urd tee Bs Tange : >

SAS
sel Rese GR

Saas wee

tat

Sos aS

EEE OL NARS TS et Rt re aie Sa ee aca 5 3 PELL MAA ERIE Te

eR EEE RARER ERED ne ee et ate ene et oe eae?
We: See er, ata : a

i

ifs fan

Spe
Se be

; : THE
MADRAS JOURNAL

LITERATURE AND SCIENCE,
_ PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUSPICES
| OF THE
MADRAS LITERARY SOCIETY

AND

AUXILIARY OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

=e

VOL. III.

aU ie

i SE eT ENG,

THE

‘MADRAS JOURNAL

OF

LITERATURE AND SCIENCE,

PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUSPICES
OF THE
MADRAS LITERARY SOCIETY
AND
AUXILIARY OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

a

- EDITED BY

J. C. MORRIS, F. R. S.

SECRETARY OF THE MADRAS LITERARY SOCIETY, &c.

VOL. IIT.

January—April 1836.

MADRAS:
PRINTED AT THE ATHENEUM PRESS,
BY J. B. PHAROAH, AND PUBLISHED BY J. P, BANTLEMAN,

AT THE COLLEGE,

MDCCCKXXVI.

HME.
Fess H ‘ wpet Nok

ieee:

.
“
at
Peg

X
eB
Le?

ia c 7
Mh

s / ferhes re oy s
Se Aiuy ya N
ITA (AV
i eel

MADRAS JOURNAL

LITERATURE AND SCIENCE.

tH

No, 10.—January, 1836.

1.—Analysis of the residuum of fired Gunpowder.

breast

The nature and quantity of the solid products of Gunpow-
der after explosion, as given in some scientific works, appear-
ing to me to be unsatisfactory, I had occasion lately to iitempe
the determination of the point by analysis.

2.—The residuum analysed was obtained from the Madras
Powder Mills; and was collected from an 8-inch iron mortar,
after firings of two ounce charges, the composition of the
powder being—

ParepPi@G...5.i0.00 | paris
Charcoals..: ins oss 13S
SH iphurs a Ose sis ble

100

3.—Several ounces having been procured, two or three
preparatory trials were made, which came out very discord.
ant; it occurred from some parts of the substance being
alkaline, and some appearing to consist chiefly of charcoal,
incombustible, and other matter. The remainder was after-
wards pounded and mixed together, and the subsequent trials
resulted more uniform: but in order to ensure success, the in-
termixture cf the whole quantity ought in the first peice to
be made very intimate and complete, otherwise a ith dis-
erepancy occurs by operating on separate parcels though they
may be taken out of one common stock.

2 Analysis of the residuum ne jired gunpowder. [Jan.

EXAMINATION AS TO QUALITY.
4.—Submitted to the spirit-blow-pipe some portions of oa
residuum, before mixing, burnt quietly on red hot charcoal
and fused without the smell of sulphur; and some portions
appeared to deflagrate slightly. After being well mixed,
crepitation occurred on red hot charcoal before the common
blow-pipe, but no appearance of deflagration.

5.—A sample was dissolved in cold distilled water, filtered,
and a clear solution obtained. Sundry tests were applied; and
gave indications, as follows, viz:

6.—Reddened litmus paper was immediately turned blue,
indicating the presence of alkali.

7.—The three mineral acids occasioned effervescence, and
a precipitate: and a smell in one case like burning sulphur
in another like bilge water. ‘T'artaric acid gave a precipitate
of supertartrate of potass or cream of tartar,— whence may be
inferred the presence of carbonic acid, of hydrogen, or sul-
phuretted hydrogen, and potassa.

8.—Nitrate of baryta occasioned a dense white precipitate
of which a part was soluble and a part not soluble in dilute
acid. This test indicates the presence of sulphuric acid, and
the partial solubility of the precipitate, points out the presence
of carbonic acid. From the last applied tests and the pre-
sent test we may conclude that the solution contained sul-
phate of potassa and carbonate of potassa.

9.—The sulphuric acid being removed by the baryta, the
clear solution afterwards obtained, was tested with nitrate of
silver, which gave a dense precipitate, changing quickly from
yellow through various shades to black. This indicates the
presence of sulphur, or of sulphuretted hydrogen.

10.—A certain quantity of the residuum was dissolved in
distilled water filtered and then boiled; it gave off copious
fumes which smelt like bilge-water and which blackened sil-
ver. ‘These fumes were sulphuretted hydrogen. ‘The sul-
phuric and carbonic acids of this solution were then removed
by nitrate of baryta; and nitrate of silver was afterwards ad-
ded and gave a dense precipitate, indicating that the solution
contained not only sulphuretted hy drogen, but also a an hydro-
sulphuret,

1836.] Analysis of the residuum of fired gunpowder. $3

11.—The precipitate last mentioned was collected, washed,
and dried ; and was compared with the weight of the preci-
pitate obtained from an experiment made witha similar quan-
tity of the residuum, only treated with cold water, and not
boiled. The quantity of sulphuret of silver (7. e. the preci-
pitate) obtained in the experiment by boiling was grains 12 ;
the quantity in the other case was grains 27.

12.—These last two steps in the examination point out the
presence of sulphur in combination with hydrogen, and with
potassa; or sulphuretted hydrogen, and hydro-sulphuret of
potassa.

13 —Solution of soap in alcohol gave no discoloration.

14,—After removing the sulphuric and carbonic acids, and
the sulphur from a portion of the solution, it was evaporated
to dryness. From the course pursued there should result
saltpetre, being potassa, the base shown by the tartaric acid
(7) in combination with the nitric acid of the tests. The
sait collected resulted accordingly ; it was nitre, and defla-
grated as nitre does when thrown on red hot charcoal.

15.—There appeared to be a small quantity of uncombined
_ alkali; for after precipitating the sulphuric and carbonic
acids by nitrate of baryta, the clear solution changed red-
dened litmus paper blue; merely a drop or two of nitric acid,
however neutralized as much alkali as resulted from 100
grains of the original substance. After this neutralization,
and after precipitating the sulphur by the nitrate of silver, the
solution contained free acid which was indicated by turning
blue litmus paper red: this proceeded from the nitrate of
silver, for the silver combining with the sulphur, set the nitric
acid free, the alkali of the solution being previously neutra-
lized. This acid manifested itself and was driven off in yel-
low fumes in melting the saltpetre.

16.—The insoluble residue retained by the filter (5) was
small; it was black, but viewed by the microscope, it con-
tained numerous white specks which appeared to be earthy
matter. It burned quietly on red hot charcoal before the
blow-pipe, without the smell of sulphur, and changed its co-
lour from black to brown. ‘The earthy matter partially dis-
solved with effervescence in nitric acid. I consider this resi-

4 Analysis of the residuum of fired gunpowder. [JAns

due to consist of a small quantity of charcoal, and carbonate
of lime and other earths, being small impurities from the salt-
petre and sulphur.

17.—Having thus ascertained the general nature of the
substance experimented on, we may proceed to the uf

EXAMINATION OF QUANTITY.

18.—Fifty grains of the alkaline matter were heated over
a spirit lamp till they no longer lost weight, and were weighed
in a porcelain capsule while hot. 2

19.—Note.—All the weighings hereafter mentioned were
weighed hot in the same manner. A small porcelain capsule
will weigh 5, or 6 tenths of a grain heavier when cold, than
it does when hot.

20.—The 50 grains of residuum were dissolved in cold
distilled water; filtered, and washed, till reddened litmus
ceased to be affected.

21.—The residue retained by the filter (16) weighed 0.90
of a grain, it was submitted to a red heat ; and consisted of

Charcoal ve, oi) as 2 grains 0.25
Karthy matter.) ..2:6,co0 se. 56.. «(Osa

22.— The solution was & «precipitated with nitrate of ba-
ryta, (8) the precipitate weighed grains 43.60.

23. This precipitate was treated with nitric acid (8); it
effervesced, and when again collected and dried at a heat
near redness weighed gr. 23.10.

24.—There resulted therefore—

Sulphate of baryta......grains 23.10
Carbonate of do ....4.) |, 220)50

Grains 43.60

25.— The solution remaining after this step of the experi-
ment, exhibited traces of free alkali (15) it was neutralized
by a drop of nitric acid.

26.—Nitrate of silver was then added until we ceas-
ed to be a precipitation. The result was sulphuret of sily-
er grains 15.40. sin ite

27.—The solution now contained nothing but the base,
potash, in combination with nitric acid. The same indica-

-

1836.] dnalysis of the residuum of fired gunpowder. §

tions occurred as before mentioned (15). The saltpetre
was fused and weighed 59 grains.
28.—The result of the analysis by biniary combination, is
therefore. as follows :-—
: Sulphate of baryta......gr. 23.10
Carbonate of de........ nop te.
Sulphuret of silver...... 4, 15.40
Natrate of potassa...... 5, 59.00
24,.—And the several substances indicated by the vari-
ous tests are the following :—
Sulphate of potassa............+(8)
Conbanate, Of, dos... 0. md oes june n( 8)
Sulphuretted hydrogen...........(10)
Sulphuret of potassa..............(10)
Uncombined alkali (a trace)......(15) .
Charcoal and earthy matter. ..... (16). :
30.—We ought now from the foregoing biniary compounds
to make up the 50 grains of original matter experimented
on; but before doing so it appears necessary to make a few
observations.
31.—On the explosion of gunpowder one of the products
formed is sulphuret of potassium; but itis difficult to as-
certain the real quantity, because the moment it dissolves
in water itis decomposed and forms new compounds, so
that the analysis has rather to do with these new compounds
than with the original ingredient. The following extract
from Henry’s Chemistry, Vol. I. Ed. 1826, page 447, will
explain the matter more fully.
32,—< The pure sulphurets can exist, as such, only in the
* dry state; for the moment they begin to dissolve in water,
“a decomposition of that fluid commences; sulphuretted
«hydrogen is formed; and of this a part is disengaged,
<¢ while cas part, uniting with an additional proportion
* of sulphur, composes bi-sulphuretted hydrogen. This
last, uniting with the base, forms an hydroguretted sul-
«‘ phuret. At the same time, it has been stated by Beyr-
«‘ thollet, sulphuric acid is composed, by the action of the
“sulphur on the oxygen of the water. This however, Gay
** Lussac has shown, takes place only when the sulphuret

7

6 Analysis of the residuum of fired gunpowder. [Jan,

“has been formed at an unnecessary heat’”—but notata
“ heat below redness.”

33.—On this view of the case it is very plain how some
of the substances before enumerated may be accounted for,
such as the sulphuretted hydrogen, &c. and it is equally
plain that from the complex action of the sulphuret, the
analysis must be in some measure governed by it.

34.—I shall therefore in tracing out the ultimate results
of the experiment consider the sulphur to be in combination
with hydrogen, and with potassa (12) and account for it ac-
cordingly. Ishall also consider the sulphuric, and carbonic
acids to be in combination with potassa (8).

35.—The following course must therefore be pursued :—

23.10 grs. of sulphate baryta contain 7.83 grs. of Sulphuric acid.

20.50 ,, Carbonate do. dost. 4.0074, Carbonic acid.
15.40 ,, Sulphuret of silver do. 1.95 ,, Sulphur.

59.00 ,, Nitrate potassa do.’ 27.70) .,, ) | Potassa:

1.95 ,, Sulphuriscombinedthus 1.08withpotassa (potassium)

aud 0.87 with Hydrogen.

. 36.—Again—

i
4.83 sulphuric acid make when? ,-. i
ee a Sith paeeea. 17:22 Sulphate of Potassa.
431 Carbonic acid do. do. 14:35 Carbonate of potassa.
A108 Sulphur do. do. 3°78 Sulphuret of potassium.

* 0°87 do. combined with hydrogen 0:87 Sulphuretted hydrogen.

37.—We have now to ascertain from the foregoing, how
they affect the results indicated by the saltpetre, and what
quantity of the base, potassa, they consume,or are combined
with ; and whether the saltpetre affords just a sufficient quan-
tity of the base, or whether it is deficient, or in excess.
38.— The quantity of potassain 59grains of nitreis 27-76

of which 7°83 of sulphuric acid combine with 9-39

4°51 of carbonic acid take up 9°84

1:08 ofsulphur may be combined with 2:70

Surplus potassa 5°83

21°76

39.—That there was some uncombined alkali contained in
the substance under examination has been before shown (15)
but the quantity was very small, and could not possibly amount
to the above surplus of grains 5°83. The question therefore

1836.] Analysis of the residuum of fired gunpowder.

is, with what was this potassa combined? It is very clear
that it was not, and from the course followed, could not be
introduced during the analysis, because no potassa was used
under any of its combinations. And as it is evidently a

surplus beyond the quantity in combination with the sulphur,
and. the sulphuric and carbonic acids, the most reasonable
supposition seems to be that it existed in combination with
nitric acid, and was simply saltpetre that had escaped de-
composition. I shall therefore so account for it, and the
quantity of saltpetre which it is equivalent to is grains 12-39.

40.—The ultimate analysis of the 50 grains of matter ex-
perimented on will then stand thus :—

Puipnabewr potassa.....:.:.....17-22.......(36)
Oinmmidie 1 7d0...,...........-.14,30. 2... (36)
Nitrate GOs fs LOO. a (Oo)
Swlpiirer Ob povassium .......... 3.78. .....(36)
Sulpauvetted, Inydroven...s... 50. 0.87. i040. (36)
Unconsumed charcoal.......... Or255 4), C2)
Hetihy matter........ Stes wis ies (O00 ii 2d )

Uxperimeental error,............ 0.49

Total grains. .50.00

41.—It is not to be inferred from the foregoing quantity of
saltpetre that nearly 25 per cent. of what is originally in the
gunpowder is undecomposed, or unnecessary—for this quan-
tity has reference only to the solid matter remaining after
gunpowder has been fired. And J am inclined to think that
this quantity is accidental, and is to be attributed to the im-
perfect mixture of the substance (3) before the experiment
was commenced. I have made two other analyses of 100
grains each, after the original matter was beiter mixed, and
| the quantity of saltpetre in those experiments is exhibited at.
| only 14 or 15 per cent. As these experiments were conduct-
ed precisely in the same manner as the 50 grain experiment,
which has been fully explained, I shall here insert them as a
part of the criginal investigation.

S Analysis of the residuum of fired gunpowder. [JAn.

| 2d Expt. od Expt.
Sulphate of : potassa....0.. ss... ceknn ODO Mi ee ORS
~ Carbonate, of .. potassais)sies: 6. vigghaeee ODO GMaily ye. ce
Nitrate of, spotagsass oh je). » «consi sisretofer 4. Cuumieaegn, apatite a
Sulphuretiof potassiumuseges ss faite. 0-40: Seen aye 08
Sulphuretted,. hydgogen, ius sidiq ties yet a opts em eo

Uniconsumed #eharcoalypecuun sfc tn,t)aeh: Qui eat eet el ae
Earthy matters. .... sk Sie eee Lis aig voice Kieter aval
Hoepenmn emt ab vervorics, agitic sic: Rael 6 a OvOBigy 4 a teeth es

100.00 - 100.09

42.—Doubting however whether the result of saltpetre
was not too large, I tested a portion that had been collected,
and found that it contained sulphuric acid in considerable
quantity. After the precipitation by nitrate of silver and
while evaporating the solution of nitre, I fancied in every
experiment that there was a smell of sulphur, but I could not
detect it, for the precipitations by silver had been carefully
performed, so that the solutions afterwards exhibited no
traces of sulphur. Notwithstanding, I suspect that the solu-
tion of nitre did contain a minute portion of sulphur, and as if.
also contained free nitric acid (15) the presence of these two
substances when the last portions of the saltpetre were eva-
porating, and when it was afterwards in fusion, will aeeount
for the formation of the sulphuric acid, which would I appre-
hend combine with the potash. And as 15 grains of the
saltpetre g gave sulphate of baryta equivalent to 1.71 of sulphate
of potassa, the quantity of sallpetre in the two foregoing ana-
lyses might be reduced in that proportion. But as this ulte-
rior result does not appear to legitimately affect them, I shall
not make the alteration. |
43.—I"inally, to confirm or to remove the doubt just ex-
pressed, IT made a synthetical mixture according to the analy-
sis, employing 15 per cent. of nitre as a mean between the
two experiments, and on submitting it to the action of the
blow-pipe on red hot charcoal, its action was as similar to the
action of the original substance as it could be. ‘This verifi-
cation 1s satisfactory, and seems to point out that the analy-
sis has been correctly performed.

10th November, 1835. J. BRADDOCK,

1836. ] An account of the Maun Bhows. gD

Al.—An account of the Maun Bhows; or, the biack clothed
Mendicant Devotees— By Captain A. Macxin‘tosn, 27th
Madras Native Infantry, Commanding aia cloagd
Police Corps.

I$ is well known to every person who has either read the
History of Hindoostan, or sojourned in India, that meets
of beggars and devotees @pkeasas-theyseresfreqe a
in@iseritaizatelysternretig.. are to be seen in every town fa

village in this country : indeed, it has been estimated, that
an eighth of the Hindoo population subsist by mendicity ; for
not only the lame, the blind, and the sickly go about beg-
ging; but various sects have at different periods, formed.
themselves into associations or societies, passing their
lives in Mhutts or monasteries worshipping particular deities,
and visiting sanctified places of pilgrimage, being entirely
supported by the eleemosynary donations of the rest of the
inhabitants.

In the following pages a short account is given of the sect
of Maun Bhows, or the black clothed mendicant devotees :
who are dispersed over the country lying between the Syad-
ray chain of hills (the elevated range which separates the
Konkan from the Dekhan) and the eastern limits of the Be-
rar country: and the Kistna river and the northern boun-

dary of Malwa: a few of the sect are also to be found in the |

Punjab. ~ « x

It may be observed here, that this sect of religious men-
dicants, appear to partake much of the character of the
Franciscans, and the Benedictines, &c. particularly of the
Canobite monks who lived in community under superiors in
the same dwelling ; and of the Sarabaites who wandered from
place to place.

The history of the origin of the fraternity of Maun Bhows,
is like that of almost all other sects in India, involved in ob-
security and fable. By the Brahmins they are considered an
heretical and most degraded caste: the Brahmins wish it to
be believed that they not only are of modern origin, but also
are the offspring of a female of the Maug tribe (one of the
vilest of the degraded classes) who resided ina Brahmin’s
house; and on which account the Brahmin (Kishen Bhutt)

a
a

10(. An account of the Maun Bhovws. [Jan,

was excommunicated from his order. As these mendicants
show little or no respect to the Brahmins, they seem to think
this is the reason of their imputing such’an impure origin to
them. The Maun Bhows themselves assert, that their fra-
ternity has existed from time immemorial; that during.the
Krittah Yeoguh (or the first age of the world according to
the Hindoos) the four sons of Brahma. named Sunuk, Sunuk
Adik, Sunuk Nundun, and Sunnuk Koomar, were the spiri-
tual guides of the | Maun Bhows: ‘and during the Tyetah
Yeoguh, Duttat(ry. Swamy was their spiritual guide; and in
the Dwarpah Yeoguh when the deity appeared on earth in
the person of their beloved Krishen, and declared himself
the friend and instructor of Arjoon and Oodhow, that both
of the latter were elected the spiritual guides of the Maun
Bhows ; at the above period the Maun Bhows worshipped
Krishen as their true and only god to the exclusion of all
others. They state, that in the present age or Kaly Yeoguh
the two spiritual brothers Kuveesswurbas and Oopaadbas
were the chief Mhunths or the superiors of their order ; and
as the country at the thme was ina very unsettled state, so
much so, that poor and pious pigrims encountered the great-
est imaginable difficulties when strolling from one Mhutt to
another, owing to the roads being mfested with robbers:
that the members of the fraternity came to the resolution of
adopting black clothes.as their dress; the colour being sacred
to Krishen, and appearing in such a humble and unassuming
habit, would ensure impunity from robbers, and prevent |
other persons being uncivil to them.
Notwithstanding the plausibility of this attempt, to esta-
| blish the antiquity of the institution of their order, Iam dis-
| posed to think that it merits little credence; for by all ac-
| counts there is no allusion made to this sect in any of the
| | Hindoe works treating of the pure and mixed castes accord-
ing to the Unoolome and Pruteelome order, that were known
| to have existed about twelve or fifteen hundred years ago.
| Under these circumstances it is natural to conjecture, that
| | about a thousand years may have elapsed since they originat-
|

ed ; for there is a tradition of the famed Heemar Punt, who
Pe itis said was some eight hundred years since, prime mi-

<a o ba ; Hrd
(a wo<d Sea's L$ any Natt Sty
the, Ae Bede ae. ZY

1836. | An account of the Maun Bhows. = = Yh

nister to a Rajah of Dewgir (the present Doulutabad) having
attempted to suppress the sect of Maun Bhow heretics when
they first made their appearance at the town of Pytun on the
Goodavery. ‘The/chief Mhutts belompnrg+te—the_f i
are‘at Rood’hpoor or Reed’hpoor a town about twenty-five
_ miles east of Hlichpoor in Berar : the Maun Bhows venerate
this place-as much as other Hindoos do EBenares. ‘The two
spiritual brothers Kuveesswurbas and Oopaadbas established.
theii® Mhutts here: and from these two.collateral stocks, the-
following branches have sprung :—
From the Kuveesswurbas..........From the Oopaadbas
= he othe eile GEE TE BPM The Patoorkur
», Ballapoorkur.. Bae ee he Dhavrashookur
MY aireoonashy 8 OP ee Waiedeshkur
ee eamny ume ee Og Sookenykur.
mridonmanykur 240 wea Beerkur
me Minppatiykur ee J es Bhopay
eeeeomapoy. © Pee wo ee 4) Sewrykur
» Akoolnairkur
Again,—from these fifteen branches, or villies as they are
termed by themselves, numerous other ramifications have.
diverged—besides the two.chief Mhutts at Rood’hpoor there
are five minor ones there—the Rassygaunkur, the Ealla-
poorkur, and Durriahpoorkur, likewise the Beerkur, the
Tullykur andthe Paunch Rahout. It is quite evident that
the name given toeach Mhutt was that of the district or vil-
lage from which the founder originally came. The Paunch
Rahout istermed so, from five horsemen that came from
some distance to be converted to Maun Bhowism, and who
afterwards settled at Rood’hpoor. It is not uncommon for
them to apply some familiar term to the shrines in some of
the Mhutts such as:—Rajmhurr, Prassuand Mhun, Sheewa
Baie, Abbah Sahib, and Babbah Sahib.
The Mhutts at the following places are reckoned the prin-
cipal ones of the sect :-—
1.—Rood’hpoor near MHichpoor.
Punchalleshwur near Rakisbhaun.
Oosswar near Chandore.
Beer.

12 An accouut of the Maun Bhows. {[Jaw.

Dombygram near Toka.

Sookena near Nassik.

Wakie south east of Ahmednugegur..

Durriahpoor in Berar.

Akutpoor in Berar. ‘

At the full moon of Chytre (Chytre otha falling
in A. D. 1834, on the 23d of April) pilgrimages are made to —
the shrines of the god Krishen at Rood’hpoor, Punchallesh-
‘wur, Kunnassy in Kandiesh and Dombygram near Teka ;.
and at the full moon of Kartick (in A. D. 1834, the 16th
November) pilgrimages are made to the shrines at Akut-
poor and Wurnere in Berar, at Wakie and Sookena.

