II, III and IV.) referring to the late Elephant Hunt, which, with a brief description, may be of some interest, showing the method adopted in the Coim- batore District for capturing wild Elephants. The spot selected for the hunt on this occasion, was at the en- trance of a valley (vide Plate I) at the foot of the Neilgherries near Seermoogay, where are the remains of an old Coopum or Kraal. The situation was an excellent one, for the river on one side, and steep hills on the other, left only a narrow gorge at the entrance of the valley; so that once having got the Elephants into the valley, it appeared easy enough to drive them into the Coopum. The Coopum consisted of a circular trench 280 feet in diameter, — (vide Plate III) the breadth of the ditch being 18 feet, narrowing at the bottom to afew inches; the depth 10 feet. The causeway at the entrance 17 feet broad was composed of blocks of light wood, and earth. The object of using wood was to enable the causeway to oct.—pDEC. 1857.| Elephants in Coimbatore. 59 be quickly demolished on the Elephants entering the enclosure. From the entrance strong palisadings were erected (vide Plate IV.) diverging in one direction towards the river, and in the other to the foot of the nearest hill, the length of the right palisading (looking from the Coopum) was 600 feet, that on the left 800 feet consist- ing of stems of trees firmly fixed in the ground and strongly bound together. 2,800 of these stems were used in forming the palisadings, beyond them strong abattis were laid down, extending on the right side 2,900 feet and on the left 3,200, For 400 feet on each side be- hind the palisading, a ditch 5 feet 7 Inches broad and 3 feet 6 inches deep was dug; beyond this, a ditch 4 feet by 4 feet was continued, but on the zmner sede of the palisading and abattis, on the right side te the distance of 310 feet and on the left 180 feet, a) a SS i. 3 aS Aen Di Y, = SS Ss Beasts Z S ~ + yA e re SS SSS y SYASS ak SS 7 < ee = ae SEES NECA \ i ee i cS, A This completed all the preparations with the exception that on the day of the drive, the whole of the palisadings were covered with green branches, to conceal them from the Elephants. All trees and bushes were left standing, and the causeway was made to look as like the natural jungle as possible, the ditch at the sides being carefully concealed by bushes. It took several days to bring the Elephants into the valley, (vide Plate IT) above the Coopum, as they have to be moved in the di- rection required, without alarming them. Parties had to be sta- tioned, day and night watching certain passes, to stop the herd from 60 Crystalline Limestone [No. 6, NEW SERIES, proceeding in any direction but towards the valley; at nights a line of fires are lighted for this purpose. On the day of the drive peo- ple are stationed at intervals outside the palisadings and abattis, to drive back the Elephants if they attempt to break through. Two small bon-fires are made on each side of the entrance, within the Coopum concealed by bushes, and the moment the Elephants enter two men are ready to rush in and light them; faggots which have been previously collected and piled near the entrance, are quickly thrown on and soon two immense fires are formed which effectual- ly prevent the Elephants attemping to recross the causeway, while a number of coolies detailed for the purpose are demolishing it. Muskets, rockets, crackers, tom-toms and horns are used in the drive, which combined with the shouting of several hundred men is enough to intimidate the boldest Elephant from charging back, but itis difficult to get Natives to believe this. Every thing de- pends on their having good leaders. : Besides those employed in guarding the enclosures, and driving a number of men are placed on the flanks beyond the arms or en- closures of the Coopum, as soon as the drive commences they light small fires, the Elephants have such a dread of fire, that if well- driven, on seeing the fires on each side of them, they are sure to make straight for the enclosure. Ill. Notice of the occurrence of Crystalline Limestone in the District of Coimbatore. By H. F. Bianrorp, Esa. of the Geological Survey of India. During the progress of the Geological Survey of the Neilgherry Hills in the months of June to November of the current year, my at- tention was called to some specimens of Crystalline Limestone col- lected by Dr. Cleghorn and Capt. Francis, Engineers. This discovery of limestone, which is of the greatest interest both in an economical and scientic point of view, induced me to avail myself of an early opportunity to visit the locality in question, in order to ascertain the nature and extent of the mass of limestone, from which the ocr.—DpDEC. 1857.| in the District of Coimbatore. 61 specimens were obtained. ‘The chief results of the examination are embodied in the following notice. The whole surface of the district of Coimbatore as well as the Mysore table land, and indeed the greater part of S. Western India is composed of a vast spread of Schistose or foliated rocks, such as Gneiss, Hornblende Schist, Mica Schist, &c., aclass of rocks term- ed Metamorphic by Sir Chas. Lyell, (although such a term must be regarded as premature until their really metamorphic nature i all cases be firmly established.) The mineral characters of these rocks are extremely varied, but they consist for the most part of Quartz, Feldspar, Hornblende and Garnet, intermixed in various propor- tions, one or more of these minerais being occasionally entirely ab- sent. Mica which is one of the constituents of true Gneiss is only of exceptional occurrence in the district in question. The foliation (or system of laminz) in which the constituent minerals of schistose rocks are arranged, is well marked over the greater portion of the Coimbatore district, but is far less distinct on the elevated plateau of the Neilgherry Hills, and occasionally disappears altogether, so that were it not that such non-foliated rocks pass invariably by insensible degrees into others in which a foliated character is dis- tinctly discernible, they might be easily mistaken for Syenite, Greenstone or some other kind of Plutonic rock, an error into which previous observers have generally fallen. The foliation wherever apparent conforms toa general strike in the direction | KE. N. E., W.S.W. onthe plateau of the Neilgherry Hills, and such is also its direction in the vicinity of Coimbatore. In other portions of the district it varies considerably and towards Bhovani it has a North Western strike. Granite veins of small size, are occasionally seen cutting through the foliated rocks, which form the surface of the low country, but on the hills generally no trace of Granite or any of the allied Plutonic rocks has been detected. A few small dykes of Basalt being the only intruded rocks of the elevated country. About 5 miles to the south of the Civil station of Coimbatore, _ alow broken ridge of hills characterised by a peculiarly jagged outline occurs crossing the road to Palghat and running in an E. 62 Crystalline Limestone [No. 5, NEW SERIES, N.E. direction. These hills consist of thin alternating bands of crystalline, limestone and gneiss, the banded structure of which is absolutely coincident with the foliation. Here and there small contortions occur in the rock, which are rendered very strikingly visible by the erosion of the intercalated band of the limestone from atmospheric causes, and it is this unequal erosion which has given to the hills themselves the jagged appearance already allud- ed to. The range of hills ceases suddenly about half a mile to the east of the road where the rock becomes much contorted, and an ex- posed surface of pure crystalline limestone, unmixed with Gneiss extends for the space of about 200 yards, between the hills and the cultivated land beyond. ‘The limestone is largely crystalline, being composed of an agglomeration of small rhombohedrons of Carbo- nate of Lime, the characteristic cleavage of whichis frequently very distinct. In color, it is usually of a pale mottled grey, fre- quently passing into pink, and occasionally becoming nearly white. It is intersected by a few minute veins of Granite, which have ap- parently been intruded while the limestone was in a molten condi- tion, so that by slight movements in the fluid mass, they have been drawn out and twisted into peculiar thread like forms, re- sembling those frequently seen in the intermixture of two colors on the marbling trough of a bookbinder. In general, the rock is very eompact and blocks or slabs, of almost any required size, might be quarried without much difficulty. i From this spot, which is the most easterly point at which the limestone is at present known to occur, it passes westwards form- ing a band of 30 or 40 yards in width in the substance of the schists, into which it graduates along its northern edge, forming the banded rock already described, while its vertical extent is pro- bably very great. It has been traced for a distance of about 7 miles along the foot of the range of hills already mentioned, which to the West of the Palghat road, become very elevated and form a ridge of about 2,000 feet in height above the general surface of the surrounding country. Ata point about 2 miles west of the village of Ittrumudday, the line of Railway from Madras to Beypoor, cuts ocT.— DEC. 1857.] a the District of Coimbatore. 63 the band of limestone and passes to the westward along its outcrop, and in some of the small cuttings, good faces of the rock are ex- posed. The blocks obtained from the cuttings, are used for rubble work in the construction of the bridges, &c., on the line. Further to the west the limestone band penetrates the Walliar jungles, beyond which point it has not been traced, but it is not improbable, that it extends much further in the same direction, It is unnecessary here to enter upon any theoretical considera- tions with respect to the limestone, as these will be treated of at length, in connection with the Geology of the surrounding coun- try, in the Report now preparing for publication, in the “‘ Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India,’’ but a few words on the econo- mic importance of the discovery may be here fitly added. As a building material, limestone such as that now described is capable of a two-fold application. It may either be used in the form of rough or worked stone, or may be burnt in some form of kiln for the manufacture of lime and cement. Asa building stone, the Coimbatore limestone would be perhaps one of the cheapest and most durable materials, that could be used. Being extremely soft and very massive, large blocks could be quarried and dressed with great ease, and as from the purity of the stone, it is but little liable to weather or decompose, as is seen on the mere inspection of the stone in situ, dwelling houses or public buildings construct- ed with it would require no stucco, and would thus present a more © sightly and imposing exterior than an ordinary pucka building, and at the same time, a considerable saving in the expenditure for repairs would be effected. This saving alone would in a few years more than cover the original difference of cost. For inter- nal decorations of a simple character, the limestone is well adapted, as it is susceptible of a high polish, and by employing slabs of va- rious colors, very beautiful walls, pavements, &c., might be construct- ed. It would not be applicable for highly decorative work, such as small mouldings or carved ornaments, since owing to its large- ly crystalline structure, it would be liable to chip, but this very cha- racter imparts to it a transparency which would much enhance the sbeauty of a polished slab. It is, however, possible that extended 64 Crystalline Limestone &c. [NoO. 5, NEW SERIES, research might discover limestone, of a finer grain in some portion of the band. For the manufacture of lime, the limestone is well adapted. The lime obtained from it would be very pure, and of the class termed rich limes which require the admixture of a certain amount of clay to make them set rapidly. Hitherto, kunkur only has been used for the manufacture of lime, in the Coimbatore district, and for lo- cal purposes this undoubtedly answers extremely well, but asit no where occurs in any great thickness, and is distributed in irregular patches over the surface of the country, the supply of lime obtain- able from this source is limited. It is probable also that in the event of the limestone being quarried for building purposes on a large scale, the small fragments and chippings burnt on the spot and packed in casks or air-tight boxes, would be cheaper material for convey- ance to a distance, than the kunkur which is not only a very bulky material, but in this district generally occurs on dry arid ground where but little fuel is available. For the production of iron, the ores of which are abundantly-dis- tributed over some parts of the Coimbatore district, the limestone is eminently fitted, and the neighbouring jungles of Walliar and the Malabar Coast yield a plentiful supply of fuel. Finally, the limestone is admirably situated as regards facility of transport to distant localities. The Railway from Madras and Sa- lem to Beypoor, passes as above-mentioned for some distance along the band of limestone, so that the cuttings of the Railway are in the stone itself. Were quarries opened along the side of the line, the blocks of dressed stone might be placed on trucks in the quarry and transported without expense of reloading to any point on the line, while by transporting to the Cauvery and transferring to boats, the stone might be easily conveyed to Trichinopoly and other places in that district. z . a oct.—Dp«c¢. 1867] Cyclone at Nellore. 65 IV. Description of a Cyclone at Nellore, on 2nd Novem- ber 1857, By Lizvur. Joun Mutuins, Madras Engineers. Nellore was visited yesterday (Nov. 2nd) by a hurricane of un- usual violence, which has devastated the station, and the surround- ing neighbourhood, and done an enormous amount of damage to property of every description, both public and private. The sky on Friday and Saturday, the 30th and 81st ultimo, had a leaden appearance, which made the Natives think that there would be a high wind. On Saturday night and Sunday morning, (1st Nov.), there were moderate showers with a strong wind from the west, and towards evening the wind had increased to half a gale. The aneroid and mercurial barometers were both falling, and at 4 past 9 ep. m., the former showed afall of .*,ths of an inch and the weather was what is generally called by seamen ‘‘ very dirty.”’ From this time to 0°45 a. m., the wind continued to increase, and was then blowing a heavy gale, with a good deal of rain. The aneroid barometer had fallen very nearly ,3,ths since 3 past 9 or 4;ths altogether ; a little before 4 the gale had increased to a hur- ricane, trees on all sides were being torn up or broken off, and it was only with great difficulty that doors and windows could be kept shut. The hurricane continued to increase until % to 5, when the gusts were terrific, the aneroid had fallen ,?,ths of an inch in 4 hours, and was still going down rapidly. Shortly after 2 past 5 I fell asleep, and on awaking at $ past 6, I found to my surprise that there was a perfectcalm, but on examining the aneroid, I found that a further fall of nearly ;,ths had occurred during the preceding hour, and in 10 minutes more a further fall of ,',ths took place. I then knew that we were in the centre of a cyclone, and that before long the wind would recommence with probably equal fury. All this time the direction of the wind was from west and northwest, and ultimately about north north west, as nearly as 66 Cyclone at Nellore. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, could be judged by the result of its operations on the houses and trees. The scene out of doors was, at this time, one of utter de- solation ; out of many hundreds of trees which the night before had stood covered with the rich foliage of this period of the year, three- fourths were blown down, and nearly all the rest stripped of branches and leaves. ‘Tiled houses were more or less unroofed, walls had fallen and were crumbling, balustrades of terraced houses were in a ruinous state, and the low country was flooded. I started off to look at the Tank, which I was afraid must have sustained serious injury, and I hoped to be able to get back before yhe gale became again serious. On the bund I found Captain Ritherdon and the Tahsildar, together with several peons and some of the Ryots. The Tank was but little injured, but there was a heavy swell running against the revetment, and the waves were ~ breaking high over the Calingala. I had barely reached the bund when the gale came on again with great violence, and in 2 or 3 minutes a hurricane set in which exceeded greatly in its violence what we had felt early in the morning, the wind being from south east. The massive stone gate way of a small Hindoo temple, si- tuated on the bund, afforded some shelter, and here we were forced to remain as no man or animal could for a moment have withstood the wind, asit was then blowing, and the sheets of water that were driven over the bund, were enough of themselves to pre- vent any hope of forcing our way to the nearest house, which was not more than about 300 yards distant. The Pagoda was built many years ago, when the bund of the Tank was much lower, and as this latter has been raised, a thin bund strongly rivetted on both sides with stone has been built up between the Pagoda compound and the Tank. On this wall, the waves which by this time were something terrible, soon began to tell, and in 20 minutes the wall was breached in several places and the court of the temple was deluged with waves andspray. The spot at which Captain Rither- don and myself stood was within 4 or 5 yards of the edge of the bund, the state of which and the effect of the waves upon it were anxiously watched, but so thickly was the water blown over the bund, that frequently many minutes elapsed ere the front of the bund could be distinguished, and as it from time to time ap- oct.—DEc. 1857.] Cyclone at Nellore. 67 peared, it became evident that the rivetment was fast falling, and the earth work in rear washed away. This state of affairs continu- ed for about one hour, during the whole of which time no object 20 yards distant had been visible, and the trees immediately in front of the temple, which were too deeply embedded in the earth to be uprooted, had been reduced to mere shapeless stumps. About this time (4 to 9) the wind began to shift a little to the eastward, and we then knew that, if the bund could hold out a little longer, no further serious damage would occur to the part on which we were standing. ‘The change in the direction of the wind rendered how- ever our position, on the outer pial of the doorway, no longer ten- able, and we sought refuge in the middle recess, with the Tahsildar and the other natives. The wind continued to shift still more to the eastward, and the houses abovementioned in a few minutes again became visible. ‘The moment the spray and wind had suffi- ciently subsided, we quitted the Pagoda which by this time was by no means a safe place, though probably deemed by us more inse- cure than it really was, and made the best of our way against the gale, until the shelter of some walls enabled us to get ona little faster, and thankful were we when we again stood on the main land, after crossing, with considerable difficulty, the piece of ground and bridge over the surplus channel, which before had intervened. ~When I reached home, at § past 9 o’clock, I found the ba- rometer had risen - ths, and by 10 o’clock,ths more towards fair weather had been attained. The hurricane rapidly subsided into a strong gale, and from that to a moderate one, and by 3 past 11 or 12 a fresh breeze only remained, blowing from the east by south and south east, and from that point it has continued to blow ever since. I cannot say exactly what the barometer stood at for the 48 hours preceding the setting in of this terrible hurricane, but I sub- join the readings taken by me during the night of the first, and morning of the second November; they will give a fair idea of the extent and character of the barometric fluctuations, and I sub- join the reading at 12 noon this day, which will show the usual state of this particular barometer in fine weather. 68 Cyclone at Nellore. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES, Aneroid Barométer. 1st) 9: 30° PN 2 Ore 2nd 0 45 a.m. 28: 6 wind from N W. with a good deal of rain. | 301 2 80 SO) op 27:25 blowing hard from south and south east. SOs: 27°70 a terrific hurricane from 8 to 9 A. M. 0 , 28-00 Ta10 45 7 8610 ord 12 0 noon 28:50 Se ee OES Ge ORG 4530 97-63 4 40° 4, 27°55 hurricane at its height. i OR Oe i Hy OTGO 27°16 a lull from 6 o’clock to 4 past 7. 6 40 a.m. 27°08 7 9 0 — strong gale but breaking fast. The above observations show that between 9°30 p. m. of the Ist and 6:40 a. m.of the second, the barometer fell 1 inch, and il hundredths, and that the total fall from the fair weather average was | inch and ;,ths, a fluctuation which is I believe enormous, and far exceeding that of the gale of last year, which amounted to 23 : 55 ths of an inch only. In the afternoon I visited most parts of the residents’ lines, a portion of the town, and the tank, and on every side there was nothing but desolation ; many of the roads were entirely blocked up with trees, every tiled house was more or less damaged, in some cases hardly a tile being left on the exposed side; skeds built on substantial laterite pillars were levelled with the ground ; the in- terior of the Church presented a sad spectacle, the doors and win- dows had blown open, and the benches had been thrown about by the wind like feathers, the bocks were lying in the water in pieces, the register which had been in the vestry was lying torn and spoilt under the communion table, the harmonium was blown from near the main entrance to the other end of the Church, where it remain- ed among the ruins of benches and tables, the roof of the Church was laid bare of tiles for about 4 of its area, and to crown the des- oct.—brEc. 1857.] Cyclone at Nellore. 69 truction, the N. W. pinnacle (15 feet high) of the tower fell from a height of 60 feet through the roof of the west aisle, (the Church is built north and south), even the boards supporting the pulpit cushions and the brackets of the wall-shades were broken by the benches, which appear from the marks on the walls and pillars to have flown about in all directions. The Court house, place of arms, Public Bungalow, Jail, the new Engineer’s Office, and the work shops, in fact every tiled building suffered damage, and even the best houses in the place were barely habitable, owing to the wind hav- ing, in some cases, blown in the doors and windows, and in others blown out the glass or forced the rain through the venetians. » The pillars on the Annicut, recently built to carry the Telegraph wire, which were 18 feet high and which were elliptical in plan, the dia- meters at base being 43 feet and 2’, and at top 27’ and 1’, were blown away ; one being broken off at the base, another at 7’, and the third at 10 feet from the base, and the lower portions of the latter two were so much injured, that they were carried off by the river, when it had risen to about 5 feet above the crown of the Annicut. At Nellore, very little loss of life appears to have occurred, which is the more wonderful as many houses were blown down, and some were crushed by falling of trees. Reports have not yet been received from the neighbouring country, but the dead cat- tle of all descriptions, both in the tank and in the river, show that the destruction of animals has been very great. When I visited the Annicut this morning, I found 103 feet | of water going over its crown, and the marks on the guage showed that more than 11 feet had been reached. The superintendent in- formed me that, up to 4 past 11 a. mM. yesterday, the water was below the crown, but that it then commenced rising and in a couple ’ of hours had risen to 7 feet above the crown, and about 12 mid- night it reached its highest level. The Head sluice recently erect- ed has enabled us to control the water in the Jaffersaib Channel, but the Head of the Survapully Channel being open, owing to the non-sanction of the estimate submitted last year for bringing it under the Annicut main Channel, and closing the old head, the flood has found its way in at this point, and inundated the country to the east and south-east of Nellore, thereby doing much injury 70 Cyclone at Cuddapah. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, to the tanks as also to the fields and young crops. This flood is almost entirely due to the bursting of tanks to the westward of Nellore. The Nellore tank is breached in two places, but only at the shallower portion, and there will be no difficulty in retaining a full supply. The rivetment is very much injured, however, and in many places for 4 or 500 yards, at a length, will have to be entirely re- built. Breaches were in many places imminent, but altogether the bund has withstood the severe trial very well, as in addition to the force of the wind, it received during yesterday, the drainage of a large tract of country and the whole of the water of Mooloomoody, Condlapoody and Ambapoor tanks, which breached during the storm. V. Notice of the same Cyclone at Cuddapah, on 2nd Novem- ber 1857. By Lizut. E. Hemery, Madras Engineers. — The following account of a storm which visited the town and neighbourhood of Cuddapah, on the 2nd instant, may not be unin- teresting. vo Sunday the Ist was calm with light clouds from the north east ; at sunset, the sky became completely overcast, and towards morn- ing of the 2nd, the wind shifted to the north-west from which quar- ter it was blowing furiously at 6 a. m. accompanied by very heavy rain. The storm increased in violence up to noon, and from that time until 4 p. m. it blew a perfect gale, the rain continuing to fall with- out the slightest intermission. Towards evening the wind went round to the south-west and south, it then gradually fell, the rain ceased and by midnight it was quite calm. ; I am happy to be able to report that the tanks, bridges and other public works in the immediate vicinity of Cuddapah, have ocr.—DrC. 1857.] On the line selected for the M. Railway. 71 sustained little or no injury, the native houses however in the town have been greatly damaged, and many ofthe roads were impassable this morning owing to the number of uprooted trees lying across them. The following observations of the Aneroid Barometer were made during the day. November 2nd, 6 a.m. 29°425 9a.M. 29°35 Noon. 29°27 MOSER Which 8) 7 4p.mM. 29°18 S8p.mM. 29185 November 3rd, 8 a.m. 29°45 4°58 inches of rain were registered during the day at the Civil Hospital. VI. On the line selected for the Madras Railway. By Co-— toneL T. T. Pears, Consulting Engineer. (The Editors having learned that the article by Colonel A. Cotton in the 3d No. New Series, of this Journal, had elicited certain observations ad- dressed to the Government, by the Consulting Engineer for Railways, on those portions which had reference to the Madras Line, applied to the Author for permission to insert them, on a question affecting so much the progress of this Presidency. The Paper not having been prepared in the Ist instance for publication, Col. Pears expressed some hesitation in com- plying with their request, but at last consented, disclaiming any wish to enter into controversy—-Ep. M. J.) | My attention has been drawn to a report, printed in the Mad- ras Journal of Literature and Science, No. 42, April to June 1857, by Colonel Arthur Cotton of the Engineers upon the subject of the proposed pier ; but discussing mainly the subject of a break- 72 On the line selected for the [No. 5, NEW SERIES, water, and alluding, incidentally, to the Madras Railway in the following terms. ‘* Without a harbour at either end and merely as a line connect- ‘‘ing the East and West Coast of the Peninsula, I look upon this ‘work as one of the least important lines on which 3 millions ‘‘could have been spent, assuredly nothing of any consequence ‘* either in goods or passengers will ever be conveyed by it from ** one Coast to the other, and at least 200 miles of it are perhaps ‘‘ about the least productive line of country that a Railway could **’be carried through in India. Further, it is proved beyond all ** question that the passenger traffic is the main source of profit ‘**on Railways and that the great mass of passengers only travel a ‘* few miles (the average for all England is 13) that is they go to ‘the next town and back—strange to say this Railway of 450 *“miles is not to pass through one of the few towns (only 7 and ‘* all but one very small) which lie near its route so that it looks ‘‘as if the ultimate object had been to make a Railway not to ** carry the people.” As this expression of opinion, though not given in relation to any question proposed in the Railway Department, has been before Go- vernment, I consider it right to offer a few remarks upon it. The Madras Railway is here spoken of as being without a harbour at either end, and, therefore, one of the least important lines on which 3 millions could have been spent. As there are no harbours on this Coast, and none deserving the name, unless it be Sedashegur on the other, south of Bombay, it would be difficult to say which would be the more important line that Colonel Cot- ton would have proposed. A natural harbour is doubtless a very good thing ; but that in this part of the world, a considerable trade may be carried on without such, is proved by the large and in- creasing commerce of Madras. Moreover, the fact that Nature has denied harbours to the Peninsula of India, does not appear a suf- ficient reason for the Government denying its inhabitants the bene- fit of Railways to bring their produce to the Coast. Colonel Cotton then goes on to state, that the Railway ‘‘is not to pass through one of the few towns (only seven and all but ocT.—DEc. 1857.] Madras Railway. 13 one very small) which lie near the route,’’ and observes, that itlooks as if the object was to make a Railway not to carry the people. That the towns referred to are all, but one, very small, is a circum- stance sufficient in itself, one would suppose, to account for the fact of which he complains, viz., that no great sacrifice has been made with the view of leading the trunk line of rail through them. I have the highest respect for Colonel Cotton’s public character and abilities, and of those who will read these remarks there are few probably who do not entertain the same feelings. It is im- possible, that any observations can fall from an Officer of his cha-. racter and position, without leaving their impression upon the minds of many, especially of those who have not been accustomed to the consideration of such subjects. In reference to the passenger traffic, and in order to show its nature and importance, Colonel Cotton asserts, that it is prov- ed beyond all question, that the passenger traffic is the main source of profit on Railways, and that the great mass of passengers only travel a few miles. In the first place, I have never seen the former fact proved, and it is prima-facie opposed to Colonel Cotton’s recorded opi- nions, upon the extreme cost of speed—the passenger traffic being carried at a much higher rate than the ‘‘ goods.’’ It is known too, that in England the receipts from goods have been increasing yéar by year, faster than those from passengers ; and in the Parliament- ary reports for 1855, it is stated that whilst in 1849, the propor- tion of the passenger traffic* to the goods traffic was as 53 to 47, (the passengers in excess), in 1855, the passenger traffic is repre- sented by 44, and the goods traffic by 56. In Scotland the aver- age receipts for goods traffic are very nearly two-thirds of the total traffic, andit is added ‘‘the preponderance of the goods traffic over passenger traffic is more marked in the manufacturing and mineral than in the agricultural districts,’’ that is, in those very places where the collection of men in large towns would lead us to expect the contrary. * i, e. the gross receipts. T4 On the line selected for the [No.5, NEW SERIES, Again, Colonel Cotton is, as far as I can_ learn,~inyerror ia naming 18 miles as the average distance travelled by passengers for all England of all classes. In the report for 1855, the average receipt from passengers (exclusive of season tickets) is 19°20 pence, the average fare per mile 1°28 pence. The average distance tra- velled is a = 15. For the United Kingdom it is 14°9. But I follow this no farther, because J think it very un- sound to build systems and theories for India upon English ex- perience. Take for example the statement regarding the prepon- derance of passengers and goods traffic. Ifin one and the same country, as England, there be different lines of Railway, some making their chief profit from passengers, some almost wholly from goods (and one of the latter the Taffvale has been long dis- tinguished as one of the most profitable works in England); if this be the case there, we may well look for a difference in this respect in different countries. No two countries would be found to offer more different pros- pects toa Railway than England and India; the one confined. within narrow limits with a dense and wealthy population, active- ly engaged in manufacture and as such collected in large towns, whose existence is secured by permanent and natural causes; the other a country of vast extent, with scanty and scattered popula- tion, wholly engaged in agriculture, or in commerce connected therewith—the few large towns scattered widely apart, existing in dependance upon accidental and ephemeral causes. The difference between the aim and prospects of a Railway, or system of Railways, in a manufacturing and in an agri- cultural conntry is, as great as this, that in the one case the atten- tion would be immediately directed to the large towns—the seat of mineral and manufacturing wealth—in the other the object would be to drain, as completely and cheaply as possible, a large tract of country of its agricultural produce. The latter is the case with us here. The line running inland from Madras seeks thus to serve directly the inland districts of North-Arcot, Salem, Coimbatore, and Malabar; while until the ocr.—puc. 1857] Madras Railway. 75 other lines are formed, it indirectly serves those of Mysore, Bel- lary, and Cuddapah on the one hand; Trichinopoly and Madura on the other. The first point to be aimed at, therefore, is to get a good main line through these districts. If considerable towns are found in the way (Colonel Cotton says there is but one), the Railroad should be taken to them if it can be done, without disproportionate sa- crifice of expense, either in increasing the length or the difficulties of construction. What amount of sacrifice should be made with this object will depend upon circumstances now to be noted. The size of the Town. The probable duration of its existence. The probable effect of its distance from the rail on the traffic of the line. I shall first consider the last point, viz., the probable effect of the distance at which a line passes a town upon the traffic. This de- pends mainly on the passenger fares. It depends also on the cha- racter of the country and condition of the people, by which the ave- rage distance travelled by the inhabitants is affected. Thus, if the fare by rail is § the expense of travelling by road, it will cost a man, living three miles from a station the same in go- ing to a point on the line 5 miles off in a direct line, whether he goes by high road or by rail. If the place be more than 5 miles off, it will be cheaper to go by rail if less, dearer. Now the average distance travelled by rail by passengers in Eng- land is shown to be 15 miles. Colonel Cotton has stated it erroneous- ly at 13, and has unreasonably, I think, taken this as a data for Railways generally all over the world, but nothing can be more clear than that in this, as in all other respects, but in this respect, preeminently, the traffic in this country must differ from that in England. There, we have a large wealthy population dwelling within nar- row limits, and a land thickly studded with populous Towns and: 76 On the line selected for the [no. 5, NEW SERIES, villages. On this vast expanse of country, large towns are few and far between, and the population scantier and more scattered. According to our last half-yearly return, the average distance travelled on a line 65 miles in length was 38 miles; what will it be when we have it complete 450 miles ? I have no doubt that the average will be above 30, even though the fares should be reduced. as I trust they will. That the line should pass 24 or 3 miles from Wallajahnug- gur and 4 from Vellore does not, in my opinion, affect the traffic — coming from those towns in the slightest degree. It may, but itis a question whether it does affect even the traffic between those two particular places. This depends on the fares also. A man can travel, even at the present high rates, cheaper and quicker by rail between those two towns than he can by the high road. All other traffic from them to any point on the line 10 miles and up- wards, from each of their respective stations, would take to the rail. But, is the short and insignificant passenger traffic, between those two towns, sufficient inducement to change the course of the line of Railway, and adopt one less beneficial to the districts at large, a worse and more expensive line, crossing the -Palar at a much more inconvenient place, and cutting up a large amount of valua- ble land on the right bank of that river? I think not. These towns do not in the least degree resemble the large towns of England. They possess not one element of permanency. These the only two of any considerable size along the line, owe their existence to causes that may cease at a moment, and will cease ere long. In an agricultural country like this, the large towns are chiefly local market towns, or emporia of agricultural commerce. They are singularly uniform in size and importance; sacred temples, the contiguity of Civil and Military stations, being the circumstances that generally give one such town importance over another. Take Vellore the largest town on the line of Rail. It owes its present extent wholly to three causes. Itis a local agricultural mart, a Military station, and it is a rendezvous for a great portion of the traffic from the inland districts en-route for the coast. ocT.