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MADRAS JOURNAL

OF

LITERATURE AND SCIENCE.
EDITED BY THE COMMITTEE

OF THE

GMavrag Literary Society

AND

AUXILIARY ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

Vol, IV. No. &, New Series.
Vol. KB No. 47, Old Series.

October-—March, 1858-59.

Segal aye
MADRAS:
PRINTED BY PHAROAH AND CO.

ATHENAJUM PRESS—MOUNT ROAD.

1859.

CONTENTS.

Page.
Le A Vocabulary of the Dialect spoken by the Kotas on the
Nilagiri Hills. By the Revd. F. Metz................ 1
Ili. On the Geological age of the Sandstones containing Fossil
Wood, at Trivicary, near Pondicherry. By H. F. Blan-

ford, of the Geological Survey of India................. 47
Ill. Notes Antiquarian and Mythical. By M. J. Walhouse,

13 RG ion MES Sig Bisse 16 3 Silene OS RAO ie AEA a eal a OR 53
IV. The Genus Impatiens.—Description of New Species from the

Anamallay Hills. By Lieut. R. H. Beddome........... 66
Vv. Numismatic Gleanings. No.2. By Hon'ble Walter Elliot,

Esq., Madras Civil opiate SIE 8 br Ste hcg eels AN a Me 75

SELECTION Se

1.—Observation on the Poison of the Upas Antiar. By Professor
Albert Kolliker. 2.—On the Brine-springs of Cheshire. By
Augustus Beauchamp Northcote, F. c. s., Senior Assistantin the
Royal College of Gamay: 3.—On the Properties of Wood
Oil. By M. Guibourt. 4.—Mr. Wayne on the Oil of Cotton
4
Seed. 5.—Order Radiata

OBESE MN MOUUERT ES eS 141

OBITUARY.

epHOnecMOWIe,| Mo Di. Es' BR. Gia. cee es ee eee . 145

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

1.—Proceedings of the Managing Committee of the Madras Lite-
ey Society, April 8th, 1858, 149

2.— Do. + do. do. May 13th, 1858. 153
Bos Do. do. do. July 8th, 1858. 157
oe Do. do. do. August 12th, 1858. 158
— Do. do. do. September 9th, 1858. 158
6.—Proceedings of the Agri-Horticultural Society, March 3d, 1858. 159
T— Do. do. do. June 9th, 1858. 160
8.— ' Do, do. dows July 21st, 1858, 162
9.—Proceedings of the Photographie Society, March 4th, 1858. 163
es Do. do. do. April ist, 1858. 167
METEOROLOGY.

Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Ob-
servatory, from April to Sept 1858.... 177,178

a

se

CONTENTS.

Page.

I. Report of Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal

Asiatic Society, on writing Indian Words in Roman Cha-
PLTISST SSRN P Raed 0 0 le Nese pena aU nt Areas Rh ince PURI 179

II. On the substitution of the Roman for the Indian characters.
Eee C LOCUS Boo oli oa ce gee tes tase ewe e ete 243

III. On the occurrence of Crystalline Limestone in the vicinity of
Trichinopoly. By W. King, Esq., Geological Survey of India. 272

IV. Memorandum of the Fort and Hindoo Temple at Vellore and
others in its neighbourhood, as recorded in A. D. 1815. By

Lieut. H. P. Hawkes, Sub Asst. Comy. Gen eee et asa: 274
V. Report on Lead Ores in the Cuddapah District. By P. W.
PiatebcaeNiaineral: Viewers no... i ek ee ks crete ee 279
SELECTIONS.

1.—Official Reports on the last Journeys and the Death of
Adolphe Schlagintweit in Turkistan.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1.—Report on the Progress of the Magnetic Survey, and of the A
Researches connected with it, from Nov. 1855 to April 1856. ,
By Robert Schlagintweit. 2.—Report on the Proceedings :
of the Magnetic Surv ey, from January to May 1856. By
Hermann Schlagintweit. 3.—A Storm at Chicacole. 4.—
A Storm at Tranquebar. ‘

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

1.—Proceedings of the Managing Committee of the Madras Lite- F
rary Society, Oct. 14th, 1858. 359

2.— Do. do. do. do. Noy. 11th, 1858. 360 {

3.— Do. do. do. do. Dec. 9th, 1858. 361 ’

4.— Do. do. do. do. Jan. 13th, 1859. 362 |

5.— Do. do. do. do. Feb. 10th, 1859. 364

6.— Do. do. do. do. Mar. 17th, 1859. 365

7.—Proceedings of the Agri-Horticultural Society, Oct. 27 7th 1858. 366

8.— Do. do. do. do. Noy. 24th, 1858. 368

9,.— Do. do. do. do. Dec. 22nd, 1858. 369

19.— Do. do. do. do. Jan. 12th, 1859. 370

11.— Do. do. do. do. Feb. 2nd, 1859. 373

12.—Proceedings of the Photographic pee? Feb. 4th, 1859. 374

13.— Do. do. do. Mar. 3rd, 1859. 376

METEOROLOGY.

Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Ob-
servatory, from Oct. 1858 to March 1859. .379,380

MADRAS JOURNAL

OF
PrrekRATURE AND SCIENCE.

eer

NO. 7, NEW SERIES.

oO OOOO Oe ae >

Apriui— Sept. 1858.

I. Vocabulary of the Dialect spoken by the Koras on
the Nizaairi Hills by the Rev. F. MErz.

I am not aware that any thing has been written about
the language of the Kotas who occupy the seven villages on the
Hills, called Kotagherry, and must have settled on these
mountains at the same period or not long after the time, when
the Todas, the so called Aborigines of the Hills, chose them

as a pasture for their large herds of Buffalos. It is very

probable that the Kotas lived among the Todas or in the
neighbourhood of them before their immigration to the
Hills, and that they supplied the latter with grain and
jewels, in return for which they got all the Buffalos which
died, at the time when both tribes inhabited some mountains
to the North East of the Hills, and that the Kotas followed
their acknowledged masters the Todas, on account of the rich
harvest of Buffalo carcases by which they were sure to find
always a good subsistence.

The dialects of the Todas and Kotas are so near to each
other that both parties can converse with each other in their
own language, but when the Badagas came up, they found
it necessary to acquire the language of the new settlers, be-
cause they were superior both in numbers and civilization.

Gh. KX, O. S. VOL. IV: N, S.

OSs]

Kota Vocabulary. [No. 7, NEW SERIES,

What I said formerly of the Toda language, that their
singular pronounciation cannot be learned except by living
amongst the people, is also true of the Kotadialect. The lan-
guage of the former with its pectoral low notes, may very often
appear to the unaccustomed ear of an European, as if a number
of words were only imitations of the lowing of their Buffalos,
and the dialect of the latter with its dental pronounciation
appears in many instances as if the barking of their nume-
rous half wild dogs had had an influence in forming it. I find it
not difficult to speak about religion in the deep, often solemn
tone of the Todas, but it seems to me like mockery to imitate
the Kota pronounciation of the same words. Though none of
the Hill tribes are very exact in cleanliness, still the name of
Kota is used as a name of abuse, in the sense of filthy, by the
Badagas and Todas notwithstanding the great dependence
the latter acknowledge towards them; they are their scavengers,
their musicians, their gold and blacksmiths, their potters, their
basket makers, &c. Industry in these several branches makes
them thriving and independent, and they can force their mas-
ters to many things, which they are very unwilling to perform,
by refusing to make ploughs and pots &c. for them. If chris-
tianity should take root in the other tribes, so that they would
no more condescend to pay honour to the Idols made by the
Kotas, it will be a great trial for them. At different occa-
sions the Kotas, who never were very favourably inclined to-
wards our preaching, showed their power very plainly and
forced some head men of the other tribes, who were friendly
towards the missionaries, to compromise with their own better
persuasion. The Kotas honour Siva as the supreme god
whom they call Kamataraya and in each of their seven villages
there is a templefor him as well as for his wife Parvati.
There is a tradition that they emigrated from some moun-
tains situated in the present Mysore, which their ancestors
knew by the name of Kollimale, on which account the first
village they built on the Hills, goes by the same name. In.
comparing the Toda vocabulary with the Kota words given

APRIL—sprr. 1858.] Kota Vocabulary. 3

below, philologists will not find it difficult to discover the
same root in most of their words, but if they had an oppor-
tunity to listen to their village quarrels, they would be sur-
prized to find the same words so very differently pronounced
by a Kota, from what they are by the mouth of a Toda, in his
lonely Mandu. I have endeavoured to select the most common
words corresponding to the same words of the Todas which
formerly appeared in this journal.

VOCABULARY.

Abaisance (I make) Osw 5 Be addabuddape.

Abandon DT ~ vittirtave.

Abide | coi 3 itave.

Abominate J Osh talikape, or BAD Jeggepe.
Abomination od SF ndchike.

Absorb DOAST O* nungitikape.
Absurd 2 js pokurt.
Abundant See onare.

Accept do8, % 2B ettikape.
Accommodate 28 enh & pere isupe.
Account v. ® WF cosa SB lekkaisupe.
Account n. rc) & F lekkana,

Accompany (him) Os 3aye Bax ® avanéda hégape.

ne

'*T was not quite sure whether I should not substitute a instead of 2,
because the Kota pronounciation is so very indistinct and in many verbs diffe-

rent people pronounce it something like 4

4, Kota Vocabulary. [No. 7, NEW SERIES,

Accurate BB sere.

Accurse Do wow Soe B sdpe ittukape.
Accuse oe) aom S 2 piryadi padudakape.
Aches, (it) Siz ers.

Acquire eT Ot 2 kallakape.

Adore Bus 0% hoe kombittukape.
Advice a0 buddi.

Afar Soo dura.

Affection *K eS gava.

Afraid (I am) Qo2D anjipe.

Afternoon Boe BS ano wy 65! 273 55D yerubuduva jama,

(time to loose the oxen from the plough)

Again a Beg hihone.
Age Be dv peraye.
Ago Bley woo ponare.
Agree Spiny B vobbope.

Air 8S kate, others pronounce it we kate, which

IT think is more correct.

Alas Ose avavd.

Alms S or darme.

Alike BS osacw® sammayipe.
All Boo w yellame.

Anecdote 37063 pate.

APRIL— 88PT, 1858.| Kota Vacabulary. 5

Alone fe 272 3 vojyjale.
Amputate 2 oka érikape.
Anger Bve9 B hope, “bvav Say hépame.

Angry (I am) one K Cvep huss yenaga kope baddade,

(to me anger has come.)

Anna Dope we panname.

Ancestor 33%) SHB péraiyane.

Another 7 Qo Bve S pinnodia.

Ant | O09 4) F- yorbe, White ant ROB gesale.

iB.

Baby | SOR magge.

Back (n) 25.0 piltale.

Backbiting QT 983 pittalata.

Backward BaxayS pibbare.

Badge Ko er gurte.

Bag 2° TO Bo jirume.

Bail (I am) ~ DOK BY pendgape.

Bald S OF 0S turmande.

Bamboo SBS vedere.

Bat ~ S =e) kanepatte.

Bathe oS TOO ED nirakérlukape.
- Battle Qpxo® pérdsa, Bp Gass porate.

Bark of a tree’ Moe pile,

ti

Woke Xx. 0, 3 Yolk, IV. N. Ss.

<< — =

6

Bark (verb)
Barley
Barren
Basket
Beat

Be

Bean

Bear (noun)
Bear (verb)
Beard
Beast

Bee

Bee's wax
Bedstead

Before

Behead
Behind
Believe
Below

Bellow

Between

ee a .
ce 5 3 kwatale, Goo SF BW kuytkape.

Kota Vocabulary. [No. 7, NEW SERIES,

Baw © & parkape.
Roe gajje.

ayo vaide.

AS gikke.

Dyce TB puyikape.
fre vole.

=) Sie avure.
OB harade.
Dlx st B porékape.
208 pide, DT mira.
DOK miriga.

SeF KO ténagune.
oh mekke.

es ® kattile.
0B mundal.
3362 vesupe.
CEr3 parkane.

uray © pibbdle.
Zcrr Ane nembadole.
ESOm kytye.

BER piitige.

Sor ® nartale.

APRIL— #Ert, 1858.] Kota Vocabulary,

Be it so
Bell
Bend
Beware of
Big

Bile

Bind

Bird

Bird cage
Bite
Bison —
Bitter
Black
Blackberry
Blind
Bliss
Blood
Board
Bog, swamp
Boat
Born
Boil (n)

Boils it

OIA} ES dgdte.
5550 79 manne.

© 9 ae
co Be % vakkisipe.

Bat DiasRovis vollame nose ulo.

2nB3B doddude.
as pitte.

FELD kattukape.
BS ete,

28KneS petegude.
Tau 2 kadikape.
BrBowds doddemme.
eR kajje.

FS hare.

550 DoF mullapanne.
HOS 2 kurudane.
Wed sukkame.

= eha<e netiuru.
Ton palage.

a eke.

SSAS arigile.
BER perkape.
Hop punne.

Dr 090 Sve poyiko,

ay

S Kota Vocabulary. [No. 7, NEW SERIES,
Bone PATO ellave.

Bottle BEx pettige.

Boundary Te, katte.

Bow (a) 28 Lille.

Bowels tn S3 kodane.

Box BER pettige.

Boy sR magge; 35588 matt.

Breast cos yedde, woman's breast wos mettle,
Bracelet ihc) valle.

Bramble 5 -By tappe.

Branch of a tree 28 jile.

Brass Tz kapje.

Break BOVE WD mursikape.

Breath LIDOO jivilu.

Breathlessness ewerye uppase.

Breed BSP RB perkisipe.

Bribe © Osyso nanjume.

Bring oes takape.

Brook Beads peye.

Brother (elder) Box anne, (younger) SF Oe8 kerale,
Brother-in-law, BOWS Sys perudappane.
Brow ows iaibiibe.

Buffalo on OB yimme.

APRIL— sept: 1858.] Kota Vocabulary. 9

Build Fioee hattukape, BD FB yettukape.

Burden BP > porre.
Burn aw oF B juttukape.
Business SOG keke.
Butter 30% venne.
Buttermilk S50 O88 mange.
Butterfly FD\3 kappute.

| C.
Cage Kas gude.
Calf 63 kade.
Call | O90 5 FB arkape.
Calumniator 2325 TS jadikarane.
Camel Bri votte.
Carriage wheel 8X E> tirgane.
Cast away S) OF® tailikape.
Castle : Sva3 63 kote.
Cat QeB pise.
Catch OSs 2* pattakape.
Centre TSF ® nartale.
Chaff BPS potte.
Chain F398 takkdle.

* It is very likely that the name of Ootacamund (Toda S25 0)
@
“Patakhamaddu” is derived from this root and would literally mean, “Mand of

catching,” because it was a funeral Mand of the Todas.

Worn. XX. 0.5, VOL. IV. N.S. 3

10 Kota Vocabulary. [No. 7, NEW SERIES;

Chalk
Chat
Cheap
Cheat
Cheek
Child
Chin
Claw
Clay
Clean
Cloud
Climb
Club
Coal
Cobweb
Cocoanut

Cold (feverish)

Cold from cold weather
Colour

Come

Command

Conjurer

Companion

Se a suname.

Snoeh manihape.

a2: aggume.

Bai 0 EB mosamadkape.
Boe tade.

sso magge.

203 pide.

Syvaws holahe.

S55 0f8 manne.

wn 2 pasane,

$393 hide, AIS gide.
Bsos FS portape.
Boe kunde.

9 kari.

ZuaKne jeladigude.
BoAT Sacen tenginakdyi.
TIFT 8 nanmarale.
es karrave.
WIsHD sdyave.
waSe vdkkena,

80) FP appane.
2200S 2 pilikdrane.
08 male.

APRIL— sept. 1858.] Kota Vocabulary. 1]

Comprehend-

Consent
Corn, grain
Corner
Corpulent
Cotton
Cough
Count
Countenance
Country
Courage
Cowries
Cover, hide
Cow

Crab

Cream
Cripple
Crooked
Crow

Cry

Cultivate, plough

Curse

Cut

>) ar ® arthipe.

OSS SB dhape.

SS a vatiame.
556500 Bo melame.

2S BR bahupettige.
sod pande,

F So kakkilu.

BES BIBT yokkana kéekena.
Bazo€’ monde.

9G ndde.

3. 3 dauryave.
oe G8 houvad:.

BvD mupjipe.

QIN ave.

22.0% nailine.

BS OB 20% manje venne.
532 kuttane.

BrajyoF hdnke.

SOS hake.

® 3 FS aikape.

WSS ukape.

Dow only FB sape yittukape.
sl BFS érkape.

12 Kota Vocabulary. [No. 7, NEW SERIEs,

D.
Danee (verb) are eB adakape.
Dark 58 kattale.
Daughter Rosson pemmagge.
Daughter in law RIB sose.
Day rs) nale.
To day c200% yinde.
Day after to morrow TORR nangege.
Deaf rons) G3 kividane.
Death Bose tave.
Debt BoeD sdlame.
Deceive / Qh Saw ED mosamadakape.
Deceiver 2a38 wee mosakarane.
Deep eno Bs uddume.
Demon ensa & Bo butume.
Deny ovo 79 WS yilladupe.
Depart Bryne pogape, Bax hogape.
Deride SOLED nallisikape,
Desert DET FE ® vittirkuve.
Descend. JF ® erkave.
Desire HISBO dvelu.
Diarrhoea BER Aragon ae pettige héyito.

Difference > Sor kadalume.

APRIL—gepr, 1858.] Kola Vocabulary. | 12

Dig
Diminish
Die.

Dirt

Dirty (I make)
Dishonour
Disappear —
Dismiss
Dispute
Ditch
Divide
Dog

Door

Drive
Drink
Drown
Drop
Drum
Drum (verb)
Dry

Dull

ne
Dwarf

Vol; xk. 0. Ss:

Ox aggape.
ae 8 KSRS SL jettigamadakape.
BOF S taukave or PIES takave.
S558 Mase.
saa SSE D masekekape.
CAE BET FR manakettisirkape.
SF -mrBogx B kaddadhégape.
BOT eB haitirkape. :
IMBsE B hoyikirkipe.
FS.009} So guyyiye.
B99 SoFD palhchape.
saan naye.
Bods taye.
SO, arr yethirkape.
wvse TY unakape.
3S A RaeK & muyige hogape.
vers sotte.
a a. parra.
we To one B parrahuyikape.
Bp sFB vonnakape.
Wis? pottane.
SvavdoW3 képarune, 29 dd piye.
D9 OPES MONNINA.

VOL, IV. N. Ss. 4;

Eagle, vulture
Har

Earth, ground
Echo

Kat

Eclipse

Hight
Highteen
Kighty
Enemy
Enough
Elbow
Hlephant
Elk
Embrace
Empire
Equal
Ever
Excrement

Expel

Kota Vocabulary. [No. 7, NEW SERIES,

EK.

TIWBle SSO BS néyepodhakdrana.

SSD hévi.

ADMD buyin.
Byspasz VOjE.

8o °F -Y tinikape.
A®S go girana.

se motte.

wane pasane.

S03 yette.

eee 3 pavenette.
Boom, yembattu.
RRS 2B haggegérane.
ya tvs sdko.
me * o> moggarye.
OOS dne.

Sa3 mave.

8) My OB tyabbisipe.
Se ao sime,

BS sere.

Row yendugu.
Qe dso piye.

BFF haitirkape.

APRIL—suet, 1858.] Kota Vocabulary. 15

Expenditure

Eye

Enchanter

End (verb)

Enter
Envy
Error
Evening

Every

Fall

Face
Falsehood
Family
Faith

Fat

Far

Farmer
Funeral
Fur

Fort

Gain

® 0830 santeku.

ToT kanne.

Ya TS 2 udtkarane.
BDF FQ kesethokape.
BRB B volpdgape.
eeSs 3 hottekichche.
5 By tappe.

FEB hattale,

Sw nTaao yellame.

E.

QM Maa x B viduduhegape.
D390 monde.
SOG kinde.
Bo 808 kutumbe.
SOME nambike.
BeOS vdlune.
Sad dire, SB durume.
pcs OX? vokkaligane.
Boe tave,
age tole.
Maw Use,

c-
GID lébe.

16

Gall
Gallows
Garlic
Gather
Gate
Ghee
Ghost
Giant
Girl
Give
Go
Gloworm
Goat
God
Gold

Goldsmith
Good
Gooseberry
Grain
Grandfather
Grandmother
Grandson

Grass

Kota Vocabulary. [No. 7, NEW SERIES,

ae pitte.

So F 3H TD tihkamarave.
evy ule.

Bia BE kitakape.

axe ® bile.

Oy narye.

ana 8 biite.

Hwor w arhdse.

Ross pemmagge-

Svat FB hkodukape, a takape.

BaasK & hégape.
Dope mine.

Id dde.

2358 dévare.
Bpow pore
38% oS veligesana.
BPRoo vollede.
Fo3ToP tautepanne.
5, so vattame.
QOH perdle.

Bo S_ peravve.
ORR mame
8 pulle,

APRIL— s£PT 1858.] Kota Vocabulary. 17

Grasshopper
Gray

Great

Green

Grief

Grind
Grinding stone
Groan

Ground

Hail
Hair
Half
Hand
Hard
Hair
Harlot
Hate
Hatred
Halt
Hammer
Handle
Hang (oneself)

VoL. XxX, 0. §,

2088 mitile,
SS nare,
DOB dodde.
Be ache.
SSE dulha,
DS DO os GUA epeiiaae:
© Boys kalléle.
ay T ATH Bd naragiyuddole.
MOOV nellume.
Hi.
aux @) S59) Ooo aragallamyaye.
DZS mire.
Bw a adume.
S 3, O00 kaiye.
ToT Lvs hallakajeko,
aor 0 molame,
MBSR stlemagge.
DR 352 ceo Bo 2, paggevajayittukape.

a
TR pagge.

Tire Wear CB kutharuddavakape.
T DSR taputige.
Fon have.
2308 BD FO néndataukape.

VO, io he & 5

18 Kota Vocabulary. [No. 7, NEW SERIES,

Hang (another) nwt tukape.
Hatchet cna 8 yirvale.
Haughty 2038 méte.

Hawknose | DH Kat pathumuke.
Head SSO mande. |
Hearken Bo SB kélakape.
Heart Foe gene.

Heat DB vile.

Ete Oe 2 avane.

Heap Krad gujale.

Heavy se SW wo vdrame.

Here _ on S52 yiyayi (PM) yille.
Hew : Ser “a érkape.

Herb | Rio oy soppe.

Hiccup ei| Ove hikhote.
Hide (reflex) ; 2nF Cee volasakave.
Hide Syewe purkape.
Hill bo ditte.

Hog Be pajje.

Hoof Bv2eOD holake.

Hook Svace konke.

Hold CO w® paddhakape.

a
Honey | E32 téne.

APRIL— set 1858.| Kota Vocabulary.

Honour
Horn

Horse

Horsegram

Hot
House
How
Howl
Hungry
Hundred
Hunt
Husband
Humbug

Idle

Ichneumon

If .
Ilness
Impede

Impotent

ae inane.

Bv908 kombe.
ws kudure.
Doe purult,

a5 védda.

By Bo paiye.

Rog 295 Bo yénéname.
oS FB pdrkape.
BRRjS® pettihose.

aes nure.

Bia K B vétahdgape.

BIOS dle.

25, 0363 pittaldte.
I.

BIDS dane.

F HG kalldde.

By painu.

B38 kiri.

eho) mele,

B53 a NOVE.
SQAFD aligikape.

we oS varadane.

19

QS méda, Bry 8 somare.

29

Improper
Improve
Impure
Incense
Increase
Indecent
Inflammation
Infant, female
Infant, male
Informer
Insufficient
Ink
Insensible
Insane
Interest

Ire

Iron

Itch

Iris (of the eye)

Jackal
Jackfruit

Jest

Kota Vocabulary. [No. 7, NEW SERIES,

DBSOW® sereyilla.

SpT ng vollamote.

So BV miseko.

Sok dupe,

Bn mow’ doddalakape.
Sie S S ws im dnakettavana.
BA gegge-
Rossen pemmagg ee

A OBSR gandemagge.
Q2pIwT3 morekdrane.
Boe yeda.

<8 kart.

ZF HO nenavilla.

onsae SL Ove butavajike.
Se vapje. f

Byw oo kopame.

cmaty yibbe.

ByreOS thrive.

Sopmnr kannemagge-

Je

oe 8 navi.

BY Tops palapanneme.
rae h nallikape.

APRIL—srrt, 1858.] Kota Vocabulary.

Join
Journey
Joy

Jug
Juice
Jump

Justice

Keep
Key
Kick
Kill
Kind (noun)
Kindness
Kindred
King
Kiss
Knee
Kneel
Knock
Know

Knife

on. XX. Ox 5,

21
BUT D kutakape.
DX Po payand.
Sones santosa.
OVveS ao kodame.
228 nire.
MTF D parkape.
ach a nayame.

KK.
sos FB kapadakape.
WK SS) bigadakat.
eye = sz) vokkape.

DISK omy zB tauvershayikape.

aoe madare.

B do daye.

83 ¢ nettane.

Br dore.

Mok casey mungehakipe.
DO KS moggdle,

DO Traore oa moggalurkave.
tae S Svar © B kodgul kotukape.

9 :
Orr B arsipe.

S78 juri,

Wore IVa Nes: 6

22

Ladder
Lake
Language
Late
Lead
Leap
Leaf
Leather

Leave
Leech
Left
Leg
Lemon
Leopard
Leprosy
Liar

Lie down
Life
Lift up
Lime
Limit

Lip

Kota Vocabulary. [No. 7, NEW SERIES,

L.
VSB yénilu.
SSO heres
ase ® base.
F Basco tadevayt.
83 oo tisalu.
Ba FO parkape.
Bod yele.
“B39 tle.

anido BrogK® dittuddahdgape.

00% < yipuve.

os yedde.

598 hile.

dd Dos yelmichche.
SFP Laesiie

BRE OBA doddaroga.
wos O28 sullugarane.
Sr FB vorkape.
Lon jive.

ne ® tukape.
Bo sunume.

ee katte.

ne tisa.

APRIL—surr. 1858.| Kota Vocabulary.

Listen
Little
Lizard
Load
Lock
Long
Look
Loosen
Loud
Love (1)
Lust
Labour, (1)

Mad
Make

Malediction

Malice (I have)

Man
Mango
Many
Marry

Marsh } swamp

Mat

SS} “a , ees
Wf93 CASTS voretikena.

Boo hunna.
WSP3 Pa vOna.
“oes perre.

DPR bige.

ye uddume.
3n93B 2 nodakape.
09 FB bidukape.
feed vollam.

K Ss apd gavavajupe.
OIIDW dvelu.

Asx 3 gitave.

M

w
Ne)

X79 x2, xe So butapejavana.

SST DB kekape.

DOB sdpe.

BoseNeoe ® hottekichchukékape.

os A j
wo manisana, ares ale,

SK FOF mavhanne.
OTT a aparame.

% 2 éke.
3508 8 mandari.

“BY By oa e %& © pétukolakape.

24) Kota Vocabulary. [No. 7, NEW'SERIES,

&

Matter Ags give.

Meat Boye béte.

Medicine oO madde.

Meet ersqa 8B TOT B dldrevaddakadkape.
Melt “eKE © OB kargasakape.
Milk ad pdle.

Milk (verb) SBE R harrakape.
Miscarry SF DES ova maggevitako.
Mist $0 O83 manje.

Mind oR manase.

Mind (verb) eve B UNISAL Ee.

Miser SOK 2 karigarane.
Mock “Sve0 fe komsakape.
Mocking F399 géli

Money XFo0 panam.

Moment Re ane * jenanhottiges
Monkey “Bv8 SO kera.

Moon 5% ® tiggale.

Month 8 oy perre.

Morning De S 8 velatale.

Morrow (to) sot nalake.

Mother Ea avve. |

“ss ae Z
Motherless 8 8 8 tavari.

APRIL— supp, 1858.| Kota-Vocabulary. 25

M aon
kare.
Mouse
Mouth
Muscle

Mount, ascend

Mountain
Must

Mute

Nail
Naked
Name
Narrative
Nation
Naught
Navel
Near
Neat
Neck
Needle

N eighbour
Nest

Tor. Xx. 0.8)

Voralve Nes

- ae oe! Le et
3550S Gra BES) SB mandekitiai-

(Literally I join the head to another and weep.)

Si éje.

ara cdo VAY e.

20 nerbe.

C5, 7% pattakape.
ag 89 Bo bettume.
39D vétu, must not See vede.
“BID péme.

N.

euses tre.

~~ BO0wd veruyipi.
oo pere.

Bos pathe.

te a kollame.
Boj Dow yenumilla.
wF 3 bukkave,.
Sns,d vottale.
BeBe pdpane.

ce 8 kartale.
ore tuse.

ReyT 2, So gadavatye.
Kn gude

~I

Never
New

News

Nick name

Night

=
®

Nineteen

Ninety

Noon
North
Nose
Nostrils
No
Nothing
Nourish

Now

Cath (I make)

Ocean
Oil
Old

Omen

Kota Vocabulary. (No. 7, NEW SERIES,

R83 Fe wen yéenalukilla,

Stat
aa

a) pudhu.

Wom sudde.

Oo
22,8238 porrapéra.
© §, B hattale.

Bp BS aZ vorabade.
Bancn, hadombettu.
Qn0we tombatte.

ewes

ax 2
a S oo saddume.
ee madaine,
SOR vadage.

Sia S muke.

Sree Ee 2
Soo S00 © muikasinte.
cm yulla.

Swpdowe yénillame.
oy).

Oo B sakape.

COV yine.

O.

SHUTS satyakékape.
yoo WS saunduru.

oF yenie.

a

2) para.

sae saume, Bm jaume.

APRIL~ peer. 1858.| Kota Vocabulary.

One ,
Onion
Open
Once
Orient
Order to
Other
Outside
Over
Owl
Ox

Pain
Palace
Palate
Paper
Paper
Part
Passion
Path
Pawn
Peaceful

Peaeock

ras)
~I

BB vodde.
C009 TI yéruli,
CRS aes terrakape.
Spwes vorutte.
=Sa0B mide.
OG C0 3B yevalu yittape.
on 03303 yinnonde.
Bp Tox porranje.
aX S méke.
F083 gummane.
Sue yette,

F.
ent Ursu.
aS m3 aramane.
BBS or kirranalage.
SOK BS hdgaje.
DOK ® Boro ningalpamnam.
Soanw palume.
Svsa3 Oa kopame.
DIITIO alare.
a 3, adavaiye.
ne SS ulistana.
DoH mile,

28

Pearl

Pen

Penis
Pepper
Perspiration
Perish
Piece

Pig

Pilfer
Pinch (to)
Pipe

Piss

Pit

Place
Plantain
Play

Play to
Plenty
Pledge (I)
Plough

Plough (verb)

Pocket

Point out

a

Kota Vocabulary. No. (, NEW SERIES,

308 mutte.
23 peke.

29% bide.

Bnet KS molagu.

eos ure.

B BBX kettogape.
Homa tundume.

we pape.

COCR hLallakape.
am) es nillakape.
020% bugurt.

aay oe B molatiukape.
Hm Dy) kuyye.

WB Bd yedame.
asa) HOP béyehanne.
6508 dita.

I9!3S B dtakape.
ave aparam.
Qopsoank BW pennagape.
230K nélege.

woe uvakkave.
“Svaso@ B kéndile.
eo8 TB katkape.

®
APRIL— supt, 1858.| Kota Vocabulary. 29)

Poison
Pond
Poor
Potter
Porcupine
Pour
Portion
Post to
Prepare
Pride
Pray
Property.
Prostrate
Proud
Prove
Pulse
Purchase
Purge
Purse
Push
Putrid.

Quake |

Vol. XX..0. S,

SOP nanju.

FIO hére.

ce OS x2 vadavane.

Sv9 0% Coss kombdren,
25D pipapje.

Bio eB attukape.
BIOs pdlame.

DOGR ee nillakisikape.
JC SHEE a3) veddagurkape.
ooo 963 méte.

o e roe pardhakape.
Ore ddéra.

>) So8S adamithen.
30963 We © nétegara.
DULG Fe, rujakekape.

oS nate.

3d Kove ce’) velegayettakape..

BBexaajpow de pettehdyito.
By 297 Wo kaijtrume.
TSG ISB vabakekape.
SBopR kiddéje.

Q.
Tars® nadigepe,

VoL. IV. N. 8. 8

*
30 Kota Vocabulary. |No- 7, NEW: SERIES;

Quick he aida, © OOO tarravara.
Quench, spoil Bgee, kettiskape.
Quite QomB. yellame.
R. |

Rage (verb) Sys Ee FB kopammadakape.
Rain ESFa) my aye:
Rain (verb) Se) TH AA myayehuso.
Rainbow 2 8 0K8 korangule.
Raise 5, s2 yettakape.
Raspberry << OHS mullupille.
Recite 22003190 BS O38 Sows F-ok

yinnondapétupartakape-
Recollection 3%) 5 neppu.
Ruu Bro FS vodakape.
Rat QB éje. :
Razor SF oss talavdla.
Reconcile SpoB Bee vondakkitena.
Red FD) keppe.
Refuse BO Ky, & véedannukape.
Regulate BAS BZ serigikena.
Release DERS vittiskena.
Require 30 Pow HEF SS vékendahartikena.

Rend, tear B°OB hirkape.
oy

APRIL— sePT, 1858.| Kota Vocabulary. 31

Rhododendron DOSS ad vilimarame.
Rheumatism Xe jant.
Rib ST Ryr B karsibe.
Riches | 20S: 5 F doddavaduke.
Right BO seri.
Right hand woe 3, valakai.
Ring Bag-as Bo modaram,
Rise | 988 GD meékikape.
River Be Sto peye.
Road HIPeT9S alare, O93, Tas aidare.
iroar: | O99 °F FH iene
Rock. J 8, erre,
Race Wow @ panimele.
Root Bet vere.
Rope of buffalo hide WO milli.
Rope of hemp “JO nare. :
eee K oR MITHIS ganjeguilehive.
Rotten $3 bys hiddeko.
Rub wT ee uddaskape.
- Rubbish Bay padbe.

Rurinate, 3rd person 303 Fo w bus mekasako,
Run away SPQYKB voshogape.

Rust BOIOLW hilumbdu,

3E Kota Vocabulary. [No- 4, NEW SERIES).

Rusty (it is)

Sack

Salep plant
Saliva

Salt

Salute:

Sand
Saturday.
Satisfied (not hungry)
Sauce

Scatter
Scratch.

Scent.

Scent (impers)
Scorpion:

Scull

Seal.

See

Sell

Seize

Send

Set (the sun sets)

Benowey x Sue kilumbupajjiko-.
S..

23% Re jirume.

By ROM) naigaulsu.

Swo8 B yenjele.

eve) uppe:

Bracanioe kombuttukape.
sod manale.

x2) a taine.

DE 83a Ove pettetivekus
oe udduke.

azoye® etrittakape.
Nae yettakape.

K so 8 gamule.

KS 8 3 Bue gamulaike.

BSS jéle.

SH OB8S mandore.

oO 6 mudare.

20S SB nothape-

Sa “& mdrkape.

Oe. ® pattakape.

BD FB hyépkape-
SpOwmnT ww pottumarkakos.

APRIL— sept, 1858.] Kota Vocabulary.

Seven
Seventeen
Seventy |
Sew |
Shadow
Shake
Shame
Shameless
Shave

She

Sheil
Ship
Short
Shoulder
Show
Shrub
Shut
Sick
Sickle

WoL. XK. 0, Ss.

SOF GH

VoL. VI.

co
OS

53 yéle.

©8353 pattinéle.

SDF xe yélvatte.

So Et eB kuttakape.
35°3 nerale.

ae eB alukape.
mPa NANamMe.s

FIT DH nanamilla, é
SDE D manikape.

as ) avale.

Soe sanke.

Sasa® habil.

Bae mode.

mS mude.

katkape, B35 & & torkape.
By dabbe.

arae 2; adape.
SOO wo® harusamilla.
o o& 8, kankatti.

a HS vakure.

=OFs narikape.

a3 80309 ndtume.
Mme gurute,

Ne Ss 9

34

Silent (I am)
Silver

Sin

Single

Sister

Six

Sixteen
Sixty

Skin

Sky

Slay

Sleep

Slide, slip
Slippery
Slope

Slow

Small
Smarts, it
Smell (good)
Smell (bad)

Smile

Smoke
Snake

Kota Vocabulary. [No. 7, NEW SERIES,

SEL pakkikape.
SY veli.

in® 2 papume.
Spe Ie9 vojje ale.

Oe akkane, DeaseF ® herdase.

OIIT dru.
BQwooo padinaru.
esas ro arvatie.
“Exe tole.

aa BO vdnume.
Boage sh tauvikape.
Spb FED vorrakape.
are 33 jaravarpe.
972 BOS jarilu.
soKb vagare.
-2)9'3903 0 péemém.
Kore kunnadu.

DS 20r e750.

BpEKs 8 vollegamule.

SOO? naro, Lage ae qidivotto.

SoSe H hdrdhape.

an -
Bre poke.
Sunn pabe.

APRIL—ésbrny, 1853.| Kola Vocabulary.

Sneeze
Snore
Se

Son

Sorcerer

ED B tepupe.

be) SQ kurtape.

CLD07 » ing ti, Boz) ang ai.

sor magge.
28 oS 3 bilikdrane.

Sorcery (the Curumba pratices) *3°O Sygawrr
tus kavade vedesirkako.

Soul
Soil
Sour
Sorry (I am)
South
Sow
Speak
Spear
Spend
Speech
Spine
Spittle
Spit’
Spider
Spoil

Spot

ey YS Uussure.

ADIN buyini.

He puyye.

Be nD dukamdpe.
oe tekke.

amy 74 ® vittukape.
ed Bs manikape.

COE yijje.

BF Ase sh vechchagikape.
OS 0K parsangume.
ZS dive.

Rooxd yenjale.

ev X32 ulluve.

BES jélde.

$e ve kettisakape.
WW BD yedame.

oo

Gx

go
ROP)

Kota Vocabulary. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

Staff 2) Lasse.
Stand aoe B nillukape.
Star 03 P mine.
Spread Soe xB partakape.
Sprinkle ROBT B sottakape.
Squeeze sloae ® hindikape.
Starve BSA Yee pettige ko.
Steal Seek kallakape.
Steel ge ulke.
Steep ao atte.
Stench # jidi.
Stink LBOILGS jidivittiken.
Step (oun) Be hajje.
Sting FSCS hatdhakape.

ie t
Stool (to go ta) 23Cos O05K ® pitutalhogape.
Stop am x a addagaddakape.
Storm wo kate.
Straw % 8 pulle.
Stream Becw peye.
Strike Deore puyikape-
String <a 8 nile
Strong (man) SSRES saddugaran.

Sucks (it) ensasxre ito.

APRIL— grrr, 1858.] Kota Vocabulary. 37

Sugar RS kallene.
Sun Beer porte.
Sunday aveS a Sa asavarame.
Sure | Oa nellame.
Swallow DOA DBT ws aungivittikape.
Swamp ae eke.
Sweat Wve ure.
Sweep BP BB voskape.
Sweet ® 3303 sate,
Swell WIS vdto.
aS
Tail WIND vdlume.
Take Ber D vérkape.
Tall WIS udu.
Talk STs manikape.
Tamarind FWY nabbulz.
Tax *F OB 8 pa wo kendavaname, ie
Ee Lajdna.
Thatch H SmaW TB pullemuchchukape.
Tempest GOS kite.
Ten we patte.
Thirst BDF arpu.
There ®® aili.

i Gh. XX. 0. S. > VOL, VI. Ni. s. 10

38

Thiet
Thirteen
Thirty
Tie
Thorn
Thistle
Thread
Three
Thumb
Thunder
Thunders, it
Time
Tiger
Tinder
Tobacco
Token
Tongue
Tooth
Touch
Town
Transgression
Trap

Treasure

Kota Vocabulary. [No.

oe 2 kallane.
SawnS padimide.
ser 6 muvatte.
eRe hs kattakape.
sod mulle.

2% negge-

<a O nule.

58 mide.

SQ55CO bebetvaralu.

KOR gudiku.
Kw ts guduko.
SoOs kdlame.
He pupje.

EB tide.

Bee poke.

Some kurpe.
sO nalage.

+a) palle.

SBT B muttakape.
wb sow pattanave.
TF Ly tappe.

Kas gude.
Qw%oe ww dohusame.

7, NEW SERIES,

APRIL— sept, 1858.] Kota Vocabulary.

Tree
Tremble
True
Trust |
Truth
Tumble
Turban
Tusk
Turn
Twelve
Twenty —
Twig
Twilight
Twin

Twinkle

Udder
Uleer
Umbrella
Uncertain

Uncle

558 So marame.
SBATER nadegirkape.
23 nelle.

SomE®D nambikape.
we 5) satya.

Da aagK 2) vididhdgape.

SO0D RYO mandeperi.
~8 palle.

88ATD tirigikape.
Hons pannaide.
comane 3 yiwadhe.
28 jile.

= Baza nadujdma.

©50 3) BOR avilemagge.

U.
wos mele.
pa punnu.
ee kede.

3 OHI nellamilla.

EF OBG) MS Gl laa x

BB. eS pallataijcna

Under

39

°F Ofaeo ROSE % Lannuhottakape.

40

Up

Urine
Understand
Unjust

Urge

Value
Vegetable
Venereal
Vertex
Vial
View
Violence
Voice
Vomit

Village

Wait

Walk

Wall

Want, famine
Want (1)
War

Kota Vocabulary. [NO. 7, NEW SERIES,

D037S méke.
Brs ax molnira.
ODF & arkupe.

sa Ks ao ® nayamilla.

an@nssoo BAS 2 balumuttagikape.

Vv.
33 velle.
RwBy soppe.
oer woe turkaphanne.
=SoQ oes mandehote.
BER peitige.
Bsa3i3wo notame.
aos 5 balamutta.
By daine.
EF ies) harkape.
33 patti.

W.
o8 GO kdtkape.
S35 nadekape.
RYO géde.
Does panjame.
BOK ZIT yenaguvéku.
Dz ook pordta.

APRIL— #4P0,1858.] Kota Vocabulary. 4

Warm
Wart
Wash
Waste
Water
Wax
Way
Weak
Wear
Wealth
Wed
Week
Weigh
Well
Well, good
West
When
What
Wet
Wheat
Whistle
Where.
Whip

VOL, XX..0, Si

BiB) Sepak vevatyehkékape.

8? jatte.
“Bre m0 BB toyiskape.
BETS kettiskape.
29S nire.

‘e
ado san mekke.
AIeera alare.

WH, e ® sammattilla.

an? Sy = a bevuhkave.
Bm addra.

29S Da T TD pétukolakape.
a Bored ettundle.
tye tukape.

Son) vavi.

BGM volledu.

SO 8 marale.

Bop hoe yegola.
Si093 yene.

390 ndnde.
R30 gédumbi.
DVT B viltikape.

Rood yelle, Swy Bo yéeye.
LOG jiluke.

VoL. VI. N. 8. 11

42 Kota Vocabulary. [ No. 1, NEW SERIES,

Whiskers SIBW3yB tddemise.
White QF velape.

Who sKa8 yare.

Whore Wrogss * sthilemagge.

Wide Roos agulume.
Widow Mares mudegede.
Widower 5550083 mundine.

Wife By8 pete.

Willow By Fas T wo vaigemarame.
Wind SoS kata.

Wipe ek, N8 varrasipe.
Wilderness a kdde.

Wing BS poke.

Wink (1) Bi TOA ® kaisanigisupe.
Witchcraft QO pili.

Wish esas © dvale.

With DB oKS sangada.

Wither BpoArnegyr vonagihogape.
Within Bye? vole.

Witness oF wd sdkisame.

W oman Dossr pemmagge-

Wood, forest E33 tele.

Word S508 mate.

APRIL— SEPT, 1858.] Kota Vocabulary. 43

Work (1) BeaeeRD kéokihape.
Worm on puve.
1
Yawn B03 BT 0 D530 B aval vittupe.
Year x Xr varshame.
Yes TMs hide.
Westergay ....- SO niyare.
Yield Bex) FB vobbakepe.
Yoke DSO none.
Young 2 SF 9503 jauvdne.

The letter es placed under other letters, for instance
5 2, has a sound peculiar to the Hill tribes, something
like xp in tamil, but not exactly so. It will be observed
how many words terminate in é ey The frequent occur-
rence of this vowel, which the Kotas utter in a nasal
pronunciation, makes their language any thing but agreable

to the ear.

OCCUPATION OF THE HILL TRIBES.

Nearly the whole life of a Toda is spent in idle-
ness. Except milking the Buffaloes and making ghee from
the produce of their herds, no real work is done by the
Todas. Even the milk business is to the greater part

AA Kota Vocabulary. [No. 7,-NEW SERIES,

performed by one man in each village, whom they call
the Palicarpal, and who alone is allowed to go into the
dairy, which is considered a kind of sanctum in each Mand.
In the harvest time the men go about in all the Badaga
villages, and raise their tax in grain, which they call gudu,
and to which, the Badagas believe, they have, as the lords
of the soil, a certain right, but I have been witness a
great many times when it was only by the greatest force
that the Todas could get something from their tenants.
And if the Badagas were not afraid of their enchantment,
they certainly often would refuse to supply the lazy fellows,
whom they call Pitchekarar, with the means of their sub-
sistence. Also the Toda women are as lazy as their hus-
bands, and except preparing the meal for the family, do
nothing at all. They sometimes during the absence of
their husbaads sit for hours together, talking and laugh-
ing, and curling their hair.

Though the Badagas also do not know much of the
value of time, still they cultivate their ground, and in the
sowing and weeding season expose themselves to the in-
clemency of the weather very much, and I have no doubt
if they were more industrious, they could easily supply
themselves with grain enough to live upon, but as this
is not the case, a very large quantity of Ragy comes up
from the low country every week, which the Badagas buy
and consume. The Badaga women are very industrious,
and not for an hour they can be seen idle. If there is
no work in the field, they bring firewoad to the house,
or do something else for the benefit of the family. Chiefly
on this account a youth has to give a very large dow-
ry for his wife, sometimes 150 and 200 Rs. because he
knows her usefulness. Also they have more modesty, and
are not so forward as the Toda women, at least not tow-
ards strangers. The Government tax, which the Badagas
pay for their land and buffaloes, is comparatively high

< as aR URES Na
ee SS ee

APRIL—- SEPT, 1858.| Kota Vocabulary. 45

but for a little bribery the Kanaka or village Accountant
can always Manage it to make it a little lower.

The productions of the soil are the following :-—
1. Nilgherry wheat and Nilgherry barley.

2. European wheat and European barley introduced
by Mr. Sullivan. Barley has degenerated very much; and
for the last years, the Badagas preferred their own, because
they had a better harvest of it. Formerly it was the con-
trary, and also this year having had plenty of rain, the Dorre
ganje t. e. Gentleman’s barley looks beautifully.

[ Vetches and oats were also introduced by Mr. Sullivan,
but the natives did not make any use of it.]

3. The most common grain is what the natives call
Korrali, which is a very rough kind of millet, and grows
in the colder districts Kundendd, and Mekanad, where
the other finer grains do not grow. As they cultivate
the same piece of ground, only every 2d or 4th year, it
grows very well without manure except the bushes, which
are cut down and burnt.

4. Sa@mé (panicum miliare) which is considered the
best kind of the several small grains of the Hills. If
grows in the warmer districts, 1t must have richer soil
than Korrali.

| 5. Lénnéy or Navoney (panicum italicum) which also
| grows only inwarm places. It is considered indigestible,
on which account only a small quantity is cultivated and
always eaten mixed with some other grain.

6. Varagu (paspalum frumentaceum) which grows
only on the slopes of the Hills in feverish places, and
requires, it seems, a warmer climate than the Hill
| plateau affords.

Vou. xXx. 0,8 Vous VI. N: Ss. 12

AG Kota Vocabulary. [xo. 7, NEW SERIES.

7. Ragi (cynosurus corocana) grows also only in
places where the cold monsoon wind cannot come to. This
grain the natives say will remain good for 30 years if
it is kept in dry places.

8. <A kind of pea (cicer arietinum) generally sown
when the fagi is cut down.

9, Manalige (a kind of lentil) used for currystuff.

10. Meté (trigonella foenum grzcum) sold to the
low country merchants.

11. Onions and garlic very small but of a fine flavour.
They are generally sold to merchants, who come up from
Coimbatoor, and carry large quantities down on bullocks.

12. Opium of a very good kind, the curse for many
of the inhabitants of the Hills, who use it first as medicine
against any disease they are troubled with, and then get
incurable opium eaters. Many of the Kotas boil the shells
of the poppy to get a stupifying beverage from them.

13. Pasambu (calamus aromaticus) is not cultivated
but grows nearly in every swamp, and is sold to the
Coimbatoor merchants.

APRIL~--surr, 1858.| Sandstones coniaining Fossil Wood. 47

If. On the Geological age of the Sandstones containing
Fossil Wood, at Trivicary, near Pondicherry. By H. F.
BiaNForD, of the Geological Survey of India.

THE sandstones occurring at the village of Trivicary near Pondi-
cherry have long been known to Indian Geologists from their con-
taining in considerable quantity the silicified remains of the stems
of trees. These beds were first brought to public notice, by the late
Mr. Kaye, of the Madras Civil Service, in his paper on the Geology
of the Country around Pondicherry, published in Vol. Part of the
6th Transactions of the Geological Society of London. In the same
paper are also described certain other sandstones occurring at the
village of Verdoor Valudayur, four miles South Hast of Trivicary,
and a large series of fossils collected from these rocks, by Mr.
Kaye, end Mr. Brooke Cunliffe, were sent home and described, by
the late Professor Edward Forbes, in the admirable Monograph
which accompanies Mr. Kaye’s paper. From these fossils Profes-
sor Forbes determined the Verdoor sandstones to be of cretaceous
age, and he stated his opinion that they were about coeval with the
lower cretaceous or Neocomian rocks of Europe. The age of the
Trivicary sandstones however still remained doubtful, and no de-
cided opinion was enunciated on the subject, until in the course of
last year, Mr. Adolphe Schlagentweit published in the Journal of
the Asiatic Society of Bengal,* his “ Report on the Progress of
the Magnetic Survey, &c. from November 1855 to April 1856.”

In this Report Mr. €chlagentweit having described the great
series of sandstones and plant-bearing beds throughout Central
India and portions of Bengal, and assuming the Trivicary sand-

stones to be of the same age, says:—‘* With reference to the diffi-
cult question of the age of the sandstone formation, it is worth
mentioning that I have seen the sandstone with fossil trees clearly
overlaid by the cretaceous strata, the Pondicherry district, so that
it cannot be younger than Jurassic,’ and further on :—‘ The cre-
taceous strata seem to have been quite undisturbed; they rest ho-

rizontally upon the oolitic sandstones of Trivicary, and upon the
erystalline schists in other localities,” and as these sandstones coin-

: * No. II for 1857.
VoL. XK. 0;.S. VoL. IV. N: s.

48 Sandstones containing [wo. 7, NEW SERIES.

cided with an opinion on the age of the sandstones of Central In-
dia previously put forward, by Mr. Hislop,* the question seemed
so far decided, viz. that the Trivicary sandstones were older than
the cretaceous epoch and in all probability Jurassic.

In December last, the Madras party of the Geological Survey of
India, commenced the detailed survey of the South Arcot and Tri-
chinopoly Districts, and proceeded in the first place to examine the
relations of the Trivicary and Verdoor sandstones in order to gain
a distinct knowledge of their relative superposition before tracing
out those rocks into other portions of the district. This portion of
the work has been now completed, and the result is that the rela-
tive superposition of the beds in question proves to be precisely the
reverse of that which Mr. Schlagentweit imagined to be the case.
As this is a subject of somewhat critical distinction, and will in all
probability prove of great importance to the true comprehension of
the geology of a large portion of India, it is advisable to state in
some detail the grounds upon which the above determination has
been arrived at.

Immediately to the east of the village of Trivicary and stretch-
ing thence for a distance, of about half a mile in the direction of
Verdoor and Pondicherry, are a series of small irregular sandstone
bluffs much eroded by the denuding action of fresh water, and
forming a prominent and striking feature in the surrounding land-
scape. On near inspection these bluffs are seen to be composed
of coarse sandstones much false-bedded and irregularly banded
with brilliant tints of lilac, orange, pink, white, &c.; they are rare-
ly conglomeritic, considerable quantities of silicified wood are scat-
tered over the surface of the ground, and here and there large
masses of the same are seen protruding, from the sandstone in situ,
The sandstones are of no great thickness, for so far as can be judged
they appear to be nearly horizontal and on their western boundary
or towards the village of Trivicary, are seen in several places rest-
ing immediately on the crystalline rocks, which everywhere form
the bottom rock of the country. The small bluff which bounds this
elevated patch of sandstones, is very conspicuous both in its west-

* Quarterly Journal Geological Society of London, Vol. XI. p. 457.

APRIL- srrt.. 1858. | Fossil Wood. 49

ern and eastern limits in the neighbourhood of Trivicary, but to the
north it dies away gradually, and the sandstones themselves disap-
pear beneath a thick covering of soil, and are only occasionally
visible when laid bare in the beds of the small water-courses. A
thick deposit of sandy soil laps in a similar manner, round the foot
of the eastern bluffs and conceals the underlaying rock, except in
the immediate neighbourhood of the river, where gneiss is seen in
situ, and from its position, is evidently cropping out from beneath
the sandstones, Cretaceous rocks resembling those at Verdoor are
no where seen in contact with these beds except that at one point
an isolated block of yellow sandstone containing cretaceous fossils,
which from its appearance, I judge to have been recently dug up,
from the soil on the spot on which it rests, is seen at what appears,
to be the boundary of the sandstones. No cretaceous rocks what-
ever are here seen in place.

There is great reason to believe, judging from the color and ap-
pearance of the soil* that from Trivicary, the tree-bearing sand-
stones extend for some distance to the East and overlap a portion
of the cretaceous rocks, as shown in the accompanying map and
section, but as in the absence of any sections on any rock whatever
seen in sifu over this tract of country, it is impossible to prove the
fact, we must seek elsewhere for reliable proofs of superposition,
and to do this, we pass to the country between Verdoor and Pon-
dicherry.

About two miles N. W. of Pondicherry, the Madras road as-
cends and passes for about three miles over a tract of elevated coun-
try, characterized by a red sandy soil, from beneath which a late-
ritic gravel is dug in places to metal the road. This elevated tract
extends from the south east corner of the great Oosatary tank, four
miles west of Pondicherry to the village of Mundakuppam on the
coast 10 miles north of Pondicherry and along the greater part of
its boundary is terminated by a small escarpment of about 30 feet
average elevation, The streams which carry off the drainage of
this little plateau have cut deeply into the rocks composing it at
several places along the escarpment, and expose Oosatary gritty sand-

* This character, vague and unreliable as it may appear, has been found to be
an excellent indication of the presence of certain rocks throughout the district.

50 Sandstones containing [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

stones and conglomerates, sometimes of a deep red color, at others
mottled and banded with various colors, and containing occasion-
ally, although rarely, large unrolled fragments of silicified wood
precisely similar to those found at Trivicary.

To the east of the Oosatary tank the sandstones are especially
well exposed in the gullies cut by several small streams flowing
down to the tank, and may be seen at several places, resting on
finely grained soft yellow sandstones which contain in some places
a few very imperfect but recognizable cretaceous fossils and are
proved to be the upper beds (as here seen) of the cretaceous series.
It is therefore beyond the remnant of a doubt that the coarse sand-
stones of Pondicherry, are newer than the cretaceous beds.*

The next step in the investigation is to trace out the identity of
these beds, and the coarse grits at Trivicary. In ascertaining this
point the greatest care has been exercised, and the two areas were
repeatedly and alternately visited in order to compare thoroughly
the two series. The results of this investigation are :—

1st. ‘The sandstones at Trivicary, and those at the Oosatary tank
present precisely the same lithologic characters. They are both
very coarse ferruginous grits containing minute particles of what
appears to be kaolin interspersed with the grains of sand and giving
them a white speckled appearance. In both localities, they are
very variable in color, but the most characteristic varieties both at
Trivicary and the tank are variegated, with irregular bands of lilac,
pink, and yellow, frequently very brilliantin color. They are both
occasionally somewhat conglomeritic especially towards the bottom,
and in their false bedding, their irregular segregation and all litho-
logical characteristics, they are quite undistinguishable.

2nd. The Trivicary grits contain fossil wood in great quantity,
while the Oosatary beds contain it only very sparingly, but itis in
both places apparently identical, and in both cases perfectly sili-
cified and unrolled. Moreover, that the abundance of fossil wood
is a very local character, is proved by the fact, that in the evident
extension of the Trivicary sandstones to the North, the fossil wood

* The extension of these sandstones to the south of Cuddalore is seen in many
places resting on the cretaceous rocks very unconformably. At Verdachellum
they rest on the lowest beds of the cretaceous series whereas 20 miles to the south
of this, they are seen resting on beds about 3,000 feet up in the same series.

APRIL—sErt, 1858. | Fossil Wood. 51

seems entirely to disappear, at the distance of about 2 miles, where-
as the Oosatary beds are 8 miles distant.

ord. Both at Trivicary and towards the coast, the sandstones
form an elevated tract bounded by a small escarpment, more or
less perfect. The similar developments of grits to the southward,
such as those occurring at Cuddalore in the Capper Hill, and at
numerous other places since visited, by the Survey are all similar-
ly characterized. Indeed, the continuity of the Oosatary beds and
those of the Capper Hill, has only been destroyed by the breaching
action of the Panar and Ariancupom rivers, and the interspace ia
now occupied by the alluvium deposited bythese rivers.

4th. Whenever throughout the district, the bottom beds of the
eretaceous series have been seen, they rest immediately on the
gneiss, whereas, as has been mentioned in the note p—the southern
extension of the Oosatary beds rests very unconformably on the
cretaceous rocks, so much so that it is easy to be comprehended,
that at Trivicary they should overlap these latter, and rest also on
the gneiss.

oth. From these results which have been verified by repeated
examination, the only legitimate conclusion that can be drawn, al-
though in distinct oppositionto Mr. Schlagentweit’s statement, is :-—
that the Trivicary sandstones are identical with those of Oosatary,
therefore newer than the cretaceous beds and unconformable to them,
the cretaceous rocks having been upheaved and denuded partially
only at the Oosatary tank and other places, entirely at Trivicary,
previous to the deposition of the tree-bearing sandstone. That Schla-
gentweit should have been mistaken, in his reading of the Geology
of Trivicary is no more than might have happened to any one who
made so very cursory an inspection of this rather difficult district
as that gentleman, for it will be observed from Mr. Schlagentweit’s
report that in the space of one fortnight, viz. from the 24th April
to the 10th March, he visited the whole of the country between
Madras and Trichinopoly, and travelled thence to the Neilgherry
Hills, a distance altogether of 370 miles. Itis however exceeding-
ly to be regretted that any man of acknowledged scientific attain-
ments should make so decided a statement as that quoted from Mr.
Schlagentweit’s paper, especially on a point of really critical im-

52 Sandstones containng Fossil Wood. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

portance such as the present is, unless he has fully and carefully
satisfied himself of its absolute certainty. A statement so distinct
as Mr. Schlagentweit’s would never be questioned by any one, who
had never visited the locality referred to, and how much false rea-
soning it may give rise to, may be seen by perusing Mr. Schlagen-
tweit’s own paper, wherein from the single observation at Trivica-
ry, the author rests his inference of the age of the great sandstone
and plant-bearing series of central India and Bengal.

It is difficult to imagine what Mr. Schlagentweit could have been
thinking of that could lead him to make so positive a statement as
that quoted ; the cretaceous rocks, especially those of Pondicherry,
differ so markedly in appearance from the tree-bearing sandstones
that it is scarcely to be supposed that Mr. Schlagentweit mistook
any of the upper beds of the tree-bearing grits for cretaceous rocks,
and yet this seems the only possible explanation of the error, for
the contour of the ground, and the dip of the beds, so far as can
be made out, would rather point to a different conclusion. As Mr.
Schlagentweit has however promised a detailed account of his Geo-
logical observations in India, he may possibly be able to throw
some light on the cause of his mistake.

Postscript.—The above paper was written in camp shortly
after the survey of the country of which it treats, and where I had
but very few works of reference at hand. I was thus unaware of
a fact, which I have now great pleasure in acknowledging, viz.,
that the true order of superposition of the Trivicary sandstones
with reference to the cretaceous rocks of Verdoor was fully known
to Captain Newbold, who published his notes respecting these
rocks in the Asiatic Society’s Journal, Vol. XIV, and subsequently
in his paper on the Geology of India, published in Vol. IX of the
Calcutia Review, stated his views on this subject very clearly. I
deem myself fortunate that an accidental delay in the publication
of my paper has afforded me an opportunity of supplying a grave
omission, and of doing an act of justice to one of the most philoso-
phical and energetic of that noble band of investigators who have
been the voluntary pioneers of Science in India,

— oS ee

as ee

APRIL—gerr, 1858. | Notes Antiquarian and Mythical. 58

Ill. Notes Antiquarian and Mythical. By M. J. Waxnovss,
Esq., C. S.
i

Tux worship paid to rough stones is a curious and widely spread
feature in the ancient religions, and in the majority of its phases
appears to have been connected with that phallic or lingam wor-
ship, which now confined to India, prevailed in early times through-
out Southern and Western Asia, and even penetrated into Europe.
It is the object of this notice to bring together some of the more
remarkable indications of its existence ; though in such an attempt
there is always the danger of repeating what has been before pre-
sented in the many scientific publications of the day, possibly in
this very Journal. None however can pretend to be acquainted
with all that is, and has been published, on any particular subject,
for the rest ‘“‘ pereant male qui ante nos nostra dixére.”

The shape in which the reproductive power is popularly typified
in this country is well known; from the rude elongated stone set
up under every green tree, to the massive cylinders of hewn rock,
black with oil, in their celled shrines, in the teuevos of some
ancient pagoda. There is a conspicuous instance at a remarkable
point where the Cauvery after running 50 miles through an almost
untrodden wilderness of hills and jungle eastward from the Falls
of Sivasamudram, turns south on its way to the rice-fields of Tan-
jore. At the bend the river spreads into a broad expanse, the
banks level with the water, and from the middle of the flood a
column, apparently of white smoke arises and drifts away upon the
wind. This remarkable appearance is due to some deep hidden
. chasm into which the water falls and sends up a cloud of spray-
mist : but standing, as one does, on a level with the water, no
rocks or cleft are visible, and the wreath of vapour ascends, pre-
cisely like smoke, from the seemingly unbroken bosom of the
stream. This spot is called—a Canarese dialect prevailing there
—Hogénakallu (smoke-rock) and immediately opposite it on the
eastern bank stands a hoary old pagoda round whose inner enclo-

54 Notes Antiquarian and Mythical. [No. 7, NEW SERTES.

sure is arranged a long line of 10 or 12 huge lingam stones, each

in its separate cell.

Returning to the vestiges of lingam worship in very ancient
times, evidence is not wanting of its prevalence under its worst
aspect in Phcenicia—the scriptural Canaan—from whence it crept
into Palestine itself, nay, as Mitchell has shown with the highest
probability into the very Temple of Jehovah. In the account in
Kings and Chronicles of the idolatries introduced by the wicked
King Manasseh, he is said to have “ set a carved image, the
idol which he had made, in the house of God,” and “ a graven
image of the grove that he had made in the house,” &c. In the
words rendered ‘“‘ carved images” the learned Bate and Porkhurst
both unite in seeing an idol dedicated to licentious rites, the
same with that image stigmatised as “ provoking to jealousy”
which Ezekiel saw defiling the gate of the altar, and closely con-
nected with that idol the setting up of which induced Asa to de-
pose the queen-mother Maachah. The nature of the idols as not
directly mentioned, the Scriptures preserving a marked silence on
this point throughout their record of the abominations introduced
by the idolatrous Jewish monarchs, but may be at once inferred
when it is known that the radical letters of the name of the idol
set up by Maachah present the identical word phallus, which, with-
out meaning in Greek, becomes plain enough when referred to its
Hebrew derivation. The punishment inflicted by the righteous
Asa on his own mother shows his sense of her enormity, and the
haste made by Manasseh to remove that particular image from the
house of God, when chastisement befell him, manifests the deep
guilt of its introduction there.

In the second or Mosaic covenant, under which the Jewish
polity was finally consolidated, it is written ‘‘ Thou shalt not plant
thee a grove of any trees near unto the altar of the Lord thy God,
which thou shalt make thee : neither shalt thou set thee up any”
image (pillar) which the Lord thy God hateth.” (Deut. xvi, 21, 22.)
Elsewhere in the first or Divine covenant, and throughout the Pro-
phets, the erection of ‘“ groves” and “ statues’ is undeviatingly
denounced as the most offensive form of Canaanitish idolatries.
When in addition to the “ grayen image of the grove” set up by

APRIL—szEPT. 1858t] Notes Antiquarian and Mythical. 55

Manasseh, we recal Josiah’s “ bringing out the grove from the
house of the Lord without Jerusalem, unto the brook Kidron, and
stamping it small to powder,” it is plain that in these and several
other passages, to be intelligible, some other meaning must be
attached to the word rendered “ grove.”’ ‘That word in the origi-
nal is Ashera, and Gesenius thinks that wherever it occurs it sig-
nifies an idol, though Porkhurst from the expression ‘ plant’ and
‘ trees’ is of opinion that in the above quoted prohibition at least
a grove must be meant. As has been observed, however, the
word translated ¢rees is a noun singular, and the command may be
understood as forbidding to set up an Ashera of any kind of wood
(compare Isaiah xliv, 14 to 19.) The Asherim were nearly always
connected with certain pillars, mistranslated statues in the autho-
rised version ; it is not necessary to go into the evidence for be-
lieving these pillars to have been of a most abominable character,
_- heightened probably by a revolting addition ; it is enough to point
out that the setting up of the Asherim or the pillars, usually the
two together, is invariably denounced as the deadliest crime of the
apostate Kings, whether of Israel or Judah. Against them the
indignation of the Prophets burnt hottest, and the express com-
mands to break and hew them down marked them as the particu-
lar objects of divine wrath. (Exod. xxxiv. 138. Deut. vii. 5.) On
_ the nature and worship of these pillars and the Ashera idol there
is no direct testimony, but when we find Herodotus declining to
enter into particulars of the rites of the country from whence they
were derived on account of the pain and loathing it would cause
him, and call to mind some of the Jewish laws directed against
the practices of the Canaanitish temples, it is easy to conjecture
the reason of the guarded silence maintained by Scripture on the
point. Enough that there are good grounds to conclude that the
Ashera rites included lingam worship in its grossest form and with
its most polluting ceremonies. The very tradition has now disap-
peared from that land, whereas there is weighty reason to think, it
profaned in its worst shape the very house of God ; so too may it
pass away from the regions where it lingers latest.

In succeeding times the signification of the lingam emblem ap-
pears to have become forgotten or obscured, as in some degree it

VOL, XX. 0. 8. VOL, TVS Ns. |

56 Notes Antiquarian aud Mythical. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

is in India.* Tacitus in his Histories (II. 3) describing the temple
of Venus in Cyprus says, “‘ the image of the goddess is not in
human shape, but an elongated circumference, broader at base and
tapering in girth upwards : its meaning obscure.”’ And Maximus
Tyrius in his 38th Essay writes “ The Paphions adore Aphrodite,
but her image you could liken to nothing but a white pyramid.”
Taken in connection with aphrodisiac worship what could these
have been but lingams ? Herodian in his 5th book thus describes
the image of the Sun at Emesa, called by the Pheenicians Elaiaga-
balom, and worshipped not only by them but by the neighbouring
kings and satraps. “ It has no form of a statue, but is a very large
stone, round at bottom, and tapering sharply conelike, its colour
black ; it is said to have fallen from the sky, and to be an unform-
ed image of the sun.’”’ Probably a meteorite, uniting both solar
and phallic worship—rites, as could be largely shown, almost
necessarily running into one another. In other instances when we
find Lucian in his Pseudomantis saying of a religious fanatic “ that
if he should anywhere see a stone anointed with oil or crowned with
flowers, he would straight fall down and worship it for a long
time, beseeching good luck of it,” and Theophrastus in his charac-
teristics of a superstitious man describing him “ on passing by an
anointed stone in the cross-roads, as taking oil from a little flask,
falling on his knees and adoring it,” we have only to walk along
any Indian road to perceive the kind of stones referred to, anointed
and garlanded the same as those of classic days.| The stone said
to have been devoured by Saturn in mistake for Jupiter and relat-

* It is noteworthy that whereas in India the lingam assumes a conventional
and inoffensive shape ; the phallus in Asia Minor and the antique world gene-
rally was in the grossest and most objectionable form. Herce though the latter
was familiar to the ancients, the former when it occurred was misunderstood by
or unintelligible to them. It should not be overlooked that the phallic type in
its most exaggerated form, was especially connected with Bacchus as conqueror
of India. Witness the two colossal phalli, each 300 fathoms high, placed by
Bacchus in the vestibule of the great Syrian temple, after his return from his
Indian expedition. (Lucian, de Syria Dead.) In that most prodigious of record-
ed processions, the great Bacchic pomp celebrated by Ptolemy of Alexandria, we
read of a golden phallus 120 cubits high, crowned by a bright golden star 6 feet
round, (Atheneus, Lib. VY.)

+ A friend writes tha‘ in the Kunawur Province and high Himalayan villages —
a stone is set uy asa pillar in the fields, its centre and top smeared with white

wasb, and the top marked with five finger-marks of red ochre; on this flowers |

are offered for the prosperity of the field. Sotooin Southern India the white-
washed splinter of stone, tipped with red, may everywhere be seen placed under
a tree in fields or gardens, crowned with a few flowers.

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.] Notes Antiquarian and Mythical 57

ed by Pausanius to be placed in the temple at Delphi, and anoint-
ed daily with oil, seems very like a lingam. The practice of
anointing stones with oil dates from the days of the patriarchs,
and is no doubt the cause why in most instances sacred stones are
described as black. Porphyry informs us that the Deity was
represented as a black stone as being of obscure and inscrutable
nature. The ancient Arabians, says Maximus Tyrius in the above
cited Essay, “‘ Worship I know not whom, but the image I saw
was a quadrangular stone,” from Suidas we further learn it was
black, and is evidently the same meteoric stone now preserved in
the Caaba at Mecca.t The chief idol of the Germanic tribes, the
Hermansaul, appears to have been at first a tall black stone. In
Gladwin’s Clyeen Akbari is mentioned a pillar of black stone,
octagonal, and 50 cubits high before the gate of the Temple of the
Sun at Jaganath. A good Mussulman must needs be a bad
mythologist, but it is hard to conjecture what could have led the
Emperor to see a sun-temple at Jaganath. Hindu fanes do not
readily change, and nothing of the sort can be gathered from an
account of Puri and Jaganath published some years ago in English
by an intelligent native. Were it so, there would be a remarkable
coincidence between this and the Phcenician sun-pillar the Elaia-
gabalom. Captain Hamilton, apparently referring to the same
object, describes an idol at Jaganath as a huge black pyramidal
stone, (it must exist there now, qu. how is it regarded ?) Similar
was the Siamese Sommonocodom. In Masson’s Travels the idol
of the mysterious Sia-posh of Central Asiais affirmed to be “ an
erect image of black or dark coloured stone the size of a man.’’
The aboriginal tribes of Rajmahal worship a black stone in an
enclosure.

The foregoing instances give evidence of the wide diffusion in
ancient as well as in recent times of a black stone worship in
which the symbol, nearly always of a peculiar shape, appears to
have been, more or less openly, an emblem of reproduction. In
some cases the signification may have become obscured, but that

{ Hardly less remarkable have been the fortunes of anotier black stone, that
on which the King of Ireland was crowned, called the Stone of Destiny ; if the
coronation was auspicious it emitted aclear sound. ‘This palladium or national
talisman, was afterwards brought to Scone, and thence carried to Westminster,
and placed under the old coronation chair, where it still remains.

58 Notes Antiquarian and Mythical. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

such was generally the original meaning can be as little doubtful
as that the May-day dances and poles in England are a relict of
the phallic rites of Pagan times. Setting aside the Druidical up-
right stones, generally sepulchral, and the figured or scriptured
stones, so perplexing to antiquaries in Scotland and elsewhere.
there seems to have been a tendency in primeval races to deify
mere rough stones or at least to choose them as symbols of their
gods. Even in the sacred writings Jehovah is emphatically called
the Stone of Israel—the Rock, (Gen. xlix. 24, Deut. xxxii. 4, 30,
31,) and Jacob called the stone he erected at Shalem El elohe
Israel—the God of Israel, (compare Exod. xvii. 15,) but these
plainly referred to the idea of strength and steadfastness. The
Alexandrine Chronicle relates that the Assyrians first set up a
rude pillar and worshipped it as a god, and Pausanias, expressly
affirms that in the most ancient times amongst the Greeks rough
stones (agyou AcHoe) were reverenced instead of images. The same
author mentions that Hercules was represented at Hyetta by a
rude stone according to ancient usage. So was Juno at Samos,
and even the Graces at Orchemenos. The ancient Laplanders
worshipped rough stones, called Seitch, and the adoration paid to
the same objects formed a principal feature in the religion of the
Arabians before Mahommed. Eusebius says the Earth was sym-
bolised by a cylindrical stone, and Mr. Masson reports that in the
temple dedicated to the goddess at the foot of the Kah Assa Mahi
(Hill of the Great Mother, z. e. Nature,—‘ Magna Mater.”) Near
Cabul “a huge stone is the object of adoration.”’ Michelet sees
traces of stone-worship in France in the numerous towns bearing
the name of Pierre Fiche, 2. e. a rough unwrought stone simply
fixed in the ground like a post.

It is not easy to penetrate the idea that led so many people in
such various countries, periods and stages of development, to
select rude stones, rather than other natural objects as emblems of |
their religious conceptions. The sentiment is conceivable that
deified the sun, the heavenly bodies, the cow, rivers, &c. and a strik-
ing aerolite might here and there rivet the awe and worship of the
surrounding tribes, but itis not so clear why common shapeless
stones should so generally haye been elevated to divine honours.

APRIL—sEPT. 1858.] Notes Antiquarian and Mythical. 59

Possibly a remnant of the old chaotic fetish worship of half-con-
scious man ; then as the mind opens, the first abstract idea that
develops itself in primeval races is of that reproductive energy of
Nature which, more or less veiled, is the ultimate idea and princi-
ple underlying all heathen systems and deities. And of this the
earliest and rudest expression would be some form of the lingam,
most readily typified by the stones scattered around. But the
whole assumption may be questioned, and is beset with difficulty
and incoherencies.

Tk

In the Reverend W. Taylor’s “ Oriental Historical Manuscripts”
Vol. I. pp. 112-114, there is an account from an old Tamil Chro-
nicle of a contest held between the Samanal or Buddhists and the
Brahmans, in which both parties submit their respective claims to
orthodoxy to this ordeal, viz., that each writing a prayer or charm
upon palm leaves, and casting the same into a river, that side
whose leaves should ascend against the stream should be declared
to hold the true faith. Upon trial every leaf of the Samanals was
carried down with the stream, and those of the Brahmans alone
ascended. The former, 8,000 in number, notwithstanding the
miracle, refusing to be convinced or accept the Saiva faith, “ with
obstinate prejudice” (saith the Brahman chronicler) “ put them-
selves on the impaling stakes,’ the penalty previously agreed upon
for the losmg party. Mr. Taylor in his notes at pages 182-183,
states that the impalement of this army of martyrs is unquestion-
ably a historical fact, and commemorated to this day by a mimic
representation. He is further of opinion that Buddhists, Samanals,
and Jainas are terms denoting substantially the same sect. It is
upon the name Samanal (#o@par) that a few remarks occur.
Adverting to Sarmana Cardama, the son of Mahiman, a form of
Siva, identified with Gantama or Buddha, and the same with the
Siamese Sommono Kodom, Mr. Taylor conjectures Sommono and
Sarmana to be the origin of the term Samanals, and dialective
variations of Sarvamanu, an universal or very illustrious sage.
Porphyry makes particular mention in his work De Abstinentia
(Lib. iv. cap. 17) of a sect called Samandans, who appear to have
been great travellers and proselytisers, and to have had a kind of

60 Notes Antiquarian and Mythical. (No. 7, NEW SERIES.

monastic discipline. Faber has this passage. ‘“ Both Cyril and
Clemens Alexandrinus agree in telling us that the Samandans were
the sacerdotal order both in Bactria and Persia ; but the Saman-
dans were the priests of Saman or Buddha, and it is well known
that the sacerdotal class of Bactria and Persia were the Magi :
therefore the Samandans and the Magi must have been the same,
and consequently Buddha, or Maga, or Saman must have been vene-
rated in those regions.’”’ Pagan Idolatry, B. iv. chap. 5. To this
conclusion (so notably Faberian in hunting a verbal resemblance)
that the Magi and Buddhists were the same, few would probably
now assent. With equal reason might it be asserted that the rude
Shaman priests and tumultuous Shamanite ceremonies of Northern
Asia, which have been shown by Mr. Caldwell, not merely to
resemble, but to be absolutely identical with, the popular devil-
worship of the rural Tamil castes, are the same with the philoso-
phic Samanal Buddhists. But with respect to the names Sama-
nal, Saman, the following passage from M. Adolphe Pictet on the
Cabiri may be adduced, carefully abstaining however from enter-
ing far into a subject so obscured by mysticism. ‘“‘ He in whom
this (the Cabiric) system finds its unity is Samhan, the judge of ©
~ souls, who punishes them by sending them back on the earth or to
hell. He is Master of Death, on the eve of the Ist November he
judges the souls of those who had died in the preceding year:
that day still goes by the name of Samhan’s night. Samhan is
the centre of the association of the Cabiri ; sam, sum, cum, imply
union in a multitude of languages.’’* Turning to Rottler’s Tamil
Dictionary we find sub voce “ Saman, the regent of death, same as
Yama,” and Sami or Avhat is the deified sage or god of the Sama-
nar or Buddhists. This coincidence, functional as well as verbal,
is almost too strong to be accidental. No theory even has sought
to establish any connectisn between the mysterious worship of
“‘ the great gods of Samothrace,”’ and the Buddhistic system. If,
however, Pictet and also Schelling be right, in interpreting the Cabi- _
ric theology as a worship of the primal powers of nature, ascending

: The derivation from ‘‘ sam” union, certainly seems preferable to Mr. Tay-
lor’s derivation from Sommono (unless that too be from the same root.) Itis
noticeable that in the account of the contest the name of the Brahman (in truth
Siva in disguise) who defeated the Samanal is Sampanton, é.e. “ agreement,”'
upon which meaning of the name there is an equiyogue imthe original story.

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.] Notes Antiquarecan and Mythieal. 61

through a series of stages and developments up to the great cen-
tral creative unity, and so the reverse of a system of emanations, it
includes one main point of agreement with Buddhism, a capital
distinction between which and Brahmanism is, that whereas the
latter is always inclined to the idea of avatars or divinities descend-
ing and becoming visible in earthly forms, so Buddhism contrari-
wise elevates its sages and heroes through successive ascending
states to one of identification with pure deity. Buddhism too has
always been an eminently migratory creed ; Porphyry notices the
wandering propensities of its professors, and in this it again coine
cides with the Cabiric divinities, Hercules, Jason, Gineas, Dido,
and other mythical personages, all notable wanderers of old. Here
are lesser likenesses, besides that crowning one of identity of name
and function between the heads of the respective systems. All
may be mistake ; but when one recalls the unexpected agreements,
strange coincidences, and unaccountable correspondences with vari-
ous Buddhist peculiarities, that sometimes essential, sometimes
trivial, crop out in so many far separated countries, creeds, and
ages, one is almost disposed to listen to those keen partizans who
wouldextend the sway of Buddha from uttermost east to farthest west
—to Britain and Ireland ; not scrupling to claim even Stonehege as
a Buddhist temple. Shadowy glimpses in “ the dim backward
and abyss of time’ of a period in unrecorded antiquity when
Buddhism formed a vast, primitive, universally prevailing system,
into which, at or after the historic epoch, Brahmanism in the east
and manifold mythological religions in the west, broke and even-
tually overthrew. Fading for ever from the western world, in
which the vestiges of its predominence only perplex, re-appearing
at times in India, always to be subdued, but lingering in some of
the adjacent countries, the antique faith in its unapproached
strongholds of the remotest east, still counts its myriads of fol-
lowers, outnumbering those of any other creed. One is sometimes

tempted to speculations like those, were there any solid basis to
build them on.

ik

Analogies have been traced between Asiatic mythologies and
the religion established in ancient Scandinavia by Odin, who is

62 Notes Antiquarian and Mythical. [Xxo. 7, NEW SERIES.

supposed by some to have led his Asen—Asian or Scythian hordes
—from the regions between the Euxine and Caspian to Northern
Europe, but the Chinese mythology has generally appeared to
stand alone and unconnected. There is, however, one striking
myth common to Scandinavian and Chinese traditions. According
to the Woo-yun-leih-nien-ke, as given in Gutzlaff’s “ China Open-
ed,’ Vol. I. p. 299, “ an original etherial principle by its vapour
impregnated matter, so as to produce Heaven and Earth, and the
Yong and Yin, and having become pregnant, Pivankoo the first of
this race was born, when he died the hair of his body was meta-
morphosed into wind and clouds, his voice into thunder, his left
eye became the sun, the right the moon, the various members of
his body the four poles and five high mountains, his blood and
fluids rivers and streams: his sinews and arteries were changed
into land, the hair into stars, the teeth and bones into minerals,
and the vermin adhering to the body were transformed into men.”
This myth is identical with the story in the Edda of the giant
Ymir, a personification of chaos or unformed primal matter who
was born from the living drops that were formed from the melting
of the icy vapours exhaled from the abyss. Whilst he slept a man
and a woman sprang from an extraordinary sweat under his left arm.
Odin and his brethren slew him, and formed the universe from his
body precisely as in the Chinese legend: his scull became the
vault of heaven, his brains were tossed up and became the clouds,
his teeth and bones formed the rocks and hills, his blood and juices
the sea and rivers, his flesh the earth, &c. It is remarkable that
so peculiar a myth should appear in the cosmogonies of such very
widely separated and dissimilar countries as China and Scandina-
via, exactly corresponding in both, and apparently peculiar to
them.
IV.