The Maun Bhows it may be said scarcely observe any
fast days, as the followers of Siva and Vishnoo do—but they
yeckon the month Margy sur the most sacred as’ Krishen calls
it sointhe Geeta. The day of Krishen’s birth, the Gokull
Ashtmy or 8th of Shrawin is kept as a festival. 2

In their Mhutts, the Maun Bhows have invariably a chu-
bootra, or raised platform built of brick and lime. About
two anda half cubits in breadth, and between three and
four cubits in length and about one in height. These plat-
forms are said to be erected on particular spots where the
deity manifested -himself on some occasion during a former
age. No places of the kind are consecrated in the present
day. The Maun Bhows being strict followers of Krishen,
place implicit faith in the account of his life as given in
the Bhagwut (generally termed the 18th Pooran) and reject
all the other sacred shasters of the Hindoos, as they reject
the worship of all their other gods. (2. oie sears,
—By Europeans, Krishen oe termed the Apollo of the
Hindoos ; and it must be admitted that they greatly resem-
ble each other, in many instances. However, he is describ-
ed by some of the Hindoo writers as being the most wick-
ed, base and debauched of characters. While others re-
present him as being all meekness, piety and benevolence..
He is known to the Maun Bhows only as possessing the lat-
ter virlues ; and the numerous irregularities he is accused of,
they explain by saying that these were merely typical of
the mutual attraction between the divine goodness and the

1836.] An account of the Maun Bhows. 1S

human soul: and they refer with delight to what they con- .
ceive the sublime representation given of him in the Geeta
when he is engaged in instructing and conversing with his much
beloved Arjoon : : “ Behold things wonderful, never seen be-
«fare, behold, in this my body the whole world, animate and
“inanimate. Butas thou art unable to see with these thy
*< natural eyes, Iwill give thee an heavenly eye, with which
<‘ behold my divine connection.’’*

. ©{he son of Pandoot then beheld within the body of the
« god of gods standing together the whole universe divided
“ forth into its vast variety. He was overwhelmed with
<‘ wonder, and every hair was raised on end. But I am
«© not to be seen as thou hast seen me, even by the assistance
“© of the Veds, by mortification, by sacrifices, by charitable
« gifts: but I am to be seen, to be known in truth, and to be
‘‘ obtained by that worship which is offered up to me alone:
« and he goeth unto me whose works are done for me : who
_* esteemeth me supreme: who is my servant only: who
¢¢ hath abandoned all consequences, and who liveth amongst
«* all men without hatred.”

Again,— He my servant is dear to me, who is free from
s‘ enmity, the friend of all nature, merciful,exempt from all
‘¢ pride and selfishness, the same in pain and in pleasure, pa-
“ tient of wrong, contented, constantly devout, of subdued.
«‘ passions, and firm resolves, and whose mind and_ under-
¢ standing are fixed on me alone.” —

‘¢ They trust to their carnal appetites, which are hava to
« be satisfied ; are hypocrites and overwhelmed with madness
<¢ and intoxication.— They seek by injustice the accumulation
‘¢ of wealth for the gratification of their inordinate desires.”

‘The Yeogeet is more exalted than the ‘Tupuswees,§ those
«¢ zealots who harass themselves in performing penances, res-
« pected above the learned in science, and superior to those
‘¢ who are attached to moral works ; wherefore O! Arjoon,
‘* resolve thou to become a Yeogee, of all Yeogees I respect
*‘ him as the most devout, who hath faith in me, and who
« serveth me with a soul possessed of my spirit.” )

ae a D

* Wilkin’s Geeta, + Axjoon, # A devout man. @ An Ascetic.

2 Jin account of the Maun Bhows. — [Jan

(The above Sxtractstivom theyGebts which constitutes the
Maun Bhow’s sacred volume, will partly show what the ten-
ets of their belief ought to be. We know that the Brahmins
profess their belief in a Supreme and Eternal God, but that
from motives of policy and for the purpose of engaging the |
attention of the ignorant, it has heen deemed necessary and
becoming to pay their adoration to the Omniscient through
the medium of image worship. The doctrines of the Maun
Bhow faith, seems to be a spiritual system of pure defsm,
which teaches them to lead a simple, innocent and pure life,
renouncing all connection with worldly affairs, and occu-
pying their time as much as possible in meditating on the
_attributes of their deity in the hope that they may obtain
final beatitude by absorption into the essence of the oe
Being.

It can scarcely be supposed that iad Maun Bhows would
have many converts to their faith ; or that their creed would
be very popular with the people : the circumstances of their
being obliged to lead a wandering and most abstemious life,
to subsist on whatever the charitably disposed may bestow on
them ; to submit patiently to indignities that may be offered
to them ; and to be attired in the doleful habiliments of their
order, might altogether be considered very forbidding and
quite sufficient to deter many persons joining their fraternity
-—who otherwise would have no objection to pass an indolent
w= life and live on the bounty of their friends. But the main
——support of the sect arises { from the sup@istitious character of

the Hindoo females and that of many of their husbands: for
it is not unusual for such females as have been disappointed
for several years in not having any offspring, to vow that in
the event of their longed for wish being realised, through
the favour of some godor tue blessing of some holy per-
sonage, they will dedicate their first-born, whether it be
a male or female child to sucha deity or devout character.

In the Mharatta country children are frequently consecrated
to the Matn Bhows in this way, likewise when the children
of a family continue very unhealthy or die from some consti-
tutional disease, the parents will vow to dedicate one of
them to the Maun Bhows: or a child is handed over to them

‘

1836.] An account of the Maun Bhows. ) 15

in fulfilment of some other vow. The fraternity are chiefly
recruited from among the Koonbies (farmers) and other class-
es of the Shoodur division: it is very seldom that any persons
of the higher castes become converts, although there are a

few. instances of Brahmins joining them: there is a Brahmin |

in the Ahmednuggur district who was for some reason in-
duced to become a Maun Bhow about six years ago: he
however subsequently regretted having abandoned his own
‘order; and expressed a great desire to be re-admitted among
them ; he now continues to be rejected by his old friends and
relations, and despised by his new brethren.

Tt is to be stated, that the different Kools or Villies, into
which the Maun Bhows are divided have a chief or superior
in each Mhutt termed by them Mbhunth : his followers are
termed Chelaks, Sishas, (disciples)—-The Mhunth is highly
reverenced by his follewers and is invested with patriarchal
authority : when the office of Mhunth becomes vacant, the
disciples assemble to elect a successor from among them-
selves to fill the situation. , The person who is known to be
most pious and ee are! and altogether considered best
qualified to fill the vacant situation, is nominated on such oc-
easions. Should a Mhunth at any time be guilty of any
impropriety of conduct, and justly incur the censure of the
members of the society, he either will see the necessity of
relinquishing his appointment of chief, and quitting the coun-
try, or some of his friends will point out the propriety of his
doing so, to avoid his being publicly expelled. When a
Mhunth vacates his office by withdrawing himself from it,
the superior of the Kuveesswurbas or of theOopaadbas from
whichever the Villy may have sprung, nominates a Mhunth
to fill the vacant gaddy.* , A.

There are instances of Mhunths who have arrived at an
advanced age, nominating one of their disciples to be their
successor, and afterwards quitting the gaddy and living the
few remaining years of their lives in retirement. This is the
case at present at Busswunt in Berar. The aged Mbhunth
Dhamodhur Dharashookur has placed all authority in the

SE rs Ce, tne Reena CREE

* A scat, cushion, throne,

WK -

16 An account of the Maun Bhows. [JAN.

hands of his shisha Purbahkur. Should any of the disciples:
die worth any property, the Mhunth succeeds to it, but the
money is expended in celebrating the customary rites on the
occasion of his death. And if a disciple dies in destitute
circumstances, the expenses incurred at his funeral, are always
defrayed by the Mhunth. Unless one of the brotherhood
who is a very particular friend of the deceased, expresses a
wish to bear the charges of the funeral expenses.

The Maun Bhow’s Mhutts are sometimes outside of~vil-
lages, on the banks of a river, or in the middle of the town,
and occasionally at a considerable distance from any dwelling.
When the Mhunth proceeds on his wandering tour, he leaves
one or two of his followers in charge of the Mhutt, with
permission to appropriate to their own use any thing that may
be granted in charity during his absence. ‘The Mhunth takes
from twenty to fifty of his followers with him (including fe-
males, boys and girls) and always uses a Palkie, in which his
followers (acting as bearers) convey him from place to place.
‘The rest of his followers disperse over the country, and con-
tinue moving about for several years, unless asked by some
charitable person to reside in some particular village for a
few weeks, months, or longer period. The Mhunth probably
will return, after the expiration of one or two years, to his
Mhutt.

During the four rainy months,* the Maun Bhows discon-

* For containing water they have at times vessels of various sizes made of
five or seven folds of cloth soaked in the juice or oil of the Bheelawun or marking
nut, (the semecarpus Anacardium) and the cloth being plastered inside and out-
side with red ochre, it gives these vessels a degree of consistency and an appear-.
ance asif they were made of earth. It is invariably during the rainy season that
these vesscls are manufactured ; they are highly prized by the Maun Bhows; the
operation of making thei is however extremely tedious; and few persons can.
undertake to execute such work owing to the very peculiar quality of the Bheela-
wun; the expressed juice of this nut touching any part of the hands, face, neck,
&c. produces not only a most disagreeable itchy sensation, but it causes the arms
and face to swell,and small sores or pimples to arise in consequence. (I once saw
an officer at Ahmednuggur who experienced pain and much annoyance from its
effects). The few persons that are engaged in making these vessels rub their hands,
ace, neck and breast with any of the common oils procurable in the bazars; and
their food ought to consist chiefly of sour milk and butter milk; and to abstain
from spices or any heating ingredients. Those of a plethoric habit run less risk of ,
euffering from the efiects of this nut. The natives use the Bheelawun for remov=
ing rheumatic pains, &c. a

1836.] An account of the Maun Bhows. iv

tinue their wanderings, and take up their residence for the
monsoon in any village where they have some friends, or.
where they are likely to experience from the inhabitants civi-

lity and attention. It frequently happens that they collect in. |

considerable numbers at the same village. Last year an as-
semblage of between six and seven hundred of them pass-
ed the monsoon at the village of Tembah near Sooltanpoor
in Kandeish: during the eight months they are occupied in
perferming their peregrinations they endeavour to lay by a
part of what they receive in charity* for the monsoon season :

and some of the rich merchants or wealthy persons, either for
the sake of the bubble reputation or in the hope of expiating
some sin they may have been guilty. of, undertake to supply
the pilgrims with the necessary quantity of provisions for
their consumption for some time; and if a sufficiency is not
obtained in this way, and the rains have not terminated, they
will borrow money from any money-lender to defray the ex-.

pense they may have to incur while they remain in the place. .

The sum they borrow,they engage to pay off in.a few months
—and they generally effect. this with comparative ease; for
when they recommence their wanderings, and are busy beg-

ging from door to door, to such persons as they know to be.
of a liberal disposition, they communicate the circumstance of |

their being in debt and their anxiety to pay it off: it is very
_ seldom such an appeal from a Maun Bhow does not meet with
consideration : however they say that within these few years
past, the inhabitants within the British territory do not show
them that attention and liberality they experienced from.
them in former years: they add that the people excuse their
present conduct, by informing them that they are prohibited.
grantin alms now as in times. past. eA ONG ic

iS a
that they teach their converts to read and write; for the
Maun Bhows consider it indispensably requisite, that every

member of their society should be sufficiently educated to.

be capable of reading one of the commentaries on the Geeta ;

a TIE ET NT ee

* Ifthey succeed, in collecting any considerable quantity of grain and its trans

portation would be inconvenient, they convert itinto cash,

ced. /

e period of the general halt in the wet weather,.

1S ‘An account of the Maun Bhows. (Jan.

and such persons as are too advanced in age, or from any
other cause, are rendered incapable of receiving instruction,
are taught a few sacred words or sentences, which they are
enjoined to continue repeating very frequently. Exclusive of
the Geeta every Maun Bhow has either a copy of the Harry
Veeja, the Rookhmuny Sywur, the Radha Kishen, or the
Pandoo Purtaub in his possession ; these are in the Prokrut
language. It is usual for some one of them to read a chapter
from one of these books of an evening: and a few of tho dif-
ferent classes of the villagers frequently form a portion of
their audience on such occasions. !

When the Maun Bhows are questioned by Brahmins or
other persons they are unacquainted with on the subject of
their faith, or in any way connected with their habits and
customs, they will not unfrequently reply by repeating some
proverb, or illustrate their explanation by means of parables :
1 have seen some of them who are capital story tellers.

The Maun Bhows wear leather shoes, but strictly speak-
ing they ought not to do so; however, at the time they take
their wallet in one hand, and their staff in another, and go
begging from house to house, they are then barefooted; but
some few of them makeupslippers of thick cloth which they
are permitted to wear at all times. Should four or five of
them or a larger number arrive at a village, instead of going
to each house they go to the Patell and ask him to grant
them something in charity; andif they receive a sufficient
quantity of grain from him*. they retire with it; and as a
particular duty is assigned to each in preparing their vic-
tuals, they now respectively busy themselves in bringing
firewood and water, grinding the corn and cooking, &c. But
if they do not receive enough of grain in the first village they
visit, they move on until they have collected sutlicient for the
days consumption. ‘They hold flesh, fish, and spirituous li-
quors in abhorrence; and so very anxious are they to avoid
giving pain or putting to death the smallest insect, that they
carefully strain the water they intend for their own use
through a cloth ; and then turn the cloth upside down, shake -

* The Patell (headman of the village) collects a little from each of the villagers
and presents itto the Monks.

1836.] An account of the Maun Bhows. 19

-and wash it in the running stream or well, that all the in-

sects may be restored to their natural elements. As some of
the inhabitants of the chief towns in the Mharatta country
are in the habit of sacrificing a number of sheep at the Dus-
sirg festival, the Maun Bhows make a point of keeping at a
distance from the villages where such scenes take place.

It is worthy of notice that the Maun Bhows never will
take any flour or grain from a basket in the bazar,or corn or
vegetables from a field, or pluck fruit of any description from
off a tree although the owners tell them todo so. They in-
variably wait till the proprietor or person employed by him
has helped them with his own hands, otherwise they will pass
quietly on.

During the jutras or pilgrimages to the different shrines of
Krishen at the time of the annual festivals, it is customary
for persons who have made vows in the name of the Maun
Bhows, to entertain a certain number of the pilgrim devo-
tees for one, two, or three days; and such of the Mhunths
as may have been fortunate enough to receive in charity any
money, or large quantity of grain, make a point of entertain-
ing all the Maun Bhow Alteeths (religiously austere characters)

that may be present for one or more days*.

The Hindoos of the present day although in general very
remiss in the observance of their religious duties,few of them,

especially of the lower orders, will approach a temple or pass

a rough stone or block of timber besmeared with red paint
(Sendoor, Minium) and stuck up im a field or under a tree,

as the representative of some tutelary deity, without per-

forming the Numskar, (customary salutation). The Maun
Bhows on the other hand abhor these red painted stones or

‘blocks, and if they are aware there is one in the road they

are travelling, they will make a circuit to avoid it.

* The Mhunth Sadhy Raz of the Punjuby villy, received a considerable sum of

- money in a present from Hindoostan, and in consequence sent notice to many

>

places inviting the Maun Bhows to Rood’hpoor, on Chytre Poornimah 1831, as he
meant to entertain all that would attend; about fourteen or fifteen thousand pil-
grims visited the place and he provided provisions for all for nearly one month,
till the Cholera made its appearance and forced them to look for safety in flights
Nothing is more common than to hear ofthe Cholera making its appearance among
the crowds of pilgrims that assemble on such occasions.

6. An account of the Maun Bhows. {Jan.

The Maun Bhows reckon it a meritorious act to persuade
persons to become converts to their faith ; they however ex-
ercise a very considerable degree of caution in guarding
against persons of improper character being admitted into
their society, unless the candidate or person desiring to be-
come a Neerwan (a sanctified character) is known to some
of them : they interrogate him very particularly for the pur-
pose of ascertaining what his real motives are in wishing to
renounce the world and to join their fraternity : and if the
candidate is‘an inhabitant of the place at which they are
residing at the time, they will make enquiries to the same
effect in the village. The Maun Bhows are always extremely
anxious to avoid giving the least umbrage to the relatives and
friends of a candidate. They warn him publicly to consider
well the nature of the step he is desirous of taking, and that
they cannot comply with his wish, until they are well inform-
ed respecting him. Itis probably after asserting he would
apply to some other Maun Bhows to be instructed by them,
that they are induced to listen to his arguments : however
they deem it necessary to watch ‘closely the conduct of ‘the
novice for some time. They point out to him the propriety
of reconsidering the step he is about taking, before he de-
cides finally on becoming one of ‘their brethren; for that in his
new life (they look upon it as a state of regeneration) he will
have to encounter many difficulties and privations, and that
unless he is satisfied in his own mind that he possesses suf-
cient resolution, patience, temperance and virtue, it will not
be in his power to conform with the obligations he ‘places
himself under, after he has forsaken temporal things and put
himself under the guidance of-one of their Gooroos (spiritual
instructors).

The novice is now exhorted to be steady in his conduct
and to venerate and adore their god Krishen, and to reject the
worship of all other gods. That the name of Krishen is
never tobe forgotten but always to be uppermost in his
thoughts. That in all his dealings he is invariably to evince
the greatest meekness, resignation and contentedness. Al-
ways to be most particular in telling the truth, and to speak
evil of no one, and he is recommended to confess readily any

1836. ] in account of the Maun Bhows. a

sin he may be guilty of andask for pardon: to subdue ail
carnal desires and content himself with the simple and scan-
ty fare he can procure by begging, and by sucha course prove
himself a sober, obedient and pious Maun Bhow. In the event
of the novice being convinced in his own mind that he can
abide by the obligations of the vow heis ebout taking name-
ly, that of chastity, poverty and obedience, he is required to
confirm his intentions by taking an cath on the Geeta to
that%ffect. This will be in a few weeks, or months from the
time he expressed a wish to become a convert ; all depending
on the manner in which he has conducted himself: while he
remained with them. ‘The ceremony of his initiation then
takes place, the village barber’s services are put in requisition
on the occasion, he shaves off the candidates hair, but it is
the invariable duty of the Gooroo to cut off the Sendhy* or
tuft of hair on the crown of the head, and his mustaches or
hair on his upper lip, (which all natives preserve) after this he
bathes and dresses in black clothes, the costume of the order ;
the munter or incantation of the fraternity in the Prakrit
language, is then whispered in his ear by his Gooroo, who
gives the novice at the same time,a new name indicatory of
the circumstance of his new birth.

The ceremony of initiating females, is performed in the
Same manner as the above, only that in general an old |
female of the society acts the part the Gooroo performs
in cutting off the tuft of hair on the crown of the head.
The cloth worn round the waist and down to the ankles by
the females is quite black and ought to be twelve cubits in
length and two and a half in breadth. The length of that
worn over the shoulders is according to circumstances,—this
cloth is divided into three divisions, the centre one is part of
a woman’s common sary and the twoend pieces are dark, but
not of such a dark hue as the other garments. ‘The dhoitur
used by the men is worn double ; the oorny or cloth they
wear over their shoulders and their turbands are not of so
black a colour as their dhottur. The few Maun Bhows who

TTT oe Se Se ne meee ERE NEED CRN, CE SERRE RRS a RT

* The Sendhy of the various candidates is preserved till a considerable quan-
tity of hair has been collected when ropes are made of it which they fasten round
their loins,

99 An account of the Maun Bhows. [Jan.

reside in the Punjab wear clothes of the hoormoojee, or red
ochre colour.

When aman has left his family and becomes a Maun Bhow
he either gives away what property he may have possessed
to his family or relatives, otherwise he presents it to his Gyo-
roo or Munth, who soon expends it in entertaining his disci-
ples. It is very seldom the novice retains for his own use
any money he had in his possession previous to his conver-
sion. o

Boys and girls that have been consecrated to the Maun
Bhows, are dressed in black clothes after they have been de-
livered over to the Gooroos, but the munter of initiation is
not communicated to them until they have attained the age
of fifteen or sixteen years ; and seem worthy of having the
secret confided to them. ‘The male and female members of
the society reside in the same Mhutts, but sleep in separate
apartments, as they are taught from the day of their initia-
tion to regard each other strictly and sacredly as members of
the same family ; they consequently look upon each other in
the light of father or mother, brother or sister. The circum-
stances however, of their residing under the same roof, and
the habits and frailties of the Hindoo people being well known
to each other, gives room to the idle and malicious to talk
rather calumniously of the general chastity of the females of
this community, however when any one of them does sin, and
she exhibits symptoms of becoming a mother, she and her
paramour are admonished and required to ask pardon and do
penance for the act they have been guilty of, and in bringing
disgrace on the society by their shameful and disereditable
conduct: having thus transgressed against the rules and
customs of the order, it becomes necessary for the sinners
to retire from the Mhutt and to discontinue moving about
the country in company of the Neerwans (rigidly austere)
and they therefore take shelter in some retired village, and
take up their permanent abode in the place, if they find it
possible to subsist by begging and following some other pur-
sults. They are then termed Ghurbars, Grushts, or lay bro-
thers. There are several of these to be found in the villages
in different parts of the country, who are allowed to possess

1836. ] Jin account of the Maun Bhows. 23

houses, lands, and riches, and to follow other pursuits.
some years ago [ had one of them employed in the Police ;
they are also permitted to enter into the bonds of conjugal
tenderness, but who in other respects with the exception of
wearing black clothes, adhere strictly to custom and habits
of the order.

It is not unusual to hear of the Maun Bhows having fol-
lowers among the Koonbies and other classes who are term-
ed Bhoalls (persons who abstain from partaking of flesh, fish,
and spirituous liquors). ‘The Bhoalls do not cut off the
Sendhy or wear black clothes, but they receive the munter of
initiation after having solemnly vowed on the Geeta that
they will acknowledge Krishen as their only god, and that
they will abandon the worship of all others. It is absolutely
necessary for the man who becomes a Bhoall to have his wife
also initiated, but then it must not be by the same Gooroo ora
member of the same villy or Mhutt that instructed her hus-
band : were they both to be initiated by the same Gooroo,
the distinction of husband and wife would no longer exist ;
they would become members of the same family and be con-
sidered as brother and sister ; and with the Bhoalls such a
consummation is not desired.

These Bhoalls* frequently attend the shrines in Mhutts
when the Maun Bhows are absent and receive any offerings
presented in the name of Krishen, these consist of every de-
scription of fruit, sugar, rice, bread, &c. and all sorts of
flowers except the Kunner or Oleandur.

* About three miles from Rakissbhaun there is a small village named Sagur
on the banks of the Godavery, where about a hundred years ago there resided a
female of the Maun Bhow sect, in charge of the Mhutt. It appears that the wife
ofa poor Mussulman an inhabitant of the place despaired of having any children
and after the manner of the Hindoos she presented herself before the Devyotce
and asked her for her blessing, and she vowed that if she should have a child it
should be consecrated to Krishen. It so happened that her hopes were realized
and in fulfilment of her vow she presented the child to the old Maun Bhow
Devotee; who entreated of the mother to keep the infant, as she could neither
receive nor adopt it as it was not of the Hindoo faith; after much persuasion on
the part of the mother, the old woman allowed her to leave the boy in the Mhutt
with her. Inthe course of afew years the old Maun Bhow woman died, and the
proselyte remained in charge of the shrines, he afterwards married and his descen-
dants continue in charge of the place. They wear black clothes, abstain from
fiesh and spirits and subsist by begging and on the offerings presented at the
shrines,

24 An account of the Maun Bhows. [ Jan.

About sixty years ago, a Brahmin named Annund Rooshy
an inhabitant of Pytun on the Godavery, maltreated a Maun
Bhow who came to ask for alms at his door. The Maun
Bhow after being beaten proceeded to his friends in the vici+
nity, they collected a large number of the brethren and went
to the Brahmin to demand satisfaction, Annund Rooshy as-
sembled a number of Goossynes and his friends and. pursued
and attacked the Maun Bhows who fled and asked Aylla
Baie to protect them; she endeavoured to pacify Anrund
Rooshy, by telling him that the Maun Bhows were her Goo-
roos, he said they were Mangs* however he then declared
that if they agreed to his proposals that he would forgive
them,—one of them was that they were not to go to a Brah-
min’s house to ask alms, and another was, that if any Brah-
min repeated Annund Rooshy’s name and drew a line across
the road when a Maun Bhow was advancing, that the Maun
Bhow without saying a word must return the road. he came,
notwithstanding this attempt to prevent their approaching a
Brahmin’s house, they continue to ask alms of the Brahmins
and some Brahmins make a point of supplying them with
provisions. ,

The sect of Maun Bhows have hitherto in general been
much noticed by the Holkur family. The famous Aylla Baie
was always very kind to them, and bestowed several villages
in jageer on members of their community. The village of
Oosswar now Chandore, continues to be held in jageer} by a

Fe ee ee

—-

ce

* Every Maun Bhow male and female is furnished with a rosary. The beads
about the size of a cherry stone, are made of the toolsy (ocimum sanctum) sacred
to Vishnoo. The chundun or sandalwood (satalum album) the looraty (the cytisus
cajan) and chappa (the michelia champacca) sacred to Krishen.