— DEC. 1857] Madras Railway. An It possesses no manufactures, no mineral deposits, not one ele- ment of permanency or stability. Of the three main sources of its present populousness, the Railway is certain to destroy one, to ma- terially curtail another, while a few strokes of the pen, in the shape of an Extract Minutes of Consultation, would at once remove the third. The effect of the Railway, had it run right through it, would have been precisely the same, as it will be now, entirely to destroy its business and importance as an emporium of trade, with the dis- tant provinces, with Mysore, Bellary, Salem, &c. The same effect has been produced by Railways in England in numteriess cases, some of which have fallen under my own immediate observation, The large traffic that now passes into Vellore from Salem, Banga- lore, Mysore, and Bellary, will, as the rail advances towards those places, be conveyed at once through it, and the number of people now residing there, connected with this traffic, will disappear. Had the line run right through these two towns, it would have been the same; nothing would be left them but the importance due to a Railway station, and even this would be a fall from their present condition, considered merely as local agricultural centres, since stations, on each side of them, within 6 or 8 miles, would draw away much of the business that, in the present state of the com- munications, passes into these towns. Nothing will remain to give Vellore special importance, but its Fort and its Garrison; and it is not probable that the latter will ever be considerable. The other towns near which the line passes are Gooriathum, Vaniembady, Tripatoor, Salem, and Coimbatore. To some of these it passes quite close, but the same principles apply. Insome cases, as Salem, it appears a positive good that the station should be 2 miles away, on a high and apparently healthy spot, to which many traders will be attracted leaving the present town, which like many others in this country, seems to have been plant- ed on the most unhealthy spot that could have been selected. I think for the reasons I have now given that the present towns, existing wholly upon temporary and accidental causes, as 78 On the line selected for the M. Railway. {No. 5, NEW SERIES, — the proximity of roads, passes, European stations, &c. are by no means deserving of the same consideration that is due to such towns as Birmingham, Manchester, and Liverpool; to sea ports, or to the abodes of men clustered round, and upon, an inexhausti- ble supply of Coal and Iron. These towns of ours have no local products, every article now brought out of them is due, not to the town itself, nor to the people in it, but to a tract of country of which it has hitherto been, but which the Railway station will in future be, the centre. I would not needlessly compel the few who may remain, when the busy through traffic has disappeared and passed by the rail, to shift their dwellings to a station 2 or 3 miles off, but the sacri- fice to them is inconsiderable, compared with that to the Company in selecting a worse and more expensive line, merely to accommo- date a town anda group of people, destined to melt away under the operations of the Railway itself. The Railway has to do with a great agricultural District, and whether it lies a few miles this side, or that, the business com- ing into it will be the same, depending, as the sphere of its opera- tion depends, on its ‘“‘ rates and fares.” It has often occurred to me, as a thing to be borne in mind, that the distribution of the inhabitants of this country has not attained to any thing like a normal state. Had we laid down Railways in England 300 years ago, the lines then laid might have been useful even now, but they would certainly not be of the first importance. We have seen within short spaces of time, collections of human beings rise and disappear with political changes; and we may be quite sure that whatever particular course they follow, few changes will be more marked than that which must follow the introduction of Railways through these agricultural districts, with stations at every 6 or 8 miles. The men engaged in trade, however, distributed now, must and . will cluster along the line. Such towns as Wallajahnugegur and Vellore, established under, and due to, a totally different order of things, must and will, to a great extent disappear. ocT.—pDxEc. 1857.} A list of Neilgherry Ferns. 79 Individuals may, and some must, of necessity suffer from such changes as these, but no man can doubt the ultimate benefit to the country; and if the change be necessary there is in this country some satisfaction in the thought, that a new, and, we may hope, a more enlightened and enterprising class will owe their rise to the Railways, while the opportunity will not be lost of introducing into the towns thus springing up a new, more healthy, and more civiliz- ed description of dwelling. VII. A List of Neilgherry Ferns. By the late Dr. B. SCHMID. [These Ferns were partly collected by Dr. B. Schmid in the years 1831-35 for Professor Zenker of Jena; partly by Dr. Weigle for Dr. Kurr of Stuttgart, and the Lycopodiacee by Mr. Perrottet. They were described by Professor Kunze, in the Linnea, Vol. VIII., July 1851. The Professor’s last labour before his death ; The capital S. indicates that the plant was found by Schmid him- self, and W. that it had been collected by Weigle. | OPHIOGLOSSER. 1. Ophioglossum Schmidi, (Kunze,) Nova species, sent by 8. Boirychium lanuginosum, (Wallich) sent by S. and W. GLEICHENIACEZ. 3. JMeriensia dichotoma, (Sw. syn. fil.) sent by S. and W. Syn. Gleichenia dichotoma, (Hooker sp. fil. 1, p. 12.) OSMUNDACEZ. 4, Osmunda regalis, (Linn.) 8S. Baron Hiigel found it in Emo- dus. PoLYPODIACER. 5. Aecrostichum angulatum, 8. Blume in Java. 6, “i decurrens, (Desv.) Philippines and Nilagiri in Wallich’s herbarium. ) 3. Gleichenia Hermannt, Wall, 4. Osmunda Leschenaultii, Wall.—Ep. 0 16. We 18. GE 20. 21. 22. 23. 24, 25. 26, A list of Neilgherry Ferns. [no.5, NEW SERIEs, Acrostichum stigmatolepis, (Fée.) In Delessert’s herbarium “from Nilagiri;”’ Perrottet. Leptochilus lanceolatus, (Fée.) Perrottet in 1838. Hemionttis cordata, (Roxb.) sent by S. and W. Hook. and Grev. ic. fil. t. 64. Rheede Hort. Mal. 12, t. 10. Gymnogramma totta,(Schlechtendal). \ Very little different var: mollisima, (Kunze.)G.Schmidii, >from that of Ma- (Zenker’s manuscripts.) deira and Abyssinia. és bifurcata, (Kaulfuss’ herbarium.) sent by S. i leptophylla, (Desv.) sent by S. is smaller than the specimens from South Europe, Teneriffe, Madeira, Mexico, Egypt and Abyssinia. Ampelopteris firma, (Kanze.) 8. and Hugel, No. 2152. Grammitis attenuata, Kunze.) 8. Nov. species. 3 Selliguea involuta, (Kunze) Syn: Grammitis involuta, (Don, Blume, Hooker and Greville.) os var: cuspidata, Grammitis cuspidata, (Zenker’s Plante Indice) sent by 8. and W. Synn : Loxogramma, (Presl.) Antrophyum, (Blume,) FI: Jav: p. 87. Polypodium (Pleopeltis,) mediusculum, (Kunze,) Nov. sp. sent by S. and W. : Polypodium (Pleopeltis,) sent by W. = linearis affine, S. also Nepaul. a (Phymatodes,) (Presl.) Nov. sp;-S. W. séerile. . (Drynaria) oxylebium, (Wallich) 8S. W. in Ne- paul, Wallich. in Emodus, Higel. As (Drynaria) quercifolium, (Linn.) S. ; carpophyllum, (Zenker’s manuscript) S. W. Nov. spec. aa pyrrhorachis, (Kunze,) 8. W. Niphobolus sticticus, Kunze.) Nov. sp. 8. W. Leschenault, also from Emodus. os reese +s «Spec. stetiliey S: Blechnum orientale, W. 21. The true Linnean species, Fl, Zeylanic¢a.—ED. oor.—pxc. 1857.] A list of Newgherry Ferns. 81 Pale 28. 29; 30. ol. 32, - 30, 34. 30. 36, 37. 38. 39, 40. 41, 42. 43. 44, 45, 46. a7. 48. 49. 50. Asplenium (Actiniopteris) radiatum, (Sw.) Syn: Blechnum radiatum, (Presl ) 8. Hook. Icon. t. 975. - Zenkerranum, (Kunze,) Nov. sp. S. 3 Jalcatum, (Retz) S. also in Ceylon and Java. decurrens, (Kunze) Nov. sp. 8. 93 brachyotes, (Kunze) W. also in South Africa. s opacum, (Kze) Nov. sp. W. Bs camptorhachis, (Kze) Nov. sp. 8. i emarginato-dentatum, (Zenker’s M.S8S.)8. N. sp. a umbrosum, (Klfs.) W. also from Brazil, Martius. S lunulatum, (Sw.) »» var: sphenolobium, (Kunze) 8. W. » jfimbriatum, (Kunze) Flora Af. Austr: Natal. Emodus. ,, var: leptophyllum, (Kze) S. W. a Jurcatum, (Thunberg, Kunze) 8. W. tenuifolium (Don) S. W. larger than the Natal form. Allantudia solenopteris, (Kunze) 8. W. 5» var: pusilla, (Kurr.) », LMieldingiana, (Kze) Nov. sp. S. Fielding received it from Emodus. 2 Species doubtful. “W. Diplazium lasiopteris, (Kze) W. »» nigro-paleareum, (Kze) 8. N. sp. », ajuvenile, sterile specimen, the roots mixed up with one similar to Pteris Blumeana (Kze addy, I have not yet seen the like.) Pieris geraniifolia, (Radd: fil: Brazil) S. W. also, Nepal, Chill, Java. Hook. ic. t, 915. » Cretica, (Linn) 8, W. », DBlumeana, (F. Ag.) 8. W. (Pteris normalis, Blume, Java.) », lanuginosa, (Bory) S. also Mascarenhas. multi-auriia, (F. Ag.) Leschenault on Nilagiri? grows in Ceylon. 29, Burm. Zeyl. t, 43; Rheed. Mal. 12. t. 18,—Ep. 82 51. 52. 53. 54, O65. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. _ Alist of Neilgherry Ferns. [no. 8, NEW SERIES, Pteris palearia, (Roxb:) S. Adiantum hirsutum, (Bory) S. 4» aethiopicum, (Kze.) 8S. W. At the Cape, Australia. 5 me veneris, : 1, normale, 8. 2, latissimum, (Kunze) also Bory i in Algiers, and Hay in Emodus. Cheilanthes dealbata, (Don) Nepal, 8. ‘ir, farinosa, Hook and Grev : farinosa, var: pallida-sulphurea W. Kurr. Wallich in Nepal, Hay in Emodus; Higelin Karli; Cuming in Luzon; Zollinger in Java. 33 bulbosa, (Kunze) S. “ valde insignis,” similar to Ch : elegans (Desv.) 6 Dicksonioides, (Endlicher) 8. W. var: phyllochlaena, (Kze.) 23 PA resistens, (Kze.) 8. Nov. Sp. Lindsaea cultrata, (Sw) 8. W. var: pallens, (Wallich’s Catalogue). Davaliia tenuifolia, (Sw.) 5 var: B segmentis latioribus, S. W. Nephrolepis tuberosa, (Presl). S. W. also Bourbon, Java. Aspidium (Cyrtomium) anomophyllon, (Zenker, Plantae In- | dicee,) S. W. var: macroptera and microptera, but intermediate forms are not wanting. : ae atratum, (Wallich) S. W. = (Nephrodium,) caudiculatum, (Sieb.) W. Nov. Sp. _ ¥ Xylotes, (Kunze.) 8. Nov. Sp. 5 a ochtosts, (Kze.) S. W. N. Sp. also near Mercara, found by the Revd. Mr. Metz, and sent to Hohenacker. % (Dicharium A. B.) Donianum, (Spr.) S. » Syn. Wallichianum (Spr.) ,,_~—s paleaceum (Don.) patentissimum (Wall.) ee palentissima, Pr, tent. Pterid. oor.—pec. 1857.] List of Neilgherry Ferns. 83 68. 69. ee ae 72. 73, 74, 76, 76. 77. 78. Tos 80, 81, 82, Aspidium Weigleanum, (Kze.) W. Nov. Sp. (Nephrodium procerum, Don. prod, fl. Nep.) 5 (Nephrodium) Canariense, (Al. Braun) perhaps the same. », SyD Aspidium elongatum, (Willd. Sp. pl. R. Brown in : H. Kew; Hook. and Grev. ic. t. 234. if ees ae) . a doubtful species. W. - ( 4, ) seabrosum, (Kze.) Nov. Sp., 8S. W. (A tree fern ?) 5 (Polystichium) palmipes, (Kze.) 8, W. Ae ( 5 >) brachypterum, (Kze.) S. W. var. major, laxa, 8. Metz (in Hochenaker.) Se see 5 ) subinerme, (Kze.) W. N. Sp. 55 ( >» ) tacticopterum, (Kze,) 8. Nov. Sp. 4p ( 9» ) mucronifolium, (Bl. ? Java) W. Hay on Emodus. (over looked.) 66 ( 4 ) Wallichanum, (Pr.) S. Syn. Asp. seto- sum,( Wall.) Polystichum setosum, Schott. Hooker’s Asp. Wallichii and Sprengel’s Asp. Wallichianum are both erroneous. 9 ( 5 ) parvifolium, (Kze.) 8. W. Syn. Poly- stichum conifolium, (J. Sm.) Cuming, the specimens from the Philippine Islands are more robust. CYATHEACEA, Alsophila crinita, (Hook. ic. Plantarum t. 671.) S. 3 latebrosa, ( Wall.) Penang, Assam. 3 var. Schmidiana, smaller than the normal form. - HYMENOPHYLLACEA, Trichomanes Schmidiana, Zenker’s MSS. (in Dr. Taschmer’s Dissertation) similar to 77. filicula (Hook) Ni- lagiris? and still more to Tr. intramarginale, (Hook. and Grey.) ic. fil, t. 211. Perhaps a dwarfish form of Tr.Schmidianum, from Ceylon? 84 A List of Neilgherry Mosses. [No.5, NEW SERIES, LYCOPODIACEA. 83. Lycopodium alorfolium(Wall. cat. 129) Spreng. monograph des Lycopodees, Hook ie, fil. t. 223. 84. 5. subulifolium, (Wall. cat, 114) Perrottet. Syn. Lyc. Nilagiricum, Spreng. 1, p. 58, n. 42. 85. 5 serratum, (Thunberg) ; Spreng. Perrottet, also in Java, Japan. 86. i macrostachys, Hooker’s Herbarium, Spreng. 1. 1 II. p. 30, n. 496. Syn? Lyc. Phlegmaria, Kunze’s Herbarium, given by Koenig from East India, also in Ceylon. 87. x cernuum, (L. Spreng. monogr. 1, 79) Perrottet and Kurr. 88. es clavatum, (Linn. Spreng.) Hooker’s Herbarium. 89. a Wightianum, (Wall. cat. 2184, Syn. Lyc. sabin- aefolium, Kunze) in fil, Zollinger. 90. Selaginella vaginata, (Spreng.) Perrottet. Se a radicata, (Spreng.) W. Perrottet. 92. os caulescens, (Spreng.) W. 93. » pennula, (Spreng. Voyage Bory.) Perrottet. 94. ey tcnera, (Spreng.) Syn. Lyc, ornithopodioides, (Wall cat. 2186.) CauicuT, 24th January, 1857. *B, SCHMID. * The Manuscript not being always legible, some errors may have crept inte this interesting Catalogue.—Ep. M. J. VIII. A List of Neidlgherry Mosses. By Dr. B. Scumip. | These were collected by Mr. Perrottet, described and named by Montagne in 1842, others found by Dr. B. Schmid, described and named by Dr. Charles Miller of Halle in Prussia, in the Botan- ische Zeitung, 1852-54. Mr. Perrottet collected principally about Kaity, and at Neddoowuttam and Kotagiri. Dr, Schmid explored ocT.—pic. 1857.] A List of Newdgherry Mosses. 85 exclusively in the basin of Ootacamund. The Mosses marked } were collected by Mr. Perrottet ; those without a mark were col- lected by Dr. Schmid; those marked * were found by Mr. Perrot- tet and also by Dr. Schmid. |—Ep. M. J. Class II. CLEISTOCARPI. Tribe II. BrucHtIacez. Genus II. Astomum. 1. Astomum denticulatum, C. Mill. Class III. STEGOCARPI. Sub-class I. AcRoOcARPI. Tribe VIII. FisstDENTEZ. Gen. I. Conomitrium. 2. Conomitrium serratum, C. Mull, Synops. II, p. 527. Gen. II. Fissidens. 3, Fissidens Schmidii, C. M. similar to F. crispus. % 4, » anomalus. Montagne, Annales des Sciences Na- turelles, 1842, No. 36. Tribe Xl. FUNARIOIDEZ, Gen. I. Funaria. * 5, Funaria hygrometrica, Hedwig. 70. » physcomitroides, Mont. about Kaitie. Gen. IV. Lntosthodon. % 4% Entosthodon Perrottetii,C. M. Kaitie. 8. si diversinervis. C. M. a very fine species. 9. a submarginatus, C. M. Tribe XV. BryaczEa. Gen. I. Mielichhoferia. 10. Mielichhoferia Schmidii, C. M. ; Gen. IL. Bryum. #11, Brywm Neilgherrense, Mont. (Dr Schmid’s specimens have larger nerves set. ) 12. ,, ollingert. Duby. 718. 5, Montagneanum. C. M. Brachymenium pendu- . lum, Mont. Muse. Neilgh. No. 48, 14, ,, apalodictyoides. C.M. 86 A List of Nelgherry Mosses. [NO, 5. NEW SERIES, 15. Bryum lamprostegum. C. My 16. 5 porphyroneuron. C. M. Lite » rugosum. C.M. a pretty, remarkable species. 18. » exile. Dz. et Molkh. 19. », jlaccidisetum. C.M. a pretty species. #20. » argenteum. L. very frequent on earth and wood. 21. » Schmidi. C.M. 722. », leptostomoides. Mont. Dodabetta on Rhododendrons. 23. » ¢clavariaeforme, C. M,. 24. » velutinum. C.M. 25. » trematodonteum. C.™M. Tribe XVI. DiIcRANACEA. Gen. VI. Dicranum. 26. Dicranum involutum. CO. M. 27. im nivale. C.M. DAS ie vk Saas flagelliferum. OC. M. 29. As albescens C.M. +30. a caudatum. C. M. 31. o tricolor. C. M. 32, 53 erythrognaphalon. C. M. 33. Ap Schmidii. ©. M. 34, Sp nodiflorum. C.M. Tribe XVII. LErroTRICHACEAE. Gen. VI. Angstromia. . 35. » ( » ) pristocalyx, n. sp. 2» ( 3 ) tamariscellum, n. sp. = (Hypnodendron) Schmidii, n. sp. (Anomodon) consanguineum. C. M. 5 (Homomallia) secundum. Mont. (To be continued. ) oct.—DEC. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 89 IX. Introductory Report on the Natural History of the Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. By H. F. Ketaart, m. p. [This interesting Report is republished from the Ceylon Overland Observer, not only with reference to its intrinsic value, but also to its important bearings upon the Pearl Banks belonging to the Madras Presidency, which have long been in an unsatisfactory state.|—Ep. M. J. Having understood that some account of my researches into the Natural History of the Pearl Oysters of Ceylon, is desirable, even at this early period of my labours, I shall endeavour briefly to sketch a Report, that can only be considered in the light of an Introduction to a more extensive and prolonged series of observa- tions ; which, if means are afforded me, may be brought to a more speedy conclusion than I have any prospect of doing at present. Before I proceed to detail the results of my researches, since I was commissioned by His Excellency the Governor, in March last, to undertake this desirable investigation, I have to acknow- ledge the great facilities which the aquarium gives, for the inves- tigation of the natural habits of Molluscs, and other moderate- ly sized fresh and sea water animals. Without glass aquaria and a powerful microscope, I should not perhaps have obtained even that information on the minute anatomy and habits of the Pearl Oyster, which is embodied in this Introductory Report. Soon after my appointment, I ordered out large glass aquaria and other apparatus, which will be of service hereafter, to myself, or to those who may be engaged years hence, in reporting to Government, from time to time, the natural condition of the Oysters in their various banks. In the mean time, I have made use of large glass globes and Ceylon manufactured aquaria, made of thick crown glass, Roman cement and slate, purchased from the Naval Store. Large chatties too, and tubs, are also in use. The Oysters thrive best in chatties, but these do not afford the same opportunity of seeing their habits as glass sided aquaria. I have also, in addi- tion to the above named means of observation, had perforated wooden boxes, with a few Oysters in each, deposited in various 90 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, depths of the sea; and latterly, I have used large canoes (ballams) for the same purpose ;—lastly, though perhaps of most importance, I have had unexpected facilities of observation among the several small beds of Oysters found in the inner Harbour of Trincomalie. They are found of all ages and sizes, and various depths and dif- ferent kinds of banks; so that no Naturalist has perhaps ever had the same opportunities of observing the habits of the Pearly Mol- lusc, as I have at present. I cannot do better, than correct at the outset, some popular errors regarding the anatomy of the Pearl Oyster; and this I may perhaps do most simply, by describing, in a popular form, the ex- ternal and internal structure of the species of Mollusc producing the best Pearls of Ceylon. The Mollusc, generally known as the Pearl Oyster, found in the Banks of Arripo, Chilaw, Trincomalie Harbour, and other parts of the Island, does not belong to the same genus as the edible Oyster of Europe, although, in its internal structure it has a re- semblance to it. The Pearl Mollusc resembles more the Mussel tribe than the Oyster ; more particularly, as it has, like the Mussel, a byssus or cable by which it attaches itself to foreign sub- stances, or to others of its kind. The only source of infor- mation that I know of on this subject, available to the Ceylon student, is to be found in ‘“ Lebeck’s Account of the Pearl Fishery of Ceylon, 1797,”’ to be seen in the Appendix to Captain Steuart’s book. The description Mr. Lebeck gives, is very im- perfect, and excites a smile in the modern Nataralist; but this imperfection is excusable, in any account written in the infancy of the science of Conchology, and when the Microscope was scarcely ever applied to anatomical studies of shells ; at least not in Ceylon. The most glaring error in that description is the mistaking of ‘‘ bluish spots’? on the foot for “ eyes,’ and the “ ovaria’’ for “Jungs.” This Mollusc has no eyes; and the lungs, or gills, are in the front, far away from the stomach, and occupy the middle space between the hinge and the anterior edge of the shell, easily seen when the valves are open; they look like four, or two pairs, of whitish (in a few specimens the gills are of a black color) semi- lunar combs or bands, stretched from side to side. - ocT.—pEc. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 91 I have carefully examined Oysters of all ages, and have no- ted the structure of the shell, and of the animal within it: which will form the subject of illustration in a future Report. In this, I shall briefly describe the animal; as it is of the greatest importance, that a correct knowledge be first obtained of the animal structure, before a physiological account of its habits can be properly un- derstood. — Meleagrina margaritifera, Lamarck, ) Mytilus margaritiferus, Linn. Pearl Oyster, Ene. Avicula radiata, Leach. Pintadine mere perle, Fr. » Mmargaritifera, Sowerby. Mutu Chipi. Tam. & Syne. » meleagrina, Blainville. Conchologists have long agreed, that Lamarck was right in sepa- rating the “* Pearl Oyster,” par excellence, from the old genus Avi- cula, of which there are several species in Ceylon, some producing valueless pearls of a dusky blue and blackish colour. The only de- scription of the Pearl Oyster of Ceylon I have access to, is La- marck’s, in his “* Histotre Naturelle des animaux sans Vertebres,’’ and that, too, is only of the shell. ‘“‘ Meleagrina, testa subquadrata, superne rotundata, fusco virente. Albo radiata, lamellis per series longitudinalis imbricatis, supertoribus majoribus.”’—Lamarck, vol. 7, p. 107. The Ceylon shell is a variety of that above described. The white radiating lines are alternated with rays of a red or black co- lour. Doctor Templeton made it appear, that the Ceylon variety corresponded with Leach’s description of his Avicula radiata. lam more inclined to believe, that they are only accidental or occasional varieties. The shell however, appears to attain a larger size in Ame- rica, and in the Persian Gulph, than in the Seas of Ceylon. In the largest Ceylon shells, the red or black radiating lines become obso- lete. If they are permanent varieties, they are both found in Cey- lon. I havea faint recollection of having seen both varieties on the Peari banks of Arripo. 1 had also a small perfectly white Pearl Oyster ; this may be an Albino specimen or Lamarck’s Meleagrina albina. M. testa alhida, irradiata, obsolete squamosa; auriculis duabus semper distinctis, originally found on the coasts of New Hol- land and Van Diemen’s Land. 92 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [no. 5, NEW SERIES, On removing the animal from the shell, the whole of the internal part is seen enveloped in amembrano-muscular covering, called the “¢ mantle,” and known popularly in Ceylon as the “skin.” The free border of the mantle lining each valve, dips downwards, to meet with a similar veil on the opposite side; thus forming a kind of dou- ble fringed veil. The one set of tentacular fringe, in immediate con- tact with the shell, is composed of hairy tentacles, looking horizon- tally forwards; the other, about three-eighths of aninch apart from the former, and lining the edge of the mantle, from side to side, looks downward, and dovetails with the tentacles of the opposite flap of the mantle. These tentacles consist of a series of long and short flat filaments—the long ones having lateral filamen- tous projections. The tentacles are exceedingly sensitive; and one would almost give them the power of seeing; for not only the touch of a feather, but the approach of one when the animal is lively and in good health, makes them draw forwards, and perfectly shut out the intruder. As these molluscs have no organ of sight, I have no doubt that the delicate nerves which are dis- tributed through the mantle and its tentacular processes, possess in some degree the sense answering to vision in other animals, as well as of touch; foran Oyster will be observed rapidly to close its valves on the approach to the aquarium ofa lighted candle, or even the approach ofa hand, or the shadow of a person, near the glass sides of a vessel in which it is confined. I should not, ina popular Report, advert to this physiological subject, but that the senses of the Oyster have a great deal to do with its habits, not only in the aquarium, but also in its native bed. Were it not for these delicate fringes surrounding the mantle, the softer parts of the Oyster would easily become the food of a host of carnivorous creatures abounding in the sea; and many more Pearls would drop out of the shell, than do now with such sentinels at the en- trance of its external rim. The mantle is the only organ the ani- mal has for the formation ofthe shell. The increase of the lateral dimensions of which, and the formation of the pearly nacre, and - the Pearls, depending upon the condition of this important invest- ment, Ifitis injured, the pearly matter is not secreted in such abundance over the shell, or if by some cause it becomes retracted Ps a ; ; 7 ocT.—DvEc. 1857.) The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 93 the shell does not grow rapidly, and the mother-of-pearl lining is jagged at the edge, and is not of the usual brilliant colour. How- ever, its temporary retraction facilitates the ingress of sand and other irritating particles, which doubtless become the nuclei of many pearls, as will be hereafter observed. The forepart of the mantle is coloured and rayed like the shell. The colouring matter is secreted by glands found in these parts. The glandular secre- tion serves the purpose of increasing the lateral and longitudinal dimensions of the shell. It is after this is deposited, that the pearly secretion (nacre) is applied to the inner wall of the shell, which, concreting or solidifying, increases its thickness. The pearly fluid is secreted by nearly the whole external surface of the mantle. It will be thus clearly understood, that when a grain of sand or the larva of an insect is introduced between the mantle | and shell, it will become covered over with the pearly secretion ; which always going on, is augmented at the part where the foreign matter lies. ‘This phenomenon I have detected with the aid of the Microscope in the very earliest stage. About one and a quarter inch from the rim of the shell, is seen a pair of gills like four segments of a circle, or semilunar combs, stretching transversely from one side to the other, the convexity looking forwards. ‘There is a vacant space between the concave surface of the gills and the body of the Oyster. The adductor mus- cle, called ‘* grizzle,” is now seen, covered over with a delicate membrane. This muscle is attached to theinner surface of both shells. On one side (the left, when the Oyster is placed with the hinge next the observer) is seen a short, conical, tubular, sharp- pointed prolongation ; this is the terminal end of the intestines ; it looks ike a sharp-pointed claw. The intestine is short: leav- ing the stomach, it winds round the adductor muscle, and termin- ates, as | have just remarked, on the side opposite to where the mouth is placed. There is always an unclosed space, between the edges of the mantle, when the tentacles are brought together, ad- mitting of the free passage of excrementitious matter; and it was through the same opening between the mantle, that I observed, on one occasion, the ova escape, in a cloudy stream, which continued to pass into the water for nearly 15 minutes. I failed to detect the 94 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [No.5, NEW SERIES, immediate part of the animal through which the ova found their exit ; and I have not been able to detect a regular oviduct. The ovaria, when distended with ova, cover nearly the whole of the stomach, heart, and liver, and project even on the conical cecal process of the stomach, and also on the base of the foot. The sto- mach is very small, placed in the centre of the liver; the esophagus is very narrow, scarcely admitting a moderate sized probe; it is about 3 lines long. The mouth situated near the hinge, behind the foot and byssus, is a horizontal slit, of about 3 lines in length, in the duplicature of the lower pair of labial palps. These palps are’ large, broad, truncated anteriorly, and rounded on the sides; the inner surface plaited, or rather grooved. The sense of feeling, or touch, is no doubt by this rugose structure, greatly increased. The palps serve the animal as organs of touch, if not of taste; they also serve to collect food, and give the animal the power of rejecting in- digestible particles of matter, or such substances as might prove injurious. T have, through the Microscope, ascertained the kind of food Pearl Oysters live on. This consists of minute alge or weeds, animal- cules and shells, called Foraminifera. Diatoms also, those minute vegetables forms which can scarcely be detected with the naked eye, are found growing on the external surface of the shell; wherea host of infusorial and microsopical objects likewise find a pasturage. So that the Oyster may be said to carry on its back, the food upon which it lives. The siliceous internal skeletons of these Diatoms, I have detected in the excrementitious matter of the Oyster. It will be a subject for future inquiry, whether any of these sharp- pointed skeletons do not permeate the coats of the mantle, and thus become nuclei of Pearls. Ihave, on examination of “ seeding” pearls found the skeleton of a Navicula, (species of Diatom) among the ova; but whether this proceeded from the stomach of the ani- mal, or got there by passing under the mantle, it was not possible for me to determine. ) The Pearl Oyster, like other Bivalves, (Conchiferze) are Mo- neecious, or rather hermaphrodites ; though, properly speaking, they can neither be said to belong to one or two sexes, for, with the exception of the presence of ovaria (or egg bags,) no other sexual oct.—pec. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 95 organ has been yet discovered. Doctor Johnson, in his valuable work on Conchology, remarks on Conchifere, ‘‘ that every indivi- dual is sufficient to its own felicity.’”’ But however correct this may be, regarding the feeling of sexual gratification, it is clearly established by M. Rudolph Wagner, that in some Acephalous bi- valves, as likewise in Twunicata, Gasteropods and Polyps, the ova- ries of some individuals contain a milk fluid, instead of ova ; and that this milky fluid contains spermatozoa (seminal animalcules). I have now to add the Pearl Oyster (Meleagrina Margaritifera) as another of the bivalve species of Mollusc, which has individuals with spermatozoa or seminal fluid, in organs similar to those which in a larger number of individuals contain ova, or eggs. It will not, perhaps, be necessary further to discuss this important sub- ject, than to remark, that the Native diver’s idea, that ‘‘there are male and female Pearl Oysters,’ is not altogether fabulous. The important part which the male Oyster must play in the formation of banks of Oysters, is self-evident, if it can be clearly established, that the ova absolutely require the vivifying influence of a male fluid. I have not seen more than three or four individuals with this milky fluid, in 100 Oysters; nor have I yet satisfactorily made out any difference in the characters of the shells of the two supposed sexes. The Native diver’s opinion quoted by Captain Steuart and Mr. Lebeck, viz., that ‘‘the large flat ones they call | males, and those that are thick concave, and vaulted, they call females, ‘‘ Peedoo Chippy,” is not borne out by my microscopical observations. I found well formed ova in Oysters which were broad and flat. It is quite possible, however, that in the course of this investigation, some external marks may be discovered, by which the male Oyster can be distinguished from the female. From the very small number of males (about 3 to 100) to females, I can easily fancy, that if by some natural or artificial cause, the males are destroyed, the banks will not be enlarged ; and that in time they will become extinct, i. e., supposing the majo- rity of Naturalists are correct in their present view of the Dicecious character of Oysters. It is just as likely, that Mr. Garner’s opinion will ultimately prevail ; viz., “‘that the or- gans called ovaria, do at certain periods, secrete the seminal fluid, 96 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [xo.5, NEW SERIES, which impregnates the ova contained in them and is then dis- charged as an excretion by the oviducts.’’ To this observation of Garner I have to oppose the fact, that not a trace of ova was seen in the ovaria of the supposed male Pearl Oysters, which were dis- tended with the milky fluid at the time when the ovaria of other Oysters were distended with ova. The last, though not the least important part of the animal, is the foot. This important member, which has so many useful services to perform in acephalous molluscs, requires a more than ordinary consideration. It is that long, brown, leech-like mem- ber, which is seen when the animal is at rest coiled up in a corner on the right side, above the byssus which, when protruding out of the shell, and moving about, gives one the popular idea of a tongue. It is of a dark brown colour above, and whitish beneath ; in mid- dle age itis speckled. It is composed of longitudinal and trans- verse muscular fibres, the latter interlacing between the former, which proceed in two columnar masses from each side of the ad- ductor muscle; between the bundles or fibres, are placed the ab- dominal viscera. From its base is sent off, posteriorly, a glisten- ing white fibrous band; this is attached to the duplicature of the mantle, near the angle of the valves. Thus, the foot is seen to be admirably adapted for locomotive powers; and also serves, by its connection with the adductor muscles, to lengthen or shorten the cable or byssus. The foot, in a full sized Oyster, is about two and a half inches long when extended ; at rest, it-is not more than one anda halfinch in length. It is broad at the base, tapering, to a conical point ; the upper surface is rounded and smooth, the lower flattened and grooved. The groove extending from the base, terminates at the point in an oval cup-like fosset. This groove is ~ lined by a secreting membrane, and is an exact mould for the for- mation of the byssus, at the will of the animal. When it finds a necessity for making one, the foot is protruded out of the shell, and with the tip it seeks out a spot, where it can rest the terminal disc of the groove. If not satisfied with the substance or position of © the stone or any other matter on which it rests, it removes to an- other more suitable spot ; for a few minutes (say five or six, if the animal is strong) it rests, and is then retracted within the shell, ocT.—DEC. 1857.} The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 97 leaving behind a strong fibre with an oval disc, of the form of the groove inthe foot. This whitish fibre is attached tothe base of the foot at one end, and tothe rock, or to the shell of another Oyster, at the other. In a day or two, this fibre becomes ofa bronz- ed greenish colour, and looks like hair, with abroad flattened oval root attached to the rock. This process is again and again repeated, at intervals of a few minutes, tilla sufficiently strong cable is form- ed. Ina large Oyster, removed from the sea, upwards of fifty such fibres form a thick strong cable or byssus, which is attached to the base of the foot by a bifurcated fleshy root. The animal cannot de- tach the byssus from the rock to which it is attached, but it has the power of casting it offits own body and leaving it behind, (like aship letting slip her cable and anchor in astorm, and sailing off to sea) in order to make another byssus, either on the same rock, or on any other convenient place. I observed all this process in the aquarium at a very early period of my investigations ; and was not surprised to find, that the Pearl Oyster having nearly the same organs as the Mussel, should form and reform its byssus. But I was agreeably satisfied in learning by these observations, that Captain Steuart, in his valuable and inter- esting Monograph on the Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon, was incorrect in denying to the Pearl Oyster this faculty. He states, that “ ¢tzs not believed that the Pearl Oysters have the power to detach them- selves, or to remove at their own will,” Thave not only satisfied my- self, and many friends whohave seen the Oysters in the aquaria which I have established, that the Pearl Oystercan detach or unmoor itself, but likewise that it walksaway with its foot foremost, and the shell behind ; and does not, as Captain Steuart observes, “move with its hinges in advance.’ ‘This “ shuffling’? movement alone attracted Captain Steuart’s attention, but it is an unimportant one; as all bivalves without a byssus have it, and it is independent of the will of the animal, owing to the valves being opened and closed for the purpose of respiration. How imperfect must Captain Steuart, a candid inquirer, now say, have been his long observations, when the Oyster is seen, night after night, taking a walk round the in- side of a chatty, or mounting the glass side of a vivarium, forming, here and there, a byssus. It is most unfortunate, that he and 98 ' The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [No. 5, NEW SERIES. others should not have made these observations, (which are so sim ple in their nature, but yet conclusive of the possibility “ of érans- lating Pearl Oysters from their original rocky beds to other more con- ~ venient locations.” Who can tell what the results might have been, had Dr. Wright’s views been carried out? I know of my medical brother’s Report (made I believe in 1803), only from the brief notice taken of it in Mr. Boyd’s observations, and quoted by Captain Steuart, in the Appendix to his work (page 58). Mr. Boyd’s observations clearly indicate, that Dr. Wright proposed, some thirty years ago, the transplanting the animals to places convenient for fishing them, when they arrive at maturity. Hither Dr. Wright did not observe the facility with which the Oyster reforms its byssus; or he was misunderstood by Mr. Boyd, who remarks further on, “ that surely as the animal has not the power of regaining its adhesion, after it is once detached, it cannot, when once broken away from its attachment, fix itself again, and must either perish, or be carried away by the current,” | Now, it is very gratifying tome tobe able to speak positively on this subject; and this I do hopefully, as I have observed the Pearl Oyster detaching itself spontaneously from its old moorings, in a glass vivarium and attaching itself to another part of the glass vessel, not once only but have noticed, that some Oysters will go through this process a dozen times, in less than a month. In addition to the above related facts, I have successfully established a colony of Pearl Oysters near Fort Frederick, in the open sea, at various depths; and have also Oysters which have been living for several months in wooden boxes, finger glasses, glass globes, chat- ties, and large canoes, sunk in the sea. Some were thrown into the sea, after being removed from the inner harbour and kept in my house in chatties and tubs for two and three days. The byssus of most of them had been broken and torn from the rock. These they have cast off, and are now living attached to each other, and to pieces of coral, and to rocks, exposed to all the influences of the sea. | When an Oyster is first put into a vivarium, it sickens, 7. é., the mantle becomes retracted, and a collapse is observed ;—in a ocr.—pEc. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 99 few hours it revives, but with few exceptions, it is on the third or fourth day, that the portion of byssus attached to the foot of the animal is shaken or cast off, and the animal puts out its foot and forms another near the spot where it lies; or walks, by a snail-like motion of its foot, to, or up the side of the glass, to the level of the water, and there fixes itself. Some of the Oysters which were thrown into the sea, are now seen growing on the sides of rocks, four and five feet from the bottom. I am not surprised at these results, for the edible Oysters, with out a byssus, have been known for ages to bear translating with advantage, If Oysters in artificial beds in England can live and breed. I see no reason why the Pearl Oyster should not do the same, and like the edible Oyster, yield a large revenue; or prove remunerative to private individuals, who may undertake the esta- blishment of new banks. I have one other subject, connected with the interior eco- nomy of the Pearl Oyster, to report upon; and this the miscros- cope which Government aided me in procuring, has enabled me to investigate very satisfactorily. My observations commenced about the middle of March last; although I was not officially connected with the Ceylon Govern- ment till the first of May. I have ever since made monthly obser- vations regarding the fecundation of Oysters; with the following re- sults. In March, and all through April, May and June, every Oys- ter I opened, young and old, contained ova in the ovaria, except the few which had the seminal milky fluid ; so that the Meleagrina, like the edible Oyster is in spawn almost from its birth, a precocity serving a useful purpose no doubt; and its practical bearing easily understood. From July to the present date, the Oysters examined did not all contain ova; some of the ovaria were only half full ; others contained a very small quantity. It will be very inter- esting to proceed with these monthly examinations, and to as- eertain, whether the Oyster is only in spawn at certain periods of the year; and, if possible, to determine whether it spawns more than once in twelve months. Nearly all the 100 Oysters from the Pearl Banks of Arripo, kindly sent to me by Mr. Vane, contained 100 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [no. 5, NEW SERIES, ova, their form preserved, although saturated with arrack. Under the microscope the ovum is seen to be pear-shaped ; each measured 3-1000 part of an inch in diameter, at its broadest part ; longitudi- nally it is 6-1000 with a short pedicle attached. I have calculated, with the micrometer, the number of eggs contained in the ovaria of an Oyster of five or six years of age, and I find that there cannot be less than twelve millions. Leuwenhoeck states, that ten million eggs exist in one European edible Oyster. If we consider how few of these millions of eggs can arrive at the mature condition of a living Oyster, and the great demand that man makes upon the species for his gratification; we can only see in this great fact, the bountiful provision made by the Creator for a wise and beneficial purpose. In concluding this first Report, I shall briefly recapitulate the important discoveries I have already made. (a) The Pearl Oyster is more tenacious of life, than any bi- valve Mollusc I am acquainted with. It can live even in brackish water, and in places so shallow, that it must be exposed for three or four hours daily to the sun, and other atmospheric influences. (5) That it has locomotive powers, beyond any idea which can be formed from former observations. (c) That the power of moving from place to place, is inhe- rent, and absolutely necessary, in early life, for the due perform- ance of the animal functions. This is obvious from the fact, that if a cluster of young Oysters stayed permanently in one place, ad- hering to each other, the growth of the animal, and particularly of the shell, would be prevented. (d) That the Pearl Oyster will move about in search of food, if the locality, in which it is originally placed, is not rich in its na- tural supplies. (e) That it will move from its original situation, if the water becomes impure, either from the decomposition of vegetabie or animal matter, or muddy ; and, probably too, if there is a large in-. flux of fresh water. | (f) That if the water is agitated to an inordinate degree, the Oyster will leave its old mooring place and seek another. oct.