In Herr von Werne’s adventurous voyage up the White Nile,
the furthest region he attained was the country of the Bori in 4°
North latitude ; he describes it as inhabited by “ an exceedingly
numerous nation of tall and powerful build, the men six and a half
to seven French feet in height, equal to 7 and 74 English feet,—
colossal figures, admirably proportioned and magnificently limbed, _
black, but with nothing of. the usual Negro character in their |

spRit—sErT. 1858.] Notes Antiquarian and Mythical. 63

features.”’ Rumours of this giant race have floated down from the
remotest times. They are the famous Ethiopians most blameless
of mortals, whose banquets, as Homer reports, were graced by the
presence of the Olympian gods themselves, and who five centuries
after were spoken of by Herodotus as “ the tallest and most beau-
tiful of the human race.’ They were the “ mighty men,” and
« Sabeeans, men of stature’ of the Hebrew prophets, and it was their
king Zerah who marched against Solomon’s great-grandson Asa with
a thousand thousand men and three hundred chariots.* Later still
Agatharchides, and after him Diodorus Siculus, speak of them un-
der the same appellation as that used by the German explorer of
the present day, namely, the Megabari—so unchangeable are pri-
mitive names. Scripture and ancient authors abound with testimo-
nies to the power, civilization, and commerce of the Ethiopians who
founded Meroé, and dwelt in the countries about the upper streams
of the Nile, and who, as Egyptian arts and civilization certainly
descended the Nile-valley, may perhaps have been the progenitors
of the wonderful monarchy of the Pharaohs. The origin of this
people which in the remotest ages developed arts and commerce in
the heart of Africa, whither we are only now beginning to pene-
trate, has awakened much speculation, and India has been pointed
to as their probable cradle. Heeren favours the theory of their
Indian origin, and there are a few incidental testimonies to it,
which, though not conclusive, may be brought forward in the ab-
sence of more weighty proof, and have also been not generally
noticed. In the life of that problematical character Apollonius
Tyaneus, a book of little authority or value, except as a repertory
of travellers’ stories and legends current in antiquity, the philoso-
pher, after reaching India, and when conversing with the Brah-
mans, is told the following story by Jarchas, their chief. ‘There
was a time when the Ethiopians inhabited those regions, for in
truth they are an Indian race, but Ethiopia was then unknown.
Egypt then commenced at Meroé and the Cataracts and terminated
at the mouths of the Nile. . At that time the Ethiopians dwelt in
these countries under the rule of king Ganges; the earth was
fruitful, and they were in favour with the gods. But they mur-

| * Il. Chronicles xiy. 9.
mon, SX. Of & VOLsIVeNn. s.

64 Notes Antiquarian and Mythical. [NO. 7, NEW SERIES.

dered the aforesaid king, after which they were held impure by the
other Indians, and the earth refused to let them abide longer in
these regions, for she destroyed all seeds that were sown, refused
nourishment to the flocks and cattle, caused abortions, and if a
town was commenced, she sank and overthrew the houses. More-
over the shade of Ganges followed them whithersoever they went,
driving them in terror, and they were not freed from this curse till
they had buried his murderers alive. Now Ganges was ten cubits
tall, and the goodliest man ever seen, and the son of the river Ganges.
Wherefore as his father would sometimes inundate India, he turned
his course towards the Red Sea and caused him to become propi-
tious to the land of India. Hence the earth returned him abun-
dance when he was alive but avenged his murder. He built 60
cities, the most splendid in the country, and also drove back the
Scythians, who had marched an army over the Caucasus into these
regions ; and he buried seven adamantine swords in the ground to
the end that no danger or panic should ever invade this country.” |
This seems a very Indian legend ; its very indistinctness smacks
of a Hindu origin. Some great religious feud and consequent
emigration* may be veiled by it. The great stature of Ganges |
should not be lost sight of in connection with the national tallness of
the Ethiopians, ancient and modern : the legend also contains one
of the few direct allusions to a Scythian invasion of India. Again

* The Puranas have a tradition of the migration of Charma or Ham, with his
family and followers, driven from his country by the curse of Noah ; that hav-
ing quitted their own land they arrived after a toilsome journey on the banks of
the Nile. Where by command of the goddess Padma Devi, Charma and his as-
sociates erected a pyramid in her honour. There is another migration spoken of
in the Puranas, the result of a general war between the worshippers of Vishnu
and Iswara, under which names water and fire were respectively typified (in
Ireland Osar—Ishwara was the god who kindles fire). This i: said to have com-
menced in India in the earliest ages, and thence to have spread over the whole
world. In this struggle the Yoinjees—Karth-born—were worsted and by the
direct interposition of the deity whose worship they opposed, were compelled to
quit the country. These also took refuge in Egypt carrying with them the
some at of the Egyptian scheme of mythology.’’—Fraser’s Magazine, No.
237, p. 323. .

The Arabs themselves call their numerals ‘‘ hindz’’—Indian. The story of the
Sepoys, who prostrated themselves at the sight of the gods of Lgypt, is well
known. This cobra de capello with expanded hood, peculiar to India. abounds
as a mortuary emblem in the tombs called Biban ul Muluk near Thebes, and in
the temple at Dendera’ ‘* Abi, Assa, Galla, Nil, are African words derived from
an Asiatic language.’’ “ The Shoan women tattoo their foreheads with a Geez
letter () which I am told isan ancient Egyptian symbol of the unity of the
deity’? Johnson’s Travels. Is it not the Hindu trident-shaped Vishnu caste-
pe reversed? Sembe is an African and also Indian name of a yillage at

this day.

APRIL—SEPT. 1858. | Notes Antiquarian and Mythical. 65

subsequently in the same book the young man Nilus informs Apol-
lonius that he had heard from his father, who was captain of the ship
which the Egyptians had used to send to India, “ that the Ethiopians
were Indian colonists, and retained their forefather’s discipline and
the memory of their ancient origin.” It is noteworthy too that
in Syncellus’ list of the Egyptian dynasties, the 8th, 9th, 10th
and 11th kings of the 18th dynasty are given as a dynasty of the
HKthiopian kings from the rwer Indus. 'The above references show
how familiar the idea of a connection between Africa and India
was in antiquity, and the general belief that India was the cradle
of Ethiopian and Egyptian civilization more recently, especially
since the Nineveh discoveries, Assyria seems to be preferred, but
as yet without the same balance of probability. Returning for a
moment to Apollonius, it is mentioned in his life that he met a
man who had been wandering for 7 months amongst the moun-
tains in the country of the Gymnosophists without obtaining abso-
lution for a murder he had committed. The man killed by him
was a descendant of the Egyptian Thamus, who had formerly laid
waste the country of the Gymnosophists, because they had resisted
him in introducing novelties. Can this Thamus be the Tamo-
vatsa spoken of in the Hindu legend, and supposed by Lieutenant
Wilford to be the conqueror of the Manethonian King Timaus.
V. |

The antiquity of the Eastern salutation salaam is shown by an
epitaph of Meleager to be found at page 37 of Brunck’s Analecta,
Vol. I. The inscription addresses the passer-by, and concludes
thus,

If thou art a Syrian say Selom, but if a Phenician
Say Audonis, ifa Greek X4@/Q€.

In the Anthology “ selom” is with great probability corrected
into salam (caAamw), and no doubt allied with the Hebrew selah-:
** Audonis” is printed (with an asterisk) Naidios, but, like all
punic words, is quite uncertain.

VI.
When divine Spenser sings
* Of God’s high praise, and of his sweet love’s teen’’
the modern reader who frequently finds the last word in the Faéry
Queen and in the poetry of that epoch, on referring to the glossery,
Vou. xx. 0. 8. Vou. ay. N. 8.

- oan

66 The Genus Impatiens. [wo. 7, NEW SERIES.

discovers that “teen” means grief, sorrow, distress. This word,
though unnoticed in My. Caldwell’s admirable Comparative Dra-
vidian Grammar, is identical with the Tamil Sar teen, bearing
precisely the same signification. The occurrence of the very same
word in old English and old Tamil, for in both languages it i is
archaic, and dropt out of popular use, is something remarkable, as
it is not an imitative word, and apparently referable to no eommon
root.

IV. The Genus Impatiens.—Description of New Species reas the
Anamallay Hills. By Lieut. R. H. BEpDoME.

1. Impatiens parvifoha.—Herbaceous, sub-erect, branched, gla- |

brous, leaves alternate, minute, cuneate, deeply serrated on the — :

upper half, peduncles axillary, solitary 5-6 times longer than the
leaves, with a small bract towards the apex, erect in flower, much
reflexed in fruit, upper sepals small and slightly vaulted over the
staminal crown, lateral ones small and pointing upwards, lower
one boat-shaped without a spur, upper of compound petals, small,
lower large spreading (flowers white, upper petals tinged with
pink). <A very curious species, with very minute leaves, it quite
covers large masses of rock towards the summit of the Akka
mountain at about 8000 feet elevation.

2. Impatiens parasitica.—Stems very succulent, often monili-
form, throwing out roots, leaves crowded at the apex of stem,
glabrous, long-petioled, ovate, acute, crenate, serrate with in-
curved bristles; peduncles axillary, short, bearing 2 (rarely 1)
very long pedicels ; upper sepals with a foliaceous crest, lateral
ones linear, acute, lower one saccate with spur-like point ; upper
of compound petals much smaller than the lower one, both hid in

the saccate sepal—capsule glabrous, ovate, gibbous: seeds numer- |

ous, small. On trees, from 5000 to 6500 feet; (upper sepals and
petals green, saccate sepal dark red,) the flowers vary in size.

8. Impatiens Tangdchee.—Herbaceous, sub-procumbent, gla-
brous, leaves alternate, sub-verticelled, acuminated, deeply ser-

APRIL—sEPT. 1858.] Zhe Genus Impatiens. 67

rated ; peduncles axillary, 2-3 times longer than leaves, 4-8 flower-
ed towards apex ; bracts large boat-shaped: pedicels erect in
flower, slightly reflexed in fruit, upper sepals large, lateral ones
evate pointed, spur long tapering, lateral of compound petals,
about half the size of the lower ones, with a mucro, capsule
smooth, gibbous, seeds numerous, very small (flowers pink.) In
beds of streams below the Tangachee mallay, 5500 feet.

4. Impatiens elegans.—Herbaceous, erect, often throwing out
roots from the joints, somewhat branched ; leaves alternate, on
very long petioles, ovate, acuminate, crenate with incurved bristles,
above a few rigid hairs on the nerves, beneath pale glabrous, pe-
duncles axillary shorter than petiole, 3 (rarely 4-5) flowered at
apex, bracts ovate-lanceclate, acuminated ; upper sepals broad,
ovate, flat, with a green ridge at their back ; lateral ones ovate
with a green ridge ending in an acumen ; lower one boat-shaped
without a spur; upper of compound petals very small incurved
and vaulted over the staminal crown, lower ones large spreading ;
capsule glabrous, seeds hairy—(flowers pale rose with a dark eye)
the flowers are much larger at the higher elevations at which the
plant grows. Banks of streams 2500 to 4500 feet, a very elegant
species. .

5. Impatiens Wightiana.—Suffruticose, erect, branched ; leaves
alternate, narrow-lanceolate, acuminate, incurved, bristly serrate,
above a few hairs on the nerves, below glabrous ; petioles very long,
with long pedicelled glands at their apex ; peduncles axillary, soli-
tary a little longer than petioles, racemed nearly their whole length ;
upper sepals with a green ridge at their back, lateral ones small,
lower one ventricose with a short incurved spur; upper of com-
pound petal very small, lower ones very long and narrow, pedicels
in fruit horizontal, bracts small ovate. Capsule with about 5
seeds, seeds slightly hairy. (Flowers white with the upper sepals
and lateral petals speckled with pink.) Banks of the Toracadoo
river, 4500 feet.

6. Impatiens lhgulata.—Erect, herbaceous, much branched,
stems glabrous—leaves opposite, linear, lanceolate, mucronate, often
slightly cordate at base, remotely bristle toothed, above minute
harsh pubescence, below glabrous and glaucous, petioles very

68 The Genus Impatiens. [NO. 7, NEW SERIES,

short ; peduncles 1-3 axillary, about half the length of the leaves,
pubescent on one side, reflexed in fruit; upper sepals small, late-
ral ones linear, spur curved, gibbous, inner of compound petals ?
ligulate and completely hid in the spur, lower one large spread-
ing ; capsule glabrous, gibbous at centre containing about 12 black
shining seeds—(flowers pink, stems red. There is a variety also
with white flowers and colorless stems.) Teak forests 2 to 3000
feet, very abundant. s

N. B.—This is a very curious species. I do not know whether
to consider the long ligulate process which is entirely hid in the
spur as one of the petals, or as only an appendage as in 7. viscosa
and Anamallayensis, vide fig. 7 and 8; in this species, however,
there appears to be only 1 petal, so I am inclined to think that
the ligulate process is the inner or lower petal, and the large
spreading the lateral one ; it has quite an antheriferous look at its
apex. 3 :

7. Impatiens viscosa.—Erect, branched, leaves opposite ovate,
long petioled, with a few harsh hairs on the nerves above, pale, and
glabrous beneath, incurved bristly serrate ; peduncles as long to
much longer than the leaves, viscid, bearing 6-12 flowers towards -
the apex ; lateral sepals ovate, lower one with a curved gibbous
spur (in form the same as in ligulata) lateral of compound petals
very small, lower one large; a ligulate process at the conjunction
of the petals, which is hid in the lower sepal—capsule ovate, seeds
numerous, matted with hair when immature, when ripe echinate.
(Flowers small pink.) 8 to 5000 feet, generally only 5 or 6 in-
ches high—in rich soil it is sometimes more than a foot high.

8. Impatiens Anamallayensis.—Erect, with sometimes small
branches from the axils of the lower leaves, leaves upposite, long
petioled, ovate, above afew hairs on the nerves, beneath pale,
glabrous; (leaves of the branches alternate) peduncles axillary
from nearly as long to much longer than the leaves, bearing 6-8
flowers, towards the apex, on longish pedicels, lateral of the com-
pound petals small, lower one deeply 2 lobed, a claw at the con-
junction of the petals, spur very short, straight: capsule ovate,
mucronate, glabrous; seeds very hairy. (Flowers small pink.)
Streams and moist places, 5 to 7000 feet.

APRIL—SEPT. 1858. | The Genus Impatiens. 69

9. Impatiens verrucosa.—Root bulbous, leaves radical, ovate
to cordate, incurved bristly serrate, above a few hairs, below gla-
brous: scape 2-3 times longer than the leaves, 5-6 flowered at
apex, pedicels long; upper sepals broad, vaulted over the staminal
column, lateral ones small ovate; upper of compound petals large
and spreading, lower deeply 2 lobed, petals with a batch of warts
on their upper surface, spur nearly twice the length of flowers curv-
ed, capsule glabrous. (Flowers lilac.) Beds of streams, 7000 feet.

10. Impatiens crenata.—Bulbous, leaves radical, short petioled,
round cordate very obtusely crenated with a bristle on each crena-
ture, shaggy hairs on the nerves above, beneath glabrous, scape
much longer than leaves, 2-3 flowered at apex, pedicels short,
bracts ovate-oblong ; lateral sepals small ovate, upper sepal vault-
ed over staminal column, margin crenated, lower sepal with a short
obtuse spur, lower of compound petals deeply 2 lobed, a dense tuft
of hairs on the inner surface of the petals ; capsule glabrous, taper-
ing at both ends. (Flowers white with the tuft of hairs blue.)
On rocks 5000 feet—nearly allied to the next species but I think
quite distinct.

11. Impatiens Akka.—Bulbous, leaves radical, orbicular-reni-
form, with cordate base, distinctly crenated, petioles longer than
the leaves, scapes very long, 5-6 flowered at apex, bracts boat-
shaped, lateral sepals small ovate, upper ones vaulted over the
stamina, lateral of compound petals large spreading, lower deeply
2 lobed, hairy on their inner surface; lower sepal boat-shaped
with a small knot-like spur, capsule oblong shining. (Flowers
pure white, large.) Very abundant on rocks on the Akka moun-
tains, 7 to 8000 feet.

12. Impatiens tenuis.—Bulbous, leaves radical, long petiol-
ed cordate-ovate, with lobes at the base very deep, bluntly crenat-
ed, long weak hairs on the nerves above, pale and glabrous be-
neath, scapes much longer than the leaves, 5-6 flowered, bracts
ovate ; upper sepals vaulted over the stamina; petals hairy on
their inner surface, lower one deeply 2 lobed; spur short blunt
and slightly bent back ; capsule glabrous. (Flowers small, pink.)
On rocks below falls, and in dark corners ; rare, 5 to 7000 feet.

18. Impatiens gracilis —Bulbous, with numerous shoots bear-

70 The Genus Impatiens. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

ing minute leaves; leaves radical, oval to suborbicular with cor-

date base, 7 nerved, glabrous; pale beneath, with very small —
bristly serratures, petioles very long, scape much longer than leaves, —

flowers numerous, long pedicelled ; bracts ovate, acuminated ; up-
per sepals vaulted over the stamina, lateral ones small; lower of
compound petals broad cuneate, larger than the lateral one, entire ;
spur curved tapering, nearly twice the length of the flower. (Flow-
ers large, pale lilac.) In streams, 5000 feet. This is the only one
that I have met with radical leaves and an entire lower petal.

Synopsis of the Peninsular species of the Genus Invpatiens.
Leaves ALTERNATE. LocaLirizs.

Peduncles axillary, 1 flowered.
Lower sepal spurless.
Pedicels and sepals covered
with rusty pubescence ....J. scabriuscula.
Sepals glabrous, flowersminute.l. pendula.
Leaves minute, peduncles very

LONG oo. ia os kere eee am I. parvifolia ..Anamallay Hills,
Lower sepal spurred. _ [8000 feet.
Suffruticose.

Lateral sepals and spur very

hairy, upper of compound

petals the largest.......... L. Hh .Neilgherry Hills,

Lobes of compound petals over- [ (Sisparah.)

lapping each other, upper

sepals emarginate at their

CONJMMEHOM . slay. ee I. albida ....Courtallum, Pulney
and Anamallay

Hills, 4500 feet.
Petioles bearing hooked glands,

upper sepals larger than pe-

LAMB i oes wrote eee eens eee I, floribunda .Shevagherry Hills.
Herbaceous.
Spur hairy, double the length
OL PETALS, ores lars eens ste I. dasysperma .Pulney Hills, Ana-

mallay, Courtal-

lum 3 to 4000 ft. ©

—-:

APRIL—SEPT. 1858. ] The Genus Impatiens. 71

Upper sepals and capsule to-
Memoses 7... lk. .....L. Balsamina..Plains Malabar,An-
as amallay, &c.
Lower of compound petals
marrow cuspidate.......... I. cuspidata .. Neilgherries, Kota-
Spur straight, shorter than [ gherry.
' flowers, capsule pubescent. .£. Mysorensis..Mysore.
Peduncles very short bearing 2
(rarely 1) long pedicels.
Lateral sepals, large pendu-
Wipe A en I. auriculata.,.Courtallum on trees.
Lateral sepals small.
Upper of compound petals
concealed under sepal...... I. viridifiora...
Compound petals both con-
cealed in saccate sepal ..../. parasitica, .Anamallay on trees,
5 to 6000 feet.
Peduncles bearing several pedi-
eels towards apex.

Herbaceous.
Peduncles viscid. :
Spur long, tapering, flowers [ feet.
peg ae L, viseida ....Pulney Hills, 7000
Spur short, flowers small..../. Gonghu....Neilgherries (Py-
Peduncles not viscid. [ carah. )
Spur ventricose, hooked ..../. uncinata. ..Courtallum.
Spun suiall ineurved........ L.campanulata.Pulneys and Ana-

mallay, 4 to
7000 feet.
Spur long tapering, upper of
compd. petals with a mucro.J. Tangdchee..Anamallay, 5500
Upper of compound petals very [ feet.
‘small incurved and vaulted
over staminal column.
Spur longer than petals, in-
ourved; Ji, ; SC soep Canes f[. cordata,,..Shevagherry Hills.
RUG NOM ye cvs se ode elegans .,,,Anamallay, 2500
to 4500 feet.

72 The Genus Impatiens. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

Suffruticose.
Spur very long tapering, coni-
cal, flowers very large ..../. grandis... .Courtallum, Sheva-

gherries 4000 ft.
Spur longer than flowers,

lower of compound petals [ noor.)

pointed downwards........ I. fruticosa. ..Neilgherries (Coo-
Parasitic on trees or on rocks,

lower sepal saccate with spur

ivive spoiints. eave pees oe ....L. Jerdonia...Neilgherries (Sis-

parah ghat.)
Peduncles racemed nearly their

whole length.
Upper sepals shorter than the
lateral ones, spur ek taper-
LS ye wr eek ae weceeese ed, maculata.,,.Anamallay 4500,

Neilgherries.
Upper sepals much larger than

the lateral ones, spur with
swollen point ............L. phemecea . Pulnies 7000 feet.
Lower petal narrow and very :
long, spur very small..... I. Wightiana..Anamallay 4500 ft.
LEAVES OPPOSITE.
Peduncles axillary 1 flowered. 2
Lower sepal without a spur.
Pedicels pubescent, gibbous [camund.
sepal glabrous............Z. mconspicua .Neilgherries (Oota-
Pedicels and saccate sepal vil-
lous, flowers large ........ I. rufescens . ,Neilgherries (Oota-
Pedicels and saccate sepal gla- [ camund.
brous, flowers minute....../. filiformis..,Anamallay 3 to

8000 feet.
Lower sepal cucullate with spur

like point.
Flowers very transparent, pe-
dicels not 4 length of leaves.J. opposit:folia.Anamallay 3500 to
to 5000 ft. Paul-

ghat jungles.

APRIL—S8EPT. 1858.] The Genus Impatiens. 13

Flowers not transparent, pe-
dicels the length of leaves, ./. tomentosa ,.,Pulneys and Ana-
: mallay 5 to 7000
feet, Neilgher-
ries, Mysore.
Lower sepal furnished with a
_ proper spur.

Upper sepals minute green and
hairy, 2 large glands at base
of leaves, spur long........ I. Klemw,,..Anamallay 3000 ft.

- : Malabar plains.

Upper sepals minute, spur not
longer than flower ........ I. dwerstfolia,.Malabar.

Sepals with callous points, up-
per petal very small, flowers
[22 ceil ine Aaa I. fasciculata..Pulneys and Ana-

mallay 5500 to
7000, Neilgher-
i ries, Malabar.

Lateral sepals long linear acute
spur very short.... .. ....J. rosmarifolia.Courtallum.
Inner of compound petals li-

gulate and hid in the spur. ./. ligulata...., Anamallay 3000 ft.
Spur straight, conical shorter
than flower, fructiferous pe- .
Sicels houzontal’, v1.7.0... I. tenella.,.,,Anamallay 3000 ft.
Suffruticose leaves often sub-
alternate, spur length of
MCT ts os oe ui a oat L. latifoha. , , ,Neilgherries.
Posterior lobe of petals minute,
spur longer than flower..... I. Rheedu.. ,,
Peduncles bearing several flowers
Peduncles viscid, flowers small.
Spur gibbous, upper petal very
small, lower one large, a li-
gulate process at their con-
VoL, xx. 0. 8, VoL. IV. N. 8.

74 The Genus Impatiens. (NO. 7, NEW SERIES.

junction which is hid in the
Spun nee era I. viscosa, ,.,Anamallay 3500 to
5000 feet.
Spur not gibbous, bracts gland |
tipped ei enc. ce ee I. Pulneyensis.Pulneys 8000 feet.
Peduncles not viscid, flowers — |
small.

Lower of compound el I. Anamal- ne 5000 to

DELON cpr. Meares ies ket layensis. 8000 feet.
LEAVES VERTICELLED. ©
Peduncles axillary, 1 flowered,
leaves 3 in a whorl........ I. Gardneriana.Neilgherries (Sis-

parah ghat 4000 ft.)
Peduncles with several flow-

ers, leaves 4-6 in a whorl ..J. verticellata..Anamallay & She-
vagherries 3 ta
4000 feet.
Leaves Rapicat.—Inflorescence 3
a scape.
Lower of compound petals, 2
lobed.
Spur long curved.
Spur twice length of petals, <
petals smooth.... ........L. rwals...,,,Anamallay 3000 ft.
Courtallum.
Spur longer than petals, petals
with warts on upper surface.J. verrucosa,,Anamallay 5 to

7000 feet.
Spur SHorr.
Petals hairy on their inner sur-
face.

Upper sepals crenated, flowers :
Taper parre Veh ates ois « I. crenata.,..Anamallay 5000 ft.

Upper sepals entire, flowers
WATRC scans inns vees vse ede SUKKG.,., , ATaRORIe oes

8000 feet.

3

< x

APRIL—sEPT. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 75
Upper sepals entire, flowers
Mermmmbg i os. is ol. tents....,. Anamallay 5 to
7000 feet.
Petals not hairy.
Leaves glabrous; cordate, lobes
GRAM 5... bees ea a, 0is I. scapifiora, .Neilgherries 7 to
8000 feet.

Leaves hairy above cordate. ../. modesta... . Neilgherries(Pyca-
rah) Shevagher-

ries.
Lower of compound petals en-
tire.
Spur long incurved twice the
fomepove petals... .a.. .... I. graciis,,,.Anamallay 5000 ft.

Notr.—The Diagrams representing flowere dissected will appear in the next
number.—Ep. Map. Jour.

V. Numismatic Gleanings. By Water Exxtiot, Madras
Cwil Service.
No. 2.

THE next description of coin to be noticed, is of a very remark-
able character and has been found only in one locality.

On the north bank of the Rushikuliya river, in the province of
Ganjam, about four miles to the west of Purushottapur, the kasba
town of the Pubakonda talak, and close to the modern village of
Pandya are the remains of an extensive but now deserted town,
surrounded by the debris of a lofty wall. The spot is indi-
cated in sheet 107 of the Indian Atlas by a quadrangular dotted
outline, representing a square fortification with a bastion at each
angle. ‘This in fact, is very much the appearance of the place.
The remains of the rampart can be traced continuously round the
whole enceinte, forming nearly a perfect square with a gateway in
the centre of each face. The grassy mounds indicating the line
of the ramparts, are now covered in many places with jungle, but
in others are quite clear. About the middle of the enclosure rises
a group of granite rocks, on the face of one of which, ata consi-

76 Numismatic Gleanings. (No. 7, NEW SERIES.

derable height from the ground, are two smoothed tablets, filled
with inscriptions in the characters of the Allahbad and other simi-
lar columns.* They will proably be found to contain another and
hitherto unnoticed copy of Asokas edicts,} corresponding appa-
rently with those at Girnar in Kat’hiyawar, at Dhauli in Cuttack
and at Kapardagiri beyond the Indus.{ The place is now known
by the name of Jogad’h, signifying in the Uyra dialect “ Lac-
fort,’ a circumstance which has given rise to a local tradition,
that the lofty walls formed of that material were impregnable,
until the secret of their construction was betrayed by a milk-maid

which enabled the besiegers, by the application of fire, to effect an —

- entrance.

In the neighbourhood of this place numbers of copper coins are
found, of a type different from any other hitherto met with in
Southern India, but presenting a striking resemblance to those of
the Indo-Scythian group, more especially to the coins of Kanerki.§
All are much worn, but the following wood cut represents one of
the most perfect.

The figure on the obverse and reverse is the same, but in the
cut, the position of the arms has been reversed, the right hand
being represented down, and the left up, whereas it is the right
which should be raised, and the left down.

No traces of Scythian domination have hitherto been met
with so far to the south, but it is hardly possible to look at the
design in the above figure and not to identify it with those im-

* Jour. As. Soc. Beng. III. pp. 114—483.

+ Of these the most celebrated is that of the Allahbad column, first decipher-
ed by James Prinsep, who found it to be identical with those on the pillar called
Firoz Shah’s Jat’h at Delhi and on the columns at Bettiah, Rad’hia, &c., in
North Behar. The rock inscriptions at Girnar, &c., subsequently deciphered,
also proved to be repetitions of another set of edicts by the same monarch.

~ J.A.S. B. VII. 156, 219, 434.
i Wilson Ariana Antiqua, pp. 365, 368. Pls. XI, XII.

3
‘
:
:
‘
2
:

APRIL—sEPT. 1858.] Nusismatic Gleanings. 77

pressed on the money of that race. James Prinsep has ingeni-
ously traced the gradual transitions of Indian money from
Greek models, through the ruder mintage of the Indo-Scythian
dynasties, to the purely Hindu coinage of the Gupta kings.
Throughout this series, an Indian character is unmistakeably im-
pressed on the progressive adaptations of the mixed Indo-Scythie
designs to a pure Hindu type. But no such features can be
detected in the Jogad’h coins. On the contrary they have all
the appearance of being degraded repetitions of the original Tar-
tar figure, without symbol or legend or other adjunct.

Occasional notices in the writings of Greek and Chinese authors,
supported by the numismatic researches of Prinsep, Lassen, Wil-
son, Cunningham and others, have made us acquainted with the
facts of two great invasions of the countries bordering the Indus,
by people of Scythian race, about the period of the Christian era.*

The first was that of the 'Sakas or Sacw, one branch of whom
under Kadaphes, overthrew the Greeco-Bactrian power in Affgha-
nistan and other parties extending their possessions towards the
south, occupied Scinde and the countries of the lower Indus, un-
der Mayes and his successors, Azes and Azilisus. Encouraged
by these successes, they appear to have meditated the conquest of
all India, but their progress was checked by Vikramaditya, the
Hindu King of Malwa, who gave them a signal overthrow B. C.
56, and assuming the title of ‘Sakari, established the era which
still bears his name. About the same time, a second influx ofa
horde called by the Chinese authorities (to whom we are indebted
for almost all that is known of their origin,) Yu-che or Yu-ti,
driven from their original seats in Tartary, poured into the coun-
tries south of the Paropamisus, and took possession of the whole
country, from Herat to the Bay of Bengal. The coins of Kad-
phises called Kadphises Koranos, to distinguish him from Kada-
phes the first conqueror of Cabul and those of Kanerki his suc-
cessor, have been found throughout the whole of upper India.
Their occurrence is not unknown even in the south, two or three

* Lassen in J. A. S. B. 1X. pp. 667, 742, 755, 769, 765. Wilson Ar. Ant. p.
302. Cunningham, Bhilsa topes, ch. XI.

78 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

specimens in copper having been obtained from Masulipatam and
one from Tanjore.

According to Chinese authorities, the Yuchi (who appear to be
the same as the people called Tocharz by the Greeks,) retained their
hold on India, certainly till A. D. 222* and probably for some time
longer. But their power appears to have been then on the wane.
There is nothing improbable therefore in the circumstance of some
adventurer having penetrated either through Gondwana or Cut-
tack to the site of J ogad’h and there having established a petty

principality, such as is indicated by the coins under notice. The

secluded nature of the country, cut off from intercourse with the
interior by the pestilential jungles of Khondistan, the Kolhana
and Gondwana, is particularly favorable to the continued existence
of a small independent state, which in such a situation might long
have eluded the observation and cupidity of more powerful neigh-
bours.

Whether the grounds slender as they are, on which a Scythian
origin is attributed to these coins, be sufficient, it is for others to
say. Should they fail to be accepted, I am unable to indicate any
other class of Indian money to which they can be assigned.

Among the objects employed as distinguish-

The Boar Type. ing symbols on the coins of the_south, by far
the most celebrated is that of the Boar. Origi-

nally the badge of the Chalukya families of Kalyan and Rajah-
mahendri, it passed from them to the later Chélas, was subse-
quently adopted by the Rayar dynasty of Bijanagar, and is still
found on the seals of some of the petty local chiefs in the Carnatic.
Previous to the arrival of the first Chalukya in the Dak’han, the
Pallavas were the dominant race. In the reign of Trilochana
Pallava an invading army headed by Jaya Sinha, surnamed Vija-
yaditya of the Chalukya-kula, crossed the Nerbudda, but failed to
secure a permanent footing. Jaya Sinha seems to have lost his
life in the attempt, for his queen then pregnant, is described as
flying after his death, and taking refuge with a Brahmin called
Vishnu Somayaji, in whose house she gave birth to a son named

* J. A.S.B. VI. p. 63,

|
y
Z

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 79

Raja Sinha, who subsequently assumed the titles of Rana-raga
and Vishnu Vard’hana. On attaining to man’s estate, he renewed
the contest with the Pallavas, in which he was finally successful,
cementing his power by a marriage with a princess of that race,
and transmitting the kingdom thus founded, to his posterity. His
son and successor was named Pulakési, and his son was Vijaya-
ditya II. A copper ‘sdsanam recording a grant made by Pulakesi
which bears date S. S. 411 or A. D. 489, is extant inthe British
Museum. The next prince was Kirtti Varma who left two sons,
the elder of whom Satya'sraya succeeded him in the kingdom
of Kuntala désa, the capital of which was Kalyan, a city still ex-
isting under the same name, about 100 miles west and a little
north of Hydrabad, while the younger, Kubja Vishnu Vard’hana
or Vishnu Vardhana the Little,* established a new seat for himself
in Telingana by the conquest of Vengipuram, the capital of the
Vengi désam, which comprised the districts between the Godavery
and the Kistna below the ghats. This event appears to have

taken place about the end of the sixth or beginning of the seventh
century.

The two families ruled over the whole of the table-land be-
tween the Nerbudda and the Krishna, together with the coast of
the Bay of Bengal from Ganjam to Nellore, for about five centu-
ries.t The power of the Kalyan dynasty was subverted for a time
in the end of the 9th or beginning of the 10th century, and the
emigrant prince or his son, succeeded by marriage in A. D. 981 to
the throne of Anhalwara Pattan in Guzerat, which his descendants
occupied with great glory till A. D. 1145. But in A. D. 973 the
dynasty of Kalyan was restored in the person of Tailapa Deva and
ruled with greater splendour than before till its extinction in A. D.
1189 by Bijjala Deva, the founder of the Kalab’huriya dynasty.§

The junior branch extended their territories northwards from
Vengi to the frontiers of Cuttack, and ultimately fixed their capi-

* The word Kubja properly signifies ‘‘ crooked”? or ‘‘ hunch-backed.””

+ Dating from the first conquest of Raja Sinha the whole period would be
seven centuries, buf there is some chronological obscurity about the earlier
princes of the series which we hope to clear up hereafter.

{ Tod Ann. Rajasthan, where the Anhalwara family is styled both Sdlanki
and Chalukya, pp. 80 and 97.

§ Jour. R, As. Soc. IV, p. 17; and Mad. Jour. Lit, and Se. VII. p. 209.

80 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

tal at Rajamahendri the modern Rajahmundry. More than one
revolution appears to have occurred in the course of their history,
but the old family always contrived to regain its power, until the
kingdom passed by marriage to Rajendra Choéla the then domi-
nant sovereign of southern India, in whose person the power of
the Cholas had reached its zenith. Whether the acquisition of
Telingana was due entirely to inheritance or to the joint influ-
ence of force cemented by matrimonial alliance, is not clear. The
fact however, is certain, that the Chola power was established in
the eastern Chalukya territories for upwards of a century anda
half, and has left permanent traces of its existence. Rajéndra
Chola was succeeded by his son Vikrama Deva surnamed Kul6t-
tunga Chola. On the death of his uncle Vijayaditya who had
been viceroy of Vengi-desam, the king deputed his son Raja Raja
to assume the office, but after holding it for one year, A. D. 1078,
he resigned it in favor of his younger brother Vira Déva Chola,
who assumed the title of Kulottunga Chola. His grants are found
in great numbers from A. D. 1079 up to the year 1135 when a
partial restoration of the Chalukya line appears to have taken
place, and they maintained a divided and feeble influence till the |
latter part of the 12th century when the country fell under the
sway of the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal.*

To assist future enquiries in assigning the coins of the Chalu-
kya race to their proper authors, a list of the sovereigns of both
branches is subjoined.

1. Jaya Sinha, Vijayaditya.
Raja Sinha, Rana Raga, Vishnu Vard’hana.
Vijayaditya IT.
. Pulakési, A. D. 489.
. Kirtti Varma I.
6. Mangalisa.

Kirtti Varma I. had two sons of whom the former Satyda’sraya
succeeded his father and uncle (who seems for a time to have
usurped his rights) as the representative of the Kalyan branch,

or ye go

and from him that line has been called the Satya sraya kula, while

* The earliest inscription of the Kakatiyas that bas been met in Vengidésan |
now the Northern Circars, bears date A. D. 1175 ; the latest 1336.

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 81

the latter Vishnu Vard’hana the Little (Aubja) was the founder
of the Rajahmundry dynasty.

© om sv

Vot.

WESTERN LINE.

. Satya'sraya began to reign A. D. 609.

. Amara.

. Aditya.

. Vikramaditya I.

. Vinayaditya, Yuddha Malla began to reign A. D. 680.
. Vijayaditya ITT. do. A/D 695%
. Vikramaditya IT. do. A. D. 7383.
. Kirtti Varma II.

. Kirtti Varma III. cousin of the last A. D. 799.

. Tailapa.

. Bhima Raja.

. Ayya or Kirtti Varma IV.

. Vijayaditya IV.

. Taila Bhipa II. or Vikramaditya III. in A. D. 973, re-

stored the monarchy which had been for some time usurp-
ed by the Ratta kula. He died A. D. 997.

. Satyasraya II. Irivi Bhujanga Deva, A. D. 997.

. Vikramaditya V. began to reign about A. D. 1008?

. Jaya Sinha Deva, Jagadeka Malla, about A. D. 1018?

. Soméswara Déva I. Treildkya Malla, ‘Ahawa Malla, about

A. D. 1040 ?

. Soméswara Deva II. Bhineka Malla, A. D. 1099, expel-

led by his brother,

. Vikramaditya VI. Kali Vikrama, Tribhivana Malla, in A.

D. 1076.

. Someswara Déva III., Bhiloka Malla, A. D. 1127-
. dagadeka Malla, A. D. 11388.
. Tailapa Deva III., Treilokya Malla, A. D. 1150.

Soméswara Déva IV., Tribhuvana Malla, A. D. 1182.
Dethroned by Bijjala Deva of the Kalab’huriya kula.

Eastern LINE.

. Vishnu Vard’hana II. or Kubja Vishnu Vard’hana, con-

quered Vengi A. D. 605.
me, 0. Ss VOREITY. N. 8.

82 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 7, NEW SEnrrs.

. Jaya Sinha I.

. Indra Raja his brother.

. Vishnu Vard’hana III.

. Manga Yuva Raja.

(6. Jaya Sinha III.
{ 7. Kokkili.

(8. Vishnu Vard’hana IV.

9. Vijayaditya I.

10. Vishnu Vard’hana V.

11. Narendra Mriga Raja.

12. Vishnu Vard’hana VI. or Kali Vishnu Vard’hana.
13. Vijayaditya II. or Guna-gunanka Vijayaditya conquered

Om & bb

Brothers

Kalinga.

14. Chalukya Bhima I. his brother.

15. Vijayaditya III. or Kollabhiganda Vijaya.

16. Amma Raja,

17. Vijayaditya IV. or Kandagachita Vijaya.

18. Talapa—Usurper. |

19. Vikramaditya V. the son of a brother of Amma Raja I. a

20. Yudd’ha Malla.* , =

21. Raja Bhima II. tj

22. Amma Raja IT.

23. D’hanarnava. Interregnum of 27 years. -

24. Kirtti Varma, son of D’hanarnava.

25. Vimaladitya, his brother.

26. Raja Raja Narendra.

27. Rajendra Chola.

28. Vikrama Deva Kulottunga Chola.

29. Raja Raja Chola, viceroy for one year.

30. Vira Deva Kulottunga Chola or Saptama Vishnu Vard’ha-

na. Viceroy from A. D. 1079 to 1135.
The Chalukyas were of Lunar race and apparently worshippers

of Vishnu. The fact of Raja Sinha having been educated by

* Some accounts make Yudd’ha Malla the son and successor of Talapa and
-expelled by Vikramaditya Y.

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.| Numismatic Gleanings. 83

Vishnu Bhatta Somayaji, a Vaishnava Bramin, probably tended to
confirm the attachment of the family to this creed. Their style
and fitles are as follows: Chalukya kula; Manavyasa gotra;
Hariti-putra ; whose royal power was the gift of Kousika ; nourish-
ed by the seven mothers ; worshipping Swami Mahaseéna; having
the Boar signet (lanch’hana) the gift of Bhagavan Narayana. The

insignia of royalty are elsewhere described as consisting of

The white canopy. . ‘Swetatapatra.

The conch shell. ‘Sankha.

The noubat. Pancha maha-’sabda.
The plough ensign. Halaketana.

The drum. D’hakka.

The Boar signet. Varaha lanch’hana.
The peacock fan. Mayura pinch’ha.
The spear or mace. Kunta.

The throne. ' Sinhasana.

The royal arch. Makara-toranam.
The golden sceptre. Kanaka dandam.

But in the inscriptions recorded when they were at the height of
their power, the white canopy, the boar signet, the peacock fan,
the royal mace and the golden sceptre only are mentioned. Of
these the boar ensign was the most celebrated, and was the symbol
invariably represented on their money and on their seals, some-
times in the latter, accompanied by the conch-shell, the drum, the
peacock-fan and other insignia not enumerated above, as a lotus,
an ankus or elephant-goad, candelebra, a seat or stool? the swas-
tika cross, &c., and on those of later date—a sword.*

Considering the extent and long duration of their power it is
extraordinary that their coins are not more frequently met with.
Those represented in plate 1 contain the whole that have fallen in
my way, during the twenty-five years that I have been enquiring
for them. I have, however, heard of several specimens which
have not come under my own eye. A remarkable hoard of gold
pieces bearing the effigy of a Boar was discovered many years ago.

* It is not clear whether the sword was ever assumed by the true Chalukyas
er only adopted by a succeeding dynasty.

84 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

in Bellary, the contents of which were presented by Mr. HE. B.
Glass, the Sub Collector, in whose division they were found to
the Revd. Mr. Lowry of the Scottish Church, and by him carried
to Scotland. Some others are said to have been taken from a
well in the Hatghar zemindarry in Ganjam and coming into the
possession of the proprietor, were lost or melted up.

From the practice of stamping the figure of the Boar or vardha
on the Chalukya coins, the coins themselves came to be distin-
guished as vardha mudra or “ boar stamped” and the word va-
raha or vardgan to be the vernacular term universally applied to
the characteristic gold coin of Southern India, to which Europeans —
gave the name of pagoda.

But as a gold coin of the same value was probably in circula-
tion long before the Chalukya symbol attained such general cele-

brity, so the term varaha is found to have superseded other names
of more ancient date. In Telegu the abbreviated form of ex-
pressing this coin in writing is by the letter g. (*) as Ko
which is invariably read ‘“ one varaha”’ or pagoda. ‘This has
doubtless come from gad’hydnam a word of Sanscrit origin not in
Brown’s Dictionary, but of constant occurrence in inscriptions of
all ages.

In like manner the Canarese mode of writing the word varaha is

by the letter gu %S the first syllable of gudige RR a small
globe or ball (equivalent to the Sans. gutvka, “ pilulus”) which was
the ancient name of the small spherical coins described in No. 1.

In Tamil, the oldest and apparently the root of all the Dravida
dialects, the word vardha is now expressed in ordinary writing by
the sign 20 the first syllable of the word varagan.

But this is a modern practice. The word varaha never occurs
in old writings. To the best of my recollection I have not met
with it in any of the numerous ancient Tamil inscriptions which I
have collected from all parts of the peninsula.

Whenever a sum of money is mentioned in these ancient records,
the denomination in which it is expressed is pon, a genuine Tamil
word, the normal signification of which is “ gold.’ Even now
this word is occasionally used in the sense of a pagoda, in social

APRIL—sEPT. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 85

ceremonies and time-honored observances, indicative of ancient
origin. For instance, the dowry in Tamil marriages is regulated
according to fixed scale, with reference to the standing of the seve-
ral castes, those of highest rank being rated lowest, and the
amount of such dower is invariably reckoned by pons. Thus the
sum appointed for a maiden of Vellazhar race, the first in rank of
the Tamulian castes, was formerly 11 and is now 21 pons, which
in every day usage are represented by 734 rupees.

In addition to the dowry the bridegroom’s parents are required.
to give another pon tied up in a piece of cloth, under the name of
muler-pal-mudicht or mulei-pal-kih* “the price of the mother’s
milk,” typifying that the expenses of the bride’s rearing are there-
by discharged, and that she has become thenceforth the purchased
property of her husband.

In place of this pon it is now the practice to present 34 rupees
wrapped in cloth, to the girl’s mother.

The proverbial expression S2remS ambos voir
“‘ though the elephant is black, it is worth 1000 pons,’ conveys
the same sense.}

Nor is the evidence confined to colloquial instances. The same
use of the word is found in the oldest standard compositions. In
the Harischandra puranam when the minister sells his prince to a
Pulhya or out-cast, the price set upon him is 10,000 pons..

These examples show that although superseded in modern Ta-
mil by the word vardgan, the term pon was anciently used in the
same sense. And this is still more apparent in the southern pro-
vinces. In Tanjore the revenue accounts up to a comparatively
recent period were kept in pons, panams and kdsus, and these
terms are still employed in estimating the value of land. But the
modern value of the pon of account, is only 1 rupee 9 annas. It
could never therefure have represented the modern pagoda, the

* CpMiumap ly. F) or (LpeOILIT VEE od), lit. ‘* breast-

milk-packet”’ or “ breast-milk-hire.”’

+ The Nattu Kottei Chettis a race of mercantile Vellazhas from Tinnevelly,

who trade extensively along the whole length of the Coromandel Coast, and tho
Labbis frequently employ the term yon when speaking of pagodas.

86 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

oldest specimens of which weigh upwards of 50 grains, and judg-
ing from its present nominal value the ancient pon could not have
weighed more than 20 to 25 grains.

The inference I draw from this fact, is, that the normal ae

ard coin was a piece equal to the modern half pagoda, the pagoda
itself being the double pon, which ultimately became the varaha.

This view is strengthened by the similarity of terms in the Ca-
narese language, in which the following denominations of the pre-
sent coinage are found:

2 gunjas—1 dugala.

2 dugalas or 4 gunjas—1 chavala or chavile.*

2 chavalas or 8 gunjas—1 d’harana.

2 dharanas or 16 gunjas—1 honna.

2 honnas or 32 gunjas—1 varaha.
Here the word honna is the exact equivalent of pon, the p in
the Hala Kannada dialect being always replaced by A, in the
modern dialect.

It appears, therefore, that a similar confusion must have taken
place, between the honna and varaha of the Canarese, as has been
shown to exist between the pon and vardgan of the Tamils, hence
the Mohammedans who first came in contact with the Canarese
people in their progress from the north, adopted the word hin

(wx) as the Dak’hani term for the standard coin of the country.

The star pagoda is stated by Kelly to weigh grs. 52°56, but on
turning to the list of gold coins at p. 39 of Prinsep’s Useful Ta-
bles, the weights of several of the modern pagodas, will be seen,
(excluding those struck at Mohammedan and British mints), to vary
from grs. 50 to 52°8. Examples of the older Hindu pagodas now
extant exhibit a still greater degree of variation. ‘This may pro-
ceed either from the rudeness of the process pursued in the earlier
mints,—or from the carelessness of the workmen and their indif-
ference to accuracy,—or it may be due to changes or depreciation
of the standard, arising from the caprice or the necessities of the
sovereign.

* The same terms are also found in Telugu, with the exception of honna

which is replaced by mdda. Chavala is also sometimes written chavile.— Br.
Dict, 319-20.

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.| Numismatic Gleanings. 87

The average weight of twelve of the oldest specimens of the
varaha and its prototypes in my cabinet, and ranging from ers.
53°27 to grs. 66°9, is grs. 58°05. Discarding the fraction, the weight
of the pun, honna, or pratdpa as it is also called and mdda, the
equivalent term in Telugu, would then be grs. 29.

PTO UNI. 6 x ico aw les bo ea vice eee. Hebd ed es We a
BENET ITI Meee PR RAG RO. DN a A AE Ce aR 7°25
LG NOE OR BREE S bib CLIC IIE mipneabane 3°625

béda (which is the Telugu name of the coin
representing the gumya orratt).......... 1°8126

These results tally approximately with some of the smaller spe-
cimens in my collection. Two small pieces from Tanjore, belong-
ing to the Chola series, to be described in No. III., which I sup-
pose to be chavalas, weigh grs. 7°6 and 7°65 respectively, and a
third struck by a Pandyan prince, grs. 7:°225. Two still smaller
and therefore assumed to be dugalas, also from Tanjore and ap-
parently belonging likewise to the Chola series, weigh grs. 3-525
and 3°45. But onthe other hand the gold fanams described in
No. I.} though of equal or perhaps higher antiquity, do not exceed
ers. 6°8 and some are as low as grs. 5°45, and the smaller ones
grs. 3, whilst those figured in Pl. 1 with the present No. area
trifle short of 7 grs.

There is no doubt that the earliest coins were merely re-
presentatives of pre-existing weights in use at the time when
a stamped currency was introduced. The foundation of most
of these systems was the gunja or raktika or more commonly
rait, the seed of a plant{ growing in every part of India. It is
still in general use among native goldsmiths and varies consider-
ably in size and weight. The discrepancies in the weights of the
early coins that have come down to us may be owing, in some de-

* This it will be observed is nearly the weight of the masha which, derived
from a seed of Phaseolus radiatus, serves as ove of the writs of Indian metro-
logy. Jervis (1829) followed by Prinsep (1834) assumes the goldsmiths or bullion
mdsh to be grs. 15°5 and from it deduces the proportions of all the other denomi-
nations of the system, according to which the gunja or ratz will be grs. 1 9375,
Be Spee 775 and the varaha 62. Jervis, weights of Konkan, p. 40; Pr. U.
, iy p. ‘

+ Vol III. p. 2386-7.
t Abrus precatorius.

88 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

gree to this cause. For it is notorious that goldsmiths use one
set of seeds for buying and another for selling,* and it is quite pos-
sible that mint-masters may have availed themselves of a similar
license in receiving bullion and issuing coin.

An examination of the old system of weights prevalent in
Southern India will probably throw more light on this part of the
subject, to which it is proposed to return in a subsequent No.

aon Figs. 1, 2, are of gold and belong to the same class
of Plate I. as those described in the former No. figs. 28 to 35,
the symbols consisting of a normal figure in the centre, around
which four or five others have been afterwards struck by means of
smaller dies or punches.

Fig. 1. Cup-shaped, with the reverse plain; obverse on the con-
cave side, with a rude figure of a boar for the normal or central
figure, around which are four circular stamps of the chakra or
wheel. Between these, immediately in front, and in rear of the
boar, two stamps of what has been supposed to be intended for the
character SRE srt and above and below the boar two square
stamps containing letters of which the letter 2 7 only is well de-
fined. The piece weighs grains 55°75.

Fig. 2. is also cup-shaped. The obverse has in the centre a
boar much better defined than in the preceding specimen and the
design altogether exhibits a superior degree of execution. Above
the principal figure are separate stamps of a padma or lotus and a
‘sankh shell, below is a bow and before and behind the 's7v-like
symbol. Reverse, a few lines at right angles to each other, forming
an irrgular square. Weight grains 58°65.

Both of these were procured from Kurnool. They exhibit a di-
rect transition from the earlier Buddhist coins to those of the first
Chalukya princes, and may be considered as examples of the ear-
liest money struck by that dynasty. These two are the only spe-
cimens I have ever met wi’h, but in 1846, Capt. Latter, in a paper
on the symbolical coins of Arracan, in the Calcutta Journal, des-
cribed a third, which he states to have been found on the sea-shore

* Jervis’ weights of Konkan, p, 39. f

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 89

in the island of Ramree. “ The central portion’ he observes,
“ represents an animal like a pig, with the representation of the sa-
cred Bo-tree above and a monographic character ¥ beneath, and

29

around, certain characters, &c. The coin so characterized is

doubtless an early Chalukya gad’hydnam and its presence in Ram-
ree is easily accounted for by the commercial intercourse which has
at all times subsisted between the coast of Kalinga, long under
Chalukya domination, and the opposite country of Arracan. Judg-
ing from Capt. Latter’s figure which is rudely depicted, the central
figure is clearly that of a boar, surmounted by a ch’hatra or um-
brella and with a pillar (stamb’ha) or candelabrum before it. The
monagram is perhaps the ‘sank’h or some other of the symbols re-
presented on the seals in plate I, and round the central figure are
seven separate stamps, four and probably all of which, represent
letters in the Hala-Kannada or old Telugu character.

Figs. 3, 4, and 6 are all gold die-coins, and may therefore be as-
sumed to belong to a later series. The form also is different and
more nearly approaches to the common dumpy form of the pagoda
in modern times, but they exceed the heaviest of the recent pagodas
inweight. They may be assigned to the period between the 7th
and 10th centuries, their relative antiquity being in the inverse
order to their numbers in the plate.

Fig. 3,is a copy of fig. 13 in plate 104 of Moore’s Hindu Pan-
| theon containing representations of coins found in the cabinet of
the late Tippoo Sultan; the obverse represents the boar with the
sun, moon, across probably intended for a sword and some other
symbols not recognizable ; the reverse has the scroll pattern, charac-

teristic of many of this class of early coins, from which the term
| p hilt hun or flower-pagoda has probably been derived.
_ Fig. 4. Obverse, a boar caparisoned with jewelled trappings and
_ having three scrolls of foliage above and below; reverse, a radiat-
ed chakra or wheel; weight grains 58°65. In the collection of the
Government Central Museum, for which it was purchased at the

Exhibition of 1855, from the objects transmitted by the Bellary
Local Committee.

* Jour. As. Soc., Beng. Vol, xv. p. 240. PI. iii. fig. 6.
on, xx 0. 6. VoL.-IV. N. &

30 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

Fig. 5. Obverse, a boar with the sun and moon above ; reverse,
a chakra or wheel. This is more rudely executed than the last. The
symbols on the reverse of both exhibit indications. of Buddhist in-
fluence.

Figs. 6 to 10, appear to be gold chavalas and form part of a con-
siderable hoard which was discovered in a nullah at the village of
Revada in Vizagapatam in 1853, accompanied by some of smaller
size and by several others with the figures of fish, and ofa fish and
panther, symbols of the Pandyan princes and of a bull couchant.
From this, I conclude, that they must have been deposited subse-.
quent to the union of the Chalukya with the Chola race when the
latter having swallowed up most of its rivals to the north and south,
had absorbed both the Pandyan and Chalukyan territories,in the
1ith century.

le - 5 Ste a l(lUe Ue eee

The design on all these is nearly the same ; obverse, a boar over

which is an anku'sa or elephant-goad ; reverse, the letter KK with

the numerals (O°, or 3, 11, 18, respectively, referring

probably to the year of the king’s reign in which they were
struck. The letter appears to be an old Telugu or Canarese form
of s and might be supposed to refer to the initial of the reigning
sovereign’s name, but it is found also on the Pandyan pieces dis-

covered at the same time. The two heaviest weigh grains 6°95.
Two very much smaller pieces forming part of the same deposit and
weighing grains 1:35 and 1-5 are probably dugalas. The smallest
has a boar in form exactly resembling the rude outline in the cen-
tre of fig. 1. The reverse is indistinct but appears to contain a
Nagari letter. The other is a miniature copy in all respects of the
chavalas above described, with a similar reverse, viz: the character
s and the numerals 11.

Fig. 11. A copper coin ; obverse, a boar, above which are a sword |
and the sun: reverse a legend in old Telugu or Canarese characters -
oy paWZ Pr)a] CV in three lines, the upper one of which ap- q e.
pears to contain the Telugu figures 15 and the two following ones 3
may be read ‘Sriman Ruma, Weight 57 grains. .

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 91

Fig. 12 to 17. Five copper coins all of similar design. Obverse,
_a boar with a sword and the sun and Nagari legends on the reverse.
The letters are in horizontal lines on 12, 18, 16, but in vertical lines
on 17. Most of these are much worn and very indistinct but the
plainest 12 and 13, appear to read Sdlava or Chdlava Tiramal
Raya.

But no such name occurs in the lists, and it cannot refer to the
kula dévata or household god of the king, for in that case the word
déva would have been substituted for rdya. <A king of this name
is found in the Bijanagar dynasty between A. D. 1564 and 1572.
The princes of this race which as will be shown presently, adopted
the boar ensign, always used the Nagari character in their inscrip-
tions and the letters on these coins are of a comparatively modern
form. The addition of the sword further favors this supposition.
But if this symbol is to be taken as exclusively characteristic of
the Rayars, it will be necessary to assign fig. 11 to them also, which
is certainly of greater antiquity and presents other marked discre-
pancies besides. Their weights are grains 53:275, 43°3, 55:05,
44-95 and 43°8. |

Fig. 18. A copper coin much defaced. Obverse, a boar standing
in front of a pillar, the rest too indistinct to be clearly made out.
Reverse, a legend in Tamil also illegible. This has much the
aspect of a Pandyan coin. See fig. 26. Weight, 60 grains.

Figs. 19 and 20 are two copper coins both belonging to the same
prince. Obverse of 19, a boar, with an imperfect Tamil legend ; re-
verse, arudely represented sitting figure, such as is found on the
numerous class of southern coins first brought to notice by Prinsep
in his “ Ceylon series,’’ and with the Nagari letters under the arm
Sri Raja Raja ; weight grs. 52°225. The obverse of fig. 20 exhibits
also a boar, which is ornamented somewhat in the style of that in
| fig. 4 and stands on a support like that in the seals in plate II. Re-
| verse, the same sitting figure as in fig. 19, with the name Raja Rdja
under the arm. This coin is in the collection of Col. Frederick
| Clerk, late of the 8rd or C. L. I. Regt. They were probably struck
by Raja Raja Narendra the 26th prince in the eastern line, or by
his great-grand-son, the 29th, who after his resignation of the vice

92 Numismatic Gleanings. [{No. 7, NEW SERIES.

royalty of the Telugu portion of his father’s kingdom reigned at
the seat of the Chola power in the south, where these coins are

chiefly found, Nos. 12 to 21 having all been procured from Tanjore
and South Arcot.

Fig. 21. Copper. Obverse, a boar as in fig. 20, with a pillar or
lamp in front, an umbrella above, anda scroll underneath. Re-
verse, the rude standing figure characteristic of the southern or
Ceylon type of coins, with four balls and a 'sank’A shell under the
left arm. This reverse, peculiar to the coins of the south, stamps
it as belonging to a Chola-Chalukya prince but to which of them, -
in the absence of name or characteristic symbol, it is impossible to
determine. Weight grains 44°75.

Figs. 22, 23, 24 and 25 are very rude copper coins. All have
the boar on the obverse, the first with the addition of a sword. The
reverse of 22 is imperfect and appears to be a scroll. That of 23
has a cross round which are drawn two circles. On 24 is a sinha
or lion, connecting the boar type with that represented in Plate ix
of No. 1. The reverse of 25 has some resemblance to the symbol
on fig. 1. |

They weigh grains 32°25, 25°23, 55 and 33°125.

Figs. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 and 31, all of copper, constitute a new
class pertaining to a dynasty unconnected either with the Chaluk-
ya or Chalukya-Chola families. All have the boar obverse, per-
taining to these families, but the legends on the reverse are in Ta-
mil characters.

Fig. 26. Is the most typical and characteristic of the series and
supplies data for assigning a place to the others. ‘The obverse has
the two fish and crozier of the Pandyan kings and altho’ the let-
ters are almost obliterated—on a comparison with others of the same
prince, they can be identified as giving thename &F S7UM exrig Wsor
Sundara Pdndiyan one of the later sovereigns of that dynasty, who
appears to have vanquished the Cholas shortly before their final

extinction. His grants are extant throughout the whole of the
Tamil country. We find several of them occurring at Conjevaram,

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.| Nuwmismate Gleanings. 93

and one or two even as far north as Nellore. From these facts,
coupled with the discovery of the coins, under consideration, it
may be concluded that he assumed the insignia of his vanquished
foe and struck coins bearing the dominant symbol of the age.

The remaining three figures represent seals, on rings uniting
plates of copper, on which are engraved grants conferred by the
earliest princes of the Western Chalukya dynasty.

Fig. 32. Is the seal on a grant of Satya’sraya the seventh in the
list. It bears date 8.S. 584 corresponding with A. D., 612.

Fig. 33. Pertains to a grant by Vikramaditya Satya'sraya or
Vikramaditya I. the tenth in the list and the great grandson of
the above. The originals of both these grants are in possession of
Mahendra ‘Santia Jaina Guru at Hyderabad and were sent to me
for inspection by General Fraser when resident at the court of the
Nizam.

Fig. 33. Is the seal on a grant made by Vinayaditya Satya's-
raya the son of Vikramaditya I, with the date 8. 8. 6138. (A. D.
691.) It belongs to a person in the Kurnool district. I was
enabled to copy it through the kindness of the late Capt. New-
bold, Asst. Commissioner.

The first three figures in plate II. represent
seals of the Eastern Chalukyas.

Fig. 1. Represents aseal on a grant, engraved on 4 plates, of

Plate II.

certain villages conferred on Brahmins by one Ambod’hi Raja un-
der sanction of Vishnu Vardhana in 8.8. 974 or A.D. 1052. The
term employed to designate the king is the generic one, which
though specially assumed ‘by certain princes of the dynasty, seems
to have been more or less common to all and may perhaps refer
in thismstance to Raja Raja Narendra, the son of Vimaladitya,
and son-in-law of Rajendra Chola.

The seal contains in the centre the words ’Srt Tribhuvan anku'sa,
which may be rendered “ the auspicious elephant-goad of the three
worlds,” implying that the owner of the seal controlled the uni-
verse as the ankus restrains an elephant.

Above the legend is the figure of a.boar, with a chank shell and

94 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

chamara in front, and the small drum called damara with another
chamara behind.

Above these are the sun and moon and a ch’hatra which the
artist has erroneously represented in the form of a cross or quatre
foil. |

Below the legend is an expanded lotus and below it a bud on
its stalk, a small table to the right, and an ankus to the left.

Figs. 2 and 3 are on grants made by Vira Deva Chola surnamed

Kulottunga Chola, Tribhuvana Chakravartti and Saptama or

seventh Vishnu Vard’hana who was appointed viceroy over the -

Chalukya dominions by his father Vikrama Chola and ruled them

for nearly sixty years.

Fig. 3 is the earliest in point of date, it records the grant in S.
S. 1001* of a village called Kaléru in the Rajahmundry district to
a Brahmin named Medam ‘Arya, as an endowment for the mainte-
nance of two mantapams erected by him at Pithapur and Draksha-
ramam and of a tank constructed at an agraharam called Chellir.
In the centre of the seal, is inscribed in ancient characters the title
Sri-Tribhucan anku'sa, above which is the boar between two
lamps and two chamaras or chowries and above these the figure of
an ankus and the sun and moon. Below the legend is a row of
emblems, which appear to represent sacred implements or marks
of distinction, conferred by a guru or religious preceptor. ‘The first
may be intended for the small portable altar called vedika, em-
ployed in domestic devotion, the next the lotus is always esteem-
edan emblem of sanctity, the third represents the small table for
the implements of worship and the fourth the swastika or sacred
cross, the inscription of which on any person or thing, is held to
confer an especial blessing.

As the preceding relates to one of the first acts of liberality of
Vira Deva Chola, so fig. 2 is connected with an act of munificence
on the part of one of his servants, towards the close of his rule.
In the ‘Saka year 1056 Kolani Katama Nayadu with the permis-
sion of the prince, presented the village of Panduva to certain

* Thisis given in the words 'sast-khadwa-indu or the moon (1) two firma: .

nents (00) the moon, (1)—1001.

APRIL—sEPT. 1858.| Numismatie Gleanings. 95

Brahmins, as an agrahadram and for the maintenance of certain
temples. The prominent figure on the seal is the boar, with
chowries before and behind, a lotus and two candelabra beneath.
Above the animal are a 'sank’h-shell with the words Sri-Zrib’hu-
van-ankw'sa, surmounted by a figure of the ankus, and the moon.

Figs 4 to 8 are seals of the Rayar dynasty, as it 1s commonly
called, of Bijanagar. This family rose into power on the decadence
of the Cholas in the early part of the 14th century and continued
in the exercise of sovereignty over a large portion of the Carnatic,
for about 460 years. The first capital was Bijanagar (Vijayanagar
also sometimes called Vidyanagar) or Anagundi, from which as
they declined in power, they removed to Penugonda in the Bellary
province and afterwards to Chandragiri in North Arcot. <A soz
disant representative of the family still resides at Anagundi, sub-
sisting on a pension conferred by the British Government.

All the 'sdsanams of the princes of this family, are inscribed in
Nagari characters.

Fig 4, is the seal on a grant of the village of Puligarti in Vella-
Nellar of Jayam-konda-Chola-mandalam, by Bukka Raya the

first of the dynasty, in 8. S. 1216 corresponding with A. D. 1294,
recorded on three plates of copper. ‘The use of the territorial de- -
nominations shows, that the Chola authority had only just passed

away, itindeed it was not still in existence. The execution of the
deed is probably anterior to the assumption of independance by its
author.

It bears the figure of the boar, evidently derived from the
Chalukya-Cholas, standing on a sort of pedestal with the sun and
moon above and a sword in front, the latter now first, apparently
added to the normal device, as a distinguishing symbol of the new
family.

Fig 6, is the seal of Sada'siva Raya one of the most destinguish-
ed sovereigns of the race. It bears simply the figure of the boar,
with the sun and moon, and belongs to a grant on four plates, of
the village of Ayyala-nadu in 8.8. 1489 or A. D. 1567.

Figs. 5and 8 are seals of Venkatapati Déva Raya, the first re-
cording a grant of the village of Nelattir in the Varoddagiri sima

S6 Numismatic Gleanings. [|No. 7, NEW SERIES.

(now Vridd’ha chalam) inscribed on six copper plates, and dated
S. S. 1522 or A. D. 1600, the second is incomplete, one of the 5
plates having been lost, but the remaining plates contain the king’s
name and the date S. S. 1560 or A. D. 1638. The seal bears the
name Venkatara(ya) in Nagari characters, an unusual circumstance
in the seals of this dynasty.

Fig. 7 is the seal of Ranga Raya, on a set of plates recording
the grant of a village named Kala-kurichi in the Tirupati Rajyam
in S. S. 1566 or A. D. 1644. This is one of the latest of the
series, after the family had retired to Chandragiri.*

Fig. 9 is a copy of a picture of his family insignia or arms, sent —
to me by Raja Kumari Perumal, the zamindar of Karvétinagaram
in the Chittoor district, commonly known as the Bomma Raja
Poligar. ‘The sword is here depicted above, instead_of in front, of
the boar, with the sun and moon on either side, the whole ona
circular scutcheon perhaps intended to represent a seal, or the
round, flat, vertical parasol called dftdbgir carried over persons of
rank, by special permission of the sovereign} and usually embla-
zoned with a family device. Above this, is a shield surmounted
by a falcon of the kind called sdiva or bahri (falco peregrinus)
flanked by swords, flags, bows and quivers, and spears.

It appears from a local history of some merit that the ancient
possessors of the Nagaram districts were a family of Salva Reddis,
who migrated with their tribe from the neighbourhood of Pit’hapur
in the delta of the Godavery, to the country at the base of the
Nagari Hills about the 8th or 9th century.

One of them named Salva Narasa Reddi obtained the favor of

the Chalukya king, Vimaladitya, by his skill as an athlete, and ‘i

- was appointed chief of the country of ‘Sesachalam or Tripati
(where he founded a town called Narasapuram) with permission to |

use the royal seal and boar signet. This was inthe yearS.§.
852 (A. D. 980). During the troubles which followed Vimaladi-

* Since this paper was sent to press I have becn favored with the loan of set
of copper plates conveying a grant in the Canarese language of ten villages toa
temple in Conjevaram by Krishna Deva Wadiyar Raja of Mysore in S. S. 1646
or A. D. 17438, the seal in which is a boar exactly resembling fig. 7.

+ The vaulted horizontal umbrella was always reserved exclusively for royal-
ty, whence the imperial title each’ haira and ch’ hatrapati the origin probably of .
the word satrap.

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.] Numsmatic Gleanings. 97

tya’s reign, and ended in establishing the ascendancy of the
Cholas, his grandson, S. Venkatapati Naidu, was dispossessed, but
his son S. Bhima N ayadu recovered his patrimony in 8. 8. 898 and
built the town of Ratnapuram, now called Kempala palem where
he founded a temple to Varaha-swami in honor of the Chalukya
family.*
A successful expedition into the Carnatic by, Kirtti Varma, the
Chéra king of Malabar about the year S. 8. 930, in which the
Salva chief sided with the invader, enabled his son Narasinha, a
man of ability and enterprize, to assume independence, which he
maintained successfully for 35 years to S$. 8.979 (A. D. 1057).
His possessions extended along the base of the mountains, over
the breadth of the Carnatic Balaghat from the neighbourhood of
Vellore to the sea, including the three sacred places of Ghati-
‘kachalam (Sholangad), ’Sesachalam (Tripati) and Kshani-kacha-
lam (Tiruttani). He surveyed and assessed the whole of the lands
within this space, reformed the weights and measures according to
the Salva standard, so called after his own family name and caused
them all to be stamped with the figure of the boar. Although his
son 8. Bhujanga Nayadu was reduced to subjection by the West-
ern Chalukya king, Sdme’swara Deva and was carried away a pri-
soner to Kalyan where he died, these institutions were preserved
and have remained up to the present time.
Bhujanga Nayadu’s grandson recovered his paternal estate in
S. S. 999 (A. D. 1077). They were again curtailed to 24 villages
by Raja Raja Deva Chola II. in 8.8. 1152 (A. D. 1230). But

during the next four generations, the decaying power of the Cholas
_ enabled the Salva family to regain its independence, which was

strengthened by the marriage in 8.8. 1236, of 8S. Narasa Nayadu
| with the daughter of Prolaya Reddi the founder of the Véma

_ Reddi dynasty of Kondavid in Guntoor.

The family now fell under the rule of the rising empire of Bija-
nagar, to which the Salvas continued subject for about 150 or 200

* The remains of this temple still exist and among the ruins, the figure of
Varaha swami stands exposed to the open air.

Won, XX. 0. 5S. VOL. IV. N. &.

98 Numismatie Gleanings. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

years, when the last of the race was expelled or superseded by the
progenitors of the present Bomma Raja zamindar. Salva ’Sesa-
chala Reddi, the then head of the family being without heirs, sti-
pulated only that the annual festivals at Narayanavaram and Tri-
pati should be conducted in the name of the Salvas, since which
time the new family have assumed the titles of ‘Sriman Rajadhi-
raja—Salva-katari-maha-raja, &c., and with the insignia of the
Salva family, have maintained undisturbed the rules and institu-
tions established by their predecessors.

The latest mention of the Salvas that we have met with occurs.
in a copper ‘sdsanam at Tirunnamalei in South Arcot, in which
Krishna Raya of Bijanagar and the Salva Nayaka, having built a
mantapam of 1000 pillars at Kanchipuram, (Conjeveram) resolve
now to erect a similar one at Arunachalam (or Tirunnamalei) on a
piece of land, purchased from the inhabitants for 500 pons. ‘This
endowment, witnessed by the inhabitants of all the kottams and
nadus of Tondamandalam, is dated S. 8. 1435 or A. D. 1513.

The traditions relative to the prevalence of the Chalukya influ- —

ence in this tract, are confirmed by inscriptions extant in the temple
of Agastiswara swami in Narayanavaram, the principal town of the
district. One of these records a grant to the temple, of the village
of Vikrama-tangal alias Chalukya-puram, by Naga-déva of Vélur-

pakkam, who had received it with others in reward for services ren-
dered to the general of the Chalukya forces in an engagement with

the enemy then occupying the Potappinadu (or Kalastri) country. |
This was made in S. 8. 826, in the 11th year of the reign of Kulot-
tunga Chola (probably Rajendra Chola.) .

Another inscription in the temple of Para'sara in the same town,
records the gift of the village of Kandyan by one Pallava Raya

who had received it from Nagadéva the lord of Potappinadu in the
13th year of Uttama Chola or 8. 8. 1027.

A, third in the temple of Agastiswara Swami contains a royal
grant of certain lands to the temple, in the 6th year of Tribhuvana
Malla Deva with the titles of Sarvaloka'sraya, the ornament of -

‘APRIL—SEPT. 1858. | Selections. 99

the Satya’sraya Kula, conspicuous among the Chalukyas, &c., in
S. S. 1078 corresponding with A. D. 1151.

Fig 10 is an iron weight bearing the stamp of the Salva standard,
obtained from Narayanavaram. It exhibits the figure of the boar
and sword with the sun and moon and on the back are the words
Pramadicha sa. (mvat-sara) vt. (sam.) 1, signifying that this
weight of 1 vis was stamped in the cycle year. It weighs exactly
olbs. 1 oz. 4drs.

Fig 11 is an iron measure marked like the preceding and in-
eribed with the words Pramadicha sa. sardha pa, which stand for
Pramadicha Sa (mvatsara) half pa(di.) The depth is 5-6 inches
the diameter at the top 4:2 and at the bottom 3-9 and the weight
of the water it held at 81° Fah. was 1 lb. 19 02.16 drs. 2 grs.—624
cubic inches.

Fig 12 is an iron quarter vis of octagon shape with the sword
sun and moon engraved upon it, and the year Pramadicha sa. vi. |
the latter mark indicating one quarter in Telugu notation. Its
weight is 12 oz. 2 drachms.

SELECTIONS,

Observation on the Poison of the Upas Antiar. By Professor

ALBERT KOLLIKER.

Durine my stay in England, in the autumn of 1857, I was so
fortunate as to acquire the rare poison of the famous Antaris toxt-
caria (Lesch), with which no experiments have been tried since
the time of Magendie, Brodie, Horsfield, Schnell and Emmert
(1809-1815). I owe my specimens of the Antiar poison to my
friend Professor Christison, of Edinburgh, who had it from Borneo,
and to Dr. Horsfield, of London, who collected it himself during
his stay at Java in the beginning of this:century, and as both spe-
cimens were fully active, as some preliminary experiments made
in company with my friends, Dr. Sharpey and Dr. Allen Thomson
showed, I thought it well worth while to devote some time to the
study of the poison, and to try to elucidate its manner of action on

100 Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

the animal organism. The following are the principal results which
I obtained in my experiments with frogs, and I hope that they will
not be deemed unworthy of notice by those who take an interest in
the physiological action of poisons in general.

The Antiar, like most other poisons, acts from the intestinal
canal, and from wounds, but it must be remarked, that it is much
more energetic and rapid when introduced into a wound. The
symptoms which are observed in frogs, in the latter case, are the
following. First of all, the voluntary movements become less ener-
getic, and at length cease totally, 30 or 40 minutes after the intro- -
duction of the poison (after 21m. min. and lh. 21m. max.). Then
follows a time in which reflex movements may be caused by stimu-
lating the skin, but this faculty also is lost very soon, viz., at from
50 to 60 minutes (at 33m. min and 85m. max.), and the animals
die without the slightest trace of convulsions or tetanic spasm. If
now the frogs are opened, we find that, without any exception, the
heart has ceased to beat. The auricles are dilated, the ventricle
corrugated, rather small, and generally red, as if blood had been
extravasated into its muscular parietes, but very soon the exposure
of the heart to the air causes the ventricle to shrink a little more,
and to become pale and stiff, as if in the state of regor mortis. All
interior organs, especially the lungs, liver, stomach, intestine, and
kidneys, are gorged with blood, and in a state of ereat, especially
venous, hyperemia. ‘The blood is fluid and rather dark ; but soon
coagulates when exposed to the air, and assumes a brighter colour.
The lymphatic hearts cease to beat as soon as the reflex move-
ments are lost. At the same time the nerves are yet found excit-
able, but their power is very low, and generally vanishes in the
second hour after the application of the poison. The same must
be said of the muscles, which” contract very feebly when directly
stimulated by galvanism, and in most cases lose their power totally
in the second or third hour, and generally a little after their nerves,
The r7gor mortis begins early, sometimes in the sixth hour, and is
generally well established at the eighteenth hour.

Amongst all these symptoms, to which we may add some signs
of vomiting occurring now and then, there was none which attract-

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.| Povson of the Upas Antiar. 101

ed my attention, more than the cessation of the movements of the
heart, considering the great energy which this organ possesses in
frogs, and I tried, therefore, before all, to elucidate the action of
the Antiar upon the heart. For this purpose I instituted a new
series of experiments, in which I exposed the heart by the section
of the sternum, before the poison was introduced into a wound of
the back, and in this way I easily got the result, that the heart
ceases to beat as soon as from the fifth to the tenth minute after
the introduction of the Antiar, and so, that first the ventricle stops,
and half a minute or one minute later, also the auricles. Now, as
the frogs at this time are not at all deprived of their faculty to
move, we may have the rather astonishing view of an animal, with
artificially paralysed heart, which moves and leaps as freely as if
nothing had happened.

The experiments just mentioned prove, that the first action of
the Upas Antiar is to paralyse the heart, and I am therefore quite
in accordance with Sir Benjamin Brodie, who, by his experiments
on Mammata, came to the same result in 1812, whilst I cannot
otherwise than disagree with Schnell (Diss. de Upas Antiar, Tu-
binge, 1815), who assumes that this poison acts in the first place
on the spinal marrow. Now this point fixed, the further question
arises, whether the other symptoms mentioned, viz., the paralysis
of the voluntary and reflex movements, and the loss of the irrita-
bility of the muscles and nerves are only the results of the para-
lysis of the heart, or must be attributed to a specific action of the
Antiar. For the elucidation of this question, I found it necessary
to study the consequences of the suppression of the heart’s action
on the organism of frogs, which I did in the same way as it had
been done by others, especially by Kunde Miiller’s Archive (1847),
viz., by cutting out the heart, or by putting a ligature around the
base of it, so as to stop the circulation totally. The results of
these experiments were in both cases the same, that is to say, the
voluntary movements ceased in from 30 to 60 minutes, and the
reflex movements after one or two hours. Hence it follows that
these two symptoms of the poisoning with Antiar are simply de-
pendent on the paralysis of the heart caused by it. With refer-

102 Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIEs.

ence to the irritability of the muscles and nerves, on the contrary,
it is easy to show that the ligature or excision of the heart has not
the same influence as the Antiar, inasmuch, as in the first case the
muscles and nerves are found irritable six or seven hours, and
more after the experiment has been made. Therefore it may be
said that the Antiar has a direct action on these organs.

These points once demonstrated, there remained one more ques-
tion to elucidate, namely, whether the Antiar acts only upon the
muscles, or also upon the nerves. If we consider that the Antiar

undoubtedly paralyses the muscles, we may easily see that the loss ©

of the excitability of the nerves possibly depends merely upon the
impairment of the muscular contractility, and is therefore not real,
but only apparent. With a view to determine the real state of
things, I tried a third series of experiments, poisoning frogs in
such a manner that the muscles of one limb were kept free from
the influence of the poison. This was done in two ways, first, by
putting a ligature round the crural artery and vein of one leg, and
secondly, by cutting through a leg entirely, after the ligature of
its vessels, with the exception only of the ischiatic nerve. In
poisoning frogs treated in one of these ways, through a wound of
the back, I found that, with the exception of the heart, the Antiar
acts in the first instance upon the muscles. This is shown by the
fact, that in the second hour, at the time when the muscles of the
poisoned parts have lost their irritability, the nerves of the sacral
plexus in the abdomen still possess their full influence upon the
muscles of the leg which has been kept free from the action of the
poison. One might be inclined from this to conclude, that the
nerves are not at all acted upon by the Antiar, but this inference
would be erroneous. In fact, the experiments just mentioned, if
followed a little longer, show that in the third or fourth hour the
sacral plexus also becomes inactive, at a time when the muscles of
the non-poisoned leg are fully contractile. The Antiar, therefore,
paralyses also the nervous trunks, but later than the muscles.

From all the experiments, it seems to follow that the Antiar is
a poison which acts principally upon the muscular system (the
heart and the voluntary muscles), a conclusion in favour of which

_- APRIL—SEPT. 1858.] Poison of the Upas Antiar. 108

I may further add, that the muscles and the heart of frogs poisoned
by Urari (Woorari, Ourari) lose their irritability totally, and in a
short time, if Antiar is introduced into a wound some time after
the Urari. If we consider that, as I have shown (see Proceedings
of the Royal Society, 1856, p. 201,) the Urari only acts upon the
terminations of the nerves in the muscles, and does not effect the
irritability of the heart and muscles at all, we may conclude, that
a poison, which, as the Antiar, is capable of paralyzing the muscles
after the Urari, has really a direct action upon the muscular fibre.

“The results of my investigation into the effects of the Antiar upon

frogs, are therefore the following.
1. The Antiar is a paralyzing poison.

2. It acts in the first instance and with great rapidity (in 5 to
10 minutes) upon the heart, and stops its action.

3. The consequences of this paralysis of the heart are the ces-
sation of the voluntary and reflex movements in the first and second
hour after the introduction of the poison.

4. The Antiar paralyzes in the second place the voluntary
muscles.

5. Inthe third place it causes the loss of excitability of the
great nervous trunks.

6. The heart and muscles of frogs poisoned with Urari may be
paralyzed by Antiar.

7. From all this it may be deduced, that the Antiar principally
acts upon the muscular fibre and causes paralysis of it.

So much for this time. My experiments with the Antiar upon
warm-blooded animals have only begun, and I am not yet able to
draw any conclusion from them. As soon as this will be possible
I shail take the liberty to submit them to the Royal Society, toge-
ther with the results of my experiments with the Upas Tieuté,
which poison I had also the good fortune to obtain through the
kindness of Sir Benjamin Brodie and Dr. Horsfield. With regard
to the Antiar I may further add, that experiments made indepen-

Nots.—This famous poison consists chiefly according to Schomburgk
of the Strychnos toxifera.—Ep. M. J.

104 Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

dently, and at the same time, by my friend Dr. Sharpey with this
poison, have conduced to the same results as my own. _Proceed-
ings of the Royal Society.

On the Brine-springs of Cheshire. By Aucustus BraucHAMP

Norrucote, F.c. s.,* Senior Assistant in the Royal College of -

Chemistry.

Tux existence of salt deposits in Cheshire, and of the brine-
springs which flow from them, has from the earliest historic pe-
riods exercised a very peculiar influence upon the economic features
of that county. It appears from the records of Domesday, that
salt was even then one of the principal articles of its commerce,
and that at a period anterior to the Norman conquest it brought in a
considerable revenue to the Crown, for as early as the time o
Edward the Confessor, the Wiches, as they were called, are stated
to have been very productive, and the tolls levied upon the amount
of salt sold were divided in the proportion of two-thirds to the
King and one-third to the Earl of Chester. Upon the Conqueror’s
accession, the earldom was given to Hugh Lupus, his nephew;
but the property attached to it had diminished in value; for it is
recorded that the salt-works at Middlewich aud Nantwich, which
under the Saxon rule had produced a rental of £16 per annum,
had fallen into complete disuse; and that those of Nantwich, from
which an annual income of £20 had been derived, were almost as
much neglected, for out of eight salt-works which had formerly
flourished at this latter place, one only was at that time in opera-
tion, This period of depression was not, however, of long dura-
tion, for shortly afterwards a partial recovery had taken place since
the Nantwich salt-works are spoken of as being let to farm by
the Crown for £10, the Middlewich at 25s.,2and the] Nantwich at

* Communicated by the Author.