+ About 122 years ago a Maun Bhow Mhunth named Krishen Bowa, had at:
tained great celebrity on account of his knowledge of medicine; and, being con-
sidered deserving of some reward, the Neeballkur chieftain of Kurmulla who
held the town of Jowur, in jageer, presented him with sixteen Begahs of ground,
in enam (freehold gift). The farmer who held the ground on the meerassy
(hereditary) tenure, continued to cultivate it, (which the descendants do to this
day) presenting the Maun Bhow with half the annual produce of the field.
Krishen Bowa’s successors for a length of time were his own disciples, however
one of these eventually became a Ghurbar (lay brother) so that the present pos-
sessor has gota family. Before the ground was granted in enam, the rent paid to
Government, was twenty Rupees yearly, but one of the Maun Bhows improved
his little property by digging a well, which enabled them to convert about twelve
Regahs of it into garden ground, which has so greatly increased its value that the.
Maun Bhow receives now fifty rupees income yearly.

1836. ] An account of the Maun Biows. 25:

female Maun Bhow, and it may. be stated that Toolsy Baie,
the favorite of the late notorious Jesswunt Row Holkur who.
was beheaded by the chief of Holkur’s army on the evening
preceding the battle of Mahidpoor, was of the Maun. Bhow
tribe. It is said that Jesswunt Row, was smitten by her
beauty and. took her forcibly away from her friends; she was
a woman of dissolute habits, and led a most abandoned life.
after the death of Jesswunt Row Holkur : but as a full ac-
count of this very extraordinary female has been given by
the late Sir John Malcolm, in. the seventh chapter, of the lst
volume of his very interesting History of Central India, there.
is no occasion for saying more about her in this paper.

The Maun Bhows bury their dead but at some distance
beyond the limits of the village cemetry. The body is put
imto the grave with the head to the north, and the feet to.
the south, and reclining on the left side with the face to the
east. A quantity of salt is put into the grave, and heaped
round the body, it is said, to prevent it becoming too offen-
sive during thestate of decomposition, by which means the
wild beasts might discover the grave and be induced to.
scratch it open.

The Maun Bhows have divested themselves of several
of the Hindoo-. prejudices ; they do not consider that any
defilement (sootuk) arises from the death of one of their
community: nor do they attend to the ceremonies of the
Shraadh (offerings to the manes), like the other Hindoos.
In the event of one of the fraternity dying and he leaves.
any money, it is invariably expended in, entertaining a cer-
tain number for a period of ten days: should the deceased
have died in astate of poverty, the Mhunth or superior ex-
pends a few rupees to admit of a certain number of the
brethren being entertained forthe usual number of days:
and should a Maun Bhow expire where none of his tribe are
residing, the Bhoalls or Koonbies. of the village will bury
him, aad any money he may have left is carried to the near-
est Mhutt; it is all disbursed in entertaining afew Alteeths
during the number of the days that may happen to remain of
the first ten days that they celebrate in remembrance of the.
— deceased.

26 New upplication of grafting. [Jan.

If we only compare the character of the Maun Bhow de-
votees with that of other religious sects to whom in some
respects they bear a resemblance, such as the Goossynes, the
Byraggies, Wagheas, &c. we shall discover some very mark-
ed distinctions between them. The humility, the patrence
and inoffensive demeanour of the Maun Bhow, is very re-
markable, and his veracity and steadiness of purpose are so
established, that it has become to some extent proverbial
among the Koonbies and others to remark of a person re-
formed in his habits, “ why he has acquired the forbearance
and humility of a Maun Bhow’”’—or “ he seems to possess the
integrity of a Maun Bhow.” ‘The Goossynes, &c. are m
general notorious for their licentious habits, bold and enter-
prising conduct, and obtrusive and overbearing manners.
These men often grossly abuse the freedom their sanctity of
character confers on them, and which otherwise ought to
ensure a most welcome reception to them from the inhabi-
‘tants of the country, when they are wandering from place to
place. The consequence therefore is that we find all des-
criptions of vagabonds attired after the peculiar manner of
these devotees. It is a very common practice for swindlers,
robbers, and murderers, when they are going to commit some
malicious or wicked act to adopt the dress of a Goossyne,
and affect to follow his habits to prevent being either known
or suspected: and persons that have been guilty of perpe-
trating crimes and apprehensive of being seized, assume the
dress of a Goossyne ta enable them to elude detection and
to effect their escape.

Se

ee ree

{il.— Suggestions for a new application of grafting —By —
Rosert Wiaeut, Esq. m. v. Surgeon. |

To the Editor of the Madras Journal 3
of Literature and Science.
Srr,—To those who observe the signs of the times, it must
be evident that reform is the order of the day, otherwise we
could scarcely have expected, in Madras, the proverbially
benighted presidency, in the short space of two years, two
such vast improvements, as the successful establishment ofa

-1836.] New application of grafting. 27

scientific journal, and the formation of a Horticultural
Society; the one fitted, znéer alca, to diffuse a knowledge of
the useful discoveries made by the other, as well as of useful
suggestions to be acted upon, either by the society as a
body in its experimental garden, or by individuals favourably
situated for conducting such inquiries.

It would appear from their selecting horticulture, a science
both useful and ornamental, as the starting post of their re-
fornas, that the society of this presidency have wisely deter-
mined, to commence with objects of a practically useful kind,
in which all take an interest, and can with a clear conscience
unite in forwarding, whatever his political opinions may be,
objects in short about which “ Whig and Tory all agree.”

This is wise, as all may now with one accord, unite in an
effort to shake off that lethargic indifference to local improve-
ment,which has so long clung to us, and procured for us, among
our, sot-disant, enlightened neighbours, the not very flatter-
ing cognomen of benighted, ‘The time has now arrived
for making such an effort, and ] trust the presidency mem-
bers will be ably seconded by their brethren in the provinces,
who surely cannot remain indifferent spectators of attempts
made to augment their individual comforts, by extending the
commercial resources of the country, and thereby advancing
national prosperity. In the belief that many of your readers
are Horticulturists, and desirous of actively co-operating with.
the society in the good cause, I send you the following sug-
gestions, in the hope of seeing them speedily and successfully
acted upon. I expect they will have another good effect,
that of pointing out the Madras Journal as an excellent chan-
nel, through which to make known the result of experiments
undertaken for the advancement of the science, whether suc-
cessful or otherwise. If this course was generally adopted it
would in the course of a few years become as it were a store-
house, in which might be found recorded, every important
fact, tending to the improvement of horticulture on this side
of India, te which compilers might always have recourse,
with the certainty of being able to cull from its pages many
a choice flower not to be found elsewhere. But it is time to
proceed with the immediate object of this communication,

28 New application of grafting. [Tan

which is, to suggest a new application of grafting or in-
arching, the process usually adopted in India. Grafting, it is
well known, is avery ancient art. Formerly it was more
practised to astonish the ignorant than for any really useful
purpose, but in modern times, it 1s rarely employed except to
gain some desirable object, such as rendering trees fruitful,
improving the qualities of the fruit, preserving or rapidly
multiplying the finer varieties of fruit-trees, or ornamental
trees and shrubs, changing the sorts of fruit on any treé; and
many others. The new application to which I wish to call
attention, is that of rendering it a means of naturalizing new
fruits among us.

It is well known, that many trees brought from coun-
tries not very distant, will not grow, say for example, in
gardens at Madras, or if they do grow, will not perfect
or even bear fruit. The failure is usually attributed to the
uncongenial climate and considered ‘irremediable. Of course
no steps are taken to remove an obstacle believed imsur-
mountable, to change the climate of a country, being indeed
far beyond the reach of human ingenuity. So long as such
an opinion prevails every new attempt will only tend to con-
firm it, by an additional failure. Before however adopting
such a discouraging opinion, we ought to satisfy ourselves,
that we have carefully guarded against every source of fallacy
that might tend to mar the success of our experiment.
Subject as we all are, in this country, to frequent change of
place, it has fallen to the lot of few, to enjoy opportunities of
conducting such a course of experiments to a successful con-
clusion, and to fewer still the requisite degree of skill and
knowledge of vegetable physiology. Now however, times
are changed. The formation of a society in some measure
pledged to the undertaking, having an experimental garden
under its control and among its members talented men, fitted
by tastes and previous pursuits, for conducting such an expe-
rimental inquiry, to a successful termination, if success be at-
tainable, or if not, of setting such questions at rest for ever,
we have no longer any excuse for leaving them in doubt.

It appears to me that there is room to doubt the correct-
ness of the opinion which attributes failure to change of

1836. New application of grafting. 2g

climate alone, as it is well known, that fruit trees, which have
been barren for years, have at once become fruitful on the soil
being changed. ‘The records of horticulture present num-
berless cases of this kind. That change of climate or expo-
suré had no influence on the result is proved by the trees not
being removed from the spot on which they originally grew.
It is equally on record, in the annals of horticulture, that
whole borders have been nearly unproductive until by artifi-
cial Ynaeans the trees were prevented sending their roots into
an uncongenial subsoil, when an immediate change took place,
both in the quantity and quality of the fruit produced. Such
cases, and they are neither few nor far between, affording un-
deniable proof of the great influence exerted by soil, on both
the health and productiveness of fruit trees in their native
country, there can be no difficulty in allowing it in the case of
exotics, an equal if not a greater power. We may even goa
step farther I think, and broadly assert that if the tree at-
tempted to be introduced is a tropical plant, that the chances
against success, depend more on the soil than on local differ-
ences of climate. On these grounds, I would urge on the
attention of the society, the propriety of, as early as possible,
commencing a course of experiments illustrative of the
respective influence of soil and climate in counteracting the
successful introduction of useful plants, as well as, on their
influence in increasing or diminishing their produce.

To gain this information, I would suggest as one of the
means to be tried, that of grafting, the trees under experi-
ment, on hardy country stocks, that are known to thrive in
nearly all kinds of soil, and observe, whether such scions are
more healthy and productive than the parent trees. My at-
tention was first called to the subject, by observing the num-
ber of thriving and fruitful trees, introduced at Courtallum,
though of species usually most difficult to manage, a result,
which I am inclined to attribute mainly to the peculiar ferti-
lity of the scil, without however, wishing to detract in the
slightest degree from the excellence of the climate. The
only precaution to be observed, as indispensably necessary to
success in grafting, is that of always using stocks, of the same
genus or natural order with the scion to be grafted. The

30 New application of grafting. [Jan

cocoa for example one of those introduced at Courtallum
may be transferred to a stock of bastard cedar (guazuma
tomentasa) one of the most common Indian trees, found in
every kind of soil and situation. The mangosteen (garcinia
man gostana) which also grows well, and bears fruit at Cour-
tallum, may be grafted on the common Pinny marum, (calo-
phylium Inaphyllum) but still better on some of our country
species ef Garcinia, which though not so common and hardy
plants as the Pinny, yet grow and bear fruit in our garéens,
indicating suitableness of the soil.

The Pimente or all-spice also growing at Courtallum mightbe
readily transferred to any of our numerous myrtaceous plants,
with every chance of success, and possesses the additional re-
commendation of forming ahandsome tree, and so very fragrant
that it scents the air to somedistance around. The orange which,
rarely produces good fruit except in alpine or subalpine situa-
tions might be grafted on lime or pumplemose stocks, both of
which are known to bring their fruit to perfection, and parti-
cularly the last, even on the sea coast, with I think every
chance of success, as I cannot help thinking, from having
met with exceptions to the general rule, that the deteriora-
tion of the fruit on the plain is principally owing to the un-
favourable kind of soil. Of the olive tribe, which I am sur-.
prised has not yet been introduced or even so far as I know.
attempted, we have several indigenous species, on which the
true olive might be grafted, if found necessary,which I doubt,
as it is known to bring its fruit to the greatest perfection in
the driest and hottest parts of the south of Europe, and
thrives well in Egypt and Syria, and is besides of Asiatic
origin, though now best known as a European plant. Our
figs which are always greatly inferior both in size and flavour
to those produced in the south of Europe, the Levant and
Tripoli, might perhaps be greatly improved by grafting on
some of the numerous indigenous species of that genus.

I have now I trust said enough in illustration of my recom-
mendation to induce the Horticultural Society to institute a
series of experiments on the subject. Should they succeed,
and I can see no reason to anticipate failure we may all in
the course of a few years enjoy the luxury of drinking cocoa

1836. New application of grafting. gl
for breakfast, the produce of our own gardens, of having our
deserts enriched with mangosteens, fine oranges, and figs,
and perhaps olives equally the produce of our gardens; be-
sides many other good things which will be successively
tritd as the principle which I advocate becomes better known,
and the practice founded on it generally adopted. Coffee
‘might equally form an article of domestic supply, as it can
with a little care, be cultivated and of very fine quality, on
the “plains of the Carnatic. The care required is not very
great amounting only to sowing the seeds ina cool shady
place, and afterwards transplanting the young plants mto a
good soil, sheltered from the direct influence of the land wind.
So situated they thrive well, and form a truly ornamental as
well as useful addition to the garden, and in their turn afford
‘shelter to other things requiring such protection. With
these suggestions for the practical application of botanical
science to our daily wants, I conclude this communication,
and hope it may be the means of eliciting others of greater
vaiue from men gifted with more practical knowledge than
falls to the lot of your obedient servant.
etait ROBERT WIGHT.
PatamcoTran, 30th October, 1835. 2

P. 8.—As a cordial friend, and a sincere well-wisher for
the prosperity of the Horticultural Society, I shall with your
‘permission avail myself of the present opportunity, to recom-
mend for the consideration of the society, the propriety of
publishing quarterly, reports of its proceedings in the jour-
nal, as well as in the less stable columns of a newspaper. A
regular series of such reports might in a few years be ren-
dered a valuable record both of useful facts established on the
soundest basis, successfully conducted experiment and ob- —
servation, and of fruitless attempts at improvement, often
not less useful, in saving expense and labour, by preventing
others going over the same ground, on the supposition that it
remained untrodden. Such reports might besides serve as so
many guides for other societies in different parts of the coun-
try, having similar objects in view, and lastly they would
enable its friends far and near to watch over its progress,
study both the good and bad points of the system pursued,

32 On the land winds of Coromundel. "[ Fan.

point out its defects, and suggest remedies for their correc-
tion, in that way exerting a wholesome control over the pro-

ceedings of the managing committee alike beneficial to all
parties, by the confidence which publicity establishes between
the representative and represented bodies. These areall
objects of the first importance to the well-being of the insti-
tution, but searcely attainable from the ephemeral existence
of newspaper reports which are usually barely read, perhaps
scarcely glanced over and thrown aside to be no more theught
‘of as if they had only been published to fill a corner of the
paper, or intended to kill the passing hour. But were it
otherwise, it rarely happens that newspapers can find room
for reports so full and comprehensive as to stamp them witha
permanent value in a scientific point of view, both of which
objects might be attained through the medium of the jour-
nal. 3

IV.—On the cause of the Land Winds of Coromandel.—

By Rosert Wieurt, Esq. m. pv. Surgeon.

«This peculiar dryness which has been long remarked,
but never so far as I can learn, have accounted for, is I think
satisfactorily explained on the principle already mentioned,
the change of capacity for moisture which the air undergoes,
in passing from acolder and more condensed state, toa
warmer and more rarified condition: a principle, which pro-
bably increases the intense dryness of our hot land winds |
and perhaps assists in some clegree in explaining their eae 4)

Observations &c. Mad. Jour. vol. 2d, p. 381—

Of the correctness of the Theory proposed in the ae
extract, my valued and talented friend Mr. Malcolmson has,
in a letter, expressed some doubts. ‘These have induced me
to reconsider the subject, and as the result tends strongly to
confirm my views, I propose offering some further remarks in
explanation of them. Mr. M. observes *« according to your
theory the great dryness and heat of the country, would be —
left out. The winds are really dry, and not only apparently |
so, for although they produce great cold, they will cause no
dew on Daniel’s H ygrometer, when they blow at Hyslerabad,
as I tried it for several days.”

oS essay

1836. On the land winds of Coromandel, 33

This experiment though correct-so far as it goes, is I con-
ceive, one of those most apt to mislead, and thereby impede >
the attainment of just views in science, by not guarding
against the sources of fallacy to which it is exposed. Ac-—
cording to the theory I ventured to propose, the heat and
dryness of the country necessarily form one of its elements, «
by rarifyi ing the super-incumbent stratum of air, and causing -
as it were, a partial vacuum giving rise toa rush ne cold moist
_and dense air from the mountains, to equalize the pressure.
The cold air of the mountains mixing with the heated air of

the plains, becomes in its turn rarified, and in the same pro-'
portion has its capacity to absorb and retain moisture in-
creased. ‘This or something approaching to it, if I mistake ©
not, is the commonly received opinion, but has hitherto been
considered unsatisfactory on account of occasional anomalies
which it either does or seems to present. I stated that. the
remarkable dryness of the aiz at Courtallum had been long

observed but never satisfactorily explained. The explanation
_ I gave, I still consider correct, because the same wind whick
_ is cool and even loaded with moisture there, has acquired the
heat and dryness, peculiar to the land winds, by the time it
| reaches Palamcottzh, only 30 miles distant, thus proving the
| truth of the theory by demonstrating what has hitherto been
matter of conjecture only. I certainly have not put it to the -
test of experiment, because I had it not in my power, but I
_ have no hesitation in stating as my conviction, that if tried
| inthe usual way at Courtallum, there would be a copious
| deposition of dew proving the supposed dryness only appa-
/rent; while at Palamcottah the instrument would indicate
_ nearly absolute dryness, the same as at Hyderabad. I say, if:
| tried in the usual way, for in using the instrument both balls

are equally exposed to the current of air. If the air is only
moderately rarified as at Courtallum from its proximity to
'the cocl and moist atmosphere of the Malabar monsoon,
: its capacity for moisture is but little increased, and the re-

| duction of a few degrees of heat would produce a more rapid

|_ deposition, than the simultaneous evaporation would remove,

but st Palamcottah in similar circumstances, owing to the
“more highly rexified state of the air, and its greater capacity

34 On the land winds of Coromandel. [ [Jan.

for moisture, the deposition would be slower, and the eva-
poration so much quicker, that the one would counter-
balance the other and indicate a state of perfect dryness.
Our reason informs us this 1 is impossible, and consequently,
that there must be some source of fallacy, either in the in-
strument or in the mode of conducting the experiment,which
has not been guarded against. Such I conceive to have been
the case in Mr. Malcolmson’s experiments, and believe that
we must before we can arrive at accurate results isolate the
dry or naked ball of the instrument, so as to prevent, rapid
evaporation from its surface, since the same cause acting at
the same time, on both balls of the instrument, must neces-
sarily produce the same effect on both, namely, evaporation,
and if the evaporation equals or exceeds the rapidity of depo-
sition, absolute dryness will be indicated though the case
may be far otherwise. The correctness of the theory there-
fore remains unaffected by these experiments, while to my
mind the facts adduced in support of it leave no doubt of its
affording the true explanation of the cause of g's hot land
winds.
Between the meridians of Courtallum and maitecbneett we
can actually trace them from their origin to their termina-
tion. The same causes are in operation from Cape Comorin
tothe head of the gulf of Cambay. So long as the south-
west monsoon prevails, the temperature on the west coast is
considerably lower than on the east, and the air loaded with
vapour, and so long is the whole country to the eastward of
the Malabar mountains subject to visitations of the land
winds: more or less modified by local causes; but the prin-
‘ciple is the same throughout, and similar in kind to that
which produces the changes of the monsoons themselves ;
‘namely, the action of solar heat, on extensive tracts of
‘country, producing local atmospherical rarification, and its
consequences a rush of denser air to restore the equilibrium
from pants not subjected to the same influence. _
Patamcorran, 31st October, 1835.
Notr.—Since writing the above I find in Myers’ Systerh
‘of Geography .a reference to “ Roxburgh’s Essay on the
“Land Winds of Coromandel.” This essay I haye not seen,

1836.] A brief notice of the Persian poets, “Bo

nor do.I know where it is printed, so that I am unable to refer
to the opinions of that illustrious author beyond the short
extract in Myers’ work, which only treats of their heat. He
(Roxburgh) mentions 115° as the highest he had ever seen
the thermometer, but adds “ that some say they have ob-
served it at 130 degrees” during their prevalence. _ — -

2d Nov. 1835.

.. Wi—A brief notice of some of the Persian Bb Sug
e Lieutenant Newsoin, 23d Regiment M,N. L.
(Continued from Vol. ii. page 254.)

Abii! Olai Ganjawi.
. oft US. s Addlay!

OT bin, so was the weeks of Khakani and F; bleki against
ihe former of whom he wrote some satirical verses which are
adduced by Hamdallah in his chapter on poets in the Tarikh-—
2-Guzidah. They form one among the many specimens of
the impure.style of Persian writers.—Khakéni, stung to the
quick, vowed vengeance on the author, who however, averted
from himself the probable consequences of his own imprudence
by the timely production of some conciliatory stanzas, and
bestowing the hand of his daughter in marriage, on his irri-
tated pupil. Mahomed Bakht&wer Khan, in his 7azkirat-us-
Shora, mentions. that Faleki, jealous of Khakani’s good for-
tune, retired in.disgust from the world. Abdl Oli, when he
heard of this, sent. Faleki. a thousand direms, telling him
that ‘such a sum would be sufficient to purchase forty beau-
tiful damsels, each far preferable. to the daughter of Abul
eS |,

— Abi Oli flourished i in the sixth century of the Hejira :
among his ‘compositions is a Diwan which is highly spoken
of by Persian writers. His Pand-i-Arjaji. contains | some
elegant and fanciful poetry.

Abu Bekr Cini (of Cazoin in Jebal ).
( vy « yl

Cazoini was the auehoe eh a- Lapa -nameh, He. died
A? iH, 738. ; + We Rae

86 “A brief notice of the Persian-poets. [Tan.
Abul Feraz Sanjari. |
Sybil sl Vaal

;

A poet of repute who flourished in the sixth century of the
Hejira, during the reign of Sultan Sanjaz, sixth monarch of
the Sa ei

Ahmek or Abii Najib al Bokhtare.
seal , )
Ahmek was surnamed Ustad-us-Shora, preceptor. of the
poets; he nearly attamed the age of 100 years and flourished
during the reign of Khizr Khan Seljaki in the fifth century
of the Hejira. Ahmek was the chief of the hundred poets
whom Khizr Khan entertained at his court. He excelled in
the composition of odes. ot

Aenea Razi.

us) us pal
Flourished in the reign ‘and resided at the Court of Mah-
) mid Sabactagi.

Abal Nazam Mahommed.
AAS \8 - Vo \ By)

_ Surnamed Féleki, and styled Shems-us-Shora, the sun of

the poets, also Malek-al-fazala, prince of the learned. The
compositions of this poet are preferred by Oriental writers to
those of his contemporaries, Khakani and Zahivr.

He was a pupil of Abal Olai Ganjawi, and native of Sha-
makhi in Shirwan, where he died A. H. 577—* having ren-
dered himself the wonder of the age by upwards of forty
thousand excellent verses.” It is said that he owes the ap-
pellation Fdlehi, celestial, to his profound knowledge of As-
tronomy. Herbelot thus remarks—

<‘L” on donne le surnom de Feleki 4 nétre poete, a cause,
dit on, du commerce qu’il eut au sujet de ses amours, dans
la maison d’un Astrologue, qui lui fit naitre le desir d’appren-

dre lastrologie que les Arabes appellent Elm al Felek, la sci- _ .

ence du ciel. I] fit de si grands progrez dans cette science,

qwil composa méme un. traité intilulé Abcam Nogiaum, des

1836.) -A-brief notice of the Persian poets. 287

jugemens astrologiques, ouvrage fort estimé par les gens de
cette profession.

L’ on dit que ses amours le porterent 4 un si grand excez
de melancholie, qu’il resolut de rompre tout commerce avec
les hommes, et de se retirer dans le coin d’une maison ecar-
tée, qui étoit a Vextremité de la rue ot logeoit sa miaitresse.
I] y composa d’abord ce quatrain qu'il lui envoya, ou il
s’addresse au vent qui passoit devant sa porte, avant que
d’ arriver au logis de sa dame, et il lui dit:

‘< La rancon et le prix de ma vie sera ta recompense, si
dans le moment que tu passeras devant le logis de ma mai-
tresse, tu lue dis ces paroles.

J’ay vu en passant, au coin de cette rue un amant éperdu;
qui pressé de Boman desir de vous voir est sur le point de
rendre l’ame.’ |

Un jour ayant appris que la personne qu'il aimoit, etoit
dans son voisinage et qu’elle lui donnoit part de son arrivée,
il essuya ses larmes; et passant tout d’un coup dune extréme
joye, 11 chanta ces vers : -

“Le plaisir que j’al senti entendant seulement le bruit de
VOS pas:

O vous qui assassinez sur les grands chemins le bon sens
de tous vos amants,

_ Passionné que je suis de voir unique objet de tous mes
‘souhaits ; apres mil momens languissanis d’une foible espe-
-yance, ;
Ce plaisir, dis-je, a laissé enfin échapper mon ceeur sur les
prunelles de mes Teak et a fait courir toute mon ame 4 la
porte de mon oreille.”’
. It is strongly suspected that Faleki did not long cantitgs

faithful to his Astrological studies after discovering the stars
of his destiny in the light- shedding eyes of his mistress ; at
all events authors are agreed on this, that he entirely forsook
the dry and tangled paths of mathematical lore for the flow-
ery meads and verdant regions of poesy. :

Abil Fereh.