—pDeEc. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 101 (g) That a thunderstorm will kill some in an aquarium. (Query,) Have thunder storms similar fatal effects on Oysters lying deep in the sea? (4) That the animal can unfix itself from its byssus; and that crabs, shrimps, and other creatures, force them to form a new byssus, by nibbling through the old one. (7) That it can re-form its byssus at pleasure, if in good health and condition. (j) That it can live for along time, without forming a bys- sus; and that it will re-form a byssus when it has recovered strength. (k) That the power of re-forming its byssus, is not to confine the young animal; but that the largest living OysterI have seen, can re-form it in an aquarium, as well as in the depths of the sea, but not so actively as the young and middle aged. (2) Pearl Oysters are gregarious in their habits. In placing several young Oysters in different parts of an aquarium, they will sooner or later be found attached to each other. The older ones have also this desire ; but their heavy shells impede their motion, and they are contented to remain apart from their fellows. (m) That taking the foregoing facts into account, there ap- pears to be no reason why Pearl Oysters should not be translated from their native beds, and made to colonize other parts of the sea. (n) That the young, aswell as the old, are in spawn from March to September ; and that probably there is no stated period for spawning. The whole occupation of the Oyster, when fixed to a spot, appears to be, keeping its valves open, and admitting food to its mouth. For several hours the valves remain open, they then close for a few minutes, or for an hour or two, then open again. At night, the valves remain generally open till towards daylight, when they close, and remain so till the sun shines brightly over the horizon. Itis during the early part of the night, or soon after sunset, that they exercise, when required, their locomotive powers. Ihave watched the Oysters in aquaria for nearly a whole night; 102 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, and they appear to be then active in moving and attaching them- selves to new localities. During the day, I have only seen, on one occasion, an Oyster form anew byssus. This nocturnal habit, is doubtless instinctive precaution; for should Oysters move during the day, they are more likely to become the food of fishes, and other animals which prey upon them. ‘Their movements are in- stinctive, and guided by the sense of touch. Darkness suits them better than daylight, of the difference of which they are very sen- sitive. Most of the Oysters in which I have found Pearls, had ex- ternal marks of having been retarded in their lateral growth, and displaced in early life from their fixed position on a bank. I am inclined to believe, that Oysters which have abundance of food, and are not disturbed, remain fixed for the last two or three years of their growth to one spot. These are less likely to have a large proportion of pearl bearing individuals among them. This of course requires more extensive practical observation, either on the beds in the harbour of Trincomalie, or on the Pearl banks of Arripo. With reference to the formation of Pearls, I have nothing new to add to the accounts found in the best modern books on the subject ; except that one, which modifies the view taken by Sir E. Home; viz. that Pearls are formed from abortive ova. I believe the ova left behind in the ovaria, are not the nuclei of Pearls, but that the ova which escape through the distended coats of an over- grown ovarium, and are imbedded in the interstices of the mantle, become nuclei of Pearls formed in this situation. Ihave repeated- ly examined seed, or young pearls, in process of formation; and with a magnifying power of 1°5 inch lens, I was able to see dis- tinctly, the outlines of two and three ova through the first or super- ficial layer of nacre, surrounded by groups of ova. It can be rea- dily understood how an overcharged ovarium will, by some acci- dent, or spontaneous evolution, have its coats ruptured, allowing the ova to escape and become inserted in the contiguous attenuated parts of the mantle. As Pearls are more usually found imbedded in the mantle near the hinge, the most likely place where the ova- rium is liable to rupture, I consicer this very conclusive of the new theory I have here proposed. I may also observe, that I . oct.—pkc. 1857.) The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 103 have seen the vestiges, or cicatrices, in the mantle where the Pearls once existed. Though Pearls originate in the mantle, when large they work their way out, and lie loose between it and the shell; or become attached to the ‘* Mother-o’-Pearl”’ surface of the latter. I have no doubt that Pearls can work their way out from this position, and be found entangled in the meshes of the byssus. I also consider it very possible, that an over-distended ovarium is one of the causes of Pearls being discharged from the Oyster and lost. If this be really the case, it will easily account for the singular fact, that a sample of Oysters, fished in the month of October, will yield alarger proportion of Pearls, than a batch of Oysters fished from the same bank in the months of April and May ofthe following year. These observations are somewhat sugges- tive, and can be improved upon by future investigation. I have now drawn to a conclusion this Report, which, I fear, has extended to a greater length than will suit the patience of the reader. But the subject being one which has been so long neg- lected and so little understood, I hope that the Government which has engaged my services, if they do not consider my endeavours as already productive of some practical results, will, at least, see in these researches, glimpses offuture success. Itis due to Sir Henry Ward, here to acknowledge my grateful thanks, in which my bro- ther Naturalists in all parts of the world, I am sure, will join for the gracious manner in which my humble services have been re- {ained, for investigating, fundamentally and practically, the Natural History of a species of Shell, which from the darkest ages of the world to the present, has been considered of inestimable value in producing one of the richest of gems. Time was, when the product of Pearl Oyster fisheries founded cities in South America and the Red Sea. Rut what is the state of the Islands in the Red Sea, *‘ whose merchants were princes”? They are now thinly inhabit- ed by amiserable race of fishermen. The sites of some of the Oys- ter banks in South America are not even now known; they have been destroyed by being overfished. New beds are doubtless form. ing in localities to be yet known to future generations. Ceylon Pearl banks were once on the point of sinking into the same state, but, for the subsequent observance of more caution, I was present 104 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [no.5, NEW SERIES, at two of the largest fisheries ever made off Arripo in 1835 and 1836. The Oysters fished during the first half of the fishery were full sized, and yielded a good price, most of the speculators making handsome profits. Government was encouraged to pursue the fishery; young Oysters were taken up; many of the purchasers, inflated with former gains, purchased readily, and were ruined ; and, I believe, to this day, these over, or prematurely fished banks, have not been very productive, although twenty years have since elapsed. Ifthe same incautious and unscientific plan were adopted on the Oyster banks in England, similar results would soon be per- ceived there. Nota ‘native’? would be had in London, nor even a cultivated one seen any where. If Government desires to have a steady, and not a precarious revenue, from Pearl Oyster fisheries, let good laws protect the beds already known, and those thatare now forming ; and let means be adopted to secure their increase and srowth. In one year more Oysters are consumed in England, than were fished on the banks of Arripo last year; and this consump- tion is repeated year after year, without exhaustion ; simply be- cause the natural laws having been once found out, they are allow- ed tooperate fairly. It will indeed be a very great source of sa- tisfaction to me, if any of the natural laws I have described in this Report, suggest to Government, an improved system of manage- ment. My attention has also been directed to the Natural History of the Tamblegam Oyster, Placuna placenta. I have a few still alive, which were translatedin May last. If this Oyster can be success- fully translated, the whole of Batticaloa lake might be converted into a large Ostrearlum. The Placuna placenta has no byssus, and can, therefore, be more readily transported. Their removal from their native beds, does not necessarily destroy the internal parts. About one-third of the Pearl Oyster (eleagrina,) die from being injured by the force necessarily applied when detaching them from the rocks to which they adhere. I have also lately ‘* doctored’? some Pearl Oysters, according to the plan adopted by the Chinese, in the case of the large fresh water mussel; but which method, I believe, has never been at- tempted with the real Pearl Oysters. Time, and further experi- . a : ila a <4 FR teat . & ae ? = - x et ie | oct.—pec. 1857.] Pearl Oyster Fishery. 105 ence, are required, to ascertain the results of this practice in Cey- lon. Dr. Gray, of the British Museum, has, I believe, by the ap- plication of the same means, succeeded in producing Pearls in the edible Mussel or Oyster of England. It may therefore be hoped that I shall eventually succeed with the Pearl Oyster of Ceylon, All that I can at present say, is, that they do not die under the operation, and that they are still living, having also reformed new byssuses. ‘This is the only way the period required for the forma- tion of good sized Pearls can be ascertained. There are some other points in the natural habits of the Pearl Oyster, which I re- serve for future Reports, as precipitate conclusions may mislead the Government. X. Report on the Tamblegam Pearl Oyster Fishery. By EK. F. Ke.aart, M. D. The Oyster found in the Tamblegam lake, and from which Pearls are obtained, is the Placuna placenta, ‘‘ Vitre Chinoise’ of some French writers, and the “‘ Window Oyster’ of English travellers in China—the shells, from their semi-transparency, being used for windows. The Placuna belongs to the same family of Conchifer- ous Molluscs as the edible Oysters of Europe and of this country. It has no resemblance (except slightly in the animal structure), to the shells of the Arripo Oyster (Meleagrina.) When full grown the valves (shells) measure, at their broadest transverse diameter, from 5 to 7 inches ; and their longest longitudinal diameter is about the same ; some, halfan inch more. They arrive at maturity soone,; than the Maleagrina margarttifera, and like the Aripo Pearl Oys- ter, the young also have ova. Iam not able from my own obser- vation (having been only a few months engaged in these researches) to say, in how many years this Oyster arrives at perfection. 106 Pearl Oyster Fishery. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, But from the appearance of shells of all sizes, and the history of the Tamblegam Pearl fisheries since 1839, I should say, that in three years, this bivalve Mollusc attains its adult age; and, that after that, it dies. It appears to thrive best in brackish water, but a large influx of fresh water (from rivers) kills them. Instances have been known, when a large number of young and old Oysters died in Tamblegam lake, during some very rainy seasons when the rivers which empty into the lake brought down an unusual quanti- ty of fresh water. If ever the channel, which was once proposed to be cut through the neck of land which connects the lake with the Trincomalie harbour, is made, this cause of mortality will more rarely occur, perhaps never again exist. From the flattened formation of the shells, Pearls are very lia- ble to drop out when the animal reaches its full growth ; 1 would therefore fix, as the best period for fishing, the time when the ani- mal has closed its supposed two year’s age, or when the a mea- sures from 53 to 6 inches in transverse diameter. I have inspected the Tamblegam bank this week, and am sorry to report, that there is no prospeet of even an average good fishery before the middle of 1859. The banks have been overfished. The Natcha Cooda bank is completely destroyed. The renter in 1846, left scarcely any Oysters behind, and this portion of the bank will consequently be unproductive for many years, possibly yield none again, unles Government should re-stock it. Nothing could have been more prejudicial to the interests of the Government, than to have leased out the bank by the year. The Government Agents who could have acted so unwisely as to lease out to Native renters a small bank of Pearl Oysters for three con- secutive years, without any stipulation as to the size of the Oys- ters to be fished, must have lost sight of the natural laws of re- production and multiplication of species, known even to the Na- tive divers. It is therefore very gratifying to observe, that the — present Government Agent, Mr. Morris, takes great interest in my researches ; that he is alive to the importance of the Naturalist’s | opinion, and has recommended that all young Oysters be thrown 3 back into the lake ; a measure which I had the opportunity of sug- oct.—pec. 1857.] Pearl Oyster Fishery. 107 gesting to his Excellency the Governor in March last, but which, I believe, was only partially acted upon, during the last Pearl fishery at Aripo. I watched the number of Oysters fished during the two days I was lately at Tamblegam (Keenear), and have to report, that there could not have been less than 30,000, on each day. More than two-thirds of this number were young, and had better have been left in the lake for another year or more. The renter is evi- dently maxing the most of the few months he has yet liberty to fish or rather ruin the bank. The Tamblegam Wanniah, and all the div- ers, whom I questioned on the subject, stated that in the early part of the present year, more than 50,000 Oysters were fished daily. It is therefore impossible to arrive at any other conclusion, than that the former renters misrepresented the state of their finances, from the Pearl banks, when they got Government to remit some portion of the rent, and had the fishery resold for a smaller sum, to another Native,—a relative, I am informed, cf one of the original renters. All Oysters are very prolific, and the Placuna is not an exception to the rule; for, at the lowest calculation, in three years, there must have keen fished from this bank, upwards of 18 millions of Oysters, supposing that there were only 200 fishing days in each year. The renters’ share must have been (allowing five shillings for each thousand Oysters) nearly £2,250, from which, deducting the three years rent, viz. £901, they must have derived a profit of at least £1,250. To this profit must be added another source of gain, (a very ingenious one) from the divers’ share of Oysters. The diver is allowed half the quantity fished, but he is not permitted fo sell the Oyster at the best market, or to the highest bidder. He is obliged to open the Oysters when fresh, and sell to the renter all the Pearls, at a fixed rate, which the renter takes good care shall be below the market value. Any plan therefore, which may relieve the diver of this grievance, will, 1 am sure, be thankfully welcom- ed by at least 20 individuals, whose chief means of living is by diving for Pearl Oysters. Oysters of upwards of two years of age, (i. e. about six inches broad) are worth a¢ least ten shillings a thousand, but if there is 108 Pearl Oyster Fishery. [No.5, NEW SERIES, any competition, they may be sold for even fifteen shillings a thou- sand; for although the Pearls they produce are about two-thirds less in value than those from the Aripo Pearl Oyster (Meleagrina), the quantity obtained in 1,000 Oysters, is at least three times more than what is obtained in a similar number from the Aripo banks. Upon these circumstances, I have to submit for the future guid- ance of Government, the following proposals : 1st. That the banks be allowed to remain undisturbed fer eigh- teen months after the termination of the present fishery. 2nd. The future fisheries to be conducted by Government Of- ficers, and the Oysters sold to the highest bidder. 8rd. That the fishery be held only for two or three months in the year; say April, May and June, and that a sufficient number of boats be employed daily, so as to have the matured Oysters dur- ing this fishing period. 4th. ‘That the banks be carefully watched, and placed under the immediate supervision of the Tamblegam Modliar, to whom a per- centage might be promised on the net profits of each fishery which yields to Government more than £500. I suggest this per-centage, well knowing, that any extra work thus thrown upon a Native of- ficial, will be badly performed, unless paid for according to the value of his labour. 5th. Thatno Oyster under 54 inches broad, be allowed to be re- moved from the banks. ‘ 6th. Thata fourth share of the Oysters fished be bond fide the divers’ share, which they shall be at liberty to dispose of to the best advantage for themselves. 7th. That those parts of the Tamblegam lake which have been denuded of Oysters by over-fishing, be re-stocked with young Oys- ters, found in the shallow parts of the lake, or near its margin; which if leftin their present position, are very likely to be clan- destinely removed at night, although the banks may be strictly watched. : 8th. That Government endeavour tofishup the Oysters by dredg- ing, instead of the present pernicious method of divers walking over most parts of the banks, searching for them with their feet ; by | ; which means, they crush the young Oysters and destroy the spawn. oct.—pEc. 1857.] Pearl Oyster Fishery, 109 This Oyster, having no byssus, is not attached to any hard sub- stance ; nor is if cemented, like some of the edible Oysters, by the hinge, or by one of the valves, to any subject, but lies either flat on the mud, or is fixed loosely in a semi-vertical position, with the wedge-shaped hinge buried in the mud. It follows, therefore, that they can be removed with great facility with the ordinary Oyster dredge. The young Oysters taken by the dredge can be returned imme- diately to the lake; or collected and then deposited in some suita- ble place, previously selected by the supervisor. I have no doubt, in my own mind, that by proper supervision and care, the Tamblegam lake Oyster Fishery, may be made to yield in a few years, at least £1,500 every second year. For the last 18 years, the average annual revenue to Government was only £344, In order to secure this revenue for future years, it is necessary that the present renter’s proceedings be watched ; and, that he be obliged strictly to observe the condition of his bond, viz: ‘‘ That the Fishery of the said Pearl banks shall be carefully and prudently carried on by the Renter and others, his servants, so as to cause no damage or injury to the said Pearl banks.” If, in the opinion of the Government, the above condition does not enjoin the renter to prevent divers taking up young Oysters, I think it will be worth while to pay him £50 or mote, and take his lease from him ; for at the rate he is now fishing, and bringing up daily 5,000 or 6,000 young Oysters, scarcely more than eight months old, and which cannot yield more than six-pence worth of Pearl in each thousand, even if they do that, the bank, which now promises to give a tolerably good fishery in June 1859, may, like the Natcha Cooda bank, be unproductive for many years. I would therefore suggest, that a Government Officer be immediately sent to the fishery to prevent further mischief being done. I cannot help again observing in this Report, that it is worthy the attention of Government, to stock the various salt lakes of Cey- jon with this species of Oyster. The lakes of Calpentyn, Putlam, Batticaloa and Hambantotte, if stocked with the ‘‘ Window Oys- ter,” will yield a very handsome revenue. I have availed myself 110 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, of the present opportunity to remove about 1,200 middle-aged Oysters (which the renter gave me) to Yard Cove in Trincomalie harbour, where the muddy bottom promises to be suitable for breed- ing them. But the experiment should be made on a larger scale, to test the full value of translating these Oysters to new localities ; this I am not able to do from want of funds to meet the necessary expenses. I have already, in my former Report on the Natural History of Pearl Oysters, reported, that some of the Oysters, which were placed in other parts of the sea in May last, are still living. SELECTIONS. On a true Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees; a Contribution to the History of Reproduction in Animals. By Cart Turopor Ernst ‘Von Sizsoxtp, Professor of Comparative Anatomy in the Uni- versity of Munich. Translated by Wm. Dattas, F.L.S., &c. &c. London: Van Voorst. 1857. 8vo, pp. 110.* Among themany revelations of modern science, few have attract- ed more attention, or excited greater interest among naturalists, than the phenomena of Parthenogenesis ; whether, with Owen, we regard this term as the appropriate designation of the alternation of dissimilar generations ; or, with Siebold (and this, in our opi- nion, is the more correct), we restrict its application to the pro- duction of offspring ‘‘ sine concubitu’”’ from perfectly formed mo- thers. With regard to the former, Chamisso, as early as the year 1819, found in the Salpe (a group of tunicated molluscs) that — many species which are associated in long chains give birth to in- sulated individuals, which in their turn produce concatenated off- spring ; and these remarkable observations have been confirmed * Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science, May 1857, p. 403. oct.—pEc. 1857. | On Moths and Bees. Ill by all who have examined these and kindred forms ; and from the researches of Sars, Steenstrup, Siebold, and others, we arrive at the conclusion, that, in many of the forms of lower existence, animals produce offspring, which at no one time of their develop- ment resemble their parents ; but which, however, in their turn bring forth a progeny which revert in their form and nature to the parent animal, so that the maternal animal does not meet with its resemblance in its own brood, but in the descendants of the second, third, fourth, or even more remote degrees of generation ; and this has been proved to be the case in many of the Medusz, Claviform Polypes, Salpz, many Entozoa and Aphides; and, according to the assertions of some naturalists, in all the lower classes of ani- mals; so much so, that we cannot avoid inferring that many ani- mals described as belonging to distinct species are but the alternate generation of known forms. The phenomena of:alternation of generation differ essentially from metamorphic changes ; in meta- morphosis we have changes taken place in the same individual ; while in alternation of generation, or metagenesis, different and many individuals arise and are separated from the parent ; besides, in the course of metagenesis, in many instances metamorphosis also takes place. In metagenesis we observe that in one alterna- tion are produced distinct ovaries and ova; in the others the de- velopment does not take place from ova, but by a process of gem- mation; and in the isolated Salphe, a remarkable organ (Stolen proligerum) has been described, whence are developed the catenat- ed offsprings. These facts have gone far to solve a difficulty felt by some op- ponents to the ‘‘ development theory ;’’ it has been stated by the ingenious author of the ‘‘ Vestiges,’’ that if animals have not been developed since the creation, our first parent should have had de- posited in their structure either all the human entozoa or their ova. The phenomena of metagenesis, however, may lead us to infer, that all human entozoa may be but alternate forms of those ani- mals found in other creatures or elsewhere, and this is actually the case with one entozoon ( Cysticercus fasciolaris) which in one form is found in the cat, in another in the rat or mouse. In true par- 112 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, thenogenesis, phenomena ofa totally different nature are exhibited —phenomena, the belief in the occurrence of which, did it rest on individual or questionable testimony, would gain but slight assent among the learned, but when we find such an array of names of naturalists who have mainly contributed to the advancement of natural science, all bearing testimony to the facts as related by Siebold, we cannot withhold our belief, that in many cases perfect offspring can arise ‘‘ sine concubitu,’’ from animals fitted for a union of the sexes, and that in one species of insects at least the sex of the offspring depends on the entrance of spermatic filaments into the egg. In the study of this most interesting work, we are struck with the circumstance, that science is often retarded by general or sweeping assertions, although emanating from high authority. When Castellet, in 1795, reported to Réaumur, that he had found that a moth of Bombyx mori (silk-worm) laid perfect eggs, though unimpregnated, he received the laconic reply—‘‘ ex nihilo nihil fit.”’” How different in a similar case was John Hunter’s reply— ‘* But did they hatch ?” for naturalists have not long been familiar with the circumstance that unimpregnated females will sometimes lay eggs; but these have hitherto been supposed to have been in- variably incapable of being developed into a perfect animal. A common example of this is the occurrence of pullets’ eggs, but these are notoriously incapable of being developed by incubation. At first blush we might be led to infer that reproduction without fecundation was impossible, so contrary does it appear to the usual course of nature, both in the vegetable and the animal kingdom. We observe what careful precautions are taken that the sperma- tozoa should reach their proper nidus uninjured: how many pro- visions are found to hedge around the safety of the pollen! Ex- ceptional cases, however, do occur in the vegetable kingdom. The Czlebogyne, for instance, a dicecious plant from Australia, has © produced fertile seeds at Kew, although the female only is known — to botanists ; and M. Lecoqg had deduced from some experiments of his own, that similar phenomena occur sometimes in hemp, spurge, &c. Our author seems to have been fully aware of the ocT.— DEC. 1857.) On Moths and Bees. 113 great caution required in carrying on an investigation of this kind, and to have devised his experiments accordingly. In his introduction, he describes the seminal receptacle found in female insects. The existence of such a receptacle in bees, explains how it is that a queen, fertilized by a single coitus, after discharg- ing a number of eggs in the first year, may again, in the following year and still more subsequently, lay eggs capable of development, because the seminal filaments are preserved in this receptacle un- injured, and in a quantity sufficient for successive broods. Siebold reviews at length the cases of alleged true parthenogenesis or ‘‘ Lu- cina sine concubitu,’’ which are to be found recorded by many observers, and shows that errors may have occurred in the obser- vation of these cases; one of the earliest on record is that of Al- brecht, who in 1701 wrote a treatise—‘‘ De insectorum ovis sine previa maris cum femella conjunctione nihilominus nonnunquam foecundis.”” He took a brown pupa, which he preserved apart, and yet the moth evolved therefrom laid fertile eggs. He says: —‘* Cum masculum huic papilioni haud adfuisse certus essem, et propterea ejus ova subventanea et sterilia esse judicarem, vix am- plius eorum habui rationem relictis interim iisdem oscitantius et sine omni curh sub dicto vitro per totum tempus hyemale.”’ Dr. St. Blancard is stated, too, in 1696, to have had a spider which for four consecutive years laid eggs from which young spiders escaped, ‘‘ although no male spider had ever appeared in the business.”’ Dumeril, Bernoulli, Treviranus, Burmeister, and others have made similar observations, but in all these instances the possibility of mistake has been shown by Siebold. This au- thor then enters upon experiments which he performed on somesac- bearing Lepidoptera, particularly Solenobio lichenella and triquet- relia, and by taking every precaution he convinced himself, and doubtless his readers also, that true parthenogenesis occurred in Pyschides. Examples in the honey bee next came under his no- tice, and in these investigations he was greatly assisted by the dis- tinguished apiarian, Dzierzon. From accurate observations of the habits of bees, as well as from careful dissections, Dzierzon arriv- ed at the singular conclusion, that drone eggs require no fecunda- tion, and that true parthenogenesis is normal in these insects. 114 Selections. | NO. 5, NEW SERIES, In the ‘ Bienenzeitung”’ of Hichstadt, 1845, he thus expresses himself :—“ Presupposing what will be referred to and proved in the following numbers, that the queen (female bee), to become good for anything, must be fertilized by a drone (male bee), and that the copulation takes place in the air.—I express the convic- tion, from which all phenomena and mysteries may be perfectly explained, that the drone eggs do not require fecundation; but that the co-operation of the drones is absolutely necessary when _ worker bees are to be produced.’’ Again—‘‘ In copulation the ovaries are not fecundated, but the seminal receptacle, that little vesicle or knot, which in the young queen is filled with a watery moisture, is saturated with semen, after which it is more clearly distinguishable by its white colour ; the activity of the ovaries in the normal state commences only after copulation, but it is not necessarily caused thereby ; hence many unfecundated queens lay no eggs at all, while others lay only drone eggs ; and even workers do the latter, although, from their want of a seminal receptacle, I regard them as quite incapable of copulation. Iam convinced that such eggs are sufficient for the production of drones, whilst the egg from which a queen or worker is to be developed must come in contact with the seminal receptacle.”’ In another place he thus writes :—‘‘ The queen has it in her power to deposit an egg just as it comes from the ovary, and as the unfecundated mo- thers lay it; or, by the action of her seminal receptacle, to invest it with a higher degree, a higher potency of fertility, and awaken in it a more perfect being, namely, a queen or worker.” Baron v. Berlepsch, of Seebach, has also contributed much to establish this theory of Dzierzon and by liberally placing his hives, furnished with Dzierzon’s moveable comb-supports, at the service of Siebold, enabled the latter fully to confirm Dzierzon’s views. Baron v. Berlepsch also performed three experimenta crucis: in the first he contrived the exclusion of a queen at the end of September, when there were no longer any males, and this — queen, early in the ensuing year, furnished 1500 cells with a drone brood, the subsequent accurate dissections of Leuckart proving that this queen was a virgin. The second experiment exhibited considerable ingenuity. Knowing that a high or a low tempera- ocT.—DEC. 1857.] On Moths and Bees. 115 ture causes the movements of spermatozoa to cease and become inert, he subjected a queen to a very low temperature in an ice- house ; she recovered, and afterwards laid thousands of eggs, yet from all these were only males evolved. The third experiment was performed with the crossing of Italian and German bees. These, although of the same species, are found to differ most re- markably in appearance and disposition, and in the mixed breed which resulted, the drone offspring without exception presented the same variety as the queen-mother, thus affording a very strong negative proof that drone eggs do not require the interposition of the male bee. This matter has, however, been subjected to fur- ther proof by Leuckart and Siebold, for they examined freshly laid eggs, and in numerous instances they detected spermatic fila- ments in or on worker-eggs, while none could be found in drone- egos. The experiments of Siebold upon this point seem to have been conducted with great nicety and care. He says :— “I soon convinced myself that there was no possibility of discovering the delicate seminal filament between the granulo-vesicular yelk-masses, the linear object to be sought for was too subtle to be capable of discovery with certainty amongst the many mutually-crossing outlines of the yelk vesicles ; after various vain endeavours to render the interior of the bee’s egg accessible to an inquiring eye, I came at last to the idea of employing an artifice which I had soon acquired by practice, and which allowed me to survey at least a portion of the inner space of the bee’s egg with great clearness an tranquillity. I crushed a bee’s egg quite gently with a very thin glass plate, and so that it was ruptured at its lower pole, opposite to the micropylar apparatus, and the yelk gradually flowed out at this spot, by which a clear empty space was produced at the upper pole within the micropylar apparatus, between the egg-envelopes and the yelk which was retiring downwards.’ Having thus microscopically examined the new-laid eggs of bees, he arrives at the following conclusion :— ‘“‘ Amongst the fifty female bee-eggs examined by me with the greatest care and conscientiousness, thirty furnished a positive result ; that is to say, in thirty I could prove the existence of seminal filaments, in which movements could even be detected in three eggs; ofthe other twenty eggs, twelye were unsuccessful in their preparation.”’ 116 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, There was some difficulty in procuring drone-eggs for the pur- pose of examination, as the season was late ; however, as Baron v. Berlepsch spared neither trouble nor his hives (of which he had 104 in his bee colony), twenty-seven drone eggs were procured, and of these the author states :— ‘‘T examined these twenty-seven drone-eggs, which might have been about twelve hours old, and which agreed perfectly both in their appear- ance and organization with the female eggs, with the same care and by the same method, with which I had treated the female eggs, and did not find one seminal filament in any single egg, either externally or internally.” Three of these only were unsuccessfully prepared, and the same queen, both before and afterwards, laid eggs from which worker bees were developed. In the latter part of his work, Siebold enters on the considera- tion of the occurrence of true parthenogenesis in the silkworm moth, and details some very interesting observations on these in- sects. Ona patient review of this subject, we can hardly with- hold our assent from the propositions laid down by the author, and these views are considerably enforced by the strange facts de- tailed by other observers. in regard to the prevalence and the ab- sence of one or other sex among insects. Leon Dufour has stated, for example, that he never obtained a male insect of Diplolepis gallee tinctorum, of the genus Cynips. = A priori we should say, that this was a topic from which we could expect nothing of practical utility of industrial application, and yet we are told that Dzierzon and other in the bee colonies have turned it to material advantage. [The importance of the results contained in Von Siebold’s work, induc- ed Professor Goodsir, of Edinburgh to communicate an abstract to the Royal Society. Mr. Dallas, soon afterwards published an able translation of the work itself.}—Ep. M. J. ocT.—DEc, 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 117 On a mode of protecting Timber from Fire. By Mr, Asst. [This Valuable Memorandum is specially worthy of the attention of Res‘dents in Burmah and the Tenasserim Provinces, where the frequent occurrence of fire has proved so destructive, and where any arrangement insuring protection against the conflagration of wooden or thatched build- ings Would be most important ]—Ep. M. J. From F. A, ApBew, Esq., Chemist of the War Departmert, Wool- wich, S. H., 30th July 1857; to the Secretary East India Company. I have the honor to address you upon a subject which I have been strongly recommended by Colonel SanpyHam, Commanding Royal Engineer at Chatham, to bring to the notice of the Honora- ble Court of Directors of the Kast India Company. During the late War, I was called upon by the Engineer autho- rities to suggest some simple, cheap, and efficacious means for protecting wooden hutting from fire, and at the same time, I was instructed by the Secretary of State for War, to examine into the merits of certain proposals laid before him for the same purpose. The result of my experiments on this subject was the prepara- tion of a protective material applicable even after the erection of huts, in the same manner as whitewash, tar, or paint, and which was shown to afford such important protection to wood in case of fire, that experiments upon a proper scale were ordered by Lord PanmuRE to be tried at the principal camps in Great Britain, and, at the same time, permission was given me by his Lordship to pa- tent the material of which permission, however, I declined to avail myself. ; It was subsequently arranged by the Inspector General of For- tifications, that a full trial of the value of the material should be made by Colonel SanpuAm and myself at Chatham. The accom- panying abstract from the professional papers of the Royal Engi- neers contains a copy of our joint report to Lord PANMURE on the results of these experiments to which I beg most respectfully to call the attention of the Honorable Court of Directors. 118 | Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, Unfortunately, by the time that the merits of the protective coating in question were properly established, the huts at the va- rious camps had been already coated with tar or other materials which did not admit of removal from the wood, except at consi- derable expense. The silicate of soda and lime coating has however been tried and applied to a small extent at Aldershot and at Alderney. Fifteen tons of the silicate of soda have moreover been sent by Government to China for the purpose of coating the hutting. The advantages of the material referred to for coating timber may be embraced under the following headings. Istly. The simplicity of its application, Qndly. The circumstance that it forms an excellent protective to wood against weather, and may therefore be employed asa sub- stitute for tar or paint. , The colour of the coating itself is nearly white ; a small admix- ture of an ochre serves to remove the glazing nature of the coat. Srdly. The cheapness of the material, the cost of coating ten - square feet not exceeding two pence. 4thly. - The great efficacy of the coating as a means of protection against fire, as demonstrated by the experiments detailed in the accompanying report. Although personally impressed with the idea, that a knowledge of the existence of the material in question, open to general use without reserve, and emanating indeed from Government itself, must be of importance to the Honorable East India Company, I hesitat- ed to adopt the step I am now taking, until I had consulted Colo- nel SANDHAM, who urged me strongly to lose no time in bringing the subject to their notice. I beg to enclose a copy of the directions for preparing timber with the material which have been drawn up by desire of the In- spector General of Fortifications and to state that it will afford me pleasure to give any further information on the subject that it is in my power to afford should the Honorable Court of Directors feel desirous of taking it into consideration. “ie oot.—DpEC. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 119 From F. A. Apet, Esq., Chemist of the War Department, Wool- wich, §. B., 27th August 1857. I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 26th instant, informing me that the Court of Directors of the Ho- norable East India Company have directed copies of my commu- nication of 30th ultimo, and of printed directions to be enclosed to the several Governments in India. With reference to the concluding paragraph of your letter re- ferring to my statement as to the employment of silicate of soda in China, I beg to observe that from the quantity sent out (15 tons) and from the correspondence which I had at the time on the sub- ject with the authorities at the War Office, there is no donbt that the silicate and lime is to be used in China as the coating material for the wooden erections required at the stations there, and has _ not been sent out as a matter of experiment. Having heard that the great risk of fire arises from the thatch- ing employed for the roofs of hut buildings in India,—I am anx- ious to state for the information of the Directors and of the Go- vernment of India, that the silicate of soda admits of very simple application to the thatching as a protective material. _ The thatching would require soaking for a short time previous _ to use in a solution of silicate, and the thatched roof when dry _ should receive a thin coating of lime or clay stirred to a cream _ with solution of silicate. It would probably be found advisable to renew the exterior coat- _ ing of wash after the rainy season. I beg again to express my readiness to furnish every information _ which may be required on the subject. | Remarks on the Protection of Wood from Fire. By F. A. ABEL, | Esq., accompanied by a Report from Colonel Sanpuan, R. E., and himself. |» The attention of practical men has been for some years past di- rected, from time fo time, to the importance of affording to wooden erections some degree of protection from the effects of fire; and 120 Selections. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES, numerous plans nave been proposed, and to some extent tested, for lessening the combustibility of wood, and for covering its sur- face with a protective coating more or less unalterable by fire. The simple application of lime or clay-wash, for example, has been found to afford some slight protection to wood, although the tendency of such materials to peel off the surface of the wood (into which they do not in any way penetrate), by exposure to heat, and the rapidity with which the coating is destroyed by atmospheric influence, render them very ineffective agents. Several processes have been patented, even recently, for the pro- tection of wood from fire. Some idea of the general nature of such processes will be conveyed by the following extract from an official report made on this subject :— “The importance of obtaining an effective method of reducing the combustibility of wood, or even of protecting its surface from fire, has led to an examination into some of the methods of ac- complishing this, which have been lately [patented, and of the ge- neral nature of which the following is a brief statement. I.—“ Mr. Maugham’s Patent consists in saturating dried wood with an aqueous solution of phosphate of soda and muriate or sul- phate of ammonia, in certain proportions. “Tt is believed by the patentee that these salts will be so affect- ed by each other, and by the action of heat, that the fibres of the wood will be protected by an incombustible coating, while a quan- tity of vapour will be generated by the volatilisation, and partial decomposition, of the ammoniacal salts, which will possess the power of extinguishing flame. “‘ The same objects are believed to be obtained by— Il.—* Lieutenant Jackson’s Patent Process, by which wood is im- pregnated with a solution of salts of zinc and of ammonia. ‘‘The same means are adopted in both of these processes for saturating the wood. “Tt is packed into large cylinders from which the air is then exhausted, the liquid being afterwards forced in with a pressure of 100 to 200 lbs., which is maintained during one or two hours. ocT.—pDEC. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 121 It is the same method as that employed in patent processes for preserving timber from decay. “IT am not aware whether Mr. Mauauam’s process hasbeen sub- mitted to any extensive practical test. Numerous experiments were however instituted on Lieutenant JAcKson’s process, under | the direction of Mr. BRuNEL. «‘ Specimens of seventeen different kinds of wood were prepared ; corresponding pieces being kept unprepared, and others covered with a coating of paint. Their powers of resisting fire were tested by piling the prepared, unprepared and painted specimens round a _ perforated sheet iron surface, filled to the top witha bright coke | fire. “In most cases the prepared wood resisted the action of fire for a longer period, and, when removed from the fire, ceased burning _ sooner than the unprepared specimens, _ “Itwas also evident that light porous woods were more effi- ciently protected than those of a denser character. “‘ There is no doubt therefore that the combustibility of wood is _more or less diminished by either of the above methods of treat- _ ment, although the protective action must be ascribed to the in- _ destructible compounds with which the wood is to some extent im- | pregnated, far more than to the vapours evolved by the decompo- sition of the small quantities of ammoniacal salts forced into the wood. “ Although by the impregnating process adopted in the above | patents, the preparative solution is believed to be forced into the very centre of the wood, it is essential, if such a result is to be obtained, that the solution should be weak, since it is impossible to force strong saline solutions thoroughly into wood. “Tt is evident that the protective action of the salt cannot, under _ these circumstances, be very powerful. _ “Were it possible, on the other hand, to employ stronger so- | lutions, the expense of the processes would be considerable. = The necessity of costly apparatus for impregnating the wood is also a matter of serious moment.”’ 122 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, The patentees of some of the wood-preserving processes go s0 far as to state that they are enabled to render wood incombustible or uninflammable, and such statements have tended to lead to the presumption that a thoroughly effective protecting agent should have the power of depriving wood of its combustibility. It will be readily understood, however, that even if a piece of wood could be most thoroughly impregnated with a solution of some strength, of matter unalterable, or at any rate only fusible, by continued exposure to heat, the amount of protective material thus deposited in the pores of the wood, although it might be con- sidered to surround each particle of fibre, would not prevent the destructive distillation of the wood by the effect of heat, the result of which would be the disengagement of inflammable vapours from the wood, and its ultimate complete ignition, if maintained fora — sufficient period in the vicinity of highly heated or burning matter ; or, if on the other hand, the protective agent employed be conver- tible by heat into vapours possessing the property of extinguish- 5 ing such fire as they may completely surround, such vapours might have the effect of partially or completely extinguishing the fire in a piece of ignited wood, after its removal from the source of heat or fire, but otherwise the volume of vapour generated from the prepa- ration used, would be but slight, as compared with the inflamma- ble vapours evolved from the over-heated wood, and would have no perceptible effect on the combustion of these, while the scorch- ed, or charred, woody fibre would be less efficiently shielded from — the effect of flame than by the coating formed from an indestruc- tible preparation. It does not therefore appear reasonable to expect more from the ~ most efficient protective coating or impregnating material than— Ist. That it should considerably retard the ignition of wood, exposed for some length of time to the effect of a high cempem ture, or of burning matter in its immediate vicinity. 2nd. That ifthe vapours which the wood will emit, by con- — tinued exposure to heat, become ignited, the flames thus produced ‘ shall not readily affect the fibre of the wood, and shall cease almost _ directly on the removal of the wood from the source of heat; and eoT,—DEC. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 128 3rd. That prepared surfaces of wood, when in actual contact with burning unprepared wood, shall have little tendency to ignite, and thereby cause the fire to spread. In addition to such processes as those above referred to, in which the protecting material is forced into the wood by the ap- plication of considerable pressure, trials have been made with agents of different kinds, in solutions or baths, in which the wood was steeped, or allowed to soak, for some hours, so that it might be in a slight degree impregnated with the material, or that a superficial coating of the protective might, at least, be formed. Some of these methods have been made the subject of experi- ments by order of Lord PanmuRrg, with a view to test their merits. One, proposed by W. C. Satomons, of Paris, consisted in immer- sing the dried wood alternately, in two baths; the one containing three parts of acid sulphate of alumina, and one part of glue, dissolved in six parts of water; the other consisting of two parts of dry chloride of calcium, one part of glue, and seven parts of water. The objects which the inventor wishes to attain, by the use of these solutions, are, firstly, to impregnate the wood slightly with one of the salts (the chloride of calcium, for example), and then, by immersion of the wood in the second bath, to effect the decom- position of the first salt by the second, in the pores of the wood. Thus the chloride of calcium and sulphate of alumina should become converted into sulphate of lime, and chloride of aluminum ; the former an almost insoluble substance, the latter a soluble deliquescent body, possessing the property of converting the glue, employed, together with the salts, into an insoluble body—a species of leather, The pores of the wooden surfaces are therefore, by the treatment in question, to be filled up by particles of a substance nearly inso- luble, and unalterable by heat, which, together with the soluble salt, also present, are to be protected and united by means of the precipitated glue, which dries up to a hard, horny substance. The experiments made with this process showed that the glue employed in the solutions greatly impeded the penetration of the wood by the saline matter, and also caused the decomposition of the salts to be very partial. 124 Selections. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES, The protective property of the coating formed on the wood, pre- pared by this process, was not found to be considerable, while the expense of the materials was great, as compared with others equal- ly efficient. The successful results obtained on the Continent by the applica- tion of alkaline silicates, as protective materials, led to an exami- nation into the comparative value of the cheapest of these, the soluble silicate of soda, as an agent for decreasing the combusti- bility of wood. The property possessed by the soluble alkaline silicates, of being readily softened by hot water, and thus converted intoa state of solution, while they are but slightly affected by cold water, renders their application to wood, either in the form of a bath, or asa wash, very simple. Their dilute solutions being readily absorbed by wood the surfaces of the latter, as it dries, assume the form of a hard coating. The experiments made in the first instance with the silicate of soda, and the results obtained, are described in the following ex- tract from the official report :— «Various specimens of dry wood were prepared with silicate of soda, by being soaked for a few hours in a weak solution, “‘ Upon examining the interior of these, after the removal from the bath and subsequent desiccation, the silicate was found to have penetrated about a quarter of an inch on all sides. “‘ On piling the above over a fire, together with specimens of un- prepared wood, and others that had been prepared by different processes, the superiority of the silicate of soda, as a protective agent, was fully established. * Some specimens of wood were then simply painted witha moderately strong solution of silicate, and afterwards placed, to- — gether with unprepared wood, in a pool of coal-tar naptha some of — the latter being thrown over the surfaces of the wood. Uupon the results of these experiments being reported, an or- 9 der was issued by Lord Panmurs to have the proposed process for ocT.—DEc. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 125 the protection of wood from fire, practically tested at some of the camps or stations. It was ultimately arranged that a proper trial of the process should be instituted at Chatham, under the direction of Colonel SanpHam, R. E. The nature of the experiments performed at Chatham, and the results obtained, are detailed in the following official report :— Report on Experiments at Chatham, from Colonel Sanpuan, R. L., and F. A. Apet, Hsq., lst March 1856; to the Inspector Gene- ral of Fortifications. Sir, ; We have the honor to inform you that some experiments with silicate of soda applied in conjunction with lime-wash, as a means of protecting wood from fire, and of retarding its combustibility, have been made at Chatham, on a sufficient scale to determine practically the value of this agent, if applied as a preservative to camp-huts. The following is an account of these experiments, and of the re- sults obtained. A small single-boarded hut was built in the model Battery, the material used in its construction being of the description usually ~ employed for camp huts. It was provided with one door, and a window-opening on one side, closed by a shutter.* After the hut was completed, certain portions of it were prepared, on the 8th and 9th of January, with the silicate of soda in the fol- lowing manner : * The hut was 14 feet by 10 feet, 6 feet high at eaves, and 9 feet at ridge ; it was constructed of $ inch deal weather boarding, on quarters and rafters of deal, 3 inch by 2 inch Door, 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 9 inches, of 1 inch deal, and win- dow 8 feet by 2 feet, closed by ashutter of Linch deal. Floor of 1 inch deal, on fir joists, 4 inches by 2 inches, the upper surface of floor being 6 inches above the ground. Both sides of the walls from oe to s, and from v tom, were prepared. The insides of the portions a 6, cd were painted with common oil paint in three coats, that at a b being laid on the prepared part, while that at c d was laid on the un- prepared part. 126 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, ___ Plan of Hut. 1st. The wood was washed | over with a somewhat dilute solution of the silicate ofsoda, applied in the manner usually adopted for whitewashing s walls. Window. 9nd. After an interval of about two hours, a coating of thick lime-wash was applied, over that of the silicate. 3rd. On the following day the prepared portions of the N. door. interior of the hut received, upon the lime, asecond application of the solution of silicate of soda, a little stronger than that first applied. Shortly afterwards the exterior prepared portion of the hut was similarly coated with the silicate. The prepared wood therefore received.— Ist. A coating of dilute silicate of soda, which penetrated slightly into the wood, generally to the depth of about ,'5 inch. 2nd. A coating of thin lime wash, and 8rd. oct.—pxc. 1857.] Scientific Intelligence. 137 first with a very small quantity of the necessary water until a complete mixture is produced, and then adding the remainder of the water in successive quantities, until a perfect mixture in the re- quisite proportions is obtained. The wood is then washed over with this liquid, by means of an ordinary white-wash brush, the latter being passed two or three times over the surface, so that the wood may absorb as much of the Solution as possible. When this first coating is nearly dry, the wood is painted with the lime-wash in the usual manner. A solution of the Silicate, in the proportion of one part by mea- sure.of the syrup to two parts of water, is then made as above des- cribed ; and a sufficient time having been allowed to elapse for the wood to become moderately dry, this liquid is applied, upon the lime, in the manner directed for the first coating. The preparation of wood is then complete. If the lime coating has been applied rather too thickly, the surface of the wood may be found, when quite dry after the third coating, to give off a little lime when rub- bed with the hand. In that case, it should be once more coated over with a solution of the Silicate of the first-named strength. (Signed) F. A. ABEL, Royan ARSENAL Wooutwicu. Chemist of the War Department. NotEe.—[The Marquess Origo, Commandant of the firemen at Rome, dipped the dresses of his men in a solution of Sulphate of Alumine and Sulphate of lime. Clothed in these suits, and their faces covered with incombustible masks, they traversed burning buildings without injury. Journal of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, 1831, p. 164.]—Ep. M. J. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Scientific Mission to India. An important paper has just been read to the Academy of Sci- ences on a mission sent to India and Upper Asia in 1854, by the ‘King of Prussia and the East India Company. The members of the mission consisted of three brothers, MM. Herrmann, Adolphus, and 138 Scientific Mission to India. [no.5, NEW SERIES, Robert Schlagentweit, two of whom, MM. Herrmann and Robert, returned in June last; the third, M. Adolphus, is still among the Himalaya mountains, and is expected soon to return, v4 the Pun- jaub and Bombay. During the winter of 1854-55, these enterpri- sing travellers visited the region lying between Bombay and Ma- dras ; in the following summer M., Herrmann explored the eastern parts of the Himalaya, the Sikkim, Bhootan, and Khasia mountains, where he measured the altitudes of several peaks. The highest of all the summits known throughout the world appears, by his mea- surements, to be the Gahoorishanka, situatedin the eastern portion of Nepaul—the same announced as such by Colonel Waugh, but called by him Mount Everest, because he hac been unable to ascer. tain its real name in the plains of Hindoostan, where he effected his measurement. This peak is somewhat more than 29,000 feet in height, and bears another name in Thibet, where it is called Chin- gopamari. The other two brothers penetrated by different roads into the central parts of the Himalaya, Kumaon, and Gurwhal; they then visited Thibet in disguise, entered the great commercial station of Gartok, explored the environs of Lake Mansarowr, and that remarkable crest which separates the waters of the Indus from those of the Dihong, often erroneously called the Burrampooter. They ascended the Ibi-Gamine, 22,260 feet in height, that being an altitude never before attained in any part of the world. After having been separated from each other for a space of fourteen months, during which M. Robert ascertained that the table-land of Amarkantak, in Central India, which is generally stated to be 8,000 feet above the level of the sea, is not more than 3,300 feet in height, the three brothers again met at Simla, previous to com- mencing the operations intended for the summer of 1856. M. Adolphus, on leaving that place, crossed the Himalaya, went over Thibet, Baltistan, and visited the interesting spot where several mountain crests meet, and the Hindoo Koosh joins the range lying to the north of India. He then returned to the Punjaub through the valley of Cashmere. MM. Herrmann and Robert proceeded to Ladak by different routes. Under good disguises, they were rey Toa eat Bar a enabled to penetrate into Turkistan, proper by crossing the Karako- — ram and the Kuenlun mountains, and descending into the great oct.—pec. 1857.] Scientefic Intelligence. 139 valley of Yarkand, a region never visited before, not even by Marco Polo. Itis avast depression of between 8,000 and 4,000 feet, separating the Kuenlun, on the northern frontier of India, from the Syan-Chane, or mountains of Central Asia, on the southern border of Russia. They then returned to Ladak, and entered into the Punjaub by different routes through Cashmere. After a two years’ negotiation, M. Herrmann was, at the commencement of 1857, admitted into Nepaul, where he determined the altitudes of the Machipoora and Mount Yassa, which have hitherto been vaguely called the Dhawalaghiri, which means nothing else but “snowy crests,’ and is applicable to all snow-capped mountains. M. Robert proceeded to Bombay through Scinde, Kutch, and Gu- zerat, where he surveyed the chain called the Salt Range, and de- termined the changes effected in the course of centuries in the course of several rivers. Before returning to Europe, he stayed three months in Ceylon. M. Adolphus visited various parts of the Punjaub and Cabul, previous to returning to the Himalaya, where he still is. The chief results obtained from this careful explora- tion of Asia are the following:—The Himalaya mountains every- where exercise a decided influence over all the elements of the magnetic force ; the declination everywhere presents a slight de- viation, causing the needle to converge towards the central parts of _ that enormous mass, and the magnetic intensity is greater than it would be anywhere else under an equal latitude. In the south of India, the increase of the magnetic intensity from south to north is extremely rapid. The lines of equal magnetic intensity have a re- markable form, similar and perhaps parallel to those of certain groups of isothermal lines. The three travellers have collected all the materials necessary to ascertain this important fact. Irregular local variations in terrestrial magnetism are rare in those regions, In the Deccan and Behar the rocks are magnetic. On the Hima- laya, at altitudes of 17,000 and even 20,000 feet, the daily maximum and mimimum variations of the barometer occurred nearly about the same hours as in the plains below. Again, at the above altitudes, the inversion of the curves of daily variation, which is met with on the Alps, does not take place. At the altitude of 17,000 feet, the di- minution of transparency produced by a stratum of air of the thick- nessof 3,000 feet is no longer distinguishable by the eye. During the 140 Scientific Intelligence. [No.5, NEW SERIES, dust storms which frequently occur in India, the dise of the sun is seen of a blue colour; if small bodies are made to project their — shadows on a white surface under such circumstances, the shadow is of an orange colour—that is, complementary to blue. The trans- parency of the waters of the Ganges, the Burrampooter, and the Indus was tested by letting down a stone into them, which generally became invisible at a depth of from 12 to 15 centimetres (5 to 6 inches), showing that they are overcharged with earthy particles, for in the sea near Corfu a stone is visible to the depth of 50 feet, and in these as under the tropics it remains visible at a depth of 30 feet. — Limes, 23rd October, 1857. Poisoning with the Seeds of Thevetsa nerefolia. The following extract from a communication by Dr. Douctas Macracan to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, is worthy of at- tention, detailing the history of two cases of poisoning by a shrub, common in our gardens, known as the exile or yellow Oleander. Dr. J. Batrour, Bengal Army, was called by the Native doctor to see his own children, reported to be suffering from obstinate vomiting, and narrates as follows: i ‘¢ Upon investigation, it turned out that, they had found the seeds of a shrub called by the natives Cheen-ke-kunér or the Chinese Oleander, said to be the Jatropha multifida, or one of the physic nuts ; they had broken the nuts, and finding the kernels bitter, had played at ‘ Doctors,’ and had each eaten about one whole nut. (A younger boy, said to have eaten half a nut, did not suffer at all.) This was about noon, at three they eat their dinner, in their ordinary style, and were free of complaint ; they ap- peared quite well when I left them, about a quarter past six, to go out te dinner, but soon after began to feel unwell, for they refused their tea. The. principal peculiarity in the action of the poison was the style of vomiting ; no retching nor straining, but a single gulp, without much apparent dis- tress, and then an immediate return to the recumbent posture, and a state of somnolence. The pulse in No. 1 was very weak as well as slow, and I was anxious about him for some time, The taste of the kernels is extremely bitter—a persistent aloe flavour—and in this also I think it differs from the A ocT.— DEC. 1857.] Scientific Intelligence. 141 _ description given of the physic-nut, which is stated to be sweet like al- monds.—Joun Batroug. | A single glance at the specimens, which the letter enclesed, sufficed to show (that they had nothing to doe with Jatropha multifida, but) that they belonged to one ef the Apocynacee, and ashort search through the Univer- sity Herbarium enabled me to identify the plant as Thevetia neriifolia, Juss. Ann. Mus. 346. This is a species well known throughout India, more commonly under its older_synonyme of Cerbera Thevetia, Linn. It occurs in almost all the collections from India, which are in the University Herbarium. In Hamilton Buchanan’s Catalogue, where it forms No. 718, under Willde- now's name of Cerbera Thevetia, there is the following account of it :—- ‘ Hab. in hortis Magadhae. Simillima certe plantzee que, ex America, alata, in horto botanico prope Calcuttam colitur, et perhibent Brahmani plantam in scriptis suis antiquis bene esse cegnitam.’ On the tally, however, accempanying the specimen to which this refers, there is written— ‘ This really was introduced by Dr. Roxburgh, but is called the yellow oleander, and supposed to have come from Nepal. Patna, 22d April 1812.’ The affirmation made in the catalogue, that it resembles a species brought from America, appears to be true; for, on comparing it with a Cerbera from Peru, in the University Herbarium, sent as Cerbera peruviana (Ma- thews’ Catalogue, 442), I can see no trace of difference between the two plants,” and this is the opinion maintained in De Candolle’s Prodromus, where, under Thevetia neriifolia, are given not only Cerbera Thevetia, but ©. peruviana, as synonymes. O’Shaugnessy states that Cerbera Thevetia is ‘ said to be powerfully fe- brifuge, two grains being affirmed to be equal to a common dose of Cin- chona.’, [ Beng. Dispensatory, p. 447. ] Dr. B. subsequently wrote “ that young M—, one of the poisoned, whe had been subject to ague up to the time of eating the seeds, has had none since. ‘True, the aguish tendency was much weakened, but perhaps the poisoning did him good.” Almost every Indian plant pessessed of bitterness, is said, if not in India, at least in books, to be reputed febrifuge ; and as to its effects on young M——, it need hardly be remarked, that a periodic disease, espe- cially if on the wane, might be readily broken up by any agent producing such a commotion in the constitution as in this case, 142 Scientific Intelligence. [No, 5. NEW SERIES, There can be little doubt that, whether febrifuge or not, the Thevetia is possessed of very active properties. ‘The symptoms, at first sight, seem to be those of a narcotico-irritant, the irritant action predominating ; but, from Dr. Balfour's description, I am inclined to doubt their being narcotic in the true sense, the somnolence, etc.. being more like that of exhaustion from a violent acrid; the peculiar vomiting was perhaps an action of the stomach itself, unaided by the abdominal muscles and diaphragm. We might well expect the plant to be possessed of dangerous qualities of some sort, considering its affinity with the very acrid Cerbera Manghas of the East Indies, and the still more deadly C. Tanghin, the ordeal poison of Madagascar, of which, if we are to believe it, ‘a kernel not larger than an almond is sufficient to destroy twenty people.’ ”’ [This notice, contains an important addition to our knowledge of an indigenous Medical plant, the bark of which isa reputed febrifuge, but the seeds are thus proved to be a Narcotico-acrid poison.]|—Ep. M. J. . Coal in Scinde.—It gives us much pleasure to learn that the coal diggings near Kotree is daily progressing favorably ; up to the 6th instant, Mr. Inman, with his staff, had completed exactly 100 feet in the Great Experimental Shaft, and passed through a three feet seam of beautiful coal, full of bitumen and gaseous principle ; the coal is so good, that it works with great advantage in the smithy, and has the peculiar property of rendering the hard harsh brittle English iron, soft and malleable as silver. Colonel Scott and Captain Delisle both visited the place, and were highly pleased at the coal prospects of Sind. The sinking is now carried on through a hard ferruginous white sandstone not perfectly formed. Strange to say, not one drop of water had touched the shaft at this depth. —Sindian, Jan. 138, 1858. Death of Mr. Purdie. On October 10, at Trinidad, William Purdie Esq., for many years Government Botanist of this Colony. The deceased was widely known for his exertions in his peculiar province, in making which he had visited nearly every portion of the Island, and carried out long investigations with no small degree of endurance. Governor Keate has selected Dr. Kruger, a gentleman long re- sident on the Island, of considerable scientific attainments and well acquainted with Tropical Botany. - OCT.—DEC. 1857.] The late Dr. Schmid. 143 OBITUARY NOTICES. Since the last issue of this Journal, we have had occasion to la- ment the death, of the Venerable Doctor Bernnarp Scumip, formerly of the Church Mission, who died at Calicut, on Ist Octo- ber 1857, at the advanced age of 70. This erudite Missionary came out to India in 1817, and whilst labouring in his high calling corresponded with several Savans in Germany, as Baron von Hv- GEL and Nees von EsEnBECK; with Sir Wm. Hooxer, of Kew, and with Dr. Wiaut, of Madras. In the fourth volume of this Journal isa notice of Zenker’s ‘‘ Plante Indicae,”’ quas in montibus Nilagiricis collegut Bernhard Schmid. Folio Jena. 1835. Two decades only of this work appeared, in consequence of the early death of Dr. ZENKER, Professor of Botany at Jena, who had undertaken the publication of the extensive and valuable ma- terials transmitted to him by our lamented friend. The publica- tion of a serial in Saxony which depended for support upon Indian subscribers, was attended with many difficulties, but the 20 colour- ed Illustrations were executed in a superior style, the Analysis by Scumip, andthe Botanical Descriptions by Zenker. At page 336 of the same volume of this Journal, is a short article ‘* The Study of Botany recommended,” which is very characteristic of the simple minded Missionary. We find from Manuscripts placed at our disposal, that about this time, to use his own words ‘“ from the burning climate of Tinne- velly, incessant labour, and the great discouragement experienced in my work, my health failed.” He left his post very reluctantly first for the Neilgherry Hills, and afterwards for Germany. During his sick leave he was not idle, and the following are a few of the Lite- rary productions printed chiefly whilst he was on the Neilgherries. 1, “ English Orthoepy or Pronouncing Spelling Book” (small Dictionary) for Tamulians.”’ 2. A second Edition of Translation of Baxter’s Saints’ Rest. 3. Translation of the two First Books of Thomas a Kempis. 144 Obituary Nottce. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES, 4, English Tamil Grammar, compiled for the Palamcottah Se- minary. 5. A Treatise showing where the different Descendants of Noak settled (as far as certainly known,) and taking particu- lar notice of all nations and countries mentioned in the Scriptures. 6. A Chronology of Universal History. 7. Introduction to do. 22 pages. The following passage in his private Journal, will illustrate the character of the man. “‘ My health failing entirely, I was constrained to apply for leave to go to Europe for the recovery of my health, whilst waiting on the Hills for a reply from England, two families of the Aborigines set- tled near my house, in order to learn Tamul from me, and one of them with the avowed intention to be by means of the Tamul, in- structed in Christianity. Whilst teaching them Tamul, I compil- ed a Vocabulary of their language, containing above 400 words, from which it is clearly established that their speech is an ancient, rude dialect of the Tamul. Dr. Cozz intended to print it, but my strength was so exhausted that I was unable, much as I wished it, to write out a fair copy before sailing.”’ When, in 18386, his leave to Germany having been sanctioned, and he was preparing for the voyage, he writes “ God found it good to take away by death, my three sons within four months. I had now quite given up my work among the Tamulians (although not among the Todawars,) and I occupied my mind, by writing an Eng- lish Treatise ‘ on the Relationship of Languages and Nations,’ in which I embodied the results of my philological inquiries and observations during the last 28 or 30 years. This occupation was a relief to my mind in my heavy and unexpected affliction. The treatise was printed in the Madras Journal of Literature and Science, 1837, Vol. V., p. 133. After my arrival in Germany, I : made a free translation of it, which was printed at the expense of the Director of Instruction, Dr. Niemeyer, the successor in office of Aug. H. Franke of Halle, in order to recommend thereby the Mission cause to the attention of the Students in German Univer- sities, and of the German Literary Public in general.” Again, he ocr.—puc. 1857.] The late Dr. Schmid. 145 writes in a letter to a friend. ‘‘ During the year 1840, the exhaus- tion of my nerves and of my bodily strength was so great, that it was quite out of the question to undertake any stated official duties, even if procurable. In the Winter of 1840-41, I had an attack of influenza which retarded my recovery. In May 1841, I went there- fore to Almenau, a cold water bathing place, and submitted to the most rigorous homceopathic and hydropathic regimen for 18 months, entirely abstaining not only from wine and beer (which I had scarcely touched since my return to Germany, much less spirits,) but also from the use of tea, coffee, pepper and every kind of sti- mulants ; and my stay there restored me to that degree of healthy, and comparatively youthful appearance, which made you overlook my grey hairs.” In the end of 1845, Dr. Schmid returned from Europe, and subsequently resided at Ootacamund, and devoted his leisure hours mote especially to the study of Cryptogamic plants. We received nota month before his death, the List of Neilgherry Ferns de- scribed by Professor Kunze in the “ Linnea, Vol. 8, July 1851, and a Catalogue of Neilgherry Mosses, named and described by Dr. Charles Miller of Halle in Prussia, in the “ Botanische Zeitung” 1553 and 1854. These lists we have thought it desirable to pub- lish in the present No. of this Journal ; they will prove useful to the explorers of these elevated regions, as the Specilegium Neilgher- yense of Wight terminates with the Labiatz. A Genus of Acanthaceae, allied to Meyenia and Hexacentris, bears the name Schmidia, and was one of the latest discoveries of Dr. Wight. Several specimens of Ferns and Mosses were also named in honor of him by his German friends, Dr. Schmid presented to the University Museum of Jena, a piece of the fossil wood of Trivacary, near Pondicherry, which has been described and figured ina German dissertation on Fossil woods by Professors Schleiden and EE. Schmid of Jena. A copy of this work was presented by the authors to the Library of the Madras Museum in 1856, containing lithographic figures of the following fossil woods. Psaronius Cattai. Peuce Sibirica, Pl. II. 146 Obituary Notice. [no.5, NEW SERIES, Peuce pauperrima, (Schleiden.) ap nc ells » Aipseriana, » Australis, (Unger.) »» Schmidiana, (Schleiden) the last being the specimen referred to. The following passage occurs in the ‘Musee Botanique de Baron Delessert,”’ p. 433, ‘Le reverend Bernard Schmid, Kcclesiastique de Weimar, attaché aux missions evangeliques, et qui a longtemps sejourne dans |’Inde, a parcouru les Nil-Gherry, et a fait avec soin des herbiers de plantes de ces montagnes, il a visite principalement Konnor, Kota-Gherry, Outa-Kamound, etc.’ We had scarcely heard of the removal of this venerable Mission- ary, when we received the sorrowful tidings of the decease of ano- ther Indian Botanist and friend, intelligence, which was much more sudden and unlooked for, and particularly affected the writer of these lines. II. Cuarzs Drew, Assistant Surgeon, was educated at Plymouth and afterwards at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. He subsequently settled at Wiveliscombe, Devon, as a County practitioner, when he was advised in 1854, to compete for admission into the Honorable Kast India Company’s Medical Service, he succeeded and stood high in theList. He brought anote to us from Dr. Hooker of Kew men- tioning his acquirements in Botany. A few months afterwards, he acted for a short time as professor of Botany, Medical College. Mr. Drew was as a Member of our Society, energetic and indefatigable not only as regards the study of the Indian Flora, but with respect to all subjects coming under his observation, whence he thought he could derive useful information. He was a skilful Histologist, and has left a Book of Botanical drawings executed by himself in a superior style, showing that he had carefully studied and accurately delineated the minute structure of several little known Genera. He adopted the excellent practice of devoting a short time daily to the Analytical study of plants. Last year, Mr. Drew, in the capacity of Secretary to the Local Ex- hibition of Calicut, discharged his duties most efficiently. A notice of his search for the Gutta Percha Tree of Wynaad will be found at ‘oct.—pxe. 1857.] The late Mr. Walker. 147 p. 169 of the last volume of this Journal. He had just been ap- pointed tothe Forest department, where his careful habits of inquiry, and his exactness gave the promise of his being a valuable assist- ant. Putting private feelings aside, we could not refrain as editing this Journal, from recording the early death of this earnest and hopeful Naturalist. It is worthy ofremark, that Mr. Drew first sug- gested the preceding notice of Dr. Schmid, which he himself wag well qualified to have undertaken, but it devolves upon the Editor to chronicle both the old and young. II, Mz. Wanker. Among the losses that have recently been sus- tained in the scientific circle of India, few are more to be regretted than the late Henry Waker, who filled the chair of Physiology and Comparative Anatomy, in the Calcutta Medical College. After two years of frequent illness and repeated warnings, which unfor- tunately were neglected, he was induced to leave India on Sick Certificate in March last. It was too late. Shortly after his arrival in London, he became rapidly worse, and sunk under an attack of the most recent form of his ailments, disease of the kidneys, on the 22nd May, 1857 at the age of 53. Mr. WALKER was born of humble parents at Huddersfield, where he received his early education, and choosing the profession of Medicine, he served his apprenticeship to a Surgeon of that town. He afterwards prosecuted his studies in London, Paris and Berlin, where he was for three years, the pupil of the eminent Physiologist Muuusr, and imbibed that taste for comparativesAnatomy, which he afterwards pursued with such vigor. It was not till 1839, when he had attained the mature age of 36, that he received his appointment to the Bengal Medical Service. His first employment was that of Civil Surgeon at Gowahatty in Assam, where he devoted himself with ardor to the study of Natu- ral History. Two years later, he was nominated by Lord AucKLAND, Surgeon of the Body Guard, in which capacity he accompanied Lord ErLenBorovuaeH, in the Gwalior Campaign which led to his being appointed personal Surgeon to the Governor General, a post which he continued to fill under Lord ELLENBOROUGH’S successor, He attended Lord Harpina@e throughout the Sutle] Campaign, for 148 Obituary Notice. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, his services during which he was thanked in the General Orders of 14th February 1846, and received the offer of the Superintending Surgeoncy of the Gwalior Subsidiary Force, one of the most lucrative posts in the service. Influenced, however, bya desire to take part in the organization of the Medical College, which had been for some time projected, he preferred waiting for the establishment of that Institution, which took place towards the close of the following year. He was then appointed Professor of Anatomy and Physiolo- gy, and notwithstanding an ill judged reduction of the salary, which left him in very straitened circumstances, he devoted himself with the ardor of his character to the advancement of the Institution and to the improvement of his class, resisting the temptations of private practice, which his high professional attainments would — , have ensured, that he might apply himself more exclusively to his Collegiate labors. In 1855, he was appointed Professor of Compara- tive Anatomy, in addition to the Department he already held, but he refused to be made Principal of the College out of delicacy to his colleagues, whom from a too scrupulous feeling he felt unwil- to supersede. It was shortly after this, that his health began to fail, and he was only prevented by want of means occasioned by the niggardly salary attached to his appointment, from having recourse to the advice again and again urged upon him, of recruiting his shattered health by returning home. - Every year during the College vacation, he repaired to the Coast of Arracan, for the purpose of studying the numerous remarkable animal productions in which a tropical sea so richly abounds. His notes and dissections accompanied by elaborate drawings of Mol- luscs, Annelides and Radiated Animals were prepared with sedu- 7 lous care and scrupulous accuracy. His researches among the naked Molluscs, particularly in the families of the Nudz, Tecti and Infero-branchiata, and the Zunicata, were rewarded by the discovery of numerous new and interesting forms, which he investigated with singular patience and success. The collections amassed during eight years of continued labour, contain a store of materials of the greatest value in some of the least known departments of Zoology, _ which he fondly hoped one day to give to the public himself, but ra oct.—pxc, 1857.] Notices of Books. 149 which it is hoped, will still be suffered to see the light. It is earnestly to be desired, that the task of editing his papers may be committed to competent hands, for we are well assured that if adequately treated, they will pove a lasting and worthy monument of one who Was eminent not only for the zeal and ability which distinguish the votary of science, but for those high minded, disin- terested and generous qualities that do honor to the man, and which in him were carried to an almost morbid extent. NOTICES OF BOOKS. Thwaites’s Enumeration of the Plants of Ceylon. Under the above title, we are happy to find from the Kew Mis- cellany, that Mr. Thwaites is preparing a work on the plants of Ceylon, giving a correct list of all the hitherto described species, together with generic and specific characters of such as are new. The enumeration will comprise (we understand) the Phanerogamia and Ferns. We should be glad to find, that it includes the lower orders of Cryptogamia also, for there is no man better able to un- dertake the Flora of that Island, or to develope the resources of the Colony. The list of species, indigenous to the Island, as contained in the Peradenia Herbarium is nearly 3,000. Dr. J. D. Hooker, assists Mr. Thwaites in determining the correct nomenclature by verifying his species in the magnificent collection at Kew. The description of the new species will be in Latin, but the notice of ‘‘ uses, &c.’’ in English. Mr. Thwaites is now on a tour through Bintenne and the Eastern parts of the Island, enlarging his knowledge of their vege- table productions, with a view to a general introduction to the Enumeration. Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, by David Livingstone, LL.D., D. C. L, London, John Murray, Albemarle street, 1857, 8yo. pp. 688. 150 Notices of Books. [No, 5, NEW SERIES, The publication of Dr. Livingstone’s Discoveries, has rendered it an easier task than usual to name the most important book of the year. The demand for copies has surpassed all experience in works of a similar description. We learn from the English Press — that the avidity with which both the mercantile and the reli- gious world have seized upon its information, may be expected, in time, to produce the most gratifying result. It is understood that Dr. Livingstone will depart for Loanda again immediately. Of the Tsetse, a venomous fly, we have the following extraordi- nary history. This insect, the Glossina morsitans, “is not much Jarger than the common house-fly, and is nearly of the same brown colour as the common honey-bee ; the after part of the body has a three or four yellow bars across it; the wings project beyond this part considerably, and it is remarkably alert, avoiding most dex- terously all attempts to capture it with the hand, at common tem- peratures ; in the cool of the mornings and evenings it is less agile. Its peculiar buzz when once heard can never be forgotten by the traveller whose means of locomotion are domestic animals ; for it is well known that the bite of this poisonous insect is certain death to the ox, horse, and dog. In this journey, though we were not aware of any great number having at any time lighted on our cattle, we lost 43 fine oxen by its bite. We watched the animals carefully and believe that not a score of flies were ever upon them. A most remarkable feature in the bite of the tsetse, is its perfect harmless- ness in man and wild animals, and even calves solong as theycon- tinue to suck the cows. We never experienced the slightest injury from them ourselves, personally, although we lived two months in their habitat, which was in this case as sharply defined as in many others, for the south bank of the Chobe was infested by them, and the northern bank, where our cattle were placed, only 50 yards > distant, contained not a single specimen. ‘This was the more re- markable, as we often saw natives carrying over raw meat to the opposite bank with many ésefse settled upon it. The poison does not seem to be injected by a sting, or by ova placed beneath the skin, for when one is allowed to feed freely on the hand, it is seen to insert the middle prong of three portions, into which the pro- boscis divides, somewhat deeply into the true skin; it then draws é ocT.— DEC. 1857] Notices of Books. 151 it out a little way, and it assumes a crimson colour as the man- dibles come into brisk operation. The previously shrunken belly swells out, and if left undisturbed the fly quietly departs when it is full. A slight itching irritation follows, but not more than in the bite of a mosquito. In the ox, this same bite produces no more immediate effects than in man. It does not startle him as the gad- fly does; but a few days afterwards the following symptoms su- pervene: the eye and nose begin to run, the coat stares as if the animal were cold, a swelling appears under the jaw, and sometimes at the navel; and, though the animal continues to graze, emaciation commences, accompanied with a peculiar flaccidity of the muscles, and this proceeds unchecked until, perhaps months afterwards, purging comes on, and the animal, no longer able to graze, perishes in a state of extreme exhaustion. Those which are in good con- dition often perish soon after the bite is inflicted with staggering and blindness, as if the brain were affected by it. Sudden changes of temperature produced by falls of rain seem to hasten the pro- gress of the complaint; but in general the emaciation goes on un- interruptedly for months, and do what we will, the poor animals perish miserably. When opened, the cellular tissue on the surface of the body beneath the skin is seen to be injected with air, as if a quantity of soap bubbles were scattered over it, or a dishonest awk- ward butcher had been trying to make it look fat. The fat is of a greenish-yellow colour and of an oily consistence. All the muscles are flabby, and the heart often so soft that the fingers may be made to meet through it. The lungs and liver partake of the disease. The stomach and bowels are pale and empty, and the gall-bladder is distended with bile. The symptoms seem to indicate what is probably the case, a poison in the blood ; the germ of which enters when the proboscis is inserted to draw blood. The poison-germ, contained in a bulb at the root of the proboscis, seems capable, although very minute in quantity, of reproducing itself, for the blood after death by ¢setse is very small in quantity, and scarcely stains the hands in dissection. I shall have by and by to mention another insect, which by the same operation produces in the hu- man subject both vomiting and purging. The muie, ass, and goat enjoy the same immunity from the ¢sefse as man and the game.” 152 Notices of Books. [N0.5, NEW SERIES, Scarcely less surprising is his account of African Melons. ‘‘ But the most surprising plant of the Desert is the ‘ Kengwe or Keme’ (Cucumis caffer), the Water Melon. In years when more than the usual quantity of rain falls, vast tracts of the country are literally covered with these Melons ; this was the case annually when the fall of rain was greater than it is now, and the Bakwains sent trad- ing parties every year to the lake. It happens commonly once every 10 or 11 years, and for the last three times its occurrence has coincided with an extraordinarily wet season. Then animals of every sort and name, including man, rejoice in the rich supply. The elephant, true lord of the forest, revels in this fruit, and so do the different species of rhinoceros, although naturally so diverse _ } in their choice of pasture. The various kinds of antelopes feed | on them with equal avidity, and lions, hyzenas, jackals, and mice, all seem to know and appreciate the common blessing. These Me- lons are not, however, all of them eatable; some are sweet, and others so bitter that the whole are named by the Boers the ‘ Bitter Water-melon.’ The natives select them by striking one Melon after another with a hatchet, and applying the tongue to the gashes. They thus readily distinguish between the bitter and sweet. The bitter are deleterious, but the sweet are quite wholesome. This peculiarity of one species of plants bearing both sweet and bitter fruits occurs also in a red eatable Cucumber often met with in the country. It is about 4 inches long, and about 14 inch in diameter. ‘ It is of a bright scarlet colour when ripe. Many are bitter, others — quite sweet. Even Melons in a garden may be made bitter by a & few bitter Kengwe in the vicinity. The bees convey the pollen 4 from one to the other.”’ Decandolle’s Prodromus Systematis naturalis Regni Vegetabilis.— We have just received the second part of the fourteenth volume, comprehending Thymeloeacece by Meisner, and Santalacece by Alph. deCandolle, two volumes more are expected to complete the: Exogens. Professor Anderson undertakes the difficult task of elucidating the Salicaceous order. Dr. Buek of Hamburg, to whom Botanists were indebted for an admirable index of the first — seven volumes, has now in the press a second index up to the end ~ oct.—DE¢. 1857.] Notices of Books. 153 of the 13th volume, thereby doing good service to the cause of Botany. It is computed that the 14 volumes actually complet- ed, contain 50,509 species, arranged in 4,525 genera. The first volume was commenced in 1822. When the work is finished, we will have a complete systematical account of all plants known at the time of publishing the several volumes. Hooker’s Journal of Botany.—We find from the December Number of the Kew Miscellany, that Sir William Hooker’s very useful Journal has ceased to appear. Under one form or another this veteran Botanist has published since 1827, much of his most in- teresting correspondence with men of Science and travellers of every grade and in every clime. We fear that the cessation of this periodical will be felt by very many besides ourselves. The Jour- nal of the Linnean Society, and the Annals of Natural History in London, and the New Philosophical Journal in Edinburgh are now the remaining media through which communications on Natural History may be brought before the public. Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society.—Six num- bers of this admirable serial have reached us, appearing quarterly and containing papers on Natural History read before the Society, and not inserted in its ‘*‘ Transactions.’’ The Zoological and Bo- tanical Papers are separately paged, so that either section may be taken separately. The ‘‘ Journal of Proceedings’’ for the present year is sold to the public at 12s. for the entire Journal, or 8s. for either the Zoo- | logical or Botanical section taken separately ; the separate num- bers being charged 3s. for the whole, or 2s. for either section. _ There are some valuable Zoological papers by Professor Owen and others—and a series of sketches of the Natural Families of Indian Plants, ‘‘ Preecursores ad Floram Indicam,”’ by J. D. Hooker, m. p., and T. Thomson, m. p., which we hope to give in the selections of our next number. | | The Plant Scenery of the World; a Popular Introduction to Bo- tanical Geography.—By John H. Balfour, a. M., mu. v., &c., and Robeft Kaye Greville, x, u, p., &c, with Illustrations, 154 Proceedings. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES, We are enabled to announce with great pleasure the prospective appearance of this work, which is intended to illustrate something _ in the style of Humbold’s ‘‘ Aspects of nature,’”’ the physiognomic effect of certain species, and families of plants in representing the scenery of different parts of the Globe. The descriptions will be aceompanied with Chromo-lithographs of great artistic merit. Any persons possessing drawings or photographs of interesting plants, such as would be easily recognized in a picture, will confer a benefit upon the authors by permitting them to be copied. The Editors of this Journal will be happy to receive, and forward any such contributions. PROCEEDINGS, The Managing Committee of the MapRAs LiTERARY SoclETY and Austliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, Thursday evening, Novem- ber 12th, 1857. After the usual accounts exhibiting the state of the Society’s Funds, the Secretary read a letter from Lieut. H. P. Hawkes, — drawing the attention of the Society to the facility afforded by the ~ electrotype process for obtaining perfect fac-similes of Coins, Seal . rings, Cameos, &c. The three specimens forwarded, one froma Gutta Percha Medal, one from a Cameo, and the thirdfroma Cliche _ Medal were laid upon the Table and attracted much notice. The = impression from the Medal especially was found to be very sharp, and the manipulation of all appeared very creditable. Mr. Hawkes having understcod that the Society had under con- sideration the advisability of purchasing the Stacey Collection of Coins, kindly proposed, should any coins be found wanting to com- “ plete a series,"to make electrotype impressions of such of the miss- ing coins as might be found in private Cabinets, and to complete — the Society’s collection. Resolved to inform Mr. Hawkes that it was the Asiatic Society — : of Calcutta that had in contemplation the purchase of the Stacey — ocT.-—DEc. 1857.] Proceedings. 155 Collection, and that this Society was only requested to aid in the same. The Committee nevertheless appreciate Mr. Hawkes’ kind offer. Read a letter from Mr. H. Smith, Superintendent of the Govern- ment Press, soliciting the publication in the Society’s Journal, of certain specimen copies of Plants*in illustration of a new develop- ment of Nature printing. In addition to the impressions forward- ed with the letter, a large folio book of illustrations was laid upon the table, and attracted great admiration. In clearness, in sharp- ness of outline, and in accuracy of representation Mr. Smith’s pro- cess particularly excels. The most successful representations appear to be those of the Ferns, Grasses, and specimens requiring minute and delicate out- line, like Mollugo Cerviana, the impression of which is admirable ; or complicated details such as the reticulated venation of leaves. But Mr. Smith’s excellence of manipulation has also enabled him to overcome the difficulty of printing from the most succulent and fleshy plants. The print of the common Yercum or Madar (Calo- tropis gigantea) is particularly happy and exhibits clearly all the botanical details. A leaf of the prickly pear (Opuntia Dillenié) is equally successful. He has even carried his experiments into the animal kingdom, and exhibits printed pictures of a Snake anda Bat, the characteristics of which are shown with surprising clearness. - Considerable discussion arose in the Meeting as to how far the discovery is due to Mr. Smith. Mr. 8S. in his letter gives a precis of the different processes of Nature printing that have been at va- rious times resorted to, and claims for his own plan that it excels all others in simplicity and efficiency, and is capable of a much more extended application. Its distinctive peculiarity, he tells us, consists in the impressions being obtained direct from fresh unpre- pared plants. Mr, Burgass however recollects similar impressions being exhibited two or three years ago at the Polytechnic at Home, but not being aware of the exact modus operandi, which is part of * Vide Plates 5 and 6 of this Number. 156 Proceedings. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, the point at issue, he cannot positively pronounce as to what credit Mr. Smith is entitled to in the question of discovery. Major Wilson observed that"the process referred to by Mr. Bur- gass was probably that exhibited by Mr. Cox at the Polytechnic Institution under the name of the Foliographic Press, for Printing from fresh leaves and plants. Major Wilson stated that one of these Presses was in his possession, and that he had frequently taken impressions of leaves with it, the process appearing to be identical in all respects with that described in Mr. Smith’s paper. Major Wilson sent for the prospectus of Mr. Cox’s invention, of which the following is a copy :— ** The Foliographic Press for printing from Nature being a new . and exceedingly simple machine for printing fresh leaves, ferns, _ feathers, lace &c., invented and sold by G. I. Cox, at 134, Great College Street, Camden Town, and the Royal Polytechnic Institu- tion. Press, Roller, Pot of Ink, and Sheet of Carbonised Paper 5s. 6d. small; 8s. 6d. large.”’ Direction for use. ‘‘ Put a leaf between the fold of the Carbonised paper. Pass - a the Roller five or six times over each outside surface; open the fold and extract the leaf, which has now become impregnated with ink. Then place it between the fold of a cledn sheet of writing — paper, which is now to be introduced under the leather flap and pressed by passing the roller once over the surface, when an ac- ; curate and beautiful impression will be the result. The carbonised paper is made by dabbing the ink evenly over a the surface of ordinary writing paper, with a dabber made of wash _ leather. It is advisable, previous to using a leaf, to roll it slightly be- tween a sheet of blotting paper, to absorb the extraneous damp or moisture.’”’ The Meeting were of opinion that tne principle of both process- — es was the same, but Mr. Smith has the merit of having deyelop- ocT.—DEC. 1857.] . Proeeedings. 157 ed its application more fully, so as to obtain larger and finer pic- tures as well as of having extended it to more difficult objects, and particularly to reptiles and animals, which seems not to have been attempted before. The Committee beg to acknowledge, with thanks, the receipt of the following bocks and papers: From the Chief Secretary. 1. Geological Papers on Western India. 2. Atlas do. do. 3. Selections from the Records of the Madras Government, Railway Correspondence. 4, do do India No. 23 on Tea Cultivation. 5. Indian Journal of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 1, No. 4. 6. Cyclopedia of India, Parts 8, 9 and 10. 7. Description of the method of catching Wild Elephants in the Coimbatore District, by Captain D. Hamilton. From the Government of Bombay. 8. Bombay Magnetical and Meteorological Observations for 1856. From the Authors. 9. Note sur Les Rubaiyat de Omar Khaiyam par M. Garcin de Tassy. 10. La poesie Philosophique et Religieuse chez les Persans, _d’apres le mantic uttair, ou Le Langage des Oiseaux de Farid Uddin Attar par M. Garcin de Tassy. The Managing Commitiee of the Mapras LITERARY SocrETY and Auaary of the Royal Asiatic Society, 10th December, 1857. Mr. Elliot read a notice of the Gold Coins stated at page 114, ~ Volume I, new series ofthe Journal, to have been found at Madura. They comprise 49 specimens, of which 28 have been bought for the Government Central Museum, 20 were purchased by a Gentle- man at Madura and sent home, and a single one was obtained by Mr. Elliot himself. The whole are gold pieces of the kind called _aurer, belonging to the times of the earlier Caesars from Tiberius to | Domitian, as follows: 158 Proceedings. [ NO. 5, NEW SERIES, Of Tiberius 6, Claudius 8, Agrippina 3, Elder Drusus 2, Younger Drusus 5, Nero 17, Caligula 1, Domitian 5, Nerva 2. The Secretary read some interesting Remarks by Mr. Jesse Mit- chell on the distribution of fresh water Polyzoa. Mr. Mitchell observes that Professor Allman in his recent work entitled ‘a Monograph of the Fresh Water Polyzoz,” has stated that although found at an altitude of 6000 feet, these Jnfusoria are not met with beyond the limits of the temporate Zone. z Now, Mr. Mitchell has himself taken them in Madras, and gives a very inter- esting description of one he captured in considerable numbers ad- hering to the roots of the common Duck weed or Lemna in the month of September last. These when placed in a Polyp-trough under a one inch objec- — tive, exhibited groups of Polyzoa inhabiting tubular cells attach- — ed to the root of the plant and to each other. The head of the animal which was transparent and hyaline and furnished with a double row of cilice upwards of forty in number, was protruded from the cell in the act of feeding, and the whole process of cap- turing, swallowing and digesting its prey was distinctly visible. It seemed to prefer the smaller kind of Infusoria rejecting the large Rotatoria, which were drawn into the vortex of the cilice by their 2 rapid motion, an operation which it effected either by driving off 1 | the intruder by blows of the tentacula, or if this failed by retiring 2 into the cell, when the vibratile action of the cilice was suspended 4 j and the unwelcome visitor escaped. Mr. Mitchell believes that a both this and other species will be found abundantly on the roots __ of Lemna and other fresh aquatic Plants. The Committee beg to acknowledge with thanks the receipt of © the following books. From the Chief Secretary. 1. Cyclopeedia of India, Parts 11, 12, 18, 14 and 15. : 2. A Treatise on the Small Pox, by W. C. Maclean, Eisq., M. D. 3 3. Extract from M. C., relative to Silicate of Soda and Lime as _ a Protective from Fire, 7 oct.—pkEc. 1857.] Proceedings. 159 Catalogue of the Government Central Museum. Report on the Railway Department. Report on the Civil Dispensaries. On Indian Infanticide, by the Rev. John Cave Brown. Report on a reputed Coal Formation at Kotah, by P. W. Wall, Mineral Viewer. Orage eee ™ 4 160 [No. 5, NEW SEP Extract from Meteorological Observaiil| DAIL Ii OcTOBER 1807. NovEMBER. | . |x o.:| THERMOMETERS. = OUS = lea g |Saa Als Sle Means al ce p = ie oh B50, q/2/ 2) 3 | 8 Bee Roo Dry |Wet aeia | & roe} pe =| HOO lrvehes CE Wass’ ior 2 Tas. Inches a 1 | 29-831] 84-9] 78°1|95°6| 79:2, s | 0032|Hazy | 29°739) 77-8] 72-4) 8% 2| .851/82:0|77-0/92-5| 72-41 sE| -750|Clody.| -851|75's| 76-2) 87 3 93:2|76°8,s 8 w 916 80:1] 76°8| 87 4 | -880| $3'1|77:2\94:°6| 79: lw Nw) ....| do | -921/79-7/76-5! 8am 5 | -885| 83:8} 77°3| 962/782 ssw| ....|Hazy | -919|79°7|76-6| Ste. 6 | -856| 84:0| 77°7| 92°9) 79:8) s = . | do | -913] 78-4) 74-6) 7 | -876| 83:4|77-2|91:0| 788) = | ....|Clear. : 8 | -901) 83-3} 76°7| 92:0) 78-5 = by s| ....|Hazy | -961| 77°7| 72:0} Bifh.. 9 | -905|833|768/91-6790/ m | ....| do | -973|77-5/70-81 | i 10 90°9/79-4n by x) “043 949) 76°2) 70-7] 8: 11 | -860) 79-0| 75-4] 886] 75-4) w | 3:391|Clody.| +991] 76°1) 69:1] Sift... 12. | 833) 77-0| 74:8] 85:8] 75°4| ww E| 0:667| Ovest.| 30-041] 75°8| 69:1) Bie. 13 | .881/ 79:5|76-3| 88:3] 77-1] zs | 981; do | -049| 76-6|68-3| BH 14 | -947| 76-6] 74°9| 84:5, 75°41 by HB} 3-073] do Sip... 15 | 891} 76-8) 74:8 85:2 751jnne| 1292) do | -017| 75-2\71:7| BUR 16 | -884| 79 8! 76-5) 88 ° 76°7| = | 0-152/Clody.| °022) 77°0) 74:3) Si) 17 8791771] 5 ie 29:992| 77°91 73 8 : 18 | :888| 80°0| 76:8 87°8/77-0] s & | -022/Hazy | -987| 76°7|71- a‘ 19 | +885] 80°2| 76-4) 88 8] 77-2] = ‘208|Clody.| 980] 75°6/ 71: 20 | .879| 805/770 88:1/77°3] nz | °465{ do -963| 74'6| 69°2| 8 21 886] 77°7| 75°83] 82:4) 75:0, Nw E}| 955] Ovest. at 92 | +871] 78:2) 74:9] 82-3] 75°9|e by x] 573] do | +905] 74:3) 68-0) BiB) W) 23 | +848] 75:1) 73°7/ 79°3) 74:1IN Now) 4°165] do | 903) 75°9|71-7| Sm. | 24 79:0] 73-6] x w | 18-039 929) 75°8) 70:3) SUM 96 | -740| 75-0) 74:5] 78-2| 74-4] w | 2813] do | -896| 743/688) Sim. 5 26 | -760| 76:7| 74:9] 81°3) 75-7in Nw) 0125] do | -892/ 74-2/69 4) SR, 27 | °793| 78:4] 75:1] 86-3| 76-5]? do | 949] 76-2|72:1| 81m 28 | -796|78 °3| 74:1] 85-1} 75:3}? do § 29 | 805/76 °6| 72°)| 84:9) 72°6IN NW do 995) 7671) 714 30 | 784) 76:8| 72:2) 80°8| 74'4;w byw} ....| do 999] 75:1) 68-7 31 | 82:0) 745Iwnw] ‘O10} $| &|: | J 3 29°854'79-6 |75'7 | 87-3] 76°4 87°726 29-948] 76-6) 71-7] = | um Oo 3 THERMOMETERS. ; 3-5'3|———___—___—_ 3 Bee Means. i ae fl GO : PI re es Eg 2s Dry |Wet s/s | & Be nlline Inches| ° | 0 x © Ins. 30029] 75 7| 68°7| 81:9) 71:2} N B ...|Hazy 038) 75 9,68°5| 822'70°3) NE do *040| 74°35, 67-5) 82:1/69°5|N NE! ....| do -066'75°3! 66°5| 83°1/70-2) wz | ....| do | 81°3|70-'7'N N E 0:006 013] 75:1 ay 81°7| 70°6|N N E! :022/Clody 29°977'71.7| 64°8| 80.7'65°8) oN Hazy 989] 72°41 65:2) 80.3/69-S|n by E Ovest °987| 71.3,65°1) 80°1/66°3)n by E ....|Hazy 923) 71°3, 66 8] 75°2/68°8in N Ww °202|O vest 941/763 741] 846/733 5 N E, °315| do 8471 70-618 by s 30-024 759 737| 83:°|73-6\w =| *012' Hazy Le | ‘037 15° 72.7| 83 4|72°3' N B | .-..(Clear 1) 1205|Clody.| *018 748 713 82°1|70°5 = by N do 0 Ovest.| -009| 73:0, 68.9} 81-9/67-4) 2? | ....] do | . Hany 026) 74.1|68'2| 82-6|68-4E by | ....| do |. |Ovest 007| 73'°5' 686} 826) 69:9, N B | ‘3880 Hazy #109; do se 825)723E N E| ‘058 .. |Clody. | 29997) 74°6| 70°7| 81-7] 72:3) NE | .+«+|Ovest. 30.015 16-0 69:1} 816/74:1|N EB |. ..|Hazy 03/Hazy | °021/75°5/ 66.4] 81-6/74-1 NB | «--.|Clody. Clody.| °009) 73:2) 671) 80°8/69:1N N = .-..|Hazy Hazy ‘039; 15°2| 66-6] 81:3/722E N E do Clear 058) 75°6 3 81°8)73°6 N EB .|Clody. do S81: 0/69 1H N E is 045) 72°6) 66-2| g0-S|67-8N NB ...|Hazy 063] 75:1] 68-4] §1-2| 72:3 w B| ... |Clody. Clear -079| 74:0] 68°4| 81°6/69.2N N E/] ..-.|Hazy do 083! 76°0, 70°6] 81:8} 73:5, N E --|Ovest. 085] 75'4'70:0] 81-7|71:31 N B -|Clody. 5"| 30:023! 74:4; 68:4) 81°7|70°6 0995! Aa | | | | Sum | @-pac. 1857. | @ (the variable state of the Wind. DECEMBER 185 ihe 161 SAN ADA SP WN = "uvalN 162 Meteorological Observations, §c. &c. 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O-LL (SLL |SL |82 l€6L |L6L |0:08 [6-08 [028 | +309 § 2 ° ° fo) fo} ° ° ° e o |LG8I “ €Z0-08|LE0-08|0C0-08/890-08|£60-0¢'C20-08/210-08/866- |8L6. joo ) &! LUG: |296- |OL6- |@86- |926- |Z96- |8E6- (916+ |668- |son ¢ 3: 698:62|F L8:6|L88 -6%|Z68-6%| P88-66 | 98-66 9£8-62/8 18-66! F08-62| 399 } =| "ay “uy “Uy ‘uy ‘UT "ul “uy “uy ‘uy GST — aw a ee oe —— oye, — ee — —~ SS ff aan) CU! Oe w yok yim ym yu yluw yw yw Wu y| Stipeyy “HM ‘d 8 L 9 ¢ 17 € z I |uoon|ourpuray Wedulqyor joorbojodoajapy woif ponuan aS SS JAN.—MAR. 1858. ] 163 Saag XI. Extract from Report on the Vegetable Products of the Pulney Hills. By Lrnvt. R. H. Beppome, Assistant Con- servator of Forests. (Communicated by the Madras Government. ) Ihave completed my tour in the Pulney range, and have thorough- ly explored all the slopes and the forests on them. Inmany places, there has at one time been a considerable quantity of Teak, and Blackwood (Dalbergia latifolia, and D. sissoides,) also on the north- ern slopes, Cungilium (Shorea robusta,) almost all the large trees of these timbers have been long since felled. Teak and Blackwood saplings are yearly springing up, these are felled, when their scant- ling is about that of aman’s arm, and used as posts, &c., the natives prizing the Teak especially as they say, that the white ants will not touch it. Whilst I was at Pulney, I saw ten young Teak saplings, tik none of them perhaps thicker than my arm, brought in by the wood- | cutters, and sold to an overseer as posts fora shed that he was | building near the public bungalow, saplings that would have yielded HW magnificent timber years hence. On the slopes near Pulney, and ‘ between that place and Verupatchy, I observed a great quantity of timber cut and being carted away, chiefly Vengay, ( Péerocarpus mar- supium,) and Veckalie (Conocarpus latifolius,) some logs of good "size. On the lower slopes in this direction, there is a scattering of _ Teak. There is also Blackwood, of this tree I observed a great many saplings, about the foot of the ghat which ascends to Cowa- jee, and for some way up the rocky slopes, they are being felled, however, by the wood cutters. I saw one large tree of this timber being carted away from the jungles, though I did not succeed in finding any trees of size, standing. Ascending to Poombary from Pulney there is a very extensive alpine basin with high hills all round, in this, and the ravines and valleys formed by the spurs to the West of it, below Ulloorankun- vay, | found no Teak: the timber, particularly in the large basin, has been much destroyed. Note.—Dr. Wight visited the Pulney Hills, his observations will be found in i this Journal, Vol, VY. p. 280, (1837.) "| R 164 Vegetable Products [No. 6, NEW SERIES, The timber here is chiefly the following : Pterocarpus marsupium. (Vengay.) Conocarpus latifolius. (Veckalie.) Grewia tilizfolia (Tarrada.) Emblica officinalis. Briedelia. Terminalias, 2 : scarce. Acacia Sundra (Baga.) Acacia odoratissima. Dalbergia latifolia (Todakuttay) scarce and poor. Of the two Acacias, I observed several trees that had been fell- ed and were being cut into small logs. On the slopes far down below Kookul in a northerly direction, the jungle has been much cut, there has at one time been a good quantity of Cungilium (Shorea robusta) in this locality, there are however, only a few poor trees now left standing. ‘This timber is most greedily sought after by the Natives for house building. Fur- ther down on the spurs near the plains, and below a hill called the Koombootookee mallay, I found Teak. I visited the Mungapatty valley, lying to the West of the Pulney range, here the timber has been much destroyed, to make way for cultivation. There is no Teak here. Down the slopes to the 8. W. towards the Aggamullay hills, I found that the jungle had been much cut, the spurs in some places are pretty thickly wooded, but there is nothing of any value now standing. The slopes about 3 | Wollangum have been considerably cleared for cultivation. On the lowermost spurs and small rocky hills between this village and — that of Vellay covay (near Periakolum) I found here and there straggling Teak trees, and signs of a good deal having been cut, 4 A good quantity of Teak has formerly been cut, about the pass from Periakolum up to the Kodakarnal, none however now re- mains. . All this Western portion of the Pulnies up to the Permaulmallay and Cowanjee comprizes the higher range, and is generally called the Verupatchy Hills. The higher ranges are from six to seven heanans feet in height, | the plateau at the top consists of undulating grassy Hills, similar to JAN.—MAR. 1858.] of the Pulney Hills. 165 the Neilgherries, the grass is short and every where dotted with beautiful Orchideous plants (amongst which Platanthera Susanne, and lutea are very conspicuous,) Ophelia, Exacum, Pedicularis, Gentiana and many other plants peculiar to a high altitude. With the exception of the sholas, the higher ranges are free of any jun- gle or trees, save here and there a few scattered trees of “ Rhodo- dendron arboreum.” There are a good many sholas up the higher range, chiefly situat- ed, where there are springs or water-courses, some of these are very thick, and several of enormous extent, the three largest upon the higher range are. The Kookul shola (situated close to a village of that name) which extends over two hills, on the north Western face of the Pulnies. The Minmoordi cornal shola situat- ed at Pattoor on the southern side, and a large shola situated be- tween that and Kodacarnal. The timber in these sholas is exten- sively cut by the inhabitants of the Hills. The following are trees common in the sholas on the higher ranges. Cyminosma pedunculata. Millingtonia pungens. Rhododendron arboreum. Hedera obovata. Hedera rostrata. Hedera racemosa. Meesa Indica. Myrsine capitellata. Olea robusta. Bs Sp. Cinnamomum iners. (much felled by the Natives.) Magnolia.—? (a magnificent tree) Michelia Pulniensis, Syzygium. Sp. Dodonza Burmanniana. Rottlera peltata, i tinctoria. Pittosporum floribundum, Bentinckia condapana. Symploces, Sp. 166 Vegetable Products [no. 6, NEW SERIES, Lauracee. 4 large trees. Elcocarpus oblongus. Monocera glandulifera. Enormous trees. Monocera tuberculata. Kooragoo marum. > Kooravoo. ? Velle Ore. ? Noorle. Wellatos. ? (ploughs always made of this.) Gnidium eriocephala. ' There were other trees not in flower, with which I am quite un- acquainted, amongst these I have little doubt, there are valuable — timbers to be discovered. The Lime and the Orange are also found apparently indigenous. The chief products ofthe higher ranges are Rice, Mustard, Gare Wheat, Barley, Vendiam (Zrigonella Fanum Grecum.) Tennay (Selaria Italica) together with Lablab vulgaris, Limes, Oranges, Peaches and a few Plantains are also grown. A great number of low country Natives, have settled on the Pulney Hills. The Hill tribes are the Poliars and the Koonoovers, these latter tribes are most abundant on the lower Pulnies. From Cowajee which is situated at the foot of the Permaulmal- lay, the highest peak of the Pulnies, I descended to the lower range of the Pulnies, or as they are often called the Tandigoody and Ve- rupatchy Hill, they are I should judge about 4 to 5000 feet above the sea, or perhaps rather more. In the Arepatty valley below the Per- maulmallay there is a good deal of scattered jungle, the timber has been largely felled; the timber most common there, is the Zermi- nalia chebula, the Vengay, (Pierocarpus marsupium) and the Vecka- lie (Conocarpus latifolvus. ) The vallies between Vilputty and Cowajee are more or less wood- ed, I here also found Cungilium (Shorea robustz) but no good trees » 4 of it left standing. The Warre bakee river runs through this valley — and there is a fine fall. trees, the only ones that have apparently escaped the general des- truction. Theslopes down to Tempollium are extensively wooded, 4 and there is Teak and Cungilium, almost all destroyed, howeyer, — Near Pussinkud I saw a few large Teak — q JAN.—MAR. 1858.] of the Pulney Hills. 167 the Cungilium is?I know still cut, and I have no doubt the Teak saplings also when any are found worth cutting. On the slopes near Pullatoor, Sandal wood is also found in small quantities. The lower Pulnies are much more wooded, than the higher range, they are almost every where covered with a rather stunted jungle of Trees. The following trees are most numerous, Conocarpus latifolius (Veckalie.) Erythrina Indica. Terminalia chebula. Veryabun- Sclerostylis atalantioides. dant. Atalantia monophylla. Bignonia xylocarpa, Gmelina arborea. Sterculia guttata. Zizyphus xylopyrus. Cathartocarpus fistula. Grewia tilicefolia. Emblica officinalis. Canthium umbellatum. The trees are generally rather stunted, I observed a good quan- tity of the black dammer tree (Canariwm strictum) towards Tyem- pollium. The hill people never extract the dammer, and are ap- parently ignorant of the uses of the tree. The cultivation on these lower ranges is very considerable, com- _ pared to that of the higher ranges, about Pumukad and Tantigoo- _ dy, all the vallies are under cultivation. The chief products of the lower ranges are Turmeric, Plantains, | Mustard, Castor Oil, Vendiam. (Trigonella Fenum Grecum.) Cumboo. (Penicillaria spicata.) Ragee (Hleusive coracana. ) Varagoo (Panicum miliaceum.) Tennay (Setaria Italica.) Mangoes, Citrons, Limes, Oranges, Cardamoms. _ The shola forests in the vicinity of Tandigoody and Perryoor are ‘very extensive, and contain tress of enormous size. The black dammer and the wild nutmeg trees are abundant. These sholas, however, are daily disappearing before the Plantain groves. To prepare a‘Plantain grove, a large tract of shola is burnt down, this forms a fine soil for the Plantain, acres of fine shola are destroy- ed annually in this manner. 168 Vegetable Products {No. 6, NEW SERIES, Near Tandigoody, Cardamoms are also cultivated to a great ex- tent. To form a Cardamom grove the small trees and underwood are burned, but the larger trees are left standing. The following plants yield valuable fibres for rope, &c., and are much used by the Natives in the lower ranges. Kat murke nar. (grows to a tree.).......Gnidia eriocephala. Wolica mati. ee leper OGM OED 0 oeeees- Grewia Asiatica. Surke nar..... bow sieee's vs iss viee's sc oe 6 OLOWid MAUULING@ lam | Artocarpus integrifolia is most abundant in all the sholas of the © 3 lower ranges, particularly at Perryoor and Paucheloor. The following timbers are much used by the Natives here. Nawar....... (Hugenia jambolana.) Maiglan...... (Vitex alata.) Cottam pallam. (Terminalia catappa.) Kammalla.... (Gmelina arborea.) The timber of Gmelina is highly spoken of. The mace round the wild nutmeg (Palmanee Kam) is used by — Natives to color their teeth. A Beer is made from the raggee (Hleusine) the flowers of Vitex negundo are used as a hop to fer- : a ment it with. Into the toddy which they draw from the Caryota urens, (a tree very abundant here,) they fling in some of the bark of Olea robusta which immediately causes fermentation. Girardinia Leschenaultiana, aplant yielding a valuable fibre is most > @ abundant here, the natives however, are ignorant of its use. a The leaves of Dodonzea Burmanniana are bound on swellings pro- . duced by Sprains, &c., it is said with great effect, a decoction of the leaves is given internally in cases of leprosy. Folyeonunmis peace aa steie ce tha tts Acalypha Indica......,.....+... p used medicinally, Flowers of Kalanchoe grandiflora. The sholas are very thick about Paucheloor and less destroyed, — apparently than at Pandigoody. The black dammer tree is ver 4 | abundant here. There has atone time beena good quantity of Teak on the slopes between Periyur and Verupatchy and also on the JAN.—MAR. 1858.] of the Pulney Hills. 169 slopes below Paucheloor, itis now almost entirely destroyed. There is Blackwood also, which is still at times cut and carted into Din- digul and Madura for sale. I did not myself observe any large trees of this timber standing, and as I was over a great portion of these jungles, there cannot be much left. Flora of the Pulney Hills, as observed in September and October, 1857. By Lizur. R. H. Beppome. RANUNCULACES. Clematis Gouriana, 4 Wightiana, =< Munroii, sholas at Kodakarnal. Anemone Wightiana, Ranunculus reniformis, Pa Wallichianus, common. Naravelia Zeylanica, | MAGNOLIACES. _ *Michelia Pulniensis, | very common (Shemboo.) | Magnolia sp. a beautiful tree common in sholas, [ ANONACEZ. | Guatteria cerasoides, SCHIZANDRACES. | Hortonia sp. near Perryar. | MENISPERMACE, Cocculus villosus, lower slopes. ai glaber, ‘ macrocarpus ? (only in fruit.) Clypea hernandifolia, very common. Notre.—Local Catalogues such as this ‘“‘ Flora Pulniensis’’ are of great use, illustrating the Geographical distribution of the plants of Southern India, and are specially commended by Dr. Royle in his observations on Provincial Exhibitions. )}—Ep. M. J. * M. Nilagirica (Zenker) in Hooker and Thomson’s Flora Indica, 170 Flora of the [x o. 6, NEW SERIES, BERBERIDACER. Berberis tinctoria, Leschenaultii, 5,000 to 8,000 ft. CRUCIFERZ. Nasturtium Madagascariense, Cardamine Borbonica, Sinapis juncea, 39 CAPPARIDACES. Gynandropsis pentaphylla, Cleome monophylla, Polanisia icosandra, Cadaba Indica, Capparis horrida, Tomer clones » imcanescens, jae @kanidis, RESEDACER. Reseda alba, common about Kodakarnal. FLACOURTIACE A. Flacourtia sapida, slopes towards Verupatchy. Hydnocarpus inebrians, VIOLACER. *Viola odorata, scentless. ) very common on the higher — > Patrini, ranges. 