RS ae “4

APRIL—sEPT. 1858.] Brine-springs of Cheshire. 105

OOS. per annum.* Itis thought probable that at this period, the
chief export of Cheshire salt was to Wales, for the Welsh gave to
Nantwich the name of Hellath Wen, or the white salt-pit ; much
export trade could not have been carried on, for very long after
this date, the salt manufacture of Cheshire did not exceed the
consumption of the county itself, and a few of its immediately ad-
joining neighbours.}

It is curious to observe how the importance of places decreases
in course of time through the effect of influences, at first ap-
parently but slightly adverse, becoming under somewhat altered
circumstances highly detrimental. Nantwich throughout the whole
of its early history held the first rank among the salt-producing
towns,—there were situated the brine-pits which Henry III. stop-
ped up in order to distress the Welsh by cutting off their supply
of that necessary article of food; and when this embargo upon
the commercial activity of the town was withdrawn, we find it far
surpassing its former self in the energy of its undertakings. This
increasing prosperity and wealth continued until it reached a cul-
minating point, from which it has ever since gradually but irre-
trievably descended. It seems to have attained its summit in the
time of Henry VIII., for Leland states that at that time Nantwich
contained 300 salt-works: their reduction then began, and in the
early part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth their number had de-
ereased to 216, whilst in 1624 they had dwindled nearly to 150.
The cause of this declension was want of water-carriage. Nant-
wich being unfortunately situated beyond that point of the Weaver
up to which it was navigable; a more advantageous locality was
therefore sought for; the banks of the river were examined, and
other springs found in more favoured situations, possessing more-
over in addition to superiority of position, the no less important
advantage of greater concentration. From the date of that disco-
very the salt manufacture in Nantwich steadily declined, although
the inhabitants still repaired annually on Ascension day to the

“ Old Biat,” their most ancient salt-pit, and adorning it with flow-

oc EE A nip
* Lyson’s Magna Britannia, Vol. iI t II, p. 408, (1810),
+ Ibid, pp. 408, 409. ty REET Bia GEN)

Mor. xx 0..°s. Vou. ty ons:

106 Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

ers, ribands, and green boughs, they danced round it to their rustic
music, and sang a hymn of thanksgiving for the blessing of the
brine. This old custom was discontinued about the middle of the
last century, for the blessing which they celebrated was fast leav-
ing them. In 1810* one salt-work only existed in the town, and
that is now, I am told, done entirely away with and the pit closed.
But while Nantwich has been thus descending in the scale, Mid-
dlewich and Northwich have been increasing in importance ; and
along the lines of water-communication, the rivers Weaver and the
Grand Trunk Canal, which runs parallel with the river Wheelock,

other places have sprung up from time to time. Of these the

most important appear to be, Winsford on the Weaver consider-
ably below Nantwich, Marston and Winnington on the same stream
in the immediate neighbourhood of Northwich, and Anderton
somewhat nearer the river’s mouth; whilst on the Wheelock, in
the vicinity of Sandback, several works of great consequence have
deen established. A few statistics will show the immense in-
crease which this branch of manufacture has undergone within a
comparatively short period. Within the ten years from 1800 to
1810, the amount of salt produced in Northwich is said to have
doubled, and the annual average of white or manufactured salt
sent down the Weaver from Winsford and Northwich during that
period was 139,317 tons;}+ this appears to have been the entire
amount shipped on the Weaver, and is therefore comparable with
the total quantity of white salt{ (as distinguished from rock salt)
which was earried down that river in the year 1832, which amount-
ed to 383,669 tons, and which by the year ending April 5, 1856,
had increased to 709,514 tons. With this, other accounts agree ;
for Lyson states that in 1805-1806, the total annual produce of
the Cheshire brine-pits, those of Nantwich and Frodsham excepted,
was 16,590 tons; whilst at the present time single manufacturers,
such as Mr. Blackwell of Wheelock, and Messrs. Ray of Wins-
ford, produce respectively 70,000 tons, and from 50,000 to 60,000
tons of salt per annum.

= pens Magna Britannia, Vol, I1., part I1., p. 703.
+ Ibid.
i Ure’s Dictionary of Ar‘s and Manufactures, drd edit., p. 1091.

ee

wy

mi

-APRIL—SEPT. 1858.] Brine-springs of Cheshire. 107

The salt which is now produced in Cheshire is made, I under-
stand, exclusively from natural brine-springs ; but it has formerly
at various times been obtained by dissolving rock-salt in water and
evaporating the clear solution. The principal varieties manufac-
tured are three : the salt of coarsest grain, or bay-salt ; that of the
finest grain, to which the name of table-salt is applied; and an
intermediate variety, which is called common salt. The latter is
made in the largest quantity, and forms the principal part of the
vast export of Cheshire. More than three-fourths of the total
amount of salt produced is used for foreign consumption ; and of
the remaining fourth, a considerable portion is employed in the
supply of the British fisheries. It has, however, only attained its
reputation after a somewhat severe struggle with foreign competi-
tors; for in the year 1810, Mr. Henry* found it necessary to set
forth an apology for British salt as an agent in curing provisions
in no way inferior to that prepared from sea-water by evaporation
on the shores of the Mediterranean, and to deprecate the folly of
Great Britain in expending large sums of money in the purchase
of an article, which she possessed the means, beyond almost any
other country in Europe,—drawing from her most internal re-
sources. Fortunately these remonstrances were not addressed in
vain, and this country soon ceased to neglect her native produce,
and to import that from abroad which she had in such abundance
and of such excellent quality at home.

The great means however, of extending the salt trade in this
country, has been the gradual improvement in the mode of raising
and evaporating the brine. Originally, in the early days of
the manufacture, the method of obtaining salt from the brine
by evaporation was unknown ; and its preparation consisted
only in pouring the brine upon burning branches of oak and
hazel, from the ashes of which the deposited salt was afterwards
collected. At length, however, the plan of evaporation was devis-
ed ; but for a long time wood was the only fuel, of which such
immense quantities were consumed at the salt-works in Droitwich
in the time of Camden, that he represents Feckenham Forest and

* Phil, Trans. Royal Soc., 1810, p. 89,

108 Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIES. °

the neighbouring woods as becoming perceptibly thinner and thin-
ner day by day. This havoc seems to have been continued, not-
withstanding, until the middle of the seventeenth century, when
the gradual introduction of coal superseded the more primitive
kind of fuel.* In the methods adopted in raising the brine, great
alteration also has taken place in the lapse of time; at Northwich,
in Camden’s time, a pit existed which furnished an abundant sup-
ply, but the way in which it was brought to the surface was crude
in the extreme; the pit was provided with stairs, by means of
which men descended with leathern buckets ; these they filled with

the water, and then ascending emptied their contents into troughs, —

which served as reservoirs for the wich-houses.| From manual
labour they passed to the employment of horses for this purpose ;
water-power and wind-mills were subsequently used ; but all have
been superseded of late years by the superior efficiency of the
steam-engine. The methods of evaporation have also undergone
vast extension and improvement. In early times this process was
conducted in small leaden vessels six of which they had in every
house at Nantwich, and the salt was removed by women with little
‘wooden rakes, placed in baskets, and drained.{ ‘These six leaden
pans were afterwards exchanged for four iron ones, about 6 inches
in depth and of a surface of about a square yard, capable of hold-
ing the same contents as the original leaden vessels- ‘The limited
extent of the operations thus conducted diminishes our wonder at
the great proportion of wick-houses existing at these places during
the middle ages, and so far surpassing the number in operation at
the present day. Even so recently as a century ago, the largest
pans at Northwich were only 20 feet long by 9 or 10 broad ;
whilst those employed 40 years since had a superficies of 600, 800,
and 1000 feet, with a depth of from 16 to 18 inches. The area of
the pans has now, I suppose, almost reached its limit ; some which
I saw at Mr. Blackwell’s works at Wheelock having a length of
70 feet and a width of 28 feet, making 1610 feet of surface. The
heat is generally applied directly by the flue of from one to three

* Holland’s General view of the Agriculture of Cheshire, p. 71.
+ Ibid, p. 48.
t Ibid, p. 50.

-APRIL—SEPT. 1858.] Brine-springs of Cheshire. 109

furnaces, placed at one extremity of the pans, but in the works of
Messrs. Ray, of Winsford, I found part of the evaporation con-
ducted upon a different principle : a small iron pan, heated by a fur-
nace in the ordinary way, is made to communicate by a narrow
channel, with a brick or clay-lined basin; this again is in con-
nexion with others of the same description disposed around a
centre, and lastly, one is arrived at immediately adjoining the first
mentioned iron pan; the brine is here by a very simple kind of
pump transferred to the heated iron vessel, by which means the
level of the liquid in the brick basins is kept constantly below that
in the original starting-place, and thus a continual circulation of
the brine is maintained.
In the preparation of salt from brine, various substances have
been at different times added, from the idea of improving the qua-
lity of the product. Until recent times it was thought, that dur-
ing the evaporation of an aqueous solution of chloride of sodium,
hydrochloric acid was expelled, and soda formed: this doubtless
arose from the decomposition of the chloride of magnesium con-
tained in the brine which the experiments were made,—an evolu-
tion of acid vapours having been probably observed during the
incipient drying of the salt. In order to counteract this sup-
posed evil, acids were added, and it was imagined that the
excellence of the Dutch salt was due toa skilful admixture of
whey, which the manufacturers were alleged to make with their
brine during the evaporation, which prevented the injurious effects
| of the free alkali. Another very favourite class of adjuncts has
always consisted of substances which contain constituents possess-
(ed of the property of coagulating upon the application of heat,
| which clarify a liquid by entangling all suspended particles of solid
| matter in the meshes of their coagulum, and carry them with it as
‘it rises to the surface. Those substances which contain albuminous

or gelatinous matters are peculiarly adapted for this purpose, and

‘are constantly used in a variety of manufactures for the attain-

ment of this end. Blood, white of egg, glue and cows or calves’
Teet have long been used in this way in salt-making. In 1670 the
Nantwich salt-makers are described as mixing twenty gallons of
brine with two quarts of blood, and adding about two quarts of

110 Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIEs,

this clarifying liquid to a pan which held 860 quarts of brine. In
1810 this process was still adopted in some of the Cheshire works,
but Iam not aware that it is ever used at the present day. At
Droitwich the use of white of egg seems to have prevailed. Vari-
ous vegetable infusions, still containing albumen, as linseed, mucil-
age and ale, were, in the early days of manufacture, in great re-
pute, but have, I believe, now fallen almost entirely into disuse.

In order to prevent that most unpleasant circumstance attendant
upon the evaporation of all concentrated saline solutions,—the
formation of a pellicle upon the surface of the liquid, which gra-
dually becomes a thick layer of salt, and seriously impedes evapo-
ration—another class of bodies are mixed with the brine; these
are oils or butter, which, spreading over the whole area, by a pecu-
liar molecular action prevent the formation of any pellicle, or
“* setting over’ of a pan, as the workmen term it, and preserve that
open surface which is most favorable to evaporation. The action of
finely-powdered resin in effecting this is perfectly magical, the
introduction of a very few grains being quite sufficient instantly to
clear the surface of the largest pan, and to prevent any recurrence
of the formation of the pellicle. This substance was also formerly
thought to perform another function, viz., the production of a salt
of finer grain; wheat-flour was also believed to exert the same
action, whilst alum was added in order to facilitate the formation
of larger crystals; but I believe it is now found that the regula-
tion of the degree of heat employed in the evaporation will influ-
ence the size of the crystals with the utmost nicety, and that atten-
tion to that circumstance alone is sufficient to produce all the
varieties which are found in the market. In Holland’s “ General
view of the Agriculture of Cheshire,” to which I am so much in-
debted, and to which such frequent reference has been made, will
be found a list of the varieties produced at different temperatures ;
‘according to it, the finest table-salt is deposited from the brine at
its boiling temperature (220° F.), and the coarsest description by
slow evaporation conducted at from 100° to 110° F.

The derivation of the brine in Cheshire is too well known to

require any observation: the immense beds of rock-salt which oc-
cur in the new red sandstone of that county are familiar to every

iS

-APRIL—-SEPT. 1858.| Brene-springs of Cheshire. bat

one. The existence of this substance appears to have first evi-
denced itself by the saline springs which at various places rose to
the surface; and the majority of these spontaneous appearances
seem to have occurred in the immediate vicinity of the course of
the river Weaver, and of the lesser stream, the Wheelock. The
former of these rises in the south-west portion of the county, and
after running south for some miles, turns at Audlem to the north,
passes Nantwich, and after some distance, Winsford ; receives the
Wheelock about Northwich, and passing Marston and Anderton,
proceeds to the Mersey. The Wheelock rises in the south-east
part of Cheshire, and passing the village of the same name, flows
by Middlewich to its confluence with the Weaver. Along the .
banks of these streams a continual succession of places occurs
which have at various times been famous for the production of
salt; and although great fluctuations have taken place, yet these
have been due rather to incidental causes than to any failure of
material ;—imperfections in shafts allowing the admission of fresh-
water springs, and a slight distance from the convenience of water-
carriage, are reasons quite sufficient for the transfer of the manu-
facture from one place to another. Causes such as these probably
led to the abandonment of the works at Dunham in the north-east
of the county, and of those at Droitwich in the south-west; yet the
occurrence of brines at these places is interesting, as indicative of
the position and extent of the beds of salt below, the two places
being about thirty miles apart, and about equidistant from the
centre of the district which is now the salt-producing one. This
region may be said to lie north-west and south-east, and to be
composed of three divisions,—the Northwich, the Middlewich, and
the Sandback: the first comprehends Northwich, Marston, and
Anderton, besides various other places near them; the second em-
braces Middlewich and Winsford, with the surrounding neigh-
bourhood ; and the third of more limited extent with respect to
actual operation includes Sandback, Wheelock, and a few villages
in the immediate vicinity. In order to obtain fair samples of the
Cheshire brines, I therefore took specimens from each of the above
districts. From the Northwich district I obtained two, from springs
a few miles apart, through the kindness of Mr. Johnson Fletcher ;
the places selected in this instance were Anderton and Marston ;

ia Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

proceeding in the south-easterly direction, a Specimen was chosen
from the active department of Winsford, in the central district,
and Messrs. Ray and Son furnished me with the brine which they
employed ; whilst in the extreme south-east, Mr. Blackwell pro-
vided me with sampies from the spring which supplies his exten-
sive works at Wheelock.

The depth at which the brine is found, and the level to which
it rises, vary very much at different places. It appears that it is
generally necessary to sink from thirty to fifty yards, in some cases
even to a depth of eighty yards, before the spring is arrived at;
the water then rises in the shaft to within from twenty to ten yards
of the top, sometimes even to the surface. The general level of
the brine in the pits is, however, far below this standard, as its
removal by the pumps is so rapid as never to allow it to rise to its
full height.

As in the case of Worcestershire brines, I was desirous of ascer-
taining whether the composition of these springs varied with the
different seasons of the year, with this view analyses were made
in every instance of separate specimens taken respectively in Janu-
ary and August, and, as I had already found in the case alluded to,
no difference worthy of note existed between them.

The analytical methods which have been adopted in the exami-
nation of these brines, are precisely those described in the former
memoir on the Worcestershire springs ; mstead, however, of eva-
porating small portions of the waters to obtain mother-liquors and
residues which might contain the rarer constituents, I obtained
portions of the liquid which remains in the pans after the removal
of the salt, and of the solid cake of earthy matter which adheres
so tenaciously to the bottom of the pan as to require separation
by the pick, andis called by the workmen “ pan-scale.” The
former of these was tested for potassium, bromine, iodine, and :
phosphoric acid ; and the latter for arsenic, antimony, tin, iron,

manganese, aluminum, strontium, and fluorine. -The brine itself

was also examined for silica, for organic matter and its resultants,

ammonia and nitric acid, and the metals precipitable by hydro-

sulphuric acid. The principal constituents of these waters are |

APRIL—SEPT. 1858. | Brine-Springs of Cheshire. 113

sodium, calcium, magnesium, chlorine and sulphuric acid. Of the
bodies occurring in less quantity, a minute trace of potassium was
found, a small quantity of iron with a little alumina and consider-
able traces of manganese, not, however, in proportions capable of
determination. Bromine was ascertained to exist in rather large
quantity, the unconcentrated brines becoming distinctly yellow
upon the passage of a few bubbles of chlorine; this element was,
therefore, determined by the method recommended by Fehling,*
which depends upon the fact, that if a solution of chloride of
sodium containing a small amount of bromide be insufficiently
precipitated by nitrate of silver, the precipitate nevertheless con-
tains all the bromine present; the bromine in the mixed precipi-
tate of chloride and bromide of silver is then determined by the
passage of chlorine over the fused mass in the usual way. The
results yielded by this process, which were carefully and frequent-
ly repeated upon very different quantities of brine, agreed among
themselves in the closest manner. The existence of iodine was
proved in all the waters, but the quantity present was minute in
the extreme. In one case also an indication of fluorine was ob-
tained by the apparently etching action exerted upon a watch-
glass in the application of the test now usually employed: these
markings, however, on the parts uncovered by wax, although quite
obvious when the newly-cleaned glass was breathed upon, were
perfectly imperceptible when the same watch-glass was taken up
a day or two later and re-wiped for the purpose of fresh examina-
tion. Since that experiment, M. Nicklés’s observations} on the
fallacies incidental to this method of testing have appeared; and
this doubtless was a case such as he describes, in which the vapour
of any acid, or even of water, may exert such an action (not che-
mical, I presume, but physical), and fix upon glass any design at
first traced upon the layer of wax. The search for the remaining
substances above mentioned was unsuccessful, and they were there-
fore presumed to be absent.

* Fresenius, Quant. Analysis, p. 345. 2d Hing. edit.
+ I accounted for this at first by imagining that a thin film of wax might be

impressed by the needle upon the glass, which was not immediately removable
by the first cleansing.

t Comptes Rendus, Marek 30, 1857, p. 679.
Mou, XxX. 0. S.. VOL, LY. N. 8:

114 Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

I will now proceed to state the results which the analysis of
these brines has afforded me, premising them simply by naming
the sources from which they were derived. I. Andertone brine,
from the pit of Lord Stanley of Alderley. II. Marston brine,
from the works of the executors of the late C. W. Newman, Esq.
III. Winsford brine, from the shaft of Messrs. Ray and Son. IV.
Whelock brine, from the works of Mr. Blackwell.

eas 2 3 “&
Anderton | Marston | Winsford | Wheelock -
Brine. Brine. Brine. Brine.
SO ee ofl! 41-2048 1:2001 1:2049 | 1/2013
Reaction of Brine ....|Feebly Al-|Feebly Al-|Slightly Al-|Feebly Al-
kaline. kaline. kaline. kaline.
Saline matter contained
in agallon of Brine... Grains. Grains. Grains. Grains.
Chloride of Sodium...,| 21704°712| 21187:234] 21528°550) 21302-°772
Bromide of do. .... 8686 9:240 13°326 16:986
Sulphate ofLime...... 382'885 328°467 379°548 351°500
Carbonate of Soda.... 19°397 30'242 PATA fois UO AM ey
Carbonate of Lime..... NSG8G lec pees 5060 43°727
Carbonate of Magnesia. 63°252 89°887 155°191 84:977
Sulphate nOl NOG. epee \siierie rs feser 1221650) oe eae ol eer
Chiomderot Miarnesium) cry, Slee 6 oe. ole ee foes 143°795

Ne eee

22180°618| 21767:720| 22108°659| 21948:758

Toward the latter part of the autumn of last year, a considerable
panic was created by a sudden outcry being raised that the supply
of brine was rapidly diminishing over the whole of Cheshire. I
made at the time many inquiries as to the truth of tliis statement,
which had found its way into the public journals, and it proved,
as is usual in such cases, that the accounts although based upon
truth, was very much exaggerated. A diminution in the supply
of brine is a phenomenon of no unfrequent occurrence, and is in
fact of two kinds—periodical and occasional. A periodical sink-
ing of the water in the brine-shaft is found to occur in the summer
season, the brine rising with the approach of winter, and attaining
its highest level about December or January: these alterations —

have generally been very regular, but during the year 1856 a total

ApRit—SEPT. 1858.] Brine-Springs of Cheshire. 115

departure from the usual variations took place, which, ending in
a rapid sinking of the brine during the months of November and
December, originated the fears which were entertained of a gene-
ral failure being at hand. I have been enabled to obtain a state-
ment of the fluctuations in the level of the brine in a pit at An-
derton during the two normal years 1854-55, and the abnormal
year 1856, by which the matter is clearly exemplified. The shaft
upon which the observations were made, was between 70 and 80
yards deep, and the numbers given express the height in yards to
which the brine rose.

1854 1855 1856
JERURIA? 2oe ORIN Snr Rae eae i 30 24—30
ISG OLTLETAy AR ia Sie anne oe fone 30 238—24
INLEINGII 5 Ace Aa era 10-7-35-20 18—24
2 TUL. SW eaten ae a ieee Gradu- gradually} 18—19
TA I SS ally re- receding; 17—19
Tesi® 4 20 SU Sa eee ee ceding 17Z—19
ITLL’ 5 4 6g eee 2 cee Sener ic 6 4 17—194
AUTO USES G/elpicnd Gg ROnOarade tere i 4 19—194
Se USN, | ee ee 0 4 19—20
MOE.’ ss sey os: 8-20 increasing | 20—22
OMEN, Ao Ae Nice aaron 20-25 22 18—11
Wccemipen ee Wasi Jicis sis) 30 30 10—11

By this account it is seen that in ordinary years the average
depth of the brine in the shaft is thirty yards in the depth of win-
ter, whilst in the midst of summer five yards may be taken as the
mean; and the origin of the alarm in 1856 was evidently the ob-
servation of a diminution setting in at a period at which an increase
had usually happened hitherto. The fact, however, appears to
have been disregarded, that in the warmer period of the year the
supply of brine had been far more abundant than was generallé
the case, nor am I aware that any attempt was made to explain
this part of the phenomenon. ‘The sudden decrease was attributed
by those on the spot best able to form an opinion to one of those
dislocations of strata which frequently on a smaller scale cause the
occasional failures in the supply of brine: a sudden subsidence of
land in one part of the Northwich district, to the depth of a three-

116 Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERTES.

storied building, is described as having occurred simultaneously
with this sinking of the brine, and it was believed that in
some of the deserted mines which honey-comb the rock-salt strata
of that region, the pillars of salt, which are always left to support
the roof, had been removed by the action of water, and the im-
mense weight of the superincumbent mass had then caused the
excavation to collapse. By an extensive disarrangement of this
nature, either some new channel of escape might have been open-
ed for the brine, or at least the communication between some of

the streams or reservoirs might have been closed or interrupted. -

Similar occurrences, although with a converse effect, have happen-
ed in earlier times; and two instances are mentioned by Holland,
in one of which, near Bickley, and also in the neighbourhood of
Combermere Abbey, the ground suddenly sank to a depth of many
feet, and the brine not being removed with the same rapidity as in
the present day, forced its way to the surface upon its old subter-
ranean channel or reservoir being filled up, and formed a pool of
considerable size in the depression caused by the collapse of the
strata.

The failure of 1856 appears to have been partial only, as would

be naturally expected if due to the alleged cause ; it seems to have ~

been almost wholly confined to the Northwich-district ; at Wins-
ford it was slightly felt, but was there attributed more to increased
pumping than to any natural cause; whilst in the Sandbach de-
partment I believe no complaint of any kind was raised. The de-
rangement, such as it was, seems to have been only temporary, for
no complaints have since been made of the occurrence of any

scarcity.

On the Properties of Wood Oil. By M. GurBourt.

An analysis of Wood-oil or Gurjun Balsam was made by Mr.
Charles Lowe* in 1850. He only knew it as a resinous liquid

extracted from an Indian tree and believed it to be balsam of |

® Pharm. Jour. Vol. xiv. 65.

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.] Properties of Wood Oil. iy

Copaiba, rendered turbid by a greenish resin suspended in it. The
following were the results obtained by him from the balsam which
was found by filtering to give a brown transparent liquid yielding
by distillation.

1 Ssgeerntten OAS, Aire aS Rice Ale ahs Ne ne 65
Gland Resim eels ltiie sala nts ote ae 34
PME CMIC MNCL ANG NNN ALETC).). celia). so ws «6 1

100

According to Mr. Lowe, the volatile oil possesses all the cha-
racters of that of copaiba; and the “ hard resin,’ which he re-
gards as pure copaivic acid, free from the “ sof¢ resin,’ which,
according to him, exists in the greater part of the copaiba of com-
merce, appears to him indicative of superiority as a medicine. I
must acknowledge that I but ill-comprehend this conclusion, and
that I am the less convinced of the identity of the hard resin with
copaivic acid, since Mr. Lowe has recognized in the new resinous
balsam the singular property of becoming solid when exposed in a
closed vessel, to a temperature of 230° Fah. Copaiba presents no
similar phenomenon.

I find stated moreover this difference, viz., that the new balsam
distilled with the addition of a small quantity of an oxidizing
agent, as chlorine, hypo-chlorite of lime, or bichromate of potash,
yields an essential oil of a fine blue, whilst ordinary copaiba con-
taining “ soft resin” (I still can scarcely understand), affords
hardly any coloured essential oil. The notice concludes with
pointing out a possible sophistication which appears to me little
to be feared; it is, that cold sulphuric acid produces with copaiba
a purple colouration similar to that obtained with cod-liver oil, so
that, as the author supposes, dishonest persons might substitute
for the latter, a mixture of olive oil or of some other fatty oil,
mixed with a small proportion of copaiba.

Mr. D. Hanbury* informs us in his notice, that wood-oil is ex-
tracted from Dupterocarpus turbinatus by a very peculiar process,
which I will state in a few words, in order the better to show the
nature of the product. To obtain the oil, a large incision is made

* Pharm, Jour. Vol. xy. 321.

118 Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIEs.

in the trunk of the tree at about 30 inches from the ground, on
which a fire is lighted and kept up until the incision is charred :
soon after this, the liquid begins to flow. Itis conducted by a
little trough into a vessel placed to receive it. The average pro-
duce of one of the better trees ina single season is 30 gallons.
Roxburgh (from whom this account is taken*) adds that wood-orl is
also produced by Dipterocarpus incanus, D. alatus and D. costatus.
The first of these three is reputed to yield the best sort, and in
the greatest quantity.

The wood oil which forms the subject of Mr. Hanbury’s notice
has been imported in large quantity from Moulmein in Burmah.
When filtered, it is a transparent liquid of asomewhat dark brown
color when seen by transmitted light, but appearing opaque and of
an obscure green if viewed by reflected light. It possesses therefore,
in a very marked degree, the dichroism observable in all resin-oils
obtained by the action of fire. I particularly notice this character
which determines the nature of wood-oil, and shows that it is not
simply a natural product like Copaiba; but that it is in part the
result of a liquid modification of the Dipterocarpus resin, effected
by the agency of heat. This Moulmein wood-oil is of somewhat
greater consistence than olive oil; it has a sp. gr. of 964, and pos-
sesses an odour and taste very analogous to those of Copaiba. It
dissolves in twice its weight of absolute alcohol, with the exception
of a minute residue which is deposited upon repose.

But the most curious property of this oil, already recognized by
Mr. Lowe, and afresh observed by Mr. Hanbury, is that of solidi-
fying when heated in a closed vial to 266° Fah.; at this tempera-
ture the oil becomes turbid and so gelatinous, that it is not dis-
placed upon the inversion of the vial. After cooling, the solidifi-
cation is yet more perfect ; but a gentle warmth, assisted by slight
agitation, restore its former liquidity. Mr. Lowe has given the
temperature of 230° Fah. for the solidification of the oil: I sup-
pose that the different temperatures noted by these two observers,
may be accounted for by some difference in the liquids on which
they operated ; for as the sorts of Copaiba furnished by different

* Flora Indica Vol. ii. 613.

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.] Properties of Wood Oil. 119

species of American CoPpAirer# and the turpentines by various
pines and firs, are not identical, so we may reasonably conclude
that the wood-oils yielded by various species of Dupterocarpus are
not absolutely similar; the greater or less degree of heat to which
the oil has been subjected in the process of extraction, may also
cause a variation in the properties of the product.

What I assert here is not a matter of supposition, but at pre-
sent of certainty. At the Universal Exhibition of 1855, there
were two samples of wood-oil, the one sent from Canara, the
other from Tenasserim. One of these samples (I do not know
which) enclosed in a small white earthen pot, which in fine-
ness of paste was midway between stone ware and porcelain, had
been given by Dr. Royle to M. Delesse, the member of the In-
ternational Jury who had been commissioned to report upon the
bitumen and petroleum forwarded to the Exhibition. M. De-
lesse, not finding it to be what he was seeking, sent me the
specimen, which I judged at once must be the new copaiba an-
nounced by Mr. Lowe. In fact, it approached much nearer to the
balsam examined by Mr. Lowe than that which has been pre-
sented to me by Mr. Hanbury.

The wood-oil of Mr. Hanbury has almost the liquidity of olive
oil; held up to the light of the sun, it is seen to be perfectly
transparent, and of the colour of dark malaga wine ; seen by
reflected light, it appears opaque, and of an olive green. With
ammonia and magnesia, it behaves in a very different manner from .
copaiba. Mixed with liquid ammonia of 22° B.,in the proportion,
by weight, of 5 parts of wood-oil to 2 parts of alkali, it immediately
forms an opaque and very thick mixture, which does not alter by

keeping.

Tt does not solidify upon the addition of a sixteenth of its weight
of calcined magnesia, and the two bodies separate upon repose.

The wood-oil of M. Delesse has the appearance of a thick and
slightly gelatinous liquid. After having deposited a small quantity
of green resin which was suspended in it, it became almost trans-
parent: placed between the eye and the sun, it is seen to be of a
pure deep red: viewed by reflexion, it still appears red, but tur-

120 Selections. [ No. 7, NEW SERIES.

bid, and resembles a liquid in which finely-powdered cochineal
might be suspended. The complementary colour of red is not
therefore apparent by this means, but it becomes manifest when,
after agitation, a thin layer of liquid covers the upper sides of the
bottle. Then in whatever way we look at this thin layer, it ap-
pears of a beautiful green hue.

This same green colour appears again and remains, when, after
having dissolved the wood-oil in alcohol, the solution is left to
spontaneous evaporation: one may then see towards the upper
part of the capsule, between the portions of green resin, white
starry tufts which are due to a peculiar principle, the future exa-
mination of which I leave to those who have a larger quantity of
the liquid at their disposal. As to the resin, it has acquired a
permanent green hue, which is also perceptible in the dry resin
which remains after the wood-oil has been boiled for a consider-
able time with water. This green colour, which is that also of
the beautiful Piney Resin (Vateria Indica L.) that was shown at
the Exhibition, establishes a point of relation between two pro-
ducts originating in trees belonging to the same family, that of the
DipTEROCARPUS. But there the resemblance stops, for the resin
of Vateria Indica is insoluble in alcohol, and very imperfectly so
in Adther, whilst the green resin of wood-oil is easily soluble in
either of these menstrua. Finally, the wood-oil of the Exhibition
behaves as copaiba, when treated with ammonia or calcined mag-
nesia. With one-sixteenth of calcined magnesia it very speedily
solidifies, and a mixture of it with ammonia becomes liquid, and
almost transparent, after an instant of opacity.

Iam far from concluding with Mr. Lowe that the two oleo-
resinous bodies (copaiba and wood-oil) are chemically identical ;
but as regards their employment in medicine, I think, as in the

case of bodies of analogous composition, such as turpentines and

balsams, liquid or solid, all their vegetable components may be of
use as aremedy for a catarrhal condition of the mucous mem-
branes. I may.remark in conclusion, that Mr. Hanbury’s wood-
oil, and that from the Exhibition, have probably not been extract-
ed by a similar process. It seems to me that the former has been
obtained by the action of fire in the manner described by Rox-

; APRIL—SEPT. 1858. | Oil of Cotton Seed. 121

burgh ; the latter has doubtless been obtained without the inter-
vention of this agent, for I do not find in it the indication which
characterizes oils that are the result of the action of fire upon

resins.— Pharmaceutical Journal, Vol. 16, p. 382.

Mr. WAYNE on the Oil of Cotton Seed.

THE great quantity of cotton produced in India and the little
use made of the seed, save as food for cattle, give value to the
following notice of the practice, in America, of extracting an oil
from the seed :—

“The manufacture of oil from cotton seed is not a novelty; a
small quantity has been made at the South for some years past ;
lately, however, the demand for lubricators has turned the atten-
tion of many to the cotton seed (immense quantities of which are
allowed to rot, or used only as manure upon the cotton fields of
the South) as a material from which large quantities of oil might
be profitably obtained.

_« At New Orleans I have been informed that a quantity of this
oil has been of late produced, a sample of which I have seen. It
was very bland, light coloured oil, said to be made by steaming
the seeds and collecting the oil by skimming it from the surface
of the water. I cannot vouch for the correctness of the above

process. .
“In Cincinnati some of the oil millers have made the attempt

of pressing cotton seed for the oil, but the experiments so far, I
believe, have been unsatisfactory, both in regard to the quality of
_the oil obtained and in the cost of it.

“ The oil, to be made profitably, should either be manufactured
in the vicmity of the cotton plantation, as the seeds from the at-
tached fibre are bulky, and the cost of transportation an item ; or
the seed should be hulled at the spot and shipped to the place
where it is to be pressed in that condition, as it requires three or

four bushels of seed in the wool to produce one bushel of hulled
seed ready for the mill.

igi X*. 0. 6. VOL. IV. NW 8.

122 Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

“‘ The oil as it runs from the press is of a very dark red colour.
After standing some time it deposits a portion of the colouring
matter, also a portion of the semi-solid fat, and’ in cold weather
this is deposited to a large extent; and is only partially taken up
upon increase of temperature. The colour of the oil obtained by
pressure is one great objection to its general use, and is very dif-
ficult to remove ; in bleaching it, at least ten or fifteen per cent.
of the oil is lost, a portion of which may be recovered, and used
in the manufacture of soap, for which purpose cotton seed oil is
better adapted than for any other purpose. It is a drying oil, con-
sequently not fit for lubricating, and when burnt gives a smoky
flame, and forms rapidly a crust upon the wick. Others say that
it answers for both purposes; but all I have met with, upon being
used practically for lubricating or burning, gave unsatisfactory
results.

«« A very good soap is made from it in New Orleans for com-
mon purposes: but I think that a soap in every respect equal to
the imported Castille could be cheaply made with it.

‘The dark colour of the oil obtained by pressure is due to the
presence of a dark resinous substance, presenting itself in small
dots throughout the seed. These may readily be seen by examin-
ing a section of the seed with a lens, or even the naked eye.

“The hull and attached fibre are useful for paper stock, and
the cake left after the extraction of the oil is nearly as valuable a
food for cattle as that of linseed.i—Pharm. Jour. Vol. 16, ‘p. 335.

ORDER RADIATA.*
Class Hydromeduse.

Ax Meduse are naked jelly-like animals, with a body some-
times disc, sometimes bell-shaped, the edge of which is often fur-
- nished with threads, and which by its alternate contraction and ex-

*® We are indebted to Captain Toynbee of the G/ortana, for this translation
from a German work descriptive of various families of pelagian animals. It was
made by him for his own use during the interesting researches he has been
engaged in carrying on for the last 3 or 4years among these tribes during his’
voyages to and fro between India and England.

- APRIL—SEPT. 1858. | Order Radvata. 128

pansion propels it through the water. On the lower surface of
this glass-like transparent body the mouth is to be found, or the
sucking organ which takes the place of a mouth, often surrounded
by stalk-like appendages; and these together with the umbrella-
shaped body, give them much the appearance of mushrooms.

The bodies of the Medusz are composed of cells; about as hard
as egristle, covered dy a tender upper skin, in which stinging organs
are to be found, generally similar to those of the Polypi; indeed
all who are accustomed to bathing in the sea can testify to this
' from painful experience. The disc-shaped body is of a very de-
cided radiate type, being always divisible into 4 or 6 complete
segments :—the long contractile threads which are placed on the
edge and seem to be used as feelers, also obey this rule.

The neryous system and organs of sense are considered to reside
in certain bodies which are imbedded in the edge of the disc,
generally to the number of 6 or 8. They consist of some capsule-
shaped little bladders, in which is contained a round or angular
crystalline kernel. In some genera these little bladders are sur-
rounded by a brightly coloured pigment, which has caused some
observers to consider them as eyes, while others have thought
them a rudimentary form of ear. :

The digestive organs are formed in a very peculiar manner. The
mouth is generally simple, sometimes surrounded only by a raised
margin, but more frequently by seizing arms of the most varied
shapes, which often possess raised margins, formed like a ruff. In
some genera instead of one single mouth opening there are very
fine sucking-apertures, which open either into a simple middle
stalk, or into many feelers, which are again branched in their
turn. Both the simple mouth and the fine pipes which lead up
from these sucking apertures conduct into a larger or smaller
stomach cavity, which generally possesses a certain number of
sacks radiating from it. From these sacks spring a certain num-_
ber of vessels which radiate towards the edge, and there disappear
into one of the edge-vessels, or into an extremely delicate net-
work of smaller vessels. In this manner the whole body is tra-
versed by the nourishing fluid, and not seldom the remains of
little animals are to be found in these canals, still undigested.

124 _ Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

We cannot hope for a well grounded classification of the Me-
dusz until the connection between them and the Polypi is pro-
perly established; many different forms abound in all seas, but -
can now only be classed according to the normal number and ar-
rangement of their organs.

The family-of the ‘‘ Mushroom-meduse” (Meduside) ) has a
roundish umbrella-shaped covering, with a four-sided mouth in
the middle, which is surrounded by four selzing arms: indeed all
the organs are arranged according to the number 4; the bodies on
the edge, of which there are at least 8 of a brilliant red, and
in young individuals are so clearly jagged outwards that they ap-
pear as if lying on cone-like extensions. To this family belong
the “ Ear-meduse”’ (Aurelia) the “‘ Sea-lamps’’ (Pelagia) see plate
iv. fig. 1, and many other widely spread genera. Medusa, Cyanea,
Eiphyra, Chrysaora. !

Very nearly related to this is the family of the “ Sea-meduse”
(Oceamde) the organs of which are also arranged according to the
number 4. The body is bill or hat-shaped; the mouth simple,
and placed at the end of a long probosics ; the threads attached to |
the dise are branched in some genera, in others simple. To this
family belong nearly all those Medusee which have been consider-
ed as direct descendants of the ‘‘ Tube-polyps” (Zubularide) and
have been called Cladonema, Sthenyo, Callichora, §c., Oceama,
Thaumantias, Cytacis, Calhirhoe.

The family of the ““ Disc-meduse’”’ (dAequoride) has a flat lentil-
shaped disc, with colourless bodies on the edge, and generally
very short threads. The number 6 seems to reign amongst them ;
the mouth is uncommonly large and not surrounded by any seiz-
ing-arms. Aeguorea, Cunina, Eurybia, Aegina.

The “ Hair-meduse”’ (Berencide) have a flat bill with innu-
merable extremely fine hairs at the edge, through which very thin )
canals seem to rise upwards. In the disc itself only one vessel
can be seen, resembling a branching cross, so that the number 4
seems to rule here. Apparently the nourishment is sucked in by
means of the threads at the edge; at least no digestive organs
have hitherto been discovered.

_ APRIL—SEPT. 1858. | Order Radiata. 125

The family of the “ Root-meduse”’ (Aiizostomide) is better
known than the preceding. Under a bell-shaped covering are
seizing arms governed by the number 4, which are sometimes
branched, and at the ends of which are sucking apertures which
lead into a roomy stomach ;—see fig. 2, plate iv. There is no
mouth, and the vessels proceeding from the stomach form an ele-
gant net-work at the edge of the bill. The bodies on the edge
are of a bright red. Some genera of this family attain a diameter
of several feet. Rhizostoma, Cephea, Cassropea. | |

The family of the “ Proboscis-meduse” (Geryonde) has no
mouth, but under its bell-shaped disc a very moveable massive
stalk, in which rise six channels and open out into a six sided
little stomach. The bodies on the edge are also arranged accord-
ing to the number 6 and are colourless. The end of the proboscis,
where we find. the six sucking apertures is’ sometimes in folds,
sometimes set with ciliz ;—see fig. 3, plateiv. Geryona, Favo-
ma, Saphema, Lymnorea.

_As almost the whole class of the Meduse consists of soft gela-
tinous animals, we cannot expect to find their fossil remains, yet
some confused impressions in the slates of Sohlenhofen seem to
prove that the ancient seas were inhabited by Meduse. ‘The little
trees also on which the bell-polyps are formed are too soft to have
left any traces. In the present day both forms of the class are to
be found im abundance in all seas, and are pursued by the Cteno-
phore by swimming snails which feed on them. The greater num-
ber shine by night with a trembling yellow light, which increases

in brilliancy when they are in motion. /
Class Suphonophora.

‘This class is a strange mixture of curious animals, merely being
placed together in consequence of our extraordinary ignorance of
their organization. In fact we do not know whether they are to
be considered as simple animals with many sucking-apertures, or
as a swimming polyp-stock, on which common stem a number of
simple polyps are placed :—their anatomy is not understood, for
neither their nervous system, nor organs for seeing, breathing or
hearing have yet been found.

126 Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

The family of the “ Sea-bladders” (Physalide) commonly called
Portuguese Men-of-War consists of a bladder-shaped body of gela-
tinous consistency, on the lower surface of which are a quantity of
worm-like sucking apertures, feelers and very lengthy seizing-
threads. The body consists generally of 2 bladders which envelop
each other, the inner one being completely closed and filled with
air, while the outer one has a comb at the top, which the animal
uses as a sail when swimming. The outer gristly bladder is used
too as a covering for the threads and feelers, which can draw them-
selves back into it: see fig. 4, plate v. Little bunches ofred bodies.
are often found at the base of the sucking-tubes, and have been
supposed to be eggs. These beautiful animals of a delicate pink
and blue color swim in crowds on the surface of the southern
ocean, and when touched can sting so severely that they were for-
merly considered poisonous. Physaha, Discobale.

The family of the “ Gristle-meduse’”’ ( Velelide) possesses a cel-
lular dise of a gristly substance, sometimes containing calcareous
deposits, and on the lower surface of which the bodily organs are
placed ;—see fig. 5, platev. The cells of the disc are filled with air
and thus give the body a certain specific lightness. In the middle
of the lower surface of the disc is a large opening which some con-
sider to be the mouth; around it are many small. openings, also
of a vermicular form, which some have considered to be feelers,
‘and others sucking apertures. At the base of these are to be seen
little clusters of small bodies the purpose of which is still doubt-
ful. The animals of this family which are generally of a beautiful
blue, appear at certain times in countless swarms in the Medi-
terranean, and in the ocean within the Tropics. The genus Ve-
lella, the only one in the Mediterranean, has a sharp upright comb
on the disc, while the. genus Porpita which inhabits the Southern
seas has a simple round radiated cellular disc. Vedella, Porpita.

The family of the “ Double-medusx”’ (Diphyide) consists of a
number of more or less united beings, the structure of which is
much more complicated than that of the preceding animals. There
are to be found in the sea single bodies of a glassy transparency,
which however consist of two pieces, a covering piece; and a flap-

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.] . Order Radiata. 127

ping swimming cavity which is generally shaped like a hollow bell,
and is provided with an opening which is actively opened and shut:
and the water streaming out of the swimming-bell drives the ani-
mal forward by its rebound. Under the covering piece there is a
worm-like sucking body which in its extension shows a mouth of
angular radiated form, at the base of which are hidden uncommon-
ly long seizing and stinging threads.

It is still a question whether these animals, which principally
form the genus Diphyes, are not detached pieces of one composite
animal; for there are cases, where such creatures are these, are
found in the sea to the number of forty or more, attached to one
common stalk, at the upper end of which are two large swimming-
bladders, each of which seems to contain an oil pustule :—see jailer (6p
plate v. Hach single animal can move independently, but the ex-
tremely contractile stem has also a proper motion, and the whole
is drawn hither and thither through the water by the two large
swimming bladders with great ease. The stem is hollow, and the

nourishing fluid from the different animals circulates in its tube.

In other genera, for example Stephanomia, the union of the sin-
gle animals is still more intimate. The swimming-bells are placed
sometimes in rows, but more generally irregularly at the fore-end
of the stalk, which contains an air-bladder. On the stalk itself
are countless worm-like sucking apertures, each surrounded by a
quantity of seizing and stinging threads. There is no more extra-—
ordinary spectacle than such a creature which swims in the sea
with allits organs extended, like a transparent reddish plume of
feathers about a span long, but when caught or touched the stalk
draws up with an elastic impulse, and it transforms itself into a
shapeless lump of jelly so that the tyro sorrowfully throws away
his unfortunate prize. Is it a simple animal with swimming bells
and sucking tubes, or a Polyp-stock adapted for swimming with
various animals thrown swimming and eating? Further enquiries
must give the answer to this question. Physophora; Diphyes ;
Lirsaea ; Rhizophysa; Agalma ; Hippopodius.

Orprr Moriusca.—The extremely numerous kingdom of the
Mollusca is made up of such very different animals, that itis scarce-

128 Selections. . [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

ly possible to give any one characteristic distinctive of all. The
separate classes indeed are sharply divided, and the whole kingdom
is divided into two sub kingdoms which differ so much from each
other that they ought rather each to form one kingdom.

In many Molluscs, the outer appendages of the body, the organs
for moving, the feelers, &c., are symmetrically arranged, but this
order is far from embracing the whole body, for the interior organs
are often most unsymmetrically arranged. The nervous system is
divided into two different types. In the Molluscoids we find but
one knot of nerves, which stretches out its branches in all direc-
tions; in the Mollusca on the contrary, the nervous system consists
of scattered knots, which are strewed rather irregularly over the
body, and connected with each other by threads :—the arrangement
of these knots is however so varied that we must take them in con-
nection with each different order. ‘The organs of the senses too are
equally varied, sometimes wanting altogether, sometimes well-
developed. Feelers are seldom to be found as the whole surface
of the soft body is susceptible of outward impressions, yet there
are sometimes lips, or flaps placed round the mouth, sometimes
hairs or arms, and sometimes contractile feelers, allof which are
evidently for the purpose of feeling. The seeing-apparatus is
not developed in all; in some there is found only one rudimen-
tary eye while others possess a great number of incomplete eyes
which are not even placed in the neighbourhood of the head ;—in
the higher classes indeed, where there is but one pair of eyes which
are placed in the head, they are developed to a very important de-
gree. In the Molluscs we meet with hearing organs for the first
time: they are round bladders, sometimes possessing a short but
important hearing-nerve. Inside these bladders a clear fluid is to be
found, and a firm concretion of carbonated lime, which sometimes
forms one round hearing stone, sometimes many, which are crys- -
talline: these seem to be kept in constant tremulous motion by
cilize which clothe the inner surface of the bladder.

The skin of the molluscs is more or less leather-like, generally
provided with a slimy slippery covering; in a few itis glassy clear
and transparent; but in the greater number we find shells, which

APRIL—SEFT. 1858. | Order Radiata. 129

are more or less developed according to every variety of typé, and
are very important in the classification of these animals.

Many Molluses remain fixed to the ground except during their
larval condition ; others creep by an extraordinary organ woven
out of muscular threads which is called a foot ; many swim, some
by sucking in water and then expelling it by a rapid contraction
of the body; others by actual swimming organs which sometimes
consist of rows of membranes covered with bristle like hairs, and
sometimes of swimming-flaps, attached to various parts of the body.

The circulation of the blood is in a high state of development in
most Molluscs, for they often possess a heart divided into several
chambers, with both veins and arteries spreading though the whole
body; but this as well as the breathing organs vary much in de-
velopment in the different classes.

The greater number of Molluscs live in the water, the lower
classes almost all in the sea, and it is only the higher classes which
possess some genera living exclusively on land :—even these earth
inhabitants however prefer damp swampy places and are destroy-
ed by complete drought. The creeping genera prefer the lower
surface of stones and water-plants, many bore into sand and still,
even wood and limestone are not safe from their attacks. ‘The ac-
tual swimmers all live in the sea, and are often met with on the
open ocean. :

The Molluses belong to the first inhabitants of our earthly ball,
and by the strength of their shells which have been preserved in
large masses, have done great service to Geology. We shall only
be able properly to consider their development in the different
strata, when we have learned thoroughly to understand the pecu-

_ liarities of the different classes and families.

Susp KINGDOM OF THE MoLLUSCOIDS.

The Molluscoids distinguish themselves by their very unsymme-
trical form, and by only possessing one ganglion, which is gene-
rally connected with an eye-like organ placed immediately upon
it. A separate head is never found amongst them, for even in those
classes which like the “ moss-animals” (Bryozoa) possess a mouth
opening surrounded by feelers, there is never any division between

| Vou. xx o. s. Vou. Iv. N. 8.

130 Selections. [No. 7, NEW sERIES.

it and the rest of the body. In all other respects the three classes
that compose the sub-circle of the Molluscoids differ altogether,
so that we must consider their peculiarities in the respective
classes, which are :—

Ist. The ‘ moss-animals” (Bryozoa) distinguished by their
resemblance to polyps, their seizing arms and their social form ;
a few genera inhabit fresh water.

2nd. The “ Rib-meduse”’ (Ctenophora) with rows of swim-
ming in the water and jelly-like bodies ; these all live in the sea :
and

8rd. The “ Mantle-animals” (Funicata) of highly unsymme-
trical build, enveloped ina broad mantle, and without peculiar
organs of motion; these all live in the sea.

Class Bryozoa.

These animals so much resemble polypi in their outward growth
that they have often been confounded with them, but their inter-
nal structure will be found to be altogether different.

The Bryozoa are little polyp-like -animals which form colonies,
and are always surrounded by cells into which the animals can
retreat, partially or entirely. The cells are sometimes horny or
pliable like parchment, sometimes soft and jelly-like; sometimes
they stand on their own stalks which rise out of a network of
tubes, which spreads itself by runners in the same way that many
plants creep along the ground, but then rises and branches out.
But in most cases and particularly in the sea Bryozoa the cells are
of a calcareous nature; and then resemble the forms of many
corals, possessing however hairs and horns which the coral-polyp
never has. Moreover in some cases the Bryozoa cells are fur-
nished with a covering which can be closed when the animal has
retreated into its case; and even when the cells are leathery, the |
fore-end can be contracted so as to enclose the animal completely.

In some of the genera living in the sea (Cedlularia, Bicellaria,
Flustra and Telegraphina) very strange organs have been disco-
vered, the use of which is still quite unknown. They are seizing
organs which look not unlike a bird’s head :—-see fig. 7, plate v.,

possessing a very strong upper and a yery thin lower pincer.

APRIL—SEPT. 1858. ] Order Radiata. 181

These organs are in constant swinging motion like a pendulum,
and the pincers are opened and shut from time to time which must
be the result of a muscular action. Apparently these organs are
analogous to the Pedicellaria of the Echinodermata, for like them,
their motion continues after the death of the animal. In the ge-
nus Telegraphina, instead of these organs there are long stiff
threads on the edge of the cell, which are also in constant swing-
ing motion.

HKyes and ear-bladders are wanting altogether ; the spots which
in some genera have been taken for eyes, are not connected with
vision. |

In all the Bryozoa there is to be found at the upper end of the
body a circle of actively moving seizing threads, each of which is
hollow, and connected with the cavity of the inside of the body,
and in which the fluid which fills the body is driven up and down.
The seizing threads are set with delicate hairs, which by the ed-
dies they occasion in the water drive the food, little animals, &c.
towards the mouth which lies in the middle of the cir¢le :—they
may be useful also as a breathing apparatus, which would other-

wise be quite wanting in the Bryozoa.

The polyp stocks of the Bryozoa, which are mostly very small
and inconspicuous, are found in great numbers both in fresh and
salt water, on all possible substances under waters. They are
numerous too in the different strata of the earth especially in the
purassic formation.

This class is divided according to the position of the feelers into
2 orders. In the “ circle-whirlers’” (Stelmalopoda) the feelers
stand in a circle round the mouth ; all the genera which belong to
this order live in the sea. It is they alone that possess calcareous
dwellings, and therefore are found in a fossil state. According to
this and the arrangement of the cells, the order is divided into 4
families. |

ist. “The “ Thousand-whirlers” (Mtleporida) which have cal-
careous, generally finger shaped branching polyp-stocks, in which
the simple round cells are so confused, that at most a part of the
upper opening appears free on the surface. These animals are

132 Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

very little known, but seem to distinguish themselves principally
by their long feelers. Millepora, Retepora.

2nd. The “ Tube-whirlers” (Tubuliporida) which are also of a
ealcareous nature are nearly free, and only touch the common
mass by their extreme end. They are now found in the Southern
seas especially, and various genera of this family are to be found
in a fossil state from the most remote periods. Zubulipora, Cellu-
laria, Crisia, Hornera.

8rd. The ‘“* Crust-whirlers” (Hscharida) are easily distinguish-
ed from the foregoing families as their round or egg-shaped cells .
can be completely closed by a moveable covering as soon as the
animal is withdrawn. ‘The genera which belong to this family are
numerous both in our present seas and in a fossil state. Hschara,
Flustra,

4th. The “ Bell-whirlers” (Lagunculida\ comprise all those
Bryozoa which together with a crown of feelers possess a leather-
like cell, and which are generally placed on long stalks on move-
able root stocks. Laguncula, Tendra, Bowerbankia, Holodactylus,

The order of the ‘“‘ Arm-whirlers” (Lophopoda) inhabits fresh
water.

Class Ctenophora.

The glassy transparent animals of more or less symmetrical form
which belong to this class and are to be met with swimming in
the sea, have been hitherto classed with the disc and the Tube-
meduse ina particular class of Meduse (Acalephae) though be-
sides their glassy transparency, they have nota trace of organiza-
tion in common with them.

The “ Rib-meduse’’ (Ctenophora) are generally egg or cucum-
ber-shaped, sometimes very broad with a mouth at one end of the
body. The organs of motion and the vessels are generally so
arranged that they appear like rags to an axis drawn from end to
end, while the stomach and ganglious represent the bilateral type.
In some the symmetrical type is still clearer as the body is drawn
out sideways, even extending itself into a long oblique band in the
middle of which the digestive organs are placed.

The skin of the Rib-meduse is naked, and sometimes, like the |
Arm-polyps, furnished with holding organs out of which rises a

APRIL—sEPT. 1858. | Order Radiata. 133

stiff little hair. These are only to be seen with the microscope,
but there are also rib-like lines on the surface of the body, on
which the swimming organs are placed. These consist of long
stiff hairs placed in oblique lines, which are sometimes united at
their base and are moved backwards and forwards in swimming
singly and in union they depend altogether on the will of the ani-
mal. ‘These swinging ribs scintillate with the motion of the ani-
mal in the most beautiful prismatic colours, and one may see
clearly how the animal by oblique turns and twists sometimes uses
this edge, sometimes that, leaving the others at rest. Thus these
animals progress through the water with their slightly contractile
bodies, without any other visible motion.

The digestive-apparatus of the Rib-medusz is exceedingly sim-
ple. The mouth is to be found in the axis of the body, and leads
immediately or by a longer contraction into a large cavity, the
stomach, which in its turn contracts, and debouches by two side
fissures into a funnel-shaped hollow, which is intended for taking
in water. The mouth is generally furnished with very long, ex-
tremely contractile seizing threads, which are branched, and usually
lie in peculiar sheaths inside the body where they are in constant
worm-like motion. ‘These threads are armed with organs both for
stinging and poisoning which it appears that they use against their
prey.

Above this funnel shaped cavity lies the simple ganglion, from
which distinct branches radiate on all sides, and on which is placed
a little bladder, in which a quantity of crystalline calcareous parti-
eles are kept in tremulous motion; we must therefore consider it
as the rudiment of an ear-bladder. Other nerves and organs of the
senses there are none. From the funnel-shaped cavity spring ca-
nals which run along the ribs of the swimming-flaps and show a
tremulous motion in their inside ;—these may be for leading in
water, or they may be breathing organs, of which we otherwise
discover not a trace.

The organization of these animals which are to be found in num-
bers im every sea is so uniform that there is no need to divide them
into different orders. We distinguish two families :—

134 Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

ist. The “ Gerkin-meduse”’ (Beroida) have generally an egg-
shaped or round body, with a large mouth, a wide stomach-cavity,
and 8 rows of swimming-membranes which run in regular lines
along the body. See fig. 8, plate v. They are very agile and vo-
racious animals pursuing other meduse in particular. Beroe, Leseu-

ria, Medea.

2nd. The “ Band-meduse” (Callhianirida) possess but a very
small mouth opening, and an extremely narrow stomach, but they
very often have seizing arms and side flaps, on which the swim-
ming-membranes are arranged. ‘To this family belongs the well-.
known Girdle of Venus (Cestum Veneris) a band about the width of
three fingers, from four to five feet long, with a narrow mouth in
the middle of the beautifully iridenent band. See fig. 9, plate v.
Cestum, Calhamra, Alcinoe, Cydippe, Eucharis, Mnemia.

From the gelatinous substance of these animals it is no wonder
that we cannot be certain of any fossil remains of them.

Class Tunicata.

The animals form this class distinguish themselves from all others
by their highly unsymmetrical build. In the greater number of
families it is a simple impossibility to recognize a middle line or
axes round which the organs are placed in any regular form; it is
only in the higher families that a lateral arrangement can be per-
ceived, and these not very distinctly. The bodies of the animals
are generally irregularly cylindrical, egg or wart shaped, without
any exterior sign of division into different parts.

The outer covering of the body always consists of a loose skin,
which is more or less tough, and encloses the whole bedy like a bag
and possesses only two openings, one for the ingress of food and
water, the other for the exit of the same. This mantle, which is
sometimes gristly, sometimes like jelly or leather, is for the greater
part of its mass composed of true woody fibre or Cellulose, which
does not dissolve in acids or alkalis, and forms the hard constitu-
ent part of plants. The inner structure of this mantle has been
thoroughly examined ; it consists principally of clear foundation,
substance in which not only fibres and cells are to be found, but
often variously formed crystalline aggregations of carbonated lime.

APRIL—sEPT. 1858. | Order Radiata. 135

In the case of the sea-sheats which are social the outer mantle of
of the various individuals, unites so that acommon jelly-like cover-
ing is formed, in which the separate animals are placed and from
which they can easily be freed.

Some of the Tunicata live either in colonies or separately each
are attached to the ground; in this case their only activity is con-
fined to a lazy opening and closing of the openings in their mantle.
The free-livers can swim, and perform the feat in this remarkable
manner :—they suck in water with great activity, and then ejecting
it with equal force, the backstroke of the gushing water drives them
forward. In those cases where individuals are united in chains all
swallow and eject water simultaneously and in the Pyrosomide
where many individuals are united in one swimming mantle, the
mantle itself moves them on.

The nervous system of the Tunicata consists of but one large
ganglion which is to be found on the back surface near the in-
gress opening. In the Salpe this ganglion, which is kettle-shaped,
bears on it the single eye, which is generally surrounded by a dark
red pigment. Other organs of the senses are completely wanting.

The circulation of the blood is most clearly developed, and the
motion of it is always carried on by a bag-shaped heart which is
either placed near the breathing organs or at the bottom of the
body: from this heart are expelled streams of blood, which either
run in canals, or spread themselves in the interstices between the
organs. But the peculiar and remarkable circumstance is that in
all the Tunicata the direction of the stream of blood changes pe-
riodically. The heart makes a certain number of pulsations in
one direction, then it stands still suddenly, and recommences its
pulsations in the other direction. So it varies at irregular inter-
vals, often of several minutes, and in all the vessels one sees the
blood change, streaming first from left to right, then stop, and
then take the contrary direction. In the transparent Tunicata
one can easily convince oneself that these changes originate solely
in the heart :—one cannot therefore speak of veins and arteries as
the direction of the circulation is constantly changing.

The breathing-apparatus is highly developed according to two
different types. In the Ascidie the water enters through the

136 Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIES,

opening in the mantle into a large gill-bag, the whole inner sur-
face of which is covered by a lattice work of oblique meshes, each
mesh being furnished with ciliz in constant motion. The eddy
occasioned by these cilize draws the water through the outer open-
ing into the gills. Hach mesh forms a slit through which the
water flows outwards, and it is then thrown out through the other
opening in the mantle. In the case of the Salpe on the contrary,
the gill-bag forms the greater part of the body, and the gills have
the appearance of crooked beams stretched out from above to be-
low and from end to end of the bag. The wall of the gill-bag is.
completely smooth, but each beam is full of a great number of
vessels. The water is swallowed in at the fore-end, winds round
the gills, and is then expelled at the hinder end.

The order of the Ascidie consists of extremely unsymmetrical
animals, the two openings in the mantle of which are generally
very near each other, and attach themselves in jelly-lhke lumps to
rocks and sea-weed ; it consists of four families :—

Ist. Ascidiz composite.
2nd. Ascidize sociales.
érd. Ascidiee simplices.

4th. The “ Fire-cones” (Pyrosomida) which form a kind of
link between the composite Ascidie and the following order. One
finds swimming in quantities in the Southern seas, jelly-like
bodies, sometimes a foot long. which are rather of the shape of a
fir-cone, and show a large internal cavity which possesses a circu-
lar opening at the broad end. ‘The cone swims slowly with chang-
ing contractions, by which it expresses the water from its inside.
By night it shines with a clear splendour like iron at a white heat.
The light begins at a small point and spreads trembling over the
surface of the cone till the whole is in a glow. When sucha cone
is narrowly examined it is found to be the common mantle for a
number of animals much like the Ascidie; they approach them
in the structure of their gill-bag and in their mode of propagation,
but their distinct eye on the large ganglion, their power of swim-
ming, their phosphorescent nucleus and the position of the open-~
ings in the mantle proclaim their affinity with the Salpe.

APRIL—SEPT. 1858. ] Order Radiata. 13%

The order of the “ Cylinder-sheaths’”’ or Salpce (Byphora)’ em-
braces swimming animals of glassy transparency which are parti-
cularly numerous in warm seas. The greater part of the body is
formed of a gill-bag, often furnished with extraordinary points and
appendages :—it clearly consists of an outer and an inner cover-
ing, in which are placed bundles, or oblique bands of muscular
fibres. The digestive organs and the heart are pressed together
into a little round ball which has been called the kernel or
nucleus :-—this is generally red or yellow, seldom blue, and shines
by night with a lively -reddish-yellow lustre. At the fore-end of
the cylinder-shaped body is an oblique opening surrounded by
moveable lips which leads into the wide gill-bay. The ganglion
with its nerves radiating in all directions is very distinct, as is also
the eye surrounded by a dark brownish red colouring matter which
is placed on it. On the lower side of the gill-bag there is a groove
set with ciliz, and a wrinkle also ciliated near the mouth, the
uses of which are not yet known.

The Biphora are found swimming in various social stages. Ge-
nerally they form chains, in such a manner that long rows of indi-
viduals are attached to each other by the pointed prolongations of
their bodies or by their sides, so that one sees a long band swim-
ming in the sea, set with a quantity of red nuclei in alternate rows.
All the animals inhale and exhale water at the same time and thus
the chain progresses. An animal which is once separated from the
chain (see fig. 10, plate vi.) cannot unite itself to it again, for it clings
to its companions only by hardened slime. There are however
Salpce which never form into chains under any circumstances, and
which do not agree in their form with the chained individuals.
They were formerly considered to be of a different kind, but mo-
dern investigations have proved that chained and single individu-
als, however they may differ in their outward appearance, are all of
one and the same kind in different stages of development. In all
the Biphora there is to be found in the neighbourhood of the heart
a kind of knot or cone, in which a strong stream of blood rises and
falls, and which at first looks very unimportant. After some time
one may see on this cone little wart-like protuberances, which grow
by degrees till they form a circle of embryos placed round the cone.
On, XX 0. §. VOL. IV. N. Ss:

138 Selections. [| No. 7, NEW SERIES.

This budding-cone is extremely productive, as one may often see
three or four rows of embryos in different stages thus coiled round
it, which when they have reached their proper size, separate them-~
selves from it, and swim away as a chain.

These single individuals are very rarely to be met with without
a chain of embryos round their cone, but here a most remarkable
circumstance comes in ;—-during the time when the chained ani-
mals are still in an undeveloped condition round the cone, an egg
is formed on their surface which grows by degrees till it projects
into the gill-bag, and after a time becomes a separate individual,
though its stages of development have not been regularly traced.
This formation of an egg in an animal itself undeveloped, has
something in it most mysterious.

However it may be it is certain that every kind of Salpe consists
both of chained and of single animals; and that the single indivi-
duals produce rows of Salpoe, while the chained individuals pro-
duce one each which remains solitary during its whole life.

There is but one family Salpe, though several genera are proba-
bly yet to be discovered in it.

There are no fossil representatives of the whole class of the Tu-
nicata.

=<

SUB KINGDOM oF THE MoLuusca.
lass of the Cephalophora.
Sub-class of the Pteropoda.

This sub-class consists of a few and insufficiently-known Mol-
luses, which all distinguish themselves by wing-like projections on
the head which were at first supposed to be gills, but are really
only swimming organs composed of an endless number of crossed
muscular bundles. These little animals support themselves on the
surface of the sea by these swimming-flaps, and are very seldom
driven by accident into the neighbourhood of the shore. They are
all nocturnal animals, rising with the twilight in countless swarms
out of the depths of the sea, and sinking down again with the

morning light. The whole of the day not a brace of them isto he é

APRIZ—sEPT. 1858. | Order Radiata. 134

seen, and many kinds come to the surface only on the darkest
nights. Their swimming flaps are in constant swinging motion
like the wings of a butterfly, but at the slightest danger they draw
them in, and sink back into the dark abyss. The greater number
of them possess a very thin horny shell which encloses the whole
body of the animal, except the mouth and the swimming flaps.
Some of them are quite naked and then they have a firmer skin.

These animals show the low grade of their organization in all
their organs without exception. ‘The greater number have no re-
gular head and therefore neither feelers nor eyes :—only two genera
possess eyes, in the others they are altogether wanting, though hear-
ing organs are pretty generally developed. ‘The mouth is general-
ly unarmed, often surrounded by short prolongations which some-
times bear sucking cups. ‘Their anatomy and development are so
little known that we cannot arrange this sub-class property into
orders.

We distinguish two families. The ‘“ Crystal-snails” (Ayalida)
possess a shell, sometimes spindle, sometimes shoe-shaped, some-
times spiral, and of extreme tenuity and bitterness, which causes

it to fetch a very high price with collectors :—feclers and eyes are

altogether wanting and no distinct head is to be perceived: see
fig. 11, plate vi. The mouth is to be found between the two
swimming-flaps, which stand horizontally on each side, and can
generally be drawn back into the shell. They live in all seas,
rising to the surface in swarms in the evening. Shells belonging
to this family have been found in the Tertiary strata, but whether
the so-called concelarias which are to be met with in great num-
bers in the transition formation really belong to this family is very
doubtful. Myalea, Limacina, Cymbulha, Cleodora, Hurybia.

The family of the “‘ whale-snails’” (Chovda) is divided from the
former by the want of a shell, the possession of a distinct head ge-
nerally of feelers and in one genera of eyes. Those which abound
in the North South Polar seas, form a principal part of the food of
the whale, and as the whole little animal is scarcely an inch long,
it may readily be imagined what enormous masses of them are re+

‘quired to feed their gigantic enemy. Cho, Pneumoderma.

140 Selections. [No. 7, NEW SERIES. _

Sub Class of the Heteropoda.

This sub-class comprises a few swimming animals with spindle-
shaped bodies, which are glass-like and transparent, and some-
times possess a pretty little shell, which however contains but a
very small part of the body. The swimming apparatus consists
of a keel-shaped float or fin, which is turned upwards when the
animal swims. The head is distinct, and provided with feelers
more or less well formed, and generally possesses two large eyes
and a long proboscis, at the fore-end of which the prickly tongue
is rolled up. 7

We distinguish three families :

Ist. The ‘“ Atlantides’ (Ailantida) possess a snail-like shell
into which the animal can withdraw completely. The head is pro-
vided with feelers, eyes and a short proboscis, and is placed on an
elongated neck, on the lower side of which are placed the swim-
ming flaps provided with asucking cup; anda tongue shaped
prolongation bearing a thin legument which closes the opening of
the shell when the animal is entirely withdrawn. Aélanta.

2nd. The family of the “‘ Keel-snails’ (/%olida) is either en-
tirely naked, or has a little cap-shaped shell. The body is some-
times as much as a foot long, spindle shaped and so transparent
that in a perfect specimen all the peculiarities of the organisation
can be clearly traced. ‘These animals appear in swarms on the
surface of the Mediterranean but their shell is so brittle that it is
seldom obtained perfect. Carmaria, Pirola, Pterotrachea.

8rd. The family of the “ Arrow-snails’ (Sagzttida) is only
placed provisionally in this sub-class :—it consists of little spindle-
shaped animals with a distinct head which have hitherto only been
found in the Mediterranean and North seas. (See fig. 12, plate
vi). At the sides of the body are two pair of horizontal swim-
ming flaps, and the tail end is surrounded by a swimming flap,
shaped something like the feathered end of an arrow. The mouth
is armed with lateral’ hook-mandibles, and on the head are twe
slightly developed eyes and feelers. The activity with which this
animal moves is remarkable. Sagiiia.

APRIL—szEPT. 1858.| Notes and Queries, 141

NOTES AND QUERIES,

We announced in our last number, vide Vol. 3, page 266, that
it was intended under the above head to afford an opportunity to
all persons of soliciting, or affording, information of a literary
or scientific character, or with reference to subjects of peculiar
interest in this country. As we have reason to believe that the
proposed plan and rules regarding it are not sufficiently known,
we reproduce them here for general information: and we trust
that many of our Correspondents will favor us with materials for
the regular continuance of this department of the Journal.

It is proposed that all Notes and Queries are to be numbered
consecutively from the commencement, in order to facilitate more
easy reference hereafter.

The following rules are to be adopted with reference to the sub-
jects of enquiry and the method of authenticating communications.

(1). Notes and Queries submitted by Correspondents should be
confined to those of a scientific and literary character; the queries
should be put, and the answers given in the plainest and most
concise form. As several communications will frequently be sent
in answer to the same query, the substance only of these will be
given ; except where the answers differ in material points, when
the opinions of each writer will be recorded.

(2). Correspondents in forwarding Notes or Queries should
authenticate their letters, not only for the satisfaction of the Com-
mittee, but chiefly asa means of communicating with the writer
should further enquiry be necessary. The name of the Corres-
pondent will be appended to his first communication, and his
initials to all subsequent notes, &c. |

We purpose submitting in our next number a series of queries
for reply. And we hope, on that occasion, also to give answers
to some of the queries (1 to 7) before proposed. To one of these
we now insert 2 reply, for which we are indebted to the kindness
of Professor Mayer.

142 Notes and Queries. [No. 7, NEW sERIES.

“ Query No. 5. A peculiar concretion resembling lime or gyp-
sum is occasionally found in the heart of teak logs. It generally
collects in what catpenters call a “ shake” in the wood, but with
this exception the logs are perfectly sound, and no communication
whatever with the external air has been observed. Is its chemi-
cal constitution the same as that of the “ tabasheer’’ or bamboo
salt. (Mr. Hawkes).

dieply by J. E. Mayer, Hsq., Professor of Chemistry Madras
Medical College.

In answer to the foregoing I beg to submit the following re-
port of an examination of a Calcareous found in the rift of a log
of Teakwood.

The Chemical composition of the white incrustation enveloping
what has been ascertained to be woody fibre is the following.

Bases. Acids.

Tron. Carbonic.

Lime. Silicic.

Magnesia. Phosphoric ?

Potash. Scarcely perceptible trace.

The examination not having been quantitative, the expressions
employed to indicate quantities are merely approximative and com-
parative. Thus the base present in largest amount is certainly
magnesia, but the percentage though probably exceeding 50 parts
of the whole can only be thus suggested in like manner silicic acid,
is in considerable amount while the carbonic acid is in small
quantity, and the phosphoric in an inappreciable one, reverting to
the remaining bases, iron, is present in small amouat, so is lime,
potash in somewhat larger quantity.

The substance formed by the bases and acids above specified,
may be regarded as a natural kind of calcareous cement, not very
dissimilar to our mortars except that it possesses a larger amount
of silicic acid in a soluble form. The substance as a whole must
be looked on a mixture, and not a true chemical compound,
though containing such compounds, viz. carbonates and silicates
of magnesia and lime and potash of which indeed the substance

aprit—smpt. 1858.|] Notes and Queries. 143

is almost entirely composed, the iron being casually present and
the excess of base being due to the gradual liberation of carbonic
acid, occasioned by the act of deposition and the presence of silicic
acid in a soluble form. The solubility of the alkaline earths is due
to excess of carbonic acid which as it is berated leaves the sili-
cates of potash and magnesia with some carbonate and iron, in the .
plastic form, at first, but becoming hard with lime.

As a whole the substance thus hardened is insoluble in cold,
and but slightly so in water of higher temp. At 212°, however,
there is sensible action after a time. In diluted hydrochloric acid,
solubility ensues hastened by increased temp. Solution is attend-
ed by slight effervescence, some carbonic acid being liberated. —

The natural processes by which the changes just noticed are
brought about are probably the following.

Water from rivulets, mountain forrents or streams always con-
tains some carbonic acid, although it may be a mere trace, or a
considerable quantity. This being mainly dependent on the
amount of vegetable matter, leaves, woody fibre, &c., over which it
has traversed, thus impregnated, the water becomes a. powerful
solvent of alkaline earths, and other matters presented to it, in its
course through, or ever the various striata of the earth, and in this
way we find it holding silica alkalies, lime and magnesia as well
as iron in solution, chiefly in the form of b2-carbonates after water
has thus become a means of dissolving the substances named and
subsequently a mechanical agent for their transport from one loca-
lity to another. It remains but to show under what conditions the
substances dissolved are again deposited. These are numerous and
various, but to make them fully appreciated it will perhaps be the
simplest course to refer to a broad principle universally acknow-
ledged and established. I allude to the degree of force with which
atoms are held in combination and especially to the difference in
force by which a second atom of similar nature to the primary one
combined, is retained, thus as an illustration we may take one atom
of an earthy base or oxide, which may be Lime—v. e. oxide of cal-
clum, now if this atom of base meet with an atom of carbonic
acid, they will directly combine forming one atom of the salt
we commonly term chalk or more correctly carbonate of lime,

144 Notes and Queries. | [No. 7, NEW SERIES,

and the atom of base will hold this atom of acid with very con-
siderable force, in fact nothing short of a stronger chemical affinity
or a high degree of temperature, can separate this atom of acid
from the atom of base, the case however is very different should
the salt carbonate of lime combine with a second atom of carbo-
nic acid, so as to become a bi-carbonate of lime, since instead of
holding the second atom of carbonic acid with a degree of force
equal to that with which the first atom is held, the force is so
feeble, that it is liable to be overcome by the slightest change of
circumstances, mere evaporation of the watery particles of the
fluid in which the bi-carbonate may be is sufficient to cause the
separation of the second atom of carbonic acid, and consequently
to determine the deposition of the carbonate. The solvent for the
carbonate being the second atom of carbonic acid, and as soon as
this is evolved there is nothing to prevent the carbonate from re-
turning to its insoluble state and it does so accordingly. In the
instance of the substance sent to me for examination, the deposi-
tion has been effected by the attraction of a solid causing the
liberation of carbonic acid gas. The action, however, in this par- °
ticular case, does not stop here,—the deposit is continually washed.
by water containing soluble silicic acid and soluble silicates, these
are continually causing a further elimination of carbonic acid ;
silicates of alkalies and alkaline earths being formed, while the
carbonic acid set free either escapes into the atmosphere, or as the
case may be seizes any portions of free alkali at hand. Itisa
familiar fact that when water is artificially impregnated by carbo-°
nic acid mere exposure with diminished pressure, allows of the
escape of this gas, the escape is more rapid, if the water be pour-
ed or allowed to flow, while in contact with the atmosphere and
relieved from abnormal pressure. Still more rapid is the effect,
if water whether naturally or artificially impregnated with carbo-
nic acid be boiled, and in this last case, if the alkaline earths or ©
iron be in the soluble form as bi-carbonates, they are (during the
ebulition) precipitated in the form of carbonates to the bottom of
flask or, other vessel in which the carbonated water was held.
Finally: if either naturally or artificially the water is kept under
pressure, and the source of the carbonic acid is continually pre-

_ APRIL—szEPr. 1858. | Obituary. 145

sent, the water becomes highly impregnated with it, of which fact,
the process of soda-water making is a well known illustration ;
and of the effect of such conditions, where alkaline earths are pre-
sent, Sir James Murray's fluid magnesia and the fluid carara mar-
ble of several patentees, are again familiar instances. In the for-
mation of these and similar preparations, we do but imitate the
beautiful operations of the highest intelligence as seen in the great
Laboratory of the world. When streams impregnated strongly
with carbonic acid, are ¢onfined beneath the surface of the earth,
under pressure while at the same time, the walls of the space
through which the imprisoned waters flow. afford the alkaline
earth’s silica, &c., taken up and thus produce carbonated waters,
petrifying waters, &c., &c., (when the abnormal pressure is remov-
ed) according to the nature and quantity of the solids which have
been taken up and fora time held in solution. How slight a
cause will occasion such waters to deposit a portion of the solids
held in solution is evident from the families practice of suspend-
ing keys, knives, or indeed any solid into petrifying wells, as they
are popularly termed, all which after having remained in these
waters for a longer or shorter term, come out incrusted with de-
posits more or less calcareous or silicious according to the charac-
ter of the water. In the case of the deposit before us, the solid
on which it has occurred, has been proved to be a portion of
woody fibre separated probably from the part to which it origi-
nally belonged, by the combined effects of moisture, drying un-
equally, and consequent unequal expansion.

J. E. Mayer.

OBITUARY.

J. forbes Royle, M.D., F. R. 8.

Tuis distinguished Botanist died on the 2nd January 1858, at
his residence, Acton. He had been unwell for several weeks pre-
viously, but his death was sudden at last.
mon, Xx 0. & VOL, Lv. N. s.

146 Obituary. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

Dr. Royle commenced his career as a pupil of Dr. Anthony
Todd Thompson, and was appointed Medical Officer in the Honor-
able East India Company’s Service on the Bengal establishment
in 1820, and performed military duty till 1823.

While so employed, Dr. Royle turned his attention to the vege-
table products of this vast empire, and having distinguished him-
self by an accurate acquaintance with Botanic Science in general,
he was chosen as the superintendent of the Botanic Garden esta-
blished by the Government of Sahrempore, at the foot of the
Himalayas, a position which gave him the best opportunity of
studying the indigenous flora of Hindostan.

Here, under his direction, a number of most important inquiries
were carried on, especially with respect to the feasibility of intro-
ducing into the more temperate districts of North India, the culti-
vation of the Chinese tea plant, &c. |

In 1832 having spent 12 years in India, he returned to Eng-
land, that he might publish the results of his investigations.

The “ Illustrations of the Botany of the Himalaya Mountains”
forms his earliest and most voluminous printed work. It is in
two folio volumes, illustrated by coloured plates and was reviewed
at length in the Ist volume of this Journal (1834).

Dr. Royle as Secretary for the correspondence relating to the
vegetable productions of India (at the Hast India House) conti-
nued to prosecute these enquiries, directing them=with vigourand
zeal. In this sphere of research Dr. Royle has been worthily
succeeded by Dr. J. D. Hooker and Dr. Forbes Watson, and his
schemes for the introduction of tea into India’ have been carried
into a most successful practical result, partly by the labours of the
enterprising traveller, Mr. Fortune, partly by the able direction of
Dr. Jameson, the laborious superintendent of the Tea Farms.
Black and green tea are now grown in the Kumaon district, and
prepared by Chinese obtained for the purpose. This tea, we be-
lieve, is considered quite equal to the best samples of Chinese tea,
which, it may one day supersede.

On the question of Cotton cultivation in India, Dr. Royle has

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.] ~ Obituary. 147

contributed an admirable digest which contains all the information
that can be given.

Of late, the materials for the manufacture of paper having be-

- come scarce in England, much anxiety was felt as to the substitu-

tion of other fibrous material that might be used instead of the
linen rags. Dr. Royle in an Essay read before the Society of Arts
on the Fibrous Products of India, pointed out that many indige-
nous plants produced fibres that could be obtained very cheaply,
and in almost any quantity. No man has in fact, contributed
more to the practical application of Botanic Science, too often a
mere closet study, than this lamented Physician, whom we may
well regard as an ornament to his profession, being assured, that
his name will go down in history as that of a benefactor!/of his
species. This language will not seem exaggerated when we con-
sider the vast importance of the inquiries in which he so success-
fully engaged. With the cultivation of Cotton is connected the
question of the American Slave Trade, and the maintenance of our
prosperity as a manufacturing people. The production of Tea is a

matter of universal interest.

The cheap manufacture of paper is a matter of such worldwide
importance that it need not be insisted on. Some few years after -
the establishment of King’s College, London, Dr. Royle was called
to fill the important office of Professor of Materia Medica elected’
in 1836, he occupied this chair for twenty years. The weight of
his name contributed to raise that institution to the prominent
position which it has since held.

In 1837 he published an Essay “ On the Antiquity of Hindu
Medicine” a work displaying much learning and research.

His extensive knowledge of the Natural History of India made
him a valuable contributor to the periodical scientific literature,
and he was a contributor to the “ Penny Cyclopedia,” “ Kitto’s
Dictionary of the Bible” and other works. He took ‘an active in-
terest in promoting a knowledge of the material resources of India,
and in 1840 produced a work which perhaps will be read with more
interest now than when it was published. “On the Productive
Resources of India.”

148 Obituary. [No. 7, NEW sERres.

At the Universal Exhibitions of 1851, as well as that of 1855
in Paris, Dr. Royle represented the East India Company, and was
engaged in arranging the department of each building that was
allotted to India. He evinced the same interest in the Exhibi-
tions of this Presidency, and some valuable “ observations on the
improvement of the resources of the several districts’’ will be found
in the 18th Vol. of this Journal, p. 64, 1857.

The materials collected at the different Exhibitions are now
preserved in a capacious museum, built for the purpose in the
premises of Leadenhall Street. Within a few days of his decease,
Dr. Royle was actively engaged in the arduous work of classifica-
tion. These duties occupied so much of his time that he had less
opportunity to attend to the labours of his Professorship. During
the last two years that he retained this office, his friend Dr. Head-
land lectured in his stead; and it was not until 1856 that Dr.
Royle resigned. He also made use of Dr. Headland in some of
his literary labours. He committed to his supervision the editions
of his “ Manual of Materia Medica,’ which is much valued by
students.

For a short time he held the office of Secretary to the British

Association for the advancement of science. He took an active
interest in the development of the plan of the great Exhibition of
1851, and the success which attended the Exhibition of the de-
partment of Indian Products was due in a great measure to his
efforts. He was a fellow of the Royal, Linnzan and Geological
Societies, and at the time of his death held an appointment in
connection with the East India Company in London. A subscrip-
tion is on foot to place a bust of him in the Hall of King’s Col-
lege, London. .

7s

POR ills er area aaa

APRIL—SEPT. 1858. | Proceedings. 149

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

[ Under the title of “ Proceedings” it has been hitherto our custom to
publish the abstract of those of the Madras Literary Society, but,
as it is desirable to have grouped together in one volume on ac-
count of the business of the various Scientific Societies at the Presi-
dency, we have determined to include, under the title above, such
details, as to all of them, as may be deemed worthy of permanent
record. The Literary Society, the Agri-Horticultural Society and
the Photographic Society will thus, all together, find a place in our
Journal, and we trust that the record of their Proceedings may be
both interesting and instructive. |—Ep. M. J. L.S.