Fey
cyt »

An excellent poet, native of wi antic hs oie secretly
‘termed Sejestani, pi | ia bi

38 A brief notice of the Persian poets. [Jany

Abu Ishak Atimah Hallaj Shirdzi, (of Shiraz).
SNS & Va dank! p lsilogl

Shirazi was one or the courtiers of “Suttith Secunder, Bin
Sultan Amir Shaikh, Bin Amir Timur. He died A. H, 827.
It is said that he had a very long beard and on one occasion
when he appeared at the Sultan’s table, after an absence of
some days, he answered, in reply to a question of the prince
as to the cause of his absence, “ Oh sire, your slave has been
employ red one day in dressing cotton, and three days in plucke
ing the shreds from his beard.” The word Hallaj, mee in

Arabic signifies a dresser of cotton, to which Peak our
poet owes his surname and to which he alludes in his answer;
as a hint, no doubt, for the prince to make him de ae
of so low a vocation for his support.

Ozuri.
| 6)

This poet was an inhabitant of Asgharain. He wrote an
ode in praise of Shah-rukh-Mirza, and subsequently entered
into the service of Shah Niamet Allah Wali, by whom he was
esteemed and treated with great regard. He performed the
pilgrimage to the holy city on foot three times; and there
compiled the work, Sdi-us-Sefa. \g.2) | ut He also travelled

into Hindustan whence he returned to Khorassan. He died
A. H. 966 and was interred at Asgharain.

Asef.
iste!

Asefi was the son of Diwan Khajeh Naim eta Vizir of
Sultan Abu Said: he retired in disgust from the court of this
monarch and spent his days in peaceful tranquillity and con-

tent, at Herat where he died A. H. 920.

dyeans Khorasséni (of Khorassan ).
ler |e ors 1 ‘
Khorassani was a poet of some note, partly from his com-
positions and partly from the circumstance of being deprived
of his right hand and tongue, by order of Amir Khan Turko-

1836 ] A brief notice of the Persian poets. 89

man, Hakim of Herat. It is said that he afterwards reco-
vered the faculty of speech, and was able to write better with
his left, than he had done previously with his right hand. He
died A. H. 832.

_ Akadsi Mushahedi.
pa od gts O¢ cas RY)
_-This poet was one of the courtiers of Shah Abbas and of a
good family. He died at the early age of 36 and was buried
at Cazvin. He composed a Saki Namen.

ferom

Abu Terab Beg Ferkati.
sy 5 KN ti i)
~ Ferkati flourished in the reign of Shah Abbas ; and, accord-
ing to native authority, was the first poet of his time: prefer-
ring retirement he quitted the Court, ‘‘ The lamp He life of
this enlightener of the banquet of literature became extinct at

Ispahan A. H. 1007.

pare
‘s oy \c we \y 3, Ve
Avif, commonly styled Mila Arifi, flourished in the reign
of Shah-Jehan. He composed a Diwan, and» a Miccrsins
called Mihr-wa-Mah, the Sun and Moon.
Mahomed Afzel, in his Tazhkiret-i-Sirkhish gives a brief
account of this poet.

Abid.

dle
: asia also Re in Shah Jehan’s reign: his real name was
Khajeh Abdurrahim. He is author of a Diwan. Mahomed
Afzel relates an answer, which he made in verse, to an attack
of Abid on the manners and morals of the Dervises, of which
body Afzel professes himself to have been a member.

Ashrof Khan Mushahedi.
| cient a nati

a0 A brief notice of the Persian poets, ‘(Sane

peror Akber and to have possessed a masterly talent for com-
position, | | |

He was a prot Scient in the seven styles of penmanship ; but,
eventually, his biographer observes, ‘the penman of fate and
seribe of predestination drew the pen of mortality over che

page of his existence in the ]1009th year of the Hejira.”

AG oe
us Ls Ss 4

Kumi flourished in the 11th century of the Hejira and died
at Agra. He was celebrated for the imagination evinced in
his poetry. : | :

" ‘ ) Asirat. Mall r

Neo la Sli pre by g ee i
Ashrak, or Mir Bakir Damad, was iegislinded by his
zeal in instructing his disciples in poetical composition, and
was universally esteemed for the numerous excellencies with
which he was endowed.
«The bird of his life having escaped from its cage, the
body, flew away to the branch of eternity.” This event took
place at the city of Ispahan A. H. 1040. |

Abdurrvussti Cashmirt (of Cashmir ). 3
ANastelly os 5rd J guplose
This poet was surnamed Istighna. He lived in the service
of Shah Sheja as Darogheh of the Noubet Khaneh, and dis-
tinguished himself by considerable apuey and talent.
Subsequenily he entered the service of Sultan Akber Shah
ag superintendent of his household.

a?

Assir Lakéri, (of Lahore ).
ES p22 Iphosl

Lahori flourished in the 11th century of the Hejira. The
following aneccote is relsted of this poet: .‘ it chanced one
day that his mistress fell asleep with her hand cast care-

lessly under her cheek, Wh xen she awoke the mark-of her

A brief notice of the Persian poets. Bt

taper fingers remained distinctly imprinted on the delicate
rose leaf of her skin. Wy
_ Assir on seeing it produced the following impromptu :—

i 4) “
&

ce Gat | 91) wt BM be Oye o%9 oat Ape 2
One night through fetigue she fell asleep, her face resting
3 on her hand:

Her cheek from the on of those fingers resembled the
sun amidst its rays.”

Asaf Kumi.
uns wit
This poet flourished in the 11th century of the Hejira.
He left his own country for Hindustan where he adopted
the habit of a Calendar.
He composed a Diwan, said. to contain three ee

couplets. The following 1 is a couplet describing the state of
a lover, who pines in silent despair :—

eit)

w

Ne. phomnab 9) dhs jo og azlsl es! en) Hs ie.

Le ph ge \S sets tg al y € | wy 9
We are a flame; but, from the oak that arises from our
hearts, are clad in black :
And like the lamp of the tulip consume in silence.
By Persian poets the tulip is frequently alluded to as the

| ** Lamp of the rose oe seme Heese of tl.e sie oda

Afseri.
=| aes ote \, syn

This poet flourished ake the reign of Shah Jehan and,
was accounted one of the most original writers of his time.

He celebrated the victories and exploits of the Emperor in
ten thousand couplets. His true name is Shaikh Kemal.

Aijaz Akber Abadi. |
; us Lis Sh \ let |
_ This poet flourished in nts ifth century ios the Hejira and

42 A brief notice of the Persian poets. fJaw.

was noted for the elegance of his language and beauty of his
poetry. He is also known under the appellation of Mahomed
Said.

Adhum Mirza Lorahim. “
ane Val joel: 9 ol

A short Diwan and Saki Nameh are from the pen of this
poet; the style of the latter is much admired by Oriental lite-
vati for its elegance and spirit. He originally came from
Hamadan in the reign of Shah Jehan.

Amaidi Tehrani, (of Tehran ).

cit bus deal

Tehrani was accounted as the first poet of Iran in the time
of Shah Ismail, who flourished in the 10th century of the
Hejira. In early life he repaired to Shiraz and was taken
into the service of Moulana Jelal, where he made rapid pro-
gress in the sciences. The surname .dmaidi (hopeful) was
given him by his master.

He finally settled at Tehran where he made a garden and
called it the Bagh-i-Amaid, the garden ‘of ‘hope, in allusion
to his surname: but alas! (to use his biographer’s words)
‘the young plant of expectation had not yet produced the
fruit of his wishes, when the rose-garden of life became wi-
thered and blighted by the chilly blast of death.”

The following verses of Akhsangi, (mentioned in. our-last)
have been preserved as a specimen of the style of that poet by
the author of the Tazkirat-us-Shora :—

FINS eekly sta sy Oyjgeta og!
Pd dary Erecthaadc QyMAts le LAS. pus
DS sige COW Clas
S5Q) en phd Gem esheo jy uel
we gel 43) sects oli cyl

1836.] A brief notice of the Persian poets: 43

“Oh Taper, yellow-faced, with tearful eye, chick of
_ Inisfortune-overtaken lovers,
Farhad of thy time, burn on and melt.
Why hast thou separated thyself thus long fr om sweet
society (or the society of Shirin) ?
Friendship thou hast thrown to the winds : if not,
why like wretched me, art thou pallid, shedding
_ tears, emaciated and bent down ?

The following translation of a similar effusion, from the
Arabic, is from the pen of the ingenious Carlyle :—
* The wasting taper when I see;
I cry poor fool our lot’s the same
I bear a raging fire like thee,
Yet dread whate’er would quench the flame :
Like thine with tears this face o’erflows,
And bleached and wan these. cheeks appear ;
Like thine these eyes no slumbers close,
Like thine a melting heart is here.”

Bhai uddin Zanjani Khan,
wh us ss ene Maly

_ This poet was the panegyrist.of Shems uddin Khajeh, and

pie for the habit of introducing Turkish phrases into his

compositions. .

Badakshi.
si ay)

_A native of Badakshan contemporary with Caliph Makh-
taf. He is the author of a Diwan.

Bushkir,
A Persian poet. of whom no mention is made by Dowlet

Shah. Herbelot cites the following verses of his composi-

tion: -
« Ne vous faites j jamais un ennemi sous couleur que vous avez

beaucoup d’amis: car entre mille que vous conterez de ceux:
ci, 4 peine s’en trouvera ’t il un seul veritable.”

Bhai Jami.
Not the celebrated Jami, was the panegyrist of Khajeh

44 A brief notice of the Persian poets. {Jan,

Shems-uddin Diwan and other nobles. His poeiry was in
~ esteem and abounds in finely drawn and delicate allusions.
He died in the reign of Aboka Khan eighth Emperor of the
Moguls in the seventh century of the Hejira, having ee
arrived at the age of ninety.
Bisati Samarcandi, (of Samarcand ).
SOAS yous a? Vad

This poet was first called Hasiri, but one day Moulana
Usmat Bokhari said to him, “ Hasir ( jaa 2 mat) is not
fit for great men, ’twere better we call you Bisdt?,’ (or him
of the carpet) the word Bisat signifying a carpet. Bisati
lived during the reign of Sultan Khalil, Ibn Sultan Miran
Shah and died A. H. 815. |

Bekast Ghaznavt (of Ghazneh, a city in Zabulistan ).
cf 9 JF anh

Ghaznavi was a courtier of Humaiun Padshah. On the
decease of this monarch the nobles and officers of state
thought it advisable to conceal the circumstance of his death.
Some days after, the news got wind ; and the populace having
assembled much disturbance and tumult took place. The
nobles, to appease these clamours, determined to imvest our
poet, who bore some personal resemblance to the deceased
monarch, with the royal robes and present him to the people.

Ghaznavi, gorgeously dressed was shortly conducted to a
lofty part of the palace, where the king “who had obtained
mercy,” (lit. died) was accustomed to sit. Having turned
his face towards the populace he sat perfectly composed until
their suspicions were allayed. Ghaznavi after this performed
a voyage to Mecca and to Hindustan. He lived to return, to
his native land. :

Bekhud Jami.
ust > Sy

This poet is known as being the author of a Diwan con--

taining nearly fifteen thousand couplets, comprising various

1836. ] J brief notice of the Persian poeis. 45

detached pieces of poetry,such as Kassidehs, Ghazis and
Kitas. He wrote the story of Husn wa Dil by desire of

Namdar Khan. Jami was celebrated for his skill in versify-
ing dates computed agreeably to the /bjad system of nota-
tion.

Baka.
8 (dy Noss. \y \as

Mahomed Baka was a man of considerable genius, and

- ‘well versed in the circle of sciences. He assisted Mahomed

Bukhtawer Khan materially in the compilation of his S$ 4i-

| gurf-Nameh, We died in the office of Bakshi at the city of

Sharpentr A. H. 1094.

Cazi Nizam uddin Isfahéni (of Ispahan ).

as lgaaal creel alla us ‘3

| This poet flourished in the 7th century of the Hejira dur-
ing the reign of Abaka Khan. He composed well both in

Persian and Arabic. A poem in praise of Khajeh Shems
nddin, Sahib-i-Diwan, is from his pen.

wae

Cazt Osman Maki Cazvini (of Cazoin.).
The poems of Cazvini are said to be copious and written in
‘a flowing style: on account of the ill treatment he experienc-
ed from his cousin, Moulana Syed Cazi Razi uddin, he wrote
@ satire against him and named it “ Raz7.” He was of a ge-
nerous and liberal disposition, bestowing freely whatever he
acquired by his profession.
eo,
ca
Vy WS ASS ety jh aS ce dete

‘ Lon ° CG ° ° 4
") ca « ums: dA? Salou a y a

46 A brief notice of the Persian poets, (Fan,

eek kN RR At

is alesis INKS canks costs Si Sue if
\, alla MS mavog’ iteedth-© pita chur @
BAT 2 Dy Cy ge Cole Wd Si yd
a} US Lassl cd) hie i o
BSG le, nt SO OT 5 5 es

{ ry) ‘ \ Seat ty ‘
\ a die Ac cane rd eal a% en

in the morn when thou puttest aside the tresses that conceal thy face,

Thine eye would shame the sleepy Narcissus and thy cheek the tulip. °

Should the reflection of the shadow even of thy countenance chance to
fall on the wine cup, the intoxication of that languishing eye would
inebriate the goblet. |

Were the sun to gaze in a mirror the image that piedensell itsell would
not be so dazzling as thine.

Dakili.

Ushi J

bhi flourished in the reign of Noah or Nuh Sonteis

fourth king of the Sorteuiited dynasty, who commenced to.
reign A. H. 332. He was commissioned by this monarch,
to form the ancient historical records of the Persians into a
national poem, and had completed a thousand couplets when
he was assassinated by one of his own servants. It was part~
ly from these materials that the immortal Firdousi arranged,
the first part of his celebrated epic the Shah-Nameh.

Dai Shirisai (of! Shiraz jo: 6 Sorte 4

Sj pt Joy sels

Shirazi was cotemporary with Shah Niamet Allah : bial
Kulliat comprehends nearly forty thousand couplets.

Dancehi.
ie Ee

Daneh is a village tributary to Nishapore; where ‘this poet’

1836.] A brief notice of the Persian poets. 47

dwelt, engaged chiefly in rural occupations. We find no
mention of his compositions. He lived during the reign of
Akber and travelled into Hindustan.

Dawa.
Shas! on wakes Mae re)

The proper name of this poet is Hukim Ain-al-Mulk. He
came into Hindustan after performing a pilgrimage to Mecca
with Khan Azem. He remained a considerable time in the
service of the Emperor Akber and was distinguished by many
noble and virtuous qualities.

The specimens of poetry that appear in this notice are
chiefly those adduced by the Oriental biographers from whose
works the materials of it have for the most part been derived :
they will therefore perhaps be little consonant to Turopean
‘taste, out'may serve to point ‘out the dissimilarity existing
between the beau idéal of Kuropean, and ‘that of Asiatic
poetry. ‘The poetical compositions of the Persians have been
cried up too much on the one hand and depreciated corres-
pondingly on the other ; their style, generally speaking, is too
tabla i abel eae too full of eg Ape set sage sao

hacks sioede out ina ehanili of fone ae eSses 5 Sad ite
Persian student, after an attentive perusal of the Vusu/f-wa-
Fuleikha, the Leila-wa-Majnin or any other Persian love
tale, may perchance discover that the ear can tire of the
Wishtingale’s notes and the senses be nauseated even with
the perfume and bloom of the rose. Every allowance how-
ever,should be made for national dissimilarity, both in educa-
tion artificially and in disposition naturally: this done we
shall not too hastily condemn what our:relative position pre-
eludes us from fully appreciating ; as itis certain we cannot
view Asiatic composition through the eyes of an Asiatic.

wel 1a) ec jaeesu (yyhaste ph dase 3;
(Sadi).
« To comprehénd the beauty of Leila, we a gaze through the
window of the eyes of M cjnun Cher lover).’”

VI.—Method of putting music on organ barrels.—~By |

Lieutenant J. Brappocx.

( Continued from page 354 of the 2d vol. )

¢

1.—I shall now explain the manner in which the music
was put on the organ barrels.

2.—In the first place, the principle on which the proceed+
ing is founded, is this.—Suppose a common tune is to bo set:
the number of bars it may contain may be 18. 20. 24. or some
other number if in common time; or double the number if it
be in 3, ¢ or triple, or waltzing time.. Whatever be the num-
ber of bars which the tune may contain, that number is the
number of divisions which the circumference of the organ
barrel must be divided into, so that when the barrel has com-
pleted one revolution on its axis, the tune will be finished,
and ready to commence playing again. These divisions must
be sub-divided, and as each whole division represents one bar
of the tune, the sub-divisions represent crotchets, oe
and the several notes of which the tune consists.

3.—This is the principle; the method in which it was re-

duced to practice was to procure a plate of copper of about
a foot in diameter, on one side of which I drew eight separate
pairs of circles, one pair of which only is shown in fig. 1; I
divided each pair of circles into 12. 13. 14. 15, 16. 18. 20 and
22 parts, and each of these parts was sub-divided into four
parts in one of the circles, and into three parts in the other
circle. These two divisions gave the several descriptions of
time as C, 3, &c 3,2, %, &c. for tunes consisting of the fore-
going numbers of bars; and the sub-division of four parts
represented the four crotchets in the bar of common time,
and the sub-division of three parts the three notes making a
bar of 2 or $ time. These sub-divisions were again divided
to provide for quavers, semiquavers, &c. so that from these
divisions on the plate when attached to the organ barrel, it is
plain that the length or value of each note could be duly pro-
portioned, and that the accuracy with which a tune was set
off on the organ barrel would be equal to the aegarecy with
which the plate had been divided. | )

Ayala

1836.] Method of putting music on organ barrels. 49

- 4.—It is also plain that from the divisions on the plate the
length of any note may be readily ascertained ; thus two
crotchets may be taken for one minim; three quavers for a
dotted crotchet ; three semiquavers for a dotted quaver ; three
-erotchets for a dotted minim, and so on for notes of every
| description.
Fe oes fig. 1 it will be seen that a small portion of the
circumference of the circles is intended to be left free, which
portion is indicated by the lines a, 6: this space is intended
for the purpose of making a momentary pause between the
end of a tune and its recommencement.
_ 6.—What has been stated refers only to common tunes
which an organ barrel continues to repeat until it is shifted
or adjusted to play another tune; but as it has been shown
that the organ described, provides for playing the barrel con-
tinuously throughout its whole length, shifting it horizon-
tally as it revolves on its own axis, it is evident that the fore-
going divisions on the copper plate will not answer in this
case, because a small portion of the circumference (a, b) is
“deft undivided. I therefore made another series of circles on
_ the opposite side of the copper-plate, and the divisions on
them occupied the full circumference of each circle, but in
_ ether respects the divisions were the same as the foregoing.
_7.—This plate is mounted on a brass axis, as shown in fig.
| 2, where c represents the axis, perforated at one end to re-
ceive the axis of the barrel, and d the flaunch of the axis to
_which the plate x is screwed. The pieces e, g, fig. 1, are
both attached to the axis, and are moveable around it. The
| piece e, has a grove in it with a shifting point, f, which may
| be fixed so as to be applied to any circle of divisions on the
| plate ; and the piece g, is simply a stop to the shifting point.
_—A, h, fig. 2, are screws to keep steady and attach the barrel
to the division plate.

8.—The axis c, c, fig. 2, carries two series of groves k, m,
on it: the one, & consisting of 10 circular separate groves to
serve as a guide to the barrel in setting single tunes, the
other, m, being a spiral grove or screw of 10 revolutions in-
‘tended as a guide to the barrel when putting on it music to
play continuously till the barrel shifts. ‘The distance of these

|

56 Method of putting music on organ barrels, [Jan.

spiral groves from one another is sufficient to enable the bar-
rel during one revolution, to shift horizontally as much as is
necessary to present a fresh surface for another spiral row of
pins, which are to act on the keys of the organ during the
succeeding revolution ;—of course these groves in both cases
produce an action on the barrel when fixed to the plate,
exactly equal to and corresponding with the action produced
by the mechanism and snail wheel (7) page 346 last volume.

9.—In fig. 3, is shown the dividing plate with the barrel
affixed to it; the plate is represented at the left hand of the
figure, and the axis of the barrel enters the perforated end
of the dividing plate) axis, and is held fast by the screws,
which are represented more distinctly by h, h, in fig. 2.
This figure 3, speaks. for itself, it shows the barrel, the key
frame above it, the dividing plate, and the piece of music
which is to be transferred to the barre!; and the method of
transferring it is as follows.

10.—The barrel, made perfectly true and prepared to re.
ceive the music, is first put into the organ, and when placed.
correctly and the snail wheel is properly adjusted, the keys of
the key-frame, N, fig. 1, of the plate in the last volume, are
pressed down upon the barrel, and a line of marks from the
points of the keys is made alcng its whole length; so that,
each mark represents the proper position of its own respec-
tive key. The barrel is then taken from the organ, and so is:
the key-frame,; and both are placed in a suitable stand with
four legs, of which an imperfect section cnly, is shown in
fig. 3. 7
11.—The point, f, fig. 1, 1s now fixed so as to paige

with the circle of divisions required by the music; and the -

piece, e, carrying the point, and the stop, g, are brought-into:
a proper position, which is shown in the perspective sketch-
fig. 4, where g, represents the stop resting on the edge of the’
front rail of the stand, to which the barrel and key-frame are
now supposed to be attached, and e, f, the point and the car-.
rying piece, which together with the stop g, are exhibited in:
their proper respective places. The point is supposed to be?)
placed at. b, fig. 1, that is at the commencement of the line of '
divisions required; and the plate is supposed to’be turned.

1836:] Method of putting music on organ barrels. 51.

_ round so as for the point f, and the stop g, to be in the posi-
tion represented in the perspective sketch fig. 4. The barrel
_ is now placed so as for the line of marks made on it by the
keys, and the line formed by the points of the keys in the key-
frame to coincide, as also for the points of the keys and their
respective marks on the barrel, to nearly correspond. The
axis of the barrel is then by the screws /, A, fig. 2, securely
and firmly fixed to the dividing plate, so that whatever
motien the plate may have, the barrel will have the same
motion also. The only further adjustment required is, that
the keys of the key-frame, and their corresponding marks on
the barrels be now made to perfectly coincide by means of the
two screws, a, 6, fig. 3, at each end of the key frame.

12.—In this position all is ready for transferring the music
to the barrel. Suppose the four divisions, to which the
pointer f, fig. 4, stands in the sketch, to represent four
crotchets, and it be required to set off on the barrel two
crotchets: the notes, or chords are of course to be taken from
the music book, and the proper keys pressed down on the
barrel so as to mark it; but at starting, marks being already
made, we will suppose the second crotchet to be laid off.
The pointer must then be removed to the next division on
the plate leaving the stop g, where it is, and the plate musf
be moved downwards till the point strikes against the stop:
the barrel also having moved a proportional distance, the keys
of the notes to be transferred to the barrel are again to be
pressed down on the barrel, and marks again made on it, and
the distance of these second marks from the first, will be the
_ relative distance of the crotchet. The same process is to be
repeated till the whole tune is transferred. ‘The keys on the
key-frame representing notes just as the keys ona piano
ferte, or finger organ, but little difficulty is experienced in
laying down the music ¢prrectly, and no difficulty at all after
a little practice has rendered the operation familiar. A fixed
guide is attached to the frame, and works into the groves 4,
m, fig. 2, on the axis of the dividing plate, of course there-
fore at the commencement, that series of groves is used
which the music requires, that is, if it consist of single tunes
one of the ten separate groves is employed, but if it be conti-
nuous music the spiral grove is used.