4 Tonidium enneaspermum, é DROSERACER, Drosera peltata, Parnassia Mysorensis, commonin moist ground near Kodacarnal. POLYGALACEZ. 1 very coammon shrub, 5,000 feet and up-— Polygala arillata, wards. 33 ‘Wiallichiana, ee in the grass on the highest. ranges. AA ciliata, os rosmarinifolia, Wightiana ? oe nov. sp.? asmall shrub, slopes near Periyur. | * Viola Wightiana, (Wall.) JAN.—MAR. 1858] Pulney Hills. 171 CARYOPHYLLACES. Stellaria media, moist places on the highest ranges, Cerastium Indicum, very common. Arenaria sp. Mollugo? sp. MALYVACES. Urena sinuata, ae lobata, used by the Natives as a fibre. Pavonia Zeylanica, covered with clammy pubescence. Lebretonia procumbens, lower slopes. Hibiscus micranthus, do. aA hirtus, do. white variety. ‘a lampas, very abundant. Af Surattensis, lower slopes. , aculeatus, (Hoxb,) This is H. furcatus, (W.and_4.)but very different from H. furcatus, (2oxd.) a plant common in Central India. w 2: canescens, slopes near Pulney. 3 sp. (near Vellay covay) erect, shrubby, covered all over with shining hairs, leaves cordate, serrate, 3-5 lobed, petioles the length to twice the length of the leaves, involucel 4 to 7 leaved, generally 5, segments narrow, acuminate, calyx deeply 5 cleft, segments 3 nerved, acuminat- ed, purple streaked. Flowers short peduncled, axillary, afterwards in terminal racemes,elongated. Seeds glabrous with a few tufts of hairs. Perhaps “ H. lunarifolius’ but the involucel is generally 5 leaved never 10, the calyx is like that_of “ canes- cens.” +4 erlocarpus, slopes towards Pulney. 172 Flora of the fx. 6, NEW SERIES, Abelmoschus angulosus, 7 .4.The involucel is spathiform, and splits into 4 leaves, I have however often observed it in 4 leaves from the com- mencement, and never assuming the form of a spathe, I believe it to be the same as Hibiscus tetraphyllus, (Roxb.) which is common in central India. ys moschatus, Lagunea lobata, Abutilon polyandrum, much valued as a fibre. a Asiaticum, slopes. . Indicum, do. Sida humilis, do. acuta, do. BoMBACE. Sterculia guttata, yields a fibre, which is hardly distin- guishable from that of “8. villo- — sa,’ the valuable Elephant rope of — the Anamallays. a UrenS, Kydia calycina, Eriochleena Hookeriana, Lower ranges, very abundant. TROP ZOLACER. Tropxolum sp. very abundant. near Poombary, run wild? TILIACEA, Corchorus trilocularis, Triumfetta sp. Grewia abutilifolia, (Surke nar) used as a fibre. 3 villosa, », tilieefolia, », Salvifolia, : Asiatica, . (Valce nar) used as a fibre. At the — Anamallays, valce nar is applied to Sterculia villosa. JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 173 Grewia hirsuta, sha SP: Leaves roundish, rhomboid, 8 nerved, cordate at base, unequally toothed, slightly scabrous, peduncles axilla- ry, 1,2 flowered longer than petioles, bracteoled at base, sepals twice as long as petals, recurved, petals sharply bidentate, stigma 2 lobed, style clavate at apex, longer than stamens, nuts 1-3 shining. ELHOCARPACEA. Elzocarpus oblongus, Monocera tuberculata, very large trees, in sholas. 4 glandulifera, Do. glands not always present. DIPTEROCARPER. Vatica sp. (Cungilium) vallies amongst the hills and slopes. Wood much prized by the natives. TERNSTR@MIACER. Cleyera gymnanthera, sholas. Cochlospermum gossypium, OLACACER, Gomphandra polymorpha, near Poombary. Stemonurus foetidus, do. AURANPIACES. Atalantia monophylla, Limonia acidissima, avery pretty wood. . alata, in sholas. Glycosmis pentaphylla, Feronia elephantum, Aegle marmelos, Citrus sp. : is very prickly climber, with ternate ees leaves, the fruit is eaten. HyPERICACER. Hypericum Hookerianum, very common, higher ranges. 74 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES, GUTTIFERA. Garcinia sp. sholas. MALPIGHIACES. Hiptage Madablota, near Tandigoody, SAPINDACER. Cardiospermum canescens, lower slopes. a halicacabum, ,, A Sapindus emarginatus, +p 9» from the plains to the highest level, Dodonocea Burmanniana, < j > ¢ common also in the sholas. MILLINGTONIACER. Millingtonia pungens, in sholas, common. MELIACEZ. Melia azedarach, near Perryur. Mallea Rothii, CEDRELACEZ. Chloroxylon Swietenia, lower slopes. AMPELIDACEZ. Vitis quadrangularis, ae setosa, aN tenuifolia, : . . ap { gland-tipped, deep purplish, serrated — _ leaves. ‘ | p sp. Poombary valley. 3 Rheedii, 99 sp. GERANIACES. Geranium affine, very abundant. LINACES. Linum Mysorense, near Shambaganoor, common. BALsAMINACE. Impatiens Balsamina, of) arcuata, 4 » Leschenaultii, in drying, this species tinges the paper a bright pink color, (Common at — Kodakarnal.) eee ee eee ee ee ee th ee ae del) atte oe te JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Impatiens albida, 99 93 99 5 ee campanulata, dasysperma, nov sp. tomentosa, fasciculata, viscida, NOV, sp. Pulney Hills. 175 common in hill streams 5,000, to 7,000 feet, grows to 16 or 18 feet high, flowers very large, of a delicate rose color. I never saw them white as described by Dr. Wight, nor does his plate give much idea of the plant, as it grows on these hills. in sholas very common, 6,000 to 7,000 feet, flowers beautifully mottled with pink. capsule slightly pubescent! this species is readily known by the eurved mucro at the conjunction of the 2 upper sepals. sholas at Kodakarnal, 7,000 feet, glabrous, leaves alternate, lanceo- late acute, petioled, bristly serrate, racemesas long orlonger thanleaves, 4 to 14 flowered pedicels, longer than petioles witha large cordate (convex on outside) bract at the base of each. 2 upper sepals wing- ed at their conjunction. Spur long, incurved with gland-tipped point, flowers of a uniform crimson. A very beautiful sp: quite unlike any described or figured. Impatiens Phenicea. Kodakarnal about streams, the whole plant is sometimes quite glabrous, 7,000 feet. the commonest species on the hills. Kodakarnal in streams, 7,000 feet. (summit of Permaulmallay, in streams 8,000 feet.) Stems 4 angled, sul- cated, slightly hairy, leaves opposite, serrate, long petioled above a few 176 Flora of the [wo. 6, NEW SERIES, hairs, below glaucous, peduncles, longer than the leaves, smooth viscid, bearing 7-9 flowering race- mes at their apex, pedicels with a gland tipped filiform bract at their base, lateral sepals small, spur rather long, capsule gibbous, streak- ed with purple, flowers very small pink. A very small species, the whole plant not more than 4 inches high. . Impatiens Pulmensis. OXALIDACER. Biophytum sensitivum, Oxalis corniculata, ZYGOPHYLLACER. Tribulus lanuginosus, Lower slopes. RUTACEZ. Cyminosma pedunculata, sholas. (very common.) : ZANTHOXYLACES. Toddalia aculeata, slopes towards Verupatchy. PITTOSPORES. - Pittosporum floribundum, Poombary (common.) CELASTRACEZ. Celastrus Heyneana, (Poombary valley.) Huonymus angulatus, (sholas) a very elegant small tree. RHAMNACEA, Zizyphus glabrata, slopes. » _xylopyra, %» a Csnoplia, Ng TEREBINTHACE 2, Semecarpus Anacardium, Mangifera Indica, lower Pulney ranges. Odina Wodier, do. do, JAN.—MAR., 1858.] Pulney Mills. 177 BURSERACE®. Canarium strictum, yields a black dammer, the na- | Abundant on the lower Pulnies, tives however never extract it. Garuga pinnata, Protium Roxburghianum, leaves pinnate. SY Fah Leaves ternate, much used for hedges; MoRINGACEA. Hyperanthera Moringa, about villages. LEGUMINOSZ. Sophora glauca, Crotalaria rubiginosa, a Wightiana, several forms of this, if they are all one species. A sp. f Stipules wanting, leaves very narrow, linear, with their upper surface as well as whole plant densely cover- ed with blackish hairs, vexillum with a tuft of hairs, otherwise si- milarto ‘ anthylloides.”” Common near Poombary. (a form of anthyl-. loides.) a anthylloides, a Mysorensis, : longipes ? agrees well with the description of that plant, except that the legumes are pubescent, (a large shrub, com- mon near Puttoor.) us paniculata, slopes near Pulney. Gy superfoliata, near Tandigoody. 5 juncea, Leschenaultii, very common, Ae sericea, > montana, (Aoxd.) (only differs from sercea in the sti- pules and bracts, but so far is cone stant, ) 178 Flora of the [wo. 6, NEW SERIES, — Crotalaria nov. sp. Herbaceous, erect,glabrous, leavesvery (6. Verrucosee,) narrow, linear, very obscurely nerv- ed, tapering at the apex into apoint. Stipules wanting, racemes terminal, many flowered, bracts adnate to the rachis, (asin the stipules of some Phaseoleee, ovate with along acumi- nation, calyx cleft to the middle, upper lip bifid, legume with a short thick stalk, oblong, broader up- wards, glabrous, many seeded. Flowers yellow, a very distinct _ species, apparently new, arare plant. Crotalaria elegans. ms Wallichiana, very common. : », nov. Sp.? (6. Verrucosee,) suffruticose, erect, leaves orbicular, smooth on the upper surface, wnder — surface and stems densely covered — with white woolly hair, stipules very — large, lunate, transverse, racemes ; terminal, calyx (cleft to the middle, — upper segment bifid,) pubescent, — bracts ovate with along acumina- ~ tion, legumes glabrous, many seeded, — flowers yellow. 12 to 15 feet. Poom- bary ghat. | Crotalaria lanata. | (7 Diffusee,) A very pretty procumbent species, — with hirsute legume, very common amongst the grass at Poombary and elsewhere, with 7 very long terminal racemes of large ~ brilliant yellow flowers, perhaps a form of ‘C. Evolvuloides.”’ | gy, MOV.pSDs et Herbaceous, erect, much branched, — glabrous leaves lanceolate. | = Acuminated, attenuated at the base. — Stipules wanting racemes terminal or — JAN.—MAR. 1858. Pulney Hills. 179 axillary, few flowered, bracts mi- nute, calyx cleft to the middle, upper segment deeply bifid, legumes ob- long, broader upwards, pubescent 12 seeded, flowers blue, (has much the appearance of C. verrucosa ata distance, but has no stipules, and the leaves differ much,) arare plant, near Cowanjee. Crotalaria coerulea, : This species is very common on the Anamallays. . albida, common. ey viminea, 4 globosa, A umbellata, near (Shambaganoor. ) 5 Notonii, near Vilputty. “A clavata, Periyur slopes towards Canavaddy. 4 Grahamiana, Poombary valley (very common.) Trigonella Fenum greecum, much cultivated. Pycnospora nervosa, (not common. ) Indigofera viscosa, 55 pulchella, a very common shrub. : tenuifolia, Pk trifoliata, by parviflora, if Wightii, - sp. Clitoria Ternatea, Dumasia congesta, very common. Shuteria vestita, ? perhaps these 2 species might be = glabrata, } united, Notonia (Johnia) Wightii, lower Pulnies. Pseudarthria viscida, e » very common, Tephrosia tinctoria, oS) purpurea, i. a Flora of the [wo. 6, NEW SERIES, Smithia sensitiva, 5, racemosa? Poombary ghat. Uraria hamosa, abundant lower ranges. Desmodium triquetrum, latifolium, .. Gangeticum, a Wightii? 45 recurvatum, a gyrans, én polycarpum, on rufescens, very common 4,000 to 7,000 feet. A strangulatum, very common. i triflorum, Re parvifolium, Dicerma pulchellum, Alysicarpus bupleurifolius, iS styracifolius, Abrus precatorius, Rhynchosia densiflora, lower slopes. » (Phyllomatia), sp. Calycine segments longer than the ] 1 seeded legume. 5, suaveolens, at Punnikal. Flemingia congesta, Ph Grahamiana, - Phaseolus Pulniensis, a pretty sp. in the grass near Poom- — bary and Kookul. Flowers lilac, large, fragrant. Hs trinervius, A sublobatus, & sp. twining to a great extent, stipules — adnate, stems strigose, leaves on long petioles, trifoliate, terminal 4 one ovate oval, lateral ones obli- — quely ovate, very unequal sided, — above harsh adpressed pubescence, below downy, peduncles longer than petioles, thickened, 3-4 flow- — JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 181 ered at apex, flowers from glandu- lar knobs, legumes terete, covered with brown hairs. Flowers very large, lilac and fragrant, very com= mon. Can this be P. caracalla ? It is certainly wild. be trilobus, 2% sp. (Poombary valley) flowers white, le- gumes compressed. - Dolichos glutinosus, (Poombary valley.) Sinensis, Lablab vulgaris, Parochetus major, moist ground, higher ranges. Canavalia gladiata, ey virosa, i. mollis, Mucuna (Citta) atropurpurea, at Tandigoody. - re prurita, Cantharospermum pauciflorum. = albicans, (Poombary ghat.) Be. 8D: very long filiform-racemes. Dunbaria, sp. (Poombary ghat and Vellaycovay, This sp. I cannot ideatify with 3 any of Dr. Wight’s, the calyx is | not herbaceous, nor are the bracts | 8 toothed, the vexillum is as i muchreflexedas in “ Kennedya.”’ Cylista scariosa, | Cyanospermum tomentosum, Poombary valley, Erythrina Indica, Butea parviflora, » frondosa, Pongamia glabra, Dalbergia latifolia, Pee) SISSOldes, , volubilis, ri paniculata, 182 Flora of the [No 6, NEW SERIES, Brachypterum scandens, Pterocarpus marsupium, Inga xylocarpa, Dichrostachys cinerea, Prosopis spicigera, Acacia Sundra, > Jatronum, Som amata, 3 odoratissima, >» Speciosa, > ntsia, 3, pennata, Guilandina Bonduc, Ccesalpinia mimosoides, Perryur (very common. ) AS seplaria, : Tamarindus Indica, Cassia fistula, >> auriculata, » occidentalis, » Lora, : A MOSS: 9 pumila, o 3 Obtusa; lower slopes, Bauhinia Malabarica, a >, Tacemosa, » variegata, (at Vellaycovay.) RosacEz. Rubus lasiocarpus, from 3,000 feet. » rugosus, from 5,000 feet. » gowreephul, Fragaria elatior, i Indica, Potentilla Leschenaultii, Rosa involucrata, Photinia Lindleyana, SALICARIACEZ, Ammania sp. SAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 183 Lagerstroemia microcarpa, CoMBRETACE, Terminalia Catappa, x Belerica, Py Chebula, as tomentosa, a paniculata, Conocarpus latifolius, Gyrocarpus Jacquini, M EMECYLACER, Memecylon sp : : MELASTOMACER. Sonerila Rheedii ? Osbeckia Wightii, i Leschenaultii, ee, hirsutissima, a Zeylanica, MyRrTAcE&. Rhodomyrtus tomentosus, Very common, berries eaten. Syzygium jambolanam, 29 Sp. Eugenia sp. Careya arborea, ONAGRACEA. Jussiea repens, Ludwigia parviflora, Circcea sp. Common in grassy places near the large Kookul shola. CucURBITACER, Coccinea Indica, Bryonia Garcini, Lower slopes. bas laciniosa, + scabrella, » ? Hookeriana, Momordica charantia, Dicecious? Leaves 3-5 lobed, sca- Trichosanthes ? brous above, downy beneath, with hard tipped serratures, female flow- ers racemes with large glandular 184 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES, laciniate bracts, sometimes solita- ry, or 2 together in the axils of the leaves with one lanceolate bract, stigma 38-4 cleft, 3 sterile filaments inserted low down in tube of corolla. Male flowers with a large and more laciniate calyx, filaments 3 (rarely 4) quite distinct, inserted on the gibbous upper part of the tube, anthers united, corolla very hairy on the inside, tendrils 2-3 cleft, flow- ers white. Berry globose. | At Tandigoody andPerryor. (Nat- chantalle. ) PASSIFLORACEA, Passiflora Leschenaultii, PoRTULACACES. Trianthema decandrum, CRASSULACER. Kalanchoe grandiflora, Flowers used medicinally. *UMBELLIFERZ. Hydrocotyle polycephala, Sholas (very common.) Sanicula elata, 5 Bupleurumramosissimum, Abundant in the grass on the higher — ranges. Pastinaca sp. Do. do. do. Pimpinella Candolleana, Do. do. do. ARALIACES, Hedera rostrata, Sholas. Hh racemosa, do. rs obovata, do. very common. LoRANTHACE®, Viscum verruculosum, Fe angulatum, i grossum, P * Heraeleum pedatum, (Wight) may be added, see Icon. t. 342. JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Fills. 185 Viscum moniliforme, (On ‘* Rhododendron arboreum,”’ very common, glabrous, leaves ovate, very obscurely nerved, thick, opposite, racemes axillary or terminal, many . flowered, pedicels short, one small Loranthus (Symphyan- } bract embracing the calyx. Calyx thus) sp: nov. ? entire or nearly so, corolla glabrous, ventricose at base, equally 4 cleft to below the middle, segments cuneate linear, berry oblong, flower deep -— dull orange color. », loniceroides, at Cowangee. . buddleoides, common on the lower ranges. . sarcophyllus, common. - amplexifolius, leaves with a transparent margin. is Candoileanus, at Kodakarnal. 53 cuneatus, very common. a8 Euphorbie, growing on Euphorbia antiquorum, near foot of hills. (Lower slopes growing on ‘ Salva- dora Indica’’ rarely on ‘‘ Cordia po- lygama ?’’ Glabrous, branches very woody, leaves nearly opposite or approximated in threes, very long, linear, often much curved, of a thick texture, short petioled at- tenuated at base, obtuse or slight- ly acute, racemes axillary, or from the axils of fallen off leaves, many flowered, pedicelled, one bract em- c sp. nov. ? OSE ty) UPS, ey anes de eet eS bracing the ovary, calyx entire or nearly so, corolla curved, apex split into 5 segments, one third the length of the tube, segments, linear acute, ovary oblong crowned with calyx, flowers whitish with the seg- ments green, eer ae tee SE 186 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES, CAPRIFOLIACES. Viburnum acuminatum, common at Poombary. 5 capitellatum, a5 Lonicera Leschenaultii, very abundant. RuBIACEE. Nauclea parvifiora, % Musseenda frondosa, Gardenia lucida, (pissanee) in sholas. Randia dumetorum, », uliginosa, Griffithia fragrans, slopes towards Verupatchy. Wendlandia Notoniana, very common. Hymenodyction excelsum, Hedyotis stylosa, a a articularis, | ny pruinosa, \ higher ranges only. 5 monosperma, ns affinis, J flowers very fetid. 5 Burmanniana, i Heynii, these 2 little plants are common in — + dichotoma, hilly places in Central India. a aspera, lewer slopes. Lasianthus venulosa, sholas Kodakarnal, (berries blue.) *: SP» Kookul sholas, (flowers very fetid, ber=- ries black.) Canthium umbellatum, grows toa good sized tree. (lower Pulnies. ) 3 parviflorum, Psychotrium ambiguum, - sp. Sholas. Grumilea congesta ? Bigelowia lasiocarpa, c. Roxburghiana, Spermacoce hispida, Knoxia corymbosa, very abundant. » Wightiana, in the grass near Poombary. JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 187 GALIACEZ. Rubia cordifolia, very abundant. Galium asperifolium, » Requienianum, . VALERIANACER. Valeriana Leschenaultii, Poombary ghat. » Hookeriana, Cowangee hill streams. DIPSACE. Dipsacus Leschenaultii, | common. CAMPANULACES. Campanula Alphonsii, common. 5 fulgens, _ Wahlenbergia agrestis, © very common. - perotifolia, LOBELIACES. Lobelia trichandra, a very common plant. S trigona, PYROLACES. Pyrola sp. Kodakarnal. HRICACER. Gaultheria Leschenaultii, (Moorcherree) berries eaten. Rhododendron arboreum, very abundant. VACCINIACES, Vaccinium Neilgherrense, \ behinionl slrane: Leschenaultii, ¢ P Poombary ghat, axillary spikes of green flowers. ULMACEA. Celtis orientalis, from the plains to the highest ele- vations, STYRACE, Symplocos Gardneriana, sholas. i pendula, Kodakarnal, banks of streams. EBENACEA. Maba Neilgherrensis, AQUIFOLIACE, Monetia tetracantha, 188 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES, APOCcYNACE. Carissa Carandas, Ophioxylon Neilgherrense, near Puttoor. Vinca pusilla, fields. Wrightia tinctoria, Alstonia venenata, Ichnocarpus frutescens, Kchites sp. slopes near Pulney. LOGANIACEE. Strychnos nux-vomica, Gardnera Wallichiana, sholas. Fagrea Coromandeliana, ASCLEPIACEE. Hemidesmus Indicus, Holostemma Rheedianum, Calotropis gigantea, Sarcostigma brevispina, - Sp. Deemia extensa, Cynanchum pauciflorum, Kookul. Tylophora mollissima, common. sf tenuissima, sholas. Hoya viridiflora, i 5) paucifiora, a rare and beautiful parasite. Ceropegia intermedia, a, acuminata, o6 tuberosa, _ slopes towards Verupatchy. juncea, lower slopes. a elegans, (Root fibrous, leavesremote, lanceolate, | tapering tu a long point, slightly hairy, covered with minute dots, ra-_ | cemes cyme like, axillary, 2—6 flow- = sp. ered, flowers very large, greenish, upper part of tube and segments speckled with purple, segments of ~ calyx, very narrow and acute, nearly allied to C, Decaisneana, a _( bulbous plant. 4 JAN.—MAR. 1858] Pulney Hills. 189 (Stem filiform, with a few narrow ‘ linear leaves near the apex, hardly two lines broad, flowers bell shaped, Caralluma ? drooping, purple. (Poombary val- ley.) I unfortunately lost the only 1 Specimen that I found of this curi- | ous little plant. Boucerosia diffusa, on rocks. OROBANCHACES. #iginetia pedunculata, flowers of a most lovely deep blue, ; parasitic on the roots of a grass. Oligopholis tubulosa, Kodakarnal shola. Campbellia sp. Tandigoody sholas. GENTIANACEE. Gentiana verticellata, Ophelia elegans, ; higher ranges, », Griesbachiana, glands on the petals most abundant very hairy. in the grass. Halenia Perrottetii, borders of sholas common. Exacum tetragonum, .. Perrottetii, abundant near Poombary, a very beatiful species. (herbaceous, erect, glabrous, leaves | opposite, broadly ovate, stem clasp- 1 ing,5—7 nerved, suddenly acumi- J nated, 2 bracts about the centre of z eA 1 the peduncles, flowers very large of oats deep blue. Poombary and Koda- | karnal. (Introduced into gardens at \. the latter place.) a pedunculare, Canscora diffusa, SoLANACE.Z. Solanum sp. Shrubby, erect, leaves petioled, ovate lanceolate, acuminated at bothends, 190 Flora of the [wo. 6, NEW SERIES, stems and every part but the flow- ers coveredwitk longish weak hairs, flowers axillary 2-3 together, on peduncles a little longer than the petioles, berries small, 6 seeded, In sholas, grows to 12 feet high. Solanum ferox, higher ranges common, » giganteum, do: Grade: do. > indicum, > rubrum, »» pubescens, Lower slopes (flowers purplish.) 7 Datura fastuosa, Physalis minima, 4 »» Peruviana? The Brazil cherry (so called,) is wild — all over the hills ; it has I suppose been introduced. OLEACES. Olea robusta, Bits of the bark are thrown into the toddy extracted from Caryota urens, to cause fermentation. CoRDIACER. Cordia myxa, Lower slopes. » polygama? > » near Chattrapatty. *CoNVOVLYULACES. Evolvulus alsinoides, Porana racemosa, a rare plant, slopes near Cowangee. Convolvulus rufescens, common on the higher ranges, 6 to 7,000 feet. Calofyction speciosum, valleys and slopes. 4 Ipomea Wightii, common at Puttoor and Poombary; (I have since found this flowers very large, (the calyx and F sp. on the plains at the leaves are much like those of 9 Anamallay.) I. pilosa,) 6 to 7,000 feet. ® Of these only 3, viz. Ipomea Wightii, I. nov. sp?2, and Convolvulus rufescens — inhabit the higher elevations. 4 JAN.—MAR. 1858. | Pulney Hills. 191 Ipomea pilosa, } ., hispida, dentata, on the » striata, 1 slopesofthe 5, . staphylina, an enormous climber. hills ariel A pes tigridis, in valleys. a pileata, 25 tuberculata, a obscura, Po MON. Sp: > Procumbent, stems, leaves and calyx strigose, leaves alternate, distant, narrow, cordate, flowers axillary, solitary, short peduncled, calyx with the 3 outer sepals, ovate, the 2inner linear, and longer than the outer ones, 2 bracts below the calyx, cap- sule——-, flowers lilac, rather large; in the grass near Puttoor, 6,000 feet. Hewittia bicolor, Slopes. Pharbitis nil, Lower Pulnies. Rivea cuneata, do. do. », bona nox, Slopes. Argyrela aggregata, - pomacea, » hirsuta? se Aniseia uniflora, Alpine vallies 3,000 feet. PLUMBAGINACEZ, Piumbago Zeylanica, PRIMULACES. -Lysimachia Leschenaultii, (very common.) Anagallis latifolia, (fields. ) Micropyxis tenella, (Kodakornal. ) MYRSINACEZ. Mesa Indica, very common in Sholas. Kmbelia Tsjeriam-cottam, at Vilputty and Perryur, Myrsine capitellata, in sholas, common. 192 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES, Ardisia humilis, sholas. a pauciflora ? sholas at Kookul. JASMINACER. Jasminum revolutum, 9 brevilobum, higher ranges, all common. s rigidum, 3 sp. lower slopes. SALVADORACE. Salvadora Indica, lower slopes. HHRETIACEZ. Ehretia aspera, Pautcheloor slopes. 39 sp. = 39 93 Heliotropium Rottleri, lower slopes. BoRAGINACEZ. Trichodesma Zeylanica, lower slopes. Cynoglossum furcatum, higher ranges. LAMIACEA. Ocimum sp. Orthosiphon sp. Plectranthus Wightii, common. 35 sp. (obovate bracts.) » sp. tek g Coleus barbatus, very common. »» Spicatus, at Perryur. Anisochilus albidus, is purpureus, “ sp. on rocks, with silvery leaves. a Sp. a large shrub, with cordate serrate leaves, vely common. Pogostemon rotundatum, : sp. 9 Sp. Dysophylla auricularia, Micromeria biflora, higher ranges, common. Melissa umbrosa, sholas, common. Prunella vulgaris, at Poombary. Bee 1858) Pulley Hills. | 19g Scutellaria violacea, very common. yy) Sp. tee: aetuifolia, Common in the grass on the higher ranges. pee bitlora, ae) cephalotes, a oD: Lanceolate serrate leaves, dense capi- tate or axillary heads of flowers, whole plant densely covered with deflexed brown hairs. Leonotis nepetefolia, Teucrium tomentosum, VERBENACES. Stachytarpheta sp. Slopes near Pulney, most abundant, flowers blue, is sp. common near Perryur, a handsome plant with lilac flowers, not unlike S. mutabilis. Bouchea? Lower slopes. Lantana Indica, Very common, Vitex negundo, Perryur, flowers used to ferment a beer that the natives make from the Ragee. cevey, alata, Premna Wightiana, », cordifolia, 3, tomentosa, Slopes near Verupatchy. Tectona grandis, Lower slopes. Gmelina arborea, Wood much valued by the natives, Peryur. » Clerodendron infortunatum, Sholas. 4 serratum, a very common plant. |. Callicarpa Wallichiana, Sholas. PEDALIACE. Pedalium murex, Lower slopes. GESNERACES. Klugia sp, (Lower lip of corol 3 lobed.) 194 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES, _ Alischynanthus Ceylanica, A beautiful and rare parasite, the leaves are those of a Hoya. Didymocarpus tomentosus, Very common, 500 feet up to 6000. . BIGNONIACEE. Stereospermum sp. There is a tree of this sp. in the Madras Horticultural Garden, it does not appear to be described. Bignonia xylocarpa, ACANTHACES. Thunbergia fragrans, Very common. Dyschoriste littoralis, (Lower slopes.) Dipteracanthus patulus, 95 55 Phlebophyllum Kunthia- ae common in the grass on tho — num, higher rangese Stenosiphonium Rusellia- num, near Kodakarnal. Strobilanthes micranthus, Poombary in hedges. Asystasia Coromandeliana, . sp. apparently with bright yellow flowers. the same as the above. Barleria buxifolia, Lower slopes. Bs cuspidata, zs 33 Sp. 33 >) 5 » prionitis, Be 5 = sp. avery large shrub 15 to 20 feet high, - with ovate lanceolate, acuminate leaves, perfectly covered with very large blue flowers; a very hand-_ some sp. Poombary ghat, sholas near Vilputty. Blepharis Madraspatensis, Crossandra infundibulifor- mis, very common. 3 Endopogon ? ? This like “‘ Endopogon strobilanthes’’ has the corolla of Endopogon but — has 4 stamens; shrubby, leaves JAN.—MAR.1858.] Pulney Hills. 195 opposite, ovate, serrate, generally very unequal in size,long petioled, minutely dotted and covered with a harsh pubescenee, flowers from axillary peduncled capitate heads, surrounded by broad hairy bracts, — flowers pale blue. Kookul, com- mon in hedges close to the village. Hemigraphis latebrosa, Rostellularia procumbens, borders of sholas. 99 Sp. Eranthemum montanum, Adhatoda Vasica, betonica, -Rhinacanthus communis, Rungia pectinata, 7" ? a shrub in Kodakarnal shola. Rhaphidospora glaber, lower slopes. Andrographis Wightiana, in sholas. “i Neesiana, do. SS paniculata, Bs viscosula, in sholas. Leptacanthus ? in sholas below Kookul ghat. ScROPHULARIACES. a pretty yellow flowered annual, com- Verbascum ? mon in the grass on the higher ranges. Limnophila sp. Torenia Asiatica, moist places, very common. Vandellia crustacea, Bonnaya sp. fields near Vilputty. Buddlea discolor, Striga densiflora, ,», ? orobanchioides,? yellow flowers. Gerardia delphinifolia, very common. Pedicularis Zeylanica, most abundant on the higher ranges. 196 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW sERIZS, q UTRICULARIACER. Utricularia Wallichiana, 3 humilis, a racemosa, NycTAGINACE. Boerhaavia procumbens, Me humilis, Pisonia aculeata, lower slopes. he Bee AMARANTACEZ. Achyranthes aspera, 5 sp. Euxolus caudatus, lower slopes near Pulney. Psilotrichum nudum, is oe es /frua floribunda, . Amaranthus frumentaceus, (A flour is made from the seed. Celosia pulchella, | 5 argentea, CHENOPODIACEZ. Chenopodium ambrosioides, An abundant weed about Perryur. 4 POLYGONACEZ. Polygonum Nepalense, Kookul in fields. 33 Chinense, Very common, used medicinally. Rumex Nepalense, Kookul. ‘ BEGONIACES. Begonia dipetala, Abundant. LAURACES. Cinnamomum iners, Sholas very common. Alseodaphne semicarpifolia, Sholas. Cylicodaphne Wightiana, Tetranthera tomentosa, and 3 other trees of this order. : MYRISTICACEX. Myristica sp. ' (Palmanee kam.)- - tomentosa? the mace round the nut is used by 93 the natives to color their teeth. JAN.—MAR. 1858. | Pulney Hills. 197 ELEAGNACES. Elzagnus latifolius, very common, the berries are eaten. THYMELACEZ, ; grows to a tree in the Kookul shola, Gnidia eriocephala, much used by the natives as a fibre, and called Kat murke nar. SANTALACEA, Thesium Wightianum, near Kodakarnal. Osyris Wightiana, the bark is eaten like suparee with chunam, it turns the saliva red, a common shrub. Santalum album, near Pullatoor. ARISTOLOCHIACER. Aristolochia Indica, es acuminata, HUPHORBIACES. Euphorbia Rothiana, Be trigona, | 3 antiquorum, oe fecal, aiteee slopes, Me Nivulia, J Dalechampia velutina, common near Perryur. Tragia involucrata, is sp. densely covered with reddish hairs, (at Poombary common.) Acalypha Indica, = 5 a shrub, slopes towards Verupatchy. Macaranga Indica, (Arboreous, dizecious, leaves opposite, oblong, lanceolate, attenuated at both ends, serrate towards apex, glabrous—below covered with re- Claoxylon sp. ~ sinous dots, spikes axillary, male flowers glomerate, (not amentace- ous), spikes about the length of leaves—styles 3, capsule tricoccous U muricated. 198 Flora of the [wo. 6, NEW SERIES, Givotia Rottleriformis, very common. Ricinus communis, Rottlera peltata, a common tree. ia tinctoria, Baliospermum polyandrum, Briedelia spinosa ? lower slopes. = sp. do. Cluytia collina, Phyllanthus, 2 species, Melanthesa turbinata, Emblica officinalis, very common. Perryur—a large shrub, opposite, — lanceolate, shining, serrate leaves, — dense amentaceous axillary spikes. Glochidion ? very common on the higher ranges. common about Tandigoody, a sa Sarcococca trinervia, Reéidia floribunda, plant. leaves and stems covered with a few ; Macrea Rheedii? i silvery hairs, especially below, 4 margins ciliated. . (shrubby, erect, stems angled, glabr- 3 ous, leaves nearly sessile, oval, »» «SP. 4 whitish below, margins revolute— : | female pedicels half the length of L the leaves. URTICACEZ. Urtica vesicaria, sholas at Tandigoody. Laportea terminalis, a severely stinging plant. Girardinia Leschenaultiana, stings severely. Flowers used ne dicinally, very common, Elatostema cuspidata, abundant. Pilea trinervia, Bo Sp: Splitgerbera? with very large caducous stipules. Pouzolzia, 8 species, a CANNABINACES. Cannabis sativa, JAN.—MAR. 1808.] Pulney Hills. 199 MoRACEA. Dorstenia Indica, at Tandigoody. Covellia ? (Ficus), an enormous climber. Ficus, 8 or 9 sp. all trees, ARTOCARPACES. Artocarpus integrifolia, | abundant in sholas on the lower ranges. Conocephalus niveus, common, lower range. Trophis aspera, lower slopes, common. ANTIDESMEACE. Antidesma paniculata, PIPERACES. Peperomia Wightiana, very common. ps Dindigulensis, er reflexa, Piper attenuatum, » Wightii, CHLORANTHACES. Sarcandra chloranthoides, DioscoREACE, Dioscorea tomentosa, ss pentaphylla, roots eaten. 3 sp. SMILACES. Smilax Zeylanica, sholas near Cowangee. » maculata, very common, apolymorphous species. CYCADACEZ. Cycas circinalis, ORCHIDACEZ. Liparis olivacea, on rocks. 99 atropurpurea, Oberonia Arnottiana, » verticillata, He sp. aminutesp. Permaulmallay (on trees) 8000 feet, 200 Microstylis Rheedii, Ae versicolor, Dendrobium filiforme, Coelogyne corrugata, Pholidota imbricata, Ania latifolia, Eulophia ramentacea, Vanda Roxburghil, Saccolabium guttatum, i Wightianum, /@rides Lindleyana, Sarcanthus filiformis, Cymbidium aloifolium, Polystachya luteola, Calanthe Perrottetii, Satyrium sp. Platanthera Susanne, * lutea, - iantha, ys affinis, Peristylus exilis, Habenaria peristyloides, Sait elliptica, 55 plantaginea, Ae longicalcarata, 35 montana, “ Lindleyana, Ate virens, Josephia latifolia, Spiranthes Australis, Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIEs, on trees in sholas on the Permaul- mallay. on rocks near Vilputty. beautiful plant.) (A most e. rare, slopes between Kodakarnal and : Velaycovay. lower slopes. at Poombary. on rocks near Tandigoody. very common in sholas. (A most beau- tiful species.) 4 | very abundant all over the highesl : ranges, flowers a lively pink. | 7 at Kookul and Shambaganoor, very” common in the grass. 4 similar places to the last. Kookul ghat, a rare plant Se near Kookul. the commonest Orchid on the hills. _ common. apparently more than one species, in grass near Kodakarnal, —san.—mar. 1858.) Pulney Hills. 201 XYRIDACER. Xyris Indica, CoMMELYNACES. Commelyna polyspatha, “3 Bengalensis, Dictyospermum protensum, in sholas, Aneilema paniculata, — Cyanotis cristata, ee pilosa, JUNCACER, _ Juneus sp. : ss sp. 3 MELANTHACES. Disporum sp. Gloriosa superba, LILIACES. Lilium Wallichianum, very abundant higher ranges. Sanseviera Zeylanica, lower slopes. Anthericum tuberosum, Asparagus racemosus, Phalangium sp. Ophiopogon Indicus, Peliosanthes sp. — PONTEDERACEZ. Pontederia vaginalis, ZINGIBERACEZ. Zingiber squarrosum, Curcuma montana, Elettaria Cardamomum, much cultivated. Hedychium coronarium, banks of streams abundant. % + variety with straw colored flowers, Costus speciosus, MARANTACES. Canna ‘sp. Sholas at Tandigoody. AMARYLLIDACER, Crinum sp. 202 Fiora of the Pulney Hills. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, Hi yPpoxXIDACE2. Curculigo orchioides, - sp. ; ARACE. Arum sp. Poombary well, ESE Sholas near Kodakarnal. PANDANACEZ. Pandanus odoratissimus, PALMACEZ. Areca, (Kat pan.) Caryota urens, Lower ranges, a fibre is made from the peduncle. Borassus flabelliformis, about villages, lower ranges. Bentinckia condapana, Sholas. Pheenix sp. Cocos nucifera, rare about villages. EqQuisETACE. Equisetum sp. Poombary valley. GRAMINACEZ AND CYPERACEZ. Are both abundantly represented on these hills. BRYACEZ. This order is abundant. 2 LYcoPODIACEZ. Five or siX species, OPHIOGLOSSACEZ. Several species, PoLYPODIACER. Between 40 and 50 sp. all I believe Neilgherry forms. I have not attempted to name the Composite, in the above cata- logue, there are many of the larger Neilgherry forms, The above is not supposed to include nearly all the flora of the sholas (or moist woods) of the higher ranges, especially the trees, few of which were in flower at the period of my visit to these mountains, tet JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Notes of an excursion, &c. &c. 205 XII. Noles of an excursion along the Travancore Backwater. By Captain Heper Drury, 45th N. I. During a recent trip by water from Trevandrum to Cochin, it struck me that a few notes descriptive of what may be seen in the course of a hundred and thirty miles of the Western Coast might not be altogether devoid of interest. The country Iam about to describe lies within the kingdom of Tranvancore, the southernmost portion of Malayala, formerly known as the kingdom of Kerala, which comprised what is now designated Malabar and Canara, in- cluding the principalities of Travancore and Cochin. Travancore may be said to commence at Cape Comorin, and to include a nar- rowslip of territory lying between the Ghauts and the sea extending to within 20 miles of the town of Cochin, the total length being about 175 miles, and the breadth varying from 25 to 70 miles. The farthest distance, viz., from Cochin to a mountainous peak on the east boundary has been calculated at 75 miles, averaging about 35 miles throughout the entire distance, the total area comprising from 600 to 700 square miles, and within these limits is a country diversi- fied by scenery of the most unparalleled beauty, rich and teeming with the products of nature. The high mountain land which forms its eastern boundary is covered with dense forests, while the peri- odical rains which render the soil so fertile, cause the most profuse vegetation to spring up, giving a charming appearance of freshness _ and verdure unknown to the inhabitants of the eastern coast. As it is not my purpose to write a description of Travancore, I proceed at once to record such features or incidents as I noted in the journey recently undertaken. There are two routes on leaying Trevandrum for the north, one by the road, and the other by the eanal. I chose the fcrmer, for the canal is long, tedious and unin- teresting, whereas by land the distance is only eleven miles to Cunneapooram, where you at once reach the open backwater. The road is-througha fine semi-cleared jungle, rich in Botanical products, | _and though not thickly populated, a few villages occur at distant intervals, the largest of which are Ooloor and Wulleecotum, To a person arriving from the Coromandel Coast, the aspect ofa vil- 204 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES, lage in this part of the country cannot fail to excite surprise and interest, awakening associations of comfort and cleanliness, if not of a superior stage of civilisation, to which the tree-less and half- deserted villages on the other side of the Ghauts present a sad contrast. The great ambition of the Travancoreans, even of the lowest class, is to possess a garden, wherein they can grow with searcely any trouble or expense, the few necessaries of existence. Nature too flings her stores with such a liberal hand that little care is requisite in rearing the vegetable products which these people live upon. Hence it is that a Travancorean village is a series of huts, enclosed in gardens wearing an eternal verdure ~ fresh and cheerful to the eye. The peculiar trees which succeed q so well in this moist climate, combine to render the Nair cottages | and gardens most picturesque and comfortable. In one small en- closure may beseen grouped together the graceful Areca Palm (Areca Catechu,) the Jack tree (Arlocarpus integrifolius,) with the Pepper vine (Pzper Negrum) climbing up its bark. The Sago Palm (Caryota urens), the Talipot Palm (Corypha umbraculifera), besides the Cocoa palm, Plantain, Tamarind and Mango trees, &c. These gardens are protected by mud walls or hedges of different heights, and are traversed by little lanes and bye ways. That such too has been the custom for centuries, may be known from an ancient* book in my possession whose author describes them much as they are in the present day. Of the Nairs he records. ‘ They inhabite no Towns, but dwell in houses made of earth invironed with hedges and woods, and their waies as intricate as into a laborinth.”’ These Nairs—the principal inhabitants of Travancore—have, I am inclin- ed to think, degenerated from that martial valour for which their — ancestors were once sorenowned. Lightly clad, and witha remark- | able fairness of complexion, they appear to partake more of an | effeminate disposition than that described by earlier writers. It is a known fact that a Nair cannot, as a rule, bear transplantation — | from his native soil. Ina foreign country he pines away and dies; yet in former days the habits of the Nair were peculiarly military | and he was trained to hardship and the exercise of war from his earliest youth. The above quoted author remarks on this point. * Johnson’s Relations of the most Famous Kingdom in the World, 4to, 1611. JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 208 ** It is strange to see how ready the Souldiour of this country is at his weapons: they are all gentile men and tearmed Naires. At seven years of age they are put to school to learn the use of their weapons, where, to make them nimble and active, their sinnewes and joints are stretched by skilful fellows, and annointed with the oyle Sesamus : by this annointing they become so light and nimble that they will winde and turn their bodies as if they had no bones, casting them forward, backward, high, and low even to the aston- ishment of the beholders. Their continual delight is in their weapon perswading themselves that no nation goeth beyond them in skill and dexterity.’’ This description would be more applicable to a Parthian horseman or Roman Athlete than to the mild and delicate looking Nair of the present day. But the most peculiar feature in the domestic life of the Nair is in the institution of marriage, and the customs which result from his mode of observing this ceremony, so different from nearly all other nations of the world. The ceremony of marriage (the term ig a complete misnomer,) is performed at an early age by one of the near male relations of the family, usually by a cousin. When the forms attendant upon this nominal union have taken place, all communication between the youthful pair ceases, and the girl re- turns to her relations. On arriving at or near the age of maturity, a more real ceremony is performed, when another husband pre- ssents himself, and this couple now become man and wife; but should the husband after a certain period not be pleased with the lady of his choice, he has the option of returning her to her parents or relatives, when both are at liberty to seek a fresh union in other quarters. No disgrace is attached to this proceeding, nor is the summary divorce and violent disruption of the marriage tie in any way illegal. There isin point of fact, no actual marriage such as we understand the sacred institution, and it is in consequence of a custom so abhorrent to our feelings of propriety, and one so sub- versive of everything which should create and strengthen the ties and relationship of domestic life, that in cases of heirdom either to the throne of the royal family, or the succession to property, the descent is recognised only inthe female line. The nephew, not the son, becomes the heir. Truly the remark which Telemachus mekes 206 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES, to Minerva is most worthily appropriate to the Nair race.