The Managing Comnuttee of the Mapras Litrerary Society and
Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, on Thursday evening,
8th April 1858.

The usual statement of the Society’s Funds was read and passed.

Mr. Breeks having quitted Madras, Major W. J. Wilson, and H.
B. Montgomery, Esq., Mm. D., were elected Joint Secretaries—the
latter to have charge of the Department connected with the Journal.

A letter dated 15th March 1858 from a subscriber at Ongole was
read, this letter points out an apparent error in Lieut. Hawkes’
Paper on Oils published in the last Number of the Journal. A
reference was made to Mr. Hawkes, who requests that the Table
of Exports at page 56 may be corrected by the omission of several
redundant figures which have crept'in after the correction of the
proof.

The necessary correction will be made in the Table of Errata in
the forthcoming Number of the Journal.*

The. following letter from Dr. Coen Civil Surgeon at Coimba-
tore was also read.

* Vide Table of Errata in No. V. Vol. III.

150 Proceedings. [| No. 7, NEW SERIES.

CorImBATORE, 17th March, 1858.
To the Editor of the Madras Journal of Literature and Science.

Sir,—I have just perused with much pleasure in the last Num-
ber of your Journal, an interesting description of the crystalline
limestone of Coimbatore, by H. F. Blanford, Esq., of the Geologi-
cal Survey of India. Mr. Blanford’s introductory remarks would
lead to the supposition that the discovery of the formation in ques-
tion had been made, in the first instance, by Dr. Cleghorn and
Captain Francis, the District Engineer, but such was not really the
case. The credit of the discovery, if there be any, belongs. to A.
D. Ross, Esq., Engineer No. 1 District, Madras Railway and my-
self.

Early in June 1857, Mr. Ross happened to mention to me that
the Natives employed on the Railway were in the habit of burning
a curious looking stone in the neighbourhoed, for chunam to mix
with their betel nut, and, at my request, Mr. Ross was good enough
to procure me a specimen of the stone, which I at once recognised
as a crystalline marble.

A few days after this I examined the locality where the stone
was found, accompanied by Mr. Ross. We traced the band of
crystalline limestone from the point stated by Mr. Blanford to the
edge of the Walior jungle, a distance of seven or eight miles, and
on Mr. Blanford’s subsequent visit here I accompanied him and
pointed out the position of the limestone band.

Dr. Cleghorn and Captain Francis some weeks after my exami-
nation accompanied Mr. Ross along the Railway works to the Wa-
lior jungles, and the limestone in question was then pointed out to
them, in situ, by Mr. Ross.

At the time of discovery specimens of the marbles were submit-
ted by me to the inspection of the Collector E. B. Thomas, Esgq.,

and Captain Francis.
In justice to, Mr. Ross and myself I mention these particulars ;

Mr. Blanford was doubtless unacquainted with them, or, as he at-

taches’so; much importance to the discovery, I am sure he would.
have’ given_us the credit of being the first to recognize the value of

the limestone.

_ APRIL—SsEPT. 1858. | Proceedings. 151

It was my intention at the time to have written a short descrip-
tion of the discovery, but Mr. Blanford’s subsequent visit to the
neighbourhood led me to abandon the plan, as I felt certain that
his account would be in every way more trustworthy than mine,
from inexperience in geological description could be.

It is a curious circumstance that a prominent rock of this nature
should have been passed by, for so many years unobserved. The
Natives knew it practically as a limestone, from the fact of their
using it for betel chunam, but none of the European residents, past
or present, seem to have had the faintest idea that marble quarries
of unlimited extent were to be found within 4 miles of Coimbatore,
and within 300 yards of the Madras Railway.

Mr. Ross had been using the stone largely for piers and abut-
ments of bridges on the line of Railway previous to my superficial
survey of the locality and before he had asked my opinion as to its
nature and composition.

Mr. Ross stated that the Masons were much pleased with the
stone ; it was easily quarried and the labor of pointing it contrast-
ed very favorably with that of the gneiss and schistose rocks in the
neighbourhood.

I can corroborate all that Mr. Blanford has stated as to the eco-
nomic value of this crystalline limestone. I fear however, from
the coarse crystallization of its structure that it will be difficult to
work it for polished slabs.

My friend H. E. Sullivan, Esq. has attempted to polish a few
specimens, but it does not work very smoothly.

I am in hopes however that a finer grained stone may be found
on careful examination.

On my first visit to the locality I picked up a fragment of white
marble, totally differing from the common pink and grey varieties
described by Mr. Blanford.

It was very compact, and dense in structure, resembling pure
statuary marble, only that it had coursing through it greenish veins
of some taley mineral. I have not been able to meet with this

variety since, but it is doubtless to be found on more careful inves-
tigation.

152 Proceedings. [No. 7, NEW SERIBS.

This was the most promising of any specimen, and appeared to
be admirably suited for ornamental work requiring a high polish.

In conclusion, I may mention that since Mr. Blanford’s visit to
this neighbourhood, a continuation of this limestone band has been
observed by my friend Mr. Ross, some miles to the West of Paul-
ghaut, in a railway cutting.

I am, Sir,
Your obedient servant,

(Signed) W. R. CornisH, —
Cwil Surgeon.

Mr. Elliot observed that he had received a letter from Dr. Cleg-
horn within the last few days in which the justice of Mr. Cornish’s
claim in behalf of himself and Mr. Ross to the first discovery of the
limestone was fully admitted, Dr. C. having merely sent the speci-
mens of the rock pointed out to him by Mr. Ross to Mr. Blanford
with a view of attracting his attention to the subject.

Mr. Elliot brought a paper on the Syrian and Jewish copper
plates of Malabar referring to the previous discussions on these do-—
cuments in a former Volume of the Journal, and which had been
forwarded to him by Mr. Collett, from Kokel Kelloo Nair, Moon-
siff of Calicut. This paper takes a view differing in many respects
from the interpretation of former writers on the subject and assigns
to the Plates a date considerably earlier than they have hitherto
supposed to be entitled to, founded on certain astronomical data
contained in the documents themselves.

The paper is very remarkable as the production of an intelligent
and well informed native gentlemen who has had few advantages
for acquiring an English education, and who has entered on the
subject in the spirit of European criticism. It was referred to the
Committee of Papers.

A Vocabulary of the Kotars of the Neilgherry Hills was also
read, it is the production of the Revd. F. Metz, whose Toda Vo-
cabulary has already appeared in the pages of the Journal.

The Committee acknowledge with thanks the receipt of the fol-
lowing books. 7

- APRIL—SuPT. 1858. | Proceedings. - 158

From the Chief Secretary.

Memorandum on the Pauchontee or Indian Gutta Tree, by Dr-
H. F. Cleghorn.
Translation of Dr. W. C. Maclean’s Hindustani paper on Small
Pox, by Dr. J. Shortt.
From the Author.

Hir et Ranjhan, Legende de Penjab, par Monsieur Garcin de
Tassy.

At a Meeting of the Managing Committee of the Mapras LitE-
RARY Socrety,'and Aumlhary of the Royal Asiatic Society y held
at the Club House, on Thursday the 13th May 1858, at 2 past
6 o'clock, P. M.

PRESENT.
| The Hon’ble Walter Elliott, Esq., Chavrman.
_ E. Maltby, Esq. W. C. Maclean, Hsq., a. pv.
_ R. Burgass, Esq. M. Norman, Esq.
Captain G. Winscom. W.J. Wilson, Esq., Secretary.

H. B. Montgomery, Hsq., M. v.

The Secretary laid before the Meeting the usual monthly state-
_ ment of the Society’s Funds prepared up to the 13th Instant.
Resolved, that the foregoing statement is satisfactory and be
_ passed.

Read the following Extract from Minutes of Consultation.

No. 539.
Public Department.

Extract frou the Ha of Consultation under date the 6th
May 1858.
_ Read the following letter from W. J. Wilson, Esq., Secretary to
the Madras Literary Society, to the Chief Secretary to Government,
Fort Saint George, dated Ist May, 1858.
Siz,—I am directed by the Chairman and Managing Garniittes
) of the Madras Literary Society to forward an Extract from a letter
to the address of the Honorable Mr. Elliot, from the Messrs. Schla-
gentweit of Berlin, and to say, that they consider the proposition
Mon =X, 0. S. VOL. IV. N. 3.

154. Proceedings. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

therein contained to be one in every way deserving the considera-
tion of Government.

T have also the honor to forward herewith a specimen of a San-
tal Head, the execution of which is excellent. and highly charac-
teristic, and to observe that the cost compared with the value and
interest attaching to such a collection is very moderate; the whole
outlay on the 250 heads probably not much exceeding two thou-
sand Rupees.

Extract. 7

Our collections are now at Berlin where, with the Court’s con-

sent, they were brought for being examined and filled up.

A complete set will then be returned to England; the rest. is to
form a special Indian Museum here. As one of the materials
which may perhaps be of some special interest to you, I mention
our collection of Ethnographical heads about 250, which are made
in copper by galvano plastic, and which have been particularly well
received by Baron Humboldt.

If you should find it proper, I would request you to propose to
the Government of Madras to order a set for your Museum.

The Government will take one set of the collection of Ethnogra-
phical heads made by Messrs. Schlagentweit, for the Madras Cen-
tral Museum, if the Madras Literary Society will obligingly ar-
range for getting them out.

(True Extract and Copies.) ,
Q (Signed) TT. Pycrort, _
Chief Secretary.

Resolved, that the decision of Government be communicated to
the Messrs. Schlagentweit by the Secretary, Mr. Elliot also an-
nounced his intention of writing to these gentlemen respecting the:
arrangements for the transmission of the heads.

Read letter from Mr. Bayley regretting that he had been unable |

from indisposition to submit his report on the system proposed by
the Messrs. Schlagentweit for rendering the Indian vernaculars

into Roman characters which had been referred to him, and sug- ‘4

- APRIT—SEPT. 1858.|] ~ Proceedings. 155

gesting that a Committee should be appointed to consider the ge-
neral subject.

Resolved, that the Honorable Mr. Elliot and Messrs. Bayley and
Norman do form a Committee to report on a uniform system of
rendering into Roman characters the Hindostanee, Tamil and Te-
loogoo vernaculars.

Read a letter from Mr. H. F. Blanford submitted through Mr.
Brooke Cunliffe, forwarding a memorandum on the geological age
of the sandstones containing fossil wood at Trivikeri near Pondi-
cherry.

The country around Trivikeri consists of a coarse sandstone
containing the well known remains of large trunks of fossil trees,
to the westward of which the primitive gneiss formation of the
Peninsula appears, and to the east extensive cretaceous beds with
numerous remains of ammonites and other chambered shells which
stretch for some distance towards the sea, after which the sand-
stone again appears and continues until covered by the alluvial
formation of the valley of the Tembakam-nala which reaches to
the sea-shore at Pondicherry.

It has hitherto been supposed that the cretaceous beds rested
upon the sandstone formation, and where the latter was wanting
- directly on the gneiss, and this opinion has been maintained by
Mr. Heslop in the geological transactions, and by Mr. A. Schla-~
gentweit in one of his memoirs on the Magnetic Survey. Mr.
Blanford, however, in examining some very well defined sections
of the sandstone rocks in deep gullies cut by the supplying streams
| of the Usatari tank four miles to the east of Pondicherry, observed
clear indications of cretaceous fossils underlying the sandstone,
and being thus led to prosecute his researches into the subject
| perceived that the Usatari sandstone beds, instead of being under
the cretaceous rocks, rest very unconformably upon them. Guid-
_ed by the light thrown on the investigation of this fact, he insti-
eaged a careful comparison between the formations at Trivikeri
| and those at Usatari; and has come to the conclusion, on grounds
which appear incontrovertible, that the Trivikeri sandstones are
‘identical with those at Usatari, therefore newer than the cretace-
,ous beds and unconformable to them.

See

156 Proceedings. (No. 7, NEW SERIES.

The reading of this paper which was accompanied by a sketch
map and section of the locality, excited much interest. It ap-
pears in this number of the Society’s Journal. | |

Read the following letter from the Secretary to the Club toge-
ther with Extracts from the Proceedings of the Sub-Committee

thereof.
14th April.

The Secretary to the Club presents his compliments to the Se-
cretary of the Literary Society and forwards herewith an Extract
from the Proceedings of the Sub-Committee which he requests
may be submitted to the Members of the Society at their next

meeting. aan
y order.

(Signed) G. Taxzor,
Offg. Secretary.

Extract from the Proceedings of the Sub-Committee dated 12th
April 1858.

Proposed by Mr. Burgass and seconded by Captain Hope, that
application be made to the Literary Society that the Madras
Club be allowed to subscribe, paying a fourfold subscription,
thereby receiving a proportionate number of books.

The Committee engaging the books shall be faithfully returned
at the prescribed period, and further that they shall not be remov-
ed from the Library. beg,

Magazines and Serials will not be required. (Carried).

Resolved, that Mr. Burgass in communication with the Secre-
tary tothe Literary Society and the Secretary to the Club do
arrange the conditions on which it is proposed that the books are
to be supplied to the Club.

Dr. Montgomery laid the drawing of a Mango stone before the
Committee in which the process of germination had commenced,
and proceeded to some extent before it fell from the tree. (This:
will appear in the next No. of the Journal.) — |

The Committee acknowledge with thanks the receipt of the fol-
lowing books, &c.

From the Chief Secretary.

Indian Journal of Arts, Science, &c. .

Deaths at Madras during 1855.

- APRIT—SEPT. 1858. | Proceedings. 157

- Papers relative to the colonization of the Himalaya Mountains.
Meteorological observations at Dodabetta.

Walter Elliot, W. J. Wilson,
Chairman. Secretary.

At a Meeting of the Managing Committee of the Mapras Lrrx-
RARY Socrety, and Auailiary of the Royal Asiatic Society held
at the Club House, on Thursday the 8th July 1858, at half past-
6 o'clock, Pp. M.

PRESENT.
- The Hon’ble Walter Elliot, Esq., Chacrman.

The Hon’ble W. A. Morehead, M. Norman, Esq.

Esq. Captain G. Winscom,

R. Burgass, Esq. Major W. J. Wilson, Secretary.
The Secretary laid before the Meeting the usual monthly state-

ment, prepared up to the 8th Instant.

Resolved, that the statement is satisfactory and be passed.

Resolved, that W. Hudleston, Esq., be appointed a member of
the Managing Committee, and Secretary in lieu of Major W. J.
Wilson, who has resigned the Secretaryship.

Resolved, that G. F. Fullerton, Esq. be appointed an acting
member of the Managing Committee during the absence of W. H.
Bayley, Esq. | |

A curiously- shaped ancient spear head was exhibited by Mr.
Elliot to the Meeting which had been found ata village not far -
from the Red Hills. It is of copper with the figure of a Lotus on
one side, and probably belongs to the time of the Curumbars, the
ancient inhabitants of the Carnatic who had their principal seat at
Pural in the same neighbourhood.

Mr. Elliot also exhibited some specimens of Plumbago received
from Mr. Storey at Palamcottah, who described them as having
been found by Captain Boswell, of the 52nd Regiment, in the Hills
at Paparassam where it occurs in considerable quantities.

It was resolved to communicate the specimens to Mr. Wall.

Walter Elliot, | W. J. Wilson,
Chairman. Secretary.

158 | Proceedings. |No. 7, NEW SERIES.

Ata Meeting of the Managing Committee of the Mapras Litz-
RARY SocizEry, and Auailiary of the Royal Asiatic Society held
at the Club House, on Thursday the 12th August 1858, at half-
past 6 o'clock P. M.

PRESENT.
The Hon’ble Walter Elliot, Esq., Chairman.
EL. Maltby, Esq. M. Norman, Esq.
Colonel F. C. Cotton. Captain G. Winscom, ~
R. Burgass, Esq. G. F. Fullerton, Esq.

The usual monthly statement of the Society’s Funds was read
and passed.

A copy of the new Catalogue was laid on the table. The man-
ner in which it was got up was approved, and the execution was
considered creditable to all concerned.

Resolved, that two short notices be printed, one requesting that
all applications for Books may describe the works in the exact
terms of the new Catalogue, or that the page may be specified, and -
the other requesting that gentlemen will have the goodness to look
over their books and return all such as belong to the Society which ©
may have been in their possession upwards of 2 months.

Walter Elliot, H.-Hudleston,
Chairman. _ Secretary. '

At a Meeting of the Managing Committee of the Mapras Litz-
RARY Socrety and Ausxihary of the Royal Asiatie Society,
held at the Club House on Thursday the 9th September 1858,
at haif-past 5 o clock, P. M.

PRESENT.
The Hon’ble Walter Hlliot, Esq., Chawman.
E. Maltby, Esq. G. F. Fullerton, Esq.
H. B. Montgomery, Esq., M.D. W. Hudleston, Esq., Secy.
The Secretary laid before the Meeting the usual monthly state-
ment of the Society’s Funds, prepared up to 9th instant.
Resolved, that the statement is satisfactory and be passed.

Resolved, that measures be taken by the Secretary regarding. a

arrears of subscription to the Journal.

APRIL—sEPT. 1858.] Proceedings. 159

Resolved that a present of one hundred Rupees be made to Mr.
Rozario, the Sub Librarian, as a remuneration for the trouble
taken by him, at his leisure hours in the compilation of the
new Catalogue.

Read a paper from Mr. Walhouse, submitted by the Honorable
Walter Elliot, Hsq., entitled ““ Notes Antiquarian and Mythical,”
which was transferred to the Sub-Committee on papers.

The Committee acknowledge with thanks the following books

received.
From the Chief Secretary.

Indian Official Thesaurus—Introductory to Annals of Indian
Administration.
Annals of Indian Administration, parts 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

Madras Exhibition of 1859—Of the Raw Products of Southern
India.

Madras Exhibition of 1857—-Report from the Local Committees.
Walter Elliot, W. Hudleston,

Chairman. Secretary.

=e

Agri-HorticunturaL SociEry.
The usual Monthly Meeting of the Committee was held in the
Society's Gardens, on Wednesday, 38rd March 1858, at half-
past 6 A. M.

PRESENT :
The Hon’ble W. Elhot, Esq., H. F.C. Cleghorn, Esq., m. p.
President. J. T. Maclagan, Esq., Secretary.

S. D. Birch, Esq.

The Minutes of last Meeting having been confirmed, the Secre-
tary reported that a Native named Murrayen to whom the first
prize for vegetables exhibited by Market Gardeners, and a prize
for grapes were awarded, now appears to have no garden, but to
be merely a retailer of vegetables; and it was resolved that in
future years, all such intending competitors must intimate their
intention to the Superimtendent at least three days before the
_ show, that the Committee may be satisfied for their being Market

160 Proceedings. [No. 7, NEW SERIEs.

Gardeners, and of the vegetables exhibited having been actually
grown in their own gardens.

Read letter from R. B. Bell, Esq., suggesting that the Society
should prepare a Digest of the various Reports upon Produce Cul-
tivation in their possession, and that they should take measures to
test the system of growing Cotton under the influence of irrigation.

Resolved, that the Secretary be instructed to thank Mr. Bell
for his suggestion, and to state that the Records of the Society do
not at present contain sufficient information to enable them to pre-
pare a useful Manual, but that any important facts brought to
their knowledge, will be from time to time communicated to the
Public through the medium of the Scientific Journals. The sub-
ject of growing Cotton under irrigation has recently been referred
by Government to various Societies and individuals, and the Com-
mittee will endeavour to procure a copy of all the information thus
acquired.

The list of flowers and vegetable seeds for the present year,
were carefully revised, and many novelties introduced including
tubers of Dioscoria Batatas amongst vegetables, and a large num- ;
ber of Tropical Flowers from California Mexico.

The Meeting then adjourned. |

J. T. Maclagan, Secy. Walter Elliot, President.

In the months of April and May no meetings were held.

The usual Monthly Meeting of the Committee was held wn the So- —
cvety’s Gardens, on Wednesday, June 9th, 1858, at half-past

6 A.M.
PRESENT.

The Honorable Walter Elliot, Esq., President.
C. Dale, Esq.
H. B. Montgomery, Esq., m. p., Secretary.

It was intimated by the President that Dr. Montgomery was on
the 5th ultimo elected Secretary to the Society, vice J. T. Macla-
gan, Esq. who resigned that appointment.

Received Extract Minutes Consultation No. 556 approving this _
appointment. ,

APRIL—SEPT. 1808. | . Proceedings. 161

The Secretary submits 10 copies of Dr. Cleghorn’s Memorandum
upon the Pauchontee, or Indian Gutta Percha Tree.

Ordered, that any member of the Committee desiring a copy be
furnished with one. Two copies to be placed for record in the office
of the Society. Also Drs. Hooker’s and Thompson’s Flora Indica.
Also the reports of the Commissioners of Patents for 1855 (Section
Aericulture), all the foregoing have been received from Goverment.

Resolved, that consequent on the return to Europe of R. O. Camp-
bell, Hsq., and the retirement from the Society of H. Forbes, Esq.
C. S., and Surgeon James Sanderson, the following Gentlemen be
elected members of the General Committee.

J. Vans Agnew, Esq.
Colonel Colbeck.
Andrew J. Scott, Esq., mM. p.
ead letter from Messrs. Pharoah and Co. tendering for sale a

| sample of Indian Rubber tubing.

Resolved, that Messrs. Pharoah and Co. be informed that the So-

| ciety does not require the tubing not having any Engine to which
| to attach it, and considering that it would not be found generally
_ useful in the Garden.

The monthly accounts having been examined, and as it appears

_ to the Committee that it is not now required to have more than 2
_ pairs of bullocks, it was unanimously resolved, that one pair of
bullocks be sent to the next Periodical sale of Messrs. Waller and

| Co. to be disposed of outright.

The Secretary submits to the Committee the Ground plan of the

_ new plot of ground adjoining the Cathedral, and directs attention
_ to the condition of the wells in that ground.

There are at present three wells in the space marked on the plan

}

as Nos. 1, 2 and 3 respectively, the first two of these are brackish
| and in indifferent repair.

The Committee decide that a trial well should be sunk in the two
| positions now indicated on the plan by the * * Should good
water be obtained in either of those places, tenders are to be invit-
ed for the sinking of one well 12 feet in diameter and 30 feet deep,
and that subsequently the wells No. 1and2 be filled inand the
ground levelled over them.
| Vou. xx 0, 8. Von. Iv. ws.

|

__——_ ___-

162 Proceedings. [No..7, NEW SERIES.

Resolved, that the future meetings of the General Committee be
held on the Ist Wednesday of each month, and that the members
be requested to attend with as great regularity as their other en-
gagements will allow. |

The Secretary is requested to draw up a memorandum relative
to the best means of labelling the more conspicuous plants in the
Gardens, as suggested in his verbal communication to the Com-
mittee this day.

The President brings to the notice of the Committee a private
letter from Major General Johnson, Commanding Tonghoo, inti-
mating the arrival of two “ Ward’s cases” and a packet of seeds,
which are much prized.

A moiety of the latter has been presented to the Revd. Dr.
Mason, a Missionary and distinguished Naturalist in the Tenas-
serim Provinces.

Kesolved, that the Secretary be instructed to open correspond-
ence with the Revd. Dr. Mason with a view to an interchange of
seeds with that gentleman, which are to be sent occasionally, when
any are available for that purpose.

That on the present occasion the seeds named in the letter to
address be forwarded

The meeting then adjourned.

Walter Elliot, President. Howard B. Montgomery, m. p., Secy.

The usual Monthly Meeting was held on July 21st at half-past
6 o'clock a. M.

PRESENT.
J. V. Agnew, Esq. Lieut. Col. Colbeck.
Lieut. Col. McCally. H. B. Montgomery, Esq., Secy.

There not being a quorum for the despatch of business, and the
meeting was occupied for some time in the perusal and considera-
tion of certain letters and papers relative to the proposal of the
Manchester Cotton Association to send a quantity of New Orleans
Cotton seed to India for experimental growth. The papers rela-
live to this subject will appear at length in the next number of

:
|
2
|
|

APRIL—SEPT. 1858. ] Proceedings. 163

this Journal. It was determined that unless in case of urgent

- business, no meetings of the Committee were to take place during

the months of August and September.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.

A Meeting of the PHotocrapHic Society was held at the

School of Arts, on Thursday, 4th March, 1858.

, PRESENT.
Hon’ble Walter Elliot, Esq., in the chair.
Messrs. Mitchell, Messrs. Underwood,
a Seott, » Neill,
» Hunter, ,» Lafond, and
5, . Cleghorn, ot aT Ountts

The following gentlemen were elected members, Messrs. Cole,
Paton and Nichols.
The Secretary laid on the table the collection of pictures printed

| by Mr. Sutton for distribution amongst the subscribers of 1856-57.

The subjects are Pagodas on the Sevagunga Hill, view of the

| Parthasaratha Pagoda and Tank at Triplicane, and Goprum of the
_ Ulsoor Pagoda from negatives, by Lieut. Mitchell. Old Banian
_ and Date trees on the bund of the Hullahede tank, and ship “ Duke
_ of Wellington” in the Plymouth Dock from negatives by Captain
| Tripe, and a group of palmyra trees by Mr. Crake. The number
) of prints for distribution is 600, which will admit of nearly 6 being
| given to each subscriber.

Resolved, that the thanks of the Society be given to Messrs.

_ Mitchell, Tripe and Crake for kindly placing their negatives at the
| disposal of the Society. Itis to be regretted that the prints do
not come up to the expectations that were entertained from the
_ reputation of the Printer to whom they were entrusted.

Resolved, that the prints be distributed as soon as possible,

| Subscribers in Madras being requested to.send to the School of

Arts for their copies, and up-country Subscribers to make arrange-
ments with their Agents for having them packed and despatched

to their address.

164 Proceedings. — [No. 7,. NEW SERIES.

Mr. Underwood mentioned to the meeting that he has for a con-
siderable period been endeavouring to make an iodizing mixture
for collodion, suited to the climate of Madras, and that he had
reason to believe he had succeeded both with positive and nega-
tive collodion. Collodion iodized with it whether Horn’s, Thomas’s,
Bertch, or made by himself, seemed to answer equally well. For
positives the collodion should be dark, for negatives lemon color.
The first is obtained either by keeping iodized collodion some time
or what appears preferable mixing old collodion with collodion
freshly iodized half and half, or one-third according to the age of
the old collodion—the guide is not to mix enough of old collodion
to make the film of the collodion tender. The color of freshly
mixed iodized negative collodion should be removed either by sil-
ver or zinc. Mr. Underwood states, that the unsatisfactory results
of collodion received from Europe is consequent upon the differ-
ence of the ight in India. In England the shadows are light and
the sun shining on an object illumines it, but in this country, the
shadows are black and form a hard dark outline, while at the same
time the object illumined by the sun has a dazzling brightness, con-
sequently those parts are over exposed before parts in shadow are
depicted on the collodion plate. A sacrifice must therefore be
made, and the result is an unsatisfactory picture. Mr. Underwood.
exhibited three portraits by Mr. Nicholas which were taken with
the collodion iodized with the mixture above mentioned. One of
the Lord Bishop, one of Mr. Cherry, and one of Captain Nicholas.
They were pronounced to be excellent portraits and very satisfac-
tory Photographs ; the one of the Bishop appeared ‘to exhibit the
half tones in the most satisfactory manner, and the members pre-
sent were of opinion that the whites were excellent in ail while
the blacks were clear, that there was a degree of brilliancy in the
pictures, and that the half tones were well preserved.

A small paper positive printed from a collodion negative of
Christ’s Church taken by Mr. Nicholas was satisfactory, as in it
the lights were excellent, while the parts of the building in shadow
were well pourtrayed. Mr. Underwood observed it was satisfac-
tory to learn that the end desired was considered to have been

attained in the pictures laid before the meetin, and stated that, S

| APRIL—SEPT. 1858. | Proceedings. 165

further trials would be made on a larger scale with collodion nega-
tives, and the result notified to the ,Society, he mentioned that
above 200 positive portraits had been taken by Mr.’ Nicholas with
collodion iodized with the mixture above referred to, and ‘the
result was so satisfactory that he used no other.

Dr. Neil presented to the Society a number of Photographs of
very great merit by several European Photographers. Amongst
them were several prints from collodion negatives by F.’ Maxwell
Lyte, remarkable for their clearness and accuracy of focusing as
well as for their delicacy of ezrial effect and clearness of printing.
The valley of Parguerls represents a village picturesquely situated
at the gorge of a hill with a very delicately graduated distance to
the left, and a bold mass of broken rocky crags on the right. The
field in the foreground is a little flat, and the gable end of the
eottage too brilliant a spot of white to please the eye of a painter.
The bridge of Orthee isa picturesque subject with a pleasing
arrangement of light and shade, and a good foreground of broken
rocks overhanging a placid shallow stream. The valley of Argeles
is a representation of flat meadow land traversed obliquely by low
hedges and terminated in the distance by fine hills brightly illu-
mined by a mid-Sunday. A bridge of one arch overhung with
ivy and spanning a broad deep river is an exquisite piece of Photo-
graphy, the windings of the river with the distant hills, part of a
house and garden, with a waterfall seen below the arch, and
delicately reflected in the deep pool, make a most pleasing picture,
the toning, manipulation and focusing of which are all excellent.

The Chateau Dr. Arras is a picturesque subject representing a
ruined mansion on the brow of a woody hill with a range of snow
clad mountains in the distance, and bold peaks in shadow rising in
the mid distance, the effect of a cloudy day with a watery sky is
well rendered, but the toning of the picture is a little inky. Some
calotypes by H. Taylor are picturesque. The best is a cottage at
Farucombe. A Talbotype of Caswell Bay Glamorgonshire gives
an excellent idea of the Geological characters of the rocks in the
vicinity. This picture however has not been sufficiently freed from
Hyposulphite. An interesting picture, by R. Fenton of the Coun-
cil of War held on the morning of the taking of the Mamelon re-

166 Proceedings. [No..7, NEW SERIES.

presents Lord Raglan, Omer Pacha and General Pellisier seated
on Camp Chairs, at a small table, outside of a door way.

Two large views in the gardens at Hutton in Suffolk are beauti-
ful as Photographs, picturesque as landscape studies, and valuable
on account of their clear focusing and botanical accuracy. These
are about the best Photographs of Trees hitherto seen in Madras.

Resolved, that the best thanks of the Society be given to Dr.
Neill, for his valuable donation.

Lieut. Mitchell, exhibited a number of large negatives on paper,
views lately taken of the monolithic temples, carved rocks, and cave
temples at Mahavellpooram, or the 7 pagodas, these were exceed-
ingly clearly brought out and delicate in the half tints. It was
thought that they would yield fine impressions. The Secretary in-
timated that it would soon be necessary to make arrangements for
printing the Photographs for distribution amongst the subscribers
of the second year. Mr. Crake had kindly offered some of his ne-
- gatives to be printed from, and other Members were invited to do
the same.

Mr. Elliot suggested that Portraits of some well known mem-
bers of Society might prove more acceptable to many members
than landscapes, and it was resolved that the Council should take
steps to procure some negatives if possible. 5

The Secretary read a communication from Mr. Lafond on the
subject of an explosion from gun cotton, which occurred in his
practice. Mr. Lafond had made some gun cotton, which was in-
soluble, following the recommendation of Mr. Clarke, he placed it
in a mortar with the intention of soaking it for a short time in sul-
phuric acid. But the instant the acid was poured upon the gun
cotton a violent explosion ensued from which he received a severe
contusion on the forehead, and which might have been attended
with more serious consequences.

_APRIL—SEPT. 1858. | Proceedings. 167

The ordinary Monthly Meeting of the PHotoararuic Society
took place at the School of Arts, on Thursday the 1st April.

The Hon’ble Mr. Elliot, in the Chair.

The attendance was not so good as usual, owing to some misap-
prehension as to the day of meeting. Messrs. Duff and G. W.
Cole, were proposed and elected members of the Society. The Se-
cretary placed before the meeting positive prints from two negative

Collodion portraits of Lord Harris taken by Mr. Nicholas with the -

assistance of some members of the Council, and intended for dis-
tribution along with the prints to which members become entitled
who have paid up their 2nd years’ subscription. They were pro-
nounced to be faithful likenesses of his Lordship, and will no doubt,
be much appreciated. It is hoped, that following out Mr. Elliot’s
suggestion, portraits of other distinguished members of Madras
Society may be secured by the Council for distribution. Those
members who have not paid the second years’ subscription amount-
ing to about 40, should lose no time in doing so; otherwise they
will not be entitled to the above mentioned prints, and must of
course cease to be considered members of the Society. Subscrip-
tions are payable either to the Honorary Secretary or to Messrs.
Parry and Co.

The Secretary announced that arrangements have been made
with Dr. Neill, who has kindly placed any of his negatives at the
disposal of the Society, to have two of his lists printed for distri-
bution either in London or Paris, and it is hoped, he may succeed
in having them executed in better style than those now being dis-
tributed. Dr. Neill has also kindly undertaken to endeavour to
procure for the Society a negative of the late General Neill. A let-
ter was read'from Captain A. N. Scott of the Artillery, offering a
couple of negatives to be printed for distribution, and it was unani-
mously agreed to accept his kind offer. The subjects are the caves
of Ellora and the Tombs of Golconda.

A Committee consisting of Messrs. Underwood, Mitchell and
Scott, was appointed to make arrangements for the approaching
_ Exhibition which is to take place at the School of Arts in the be-
ginning of nexth month, and the Council takes this opportunity of

SE

168 Proceedings. (No. 7, NEW SERIES.

reminding up country members of it, and of requesting them to
send their contributions with as little delay as possible. Any mem-
bers wishing to contribute, should forward their portions so as to
reach the Honorary Secretary before the end of the present month
at latest. There must now be a larger number of Photographists
scattered over the country, and any contributions whether from
members or others unconnected with the San will be thankfully
received

The Annual Meeting of the Puotocrarutc Socizry, took place
on Thursday, the 6th May, at the School of Arts.

The Right Hon’ble Lord Harris in the Chair.

’ PRESENT.
The Hon’ble W. Elliot, Esq. Dr. Duff.
Captain Tripe, | Captain Barwise.
W. E. Underwood, Hsq. Colonel Browne.
Lieutenant Mitchell. Messrs. Paton, Cole and Scott.

The Secretary laid a statement of the Funds before the Meeting .
and read the following
REPORT.

At the conclusion of another year of the Photographic Society’s
existence, the Council beg to submit a statement of the Funds as
they at present stand, from which it will be seen that there is a
balance in favour of the Society of Rs. 85 exclusive of a Government
Promissory Note for Rs. 1000. Notwithstanding, they regret to
observe, that no fewer than 50 out of 120 members have failed to
pay their Annual Subscription—some of these, however, have left
the country.

The monthly meetings have not during the past year been so
fully attended as at first, nor have so many original communica-
tions been made as could have been desired. The cause of this
may in a great measure be attributed to the disturbed state of the
country during that period, which has not only distracted atten-
tion from such pursuits, but has also actually prevented several of
our working members from devoting that time to the art which they .

_ APRIL—SEPT. 1858. | Proceedings. : 169

old otherwise have had at their disposal. Some have been,
and are still, employed in active service in the North, while even
of those resident in Madras, several have been so much occupied
by the duties which have devolved upon them in consequence of
this state of matters, as to have had very little time at their dis-
posal for any thing else. And if this applies to Madras, it does
so in a much greater degree to the other Presidencies, from neither
of which have we received any direct contributions to our Annual
Exhibition; a large and varied collection however published in
the Bombay Amateurs’ Journal is to be found in the Exhibition.

An endeavour was made last year to induce the Societies of the
sister Presidencies so to fix the time of their respective Hxhibi-
tions, as to enable the three Societies to interchange contributions
and thus render the Exhibitions more interesting. It is to be
regretted that the Bombay Society have never replied to the Secre-
tary’s letter. The Bengal Society did so, and promised to consi-
der the subject when arranging about their own Exhibition for
this year. They appear to have overlooked the matter, however,
for although a requisition has just been received from them soli-
citing contributions for their Exhibition that is announced to take
place next month, they make no allusion to the proposal which
was made to them, nor have they sent a single picture for our
_ Exhibition.

In our own Presidency, however,-there is every reason to be-
lieve that Photographers abound all over the country, and so great
| is the demand for Photographic chemicals, that Messrs. Flynn and
| Co. state that they have great difficulty in supplying it. This
circumstance alone proves what has been above stated, and consi-
| dering the many objects of interest to the Photographer in this
_ Presidency, not only as regards Architectural remains and scenery,
_ but also as illustrations of Ethnological questions, considering the
great variety of races of the human family, the diversity of their
costume and habits, the implements used in their manifold occu-
_ pations, nearly all so different from what are used in Europe, it
must be admitted that circumstances are most favorable to the pro-
duction of a highly valuable and interesting class of Photographs
characteristic of the country and its inhabitants, and it would un-

(Won. xx o. s. Vou. Iv. N. s.

170 Proceedings. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

doubtedly be a matter for much regret were the opportunity lost
of taking full advantage of these circumstances.

The existence of a Society such as this for the encouragement
of the Photographic art in Madras, is the chief means by which in
time these objects may be attained, and it would be a great pity
were it allowed to fall to the ground for want of support. The
Council therefore take this opportunity of urging the claims of this
Society, particularly upon working Photographers. Of the doings
of those not resident in Madras scarcely anything is heard, they
hope this state of things will not continue, but that every one who
uses the Camera will not only become a member of this Society, if.
not already one, but contribute his mite to establish and maintain
the character of Southern India for the encouragement and culti-
vation of the Art. : |

The arrangement for procuring prints for distribution to the
members of 1856-57, the Council regret to observe, was not so
successful as they anticipated: they hope that in future this ob-
ject of the Society may be more satisfactorily attained. The six
negatives placed at their disposal for printing were forwarded to
Mr. Sutton who has a good reputation as a Photographic Artist,
but the prints received from him in the present instance do not
come up to the expectation formed by the Council. They are
evidently executed by the development process, -which, although
it has the advantage of rapidity and economy, (and, it is said, per-
manence) does not appear to suit all subjects so much as the origi-
nal method of printing and gives a certain appearance of coarse-
ness which is harsh and unpleasant to the eye. ‘The Council hope
to obviate this in future, and will use their best endeavour to have
the prints for the next distribution executed in a better style, and
more worthy the acceptance of members.

In regard to a room for the meeting of the Society, and where
the Library and collection of prints can be kept, a step has been
made in the right direction, as a room at the School of Arts has
recently been placed at the disposal of the Society by the Superin-
tendent of that Institution; and although there are difficulties in
the way of its being made over entirely to the Society with this
view, there is every prospect of its being rendered more available

APRIL—SEPT. 1858. | Proceedings. 171

for the purpose than hitherto, and with a little outlay and arrange-
ment, it might be made not only a comfortable place of meeting,
but also an interesting resort and rendezvous for Photographers at
the Presidency. The funds of the Society’ being insufficient to
enable the Council to secure a room, permanent arrangements are
out of the question. The School of Arts being of a kindred cha-
racter, is certainly the most legitimate institution for the Society
to become associated with, and the advantage of their being so,
may probably be found reciprocal.

As it will be necessary to determine immediately the number
of prints required for distribution to the members for 1857-58, the
Council request that those members who have not forwarded their
subscriptions for the current year, will be good enough to do so
by the ist of June.

The following Gentlemen were then elected Members of the
Society—The Hon’ble W. A. Morehead, Esq., C. Roberts, Esq.,
Captain Barwise, Capt. Logan, Dr. Barclay, and Capt. S. Batten.
—Captain J. D. Scott and Dr. Duff were elected Members of the
Council in room of Mr. Cochrane and Dr. Hunter who have left
Madras, the remainder of the Council were re-elected for the
ensuing year. ,

The Photographs intended for Exhibition were displayed, and
form a large and varied collection, including both Indian and
Kuropean subjects. Many of the latter are of very large size and
exquisite specimens of the art. These have been almost entirely
contributed by J. G. Garrett, Esq., to whom the Society is much
indebted for affording them an opportunity of inspecting the works
of the best Photographers in Europe, and of seeing what can now
be attained by skill and improved means. The views in Switzerland
by Bisson Freres, and some groups of Flowers by Beam, attracted
special attention. Mr. Garrett also contributed a large collection of
Indian Subjects published in the Bombay Amateurs’ Journal, and
Mr. Underwood a number of admirable stereoscopic views and
groups by the best Artists. Among the other contributors of
Indian Subjects, are Lieut. Mitchell, Capt. Barwise, Capt. A. N.

Scott, Mr, Nicholas, Capt. Buchanan, Mr. Underwood and Dr.
Scott,

172 Proceedings. [ No. 7, NEW SERIES.

It was resolved that the Exhibition should be open to the public
from Monday the 10th intant, from 7 4. Mm. till 6 Pp. m., and con-
tinue so during the present month.

The thanks of the Meeting were then tea to the Right
Hon’ble the Chairman for his obliging conduct in the Chair.

THE exhibition of the Photographic Society for 1858, greatly
disappointed its projectors. Among the very numerous Photogra-
phers scattered through the country, only two gentlemen in the
Mofussil favored the Society with pictures for Exhibition. The
Photographs exhibited, however, proved that the Artists of this
Presidency are by no means less skilful manipulators than their
brethren of the other Presidencies, and the excellence of their
productions only increased the regret that the number of Exhibi-
tors were so small. It is possible that fear of injury or difficulty
of transmission may have deterred parties from exhibiting. If this
be so, it is to be hoped, that before the exhibition of next year,
Photographers in the interior, whether members of the Society or.
not, will communicate with the Secretary, when it is more than
probable that all difficulties in the way of transmission will be
removed.

The absence of the productions of Indian Photographers, was
however (as far as such a deficiency could be) well made up by
the very fine and numerous Photographs: English, French and
Roman, placed at the disposal of the Society. Of these some
stereoscopic pictures excited universal admiration and appeared to
be with the majority, the principal attraction of the Exhibition.

Foremost among the pictures exhibited requiring notice are 25
views 15x 11 by Lieut. J. Mitchell. These were intended to
illustrate the Seven Pagodas so well known as objects of interest. .
They were admirably executed and are fully equal to any Photo-
graphs which have been produced in India, a list of these and the ©
process by which they were taken is given in the Appendix to the
Report.

Captain W. Barwise exhibited 42 prints from Collodion nega- .
tives, some taken in England, but the majority in Burmah. They

APRIL—SEPT. 1858.] Proceedings. 173

comprised portraits, groups and landscapes of every variety—the
two former illustrative of the dress and customs of the Burmese.
This gentleman appears to have used an old hypo-bath, the traces
imparted by which, in our opinion did any thing but justice to the
negatives, most of which must have been very clear, and should
have yielded better proofs.

Dr. A. J. Scott exhibited 12 prints about 6x 7 from waxed
paper negatives, consisting of rare trees and views of places well
known atthe Presidency. These were taken with the anterior
lens of a combination which appears scarcely to yield such perfect
results as a proper landscape lens. Dr. Scott, we understand, will
remedy this, before the next exhibition, and his pictures will then
compete with the best. )

Captain A. W. Scott exhibited a great frame which contained
24 positives on glass. Single portraits and groups, chiefly of
Natives of the various castes found in the Deccan. They were
excellently well executed and claimed for Captain 8. an honor-
able place among Photographers. An old Moonshee was recog-
nized by a person who had not seen him for 16 years. Mr. Nicho-
las exhibited some portraits of ladies and gentlemen, amongst

them were two of Lord Harris, one a print, the other a glass posi-
| tive. These pictures were admirably executed. The pose was

| quite distinct, and well delineated, and with one exception they

good ; the figures all in focus and the features, especially the eyes,

_ were free from that common fault of Indian portraits, a rigidity
! of features which is doubtless caused by the excessive glare to
which the situr is usually subjected when pictures are taken out
of doors. The portrait of Captain Russell was a brilliant picture,

and we think the glass positive of our worthy Governor, one of
_ the best we ever saw. Altogether we should say these were such
| faithful likenesses as friends would desire to possess.

_ Some portraits of religious mendicants, were also exhibited by
| Mr. Nicholas. These were executed with the assistance of Mr.

Underwood. These are curious in their way, and the selection of
subjects were excellent. One party hada wire passed through

his cheeks. Two others had large square iron frames riveted to

their necks. The pictures are well executed, and copies are for
sale at Mr. Nicholas’ Studio.

174 Proceedings. [No. 7, NEW SERIES.

Captain Buchanan exhibited a print 12 x 10 of Coonoor on the
Neilgherries, from a Collodion negative. This is a faithful repre-
sentation of the place, and a picture which no, Amateur need be
ashamed toexhibit any where. Itis to be hoped that Captain
Buchanan, will send a large portfolio of pictures for the next ex-
hibition.

Mr. Garrat exhibited 47 beautiful views and portraits, some from
the Bombay Photographic Album, others the work of English,
French and Roman Artists, they are all good, and among them
were some very superior Photographs. Of the portraits, that of
the Metropolitan Bishop of the Syrian Church at Jerusalem print-
ea at Bombay deserves especial notice. Among the Huropean
Photographs, were some fine views, admirably executed. The cru-
cifixion by ————— is one of the finest Photographs ever ex-
hibited, and has gained an European reputation. The Baptistry at
Canterbury is also an excellent Photograph.

Some large Photographs of fruits and flowers received, as they
well deserved marked attention, for they were nature herself,
wanting only the colors. Captain Winscom exhibited 14 large
views in Rome, including the Coloseum St. Peters, the Vatican, &c.
These are by Macpherson, a well known Photographic Artist resid-
ing there. They are well executed, but some of the prints have
faded considerably, a very common failing in prints taken some
years ago. Of late this great defect in Photographic printing has
been remedied to a great extent.

Mr. Underwood exhibited 6 views by Le Gray, 5 of these were _ ;

views of sun and cloud and moving objects, chiefly marine, these
are very ambitious attempts, and as specimens of what photography
can do in delineating the passing cloud and moving waters they are
really wonderful productions. The clouds however have a very

thunder stormy appearance and make one instinctively button his |

coat and think of his umbrella. A Steamer La Reine Hortense,
by the same artist is a better picture, though by no means so strik-
ing.

There is in it however an evident want of flatness of field, the
margin of the picture being blurred considerably showing a large.
amount of spherical aberration in the lens. »

~

“APRIL—SEPT. 1858. ] Proceedings. 175

Mr. Underwood also exhibited a large collection of stereographs
on glass and paper which excited general admiration and atten-
tion. The table upon which they were laid was crowded, and
many waited a considerable time to obtain a look at them.

The Exhibition was well attended particularly by Natives con-
trary to expectation. It is singular however, notwithstanding the
opening of the Exhibition was announced in the principal local
papers, numbers of the Huropean and East Indian community
never knew of it until it was closed, many came at the last moment
only to feel regret that they had not had more time to examine,
certainly the finest collection of Photographs ever seen in Madras.

We would suggest that before the next Exhibition, the Council
of the Society communicate with Photographers in the interior and
endeavour to induce them to take more interest in, and contribute
more liberally to, the coming Exhibition than they have done to the
one we have endeavoured to chronicle. When there is so much

| talent in the country, it is too bad to compel the Council to draw so
| largely upon foreign aid as they were obliged to do on this occasion.

| The propriety of awarding some prizes to the Exhibitors of the
| best pictures, has, we understand, been under consideration by the
| Council, but there are some practical difficulties in the way of this.
While however the bulk of Photographers in the Presidency con-
sists of Gentlemen Amateurs, we scarcely think that such an in-
_ ducement as this can be requisite, and we do hope on the part of
_ the public that they will give the community of Madras an oppor-
| tunity of admiring their works in the ensuing spring.

| At the last Meeting of the Society, the Hon’ble Mr. Elliot exhi-
| bited some highly interesting views of Lucknow. The name of
- the Photographer was not stated, but they have evidence of being
the work of the same professional Artist, although the printing has
| not been so carefully done as it might be.

The views are as follows :

No. 1.—Secunder Bagh in which is-shown the. breach through
which the 9érd Highlanders stormed it, and also gate-way by
which the lst Madras Fusiliers entered.
| No. 2.—Interior of the Secunder Bagh where 2,000 of fae
| enemy were killed. In this picture quantities of bones and skulls

176 Proceedings. [No. 7, NEW SERIEs.

ie scattered about in the foreground, a vivid memento of the fear-
ful slaughter which took place in this building.

No. 3.—Represents the Chutter Munzil and Farhat Bucks taken
from the river. The former is now in use at the General Hospital.

No. 4.—-The King’s residence in the Kaiser Bagh, a fine speci-
men of mixed architecture where domes and minarets and fluted
Grecian columns are to be seen in juxta position.

No. 5.—Wheeler’s position at Cawnpore, the ruins of two large
' buildings vividly showing the impression made by shot and shell,
groups of soldiers in the foreground.

No. 6.—The Bailey guard-gate to the embrasure where the
Fusiliers entered the Residency on the 25th September 1857. To
the right of the picture is seen a building which was occupied as
the Hospital during the latter part of the siege.

No. 7.—View taken from the interior of the Residency, showing
the old palace and a portion of the Kaiser Bagh.

. No. 8.—View of the Residency from the burial ground, showing
the rear of our defences. In the picture is Also represented part
of the Begum Kotree, where the ladies were during the siege,

next to which are the ruins of a house used as a Mess House by ©

the garrison. In the foreground is the spot where the Church
stood, not a vestige of which now remains.

No. 9.—View of the Residency taken from the road between
the Bailey guard-gate and Furhat Bux.

No. 10.—Ruin of the Residency, and the room in which Sir H-
Lawrence was killed.

No. 11.—Represents a panoramic view of Lucknow, taken from
the roof of the Kaiser or Bagh, gives the idea of a splendid city,
palaces, mospue and minarets interspersed with beauuful gardens,
in one of which a battery of Artillery is delineated. The impres-
sion given on viewing this’ picture is that few cities even in
_ Europe could compete with Lucknow in grandeur of effect and

architectural beauty.

At a late meeting of the Society, Captain Tripe brought to

notice some very interesting facts connected with his experience

of the dry collodion process, and he has kindly consented to draw

up a short memo. on the subject for publication. —

/

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MADRAS OBSERVATORY : }

MADRAS JOURNAL

OF

fore ATORE AND SCLENCE.,

NO” 8. NEW SERIES.

LO OOOO

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.

Report of Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the
Royal Asiatic Socrety, on writing Indian Words im
Roman Characters.

“The second system of Asiatic Orthography consists in scrupulously
rendering letter for letter, without any particular care to preserve the pronun-
ciation ; and, as long as this mode proceeds by unvaried rules, it seems clearly —
entitled to preference.” Sir W. JONES.

The Sub-Committee appointed in the early part of last

Ce ening 1 to consider the best mode of re-

W. H. Bayley. presenting Oriental words in Roman

M. Norman. characters, beg to submit the following
report.

They must premise by stating, that shortly after their
nomination, two of their number were obliged by ill health
and the ealls of duty, to leave the Presidency, and that they
have not, in consequence, been able to discuss so fully as they
desired, the various points involved in a subject calculated
to elicit considerable differences of opinion. They did not
consider that this circumstance absolved them from the duty
entrusted to them. Although deprived of the advantage of

A

180 Report on Writing Indian Words [No. 8, New Series, |

personal intercourse, they embodied the independent result
at which they had arrived, in separate papers, to serve as
the basis of more mature deliberation. Before, however, they
had arrived at a unanimous conclusion, Mr. Bayley and
Mr. Norman were compelled, by illness, to leave India.

The scheme now submitted must be considered, therefore,
to exhibit the conclusions at which the majority of the Com-
mittee had arrived on the most salient points only, and
must not be taken as a unanimous expression of matured
judgment.

The want of a recognized scheme for representing oriental
words of daily occurrence, has long been felt. Many at-
tempts have been made to remedy the evil. But with how
little benefit the shpslop spelling of proper names and technical
terms in official correspondence, and the barbarous names
which crowd the face of the best Indian maps, bear witness.*

The object which the Committee have strictly kept in
view has been to lay down a scheme of orthography which
should provide for the exact representation of every word
occurring in the languages of India, under conditions at once
easy of application and so exact, as to enable persons
acquainted with the original tongue, to reproduce words
written according to it, in their native characters. In other
words, to submit a system of notation in which “each original
“ (represented) sound should be rendered invariably by one
“‘ appropriated symbol, conformably to the natural order of
‘‘ articulation, and with a due regard to the primitive power
“ of the Roman alphabet, which modern Europe has in

* One of the causes which delayed the preparation of the Murshadabad

Survey Registers was ‘‘the character of the Collectory lists: * * * Names ©

are distorted out of all recognition. Thus, the Mahomedan Berahimpoor

(Ibrahimptr) will appear as the Hindoo Biharipoor, and many of our adumul-

nisha enquiries have been in search of Villages which had no existence save
onthe page of the writer:” Report on Survey operations, Lower Provinces,
from 1st October 1856, to 3rd September 1858, page 63.

Ger. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters. 18]

“ oeneral adopted.”* They have further considered it neces-
sary that such a system should not only be acceptable to the
scholar, but should be adapted to general use, whether by
means of typography or manuscript.

For the accomplishment of these ends, they prescribed
to themselves the following fundamental rules :-—

1. That a distinct Roman character should, as far as
practicable, be employed to express each established oriental
letter.

2. That the same character should always represent
the same letter, and should never be employed without some
distinguishing sign to designate a second.

3. That two or more letters should never be em-
ployed where a single character could be made to suffice.

4, That diacritical marks should only be resorted to
in the last necessity, and should be of the simplest descrip-
tion.

5. That varieties of type, as capitals, “italics, black
letter, should be considered inadmissable.

6. ‘That the scheme should be founded on the system
of Sir W. Jones.

The propriety of the three first stipulations is manifest,
and needs no illustration. The two next were dictated by
the difficulty of using such modifications in current writing,
| to say nothing of their unsightly and perplexing appear-
ance. The last was adopted because the accuracy of the
principles on which that system is founded, especially with
regard to the vowels, has been acknowledged by the most
distinguished orientalists of all countries, and still maintains
| its ground after the experience of three quarters of a
century.

The modifications which have been proposed in Sir W.
Jones’ orthography since its first promulgation, and which

* Sir W. Jones,

182 Report on Writing Indian Words | No. 8, New Sextus,

relate chiefly to the mode of representing certain consonants,
have also been carefully examined.

Among these, the most important are the alphabet
adopted by the Missionaries of Upper India in numerous
works already printed and published, and which has been
followed ‘by Professor Monier Williams; that employed by
Shakespeare in his Hindustani Dictionary, 3rd Edition, 1834;
and that prefixed by Professor Wilson to his Glossary of
Indian Terms, 1856 ;—the last of which exhibits the first -
attempt to elaborate a scheme embracing all the languages of
India.

At the same time they have not overlooked the modifi-
cations observed in the published works of German and
French philologists, as far as they have been able to meet
with them.

The Missionary alphabet of Bengal, which has only been
applied to Urdu, was at once seen to be inapplicable, because
it sacrifices critical accuracy to simplicity.

The letters > and care both represented by h—; o 2 and
are all included under z— (w and (» under s. The
principle of transliteration is thus abandoned.

The plan proposed by Shakespear is free from this defect,
but is also confined to the Urdu dialect in its Arabic and
Dévanagari forms. It has much merit, but contains several
redundancies, providing for distinctions of sound not ex-
pressed by corresponding letters, but to be acquired by
practice, and therefore unnecessary in a scheme of strict
transliteration. There are also some minor blemishes in his
mode of dealing with ch, ch, gh, kh, ksh.

Professor Wilson’s scheme is complete in its requirements,
but cumbrous in the mode by which he has carried them out.
Thus, five of the six characters for n, are represented by
infra-linear diacritical marks, of which the first is an open
dot, and the rest points increasing in number from one to

— Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] Ln Roman Characters. 183

four. The three zeds and three esses are similarly dis-
tinguished. Such complications are perplexing in type and
unsuited to cursive writing.

On a comparison of these four schemes, it is seen that
the mode of designating the vowels is nearly the same in
all; that Sir W. Jones adopts a system of supra-linear marks
to distinguish the consonants, and that his followers, ad-
mitting the propriety of the principles laid down by him,
have confined their modifications to the substitution of infra-
linear signs differing only in the greater or less simplicity of
their application.

If a printer is asked, whether with an ordinary fount of
types, it is easier to add diacritical marks above or below the
line, he will give the preference to the former and to those
of the simplest description only. The use of accentual signs
above the line, is of ordinary occurrence in every press. Hence
the original scheme proposed by Sir W. Jones possesses this
advantage, of facility of application, in an eminent degree.

The chief objection brought against it consists in the
similarity of the sign employed to distinguish long vowels -
and certain consonants, and in the lability of such marks,
when used in juxta position, to create confusion. Its minor
defects consist in the absence of letters required for certain
sounds in the Hindiand the Dravidian dialects, (which formed
no part of his plan,) in the unnecessary re-duplication of the

signs employed to express i, and o and in the compound

marks over two of the zeds. In other respects, his system
presents a marked advantage over all others, whether it be
viewed as applicable to the resources of an ordinary printing
office, or to employment in manuscript.

It may be urged, that the objection raised to complicated
diacritical signs can be overcome, as in fact it is, by casting
types for the purpose. But a fundamental object to be kept
im view in any scheme of general application, is facility of

184 Report on Writing Indian Words [No. 8, New Sertss,

execution by means of an ordinary fount of Roman type in
any press; and this prelimary condition, if maintained, is
fatal to the employment of compound diacritical points. The
objection applies with still greater force to their use in cursive
writing. Single accentual signs and dots are of comparatively
easy addition by the pen, but more than these tend to

create obscurity and blots.

It has appeared to the Sub-Committee that a combina-
tion of both systems will be found to afford the best means
of securing perspicuity of notation with easy application.

The class of letters in the Nagari alphabet commonly
denominated cerebral,* are now generally defined by a single
-diacritical point below each letter. Let this be taken as the
distinguishing sign of this class and its congeners in other
tongues, as well as of all letters of a peculiarly harsh or hard
sound.

The expedient adopted by Sir W. Jones to indicate
aspirated consonants by the apostrophe used to signify the

soft breathing of the Greek alphabet, and to some extent.

recognized in the Roman, must be allowed to be peculiarly
appropriate. It was first devised by Halhed, who placed it
at the bottom of the line, in which he was followed by Gil-
christ. Sir W. Jones removed it to the top. Klaproth and
Bopp applied it to the same purpose, omitting the h and re-
versing the comma. But this, as will appear in the sequel, has
been reserved for another purpose. Although the Jonesian
application has not been so generally employed as it seems to
deserve, the majorityt of the Committee recommend its
adoption on the grounds of fitness, perspicuity, and easy appli-
cation. It sets free the similar characters used to represent

ra and ¢ with the addition of diacritical marks, and obviates

* This rendering of the Sanscrit grammatical term murddh’anya, from
murdd han, “ the head,” has been objected to, andthe word “ lingual” proposed
instead. One writer suggests ‘‘cacuminal,” as the most appropriate term,

+ Mr. Norman dissents.

- Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters. 185

the possibility of mistaking the sound of the aspirates them-
selves, especially in the familiar English pronunciation of th,
ph, ch, &e.

The strong aspirate at the close of syllables in Sanscrit
words, called visarga, may be represented by a similar device,
or the spiritus asper may be substituted, as “h. This can
never occasion confusion as the visarga always follows a
vowel.

In dealing with the Dévandgari alphabet, the only
remaining letters to be discriminated are those expressing
the sibilants and the nasals.

The Committee will complete their examination of this »
alphabet first, because it is the basis of all Hindu alphabetic
writing, and has been more or less completely adopted by all
the rest, and then proceed to notice such letters as are peculiar
to the Arabic and Dravidian phonetic systems.

Of the Nagari sibilants, the only one calling for consi-
deration is the first—or Qf, which is “often very inaccurately
“ confounded with the second, or W, and even with the third,
“or Y. It belongs tothat class of consonants which, in the
“notation here proposed, are expressed by acute accents above
“them, to denote an aversion of the tongue towards the palate,
“whence this letter is called the palatine sa. In the same
“manner may be noted the séd of the Arabs and Hebrews,
“ which last it resembles in shape, and probably resembled, in
“ sound,”*

The majority of the Committee resolve to recommend
this sign.

The nasals are five in number.

1. The anuswara, signified by a* above the line, and
therefore most fitly represented by a Roman » with a similar
mark,

2. For the guttural , or that pertaining to the first
class of Nagari letters, a compound or double symbol, might

* Sir W. Jones, } Mr, Norman dissents

186 Report on Writing Indian Words [No. 8, New Surtts,

with much propriety be adopted. Its sound is exactly that
of the letters ng in sing, long, &c., and these letters, therefore,
seem to present the fittest substitute. But Sir W. Jones

objects to the addition of the g, on the eround that it might

ereate confusion, and often suggest the idea of a different
syllable. This difficulty might be overcome by tying the
two letters with an infra-linear line, but such complicated
signs are objectionable in themselves, and are, moreover, pro-
seribed by our 3rd rule. The line below then alone, may
therefore be retained as the characteristic of this sound. Sir
W. Jones, viewing it as identical with anuswara, employs the
same mark for both, but in doing so, transgresses the funda-
mental rule which requires exact transliteration.

3 and4. The palatal and cerebral ens should, by analogy,
follow the rule already in such cases provided, the former
being represented by an accent above, the latter by a point
below, the line. But as the sound of the first 1s exactly
identical with that of the Spanish % and Portugueze nh,* and
provision has to be made for another more purely palatal n
in the Tamil or, it seems advisable to adopt the Spanish %,
which presents a familiar representation of the exact power
of the Sanserit letter, and thus to leave the palatal symbol
available for the Tamil 7 (e.) :

5. The last, or simple 72, needs no distinguishing sign.

The Sanscrit alphabet concludes with a character ex-
pressing a sound compounded of k, s, and h, which it has been
usual to represent by these three letters in sequence. Others
have employed the Roman w for the same purpose, and con-
sidering that this letter is also a compound of & and s, and is
not otherwise required, the majority of the Sub-Committee
recommend that it should be appropriated to that sound.+

* Containing a composition of m and y as in the English word onion,
6¢ and Italian agnello which written phonetically would be onyon, and anyello.”—
Sin W, JONES.

+ Mr. Norman dissents.

7

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters. 187

The Négari alphabet, thus adjusted, will stand as
follows, with its corresponding Indo-Arabic and Roman re-
presentatives :—

Vowels.
es St 2S Oe la
ee ee a
a 4 ee a eh rl In 4 lel
Sas ta:
us os ») 3] w) gi
e al re) au nor iy
Consonants.

ar ae dep gi) =
Gutturals. ¢ us cg ny if
k k’h g eh n
>" Q | a af

Palatals. = “> ~ io So
ch ch’h j yh fi

Al res & rf UT
Cerebrals. a “ 5 dw w
t th d dh n

ra 2] q | a)

Dentals. oe ei a) ade wy
t th d dh n
g Hh Si of a

Labials, =) 3) Gx 2 °
P ph b bh m

188 Report on Writing Indian Words | No. 8, New Srrtss,

J qt 5a ae |

Semi-
Vowels. e os J b
y r | Vv
a] gq aq
Sibilants. ys ,
es iM
S sh Ss
Aspirate © ae
and Com- i Ay
pound. h oa

THE DRAVIDIAN ALPHABETS.

All the Southern races have adopted the Arian phonetic
system except the Tamil people, and they, while retaining
their own peculiar system of letters, have formed a second
alphabet, founded on the Arian, for Sanscrit literature, which
has been extensively cultivated among them. This is called
the Grand’ham character.

The Telugu, Canarese, and Malaydlam nations have
taken the Nagari letters under altered forms, but with the
Sanscrit classification and arrangement. The same Roman
characters therefore will, so far, serve for all.

Many of the Tamil and some of the Telugu letters are
lable to changes of sound with reference to their position or
to their derivation from Sanscrit, and some discussion took
place regarding the propriety of providing distinct Roman
equivalents for such sounds.*

* “Of the Sanscrit letters, all vowels except the four medial and two
‘‘ final are common to Tamil ; as are also the first and last letters of the five
« classes of consonants ; the four, following in order, from gy ; and that written
““@or ; twenty-five inall, The remaining twenty-eicht undergo change.”
Neannul, Book iii. Sutr. 19.

. —

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] Zn Roman Characters. 189

Mr. C. P. Brown has represented the Telugu w= by ¢
and the 2 by 2, restricting the true sound of the Nagari © or
ch to words of Sanscrit origin.

It appears, however, to be unnecessary in a system of
strict transliteration to provide more symbols for a letter,
however variable in sound, than the people possess themselves.
In using a romanized character, such anomalies must there-
fore be learnt by practice, as they are at present mastered by
the natives themselves, who employ the vernacular characters
under precisely similar circumstances.

The only exception which appears necessary is in the re-
duplicated Tamil sounds of s, — and » ord, d and + which
become é¢ tt and tt and this has long received the sanction
of general usage. These have therefore been admitted.
The changes occurring in other letters will be found enume-
rated in Appendix B. p. 32.

We have also adopted the rule which gives the normal
sound of the Devanagari characters to words adopted into
Tamil and have represented them by their corresponding
Roman letters.

Mr. Brown’s expedient however suggests another use
for the letter ¢ and that is, it’s substitution for the ch of d,
which, eumbrous in its simple romanized form, becomes still

more awkward and unsightly in its re-duplicated and as-
pirated shapes.* ‘The letter c, the only character remaining
unappropriated, is also available for the same purpose. This
however is simply thrown outasa suggestion, which we have

* e. g. In the words JO eS and Sara ch huch’ hundar

*huch’hundar: ‘a musk rat”; * ., : cVhuch hundar ch’hor
and ch hue a0) = IN RSS c tor,
“¢q back-biter ” Br i) WoT , chochchuchunna ‘‘ ¢o rush in.”
>]

Prof. Bopp, appears to have adopted the expedient here recommended ;
thus he writes the title of the celebrated drama called the Toy-cart, Mric‘c‘akati.

190 Report on Writing Indian Words [No. 8, New Sertss,

not ventured to adopt, but which we consider to be worthy
of farther consideration.

Besides these, there are seven other letters peculiar to the-
Dravidian dialects, which were probably once common to all,
but the whole of which are found in Tamil alone at the pre-
sent day. They are oF @ o7 tp er and &B or o0* Ofthese
the three first only, have been retained in Telugu and Can-
arese, and the five first in Malayalam.t The two last are
confined to Tamil.

The two vowels are simply the short sounds of e and 0,
and as the corresponding Sanscrit vowels are always long,
and are so designated in the scheme at page 9, no farther
provision is required for them.

The Tamil or, Malay4lum 3_, and Telugu and Canarese
% , 1s not unknown to the Nagari alphabet, and is still found
in the older Sanscrit of the Védas, but it has fallen into dis-
use. It comes under the head of cerebral sounds, and is
therefore properly represented by J with the mark assigned
to that class. ,

The Tamil », or Malaydlam O, has the force of a prolonged
palatal 7, of which the Hindi } seems to be the Urdu equi-
valent. In its re-duplicated form it becomes ¢f and will be
rightly Dene by these corresponding letters with the palatal
sign—or ) and it 7

The next letter 6, which is confined to Tamil and Malay-
alam, may be termed the vexata litera of the Dravidian, as
¢ is of the Semitic tongues.

For the difficulties which impede the appropziate render-
ing of this sound, we refer to Appendix A. p. 21. The various

* Note:—In Nannitl, it is said that the letters o, 6p, , LD and ovr
only, are peculiar to Tamil, together with some peculiar sounds of vowels (called
“‘ dependant letters) with the exception of vowel-consonants and prolonged
vowels’. Book iii. Sutr. 23.

{ Peet’s Grammar, p. 7.

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters. 191

expedients which have been proposed by different writers

resolve themselves into a choice between r and J, if a single
letter is employed—or zh if a compound character is admissa-
ble.

Two of the highest authorities in Tamil literature, Dr.
Caldwell and Mr. Pope have pronounced the letter on
philological grounds to be a form of r but general use and
analogy are in favor of considering it a cerebral 1. The
Committee have therefore resolved to adopt the latter. There
being already two els, the proper diacritical mark would be
a point above, but this being unsuited to the shape of / they
resolve to recommend a line below or 1:

The Tamil or seems to differ in no wise from the ordin-
ary 7 fully enunciated as a palatal sound. It should there-
fore be noted as n*

The last letter is the equivalent of the Arabic ¢ and like
it should be represented by 4A.

as

THE ARABIC ALPHABET,

Thirteen letters peculiar to Semitic alphabets remain to
be rendered by Roman equivalents.

They are :—
ra } )
€ uw ai
\
o Be) e

b
of which six [or seven momding ei Ulery ay rae Lb a
are reckoned by grammarians to pertain exclusively to the
Semitic languages.

* «The sound of this character although no longer represented by a
specific sign in the Malayalam alphabet, seems to be not unknown in the spoken
language,” Peot’s Grammar, p. 4.

192 Report on Writing Indian Words |No. 8, New Szrtss,

The first is pronounced in Arabic exactly lke the
English th in thing—but in India it has simply the force of
dental s, and but for its occurrence in a few words of Arabic
origin might be discarded altogether. Asan anamolous letter,
it may be distinguished by s with a point above or 8.

The deep guttural breathing represented by _ is generally
rendered by h which as distinguished from the ordinary h
seems in all respects appropriate.

The stronger guttural sound of ~ common both to Arabs
and Persians, 1s universally rendered by kh with or without a
diacritical mark. Provision having been made for the aspira-
ted sound of £, it does not appear to us that any such distinc-
tion is required.* ,

The Arabic and Persian ; expresses the simplest sound
of z. The 5 which is also common to Arabia and Persia is
a very soft dentai sound of the same letter. Asan anomalous
letter it might be indicated by a supra linear point and the
infra linear sign would then be assignable with much pro-
priety to the cerebral form of the same sound in\;. But it
is desirable to retain the same sign for the sister forms of
{, and |, and the cerebral sign of ¢ being already pre-occupied
in the Devanagari alphabet, another expedient must be de-
vised. ;

It is proposed to indicate 3 by 2 with a line below or
z (already adopted by Shakespear) leaving the anomalous
sign for |, and |; as i and é.

This is the less objectionable, because these two letters
do not properly fall within any of the established phonetic
classes of letters, being enunciated by rolling the inverted

* Prof. Max Muller has proposed to represent these two sounds by h
with the soft and hard aspirates or ’2 and “h, but however well adapted for a
purely phonetic system they are unsuited to one proceeding on the rule of
strict transliteration, The missionaries of upper India likewise discussed the
plan of omitting the h and expressing cy k alone but rejected it as untenable.

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.| Ln Roman Characters. 1938

tongue, round one side of the mouth from the hindermost
molar towards the front teeth.

To 2 has already been assigned the mark of the palatal
s and on the score of analogy the oe should be distinguished
in like manner by z.

The next letters __, and & present no difficulties. The

first is precisely the English f; to the latter has been assign-
ed the letter g, an arbitrary arrangement, but one which has
been very generally adopted and which effectually guards
against confounding it with k.

With regard to , which has been the subject of so much |

controversy, we desire to recommend the expedient proposed
by Mr. Bayley of substituting a reversed comma above the
line, for the reasons so fully stated at page 35 of Appendix B.
lt is supported by simplicity of application whether in writ-
ing or print, being nothing more than the single inverted com-
ma, used to mark a quotation within a quotation, in ordinary
printing. By the latest modification of the Indian Missionary
alphabet, it has been resolved to write the vowels represented
by reed a comma before or after the letter—but on the top

of the line, as ’wamdl for $sc\. This plan is also deserving
of commendation.

For ¢ a double character gh has long been in use with

very general approval. More recently the Missionaries have
proposed to drop the h and have added a point in the lower
loop of the g—a gain on the side of simplicity in typography
when special provision has been made for the purpose, but im-
possible of execution in ordinary type and difficult of notation
in cursive manuscript.

The Persian i has been rendered in all systems by 2h.

It is of extremely rare occurrence and the double sign may
be retained. If the same double character be assigned to the

194 Report on Writing Indian Words [No. 8, New Sertss,

Tamil 49, the Persian representative might be tied by a line
below—as zh.

The anomalous sounds peculiar to certain dialects and
which find no place in the Arian system will then be repre-
sented as follows :—

maker cay e=, y for 0,0
gh “ e Ty, sf
h oy) g : "
4 Cc | : 93's eee
kh 43 c | 7 As
Z :
hee er yp leland Can &.S, De)
i | d
sf = ” fa)
1, gp Tamil and Mal.
i Z >> Os
in ») OOF | s : 5
. # Uv | Zh. ” Si
To resume:

The scheme here submitted provides for the represen-
tation of every oriental letter employed in India by a single
Roman letter, and where required, by the addition of a single
diacritical sign, except in five instances, in which double con-
sonants are introduced.

The diacritical signs are :

1. The acute accent over ali long vowels.

2. The soft breathing or apostrophe ’ with h for the
aspirated consonants.

Sync y point below the letter for the class of letters term-
ed cerebral consonants.

4. An accent above the letter for those styled palatals.
The acute accent having been appropriated to the vowels, the

grave accent may be substituted for the palatals to prevent
confusion.

5. A point above the line for anomalous sounds except
in the case of the nasal 1 for which we have borrowed the
familiar Spanish %

Ocr. 1858.—Mar..1859.] Ln Roman Characters. 195

6. A line below the letter in two instances when the
three descriptions of signs already adopted were exhausted and
in a third where the only one available was inappropriate.*

7. The double letters admitted in five instances, are
ch, kh, gh, sh, and zh.*

Of these it is possible that the first or ch may yet be
dispensed with.*

* We propose to exclude the Déva nagari lx Irt because of such rare
occurrence as to be well-nigh obsolete. The Persian zh may be reckoned in

the same category, which would leave but three double sigus, if ch wus repre-
sented by ¢ or ¢.

196 Report.ow Writing Indian Words [No. 8, New Series,

APPENDIX A,

As a foundation for the report which the Sub-Commit-
tee was appointed to prepare, I would propose the six fol-
lowing axioms :—

1. That the scheme be founded on the system of Sir
W. Jones.

2. That a distinct Roman character should be used for
each oriental letter.

3. That the same Roman letter shall always represent
the same vernacular letter and shall never be employed to
designate any other.

4, That two or more letters shall never be taken to re-
present an oriental character or sound where a single letter
will suffice.

5. That diacritical marks should only be employed in
the last necessity.

6. Varieties of type as capital, italics, &c., to be declared
inadmissible.

Professor Wilson has already drawn up a scheme em-
bracing most of these requisites which is printed in the in-
troduction to his Glossary. | ;

Iam not disposed to depart from this, except ina few
particulars, where it appears to me to be susceptible ofimprove-
ment.

I will notice shortly the points in which I differ from that
scheme beginning with the Deva Nagari Alphvbet.

DEVA NAGARI.

In adopting this Alphabet as a basis, we shall have the
most perfect phonetic system of classified sounds which, accord-
ing to Prof. Max Muller, has ever been invented. And this be-
cause it was taught by the voice alone, for ages after the Sans-
erit language had been brought to a high degree of cultiva-

hii: 1858.—Mar. 1859.| Ln Roman Characters, 1907

tion and before the invention of written characters. Thus the
word now used for “learning, instruction,” is siksha, the normal
meaning of which is “ the proper pronounciation of the vocal
sounds occurring in the Vedas as explained by Panini”
(Wilson) in other words “ phonetic science”.

The aspirated consonants are represented by the addition
of the letter 2. I prefer the practice of Sir William Jones
which has beenadopted by several continental orientalists whe
as well as some of our own, add an apostrophe with or without
the h. I adhere to the Jonesian practice of the comma above
askh gh, &e.

T do so because these letters are necessarily required to
express the sounds of ¢ and a and would therefore need a

diacritical mark ; because th at once suggests to Hnelish
readers the sound of these letters in the, think, &c, ph the
sound of f in physic, rh the sound of hard rv in rhinoceros,
rhizome &e.; because such a general mark as the (’) at once
suggests the idea of a simple aspiration or breathing in in all
places where it occurs, and influences the pronunciation
accordingly.

Professor Wilson has changed the romanized symbol
of J[ from s’ tos in accordance with his system of distinguish-
ing all letters requiring diacritical marks, by points below
the line. I prefer the former or Sir W. Jones method which
is generally adopted both by English and German orientalists,
because it is already established & because in a general system
where provision must be made for the three sibilants of the
Arabic alphabet also, resort must otherwise be had to more
complicated marks.

I object to Wilson’s mode of writing anusvara by N,
and the others by infra linear pomts. Thus, besides the nor-
mal 7 he has five so designated, the last with four dots under
it.*

€ Vide Axiom 4.

198 Report on Writing Indian Words | No. 8, New Serizs,

I would place the mark above, because in conformity with
native usage and because, in manuscript, the circle would often
become a dot and thus create confusion.

But might not both anusvara and visarga be expressed
by their original characters » and ¢ which would comport
very well with Roman type and be not at all unseemly ?

Further, I would adopt for the palatal n, which Wilson
represents by 7, the spanish 7%; for the guttural n the double
letters ng or n ; for the cerebral m an 7 and for the Tamil
palatal 7 ann.

Wilson has no distinction between the Nagari Sf ST
and the Hindi + and Tamil » all of which he expresses by
yor 71 and rt.

The sounds are altogether different. I would write

qe ee
J |
D r fo tt’

The letter @ is usually written ksha and I am free to
confess these letters represent the sound perfectly. But many
Orientalists particularly those of France use an w. This prac-
tice is in accordance with axiom 4.

TAMIL ALPHABET. ;

The only letters that call for notice in Tamil, are :—

or

fy)
oor

2

The first, which is also common to the other southern
dialects, is an original Sanscrit sound, and is found in the old
alphabets of that language. Itis a hard d, which is appro-
priately marked by a point below or J

The next letter, if only representing the prolonged sound
of r as uttered in perfection by the Todas of the Nilagiris,
would easily be distinguished by a diacritical mark, But in

_
eS

QGcr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters. 199

its re-duplicated use it becomes t¢* and as there are already 55
and w which are written tt and tt, I would recommend, as
proposed above, that this character should be expressed by
y and pm by te’.

This is contrary to the 8rd proposed fundamental rule

‘but the genius of the Tamil language and its poverty in

phonetic signs require a relaxation of the axiom, to provide for
differences of sound of the same letter, under different circum-
stances, as in the cases of 6, ¢, $,L, UW and ©, which may be
read respectively as k and g—s and ch—t and d—i and d—p
and 6—rand ¢. But as several ofthese depend on the position
of the particular letter in relation to others, which every Tamil
scholar soon learns by practice, I would confine the substitu-
tion of other Roman characters for the normal one, to the
double fees and to such words as have been adopted from
Sanserit,

The Tamil or it has already been proposed to designate
by 7.

The last letter represents a sound peculiar to the Dravi-
dian dialects and now retained only in Tamil and Malayalam.
It is a mixture of 7,/ andr, and is only pronounced in its
purity by the pure Tamil races the Vellazhars and Mudali-
yars. The Todas also enunciate it with peculiar fullness.

The difficulty of finding a suitable Roman equivalent is
best exemplified by enumerating the attempts hitherto made
to represent it in a Roman dress.

Ziegenbalg 1714 employs.........008. Schondaaats rl and rhl
Marte Mase urea Soe Leak. soseik ve. aph b sillolresinins aid «Aste vias ae |—j
—,pref. of Sen Tamil grammar (Babington’s
MELT LOUD hs Sales wiabe, {odes wield VAje lls wip Selle ae Z}
POLS LG. ceiver Te eer ees)

* According to Rhenius the true sound of the double ™ is tr “ though the » is
sounded rather softly and quickly ; but the common people pronounce it like ft.”
Gram. p. 17.

200 Report on Writing Indian Words |No. 8, New Srrzes,

Anderson, 1819, (when medial)............c0.008 ¥
— (whew danaby\e2 iit, eee l
Babington 1822, Trans. Beschi’s Sen Tamil
OVA doe core see eee ee coer ee fea deat zh
Rhenius (884° “ 9: kind of 22-44 Js Neeeeeeee. nro
Graull 1854, in the Kaivalyanavanita.......... 1
Walson: 1855, Glossary desc essjsen anne brabaiedide ] in Tamil.
rin Mal™*
Caldwell 1856, Comp. grammar............e.0 r
Pope 1856, First Lessons “something like the
Welsh ll” with the force of rrr...........2568 r
—1859 Tamil hand-book do. do. and...........T
B. H. Hodgson 1856...... snieiheesd Gah ReEeR ee
the d tenes Jesuits... . 205) oa-ansbiss chaeiees eee xh +

Beschi describes it as being “quoque aliud 7, quod
crassiorl sono, reflexaé omnino ad interiorem palati partem
lingua, pronunciatur ;’ adding ina note “in aliqua istius
regionis parte sonat quasi.” Tamil Gr. ch. 1. s. 2.

Rhenius observes, “ for 49 we have no proper sound in
English or any other European language ; it is a mixture of
7 and J imperceptibly coalescing by turning the tongue up-
ward to the roof the mouth.” Gram” 3rd ed. 16. Thus
he writes +25 erlutiu. ;

According to Dr. Caldwell “this distinctive Dravidian
semi-vowel is found in the Tamil alone. Its sound resembles
that of the English 7 after a long vowel, as in the word farm,
but it is pronounced further back in the mouth, and in a still
more liquid manner. It is sometimes expressed in English
books as zh or rzh but this is merely a local pronunciation of the
letter, which is peculiar to the northern district of the Tamil
country : itis at variance with its affinities and its interchanges,

* By a typographical error the Malayalam g and ip in Prof. Wilson’s
alphabetical table at p. xi of the glossary have been made to change places,

+This 2 seems to have been intended for the Greek y. Thus they
write"Lor 6 @ Xhanti, ‘a heathen.”

|
|
|

|
|
|

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] Ln Roman Characters. 201

and is likely to mislead the learner. 7 1s the only Dravidian
consonant which is pronounced differently in different dis-
tricts. In the Southern districts of the Tamil country, it is
pronounced by the mass of the people, exactly in the same
manner as J, which is the letter invariably used instead of r
in Canarese. Between Tanjore and Pondicherry, it is softened
into rzh, or zh; and in Madras and the neighbourhood,
this softening process has been carried to such a length, that
in the speech of the vulgar, 7 has become a silent letter,”

“The Telugu, which commences to be spoken about two
days journey north of Madras, has lost this letter altogether,
Generally it uses d instead, as the Canarese uses /, but some-_
times it uses no substitute, after the manner of the vulgar
Tamil of Madras. Looking at such Telugu words as kinda,
‘below, answering to the Tamil kirnda and vingw ‘to
swallow, answering to the Tamil virungu, we cannot but sup-
pose, that the Telugu had this letter originally, like the Tamil,
and that it lost it gradually through the operation of that
softening process which, in the colloquial Tamil of Madras,
converts hiré, ‘ below,’ to kté.” Comp. Gram. p. 108.