52 Method of putting music on organ barrels. [JAN

13.—The foregoing process is strictly correct for laying off

music on a barrel for a piano forte, but there is a peculiarity in
the organ that requires further explanation. The piano
strikes a single blow, and a single pin on the barrel effects it,
and whether the note be along one ora short one, a pin,
simply, is all that is required; but with the organ it is not
so. Ifa note is a long one it must be kept sounding as long
as the proper time of the note lasts: for instance, if 3 long
and 3 shorter notes were to be struck by a self performing
piano, the pins might be arranged as shown in fig. 5; but if
they were to be sounded on the organ, they would be shaped
as shown in fig. 6, where they are not simply pins, but staples
which keep the key a, sustained, and the note sounding as long
as its proper time continues. Now from examining the spaces
between the pins in fig. 5, 1t will be seen that there is ample
room for the point of the key, a, fig. 6, to descend between
them, and no provision to this end is necessary to be made;
but as the true distance between note and note is the same
on the organ as on the piano, and as the organ notes are con-
tinued sounds and not sudden blows struck by a hammer, as
in the other instrument, it follows that if the process before
described was not to be modified, were a note to be sounded
two or more times in succession, there would be only one
continued sound (from the preceding staple ending just where
the succeeding one commenced) instead of two or more suc-
cessive sounds. The key in fact would have no space to fall
into, to cut off the sound, and to commence again to produce
distinct notes. To hit on some easy practical method to
diminish every note* a given space gave me some trouble,
but I effected it by means of a parallel rule, the use of which
is as follows.

14.—In fig. 4, let a, represent a part of the front rail of
the stand wx fig. 3: and let 6, represent the parallel rule at-
tached to it. Suppose that two notes from ec, to d, and from
d, to 2, had to be set off on the barrel, the apparatus in its

SS ee ee Se re es ey Se

* The longer oy staple notes are here alluded to, not notes consisting of a single
pin, of which of course there are numbers on organ barrels as well as on barrels for
piano fortes.

1836.] Method of putting music on organ barrels. 53

present position would be correct to begin with for marking
the barrel with the proper chords according to the music ;
then the point, f, being shifted from c, to d, the parallel rule
must be raised till it stops against the pin, k, which would
“ald raise the stop, g, a short distance, and prevent it resting
as it now does on the rail,a. The point, f,is then to be
brought down till it touches the edge of the stop, g, and the
note or notes are to be marked on the barrel. The parallel
motion after this, must be depressed and brought to the posi-
tion it now is in, and the stop, g, being also depressed till i#
touches the rail, @, the apparatus would be in the same posi-
tion as represented in the sketch, which is the right position
for commencing the note, d,7; to mark which upon the barrel
would be a repetition of the process just described. On con-
sideration, it will be plain that the effect of the parallel
action is to cut off a portion of each note in order to produce
space for the point of the key, a, in fig. 6, to fall into, so that
distinct sounds may be produced when similar notes follow in
succession. This quantity, so cut off, does not diminish the
proper value of the notes, although it does the length of the
staples ; for the angular figure of the point of the key com-
_ pensates for the diminution of length. The space between
| the notes being only sufficient to allow the key to fall freely,
| the succeeding note sounds immediately after the one pre-
| eeding, the breadth of the key being equivalent or nearly
equivalent to the intermediate space between note and note,
as seen in fig. 6.
5th December, 1835. eB:
P. $8.—From an error in the former manuscript a sentence
commencing at the 10th line in page 351, last vol. ought to
stand as follows. Now, one piece of mechanism with only
one first moving power cannot effect two opposite motions at
the same time, namely, a slow movement for the music, and
a rapid or slow movement for the bellows, according as the
music may require. Slow music generally requires more air,
and quick music less air: it would be difficult to provide for
these two opposite cases by one piece of mechanism working
both the barrel and the bellows, and for the instrument to
keep good time.

5 : Po [Jan.

VII.— Genealogy of the Kings of ihe Mahomedan dynasty
in Achin, from the 60st year of the Hejira to the present
time. Lztracted froma Malayan MIS. entitled “ Anat
Acut,” Osages of the Kingdom of Achin; together with
a short notice of the MS. itself.—By Lieutenant TJ.
Newso.p, 23d M,N. I. |
The work appears to be divided into four parts. The first,

entitled Parintah segéla Raja Raja, Rules of government

for kings—the 2d, Stlstlah Raja Raja di Bander Achi, Ge-
nealogy of the kings of Achin—and the 3d, 4dat Mejlis

Raja Raja, Wtiquette to be observed at Court. The 4th

and last comprises a variety of regulations for Port duties and

customs, also rules for the minor officers of government.

Part the Ist, is subdivided into 31 mejlises or chapters,
only eleven of which are to be found in the copy in my pos-
session.

After the customary Bismillah and a short exordinm con-
sisting of praises to the Almighty, the Prophet Mahomed, his
progeny, &c. the author commences his Ist Mejlis by at-
tempting to explain the signification of the letters composing
the Sanscrit word Ada agreeable to Mussulman interpreta-
tion. The letter R, he says, has reference to the word Rah-.
met, Mercy—the letter A or Alif |, from its upright form,
to the erecting of the Caliphat on earth by Allah, and the
establishment of the Amr A//lah, commands of Allah, through
the agency of kings; and the letter J to the word Jemal,
beauty. The 2d mejlis is on qualities requisite for princes,
which are classed under ten heads. The 3d mejlis relates to
the duties and inclinations of princes, classed under eight
heads. The 4th mejlis contains rules for the observance of
kings on state occasions, when the Pundits, princes, minis-
ters, war chiefs, heralds and guards of the kingdom are as-
sembled before the royal throne. ‘These are classed under
seven heads.

Mejlis the 5th contains rules to be observed on the break- _
ing up of the Court ; it is divided into seven parts. Mejlis
6, to 24 are deficient. Mejlis 25 contains directions for the
war chiefs. Mejlis 26, qualifications necessary for the Bodo-
anda, king’s guards, under four heads. Mejlis 27, duties of

1836. ] Mahomedan Kings of Achin. 55

the Bodoanda, under five heads. Mejlis 28, etiquette to be
observed by the Bodoanda at Court. Mejlis 29, on things
prohibited to subjects of the king ; both these chapters are
divided into five parts. Mejiis 30, on honorary titles, of
Wich five are enumerated, viz. Padika, Maha, Srt, Raja,
Tuan. Mejlis 31, on Ambassadors and their qualifications.

Part 2. Stlsilah Raja Raja di Bander Achi—Genealogy
of the kings of Achin, comprising a historical abstract of the
reigns of the (a) Mahomedan kings of Achin from the 601st
year of the Hejira down to the present time.

Sultan Johan Shah. A: H.601. This monarch came
from the west, “deri atas angin,” and converted the Achin-
ese to Islam. ;

He married the daughter of Belodari and settled at Kan-
dang Achin. He died A. H. 631, in the month Rejab.

2. Sultan Ahmed. A. H. 631. Son of the preceding ;
succeeded his father under the title Sri Sultan Riayet Shah.
He died A. H. 665.

3. Sultan Mahmid Shah. A. H.665. Son of the pre-.
ceding—removed in the 43d year of his reign from Kandang
Achin to the present site of the city, where he erected the
fort, Dar al dunya. His death took place A. H. 708.

SOS (A ARSE SEES SS SERS SS ASN SERIES ENE SS (REESE SR SS

(a) Sir Stamford Raffles observes (Memoirs, p. 384) that from this period 601
A H “ until the reign of Secunder,or Macota Alem as he is more generaily called,
Acheen is said to have been tributary to Rum; it then obtained Maat, or exemp-
tion from tribute. The crown and regalia appear to have been brought from Rum
shortly after the establishment of Islamism, and I think it probable that Acheen
was the first and most important footing obtained by the Mahomedans to the East-
ward, and whence their religion was subsequently disseminated among the islands,”’ ,
The geographical situation of Achin and its early maritime connexion with Wes-
tern Asia seem favourable to this opinion,although the Malays are fond of attribut-
ing the diffusion of Islam as emanating from the ancient empire of Menangeabowe
inthe interior of Sumatra. The introduction of Mahomedanism may be traced as
before observed, in Achin, so far back as 601 A. H.—in Malacca, 675 A. H.—in
Java, 883 A. H.—among the Sunda islanders, 885 A. H.—in the Moluccas, 901
A. Hi

In the Celebes, acecrding to the records, of Macassar, the Mahometan religion:
was introduced, about !012 A. H. by Khatib Tungal Dattu Bandang, a native of
Menangeébowe. It was shortly afterwards adopted by the Macassar States. Pre-
vious to Mahometanism a species of Buddhism and that rude kind of natural reli-
gion common to savage tribes is supposed to have prevailed,

56 Mahomedan Kings of Achin. (Jan.

4, Sultan Firman Shah. A.H. 708. Son of the preced-
ing—reigned 47 years, 8 months, and 13 days—died A. Al.
755. : :
5. Sultan Mansur Shah I. A. H. 755. Died, after a
reign of upwards of 56 years, A. H. 811, on the 10th of the
= Shaban.

6. Sultan Ala uddin Johan Shah. A.H.811. Succeed-
ed his father Mansur Shah—died A. H. 870.

7. Sultan Hussain Shah. I. A.H. 870. After a reign of
31 years, 4 months and 2 days, this monarch died A. H.
S01.

8. Sultan Ali Riayef Shah. A. H. 901.—died after a
ee of upwards of 15 years.—A. H. 917.

. (a) Sultan Selah-uddin. A. H. 917. Reigned 28 years,
3 a and 28 days—died A. H. 946.

10. Sultan Ala-uddin. A. H. 946. Brother of the pre-
ceding—died A. H. 975, on the 15th of the month Safr.

11. Sultan Hussain Shah II. A. H. 975. Reigned 8
years, 4 months and 12 days—died A. H. 983. !

12. Sultan Maida. A. H.983. This prince was extremely
young at the death of his father Hussain Shah, and died after
a short minority A. H. 984.

13. Sultan Pridman. A. H. 984. Died after a short reign
of 1 month and 22 days A. H. 984. )

14. Sultan Raja Jeinal. A.H.984. Reigned 10 months
and 10 days. He was assassinated A, H. 985 on the 10th of
the month Mohurram. |

15. (6) Sultan Mansur Shah IT. A. H. 985. This prince

as

(a) Selah-uddin (by some called Ibrahim) was the prince, who,when Mahomed,
ex-king of Malacca was blockading the Portuguese in his own city which they had
taken possession of, fell upon and massacred all the Europeans in the kingdom of
Achin. He proved a most formidable opponent to the early Portuguese adven-
turers.

(b) Mansur Shah, is said by some native authors to have been originally from
Perak, a state situate on the western coast of the Malayan Peninsula, and ap-
pears to have been confounded by Portuguese authors with Sri Sultan Ala-uddin,
or, as they termed him, Sri Sultan Alradin. This prince was foremost in the
confederacy made by the eastern powers of India to extirpate the Portuguese who
had at this time established themselves at Malacca, and gained a firm footing in
the Straits.

Mr. Marsden quoting Diego do Couto and Faria-y-Sousa, states that the Kine
of Achin in conformity with the engagements by which the confederates were

1836.] Distance of objects at sea. 57
was murdered A. H. 993, after a reign of a little more than:
8 years.

16. (a) Sultan Buyong. A. H. 993. After a reign of

“pearly 3 years, this prince was murdered A. Hl. 996, on the

17th of the month Zualkaideh on Tuesday.
17. (6) Sultan Ala-uddin Riayet Shah. A. H. 996.
Reigned 15 years, 10 months and 28 days—was deposed by
his own son, Sultan Muda, who succeeded him A. H. 1011,
by the title of Sultan Ali Moghayet Shah.

(To be continued.)

VIII.—Remarks on the method of estimating the distance
at. Sea, Ae objects Z known height.—By ©.

To the Editor of the Madr as oe wt

of Literature and Science.
| rae forwarding to you the paper upon the estimation
of distance at Sea, published in the 9th No. of your Journal,
I did not think it necessary to give such a modification of
Lieutenant Raper’s formula, that the computation might be

- effected without using logarithm to seven places, but as it

may be of some use, I subjoin the investigation.

bound, prepared to attack the Portuguese in Malacca, and sailed there with a nu-
merous fleet, in which were 15 ,000 of his own subjects, 400 Turks, with 200 pieces
of artillery of various sizes. After several furious attacks on the place the
Achinese were compelled to raise the siege, leaving 3000 slain before the walls.

- Mansur Shah besieged Malacca during his active reign no less than five times,

with the same results; being always foiled by the desperate valour of the Portu-

guese. Mr. Marsden. justly observes, “ It is. difficult todetermine which of the
| two is more astonishing, the vigorous stand made by such a handful of men as the

whole strength of Malacca consisted of, or the prodigious resources and persever-

| ance.of the Achinese monarch.’’

Mansur, Shah was murdered by his general Moratiza, together with his queen
and many of the principal nobility on the 17th day of the month Mohurrum. —
- (a) Buyong, or the boy, was the son of the only daughter of Mansur Shah, by

| the king of Johor whom she had married.

i. Moratiza, afterwards Sultan Ala-uddin Riayet Shah, after murdering Buyong’s
| father Mansur Shah, took charge of the boy during his minority; but, ambition
prevailing, he despatched him also and assumed possession of the throne.

(6) During the reign of this monarch Sir James Lancaster arrived at Achin,
as ambassador from Elizabeth of England, with the first English fleet that had
appeared in these seas, and concluded a commercial treaty with the Sultan,

58 Disiance of objects at sea. [ Jan.

Let A B represent the
surface of the earth, and C
the angle at its centre, or

tical miles at its surface.

Then the angle ¢ = 180°—C—90° + a
= 90°—C—a
and .-. sin @= cos (C + a)
again by the values as given in the last paper, where we may
call the true dip for the height H = D. |
Then sin $= cos D. cos a = cos (C + a)

and substituting the values of the sines.

eee

. —2 —2 ! A eee
i—2.smi(a+C)= 1—2.smiD. 1—2.sinia.
Remy eect aE Cras
= 1—2. sm;D—2. sinta +4. sin £D. singa.
and
pase hind Ling ed cou
sn3(a+C)= sing} D+ sinda—2.sin3D. sin$a.
as the arcs are small they may be taken for their sines, and
therefore sa 7
2 2 2 2 2 :
(a+C)= D+a— 2.D.a but the last terms must
always be very small quantities, and may therefore be omit-
ted. | | 4
2
Phen (a + C) = Dy a and expanding.
2 2

C +2.a.C = D which ts of the same form
as the trigonometrical formula, for the solution of a quadratic
equation, viz. # et p «x = q therefore substituting the qua-
dritics,we have Tang A = = and

Root = C = Tang} Ax D.
Q. E. I.

~ The same result may be obtained thus, taking the formula

cos (a + C) = cos D. cos a. it is apparent that it is of the
same form as the formula for the hypotheneuse of a right
angled spherical triangle, and supposing a + c to represent

the hypotheneuse and D and a the other two sides, then C
will be equal to the difference between the hypotheneuse and

the angular distance in nau- |

Ng
4

‘ae,

1836.] Observations respecting Halley’s Comet. 59

the side a. But as the arcs must be very small never ex-
ceeding two or three degrees they may be représented by
straight lines, therefore in the right angled plain triangle

i Tang A = a
a MN : _ ts ?
" a in 2 alee
as ~Fangh Ae.
a. : GE
and to apply the values of the quantities before given.
D = 58’ 16’ = 3496" = log. = 3.54357

a= 1° 58’ 39"= 7119” colog. = 6.14758
9.69115 Tang A—26°9'17"
Tang 4 A = 13° 4! 38” = 9.36602
D = 3.54357

2.90959 = 8127’ —13' 32".

the same.as before, while by this formula, logarithms to five
places are sufficient.
20th October 1835. C.

Hee ES

(Re meee tea

IX.— Observations respecting Hatiey’s Comet.

My Dear Sir,—lIt will be interesting to your readers to
learn that Halley’s Comet is still visible through a telescope,
and it will probably so remain for twenty or thirty days to
come ; comparing the quantity of light which it at present
exhibits with that exhibited before the Peribelion passage it
would appear that it has lost no part of its brilliancy what-
ever by its approach to the Sun (a fact by the way which is
at variance with the generally received opinion of astrono-
mers.

We will now fora moment take a look at the past—the
‘Astronomer Hautey, 150 years ago could have predicted
the present return of the Comet which so justly bears his
name toa couple of months; but it is to the refined astro-
nomy of the present century to which so much honour and

69 Observations respecting Halley's Comet. [Sans

credit is due, that we are enabled to predict its place as has
been done inthe present instance to a few (six or seven)
days. Should there be an individual now in existence who
can doubt for a moment the truth of universal gravitation,
(on which theory, this as well as every other astronomidal
prediction is built) it will be as well to shut the book for
ever, for nothing further or more conclusive in the way of
argument can be urged. Not however to exhibit an impa-
tience which would ill become the defenders of truth of the
sublimest nature, it may not be amiss here to explain why
the astronomer Halley when calculating upon the same
grounds as the astronomer of modern days, could not have
predicted to an equal degree of accuracy ; and to notice the
causes which have given rise to an error of eight or nine days
in the present return—to pursue such a question through all

its minutize would be at once to set down and write a volume;

it will therefore be necessary to handle the enquiry rudely,
and state off hand, that in the days of Halley the existence
of five of the Planets composing the solar system (Georgian,
Juno, Ceres, Vesta, and Pallas were unknown.. Since this

time likewise, the Comets of Biela and Encke have been

recognized as forming a part of our system and several others
which are conjectured likewise to belong to it have been
observed. Now the effect of every one of these is; conti-
nually to draw the Comet from its path and to disturb one
another; the amount of the perturbation varying with the

time, inversely as the square of the distance, and directly as-

the weight of the disturbing body; had Haxttny predicted.
the present return of the Comet, and should. it have turned
out that he was two or three months in error, so far from
throwing any discredit upon his theory (ignorant as he was of
the causes now enumerated) it would on the contrary tend.
much to confirm it; moreover in the days of Haury astro-
nomical instruments were rare, and their construction of the
rudest possible kind when compared with those of the present
day, insomuch so that comparatively little or nothing could
be known with regard to the relative weight of the Planets;
now in the prediction of Hau.ey of the return of this Comet
in 1682, he took account only of the action of the planet

Se a re

oe eee ee ery
a EP et A

1886.] Observations respeciing Halley’s Comet. 61

Jupiter, which he computed would delay the return by about
a twelve-month; had he taken account of the action of the
planet Saturn the prediction would have been 100 days later,

“and would have agreed to within a few days of the observed
return to the Perigee: at its last appearance in 1759,
CLraiRavT computed that the planet Satwrn2 would retard it
by 100 days, and Jupiter by 511 days, aresult agreeing
within about amonth of the truth. But to return to our
own time in which we have the benefit of very superior
| imstraments, together with numerous and well appointed
_ observatories ; “ what are now the fruits?’ In the year
1822, it was found that the map of planet Venus had been
assumed too small by about 5 and that an equation going.
through its period in 250 years had been omitted; as late as
1833 the mass of the planet Jupiter was corrected from 72:7
to recs of the mass of the Sun, &c. &c. &c. In 1824 and
from that time up to the present, strong suspicions were and
are entertained of the existence of an wether instead of a
vacuum,which, extending throughout the solar system, there-
by retards the planets in their orbit, (but consider gentle.
reader, that 7f this ether does exist its density is eight hun-
_ dred times less than that of atmospheric air!) requiring how-
_ ever many more observations than we at present possess to
decide the point. Now in the prediction of the return of
the Comet which is just departing (to the most part of us
_ for ever!) the effect of the ether was computed to accelerate
the return by 13 days, is it then to be wondered at, that a:
discrepancy of half this amount should occur in a computa-
| tion clogged with difficulty on every hand, and tedious to the
| last degree—one which requiring the utmost mathematical
knowledge and skill has found a dozen individuals only com-

_ petent to undertake it? It will be as well now to conclude
this subject by exhibiting the elements of the orbit of this

Comet as predicted by Ponrecovtant, and the same com-
_ puted by myself* from observations made at this Observa-

_ tory, thus:

Or ee
ec) ERY CR

* I take this opportunity of acknowledging my obligations to Goday
Vencata Juggarow, who rendered me very great assistance in the com-
putation.

|

62 Tuble for computing the position of Halley’s Comet. [Jan.
From the Madras

PONTECOULANT. Observations.
‘Dz. , D. hi
Perihelion Passage. November 7,42 | November 16)19,-"
ra) | desi ithe 0 / 1h ANE
Place of Perihelion. 304°31°43 804:12:10
Long. of the ascend. node. 55°30°0 55°9'°16
Inclination of the orbit. 17-44:24 17°49°1
Ratio of the eccentricity. 0:987521 967632
Semi axis major. 17-98705 17-98705
Motion. Retrograde. Retrograde.

With my apology for troubling you with these hasty re-
marks,

I beg to remain,
Very sincerely yours. _
T. G. TAYLOR.
fi. C. Astronomer.

ee

SF ee SE

X.—Table for computing the position of Hauiay’s Comet.

Sir,— Having been favoured with the elements of the orbit
of Hailey’s Comet, which have resulted from the cbserva-
tions made at the Madras Observatory during the last three
months, I have set to work to compute an Wphemeris of its
place for the month of January next year, (when it will be
visible toa good Telescope if not to the naked eye) which I
beg to forward for insertion in the Madras Journal of Lite-
rature and Science. In computations of this nature where
the ellipse is very eccentric, the labour of computing the
eccentric anomaly from the mean, is by far the most tedious
part of the work, to facilitate which, I have herewith for-
warded a Table by which it may be taken out at sight, by
this means any of your readers may compute the place for
any day in half an hour.

T beg to remain,
sir,
Your most obedient servant,
Gopay Vencat JuGcarow.

(1836. } . 63

A Table shewing the Mean Anomaly of Hauizy’s Comet,
corresponding to every 10 minutes of the eccentric

anomaly.
4

Ke. Ayn.{|Mean Anomaly.| Diff. {{Ee. Any.;|Mean Anomaly.| Diff.
. 0 q ra) / “ (0) / | (a) / 7] Bi
0 10 0 O 19-4 19°5 5O Ml. Ou 1642877 w5°0
20 0329 19.4 |!8 0 17> 27 vee
30, 0 533 | 19.4 10 17 27-9 25-4
40 1 17-7 195 20 17 533 va7
50 i 37-2 195 | 30 17 19-0 259
lL 0 er le 56:7 19.5 40 18 449 62
10 2 162 19-6 | 50 19 10-1 26-4
20 2 35-8 196 ||9 0 19 37°53 26:7
30 2 55-4 196 | 10 20 42 | 47-0
40 |.- 8 150 19-7 20 20 312 “7-2
50 3. 34-7 19:3 30 90 58-4 | 27:5
9: eh 3 545 19°38 40 81 25-9 27°3
10 4 143 19-9 50 2153-7 | 28)
> OO Wh rs ce 451342 19-9 |110 0 92 21-3 08-4
30 — 4 54] 20:0. 10 92 0-2 28:7
40 | 5 14] 20°1 20 23 12:9 29-0
50 5 34-2 20-2 30 23 47-9 29-3
AID) Sa ry ne Kaa 91 20-2 40 24 17-2 29-6
10 6 146 | 204 50 24 468 29-9
920 6 350 | 205 Il oO 25 16-7 30-3
30 6 555 20-5 Ok .2. 470 30-6
40 7 16-0 20°6 20 26" 17-6 30-9
- 50. < 366 20°38 30 26 48-5 31-2
4 0 7 57-4 | 20:9 40 p27 19:7 31-6
i 10 PES a TSS) 21:0 | 50 2751-3 ') 31-9
D0) IQ 8 393 ! 21-1 112 Oo 28 23:2 | 32-3
Tr) wo. O40 2T3 10 28 55:5 32-7
40 eo a 214 20 9928-2 | 33-0
50 °9 43-1 21:6 30 30 1:2 33-3
at 47 \ 62170 ||. 40 30 B45, bo 33-7
Sto 10 26-4 7 21-9 50 81 82 | 341
20 10 48-3 22:0 3 0 31. 42:3.— "34-5
30 11 103 | Qe1 10 32 168 | 349
40 11 32:4 | 22:3 20 32 51-7 | 353
50 ll 54-7 | 225 30 3527-0 || 5-7
6 0 1 17-2 2:7, 40 | 34 2:7 36°]
10 12 39:9 22:9 50 34 38:3 | 26-4
- 20 13 28 | 231 i114 0 35 152 | 36-8
30 13 25:9 | 233 10 35) 62:0° 4237-3
40 13 49-2 | 235 20 36 29-3 | 37-7
no Lt. 14 12-7 13-6 30 a7” 70 |. aaa
a | 14 363 | 238 40 37 45:2 38:6
10 Id Ol 24-1 50 38 23:3 | 38-9
20 15 24-2 243 |15 O 39 27 | 39-4
2 | Ie 46-5. || 2455 10 39 42:1 | 39-9
40 16 130 | 247 20 40 220 | 403

64 Anomaly of Hally’s Comet. [Jan.

eee earnionel

Ec. Any. Mean Anomaly. Diff. || Ke. Any.|/Mean Anamaly.| Diff.
ore 4 s ‘ g a ome. oO Po ge “
20 Oar 2.3 40°6 50 56°. O64 SOS
40 41 45°5 4i-2 119 0 57 O04 | StS
50 42 245 417 10 Of StF ae
16° -:0 4% ~~ §:0- | 42] 2 53 43:6 | 52°4
10 43 43:1 42-6 30 59 360 |! 53-0
D) | A4 O77 | 4b] 40 1 0 29:0 | 53:6
20°11 45 1353 | 436 50 1 22.6 | 54]
40 45 57-4 \ 440 |120 0 2 16-7 | 09547
50 43 41-5 44°5 10 3. 114 | 663
170 20 47 «60 | 45:0 20 4 67 | 559
10 43 11-0 45°5 30 5 26 | 565
20 483 565 46-0 40 5 591 571
30 AQ 42°59 46°6 50 6 56:2 ai
40 50. 29:1 47-1 J2l oO 7539. | Sus
50 51 162 | 47-6 10 8 522 | 58-9
18 0 52 3:8 | 431 20 9 5h1 |. 595
10 3 52 51:9 1 43-6 30 10 506 | 60°71
20 53 405 | 49-2 40 11 50:7 | 60-3
30 54 29-7 | 49-7 50 | [ae515 | 614
40 55.194 } 60-2 22°07 fag ae 59-9 7

Ephemeris of Hattzy’s Comet for January 1836, computed
for Madras at 4h. a. M.