* From so strange a custom the moral tone of the inhabitants may be better conceived than} described. The same practice obtains, I believe in Nepaul. Returning from this digression on the Nair race, I come again to speak of the road I was traversing and which I remarked was one full of treasures for the botanical collector. It is a garden of wild plants the whole way, for scattered on either side are ‘ The living herbs, profusely wild, O’er all the deep green earth, beyond the power Of Botanist to number up their tribes.’ In enumerating afew of the trees and shrubs, which are met with, perhaps I may convey some idea of the Flora of these parts. Among the most conspicuous trees are many fine specimens of the Vateria Indica with its large panicles of white flowers, and bright green leaves whose veins are so prominently marked. It is well known that this tree, (commonly called the Piney Varnish tree,) yields a valuable Dammer resin. The Piney Gum or Indian Copal, as it is sometimes termed, is much used in these parts for varnish- ing doors and window frames, candles have also been made of a solid oil contained in it. The experimental manufacture which was conducted by Dr. Wight succeeded, but the cost of transmission to England precluded the hope of profit. The-Resin flows sponta- neously or is procured by making vertical and horizontal incisions in the bark, from which in the course of 12, or 24 hours it exudes very freely. The Natives state there are two varieties of this tree, one growing at the foot of the hills yielding a different colored dammer, but this I suspect is a mistake; and there is little or no difference in the trees, but that the difference in the color of resin — j is owing to local causes, probably from the season in which it is procured. It is probable that the ‘ green’ dammer is obtained * <¢ Stranger! I tell thee true ; my mother’s voice, Affirms me his, but, since no mortal knows His derivation, I affirm it not.” Hom. OdyssI. 216. Cowpers translation. + For a fall detail of this extraordinary custom of the Nairs, see Buchanan’s Journey Vol. 2. p. 411, 513, JAN—MAR, 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 207 from the Vatica Tumbagaia, a tree which I know from speci- mens before me, yields a dammer *resin; of a beautiful light green colour. Another resin similar to the Piney is yielded by the Cana- rium strictum, a tree very plentiful at the base of these mountains but which has hitherto attracted less notice than it deserves. Allthe above trees belong to the natural families of Dipterocarps or Tere- binths, both peculiar for yielding resin. Another handsome tree with dark green foliage growing here is the Hebradendron gambo- gioides. ‘This and several Garcinias are common in these jungles. A considerable quantity of Gamboge exudes spontaneously in largish tears from the trunk, but the quantity procurableis much in- creased by incision. ‘The Natives eat the fruit of some of the Gar- cinias with much relish, The Embryopterts glutinifera, or wild Man- gosteen is herefound. ‘This tree is very like the Mangosteen in appearance, and if introduced in gardens would be very ornamental. The viscid juice which surrounds the seeds is used by carpenters as a useful glue, but the fruit is quite uneatable. The Arlanthus Mala- 6aricus isnot uncommon. ‘The resin which exudes from the bark is known as Muttee pal, and is said to be a sovereign remedy in dysenteric affections. It has very balsamic properties. The Calo- santhes Indica, Macaranga Indica and tomentosa are plentiful. — The glutinous fluid which flows from the petioles and branches _when broken off exudes from both the above species of Macaranga. The large leaves of M7. tomentosa are hoary beneath with a soft white down, and are used in the bazars for wrapping spices, and similar articles, for purchasers. dlstonia scholaris, Plumiera acuminata, Odina Wodier and other large trees, are most deserving of men- tion, while conspicuous among lesser shrubs, is Gloriosa superba with its bright orange and yellow flowers so curiously arranged creeping from bush to bush, decidedly the most gorgeous of Indian creepers. The root is said to be poisonous. The Memecylon amplexicaule is a tropical shrub, which when its flowering stem of deep blue florets is in full blossom, cannot be sufficiently admired. The Mussenda frondosa with its white calycine leaf, contrasting so strongly with its orange coloured petals, Zabernemoniana crispa, * For information as to the varictics of Dammer, see Jury Report of Madras Exhibition.—Ep, 208 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES, Dodonea angustifolia, and Connarus monocarpus are also in abund- ance here. This latter shrub has flowers of exquisite fragrance, and is constantly in blossom The black seed is surrounded by a yellow pulpy aril which is used by the Natives in the following cases. There is a kind of worm which attacks their feet when bathing in tanks or walking in muddy places and by the application of the aril of this seed the worm is either destroyed or expelled. A pretty flowering shrub along the road side is the Osbechia aspera and a smaller species the O. virgata. Carissas are very frequent, the Holos- temma Rheedit, a charming creeper may occasionally may be met with. It is the Adakodien of the Hortus Malabaricus. Asa creeper for trellis work few Asclepiads could vie with its elegant flowers in beauty, Asystasia Coromandeliana, (a variety with yellow flowers like our English Primrose,) and a beautiful epiphyte the Vanda spathulata of a deeper yellow still are common. But I have no space to enumerate all the beauties of Floras that might be gathered in a ramble through thesejungles. Among others may be found Lvésea Zeylanica, Careya arborea, Syzyguum Zeylanicum, Ixora coccinea, Vitis lanata, Gratiola monmera, Cyanolis axillaris, Bryophyllum calycinum, Morinda exserta, Caliiearpa lanata, Smilax ovalifoha, &c., &c. On reaching Cunneapooram, there is great abundance of the Calophyllum spurium, which tree is easily recognised by its young leaves being of a reddish brown hue, giving a singular appearance to the forests at the season of the year when they begin to sprout. At this time (October) the tree is in full flower. At Cunneapooram the back-water commences. Here a hybrid kind of boat for the reception of the Palankeen was in readiness. This is called a Jangadum, and consists of two canoes lashed to- gether with a platform over them. Upon this latter flooring the palkee is placed, and the whole is urged lazily through the water, two rowers and two men with long bamboo poles. The water here is rather wide in some places—but not deep. The banks are lined with the Cocoa palm andlow brush-wood, There is no object of interest until you come to the town or rather village of Anjengo, formerly a place of some note in our early commercial relations with these parts, but now a desolute and almost deserted spot. Anjengo, a corruption of two Tamil words ‘“ Unjee Tenkal” the JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 209 five Cocoa trees. The remains of the Fort are close to the water edge, now filled with rubbish and jungle. At Anjengo was for many years an English factory. It rose into importance upon the decline of Quilon, and was one of the last re- tained by us on this Coast. The Portuguese were the earliest pos- sessors of the spot and the ruins of their Church still exist.* In its palmiest days Anjengo must have beena lively place. ‘ The for- tress,” says Forbes, “contained store houses, accommodation for the garrison and apartments for the chief who was a member of coun- cilat Bombay. The civilians and military officers resided in to- lerable houses &c.’’ At the present day a few scattered houses tenanted by East Indians and Natives are all that remain of this once gay and merry station. The place still belongs to the East India Company, and is now chiefly famous for the manufacture in painted wood of the different castes of the inhabitants of the coun- try. These are creditably executed, a male and female of each sect, about 8 or 4 inches in height, draped and ornamented, and on the whole faithful representations. A complete set costs about 40 or 45 Rupees. Great quantities of Lemon grass oil are manu- factured at this place. The oil is distilled from the leaves of the Andropogon citratum, common in the country. As a remedy for rheu- -matism this oil is much valued. An East Indian located here is a — fair Taxidermist, and keepsa collection of stuffed birds and animals for sale. Of the latter may be chiefly procured the wild Cat, (Fels Chaus,) Civet, (Viverra Zibetha,) Mongoose (Ichneumon mungos,) Flying squirrel, (Scruroplera oral,) Malabar squirrel (Sciurus maxi- mus) &e., and among the rest that curious fish the Sea horse (Hip- pocampus,) Which is caught in great numbers on the Coast. One or two celebrated characters have claimed Anjengo as their birth place. Robert Orme, the Historian of Hindostan, first saw light in this remote spot. He was educated at Harrow School, became a member of Council at Madras, and died in England at the advanced age of 73 years. It was at Anjengo that was born Mrs. Elizabeth Draper, an East Indian, the wife of one of the Councillors of Surat, and the lady to whom Sterne addressed the well known * letters to Eliza.” Ihave heard of people stopping at Anjengo to * Forbes’ Oriental Memoirs, 210 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES, visit Eliza’s tomb, under the idea that the defunct lady reposes in the spot of her birth, but alas for the disappointed pilgrim, Eliza enjoys a marble monument ina church in Bristol, far from the land of her nativity. | A few miles beyond Anjengo the water communication ceases. A strip of elevated land about six miles in breadth runs out to the Coast, ending in an abrupt cliff of laterite about 250 feet in height. Travellers land at a small village called Coletotum, where bearers are in readiness to carry them to the opposite side where the back-water is again reached. The road used is partly the sea beach itself, and partly the summit of the cliffin land. About a quarter of a mile from Coletotum there is a Bungalow situated on the clifis built by the Sircar for the accommodation of Traveliers and from this spot the view is extremely beautiful. To the Eastward rises the magnifi- cent line of Ghauts, to the South are the windings of the Back- water dotted occasionally with small Islands whose banks are adorned with thick groves of the Cocoa Palm, Mango, Jack tree, and other features of oriental scenery. The whole landscape is peculiarly striking and picturesque. To the west is the sea-board stretching from Quilon on one side to the low cliffs beyond Tre- vandrum on the other. I have said before that the cliffs here are composed chiefly of laterite and are known as the Verkullay cliffs. Immediately below the laterite formation of the surface are seen a series of various coloured clays and sandstones, and below them again a remarkable deposit of lignite which crops out in hori- zontal seams of some extent the base being washed by the breakers: This latter deposit extends for many miles along the coast being found at Cannanore, Mangalore, and other places.* It can be ap- plied to no use asa fuel though of vegetable origin. Below the lignite some specimens of fossil limestone have been discovered by General Cullen. In several places, the laterite here assumes many curious forms having all the appearance of fossils, both animal and vegetable. It has not however, yet been proved that laterite is a fossiliferous deposit, and some persons are inclined to think that the result arises from the action of the rains on a clay highly im- * A notice of this lignite from the pen of the late Capt, Newbold will be found in Vol. xi. p. 239, of this Journal—Ep. M. J. JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 214 pregnated with iron, which ia perforated by certain minute insects and becomes indurated by exposure tothe atmosphere. This is a curious point to be decided by Geologists. But the age, formation and history of the laterite is still a gqwestio vexata, and until more light is thrown upon the origin of so extensive a deposit, we must remain in partial ignorance of its contents. A few scattered shrubs are seen on these cliffs. A species of Barlerza with pretty blue flowers is frequent. It makes an excellent border plant in gar- dens. The Pandanus odoratissimus grows plentifully here also. There appear to me to be two distinct varieties of this shrub. One has a more bushy head, the leaves are darker colored and the spinal processes are disposed at shorter intervals than in the other, which is more open and lax in appearance and the spines are thick- ly set together. As a plant for binding the banks of canals, &c., itisinvaluable. On the right hand side, about midway after leaving the Bungalow lies the village of Paroor, where there is a famous Pagoda and artificial tank. Near this is a mineral spring which deserves to be better known. The water of this spring was former- ly brought to Anjengo for sale. It was near Paroor on the banks of the Attengalriver, that a former *Rajah of Travancore encamped for ten years in order to dispute the passage of the Rajah of Quilon. His patience was rewarded after so long a delay by the capture of the latter Prince and the annexation of his territories to Travancore. Paroor too was the scene of an action in later times betweeen the British forces and the troops of the Travancore Rajah commanded by the Dewan. A force moved out from Quilon under command of Colonel Chalmers: proceeding to Paroor, he made a successful attempt to dislodge the enemy from theirsituation. The Nairs though far exceeding in number the handful of British troops op- posed to them, fled in confusion leaving several guns behind them. This took place during the troubles in 1809. ‘Two or three miles beyond Paroor, the backwater appears once more in view and boats are in readiness at a place called Eddavah. This was formerly a Danish factory, and the English Governor of Anjengo built a villa there in which he occasionally came to reside. The village now consists of a few shops and fishermen’s huts inhabited by Moplahs — * Bartolomeo’s Voyage to Hast Indies. 212 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW sERIng, and Christians. From Eddavah to Quilon the distance is about 12 miles, a journey performed by boats in 3 or 4 hours. There is nothing remarkable in the voyage unless it be several slightly ele- vated terraces at short intervals which have much the appearance of ancient sea beaches. The uniformity of level is remarkable, and the distance from the present sea line not being great, would perhaps occasion the Geologist no great difficulty in arriving at the history of their origin. Quilon at present garrisoned by a Corps of Native Infantry, was formerly* a place of some importance. It is variously spelt Col- lam, Coulam and Coilon, signifying in Tamil ‘language ‘ a tank.”’ It was built, says Bartholomew, in 825 after Christ, and was for- merly a city of considerable note. The natives of Malabar begin their era at the period of its foundation saying ‘‘ so many years 3 after the foundation of Collam.’ spacious fortress here, near the modern town of Tangancharey. It The Portuguese built a large and is now quite in ruins. Quilon at one time had an independent prince of its own known by the title of the Rajah of Tangancha- rey. He was subdued and taken prisoner by Vira-Martanda, Ra- jah of Travancore in 1764, when his territory was annexed to the latter kingdom. One of the earliest accounts of Quilon is found in the travels of Marco Polo, who lived in the fourteenth century. Discoursing on the several products of this country, he especially alludes to the manufacture of Indigo which he asserts was made here of superior quality and in great quantities. He gives the process of its manu- facture as follows. ‘They procure it from a herbaceous plant which is taken up by the root and put into tubs of water where it is suffered to remain till it rots, when they press out the juice. This again being exposed to the sun and evaporated leaves a kind of paste which is cut into small pieces of the form in which we see _ Marco Polo’s Travels, p. 410, Bohn’s Ed. * ‘¢ About two hundred years ago, the Town was rich, and great and populous ; traded to by many Indians, enlarged by the Samoryn, and able to number a hun- dred thousand inhabitants; of such repute it then was for situation, trade, and fidelity of the Cowlamites. But now, the period of her excellency is outrun ; for Calicut first, and then Gow have not only monopolized but attracted the trade of ee well as other parts thereabouts.” Sir Thomas Herbert’s Voyage, p. 339, JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 213 it brought to us.”’ This rude process of the early manufacture of Indigo is, as the English Translator has remarked, pretty correct. Indigo to a slight extent is still made at Quilon, though at the pre- sent day the place is more famous for its lace manufactory. That it was.a place of bustling trade in early time is apparent from the author above mentioned for he says, ‘‘ Merchants resort thither from various parts of the world such for instance as the kingdom of Mangi and Arabia, attracted by the great profits they obtain both wpon the merchandise they import, and upon their returning cargoes. Many of the animals found here are different from those of other parts. There are tigers entirely black, and various birds of the parrot kind, some of them are white as snow, with the feet and back red, others of a diminutive size, &c.’’ The ‘ black tiger’ is the dark spotted cheetah found in the neighbouring jungles.’’— Bartholomew, who wrote some 3 or 400 years later, alludes to the commercial activity of Quilon. ‘In this city, there were formerly a great many weaving looms as well as manufactures of cotton and stone ware. Even at present the most ingenious artists reside at Collom. Cotton, pepper, ginger and’ other kinds of merchandise are carried hither by water, and deposited in ware houses.’’ Proba- bly Anjengo and subsequently Allepey eclipsed Quilon as a com- mercial emporium. At one time a considerable force was maintained at Quilon in- cluding a European Corps with artillery. The grave yard at Tangencharey is filled with tombs of deceased officers and sol- diersof a Queen’s Regiment formerly stationed there. During the troubles in 1809, an action was fought here between the Bri- tish and Travancoreans. This took place under Colonel Chalmers, then commanding the forces. He moved out to meet the ene- my, who were approaching from the side of Trevandrum and were commanded by the Dewan in person, amounting to nearly 30,000 men with 18 guns. The engagement which ensued was of short duration. In less than five hours the insurgents were total- ly defeated losing nearly all their artillery and leaving a large number of slain on the ground. Such was the battle of Quilon.* * The Nairs were again defeated here in a brilliant engagement by Colonels Picton and Stewart, who dispersed and utterly disorganised the rebel force and captured all their artillery in 1810. 214 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES, The residency here, built by Col. Munro, is charmingly situat< ed on a slightly rising ground overlooking the back-water. It is a lovely spot, and the park like appearance of the grounds at the back of the house add considerably to its beauty. The garden is spacious and well laid out, the walls skirting the water, and to- wards the south is a small bay on one side of which is seen the house allotted by the Sircar to the officer commanding the station and immediately opposite the house of John Liddell Esq., both prettily situated at the bank and sourrounded with Casuarinas and other trees. On leaying Quilon, the scenery of the back-water becomes more romantic and pleasing. lLaterite cliffs, about fifty or sixty feet high, rise on either side enclosing little bays with calm and deep | blue waters. These cliffs are very picturesque. Small shrubs among which are Mussenda, Ixora, Osbeckia, &c. cover the broken sides and fallen fragments of rock half lying in the water, while the level summits are occupied by gardens, plantations, or small patches of cultivation. Immediately on leaving the Residency, will be seen on the left hand side at the apex of one of these jutting cliffs, a small obelisk enclosed by a group of Casuarinas. This was erected as a tribute of affection by a Captain Gordon to the me- mory of afavourite dog, which was drowned near the spot. Be- yond this on another rising ground is a tiled Bungalow, charmingly situated in a bay known familiarly as Loch Lomond. An officer detached from the Nair Brigade to take charge of the out-posts formerly resided here. It has been unoccupied for many years, though occasionally made use of as a place for picnics and plea- | sure parties from Quilon. About halfa mile beyond this the water opens out into a spacious and beautifulbay. Into this extensive sheet of water pours the Tiruvalla river, and there is an outlet to the sea at its Western extremity known as the bar of Neendacara. The extent of the bay is very considerable, enough to contain half the navy of England, and in fact it is one of the largest harbours in the Peninsula. Unfortunately the water is very shallow which has been the great drawback to its use; what improvements engi- neering science might accomplish under European superintendence it is impossible to say, but could this noble inlet from the sea i JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 215 ever be made available for the purpose of ship building the advan- tages would be incalculable. The river would float down timber direct from the forests, and the possession of a harbour of refuge like this on the Western Coast would be beneficial in the highest degree to the interests of Commerce. The banks of the water are covered with many interesting plants, and among them will be found Bruguiera, Rhizophora, Cerbera Odol- lam, Dilivaria ilicifolia, Excoecaria Camettia, Scevola Taccada, &c. The latter shrub (Rheede calls it arbor excelsa) contains a very acrid caustic juice of which the Natives are greatly afraid. With much difficulty I persuaded them to collect a small quantity. If the juice gets into the eyes the pain would be intense, perhaps causing loss of sight. Other trees* found here are Alstonia scholaris, Calosanthes Indica, Terminalia catappa, Ailanthus Malabaricus, while in the low lands and paddy fields Spheranthus hirtus, Utricularia, Sphe- noclea Zeylanica, and Asteracantha longifolia are common two or three miles beyond Quilon, the scenery becomes more tame and. monotonous, the passage being sometimes through canals occasion- ally expanding into broad sheets of water. The sea beach at times is very near, the sandy hillocks peeping out here and there between the strips of jungle, or Cocoa palms and fishing villages. The sands are partly covered with [pomea pes-capre, Spinifex squarrosus and Dactylon lagopoides. ‘The singular Mangrove tribe is common along the backwater. It is curious to remark the wonderful pro- vision of nature displayed in this family of plants for the preser- * The Revd. H. Johnston lately furnished us with a list of Orchids found by him in the Travancore Forests, which appropriately finds a place here.—Ep, M. J. Pholidota imbricata, Saccolabium rubrum, Evia paucifiora, Cotionia macrostachys, Celogyne corrugata, rides Lindleyana, Dendrobium filtforme, Wightiana, ——_—— Mmacrostachyum, Sarcanthus paucifiorus, = ramosissimum, Polystachya purpurea, — barbatulum, Cymbidium aloifolium, Bolbophyllum tremulum, —— triste, —_——-—— Neilgherrense, Geodorum dilataium, Lichenora Eulophia virens, Arundina bambusifelia, Vanda spathulata, Josephia lanceolata, latifolia, Roxburghii, Habenaria Jerdoniana, Wightiana, | Podochilus Malataricus, Saccolabium Wightianum, and others not determined. — gultatum. — papillosum, 216 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES, vation of the species. Take for example the Kandelia Rheedii and see the long pendulous roots hanging from the boughs, perhaps the only instance of the kind where the seeds actually begin to germi- nate before falling from the parent branch. When of sufficient length, should they not reach the water, they drop off, and sink by their own weight in the soft muddy bottom, from whence the new plant springs up. Now were the seeds to drop off at once when ripe, as in other plants, the stream would naturally carry them away, but by this wise yet simple adaptation of means to an_ end, the plants have the power of increasing to an indefinite extent, in situations where their utility is required and appreciated. The mangrove tribe has an extensive range being found in all tropical countries in salt marshy places, along the shore of the sea. About twenty miles from Quilon to the left hand is the village of Porcaad, the Dutch had a factory here, and it was formerly a very populous place, but its importance as a pepper depot decreas- ed on the rise of Allepey. Some miles beyond Porcaad, and with- in twelve miles of Allepey, on the right hand side at a place called Ambalapuley, the traveller will remark a curious stone image the size of life, standing half out of the water, and apparently in a running attitude. It hasa singular appearance. I could never ascertain anything beyond its legendary history, for stories tell that itis the image of a murderer whose victim was a woman he had slain in the vicinity: After the commission of the foul deed, he attempted to escape by running through the water to the oppo- site side, but the hand of avenging justice turned him into stone * on the spot, where he has remained ever since. The image ofa man apparently in the act of running is very remarkable. For- merly the boatmen when passing by the haunted locality used to 5 | cross themselves and mutter the name of their patron Saint Anthony a as they quickly glided by the image of the murderer. : Proceeding along from Ambulapuley there are extensive rice- % fields on either side, as might naturally be expected in a tract of i country so flat and so abundant in water. The physical configu- — } The Mangrove tribe are most numerous at the Equator, asin Sumatra. Hel- fer collected 17 species in the Tenasserim Provinces.—ED. M. J JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 217 ration of Travancore is not favourable to the production of large quantities of rice except in certain parts. Patches of cultivation in the hollows between the undulating hills are met with far amid the interior forests to the very base of the hills, but it is only in level tracts like those near Allepey, and the Southern district of Graneel and Calcaud that very extensive sheets of rice cultivation occur. The rest of Travancore, in spite of its natural capabilities, is still allowed to remain desert and uncultivated. Why are all these fine lands permitted to exist in their primitive barrenness ? With a noble water communication from one end of the country to the other, with creeks and rivers pouring into this inland sea from every side, yet no effort is made to take advantage of such admirable facilities for the development of the natural resources of the country. British enterprise is not wanting for the undertak- ing under favorable circumstances, but until sufficient protection is ensured to the speculator by the Native Government, Travan- core must remain a sealed country inregard to trade and improve- ment, when it may be hoped that a happier era will dawn upon the people. General Cullen has proved by the successful establish- ment of gardens at different elevations, (Vailey Makay and else- where,) how well the cultivation of such products as the following prosper, viz., Potatoes, wheat, coffee, sugar, nutmegs, cloves, cocoa &c., all of which thrive and yield abundant produce. Allepey, Aulopolay, or Alapushe, as it has been variously named, is the present commercial port of Travancore, and the principal depot for salt, Cardamoms, Pepper, Teak-wood and other products of the country. It is reached by a canal leading from the back- water nearly due west, the length being about three miles. This canal is entirely artificial, and is crossed by several bridges, facili- tating trade and communication to and from the northern and southern sides. Pievious to entering the canal there is a very deep basin, some 40 or 50 feet in depth, inhabited by alligators of of enormous size, which may often be seen basking on the banks, It was in this pool that at the beginning of this century the reigning minister threw such hapless Europeans as chanced to fall into his hands, first sewing them up alive in sacks, and then in- dulging in the pastime of casting them into the deep waters to 218 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES, become the prey of the monsters at the bottom. The banks of the canal leading to Allepey are fringed with several in- teresting plants. The Lantana Indica, with its pale pink, orange and white varieties of flowers, is strikingly beautiful. The scarlet festoons of the Barringtonia acutangula, and the gorgeous golden spikes of the Cassia alata are chiefly conspicuous, large specimens of the Z'erminalia Catappa overhang the banks, while the Pandanus so admirably adapted for retaining the soil and prevent- ing its gliding into the water is plentifully planted. The large kind of dock, the Colocasia nympheifolia, with its finely reticulated leaves is thickly growing at the waters edge. Of this latter plant, there are two kinds, to all appearance similar, but one is cultiva- ted for the sake of its roots, which are eaten, while the other is not. The cultivated species is I believe the Caladium evatum, the Ka- rinfola of Rheede. Important as Allepey is to the Travancore Government asa commercial depot, from the facility of an inland water communica- tion, which enables the forest products to be brought to the very doors of the godowns established for their reception, yet undoubt- edly its greatest advantage as an emporium arises from the singu- lar natural breakwater formed in the open roadstead, and which consists of a long and wide bank of mud, the effect of which is so completely to break the force of the houses, that large vessels in the stormiest weather can securely anchor in the open roads, where the water is as calm as a mile-pond. Itis this extraordinary de- posit which has earned for Allepey the name of “ mud bay.” The — origin of this deposition of so large a quantity of mud in the open sea about two or three miles from the shore, and so many miles ~ from any bar or outlet from the backwater has never been satifac- torily accounted for. From the circumsiance of there being no a natural outlet for the vast accumulation of waters which are poured down from the various mountain streams into the basin of the back- 7 water, nearer than thirty six miles on either side, it is not impro- bable that there exists a subterraneous channel communicating with the sea from the backwater through which the large quantity of mud is carried off and thrown up again by the sea in the form of a bank. See Captain Coape’s Voyage to the Hast Indies. rete neh wae . ig: nah ai ee oe ae fe. Fey = or ee. aan ‘, £2 ate t -, ae ee ee Be near ee ra ag i ain jeg PATS 3 : z « ra r ha ae a = Ue E a a <. te, © JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 219 Being subject to tidal action the bank is more or less shifting certain seasons but not toa material extent. Itimparts a dirty brown colour to the water for a considerable distance, and close to the shore the water is usually of a thickish consistency being deeply impregnated with mud and slime. But whatever may have been the origin of this mud bank, it creates a natural harbour for shipping as secure as any land-locked bay in the world. Allepey is 54 miles from Quilon and 36 miles from Cochin. It is the last place of any im- portance on the route. After leaving it the backwater opens out into a large and very spacious bay stretching across to the eastward to a distance of ten miles or more. The low coast on the oppo- site side cannot be seen from the boat’s deck, though the ghauts rising in the back ground to the height of 4 or 5,000 feet are clearly visible and form a grand boundary to the landscape. From hence to Cochin the backwater is of varying width, containing small islands, which with the main-land are buried in the everlasting Cocoa palm. Occasionally to the east a clearer view is obtained, and the distant mountain chain and thick jungle at its base afford a striking and beautiful prospect. About mid-way on the right hand side is the town of Vyekkum a place of considerable sanctity. There is a large pagoda here dedicated to Shiva. Vyekkum was a place of refuge to the Brahmins and other Hindoo sects flying from the licentious sol- diers of Tippoo when the latter invaded the Cochin territories in 1788-9. On, on, nothing but water and Cocoanuts till at last the Residency at Balghetty embosomed in tufted trees is sighted ata distance, and to the left the shipping in Cochin harbour and the bust- ling busy town of Cochin itself about two miles away. Brundisium longe finis charteque vieque, 220 Numismatic Gleanings. [no. 6, NEW SERIES, XIII. Numismatic Gleanings. By WattzeR E.tior, Madras Civil Service. No. l. Although considerable attention has been paid of late years to the investigation of the Hindu and Mahomedan coins of India, numismatologists have confined their researches chiefly to those oc- curring north of the Nerbudda and in the trans Indus provinces ad~- jacent the N. West frontier. But whilst the writings of Prinsep, Professor Wilson, Cunningham, Thomas, and others, give ample details of the historical results deducible from the ancient coins which have been discovered in Upper India and Bactria, scarcely any notice has been taken of those of the south. A principal cause of this neglect is probably to be found in the comparatively uninteresting character of the coins themselves. Although sufficiently numerous and of very diversified types, they rarely present an intelligible legend, and hardly ever a date. As subjects of historical inquiry therefore, their value is propor- _ tionably small. Something however may still be gleaned from 7 them by the patient investigator of pastevents. The localitiesand _ extent of range in which they are found, the variations in the ty- 4 pical symbols of a series, and the occasional occurrence of a name or title, afford data for drawing conclusions, which in the dearth of historical records are far from unimportant. Southern India presents the extraordinary spectacle of a people 2 { who have carried the art of composition to a high degree of cul- eq tivation without having produced a single work of a really histo- rical character. The cheritras, paitiyams, kat’has, van'sadvalis, dan= — dakaviles, mahatmyas which profess to record historical facts are ! hittle better than mythological romances, filled with chronological : } extrayagancies and preternatural fables. | JAN.—MAR. 1858. ] Numismatic Gleanings. 221 The only trustworthy data now extant from which a knowledge of former events can be gathered, are the contemporary records offered by deeds of gift inscribedon stone and copper and by coins. Scattered, obscure and imperfect facts derived from these sources supply almost the whole of the knowledge we possess of the earlier southern dynasties and kingdoms. It is the object of the following papers to draw attention to the latter of these fields of inquiry and by stimulating a more general and combined investigation of the coins of southern India, to col- lect and digest the information which may be extracted;from them. A large collection of Hindu and Mahomedan coins was formed by Col. Mackenzie chiefly though netexclusively in the south, which is deposited in the India House Museum. From it duplicates were furnished to the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, but most of these have been lost. The original cellection contained upwards of 5,000 spe~ cimens, the list of which including a few European coins, occupies from pages ccxxIv. to ccxxxtIx. of the second volume of Wilson’s Catalogue. The Central Museum at Madras contains a pretty good collection derived from the cabinet transferred to it from the Literary Society, greatly enlarged and extended by the present in- defatigable Curator. These are the only public cabinets of any extent with which we are acquainted. But several private col- lections of varying importance are known to exist, the contents of which it is important to ascertain. The first published notice of coins belonging exclusively to southern India, occurs in Moore’s Hindu Pantheon, where, in 1809, the author figured 23 specimens from a small collection procured by Major Price at the prize sale of the contents of Tippoo’s trea- sury, after the capture of Seringapatam. Moore has also describ- ed and figured a series of Mysore coins in his narrative of Little’s Detachment, p. 465. In 1832, Prof. Wilson inserted a paperon the coins deposited in the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, in which he included observations on those received from the Mackenzie collection. This was printed in the XVII. Vol. of the Asiatic Researches and is accompanied by figures of 53 specimens. The descriptions are 222 Nususmatic Gleanings. [wo. 6, NEW SERIES, extremely short and throw little light on the subject. The speci- mens of southern coins which fell in the way of James Prinsep were not likely to be overlooked by such a zealous numismatolo- gist. They appear to have been but few and are included in his plate of Ceylon coins published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society in the year 1837.* These together with such other incidental re- ferences as have fallen in our way, will be duly noticed in their pro- per places. We possess no data to show at what period the use of a coined currency as a medium of exchange was introduced into India. But this we know, that the art of stamping metal with a die for such a purpose, came into Asia from the west. Long previous however to the introduction of a die-coinage, the employment of pieces of metal stamped or punched with various symbols was general throughout India. Itis true that a punch or wedge (in French coigne whence the modern term coin) was also used in the fabri- cation of the earliest known coins of Europe. But this was al- ways done in conjunction with a die or matrix on which the piece of metal was placed and an impression obtained by means of a smart blow with a hammer on the wedge. One side only of the coin therefore was stamped, the reverse exhibiting the marks of the wedge in the form of one or more square cavities. The oldest Hindu coins, on the other hand, are distinguished by numerous small indented symbols cut on the punch itself and evi- dently struck at different times, the later ones often obliterating those which had been previously impressed. And this mode ap- pears to have continued without the introduction of. any interme- diate process until superseded at once by an improved die-coin- age with perfect reverses. European writers assign the earliest known employment of wedge struck pieces by the Greeks, to the middle of the 7th Century B. C. The piece of metal was generally of a spherical shape which be- came somewhat flattened after being struck. Ofthis kind are the staters of Melitus, the drachmas of Egina called aayeva or thick, * Vol. Wa. Fal. OX JAN.—MaR. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 223 the gold and silver darics, &c. The use of double dies appears to have been adopted by the Greeks about the 4th Century B. C. The art was transported by the Macedonian conquest into central Asia. From the Bactrian colonies, it passed into Hindustan and appears to have been carried across the Indus about two centu- ries before the Christian era. The first known exemplars of such improved coinage are those of the monarchs of the Sah dynasty, whose coins of the size and form of a hemidrachma, are described by Prinsep as the Surashtra group. So servileis the imitation that an attempt has even been made to retain an imperfect, and now unintelligible Greek legend on the obverse, whilst the letters on the reverse exhibit an antique » form of Dévanagari. But the skill of the die-cutter rapidly de- teriorated and the workmanship soon became barbarous, till it as- sumed anew and purely Hindu type in the coins of the Gupta dynasty. The eraassigned to the Sah Kings by the latest autho- rities is from about 180 or 170, to about 50 B. C.