Mr. Pope considers the Tamil 7, 7 and #, to possess each
three sounds, a dental, a palatal anda cerebral while to /
he allows only two, a palatal and acerebral. In pursuance
of this analogy he assigns to 4p the cerebral place of r and
gives the following rule for its pronounciation “apply the
tip of the tongue, as far back as you can, to the palate and
pronounce a rough 7 in which a sound of z will mingle. In
the South, unable to articulate this letter, they use a strong /
(ar) instead. In the North in the same way they use (y)
for wp.” Tamil Hand-book p, 11.

‘The only conclusion to be drawn from these various
statements is that the » represents a sound altogether sus
generis or as Professor Wilson expresses it, “ the enunciation
is singularly obscure and cannot be precisely represented by
any written characters.”

202 Report ow Writing Indian Words [No. 8, New Sertzs,

But this sound* is by no means peculiar to the Dravidian
dialects. It is found to prevail equally throughout the abori-
ginal Indo-Chinese tongues of the Himalayas and Tibet
Hodgson refers to it repeatedly. “The second z,” he observes,
presented by me by zy and equal to the French 7 in jeu, is
the same with the Tamil zh of Ellis and Elliot. It is a very
prevalent sound and equally prevalent isthe French w or ew in
jewaforesaid. Neither is ever heardfrom an Arian mouth,’ &.>
Even among the aborigines, he adds, the influence of
Arian vocables is gradually bringing them into disuse. And
this is also the casein the South, where from the same cause,
they have gradually disappeared from the Telugu and
Canarese.

It becomes a matter of interest therefore, to observe the
expedient employed in these two dialects, to replace the absence
of this characteristic sound, in words of common origin,

The following

* Pref. to Gloss. p. xv.

+ Hodgson, Aborigines of the Nilagiris in Journal As. Soc, Bengal, XXY.
p. 403,

203

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] Jn Roman Characters.

ee aa

! ‘oreys yonod VW nIBY ee
: ae eal “nuury 3009
= ysnord of, njn Mase
é ‘ATT OL Iva secs
3 “Xe “VUIVUL &3 Jou)
=
“4 “MOTO “UAOC -o8v joy ua.
= "04S \ yey M209
as)

S ‘yiqno VW "e]OUL Serge
= ‘queyd

+ |snuvpueg oq, [ey «Gee
= ‘ODIO VW ‘Ijns Gow
= Urey rojeur Goce
=|

e '9.08}} 0g ENY oes
S ‘perpuny Behe oma AQ ene 83 (2)
= _ WeANg np So
eH

| ‘TM.OF TOY CMe

‘QSOLDWD)

|

NILE] on)
‘apued oc.

—_a

xAPPA Gerace

NUVUTABUL coe? 5.000 O88

‘epUTY 2g
pred mae
"BINUL Qoees

ipns 8

‘BURA SoS

PMA, Hass
‘nanun {9 cn Xace
‘Dp RG

TPO Be
___ nbnjay

‘TL YZOy Foy ©
uvyzed ON FY
“eyzn TF E>
NYZeA sore

‘eynyzou & DUO

‘oyziy AHO!
eyzty AO ee
‘yzed GiGry

“ure | NUL o-=%

reyzey G76 CQ)
‘TYZNYO (3 Po-
‘eyzeu TY
yeny Ff)

‘eyze FT Oye
TYZOyY | HOWE
LL 6

TYZOY Fi4eO
‘urvyzed Tin

nyzn Ds

NYZEA Tie

nynyzou DATE)

qty OS

‘yzed Tun

WBYZOW TSHITIE

‘TeYZey Hewue
TYZns #
TeyZeUl Figo

yzny, fe

‘ 9 Gir A 19
TOUNYZE O@us Gor nmunyz

nyZo Ao
TYZOY Hfiseg

und,

a

It is only now occasionally applied

house of her husband,

y obsolete.

* The use of vddu is near]
to a wife going to live in the

204 Report on Writing Indian Words | No. 8, New SERIES,

From these examples, it appears that the Canarese sub-
stitute a hard , the Telugus generally a hard d and sometimes
an l which is occasionally softened away as inthe words for
wax, below, frurt, &c.—Some times eliding it altogether as in
the word gpipsere muzhankdl, “the knee” which becomes
arse MOkalw.

So completely has the letter disappeared from Telugu,
that the Vadagala Vaishnavas of Telingana who are obliged
to repeat daily, portions of the sacred verses composed by the
twelve Azhwars, which they commit to memory from versions
written in Telugu characters, finding no letter to represent 1p
have adopted the expedient of restoring it bodily in its
original ‘Tamil shape.

Notwithstanding the high authorities of Messrs. Cald-
well and Pope, I am unable to concur in their view of con-
sidering the letter to bean r. In this, | am supported by
the Native grammarians. The author ofthe Sabda manjari,
the Tamil version of Paninis Dapnene grammar, distinctly
affirms the identity of 4) and o * which he illustrates by the
following examples :—
26H uUzwunda becomes 2656 ulundu,a kind of pulse.
ops kuzhagam. Gora hulagam, a verse.
Ceripw sdzham. Cerora Cen Lib ché lam and

sddam, a kind of grain.

So far the balance of authority preponderates in favor
of resorting to / which should then be distinguished by some
diacritical mark.

There is however sufficient evidence to show that the
letter is an original Turanian sound which has gradually

* par, CumrGug, There is no difference between Mand or,” Itis

remarkable that the original dictum of Panini from which this is adopted

—S
runs thus, SBAVTAT: betweon d, and J, there is no difference.” Thus

we have d, zh and / replacing cach other in the Southern dialects,

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters. 205

become obsolete from its incompatibility with the Arian
phonetic system and that the various changes it has undergone
in the examples quoted, are so many make-shifts to get rid
of it. If we wish therefore to represent it clearly, we must
assign to it a special sign and for this purpose, I am decidedly
of opinion that we should retain Ellis expedient of writing
zh, an arbitrary sign it is true, but one incapable of being
mistaken for anything else and at least as appropriate as any
other that has been suggested. For let any one follow ex-
actly the mode of pronunciation laid down by Native gram-
marians as explained by Beschi, Caldwell, and Pope without
any preconceived idea in favor of a particular letter and the
sound emitted by simply forcing the voice through the organs,
will be neither a liquid Unor a trilling r but a gushing utter-
ance which comes near to ajh or azh than any other com-
bination of sounds that I can conceive.

ARABIC ALPHABET.

This is the most difficult character to deal with, both on
account of the larger number of sounds peculiar to itself, which
it contains, and because these are pronounced so differently
by different races* which make use of it. The Muhammadans
of India altogether fail in enunciating the true sounds of
Bee. .3,\-b," bs, which are for the most part reduced

by them to s and z, as among ourselves.
I have already stated my objections to Wilson’s represen-
tation of <

S
|
cH

uD
_ TL also object to his exchange of h from _ to yasan un-

necessary innovation and as less fitting in itself: , has

* The Egyptain Arabs pronounce the (4 asg. e. g. galb for galb “‘ the hears”
and the Basarah to and many of the Syrian Arabs invariably gave the sound of
ch to gas chalb for kalb “a dog.”

206 Report on Writing Indian Words [No. 8, New Serizs,

exactly the sound of the Roman h whereas _ has a peculiar

guttural sound which I conceive to be more appropriately
designated by an additional sign or mark.

I differ also from the Professor in using k for 3 and in

conformity with the principle laid down in rule 2, and with
the generally adopted practice, I would employ gq for that pur-

pose,
There remains the vexata litera e which Wilson writes
as @ with a circumflex over it.

This does not appear more happy than any of the pre-
ceding schemes which have been suggested.

I like the plan adopted by the Missionaries in Bengal and
followed by Dr. Sprenger and some of the Bengal orientalists
of employing a comma above the line as nat, ... 3.) adding a
vowel where necessary as in mal in tyre

Wav, aaah
in’am ale
or it might be represented by the short vowel with a comma
over it, as
mal’atn
Vaab
in’'aam

The letter |, is represented in Wilson’s scheme by s which
has this propriety, that the diacritical signs are the Scene as
those of the original. But the true sound of the letter is the

English th and I am inclined to think that sign is preferable.
A familiar instance occurs in the word te thamr, fruit, as

teak » asthamar hindi, the ‘Tamarind. But in India, the |

sound has been very generally corrupted to that of a pure
sibilant s, so that I would not insist on any change.

WALTER ELLIOT,

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.| In Roman Characters.

APPENDIX B.
TELUGU.

a {as thea in “about” and “delta.”
a _| as the long a in “father.”

1 as the 1in “pin;” or y in “truly.
i jas the long 1 in “pique.”
u

u

29

as the oo in “ good.”
as the long 00 in “ food.”

as the o in “ police.”
kK jas the k in “king.”
horse.”

horse.”
n |as the ng in “angle.”

BR hae oe Hoe eer $F o ks Ge
@

ck
g Gum
TR

ch (| with the vowelsi ie éai, as the chin “church.”
S [ Note 1.]
(| with the vowels a4 ui 06, asthe ts in “jetsam.”
% | ch’h| aspirate of the preceding ch; as ch h in “coach-
horse.” pees Opa :
{j | with the vowels iie é ai, as the j in“jelly. :
® | dz (| with the vowels a 4 u to 6, as the dz in “adze.

[ Note 1.]
jh |aspirate of the preceding J.

| th | aspirate of the preceeding.

ri, ruj as the ri in “rim,” and roo in “rook.”

ri ru) as the rea in “ream,” and roo in “rood.”

as the e in “mendicant,” (nearly the French é.)
€ as the ey in “grey,” (nearly the French é)

ai fas the al in “aisle,” or ei in “height.”

as the long o in “story,” and “ prose.”
au |as the ou in “foul,” or the ow in “ drown.”

g as the g in “garden” and ‘‘ legacy.”
g’h jaspirate of the preceding. As gh in “gig-

eo |. i |as the gn in “mignon,” or the ni in ‘onion.
ne! a peculiar hard or palatal t, like t in “ trump.
5

207

k’h |aspirate of the preceding. As kh in “pack-.

3

208

XK Ader xX

QO RRS RAH &

Gm % Pah A ux es x

16)

feXe)

Report on Writing Indian Words [No. 8, New Sznizs,

a peculiar hard or palatal d, stronger than d in
‘damaz

aspirate of the preceding.

a palatal n.

dental or soft t,as the tin “winter.” (The Italian
t exactly.)

aspirate of the preceding ; as the t h in “ ant-
hill.”

soft d as the d in “daily.”

aspirate of the preceding ; as dh in “adhere,”

soft n, as the n in “fancy.”

as the p in “ pardon.”

aspirate of the preceding, as p h in “up-hill.”

as the b in “number.”

aspirate of the preceding; as bh in “abhor.’,,

as the m in “demand.”

as the y in “yellow.” (If without a vowel mark
it is the vowel g.)

as the r in “round” and “ burial’ |

a peculiar vibrating r something like r in “crack.”
as the | in “manly.”

as the v in “marvel.”

an s, or rather sh, something like s in “surety.”
as the full sh in “shoulder” and “lashing.”

as the s in “sinful” and “ wasting.”

as the h in “hunger.”

a peculiar hard 1; harder than | in “glover.”
as the ksh in “workshop.” :

as the m in “cumber.” |

as the n in “ wonder.”

as the ch in the Scotch “loch.”

(Note 1.) ts is the true Telugu sound of the letter ® ; but
it is used in Sanscrit derivatives for the Sanscrit letter ch.
So dz is the true Telugu sound of the letter =; but in
Sanscrit derivatives it is pronounced as 7.

N. B.—In the list of consonants in the native character,the vowel mark of a’

short, has been appended to each of the consonarts to which it can be append-

ed, This has been done to distinguish them from the 9 consonants which do

not carry it, viz: k’h,gn, j, fi, t, n, b, r, 1. Hence the English equivalents are

ka, k’ha, ga, g’ha, gn, &c.

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters. 209

TAMIL,

as the a in “about” and “ delta.”
as the long a in “ father.”
as the 1 in “pin,” or the y in
“truly.” [See Note, 1.]
as the long 1 is in “ pique.” [See Note 2.]
as the oo in “ good.”
as the long 00 in “ noon.”
as the e in “ mendicant”
(nearly the French é) [See Note 3.]
as the ey in “grey”
(nearly the French é.) [See Note 4.]
as the ai in “ aisle,” or ei in height.”
as o in “ police.”
as the long o in “story,” or “ prose.”
as the ou in “ foul,” or ow in “ drown.”
or gas k in “king” or g in “lagoon.” [See Note 5.]
as the ng In “angle.”
|a peculiar s sounded nearly like ch. [See Mote 6.]
as the ni in “ onion,” or gn in “ mignon.”
hard or palatal d ; stronger than d in “drum.”
It has a sound of t in it.

Ok b&
M+ go gs

9 BPs
Dee se ot

©
Ot

©
=

32

Qe p Ps O10

rasa SOY OE

cor ; n hard or palatal n.
® | t ord asthe t¢ in “tinder,” or d in
“windy.” [See Note 7. |
Tees soft n as the n in “ fancy.”
uv | p or b as the p in “ pardon” or b in
| “number.” [See Note 8.]
io | m as the m in “ demand.”
ae. Y. as the y in “ yellow.”
es hed }as the r in “round” and “ burial.”
ow |! as the 1 in “ manly.”
a | Vv as the v in ‘ marvel.” :
Bd a peculiar rolling sound : a mixture ofr, 1, anc
the French j.
or | ik a hard 1; harder than 1 in “ glove.”
|e a vibrating r; something like r in “crack.” __
or | 0 the same asthe soft n above, butusedasa “ final.”
ax | = Sanscrit sh.
ov | = Sanscrit sibilant s,

210 Report on Writing Indian Words |No. 8, New Szrius,

INGO Gl Eas.

(1.) @ (i) befored nr 1 lis sounded like u ; as a9@ leave,
is pronounced vudu, not ‘vidu.

(IL) mm (i) befored nr] 1 is pronounced like the German
ith, as o@ a house, is pronounced viihdu, and not vidu.

(IIL) a (e) when initial, is generally sounded like ye; and
g like yé. Thus afl a tank is yér2 and not éri, though the latter
form should be Agee’ | in a Glossary.

(IV.) o é before d nr | | is sounded like the German oé in

Goéthe. As @o@ arising ground, not médu, but moédu, or nearly
as if written in English murdoo.

(V.) & (k) as an ivitialisk. Thus «70 kddu a jungle.
Asa medial if alone itisg. Thus o@e magan a son, (but in
words taken from the Sanscrit, the t is preserved.) Asa medial
double itis k. Thus uéeb pakkama sice. Asa final with a
vowel, itisg. Thus wi @ padzgu a boat.

(VI.) «#(s) Though generally rendered by the English s
when it is alone, the sound is more that of ch. Thus ew a field
is pronounced more like chey than sey, though the latter form
would be adopted ina Glossary. Thus ehinna small, for sinna,
&e. As a medial, if alone, itis more of the sibilant s, as
Lor F.D moasam a month, Asa medial double the two form ch, as
DFE, Gi a mould. As a final with a vowel, it is more sibilant
as W& past hunger. When # follows » (r) it is pronounced ch.

As aqpwif muyarhi effort. This letter supplies in Tamil the
Sanscrit ch and s

(VII.) s as an initial,is a softlike the Italian t. Thus
gol tunt a piece of cloth, As a medial, or a final with a
vowel it is d; thus gq kadavu a door, «9 & kadu the ear. (N.
B. This is io be distinguished from s7@ kadu a jungle, with a
hard d.) When double ¢» is tt without any sound of th, as
65 katti a knife. Asan inital » is used for the Sanscrit d’h.

(VIII) w(p)as an initialis p. Thus u7@ pddu a song ;
as a medial and alone, it has a sound of b, especially if fol lowing
to (m), as WticLy pambu a snake. When double Wu==p, as su
tappu a fault. As an initial, it is used for the Sanscrit b’h.

“¢==tch as or Feo matchimai, excellence.

GFN} as she anju five.

Ci.-tt (harder than $s=—tt) as g(@sered altukkgla
sheeps foot.

fm =tt (harder than tt) as anméare attukhal a water
course,

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters. Pad

HINDUSTANI.

1. Theromanizing system that I would propose, is based
on Sir William Jones’ method, and brought into very general
use by Shakespear. The arrangement proposed by Professor
Wilson in the introduction to his “Glossary of Official terms,”
mainly coincides with the above.

2. As Shakespear has been so long a well known au-
thority, I would adhere to the spelling of Hindtstani words
that we find in his Dictionary with one or two slight modi-
fications. They are as follows. Ist, I would use a different
symbol for the , ; but of this more will be said presently.

Qndly, I would atcentuate the GC) dé and the (, us) & because

they are both long in Hindtstan{i, and when we come to arrange
an alphabet to suit Tamil and Telugu as well as Hindtstanf,
it will be necessary to show the difference between the long
and short o’s and e’s. 3rdly, I would introduce the aspirate
mark ’ before an h following a consonant: as U’h instead of
bh,—because the aspirate is peculiar to the original language
from which Hindtstani is framed, and needs to be sounded.
4thly, I would write the accents as in foreign Kuropean lan-
guages, @ €¢ &c., instead of @ é 7 as Shakespear does.

3. Professor Wilson, is no doubt a high authority, es-
pecially as he has endeavoured to make his roman alphabet
suit various languages besides Hindtstani, and it is therefore
as well to show where his system differs from Shakespear,
and why I adopt the latter, (all except for ¢)

Witson. SHAKESPEAR,

i § S
2 0 4 z |
3 A Z ¢
4 4 Z ¢
3 “ § s
6 h h
(ei d
7 ra kh ich
8 ¥ h h
io hae gh dh
| cll eS “A x

ey

212 Report on Writing Indian Words [No. 8, New Sertss,

4. With regard to the 5 first, Professor Wilson gives no
reasons for this difference from Shakespear, but it is proba-

bly owing to his having arranged his roman letters first for -

Sanscrit, and when other z's or s’s came in Persian and Hin-
distani, he was obliged to adopt a new form. Thisis evident
from his making s the equivalent for the Sanscrit Uf, and
thus Shakespear's s for Le Was changed into s. In Southern

India the Sanscrit &T is sounded like “ Sh” as in Shiva, and
Shrotriyam, and I am inclined to write it Sh, especially as
in Hindustani, it 1s represented by US and in Telugu by ¥.
Sir William Jones writes it §, and so do many other Oriental-
ists, and therefor | would adopt g Which ever way it 1s,
the equivalent for uP better remain as Shakespear has it v72z., s.

5. With regard to the letters y and _ ; according to

Shakespear the former is the common h, but the latter has a
dot under it or h. Wilson just reverses this, but with hesita-
tion, as he acknowledges. I prefer Shakespear, not only as
being established, but because a dot generally denotes a more
decided sound, and this is the case with _, which is sometimes
sounded so strong that Europeans have written it ch, as in
Achmet for Ahmad. Sir William Jones distinguished it by
an accent thus: Hh. é

6. With regard to 2 Wilson renders it kh, and thus

makes no difference between it and & whereas there is a very
avide difference, as any one can hear in the pronunciation of
sla a house, and \g¢ food, or khéna and khand. Shakes-
pear’s distinction of kh to shew it is all one letter, I would pre-
serve, though I admit it is not absolutely necessary if the as-
pirates are accentuated as recommended in para. 2.

7. With regard to ¢ much the same observations as

above occur. Wilson says that it is a modification of g, and
writes it gh ; but this is mere matter of taste, and no incon-
venience can result from the well known equivalent used by
Shakespear viz., gh and so distinguishing it from yh.

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters. 213

8. With regard to e that letter will be separately consi-
dered in an Appendix to this memo.

9. I would not use ztalics at all. They may answer as
distinctive marks in printing ; but in writing to underline
letter, might denote either a diacritical mark, or an italic;
and it might be doubtful which.

10. In ordinary writing, the following marks might be
omitted: the dots underneath, to distinguish d from d,—s
from s—z from z and 2,—+ from ¢ and ¢ &c. ; but I would re-
tain the aspirate inkh Uh &c. ; unless it were arranged to use
kh and gh fore and¢., Thelong vowel accents should be re-

tained, as also the mark over § for the Sanscrit YJ]. The
mark representing ¢ might also be omitted in common writing.

The above concession does not at all diminish the ex-
pediency of framing rules, whereby to write in Roman charac-
ter, with diacritical points, the Eastern languages. In gram-
mars and dictionaries the strict rule should be adhered to,
and also in books printed throughout in the Roman character.
The Roman rendering should be such, that one conversant
with the rules, should be able to convert the words written or
printed in that character, into their original character. ‘That
is the test of a correct method; and of course in this case, ald
the diacritical pomts are required to be used.

I now proceed to offer in an Appendix, my remarks on
the rendering of ¢.

APPENDIX.

Rendering of letter ¢ .

}. The rendering in roman character of the letter « , has
as Wilson observes, “always constituted a difficulty.”

214 Report on Writing Indian Words {| No. 8, New Sertgs,

2. Shakespear’s rule, is that when initial in a syllable,
it is represented by * (which is its medial form) placed over

the vowel which follows it in pronunciation. Thus S —

arzi, silane mwa aft; but when it is not initial in a syllable,

(2. €. when it has a jazm over it) the x is placed after the
vowel which precedes, as spec = ma*miui. It will be observ-
ed that when ¢ precedes a ore Shakespear precedes it by

an aspirate mark, (as in mia afi above) to which he does not
allude in his explanation.

3. Wilson states that Sir W. Jones in his Memoir,
“proposed to distinguish it by a canst’ and adopts that
plan himself.

4. Richardson in his Persian Dictionary, as also Johnson,
use the Arabic letter itself.

5. In the proposed “Missionary Alphabet” itis propos-
ed to render it ’h.

6. Inthe Calcutta papers of 1835-36 re-printed in Lon-
don 1854, it is proposed to render it by a dot under the vowel
to which it is attached. ;

7. Dr. Lipsiusin his} “Standard Alphabet,” objects to
the circumflex over, or the dot under the vowel, as indicat-
ing a change in that vowel, whereas ¢ 1s a full consonant,
and is distinct from a vowel. He indicates it by?

8. All these differences shew that the rendering of this
letter requires consideration.

9. In the first place it is to be borne in mind that the
letter is purely Arabic,andby Arabic grammarians considered
a consonant. Under no circumstances can it be considered a
vowel, if only for this season, that itrequires to be surmounted
by or subscribed with, one of the three vowel mark, in order
to its constitut ing a syllable,

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters. 215

10. Sir W. Jones, and Wilson’s plan of the cirewmflex,
will first be considered ; Ist, where it is initial in a syllable :
take the following examples :—

WILson AND JONES.

: arZ

goer saa

l, a&mm
¢

o

(28> df fzzat
Sve id
oe. io, Ae

11. It is contrary to all usage to write anything above
the place where a letter is to come, before writing the letter
itself ; and if the circumflex is used to represent ¢ » the reader
is required to suppose in cases like drzt and tzzat, that the
circumflex was written before the subjacent letter.

12. Again where the g Is not initial.
WiLson AND JONES,

juss) itibar
joee OO
Jie mamil

13. In all these cases, the ¢ has no vowel mark over
or under it, but on the contrary, a jazm, in order to shew that
it is quiescent. In these cases what vowel can the corcumflex
be ‘circum’ to, seeing that there is no vowel in the original
syllable ? 7*tibar, da” wa, ma mil, would be the only consis-
tent method, if; = but then the circwmflex would be over
nothing! To place it over the preceding vowel, is to put it
into a syllable to which it does not belong.

14. Again the circumflex over a vowel, is (as stated in
para. 7), apt to mislead ; for it would be supposed that by it
the vowel was made broad, as in the French jféte, Thus

216 Report on Writing Indian Words [No. 8, New Sertzs,

Wilson would write mdédmiul, and ndlband, leading to the
supposition that the mark denoted a long a ; whereas the a
in both words is short, though it is true that this a, which
precedes the ¢, is with the ¢ sounded as in English aa@ or
with a lengthened sound. So Wilson spells ade and 3

wn

the same, namely Ali ; whereas the former means lofty, and
the latter the name of Muhammad's son-in-law.

15. Again the circumflex stands in the way of a long
vowel accent. Thus in the word 4 a festival, the 7 1s long,
but Wilson writes it “4d or did,” (instead of “¢d,) as if he
were puzzled how to manage it. Sohe renders Jole by
dadil, thus as before departing from his own rule, that eis”
represented by a circumflex ; for in this case it is represent-
ed by 4, or both circumflex and vowel. Other discrepancies

are also observed. Thus eb} he writes itld; here the ¢ is

again both circumflex and vowel. ‘The same é@ that is used
for the long 7 in 7d is used for tzzat ar. where it is short.

(See para. 10.) Again Ee) is written rabid, where = is again
represented by @ ; and this in a word in which there is no
sound of terminal a at all. Still he writes jémt for pol>
which if rabid is right, should be jyamid. .

16. Shakespear’s plan is objectionable on the same
ground as Wilson’s, so far as the initial 1s concerned. (See
para. 11). The symbol must always have the appearance of
having been superscribed after the completion of the vowel,
and the wniiiad position of the ¢ is apt to be overlooked. It
is also objectionable inasmuch as it is used over a vowel like
an accent, whereas it is a consonant, and should haye its pro-
per place in the word.

17. Besides this, the symbol x can hardly be called the
¢ for it is only the medial form of it; also it is ill adapted
to long vowels, if they are accentuated in the usual fashion.

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters. 217

Thus {4 is awkward. Shakespear's x has these advantages
over the circumflex : first, it is not an accentuation mark :
and secondly, it is written according to a fixed rule. My
own opinion is much in favor of the original Arabic letter
inserted in its proper place, especially asa medial. Thus
ean, masmil, khilsat, in eam, zulag&e. There is no
typographical difficulty, and Johnson’s Persian Dictionary,
—a standard work—has it throughout. A Turkish Gram-
mar printed in London during the Crimean war, also contains
it. I have had the letter cast in Madras and used it in type
easily and cheaply. Thisisno doubt the most correct method
of rendering ¢ ; but for the sake of expediency, I would not
press it. Many would find it awkward to write, and it has
an uncouth aspect by the side of roman letters.

218 Report on Writing Indian Words [No. 8, New Szrizs,

18. I would therefore substitute forit the head of the
letter, namely“; (or a reversed comma might do), and
elevate it above the other letters.

SHAKESPEAR. WILson. PROPOSED.
Cy
aA a
sy argi arzi ‘arzi
mae x
fe amm 4mm ‘4mm
Rx
Hac : a “4
Oye 1 i d id
(Op R. i i
wnt ain ain fain
“ew A ae Ac i ( is t
LAs y raaiyat raiyat ra‘alya
Pw ss 2
Gs ta’ alluk tadlluk tafalluk
af C e ~~ e A ©
eee ilats khil’at khilat khilfat
z i e Be * AP OU 42
pix in’am indém in‘4m
oa = ~ As (e4 At
eas ta inat tain at ta‘in
De , = A ° ¢ e
muvalyan; muda in mu‘alyan
Roo
Pus z wv K Ne ( ,
ma mul mamul ma‘mul
) gARve .
ae tabi*dar | tdébidar tabi‘dar
at e & A A (
jams jama jama
\; zile mila zila$
5 rabix rabia rabié
eax)
WLI ittila ittilaa ittila‘®
Se .

Ger. 1858.—Mar. 1859.) In Roman Characters. ab

Cit

3
-

CEChLALAA (:

a
2

ad

(eee eS a Ln oS

LEER —(C O&O rere oGSS.

bo tes Sige ee 2c (ECS cr

eo le

clr eerie NY

BB BG wre TIN Ne nN

WwW Orv

©

CONSONANTS.

as the 6 in “number.”

as the p in “ pardon.”

dental ¢, as the ¢ in “ tub.”
palatal ¢; as the ¢ in “ trumpet.”
A peculiar lisping s.

as the j in “jelly.”

as the ch in “ church.”

hard h ; like A in “haul.”

}a guttural kh, like the German final ch.

dental d, as the d in “ duty.”

hard or palatal d ; asthe din “ drum”
or “ dull.”

as the z in “razor.”

as the 7 in “ fairy.”

a hard vibrating 7 ; often used for the hard
d above.

as the z in “hazard.”

as the s in “sinful.”

as the sh in “shoulder.”

The same sound as s.

The same sound as z

Hard f¢.

Hard 2.

A peculiar arabic a.

A peculiar arabic guttural.

as the f in “ fin.”

a clicking palatal &,

as the & in “ king.”

as the g in “ legation.”

as the J in “ relief.”

as the m in “ market.”

as the n in “‘ denote.”

Final and nasal 7 ; as in the French “ bon.”’

as the w or v in “ wisdom” and “ device.”

as the hin “hand.” As a final, it has a

: verceptible sound if preceded by a vowel, and is then written
}im Roman character ; but otherwise the final h is neither
joOunded nor written. Thus ,\¢\5 is written dargah: y. a

F

220 Report on Writing Indian Words { No. 8, New Serizs,

Village, isdih; but 4 .\) a writing, isngmd. Thus there —
is a distinction between ,;\,) ddna grain, and 4\y ddénd a

sage.

N. B.—The Hindi aspirate or h has been adopted in the
Hindustani language, by adding the ordinary h to the
several consonants thus :

BRO
: o ah
Sct

AO ee
: ass | ch’h
bag dh .
| xo ae |
| 6 oh |
yes aes
ee |
Poe, pean it
\ 3) yy)

The Arabic

words, is generally rendered in Hindistént by 4 ; thus J. |

1S \.y5 OL fatwa.
F i

It is proposed to separate these letters by |
an aspirate, to distinguish them from ch, i
kh and gh which are each one letter, and
to prevent the erroneous pronunciation q
of the th and ph which would occur to |
English readers. Thus 3\, khéna a }
house and \j\.¢ Khana food, have a very |
different pronunciation of the first syl- |
lable. |

alaf-.-maksiva which terminates some |

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] Zn Roman Characters. 22}

VoweL MARKS.

1. Zabar or fatha: the mark above the consonant to
which it belongs, and equivalent to a short. Thus ge kalam
a pen. It is generally omitted in ordinary writing.

2. Zér or kasra ; the mark below, equivalent to short 1 ;
AS ered khidmat, service.

3. Pésh or zamma, the mark » above, equivalent to
short as Nye p hut a tower.
4. Hamza, the mark“ above. It is a mere compres-
sion of the voice, and in Roman character, is designated by ©
an aspirate. It is seldom met with except between long a
and long i. Thus .lpl amrd’é an orchard, GN! din a
statue or law. In some cases the long i is converted into
short 7, as Ladle)! azma@ish instead of azmdtsh trial ; as
ké@im instead of katm fixed; yyij\s f@ ida instead of fetda
profit. In this case it is called hamza 4 mulaiyana, or sof-
tened handza.
5. Tash'did, the mark * above, shewing that the letter
under it is doubled. ;
6. Jazm, the mark « above, shewing that the letter un-
der itis sdkin or inert: that is, having no vowel to be sound-
ed after it. Thus cf kabr a tomb, an) asm a name. These
words, if there were no jazm, would be kabar, and ¢sam. So
“ kalam a pen, if written ws would be kim. Thus \5 ek

kasr breaking, ___.¢ kasab a trade. The last letter of a
word is always inert, and the jazm always understood.

VOWELS.

7. a@short; as the a in ‘volatile’ This sound is sup-
posed to commence every syllable, unless the jazm occurs.
(para. 6.) The wztiat alif is the only instance where the
written | is pronounced short. N. B. When the unwritten

Bo OW

222 Report on Writing Indian Words | No. 8, NEw Surins,

a short is followed by ,, it is generally pronounced long or
like a double aa, in consequence of the deepening sound of

ZAKS, SN

the +: Thus Spree marmul pronounced mami custom. So
nae , ny, CRTC 4° . 2
\e; ta‘alluk pronounced talluk, a division of a district ; je
nal a nail, pronounced nail. |
8. along, as the a in ‘father. As an initial it is ', or alz/-
i-mandiida, or prolonged alif. As a medial or final, it is |
without the circumflex, as |; nala a watercouse.
9. «short; as theiin ‘single” This is simply the zér
~e
(para. 2.) Thus the word |.J.yerd a lease wt khil’at*
< Be, ie i a
a dress of honor.
10. «long; astheiin ‘pique. This is the yé+ with
the zér under and preceding it, _,. It is called the ya-z-

marty or known ya, this sound only being known in Arabic:

»)

as iol i, Minas heritage. As an initial it is ae thus ales

I’'rAn Persia. |

11. @élong; asthe eiin ‘neighbour. (There is no short
ein Hindustani.) It is called ya-i-ma7yhuil or unknown, as
it is a sound not known in Arabic. It is distinguished from
the 7 of para. 10, and the ai of para. 12, by having no vowel
mark, either above or below. Thus \4; tél oil, As an ini-
tial it is ests as a) ék one.

12. ai, as the ai in ‘aisle. It is the ya with a zabar
over and preceding it, and thence called yd-i-sdkin ma kabl
maftth, or ya quiescent with a preceding fatha. Thus 4 s

-

* , . p . "3 . . ss ; >] “A “ = :
maidan a plain. Asan initial it is uel So lawl aisé such.

* With reference to the N. B., of para 7, it will be observed that in this
word, the & preceds the a, and the a is not lengthened.

+ The letter © is sometime consonant y, as when united with , as

ne 4
ols yad memory dhs faryad complaint. Words ending in preceded
by long a or long 7 are pronounced as yat. Thus Guy ee panchayat a |

meeting of Arbitrators Lil ah kabuliyat an agreement.

Ocr. 1868.— Mar. 1859.) In Roman Characters. 903

13. wshort; as the u in ‘fulsome.’ This is simply the
pesh (para. 3,) as - ¢| ~ mulk a kingdom. As an initial, it is
2 2 Be “

};aS 5h.) wstad a teacher.

14." @ long; as the oo in ‘fool.’ It is the , wao* with
a pesh over and preceding it, or wao macriif, or uaa wa0o.

Thus y 4 zartér necessary. As an initial it is ul but hardly
bay Ay:

any Hindastani words begin with it.

15. é6long; asthe oin ‘bony. (There is no short o
in Hindistani.) This is called wao majhuior unknown wao,
as it is not used in Arabic, though common in Persian. It is
distinguished from the w of para. 14 by having no vowel
mark attached. It is not used as an initial. N. B. When wéo
follows c it is written but not pronounced; and then it is

distinguished in Roman characters, by w. Thus | gay)
darkhwast a proposal. This wao is called wao-i-macditla or
the passed-by wao.

16. au; asouin‘ bound. Itis the wao with the zabar
over and preceding it. Thus fe ss kaul permission : 8, nf “nau-

kar a servant. As an initial itis ‘as .j,\ aulad offspring, ag)
aurand. Itis called wéo-i-sdékin ma habl maftuh, for it is
quiescent, and follows fat’ha. (See para. 12.)

Wet Baviny.

a a te eR A RN oT

* The letter $ is also used as a consonant.

224 Report on Writing Indian Words |No. 8, New SERIES,

THE FOLLOWING ARE 163 woRDS OF COMMON OCCURRENCE.

Common. Spelling. Correct Spelling.

| Kbkari

Abkarry
Adawlut
Amauny
Ameen
Anna
Annicut
Ayen

Bagayet
Banghy
Bareez
Batta
Beegah
Bhutverty
Bowry
Bramin.
Brinjarry
Buckreed
Bund
Bunjeer
Byraghee

Cabooleat
Calingulah
Candy
Carcoon
Cash
Catamaran.
Cavilgar
Cawnie
Cazee

* The terminations im parentheses, though correct as to letters, are not sounded

‘A dalat
Amani

Amin

Ana
Anaikatt (u)*
‘Ain

Bashayat
Bahangi
Béry
Bhata
Bigha
Bhattvartti
Baori
Brahman
Banjara
Bakr‘id
Band
Banjar
Bairagi

Kabuliyat
Kahngal
Kandi
Karkun
Kasu
Kattamaram

Kavalkar(an)

Kani

Kazi

and might be omitted in writing.

Common Spelling.

Chavedy,

| Chellaun

| Chillum
Chittah
Chokra
Chop

Chowky
Chuckler
Chuckrum
Chuttrum
Circar
Clashie
Coil

Coir
Conjee
Conicopoly

-Coochel
Cooltee

| Cooly
Coonchum .

| Cotaur

Cowle

Crore

| Cullum

| Chullm

Cumly

Cummerbund

| Curnum
| Cusbah
|

Cuscus

Correct Spelling.
Savadi
Chalan
Chilam
Chitt’ha
Chhékra
Ch’hap
Chauki
Sakkiltyan
Chakkaram
Sattiram
Sarkar
Khalasi
Kovil |
Kayir(u)
Kanji |
Kanakkapiliai
Kuchcehela

Kult’hi

Kuli

Kuncham(u)

Kot har

Kaul

Karor

Kalam
Kalam
Kambali
Kamarbund
Karanam(u)
Kas ba
Khaskhas

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859. |

Cutbuddy
Cutcha
Cutcherry

Dacoit
Dawk -
Deccan
Deloyet
Dewan
Dholl
Dhony
Doodie
Dooly
Dowle
Duffedar
Dufter
Durgah
Durkhast
Durma-curta
Dusserah
Durzee

Hedgah

Knam

Fakeer
Foujdary
Fusly
Fussul
Fysil

| Garce
/ Gharry
| Ghaut
| Ghee
| Ghurree
Ghurry

Kattubadi
Kachcha
Kach hari

Dakait
Dak

Dak’ han
Dhalayat
Diwan
Dal

Doni

Duddu

Dali

aul

Dafa’ dar
Dafter

Dargah
Darkhwast
Dharma-karta
Das’ hard

Darzi

“Tdgah

In’am

Fakir
Foujdari
Rashi

Fas

Faisal

Garisa
art
(yhat
Chi
Garhi
Ghari

a A RL RR A SE

In Roman Characters.

Ghyre
Godawk
Goolee
Goomastah
Goonta
Goor
Guddee

Gunny

Harem
Hejira
Hircarrah
Hookum
Hoondee
Hoozoor
Howdah
Hungamy

Jaghire
Jemmadar
Jeroyety
Jummabundy

Kayem
Khureetoo
Kincob
Kyput

Lac
Lasecar
Layek
Loot
Lubbay

Matee
Mahomet
M aistrv

Ghair
Gudak(u)
Guli
Gumashta
Gunta
Gur
Gaddi
Ganni

Harim
Hijra
Harkara
Hukm
Hundt
Huzar
Hauda

Hangami

Jagir
Jamardar
“Zira’ti
Jama’bandi

Kaéim
Kharita
Kimkhwab
Kaipatt(u)

Lakh
Lashkar
La ik
Lat

Labi

Muafi
Muhammad
Mistri

226 Report on Writing Indian Words [No.
Mamlutdar Murdmalatdar | Musnud
Mamoo!l Ma’miul Mutt
Marahmut Marammat
Masalchee Mash‘alchi Nacoda

Su Naigue
Mauniem Maniyam 5
Meerassy —- Mirasi Nanri

5 >

Merah Mérai Nee
Mercal Maral Nautch
Mocassah Mukhasa Nerrick
Mofussil Mufassal Nicka
Mohturfa Muhtarafa | Nolte
Mohunt Mahant | Ean
Mohur Muhar | Nuzzer
Mohurrum Muharram |
Momety Moma‘ i* | ss a
Monigar Maniakar(an) one
Moochee Méchi | Ons agua
Moochilka Muchalka | Oanine
Moofty Mufti | Gus
Moolgueny Mialgaini
Moollah Mulla | Parc erry
Moolvy Maulavi “Apaeh
Moonshee Munshi pa eee :
Moonsiff Mun-if | Panbele
Moosulman Musalman Peskouais
Mootah Mu'ht’ha | Po
Mootasuddy Mutasaddi Pie
Moplah M4pilla Pindarry
Moyen Zabitah Mu‘aiyan Zabi- Enea

ta | Pollum
Muzoondar Majmu‘dar Poonjah
Motabar Mu’tabar Pooty
Mouzah Mauza* Paracoody
Mushrooty $Mashritti Potail
Musjeea Masjid | Pucka

8, New SrEriss,

Masnad
Mat’h
Nakhuda
Nayak
Nayar
Nachini
Nach
Nirkh
Nikah

Nala

Nansey
Nazr

A lak(ku)
Ulkudi
Olungu
Ummédwar
Urda

i bhes

Paraichéri
Paralyan
Pargana
Puramb6ék(ku)
Péshkash
Pé:tai

Pai

Pend’ hari

Palam
Punsey
Putti
Parakudi
Patél
Pakka

Palaiyakar (an) *
ian,

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters.

Puckally
Puddy
Puddial
Puggree
Punchayet
Punkah |
Purdah
Purwannah
Putcut -
Puttah
Pyacarry
Pygusht
Pymash

Raggy
Razeenamah

Reyayet
Rissaldar
Rowannah
Russoom

_ Saderwared
_ Sagoobuddy
Salastry
_ Sayer

| Seacunny

| Seer

| Sepoy
Serang

| Sevoy-jumma

Shaikal

| Shavy
Sheristadar
| Sheeah

S Shroff -

+ Shrotrium

Pak hali
Padi
Padiyal
Pagri
Panchayat
Pank’ha
Parda
Parwana
Pattukatt (u)

Patta

-Payakari

Paigast

Paiméish

Ragi

Raézi-nama

Rvaiyat
Risaladar
Rawana
Rustim

Sadirwarid
Saguba
Salotari
Sa’ir
Sukkani
Sér

Sipahi
Sarhang
Siwéi-jama
Seykkal
Savi
Sarrishtadar
Shivah
sarraf
Srotriyam

220

Sibbendy Sihbandi
Sicca Sikka
Silledar Silahdar
Soobah Stba
Sotuntrum Swatantram
Soucar Sahikar
Sowar Sawar
Sudder Sadr
Sunnud Sanad
Suttee Sati
Takeed Takid
Taliary Talaiyari
Talook Taalluk
| Tannah Than
Teerwa Tirvai
Thug Thag
Thasildar Tahsildar
Tindal Tandel(u)
Toom Tam (u)
Toondoovarum Tunduvaram
Totacal Tottakal
Tuecavy Takavi
Turrufdar Tarafdar
Turrum Taram
'Tusdeek Tasdik
‘Tynaut Ta‘inat
Urzee Arzi
Ussul Asal
Vakeel Vakil
Vaylie Véli
Veesabuddy Visabadi
Viss Visai
Wooliem Uliam

G

228 Report on Writing Indian Words |No. 8, New SzErtss,

Wudder Ottan* Zabitah Zabita
Wurg Varga Zemindar Zamindar
Wussul W acul Zillah Zila’

Zabt
Yadast YAddasht Zuit abt
Yeomiah Yaumia |

The following words though mis-spelt, have almost become

European.
Arrack Arak Hopper Appam
Bandy Bandi Jelly Salli
Bungalore Bangla Jungle Jangal
Chatty Sattl Maund Manangu
Cheroot Suruttu Rupee Rapiya
Chunam Sunnambu Ryot Ra‘aiyat
Curry Kari Teapoy Ti-npai
Dubash D6-b’hashi Toddy Tari
Fanam Panam ‘Tope Toppu
Godown Gidangu Jaggery ar kkari

“DIVISIONS OF THE MADRAS COLLECTORATE.

Veysarpady Veyasarpadi | Chintadrapett Sintadiripéttai

Perumbore Perambitr Chepauk Sépakkam
Vepery Véperi PoodoopaukumPudduppakam
Pursewaukum Pursaipakkam | Mylapoor Myilapuir
Kilpauk Kilpakkam Royapoorum Raéyapuram
Chetput Séttupattu Tondiarpet Tandaiyarpet—
Sle ) Hilembar tas

gmore §

~~

Pl. Ottar,

| .-
SSS SSS .

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters. 229

APs HN Dax.) C:
Memorandum to accompany a proposed scheme for the
representation of native names and words in the

English character.

1. It is, I think, needless to argue the necessity of some
systematic way of representing

: he native namesin the English charac-
3, Malayam, ter. All will probably admit the
4 Canarese. . .

5. Dakhani; or the dialect of Gesideratum. The accompanying

aay spoken in the scheme shews the Alphabet which

7 I would propose to adopt for the
representation of the five principal languages of the Madras
Presidency, and Sanskrit. The latter is added, as Sanskrit
words are so largely adopted into all the Madras languages.

2. { am aware that the proposed Alphabet, as it stands,
is not the best or most simple way which could be devised
for representing the character of any one of the five langu-
ages ; but as it is doubtless desirable to have,one Roman-
Alphabet for all the native languages of the Presidency,
sacrifices have been made to attain this end ; and my endea-
vour has been to devise a way of representing six native
Alphabets with as much simplicity as is consistent with
critical correctness.

3. I earnestly hope for the early attention of Govern-
ment to the subject with a view to the
speedy adoption of this or some plan. The
careless and unintelligible way of representing native names
is agreat and increasing evil. I may instance the Yomiah

Vide List B.

230 Report on Writing Indian Words [No. 8, New Sertss,

allowance Lists which came up the other day from the
Board of Revenue, and are now being printed. Many of
the names are utterly unintelligible, and many more only
to be distinguished by a series of guesses.

4. | would beg to suggest that all departments under
Government be directed rigidly to adhere to the scheme
now circulated, (or that which may ultimately be adopted)
in representing all native names in their Official Papers,
from the commencement of the approaching Revenue year
(Ist July 1859). This will give writers, &c., ample time to
master the details of the scheme. Something like the follow-
ing short instructions might be issued.

I. In writing native names and words, no letters are
to be introduced which do nof exist in the original. For ~

example the use of / at the end of proper namesas Ramaya,
Ramappa, now so common, is wholly inadmissible.

II. The letters which do exist in the original are to be
expressed according to the accompanying scheme.

Til. Names of Districts, and other names which have
been thoroughly Anglicized, as for exam-
ple those in the annexed list, are to be

written as usual without alteration. When a doubt exists

as to whether a word has been thoroughly-Anglicized, it is
to be given in the correct form.

5. I would solicit attention to the fact that the change
will not be nearly so great, as a glance at the tabular state-
ment would lead one to suppose. The more complicated
symbols are of comparatively rare occurrence ; and the only
diacritical points which often occur are the dots underneath
the hard letters, and the accents over the long vowels—to
introduce these will surely be a most simple matter.

Jae

6. It appears advisable to notice an objection made by —

an officer whose opinion would from his position seem at
first sight entitled to weight. Ido this in case the same
opinion may be held by others ; though this is, I hope, scarcely

PRM

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters. 231

probable, as it is merely the offspring of prejudice and not of
conviction. It is said that “if the orthography of names is
“ altered, the names in their amended form, will not be iden-
«“ tifiable with themselves as they stood previous to emenda-
tion.” I reply that there is no definite plan of spelling
names in use for which it is proposed to
a substitute another definite plan. There is
no existing fixed method of representing words, a depar-
ture from which would endanger their recognition. What
is proposed now, is to establish a definite plan, instead of al-
lowing each name to be written according to the fancy of
the writer, and his ideas of the force of letters and the pro-
nunciation of what he writes. No objection is made to
perpetual contortions and uncouth changes of form which
it is impossible to deny take place now in writing names,
scarcely any one being presented twice in the same garb;
no fears are expressed of non-recognition now, but most
unaccountably, if it is proposed to make a change on certain
fixed principles once for all, it is objected that the words so
changed will not be identified. I wouldask if this has been
found the case inthe N. W. P. where a correct orthogra-
phy has been attempted, or whether it is consistent with
reason and common sense to suppose that it ever will be ?
7. Iconclude with another expression of an earnest
hope that steps may at once be taken in the matter.

M. NORMAN,

Deputy Secretary to Government.
BANGALORE, ’)
March 12th 1859.

232 Report on Writing Indian Words (No. 8, New SERIzs,

A.
Anna. Cooly Pie.
Anicut. Dacoit. Pice.
Batta. Harem. Poligar.
Cash. Jaggery. Rupee.
Catamaran. Lascar. Ryot.
Chuckler. Maistry. Sepoy.
Coir. Mohur (the coin). Shroff.

And perhaps the most common weights and measures
may be added as viss, ollock, &c.

Seen

B.

Correct spelling. Spelling in the Proceedings of Govt.
Rabi ulawall ewe Rabee oo lawl.

? unintelligible....... Wriijianul nissa.

pees sy Jawnaky
cLTET CT Ce DRS ee | Tener
Tirupanantal.......0ss. Trippendal.
Bilmokta..........0....- Bilernetah.

Auchaury.
paar = Charry.
CNAs tvepinede: oe -sahes Chany.
\ Auchary, Aucharry.

Milsary. A255 Rea Muleers. :

dee Oe REE Vellairgh.
Purushottamapuram... Prosutpoor !
Vriddhachalam........... Veerootachellam, &c. ad infinitum.

( Extract Minutes
Manealagiri .o. 62... Mungulyirry. | Consultation, 30th
MSN sco ee Jenally. < April 1857, No.
BSAA wns. calisee moors Rasilly. | 830, Revenue De-
| partment.

( Khawder, Khader,

| Khawther, Cader.
ROE fer a .50 «Pace u eee ee < Cawder.

| Kawder.

| Kauder, &c, &e,
TMD ease asin dessretaecsaier * Quilon.

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters.

233

* So corrupted I sup- )

pose because Kullan |
is something like Kol-
lam atown in Travan-
core which is called by |

Europeans Quilon! ...

MANS WHT. cile.....

BNET ep eee
Reta IGT oe. ss. cee ss.

SURI £7) Oe iene

Malaiyapuram..........

Mlahtab hor. ........0. 65
Mudu krishnaiyangéar.

Tirumalai “Achari.......

Pamjancark..............

BMA She cee baa o'taine
Phala nashtam..........
Unintelligible ; either
Aba Turab’; or Ab-
Huta RadZu..ssee

| Minutes Consultation, Public Works
>Depatment, 22nd April 1857, No.

Lol.

L
( Bohwanny.

| Bowanny.
< Bhowaney.
ay.
| Bawany, &e., We.
Vaugany, Vaughaunay.
Vedah varthe.
Vada vurthe.
Veda virthee.
Vada verte, &c.
Goorkul, Goorookul.
( Mullapooram.
| Mallatyapooram.

Malaprom.
Mulapoorum.

Mullapooram &c.

Mahanom.
Kaunnoon.
Hoor Muttoo Missal.
Mootah Kanar.
Mootookristin Engar.
Teroomulah Charry.
Trimul Auchary.
Thirmalah Charry.
Thiroomul Chary.
( Runjanagoody.
| Runjungada.
y Runjengeddy.
) Runjnegudd.
| Runjungode.
| Rungangudda.
Sautghyr.
Falamuptum.

Ahboothooraz.
A bootoora.

| Abotoorah.

234 Report on Writing Indian Words [No. 8, New Serres, x

Cossim
Kohsum.
RCAC ee ese ee nee Cassim.
| Cawsim.
Kawsim, &e., &c.

1B oyrellb orn atone wereetee Ebrahkeem.

Unintelligible ; per- Extract Minutes Con-
haps Sabdattuppa- ( Sytuttoopu-_) sultation, 22nd Octo-
MapPOTile ..caccmse.s. dappore. ) ber 1857, No. 1508,

FU S$ HIUSUOUTGSH Public Department,

Bremadasom.

Brahmadésam........... | Brumma

Bromma

19 OMOA OT} Jo avnqww oy} A[voU a0 0 (Gt | ee Seay ash Tl Ie
R squeserdor 41 osnvoeq ‘ATpuz pur ‘psounouordsrul F = S
oq 07 ATONIT Ssey “48ay ‘se ‘Te 0} Te zoyoad T 18 \¢ Co (ACS oe (2 =
8 ee es oe)
8 ae ‘ 3
S ia = 63 Spee axe | Fe
S SHES | SR a sae
S iat Q OSS | Nees i
S 0 (oo) Mee io jens) |) ae
3 a { C\ Gi mi > s | &
SN ‘) ‘TORO ut jueteaAmbe ueuroyy ,, ae es
ay} WOALS 0q 0} ST Sfeaoa woynzy oyy Aq possessod i ( ‘ty | OMO 30> Re = I

c «(@0LOF OY} Jey} 99e4s AyoroUL [LM JT pejdope oq 1 ( (GI he ‘
© juoryerunuoad jo prepueys YSILSUy oy} Jr ‘ToJoVreT a) s
1s fuvwmoyy oy} Ul sjoqeydyy [eyUSELIG oY} JO speMo,

a Puy quosoidet 03 SI JI eTqIssodut Moy MoYs 0} YuOuE 3 LL | fe | on ece@| © | Lis
si -noiv OJUL JoyUO 09 AressooouUN JI Weep | B Ly Ie |aev!| @ al in
Fos SLA /S Ee SSO NETS TOU mE NOTES ELOISE Um TOES IEEE Ee ee Es ne
5 Lao] | i oN
ie 289 x g 5 5 3 g, Rice
ioe) — S85 5 =: =o eS) Bo 6 42
re UOIWVUL{dKY pus syAeUIOIy 8 BG - = = ‘ = a E 5
§ ie | Bs ae be

[ No. 8, New Szrizs,

236 Report on Writing Indian Words

7 ‘6 ‘ATO @ pue & opederd Tra ATUO rm) yl bss ary
SN} : SULMOT[OF FULUOSOD oY Aq UMOTY oq Tis u f soo “2 i
O SS¥pO oY} JUBTOSUOD B Aq PEMOT[OF UsyA\ ‘WHS t +s 2 | @r 80, _ Is
oy} NATAL ! LOUULUL SITY} UL ‘WIVULTU Twa se < =
‘poppe oq JSNUI OUI] PUY sjop eaTjoUTSTp oy} Temoal TY <> aie Se ea ee
ev Aq pomoyfoy uoym yng “Ajuo u Aq possoad Wale
“xo 0q wordo 4v osojoroyy Avut 47 “[ruey, ur @) =) ee eee ror g| ¢ | B
OSIMOYT] ST SV ‘ONU SAVATR JSOWTR ST U STILT, ua [Ss8. oe
ue a ne ae ac
‘s10}}07 pozeardse, S. Seek | ca
TOYO OY} JO osvo yy ur og ‘oydoajsode oy UI ; ae . Sh | as | =X le
osn OU 908 T sv [IT 0} goalqo Apouors T (I > P ro ce & >
Sige? SP
ne \ Lod & €° hese, |_| ile
ve
) — 5 Bie? —Y "3 =
Boe ee ie lee ie ee
; sos mg. B i E Renee
uolvurldx” puv syavmoy Bh 8 = a > ee.
* pr} As a oe © n speach
Baia an ERED eS Ee 1 0 et fey) wv

3 ge | is eae
yd (| er 4) Gre = & th

, d aoe) HU TO ps on bh
%

iS 2 eC ji0e=a"| oy | oe [as 8) le
S

= uP re ge on ZS ie’
: P

S 0 CO seta ep |e 2)
S PIM Ssvjo oUIeS OY} JO ,, UIVALS é =

. sy ‘eSensury oy} UL U prey 1OF ToqutAs yourysTp Ut " GA Uf & iG:
NS jou st ofey} ysnoyy u Aq poyuoserdor oq Avut ; cra| | @ = 5 8
a |” ayy ‘pessordxe oq 07 oatnbor 10949] STyy SurUTe} pa

RZ |-w0o sproa yLysueg Tueysnpurpy UL UST AN u $9} (uO | es | 2 lo
o.8)

cm 4p aes ja) (OO & >
: oF at ee a

= P wo = 2 Sm
‘ ag (oS Re e B
eo .

= | Soha j lene AS co | «9 y
. | sfeumtue yo Sanodk oy} ‘etktiny Assy ep ‘uns oy} :

3S mitkeu pny { rozyea Oo1I Oe ivy sy uw (u) ag G) |mo|] ke | & | de

"
|
:

[ No. 8, New Sertts,

Report on Writing Indian Words

208

| ‘TOPYUL UV ‘ULYISe NT WH Faoug sv
qirysues Wor poydopy ‘SprIOM UT oyNUE ST 8 OTOTAL
posn Aypetoues st4y ‘aodoard goquydpy prey, ey}
ur Suystxe JOU “oqzoT THRYQULIH v ST a9 g mm WY lao pl Aus “S. e |

rere: “OINATHOTLOV YsIVy
ce qnq {amoavepue sf y ' “ystysox / tworeynd ;
-ur0o ‘TARUINYS arn (s 57 se “yS pure ys ‘a 2 “ YS 4Jos
pue pavy yjoq syuosorder 9 ostmoyry

‘BATYG pos eg? “AXTYs

To ‘MIS oF 10 wh gv Ne FE ISues 09 quosoidet 04

pasn ov of) pue yjoq tueysnpulry, UT Tr oe ol Zo mole | & ||
(10990, weyquery vst gy ‘todoad yoqeydye [rue
oy} Url 4stxe jou seop gp 1099] eu.) ys wm ian-#| an | Lf | 2 le
wl woe | a | @ |e | w | te
U4 e ee a ee |
sia = re es = 4) 8
445 i =| s iS ge Sm
pes ee fe |e i | toe
‘moleur[dx| pur syrwwusy B E g Salad . = + f E Br
° ies ae B e a Ze
ae | EB 3 LE

209

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters.

C

TULISNPUTFT oY} OF Wosoypo useq sey yz pur ‘ ATJovxe
punos oY} 07IIWUT 0} oTqissoduT st 41 Ng “pozues
-e1dor oq 0} pey suoTe yoqeydye [ture y, oy} Jt yz Aq
poyeytunt AjLveu LOU Oq YY.SIUL puNosS ot,

[I OY] SUIJOULOS T YsSvy VW
. ‘euUNY.6-1-UN

:puTF “Uo ‘suvs POUITT oy} UL U OY} OTT
‘sopoooid 41 YUVMOSUOD OY} 0} SUIpIO.ON WE IO U
weeAYeyy pus ‘eyeusey Nonjoy, urs 4yLrysues Ur UL

jeug v Ajduig ‘vievMsnuy yaysueg oy,

‘Yy Teugayose Ajdwig ‘Peoresta yIysueg ayy,

a Se Se
POG mek you UIsT}oco “UleIvyueye DrvewTee
SB Quiysuvg oy} wo poydope spiom ut y ssoudxe
0} A[92IF qt sonporTgUL 0} oTQeItsep ATYSIY St oT

\gey9 [re Aq poygrurpe st 9t oAerfeq T pue ‘osver0ul

dy} WO ST 4I Fo osn oy ynq ‘todoad yoqeydye [rurey,
oy} Ul puNoF YoU SI ge AopPOVAVYD oT,

r= (ee So Dl oe

u JO UW

rH

SF

= eles
os a O 69
2 |! ee
(2 zl4
— "ez: O @)
eae — G 8
IS \no
ris S|
‘a4 ro rm | _s
Pete Care Ee
Ce ah oy Z
NES le |. AO eee 6

oo fe)

Oo 3

6 x

%

‘

[No. 8, NEw Serizs,

Report on Writing Indian Words

240

Gras) a iG
‘Ajsodoad ‘isepurz «VS ur se
- i
4 Ge avtred Sapte of 1
S1o}}0] “ninyy "7 ur se =
erer { -e@)
; : S ov tT
jedroutid “pes ott ur ge
2B) =
Tag, “ages A" uy se CHE
copy we ans
j [JPA “areyy UL Se {> =<~2
‘JUSUIOINSvat Yeyesem |S Ur ge 7 <= 2|
7 oA) :
je 7 oe
‘eoudLEyIp yavy © * se
ee yo
J ° e °
‘eoueIIMI00 eavI ATOA JO .f WYOTU,, WeULIED
Ur Yo ex] pepunos + weyyTY,, pel[eg yo
e o
‘moreuvpdxg pue syreuroyy BF 2 5S
aoe SS
ies wa
a) BS go
A. ee

“CYCUIVI,

SNOT,

a(q)

SVUBA
‘{LIySuRg

(1418

241

Ocr. 1858.—Mar. 1859.] In Roman Characters.

‘UNS OY} UBY} Te1ve[o
“UIvYs ysn UU Ivyze *‘ueTOM JO Uns vsTU-UN
Iu, sv SU dIO[ZzSyssYyZaiZp 8 9 St [eur
Avy} Uo SULAOT[OF PLOM OY} JO 109}0[ [eLITUT
oy} 0} eprTjAV oY} JO [ 94} Socuvyo ‘poxyerd st
je \f oporgze o1qery ey YOM 04 pxoM B Fo 109497

qsiy oy} oso pooefd usyA “preUL STUY,
- Ajpeanqooluoo ,, Ueururyye} oe) a

SOAOUL POI YY “opqveAoUL = II-B8 Se

3
foul, Ona (se soon wm, \f a-ed Sv
‘reqyset ‘nz ©" Ul sv

o

o

©

‘uotordsns ‘uuez “ut sv
zm

“Aressooou “MINZ

¢ i oe \ oe ~
osnqe ‘Yzeyz «|» Ur se

‘NOYYIA ILey.d all UL Sv

‘pouroysnooe prgnu °*Y*\° ur se

IS
eo
Ee
f=)
an)

Sal

NI
2)
4

242 On Writing Indian Words in Roman Characters.

“

TN 4.L0YsS B JO punos

oy} sey a0 ‘ATIIVUTpPIO [TV ye pepuNos ATooIvOS st ce
OPM STUT, ‘YA wey a SV M BnpY
i T2P® IN
ES = PORT INN
{PIOUPA «= BPVSI cgvacm SB Sq &
‘SULT VNZPVI WoO gv zp =

‘S104 }0] OLOUIS UTI100 09 avtfnoed spunog

(wINSYVU-T-JITV) ey’ BMT UL sv

c pp
"Y}LOF JYSNOAG SUIALY WPne nqyod ‘seavjs [IOs 9Y}
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ocT.—MAR. 1858-59.) Sub. of the Rom. for Ind. characters. 248

Il. On the substitution of the Roman for the Indian characters.

By Dr. CanpweE Lt.
(Communieated by Sir C. E. TREVELYAN.)

[This paper has been contributed by the Revd. Dr. Caldwell, the author
of the ‘“‘ Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or Southern Indian
Family of Languages” which is decidedly the best book on ethnology
and philology which has been published for many a long year. The
paper also derives a peculiar interest from the fact, that the import-
ant subject of it—the application of the Roman letters to the languages
of Southern India, has been thought out by the able and learned Doc-
tor, without his having had access to the publications on the applica-
tion of the same letters to the languages of Northern India. The hook
just published by Professor Monier Williams, and a pamphlet which
may shortly be expected from the Revd. G. U. Pope, will supply am-

ple information to everybody who is interested in the subject. |—
Ci Bok,

SiR,

THE time appears to have arrived for the discussion in Southern
India of a question which has made much progress in the North-
West, the expediency of substituting the Roman character for the
various characters now in use in India.

On this side of India, so far as I am aware, the plan has rarely,
if ever, been seriously discussed. It has generally been regarded
as a quixotical crotchet which may most fitly be met with a smile.
What is chiefly required, therefore, as it appears to me, in this
Presidency, is that the subject should be duly ventilated, and that
educationists, missionaries, and public functionaries should be in-
duced to bestow upon it a little serious attention.

Professor Max Miller has advocated the plan in his “ Propo-
sals for a Missionary Alphabet.”’ Professor Monier Williams has
also thrown his weight into the same scale, and has recently, I per-
ceive, brought out a reprint of the principal documents that have
been published for and against the scheme, since it was first moot-
ed in Calcutta in 1834, I believe, by yourself, Iam sorry that I
Wen. EK. 0. s. VOL. Y. N. 8.

ee

2434 Substitution of the Roman [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

have not met with any of these publications; my ignorance of
them, however, enables me to treat the subject independently, from
a purely Indian point of view, and with special reference to the
objections of persons who are practically conversant with the In-
dian languages.

The first thing to be done, on entering upon the consideration of
this subject, 1s to satisfy ourselves whether the substitution of the
Roman characters for the Indian, supposing it to be possible, would
not be in the highest degree desirable and expedient.

I. In endeavouring to make this point quite clear at the outset,
the consideration which first claims our attention is the intrinsic
superiority of the Roman character to all others.

a. tvs the simplest character in existence. Its 26 symbols are
found to be sufficient for expressing all the consonantal and vowel
sounds in the English language, and the addition of a very small
number of accents has enabled it to meet the wants of the French,
the German, and the Hungarian, the most widely differing systems
of sounds in Europe. |

b. It is the distinectest, most legible character in existence. No
amount of practice will ever enable any one to read a florid charac-
yacter like the Persian, or complicated characters like the Déva-
Nagari, the Telugu, and the Singhalese, with the precision and ra-
pidity with which the unadorned Roman character is read by the

=<

most ordinary readers.

So legible is it, that the practised eye can take in an entire page
of a well printed European book at a glance, so as to havea general
idea of the contents; whereas every Arab or Hindi, how well
soever he may be acquanted with his own language and with its
character, must confess that he cannot take in at a glance more
than a few words of any book or MS. at a time, nor be sure of
the meaning of a sentence unless he has read every word in it right
through. :

The Oriental regards as an impossibility the Englishman’s ordi-
nary daily achievement of ascertaining the news by merely look-
ing over his newspaper, and gaining a correct general idea of the
contents of a book by merely turning over the pages.

The wonderful legibleness of the Roman character, in compati-

|
|
|

ocT—MAR. 1858-59.] for the Indian characters. 243B

son with all others, arises partly from its employment of a few in-
dependent, unchangeable characters for the expression of the vowel
sounds, instead of a variety of minute signs and points; partly
from its preference for straight lines, angles, and unadorned circles
and arcs to the flowing tracery and complicated diagrams of orien-
tal alphabets; partly from the circumstance that its letters are of
different heights, half of them being on a level with the line and
the other half rising a little above it or sinking a little below it, so
as to facilitate identification ; and partly also from its retention of
an older form of the characters for use as capitals.

ce. The Roman character is the compactest in existence. Inno
other character can so large a quantity of matter be compress-
ed into so small a compass, without crowding the page or con-
fusing the eye. Itis, therefore, of all characters the cheapest for
printing

d. It ws pohtically and geographically the most suitable for uni-
versal use, and the only character which has the smallest chance of
obtaining this distinction. It would be absurd to propose that the
Malayalam character should supersede the Gujarathi, or the Tamil
the Bengali. It would be almost equally unreasonable to propose
the substitution of any one character of a class for another of the
same class, as the Tamil for the Telugu, or the Bengali for the Gu-
jarathi. None of these characters has any claim to be used beyond
the limits of the language to which it belongs.

The only characters known in India which possess any such claim
are the Hindustani, the Déva-Nagari, and the Roman.

Of these, the Hindustani (the Persian slightly modified) is one
of the least legible characters in existence, and its sole recommen-
dation, the political supremacy of the Mahommedans, has ceased
to exist.

The Déva-Nagari, the most perfect of the Indian characters, is
perhaps also the most legible, though very much less legible than
the Roman. Probably also, next to Hindiastani, itis the most
widely known. It is little known, however, and less used, in South-
ern India, even by Brahmins. In the Telugu, Canarese, and Ma-
layalam countries Sanscrit is written in the characters peculiar to
those languages; not in Déva-nagari. In the Tamil country it is:

2438¢ Substitution of the Roman [No. 8, New sisBris.

written in a character called Grantham, a character from which
the ordinary Tamil character is an off shoot. It is an error, though
a popular error, and one which was recently repeated in the Friend
of India, that the Déva-nagari is the parent of all the Indian cha-
racters now in use. The various characters that are used in South-
ern India and Ceylon have only a distant family relation to the
Déva-nagari ; being derived, by the process of incessant change,
from the characters (preserved in king Asoka’s inscriptions) which
were in use in ancient India three centuries before the Christian
era, and out of which the Deva-nagari was developed in the
North, and the Telugu, the Grantham (or Tamil), the Singhalese,
&e. in the South. It is clear, therefore, that the Déva-nagari
cannot make out a claim to be more generally used than itis at
present.

On the other hand, the Roman character, though introduced by
foreigners, is already more widely known, if itis not used by a
larger number of persons, than any other character in India. It
is known where the Tamil has never been heard of, and where the
Déva-Nagari has never penetrated. It is used in the administra-
tion of justice and in all Government proceedings in every corner
of British India, together with Ceylon and Pegu, and in the capi-
tals, at least, of all Protected States. In addition to its great in-
trinsic merits, it has the advantage of being used by those nations
that stand at the head of the world’s civilisation. It is the only
vehicle in the present age of a liberal education, and the extent to
which it is used in any district in India is a measure of the degree
in which society has made progress in that district. It is evident,
therefore, that as soon as it becomes a practical question whether
some one character might not be advantageously substituted for
the many that are now in use, it must be admitted that the only
character which possesses any claim to this distinction is the
Roman.

e. It may be added, though it is only a matter of archaiologi- ©

cal interest, that the Roman character is the best existing re-
presentative of that primitive written character which was
used inthe West by the ancient Phenicians and Greeks, and

in the East by the Buddhists of Behar, and which was probably

oor—wAR. 1858-59.| for the Indian characters. 243D

the origin of all the alphabetical characters that are now known
in the world.

About a year and a half ago I had a conversation with Mr.
Hunt, of the American Mission Press in Madras, respecting the
introduction of the use of capitals into Tamil printing, and showed
him afew of the more ancient forms of the Tamil characters ; which
seemed to me to be suitable for the purpose in view, inasmuch as they
bore the same relation to the Tamil character now in use of greater
antiquity and greater simplicity which is borne by the Roman
capitals to the smaller type of our books. I endeavoured after-
wards to make out in this manner a complete set of suitable capi-
tals ; but the further I went the more I felt convinced of the accu-
racy of the hypothesis (first started by Kopp in 1821) of the Semi-
tic origin of the Indian characters. It appeared to me to be certain,
not only that all Indian characters had one and the same origin,
but that the oldest form of the Indian characters was nearly iden-

tical with the Phenician, which was the origin of, and substantially
) identical with, the old Roman. (See Weber’s Lecture on this
| subject in his Indische Skizzen, 1857.) If so, I began to think,
_ why stop short half way, by seeking only the advantage of the
Tamil people, when by going a little further a great additional
advantage to the whole empire might be secured? If we have to
| go back a thousand years in search of Tamil capitals, which, when
they are discovered, ate found to differ almost as much from the
| modern Tamil characters as the Roman do, why not at once go
back a thousand years more, and re-introduce the oldest characters
of all (or at least, their most faithful existing representatives), and
which are by far the best fitted of all for universal use, the Roman
characters themselves ?

| II. The next point which deserves attention is the number and
: importance of the advantages that might be expected to flow from
| the use of the Roman character.

Some of those advantages would be realised by Europeans at
the very outset, as soon as a few books came to be published in this
i character, whilst others would remain in abeyance till it came to
| be generally used by the Natives themselves.

a. The use of the Roman character would facilitate the study
of the Native languages by Europeans. It would, of course, be

9435 Substitution of the Roman [No. 8, NEW SERIES:

as necessary as ever for Europeans to learn the sounds of the
various vernaculars, and this could only be done by listening to and
imitating the pronunciation of Natives, but the trouble, perplexity,
and delay arising from the assumed necessity of learning intricate
native characters would be at an end.

It is true that aman who is thoroughly determined to learn a
language will not allow himself to be baffled by any written cha-
racter, however difficult. An enthusiast will get over the difficul-
ties of the Chinese symbols themselves. But all men are not en-
thusiasts. It is desirable that all Europeans resident in India—
merchants and soldiers, as well as missionaries and civilians,
ladies as well as gentlemen—should learn one at least of the ver-
naculars ; but the necessity of overcoming at the outset so consi-
derable a difficulty deters the majority of non-official persons from
even making the attempt. Most Hast Indians also, though they
can talk the native languages fluently, are deterred by the diffi-
culty of the character from learning to read, and in consequence,
they exert much less influence in the country than they might
otherwise do.

The necessity of using the Indian characters is found, however,
to retard the progress of even the earnest student. We are con-
stantly told that the native characters may. be got up in a few days,
and that after that all difficulty is at an end. But is this really so?
Why is it then that so few Europeans can read any book or MS.
in any of the native languages fluently? Why is it that you
might almost count on your little finger the number of Europeans
in the Madras Presidency who can write with any degree of rapi-
dity in the native characters? The explanation is, that the Indian
characters are so complicated and the modes in waich the vowels
are denoted and affixed to the consonants are so numerous and
intricate, that fluent reading and ready writing are really very
difficult attainments. I never met with an European who could’
read any vernacular book fluently at sight (leaving the meaning of
what was read out of account) under a couple of years’ constant
labour and study, and there are some who never acquire this faci-
lity at all, but are always obliged to spell their way through a book
in private before they can venture to read it in public.

oor—MAR. 1858-59.] for the Indian characters. 243%

There is also an ulterior disadvantage. Even those who are
most fully resolved to learn the vernacular of their district thorough-
ly, and who complain least of the difficulty of the character, are
often deterred by similar difficulties from learning any additional
vernacular. Each of the principal languages of India unfortunate-
ly possesses a character of its own, and hence, notwithstanding
the closeness of the relation subsisting between the Bengali, the
Hindi, the Gujarathi, and the Marathi, the principal languages of
the Sanscritic family, and in like manner between the Tamil, the
Telugu, the Canarese, and the Malayalam, the principal languages
of the Dravidian family—a relationship which is so close that one
might easily learn the differences between the various languages
of the same family, in grammar and use of words, without the aid
of a teacher, if one character only were used instead of many, yet
the fact is that few Europeans, besides those who are required by
the rules of the public service, acquire any acquaintance with more
than one of the vernacular tongues. If every Tamil scholar were
enabled to read books in the cognate languages, without the trou-
ble of learning a new character, few persons would neglect so easy
and interesting a study, and the consequence would be, not only
that Tamil scholarship would be much riper, I believe, than it is,
but also that every one who wished to make himself useful in his
generation would be enabled without difficulty to double or treble
his capacity for usefulness.

b. The use of the Roman character would facilitate native educa-
tion. Ihave just said that foreigners, though they may be well
acquainted with the Indian vernaculars, are rarely able to read them
fluently, but the same deficiency may generally be noticed amongst
the Natives themselves. Natives who are employed in the publie
service, are enabled, by dint of constant practice, to read with much
facility, but the great majority of the people, including the majo-
rity even of the schoolmasters, read with much hesitation and dif-
ficulty. In the rural districts, a fluent reader is almost as rare as
a profound scholar. The accuracy of this statement will be ad-
mitted by every missionary who has been brought into contact with
the masses, and who has tested the ability to read of those who
have asked him for tracts and books. The hesitancy with which

244. Subsiviution of the Roman [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

most Natives read is generally attributed to the inferior quality of
the education they receive. Doubtless the education communicat-
ed in the old, unimproved vernacular schools is defective enough,
but considering the length of time the children generally stay in
school, they ought at least to master the mechanical art of reading
It is a Native proberb that “* arithmetic and writing (literally let-
ters, that is, reading and writing) are the two eyes of man.” Na-
tive arithmetic is undoubtedly well learnt in Native schools, and
as the Natives are equally desirous of learning to read fluently, the
exceeding rareness of this accomplishment must be owing to the
difficulty of their character. very one who has attentively listen-
ed to Native reading and noticed the class of mistakes that most
frequently occur, will be able to confirm the accuracy of this opi-
nion.

I have had considerable experience myself for many years in the
superintendence of vernacular village schools, in the daily instruc-
tion of pupils in mission boarding schools, and in the training of
schoolmasters and catechists, and so far as my own experience has
gone, the ability to read any printed book fluently at sight, with-
out mistakes, has always appeared to me to be one of the rarest of
Native acquirements. However clear the style of the book may be,
and however familiar the subject, I have found that almost all Na-
tives will commit blunders in reading which similarly taught Eng-
lish people would never commit in reading English.

The perplexity of the Native characters presses still more heavily
upon children than upon adults. In examining from month to
month the progress made by Native children in learning their let-
ters, the difficulty of the native character has often forced itself
upon my attention. To learn any Indian alphabet thoroughly, so
as to be able to combine every consonant with every vowel and to
know the various combinations of consonants, involves an acquaint-
ance with from 200 to 500 symbols, according to the nature of the.
alphabet, and is surely the most difficult task to which poor school
children are set in any country in the world. So difficult is it,
that ere the duller sort of children have learnt their letters, the
time is come when they should leave school. At least five per
cent. of the pupils in Native schools, not including idiotic children

‘
ae 2.

ooT.—MAR. 1858-59.] for the Indian characters. 245

or truants, fail to get through even the alphabet, which is the pons
asinorum of Hindi education. Every one has pitied the fate of
unfortunate Native children, who are compelled to toil every day
from 6 o’clock in the morning at so wearisome a task, but almost
every one has fancied that it was impossible to let them off more
easily. I believe that the case was not so hopeless as was sup-
posed. Possibly some Europeans, though they admit that the In-
dian characters are difficult, are not prepared to admit that they
are a practical obstacle to education; or at least, they will not
make this admission with respect to the character which they have
themselves learnt. A person who has succeeded in learning to
read Telugu with ease, will not admit that the Telugu character
is an obstacle te knowledge, but he is ready enough to cry out
about the perplexities of the Tamil or the Malayalam. Vice
versa, one who has overcome the difficulties of the Tamil character
professes to find his fetters on the whole a convenience to him
rather than otherwise, but he has no mercy on the Telugu,
which “ goes out of its way,” he will say, “ to invent difficulties.”
Every character in India will find apologists in turn. “ It is
true they are difficult,” it will be said, “‘ but the difficulty is
unavoidable and is soon got over.’ People are unwilling that
what occupied so much of their own time should be considered
as valueless or worse, and wish to impose the same task upon their
successors. Perhaps, therefore, the best way to form a fair, impar-
tial estimate of the difficulty of the Native characters, and to judge
whether or not they are an obstacle to education, will be to call
attention to a character which is unknown on the Continent of
India, though as truly Indian in a general sense as any other—
I mean the Singhalese.

This character on the whole resembles the Telugu more than
any other now used in India, though the mode in which it com-
bines its vowels with its consonants has most resemblance to the
Grantham. It is unnecessary to write or print the letters and
vowel symbols referred to in the following extract from Lambrick’s
Singhalese Grammar: the English explanation of their use and
meaning will be sufficiently intelligible (?) of itself. Note, that
what follows is to be learnt by Native children, as well as by adult

| foreigners.

| Von. xx o. s. Vou. ¥. N. 8.

246 Substitution of the Roman [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

SYMBOLS.

Aelapilla, Combua. Raibha.
Ispilla, Ist and 2nd Aeda. Matransi.
Papilla, do. do. Gahenukitta. Yangsi.
yMle dos ido: Bindu. Sanyaga.

Ispilla, Al, and Raibha are written above their letters ; Papilla
Aeda, and Matransi are written below their letters.

The others are written on the same line ;—Combua and Sanyaga
before their letters; Aclapilla, Gahenukitta, Bindu, and Yangsi,
after their letters.

The first Ispilla is joined to letters that have a tail turned back,
the second Ispilla is used with all other letters.

The first Papilla is joined to h, &c., the second Papilla is joined
with all other letters.

The first Al is joined with all letters that have a tail turned
back, the second Al is written with all other letters.

Use of the Symbols.

A is made long by aelapilla, wby gahenukitta; the other three
by al. The peculiar vowel is written by adding aeda to a.

Aelapilla is the symbol for a.

Ispilla is the symbol for 2, ispilla gaeta for 2. -

Papilla is the symbol for uw, papilla paekanea for w.

Combua is the symbol for e, combua with al for é.

Combua with aelapilla is the symbol for o, al added to the aela-
pilla makes o.

Combua with gahenukitta is the symbal for aw.
Combua doubled is the symbol for ez.

Aeda is the symbol for the peculiar vowel sound; aeda paeka-
nea makes this vowel long.

Al has two uses: first it lengthens a vowel, secondly when join- ~

ed to a consonant that has no symbol it suppresses the inherent
vowel. (!) .

Bindu is properly a substitute for 6; but in common writing it
is substituted for all the vowels with al. (!) |

}
(

|
|
/
|
(
|
|
)

OCT.——MAR. 1858-59. | for the Indian characters. 247

Bindu doubled is a symbol for kh. (!)

Raibha is the symbol for r preceding another consonant.
Matransi is the symbol for 7 following another consonant.
Yangsi is the symbol for y following another consonant.

Sanyaga has two powers: first, before the rough linguals it is
the sign of the corresponding smooth lingual, also before w it
stands for d. Second, before all other consonants it stands for a
nasal pronounced slightly. (!)

On studying the above scheme of symbols, with the conflicting
rules respecting their position and their double or treble confiict-
ing significations, the apologists of the Deva-nagari, Telugu, Ta-
mil, and other characters, have an excellent opportunity of forming
an unbiassed judgment respecting the merits of the Indian system
of writing. If they have not already learnt Singhalese, I have no
doubt that they are unanimously of opinion, that it would be un-
wise to give their sanction to the use of such a character, or to do
any thing that would ensure its perpetuation, seeing that it is so
evident that it must be an obstacle to education. They will ad-
mit at once that it would be a mercy to poor Singhalese children
to set them free, if it were possible, from the necessity of getting
up these minute, intricate, perplexing rules. ‘“‘ Bradshaw’’ itself
would be a pleasant easy study for children of five years of age in
comparison with this alphabetical puzzle! One would almost
imagine that it had been the wish of the Singhalese schoolmasters
to invent a system of writing which should enable them to keep
all the knowledge in the island in their own hands for ever. In
forming this judgment of the Singhalese, however, the Indian
systems will be found to come under the same condemnation ; for,

_ after all, on a careful comparison of each of the Singhalese sym-

bols with its counterpart in Tamil and Telugu, I have not been
able to see any essential difference between the system of Ceylon
and the systems of Southern India. For example, it is a rule of
the Tamil, as well as of the Singhalese, mode of writing, that the
symbols which represent the vowels e and e?, in combination with
the consonants, precede the consonants to which they belong,
though they are pronounced after them. Thus “ veda’ is written
in Tamil “ evda,’ though it is pronounced veda, and ‘“ Veigei,”

248 Substitution of the Roman [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

the name of the Madura river, is written “ Eiveig!? So also, it is
a rule of the Tamil, as of the Singhalese, that the vowel o,in com-
bination with a consonant, is denoted by the symbols proper to e
and to long a, and that the e precedes the consonant and the a
follows it, though the o which they unite to denote is pronounced
after it. Thus Kottei, “a fort,” is written “ Ekateit!’ Surely
nothing in Singhalese can be more perplexing than this. I have
got accustomed to write ‘“ Kottei’”’ in this extraordinary fashion in
Tamil, and feel no difficulty in it now, but I made several mis-
takes before I succeeded in transliterating the Tamil spelling cor-
rectly into English as above. I feel sure that every foreigner
learning Tamil, and every Tamil child, would be thankful to be
freed from the necessity of writing Kkateit for Kottei.

Even the Déva-nagari is chargeable with this strange anomaly,
for though it denotes 0 in a more rational manner, it requires us
to write short ¢ before the consonants which it ought to follow.
Thus “ tri,” three, is written “ itr!”

It is evident, therefore, that if the Singhalese system seems to
persons who are conversant only with the Indian systems more
perplexing than the Indian ones,. it is only because they are less
accustomed to it, and in a better condition for forming an impar-
tial estimate of its defects.