Da Right Ascen- Declination Time of
ay: sion in Time. South. Rising.
hom 8. oO. Mm Ss. he om
| Jan. Ist 16 18 55 24 45 30 ; 4 2a,.M.
Iith 16 6 50 24 27 58 314 ,,
Qi st 15 50 10 30 9 49 é 2: 2h,
| 31st 15 26 56 32 40 25 L 2 ie 4

F

: ES ST ED

MAREN AN eayotquelorn: ok Were

PAW am te TS nent |

GN rata ae sil

ten Neen Smee ne

SUN VM ERPS DLE eat an es oe ce eS Yon a Te ea Se Leos cE een Lee

gE or

cL es Se 2 ae A er Sern rs cera ve

Ce ees

hn tener Spec

aN

Fa ae igs aa

ae

uh

Seka

ay

Ado dhe

65 XI.—METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER xepr ar rae MADRAM\\)/

Cal en tte
ORR a fem

| Standard Barometer No. 3, by Gilbert. Standard Therm. by Troughton®
S| “igure 7) 8 bos |S Slalgls|z! 3
Days. = < S x : a a = Gea ea nis !
aS = a x] S co bs; a | © ‘i a |a lo Mi
Sept. |Inches | 0 Bee a"
1{29,9! 8 |29, 970 |29, 944 |29,894|29, 890 |29,9'6| —— |e 84,9186,8|-9,6 ,88,4 |86,5 7
2} 958 {30,006} 956] , 7688| ,952 86, |88,6190,0 | 5,3 '84.2/—4 |
3! (924/29,9:8! 928! ,870] 878] ,9°8}| —- 2.0 186,3 8,4 190,0 poe |
4 5904 ‘930 ;9U8 072 £30 "856 ee &°8 83.0 66, 4|89, 49, &5,0 |S, |
51 ase} 2901| .866| 381s] “eu0] j8zi 81,8 Pe 81.0)0., 3b Go ‘Go| al
e| ,854! ,900} .866) ,e44! .@ 0! ,8°4]/29,924)1+2,8'85,8 |F¢,§ 80,8 '88,8 /85,3 183M) \))
| “ol4| .976| ,927] 5870) 390] 3894) —— |8 ,1\86,8|*7,5|>7,0 (83,3 | 44 Hs, |
s| 29'6| .954| ,928] 890] [999] [+97| —— |>2,0|87,1 '91,0}'9,3 |+5.8]°5,2 hl
9| 2942] 974) ,957| ,902| js86| 5934 3,3187,2 |91,0/¢9,4 [87,3 | 6,0 Hil
10} 4924! 960] ,956| 916; [868! [8-0 29,900. /8U,8'82,6 [83,4 |+3, es 2,9 /S2Mmh 3
1 eel 4988! ,914! ,82] ,87°| ,8F8 20l9h “8,0 185,3 |§3,8 mall aCe
12} 2914} ,972| .940| (sou! ‘a¢2] j904 902] 180-4 182-2 183,3 184.7 [2:6 [E20 ma
13{ ,9'0/ ,954| ,930 888} jt62) ,£7U 912N81,0'82,0(83.6] 5,5/'2,8/5 .7|elie
14) 28g] 2912} 5888] :848] °s 36| 5874] ——|/8U,8 [83,0 [86,< [> 7,8 '86,0 13,7 |i |)
15! 856] .938/ 914] 5870 | 5$66| ,904}179,2 3,9/*5,8 23,7 (82, ‘181m
Jo} ,900 {30 oo 5990] ,950) 930! ,98u !30,002)!80,3 |83,0 185, |-4,5 163,282, 181) q "
17/29,970| 062 30,024! 397-| 79 2130,016| ,050|180,* 182,6 84.7 1r4.8|S2 2 ls2\a}eQie
18|20,0 0} 076} ,020| ,964] 7946 |19,982| ,024|178,2 1836 |+4,3185,0 |82,9|¢z,8|92In
19 30.000 050 29, 994, ,952 040) 970 O16 [0,2 84,4 184.7 165,413, 0 |82,7 [oz ' ee
20129,¢82 | —— [30 ,020| 958] ,944, 997; 036 he £4,9185,4 [6,3 183, 82M
21] ,992! ,064 ,030| ,962} ,962| ,972] 018 9,6 83,2 |84,0 [84.0 82,6 )°2.5 | | ne
99! .962 129,997 j29, 968' 9081 [972] 3924129,972||79,0 £2,9|25,6) 7,7 | Gc |£2,5/9RIN a
531 7950/30,016; .970 916] 7902) 3944! 96211819 [84.0 15,0 }85,8 £5,” [59.5 880) ||
a} 5950} ; 5970 ,936 904 5946] ,980]|18.5 187,0]*7,7 [80,7 |» 4,0 84,. ls
25 5008] 5996 944] 7956] 5990130,0'zl|51,0 [22,5 le. 80,0 [83,8 |73,0 Wie
96 30,016} ,050}30,004) ,960] ,972}30,006) ,032 ,78,0 [>4,5 86,5 [86,6 [4,3 | bl
27|29,978 |_ —— 29,968] ,938| 2912|29,940 |29. 970/|77,( |— |85,5 | 6,6|$4,4 630 ae
28] 944 |29,976; .950} 3902] [900] ,950] ,966,|77,8 |~4,6|c7,6 [86,0 Se: ie
29| 7950! .988| .966] [940! Soi6] 3963] .994/|80,0 8,0 187,3 6,0 )8%,9 82,2162 | |
30! .960|30,040| 924] 5950] (940) {982 |30,006]177,3 \84,7 |85,* one £2,919)
! | se | |
Mean. |29,935 29,985 29, '29,956 |29,910 |29,S99 129,93" |29, 29,975 \|#0,4.184,3 1c 6,2 +6,8 £4,6 £3,6 |82 is

G6

er ne EY |

PERVATORY; ror rox MONTH or SEPTEMBER, 1835.

Weather.

Wind.

Direction of

“uoryerodea y

Hs ies

|

‘asia. UNG

Depth of Rain.

Dep. of wet bulb Therm.

s pare ‘a A 59 ate ery Oe 2) SS = ao A
ta oS : SUG! ete ae aS) fea © Pas
£3 Ge oe Se a8 Go" Ve Set Se. ee |
= # 3 28 ssa. =) 80 SO) ear Se ee abe See
; 3 Sed ee oe ees sls getter cli) .co= fol f= eee tapes
4 I tei =| rat Hee bes ius oe an og. er Se
eT a0 SS 150 tee a Ga geo = sees CG 3 OD 4
~~ = - Bo Oras aa.6:2 oe
pea oe ss eee eee
os ro 3 3 = eer Saree! ee NS
ec 5 O B Ss Sirois Cares] io} aro 3 7S 8 a
BTS fo ub os OOO! a eo oud SESrO. eres
Se OSm Sot wore on ea a 38 sy 8 Ae =i
ao San ta Sieg oO Oe Beg
° 2S os oO ee Boao estes s oo
. . i. ° - Des gc Ser ace ' Chile eee (Ge .5 ° ~
Sh aoO9 Cece. eocieg aaved mace? See a<s
qe! 7 fet, - 2
BAARA 299F0 SAQlS SSSS= SQSES SSAES
AW n : WR S : 5

OR oj ° . LER 1S Eo Sw ea

ss Shea BEBE a Nc Bes ie soe We

es s Fe ee te Te ~a = = ES : 1.

Awe CAIs Stns Z2Z2224 Soro Ay pyeeld hg Oe, © Gy ae
tekee IS ER See oy pe oe ets eo a 4
Sees Spee Seber erie Behan Sones 4
PEEEE 22bSe Bett" FusBe BEzee perks
Hohe ds EE abe -aukd® avaiuad ve bBa dated
Pre Poe 4 i, tnaikeSge tS ea PED eee Lee Se EE ee —

3 << | Netter | md [> Je | eee
per =e | | | uw eto j | AS \
nN ee alia koe ead whale | He He cfs Is aed fast |
{ | H
ee age blue tat bb |

- a | . ; | 5 | a !

4 | hE Be

val lectins eal | el

1 3 | ao bo na

| rs | [ nN Wo rn aA | io | rae

|= ja |N = 4 a) | |

| Fe: a i A MS | = (

; 1°? | Sap cue © FS 3 | = { |

ea lee | | |

Hest (ek See Spi ie Loew tao, OO Se COO Maton Bina 0 aa)

> | ie | an} | | te | ae Tess es ~~ — Sane SAAN lo

aN = a 2.00 3 Sours Roo SaaS Oy OO SH SO SR ie) on) ce) SS Ne) N aa uD “ 1 OB.
SO SEL OL. Oa SSN > OS Ae ASA Pap ane ate anes Lav!

Loe ee Se Aa Veen memo

Nitto Swiioed watdo— atat~ [Nv Maa wxfioredes 5S

OQLWTS C9 ta OA90D NOMS mea OD COONS 10

4 r] i)

e Te)

“Ost uns

METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER xepr ay ree MADRAS

Standard Baromter No, 3, by Gilbert.

1/0 a. mM.

1}30,032 }30, 054 30,005 |29,950 as 936 = 990} -

Vw we we -
7

2
Ke

SS eee

—~ @
o> <

NW VYVYYHD WAH@

,0lg} ,034 ee

cece | ees | ee

29, 941 29, 960 29,980 |

van, | 29,974] 30,022] 29,978

Standard Therm. by Troughton, |

Sun rise.
Noon.

~)

COCO

v

.
wv

v

PON SO
SOncoe

oO
=)
2.)

~

Cm
. se

VN ENOS
Cm OT Ww
ba fa |
0

-

om
CNwWOMRm Ww

—

ws

ROSN

~)
v
.
~)

td
OOoOUCe BYOwoo
———— J
2. x w ar ron
mona
NON CO

GP GO GO

we
Oh
.

BOSON

v
)

.
»

i)

CIO We oO

COa@
i> i ee

)

.
.
v

WN i

0 GO 96 GO
onus
SSO O60

cows
GO mM aD00 moO

t

DHT ONE

odie a
=

=

wow Pooc tm wwonpo

ve

oo
NX
bh @
Ci OONEE

HO sx

NSN
is 9)

v
s

Ooms

.
-
.

—NN

7

CO ES GAM
OO f£.0 ¥ =
Ne oon :

SPO

.)
v
v

GO G0 & GO

»
~}
.)

DnDmD OO

20

SY O8S?
COWEO POW
9 90 GO.0D 90

nus DH

L260

~)

2s
WACO PCO—NY OOANH CCC

Qh Owy

SHON
Wow co

.
.
ve

ANNO =

v

1
|

09 3
boo
w&
=)
ea)

(=)

)

J
RSe)
ww

.

~)

83,7) 84,4
83,1} 53,7

84.4] 81,8]80,9] 79,3 Mt
—--| 79,8} 76,2]- oa hil)

79,6; 77,9| ~-= il
--—| 75,5

78,1| 77,9

~

sl 21,3180,4 mss

TAONH

y

ROws Oo NwowonN wo

NI
NI
ww

ome

76,2) —-- "
77.3| ed 9
mis eewnee =|
scala 8 | 82, i salad 80,4 3.5

a el orpeatiodalinia

9,1; 75,5

ios)
© i
2 Sone é
13 1 wea oa) 2 Sees °
om een © 1B = ; ‘ors
og £28 e285 # ges socks E
{ | Bos fhe = SSEQ EES SS
. gee x FS rae es eo fF Scs vos
Mi a3 88 Bee cS SaaS) Es ra sovvwsd aq
{ aS a8 Se Ss S a &0 aS Sis 1S ® B Ors oe
ay oo a 4 5 Lie} eB S \¢
4 3 So ae op 2 64 4 8 oH Pe
I ae a e238 8662 ? SBa {
g a x oun = a ae wares Se SO 3 =
§ @ ee o8 Sonal THws Soe a 0. 32 Bs
: AS; Sp eae ees Soe ae Se HST e's fecose eg s :
ae ee od Se pe ae Qo eee i
oes SSS geo se Ss 33 : $ ato aS
vv istic ay a = 8 +3 ao. Se ae
\ ae) ae ° oe ° av] & m 3B ra) a a & Go
i oa oe so Ed SS 3 we : tH Go
| ee ae gs° ae Usk = ae ee es Spee
bo OS ee oe a meee ces eB 3 £ese5 7
sen cnn of fe Pope ee ee Goakhoe © gee bes!
i = ~> Gs} .ao oS —7 be
oe ss 5 SSSR SESss SSegy Ss
2 = a & x eo ° Sets
Yer) : | < = Ss a Cinta) 5 a)
cD cs ‘ yo =] He = SO Ss) ene SS
0) Ss 1 eieace <= Mk eee == O
x : ia oe oe ar oa
S pA) pee cobs Ae eh 282 F S08 ee ee
ae pose aes. Ara oe press Eudes : oP
ey | poem. aes = PPiae E aa be rap gee c Be Bl t
" = z 7, . os psoas . te Ss ° pases = aes A
an aa a ee nee pEEEX sagen 2
: { uoreiodea H gee ee ne Ze & eee .e see "3 Bl ea pe a
& GI (or) ne
oe | ERE meee Th Se a aes
: 8 — s X | eee
fee ce) EUS SN 9S l be SL to a a | | fel | |
e ja | SS So ice aiee |
cmt
mt | || | | Soe 4
: ee
eH uo | oo hata Sis ee)
Zz =| iRoOy jal] | 7 SS S
oO *5 > ee ES oe.
Sols ola |
=) SSS S @O S3 —<———
e Stile | oF > es |
fal . : i= FS SST: See (Ss)
a = Sia Si iG GNSS ISN | ais
& mm on Soe es RO tH
cab} w= S200 ~ gh Oe a~ NS By Selig eagles foal oS ee Nile ae ae |
é 5 2 Sia hh a Se Sean = NI Ni, ee. Se
a |S = 00 6 Sh Se aes Qa DNS wot N See aia a
fe 2 ee ee nn 08 INO PD OM OS st it tle
= SMa Sabah os a eatetet sl ve SOO 1 a
a Ss Pe OG os Class C0 ae 2 SP aw PO SL UES IG: Cats ) ON Ot
al = 10 4 Va Re Se hee: gee eee
2 wo oe oO0ONS : DOO 2 OS Ot oe. os
ct) om 2 ODND OS Reeve nie alae) CO 1010
S 5 ee ANN AS SoS ee es oo mien ow liad
: = ae Ee cas |< cay poe ay
- ey ~ eS ale, ts ie) Oe epee elian) (se)
> a Fotos SAS Se oaee Se ek fete a wa | | tee 9, aS
a. t oy = + box N19 Nei an idol n 1) GOO GO 1 S Osher! | | | = iwc
al © > fo) == ae) —rolas 2 tt x GO. G0 oy |
“has Q as rmco OC : oS iy a 2 We ceo corm s ce
| & (eacag BEats Slee ee) ot SOs aod | | are
4 — wanad | 1 =i CO o> qq = Ree =! OD | 1] = ts;
_ ee ae Lisette Lens NCe ~mOw: tee | © i?
Sa TSR = 9 Sa BOOS =
¢ rRR-- & ——— iene & Netieo} ic 1G r= OD
~ ONO SN Oo OA Soiood yt “AHS ae
ae oO ON Oma ae si Ren \%
= Ne Se ket One Ow BO - DADS Se Bo!

69
| Standard Barometer No.3, by Gilbert. standard Barometer by Troughtén,}
: | a 3 i . ( 3 b s i & :
poe ae eee i fe! a1) eu tee
oda aa a 2 a < as ia a tad _ re oH
@_| 2. | aja |o 1s ta )s |i belay | ae
Noyv.- [Inches | am {
1} 30,0°u} 30,050] 30,0 °8] 29,982} 29,996} 30,034/-—_|]74,9|79.¢] 0.2 179.2 179.6 177.0 | —})
21 Ovu} 056] ,0°8] ,950] , 96! 20,0 e| ——_|]75-4| 0,581.0 [82-0] 0.1 178.2 |
3129 990] 5020; 29,994] 7940 "036 ' 29,956] ——— 75,8177. {79.4 {79.9 }78.0|77,8|——])
4| {9 -129:935} ,920| ‘sdu] 840} ,916/——— Le 75,0176.5 177.0 176.7 |76,2 |—_—
5] $953] 30 04 ,95~| 5902} 7908} ,950| 29,972/175,9 '78.4150.3 [62.0 [805 178.3} 77.3
6} 96s! ooo! .958! .9'2] ,9241. ,9701 ,982/174,5 |78.9/82.0183.0|80.4177.9 |77.9
7, 7978, 5026}. 994] 952] {9x9 30,022/30/036 {175.9 }-0.2|8'.4 [83 418).9 179.0 | 78.0
£} 30,040] ———| 30.070, 30, 052 30,070| 400] ,100 |17¢;5 | _|84,0 83.7 18 081-41 78.3)
9} ‘oge} 140! 106} 060] ozs! 20a! | 06 76,0 !80.7 |82.8}83.2 180.7 179.01 77.5),
YO} ,06=| ,144) 208 058 ,070| 108/176, 0 [87.6 |82.2' 4,4 180.9 }0.7 |—_t
11} roo! ,154) ,704) ,090f roa! ,1641____1 179. 2 131 9780.5 181.3178 4177.9 |__
12) [150] j219] 5182] j'us| 2re7] 4179! | teotl78.7 Bi3 (81% 81.0179.0 177.9 | 79, 2})
Tap 9 lable 200) St70lt, Sah eae ot Lgl oe a 60,4 ;£0.4 {79.4 |77.5'|77.6 |
14} 4145] , 76) ,!46! 5106] ,124) .170'____||75.0178°9 79's Oli 76.9|—_a
15), asi 1% a! 7096] 122 wie 164 1175.9 179.4 (79.5 180.8 175.8 178.21 78.5
16 wl yoa} ,18ul j128] 123} 160 afr 78.8 179.9180.6 17.8 178.2
17| jt70| ,2To] ,l64 152| ,1#2] (1901 76.2)79.4|78.8|——|78.7 |78.0
Ig} 182) 2021 ,'70} 422] 146] 1701 172 )|74.0}78.5 [80.0 |>0.6 177.9 [77.7
19] ,154] S182} 4170; . 114i. 3110], 461 _1173.4179.1 179.0 [2010 '78.5.176.4
20! ,156| 5 19U 169] ie ,132] 160! 156 1175.8179.6 |79.7 fall 772
21} ,152| 192) ,'70] ,1261 146] ,178 ———1176.2|76.8|79.2 [79.9 \77.2176.3
99} (164 5200} 4164] 417+ 5190) ,205 !173.8 | ——]80.0 [0.4 178.8 !77.2
93; 17S] 222] 187) $50} 162! 182) 1821173,0.179.01 80191804 177.6.176.8
24 KBATy [224]. 5204 ny (62). 195), 196 io 79.6 85,4 |°9.3 177.9 |77.1
25 ie "202} 2192) 7150) 7168] 5 961—-—I 1720 |78.9 179.4 |-0.4 |78.7 176.3
26; ,174' ,204| ,178]- ,150| _,160| - ,180 pie by 77.9 |81.0 |0.7|78.9 \78.0
27| 176) ,2)4| 1921 ,158) 5146] 881 (180 /76.5 10.0 180.4 180.1 178.4 177.4
28| j16o, j20sl J1so] J1zs! 7126] {260 7146 1175.4 17*.0 79.0179.1175 9 (74.1
29) Vie} = ,190} 138] oes! 078) = 11 8!———)_71.0177.2 477.3 \77.9|76.0175.3
"| jlid} 4154] 4136! ,090/ j0E6 | 74.0 '72.£|72.5 \74 yew ie
a” Pe
Mean | 30,05! 30,146! 30,118!30, 071] 30, Or2! 30, '20130,134 |175.3 178.9 £0.0!80. 30.4|78.5 1775 77.5}

METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER kerr at ous MADR AU a

Sp ee
=

—————

=

= VG E SESéd Ss io 6g 24 ce 3
RS | = <n 9 Seuus so aS o-5 “Sa sec a 2 ES
5 WS sg ao} % < SeSPHS Ga cwS oc so
S. ? Pe) eS SS) TG Ge} te
} sY rR > 08 50 PO SB Hee P <=) [2]
oe Ee Tees Se ge EO as
wi Sete. 2S a = oO OlGro O ro Te ae SH ahs os a
= oes el sa Ee eee gee ge gee ope cx
¢ 1 & oa Sk 3 iS) 1g ra =
< 8 S sscosey ge 3 AGS ee das
= 2 8 vous RE od > Sie os
g ae > aa Ro adm ¢ 8 8 S Dry
2 6 os) Gs a. Gest 2 3
2 ao oS ro See Sos. CU a
Sanco cota x : Be SO
Mobs Sceee ccch cg asc os Soe be es ick ee
SGSSgl sous vouss Segoe cliels sees
is |) BRea P Fe Vie a. pent a eS
Spo 4 mr
39 | CAOOS = a se aa
oe ees ee
my
: a
RS = :E em) fa Z za
Z ES = pf z fa i
a ~ Rae Gea fe ees ae ee az ie
= > SRESE Ze7ES Sadee 298%, saan waste,
= -285, S06b4e Sete B22G5 Seeded aGeeE
SS 22420 BEZAZA ZAZZZ ZA2Z2Zn ZAAZAZZ Zeeze
SS a Sc —=—
> aT op) [ner rm? Ca oy 1 » ' | Hi Nepal Sesser a
hi ise) { ' t toes | oc : Tessthest: = Teach a
S mopmeciay: Placed | | | | a 8 | ete | E|
A, [ahs } J 42 oa i | eee Rea ame Seba | Ot 2 poe He H
Df te PP. = tole! MGs Ga ee Ee Is ee =
fe =) | ba On a
o | 1 { g | t SL ) oo
yas UNG a > ra te Se ro}
= = 2 | —) So. S SS) S
‘Ss Pes —————_——____ ee ee
= seems | RAS | Sli |/8 S(fla (2) /s S
aoe S oS = Ss 1S os) Ss
ma WIM = me feces LE A ea em ee ee Aa a Ne ee
im F WS OL tesla fee See pS gS Ee | So ON rs EC? anes (acs
B rie’ | cates ee ee lost ls svat let loots | lanl | in
& 3 | ow SA ree Qn SERS ENO. 0, Sea
° A NPQ] SSOUNS Nada eso KHAN Ost H we | N
fy !
- | gS | sung | QISRS NGQIe Senta MAUR NO won SHaANy S
mH = See BN NI SSS SN a ;
& 2 AE d= Gab) en Re nce ee ORO Nee Oe Pe Nae:
ta) os pe AS SE Bt hl ee Be os iry MON Bw een
& & moot | ASM BTL SN Wate AnnNS Nano
< 6 ji) Set es | et one
; = jw y eS ee ee
ve re 9) Sworos as |x
Bh |.5: \ieot ang lise oe

The instruments with which the foregoing observations
have been made, are placed upon a table about 4 feet above © |
the ground in the western verandah of the Honorable Com- |
pany’s Observatory; which is situated in the longitude 54.
21m. 9s. E. latitude 13h. 4m. 9s. N, at about two miles from
the sea and about 27 feet above the low water mark. =
T, G. TAYLOR, @

H. C. Astronomer. —

17th September, 1835.