* The progress of the art towards the south and east was very slow. It did not come into general use south of the Nerbudda until the fifth or sixth century. But this refers rather to the pre- cious metals, for leaden die-struck coins are found in considerable numbers, which appear to date somewhat earlier. Up to the beginning of the present century the money of the trans-Gangetic nations was noting more than lumps of silver, like the sycee of the Chinese. China, although so much in advance of all other Asiatic nations in the arts, did not possess a stamped coinage till after the Christian era. Smooth pieces of metal which served rather for weights than for currency, date according to Chinese authorities from Kieng-Wang who reigned B. C. 524, but the earliest known piece with the name of a sovereign is attributed to the Emperor Wen-ti of the lesser Sung dynasty who flourished A. D. 465.} * Thomas, Jour. R. As. Soc. Vol, XII. p. 45. + 1. Hager, Description des Medailles Chinoises. The oldest known representatives of value in Eastern countries were shells. The cowry, cyprea moneta, even yet serves for purposes of small change in parts of 224 Numismatic Gleanings. {No. 6, NEW SERIES, The coins described in this paper are for the most part stamped Of Buddhist with emblems peculiar to the worship of Buddha. comme. They have therefore been classed generally as Bud- dhist coins, and these again have been divided into ’saldka or punch- coins* and die-coins. > India as well as in Siam, China, Japan, and great part of Africa and the radical character or key in the Chinese words for “ silver,’ “ money,” “* riches,” “ precious,” ** expense,”’ &c., is poet or “ shell.”’ The export of cowries has always formed a principal article of trade from the Maldive Islands and the east coast of Africa. Nails and bars of metal have alse been made to serve the same end, Tavernier found pieces of twisted wire called laris, [from the province of Lar in Persia] in general use as money, on the Malabar coast. Thunberg saw them likewise in cir- culation in Ceylon, and Knox describes a similar kind [p. 197,] “ which all people by the king’s permission, may and do make : the shape is like a fish hook, they stamp what mark or impression on it they please.’’ These seem to resemble the Celtic rings feund in Britain and the obolz of the ' Greeks, which were nothing more than £abob-skewers— ofehor —a hand- ful of which or about six, made a drachma from OpaTtew ‘to grasp with the hand.”’ The knife and tile money of the Chinese, in the form of a scimitar or of a plummet, described by Du Halde [II. 1€6 and 168 &c.,] and by Hager [pp. 85 and 41,] was of asimilar but more elaborate description and the gold kopang of Japan, still in use, is simply an oblong plate of gold with the angles rounded off. In the Manikyala Tope, General Ventura found specimens of shell- money, @. ¢. of the cowry, (J. A. S. B. Vol. III. Pl. XXI. f. 17,) together with the spherical flattened ingot (Ib. Pl. XXII. f. 25,) Indo-Scythian and Sassanian coins, all of which had been deposited in the mound at the same time. In another tope opened by General Court, Roman denarii of An- tony and Julius Cesar and coins of some Roman families were found asso- ciated with Indo Scythic pieces of Kadphises. In Abyssinia pieces of rock salt serve for money. Dr. Barth found stripes of cotton called farda and shirts called déra employed for the same purpose : | in Bornou. * Jas. Prinsep calls them ch’hdp or “stamp” coins, J. A. S. B. III. 44, Col. Stacy chungahs, Ib. p. 433, see too the same Journal I. 394, IV, 621, 629, JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 225 The prevalence of the Buddhist faith over the whole of India for two or three centuries before and fora still longer period after the Christian era, sufficiently explains the preference shown to such symbols. Extensive Buddhist remains can still be traced throughout the Madras Presidency. Trichinopoly tobacco would be especially interesting. H. P. H. (7.) On Burmese coins.—Do any bona fide Burmese coins exist? if not what is the currency in use? H. P. H. Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India. [At the request of the Committee of the Madras Branch of this Society, we insert the following notice of the Premia for 1858, offered by the Ben- gal Society. The importance, in an economic point of view, of the subjects thus brought forward, cannot be exceeded by any intelligence of a scientific character. We trust that the long continued exertions made by this Society, and by the Government of India, may yet eventuate in the development of those resources, in which India is so rich, and which if drawn upon more large- ly may yet be the means of advancing her national prosperity and the wealth of her inhabitants. The Premia for Essays are particularly interesting, and we trust that the liberal prizes offered may produce works of general and popular utility. — The Fibres, paper materials, and substitutes for Gutta Percha, are all sub- jects of importance to every one interested in this country, and we are confident, that our own Presidency will not be backward, in the deyelop- ment of these articles as commercial products.’’] SAN.—MAR. 1858.] Agri. and Hort. Society of India. 269 List oF PREMIA FoR 1858. Premia for certain Articles of Raw Produce, &c., Fibres (substitute for Flax.) For?the production of any new vegetable fibre, which can be successfully applied to all the purposes for which flax is now used, and of which not less than 10 maunds to become the property of | the Society.—Rs. 1,000, and Gold Medal. Fibres (substitute for Hemp.) For the production of a quantity of any vegetable fibre, which can be successfuily applied to the purposes for which hemp is now used, and equally strong and durable, and of which not less than 10 maunds to become the property of the Society.—Rs. 500, and Gold Medal. Fibres Rheea. _ For the production of at least 25 maunds of Rheea fibre, the whole to be the produce of the party tendering it, and of which 5 maunds to become the property of the Society, to be accompanied by adetailed statement of the process followed in its cultivation and after preparation, and the cost of the same. The quality to be approved by the Society, and the fibre to be in a fit condition for the English market.—Rs. 1,000, and Gold Medal. NV. B.—In the event of there being more than one competitor, the premium to be adjudged to the best specimen. Cotton (Exotic) long staple variety. For the production of at least 10 maunds of good merchantable cotton, raised from foreign seed of the black-seeded long staple kind.—Rs. 1,000, and Gold Medal. Cotton (Indigenous. For the production of at least 5 maunds of cotton raised from in- digenous seed, of a quality superior to that now exported, and such as is likely to prove a substitute for the Upland Georgia or New Orleans cotton of the United States of America.—Rs. 500, and Gold Medal. 270 Scientific Intelligence. [NO. 6, NEW SERIES, NV. B.—The producer or producers of the above cotton must submit to the Society a statement of the mode of cultivation and cost of the same. Substitute for Gutta Percha. For the discovery and production to the Society of any new sub- stance, the produce of India, which can be successfully used as a substitute for Gutta Percha.—Rs. 500, and Gold Medal. Materials for Paper-making. To the producer of at least 6 maunds of fibre suitable for ma- nufacturing into fine paper, such as will prove an efficient and eco- nomical substitute for rags or other materials at present employed in India for that purpose.—Rs, 500, and Gold Medal. Quinine-yielding Plants. To the introducer of twenty healthy plants of South American Cinchonas, of the kind or kinds known to yield the best description of bark.—The Gold Medal. Madder. For the production of at least 5 maunds of Madder, raised in any part of India, of which 1 maund to be the property of the So- ciety.—Rs, 500, and Gold Medal. N. B.—This prize to be renewed for three years, in the event of a specimen or specimens not being sent in by 3lst December 1858. Substitute for Gunny Cloth. For the production of acheap and efficient substitute for gunny cloth, suitable for packing sugar or grain, of which a piece of 36 yards in length, by 2 feet 3 inches in breadth, or thereabout, to be submitted to the Society.—Rs. 500, and Gold Medal. Premia for Essays on certain subjects. For an approved Essay on the following subjects :— | 1. For the best practical Essay on the production and relative cost of the various oil seeds of India, suitable for export.—A pre- mium of Rs. 500. 2. For the best practical Essay on the present state of the cul- tivation of the date tree in Bengal, and on the best mode of in- JAN.—MAR. 1858.] The late Dr. Stocks. 271 creasing its production and improving the manufacture of its sugar. —A premium of Rs. 500. 3. For the best practical Essay on the present mode of culti- vating and manufacturing Indian fibre, yielding plants known in commerce, such as jute, sun, &c., with practical suggestions for their improvement.—A premium of Rs. 500. 4, For the best practical Essay on the present mode of culti- vating and preparing the various tanning products of India, with practical suggestions for their improvement.—A premium of Rs. 500. Prize for a Gardener's Vade Mecum. To any person who shall produce on or before the 31st Decem- ber 1858, the best practical treatise on gardening as applicable to Lower Bengal, or a Gardener’s Vade-Mecum, the sum of Rs. 600. The work must afford full directions for the culture of vegeta- bles, fruits, and flowers, whether indigenous or such as have been introduced into Lower Bengal to the present time, giving practical hints on grafting, budding, pruning, and transplanting, with des- criptions of soils and manures best adapted to certain plants; a calendar of operations in the kitchen, fruit, and flower garden, for every month throughout the year must be added, as also a copious alphabetical index. N. B.—The Rules of competition for Essays the same as pub- lished in 1856. A. H. BhecHyNpDEN, Secy. A, and H, Society. MezrcaLFe Hatt; Calcutta, Aprii 1858. The Late Dr. Stocks of the Bombay Army. We are indebted, for the following interesting notice of the late Dr. Stocks, to Vol. yz. of Hookgrn’s JouRNAL oF Botany, In 272 Scientifie Intelligence. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, giving it insertion we cannot fail to record our deep and sincere regret atthe loss of one of the most distinguished Indian Bota- nists, we trust that Dr. Srocx’s researches, into the Natural His- tory, §c., of Scinde, may not be lost; but, that their publication” may be undertaken, by some one competent to present them to the public, with that care which their interesting nature and undoubt- ed merit equally deserve. Our contemporary thus records the death of *JoHN ELLERTON Stocks, Hsq., M. D.. BomBay Mepican SERVICE. This event took place at the residence of a relative, where he was on a visit (with an unmarried sister), Samuel Watson, Esq., of Cottingham, near Hull (his native town) at the early age of thirty- four. He received his medical education at University College, — London, and profited more than most students by Dr. Lindley’s Botanical Lectures. He entered the East India Company’s service on the Bombay Establishment, and was soon appointed Vaccinator in Scinde, and afterwards Inspector of Forests there. His travels in Scinde and Beloochistan were frequent and extensive, and he took advantage of them to improve his knowledge of the Botany of all this remarkable region, which he showed to have a close affi- _nity in its vegetable products with Arabia and Egypt. His collec- tions of specimens were very extensive, and well prepared; and the drawings, done by native artists, under his ‘immediate inspec- tion, are no less so. On Dr. Gibson’s visit to England, about three years ago, Dr. Stocks was appointed during his absence to the important duties of Conservator of Forests and Superintendent of Botanic Gardens in Bombay, which gave further opportunity of pursuing his Botanical researches, both personally and by means of Collectors. His ambition now was to turr these large collections to account, and to come to England, where alone he could deter- mine the correct nomenclature of the Genera and Species, and. where he hoped to publish the new plants, and to distribute his specimens in the manner that would be most beneficial to the cause of Botany. * Hooker’s Journal of Botany, Vol. VI. p. 308. JAN.—MAR. 1858. | The late Dr. Stocks. 213 Dr. Stocks accordingly came to England on furlough, bringing his collections with him, and made Kew his residence, and here he had been busily engaged since the early spring, in comparing them with authentic specimens in the Kew Herbarium, and pre- paring them for publication. Unfortunately his constitution had been undermined by his great labours inthe unhealthy climate of Scinde ; he was subject to intense neuralgie pains in the head and neck, and a change of air and scene was deemed desirable. He accordingly spent afew weeks with relations in the Isle of Man; and on his way thence to Cottingham he caught a cold, which was succeeded by fits of apoplexy which, in a very few days, terminated fatally, on the afternoon of Wednesday, the 80th August. Dr. Stocks had brought to England materials, in a very forward taste, for a general work on the Natural History, manners, cus- toms, arts, manufactures and commerce, agriculture, &c., &c., of Scinde, which it is yet hoped may be found worthy of publication. Great talent and great research had been bestowed onit, and the information it contains is much of the same nature as that of the late Dr. Francis Buchanan Hamilton’s History of the Mysore, but possessing the further advantage of being written in a lively and agreeable style, and rendered doubly valuable from the amount of Scientific knowledge of the highest stamp brought to bear upon it. Few men of his years were more extensively read in all subjects connected with the improvement of India, than Dr. Stocks. In that country his death will be much felt, and sure we are that to his personal friends the loss is irreparable, for he possessed a most kind and amiable disposition. Like Mr. Winterbottom, Dr. Stocks was more gratified by being useful to others than in coming forward as an author; and it was only by the urgent entreaty of his friends that he could be induced to appear in that capacity. Most, if not all, that has yet been printed from his pen, we have been privileged to publish in our Botanical Journals. In the ‘“ London Journal of Botany,”’ Vol. vii. p. 539, will be found some notes on the Botany (chiefly economic) of Scinde, describing some of the numerous vegetable products he had presented to the Museum at Kew. At page 550 of the same volume, is a most lively and spirited letter, written during “a Bo- 274 Proceedings. | No. 6, NEW SERIES, tanical excursion to Shah Bilawul, in Beloochistan.” In the pre- sent Journal or ‘“‘ Kew Garden Miscellany,” Vol. i. p. 257, is an excellent Memoir on two Balsom-trees (Balsamodendron) of Scinde, B. Mukul and B. pubescens, with two plates. In Vol. ii. p. 808, will be found an excellent general sketch of the Botany of Beloo- chistan, written after a second journey into that country. In Vol. ili. are descriptions and figures of two new plants of Scinde. Vol. iv. contains descriptions of thirty-seven Beloochistan plants, chief- ly new species. His last communication will be seen at p. 314 of the same volume ‘Notes on the Botany and the Government Gardens of Bombay.” PROCEEDINGS. The Managing Committee of the Mapvras LitERARY Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, held their usual Monthly Meeting at the Club House, on Thursday the 11th February at past 6 o'clock P. M. 5 The Honorable Walter Elliot, Esq., in the Chair. Read a Letter from M. Haidinger, Director of the Imperial Geo- logical Institute of Austria, with a Memo. of Publications present- ed to the Society, viz :— 1. Transactions of the Imperial Geological Institute Vienna, Vols. I, III. 2. Annual Report of the Imperial Geological Institute, Vols. I, VI. 3. Natural Historical Transactions published by Haidinger, Volsoaynyv. 4. Notes on the Communications of the Naturalist of Vienna— Vols. I, VII. These valuable works relate to the Natural Sciences generally but to Geology more especially, and are beautifully illustrated : JAN.—MaR. 18058.] Proceedings. Q75 many of the Lithographs being coloured, and some of them are Chromo-Lithographs. Read a letter from Mr. H. Smith, Superintendent of the Govern- ment Press on the subject of Nature Printing, in which Mr. Smith with reference to the remarks which took place in discussion at a former Meeting, claims for his process a greater degree of origina- lity than was then supposed to be his due. Mr.S. points out that the essential difference between Mr. Cox’s process and his consists in this, that the ink is applied directly to the object and that the impression is produced by vertical pressure, whereas in the other it is obtained by the action of Rollers. The correctness of this distinction was fully admitted, and the more clear delineation of Mr. Smith’s impression was illustrated by examples which met with the Society’s approbation. It was resolved that the following Institutions should be added to the list of those with which the Society exchanges its publica. tions. The Imperial Geological Institute—Vienna. The Royal Academy Science—Berlin. The Royal Society—Edinburgh. The Linnzan Society —London. The Royal Irish Academy—Dublin. The Committee beg to acknowledge receipt of the following paper from the Chief Secretary, Report of the Vegetable Products of the Pulney Hills with Catalogue of the Flora, by Lieut. R. H. Beddome, Assist. Conservator of Forests. This interesting com- munication will appear in next No. of the Journal.* The Managing Committee of the Mapras Lirrrary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, held their usual Month- ly Meeting at the Club on the evening of Thursday the 18th March 1858. The Honorable Walter Elliot in the Chair., The usual monthly statement of the Society’s Accounts was read and passed. * Vide page 163, 276 Proceedings. [N0. 6, NEW SERIES, Mr. Elliot exhibited to the Meeting, specimens of the curious genus Sagitta, the precise position of which in the Animal King- dom has not been determined, some, as Huxley, regarding it as approaching the Annelide, others, as the late Professor G. Forbes, considering it more closely allied to the Molluses, while a third party are inclined to view its nervous system as exhibiting an affi- nity with Crustacea. These were received from Captain Toynbee of the Gloriana, with a number of minute Pelagian shells also shown to the Meet- ing. Mr. Elliot regretted that the departure of the Gloriana pre- vented Captain Toynbee from exhibiting the numerous beautiful drawings, executed during his Voyage, of microscopic marine ob- jects, indicating many new forms of Crustacea, Tunicata, Acale- — phe and Molluscs, which he would otherwise have done. He had however transmitted through Mr. Elliot for presentation to the So- ciety, a MS. Translation from the German of some portions of Vogt’s letters on Zoology, relating to these families, which he had found of use in his own researches. It was resolved that these papers should be printed in the Journal. Mr. Elliot also read letters to his address from Messrs. Herman and Robert Schlagentwait, the former giving an account of the progress made in completing their calculations and arranging their collections, the latter proposing some Rules for the Orthography of Indian Names which they have proposed adopting in their forth- coming Publications. The printed list of the Materials forwarded with their letters, contains 43 Volumes, the result of their own labors, and 88 Vo- lumes of Observations communicated by others, “a most precious portion of which they add, particularly distinguished for their ac- curacy, is from your Presidency.” The Title of their work as fixed by the Court will be “ Results of a Scientific Mission to India and High Asia,’ and will consist of about 9 Volumes with 50 Plates, chiefly containing positive scientific matter, one Volume only being devoted to general des- criptive Memoirs in the form of Humboldt’s Views of Nature, and all personal adventures being excluded. JAN.—MaR, 1858. | Proceedings. QT7 The following is a list of the 43 Volumes of their own obser- vations &c. | Vol. 1. Itinerary. Vols. 2, 3, 4. Route Books. These Volumes treat of almost every portion of the British Pos- sessions in the Kast of the Countries contiguous to them. The 4th Volume contains routes communicated by the Foreign Office, Calcutta. Vol. 5. Comparison and correction of the Instruments. Vols. 6, 7,8. Topography and Trigonometrical Measurements. Vols. 9,10, 11, 12. Astronomical determination of Places and Magnetical Observations. Vols. 18, 14, 15, 16, Hypsometrical Observations and indica- tions of the Barometer. Vol. 17, 18, 19. General Meteorology and degrees of tempera- ture of the Air. -Vol. 20. Rain, Height of Clouds. Vol. 21. Optical phenomena of the Atmosphere, Observations upon Dew, Glaciers. Vol. 22. Degrees of temperature of Rivers. Vols. 23,24. Degrees of temperature of the earth at different depths. Vol. 25. Observations on the Physical state of the Sea. Por- tions of Sea water and River water for analysis. Vol. 26. Observations upon Springs. Cold and hot Springs. Vols. 27, 28, 29, 30. Geological Observations. Vols. 31, 32. Geological Collections. Vols. 33, 34, 35. Hydrography of rivers. Vol. 36. Observations on the temperature and depth of subter- raneous waters. Vols. 37, 38. Measurings of the different races of men. Vol. 39. Geographical Vocabulary of the names of places. Ety- mological and Hthnographical Remarks. Vol. 40. Zoological Remarks. Zoological Collection, Ethnogra- phical Collections. Vol. 41. Geography of Plants, periodical phenomena of plants, Snow limits, 278 Proceedings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, - Vol. 42. Diameter of trees. Names of trees and plants, also the use of plant. Collection of Plants. Vol. 43. Letters and reports to His Majesty King Frederick William IV. and to the Honorable Court of Directors of the East India Company, and to Alexander Von Humboldt. These are merely the Headings of the different Volumes. The detailed Catalogue is in the Library of the Society. The Scientific observations have been made in all parts of the British possessions in the East and Highlands of Asia, and with every variety of instrument. Among other matters of interest, Mr. Herman Schlagentwaite stated that he had prepared a valuable Ethnographic Series of Casts of Heads of the various Indian races amounting to about 25, which — had been executed in copper by the Galvano-plastic process with great success, and a specimen of which he had forwarded by the Overland Mail, but it has not yet been received. He adds that no tidings have been received of their brother Adol- phe since May last, which was a source of great anxiety to them. Mr. Robert Schlagentwaite’s Orthographical Remarks related chiefly to the use of the proper equivalents for the letter * * * which English writers usually represent by 7 & ch, but which the Germans prefer expressing by dz & ts. This subject was referred for report to the Sub Committee of Papers. Lieut. H. P. Hawkes forwarded the first of a series of Papers which he proposes submitting to'the Society, entitled ‘* Notes on various subjects.”’ Those contained in the present communication are : 1. On the best material for lining entomological cases. 2. On an artificial method of preserving duplicate specimens of Lepidopterous insects in a portable form. These were referred to the Sub-Committee of Papers. 4 Tits ¥ 7b i e \ y = a age ino" 4 ea DORs a ¥ in a, J y : : ie j i my ‘ asl on . i} a | ad re ~ a . \ ee pines i 1 4 ; Ast : > y ‘ i ce i 4 ei | Few a Rey wg Ep hie J, ™ » Lt Fy i ‘ ht eye 8 3 * ; ewer, | a PhS \ 280 [No. 6, NEW SERIE! ! Extract from Meteorological Observations pe DAILE JANUARY 1858. FEBRUARY 1858. E es THERMOMETERS. : 8 es THERMOMETERS. < Se Means. : = A Sf Means. ; A 1220 4/d] 2 | 8 | €@ [eee B Se ee 6 263 |Dry |Wet 5 sa | = cS 3 iA = 63 Dry |Wet =a |e = ee ol imchesiacal cls 2 Ins. Tice ? | Cee, 2 Ins: 4 1 | 30-104) 74:4| 69°6|81:7| 7041 wnE| ....|Clody.| 30 046) 72°0| 67-2} 83-1/638] & ST 2 82:5/67-0|\nnzE| .... -055| 72°3| 66°6| 84-6/64-7|nSu| .. qui! 3| +039] 72:9] 68-4| 82-2} 67-2) nu |! ....|Clear.| 028] 73°4)690| 84:2|67-0] 5s in’ 4| -004| 72-4) 66-8} 89°8|66°5|} zw E| ... |Hazy | 29-983) 74-4) 69-5} 83°1/67-5| SE | ..-4 5 | 29-995] 75-2| 66'1| 81°3| 71-6; Ene] ....|Clody.| °975| 78°3| 67-3] 84°3|66°5|ss EB | ood 6 | 30-012] 75-0] 66°4| 81'8| 70°5| wz | ....| do 85°7|69°3|8 8 B | seed 71 -001| 73-7| 65:5] 81:9| 69:5] we] ....| do |30:009| 77:7| 72-6] 86°6|73°8| ES =| ....m 8 |29-957| 75'1| 65°3, 82°3| 721] ne| ....| do | -006|78°0|735| 85°7|72'5| zs H| ...dm)l 9 81:6] 68:4] wz -005| 76°7| 71:8] 85:1] 69:9] s E-| +». 10 | -955| 75°5| 69-4| 82°9/75°9] we] ....] do -005| 75'9| 70°6| 85:5] 69 5\ ES E| eee 11 | .940| 76:4] 71:3] 83-6] 740] wu! _...|Ovest. | 29°982| 768) 72-0} 86°6|70°6)ns E| . 12 | -947|73'8| 68-9| 81-2687) wwE, ....'Hazy | 950) 777728] 87:5) 72:0) 88 B | «0 13 | -976| 74:9| 69-0] 82:7| 69°9lm by Nn} ...] do 86°6| 72:7] B by s| « 14| -993/75-4/69°8 a 70°3lu by x| ....| do | °962|77°8|72°7| 85-7| 72:8] = by s! - ' 15 | 30-002 74:1] 69-4 82-7 687/eEwE| ....| do | -996|77°8|71-9| 85°6172°3 = | «ed 16 805 671) uNE| .... 30-041] 76-6] 67-9| 83°9|69°7| = | oven] 17 | 29-994) 71-6] 67-2) 80°6 65°6] eNz| ....'Clear.| °056) 76°7| 67°3| 84°4|70:0, & | 18 | -963]71:1] 66:7 80-9] 64°5|= by n x do | :034| 75°5| 67-0) 84°0/ 67-0 = by NI - 19 { -949|72°3|67-6| 81-4/66-3} ENE] ....; do | .000! 73°5, 66-8] 83°8) 65:9E by nN) ..-. 20 | -943| 72'0) 67-3| 81-8) 65°3) > temilts do 85'9| 69°8/E by N} sees 21 | 896) 73-9] 68-4] 84°7| 67-2]? ....{ do |29°994| 77-6] 71-7| 86-4] 74-32 by nj 0-020 22 | :919|74:4/70:1| 83°1| 685} s ....] do | 30-026] 78°6'72°3| 85-7|/73:5|E by N| ...0 23 83116791 ESE| eee. 018) 76'8|71:4| 85°7/706) Ej ...s 24} +963) 74:1] 69-1] 82°7| 67-1 = by s| ....] do [29-974|77°2| 71-1] 86-6) 70-0 by s| ....tmy: 25 |30-033| 74°7| 69-01 8321683. s B | ....| do | °928|77:3|70°9| 86-4|70-1] usu] ...,iey 26 | :020\75- 0 69-2| $3°8| 69:3) psu] ....| do "935| 76°9, 71:4| 86:2) 71'3| ES | .... me 27 | °027| 733) 66-2) 82°7/65°5) Spool) Le 87'7|72°3] ES EB} ne0.| 28 | °051 743] 683] 82°7/68:0, = Foal ke ‘917| 78°4| 72:8] 87°3)72°6 5s cope 29 ‘078 ie 67:7, 82°3/66- 2; EN E| eee] do 30 851 (o°G) RON) wee 81 | °084/ 75°3) 69:0 83:1| 69 llenz Hazy | ; ao ae | | a 2 29'°994/47°0) 68*1) 82°4 ee none. 29°997| 76:2) 70°3| 85°5) 701 ae i um ? This mark signifies that no Means can be tali ae ‘JANS. far, 1858.] at oS RS i a Cae eee pt at the Madras Magnetic Observatory. 281 Marc 18358. Aprit 1858. Pet Wate AI Saget Us UUme THERMOMETERS. Shops, LHW EMO METERS: | | Means : a ae Means : # [Pry|we B= | F | a | a RRS Dry|wel 2 [S| Ee | & | . oe eae | Ee nal ee! Ins. Inches| ° | S. SS Ins. || 79-4) 73 7| 89:6] 73:8} 8B "Clear. | 29°891| 83:3) 769] 932/771] BsE| ....|Hazy. {)/80-3| 74-3| 896/747; ssu| ....| do | -874/824)75'8| 965/759 Bsn)... Clody. || 80-4 74:5] 909|75°4| SE | -..-|Clody. 91:9) 74°5] ES E| coe. | ||79°7|73°5| 89-1|74°6) s = -[Clear.| °853] 82'8| 76°7| 93°7/78°3) SE . |Clody. |78-5)72°7| 88-4] 71-7, 58 B do | 859 83:5) 77-7] 935/774] ESE] s+ee/Hazy. | 87:9] 72°2| 8S | -- 843] 84°6| 77°3| 96°7| 78'4|B bys| ++] do j|78°7 73°83) 88°1|72°5| SS E| eeee do -806| 83°41 77-1] 94:6|77-°0] ES E| oe..|Clear. f18°7|729| 87°7|726| se |---| do | 831/841) 77-6 952/782) sz) -...) do h|77°-7 72:0| 86°8| 71:3) SS B| e+++| do °822| 85°5| 78°3| 99°9| 78°3) s ss | cee do | 78:0) 71:7 87:3|70°6|B s BE) ----| do 101°7|81.2\s byE - [19-2] 735; 884/734 7 | «+++ do -788| 87-2| 79°38; 99°6|82'4| s | eee.) do || 78°8| 72°7| 90-6] 71-4)? do | °816|86-4'80-6| 96°2|82'9] ss = .|Hazy. 90-1] 722) BS E| sees 816) 85°5| 79°9| 94°9| 81-7|s by B] ---.|Clear. 79-5173°7| 99-4|74-4) 2 | - +-| do | °840/85:2|79°6] 94°5/81'4) s u | +...) Hazy. 78°7|73'4| 88-7|72°1) SSE wees] do | °872| 84:3) 78:9] 93°6| 795] s E .|Clear. §0-2174-7| 90°3174:7| ssE |---| do | °894|84:3/78°7| 93°7/ 789) s & ..|Hazy. 0°8)75°2) 90°6)74°3) SSE! --+| do 94°6)79 ll ESE] -- 80:2| 74:4} 89-2173: 6 ssu| eves, do | °875/85:0| 79:0] 949/787) us B}] ---.] do 9:9|73°3| 89°6|73°0) SE Hazy | 857) 84:9, 781 95:0/78°8| ES E| ecee.| do 91-1) 72°4) BS E -877| 84:9] 77:6; 96.0| 78:9) ESE : do 79°5|73°7| 90°8|72'1) = Clear.| °902| 83°8]77°2| 94'8| 76-7) HS = Clear 81-4/75:5] 91°3]75:5, se |---| do | -875/840]777| 942/774) sm | see.) do 81:6|75°5| 91-4) 75°5| SSE do | -809|84:3|77°5| 94:1|778| BSE do §1:5| 75°6| 92-7/74:8) SB do 94:9/79'1| sp | --.- 180-9] 75°3| 91:3) 74-4) se] ..--| do -772| 85°6| 79°1! 95-6809} su | .--.|Hazy. 80:9] 75°7| 91:1] 74-6 sae. Hazy | °793| 85°9|79°7| 95°8/80°9] sz | ....| do ; 91:1|74°5) sz | 814| 86-01 79°5| 95°8| 81-1] by s| ----|Clear. 819] 76:2| 91:9/77°5| sE | seee| do | °836| 84-4] 79°3] 88:3) 81-9] EN | 0°279|Ovrest 82:3 761! 91°7|76'1| sSE| s-+-(Clear.| °860| 833} 78'5; 93:8/79'0) ‘361| do 828] 76:8] 92°7|/ 76:9, ES E| ..| do -831| 83°8| 79°2| 92°4/79-7/E by 8] °192)Hazy, 83:4|77°3| 92°6|77:8uby N| ..--| do = Se a. : j }80°2) 74°3 90:1] 73°9 none. the penile state of the Wind. one, | | ee | 99:843| 84°6|78' 4) 99:0) 79°1 0°832 8 | | May 1808, f es THERMOMETERS. | aS | Means. 2 pe ee | Eales ae no Dry |Wet pl Ge] | es re S Inches} ° fale Ins, 93'1| 80:5] Sz | 99-776| 84:3}78 6| 94:0/80-0] s= | 0-014|Clody. 755|81-3|77-4| 83:5|80°l]| xz | -584|Ovrest! °618|78:9|76:'7| 81°7| 777) oN °095| do -729|78'1|75'1| 88:8|77'4|s by w| 018] do -790|82°3|78°2| 92:9'78°5| ssE} °004|Clody. -693| 84-8] 79:3] 95-2] 79 8} s ..|Hazy. 101:2/81°5) ssn} “779 -733] 83°8| 78'°6| 93°7|79°0) ? -|Ovrest -740| 84 4| 79°2] 98:7; 79°21s byw] ----|Hazy. 698] 85-6} 79°1] 96:2) 80°3} > ecce} oO *667| 85:0] 79:1) 95-3) 81 l/s by = eoee| do -663) 84:6| 78:2] 954'79°7| ss u| ----|Clody. +683] 85:1] 79°0] 94:4|80°3} ss HB] «ee-|Hazy. 99°8|82.1)s s w . -702| 87-9] 77:7| 100°8| 84°6] > . |Clody. -677| 85:5) 77°6| 94:5) 82:2} s w 180 Ovrest -606| 83°5| 773] 96-0) 83°2) s w 792| do -616| 85°3| 76°6} 97-6) 79'2| ? eee} do -671| 87°7| 76°4| 100-1] 81:2lw bys| »++-|Clody -7(0| 87-2) 78°3} 100:2| $1°1 do 100:4| 81°3 -740| 87:5] 77:3] 103-7) 81°3 | ‘Haxy. 765} 88°3] 78-0] 103-9) 82°2 (een. |OPL joTe: [Sox '869- [O0L+ |60L- |P2L- |LEL- [8bLe ThL- )9GL- [802+ 989- 1699. |Gpg. ‘Ae ) s ere: ieee. leer. (60 |zes- (99g. (068 {z06- (S06- [068 {998° \9bs [Fee loss. [2es- |9eg- |ocs- |298- 1928. |@L8 [8G S68 1018. |LBL- jet. | I Wis S1G> ecg. |boR+ [O68 ILT6: [Sh6-62|696-62\086-66|FL6-60 bC6-6%|66-62|206- [068 jE88- 688+ |106- [616-62/1£6-6%|016-66 |0F6 -66/866-60|L06- P88- (998 |Fcg. | “IRIN > eh L6G: |Le6- [GF6- |C96- \F66- \H<0- [6FO- 6G0- |00. (L20- {S00- \066- |PLG- |896- PL6-, 686. 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AJlepey, singular natural mud breakwater at, 218. Animal Oils, 44. Backwater of Travancore, 203. Bartramiacere, Neilgherry Mosses, 86. Bees, on a true Parthenogenesis in, 110. Belgaum Walnut Oil, 39. Ben Nut Oil, 39. Bonduc Nut Oil, 42, Bryony Oil, 41. Bruchiaceze Neilgherry Mosses, 89. Bryacee ‘do do, 85. Budhism, Remains of, in Madras Presidency, 225. Cairo, Account of Geological researches at, 252. Castor Oil, 20. Cashew Nut Oil, 39. Cat amunak Oil, 34. Cat urraloo Oil, 38. Cheerongee Oil, 37. Cherroo Pinnacotay Oil, 38. Coal in Scinde, 142. Cobra, effect of its venom on the Mungoos, 267. Cocoa nut Oil, 20. Cocoa nut Oil, the best exported from Cochin, 21. Coimbatore, method of catching Wild Elephants at, 58. Copal Gum, Raw, from Zanzibar, 209. Do do True do, 260. Coimbatore notice of Crystalline Limestones in, 60. Coins, Numismatic Gleanings, 220. Do Salaka or Punch, 226. Do Sinha type, 234. Do. Elephant type, 240. Do Bulltype, 240. Do Horse type, 246. Do Miscellaneous types, 247. Colocynth Oil, 41. Company’s monogram, 267. Coongapillay Oil, 37. 284 INDEX. Condamunnee Oil, 42. Coorookoo Oil, 34. Cotton, Seed Oil, 39. Cotton Premia for, 269. Cress Seed Oil, 37. Croton Oil, 41. Cucumber Seed Oil, 37. Cuddapah, Cyclone at, notice of, 70. Cummin wild Oil, 42. Cyperus or Mat Grass Oil, 42. Cyalheacee Neilgherry Ferns, 79. Dicranaceze Neilgherry Mosses, 86. Demia extensa as an Antidote for Snake Bites, 267. Elephants wild, method of catching in Coimbatore, 58. Entomology, on the best material for lining Cabinets, 249. Do method of preserving Duplicates of Lepidoptera, 251. Essays on various subjects, Premia for, 270. Fennugreck Oil, 41. Ferns of the Neilgherries, 79. Fissidentiee Neilgherry Mosses, 85. Funarioidez do, 80. Flora of the Pulney Hills, 169. Fish Oils, 44. Fibres, Premia for, 269. Gamboge Butter, 35. Gardener’s Vade Mecum, Premia for, 271. Garlic Oil, 42. Gayapa Oil, 42. Geological History of the Alluvium of Egypt, 252, - Gingeley Oil, 22. ; Do Bastard Oil, 24. Gleichemaceze, Neilgherry Fern, 79. Gleanings, Numismatic, 220. Ground Nut Oil, 27. Gunny Cloth, Premium for Substitute for, 270. Gutta Percha Oil, 41. Gutta Percha, Premium for Substitute for,.270. Hemp seed Oil, 40. Hymenophyllacee, Neilgherry Fern, 83. Hypnoidee Neilgherry Moss, 87. Hypopterygiacee do. 87. Horse taming. Mr. Rarey’s System of, 266. Illoopoo Oil, 33. Indigo, process of manufacturing as described by Marco Paolo, 213. Kurung Oil, 33. Lamp Oil, 24. INDEX. 285 Linseed Oil, 28. Leptotrichacese, Neilgherry Mosses, 86. Leucobryacez, Neilgherry Mosses, 87. Lime and Silicate of Soda, protection of Timber from fire by, 118. . Limestone Crystalline in Coimbatore, 60. Linnean Society’s Journal, Notice of, 153. Lycopodiacez, Neilgherry Ferns, 84. Madder, Premium for the production of, 270. Madras Railway, on the line selected for, 71. Malkungunee Oil, 40. Margosa Oil, 32. Melon Seed Oil, 37. Mimusops Oil, 42. Mineral Spring at Paroor, 211. Mniadelphacez, Neilgherry Mosses, 88. Mnioidez, Neilgherry Mosses, 87. Moodooga Oil, 42. Moorgana Tallow, 38. Mosses of the Neilgherries, 85. Moths, on a true Parthenogenesis in, 110. Mustard Oil, 30. Mineral Oils, 44. Mungoos, effect of the Cobra’s venom on, 267. Mylay, meaning of as applied to Coins, 267. E Naga Sumpaghee Oil, 38. Nairs, remarks on, 204. _Neatsfoot Oil, 44. Neeradimootoo Oil, 36. Neilgherries, Ferns of, 79. ——_—_——— Mosses of, 84. Nellore, Cyclone at, Notice of, 65. Numismatic Gleanings, 220. ‘* Novara’ Frigate Austrian Expedition, 264. ‘Nutmeg wild, Oil, 42. Notes and Queries, 206. Nature printing, letter from Mr. Smith on, 275. Oils of Southern India, Report on, 1. —-———— Index to Names &c. of, 45. Ophioglossez | Neilgherry Ferns, 79. Ommundacexe Pearl Oyster of Ceylon Natural History of, 89. Paper, Premium for Materiais for making, 270. - Paroor in Travancore, Mineral Spring at, 211, Parthenogenesis, in Bees and Moths, 110. Petroleum, 44. Piney Tallow, 35. Pinnacotay Oil, 33, 286 INDEX. Plant Scenery of the World by Balfour and Greville, 163. Polypodiacex, Neilgherry Ferns, 79. Poovana Oil, 36. Poppy Oil, 3], Portia Seed Oil, 40, Pottioidex, Neilgherry Mosses, 87. Pulney Hills, Flora of, 169. Vegetable Products of, 163. Pumpkin Seed Oil, 37. Premia for Raw Produce &c., 269. Quilon, Notice of, 212. —————- Battle of, 213. Queries, 206. Quinine, Premium for Plants yielding: 270. Railway Madras, on the line selected for, 71. Ramtill Oil, 30. Rosebay Oil, 40. Sagitta, specimens of the curious Genus of, 276. Safflower Oil, 36. Sand box tree Oil, 42. Sandal seed Oil, 38. Saul seed Oil, 42. Scientific Mission, Messrs. Schlagentweit’s, 137. Silicate of Soda and Lime vrotect timber Lon fire, 118. Silk Cotton seed Oil, 40. Soap made with Cocoa nut Oil lighter than water, 21. Soap Nut Oil, 39. Spring mineral near Paroor in Travancore should be better known, 211. Star Anise Oil, 42, - Sterculia Oil, 38. Sun flower Oil, 40. Sweet Fennell Oil, 40. Snake bites, on Doemia extensa as an antidote for, 267. Teak trees, on a concretion found in, 268. Thevetia neriifolia, case of poisoning with the Seeds of, 140. Thevetia Oil, 42. Thorn Apple Oil, 42. Thorny Trichilia Oil, 42. Thortay Oil, 41. Timber, protection from fire, 117. Patents for the above, 120. ———— Reports on Experiments, 125. Directions for covering with Silicate of Soda and Lime, 136. Tobacco on the curing of, 268. Travancore, backwater of, 203. INDEX. 287 Travancore, full of Botanical Treasures, 206. mineral Spring at Paroor in, 211. ————Forests, List of Orchids in, 215. Viscid Cleome Oil, 40. Wax Oil, 444. Wild Olive Oil, 38. Wood Oils, 43. Zanzibar, Captain Burton’s visit to, 257. INDEX OF NAMES In Voz, III. Abel, F. A. Esq., on a mode of protecting Timber from Fire, 117. Balfour, Dr. J. reports a case of poisoning by Seeds of Thevetia Neriifolia, 140. Balour, T. H. M D., A. M. &c. Plant Scenery of the World by, 153. Beddome, Lieut. R. H. Extract from his Report, on the Vegetable Products of the Pulney Hills, 163. Blanford, H. F. Esg., Notice of Occurrence of Crystalline Lime Stone in Coimba- tore by, 60. Brown, Revd. J. C. on Indian Infanticide, 159. Burton, Captain, Letter from to the Bombay Geographical Society, on an Expe- dition into Hastern Intertropical Africa, 246. Coplestone, F. Esq., Remarks on the Cultivation of Gingely by, 24. Cox, Mr. exhibited, some years ago, at the Polytechnic Institution a Folio gra- phic Press for printing from Leaves and Plants, 156. Dallas, W. F. L. 8. &c., Translation of a true Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees, by Von Siebold, 110. Decandolle’s Prodromus Systematis Naturalis, 152. Drew, C. Esq., Assist. Surgeon, the late, Obituary Notice of, 146. Drury, Captain Heber. Notes of an excursion along the Travancore Back- water, 203. East India Company, on the Scientific Mission sent to India by, 137. Elliot, Wa'ter, Madras Civil Service, Numismatic Gleanings by, 220. Greville, R. Kaye, L. L. D., Plant Scenery of the World by, 153. Hamilton, Captain D. Description of the method of catching wild Elephants, in Coimbatore, 58. 5 Hawkes, Lieut. H. P., Report on the Oils of Southern India, 1. Do. Notes on various subjects, 249. Do. Notes and Queries by, 256, Hemery, Lieut. E. Notice of a Cyclone at Cuddapah, 70. Hooker’s, Sir William, Journal of Botany has ceased to appear, 153. Homer, L. Esq., V. P. R. S. Account of some Geological Researches near Cairo 252. Jackson, Lieut., Patent Process for preserving Timber from Fire, 120. Inman, Mr. has completed 100 feet in the great experimental Shaft in search of Coal in Scinde, 142. Johnston, Revd. EH. Lists of Orchids in the Forests of Travancore, 215. Kellaart, E F. M. D., Report on the Natural History of the Pearl Oyster of Cey: lon, 89. Do. Report on the Tamblegam Oyster Fishery, 10d. Livingstone, Dr. D., Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, 149. Maclagan, Dr. D., Communication to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh on poi- soning with the seeds of Thevetia Neriifolia, 140. INDEX. 289 Maclean, W. C. Esq., M. D., A Treatise on Small Pox by, 158. Maugham, Mr., Patent for preserving timber from fire, 120. Mullins, Lieut. J., Description of a Cyclone at Nellore, 65. Pears, Colonel T. T. on the Line selected for the Madras Railway, 71. Prussia, King of, on the Mission sent to India by, 1387. Purdie, W. Esq., Government Botanist at Trinidad, Obituary Notice of, 142. Salomon’s, W. C. Mode of protecting timber from fire, 123. Schlagentweit, Messrs. on their Scientific Mission to India, 137, 276. Schmid, Dr. B. the late. A List of Neilgherry Ferns, 79. Do. Neilgherry Mosses, 84. Do. Obituary Notice of, 143 Siebold, Von, on a true Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees, 110, Stocks, J. Ellerton, Esq., M. D. Obituary Notice of, 271. Smith, Mr. H. on Nature Printing, 2796. Thwaites, M. Examination of the Plants of Ceylon, 149. Toynbee, Captain, specimens of the Genus Sagitta received from, 276, Von Siebold, on a true Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees, 110. Walker, W. Esq., the late Obituary Notice of, 147. sy 4 S 2 < ns 5 S : 8 S Salaka or Punch Coms. 4 PhiNOL V0 lL. 8 A e , : hi ‘ Yi 2 2 x Tee ole : ee . ; : 4 ‘ Mh a he tee S (cel te tpy, “Tee Seana oe ee eee ‘ J id - ia = Tg ie es ies ca Bd aE NS. NS. Mad: Tour Lit: ey Saléki or Punch Coins. Buppxist Coms NI : ROGET EL CEI, os > em ff SS aoe SE Sac" aa a Sinha Type . + Macias Tour Lit KS eee i eat adres. Jour frl © NEE i ephant & Bull Types : Fr Meud Jour Lit {Se NSNS Horse Type & Miscellaneous Plate XV VolJIL. Bvop urs? Couns NV. PLATE. I. 2S Vo Wh N.S. MAY. youn. 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