It may be concluded, then, that the substitution of the Roman
characters for the Indian, supposing it to be possible, would great-
ly facilitate Native education. It would render it easier for Native
children to learn to read, and would thus increase the number of
readers and facilitate the diffusion of knowledge, whilst it would
also bring the accomplishment of good fluent reading within
general reach.

c. Theuse of the Roman character throughout India would ena-

ble each people to participate in the intellectual advantages enjoyed

by tts neighbours. What a calamity would it have been for Europe
and the world, if each European nation on emerging from barba-
rism had adopted a written character of its own! Each separate
character would have formed a wall of separation, by means cf
which the various nations would have been kept in ignorance of
one another and precluded from competing with, and stimulating,

oCT.——MAR. 1858-59.] for the Indian characters. 249

one another in the race of civilisation. The calamity which Europe
escaped has unfortunately fallen upon India, the various populations
of which, though civilised from a common source, are sundered
and isolated not only by differences of language and caste, but by
the use of different characters. So long as the country was par-
celled out into a multitude of independent political divisions, this
evil could not be remedied, but now that a single Government has
acquired a position of commanding influence in every part of In-
dia, there seems to be no reason why the different nations might
not be united together by the use of a single alphabet. If this
were done, the various languages belonging to each of the great
families being very similar in structure and pronunciation, books
and newspapers published in any one language would become
more widely diffused in other language districts, and more exten-
sively useful, than at present. Whatever works of genius or re-
sults of progress distinguished any one people would speedily be-
come the common property of the race, and the empire would
learn to feel itself to be one. The Roman character being in
general use, the study of the English language would necessarily
be popularised, and it might reasonably be expected—it might, at
least, reasonably be hoped—that the gulph which now separates
the Eastern mind from the Western would by degrees be bridged
across. The adoption by the East of the literary symbols of the
West would be at least a step towards union, and a sign of the
deeper union which is desired.

d. If the Roman character were im general use books might be
printed ata greatly reduced cost. This advantage would neces-
sarily appear last in the order of time; it would not take effect
till the change became universal or at least very general; but
it must be admitted to be an advantage of great national im-
portance.

The various Indian characters occupy much more space than the
Roman, and their twirls and ornaments, together with the clumsy
mode of combining consonants which prevails in many of them, viz.,
tying them up one within the other in a bundle, instead of placing
them one after the other in the order of their pronunciation, render
it necessary that the lines should be kept far apart. Some of the
Indian characters have been a good deal compressed already by the

250 Substitution of the Roman (No. 8, NEW SERIES.

zngenuity of foreign printers, but they cannot be compressed any
further without seriously endangering legibility.

Supposing the Roman characters to have come into general use,
every variety of English type, down to the smallest, would be im-
mediately available for printing vernacular books; and cheapness
and legibility, instead of being antagonistic qualities, as at present,
would go hand in hand.

One advantage of the change would be that printers would be
able to introduce all English improvements, to give their books a
more inviting appearance, and to suit the taste of the public, or
rather, to create a taste, by the use of a greater variety of styles
than is practicable at present. Another advantage, and a still more

important one in a populous, poor country like India, would be |

that it would cheapen printing to an enormous extent. The dif-
ference in size and price between English books and books printed
in the vernaculars is chiefly owing to the difference of type. The
best means of forming an accurate comparative estimate will be to
take some book which has been translated as closely as possible
from English into one of the vernacular tongues, and to compare
its price in the two languages. Compare, for instance, the English
Bible with the Tamil Bible. I recently received a grant from the
Madras Auxiliary Bible Society of several hundreds of copies of
their “ Jubilee edition” of the Tamil Bible. This Bible is one of
the clearest, neatest, compactest, cheapest specimens of Tamil ty-
pography which I have yet seen, and we are indebted for it, as for
almost all improvements in Tamil printing, to Mr. Hunt of the
American Mission Press. This Bible, which is one of Mr. Hunt’s
triumphs, is of the size of an English ‘‘ Family Bible,” weighs five
pounds, and its price to non-subscribers, which is, I presume under,
rather than over, its cost price is Rs. 4-12 or Sh. 9-6. At thesame
time, and from the same Society, I received a grant of some copies
of the English Bible, so that I was naturally led to draw a compa-
rison between them. The edition of the English Bible which was
sent to me was published for distribution amongst the labouring
classes in England, and seems to me to be printed in a sufficiently
clear type, and to be neatly enough got up, for general use in
schools in this country. It is too large to be called a ‘“ pocket
Bible,” and would be just the size for general use among Hindi

_

ooT—MAR. 1858-59.| for the Indian characters. 251

christians, who are not accustomed to wear pockets. It weighs one
pound, a fifth of the weight of its Tamil translation, and its title,
*“‘ the ten-penny Bible,” tells its own tale respecting the difference
in price.

The size and costliness of all vernacular books form an incalcu-
lable hindrance to their circulation and general use, and place the
purchase of them beyond the reach of the majority of Hindd read-
ers. The necessaries of life being six times as cheap in India as
in England, and skilled labour (such as is procurable) being cheap
in proportion, books also ought to be six times as cheap; whereas,
instead of being six times cheaper, they are at least ten times as
dear. The necessity of using certain English materials may partly
account for this, but the greater part of the extra expense must be
placed to the account of the Indian characters. If this expensive
character could be got rid of, the greater cheapness and portable-
ness of printed books would stimulate the literary appetite of the
people, facilitate all efforts to enlighten and elevate them, and
probably lead to results of immense importance in the hidden
future.

I do not contend that the substitution of the Roman characters
for the Indian would, all at once, and in all cases, make vernacu-
lar works as cheap as English ones. In printing works in the Dra-
vidian languages, in which many of the words consist of long strings
of particles agglutinated together, more types would have to be set
up, more space would be occupied, and more paper would be re-
quired, than if the same quantity of thought had to be printed in
English. The difference, as respects books translated from Eng-
lish, would amount to an addition of nearly three-fourths more
matter; that is, a page of English turned into Tamil, even if the
Roman characters were used, would occupy about a page and three-
quarters. Original Tamil compositions, however, would not, or at
least. need not, occupy more space than English, for the lengthiness
of the Tamil words has taught all writers who wish to be regarded
as classical to cultivate a highly condensed style. Even supposing,
however, that Tamil works printed in the Roman character were
to cost twice as much as English and to reach twice the size, which
is considerably beyond a fair estimate, the gain to Indian purses
and the stimulus to Indian minds, would still be very great.

SS =

252 Substitution of the Roman [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

It is admitted that this particular result, the cheapening of ver-
nacular literature, would not take effect till the Roman characters
came into very general use, and as the force of custom in this old
conservative country is prodigiously great, the most sanguine re-
former will have to make up his mind to wait a considerable time.
My argument, however, will not be weakened by the probability of
delay. I only ask it to be supposed, that somehow, at some period
or another, the change has been effected, and I argue that the con-
sequence of the change would be, that books would become cheaper,
that readers would become more numerous, and that the native
mind would receive a stimulus of incalculable force. Is not this
deduction a valid one? Ifitisa valid deduction, then however

difficult the change may be, and however long the difficulty may —

continue to be felt, itis evident that it is one of those difficult
achievements which are worth working for.

Most persons who are opposed to the change here advocated are
ready to admit its desirableness in the abstract. Their position is,
that it is surrounded with difficulties, and, in short, that it is im-
practicable. Ifso, it might be thought that I need not have trou-
bled myself to prove the superiority of the Roman character and
the advantages that would flow from its adoption, but should have
confined myself to proving the practicability of the scheme. It
seemed desirable, however, to show the exceeding strength of the
argument from expediency before proceeding farther. Let it be
admitted, as I think it will be, that the change would be in the
highest degree desirable and expedient, if only it were practicable,
and it must then also be admitted, that nothing short of the clear-
est proof of its impossibility should deter us from making the at-
tempt.

III. I proceed to consider various objections to the plan which

have been mentioned to me, and which have been supposed to
prove it to be impracticable, reserving to the last the strongest

objection of all (I think I may style it the only objection of any.

real strength), the alleged inadequacy of the Roman character to
express the sounds of the Indian languages.

a. It is objected that, even if the change be not impracticable in
etself, it 1s impracticable now. It might perhaps have been possible,
it is said, to express all the languages of India in the Roman cha-

OCT.—MAR. 1858-59.| for the Indian characters. 253

racter, if other characters had not already pre-occupied the ground.
We have to deal with a people, it is said, who have had a litera-
ture of their own and characters of their own for thousands of years,
and what instance is there on record of such a people having been
induced to change their written characters ? Besides, ever since the
arrival of the English in India we have been using those charac-
ters ourselves, printing books in them, and doing what we could
to ensure their perpetuation. Ido not underrate this difficulty ;
we have doubtless allowed the best time for making such a change
to pass by; but if the advantages of the plan are so great as they
have been shown to be, and if there is no inherent impracticabi-
lity, we ought even now to make the attempt. “ Better late than
never.”

As regards the use of the Indian characters by Europeans, the
difficulty arising from thew attachment to custom cannot be sup-
posed to render the change impossible. Even if all the Europeans
now in India who have learnt the Native characters should decline
to abandon as useless an acquirement which cost them so
much trouble, every new arrival would be delighted to find his
difficulties diminished. A generation of the English in India
arrives and disappears, sad to say, in so short a period, that sup-
posing only that all newly arrived Europeans were willing to adopt
the change, it would come into almost universal use amongst the
governing race in ten years.

Then also, as regards the Natives, though the change, on the
most sanguine calculation, would take a considerable time—possi-
bly it might never become absolutely universal—yet there are cer-
tain classes of Natives amongst whom it might make its way as
rapidly as amongst newly arrived Europeans. I refer to the Na-
tive youth in government and missionary schools, and schools
which are supported by Natives but conducted by Europeans. As
those who are boys now will be the men of the next generation,
and as the most influential Natives are those who have received
their education in such schools, it is evident that it is only for
Europeans to will it, and the only Natives of the next generation
who are likely to possess any influence will have adopted the
change. It was only last week that I saw in the papers that the
MOU, Xx. 0.5. VOL. Y. N. S.

254 Substitution of the Roman [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

use of the Roman character had been introduced into all public
schools inthe Benares district. Let the same course be adopted
elsewhere, and final success is sure.

A considerable proportion of the difficulty which exists, and
which is alleged as a reason for regarding the change as impracti-
cable now, is a difficulty which is being created by ourselves,
and which we can put an end to whenever we think fit. Year by
year we are labouring for the extension of education, and undoubt-
edly education is extending; but seeing that the whole of the
vernacular instruction that we communicate to native youth, at
least in this part of India, is still conveyed to them through the
medium ‘of the Native characters, by perpetuating those characters,
we are perpetuating obstacles to education.

In some parts of India we are going further even than this, for
we are introducing the Native characters where they were previous-
ly unknown. We are endeavouring to civilise and educate wild
hill tribes who never had any written character before, and where
languages are widely different from those that are spoken in the
adjacent plains, and yet, instead of taking the opportunity of teach-
ing them our own simple characters from the outset, we are puzzling
their brains and giving them a distaste for education, by setting
them to learn the complicated characters invented by their subtle
Hinda neighbours. Thus, we are teaching the Bengali character
to the Santals of the Rajmahal range, who speak a Kol language,
and the Malar, or “ hill people, ’’ of the same range, who speak
a Dravidian language. We are teaching the Uriya character to
the Khonds of Goomsoor, and the Nagari to the Gonds of the Ner-
budda, both Dravidian tribes; and the aborigines of the Nilgher-
ries, peculiar Dravidian tribes, are being taught the Tamil and Cana-
rese characters. In these instances we appear to be going out of
our way to invent difficulties which must afterwards be removed.

Perhaps the best argument in proof of the practicability, even
now, at this late period of Indian history, of | substituting one set
of characters for many, is the fact of a similar substitution haying
already been made, The numeral characters of Europe have recently
been substituted for the numeral characters of India, and are now
rapidly winning their way to universal use. Tam aware that strictly

OcT.—MAR. 1858-59.] for the Indian characters. 255

speaking those characters are not Kuropean : we borrowed them
from the Arabs, and the Arabs from the Hindus; but so many
changes have been made in their shape during the lapse of ages,
on the one hand by Europeans and on the other by the Hindts
themselves, that there is now not much more resemblance between
the Indian ciphers, as used by Hindas, and their European equiva-
lents, than there is between the alphabetical characters of India
and those of Europe. In the Tamil country, the ancient shapes of
the ciphers were more completely lost than elsewhere, and even de-
cimal notation, though a Hindi invention, had been completely
forgotten. in consequence of this, the old Indian numeral ciphers
that were re-introduced from Europe were universally called “ the
English numerals,’ and the old Indian system of notation was
called “‘ the English mode of arithmetic.”” In this instance, as
truly as in that of the alphabetical characters of India, the ground
had been pre-occupied for ages ; but notwithstanding this, Govern-
ment came to the conclusion that it was expedient that the English
cipher and the English modes of calculation should alone be used
in all public accounts. It had been the custom that the public ac-
counts should be made out first in the vernacular of the district,
then translated into Marathi for the benefit of the Sheristadars,
(who were always Maratha Brahmans, because none but Maratha
Brahmans could understand the Maratha accounts,) and then final-
ly translated into English for the information of Government.
But no sooner did Government determine that this round-about
system should cease, and that the English cipher and English
modes of calculation should be used from first to last, than the
change was successfully accomplished. The substitution was car-
ried into effect at a word, and now all Government officials, down
to the Curnums of the villages, nor they only, but even the poor-
est peasant children in our schools (in this neighbourhood, at
least, and I presume elsewhere,) are daily using “ the English
cipher.”

It is true that at present every Native boy learns the Native
numerals, as well as the English, but this double trouble will
cease of itself in due time, when it is practically found to be un
necessary.

256 Substitution of the Roman [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

Here, then, is an instance, in point, of a substitution of one cha-
racter for many, such as is here advocated, having actually taken
place: and if we have succeeded in introducing our ten numeral
characters into general use, is it quite clearly an impracticable
task, even at this late period, to aim at obtaining similar currency
for our 26 alphabetical characters? It may fairly be argued that
it will take a considerably longer time, but surely we should cease
to be told that the thing is impracticable.

b. It is objected, that of the Roman character were introduced,
there would be many different systems of applying rt to the Indian lan-
guages, the result of which would be confuston worse confounded. It
would be necessary to make use of accents and diacritical points
for the purpose of distinguishing long vowels from short ones, and
denoting certain peculiar Indian consonants. Every person, it is
said, would have a diacritical system of his own, and in the end it
would be found, that documents could be deciphered only by the

person who wrote them.

I admit the existence of this danger, though not its alleged
amount; but a danger which, when foreseen, may be guarded
against by a little consideration, is a very different thing from an
insuperable obstacle. It is often necessary even at present to re-
present Indian words by means of English characters. Passages
from the poets, dicta from the law books, peculiar Native expres-
sions on which some dispute hinges, require sometimes to be trans-
literated, and not merely translated. It is still more frequently
necessary to write in Roman characters the names of persons, places,
books, &c., together with revenue and administrative terms. As
the propriety of adhering to a system is not at present practically
felt, and as some of the details of the Roman system are still un-
settled, persons who find it necessary to transliterate Indian words
are generally accustomed to do so according to their own taste and
fancy. Thus, in the last Report of the Madras Bible Society one |
writer calls the sacred books of the Hindus Vedas, another Va-
thems. In a catalogue of books sold at the Government Book
Depots which has just been published, the Sanscrit word for
“ morals” is written in one place neethi, in another nti. But the
most extraordinary specimens of optional spelling which I have

OcT.—MAR. 1858-59.] for the Indian characters. 257

yet met with are to be found in the large government maps of
‘India. In that part of the map which includes the district of Tin-
nevelly, the Tamil word for “ tank,’’ a simple dissyllable, is writ-
ten in thirteen different ways! Though there is much confusion
at present, owing to the absence of an authorised system, it by
no means follows that this confusion would continue after a sys-
tem had been fully considered and definitively introduced, and
people generally had become aware of the existence of the system.

Even at present, there is no difference of importance amongst
Orientalists respecting the way in which Indian words should be
written. As regards the letters by which the Indian vowels should
be represented, which is the most important point of all, English,
German, and French Orientalists are now perfectly agreed. ‘the
points respecting which differences of system still exist are of
small moment and might easily be settled. Still I fully admit
that they require consideration, for any attempt to introduce into
general use a system which had not been thoroughly thought out
and digested in all its details, would probably end in failure and
throw the scheme back another 30 years.

I will refer hereafter to minor details, but I may here mention
some general principles which will require to be considered. (1) A
system which takes the Sanskrit alone into account and contents
itself with meeting the wants of the Sanskrit, will not suit the pur-
pose in view, which is to apply the Roman character to all the
languages of India. The wants of the Hindustani and of the
Dravidian languages will also have to be provided for. For in-
stance, Sanskrit is destitute of the short sounds of e and 0. Con-
sequently Sanskrit scholars, who distinguish the other long vowels
by accents, leave these two long vowels without any distinguish-
ing sign. This would, however, introduce confusion into the Dra-
vidian languages, which have short forms of e and 0, as well as
long. It will be necessary, therefore, to deal with the Indian lan-
guages as a whole, in order that there may be but one system in use
everywhere, and also to study separately the peculiar necessities of
each of the Indian languages, in order that the peculiarities of
each may be taken into account in the general arrangement.
(2). Another difficulty which must be taken into consideration re-

258 Substitution of the Roman [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

lates to the use of accents and diacritical points in cursiwe writing.
Such devices may succeed very well in printed books, but are they
equally suitable for manuscripts? or can a system be invented
which shall equally suit both purposes? The cursive character must
run, or else it is not “ cursive,’ but running will be precluded, if
people are obliged to stop too frequently to add on accents and dots.
There is some danger lest the only thing that is considered is what
is suitable for printing. For this reason Prof. Monier Williams’
plan (see his Sanskrit Grammar) of distinguishing the nasal of the
guttural row (our English ng) by m with a dot on one side of rt, ap-
pears to be inadmissible. (38.) The Germans seem to claim a na-
tional right to transliterate the Indian y by 7, in consequence of

which they are driven to represent the sound of 7 by g. In like |

manner, being accustomed to give a sound of their own to ch, they
transliterate the Indian palatal ch by &. Seeing, however, that the
English have a special interest in the matter, and that we are con-
sulting not for ourselves only but for the Hinds, to whom English
is the language of civilisation, we may at once, I think, determine
to keep to our own usage in these points. We must yield up to
the Germans and the rest of the world (indeed we have already
yielded) our peculiar English mode of pronouncing the vowels ; but
the consonants stand on a different footing.

With respect to these and similar matters, down to the minutest
points of detail, we must see that every thing is duly considered
before a commencement is made. Uniformity of plan is a neces-
sary condition of success, and this unifornuty can be secured by the
action of Government alone. Considering that there are so many
different languages and characters in India, so many different races
and communities, and so many presidencies and protected states, it
appears to me that in this matter, asin the introduction of the
English numerals, Government must take the initiative.

c. It has been objected that the Roman characters are greatly m-

ferior to the Indian in precision, seeing that each Indian character re-
presents only one sound, whereas each Roman character represents
many. It is admitted in reply, that there is a considerable differ-
ence in European tongues, particularly in the English and the
French, between the spelling of words and their pronunciation,

oct.—MAR. 1858-59.] for the Indian characiers. 259

though it does not follow that this defect 1s owing to the charac-
ter. Even if it were owing to this, however, the superiority of
the Indian characters to the Roman would not thereby be esta-
blished, for the Indian characters also are used with a consider-
able latitude of pronunciation. It is commonly said that each In-
dian character has only one sound, that when once that sound has
been learnt it must invariably be adhered to, and that every word
is pronounced precisely as it is written; but there is a good deal
of exaggeration in all this eulogy. In Tamil, at least, every letter
has as wide a margin of sound as in any European tongue.

The Tamil letter ¢ has three sounds, and the proper place for
each sound can be learnt only by practice. At the beginning ofa
word and when doubled, it is pronounced as ~—more softly, how-
_ ever, than the English ¢; after a nasal it is pronounced as d; and
in the middle of a word, when followed by a vowel, it takes the
sound of the soft English ¢# in “ than.”’ Only one character is
employed, and yet the least violation of these rules grates unplea-
santly on the Nativeear. If the Roman ¢ were substituted for the
Tamil one, it does not appear to me that the difficulty which now
exists would be in the least increased.

' The same latitude of pronunciation characterises the greater
_ number of the Tamil consonants. The vowels also have at least
as many different shades of pronunciation as the English vowels.
In pronouncing the vowel a, for instance there are four distinct
modes of pronunciation, each of which characterises certain classes
| of words. In like manner, every Tamil vowel, long or short, might
5 be shown to have two or three different pronunciations, which are

| in reality so many diphthongs. ‘They are not distinguished how-
_ ever from one another by any difference of character, nor is any
| notice taken of them in Native grammars, though the intelligible-
i ness of what is spoken depends in a great degree upon the accu-

| rate observance of these differences.

|
| The objection which I am now discussing has really no validity

J at all, for whatever be the latitude with which particular letters

' are pronounced in the European languages, they will have that la-

_) titude only in the Indian languages which their Indian equivalents
have already. In this respect the substitution of the one charac-

8
fi

260 Substitution of the Roman [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

ter for the other will leave matters precisely as it found them. If
the Indian 4, ¢ or /, or the Indian a, 7, or e, happens to be pro-
nounced in one way only, the Roman 4, ¢, and 7, and the Romana,
2, and e will in like manner have only one sound each. If the In-
dian characters represent, as they sometimes do, several different
sounds, it will simply be necessary to pronounce the corresponding
Roman characters in each of those different ways, as the usage of
the language may require. No existing advantage, therefore, will
in reality be forfeited, whilst, as was previously shown, many will
be gained by the use of the Roman character.

- I may here add that the danger to the acquisition of a correct
pronunciation of the Native languages arising from the use of the
Roman character seems to be equally unreal. It is quite true that
the English characters will naturally in the first instance suggest 7
to the beginner their corresponding English sounds, but this is a
danger to which every person who commences to learn a new lan-
guage by book is exposed. The Englishman learning to read
French, the Frenchman learning to read German, the German
learning to read Hungarian, is constantly liable to pronounce old fa-
miliar letters in the old familiar manner. It will always be neces-
sary to learn pronunciation by the ear, not by the eye. But whilst
I admit that learners may be tempted to pronounce the Roman
characters not in the Indian but in the European manner, I ask are
not the Indian characters themselves pronounced at first in the Eu-
ropean manner by every learner? As soon as the learner discovers
that such and such Indian characters are the equivalents of such
and such European ones, he forthwith supposes that the sounds
also must be identical. It is only after many errors that he learns
that, whatever the literary symbols of a language may be, the sounds
of the language are to be learnt exclusively from the speech of
the people.

d. The last objection, and the most serious is, that there are
sounds in the Indian languages for which the Roman character

has no eguvalent letters. ‘This is undoubtedly a valid objection, — |

so far as it goes, and there are many persons who would give in
their adhesion to the scheme, if only they thought that this diffi-
culty could be satisfactorily disposed of. Supposing it to be prac-

eot—MaAnr. 1858-59.] for the Indian characters. 261

ticable, they are ready to admit all the advantages that have been
attributed to it, and to abandon all the objections that have been
hitherto mentioned as invalid; but they are persuaded of the in-
adequacy of the Roman character to the expression of the Indian
sounds, and on this ground they reject it as impracticable.

Until lately I held this view myself, but, like most other people, —

I presume, without examination. A few years ago, however, I
found it necessary, in preparing for the Press a Comparative Gram-
mar of the Dravidian languages, to represent a great many words
belonging to those languages and some Sanskrit ones in the Ro-
man character, for the sake of facilitating comparison and keeping
down expense. I had no intention of experimenting upon the
adequacy of the Roman character for the purpose in view, and
some of the details of the system which I pursued were not
thoroughly satisfactory ; but I did the best I could under the cir-
cumstances, and as I went on I was gratified to find that the
use of the Roman character was much more feasible than I had
supposed. I met with no difficulty that appeared to be insuper-
able, and such difficulties as I did meet with were wholly owing
to the absence of an authorised system.

Let us see then whether the alleged impracticability of the
scheme will hold its ground when carefully examined. I will en-
- deavour to show, first, that the majority of the Indian sounds can
be expressed by the Roman characters without any change what-
ever, and then, that the Roman character can be enabled to ex-
press the remainder by the help of a very small number of accents
and points. In doing so, I will endeavour to help forward the
definitive settlement of details, a point of great present import-

ance, by giving the particulars of the plan which now commends
itself most to my own mind.

(1.) The number of letters in the Indian languages which can-
not be transliterated, just as they stand, without the addition of
any accents or points, is in reality very small, and the number of
such letters is smaller in some languages than in others.

The following vowels and consonants of the Déva-Nagari alpha-
bet, and of the alphabets which follow the same arrangement, can
at. Kx. 0, Ss. VoL. Vv. N. 8.

@

262 Substitution of the Roman [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

%
be represented by the Roman characters quite as easily as by the
dndian.
I adhere to the order of the Deva-Nagari.
VoweELs.
Short Vowels, a, i, u, e, 0.
Diphthongs, ai (or ei), au,
CoNSONANTS.

Gutturals, k, kh, g, gh.
FPalatals, eich; 7 jh.
Dentals, t, th, d, dh, n.
Labials, p, ph, b, bh, m.
Semi-vowels, y, r, l, v.
Srbilants,—sh, s.
Aspirate, h.

On examining the above list, it will be seen that I have trans-
literated one consonant, with its aspirate, somewhat differently
from the usual mode. The first consonant of the palatal row is
generally represented by ch and its aspirate by chh. I have pre-
ferred cand ch. This change seems desirable partly for the sake
of the Sanskrit itself, in which ch is a purely palatal letter, with-
out any admixture of an aspirate, and therefore unaptly translite-
rated by a compound letter with an / in it (besides which the as-
pirate chh is particularly awkward), but chiefly for the sake of the
Tamil, which uses its own ch as the representative of all palatal
and nearly all sibilant sounds. The Tamil borrows occasionally
Grantham letters for expressing the strong sibilants sh and s when
they occur in Sanskrit words, but it always uses its own ch for “ the
s of Siva” (and sometimes for s), as well as for ch, chh, j, gh.

This Tamil letter, when single, has a sound midway between s and
ch, but when doubled has exactly the sound of the English and Deva-
nagari ch. Itis fortunate for the Deva-nagari ch that it is rarely
doubled ; but the Tamil ch is doubled very frequently, and if it were
represented by the Roman ch, we should meet the barbarous com-
bination, chch, in almost every line. We should thus also be wast-
ing two f’s on a compound which has no aspirate in it, and that

|

OCT.—MAR. 1858-59] for the Indian characters. 263

in a language which pessesses no aspirate whatever. For these
reasons it appears to me that ch may best be transliterated by c, a
letter of which no other use has been, or can be, made in the Indian
languages, and which, therefore, can be used for this purpose with-
out any danger of misapprehension. On this plan, the Sanskrit c
and ch would correspond symmetrically to j and yh, and the awk-
ward compound chch would be replaced in Tamil by cc.

Whether this suggestion be finally adopted or not, neither c nor
ch requires the help of any diacritical point. For this reason I
think the French cediila c less suitable.

It will be observed that I have adopted the English sh as the re-
presentative of the peculiar Sanskrit ‘“s of Vishnw’, which is
sometimes represented by sf, and the English s as the representa-

tive of the Sanskrit s. Itis therefore, only the first of the three
sibilants, the “ s of Siva,” which will require some distinguishing
sign. |

(2.) We now come to those Indian sounds or characters which
cannot be represented by the Roman character without the aid of
accents or points. It will be seen that characters of this class are
not numerous, and that they can be provided for by the use of two,
or at the utmost three, distinguishing signs.

(a.) The first set of sounds requiring our consideration are the
long vowels. The necessity of distinguishing long vowels from
short in each of the Indian languages cannot be disputed. This
is a necessity to which the Roman character must bend. All that
is required, however, to meet this necessity is to mark every long
vowel with an accent. It will then be understood that every ac-
cented vowel is long, every unaccented one short. The sign used
| for this purpose may either be the sign of the acute accent, as ad or
| that of the circumflex, as d, or the ordinary prosodial sign of length,
| as a. This point should be settled by practical printers. For cur-
sive writing, I suspect it will be found that the last of the three
signs, the simple horizontal line, is the easiest.

The only condition for which I would stipulate is, that the ac-

cent or sign by which a vowel is made long shall not be used for
any other purpose. This appears to me to be a fatal objection te

264 Substitution of the Roman [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

Prof. Monier Williams’ use of the acute accent as the sign, not
only of long vowels, but of the first s of the Sanskrit sibilants, e. g.
dar'st. A dot over the s and a horizontal line or acute accent over
the 7 would involve no perplexity.

The Sanskrit vowels 727 and r2, the vowel d77, which is found in
only one word in the language, and /r?, which never occurs at all,
may safely be dispensed with. The difference between the so
called vowel 77, and the syllable which is composed of consonantal
y and zis more a fanciful than a real one, and so far as it is real,
it consists merely in a slight peculiarity in the pronunciation of 7
after rin certain words. It does not appear to me that any dis-
tinguishing sign is required; the ordinary characters 7 and 7 will
suffice. Williams distinguishes this vowel 7 bya dot underneath.

The abandonment of the dot in this connection will enable us to

represent in this manner one of the peculiar 7’s of the south In-

E
dian languages.

Thus, the help of a single simple, unmistakeable sign enables
the Roman character to express each of the vowel sounds of the
Indian languages. Certainly none of the Indian systems can vie
with this in simplicity. In Tamil alone there are 17 different signs
of length employed for distinguishing the long forms of the five
simple vowels !

(6.) The second class of sounds for which the Roman alphabet
requires to make some special provision, is that of the “ cerebral”
or lingual sounds. These are the ¢, th, d, dh and n of the third
row of Sanskrit consonants, with the corresponding letters in the
other Indian alphabets, to which I would add the peculiar 7 or 71
of the Vedas and the Dravidian languages, and the harsh lingual
y of the same family of tongues.

The six lingual consonants differ from the dentals, the conso-

nants of the next row, only by a certain peculiarity of pronuncia-
tion. The most natural way of distinguishing them from the den-

tals would be by adding to them some distinguishing mark, and

this distinguishing mark should be affixed in the same way to them
all. Instead of adopting some such plan as this, the Indian
alphabets use two totally distinct sets of characters, thereby in-

Fe SS 8 aati ey ee

ocT.—MAR. 1858-59.] for the Indian characters. 269

| creasing the number and complexity of the alphabetical symbols

without any necessity.

The method of distinguishing the corresponding lingual sounds
of the Ostiak adopted by Castrén, was to append to the ordinary
Russian character a little hook or tail. Sir W. Jones distinguished
these letters by an acute accent affixed to one side,e. g. t’a. The
method generally adopted of late is that of placing a dot underneath,
which seems to be the easiest and best method of accomplishing
the object in view; and if, as I propose, no other dots or marks
are placed beneath the lines except those which denote lingual let-
ters, no practical difficulty can arise.

I have added to this list of letters dotted underneath the hard
lingual 7 of the Dravidian languages. I distinguished this in my
Comparative Grammar by the large f, but this plan would pre-
elude the use of the character as the capital of the ordinary r.
Mr. R. Anderson denoted it by a double 7, but this would lead to
confusion, and would render it necessary to represent the doubled
form of this character, which is very common in Tamil, by rrrr!
As the sound of this r bears nearly the same relation to the ordinary
semi-vowel rv that the lingual ¢ does to the dental, being originat-
ed by a peculiar twirl of the tongue, it appears to me that the
best plan will be to class it at once amongst the linguals, and to
distinguish it like them, by a dot underneath.

(c). The Tamil and Malayalam have a deep lingual 7 to which
I should here refer. This is pronounced in some districts like zh
or 72h, in others exactly like the lingual J, but the most classical
pronunciation of it closely resembles the sound of +r in the Eng-
lish word, “tar.” I regard it therefore as a species of r. It has
been suggested that z, having no place in the Indian alphabets,
might be used for this purpose. Z, however, will be required for
Hindustani. The ordinary Roman 7 being required for the equi-
valent Indian letter, I propose that this peculiar South Indian r

be represented by 7, with a dot above.
(d). .We now come to the nasals, including dnuswara, a class
of sounds which involve more difficulty than any others.

The consonantal nasals n,m, and m present no difficulty ; the

266 Substitution of the Roman [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

difficulty relates to the first two consonantal nasals, which are
commonly transliterated by ng and 77, and to Anuswara.

(a). I begin with Anuswara. This is the character which in
Sanskrit, and in all other Indian alphabets except the Tamil, is
used in certain conjunctions as the common representative of all
nasal sounds. It is sounded like ng before gutturals, like mj be-
fore palatals, like m before linguals, like n before dentals, like m
before labials and at the end of certain words; and before h, where
it is most appropriately used, its sound is nearly that of ng.

In reality this character is not at all required, the great latitude
of sound which is accorded to it perplexes, instead of simplifying

the alphabet, and each of its sounds might with great advantage |

be represented by the consonantal nasal which is equivalent to it.
The substitution for it of the consonantal nasals is indeed to a
certain extent optional in all the Indian alphabets, and what is
optional in other languages is the rule in Tamil. The Tamil re-
jects Anuswara altogether, using the consonantal nasals instead,
and gets on perfectly well without it. The bes¢ course would, I
have no doubt, be to follow the example of the Tamil in this mat-
ter ; as however the scheme now advocated is that of substituting
the Roman characters for the Indian, leaving Indian modes of
spelling untouched, the second best course is to provide a repre-
sentative for Anuswara, which shall be used with the same lati-
tude until people learn to lay it aside. As we are not allowed to
change about from n to m as circumstances seem to require, but
must keep to the same letter throughout, it appears to me that m
is the most suitable character to be used, to be distinguished from
the consonantal m by adot above. People will learn in time to
lay aside the dot where it is not required, as at the end of neuter
nouns.

(6). The nasal of the guttural row of consonants which is pro-

nounced like mg in English may best, I think, be transliterated by’

n with a dot above. This is the best representative of the Anus-
wara before each h and of the obscure final Anuswara of Hindi

words. In those instances people will naturally prefer n to m, and

that will help forward the abandonment of m. The objection to

1

(

ocT.—MAR. 1858-59.] for the Indian characters. 267

the use of the English ng as the representative of the guttural

nasal is that it is a double consonant. The m alone will be found
to be quite sufficient, with the addition of a dot, seeing that it will
always be followed, except in a very small number of instances in
Tamil, either by Aor by g. Even the dot, indeed, may be dis-
pensed with in time.

(ec). The nasal of the palatal row which includes ¢ and 7 has
commonly been represented by nj or yn. The use of double let-
ters, however, for transliterating single ones is objectionable. This

_ sound must be represented by 2; the only question is, how is this

m to be distinguished from others ?

The Germans sometimes represent it by m with the addition of
the Spanish nasal sign, sometimes by » with the same addition,
sometimes simply by x. Where this letter is followed by ch or J,
n alone might suffice, but it will require some distinguishing mark
when it is used, as in sometimes is in the South, as an initial. I
therefore suggest the use of the Spanish nasal sign with n, e, g, %.

This will only be required, however, when it is initial. I fully
anticipate, indeed, that in due time people will lay aside the
greater number of these marks and dots, when they find that they
can be dispensed with, as I believe they often may, without inconve-
nience ; 2 alone will be found sufficient in time for every nasal except

| m. Incursive writing, and even in print, a horizontal line over

the n, e. g. n, will sufficiently represent the Spanish nasal sign.

(d.\) The half Anuswdra of the Telugu does not appear to re-

| quire any written sign. The Anuswara itself may be used instead

of it by those who wish.

(e.) The only letter that still requires to be provided for is the

| first of the three sibilants of the Déva-nagari. For this I would
| propose s with a dot above. The dot below is reserved for linguals,
| the dot above is therefore the best sign for those few other letters

: | that require a distinguishing mark.

Visarga is quite sufficiently represented by a final h; ardhakara

i by the English apostrophe.

The apostrophe will also be generally useful, in languages in

} which sandhi prevails, as the sign of elision.

268 Substitution of the Roman [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

Notr.—It is desirable to make an observation or two here with
respect to the application of the Roman letters to Tamil. The Tamil
wholly rejects the aspirated consonants of the Sanskrit, together
with the separate aspirate 2; it rejects Anuswdra, and in the clas-
sical dialect it ignores s, sh and s; but the chief peculiarity of its
system is, that it rejects all the sonant or soft consonants of the
Sanskrit and the other alphabets, and uses only the hard conso-
nants or surds. Acting on this principle it rejects g, 7, d, dand 6.
These letters, therefore, will not be required in the Tamil country,

except in words belonging to Sanskrit or to any foreign language
which are quoted as foreign.

Whilst the Tamil rejects the characters referred to, it does not —
reject the sounds which they denote, 4 is pronounced as g when
it occurs singly in the middle of a word or after a nasal, as k at

the beginning of a word and when doubled, and a similar rule ap-
plies to the other letters.

As this peculiar arrangement is not an arbitrary one, but one
which springs from a law of sound that is characteristic of the lan-
guage, it cannot safely be set aside on the introduction of the Ro-
man character. For some time,-at least, each Tamil consonant
must be transliterated exactly as it stands, irrespective of the sound
it receives. Whenever the Tamil é occurs, it must be transliterat-
ed by the Roman &, and it must be left to the Tamil ear, as it may
safely be left, to pronounce it soft, as g or gh, where itis so requir_
ed. If this rule is not attended to, the popularisation amongst the
Natives of the use of the Roman character will be seriously impeded.

For similar reasons, wherever the Tamil uses certain characters
as the symbols of peculiar compound sounds, the exact equivalents
of those characters should be used in transliteration, and no attempt
should be made to produce the same result by means of any Eng-
lish combinations of letters. Thus, as the Tamil uses » and the
harsh lingual ras the symbol of the sound ndr, and double 7 as the
symbol of a sound resembling #7, we must be content with imitat-
ing the Tamil in this and Hanelibsratiae those letters just as they
stand. It will simply be necessary to explain to learners, as hither-
to, how those combinations are to be pronounced.

@oT.—MAR. 1858-59.] for the Indian characters. 269

We have now gone over the entire ground, in so far as the pe-
euliarities of the purely Indian alphabets are concerned, and it is
my impression that we have not met with any insuperable difficul-
ty. Ifthe change is impracticable, at all events the impracticabi-
lity does not appear to consist in the impossibility of adapting the
Roman characters to the Indian sounds.

The following view of the whole of the proposed modifications
will show how few and easy they are, and how little trouble is in-
volved in the plan.

ProposeD Inpo-Roman ALPHABET.*
VOWELS.
wee) U, > ee | al (Or el); 0,,0.5) au.
Anuswara m (orn). Visargah.
CoNSONANTS.
Gutturals, k, kh; gol: n.
Weealatalss ¢,vh;)j, jh: nor n-
Hineualss t, th: \d, dh: mn.
Wenralicatt.ith ;: dedh’; 1,
Labials, p, ph; b, bh; m.
Semi-vowels, y, r, l, v.
Dravidian do, r, Tae
Sibilants, S, sh, s.

Aspirate, h.

A very important advantage, as it appears to me, of the scheme
exhibited above, is its simplicity. If it should be modified on further
consideration, I trust it will only be for the purpose of making it
more simple still. An accent to distinguish the long vowels and
a dot variously placed for distinguishing peculiar consonants, can-
not cause perplexity, and ought to be made to suffice. There are
doubtless afew points of detail which require to be more fully

* Notr.—Should the English names of the Roman characters be in-
troduced, e. g. ay, bee, aitch, el, &e.? By nomeans. The characters
themselves stand upon a different footing from the names which happen
to be given to them in England. ‘The Indian modes of denominating
the letters are better than the English.

Siol. xx, o. s. Vol. y. N. &.

270 Substitution of the Roman [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

considered, especially with reference to the necessities of rapid
manuscript writing, but I do not think that any difficulty even in
details will be met with, which might not easily be settled by
persons acquainted with the subject.

I may here add that the plan of modifying foreign characters to
enable them to express the sounds of the Indian languages is not
a novelty, as appears sometimes to be supposed The experiment
has already been tried with a character considerably inferior to
the Roman, and the result of the experiment is the character in
which Hindustani is generally written. What is that character
but Persian (originally Arabic), with the addition of certain sym-

bols found to be necessary for denoting peculiar Indian sounds ?

It is not alleged that the Persian character cannot be applied to

the Indian languages, or that its substitution, with certain modifi- —

cations, is impracticable. The possibility of doing it has been
proved by the fact of its having been done. WSolvitur ambulando.
It is only the substitution of the Roman characters for the Indian
that is now regarded as impossible ; and yet every one must admit,
on the least consideration, both that the Roman character is prefer-
able in itself to the Persian, and that the modifications of the Per-
sian which constitute Hindustani are far less easy, simple, and sys-
tematic than the modifications of the Roman character which have
now been proposed.

%

eed

The following are the steps which I beg to recommend should
be taken, for the purpose of introducing the plan now advocated,
and which appear to me to be likely to be attended with success.
I state them in the order in which I think they should be carried
out.

1. The encouragement of discussion respecting the merits of

the plan in general and questions of detail, by persons conversant:

with the Native languages.

2. The adoption by Government of such measures as are con-
sidered to be best adapted for the settlement of the details of the
plan on a comprehensive principle.

ocT—MAR. 1858-59.| for the Indian characiers. 271

3. The publication of a series of alphabetical sheets and ele-
mentary books in the various vernaculars, containing exemplifica-
tions of the working of the plan, and explanations of points that
may be thought likely to appear obscure to Natives.

4. The introduction of the plan, after these preliminary steps
have been taken, into all schools supported by Government or
receiving grants in aid, not in supersession of the Native charac-
ters, but as a supplementary system of writing.

By the time matters reached this point, the public mind would
be prepared, I anticipate, for carrying the plan considerably
farther.

I have, &c.,

R. CALDWELL.
IDEIYANKUDI, parce)

2nd May, 1859.
To
Sir C. E. TREVELYAN, K. C. B.,

Governor of Madras.

P. 8.—Since this paper passed out of my hands, I have been
in correspondence on the subject with the Revd. G. U. Pope,
whose talents and acquirements are well known in this Presidency,
and as I find that he also is strongly in favour of the introduction
of the Roman character, I presume that it will be found to have a
larger number of adherents than I imagined.

In discussing details with Mr. Pope, I have adopted some of his
transliterations, in preference to those which I had suggested ; but
as my object in preparing the preceding paper was, not to attempt
to settle details, but to draw attention to the subject and to pro-
mote discussion, I have thought it best to leave every thing just as
it was written.

R. C.

to
bos
4)

Crystalline Limestone. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

HI. On the occurrence of Crystalline Limestone in the vicinity of
frichinopoly. By W. Kine, Esa., Geological Survey of India.
(Communicated by Government.)

WHILE surveying the Moosery and Toriore talooks of the Tri-
chinopoly District, I observed some blocks of Crystalline Lime-
stone in the bund of a tank near Comungalum. Subsequent ob-
servation showed that this rock occurs ¢m situ in two places: at
Naivailie, about sixteen miles North-west of Trichinopoly ; and at
Mootum four miles further North and on the West side of the
Tyaur river. |

These two localities occur in a metamorphic district consisting
of beds of micaceous, hornblendic, and quartzose gneiss, more or
less foliated and in many cases particularly in the South-western
part of the Toriore talook assuming a perfectly schistose charac-
ter. They are situated almost on the Northern edge of a great
development of granite and quartz, either in the form of veins or
protruded masses, which forms a belt more than eight miles in
width extending along the Northern bank of the Cauvery from a
point North of Trichinopoly into the Coimbatore District. Gene-
rally throughout this granitic region the direction of the foliation
of the metamorphic rocks is EK. N. E. — W. 8S. W. while the aver-
age dip of the beds is 45° to the North.

At Naivailie the limestone appears at the Eastern end of the
tank as a bed 6 or 7 feet in width cropping up between bands of
gneiss. From this point it extends in an H. 8S. E. direction for a
little more than a mile, where it takes a new direction E. N. E.,
and so continues for another mile. Here another band joins it
which may be a continuation of a smaller one occurring at Naivai-
lie about 100 yards North of the first.

Throughout the greater part of its extent the main band pre-
serves an uniform thickness of 6 or 7 feet, but widens out at one
place (where there is a large granite vein and- much contorted
gneiss) into a surface of more than 50 yards square. The bedding
of the gneiss rocks inthe vicinity is quite distinct, the dip being

OCT.—MAR. 1858-59.] Crystalline Limestone. 278

vertical, so that the vertical extent of the limestone may in all
probability be very great.

Immediately adjoining the main band on its Northern side is a
thick bed of quartz rock, and on the Southern is a bed of irregu-
larly foliated hornblendic and felspatic gneiss succeeded by a large
vein of granite some yards in width. This vein assumes towards
its interior the structure of graphic granite. It is here that the
change in the direction of the band takes place.

The limestone is generally of a grey color, but this changes to a
white and in some places to pink. Its structure is granularly crys-
talline, resembling loaf sugar, at the same time the crystals are not
so large as to render the rock friable. The foliation, which, as a
rule, is extremely imperfect, is parallel to that of the gneiss, in this
case the same as the direction of the band given above. The folia
consists of mica and chlorite, these sometimes disappearing altoge-
ther and never exceeding an eighth of aninchin width. Fragments
of contorted gneiss, and small nests of quartz, chlorite and calc spar
occur in it to very small extent, while in places the limestone itself
appears to have been squeezed in between the folia of the gneiss

and separated into lenticular patches.

At Mootum the band of limestone is nearly a mile in length,
but not so broad nor so much of it seen, as that at Naivailie. It
presents the same characters, and the rocks of the vicinity are the
same as at that place; the only difference being that the general
color is pink and the development of granite not so great.

As an industrial resource of this district, the occurrence of crys-
talline limestone is very important, owing to its being useful as a
building material in the form of stone, marble, or lime. In the
present case, the uniformly close texture, the pleasing colors and
semi-translucency, and the comparative freedom from foreign mat-
ters, are qualities which render it peculiarly well adapted for these
different purposes. I had some of the light grey limestone burnt
by the chunam-maker of the place, and specimens of different colors
roughly polished in Trichinopoly ; and the results were most satis-
factory. The marble is fine grained and clouded, while the colours
come out clear and decided; the lime was of excellent quality.

274 Fort and Temple at Vellore. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

IV. Memorandum of the Fort and Hindoo Temple at Vellore
and others im tts neighbourhood, as recorded in A. D. 1815.
By Lirut. H. P. Hawkes, Sub Asst. Comy. Geni.

Axsovut 450 years ago (A. D. 13865) an inhabitant of Viziana-
gram, named Rooma Reddy with his family arrived in this country
en route to Ramiseram. On his march he halted several days at
a village called Valapady near Vellore.

The inhabitants of the village, finding Rooma Reddy to be a
good soldier, begged his assistance against a large body of robbers
who were concealed in the neighbouring forest, particularly where

the Fort of Vellore now stands, and who had pillaged all their —

property. On hearing this, Rooma Reddy with his brother took
the necessary steps to secure them and put them all to death.

The inhabitants being overjoyed at their deliverence ‘from these
robbers, reported the circumstance to their head chief the Rajah
of Guijee. He gave them permission to encourage Rooma Reddy
to settle in the village, and ordered them to treat him well and
give him every assistance in their power.

One day Rooma Reddy, accompanied by his dog, entered into
the jungle to look for game. Of a sudden a hare made an attack
on his dog on the spot where the sawmy pagoda is now built.
Rooma Reddy being surprized and astonished at such an unusual
occurrence, thought it must be some interposition of the gods.
He returned to his house and dreamed that night that there was
a lingum or stone sawmy beneath the white ant hill (near which
the hare had attacked the dog), and that it was his duty to take it
out and build a large pagoda on the spot, he also dreamed that
treasure would be found by searching a certain cave in the hills.

Rooma Reddy discovered the treasure of which he had dreamed.

(all in gold) and applied to the Raja of Guijee for permission to
build a fort and a pagoda ona certain spot of ground. This was
granted, and he employed a large number of workmen who cleared
the jungle and laid the foundations ina most durable manner.
He first built the sawmy pagoda, covering the lingum stone sawmy,

OCT.—MAR. 1858-59.] Hort and Temple at Vellore. Ds:

now to be seen in the Arsenal and which he called “ Telecau-
teseral.”’

After a period of 25 years (1390)? the Fort was nearly complet-
ed, when Kistna Deva Rayah, king of Anaygoondy in Mysore
invaded the Carnatic, took possession of all the fortified places,
and amongst others of Vellore Fort where he fixed his throne.
He erected the Rajmahal and other buildings, and sunk a tank
called Sooriag oonta,* (reservoir tank) also a well} in the pagoda
surrounded by a stone choultry as an offering to his god.

Moreover he made a canal} from the Palar river to supply the
well} with water : he reigned about fifty years.

Kistnajeeamah, his wife, established a pettah, and built two saw-

my Pagodas on the bank of the Palar river about one mile from
Vellore.

His brother, Ganaput Royal, built the fort of Arnee by the same
| workmen who made the plan for the fortification of Vellore.

On Kistna Deva Rayel’s decease, his brother Atchoota Rayel suc-
ceeded him on the throne, and built a Rajmahal at Chanderna_
| gherry.

| After the demise of Atchoota Rayel, Ram Rayel his brother was
| placed on the throne.

_ By reference to several books of Gentoo poems, now in posses-
i sion of several inhabitants here, it will be seen that the descendants
i of the Rayels reigned in this as well as in Mysore and other coun-
i tries (about 200 years ago), and that after that they were succeed-
_ ed by the Mahrattas.

Shahoo Raja a Mahratta king entered into the Carnatic with his
' army, and took possession of Vellore and other forts where he
| found much treasure. He built several hill forts, on various spots

| * This tank which is more than 150 yards square is still in existence,
') and contains a sufficiency of water to supply the Fort for 2 or 3 years
| to which it is conveyed by pipe, it is about 800 or 1000 yards south of
), the Fort.

| + This well in the pagoda is also in perfect repair, and there is every
al reason to believe that the communication with the river here mentioned,
] was actually made as there is a constant flow of clear spring water into
| it. The river is distant about a mile and a quarter north.

Fe EIS
nh Spe: = =
===

276 Fort and Temple at Veltore. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

captured by him, and amongst others he built forts near Vellore,
Vizagapatam, Sazram, Gozaran, Kylassaghur and Carnatic-ghur ;
he also sunk a tank on the hill of Sazaron which he named Guija
Saugor. |

On his return to his native country (Poona), he left one of his
principal chieftains named Rajah Ram Chutterputty to govern this
country. Rajah Shahoo’s servants, a washerman and a chuckler,
built with the Rajah’s permission two hill forts in the neighbour-
hood of Vellore called Chumbar-ghur and Dhobie-ghur.

The Mahrattas reigned in this country about 100 years, and
were succeeded by the Mussulmen.

About 150 years ago (1665 ?) a mussulman named Khan Khan- ©

nah was sent by the King of Delhi to govern the Hydrabad Sou-

bah and its dependencies. He appointed Nowab Mahomed Khan

as Khilledur of Vellore, &c., viz. Kylassaghur, &e. His son mur-
dered some of the dancing women, belonging to the sawmy pagoda
in the Fort of Vellore, from which circumstance the worship of Te-
lacunteeswerim sawmy was discontinued and the valuable jewels
and images belonging to the pagoda were concealed under
ground. Onthe decease of Nawab Mahomed Khan, his son
Nawab Abdulla Khan succeeded him and commanded the fort
for several years. He laid the foundation of a fortification in
Chedpary tank, but did not proceed with the work. He also
built a large terraced house, a stone choultry, sunk a well,
and established a village called Abdullapoorum about three
miles from Vellore on the high road to Seringapatam. By re-
ference to an Arabic inscription cut on the stone lying in the
gateways of the fort, it may be seen that he altered the gates
of Vellore. Abdullah Khan had a Hindoo woman called Na-
zook Rutnum whom he loved much, but at last he murdered her
in a fit of drunkenness, and built a tomb stone near Conaveethum
about half a mile from the fort on the left hand side of the road?
This he ornamented with a gilt top and endowed it with several

cawnies of land, the revenue of which was to defray the expenses

of the daily and annual ceremonies. Abdullah’s tomb is situated
in a stone choultry about 25 miles from the fort close to the
Chedepary tank,

OCT.—-MAR. 1858-59.] Fort and Temple at Vellore. 277

Nawab-Nansur Sing, son of Nawab Azuf Jah, Soubadar of the
Deccan, was directed by the king of Delhi to govern the Carnatic,
and on his death Nawab Daood Khan, accompanied by his Dewan
Nawab Saadut oola Khan, came to this country.

On Daood Khan’s return to Hyderabad he made over the Go-
vernment of the country to Saadut oola, who came to terms with
all the petty Rajahs, excepting the Rajah of Guijee, who refused
to pay his revenue, assigning as a reason that he had expended all
his resources in building seven hill fortsat Guijee. Nawab Saadut
oola not considering this a satisfactory reason, seized Guijee and
took Dar Sing prisoner. The history of Dar Sing is written in the
Gentoo language, as also that of his wife who suffered herself to be
burnt with him. His tomb is situated at Tutta Petta near Guijee.

During the period of Nawab Saadut oola Khan’s Government,
(about one hundred and ten years ago), he granted to his brother
Nawab Gholam Ali Khan, the jagheer of Vellore and its depen
dencies.

Gholam Ali Khan had four sons, viz., Ali Dost Khan, Bauker
Ali Khan, Saduk Ali Khan, and Acbur Mahomed Khan. On
Gholam Ali Khan’s decease, his property and jagheer were divid-
ed amongst his four sons, and Nawab Bauker Ali Khan succeeded
to the Fort and district of Vellore.

During the time that Bauker Ali Khan held the jagheer (about
90 years ago,) a great famine happened in this country, at which
period he established a Lungur Khana to support a number of
poor people and deepened the Chedpary tank. He made, more-
over, a nullah from the Palaar river to supply the tank with water.
Nawab Bauker Ali Khan had two sons, Gholam Rajah Khan and
Gholam Martuzah Khan. The latter succeeded his father after
his death in the jagheer of Vellore, and built a hill fort near Vel-
lore which he called Moortuza-ghur. His wife founded a village
called Baukerpooram, and made a garden near it called the “ Bar-

rier gate,’ at present the indigo works of Mr. Jollie.

, Wallajah, the Nawab of the Carnatic, demanded Gholam Moor-
teza Khan’s daughter in marriage for his son Nawab Oomdut
Oomrah, and on being refused he leagued with Lord Clive, enter-
MOL, XX, 0. 8. VOL. Y. N. 8.

278 Fort and Temple at Vellore. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

ed and took possession of Vellore (about 60 years ago), and ap-
pointed his own Khilledar. The Fort of Vellore was afterwards
made over to the British Government. Wallajah having taken
Vellore, took the wife and daughter of Gholam Moorteza Khan
into his own house, and sent the jagheerdar to close imprisonment
at Trichinopoly.

The tombs of these Mussulmen are situated in a Muckan ad-
joining Colonel Webber’s house in the Pettah of Vellore.

Translation of an inscription taken from a stone which covered
the well inside the Arsenal of Vellore.

& & *& * *& + %

Having compelled him to look for shelter in the woods, Sheera- |
lan or Chera armed with a bow and arrow, well fitted for using in
battle, destroyed Caudalore encircled by the sea, and cut the gold
crowned heads Vomallavan (7. e. the strong vallanen) and Kauna-
cucha Kanta, (2. e. the “ guardian defender’ a title of royalty), so
that the king of Kanga took fright.

He advanced his standards, took Tamilpauni, putting the Raja
(Cayalan) to fight, and striking his elephants so that they wallowed
on the ground roaring, and defeated all his enemies. He likewise
put to flight Medusal Vissagan (2. e. “a large sword’) by means
of his army while his father and mother shed téars, having exhi-
bited his labour and caused to be imprisoned the emissaries de-
puted by Ahava Malla, who took fright at his army, his Vallout
(king) wounded them, and Ahava Malla who was armed with a
bow and arrow with his army under the flag of a palmyra tree.

& +e cy cy % oe *

Nott.—The commencement and end of the aboye are illegible.—
SP. EL

ocT.—MAR. 1858-59.| Lead Ores m the Cuddapah District. 279

V. Report on Lead Ores in the Cuddapah District. By P. W.
Wart, Hse., Mineral Viewer.

(Communicated by Government.)

In that portion of my previous report which relates to the
locality described as near Nundiallumpett, in the Cuddapah Dis-
trict, I pointed out the connection existing between a number of
isolated points of occurrence of the mineral under consideration as
indicating one continuous vein or lode having throughout a uni-
form course or direction.

It became, therefore, my object to pursue an examination of the
country in the direction thus indicated from the two extreme
points, with the view to ascertaining if a further continuation of the
lode could be traced out.

In the northerly direction, the course indicated leaves the hilly
ground and passes for some considerable distance over an area of
level country, the surface of which is covered with soil and allu-
vial matter, and most unfavorable for investigations of this nature ;
from the southern extremity, however, the course is over a portion
_ of the mountainous range, my attention was therefore directed to
_ this part, and I have succeeded in discovering numerous other
| points in the line of its course and tracing it for a further distance
of four miles.

The ore is thinly scattered in this continued portion occasionally
disseminated through the gangue, but more frequently lining the
cavities, as occurs at the surface at the previously described parts
of it.

At the most southern point as yet observed the rock becomes
more siliceous and scattered crystals of Copper Pyrites occur in it.
| Amap of the locality with the course of the Lead vein shown
| by a broad red line is herewith appended.*
| The vein throughout this latter extension continues to preserve
| the uniform character with that of the other portions as observed
at the surface, its cellular or cavernous structure being throughout
a very marked feature which enables it to be readily distinguished
when making its appearance at the surface.

* Vide Pl. I,

280 Lead Ores in the Cuddapah District. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

On the western side of the lode, and at a distance of about 2 of
a mile from it, there occurs a branch vein, this is marked on the
map a little south east of the village of Nagsanpilly.

At the point of observation it is split into two portions about 2
feet apart, each being of a thickness of 4 inches average.

Being of small dimensions it is rich in mineral, the whole being
made up of ore and clay, there is also a considerable admixture of
carbonate of Copper.

The direction of it is north east and south west with an underlie
of 45° to the south east.

Its course traverses a series of ridges and nullahs and in this
respect is very favorably circumstanced for working.

The place where opened by my excavations is situated about
150 feet above the level of the plain, so that a considerable extent —
could be worked vertically by means of headings into the hill side
without any fear of interruption from water, and with the greatest
possible facility for getting rid of the debris; longitudinally also a
great extent could be mined under the same advantageous circum-
stances on account of the undulating surface of the country.

The part at present exposed is 1} mile from the point where, if
its present direction is maintained, a junction would be effected
with the main lode, approaching which it may be expected to in-
crease in richness. ;

In the opposite direction there is about 14 mile of the same un-
dulating country it probably traverses before reaching the plain.

There is every reason to believe it will not be found to die out
in this last named direction, inasmuch as the mineral I discovered
to occur again to the south at about 7 miles distant, and where the
course of it, if continued, would intersect the Penrair river.

The range of hills traversed by the southern portion of the main
lode as also by this supplementary branch isa portion of that
called Lunkamulla, and so named on the Ordnance map. The
place alluded to in my previous report under this name is the —
branch vein now described.

Close to the village of Coteloor on the northern bank of the
Pennair river, a vein of white quartz crosses the bed of the river
nearly at right angles, in this substance occur tolerably thickly
scattered large crystals of cubical Galena.

-OOT.—MAR. 1858-59.] Lead Ores in the Cuddapah District. 281

The direction of this vein is about N. N. E. and 8. 8S. W.

In this it is nearly parallel to the main vein or lode passing Jun-
gumrauzpully, but it is at the same time in a line with the direc-
tion of the branch vein from the Lunkamulla hills, it is not there-
fore certain if this is a separate lode or continuation of the above
mentioned branch, in either case its occurrence is of importance
pointing out the direction for further investigations: it is not
favorable for being explored at the spot itself on account of its
situation being in the bed of the river.

A substance called in Hindoostanee Soorma, has been lately
mentioned to me as having been obtained from near Gunganapully
or Chintaconadinna. But lead and antimony are sold in bazaars
under this name, and it is not improbable that this locality may
also be a site for Lead ore, and a continuation of the Coteloor vein
occur there.

The Coteloor vein traverses a flat bedded limestone, much used
for building purposes, and locally known as the Poospagherry
stone, through which it has burst, this rock is seen for some dis-
tance along the northern bank of the Pennair at the village of
Podatoor, Jummulmudgoo, and in continuation of that line again
at Cond Oopulpaud on the borders of Bellary and Cuddapah, its
western boundary passes from this last named point to near Ban-

| ganapilly and thence to Calwa (Kurnool), and appears to extend

nearly to the base of the Nullimulla range, a line from Coteloor
through Nundial in Kurnool forming its eastern boundary, it has a
very slight inclination about 5° to the N. E., it overlies a series of

rocks consisting of limestone, conglomerate, banded jasper, clays

and sandstones and conformably with them; the entire series is

_ best seen at Cond Oopulpaud near Rialcherroo in Bellary, portions
_ of it at Gundicottah and near Calwa.

The small strip of country bounded by the limits as above de-

| fined, is one in which the rocks sedimentary in character have re-
_ mained almost undisturbed since their original deposition. On

either side are evidences of great changes having taken place, on

| the east the elevation of the Nullimulla range has abruptly broken

the continuity of these beds forming an extensive throw or fault,
while towards the west they rise into a range of hills of moderate

elevation terminating in a ridge steeply scarped on their western

282 Lead Ores in the Cuddapah District. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

face, their eastern side sloping with the inclination of the beds of
rocks to the N. HE. To the west of this ridge the features of the
country are entirely changed; isolated hills rugged on all sides, or
pyramids with their sloping sides covered with rounded boulder-
like blocks give a decided character to a country composed as this
is of protended and altered rocks intermingled. It is in this line
of country so composed that the Kurnool lead occurs.

The rock of the country traversed by the Lunkamulla branch
vein consists of a clay slate and shale, of this a large portion of
the range from the Chey Air river to the Nundicannama Ghaut
is composed, and in it the excavation for working the mineral would
require to be made. Itis a material easy of excavation, but all
mining works in it would require timbering for their support, in
this respect, however, nothing beyond a fair average cost is to be —
feared.

Timber suitable for the purpose would no doubt be found amongst
the numerous varieties that appear to exist in the adjacent jungles,
it would of course be a matter of experience to ascertain the des-
cription most adapted to withstand the damp of underground works ;
in the event of any difficulty in this respect the cheap labor of the
country would enable a dry rubble arched lining to be adopted as
the excavations in the rock of the country would afford a flat bed-
ded material sufficiently strong and adapted for this purpose.

Assays of samples of the ore from various parts of the vein have
been kindly undertaken by Dr. Scott, Assistant Assayer at the
Mint; they are exceedingly satisfactory as showing the ore in-
variably to contain a valuable quantity of the precious metal.

Considering the number of spots this mineral is now found to
occur at in this locality, its existence in regular loces whose course
can be readily traced at the surface, its containing occasionally a
most extravagant proportion of silver, and invariably a quantity
to give considerable value on its account, I am of opinion that a
fair field is here presented for commercial enterprise, in mining un- |
dertaking, and that works judiciously conducted would lead to the
development of extensive mineral resources in this District.

The small branch vein above mentioned offers a most available
as well as promising spot for a commencement to work the mine-
ral, as so considerable an extent of ground could be explored with

| OCT.—MAR. 1858-59.] Lead Ores in the Cuddapah District. 283

comparatively little outlay, a heading along the course of this vein
4 feet high and 3 wide would, I estimate, yield in dressed ore 18
ewt. per lineal yard if proving of no greater strength further in that
at present shown at the surface, the cost of excavating the above
would in England be about 15 to 25 Shillings dependent upon the
_ price of timber in the district and other local circumstances. In this
country it should not be estimated for at a lower rate, though even
| tually with the experience the workmen would gain by time it
| might be possibly done cheaper, taking the average of above prices
£1 per yard or say per ton of dressed or yielded....Rs. 12
Precis an Wash 5. csee:s0esssececsvay a9, 10

—

Per ton of ore, Rs. 22
@amiase to Madras. 3... os. Muaatee woes st or ROO
Wonmtmecncies at 10 per Cent, . 6. . 0. veces ee 90) 9) 5

Rupees., 57
or say £6 per ton.

At this cost the surplus beyond the requirements of the country
| would yield an excellent profit by shipment to England, where it
| would sell for not less than £12.

_ The mountainous character of the country through which nearly
_ the whole extent of the mineral has now been traced would great-
| ly facilitate the commencement of operations, and considerable
' amount of work could be done without the necessity of any outlay
‘for pumping machinery. It may also be here mentioned, that the
| art of separating substances of different specific gravity by the aid
| of running water, is one that is practised very generally and with
i considerable success by the Natives of India, so that so far as the
washing and dressing the ores is concerned, there is for this branch
_of the business every facility afforded in work people of this class
| ready to hand and at a very cheap rate.

In my late tour I also visited a part of the Nellore District for
4 the purpose of inspecting the sites of occurrence of Copper ore.
| The principal locality is at Garemanepentah in the Pamur Division.
Tt is found in small bunches between layers of gneiss which
| forms the prevailing rock of the country, nowhere did I see any
_ trace of veins, their existence in the District however may fairly be
; inferred I think from these numerous isolated patches of ore, the
| general features of the country pointing towards the Nullimulla
|

Ins

ineral vei

lar m

in regu

taken place, and shown to conta

B

Lead Ores in the Cuddapah District. [No. 8, NEW SERIES,
hills as the most probable locality in which they will ultimately be '
met with, this being as before stated the line of great disturbance

that has ©

284
with traces of Copper in them.

“qedeppug
JO Yoo[ey, 100

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“uoo wayyy fo szo fo “ont pun poay oujmapy fo abojzuas sad ayn buamoys ‘poary fo SauQ f0 wounuumary

“ocr.—man. 1858-59.] Silver Lead Ores in Kurnool District. 285

On some of the Silver Lead Ores, tn the Kurnool District. By P.

W. Watt, Esa.

(Communicated by Government.)

Under the instructions conveyed by Government, I have visited
the localities alluded of Gazelpilly in the Nundicunnamah pass of
the Nullimallah Hills and Coilcontla in the Dhone Talook of the
Kurnool district.

The mine near Gazelpilly is situated about seven miles from this
village, and at the foot of the range of Hills forming the Eastern
Ghauts, which at this part are composed of sedimentary and me-
tamorphic rocks.

The ore occurs in a matrix of sulphate of baryta, from the sam-
ples I was able to inspect, in very small quantity ;—the indications
are such as to lead to the inference that further working would re-
veal the ore more abundantly distributed.

The matrix however being a very friable material, the cheap
native labor of the district, used for breaking and picking the ore,
would greatly assist towards rendering the mining of very inferior
samples profitable.

The character of the enclosing rocks, is rather favorable for the
execution of mining operations in them.

The locality is a very dense jungle; timber adapted for mining
purposes and which is required to be of strength and durability
under exposure in wet and damp situations, could no doubt be ob-
tained from it, the ore could also by means of the charcoal procur-
ed from this jungle be smelted in the neighbourhood. The clear-
ing of the jungle possibly reducing the feverish nature of the district.

The Coilcontla mine is situated amidst Hills of Granite and
other primitive rocks, the ore occurs ina very hard silicious matrix,
occasionally very much disseminated through it, much would there-
fore, require to be crushed and washed, to separate the ore from
the enclosing gangue, this would be done with somewhat more
labor and difficulty than when dealing with the Gazelpilly ore, the

won. XX. 0. Ss. VOL. Y. N.S.

286 Silver Lead Ores in Kurnool District. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

cheap labor however of India, would admit of the poorest ores
being operated upon even in this case.

In para. 4 of Captain Russell’s letter, No. 13, May 29th, 1857, ad~
dressed to Government, he speaks of the ore as occurring in scat-
tered nodules and considers them as transported blocks; on ac-
count of the heavy monsoon rains falling on the occasion of my
visist, I could make no observations beyond the nature of the coun-
try in which either this mine (or that at Gazelpilly is situated,)
Captain Russell had kindly instructed the Tahsildar at Dhone to
endeavour to clear the pit of water, he however reported it as
almost impossible at that season of the year. I am therefore not

able to offer any remarks from actual observation upon this very __

important point, in any case however, a vein of ore must exist in
the locality and must be struck upon for this to become a mine of
importance; in the meantime however, the nodules could be ex-
cavated and vein traced out at a very small cost, this being done
with profit if the abundance with which they may be found prove
considerable.

The per centage of silver that may be expected to be obtained
from the bulk of the ore of the Coilcontla mine may, I think, be in-
ferred from a series of experiments that have been conducted by
the Acting Assay Master at the Mint, in conjunction with myseif,
both upon the (40) forty maunds sent by Captain Russell from this
place and also upon the individual specimens I brought from the spof.

The average yield as thus ascertained is from twelve to fourteen
ounces of the precious metal in the ton of reduced lead, and much
above that which would characterise it as an ore valuable for the
silver contained, three ounces of silver to the ton of lead being in
European establishments worth the expense of operating upon for
its separation, the extent to which such operation is there carried
on being until no more than ten pennyweights remains in the ton

of metallic lead.

The process employed consists chiefly of manual labor, for which
the Natives would be, I apprehend, well adapted and readily in-
structed.

The previous assays however of Dr. Scott, show that occasion-

* North Wales.

ocT.—MAR. 1858-59.] Silver Lead Ores in Kurnool District. 287

ally the ore occurs extremely rich in the precious metal, it is usual
in the occurrence of argentiferous galena in England and else-
where, for it to be thus unequally distributed through the ore.

The yield of metallic lead was ascertained, in the experiments
above alluded to, to be seventy per cent. of the dressed ore.

The average yield of silver upon all English lead mines was,
in 1854, 164 (sixteen and one-third) ounces per ton of lead, the
richest mine giving 84 (eighty-four) ounces, the poorest 34 (three
and half) ounces per ton of metallic lead obtained in the year.

With respect to the ore from Gazelpiully, no further assays could
be made, the mineral lately received at the Mint from this place
proved, on inspection, to consist almost entirely of sulphate of
baryta, with traces only of galena in it.

It is not however for silver only that the mines must be looked
upon as of importance; the lead also is a valuable metal, the
crude ore, if obtained in moderate abundance, and without any
extraordinary expense on account of “ dead-work”’ being in itself
of sufficient value for the lead only to bear considerable cost in
transit to any part where it may be required to be conveyed for
smelting.

The prices of dressed lead ores realized at the
Holywell* sales varies from £10-0-0 to £18-12-6
per ton, containing the average per centage of silver, above stated,
for English mines.

As an important feature in the Coilcontla mine, I may mention
that I am informed it is probable, the Northern Division of the
Madras Railway will pass within twenty or thirty miles of its site,

and as there does not appear to be much timber in this district,

the Railway when completed will offer a facility for conveying the
| ore to any more convenient part of the country for the purpose of
| being smelted.

It is however upon the probable produce of the mines that the
main question depends, and I think it would be desirable for

_ Government to obtain, at some small cost, further evidence upon
| this point.

288 Silver Lead Ores m Kurnool District. (No. 8, NEW SERIES.

It would appear that in Kurnool and Cuddapah, there are many
spots reported to produce lead ore, in addition to those under
consideration in this report, as far back as 1820. I find Jan-
gamrauzpilly| mentioned as a locality for
silver lead, in Heyne’s Tracts on India.
Galena from Cuddapah is said to have been reported by the Assay

+ Cumbum, (Cuddapah.)

Master at Bengal, as containing eleven per cent. of silver. This
would be a silver not a lead mine.

Iam informed by Dr. Scott that he has heard that Captain
Blagrave has lately discovered another site yielding this mineral.

I should therefore propose to examine all these reported metal-
liferous localities, by means of a small extent of excavation at.
each, for which purpose it would be requisite for Government to

sanction a certain monthly expenditure during my operations, say — 1 |

Rupees (500) five hundred.

If Government shall think it desirable to sanction the expendi-
ture I propose, I shall beg to request that the services of a Euro-
pean Corporal and two Privates (Ist class Sawyers) of the Corps
of Sappers and Miners may, if possible, be placed at my disposal.

I have also to request the sanction of Government to the attach-
ment of two Lascars to my establishment for the purpose of col-
lecting samples of ores, &c., from distant localities: the peons of
the Collector of Rajahmundry ordered to accompany me in my
survey on the Godavery were not adapted to making the excur-
sions into the jungle which I often required.

Should the indications at any one or more places be proved by
this survey to be satisfactory, I shall have the honor of proposing
for the consideration of Government that works at such spot be
executed by Government (consisting of the sinking of shafts,
erecting pumping machinery, &c.,) with a view to the mine being
let to be worked by Natives, the ore being purchased from them

by Government at a stated value of the metal contained in it, and ~

smelted for the use of the Government establishments, as the Arse-
nal, Mint, &c., estimates of the cost of any such undertaking, I
shall beg to submit as the circumstances may occur requiring the
suggestion,

OCT.—MAR. 1858-59.] Silver Lead Ores of Kurnool, &c., 289

As adapted for these operations, as well as for Public Works
generally, I would beg to draw the attention of Government to
the Agricultural Locomotive Steam Engines now in great use in
England, and to suggest the desirableness of there being one or
two in the Government stores to be used on occasions such as
those above named; the design upon which they should be con-
structed, would possibly require to be somewhat altered from that
in ordinary use in England, to suit the particular circumstances of
this country.

Report on the Silver Lead Ores of Kurnool and other portions of
the Ceded Districts. By P. W. Watt, Esa.

(Communicated by Government.)

In the previous communication I have had the honor to make
in reference to the Lead Ores that had reached Madras, I alluded
to the per centage of silver contained in the mineral from one of
the localities as being much larger than the average of those ores
worked in England and in consequence as being worthy of further
attention being directed to.

The chief point therefore to which my attention has been direct-
_ ed in my investigations, during the past season has been to ascer-
_ tain the circumstances under which the mineral existed, if there
' were reasonable grounds for presuming it was to be obtained in
) any quantity, and what were the general conditions under which

| mining operations would be able to be conducted in the several

| localities in which it occurred.
_ The following are the names of the places visited by me at or

:

near which the mineral under consideration exists.

Coilcontla in the Dhone Talook of Kurnool, Gazerpully in the
_ Nundial Talook of the same district.
Jungumrauzpillay, Village and Ghaut.

In the Bundwail Talook of Cuddapah and Buswapoor in the
-Dhoor Talook of the same.

SF eg OF eh ep RT

t. a

290 Stlver Lead Ores of Kurnool and [No. 8, NEW SERIEs.

In addition to the above places, search which I directed to be
made in a range of hills called Lunkamulla immediately south of
the last named place has been successful in finding the mineral in
considerable quantity. It was however only brought to me after
I had left the district and I was not able to visit the spot.

Coilcontla is situated about six miles to the west of the village
of Dhone in the Talook of that name, the site where the lead ore
occurs is + mile south of the village.

The surface of the country in the immediate neighbourhood is
exceedingly rugged, occasioned by the protrusion of granite hills
rising to an extreme height of about 500 feet above the level of the
main adjoining valley; dykes composed of felspar, porphyry and
trap intersect the granite forming low hills; well marked on ac-
count of their dark color in continuous ridges through the country ;
being apparently of less decomposable matter than the enclosing
rock, they have been left protruding from it as now seen; these
dykes have a general direction east and west and extend over a
large portion of the Ceded Districts, they become more numerous
farther southward. At Pennacondah in the south division of Bel-
lary they form a very marked feature in the appearance of the coun-
try on account of their number.

In addition to the above there is a large quartz dyke passing near
the site of the lead mine as well as one of the same material en-
closing large quantities of specular Iron seen near the public bun-
galow at Yeldoorty, 12 miles distant from Coilcontla, these like
the trap dykes have a general direction E. and W.

The hills about Coilcontla are for the most part very bare of
timber; a low brushwood occurring at intervals only on their sides.

In the valley between these hills a considerable thickness of sand
resulting from the washings of their sides covers over the rugged
surface of the rock beneath, the inequalities in which form natural
reservoirs for water ; into this sand the Natives dig their wells for
agricultural purposes and obtain an abundant supply of water
through nearly the whole of the dry season; the sinking of one of
these pits was the occasion of the discovery at this place of the mi-
neral now the subject of consideration.

a

SOI—MAR. 1858-59.] other portions of the Ceded Districis. 291

The water thus occurring, and in considerable quantity, was a
source of much inconvenience to me in endeavouring to examine
the ore “in situ,” as it would also be in any subsequent mining
operations and much increase their cost, especially as the nature of
the ground offers little or no facility for assisting the drainage of
under ground works by means of an adit level.

On my arrival at Coilcontla in the beginning of January, I found
the water in the lead pit standing at between two and three feet
only beneath the surface of the ground. I therefore availed myself
of the little fall in the surface of the valley and cut asmall channel,
by which I was enabled to lower the water surface five feet and
proceeded thence by such Native appliances as the district afforded
to lift out the remaining water to examine the ground from whence
the ore had been procured.

Upon reaching the bottom of the pit and clearing it of the rub-
bish that had accumulated I found the ore to occur in a well mark-
ed vein capable of being distinctly traced as far as I was able to lay
bare the enclosing rock from the surface sand with which it was
covered; about 12 feet of this sand here covers the rock, this and
five feet in depth of the vein or rock had been previously excavated,
no doubt for the purpose of obtaining the mineral it contained.

At the extreme north corner of the pit, the vein has a width of 2
feet 9 inches, thence southward it rapidly increases within 2 or 3
feet of distance to a width of 4 feet and continues to expand throw-
ing out numerous threads or pipe veins, the main one becoming
less rich in ore and eventually towards the south corner totally de-
void of it; in the opposite direction the vein appears suddenly to
contract to a few inches only in width, my excavation there did not
reach the same depth as where the vein has its greatest width.

The vein generally is well defined by its walls of clear amethyst
quartz, it does not however contain metal throughout even the short
length i was able to examine it; thus in the upper part at the north
corner of the well these walls enclose a white China clay only.
The gangue enclosing the metal is a blueish quartz, compact but
exceedingly full of joints and fissures at which the stone is colored
with oxide of iron resulting from its decomposition ; it is on this

292 Stlver Lead Ores of Kurnool and (No. 8, NEW SERIES.

account not difficult of excavation, the stone is easily broken also
when first excavated, but hardens much on exposure when it be-
comes very tough and difficult to break.

The ore occurs variously intermingled with the quartz gangue or
in large cubical crystals giving the stone a porphyritic appearance,
in other parts of the vein large masses of pure ore entirely free
from the gangue are able to be extracted.

After getting the level of the water in the pit sufficiently low to
examine the vein, I caused the pit to be deepened about three
feet and the ore from a length of six feet of the vein to be broken,
picked and sorted. It yielded

9 ewt. 8 qrs. of first sort containing by estimation 75 per cent.

CH IG second do. do. Bol se ONG
the result after properly dressing therefore would be per fathom
9 cwt. of ore. |

The direction of the vein is nearly due north and south towards
the south corner, its tendency is more towards the S. E., it has an
underlie to the east apparently about 75°, but in places it is nearly
vertical, the strings branching out from it incline 30° or 40° only to
the horizon.

Following the direction of the vein as indicated at the well, I
found on examining the surface of the rock where it became expos-
ed about 600 yards from the pit on the north side of it, a further
outcrop of the vein traceable for about 20 yards; it here consists
of little more than the crystal walls varying in thickness from 1 to
3 inches; at intervals of a few feet however there occur numerous
holes and which have every appearance of having been made arti-
ficially no doubt, and lead ore occurred here and these cavities
have resulted from its removal.

On the south side of the pit I was not able to detect any signs
of the vein in the numerous granite hillocks with which the
ground is studded near the well, nor in the more elevated hills
beyond. |

The site near Gazerpullay at which lead ore was found is about
7 miles to the north-east of the village, it lies some considerable
elevation on the range of the Nullimulla hills, and is in the midst

OCT.—MAR. 1858-59.] other portions of the Ceded Districts. 293

of a very thick bamboo jungle which appears to cover the whole
of these hills; the spot is marked on the Ordnance map of the
district as a lead mine, and mustat one time, haye been one of
some importance as there are now still existing the remains of what
may be considered for native undertakings very extensive workings.

These consist of a number of pits varying in depth from 10 to 25
feet with galleries now fallen in, but which no doubt connected
the pits and had extensive ramifications, more than 100 of these
pits were counted, the working pits were confined to a compara-
tively small area, but numerous trials had evidently been made at
some distance from the main seat of operations.

The ground in which these pits are sunk is for a few feet im-
mediately beneath the surface a highly crystalline sandstone, they
then pass into a dry and avery firable argillaceous compound ;
the sandstone resting upon this dry clay, has been at this point
upheaved by some force beneath it, as the beds under which it lies
are shown by the various depths in the pits at which the sand-
stone ceases, and dry clay begins to dip in opposite directions from
it along a line having a direction somewhat to the east of north,
in this dry clay the galleries have been executed and no doubt the
lead found.

The sandstone forming the sides of the pits has been very much
loosened and broken by exposure, so that without more skilled .
labor than I had at command, I was unable to render any one of
them sufficiently safe for a man to work in, or it would have been
exceedingly desirable to have sunk a little deeper at one of them,
as well as to have cleaved out some of the galleries as owing to
the great quantity of debris accumulated in them, I was not suc-
cessful in making out the vein of ore there is every reason to be-

_ lieve exists here.

The general circumstances here have some analogy with the

eccurrence of lead ore at the third place I shall have to describe,
and which I shall allude to hereafter.

The jungle about the mine is very thick and much frequented
by tigers, it was with some difficulty that coolies could be obtain-
ed to proceed to the place at all! water is procurable about one
mol, XxX. 0. §. VoL. y. N. 8.

294 Stlver Lead Ores of Kurnool and [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

to two miles from the mine, but it has the reputation of being
lable to give fever. All for the use of the coolies had therefore
to be carried from Gazerpullay or Buswapoor the nearest village.

The jungle contains some fine teak timber, a material well
adapted for the requirements of mining operations in supporting
the sides of shafts and roofs of headings.

The situation of the mine on an elevated spot is favorable to the
execution of works for drainage, so that some depth might be
reached without the necessity of any arrangements for the pump-
ing out of any water encountered during progress.

The rock is loose and easy of excavation, so that although there
exists some inconvenience as to situation in being in the heart of
so thick a jungle, there are many assistances towards the execu-
tion of mining works at this spot.

A small trial shaft here would soon prove if the spot that has
been formerly worked by the Natives is the actual site of the vein,
the aid of a party of Sappers would be requisite for the purpose
as it would be quite unsafe to set ordinary coolies to excavate in a
position requiring careful attention in timbering shaft or galleries
to prevent their falling in.

The lead ore that has been lately found here, appears to be the
debris of a mineral vein existing somewhere in the locality and
deposited in its present position by the action of water, it occurs
on the hill side and within a few yards of thé pits above mention-
ed, and upon digging down itis found intermingled with fragments
of the rock of the country and ceases as soon as one reaches the
solid rock in position.