ERRATA,

By an error of the press, the calculation in the article on

estimating distances at Sea, at pages 340 and 341, volume 2d, ~

has been rendered confused and unintelligible. —lt should

have been as follows :— :
6: = 2, 4? 25r

4’ 25”= apparent dip.

cotang 2° 0’ 0” = 11,45792

4 3000 eer
3000 = 3.47712 9859 = 3. 45621 |
: 11.45692. “TL. 55692. a
4.93404 “4.91313

&e. &e. &e. &e.

MADRAS JOURNAL

OF
Witerature and Setenee.

No. 11.—-April, 1836.
ps Eas

1.—On Assaying Silver.—By Lieutenant Brappocr.

1. Until within these few years the art of assaying silver
remained almost stationary in Europe, for more than a cen-
tury and a half. I find by a work translated from the Ger-
man in 1683, that the furnaces, cupels, muffles, method of
preparing the assays, &c. were, at that time, nearly identical
with the methods practised at the present day. But, as
Sterne says “ they manage these things better in France,’
go we are indebted ta the French for a recent improvement
in the assay of silver that places it on a footing, as it respects
' precision of result, more in unison with the present improved
state of analytic science.

2. ‘To assay silver, that is, to ascertain the quantity oi
pure silver contained in a given weight of bullion, there are
two ways; by fire, and by acid. The method usually follow-
ed by English assayers is by fire, which is the old process ;
the new French method is by dissolving the silver in nitric
acid and precipitating it with a prepared standard solution of
common salt. I propose first to consider the old, and then
to proceed to detail the new process.

3. The principle on which the assay by fire is founded is
this : a given weight, say 15 or 20 grains of silver, is mixed
with a certain quantity of lead, placed in a small crucible
made of the ashes of burned bones, and submitted for a cer-
tain time to a red heat in a small oven which is fixed ina

ee a een ae

78 On Assaying Silver. {APRIL

furnace, and through which there flows a current of air; the
lead, and the alloy in the silver become oxidized, and are ab-
sorbed by the crucible, leaving, when the operationis com-
plete, a button of pure silver,and the difference between the ~
weight of this pure silver, and the original weight of 15 or 20
grains, points out the quantity of alloy with which the silver
was contaminated,

4. This method of assay isdefective. In the first place,
if any gold be contained in the silver, its quantity remains
unknown, and it continues to be alloyed with the silver: I
once obtained from a rupee as much gold as was equal to
zizth its value. In the next place, the crucible absorbs a por-
tion of the silver, and an allowance is accordingly made for
it; but in nice experiments some assayers choose to report the
actual weight of the button of pure silver, noticing only that
no absorption allowance has been made, which seems to im-
ply, that the exact quantum of allowance cannot be precisely
fixed: and in the third place, the heat of the fire materially
affects results ; so that although specimens of silver bullion
of the same known quality may be assayed together, the
whole of them do not result, as they should do, of equal and
uniform fineness. |

5. I stated that if gold be contained in silver, the assay
by fire does not detect it; the seller of bullion thereby suffers
a loss in proportion to the quantity of gold that his silver
contains. Silver from the eastward is sometimes rich in
gold, and indeed almost all silver contams gold in greater or
less quantity. Thisis a fact well known and acted onin Eu-
rope. Silver is not there, now, refined by fire as it used to be
formerly, but is dissolved in sulphuric acid, which acts upon
the silver, and its base alloy, but leaves the gold untouched
in a metallic state, resembling a brown residue, which, when
washed and submitted to a red heat, regains the yellow colour
of pure gold. The silver which is held in solution by the sul-
phuric acid is precipitated by iron or by zinc, and when col-
lected, washed, and melted, is found to be silver of fine qua-
lity. ‘The gold by this process is therefore saved, and I un-
derstand it to be the practice in England for the refiner, if
silver is richin gold, to retainas his fee 8 grains of gold for

1836.] On Assaying Silver. 74

each pound troy of silver refined by him, and if there be a
surplus of gold, he returns it to the proprietor of the bullion.
It is said that the value of 5or6 grains of gold covers the
expenses of refining a pound of silver. Refining by sulphuric
acid is termed the humid process in contradistinction to the
method by fire, which is denominated the dry process.

6. The defective nature of the assay by fire, besides its
inadequacy to denote the quantity of gold, arises from the diffi-
eulty in practice of imparting a perfectly uniform heat to the
muffle, or small oven, in which the assay samples are pla-
ced. I know cases in which regularly educated assayers have
deviated from their own reports as much as one dwt. on silver
of the same standard fineness ; that is, to the extent of near-
ly a half per cent. And although this deviation may be
greater than may usually occur, it is a simple fact that it has
occurred, and proves the defectiveness of the process ; assay-
ers do indeed say that not more than one fourth of that, or a
1 of a dwt. is the common deviation, but their practice is, not
to report nigher than } a dwt. or about + per cent., which of
itself implies that a nearer approximation to truth is not to
be expected. In fact were their reports to distinguish 1 dwts.
they could not be depended on, as I shall presently shew; but
this seems to be far less accurate than the present state of
chemical analysis would seem to indicate as attainable.

7. The following diagram of experiments obligingly made
at my request at the Madras Assay Office, will further explain
the defective nature of the process by fire. The general figure
of the diagram is supposed to represent the assay muffle, and
the squares the positions which the assay musters occupied in
the muffle. It is only necessary to notice that the silver
assayed was of the same known standard fineness, and that
where S occurs it denotes that the assay came out standard
or correct; that where the sign of negation — is put, or
the sign ++ plus, the assay varied from the true fineness of
the silver and came out minus, or plus, under or above its
true quality as the sign denotes. The notation of the dif-
ferences is in 10ths of a penny weight; the whole muffle
| was not filled with musters, which accounts for the blank
|. Squares.

oe ~—— ee ee

On Assaying Silver. [ Aprit,

oH
Or:

SE | a

Ce Be weet ae

pees | meee | eee | eee | weet | ee

Front.

8. By this it is seen that although each specimen of the
silyer experimented on, was of the same fineness, yet the
assay did not uniformly give that indication, but exhibited
one of the musters to be finer than its true quality by four
tenths of a penny-weight, and others to vary from one to
seven-tenths of a penny- weight in coarseness, making there-
by the silver to be worse than it really was. This is attri-
butable, as I before observed, to the difficulty of causing
the fire to act precisely at the same temperature on each
individual muster: if the temperature was perfectly equal
throughout the muffle, there is reason to believe that the
variations in the out-turn would be very small, but as perfect
equality of temperature is not attainable in practice, perfect
results are not to be expected. The absorption allowance is
equal to 4. part of the original quantity or assay pound.
And as this pound is an arbitrary small weight of not more
than from 15 to 20 troy ¢raitis, it is clear that a very small
practical error will materially affect uniformity of result.

9. To the foregomg diagram I shall add two others,
exhibiting the results of experiments made by a regularly
educated assayer, for the purpose of determining the allow-

ance that ought to be fixed for the absorption of the cupels ©

they were made therefore with such care and precaution as

1836.] On Assaying Silver. 76

were thought necessary to produce accuracy of result. The
notation, &c. is the same as before.

tg ok alas oh. eel obiels)
- shel aka aig a iy ag lg ale)
gets ie OE eagles
5 rhe RES i aml a eae i

ce =i (as By Pe, Se
Byes iy i e[sts| ste
Saedvis sss Dasa
ests | Fas lets ira

Front. : Front.

10. The examination of these experiments will shew
considerable discordancies: and as discordancies occur with
silver of known fineness, they will of course occur equally
with silver of unknown fineness. In these particular ex-
periments the discrepancies can be traced, because the
silver was all of the same known quality; but it is evident
they cannot be so traced when bullion of unknown standard
is to be experimented on, and its true value to be ascertain-
ed. It may therefore be asked how is the true quality of the
silver to be known, seeing the capricious results produced by
this mode of assay? From the variable out-turn of the fur-
nace, its irregularities would indeed be fatal to all practical
precision were they not brought under some controul by a
practical expedient, which is, that every time an assay, or
set of assays, is made, one or two musters of standard silver
are placed in the muffle with the silver under examination,
and according as the standard or guide musters come out
above or below their true fineness, which is known, an allow-
ance is made for the other musters,; considering them to be
finer or coarser according to the mdications of the standard
musters. And by this ingenious method of check the re-

eo
a en ee

v7 On Assaying Silver. [Aprit

ported value of silver, as ascertained by this method of assay; _
approaches sufficiently near its true value for the purposes of
coinage and commerce. ‘The practical assayer, however, does
not depend entirely upon this check; -he attends. particularly
to the fire; regulates the temperature of the furnace ;
observes the appearances of the assays as they are work-
ing off; allows no minutie to escape notice during the
influential part of the process, which may be about 20 or 30
minutes, and what he thus observes, enables him to report
more correctly than he otherwise would be able to do from
the simple weight of the assay button.

1]. Itisclear from these observations that the assay by
fire cannot be depended on as giving great precision of re-
sult ; its general accuracy may be stated relatively as one to
400 :—or about 1 per cent. The following table will shew,
however, that his limit is exceeded even by the first assay-
ers of Europe. I omit the names of the assayers as they are
not essential, remarking only that the samples of bullion sent
to them to be assayed, were sent by the French Commission
appointed to report on the new process of assay by nitric acid.

Titres trouvés aux alliage
mathématics de -

|
| VILLES OBSERVATIONS.
950 Mill.|900 Mill. 800 of
Vienne 946.20 | 898.40 1795.10
Madrid .| 944.40 | 893.70 | 789.20 |
Idems2s: : 944.40 | 893.70 | 788.60
Londres... .| 946.25 | 896.25 | 794.25
Wem. <2. 933.33 | 883.50 | 783.33 |Sans compensation.
Amsterdam.| 947.00 | 895.00 | 795.00
Utrecht... .!| 945.00 | 896.50 | 799.00
Naples 945.00 | 891.00 | 787.00 |
Idem ivssing 941.00 | 891. pp 791.00
Hambourg. .| 946 13 | 89 (elev eS
Altona.....| 942 2 | 394. 66 | 790.60 |

12. This table exhibits full proof of the defect I have
been speaking of. The specimens of silver sent for assay,
contained respectively 950.,—900, and 800 parts of pure silver
in 1,000 parts, yet none of the assayers report them so fine,

1836. ] On Assaying Silver. 78

and some deviate from the true value as far as 9,10, and 13 |

per mille. This discrepancy is large ; it may be loosely stat-
ed at one per cent. but the general average is lower, being
about or somewhat under a half per cent. ; technically
about one penny-weight. I have said however enough to esta-
blish what I asserted, viz. that the method of assay by fire is
defective ; I now proceed to the new and improved process of
assay by nitric acid.
_* 13. I will first give the process as it has been published in

‘French, and then adapt it to English weights. The title of
the quarto pamphlet in which the process is described, is
intituled, “ Commission des monnaies.”—* Documens of-
< ficiels relatifs a la rectification en France du mode d’essai
“des maticres dor et d’argent généralement suivi en Eu-
“foyope.”

Description du procédé.

- Onadit que, dans le procédé de l’essai d’argent par la
voie humide, le titre de l’argent se determinait au moyen
d’une dissolution de sel marin : l’on va indiquer les moyens
de composer cette dissolution.

On prendra du sel marin pur et parfaitement sec, ou a défaut,
du sel marin blanc du commerce (1) et on en fera une disso-
Jution dans le rapport de 100 grammes du sel a 9143.85
grammes d’eau distillée ; la dissolution étant complete, on la
vérifiera, et on en reglera le titre comme il suit.

- On fera dissoudre 2 grammes d’argent pur, dans 10 gram-
mes d’acide nitrique 4 22’ degrés, en se servant du flacon A.
dont on yoitle dessin ala figure 1°° dela planche jointe
a cette instruction ; on y versera peu a peu, et en agitant bien,
100 grammes de la dissolution de sel marin (2) ; on bouche-
ra le flacon, on Vagitera pendant quelque minutes, on laissera
eclaircir la liqueur, ou bien on en filtrera un peu sur un pétit

w,

i. Silon etait obligé @employer le sel blanc du commerce il serait
avantageux de réduire ce sel en poudre fine et de le laver dans le moins
d’eau possible; il faudrait ensuite le presser entre des linges ou entre
des papiers non collés, et le faire bien secher avant de l’employer.

2. On pourra se servir, pour verser exactement 100 grammes de la
dissolution de sel dans be flacon A de la burette D fig. 4 comme on le
dira plus bas,

79 On Assaying Silver. (Aprit

filtré favé & Peau distillée; on en versera dans deux verres
propres ; on ajoutera dans l’un quelques gouttes de nitrate
d’argent et dans l’autre un peu de dissolution de sel. S’il se
forme un precipité dans le premier verre, on saura que la dis-
solution de sel titrée est trop forte ; elle sera trop faible s'il
se forme un precipité dans le second verre, et elle sera au
contraire bien constituée, si elle n’est louchie ni par le nitrate
d’argent, ni par la dissolution de sel marin. Dans les deux
cas, oti la dissolution de sel marin ne serait pas composée
exactement comme on le desire, il faudrait y ajouter peu @
peu, soit du sel marin pur, soit de l’eau distillée, jusqu’-d-ce
qu’on l’ait amenée, par tétonnement, au point de precipiter
juste 2 grammes d’argent, en employant 100 grammes de
cette dissolution; elle sera alors convenable pour faire les es-
sais d’argent par la voie humide.* On n’aura plus qu’a la

RS RO SESS CD CEE) EERE OE

* Sil’on voulait s’eviter les titonnemens dont il est ici question, il
faudrait determiner bien exactement qu’elle est la quantité de dissolu-
tion de sel necessaire pour precipiter 2 grammes d’argent pur dissous
dans 10 grammes d’acide nitrique. Des calculs fort aisés a faire indi-
queraient ensuite facilement ce qu'il faudrait ajouter d’eau ou de sel
marin @ la liqueur, s’il y manquait quelque chose. Voici quelques exe
emples qui aplaniront sans doute toute difficulté.

En supposant qu’il ait fallu 104 grammes de Ia dissolution de sel
pour précipiter exactement les 2 grammes d’argent pur, il est évident
qu il y a4 grammes d’eau de trop par 104 grammes de cette dissolution;
il faut donc en enlever ces 4 grammes d’eau par le moyen de l’evapora-
tion, ou, ce qui sera plus facile, ajouter dans la dissolution la quantité
de sel marin pur necessaire pour convertir ces 4 grammes d’eau en dis~
solution titrée. Or, d’aprés les bases qui ont éte etablies plus haut,
ce serait 0.043 gramme de sel qu’il fandrait pour arriver 4 ce but; il ne
resterait donc qu’a peser la dissolution de sel marin que l’on aurait 4
fortifier, et 2 y ajouter autant de fois 0.043 gramme de sel marin ais,
qu’elle péserait de fois 104 grammes.

Si la dissolution de sel marin etait trop concentrée et qu il n’en fallat,
par exemple que 95 grammes pour precipiter exactement les 2 gram-
mes d’argent pur, il suffirait, dans ce cas, de peser la dissolution dont il
s’agit, et d’y ajouter autant de fois 5 grammes d’eau distillée, qu’elle
péserait de fois 95 grammes.

On. peut, en opérant ainsi, s’eviter bien des tatonnemens. On conseil-
le cependant de ne regarder la dissolution saline comme étant bien con-
stituée, qu’apres avoir plusieurs fois constaté qu’il en faut exactement
100 grammes pour précipiter 2 grammes d’argent fin, dissous dans 10
grammes d’acide nitrique.

1836. ] On Assaying Silver. SO

renfermer dans une bouteille fermée avec un bouchon de
verre a l’emeri, graissé avec du suif et qu’d la garder sous
clé quand on ne s’en servira pas.

Voici.maintenant la série des manipulations pour assayer
un alliage d’argent par la voie humide.
_ On pése 2 grammes de cet alliage, on les introduit dans
' le flagon A. fig. 1° de la planche, on jauge 10 grammes
_ @acide nitrique a 22 dégres dans le tube en verre B fig. 2%
ou: au moyen de la pipette C fig. 3” on verse cet acide,
dans le flacon A, et on favorise la dissolution de l’argent en
_ plagant le flagon sur des cendres chaudes, sur un bain de
sable, ou au bain marie. la dissolution de Vargent étant
compléte on y ajoute 50 grammes, ou un demi-décilitre d’eau
distillée; on prend la burette D qui est représentée ala fi-
gure 4°, et qui est graduée en 100 parties contenant chaque 1
gramme de dissolution de sel titrée ; on remplit la burette
_ jusqu’ au zerode sa division, et on en prend le poids bien ex-
actement avec de poids décimaux et en la suspendant a lun
des plateaux d’une balance trés-sensible; on note le poids
trouvé et on verse peu a peu, en opérant a l’ombre et en agi-
tant bien chaque fois, de la dissolution de sel titrée dans le
_flacon. Il faut opérer lentement, et goutte 4 goutte vers la
- fin de operation. On agite alors le flacon plus fortement et
| pendant une minute ; on essaie la liqueur, et on continue
| Popération en tatonnant ainsi.
Pour que l’essai soit bien fait, il faut que la dissolution de sel
me trouble plus sensiblement la liqueur, et que cette liqueur
me se trouble cependant pas lorsqu’on y ajouter une goutte
| de dissolution de nitrate d’argent. Lorsqu’on est arrivé a ce
| point et qu’on l’a bien établi, ilne reste plus qu’ a peser de
_ nouveau la burette, qu’ 4 déduire le poids trouvé du poids pri-
| mitif, et qu’ a ajouter un zero ala difference, si le nombre est
| entier, on 4 reculer la virgule d’une place vers la droit, s’il est
| fractionnaire. On obtient ainsi, en millismes et fractions
decimales de milliéme le titre de argent soumis a l’essai.
Un seul exemple du calcul a faire dans ces deux cas éclairci-
ra sufiisamment ce qui vient d’étre dit a ce sujet.

!
4
he
+

81 On Assaying Silver. [Arai

Supposons que le poids de la burette pleine de
~ dissolution de sel titrée de ......... grammes 307
Et que son poids aprés l’essai, soit de.......... 217

tre ae

On aurait employé en dissolution de sel........ 90

eee

Ce qui representerait exactement le titre de 900 milliémes.
En supposant que la burette pleine de

dissolution saline titrée, pesat, avant l’essai 307.56
Et aprés Pessal....... 0 YP) fais ewan 217.00

La dissolution employée péserait........ 90.56

Ce qui donnerait le titre de 905 milliémes 6.

14. The method of assay thus developed is founded on
Strict chemical principles, and depends on the play of chemi-
cal affinities. The solution of silver in nitric acid is a test
for muriatic acid ; and common salt, which contains muriatic
acid is a test for nitrate of silver. The two mutually de-
Compose each other. The silver combines with the muriatic
acid, and forms an insoluble muriate of silver,and thesoda of the
common salt combines with the nitric acid and forms a solu-
ble nitrate of soda; and when the relative quantities of each,
required to produce complete mutual decomposition are
aia the principle of the process is obtained.

15. These relative quantities are found by means of a ta-
ble of chemical equivalents, thus; the equivalent number of
silver is 108°0 and of common salt (muriate of soda, or chlo-
ride of sodium) is 58°75 :* which means that a solution of —
58°75 grains of pure dry common salt, will decompose exact- _
ly 108 grains of silver dissolved in acid. IT'rom these num-
bers therefore may be calculated the proportion of salt and
of silver required for an assay of any given quantity. |

16. Suppose the assay pound should be equal to 10 troy a

grains ; then 5:44 grains of pure dry common salt would be
required to precipitate ten grains of pure silver: for as
108 : 58°75 2: 10 = 5-44, and if distilled water were added

(See Ser oe =

PN,

* Table by Dr. Turner, 1833,

oo

fees ee oe

1836. | On Assaying Silver. 82

to this quantity of salt to make up the weight of 1,000 grains,
it would become a properly prepared solution for the purpose
required. This is the theory, but practical difficulties occur
which require the solution thus formed to be verified.

17. These difficulties are, first ; that as these two sub-
stances are most delicate mutual tests, the salt, which imbibes
moisture, must be weighed warm, and cannot be weighed
with sufficient precision so as to completely decompose the
silver and neither exceed nor fall short of it. And secondly,

_ that if it could be weighed with the required accuracy, the

foregoing equivalent numbers may not be perfectly correct ;
some former tables give them at 110 and 60 instead of 108
and 58.75, and the 110 and GO are extremely near the propor-
tional numbers laid down by the French chemists. But in
the quantity of salt required for 10 grains of silver the differ-
ence between the two sets of equivalents is but 0.02 of a

| grain, and an error to this extent might easily be made in

weighing at different temperatures. ‘The solution must there-

_ fore be verified ; and it may be done thus.

18. Prepare a solution of pure dry common salt so that

| 5.44 grains shall be contained in 994.56 grains of distilled
| water; 2. e. 1.000 grains of the solution will contain 5:44
_ grains of salt, and 994.56 of water. This quantity ought to
| precipitate exactly 10 grains of pure silver. Dissolve therefore

10 grains of pure silver in 3 or 4 drachms of dilute nitric

- acid; and when dissolved, add thereto half an ounce of dis-
| tilled water, and shake it up and mix it well together: then
| pour in the 1,000 grains of the salt solution, shake it well, let
| it subside and when clear test a portion with a single drop of

nitrate of silver, and another portion with a single drop of
the solution of salt. If the prepared solution of salt be of
the exact strength, neither one nor the other of the tests

| will have any effect. But if it be too strong, the test by
nitrate of silver will cause a discolouration ; if too weak, the

other test will do the same. Suppose it too weak and that
5 grains in weight more of the solution are required to pro-
duce complete precipitation of the silver; it may then be
made of the proper strength either by evaporating it in the

| proportion of 5 grains in the 1.000; or by adding more

83 (On Assaying Silver. [Apri

salt, the quantity of which is thus ascertained,—viz. As
1.000 : 544 :: 5 = 0.027 the quantity of salt required. If
the solution be too strong, then a less quantity of it than
1.000 grains will neutralize the silver; suppose 998 grains
are sufficient, then it is obvious that 2 grains of distilled
water added to 998 of the solution is all that 1s wanted to
make it of the standard strength.

19. Having prepared a sufficient stock of the standard
solution, its use in assay is plain. Suppose the assay pound
(10 grains) of silver to be divided into 100 parts, and that
the silver to be assayed contained 81 pure silver and 19
alloy. Then 810 grains of the solution would precipitate it,
and the quantity of the solution expended would be cor-
rectly indicative of the true quality of the bullion. Nor is it
of any consequence whether fractions occur or not, for if the
silver was 71.54 touch, the expenditure of the solution would
then be 715.4 grains; its indications are therefore perfect,
and even with a moderate degree of skill in manipulation,
the out-turn exhibited by this mode of assay, may, I appre-
hend, be depended on toa far greater degree of accuracy
than the process by fire. I have made several trials with it
on silver of known fineness, and found it come out correct
within a zsso part, on the principle of using 1.000 grains of
the solution. Butif the quantity of water was increased,
only retaining the same weight of salt, as much greater pre-
cision of result could be obtained, as might be thought
desirable.

20. The only practical objection that occurred to me in
pursuing my enquiries on this subject was, the tediousness of
weighing and of repeated testings; and the time occupied
after each testing, particularly when near the point of satu-
ration, before the mixture became clear enough to try it
again. But Iam informed by a gentleman who was two
months at Paris, to learn this method of assay, that neither
tediousness nor delay is there experienced, and that the
assays are made with sufficient rapidity for the requirements
of practice. ‘They do not, however, now weigh the solution
of salt, but have their glasses so proportioned and graduated
that the quantity expended, can be read off at sight, which is

M6

n

“a

wf
es
rae

1836.] Odservations on ihe ora of Courtallum. 84

a great facility. And as for the turbidness of the mixture
after testing, my informant states that by agitation and
sharply shaking, it very soon goes off, and the liquid becomes
clear enough for succeeding trials till the pomt of neutrality
is completely obtained. Constant practice no doubt pro-
duces facility of manipulation. The French assayers are
said to be horrified at the thought of now using an assay
furnace.

eS Se ne Oe

I1.— Observations on the Flora of Courtallum.— By Ropert
WicGHt, M. D.

( Continued from vol. 2d page 391.)