The ore is enclosed in a gangue of sulphate of baryta or heavy
spar also occasionally in white quartz, it is as at Coilcontlah a sul-
phuret of lead or galena, and there are here as at that place occa-

sionally small admixtures of copper (sulphuret) zine, blende an
iron pyrites. 7

The third locality for this mineral is near Nundeallumpett in the
Dhoor Talook of Cuddapah.

The mineral here occurs at three points extending over a length

ocT.—MAR. 1858-59. ] other portions of the Ceded Districts. 295

of four miles, viz., at the village of Buswapoor on the west side of
the ghaut, on the top cf the Jungumrauzpullay pass, and near the
village of Jungumrauzpullay on the east side of the ghaut; at all
these places there is a marked uniformity in the character of the
rock in which the ore occurs, being in fact one vein or lode extend-
ing for this distance.

The direction of the lode at the several places of occurrence
corresponds with the general direction passing through the three
points, and is a few degrees east of north.

The lode appears to be of very considerable width, northward
from Buswapoor it divides into two branches, it is possible that
two veins may exist at Buswapoor, but it is not observable on the
surface.

The rock of the country is a clay slate passing frequently into
a quartzose schist ; it dips to the E. or KE. N. HK. at about 40° to
the horizon occasionally much more inclined, the strike of the
slate being N. N. W. and 8.8. E. with which direction the lode
nearly conforms.

The Jode is composed of a very hard and compact quartz rock of
a dark grey colour ; through this the lead is disseminated in minute
grains ; this however is its character at 10 or 12 feet from the sur-
face ; more immediately on the surface the rock has somewhat
the character of a very coarse breccia composed of fragments of a

porous argillaceous stone and of the grey quartzite cemented toge-
ther with the siliceous matter.

The whole body of the vein at the surface has a coarse cellular
structure with large cavities running irregularly through it ; lining
these cavities lead ore is found and at Buswapoor seems is the
only part of the vein that the Natives have searched for it; this
substance although differing in composition and appearance is the
* Gosson” of Cornish miners and, its marked character here as
with them is of great service in enabling one to trace out the
course of a mineral vein; fragments found in the soil at the sur-
face being a sure sign that the vein is not far off.

The dry pulverulent clay I have mentioned as occurring imme-
diately beneath the sandstone at the lead pits near Gazerpullay,

296 Silver Lead Ores of Kurnool and [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

has some resemblance to the argillaceous breccia, the out crop of
the vein at Jungumrauzpullay and places contiguous which sub-
stance ina state of decomposition it appeared to me; its being
overlaid by the beds of sandstone which have been affected by it
instead of bursting through these rocks to the surface is rather
against the presumption of its being a mineral vein, were it not
that a similar example is seen near Nundiallumpett at which place
the vein becomes suddenly concealed by the clay slate through
which it has elsewere penetrated, this appears to occur at several
places along the line of this vein, its existence beneath the slate

was proved by slight excavations.

At Buswapoor the earth is cleared out of the cavities of this
surface rock by the Natives and lead detached from their sides;
occasionally they seem to have broken away a little of the rock
where two cavities have been worked near to one another, beyond
this their efforts have not extended.

On the Jungumrauzpillay pass it is far otherwise ; here appear
to have been executed some extensive workings.

They consist of a number of pits, many of the depth of 20 or 25
feet ; from the bottom of these horizontal and inclined headings
or galleries have been carried in various directions following the

indications of the mineral.

These galleries in some cases extend 50 and 60 yards uniting one
or more of them; all the excavations seem to have been effected
by firing the rock, a labour which in pits so close and confined
must have been very trying even to Natives as well as tedious and
costly.

The indications of lead in these workings are very scanty, there
are, however, many places in the present exposed surface of the

rock where traces can be observed.

The vein has the same structure at the surface as at Buswapoor,
and like it is similarly compounded ; these characters are also dis-
tinctly marked at a third place where the vein crops out on the east
side of the ghaut close to the village of Jungumrauzpillay, here
ore is seen in the rock but very minute portions.

OOT.—MAR. 1858-59.] other portions of the Ceded Districts. 297

One or two insignificant pits have also here been sunk at this
place.

In the opposite direction or south of Buswapoor about a mile
from it there are indications of the vein in pieces of lead that have
been found in the debris at the surface, I observed also many
lumps of the argillaceous breccia scattered about. Idid not, how-
ever, succeed in meeting with the out crop of the vein itself.

Observing, however, the uniform course of the vein, I directed
my search further to the south in a range of high hills named
Lunkamulla.

It was not however till some time after my departure from Nun-
diallumpett when I had established my camp during my operations
in this locality that I received intelligence from a Goomaster acting
under my instructions of his success together with the samples of
the ore; I had not therefore an opportunity of inspecting person-
ally this spot. }

Upon examining these samples of ore, I found a very large ad-
mixture of copper with the galena; galena is usually associated
with copper but tne abundance of the latter material in these sam-
ples lead to the inference that the vein on being worked would
attain an importance on account of the copper.

From the investigations I have made and above detailed, it
would appear that in the districts in which they have been prose-
cuted, there exist a series of mineral veins the individual examples
as yet discovered being of some extent, and having a uniform
direction of north and south and that analagous to the great Cor-
nish mining district of England there are here also a series of non-
metalliferous veins or dykes running through the country and
crossing the former nearly at right angles to them, the directions
here, however, being the converse of those of Cornwall, where the
metal yielding veins are east and west, the unproductive or cross
courses north and south; as itis not usual for mineral veins to
occur in isolated examples in a district it is fairly to be presumed
that here others accompany those now discovered.

In respect to the profitable working of the veins now known ;
every thing would depend upon their productiveness in ore in

298 Silver Lead Ores of Kurnool and [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

working, and although I have above stated an amount I extracted
from a defined length, no conclusions are to be drawn from it of
any future yield.

The chief value to be attached to them must of course be on
the large percentage of silver which has been shown to exist in
parts of the vein; as regards the value of the lead, it is not pro-
bable that however productive in the crude ore a mine in either of
the places named might prove, the mineral could be profitably
worked for this metal only as an article for commercial export for
the requirements of the country, however, the present market price
of pig lead in Madras, viz., £29-10 (average) per ton offers an
ample margin for profitable working to meet these demands if not
too limited in amount.

As the Government for Military purposes are large consumers
of this material, it would appear to me very desirable that some
small works partaking of the nature of exploring operations, but at
the same time with the view of supplying their Arsenals, &c., with
lead were to be undertaken by the Government, by these means
more satisfactory evidence would be obtained upon which to esta-
blish works on a larger scale either by the Government on its own
account or by any party of adventurers who might think favorably
of the circumstances.

I am informed by the Inspector General of Ordnance and Maga-
zines that 100 tons of lead are annually required for the use of the
Army.

In hard ground it is estimated that a vein of lead having width
of 3 to 4 inches, or that proportion of ore disseminated can be pro-
fitably worked : a heading or gallery five feet in height along such
a vein would yield 4,000 lbs. of ore, or somewhat above one ton of
metal when reduced for every six feet in length, 200 yards there-
fore of such a heading, would give 100 tons of metallic lead.

It would be desirable to sink a small shaft at the bottom of
which such a heading could be executed; at Coilcontlah arrange-
ments for pumping out the water would be requisite, with two
sets of the pumps in use in the Department Public Works, a depth
of about 20 yards from the surface might be reached.

OcT.

MAR. 1858-59.| other portions of the Ceded Districts. 299

It was my intention to have arranged for exploring operations
of this nature at Coilcontlah in my late survey; but I was unable
to do so without personally superintending such which would have
prevented my giving the requisite attention to the other places I
required to inspect.

With respect to the establishment of mineral mining in this
country, the absence of any class of skilled labor at all approxi-
mating to that of the miner must offer a serious drawback with
any parties who might on all other considerations think favourably
of the circumstances for mining adventures in Southern India.

The preliminary exploring operations undertaken by Govern-
ment whilst giving some more sure grounds for the establishment
of works on an efficient scale would be the commencement of

giving a few men some experience in the mechanical part at least
of the work.

In the further operation of dealing with the mineral after ex-
traction from the mine consisting of picking, dressing and wash-
ing and chiefly of much detail manipulation performed by women
and children ; the cheap labor of this country would be much in
its favour ; also as to the smelting and subsequent parting of the
silver there are no points from which any difficulty incidental to
this country is to be expected; the establishment for such opera-
tions would require to be fixed in some central position to draw
supplies of ore from the various points, and at the same the sup-
ply of timber for fuel; the amount of fue] required for reduction
of the ore being 10 to 15 cwt. for each ton of lead reduced.

Iron making at Roodrar.

The country which may be described under the name of the
Roodrar Iron district extends for about 25 miles north of this
place; Iron making seems to have been carried on in former times
at nearly all the villages immediately skirting the eastern side of
the Nullemulla hills.

The following are the names of a few of the places where fur-

300 Silver Lead Ores of Kurnool and ([No. 8, NEW SERIES.

naces were in blast or only recently stopped, from local causes at

the time of my visit.

Sultanpett. Roodrar.
Varsapoor. Kumbulnoor.
Serinapoor. Madaypoor.
Kuddamal Callwa. Gallchinpollium.

The ore and fuel are drawn from the neighbouring hills where
both exist in considerable quantities, the jungle at each place in
these hills that I visited being most dense.

The ore throughout appears to be of one uniform variety, viz.,
the specular ore often micaceous ; it is mostly obtained from near
the highest ridge of the ghaut and very far into the jungle, the
Natives dig only a few feet below the surface for it, preferring to
seek anew spot when the ore becomes compact and difficult to
extract; this he is readily enabled to do from the extent it seems
distributed.

The best qualities obtained are the rolled stones dug out of the
surface soil as in the action by which they have been deposited,
they have experienced a sorting in proportion to their specific
gravity and are easily gathered.

These rolled fragments appear to exist in greater or less amount
over the whole of the eastern side of the hills above Roodrar.

Amongst these hills furnaces are worked during the hot season,
the workmen remaining in the jungle during this time and pro-
ceeding to the village during the wet weather.

The Bhoy or Hunter caste are the only men that engage in the
jungle work.

The ore “in situ” exists in a vein traversing clay, slate and
schistose sandstone, which forms the general character of these
hills on their eastern side from Cuddapah to the Nundicunnama
ghaut.

The ore is brought to the furnace on the backs of buffalos, the
charcoal by the coolies engaged in cutting and burning it; the
furnace is of the form which appears to be universally copied in
the various Iron districts of India, and is described in the reports
of the Madras Museum.

oCT.—MAR. 1858-59. | other portions of the Ceded Districts. $01

The ore is first worked up into rough balls which are cut in two
pieces, each piece separately reheated, forged and subsequently
welded up into bars of any required size.

Meiguttalo load: one). .j. ./<..0:6 «6 75 Ibs. ) Yield one

3 Cooly bs charcoal. ..108 ,, spht ball.
this is subsequently worked up into a bar of the weight of 10 to
13lbs.; 5 to 6 being so worked up ina day by the expenditure
of 3 cavady loads of bamboo charcoal :—5 men are engaged at the
furnace, 2 of whom work the bellows, being relieved at intervals.

Four balls are produced in the ordinary course of things ‘per
diem from one furnace.

The merchant pays by advances, &c., to five men who go to the
jungle to dig the ore and afterwards work the furnaces; to each

man, per mensem Rs. 4, in which time they must deliver him 96
balls.

The coalmen for cutting, burning and delivering the coal for

each lot of 4 balls receive one Rupee.
For working up these balls or blooms into bars.

As. P
One Smith at per diem........... bog uce 6 0
Hour lammermen cach at... ...,.sc0.00. 2. 8

these men work up eleven 4 blooms into merchant bars in the day.
In addition to the above the merchant makes annual pre-
sents of :
Rs. 20 to the charcoal burners.
Rs. 6 to the furnace men,
he calculates on receiving 4 to 500 blooms in the season.
His outlay for each lot of 96 blooms will be:

UrmaCe MEN 66 seve owe Rs. 20
ERC Oa Pe ae re ois » 24
Gresser (en peal ea Be a ss s5., 10

Coal consumed by ditto... ,, 1
MOMMA Presents)... sss yy 8
08
Interest and Contingencies at 25 per cent., 142
| Total Rupees.. 724
Produce 96 bars selling on the average at Rs. 1 each, Rs. 96.
oo. ax. 0.8. Vol. y. N. 5.

302 Silver Lead Ores of Kurnool and [No. 8, New sERrzs.

Notwithstanding the enormous waste both in material and labor ©
consumed, and the high price of the Iron resulting about £20 per
ton, the manufacture is carried on both with advantage to the dis-
trict as well as considerable profit to the merchant supplying the
capital, it becomes desirable therefore to consider if some improve-
ment could not be effected in the details of the operation, under
the existing system.

The great disadvantage under which the native works, is evident-
ly the inefficient means he has of producing the blast, on this ac-
count his furnace is so small in size, and the expenditure of fuel so
large.

Near Roodrar in the jungle where I have mentioned that the
furnaces are worked during the dry season, there appears to be a
good position for the construction of a tank, the water of which
might be employed as a source of power, for supplying the blast to
a number of these small native furnaces.

The drainage area of supply to this tank is about 16 square miles,
this with the average rain fall of 27 inches would, if collected, give
14 horse power throughout the year for every foot of fall for which
the water could be made available.

The valley in the lower part- has a fall about 20 feet per mile,
and at about 3 miles above the lowest part the tank could be con-
structed.

At three places therefore there could be established furnaces
with water power of 30 horse at each.

With this power not only could an efficient blast be supplied for
50 of these native furnaces, but rolling and shingling mills for
working up the blooms for the whole of the furnaces could be
wrought at each of the three places along this valley.

Labor in the Roodrar district for Iron making being confined to
a particular caste of men is very limited in amount; by the assist-
ance of water power, instead of taking 5 men to each furnace, 2
men could attend at least 8 furnaces for charging and drawing
them, the men thus released would engage themselves in collect-
ing ore and fuel.

The consumption of ore and fuel might safely be reckoned upon

OCT.—MAR. 1858-59.] other portions of the Ceded Districts. 303

being reduced with an efficient blast, the former by one-half and
the latter two-thirds the present amount.

It would not be requisite, neither do I think the ground offers
the facility to collect the whole of the 16 miles of drainage into one
tank at the best site in reference to elevation; a number of small
tanks would enable the furnaces to be established to a greater ad-
vantage in reference to obtaining supplies, one of these tanks being
first established would, at a small expense, be able practically to
prove the value of the proposal.

The most ready way of commencing would perhaps be for the
Government to take a certain rental for each furnace supplied with
air, the renters paying the hire of a native mechanic to attend to
the water wheel, &c., its repairs.

The establishment of Government works would, however, I think
ultimately prove desirable not only for supplying their own Arse-
nals, &c., with iron, but also for aiding the introduction of those
improvements in the native system which I apprehended must sug-
gest themselves after the application of power to it.

These will consist in the use of fiuxes, increase in the size of the
furnaces, and eventually in the manufacture of cast iron, of which
material many articles in use in the country could be made equally
serviceable and at a much cheaper rate. .

As Schools of Industrial Art works of the above nature connect-
ed with the other branches of skilled labor required for Ordnance
and other Government uses, partaking of the character of the Mint,
Gun-Carriage Manufactory and similar institutions in operation at
the Presidency must greatly tend to the improvement and promote
the well being of the natives of this country, if only reasonable
grounds can be shown for such establishment being of practical
service to and not a burden upon the Government.

That there is a great increasing demand for native iron is shewn
by the enormous advance upon its selling price that has gradually
taken place during the last twelve months, I am informed that at
this place, Bangalore, this has been from Rs. 14 to Rs. 24 per
maund, the present price.

Native iron must always command a high price in this country,

“804 Selections. [No. 8, NEW SERIES,

and for the generality of purposes foreign iron cannot be substitut-
ed for it.

In the hands of the Native smith European iron is worked with
difficulty, it gets burnt, made brittle and rendered useless, the high
price Native Iron commands in the Mofussil in comparison with
it, viz., £23 per ton, to £16 at which European iron can be pur-
chased is sufficient evidence of its value.

With respect to the cost of establishing an initial work as pro-
posed near Roodra, I have estimated that a tank having a length
of bund of 800 yards and extreme height of 5 yards could be con-
structed to retain 14 million cubic yards of water, together with a
contour mill channel of 14 mile in length for an amount Rs. 2,500,
a water wheel and fan for a similar amount, if made on the spot,
add Rs. 1,000, for contingencies,—Total Rupees 6,000.

The above body of water falling through a height of 20 feet
would give during three months of the year for 72 hours of each
week an available power of 20 horse.

The saving upon each furnace supplied with air, would be

4 men at Rs. 4 each per mensem or for a season of 3 months
Rs. 48.

An annual charge of Rs. 30 on each furnance would require
only 20 to be concentrated at this spot (instead of as at present
scattered amongst the neighbouring villages) in order to yield a
return of 10 per cent. on the outlay above estimated.

-«

SELECTIONS.

Official Reports on the last Journeys and the Death of Anot-
PHE SCHLAGINTWEIT Turkisidn, Collected &c. &c.

BY HERMANN AND ROBERT SCHLAGINTWEIT.

INTRODUCTION. |
In the following pages we propose to communicate, in a col-
lected form, the various reports which have reached us relative to
the last journeys and the melancholy fate of our beloved brother
Adolphe Schlagintweit.

Bee Sorin: 1858-59. | Selections. 305

The information from India and Russia, collected from Natives
by European Officers of the adjoining districts, concur but too
accurately in establishing the fact, that Adolphe Schlagintweit was
killed at Kashgar in Turkistan (Central Asia) in August 1857,
falling a victim to his scientific mission.

He was recognized as a Kuropean after having passed the Kara-
korim and Kiienliien, in disguise, where before us no Huropean
had ever travelled; he had taken a route more westerly than ours
and had succeeded in penetrating far into Central Asia.

The reports which have reached us are so various, that they do
not of course all agree; as to the immediate cause and particulars
of his death ; yet it is evident from all of them, that the political
condition of.these countries, and the circumstance of the deceased’s
being recognized as an officer of the Indian Government, notwith-
standing every precaution, essentially contributed to his tragic end.
Even with the lively sympathy ever so energetically evinced by
England, in the fate of Scientific Travellers, it will scarcely be
possible to succeed in bringing the murderers of our brother to
account.

According to some reports he perished in consequence of hav-
ing taken up the cause of some captive Bhot-Rajpits, British
subjects, interceding for them, that they might not be executed or
sold as slaves. Other accounts state the immediate cause of his
death was, his having been recognized as a European, and fallen
by the hand of fanatic Mussalm4ns.

Notwithstanding our most zealous exertions for some months
past, in endeavouring to obtain his manuscripts, drawings, etc.,
we have not yet been successful in learning anything definite about
them ; still however, many very important geographical communi-
cations have been made to us by his followers, and we are not
without hope that from the active sympathy which the Indian Go-
vernment has always displayed in our Scientific Mission to India
and High-Asia, nothing will remain untried that can tend to the
rescue of his last papers.

We owe the subjoined reports respecting the last fate of Adol-
phe to the kindness of the following gentlemen:

306 Selections. [No. 8, NEW SERIEs.

I. Captain Henry Strachey, 66th Gorkhas, of Almdra (Hima-
laya) who, in consequence of his scientific journeys in the Hima-
layas, and in western Tibet, was in a position to select the persons
on whose reports the most reliance could be placed and who also
was particularly enabled, critically to elucidate these reports.

II. G. Knox, Esq., Assistant Commissioner of Kalu (Hima-
laya) who in an unexpected manner found an opportunity of making
inquiries of the Yarkandi Kattah-Ali-Shah at Nagger, a place so
distant from Yarkand.

III. M. Vardouguine, Russian Consul at Chiguchak (Central
Asia) whose report we have received through the kind offices of

Baron Budberg at Berlin.

Notwithstanding the enormous distance, we have received these

reports in a remarkably short time, through the active sympathy |

of Prince Gortschakoff.

IV. Lieut. Col. Edwardes, c.3., in whom Adolphe already,
when at Peshaur, had found a warm friend, and who, making use
of his important political position, has recently with the greatest
energy and kindness made every exertion to obtain the latest defi-
nite information relative to our ill-fated brother. |

In addition to the above, we had repeatedly received general
accounts on Adolphe, with expressions of the most cordial sympa-
thy, through the Indian Press, and private communications from

=

the following gentlemen :
The Rev. H. Jaschke, Missionary at Lahol (Himalaya).
A. C. Gumpert, Esq., Consul for Hamburg and Oldenburg at
Bombay, and F. Schiller, Esq., Austrian Consul at Calcutta.

Lord Elphinstone, Lord W. Hay, Major Ramsay, the Hon. W.
Elliot, L. Bowring, Esq., Private Secretary to Lovd Canning, W. .

Russel, Esq., correspondent of the “Times” during the Indian |

rebellion, and others.

Notices in their letters which were not included in the Official — : |
Reports, have been added either as notes, or in brackets, [], in : Nal
the text. Our own observations upon the individual Natives fur- |

nishing the reports, as well as remarks upon several geographical
points, are also given in brackets.

poe Be 1858-59. | Selections. 307

Wre have further to acknowledge the important assistance we
have received in collecting information respecting our deceased
brother from Lord Stanley, Col. Sykes, and Sir Roderick Murchi-
son, in England, and from our venerable and most kind friend
Baron Humboldt.

I. Reports collected and Communicated. By Cart. Hunry Stra-
CHEY.

1. Verbal Statement of the Native Doctor Harkishen*, Almora
August 1858.

Adolphe Schlagintweit crossed the Bara-Lacha Pass from Darche
in Lahol into Ripchu of Ladak, i. e. from India to Tibet on the
3lst of May 1857 taking with him:

1. Mohammad Amin, Native of Yarkand, chief Guide,
Yahudi, Guide to No. 1,

Mohammad Hassan, of Peshaur, Munshi,
Abdul, of Kashmir, eee
Ghost Mohammad, of Muradabad, § Domestic Servants ete.
Miarli, of Bhagsu in Kangra,
Maula Baksh, of Muradabad, } Chaprassi’s,
and others.

ee Oe ee

The Ist of these, Moh4mmed Amin, was a person of questiona-
ble antecedents, nominally a merchant, trading between Yarkand
and Leh but said also to have acted in the capacity of a gang-rob-
ber on the road between those places.

Being at Leh, in 1856 he was arrested by the Dogra Thanadar
Basti Ram for debt in the suit of sundry merchants, or for other
reasons, and released on the application of Hermann and Robert

Schlagintweit, who engaged him to act as guide for their journey

* Dr. Harkishen, a Brahman now employed at the hospital at Almé-
ra, is a Native Doctor; he was, alternating with others, attached to our
establishments during 2 years, travelling now with the one, then with
the other of us three. Healso was very useful to us as observer on
stations for corresponding observations.

+ Remarks on the the transcription of Indian names :

Vowels and diphthongs as in Italian and German. ” over a and e
(a and €) denote an imperfectly formed a and e asthe English w in but,
and e before r in herd. Diphthongs are meant to sound like the 2
component vowels combined. Consonants generally as in English ;
but / after a consonant, also after ¢ is an aspiration except in sk which
has its usual sound.—The ' marks the syllable to be accented.

308 Selections. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

towards Khotan in the summer of that year (the account of which
is onrecord). [Vide the Report No. VIII of the Officers engaged
in the Magnetic Survey of India, Agra, Secundra Orphan Press
1857.| On their return to India in the autumn he was discharged
and remained at Leh, where he soon got into trouble again with
the Dogra Government.

Some say that the Agents of the Chinese Government in Yar-
kand having heard of his bringing European travellers across their
frontier (which is high treason in their Code) offered a reward of
1000 Rupees for his apprehension, and perhaps coerced some of
the Kashmiri residents at Yarkand to work upon their friends in
Ladak and Kashmir for the same object, which Gulab Singh and
Basti Ram possibly also turned to a mercantile transaction.

However this may be Gulab Singh having ordered his arrest and
threatened to hang him soon after the Schlagintweit’s (H. and R.)
departure, he fled from Ladak into Kulu, where Adolphe S. found
him, at Sultanpur, in April 1857.

There had possibly been some previous arrangement between
them: Any way A. S. again entertained him as interpreter, guide,
and baggage master for another journey into Turkistan.

As a specimen of his veracity,it may be mentioned that he inform-
ed Harkishen that he was to have a monthly salary of 2,000 Rupees
whilst travelling with A. 8.,and amonthly pension of 1,000 Rupees
after he had brought him back safe to India. -~Major Hay Assist.
Commiss. of Kulu probably knows more of Mohammad Amin’s
history.

[Mohammad Amin, an aged Turkistani, has rendered us during
our expedition to Turkistan most devoted and important services.
His manner of treating the Natives, and the cordial reception he
met with everywhere, plainly showed that in his own country he
was very well known and esteemed and considered as an important
person. We essentially owe it to his clever behaviour with the
Natives that we made it possible to advance as far as we did.

It may be, that he later named to Adolphe’s establishment an
exaggerated sum for his pay, perhaps for appearing as a more im-
portant person. |

ooT.—MAR. 1858-59. | Selections. 309

Whilst he was with us, all our money transactions, sometimes
to a pretty great amount passed through his hands, and we never
had the least cause to complain of him.

No. 2. Name not known to Deponent (Harkishen) [We know
this man personally; his name is Murad; he is a native of Bok-
bara. We saw him first in Ladak, after our return from Turkis-
tan; he at this time has given us much valuable information about
routes in Central Asia and we always have found him a very trust-
worthy, respectable native |. He was commonly called “Yahiudi,”.e.
“‘ the Jew,” was a native of Yarkand and dependent of Mohammad
Amin: they had some baggage ponies with them, and 4 Turkish
grooms or baggagemen, all of which were engaged by A. S. for the
journey.

No. 8. Mohammad Hassan of Peshaur was engaged by A. S.
when he was at that place in December 1856 as a Munshi, assisting

also in scientific observations and accounts.

The last documentary evidence of A. S.’s movements written by
himself is a letter to Harkishen dated from Changchénmo in La-
dak 14th June 1857, a postscript to the same, stating that it was
not sent till the 24th idem; and one or two notes for sundry pay-
ments of money, of the latter date. The letter consists chiefly
of instructions to Harkishen, and of A. S. himself only says: “I |
am quite well and at present all things seem to go on pretty right,”
but as it also mentions two Dak parcels, one for Lt. Charles Hall,
(Assist. Commiss. of Bhagsu), sent by the same dispatch for trans-
mission to Kangra, other persons have no doubt received letters
from him and the particulars of his history, up to that time.

| We have received none of the letters mentioned. Also the Rev.
H. Jaschke, Missionary at Lahol, who received about the same
time letters from our brother, copies of which he had the kindness
to send us, could not give us any other information about his later
movements. |

These documents were brought from Lad@k by the Chaprdssis
Marli and Maula Baksh (No. 6 and 7 of the above list) who joined
Harkishen at Kardong in Lahol on the 20th of July 1857.

It appeared from the statement of these men (made to Harkis-
men. XX. 0. 3, Vou. V. N. 3.

310 Selections. [No. 8, NEW SERIES,

hen) that before they left A. 8. the Manshi Mohammad Hassan
had deserted, taking with him one of his master’s (or Moh4mmad
Amin’s) poneys, some little money, and other articles belonging to
A.S. The Chaprassi’s were directed to overtake him if they could,
recover the property and make it over to Harkishen in Kalu:
which they succeeded in doing, but leaving the Minshi himself in
Ladak, whence he probably made his way to Kashmir and Peshaur.
He gave them a letter for his master, which they brought to Har-
kishen, and is still extant among his papers, written in pencil in
broken English, excusing his sudden departure on the score of in-
ability to endure the hardship of such a journey any longer, and
admitting a balance of 72 Rs., of which he gave the Chaprassi’s
his accounts but did not pay the money.

It must be observed that A. S. makes no allusion to all this in
his letter to Harkishen ; from which it may perhaps be inferred
that he did not attach much importance to the Manshi’s desertion.

Harkishen when at Dera in November 1857 gathered from Capt.
Montgomery of the trigonometrical survey and his Native doctor,
that they had been in Ladak during the past summer, and that A.
S. had left Leh* before their arrival there, and that they knew
nothing more of him.

From the locality of his last ae Changchenmo (which
may be seen in my map at the N. E. end of Ladak), I infer that
he crossed the Turkish water shed to the east.of the Karakorim
Pass, properly speaking perhaps to Suget, thence following ap-
proximatively the route taken by his brothers the year before,
towards Kilian and Khotan.

It appears that he had laid in a stock of merchandize in India,
with the view of facilitating his journey by trade or the appear-
ance of it.

[ We also had with us instead of money, chiefly merchandize,
rich Indian cloth, silks, etc. ]

2. Statement made by Bhitias from Johar Alméra, August 1858.

From the Bhitias of Johér who got their information from Kash-

* Adolphe had not been in Leh during this journey.

ooT—MAR. 1858-59. | Selections. 31]

mizis of Ladak at the Gartok fair in the Autumn of 1857, I heard
that Adolphe Schlagintweit had succeeded in reaching the mar-
gin of the inhabited country at the foot of the Mountains [north
of the Kiienlien]. There he went out from his camp some way
to reconnoitre, and in his absence the guide Mohammad Hassan
absconded, with most of the baggage and cattle*, towards Yar-
kand. Adolphe Schlagintweit being left helpless, sent back
some of the Ladaki baggagemen he had brought with him with a
letter or message to the Thanadar of Leh requesting him to send
assistance in men, cattle, provisions and money; whether for the
purpose of continuing his attempt to penetrate into Turkistan or
merely to return to Ladak with less hardship, does not appear.

When his: messengers arrived at Leh they found Basti Ram’s
son in authority there; the Thanadar himself being away in Kash-
mir. The son is said to have refused the required assistance :
more likely, in fact, he was too silly and timid to act upon his own
responsibility, and referred for instructions to his father or Gulab
Singh in Kashmir, at the expense of great delay and danger to
Adolphe Schlagintweit.

3. Information contained in the Delhi Gazette and general re-
marks of Capt. Strachey. Summer 1858.

The following accounts are derived from letters which have been
published during the summer 1858 in the Delhi Gazette, from a
correspondent of that paper apparently at Simla, and deriving his
information from merchant travellers from Ladak.

From these it may be gathered that Adolphe Schlagintweit,
passed the winter of 1857-58 at the foot of the mountains [of the
Kuenliien] on the border of Khétan, on this side of the Chinese
outposts; among the same tribe of shepherds, perhaps who gave
his brothers a friendly reception the year before. On his arrival
there the provinces of Kashgar and Yarkand were in a very dis-
turbed state, from one of those invasions of the Turks from Ko-

* Besides the animals of burden : horses and yaks, travellers in these
regions are always obliged to take with them a living stock of sheep,
goats, etc. for their support. Yak is the name of the Tibetan Ox=Bos
gruniens.

312 Selections. (No. 8, NEW SERIES.

kand which have been recurring periodically every 10 or 20 years
during the past century.

On these occasions the foreign invaders being joined by the
Turks of the country, usually succeed in driving the Chinese Gar-
risons into their forts and subverting the celestial sovernment for
a time, till reinforcements come from the Chinese Provinces further
east, when the rabble of Turks soon becomes disorganized, the
Kokandis retire to their own country and the people of Yarkand
and Kashgar are left to settle their own accounts with the Chinese,
which is sometime done by wholesale massacres of the Turks of

those cities.

The invaders are commonly headed by one of the Khojahs of
Andishaén of the family which ruled at Kashgar before the Chinese
conquest (about 100 years ago), and who still aspire to the reco-
very of their former dominions.

An unsuccessful invasion and rebellion of the Turks as here
described occurred when I was (Capt. H. Strachey) in Ladak in
1847-48; on the present occasion the result is said to have been

the same.

So long as the Chinese were in the ascendant, Adolphe Schla-
gintweit would have had little chance of penetrating the inha-
bited country to so great a distance : they have outposts on all the
roads across their frontier ; from the rarity of population and
traffic, individuals are easily marked; and Adolphe Schlagintweit
would hardly be able to barbarize himself enough to bear scrutiny.

An European traveller attempting to pass any of these outposts
would probably be stopped and turned back, and extra precautions
taken against him all along the frontier, but if detected after pene-
trating the inhabited country to any distance he would more pro-
bably be murdered.

The English and Kokandis are generally speaking in no hostile
relations, and from his own successful antecedents in Yarkand,
Adolphe Schlagintweit might possibly meet a friendly reception
there. On the other hand, the Kokandis are (as usual with the
Turks of his country) on bad terms with all their neighbours, in-
cluding the Russians, who are steadily encroaching on their North-

ocT—MAR. 1858-59. | Selections. 313

West frontier; this would add to his difficulties in leaving their
country again.

4, Report from Mani and Nain Singh. Almora, Jan. 1859.

[Mani and Nain Singh, Bhot-Rajptts from the highest valleys
of the Himdélaya have been during 2 summers in our service;
Mani also went with us to Turkistan, whilst Nain Singh (with the
native doctor Harkishen) remained at the magnetic observatory at
Leh. We always found them most faithful servants; they also
were of great assistance to us by their knowledge of the Tibetan
and by their clever and prudent behaviour towards the Natives. ]

MAni and Nain Singh from Milum in Johar, left Adolphe Schla-
gintweit at Peshaur in January 1857, and returned to their own
country during the next three months making a few observations by
the way, after this they had no further communication with Adol-
phe Schlagintweit, excepting only by a message sent in March
1857 through Captain H. Strachey, 66th Gorkhas, which request-
ed Mani to join Adolphe Schlagintweit again either at Kangra
in April or later in Ladak, which however Mani did not attempt.

Going as usual to the Gartok fair in the summer of 1857, Mani
heard only some vague reports about Adolphe Schlagintweit from
traders from Ladak, the substance of which is already given,

In December 1857, Mani received a packet of a hypsometer,
thermometers and other instruments with notes from Herman
Schlagintweit through Mr. B. Colvin, Assistant Commissioner of
Kamaon. These had been sent from Calcutta in April of that year
but owing to the disturbed state of affairs in Upper India soon
after, and Mani’s absence in Tibet, their delivery was delayed till
his return to Johar at the end of the year. He made little or no
use of these instruments, and ultimately returned them to me
(Captain Strachey).

In September 1858, Mani being again at the Gartok fair, got
some further information about Adolphe Schlagintweit chiefly
from Nurpur, a native of Sinam in Kandur, trading ‘to Ladak and
Yarkand. ‘This person was himself at Yarkand in 1857. When
Adolphe Schlagintweit arrived in that quarter, the Turks of K6-
kand were already at or near the city. Adolphe Schlagintweit

314 Selections. [No. 8, NEW SERIEs.

himself did not enter the town but his chief guide Mohdmmad
Amin* did so and left it again either before or during the siege,
under what relations with his own master or with the insurgent
Turks was not known to informant.

As the siege continued and the Chinese were shut up in their
citadel, they obliged the inhabitants of the place to take part in the
fighting among others a lot of foreign merchants including about
forty-five (45) of the Bisséris of whom fifteen (15) only returned,
informant Nurpur being one of them; the rest were either killed
or made prisoners by the Turks.

After the siege was raised, informant heard that Adolphe Schla-
gintweit had joined the camp of the Turks, and been at first well
received by them ; on their retreat towards Kékand, he accompa-
nied them as far as Kashgar. As the hordes of Turks were car-
rying off with them a lot of their prisoners to be kept or sold for
slaves (according to their custom) some of the Bisséris} being
among the number, Adolphe Schlagintweit tried to assist them,
remonstrated that they were British subjects and should be releas-
ed. On this arose a dispute; the Turks accused Adolphe Schla-
gintweit of taking part with their enemies and ended by killing
him.

Mani also said that Nurpur had certificates from the Chinese au~
thorities of Yarkand, testifying his services in the siege, and pro-
mising him some reward at a future opportunity.

The above account of the Bisser1 Nurpur was confirmed by
‘Omar an ‘Argon{t of Ladak who had received letters from his
friends at Yarkand to the same effect.

II. Information recewed from G. Kynox, Esa., Assistant Com-
nussioner of Kulu.

5. Verbal Statement of Kattah Al Shah from Yadrkand.
Nagger in Kulu, 28th September 1858.
Last year in the month of Sevan (J aly 1857) viz. 14 months ago,

* According to the more probable information by ‘Abdul communicat-
ed later, it was not Mohammad Amin, but Murad, who entered the
city to get information.

‘gla “whose country we had been much thevellnae about.

{ Argon is the name of the mixed races of Yarkandis and Ladakis.

oct-—ManK. 1858-59. ] Selections. 315

the Andishanis* came to Yarkand to fight with the Chinese, and
I went to Kargalik, two days’ journey south of Yarkand. The
Andishanis took me and all the Panjabis, Kabulis, Kashmiris and
Hindostanis, in all some 40 or 50 persons, prisoners; at that time
two Andishanis and a Munshi were accompanying a Sahib who was
coming from the Ladak side; these three men ran away with the
Sahib’s property and came to Kargalik ; there they stopped in the
house of one Kurban and they said to him, we have some property
for sale, do you take it? When we had sent for the property and
examined it, he found it to consist of 12 or 14 yards of valuable
embroidered cloth, a number of ordinary cloth and some other
property also, but I did not see it with my own eyes. Kurban
having seen the things, went and reported the fact to Haji Misser,
Kardar of the Andishanis, saying that these men were poor and
had nothing of their own, and that they must have robbed this
from somebody. Haji Misser sent for them and intimidated them,
questioning as to where they got the property and whose it was.

They at first asserted the property was their own, but when
threatened severely, they stated that Mohammad Amin had brought
a (Feringhi),} and that they had stolen these articles and were es-
caping with them. Haji Misser asked where the Feringhi was
they replied: ‘‘ God knows, he was on his way to Yarkand; if he
has gone there he will have arrived at the village of Kilian.” Haji
Misser therefore sent 2 or 3 of his own men, and told them to go
and fetch the Sahib, they therefore went to Kilian and brought the
Sahib from thence to Kargalik, and Mohammad Amin was also
with them.

{It may be surprising that it was not Mohammad Amin they
should have selected as interpreter at the following interview. But
we only could speak ourselves through interpreters with Moham-

| mad Amin; he knows besides his Native language, the Turkish,

only a little of the Tibetan and rather more of the Persian lan-
guage, but no Hindostaéni whatever. Our Interpreter, whilst tra-
velling with him in Turkistan, was Makshtt, a Native of India,

* Andishan is a large town, situated east of Kékand.
+ Feringhi is in India and Central Asia the general designation of an.
European, the word being a modification of Franc.

316 Selections. 7 [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

now settled in Ladak as landed proprietor, who knows very well

Turkish, Persian, besides Hindostani and Tibetan; our chief Ti-

betan Interpreter was Mani. Both Makshtit and Mani, had former-
ly been travelling with the Stracheys in their expeditions to Tibet;
Makshut, now a pretty aged man, was also at one time the compa-
nion of Moorcroft. Our brother’s Interpreter seems to have been
the run away Minshi; also Abdullah is missing here. |

Nobody understood the Sahibs speech in the country, they
searched therefore for somebody who could understand him, in
hope of finding some one who could understand Hindostani or Pan-
jabi. I was in confinement and they took me to the place. Haji
Misser told me to ask the Sahib why he had come there. I asked
the Sahib, he replied that there was Shazadah, son of Mohammad
Shah, living in the Andishan country, and he had visited him (Mr,
Schlagintweit in Lahor and said ‘‘ do you come to Andishan,
Sahib and I will establish friendly relations between the Navab of
Andishan and the Séhibs, that it was on this account that he was
on his way to Andishan.” Haji Misser confiscated all the Sahib’s
property and put the Sahib in confinement, and sent him to Zullah
Khan, a principal Sirdar. When they put the Sahib in confine-
ment he said to me: “ no one here understands my language, and
my belief is, that these people will kill me, should you go to that.
side of the country, by Kulu, tell this matter to Hay Sahib; ifyou
so by Kashmir tell it to whatever Sahib you meet.” Afterthisthe ~
Sahib went away. On the day that the Sahib went to Sirdar Zil- |
Iuh Khan, on the same day the Chinese force came to fight with
the Andishanis, and the Andishanis fought for half an hour and ~
then ran away and took the Sahib with them. When the Chinese
force came all the Andishan Kardars ran away, and we forty or
fifty men who were in confinement got free. I afterwards heard
the Dil Khan, the great chief of the Andishanis had taken the
Sahib’s property and put him to death, but I only heard this from
the report of travellers of Kasgar and Yarkand, I did not see it
with my own eyes.

Question: Do you know any thing of the property of the Sahib
or his servants ? : |

Answer: No, I do not know any thing about them. I only saw

oor. —MAR. 1858-59. ] Selections. “ie

the Sahib and Mohammad Amin Moghul*), some also said that
Mohammad Amin had been killed, others that he was alive, others
that he had his nose and ears cut off.

Ill. Information recewed from the “ Department Asiatique’’ of
St. Petersburgh through Baron Budberg, Russian Minister at Berlin.

6. Letter from Mr. Vardouguine, Russian Consul at Chiguchak.
Chiguchak,| 31st December 1858, (11th January 1859).

Although the following informations must tend to increase the
general sympathy which is felt in the fate of the renowned and
universally respected traveller Adolphe Schlagintweit, they unfor-
tunately offer no consolation to his brothers.

In the autumn of 1857 at the time of the insurrection against
the Chinese in Turkistén which was headed by Bizruk Khan, a
nephew of Jehangir Haji, a Feringhi (European) came to Turkis-
tan from India{ giving himself out for a merchant.

Having received the permission of the Chinese Authorities to
proceed to Kashgar, the traveller unfortunately arrived on the day
when Buazruk Khan made his entrance into the town. The next
day, he presented himself before the latter to obtain his permission
to extend his journey into Kokand; Buizruk Khan, however tak-
ink him for a Chinese spy caused him to be murdered. It has
' been asserted that he declared to Bazruk Khan, before his death,
that his murder should not remain unpunished as no means would
be neglected to find him.

This report has occasioned a belief in the country that “ this
European was a person of high importance, belonging to the Fe-
ringhis who govern India,” (2. e., that he was an Indian officer.)

It is also asserted that the four Europeans composing his reti-
nue§ were also murdered.

* Mogul is the general designation of the Turks in Central Asia.

+ Chiguchak, 46° 9' N. Lat. 83° 7’ Long. E. from Greenwich is a
Russian station south of the Zéisang Lake.

t The name Sikemarata here given as the name of a little town, from
which he is supposed to have come, must refer to the country of the
Sikhs, the Panjab. We are unacquainted with any town bearing this or
a similar name.

§ This appears to be an error. He had no European attendants.

won. XX. 0. 8 VOL. y. N. 3.

318 Selections. LNo. 8, NEW SERIES.

The person through whose agency I obtained these details did
not know whether he was also accompanied by Mussalmans. All
the effects of this traveller are said to have been taken by Bizruk
Khan, on his return to Kokand.

It is further reported that this traveller came from India intend-
ing to proceed through Tibet to Kokand, or, in the event of being
prevented from doing so, to return as he had come. His name is
unknown. All that I can learn respecting him is that he was very
tall [at least in comparison with the much smaller races of Central
Asia. |

I obtained these statements on inquiring of the headman of a
large caravan from that place whether any Europeans had fallen
in the rebellion in Turkistan.

Unfortunately the statements I received especially as to the
routes* agree but too well with the points to which my attention :
was directed as being essential ones in reference to the person into
whose identity I was commissioned by the Asiatic Department in
November (No. 4160) to make investigations.

7. Second Report from Mr. Vardouguine forwarded to Baron
Budberg by Mr. George Kowalewski, St. Petersburgh 2nd (14th)
March 1859. |

The Prince Gortschakoff has already communicated in his des-
patch to your Excellency (Baron Budberg) of the 10th (22nd) of
February, some information which Mr. Vardouguine, acting as our
Consul at Chuguchak had forwarded to him, and which appear to
have some bearing on the fate of Mr. Schlagintweit. According
to a fresh report, dated 24th January (25th February,) from the
same official, it would appear that this ill-fated traveller had not
four, but only three companions who did not share his fate but
saved themselves. Mr. Vardouguine brings forward a circum-
stance which, however indefinite it may seem, may still not be with-
out weight for those who personally knew Mr. Schlagintweit, in es-
tablishing his identity. The traveller who is said to have been

* Our letters, in consequence of which Prince Gortschakoff had the
kindness to institute inquiries, contained indications about the details of
our brother's possible routes to Turkistan, and also about those which he
might haye adopted to reach the Russian territories,

ocT.—MAR. 1858-59. } Selections. 319

killed, is described as having a mole (tache naturelle) under his
right eye. |

[Our brother certainly had no such mole, but it is not impossible
that some scarred wound, of which we knew nothing, might be
meant. |

In communicating this information, M. le Baron, I consider it
useless to observe how little credence it deserves. The inhabitants
of those distant regions where they were collected, generally speak-
ing, make no scruple of modifying their reports at pleasure, espe-
cially when Europeans are concerned.

IV. Reports collected by Lieut. Colonel H. B. Edwardes, C. B.,
Commissioner and Superintendent Peshaur Division.

8. Letter to R. Temple, Esq., Secretary to the Chief Commis-
sioner of the Panjab. Peshaur 18th December 1858.

PoniticaL DEPARTMENT.

I am not aware whether the Chief Commissioner has yet received
a reliable account of the circumstances attending the death of the
German traveller Mr. Adolphe Schlagintweit; but at any rate it
will be satisfactory to Government, and his friends, to be able to
compare the enclosed narratives of the sad events.

The first No. 9 is the verbal statement of a Kashmiri follower of
Mr. Schlagintweit’s named Abdtllah*, who arrived here via Bok-
hara and Kabul three days ago (15th December 1858).

The second No. 10 is the written report of a native of Yarkandf,
named Mohammad Amin, who appears to have been provided by
Lord William Hay, as a kind of courier to Mr. Adolphe Schlagint-
weit. He writes from Kokand and Abdullah is the bearer of his
letter.

From these statements, which appear to me substantially, trust-
ful, it seems that Mr. Schlagintweit was impelled by a desire to
find a road to Yarkand which need not pass through Ladak ;

* His full name is Abdéillah Mohammad.

+ In the official report Moh4ammad Amin was called a native of Ladak,
what we. altered, simce we knew Mohammad Amin, who was also our
chief guide in the previous during our travels in Turkistan, to be a na-
tive of Yarkand. Adolphe had however not seen him, he having left us
at Leh in Ladak.

320 Selections. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

that he reached Yarkand’; found that country harried by crescen-
taders from Kokand; and passed on to Kashgar, where the same
fanatical raids were going on, and the leader of one of them, a
Sayad named Vali Khan, seized Mr. Schlagintweit and barbarous-
ly caused him to be beheaded, without any other offence apparent-
ly than that of being a foreigner.

If anything could soothe the distress of Mr. Schlagintweit’s
friends in Europe, it would surely be the noble contrast between
the enlightened purpose and humane search for knowledge, which
bore him into those wilds with his life in his open hand, and the
barbarians frenzy for the propagation of errer by the blood of his
fellow-men.

I have sent by separate parcel a slip of paper, and a broken
pocket telescope, which were the only relics Abdullah could bring
away with him.

[ We have received these objects.—The handwriting on the slip
of paper is sure to be that of our brother; but it is beyond all
doubt that it had been written not during his travels in Turkistan ;
it is dated ‘“‘ Peshaur’’ and is probably written in December 1856.
It seems to be a thrown away label, probably on account of being
indistinctly written, belonging to an object of his ethnographical
collections.

The telescope which ‘Abdul says to have been bought from one
of the people, who robbed our brother’s property was certainly not
his; it looks as if it had been purchased in a native bazar of Pesh-
aur, and it is of so rude external appearance, that our brother
cannot even have taken it with him as an object of present for na-
tives ; it only magnifies 14 times and gives very badly defined
images.

We have communicated to Colonel Edwardes our well founded
doubts that these objects should have been amongst our brother’s
property in Turkistan and we have requested him again to cross-
examine Abdullah, and to’keep at the same time in mind the im-
probability of his statements, at least in reference to these objects. |

9. Verbal statement given by the Kashmiri Abdullah an attend-
ant on Mr. Adolphe Schlagintwett.

OCT.— MAR. 1858-59. | Selections. 321

About two years ago when the Amir of Kabul came to pay a
visit* to Peshaur, Mr. Adolphe Schlagintweit the surveyor was in
Peshaur, and I was employed under him as a Sepoy of the guard.
On the Amir’s return to Kabul, Mr. Adolphe Schlagintweit went
to Kohat, and thence via Kalabagh and Dera Ismael Khan to
Lahor, where having purchased necessary things for the journey
the set out for Bhagsu (7. e. Dharamséla the head quarters of the
Kangra District). Here he left half the Government property he
had in his charge, and with the other half he went to Kalu and
Sulténpur. Here he got acquainted with Mohammed Amin of
Yarkand whom Lord William Hay had sent for the purpose.

Mohammad Amin was obliged to go for protection to Lord Wil-
liam Hay te-be safe from Gulab Singh’s prosecution. (See Capt.
Strachey’s Report.)

Also the officer [named Basti Ram], who was posted to Ladak
as a Thanadar by Maharaja Gulab Singh}, bore very ill feelings
towards Mohammad Amin, because the latter had shown to Euro-
peans, to the brothers of my master, the way to Yarkand.

My master (Mr. Adolphe Schlagintweit) stopped at Sultanpur for
some days with a view to arrange with Mohammad Amin for the
journey. He then sent his baggage under the care of Mohammad
Amin to Kothi Karnung, and he with myself, Doctor Harkishen,
and Gosht Mohammad Butler went via Bangal to Kothi Karnung.
Here he halted 5 days, sent his Manshi Ramcharn, and 2 Chap-
rassi’s to Kashmir, purchased 60 horses and provisions, and with
Munshi Moh4mmad Hassan a native of Pesh4ur, Dr. Harkishen,
Gosht Mohammad Khansamah, myself, and Mohdémmad Amin of
Yarkand and his 3 followers proceeded to Ladak. When we reach-
ed a place 3 days journey from Leh, Moh4mmad Amin pointed out
to the Sahib a road via Sirikal to Kokand by which he suggested
to Mr. Schlagintweit to proceed. Mr. Schlagintweit consented to
this proposal, dismissed Dr. Harkishen, 2 Chaprassi’s and 2 others
employed in the survey office to return to Hindostan (India), sent

* This official visit took place end of December 1856. Our brother
Adolphe was then in the suite of Sir John Lawrence, when he had his
interview with Dost Moh4mmad Khan at Jamriid near Peshaur.

+ Gulab Singh the King of Kashmir, died in August 1857; his suc-
cessor is his son Rambir Singh.

322 Selections. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

one Chaprassi with his heavy baggage to Ladak, and he himself

with Mohammad Amin and some other followers went to Chisel

[near the Lake Tsomognalari, the great salt Lake of Pangkong. }
There he hired 60 porters and with them set out.

After three days journey Munshi Mohammad Hassan of Peshdur
having taken a horse out of Mr. Schlagintweit’s stable away at night
ran away and carried away with him his book of accounts. Mr.
Schlagintweit sent to search after him a man, named Rahiman, a
native of Balti, and lent him a horse to ride on; but he also never
returned. Mr. Schlagintweit halted 3 days in the same uninhabi-
ted country and then taking Mohammad Amin and 2 natives of
Tibet went to discover the way. By means of a telescope he at
last found a way, and started with his baggage, but in reality we
missed the proper route, and after a weary journey came by the
side of two small lakes, the water in one of which was reddish, and —
in the other greenish, but both bitter [saline,|so that all his fol-
lowers through despair began to lament and sigh to return.

[The difficulties of travelling, here described, perfectly agree
with what we had to experience ourselves during our passage over
the chains of the Karakorém and the Kiienliien. We had to tra-
vel without any trace of a road, 21 days and had not met with one
man. In these great clevations, 15,000 to 18,000 EH. feet, we found
no wood, extremely scarce food for our horses and scarcely drink-
able water in sufficient quantity. |

Upon this Mr. Schlagintweit dismissed some Tibetans together
with one Chaprassi by name Marli. He then with myself, Moham-
mad Amin of Yarkand and his 3 followers, Gosht Moh4mmad
Khansamah and 2 Tibetans resumed his journey, and on his way
met with only a single house situated in a deserted tract of coun-
try from which the city of ‘Elchi, the capital of Khotan, was dis-
tant by 3 days journey.

On our going with Mr. Schlagintweit from Sultanpur to Yar-
kand. our way lay through an uninhabited country ; for our master
had selected a new route and marked it with stones as he went
along and drew a sketch of it.

This was a way, which led straight to Yarkand, without passing
through Leh; but with the exception of a few inhabited huts [on

a

ocT—MAR. 1858-59. | Selections. 323

the Tibetan, southern side of the Karakortm | in some places, the
whole of the tract was an entire wilderness. Mr. Schlagintweit,
however, did not proceed from this single house situated at 3 days
marches from ‘Elchi, to the direction of this city, but turned to-
wards Siget where he stayed 3 days. Mohammad Amin here
again urged upon Mr. Schlagintweit not to proceed to Yarkand,
but to Sirikdl, and thence on to Kokand. Mr. Schlagintweit con-
sequently set out for Sirikul.

On the 3rd day he came up to the summit of a Pass where the
night we arrived snow fell toa great extent; the horses that he
had brought with him were all taken away by the servants of Mo-
hammad Amin, but we next morning went in pursuit of the rob-
bers, and Mohammad Amin with one of his servants who was a
Jew also accompanied us. [This must have been Murad. |

We at last recovered 7 horses from the thieves, and sent Mo-
hammad Amin and his servant ahead to search for the rest. Mo-
hammad Amin had not instigated his men to rob our Sahib of his
horses, but they of their own accord had done the deed. On our
return we asked Mr. Schlagintweit to retire down the Pass in
order to be safe from the severity of the cold, and to get provi-
sions. He accordingly descended from the Pass and reached
Shimla Khoja, where Mohammad Amin also came up with the
8 remaining horses, which had been stolen, and dispatched his
servant by name Murad, the Jew, to Yarkand, to bring information
of the wars that were then going on there. The Jew returned
and reported that it was the Khan of Kokand who had been mak-
ing war. We therefore without hesitation set out for Yarkand,
and sent Gosht Mohammad Khansamah under the care of a Cara-
van back to Kangra, with a present of a horse valued at 200 Ru-
pees, besides 200 Rupees in cash, and an order for 300 Rupees on
Kangra.

[Also Mohammad Amin mentions nearly quite the same about
Gosht Mohammad being dispatched to India and about the sums
he received in cash and in a draft on Kangra.

Fully aware of the danger of his positions, Adolphe most pro-
bably had sent him to Kangra for taking charge of and for deli-

324 Selections. [No. 8, NEW SERIES. —

vering there observations, drawings and collections, and he also
gave him the rather large amount mentioned above for enabling
him to get these objects down to Kangra.

Till now we have not heard anything about Gosht Moh4mmad ;
but we have written immediately to Kangra and to Muradabad
(his native place) requesting, that the most careful inquiries after
him might be made. |

We passed through Kargalik and Bozg4n and arrived at the
camp of Dil Khan Sayad of Kokand who had come with an armed
multitude to make a religious war with Ydrkand. His camp lay
outside the city, and about an hour after our arrival, the army of
the Khatais* which formed the garrison of the city came out to
encounter the besiegers on the open field and routed them, and
obliged Dil Khan to fly. Mr. Schlagintweit likewise leaving all
his baggage there, fled with his followers to Negsar, and thence
went to Kashgar. Here another Sdyad of Kokand named V4li
Khan who had likewise come on a religious expedition had suc-
ceeded in getting the throne of Kashgar; Mr. Schlagintweit de-
sired an interview with him, but it was refused and a guard was
sent to apprehend us.

They accordingly carried us prisoners into the presence of Vali
Khan, who ordered Mr. Schlagintweit to be beheaded, and so the
order was instantly carried out. Vali Khan did not ask any ques-
tion of Mr. Schlagintweit before his murder, and he was executed

outside the city of Kashgar. He was allowed no burial, buta — |

man, named ‘Atta Bae, a native of Yarkand, had collected his
bones, and Mohammad Amin assured me, that he would send
them over to India via Ladak. This tragedy occurred about 17
months ago [ August 1857].

Vali Khan then sent me, and Mohammad Amin of Yarkand,
and Murad a Jew, and a native of Tibet to prison; and afterwards
sold me as a slave to a man called Tuzak for 25 Rupees by reason
of my being a native of India. |

A month after an army of Khatais came and expelled Sayad
Vali Khan of Kékand together with the inhabitants of Kashgar,

* Khatai is the name giyen to the Chinese in Turkist4n.

en alee as
——————

per Man. 1858-59. | Selections. 395

who took refuge in Kokand. I also accompanied [the fugitives,
and on my arrival at Kokand a Sayad of Peshaur by name Mian
Khalil procured me freedom by paying to my master Tiizak the
amount which he had paid for me.

After I was set at liberty I stopped in Kokand for 10 months,
during which time I sent three petitions to the king intimating
that Mr. Schlagintweit had been murdered, and praying that jus-
tice might be done to him. But the king of Kokand, without
giving me any reply, tore up all my petitions. When I was in
Kokand, it was the season of winter and consequently I never
went out to see the country.

I met Moh4mmad Amin of Yarkand at Kékand who advised me
to return to India, and said that he would again apply to the King
of Kokand for justice in the case of Mr. Schlagintweit.

Meanwhile the King of Bokhara prepared to make an inroad on
Kokand, upon which, fearing bad consequences from a longer stay
at Kokand I went to Bokhara.

On my departure from Kékand, Mohammad Amin gave me a
Persian letter for delivery to Colonel Edwardes in Peshaur, which
I now present.

From Bokhara I came to Balkh, from Balkh to Kabul, and from
Kabul to Peshaur.

10. Letter from Mohammad Amin of Yarkand, to Colonel Ed-
wardes, dated Kokand, 29th July, 1858.

IT went to Sultanpur, then to Lahol and over a Pass reached
Rupchu.

Here two roads diverge, one leading to Leh, and the other to
Chusel. My master asked me to direct the way to Aksde Chin,
we consequently proceeded thither and passed through Changchen -
mo and having crossed a high ridge, | this is the Karakoram chain |
we came up to the road leading to Aksae Chin*. We arrivedata
place, whereabout 2 forts were situated. The one was said to have
belonged to Sikander and was situated on the flanks of the Yu-

* It is very characteristic of Mohammad Amin to see, how little he
complains, compared with ‘Abdul, about the difficulties of the road.

ol &xX..0. 8. Vol. Vv. N. 8.

326 Selections. [No. 8, NEW SERIES:

rungkdsh Pass. [We ourselves have also passed with Moh4mmed
Amin through Sikander Mokam on the 18th of August 1856. It
is a small now deserted fort ; it seems never to have been anything
else but a fortified place and was never permanently inhabited.
Alexander the Great after whom it is named, is well known to the
inhabitants of Turkistan, partly in historical, partly in more fabu-
lous form; his name appears several times in geographical termi-
nology |. The other fort lay on the banks of the Karakash which
is one of the streams that flow through Khétan.

Travelling along the Karakash river.{and after having crossed
the Kuenlin] we came down the main stream of Khotan and pass-
ed through Shaidulla Kohja which was intersected by two roads
one connecting Yarkand with Tibet, and the other leading to Tash-
korgan, Osh and Kokand.

We halted at Shaidillah Khoja for five days. It was 20 days’
journey from this to Osh via Tashkorgén, and 5 days’ journey to
Yarkand.

Mr. Schlagintweit told me that the way through Tashkorgan
and Osh was very long, and that to Yarkand comparatively short,
and that he would take the latter. I remonstrated that the latter
was a dangerous, and the former a safe way. He then sent Murad
the Jew to bring information from Yarkand. The Jew returned
after § days in the company of eight caravans, and reported that
the Khan of Kokand had wrested from the people of Khatais
[ Chinese | the provinces of Kashgar and Yarkand.

T however discredited the report, and said to Mr. Schlagintweit
that the real Khan of Kékand would never undertake such a dis-
tant expedition; but that since 12 years some of the Bara Sahibs
[great men | of Kokand, who were Sayads by birth, having collect-
ed vagabond outlaws, and all sorts of ragamuffins, made frequent
inroads on Kashgar, and sometimes succeeded in defeating its Go-
vernors, and occupying their throne, and at other times were re-
pulsed by the Chinese army, and obliged to retreat, that one of
them Chikchik Khoja had once fallen into the hands of the army
of Khatais, and was since in confinement; and that, I added, if ©
wars were going on at Kashgar, they must have been waged by
these Sayad fanatics, and not by the Khan of Kokand.

OCT.—MAR. 1858-59. ] Selections. 327

Mr. Schlagintweit nevertheless persisted on going to Yarkand
[since the road to Koshgar and Kokand was equally dangerous on
account of the disturbances coming from this direction, and since
at the same time the distance to these places was much greater |.
He sent back Gosht Mohammad Khansamah in company with a
caravan to Kangra, and made him a present of 300 Rupees in
cash, and an order for Rupees 300 on Kangra.

We then set out for Yarkand; on our approach the inhabitants
of that place treated with great courtesy, and furnished us with
provisions ; Mr. Schlagintweit also gave them presents suitable to
their several ranks and deserts.

From thence we proceeded to Kashgar which was then occupied
by a Khéja of Kékand who had defeated the original Governor
and wrested from him his provinces, but the army of Khatais was
also encamped outside the city, and laid siege to a Fort called
Gul-Bagh situated about a mile from the town.

The Mussalmans of the garrison every day came out and gave
them battle. The fight was going on when we arrived; the Mus-
salmans asked who we were, Mr. Schlagintweit replied that he
was the Honorable East India Company’s Envoy and was going to
the Khan of Kokand.

Upon this they got into a rage and ordered Mr. Schlagintweit to
be beheaded, and I with my followers to be thrown into prison,
and plundered of all our property. In 35 days of our confinement
my two servants died, and the third was missing.

Meanwhile the army of Khatais having been reinforced from
Maha Chin* overpowered the Khoja, and obliged him to fly, I
consequently got my release, placed the remains of Mr. Schlagin-
tweit in charge of Murad for safe custody and proceeded to K6-
kand.

I have been 8 months in Kékand; and as the way to Kashgar
remained blockaded during that time, and no traveller could pass
to and fro, I could send no message to you; however lately En-
voys have been sent and received from Kashgar and peace‘restor-

* Maha Chin, 7. e. Great China or China Proper, in comparison to the
Chinese Province of Turkistan.

828 _ Selections. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

ed; and the Khan of Kékand has deputed aman named ‘Aka
Sikal to Kashgar to bring about the state of affairs on the old
footing. Ishall therefore shortly leave for Kashgar, and, having
taken the remains of Mr. Schlagintweit, shall proceed to Peshaur.

Dated Berlin, 15th March 1859.
SIR,

Lord Stanley, the Secretary of State for Indian in Council, has
been kindly pleased to send us for our information a most carefully
compiled collection of official papers and memoranda, which the
Government of India as well as several Civil and Military Officers
have been good enough to collect in the hope of elucidating the
fate of our brother Adolphe Schlagintweit, in charge of the Mag-
netic Survey of India since 1854.

The papers contain :

1. A large and most elaborate Memorandum, which Captain
Henry Strachey, 66th Gorkhas, has given himself the great trouble
to compile partly from evidences of several Natives partly from
notes contained in the Indian Newspapers. This memorandum is
accompanied by another most valuable communication, the result
of Captain Strachey’s indefatigable personal inquiries.

2. Letters from the Dewan of Kashmir to the Chief Commis-
sioner of the Punjab. -

&. Several evidences taken by Major Lake and Messrs. Knox
and Taylor, the Civil Officers of the Kangra District.

Besides these official letters the following gentlemen obliged us
by private communications :

a. Rev. H. Jaschke, Missionary at Kyelong in Lahoul with
whom, before starting for Ladak, Adolphe had the pleasure of stay-
ing some weeks. The Rev gentleman also was kind enough to
take charge of part of his luggage and of such spare instruments
as Adolphe did not think advisable to take with him on his
journey to the North.

6b. A. C. Gumpert, Esq., Consul of Hamburg and Odenburg at
Bombay who had kindly put himself in communication with several

——————

——————————

a

OCT.—MAR. 1858-59. | Selections. 329

Officers of the Punjab and regularly forwarded us the results of his
inquizies.

e. Lord Pe aaible. Lord William Hay, Major Ramsay, Hon’ble
W. Elliot, L. Bowring, Hsq., W. Russel, Esq., the particularly
well informed special correspondent of the “Times,” and some other
gentlemen, equally obliged us, when occasion presented itself, with
their advice and information in addition to that which we owed to
the Indian Press. In England especially Col. Sykes, M. P., and
Sir Roderick Murchison communicated to us any letters they

had rec ved ; in Germany it was chiefly our celebrated and most
kind friend, Baron Humboldt, who assisted us in making our in-
quiries.

From an examination of these papers there is but too much rea-
son to fear that Adolphe Schlagintweit has lost his life in Central
Asia, probably in Kashgar after having left Yarkand.

Captain Strachey’s last memoir, Almora, January 1858, says:

«« After the siege of Yarkand was raised, Adolphe Schlagintweit
*“‘ had joined the camp of the Turks and accompanied them as far
“as Kashgar. As they were carrying off with them a lot of their
“‘ prisoners to be sold for slaves, some of the Bissahirs being
“among the number, Adolphe Schlagintweit remonstrated that
“they were British subjects and should be released. On this
“ arose a dispute. The Turks accused Adolphe Schlagintweit of
“‘ taking part with their enemies and ended by killing him.”

A quite recent letter December 31st, 1858, (January 11th, 1859,)
from Mr. Vardouguine, Russian Officiating Consul at Tchougout-
chak in the Russian part of Central Asia, seems also to confirm his
death. We received this letter through the energetic exertions of
Prince Gortschakoff, and it was delivered to us by Baron Budberg,
the Russian Minister at Berlin. ‘This letter had taken an admir-
ably short time to reach us, being the answer to a request of No-
vember 8th, 1858. In this letter he is said to have been killed by
order of Bouzrook Khan from Kokand who had besieged Kashgar
and invaded Turkistan.

We feel most deeply obliged for all these numerous proofs of
general sympathy in Europe and India, and we allow ourselves to

330 Selections. [No. 8, NEW sERIES.

draw the attention of our friends in India to the fact, that even
now it will not be quite impossible to save at least through their
zeal a great part of his journals, observations, instruments and
collections, which are the more valuable on account of the coun-
tries in which they were made.

Captain Henry Strachey states, that according to information he
received, several boxes with collections, drawings, books and some
instruments are in Dehra in the Surveyor General’s Office; the
Missionaries of Lahoul have informed us, that similar objects are
still left in their charge; we do not think it improbable that even
those, which Adolphe Schlagintweit carried with him, during his
travels in Turkistan, might be recovered by a plan we have the
honor to propose.

We are perfectly aware, that these objects cannot be got with-
out Government’s usual energetic assistance, and without the sanc-
tioning the comparatively small expenses necessary for this pur-
pose. In consequence of the following extract of a letter address-
ed to us by the India House as early as July 1858, we consider it
our duty, again officially to request the kind assistance of Govern-
ment.

The letter says:

‘‘ With reference to the letter addressed by General Sabine to
“the Secretary of the Royal Society, dated 14th May 1858, in
‘‘ which he states that the 80 stations visited by *‘ Messrs. Schla-
“‘ ointweit”? are independent of those visited by Adolphe Schla-
«* gintweit in his last and fatal journey of which they have a pros-
“‘ nect of receiving a journal and observations,” the Court expect
that you “‘ will use every exertion to recover your late Brother’s
“* Memoranda of the researches on which the Government of India
‘“* employed him.

“ (Signed) J. D. Dickinson.”

We therefore have the honor to propose in reference to his
manuscripts and collections :

1. That the objects at Dehra be repacked in accordance with
Captain Strachey’s plans.

ocT.—MAR. 1858-59. | ~ Selections. 331

2. That the Missionaries at Lahoul be requested to send at
Government’s expense from Lahoul to Kangra the collections,
observations and instruments, etc., and to draw up a Report, spe-
eifying the claims to which Hari Chand, the son of the Negi of
Lahoul is entitled, for the journies he undertook last summer in
search of our brother.

38. That anote may be issued to the Lieutenant Governor of
the Punjab and to the Commissioners of Kamaon, Simla and Kan-
gra, authorizing them to distribute freely circulars in the vernacu-
lar languages among the trading people of their districts, promis-
ing a reward for any papers, drawings, instruments or othor pro-
perty of Adolphe Schlagintweit delivered to them, the amount of
remuneration being dependent on the nature and quantity of the
property restored. It is beyond all doubt, that the traders would
carry on such circulars to Kashmir, Ladak and the countries of
Central Asia which Adolphe Schlagintweit has visited.

4. That all the instruments, collections, and cbservations thus
recovered, be forwarded to us, if small parcels overland to Berlin,
if boxes to London, addressed ‘“ Schlagintweit, India House,” for
being worked out and put up like our other collections.

Finally, we have the honor to add that copies of this circular
note have been officially dispatched :

To the India House, London, to the Seats of Government in
India, and to the following Officers and Gentlemen in India:

Col. R. J. H. Birch, Calcutta ;

L. Bowring, Esq., Priv. Secy. to the Govr. Genl. ;
The Commissioners of Kamaon, Kangra, and Simla ;
G. Edmonstone, Esq., Calcutta ;

Hon’ble Walter Elliot, Madras ;

A. C. Gumpert, Esq., Bombay ;

Rey. Jaschke, Lahoul ;

W. Muir, Esq., Allahabad ;

Colonel Ramsay, Nepal;

W. Russel, Esq., Oude ;

The President of the Asiatic Society, Calcutta ;
Major Richard Strachey, Calcutta;

332 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

Captain Henry Strachey, Calcutta ;
Colonel Waugh, Mussoori.

We have, &c.

HERMANN SCHLAGINTWEIT,
Rospert ScHLAGINTWEIT.

Nore.—For the foregoing papers, so replete with a painful interest,
we are indebted to Hon. Walter Elliot.

We have, as far as possible, reprinted from the original, only ventur-
ing upon a few clerical corrections of little importance and in no way

affecting the sense of the passages.—Ep. M. J. L. S.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE

Report on the Progress of the Magnetic Survey, and of the Re-
searches connected with wt, from November 1855 to April 1856.
By Rospert SCHLAGINTWEIT.

GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE ROUTE.

My brother, Adolphe, and I left Agra on the 29th of November
1855, and went through Dholpore and Chanda to Gwalior. We
proceeded thence through a part of Bundlekund, by Dutteeah,
Jhansi, Tehri, and Dhamoonee to Saugor, which we reached on
the 4th of December.

From Saugor we took different routes. Adolphe proceeded by
Dhumow to Nagpore and Madras. [I left Saugor on the 19th of
December, and proceeded by Maharajpore and Bermhan to Nur-
singpore, on the left side of the Nerbudda valley; from thence I
proceeded by Jhansi Ghaut and Meergunge to Jubbulpore, where I
arrived on the 30th December.

The route which I followed from Saugor to Jubbulpore afforded.
me the gratifying opportunity of examining the large deposits of
fossil remains of elephants, rhinoceros, hippopotami, &c., which
are exposed on the sides of the Nerbudda valley, and I have been
able to obtain a tolerably good collection of specimens.

ocT.—MAR. 1858-59.] Progress of the Magnetic Survey. 333

During a stay of six days at Jubbulpore, I was engaged with a
series of barometrical and meteorological observations, and with
some chemical experiments on the composition of the atmosphere,
which were afterwards repeated on the Umerkuntuk Hills.

I started from Jubbulpore on the 6th of January, and went by
Mundlah, Ramgurh, Goruckpore and Karenchia up to Umerkun-
tuk, which forms a very important part of the water-shed of Cen-
tral India. Near it are the sources of the Soane and Tohilla, of
the Nerbudda, and of the Yrap, an affluent of the Mahanuddy.

I arrived at Umerkuntuk on the 20th of January 1856, and hav-
ing set up my meteorological instruments, which were regularly
registered during my stay, I made excursions to the sources of the
Tohilla and Soane, and up to the summit of Rajmeergurh Hill,
which is one of the highest points of the Mekul range, East of
Umerkuntuk.

The plateau of Umerkuntuk afforded me a favorable opportuni-
ty of making physical and meteorological experiments, and though
the absolute elevation is not very considerable (3,290 to 3,330 Eng-
lish feet,) the data obtained for the decrease of the temperature
of the air, and of the ground, &c., may not prove without some in-
terest for the physical geography of Central India, when compared
with similar data obtained in the Himalayas, the Neilgherries, and
Cossyah Hills, &c.

I left Umerkuntuk on the 26th January, and proceeded wd Pain-
dra, Moonda, and Amukpore to Sohagpore; thence ina Northerly
direction, through Kanrodi and Ramnuggur, crossing the Soane
River twice, to Rewah, where I arrived on the 11th of February.

By Mungown and Sohagi, I went to Allahabad, and thence along
the Grand Trunk Road to Agra, where I arrived on the 21st of Fe-
bruary.

At Agra the whole of the collections sent down last year from
the Himalayas, and those made during this cold season, were care-
fully re-packed for the purpose of being sent to England.

I left Agra on the 8th of March, and travelled ved Delhi to Sa-
harunpore, and thence to Nahun, where I was engaged, for several

mag xx. 0. §. VOL. V. N. S.

334 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 8, NEW SERIES,

days, examining the geological structure of the Sewalik range. I
obtained many interesting tertiary fossils from various localities in
the Sewaliks.

I marched through Dugshaie to Simla, where I arrived on the
25th of March.

The observations made in the outer ranges of the Himalayas, and
in various localities in the environs of Simla, will be reserved for
the next Report, treating of the Himalayas,

METEOROLOGY.
Besides the daily registry of dry and wet bulb thermometers and

barometers, whilst on the march, a longer
Temperature of the

series of observations were made at Saugor,
air.

Bermhan, Jubbulpore and Umerkuntuk ; at
Sohagpore, Allahabad, Agra andSimla. These observations seem
to lead to the following conclusions.

The minimum temperature of the air was very regularly observ-
ed to set in just before sun-rise, but there

Minimum tempera- as never to be observed a second depres-

ture of the air. ‘ i :
sion of temperature immediately after sun-

rise, as we had observed in the Indian Seas in October 1854.

The increase of temperature from sun-rise up to 11 o’clock a. mu.
is especially rapid between the hours of 8 and 9.4.m. IToften no-
ticed an increase of temperature of 4 to 5 degrees centigrade be-
tween these two hours. i

The total increase from sun-rise to 11 o’clock was, at Saugor,
(15th to 19th December,) as much as 28 degrees centigrade ; at
Jubbulpore it was from 12 to 15 degrees; but at Umerkuntuk
(20th to 26th January) the difference between sun-rise and 11
o’clock a. m. was only 84 to 9 degrees centigrace. Between 11
A.M. and 4 P. M., the variation of temperature was generally not
very great—not more than 3 or 4 degrees centigrade; but the de-
crease of temperature between 4 Pp. m. and 7 P. M. was very rapid:

East of Jubbulpore, at Ramgurh, and as far as Umerkuntuk the
minimum temperature of the day was very near the freezing point;
but I never observed a temperature lower than 32 degrees Fahren-
heit, or 0 degrees centigrade.

ocr.—MAR. 1858-59.] Progress of the Magnetic Survey. 835

There was quite regularly a hoar-frost setting in, even if the mi-
nimum temperature of the air was 2 or 8 degrees above the freez-
ing point. The hoar-frost was produced by the great radiation of
the leaves and grass during the serene nights.

At Umerkuntunk itself I observed some remarkable irregulari-
: ties of temperature. Considering the cold
hagas are temperatures experienced in the stations
perature at Umerkun-
tuk. of the Nerbudda valley, Westward of Umer-
kuntuk, if might be expected to find the minimum temperature
of the night at Umerkuntuk below zero; but on the contrary the
minimum temperature of the air on the plateau, at the end of
January, was constantly 9 degrees and even 12 degrees centi-
grade above. the freezing point. It was therefore considerably
warmer than the minimum of the valleys at the foot of the plateau.
Besides the minimum does not take place just before sun-rise but
one, or one-and-a-half hour earlier. The reason of this phenome-
non is that during the night, the cold air, which is heavier, flows
down along the sides of the hills, and accumulates at the bottom
of the valleys, whilst at the top of the small plateau itself,
the cold air, which is locally formed by the radiation of leaves and
grass, is immediately carried away by the winds into the surround-
ing atmosphere and re-placed by somewhat warmer air.

During the day-time the temperature at the top of Umerkuntuk,
is, of course, much lower than in the valleys below. During my
stay there the highest observed temperature was 75 degrees Fah-
renheit, exceeding by 5 degrees Fahrenheit the maximum tempera-
ture of all the other days.

There was only one day quite free of clouds during my stay at
Umerkuntuk. Generally, soon after 80’clock a. M., quantities of
cirri dispersed all over the sky, and mitigated the full power of
the sun’s rays: they only dissolved themselves partially in the
evening before sun-set, some portions remaining even during the
night.

I had some rain on the 29th and 30th of January, it appeared
to have extended over a large area, and greatly affected the tem-
perature of the air, cooling it down so, that the maximum tem-
perature was lowered more than 5 degrees.

3:36 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

From Jubbulpore up to Umerkuntuk, a strong South-West or

Winds. South wind set in very regularly, between
9 and 10 a. m,, and continued till 5 or 5-30 Pp. mu. The nights were
constantly calm. At Umerkuntuk the wind blew from the same
direction, but it was quite calm during the rain falls. I had not
the least wind on the journey from Paindra to Rewah, where
again a South-West wind began.

When comparing my meteorological observations with those
made during the cold season of 1854-55 by my brothers and my-
self, in Southern parts of India, the Deccan, Mysore, &c., I find
that in Southern India there is, at equal elevations never so cold
a temperature as I observed this season in Central India, in the
valley of the Nerbudda, &c.

In connexion with this fact, it deserves mention, that in summer

the reverse takes place, and that the maximum heat of Central

India, at equal elevations, generally exceeds somewhat that of
Southern India.

Together with the observations of the dry and wet bulb thermo-
Barometrical obser. meters, the readings of the barometer were
vations. registered, and I have been able to deter-
mine the heights of all important places on the route followed.
Some stations were determined both by the barometer and the boil-
ing point thermometer, which by its minute and accurate divisions
(each degree of Celsius is divided into 100 parts) and having been
carefully compared at different heights with barometers, may be con-
sidered as giving equally accurate results with the barometer itself.
On the journey from Sohagpore to Rewah, I used only this instru-
ment, as the barometer was leaking very much, and some air had
introduced itself into it.

The minimum of barometric pressure at about 4 P. m. occurred
on the small plateau of Umerkuntuk, very nearly at the same
time as in the lower valleys and plains of Hindoostan, and the

daily variation of the barometer seems to be very nearly the same:

at Umerkuntuk as it is in the plains.
The temperature of the earth, at different depths, was determin-
Temperature of the ed by the long thermometer (one metre in
earth. length.) For greater depths I used a ther-

ectT—MAR. 1858-59.] Progress of the Magnetic Survey. 337

mometer, the bulb of which was made extremely insensible. The
observations of the temperature of the ground at Umerkuntuk,
compared with similar data around the base of the hill, afford
some curious examples of the cooling influences which extensive
jungles have upon the temperatue of the ground. At Umerkun-
tuk the temperature was, 22nd to 25th January.

At one metre below the surface....21° 2’ Centigrade.

E fe) i,
, two metres, ni tS cle ea Ans) Bs

At Paindra, more than 1,000 feet lower than Umerkuntuk, the
temperature was, 27th to 29th of January—
At one metre below the surface....20° 0' Centigrade.
;, two metres, BS, ec SURE 21.0 Ole a

I observed similar differences at Ramgurh, and at some other
stations West and North of Umerkuntuk, which are ail 1,000
to 1,300 feet lower than the plateau.

This anomalous phenomenon seems to be due to the following
causes.

The plateau of Umerkuntuk itself has comparatively little jun-
gle, and the ground is exposed freely to the action of the sun.
Round the base of Umerkuntuk, and especially on the slops of the
hills, very thick and extensive jungles prevail, which keep the
ground moist and cool, as they prevent the heating of the surface
by the powerful tropical sun.

The meteorological observations which I had occasion to make
in many parts of the jungles of Central
ee ike India, as well as those of my brother Her-
ground. mann in Assam, and of my brother Adolphe
in the Godavery jungles, offer many strik-
ing examples of the cooling influence which extensive jungles
exercise in India on the temperature of the ground, as well as on
the atmosphere.

The anomalous cooling of the ground by jungles is still more
apparent than the difference of temperature in the air of jungles
when compared with open Districts, since the differences in the
temperature of the air are much more equalized by winds and at-
mospheric currents.

338 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 8, NEW SERIEs.

At Agra I was enabled, through the kind assistance of Colonel
J. T. Boileau, the Chief Engineer, to ascertain the temperature of
the earth nearly 50 feet below the surface. The insensible ther-
mometer was sunk in a small shaft dug for the purpose, and
remained buried there for a fortnight before it was taken up. The
temperature was, from the 22nd of February to the 4th of March,
28° 3’ centigrade, equal to 82° 9’ Fahrenheit. The temperature
thus observed accords, within one degree, with the temperature of
the earth at about 60 feet below the surface, ascertained at Be-
nares in April 1855. The temperature at one metre below the
surface at Agra was only 25 degrees centigrade, as the upper strata
had been cooled by the influence of the past cold season.

The temperature of the wells at Agra was always a little lower
Wells colder than *#a” that of the ground, thus directly as-
the temperature of the certained. As an average of several wells
punts from which a large quantity of water was
constantly drawn for domestic purposes and irrigation, I obtained

27° 6' to 27° 8’ centigrade.

The temperature of water in wells, which are but little used, is
considerably cooler than that of wells from which water is con-
stantly drawn, as the cold air which sinks down during the night
into the wells, cools stagnant water much more than it can do the
water of wells which is constantly removed.

As a curious phenomenon connected with Physical Geography,
I finally beg to mention the way in which
the jungles are distributed in Central In-
dia.

The base and slope of the hills, and the valleys between them,
are generally covered with very dense and extensive jungles, but
the summit of the flat hills and small plateau which occur in
many localities, are nearly always quite bare and destitute of trees
and jungly vegetation. I had been informed by my brothers, that
this very curious phenomenon occurs all along the Southern parts
of the Cossyah and Jynteah Hills, and on the i plateau of the
Neilgherries.

Distribution of jun-
gles in Central India.

This phenomenon seems to be due, in part, to the very strong

oct—MAR. 1858-59.| Progress of the Magnetic Survey. 339

winds which sweep over those isolated plateau and which eyvi-
dently must be very injurious to jungle vegetation. Another im-
portant cause is, the want of moisture in these isolated plateau.

The geological results obtained in the journey from Agra to

: Saugor will be contained in the Report

Geology: which my brother Adolphe will have the

honor to submit to Government; I shall therefore content myself

by mentioning some geological results to which the investigation
of the country visited by me alone seem to lead.

In the valley of the Nerbudda some interesting deposits of fossil
remains occur. The larger deposits are
found from Bermhan up to Mundlah, the
bones are found in a brown alluvial clay,

Fossil remains in the
valley of the Nerbudda.

and belong to species of elephants, rhinoceros, hippopotam1, buffa-
loes, &c. I also found with the bones well preserved fossil shells
of Unio, Melania, and other fresh-water species. A comparison
of these fossil shells with those now living in the Nerbudda and
in various tanks of Central India, of which I collected a large
number, will assist in determining the geological age of the fossili-
ferous deposits of the Nerbudda valley.

From Jubbulpore to Umerkuntuk the prevailing rock is black
trap, identical with the trap of the Deccan.

I found in several localities the thin lacustrine deposit, which
reposes on trap, and is again overlayed by other layers of trap.
In some places it was full of fossil fresh-water shells of Physa,
Unio, Melania, &c.

The principal fossiliferous localities which I visited were Phool
Saugor, about 9 miles west of Mundlah, Bellasur, and Bonder.

The plateau of Umerkuntuk is one of the culminating points
of Central India, and this place, and the hills in its neighbourhood,
form the importent water-shed of Central India, between the Rivers
Nerbudda, Soane, Tohilla, and Mahanuddy. The plateau of
Umerkuntuk is not very large—it is nearly circular, and surround-
ed by hills, which are only 50 to 60 English feet higher. The
slopes are very steep to the East and South, whilst they are much
more gentle to the West and North. The hills run from Umer-

340 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 8, NEW SERIEs.

kuntuk first in a Northerly direction, and then turn to the North-
West. They are generally known by the inhabitants under the
name of Mokul. The highest point of this range will probably
be Rajmeergurh, near Umerkuntuk, which it exceeds by about
500 English feet—the latter place itself is about 3,290 to 3,330
English feet.

The Nerbudda alone rises on the plateau of Umerkuntuk. It

has its origin in a tank or pool, surrounded
Origin of the Ner-

badds in the most irregular way, with solid ma-

sonry and fine temples :—one of the oldest
of them seems to me to be a Jain (Boodhist) temple. The tank is
fed_by subterranean springs, and the origin of the Nerbudda is
thus precisely similar to that of the Kistna, on the plateau of
Mahableshwur in the Deccan.

I determined the quantity of water at the spot where the Ner-
budda flows out of the tank, and found it to be, on the 28rd of
January, only two French litres per second. But very soon this
little rivulet is met by the waters of two other springs, and only a
few miles from its source it is joined by the waters of two more
springs, and forms a beautiful cataract of about 70 English feet.

The Soane has not its rise at Umerkuntuk, but to the East of
the hill, and about 1,200 feet lower than the Nerbudda in an open
partially cultivated spot, from a tank called Soane Budder, 8 miles
Kast of Paindra, and forms a aPy marshy -place over a consi-
derable extent.

The Tohilla rises about 5 miles North of the Nerbudda, ata
place called Tohaletsur, nearly in one level with the Nerbudda.

The Yrap, a small river which flows to the South, and joins the
Mahanuddy, has its origin near Paindra, from several large tanks,
forming at first a swampy ground. Its source is situated about 5
or 6 miles from that of the Soane, and its water-shed is not formed
by a distinct ridge, but only by a slight rising of the ground.

On the journey from Sohagpore through Rewah to Allahabad,
I took the opportunity ef carrying a barometric and geological sec-
tion over the plateau of Bundlekund.

The plateau, or rather the succession of plateau, consists of a

em nex. 1858-59.) Report of the Magnetic Survey. 341

reddish and white sandstone, in large banks, which are generally
horizontal—it reposes upon limestone and shales of blue and grey
colors, which very often are a little more inclined than the sand-
stone, and the shales are quite identical with similar rocks which
I observed in the Gwalior Territory. The plateau of Bundle-
kund terminates abruptly about 40 miles South of Allahabad,
where the sandy deposits of the plain of Hindoostan begin.

Report on the Proceedings of the Magnetic Survey, from January
to May 1856. By HERMANN SCHLAGINTWEIT.

on

RovutEs.

AFTER having completed the observations at Gowahatty, detail-
ed in the last pages of the Report No. JII., 1 left Gowahatty De-
cember 21st, and proceeded up the Brahmapootra to Mungeldie ;
from there to Oodulgoorie on the Frontier of Assam and Bhootan.

I found occasion to proceed from this place into the country of
the Kampo-Bhootans, who occupy the Himalayas East of Bhootan
Proper ; while my Assistant, Mr. Adams, and the Draftsman, Ab-
dool, who accompanied me as far as Oodulgoorie, went to the coal
mines and salt wells in the Baree Dihing.

I made arrangements, immediately after my arrival at Oodulgoo-
rie, with a former Rajah of Towang-Chang-To, who was found
willing to be my guide as far as Nurigoon, which is about one-
third of the breadth of the Himalayas.

I staid four days at Nurigoon, and had occasion to make, besides
magnetic observations, (the instruments had been, till used, care-
fully concealed in cotton bags) an excursion on the Zinghyla (Deer
Mountains) for surveying the different valleys and for making some
drawings.
for, xx..0, 8. Vol..v. N.S.

842 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

Besides I got here very precious information (not from the in-
habitants but from traders coming down from Thibet) about the
routes to Lowany, only 4 marches distant, and to Lhassa.

A very intelligent Bhooteea from Tussisoodun constructed even
a map with vertical Section of the different places, in the Chinese
style, of the route from Nurigoon* to Lhassa, which agreed very
well with the verbal informations I received from the Thibetans.

Nurigoon is on a rock at the left side of the Riju, the houses on
an average between 3,200 to 3,500 feet high, and offered many
interesting features for comparison with the Western Himalayas.

The valleys are here much more gradually rising than in the
Westen parts of the Himalayas; at the same time the height of
the mountains is less great, and the inclinations less steep. The
vegetation has the luxuriant character peculiar to the Eastern —
Himalayas, though the quantity of rain is much less than in the
lower ranges of the Naga, Khossia and Garrow Hills, on the left
side of the valley of the Brahmapootra.

Yaks come down from Thibet as far as Nurigoon in the cold
season and chiefly near the end of it, when the trade to the plains
is greatest ; but also wild elephants are very frequent in the val-
ley of the Dhunsiri and the Riju, and are occasionally met with
even a little above Nurigoon. Such coincidences of lower and
upper limits of animals, so different in reference to their zones
of altitude, may perhaps be not without interest in explaining the
variety of fossil remains in places formerly in similar local and
climatological conditions. ;

I left Nurigoon January 13th, and went to Tezpore, from there
to Debrooghur in Upper Assam, where, besides my own obserya-
tions, I had occasion to get many precious informations, particu-
larly by Colonel Hannay, about geological objects.

From Debrooghur I descended the Brahmapootra and went by
Goalpara, Serajgunge, Koolna, and through the Sunderbunds to.
Calcutta.

* N. B.—This map is added to the drawings, Portfolio the 6th, sent
from Calcutta to the Hon’ble the Court of Directors.

OCT.—MAR. 1858-59.|] Report of the Magnetic Survey. 3438

After a stay of twenty-nine days I proceeded by Cawnpore, Agra
and Umballa to Simla, visiting Lucknow in Oude and Meerut
for magnetic observations.

IT arrived at Simla on the 24th. From here the Eastern part,
Ladak, and the ranges of this part of the Himalaya and the Kuen-
luen, will be examined.

Two of the four Sikhim men I had with me in Sikhim and As-
sam, the Lepcha Chezy and the Bhootea Dublong, are to make
during this summer some observations in Sikhim, furnished with
some thermometers, a boiling thermometer, and a prismatic com-
pass.

Mr. Montairo, attached to my Establishment for collections left
Darjeeling August 23rd, and went to Calcutta, where he received
and prepared, for being sent to Europe, the objects of collections
sent down to him from the Khossia Hills and Assam. He arrived
at Simla May 20th. He is going wd Kangra to Kashmere.

MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS.

Magnetic observations have been made at the following Stations :—
Assam and Delta of the Ganges.

1. Ocdulgoorte, on the Bhootan Frontier—December 30th and
dist, 1855, January 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th, 1856. Declination, ho-
rizontal intensity, vertical intensity, and a set of observations for
ascertaining the daily variations, longitude and latitude.

2. Nurigoon, in Bhootan—January 9th, 10th and 12th. De-
clination, horizontal and vertical intensity, longitude and latitude.

3. Tezpore, on the right shore of the Brahmapootra—January
24th, 25th and 28th. Declination, horizontal and vertical force,
longitude and latitude.

4, Debrooghur, Upper Assam—February 5th and 6th. Deecli-
nation, horizontal and vertical intensity, longitude and latitude.

Gowahatty—see preceding Report.

5. Serajgunge, on the right shore of the Kenur River—Febru-
ary 17th. Vertical intensity.

6. Dacca—February 21st. Vertical intensity.

7. Koolna, on the right shore of the Bhogrup—February 24th
Declination, vertical force, longitude and latitude.

344 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

8. Calcutta, Botanical Garden, March 28rd and 24th. Deecli-
nation, horizontal and vertical intensity, longitude and latitude.

B. Plans of the Ganges in Hindoostan.

9. Benares—April 3rd and 4th. Declination, horizontal and
vertical intensity, longitude and latitude.

10. Lucknow, Oude—April 8th and 9th. Declination, hori-
zontal and vertical intensity, longitude and latitude.

11. Agra—April 15th. Declination.

12. Meerut—April 18th. Declination.

The magnetic elements were therefore determined from between
latitude 22' to 27° 5’ N. in the valley of the Brahmapootra, and to
29° in the plains of the Ganges, including a difference to longi-
tude of 16° 5 from 95¢ to 78° 5’ Kast of Greenwich.

One of the general results was, that the magnetic force, parti-
cularly the dip, has been found much greater the general formule
made it expect.

4.—In the valley of the Brahmapootra, delta of the Ganges,
the dip was found—

r) D
At Debrooghur,...... Reon NPlici cocrtnt 38 29 175
PaTMEZ POLES across: seb eet «stele ON pam e
pp COGUIZOOTIC NY si. 5 cso vets: os Ou” ST ae
1, Nurigoon (Bhootan,)::. >... of TE%69
557 GOWADALCY. <2 os co 2-0 « Sion 8 Otd 35 18 73
gp) DCTAJ SURGE. 22 ".),/. och gee aieiae os Seema hoe
BWDaccasate es yes old reenter ca 31.080
sy MOOI yi lenses atelceslel lene tetera: 29 18 49

ve Calewttay, h. 2002S eee nS ae eee
B.—In the plains of Hindoostan it was—

At, Bonarest..2 5. cov ckee se oees ceo

LPT CITIONV GEG te te intriecivi core: os carne: ccos's Bb Ba 20

A similar result has been found by my brothers for the parts of
corresponding latitude in the North-West Provinces and in Cen-
tral India.

OCT.—MAR. 1858-59.] Report of the Magnetic Survey. 3465

The Southern part of India seems to agree better with our re-
sults of calculation.

The declination was not found as irregularly altered in any of
the places examined, as formerly in Cheerapoonjee; though the
gite rocks in the valley of the Brahmapootra on both sides of
the river are identic with the rock of the Khossia and the Gar-
row Hills along the left edge of the Brahmapootra valley, vary
different from the geological situation of the Himalayas along the
right side of the valley. Some of these rocks in the valley contain,
as well as the Northern parts of the Khossia Hills, a very great
amount of magnetic iron (in the rocks near Doobree Colonel Han-
nay recently has found it particularly predominant); but the ac-
tion on the * * is confined to the place itself, and becomes at
a very small distance untraceable.

The declination in the territory examined was East, being great-
est at Koolna and decreasing East and West of it. In Assam, as
well as in Meerut, a small increase is caused by the difference in
latitude. In Nurigoon, as in the Himalayas in general, the decli-
nation is decidedly greater than the difference of latitude would
make us expect.*

A.—The declination was found in the valley of the Brahmapoo-
tra and Delta of the Ganges—

SME DTOOS DUT |. 9) a nje «0s 2 ce ees Noe SE
REUCZDOTE.5 00. cs. OSE ces hast oni N. 1 59 E.
POO OI OOTIC. 0... eee ec cot Neo owe:
», Nurigoon (Bhootan,)......... N. 4 5 E.
PPRGEOMVADALLY,.... 0c cidisess sluts selon N. 1 41 E.
MOO BAL he tciac is wi'enale b wihidieie icine N. 2°55 E.
a male matay ot ois 0's 0: aha vairccee “comet % N. 2°24 E.
B.—In the plains of Hindoostan—
Menta CTUARC Sept sy 4)% 4 vt) cer sim saite wise Na Lele Jee
PPRIURIG IGT Lata aired us«isiim re kro Neel di? EB:

* Compare the observations of my brothers in Gurhwal and Kumaon
and my observations in Sikhim, Report III. page 6 and Report VI.

346 — Setentific Intelligence. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

PAG Gora Gh Wetted cc. hal ahete reals oe oN. CL
ce MIMIC CTUL RA Er een Sil en eng oke na, N. 41 (285

METEOROLOGY.

In Assam the variations of the temperature of the Brahmapoo-
tra, observed from Debrooghur to its ramifications in the Delta,
was a particularly interesting object. I also had occasion to make,
besides the regular observations on temperature, moisture and
pressure of the air, several experiments on the thermic influence
of surfaces covered with grass and tree jungle; besides Dr. Sim-
mons, at Gowahatty, kindly assisted me by making, during my
absence, observations on the ozone contained in the air, with
papers identic with those used by myself.

These observations are continued for the next year. The fol-
lowing Table contains* the temperature found in the Brahmapoo-
tra in its ramification and in the Delta from Debrooghur to Cal-
cutta. ‘The daily variations, even in Upper Assam, scarcely ex-
ceeded O. 5 degrees C.—O. 9 degrees F., but occasionally. differ-
ences of 2 to 3 degrees I’. are found even in the very current
caused in some cases by differences of depth, in others by lateral
rivers discharging themselves in the Brahmapootra.

I choose for the Table the temperature of the rivers at 11 a. m.,
this hour representing very nearly the * * of the twenty-four
hours for the water; for the temperature of the air for the same
reason the temperature at 9 A. m. was selected. Ezrrors of the zero
points of the Thermometers, Nos. 29, 70 and 88 are corrected.}

* A second series during the hot season is made now by my Assistant,
Mr. Adams, on his way down from Sudiya.

{ For the Hooghly, at Calcutta, I was furnished with observations on
the monthly variations of the temperature at high and low water by the
kind assistance of Mr. Schiller. The observations are now continued by
Dr. Thomson.

OCT.—MAR. 1858-59.| Report of the Magnetic Survey. 347

a mM | 2 ~
| By ler el a
¢ . 3 frm ke
Names of Names of the nearest | 5 © ett (a0e =
Rivers. Places. ay C2) | ey 2) eo =
(ab) ~~ oO
C4 6 & =a

eR EE EES | oS eS ene SE SS RE eee | ee

Centigrade. |Centigrade.
O°

t] (e} f
Brahmapootra,. .|At Debrooghur.. 6) Von6 1274
if. Above Dikhoo Mookh, 8 15 7 L25Gny,
i Above Dhunsiri Mook, . eno 16 2 HS) 7h
rat MC ZWONCH ce ssi. oe 10 afi 16 2
3! At the mouth of the
eum). sabe ale ey ae ell 17 2 15 8
‘ Gowahatty i) 0...... 13 17) 14 6
a Above Doobree....... 14 Ligies 17 0
Soli Below Doobree........, 15 18 4 19 3
en OWT. coisietolieieielaie url 19 4 18 6
" PRAIEE DORE oe). we. 6's LN NO 73 IS)
ZEON O OMA yo: 50s SerayOMMoess il sal obs « 18 19 6 20 7
i POMC OAC a oe oles | lh LO) iI) a 22 1
W@erpmana.......|/SeCNPore...... 0.2... AN PAD Wao IL 7
Bargunga...... I@alevohannts ee 83.2 al 22. 8 22 8
WDarmidaty. 7) ;)s, s:\(ULTISSOle. .).y.)<-16-0s'> viel) 22) | QE 6 218
Charcollice......(bidaboorea,...........| 23 DieG 21 4
Pascurey. 0. Koolna.. : Era ve eit Aaa te D2) 20 5
Sepedlit.. ... . || Near Grant No. 214
Sunderbunds....... 25 23 5 23 4
Terra Banka.....|Near Grant No. 155
Sunderbunds. | Q6R\ 23S 25 5
Moree Gunga...|Kast of Saugor Island. 27 | 24 6 26 1

The variation of the temperature of the air is 26° 1’, 12° 6/,
13° 2’, C., of the water 24° 6’, 15° 6', 9° C.

In the Dhunsiri and in the Riju, the difference between the
temperature of the Dhunsiri neat Orang in the valley of Assam
and of the Riju, a lateral affluence of the Dhunsiri at Nurigoon,
was Dhunsiri, 18° 1’

DeSHH A : fe A) NN LE Op

During my journey from Calcutta to Umballa, I tried, besides,
several times, some experiments to measure the heating power of
the sun’s rays under various conditions.

T used for a complete observation the following thermometers :—

Up
2. Dry and wet bulb for temperature and moisture of the air.

348 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 8, NEw SERIES.

3. A thermometer exposed to the sun with white bulb. It had
no brass scale, and a very thin capillary tube for the mercury, sur-
rounded by a larger glass tube, the ordinary from of thermometers
on the Continent. This has the advantage, that the instrument
ee eee with, «nearly WO CoOLmEeemLeMperature ot
the mercury in the #68) 4" *°°* -* *nndissmepeaupy the *
* * influence of appendices.) But even in this shape a thermo-
meter offers no absolute measure for insolation, the whiteness of
the glass forming the bulb, its color and transparency modifies
very appreciably the apparent action of the sun on. different in-
struments.*

4, A thermometer of a similar construction, with blackened
bulb.

5. A Kew standard thermometer, with thick glass tube and a
division being in the glass stem. It had its bulb blackened, and
also half of the mantle of the cylinder behind the division. This,
as well as the following, was placed ona large surface of black
wood, which getting heated all round, very nearly as much as the
thermometer itself, prevents it from irregular loss of heat towards
objects of different temperature in its vicinity; for instance the
presence of grass or gravel, &c., would otherwise affect the height
of the thermometer. It may be considered as a good proof of the
comparability of the thermometers in such an arrangement, that
the Kew standard and the following thermometer, No. 6, stood

very nearly alike.

6. A boiling thermometer, every degree divided in 5, the
mercury begins to reach the divided scale only at 78 degrees C.
being intercepted by a second*enlargement of the bulb. Bulb
blackened. The mercury contained in the capillary tube being
here only a very small part of the mercury under the black stra-
tum, and being protected besides by a second outer glass cylinder
against loss of heat, I found this instrument the best for these ex-
periments as long as the insolation is hot enough to keep it on the

* For relative determinations for distance, for raising the annual and
daily variations, careful observations with any thermometer can be
very useful.

OCcT.—MAR. 1858-59. | Report of the Magnetic Survey. 349

divided part. Besides the ;4,5 of the degree being read with per-
fect accuracy, it showed very rapidly even the minutest changes in
the atmospheric conditions.

7. The surface of the ground. The thermometer was laying in
the reddish sand forming the general deposit in the plains of Hin-
doostan. It was during the first experiments covered with a
stratum of the sandy soil about 1 centimetre thick, but in the ex-
periments at Umballa, a little hole was filled with mercury and
this covered with the stratum of the soil. This arrangement made,
that the thermometer was, through the medium of mercury, in a
much more intimate contact with the particles of the soil, the tem-
perature of which it is to indicate.

8 and 9. Metals exposed to a tropical sun are felt remarkably
hot when touched, though the conducting power has in this evi-
dently a great part. Their real temperature seemed an interest-
ing object for direct determination. I therefore exposed two metal
vessels, the one was an iron bottle, well screwed and filled with
mereury to two-thirds of its volume; the other was a flat square
copper basin (used generally as an artificial horizon,) it was black-
ened, and about two cubic centimetres of mercury were put upon
it, forming isolated drops. Both were put upon a soft and thick
layer of cotton. For the observation of the copper basin, the
cotton was slightly pressed down at one place, so as to incline the
basin without touching this itself, and to cause the mercury to col-
lect itself in one corner. Then the thermometer was dipped in the
mercury, which it could be expected had assumed the tempera-
ture of the metallic surface with which it was in contact.

The following Table contains the reading of the different ther-
mometers at Umballah ; the correction for index errors are appli-
ed to the reading. The instruments with black bulb, and on black
wool, were read with a telescope from 4 to 5 feet distance, since
any approaching for reading with a magnifier altered very sud-
denly the indications of the thermometer.

wou. XX. 0. S. VOL. V. N. 3.

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OoT.—MAR. 1858-59.| Report of the Magnetic Survey. 851

The haze, during the experiments at Umballa, though generally
accompanying the hot winds, modified the heat, particularly for the
boiling thermometer; also, the small clouds, though very thin, and
not before the sun at the moment of the reading, had caused a sen-
sible depression in the black thermometers on the wool; the other
black bulb, freely suspended, being much less sensible for the rays
of the sun, since the objects against which it radiates change their
temperature but very little (see ““ Surface of Ground,’’) went on
steadily rising.

The great heat of the av lasting till sun-set is very characteristic
for days with hot winds in general; also the surface of the ground
keeps remarkably warm in the first evening hours, though it loses
25 degrees C. during the night.

Notwithstanding this great variation, no particle of dew is depo-
sited in these regions during nearly three months, the wet bulb
thermometer sinking still 10 degrees lower during the night than
the dry one,

The power of the sun’s rays was also determined at Benares and

Cawnpore.

At Benares the boiling point thermometer, in an arrangement
like the one just described, was exposed on the 3rd of April.

It stood at 12H. 30M. .... 78° 15’ Centigrade.
Wote.—Theread- 1 , 5 ,, .2.. 82° 60’

ings are correct-
ed for index er- » 10,, vee. 849 28 ie
rors. ee Peak SY 83 84° 08’ 9

The maximum sees to fall decidedly after 12 (the sun’s power
decreasing less rapidly than the loss of radiation is diminished by
the general increase of the temperature of the air continuing till 2
or 38P.mM.) The maximum on normal days, without clouds, and
with very light wind, seems to be reached pretty regularly at 1h.
10m. to 1h. 20m. vp. m. (See Allyghur.)

At 1h. 29m. the wind at Benares became more violent, about 6°5

metres per second, and was felt very hot. To my surprise the ther-
mometer immediately went down, the thermometer with white bulb

852 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

in the sun also fell, though very little. Evidently the instruments

had gradually surrounded themselves with a stratum of heated air,

corresponding with the temperature of the mercury, which, during

the periods of stronger wind, was removed, and replaced by one
less hot. if

The readings were

AG 1-42 Peo lrtlals acege 82° 60' Centigrade.
Wind increasing very much at 1-44...... P.M.
Thermometer at 1-46 P.M....... cslceve tO ume is

It rose again, in a slight lull, from 1° 53’ to 2° 10’

It stood at 2-10 80° 45'; then the wind setting in again, it gra-
dually sank, and soon (2-35) disappeared below the divided scale.

At Allyghur, April 17th, the day was particularly clear; the
West wind hot, but not very strong. Here I found the highest
temperature I had till now observed, wz. 90° 30' C. or 194° 54' F,*
the time of this maximum, 1-20 Pp. M., coinciding very nearly with
the observation at Benares.

I was enabled to compare my instrument with one used by Mr.
Gubbins,{the bulb of which was protected against lateral radia-
tion, by being enclosed in a double cylinder of glass. The two
instruments agreed, at least for the maximum, better than might
have been expected. The time of the maximum was, naturally,
not so well defined in the one enclosed in the glass tube, as in the
other laying on wool: the former was slow to cold before the
period of its maximum, to warm afterwards. The readings were
on April 3rd—

* Corrected as the following for index error.

+ We are deeply indebted to Mr. and Mrs. Gubbins for the communi-
cation of a series of most accurate meteorological observations, which not
only embraced the ordinary objects of observation, but in which, at the

same time, a great variety of experiments were combined with equal skill
and ingenuity.

OCT.—MAR. 1858-59.] Report of the Magnetic Survey. 353

<1 ll cai Crile Black bulb
Hypsometer | |, o] fag a weet

Nee. n glass cylinders. ree.

Out yan)
12-0. a hea 190 5 126-0
90 13 C. Disturbed by ap- 1271
5. 194 23 F. |proaching too near.

90 30 C.

2 se BNE, a 189 5 128-5

86 10C. :

1-45. , a 188 0 119-0

80 60 C.

| 9-35. : Abe 185 0 122-0

When the hot winds are very viclent, they diminish the power
of insolation very much by the quantity of dust they raise, which
very often, like thick aqueous clouds, completely hides the posi-
tion of the sun, and sometimes even produces a darkness like the
thickest fog. J had occasion to notice a particular coloration of
the sun during dust-storms, which is, I think, quite a regular
phenomenon accompanying them, when the air has reached a cer-
tain degree of untransparency.

In fogs the dise of the sun is red, or at least of a decided red-
dish tint, when sufficiently darkened to be looked at without a
dark glass. In dust-storms the sky has also, as in fogs, a decid-
edly reddish color, which in this case is that of the dust itself, but
the sun’s disc is blue, a phenomenon evidently connected with the
Suspension of solid particles in the air.* J observed this color
best on the 6th of April at Futtehpore. The hot wind lasted from
12-45 to 6-10 Pp. m., and stopped very suddenly after sun-set. The
sun was very much obscured as early as 1. M., and showed
then the blue appearance so decidedly, that it looked like the sun’s
disc seen through a dark-blue glass, the shadow of a thin cylin-

* Asimilar dust-cloud passing perhaps at a small height above the
ground may explain the blue appearance of the sun mentioned in the
Second Edition of Sir John Herschel’s Astronomy.

354 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

der falling on white paper was nevertheless well defined and red-
dish, showing that the illuminated paper had received rays of the
(complementary) bluish color.

The blue color of the sun, though the light was gradually much
diminished, lasted until 5-10 P. m., when the sun had a height
only of about 15 degrees : then the disc soon disappeared entirely
behind the clouds of dust.

The temperature of the air* was corrected for index errors on
the 3rd of April—

Dry. — Wet.
ra) ! ° ,
WoT et whe 38: Oma eoreom
| Digi a ee os 38 HG IG
Ds anaes .... 87 8 19 8 | Direction of the
Bi. couse steels B78, 19 3 ene Wes
very strong, from
An idee (Oly 8 ,. Oy Salto rine sa:
Bae ee MEMES SEY Slag tr foogg TNS) leh
Sik ahihe hu Saar 36 74 ale eon)

The temperature of the air diminished, as occasionally noticed
in the observations above-mentioned, with the increase of the wind
and untransparency of the air.

A coincidence worthy of notice is the sudden cessation of the
wind after sun-set, which took place at every one of my observa-
tions. Generally speaking, it is characteristic of the hot winds;
that in the beginning of the hot season the wind always ceases
very near sun-set, the night is very calm, and towards the morning

an Easterly breeze is not unfrequently felt.

The cause of the hot winds ceasing with sun-set seems to be the
great depression of temperature during the night, coinciding with
the Westerly direction of the wind. In consequence the wind
meets, soon after sunset, with surfaces covered with a stratum of
air cooled by the vicinity of the radiating surface of the ground ;
the hot wind passes over it, and is therefore not felt near the sur-

face.

* A room with tatties was easily kept at 25° to 27°C. in the centre of |

the apartment, the wind being very strong.

o6T.—MAR. 1858-59.|] Report of the Magnetic Survey. 355

It is only during the middle, and towards the end of the hot sea-
son, that the hot winds blow till 2 or 83 o’clock in the morning,
when the rains stop them suddenly.

Also, the hour of the day at which the hot winds commence, is
variable from the beginning to the end of the hot season. In the
first months they begin to blow at 12 or perhaps 1 p. o., then the
period becomes gradually earlier, till a short time before the rains
they begin at 6 or 7 a. m., leaving only a few calm hours in the
very early part of the morning.

The quantity of carbonic acid during the hot winds is very
small. It reached in an experiment at Allygurh*, scarcely ;}5 in
10,000 parts of air, the ordinary quantity being 3°5 to 4 parts in
10,000.

GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

Of the valley of Brahmapootra, a detailed map has been pre-
pared, showing the different soils, with observations on former
levels and beds of the river, and depths from the surface deposits
to the sub-soil. Different coal localities in the Bhootan Hima-
layas, and in the Naga Hills, have been examined and entered in
this map.}

These observations, compared with the examinations of the dif-
ferent soils of the Delta of the Ganges, show that the valley of the
Brahmapootra differs from the Delta in being covered with lacus-
trine deposits, occasionally varied by the coarse gravel brought
down by the Himalayan Rivers on its North-Eastern side.

The course of the actual Brahmapootra, originally flowing in
the bed of the Lohit, (which was the original name used in this
valley,) has not been altered by a sudden change of its bed, but
has gradually shifted itself, the deposits made on the right bank
(where all lacustrine soil is carried away and replaced by the actual
deposits of the river) being very different from the clays on the
left.

* The quantity of air examined was 50,000 cubic centimetres, the in-
crease of weight of all potassium tubes reached was nota full milleo-
gramme.

+ This map, in four sheets, scale four miles to an inch, has been sent
with my manuscripts to the Hon’ble the Court of Directors,

Cavites

In the Himalayas, along the North-Hast side of the Brahmapoo-
tra, the coal is found in small seams of sand-stone alternating with
strata of conglomerates of pebbles (Nageflue,) the pebbles being
remarkably smaller than the deposits of the present rivers.

To these sedimentary rocks succeed, at a short distance from
the banks (much shorter than in the Western Himalayas,) crys-
talline hornblendic rocks, chiefly hornblendic gneiss, with a pecu-
liar linear arrangement of quartz nodules succeeding each other,
when seen, in the proper section, like beads on a string.

The dip of the stratification in the sand-stones and conglome-
rates, which form the outer ranges of the Bhootan Himalayas, is
very well defined by the alteration of the finely grained sand-stones
with the conglomerates.

The dip of the strata is North 30 degrees to 40 degrees West, —

inclination 55 degrees to 65 degrees.

In the crystalline hornblendic rocks, the cleavage, which is well
developed, dips also in the same direction. The mean direction
of this dip was also found North 30 degrees to 35 degrees West,
inclination 55 degrees to 60 degrees.

It is deserving of remark, that this dip of stratification and
cleavage planes are quite analogous to the direction of dip in
Sikhim and the Western Himalayas of Kumaon and Gurhwal. In
all these parts of the Himalayas the dip of the cleavage is chiefly
Northerly, varying in different parts to the East or to the West,

HERMANN SCHLAGINTWEIT.

A Storm at Chicacole.

Mr. Thonhill, Principal Assistant Collector of Ganjam reported
on the 5th August 1858, for the information of Government, that
a slight shock of an earthquake was experienced in Chicacole on
the rd instant at 34 P.M. It was accompanied by a rumbling
sound like thunder and seemed to travel from South to North.

356 Scientifie Intelligence. [ No. 8, NEW SERIES. ,

OcT.—MAR. 1858-59.] Storm at Tranquebar. 357

A Storm at Tranquebar.

Mr. W. M. Cadell, Collector of Tanjore, reported on the 26th
April 1859, for the information of Government as follows :—

“‘ Since the morning of the 23rd instant there has been a very
heavy and unusual fall of rain in this part of the district, accompa-
nied with strong gales from N. E. to H. N. E. As far as my infor-
mation at present goes, the rain would appear to have been general,
but the violence of the wind seems to have been felt less inland
than on the Coast.

“‘ | fear there must have been considerable loss of property and
life at sea; and reports have already reached me of the stranding
of an Arracan Ship and of the wreck of a Dhony at Trimalavas-
sell; also that 2 Brigs (Native) are ashore at Cauverypatam and
2 more at Karical. Part of the keel of a Native vessel was wash-
ed ashore here this morning, and there are several vessels in the
offing with loss of masts, spars, &c. As ‘far as I have yet been
able to ascertain there has happily been no loss of life.

‘“‘ The wind has moderated since yesterday at noon, but the wea-
ther has still a wild and unsettled appearance, and to-day again
it ig very showery accompanied by squalls.

“‘ 1 am afraid there is reason to believe that there will be much
damage to the new embankments and other earthworks which are
being so extensively carried on this season, and I apprehend also
the loss in Salt (the manufacture of which had just come into full
operation) will be considerable. The Government will, I trust, be
assured that no effort will be wanting on my part or on that of my
Subordinates to repair and restore the damages which may prove
to have occurred, and regarding which fuller information will be
submitted hereafter.”

i ceed

Amnexed is a Memo. of the Rain fall.

Tey MS

PTO AEM ees see es OL ot 0
eg ara HORE. 10 3
SoU 2OUMemmne: Fee tees et ae §

Vou, XX, 0. & VOL. Y. N. 8.

858 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

Mr. W. M. Cadell, Collector of Tanjore, reported on the 29th
April 1859, as follows :—

** Itis with much regret I have to state for the further intimation
of Government that the reports which have since reached me shew
that the weather was much more severe in other parts of the dis-
trict than I had represented, and that a hurricane seems to have
prevailed in the neighbourhood of Negapatam which has been at-
tended with the most disastrous consequences both to life and pro-
perty.

“‘ During the height of the hurricane, the British barque “ Mo-
narch” which had sailed for Penang from Negapatam onthe 22d
instant, with 200 coolies on board, came in contact with the Bri-
tish ship “ Ballynceich” bound from Calcutta to Glasgow, and
both ships were so disabled that they immediately came ashore
about 8 miles to the south of Negapatam. The crews of both
vessels were for the most part saved, but one has since died from
the building, where he was lodging in Negapatam having fallen
in. The coolies were, I regret to say, nearly all drowned. In ad-
dition to these vessels, and those mentioned in my letter of the 26th
instant, from 30 to 35 vessels and those chiefly square rigged ones
have been wrecked between this and Calimere, but the crews have,
I believe, nearly all been saved.

“The hurricane seems to have prevailed with the greatest vio-
lence in the latitude of Negapatam, but its foree seems to have di-
minished in proportion as the distance from the sea was more remote.
Many houses and trees have, however, been blown down in all
parts of the district and the rain fall, as far as I can yet jearn
seems nowhere to have been less than from 15 to 20 inches, a
quantity, I believe, altogether unprecedented at this season of the
year.

“« Reports have also reached me that several of the river banks
have again given way, and the communication between Tanjore
and the eastward is again interrupted, the Tappal having in one
place to be brought on a raft.

“ From the discoloured appearance of the sea to a considerable
distance from the shore, I conclude that the rivers are all in full

OOT.—MAR. 1858-59. | Proceedings. 359

fresh, and indeed the water reports which have reached me this
day show that some of them are already so. I fear therefore that
there are grounds for apprehending that many of the new embank-
ments will have given way.

“T have, however, put myself immediately in communication
with Captain Oakes, and immediately the water subsides, every en-
deavour will be made jointly with the Officers of the Department
Public Works to repair the damages which have been sustained,
and to restore the embankments before the regular freshes make

their appearance.”

PROCEEDINGS.

At a Meeting of the Managing Committee of the Mapras Lirtx-
RABY Socrety, and Auailiary of the Royal Asiatic Society, held
at the Club House, on Thnrsday the 14th October 1858, at half-

past 6 o'clock, P. M.

PRESENT.

_ The Hon’ble Walter Elliot, Esq., Chairman.

R. Burgass, Esq. G. F. Fullerton, Esq.
M. Norman, Esq. W. Huddleston, Esq., Secy.

W. C. Maclean, Esq., m. pv.

The Secretary laid before the meeting the usual monthly state-
ment of the Society’s Funds prepared up to the 14th Instant.

Resolved, that the foregoing statement is satisfactory and be passed.

Resolved, that a memorandum of deficient numbers of the Li-
brary set of the Society’s Journal be circulated to Members, with
a request that they will, if possible, aid to complete it.

Resolved, that Dr. Kellie be requested to make efforts to find
or replace the missing volume of the Journal as it breaks the Li-
brary set.

A prospectus for the Publication of “ Monographie des Picides”
having been laid before the Committee, they are of opinion that it

is not desirable to subscribe to the work, the cost of which appears
to be francs 450.

360 Proceedings. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

Resolved, that the names of the additional subscribers to the
Plant Scenery of the World be published in the next number of
the Journal and be communicated to Dr. Cleghorn.

Resolved, that the thanks of the Society be conveyed to Dr.
Balfour for his Index to Articles on Geological subjects published
in the Society’s Journal, which, with the letter accompanying it,
will be made over to the Journal Sub-Committee.

The Secretary’s proposal to publish similar Indexes to Articles
in the Journal on special subjects, such as accounts of partially
known localities in the Presidency, Natural History, Botany,
Mineralogy, Contributions to the History of the country and its
Antiquities, &c., and’ to circulate a prospectus proposing to pub-
lish Collections of the Articles, is reserved for further consider-
ation.

Resolved, that the Honorable Sir C. Rawlinson be informed,
with reference to his letter of the 12th Instant that Volumes from
érd to 6th inclusive of Merivale’s History of the Romans under
the Empire will be included in the list of Books to be ordered
from England by the next mail.

The Committee acknowledge the receipt of a very interesting
Paper by Lieut. R. H. Beddome treating of new species of the

Genus Impatiens, these species being found chiefly on the Anna-
mullay Hills.

Resolved, that the thanks of the Society be conveyed to Lieut.

Beddome, and that the paper be referred for publication to the
Sub-Committee on papers.

At a Meeting of the Managing Committee of the Mapras LirE-
RARY Society, and Aumiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society held
at the Club House, on Thursday the 11th November 1858, at half-
past 6 o'clock, Pp. M.

PRESENT.
The Hon’ble Walter Elliot, Esq., Charman.

The Hon’ble Sir A. Bittleston, M. Norman, Esq.
Kt. Burgass, Esq. G. F, Fullerton, Esq.

OCT.—MAR. 1858-59. | Proceedings. 261

The usual monthly statement of the Society’s Funds, prepared
up to 11th Instant was laid before the Committee.

Resolved, that the foregoing statement is satisfactory and be ap-
proved.

Read letter from Messrs. Allen and Co., dated 9th October 1858,
stating that in consequence of a new Regulation of the P. and O.
S. N. Company, they will be compelled in future to render their
invoices via Marseilles instead of via Southampton.

Resolved, that a reference be made to Mr. Franck for explana-
tion of the new Rule referred to in the letter above alluded to.

At a Meeting of the Managing Committee of the Mapras Lite- -
RARY Society, and Ausmhary of the Royal Asiatic Society, held
at the Club House, on Thursday the 9th December 1858, at half- -
past 6 o'clock, P. M.

PRESENT.
The Hon’ble Walter Elliot, Esq., Chairman.

M. Norman, Esq. G. F. Fullerton, Esq.
Captain G. Winscom.
The usual monthly statement of the Society's Funds prepared
up to 9th Instant was laid before the Committee. :
Resolved, that the foregoing statement is satisfactory and be
passed.

Read a letter from M. Norman, Esq., pointing out that several re-
marks have been inserted (in pencil writing) in Mill’s India in 1858,
and in the Calcutta Review.

Resolved, that measures be adopted for the future preventing of
the evil pointed out in Mr. Norman’s letter.

Read a letter from Messrs. Thacker, Spink and Co., stating that
the Society will gain 5 Rupees per annum by paying for the Cal-
cutta Review in advance, and that back numbers of that publica-
tion can be supplied at reduced prices.

Resolved, that payment in advance for the Calcutta Review be
made to Messrs Thacker, Spink and Co., and that they be request-

362 Proceedings. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

ed to supply such numbers of that work as are required to complete
the Library set.

Read letter from Mr. L. D. Rozario, Assistant Librarian, re-
questing an increase of salary on the grounds of his long service
and large family.

Resolved, that the request of Mr. D’Rozario cannot be complied
with.

Resolved, the Librarian be directed to forward Catalogues and
invitations to join the Society to such gentlemen at the Presidency
as may be supposed likely to become Members.

At a Meeting of the Managing Committee of the Mapras Lits-
RARY SociEty, and Auziliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, held
at the Club House, on Thursday the 13th of January 1859, at
half-past 6 o’clock, Pp. M.

PRESENT.
The Hon’ble Walter Elliot, Esq., Chairman.
M. Norman, Esq. _ W. Huddleston, Esq., Secy..

Captain G. Winscom.

The Secretary laid before the Meeting the usual monthly state-
ment of the Society's Funds prepared up to 13th Instant.

Resolved, that the above statement is satisfactory and be passed.

Read a letter from the Rev. D. Simpson, m. a., Secretary to the
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, requesting that the
Literary Society will have their printing orders executed at the
Press of the Christian Knowledge Society.

Resolved, that as the Society have no cause to complain of the
Printers who at present perform their printing work, and have been
employed for some time past, they are unable to comply with Mr. -
Simpson’s request. |

Read a letter from H. Newill, Esq., forwarding two numbers of
the Practical Mechanics’ Journal containing an article on a method
of cooling the air of Rooms in Tropical climates. |

D

OocT.—MAR. 1858-59. | Proceedings. 363

Resolved, that the thanks of the Meeting be conveyed to Mr.
Newill for his communication, and that the article alluded to be
forwarded to the Sub-Committee of Papers, with a recommendation
that it be re-published in the Society’s Journal.

Resolved, that the thanks of the Meeting be conveyed to Lieut.
Ferguson, Superintendent of the Government Observatory at Bom-
bay, for the copy of Magnetic and Meteorological Observations for
the past year, received with his letter of the 3rd December 1858.

Read letter from Major General Blundell, c. 8., bringing to no-
tice that numerous marginal Remarks have been made in Harvey’s
two years in India.

The Committee observe with regret that the highly objectionable
practice of disfiguring the books of the Society by remarks in
pencil writing has recently been brought to their notice by more
than one gentleman, and they hope that no member will in future
afford ground for such complaints.

A. J. Arbuthnot, Esq., Director of Public Instruction, having
applied for the loan of certain books from the Society’s Library,
for public purposes, it was resolved that so many of the books
applied for as may be available be sent to that gentleman.

The Honorable Mr. Elliot produced a Photographic copy of the
inscriptions on the Iswaran Pagodain the little Fort of Tanjore, a
Roll 28 feet in length, and represents all the inscriptions engrav-
ed on a zone passing completely round the main building. The
zone consists of 99 slabs, each containing nine lines of ancient Ta-
mil characters, the seen pictures of which have been admirably
taken by Captain Tripe, so that every letter can be distinctly read.

Above this zone is a second forming a convex moulding, also
covered with letters which are likewise included in the picture ;
but owing to the form of the stones the lower part of the convex
surface was so entirely thrown into the shade that the letters were
not visible.

The portion that is on the plane surface contains five complete
separate grants, four by Raja Raja Deva Chola and one by Rajen-
dra Chola, relating to subjects of considerable interest.

864 Proceedings. (No. 8, NEW SERIES.

M. Norman, Esq. laid before the Meeting a Galvano plastic
cast of a Santhal’s head ; being the specimen sent out by the Messrs.
Schlagentweit of a set of 250 casts to be published by them, and
which have been already ordered for the Meas Central Museum,
as sanctioned by Government.

At a Meeting of the Managing Committee of the MapRas LitE-
RARY Society, and Auaxthary of the Royal Asiatic Society
held at the Club House, on Thursday the 10th February 1859, at
half-past 6 o'clock, P. M.

PRESENT.

The Honorable Walter Elliot, Esq., Chairman.

W. H. Bayley, Esq. Captain G. Winscom,
H. B. Montgomery, Hsq., M.D. G. F. Fullerton, Esq.
Major W. J. Wilson, W. Hudleston, Esq., Secretary.

The Secretary laid before the Meeting the usual monthly state-
ment prepared up tothe 10th Instant.

Resolved, that the above statement is satisfactory and be passed.
Resolved, that a remittance of £200 be made to Messrs. Allen
and Co. :

Resolved, that the Rev. Mr. Gorton be informed that his request
that books may be supplied to him at Vellore cannot be acceded
to, there being no duplicate copies of works in the Library, and
single copies being insufficient to admit of books being sent to so
distant a station.

Resolved, that the Secretary be requested to endeavour to obtain
copies of Numbers 9 and 32 of the Calcutta Review, to complete
the Library set.

Resolved, that the thanks of the Mecting be conveyed to T.
Oldham, Esq. for Vol. one, Number two of the “ Memoirs of the
Geological Survey of India,” and that he be informed that the

Society will have much pleasure in continuing an interchange of
publications.

ecr—MAR. 1858-59. ] Proseeding?. 8645

Resolved, that Thursday the 3rd of March next, be appointed fot
the Annual General Meeting, to be held in the Strangers’ Room
at the Club, at 6 o’clock P. M., and that a Notice to that effect be
published in the Fort Saint George Gazette.

Resolved, that the thanks of the Meeting be conveyed to the
Philological Society of London, for the presentation of three
volumes of their Transactions for 1854-55, and 56, and that a copy
of the Literary Soctety’s Journal be forwarded to that Institution,
as published, and from the commencement of the new series.

Read a paper received from the Honorable Mr. Elliot, being an
Historical Account of the Fort at Vellore, by Captain Hawkes.

This paper appears to be a copy of a Memorandum prepared in |
1815, and gives a traditional account of the Fort and Temples from
the year A. D. 1365, from the building of the Fort by a Telugu
Chieftain, to its subsequent possession by the Mahrattas, and its
final conquest by the Mahomedans, from whom it passed to the
British, several notes are added by Captain Hawkes, in illustration
of the text.

Referred to the Committee of Papers.

Ata Meeting of the Managing Committee of the Mapras LitE-
RARY Society, and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society
held at the Club House, on Thursday, the 17th March 1859, at
half-past 6 o'clock, P. M.

PRESENT.
Hon’ble Walter Elliot, Esq., Chairman.
W. C. Maclean, Esq., M. D. J. D. Mayne, Esq.
G. F. Fullerton, Esq. W. Hudleston, Esq., Secy.

H. Nelson, Esq.

The Secretary laid before the Meeting the usual Monthly State-
ment of the Society's Funds prepared up to the 17th Instant.

Resolved, that the above Statement is satisfactory and be passed.

Ordered, that the thanks of the Society be conveyed to the Royal
Men. XX. 0. s. VoL. Y. N. 6.

366 Proceedings. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

University of Christiania, Norway, for their contribution to the So-
ciety’s Library, and that the Volumes already published of the new
series of the Journal be forwarded to them, with an intimation that
succeeding Numbers will be supplied as published.

Read letter from Messrs. Schlagintweit communicated by the
Honorable Walter Elliot, Hsq., regarding the specimens of the Gal-
vano Plastic Heads already dispatched for the Government Museum.

Resolved, that application be made to Government for a further
sum of £37-4-0 due for the specimens despatched.

Messrs. Schlagintweit report that 81 specimens of the Ethnogra-
phical Groups of Heads have been dispatched by the Ship “ Bri-
tish Lion,’ which sailed in Decemer last.

These form a portion of 12 distinct groups, and the whole num-

ber to be eventually produced is 272 in 14 groups according to
races.

AGRI-HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Proceedings of a Meeting of the Committee, held on Wednesday,
October 27th, 1858.
PRESENT.
Hon’ble W. Elliot, Esq., President.
Colonel A. McCally. Colonel H. Colbeck.
A. J. Scott, Esq.,m.p. H. B. Montgomery, Esq., mM. v., Secy.
Read proceedings of last Meeting.

The Secretary states that on the suggestion of Colonel Colbeck,
50 varieties of Roses have been sent for, and may be expected by
the end of next month.

The Committee determine that when plants from these become
available, they shall be distributed to Members, and the remainder
sold to the public.

The English seeds recently received being now exhausted, and
the Committee learning that numerous applications have been since
received, itis determined that a copy of the proceedings of this

ocT—MAR. 1858-59.} Proceedings. 367

meeting be forwarded to all persons (Members or others) to whom
seeds have been sent. The Committee would feel much obliged
by a brief report as to the success which has attended the sowing
this year. It is also determined to register applications for seeds
so as to allow of these being distributed immediately on arrival,
early intimation as to the probable requirement of non-subscribers
will enable the Committee to increase the quantity of seeds sent for,
if required.

Three copies of two very beautiful drawings, ‘‘ Carter’s Floral
Illustrations” having been presented by the publisher, the Committee
acknowledge their receipt with thanks. They have also to acknow-
ledge the receipt of Carter’s Autumn Catalogue of Dutch and Cape
flowering Bulls, &c., and the ‘ Manual of Accounts of the Forest
Department,” from Government.

Read letter from J. Vans Agnew, Esq., stating his desire to be
relieved from his duties as a member of the Committee, owing to
his inability to attend at the monthly meetings.

Resolved, that R. D, Parker, Esq. be requested to join the Com-
mittee

The Secretary intimates that a large and valuable collection of
Australian seeds have been presented by Colonel C. A. Browne, who
also forwarded a note from Mr. Muller, Superintendent Botanical
Gardens at Melbourne, in which a consignment of Indian seeds is
requested for the Gardens at Melbourne. The Committee appreci-
ate the desirability of obtaining supplies of seeds from Melbourne
and St. George’s Sound as opportunity offers, and believe that Mr.
George Maxwell of the latter place would probably be disposed to
meet the views.

Resolved, that a system of exchange be established with Dr. Mul-
ler, and that Mr. Maxwell be requested similarly to enter into cor-
respondence with the Secretary of this Society.

. Resolved, that Sir H. Adam Bittleston be requested to become a
Vice Patron of this Society.

The receipt from Major General Johnson of a collection of Or-
chid and other plants is intimated, and the Secretary is directed to
forward a suitable acknowledgment of the same.

368 Proceedings. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

Contributions from Major Lawford, J. D. Sim, Esq., and Major

General Cullen, are similarly recorded, &c., to be acknowledged to
the Donors.

Resolved, that the Conservator of Forests be requested to procure
some packets of Jungle seeds for the use of the gardens and the
purpose of exchange.

Read letter from Captain Harris, Deputy Assistant Commissary
General, Rangoon, requesting seeds and plants for the new gardens
at Rangoon.

Resolved, that the application beatonce complied with. The Com-
mittee determine that to afford the members resident up country an
epportunity of being acquainted with the working of the Society,
printed copies of the proceedings of the monthly meetings be dis-
patched with as little delay as possible to all Members. Also to
enable members of the Committee to arrange for regular attendance ;

the day appointed for the next meeting shall be recorded in each
day’s proceedings.

November 24th, 1858.
PRESENT.
Hon’ble Walter Elliot, Esq., Presedent.

Hon. W. A. Morehead, Esq. Colonel H. Colbeck.
G. S. Hooper, Esq. A. J. Scott, Esq., m. p.

Rh. D. Parker, Esq. H.B. Montgomery, m. p., Secy.
J. D. Sim, Esq.

Read proceedings of last Meeting which are approved..

Read letter from Sir Adam Bittleston. Kt., accepting the office
of Vice Patron of the Society. J.D. Mayne, Esq., was unani-
mously elected a Member of the Society.

Resolved, that Robert Hunter, Esq., be requested tojoin the Com-
mittee, vice Mr. Prendergast, and that John Young, Esq., be simi-
iarly requested, vice Colonel Frederick Cotton about to proceed to,
Europe. |

ocT.—MAR. 1858-59. ] Proceedings. 369

Resolved, that owing to the departure for England of several
members, the Secretary shall bring to the notice of persons recent-
ly arrived in Madras the objects of this Society, which do not seem
to be sufficiently known.

The Secretary intimates that the consignment of Cotton seeds
transmitted by the Cotton Supply Association has been received by
the “‘ Dinah Muloch,” and the leiters relative to it are again consi-
dered. ‘The Correspondence with Government relative to its dis-
posal will appear in the proceedings of the next meeting, at which
it is hoped that the decision of the Government, in this matter,
may be made known.

December 22nd, 1858.
PRESENT.

Sir Adam Bittleston, Knight, Vice Patron.
Hon’ble Walter Elliot, Esq., Presedent.

R. D. Parker, Esq. John Young, Esq.

C. Dale, Esq. Robert Hunter, Esq.

Colonel H. Colbeck. A. J. Scott, Esq., m. p.

Colonel A. McCally. H. B. Montgomery, Esq.,m. v., Secy.

The receipt of the consignment of Roses, ordered some months
since, is notified. These Roses have arrived in pretty good condi-
tion, and will be in due course available for purchase and for dis-
tribution to members of the Society.

Some very beautiful Roses were brought to the notice of the
Committee. These had been grown by Colonel Colbeck at Roya-
pettah, and prove that these flowers may be successfully cultivat-
ed in Madras. The Committee trust, that the new varieties now
obtained, will enable members of the Society, and others, to large-

ly increase and vary their collections.

The Secretary requested the Committee to name two of their
number to examine and audit the accounts of thecurrent year. The
accounts to be henceforward audited annually.

Messrs. John Young and Robert Hunter were requested to act

370 Proceedings. (No. 8, NEW SERIES.
as auditors for the present year, and the books will be submitted
to them on such day as they may appoint.

Members and others indebted to the Society are particularly re-
quested to adjust their accounts. |

The following gentlemen were proposed and unanimously elect-
ed Members of the Society from the Ist proximo.

Henry Newill, Esq., C. S., J. Talboys Wheeler, Esq., Captain
Baldock, George James Shaw, Hsq., M. D.

The Committee resolve that the annual show of Fruits and
Flowers be held on Thursday the 17th of February 1859.

January 12th, 1859.

PRESENT.
Hon’ble W. Elliot, Esq., Presedent.
R. D. Parker, Esq. C. Dale, Esq.
Colonel A. McCally. R. Hunter, Esq.
Colonel H. Colbeck. H.B. Montgomery, Esq., m, D., Secy.

Read Proceedings of last Meeting which are approved.

The Hon’ble Walter Elliot desires that in the public notification
relative to the Exhibition of this year may be included a renewal
of his former proposed prize for the successful cultivation of Bees.

The following Gentlemen were unanimously elected Members
of the Society.

Colonel Silver, Captain S. H. Jones Parry, Capt. G. Proudfoot,
Major HE. W. Boudier, W. Robinson, Esq., W. E. Underwood, Esq.

4. Itis unanimously resolved that a Special Committee com-
posed as follows be appointed as a Committee of Management for
the Exhibition :—

Colonel H. Colbeck, J.T. Maclagan, Esq., H. B. Montgomery,
Esq., Secretary A. H. Society, Mr. R. Brown, Superintendent.

The erection of a new gate at the Cart entrance is sanctioned as
by the estimate at a cost of Rupees 37-5-9.

OCT.—-MAR. 1858-59. ] Proceedings. 371

5. Read the following papers relative to the Cotton Seed recent-
ly received.

REVENUE DEPARTMENT.
No. 1687.

fixtract from the Minutes of Consultation under date the 21st
December 1858.

Read the following letter from the Secretary to the Agri-Horti-
cultural Society.

Here enter 20th November, 1858.

Brings to notice the receipt of a letter from the Cotton Supply
Association of Manchester, placing at the disposal of this Society and —
the Chamber of Commerce two tons of the new Mexican Cotton
Seed, for experimental purposes, in view to increase the supply of
an improved quality of Cotton from India, and requests that the
landing charges upon the seed may be defrayed by Government.
Suggests the best method of distributing the seed, and requests
that the Practical Treatise on the subject (copy of which is here-
with sent) may be re-printed for general distribution.

Para. 1. In this letter, the Secretary to the Agri-Horticultural
Society brings to the notice of Government, the receipt of a supply
of Mexican Cotton seed dispatched by the Executive Committee of
the Cotton Supply Association of Manchester, for experimental pur-
poses in this country; and reports the mode in which the Society
propose to deal with the subject.

2. The Agri-Horticultural Society state that they are not in a
position to initiate any experiments with the seed placed at their
disposal, and they solicit the aid of Government in carrying them
out; suggesting at the same time a method which, in their opinion,
ig calculated to secure the experiments being conducted in a satis-
factory and conclusive manner. The scheme of operations planned
by the Society is described in the 11th and following paragraphs
of their Secretary’s letter, and is to the following effect.

ist. That the landing charges and duty upon the seed be paid
by the Government.

872 = Proceedings. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

2nd. That excepting a small portion to be retained by the So-
ciety, the seed be transferred at Government expense to certain
Collectors in view to experiments being made by themselves on the
part and at the expense of Government; or by private individuals
desirous of making experiments at their own expense.

3rd. That the Treatise on Cotton cultivation accompanying the
above letter, be re-printed and largely distributed over Southern
India, with a view to public attention being directed to the subject
of Cotton growing.

4th. That the Collectors be requested to report in due course |
on the success of the experiments undertaken by them.

5th. That an outline report to be framed by the Society be cir-
culated to the persons to whom seed may be given; and

6th. The intimation of the plan of proceedings be advertized in ~
the Fort St. George Gazette and re-published in all local Gazettes
free of charge.

38. The Government approve the plan thus laid down by the
Agri-Horticultural Society, and will aid them in their efforts te give
effect to the object and intentions of the Home Committee. As re-
quested by the Society, the Government will defray the landing
charges and duty on the seed as soon as the amount is made known
to them, and they will forward a copy of the present correspond-
ence to the Board of Revenue, with instructions to arrange in com-
munication with the Society for the transfer of the seed, and to take
whatever other measures may be necessary for carrying out the
Society’s views in the manner planned by them.

4. Incommunicating their instructions to the Collectors con-
cerned, the Board will be requested to direct the regular submis-
sion of Reports of the success which may have attended the expe-
riments, whether undertaken by themselves or by private individu-
als. The skeleton report which the Society propose to frame will
be a useful aid to the latter, and should be taken advantage of by.
the Board.

5. The Board will also be desired to have the Treatise on Cot-
ton cultivation re-printed at the Mort St. George Gazette, or other
Press, wherever the work may be most conveniently and speedily

oCT.—MAR. 1858-59. | Proceedings. 378

executed, having as many copies struck off as they may think ne-
cessary for distribution.

6. The Government authorize the Secretary of the Society to
publish in the Port St. George Gazette a “‘ Notice’ in the form D.*
accompanying the above letter, and the Collectors will be instruct-
ed through the Board of Revenue, to re-publish the same in the
local Gazettes.

(A true Extract.)
(Signed) W.H. Bayuey.
Actg. Secy. to Government.

With reference to the above the following arrangement is adopt-
ed. Five Barrels of the seed (containing 5 cwt.) will be taken charge
of by the Superintendent of the Gardens, and 35 barrels be atonce _
made over to the Revenue Board. The Chamber of Commerce
are to be invited by letter and the Members of the Society in Mad-
ras, by circular, to send to the Gardens for such quantities of
seed as they may require, which will be furnished on the same con-
ditions as are laid down in the notice, the insertion of which in the
Fort St. George and local Government Gazettes has been sanction-
ed in para 6 of the above.

Proceedings of a Meeting of the Committee held on Wednesday,
February 2nd, 1859.
PRESENT.
Hon’ble Walter Elliot, Esq., President.

G. S. Hooper, Esq. R. Hunter, Esq.
Colonel A. McCally. J. Goolden, Esq.

R. D. Parker, Esq. S. D. Birch, Esq.
Colonel H. Colbeck. A. J. Scott, Esq., M. v.
- C. Dale, Esq. H.B. Montgomery, Esq., u.v., Secy:

The Secretary submits to the Meeting a letter from Colonel H.
Colbeck, and the Memorandum thereon recently circulated by him.

* Not inserted,
May, ss. 0. 8, VoL. Ye Ne ®

374 Proceedings. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.

It was unanimously determined that “ the Annual Exhibition
proposed to be held on the 17th instant, be postponed to the 24th
instant.’’ The Secretary is instructed to advertise this alteration
in all the papers and in the Port St. George Gazette with the least
possible delay. ;

The name of Colonel A. McCally is added to those of Judges
upon Prizes 26, 27,28, 29; and similarly that of Colonel Reid, c.z,
to those of the judges in Class I, and Prizes 26, 27, 28, 29.

In consequence of the indisposition of J. Young, Esq., J. Gool-
den, Esq. is requested to act on the Audit of Accounts for 1858,
and Saturday next is appointed for this purpose.

The receipt of 10 Copies of Drury’s “ Useful Plants’ from Go-
vernment is notified. Also from the Society the 2nd part, Vol. 10,
of the Journal of the ‘‘ Agricultural and Horticultural Society of
India ;”’ and the papers relative to the Imphee and Sorgho seeds
are read—(to be recorded). For the foregoing the Committee ex-
press their thanks.

Some of this Imphee seed has been sown in the Gardens where
it can be seen growing.

The following Gentlemen are declared to have been unanimous-
ly elected Members of the Society.

Louis Forbes, Esq. C. S., Capt. A. S. Moberly, Col. Hamilton,
and H..A. Fletcher, Esq.

<

PHOTOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.
Ata Meeting held on the 4th February at the School of Arts.
PRESENT.

The Hon’ble Mr. Elliot, Col. McCally, Lieut. Cole, Major Mit-
chell, Mr. A. Cole, Drs. Duff and Scott, Mr. Underwood in the
Chair. Col. Hamilton was proposed and elected a Member.

A design for the dies of the Medals proposed to be awarded at
the approaching Exhibition was submitted to the meeting and ap-
proved of with certain modifications. Mr. Elliot exhibited a Ste-
reograph of the Caves of Adjunta, by Capt. Gill, also a Photogra-

OcT.—MAR. 1858-59. | Proceedings. 875

phic print of the large temple in the Tanjore Fort, by Captain
Tripe, which is chiefly remarkable in affording an accurate copy
of the Tamul inscription on the casement, such a copy indeed as
Photography alone could produce, and showing the very high value
of that art, to those interested in antiquarian pursuits. Dr.
Scott exhibited, through the kindness of Capt. Toynbee, of the
Ship “ Gloriana,” a series of Stereoscopic Photographs taken by
Professor Piazzi Smith, of Edinburgh, on the summit of Teneriffe.
It was intimated by the Secretary that the prints for ‘distribution
for the year 1857-58, would shortly be received from England to
members; especially those in the Mofussil are requested to be good
enough to inform him by letters, to whom they would wish them
delivered in Madras, and as many of those for the former year still _
remain unclaimed, it is proposed they would be sold, unless persons
who may be entitled to those come forward to claim them within
the next three months.

N. B.—Since the above was written, most of the prints have
been received, they are sun prints toned with gold, and are much
superior to those of last year which were obtained by Sutton’s de-
velopment process. The subjects are as follows :—

Ist. Portrait of Lord Harris, by Nicholas, printed by Spencer.

2nd. Portrait of the late General Neill, photographed and —
printed by Moore, from an Oil Painting in the possession of Lady
Neill.

rd. A Mahomedan Tomb, by Capt. A. N. Scott, Madras Ar-
tillery, printed by Spencer.

4th. St. Mary’s Church, FortSt. George, photographed by Lieut.
Mitchell, printed by Spencer.

5th. A figure of Ganesha, the Monkey God, photographed by
Spencer.

6th. Stone Car and Temple, by Dr. Neill, printed by Spencer.
_ Owing to the state of the atmosphere in England being unfavor-
able in the Winter season for printing, Mr. Spencer has been un-
able te complete the whole order, only 70 of Nos. 1 and 2 of No.
4 have been received. The remainder however will be received
in course of a few months.

376 Proceedings. [No. 8, NEW SERIES.
At a Meeting held on the 8rd March at the School of Aris.
PRESENT.

Col. McCally in the Chair.

Lieut. Cole. Messrs. Underwood.
Mr. A. Cole. » Mitchell, and Scott.

The Secretary laid before the Meeting the prints for distribu-
tion for 1857-58, lately received from England which met with ge-
neral approval. They are sun prints, toned with gold, and are very
fair specimens of the best style of printing now in general use at
Home. The attention of Members are again called to the fact of
those prints being received, some are still to be received, but it is
hoped they will reach this in the course of a few months. Mean-
while up-country members are requested to make known to the
honorary Secretary the names of the parties to whom they would
wish them to be delivered in Madras.

The subjects are as follows. Stone Car and Temple by Dr. Neill;
a figure of Ganesha, by Dr. Neill; Mahomedan Tomb, by Captain
Scott; St. Mary’s Church, Fort St. George by Lieut. Mitchell;
Portrait of Lord Harris, by Mr. Nicholas, and Portrait of late Ge-
neral Neill, by Mr. Moore of London.

In addition to the above Dr. Scott exhibited 10 Photographs
which had been selected for the Society as samples of the pre-
sent state of the art in Europe. i

Amongst them are three Views, by Fenton (14 by 17) of Welch
scenery, Rock, Wood, and Mountain (and water in instance)
combined. Of these it is sufficient to say they will support the re-
putation of this distinguished Artist. There is also a view of
part of Lichfield Cathedral, by the same Photographer, and which
is an excellent specimen of Architectural Photography.

By Bissin Freres there is a large and a small view of the Mer-

_de-glace, with the highest pinnacle capped in clouds, also a beau-
tiful little view of the ‘“ Chateau Chillon” a lovely bit of water
clouds and distant hills.

Portuil de L’Eglise St. Germain L’Auferrais (which an inscrip-

OCT. —MAR. 1858-59. | Proceedings. OTF

tion on a street lamp tells us is in the ‘‘ Place de Liberte”) forms
the subject of a magnificent print (16 by 20) by Gustave le Gray.

A Print (7 by 11) of a Statue, from the Photographic Institu-
tion Bond St. is a fair specimen of this application of the art. A
slight want of definition in the eyes detracts somewhat from the
merit of what would otherwise be called a fine picture.

But the gem of this small collection is a copy of Ary Scheffer’s
painting “ Faust and Marguerite,” nothing superior to this has
reached Madras. The Photographer is Bingham, and the Publish-
ers Goupil and Co., Paris, and London.

Lieut. J. Mitchell exhibited eight Prints from Collodion Nega-
tives taken with the compound Microscope. The subjects were

The Proboscis of a Blow-fly, Magnified 22 diameters.

A portion of the above 5 40 5.
Trophi of a Wasp a 22 “
Ditto of a smaller Wasp ss 40 Ae
Tarsus of a Grasshopper is 22 i
Parasite of Fowl (an Acarus) ss 50 3

A Butterfly’s Scale, from a small species of Polyammatus, and
a group of differently shaped scales from the same wing. These
were taken with Powell and Lealand’s 1-128- and are magnified
about 550 diameters, or in Opticians’ language above 300,000 times.

The above are promising examples of a branch of Photography,
but little (if at all) attended to in this country.

Lieut. Mitchell said his only difficulty was the want of a surface
on which to focus. Ground glass will not do at all, the abraded
_ surface (acting as an infinity of Prisms) decomposes the light. The

iodized Collodion plate recommended by Mr. Shadbolt is very little
better; he thinks it possible that Rumey’s Light Moderator may
prevent the decomposition of the solar rays upon the focussing
screen, but he has not yet traced it.

Lieut. Mitchell’s mode of operating, he believes, is different from
that usually followed in England ; inasmuch as he uses the whole
microscope and not the object glass only. This he says is advan-
tageous in more ways than one.

378 Proceedings. (No. 8, NEW SERIES,

First, there isa larger field and greater magnifying power.

Secondly, the over correction of the object glass being balanced
by the eye-piece, the visual and active face are coincident; a mat-
ter of the first importance, and

Thirdly, by a very simple and inexpensive arrangement any
Portrait Camera may be adopted to the purpose, without unfitting
it for other work.

Lieut. Cole. brought to the notice of the Meeting a new publi-
cation entitled the Stereoscopic Magazine, of which five numbers
have been already published. Each number contains three Stere-
oscopic pictures with explanatory letter press for each. A book
on Stereoscope at the moderate price of 3s. 6d. is required to view
these; the publication itself is cheap, the price of each number
being only 2s. 6d.; on the whole it seems to be a promising work.

The prints sent by Dr. Neill were laid before the Meeting. A
proposition for framing these beautiful Photographs was discuss-
ed, and it was resolved to frame these and have an estimate made
of what it would cost to frame the Society’s collection.

Read letter from Mr. Butcher offering to do printing work for
Society.

Resolved, to reply that arrangements have been already made
with Dr. Neill to have the printing done in England.

Read letter from Captain Tripe, offering one of his views as

a Negative to be printed for distribution.

Resolved, to ask Capt. Tripe, to make his own selection for the
purpose.

Read letter from Capt. A. N. Scott offering certain Negatives.
Resolved, that he be asked to send proofs.

Read letter from Dr. Pritchard offering to send some prints.

Resolved, that a letter of thanks be addressed to him witha re-
quest to him to send them.

ocT.—MAR. 1858-59.] Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Magnetic Observatory. 379

DAILY MEANS.
Oocroner 1868. Noyeupen 1858. Decempen 1868.
|S EE Oe $3] Tamnmtowermas. _ [ees] Tuznwomsrens, a
eh | g§ |sss 4 |ese 5 |2
8 | S35) Means. 5 - | 3 | 285) Means. ; 3 |22%) Means, % |A
220 ail ad tet a £50 ria) 3 5 £30 sie i os : EI
523 s/2/ 2] 4) 8 |ézs S)a] 8 | 3) 8 ieee yale) ela
AR! Dryj\Wwell = | a] E a fe |AR= Dry Wet Bla] e & |R==\Dry|wet! 3 | 3 E ie =
Inches} 0 | o} 0 | © Inches Inches] 0 | of 0 | o Inches Inches] 0} ©
1 } 29:822}84:9]78'6| 92:6)804) se | ..../Hazy |29°983/80'6) 76:0) §9:2/76-3] sz} 0'018|Clody.|29'973] 76:5] 73:2 1
2 93.1/78'8| 8H : c 79-4) 74-9) 86:0)76:1 76:1|723 in
3| °858]84:4/77'3| 95'1|78'3| es B 78:8|79:6| 8591743 750\710 5
4} °850/84-1/77-8| 93:4)78'9] es x 78°7\74°5| 8£9}77'1 g
6 | *821/81-9)77-2| 861/79 3] N= 80-1]76:6] 8841774 78:1|671 i
6} °746)77-4|70°6| 79'6|75:9| NN 88'9176-1 73:1|66.2| A
7} -662)797|771| 86:2|79-8] x w 79 6| 75:0] 86:8)75-3 74 5} 60°3} 7
8 *792)\81°7|77 6) 90°2) 78:6) 88 = 79:1)73 8} 8£8]74-8 769/713 if
9 87 .6/76'8) 5B 779) 71:0) 840/716) xm 999] 76/8) 70.0} 9
10 | °757)17-4)75'5) 807/743) NN 78°3| 73:3) 859\75'4) nx , |80'019] 74:7) 651 0
V1 | -723/78:9|74'6| 91-3) 75:3] 8.8 w 787|73'5| 846|76.2) Ye | 1
12] *805/81-6|77-8] 90:9]7-4| 8 | .. 767/712] 837|71-7|N ww] ---.|Hazy |20 975) 73:7) 68 3) 2
18) -846/80.2)77-1| 84-9]79 0)? y 823/768] ~ | 2: 952) 78:2) 67 4 3
l4 *838/78 6/763) 85:8) 76 2) N 0 234) do *962)766|73'9) 800/754 *989) 74:3) 65°2) 4
15 | *812)79°4)76-7) 87:1/76.2] NB] -300/Clody.| 30 019) 74:1] 72'6) 79'3)73°2 69 2 15
16 869/78:3)NNB] .... 001) 75:6] 728] 827|72'6 63.5) 18
17 *883/80°3) 77-4) 86'5)78.3) N W 11] do }29:986) 77-4) 741] 83:7|76-1 }691 7
18 | +873]80:0|76-9| 89'6)76:3|NNW| 030) do | -958]78:7|75 0) 84-0)77-1 14
19 | -865|80°4|76:7| 89:2|76:8| | x 5 77:5|73'8| 79'8\751 70.4 i)
20 95|74'9| 87-0) 76'5|N NW 794727 {70:6 8
21 47|71-4| 75-4|70 6) NNW +9) 74-1) 84'1/75°9) 70 6 1
22 6:8) 72'6| 81:9) 78-4) NN Ww 8) 75°7| 84°8)76 6 69-8) 22
23 88:0)76:2] XN +4) 75°9) 85'9/75 67:8 3
prs 7A 8) 872/758) 5 8 w 6) 761) 87°7) 77" 67:8 o4
25 753) 86:3) 775 NE 6) 75:7) 85'8) 77" . 25
a 75:0) 87°38) 74.7) NNW 6) 740] B25 TE 691 26
27 728| 87°4)73-7] |? 80.4)70" 68:9 7
28 }743) 86:9)74:5) NN x 76:2) 7171 80'6)70" 63:8) 38
of 749) 872/751) NXE 75:2) 71-0) 82:0/73 691 29
30 900/763) NNE 80 002) 76 1) 72 6) 33'0)73 68:3} 30)
al 763] 90 3) 77-3) BN x 686 31
A
| 29 842) 79:7] 76.0| 87 5) 76'6) 12071 29:968| 77'8| 74:0] 84:0)75°0 22119 80:018:74-6] 69:2) 81-7) 70°2) EI
= Sum Sum |
= TaxvaRy 1859. Frnnvary 1859.
a
Inches} ©] ©] © | 9 Inches Inches] © | ©} © | © Inches Inches|_ & <
Hi NN BI 80 019) 72/0] 67-1] 81°5)65°7| Nm | -...|Clear.|29'890) 78-4
2 by B +024! 74:0) 688) 84:2) 69d) NB. Hazy | 840/781
8 4] oN +019) 76:0) 70'7) 88:7| 70:0] wx R Clear.| .825]81"2!
4 NNW +026) 74 8} NE do | ‘817/827
6 NNW] NE
6 ss byw] 045) Th NE 826
7 INN W| «-.|Ovest} ‘044) 773) NE B19
8 4) NONE +008) 78:6 NE 8) 2)
8 A) by x} 29:982) 79:3 by 8}8019
10 NB) ON 0 74! 75:0) a 8/807) 76: 05 sbye
1 N 30 013) 79:6 6] 2B 810/759] 90.0]75 6) us = IL
12 N 6) Bbyn| 89-4 47) nS E 12
13 N +012) 78:9] 3) NB 812/765] 93:3)740| 8 a 13
Mu NNW] .| 29:992) 776 3)N /764| 94)704) 5 14
15 n by 8] 80.080) 78:1 8) NN 76:0' 95:4)76'4) ss5 15
16} 046) 76:7) N *090) ol NNR 76:0] 931)758) sm 16
17} 025) 76:1 nbyy 20'978) 6)? 757) 898|760) seu 7
19 | 29.983)76 1 NNW 801008 "9] 8 75:2) 89:6|74'4| osu 18
19 | +976) 73'2| 6 N by ® Ril | 829/735] 19
20 | 30014) 76 8) N “004 | 2 1/78 9) 80'6)73.1) 2 20
21) -012)766 NN B 29905 “ol 2 787) 909)78'3) ae OL
22 NNE ‘O47 2] BER 74 902/73'0| se 22
23 | 29 984)72/0 ENE +960) 5] u 8H 768) 919/763) nbyx 23
24 | 30000) 710 B ‘073 “lg by N| 78:2] 94:0/78'8) x8 x oy
26 | 29:960) 70.6 ? +966 8] NH 779) 98:2) 78.0 ESE 96
26 | -962)70:4! N by 4] 8 | 287 oe an 26
97 | g0:010) 72/0 NN “oud "| 2 77-7) 98/7844) bys 7
28 | +026)72'0) N +928) 6) 2 77-3) 98:1)767| sa 28
cee REE a A
Ht at 4 ante 76'6| 916)814| nN 5 81
3
61'0\60 8 sis 29094) 77-1) 72 0) (86:1) 716 20'016] 81-4) 75:8) 91°6) 76.0) i
jun.

? Dhis mark signifies that no menns can be taken owing to the yariable state of tho wind.

380 Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Magnetic Observatory. {INo. 8, NEW sERrEs.
HOURLY MEANS.

ectuneen Noon! 1 | 2 is) 4 | 6 | i 7 | 8 || of) tol) a0 ||| x2} tamiferw 16 |) a6!) a7 |) 18) |/)s19))| 20) |) au ||) fan) 25
Means)
fh. mujh, m.| bh mh. mjh. mh. m.|b. mjh, mJjh, mjh, mjh. mijh. mjh. m.jh. mjh, m./h. mjh. mjh. m.jh. m.[h, m.h, m.jh. mh. mjh. m,|
Meaiate 4 41) 5 41|6 41) 7 41) 41] 9 41/10 41/f1 41/12 4]13 41}l4 41/15 4i}16 41)17 41/18 41}19 41/20 41/21 41J22 41/23 ae 4)) £ 41] 2 41) 3 41
— |S = = — ——
In. | In. | In, | In. | In, | In. | In. | I, | In. | In, | In| Mm. | mm, | In, | I. | In | In| m | In, | In.) Mo. | In. | mm. | In. | mm.
1858
4 5 ( Oct. |99-789129 s00|20.925)29 850)29:808129 875/29 872|29 8n8)29 843129:807|20:818|29:816|20.803 P9-$15}20'864)29 88329-80929 903}20:880)20 859129 G31 20 80720: 789129-783] 99 gia]
<i) Noy.| -924| +940) 959) *986)0-000130 008|30-001| 989) -967) +953) +943) +940] -948| -966) -985|80.006|30'021/30-02110:006| +979] -949) +925] -911| +915] 96g!
2 Deo.) 964] -976] +998)30'021) 037) 087), +042}301003)80,017) 999] +984) +081) -990/80:005)80.024) 052) +072) +078) -062}30/037|80:005| +976) +956) -953! 30.013
3
oO ° ° oO o t) ° 0 t) oO oO ° 0 oO ° o ° ° ° ° oO ° ° ° °
Prices ol7s: 4}7s: al77 7\77 3\77- 1\76: 9\76- ol76> 2)76: ol7o: 7I78- 9|79- 6le2- 9/83: ol8s- s]sa- giss+ 7\s3- 3182 si7o- 7
BS) Nov 2l77- Oj76: 7/76 3\75: 9176. 675 3|75: BI74: 9/74 8l76: 2176: 9}78 8\g0- 1/80: Gl81- O|g1' BIs1- 4/80» B79: ol77- 8
AE | Deo 6l74 0/73 4|72: 8\71- 971+ 4}70: 9\70- 6I70- 2/69: 7/60: 9|72 6l75: 6\77- 6/73: 4178: 9|79: 3\79: 1\78: 9178 2I74- 6
. 0j75 7\76° 7\75 5)76> 275. 1\75 Ore ours: ark Art 8\75' 7\76- 3/76 776: 7\77° ol77- 2\77- 1\76- 776 Si75+ 9)
os 573 6)73' 4)78: 673: 6I7a+ 2173: Ol78 0l72: 972" B73: O73: 7}74 475: 275+ 4)75: 4\75- Glo: Gl7o ira Gl7d-
at 2109- 2169: 1/69- 0/68: 768: 4/68: 2/68: 1\67- 9\67- 7/S7- 7/68 7|69° 5/70: 270 3i70- 3}70 8\70: 6l70: 3\69- Slog. I
a8 29/985) 80'009 30:026 90:84:80,027 30:018/30:001}39-987|20.970129 957 29:974 29 991)90'008)50-084 30/055] 30 057 80:048}30'026|29.995}29:965]9:047109°946] 0-000
ok | -966)29'991! +013) +026) 016] 001) 987) 975] +967| :972| 990) +006) 029, +060) +058 048) -023| +094) -965| 940! 942) 99 994
ise +885] +910/29-931|29 945 29:943/27-932120:916] +902} -894) +892] +902] -919/29:937|29'962 29-980] 29.935 29:074|20'945] -918| +886] 861] +851] -916
° oO oO ° oO ° Oo 0 oO oO oO ° 0 ° °o °o ° oO oO o ° o o ° o
1859
Jan, (77-5176 8)74- 178° B\71' G71» 2)70- 9)70: 4\69 4|71: 8/74: 0|77- 078: 4)78° 9]79- 4\79: 8|78: 9l78- 4|74- 4
ES) Feb. |81° 3/79 26: 4\70- 4\73° 672: 9172: 271 7\71- 8l74- 177: 7/80: 281: 9/82. 9)83- 5]83. 7/83: 3i82 777 1
AE | Maor.|85° 1/82 6)s0' 0)79° 877 576" 7/76" 0/76: 7\75° 5\79° 6.83: 3/86: 0,87: 8/88: 5/88: 6)88: 2/87: 6|86 T\gI- 4}
1859
= (Inn. |70° 4/70 9° 5)69' 2168 BS: 7|68: 5\o8* 468: 167: 9\67- 7\67- B)67° B\67- 2\68- 469. 9/70: B|71- ITI: Girl: Z7l- GI71 7\69, 4
3} Feb. [73+ 6/78 2 d\72- 17: 8/71 4|71+ 1\70* 8|70: 4|70- 1/69: 8\69- 6|69° 269: QI71- O72 6/73: 4\73- 7\74 274 Bl74: GI74 72,
(Mor. |77- 2/76: 6 0\75* 8\75- 5,75" 3175: Ol74 G\74: Bi74- 1\73- Bl73- 6I78: 1\73: 4]75° 176. 4)76 9/77- 4l77° 6l78 1\78 O|77 ilis- 8
. * The numbers in these columns are not obseryed but interpolated for the sake of obtaining the daily means.
Mapnras OBSERVATORY : W. K. WORSTER, Major.
August 1859,

Acting Astronomer.

INDEX To MATTER In Vot. IV.

Agri-Horticultural Society, Proceedings of, 159, 366.
Ashera, meaning of the word, 35.
Brine Springs of Cheshire, on the, 104.
Budhists and Brahmins, Ordeal between, 59.
Budhists, Samanhals and Jains the same Sect, 59,
Cheshire, on the Brine Springs of, 104.
Coimbatore, Crystalline Limestone discovered at, by Dr. Cornish, 150.
Cotton Seed, on the Oil of, 121.
Ethiopians, probability of their being of Indian Origin, 63.
Fossil wood at Trivicary, on the Geological age of the Sandstones con-
taining, 47.
Hill Tribes of the Neilgherries, occupations of, 43. .
Impatiens Genus, description of new Species of, from Anamally Hills, 66.
Indian Words, on the Substitution of Roman Characters in writing, 179,
243.
Tron making at Roodrar, 299.
Jains, Budhists and Samanhals the same Sect, 59.
Kota Vocabulary, 1.
Kotagherry, productions of, 45.
Lead Ores in Cuddapah District, 279.
Do. Kurnool do. 285, 289.
Lime Stone, Crystalline at Coimbatore, 150.
Lingam worship, early spread of, 53.
Do. in India, 55.
Literary Society Madras, Proceedings of, 149, 359.
Madras Literary Society, Proceedings of, 149, 359.
Do. Report of the, on writing Indian words in Roman Cha-
racters, 179.
Magnetic Survey, Report on the Progress of the, 341, 332.
Meteorological Observations, 177, 279.
Neilgherries, Occupation of the Hill Tribes on the, Productions of, 43, 45.
Notes Antiquarian and Mythical, 57.
Notes and Queries, 141.
Do. Answer to, No. 5, 142,

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Octsber, 1859,

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PUVII, Vol IV.

Tipntions plisnicca.

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