I concluded my preliminary observations on the Flora of
—Courtallum, with some remarks on the vast variety of vege-
table forms which it produces within a very limited space.
To enable persons unacquainted with such inquiries to under-
stand the subject more clearly, I compared the number of
Species, estimated, growing on a very small portion of this
range, (20 square miles) with the ascertained number of
species, indigenous to the whole of the British islands: and
showed a preponderance in favour of Courtallum in the pro-
portion of nearly 4 to 3. Since that time, I have arranged,
and somewhat extended my collections, and find they
amount to about 1,200 species; three-fourths of which, were
collected at one season, and in less than three months. Such
a result leaves scarcely a moments room for doubt, that in
estimating the flora at 2,000 species, I have not overstepped
the truth, as but a small portion indeed of these hills are yet
explored, and that very imperfectly. From the data now
adduced, I am inclined to advance a step further, and assume,
that the Flora of Courtallum within an equal space will be
found to equal that of Nepaul, though enjoying a range of
climate varying in heat from tropical to arctic. There,
within an area of 60 square miles, in the course of one year,
the collections of that most active and indefatigable botanist
Dr. Wallich, he estimates, did not exceed 2,500 species:
showing I think unequivocally, that so far as yet known, no

85 Observations on the Fiora of Courtallum. [Aprit

tract of country of equal size exhibits such a profusion of
plants as this does.

The great length of time required to arrange so large a
collection, even roughly, embracing as it does from 15 to
20,000 specimens, while subject to the usual interruptions of
a professional life, prevented me sooner continuing these re-
marks, and other, and more pressing avocations, will I fear,
constrain me to break them off on the present occasion, at an
earlier stage than I originally contemplated.

In this, and my subsequent communications on the same
subject, it is my intention to notice as briefly as possible, the
leading peculiarities of structure, geographical distribution,
and uses, of the several natural orders of plants found here.
In these remarks, it shall be my constant endeavour, to
adopt a style and mode of illustration, freed to the utmost
from technicalities, but without making any sacrifice. of
science, my object being, to present, in the most inviting garb,
her truths to the general reader; in the hope of expediting
the diffusion of a knowledge of them, and aiding in establish-
ing a taste for Natural History, a study which, in the words of
the accomplished President of the Bombay branch of the
Asiatic Society,* “ being directly conversant with the works
of God, is, in all circumstances, possessed of the highest in-
terest, and conduces both to intellectual gratification and
moral improvement ; and in such a country as India, so vast
in its extent, so grand and multifarious in its productions, 1s
possessed of peculiar charms. The sojourners in Bombay
(in India) have in the mountains and forests and Islands of
the neighbourhood, innumerable objects, connected espe-
cially with Geology, Botany and Zoology, which allure atten-
tion, both from their comparative novelty and intrinsic in-
terest. The report of observation and discovery connected
with them, would form an agreeable recreation, even to those
who may be most ardent and persevering in their researches
into the other important objects of the. Society’s investiga-
tion.”

BD SESS HOE SE Ce DS Se gy ee Coes GE

* Vide abridged report of the President’s Address.—-Madras Herald,
10th February 1836.

1836.] Observations on the Flora of Couriallum. 86

Influenced by views similar to those so admirably ex-
pressed in the preceding extract, I shall proceed to examine
in succession the principal natural orders of which I have
specimens from this station. In these notes I follow the
natural system, not only on account of the facilities which it
offers to myself, but in the expectation of being able to eluci-
date by numerous examples the various benefits which the
botanical student derives, from the now nearly general
adoption of that method.

Through its means we can often trace affinities of soil and
climate, in circumstances the least to be expected, and
equally diversities where altogether unlooked for. The exa-
mination of a dried collection of plants, will often enable the
botanist, without any collateral information, to declare the
existence in a country of local causes exerting sufficient
force, in modifying the climate, to counteract the effect of
geographical situation. or example, many families of plants
are only found within the tropics, or in the warmer regions
on their confines ; while many others are rarely found to ex-
tend beyond the temperate zone. Specimens of both de-

scriptions being found in a local collection indicate as clearly,

to the botanist, as 1f he had himself visited the region, that
the plains experienced a tropical climate, while the higher
hills enjoyed a temperate one. The first and second orders
of the following arranzement, (Ranunculacee and Dil-
lenacee) afiord illustrations of these positions. Of Ranuncu-
lace, an extra tropical order, Professor Decandolle de-
scribes 505 known species, 119 of which are Huropean, 74
North American, only 19 Indian. Of the 19 referred to
India, only three or four are found on the plains, the rest are
Alpine, mostly from Nepaul and the Neilgherries. The
number of Indian species has been greatly augmented since

the publication of his work, but, the additions only tend to

confirm the general rule, since they are nearly all from the
Himalayas, while 10 of 13 Peninsular species are limited to
the Neilgherries, and two of the remaining three found on
them. Of Dillenacez,on the other hand, 21 of 96 species
are Indian, and most of the others are found either within

87 Observations on the Flora of Courtalium. [Apri

the tropics, or on their confines. Those of New Holland
attain the highest latitude, extending as far as 340 south.

These two examples, though not the most pointed that
might have been selected, are, for the present, sufficient to
illustrate this important feature of vegetable distribution
over the globe. I say important, because it is one which at
once enables the botanist to tell from the inspection of a col-
lection of plants, from any part of the globe, and without
any collateral information, the character of the soil and
climate, the chances of success which would attend the in-
troduction of valuable exotics, or of the removal of such as
it might possess to countries more favourably situated for
turning them to the best account. |

Other and not less important information is occasionally
deducible from the examination of the vegetable products of
a country ; such as the probable salubrity or otherwise of
its climate : whether the hills attain an elevation, sufficient
to place them beyond the reach, of that almost constant at-
tendant on exuberant tropical vegetation, ia unchecked
by cultivation—Jungle fever.

Such area few of the benefits that flow from that, nan
erroneously so called, dry study of Botany, even when studi-
ed in its dryest form—in the cabinet—from dried specimens
of plants. I must not however beso far misunderstood, as
to be supposed to assert, that, from such data, correct con-
clusions can always be attained, since it 1s well known that
this country presents an anomaly, strikingly at variance with
the general rule, the cause of which remains still unexplain-
ed. Tallude to the difference that exists, between the hill
jungles of the northern and southern extremities of the
peninsula, in regard to their healthy and unhealthy seasons,*

a ES EET SRE RE ARR fea ES TS
ee ee eS og RE

* I may here observe that the direction of the wind has a great influ-
ence on the healthiness of Courtallum. On my first arrival here, about
three weeks ago, the weather was fine and the climate most salubrious,
the wind being at that time about N. N. E. A week ago it shifted round
to 8. E. and instantly the sickly season commenced, and so energetical-
ly, that in less than three days almost every member of the party, near-
ly 20 in number, was more or less affected, some very severely, with
feverish complaints.

RB Teeagians

1836.]. Observations on the Flora of Courtallum. 8&

a difference worthy the most attentive investigation. In the
former the dryest season of the year is the most healthy,
and that during which their recesses may be most safely ex-
_ plored ; while in the latter it is during the height of the
rains; and that too, although the vegetation is much the
same in both. But, in both, so far as yet known, the vege-
tation no where, except on the Neilgherries, presents an indi-
cation, of any part of the hills, attaining an elevation suffi-
cient to place them beyond the influence of the fever zone.
Some may, and no doubt do, attain an elevation exceeding the
nearly ascertained limits of that zone on the Neilgherries,
such for example as the Shevaroys, but they have not mass
enough at that elevation, to relieve them entirely from its
pestilential influence.

In justice to my subject I have thought it necessary to in-

troduce these additional preliminary observations, to show
more clearly the object and bearings of such investigations :
and, I trust I may add, not without the hope of inducing
some of those who have hitherto paid but little attention to
such enquiries,to devote some portion of their leisure to such
pursuits.
_ The method or arrangement, which I propose following in
these papers, is that of Professor Decandolle. He in place of
commencing his systema vegetabilium with the more simple,
and rising tothe more complex forms, has adopted the oppo-
site course, of commencing with the more complex forms,
and descending to the more simple ; from their structure and
organization being more obvious, yet, though more complex,
easier understood.

As every linear arrangement of the series of natural orders
must be more or less artificial, this truly great botanist has
adopted one, which affords many facilities for discovering the
piace of any unknown plant, by grooping all the Dicotyledo-
nous orders under four great classes, distinguished, generally,
by very obvious characters. In the first ( Thalamifiore ) the
petals are distinct and inserted along with the stamens, when
present, below the ovary or young seed vessel ( hypogynous ),
without any reference to the number either of stamens or
pistils, or whether only one or both are present—their posi-

8 Observations on the Flora of Courtallum. [Aprit

tion, then, between the calyx and ovarium, but attached to
neither, is the distinguishing character of this class. His
second class ( Cali yerflor @), is equally independent of num-
bers, as well as of the presence or absence of both stamens
and pistils in each flower, but is distinguished by having the
petals (whether united or distinct) and stamens inserted into
the calyx (perigynous). The third class ( Corollifiore ) has
the petals united, inserted below the ovary (hypogynous,)
and bearing the stamens ; and the fourth class (Monochla-
midec) has a simple perianth, that is a calyx without a
corolla, or a single, in place of double, series of parts covering
one re-productive organs.

‘ This short explanation of this celebrated system, 1s in-
troduced to prevent the necessity of after repetitions. ‘The
orders, now to be considered, all belong to the first class, or
ee with distinct hypogynous petals.

I. Ranunculacee.

I have already spoken of this Order as being almost exclu-
sively extra-tropical, and but for its importance might have
been passed over, as I have as yet only found one species
here, Varavelia Zeylanica, one of the few truly tropical
representatives of this family. All the herbaceous members,
when found within the torid zone, are observed to occupy
the highest hills, where great elevation compensates for a
low latitude. This is strikingly the case with Anemone,
Ranunculus, Thalictrum, and some others. The shrubby
genera such as Clematis and WVaravelia, are more truly tropi-
cal, hence we find species of them on the plains of India,
Ceylon, the Eastern Islands, west coast of Africa, New Hol-
land and equinoctial America. We may thence generally
assume, from the presence of the herbaceous forms within
the tropics, that the hills have attained an elevation sufficient
to raise them above the limits of the fever zone. Their ab-
sence on the Shevaroy hills, were we otherwise unacquainted
with the fact, might be received as an indication that they
had not attained that elevation.

- This Order is readily distinguished from all the others of
the class, by havinga number of distinct, or only shel
adhering, seed vessels (carpels) and sheathing leaves.

41836.} Observations on the Flora of Courtallum. 19)

In its properties, “ acridity, causticity and poisen,’ form
the leading features ; hence its species are always tobe re-
garded with suspicion. The bish or bikh of Nepaul, a species
of aconite, one of the most active vegetable poisons known,
belongs to this order. :

It is suspected that that, or an allied plant, possessing si-
milar properties is a. native of the Geomsoor country, as a
root, somewhat resembling it, was found in some wells, appa-
rently introduced with the intention of poisoning them, and
had proved injurious to the health of people who drank the
water. The belief that the bikh is a native of that country,
can only be viewed as a conjecture, since the roots were so
much decomposed, before the discovery was made, that they
could not be preserved fer examination. I was however in-
duced to make some inquiries on the subject of poisonous
roots in this part of the country, and had one brought, said
te be so, which proved to be the Gloriosa superba ; whether
or not it is poisonous I have not ascertained, but I did find
that a large proportion of its substance consists of pure
farina or arrow root. The subject is certainly deserving of
further inquiry, and is mentioned here in the hope that some
of those employed in that country, will endeavour to procure
specimens both of the root and plant. Ifan aconite is found,
most of the European officers will be able to recognise it
from its likeness to the monkshood of the English oe
which belongs to that genus.

II. Dilleniacee.

This, as already observed, is mainly a tropical Cedar for
though many of them, particularly those of New Holland,
extend several degrees beyond that zone, yet we do not know
any that reach a high latitude ; and even if they did, a few
exceptions would scarcely affect the general rule. Of this
family I have as yet only found three species at Courtallum,
one of them Acrotrema, varying greatly in habit from the
other two, and from the rest of the Order ; being a stemless,
herbaceous plant, growing in moist clefts of rocks ; most of
the other species are either trees or shrubs.. Tetracera
Rhudit, a very common shrub on the Malabar coast, I have
not yet found ; though probably a native at least of the passes

9] Observations on the Flora of Courtallum. [Aprit

leading to that coast : neither have I met with Delima sar-
mentosa, a Ceylon plant ; but I think it may be expected on
the higher range of hills, which I have not yet been able to
visit. Roxburgh appears, from the Flora Indica, to have been
acquainted with only nine Indian species of this order, natives
partly of the Circars, Bengal and the Moluccas. Blume
describes 8 from Java alone. ‘Two are natives of Senegam-
bia, and six are natives of the Indian peninsula.

In addition to their superior distinct carpels (seed vessels),
the principal peculiarity of this Order consists in its seeds
having an arillus, or middle coat, if I may so call it, between
the capsule and ¢eséa or true covering of the seed, and by its

exstipulate leaves. Most of them are remarkable for their ~

handsome flowers, and some of them attain the size of large

timber trees. Roxburgh states that the wood of Dillenia

speciosa makes excellent gun stocks.

Astringency is the most usual characteristic of the Order,
but the calyces of Dillenia scabrilla and speciosa have a
pleasant acid taste, and are used by the natives to season
their curries. Roxburgh adds, that they make a pleasant
tasted jelly. :

Ill. Magnoliacee.

Of this Order I have. as yet only met with one tree, and
that a doubtful native, Michelia Champaca. Itis an Order
nearly unknown on the plains of India. There are however
several Nepaul species, and no fewer than thirteen natives of
Java.

It is remarkable for the chashioeat and fragrance of its
flowers, and for the bitter aromatic properties of the bark.

Some of the Himalayan species are very large trees affording

excellent timber. These Mr. Royle thinks might be ad-

vantageously introduced into the South of Europe for the sake.

of their wood.
IV. Anonacee.

A large and strikingly tropical Order, few if any of its ssi

cies bemg known to extend above two or three degrees on
either side beyond that zone. India, so to speak, seems to
be its head quarters, Dr. Wallich’s list of Indian plants,
presenting a catalogue of nearly 80 species ; a vast accession’

1836.] Observations on the Flora of Courtallum. 92

since the publication of Decandolle’s Systema Vegetabilium ;
at which time only 105 were known, one-fourth of which
were Indian. Roxburgh describes 27 in his flora, all that
he knew, from both the Continent and Islands. Blume enu-
merates 32 from Java. After reducing several of Decandol-
le’s species, 19 are assigned to the peninsula, to which I have
added fully half as many more since my return to India : so
that, the known peninsular species may now amount to 30 ;
of these 20 or 22 are natives of Courtallum, and no doubt
several more will be found, as they generally frequent the
thickest and most shady forests, where, from having nothing
very striking in their appearance, or showy in their flowers,
pst may be easily passed unobserved.

The distinguishing character of this order restsin the
seeds, the albumen or white portion of which, as seenina
longitudinal section, is ruminated. This is a’ mark to which
there is no exception, and with the appearance of which, any
ohe may make himself acquainted by merely dividing
lengthwise the seed of a custard apple, and examining ‘the
cut surface. The custard apple and some others have the
- carpels united into asingle conglomerate fruit. But -gene-
_ vally, each carpel is furnished with a distinct pedicel, forming
| together a large cluster = fruit, all springing from one cen-
tral point. )
_ ‘Considering the liberal supply which has been grant-
_ ed-to India of members of this order, it is to be regret-
_ ted that in an economical point of view, so far as we
yet know, they have so little to recommend them to
- our consideration. ‘Two species only are mentioned by
Ainslie, the 4nona squamosa and J. reticulata, (the custard-
apple and’ bullocks-heart) on account of their fruit ; a
few attain the size‘of ‘timber trees, but the wood is soft and
not much esteemed. ‘The family is said to possess, as a ge-
_neral property, a powerful aromatic taste and smell: a point
_to which Iam’ sorry I have not paid sufficient attention, to
enable me either to corroborate or refute, generally ; but I
_ know the leaves of the custard-apple form a striking éxcep-
| tion, in so far as smell is concerned, which in them is heavy
and: disagreeable; while that of the flowers of Zrtabotrys

98 Observations on the Flora of Courtallum. [Aprit

odoratissima is most fragrant. The seeds of some’of the
species are strongly aromatic, those of one, so much so, as
to have procured for it in the shops, in Europe, the name of
AXthiopian pepper. Another species the Monodora myris-
tica, has got the name of American nutmeg, on account of its
aromatic properties ; and, lastly, Mr. Royle informs us ‘ that
the seeds of the custard-apple contain a highly acrid princi-
ple fatal to insects, on which account the natives of India use
them powdered and mixed with gram, or Cicer arietinum,
for occasionally washing their hair.”
V. Menispermacee

A small, but not unimportant, Order, and like the last ey
most exclusively tropical. Most of the species are twining
shrubs, some of them of great size, chiefly confined to Ame-
yica and Asia. The Flore Senegambie has only three;
and previous to its publication, only five were known from
all Africa.. Decandolle enumerates 84 species, twenty-two of
which are from equinoctial America and thirty-five East In-
dian. Of the latter several,on more careful examination,
proved to be only varieties, and have since been reduced,
leaving under thirty genuine species. Blume gives charac-
ters of 15 genuine and two doubtful species from Java. A
few species are found in the warmer valleys of the Himalay-
as. Eleven species are referred tothe Peninsular flora. The
Courtallum one hasan equal number ; two or three of which
are new ; raising the number for the Peninsula to 13 or 14
species.

The most striking peculiarity of this Order is, the form and
structure of the seed. In all the species there is a degree of
obliquity, which in many becomes lunulate, or bent on itself,

so that, in place of being straight, the ends of the seed. ap-.

proach each other, till they meet at the foot stalk. Hence,

if cut transversely it appears a two celled and two seeded nut,

but, when split vertically, is found to have only one long
arched cell, somewhat resembling a horse shoe, filled with a
single kernel. 1 ay

The flowers are generally dioecious, small and numerous.
The stamens six, distinct, with a small scale at the base of the.

filaments, as in cocculus; or they ere numerous, united into.

==

1836.] Observations on the Flora of Courtallum. 04

one body, having a round head all covered with anthers, as
in Anamirta ( Cocculus indicus ); or there are only 4 stamens
united into a square centre column, the anthers opening
transversely on the four faces, as in Cissampelos. The former
genera usually produce three, rarely 6 or more, distinct car-
pels from each female flower; in Cissampelos only one. In
this last, several of these drupes are usually embraced by a
broad succulent bractea, producing the appearance of a leafy
cluster. !

As already observed, this is rather an important Order, in
an economical point of view: supplying the London porter
brewer with Cocculus indicus (anamirta cocculus), and the
physician with one of his best tonics—the Columbo root (coc-

- culus palmatus ), among the strongest and purest of vegetable
bitters. This most valuable plant is now cultivated in the
Mauritius, and was formerly found to thrive well at Madras.
It is one of considerable commercial importance, a native
of Madagascar, and might, I am confident, be cultivat-
ed with advantage in the light sandy soils of this
country, much in the same way that yams are, and with

equal ease and success. The Cocculus (menispermum)
cordifolius, which has been much extolled asa febrifuge
in Bengal under the name of Galancha, is a native of
the peninsula, and is common in hedges and among

- bushes, is another member of this family. Ainslie informs

| us that the tender shoots of this plant, which are bitter and

_ a little nauseous to the taste, when dried and powdered, are

_ prescribed as an alterative in jaundice and depraved habit,

I by the Hindoo practitioners, and, on the authority of Dr.

| Fleming, that the leaves are febrifuge. In the Materia Indica
| he adds, that from 15 to 20 grains of the root is a powerful
emetic, and is much used in the Chittore district in cases of
snake-bite. Jtis the root which is used in Bengal against
fever. It seems to possess the properties of ipecacuana in an

_ eminent degree. Under Cissampelos pareira, Ainslie speaks

very favourably of the medical properties of the root of

_ cissampelos convolvulacea, avery common Indian plant. He

says that it is avery agreeable bitter and stomachic, fre-
| quently prescribed by the natives in the latter stages of
bowel complaint.

95 Observations.on the. Flora of Courtallum, [Apri,

From these data, I think we may safely infer, that nearly
the whole Order possesses strong tonic and febrifuge proper-
ties, and that many of the species may at all times be safely
substituted for the better known and more highly esteemed,
"but costly, cinchona, in the cure of fever, when it (cinchona)
is not procurable.

VI. Nympheacee.

Of this small but beautiful and interesting family, (the
water lilies), the flora of Courtallum can only boast of one, or
at. most two, species. Itis a curious circumstance in the
history of this Order, that, though found in almost every part
of the Northern Hemisphere, it is rare in the Southern, and is
almost unknown in South America.

In an economical point of view little can be said regarding
it. Generally I believe over India, the roots dried and roasted
are eat by the natives. In some parts of Bengal the seeds
also are eaten, sometimes alone, at others powdered and mix;
ed with flower. Mr. Royle states that they are occasionally
prescribed as a diet by native practitioners in some diseases :
and the authors of the Flore Senegambie state, that both the
roots and seed are commonly used by the poorer natives of
that coast, especially in times of scarcity ; and that the wild
hogs come in droves from their coverts during the dry season
in search of the roots. | a“

Botanically considered this Order is one of much interest,
and has given rise to many warm discussions among botanists
as to its structure and affinity. ‘These it is not my intention
to dwell upon. I shall, however, avail myself of the opportu-
nity which it affords, of illustrating a not less curious than
important botanical hae ; one which has been long observed,
though its practical application to science is a recent disco-
very. I allude to the doctrine of metamorphosis of organs.

This doctrine lays it down as an axiom, that different parts

of the flower and seed vessel are all modifications of leaves, a

that under particular circumstances they may, and actually

do, revert to their original form, and, lastly, that the complex |

congeries. of parts forming a perfect flower, are the un-
developed elements of a branch. According to this view,

each segment of the calyx is a modified leaf, and. the

ee Ss eae

1836.] Odservations on the Flora of Courtallum. 56

whole together, whether distinct or united, few or many,
a whorl or verticle of such leaves; that the petals are
equally so many leaves, more completely changed, and
that the stamens and pistilla, are all leaves more and.
more altered from the original form. That this is actually
the case, there can now scarcely exist a doubt, as every
one of these parts has in repeated instances been ob-
served, more or less perfectly, to. revert to its. original form.
Indeed, it is almost impossible to examine a double flower,
without discovering some trace: of what is. here stated. In
the common double rose many of the centre petals have half
an anther on one edge, the filament and other half having
expanded into a petal. In the saine way, in the double shoe-
flower, nothing is more common than to find one, or more, of
the pistilla transformed into a leaf, representing in miniature
those of the shrub. The nympheas show this transformation
even more strikingly, because it may be traced in every part
of the flower. ‘Thus it is generally difficult to tell where the
calyx ends and the petals begin ; and between the petals and
Stamens there is usually a number of bodies that are neither
petals nor stamens, but partly both. As it would be out of
place to go into a lengthened examination of the question of
_ morphology, I have merely introduced these instances for the
| purpose of directing the attention of those curious in such in-
| quiries to the subject, but cannot drop it without adding the
| practical deduction which has been drawn from the facts
here, perhaps too briefly, stated. It has been already menti-
oned that, according to this theory, a flower is an abortive
_ branch, the parts of which, in place of being developed in the
_ usual way, are condensed intoa new and highly complex
organ, the flower. Hence the sterility of fruit trees in very
rich soils, by the too exuberant vegetation converting flow-
er buds into branches. Those who wish to know more on
this subject will find it, in all its details, most ably elucidated
by Dr. Lindley in his Introduction to Botany, the best ele-
mentary botanical work in the English language.
|’ Passing over rapaveracee and Crucifere, as having no
indigenous representatives in this flora, I shall in my next
proceed with Capparidee. )

97 ae FSET LE Ee Tae

UiI.—Gn the solidifying, or induration of Chunam. Sie
municated through 1 etn a ,

Lime or Chunam as it is called by the natives is in chemi-
cal terms the oxide of Calcium, supposed by analogy to be @
metal combined with one portion of oxygen. It is also de-
signated an alkaline-earth, because it has the property of
altering the vegetable blues to red, and turmeric, brown,
like the mineral and vegetable alkalis. As it is found in
nature, itis always combined with a gaseous acid, the car-
bonic acid, the sulphuric, phosphoric, and some others.
The first combination is the marble of the statuary,—the
shell of which the Indian chunam is generally made,—it is
the common chalk; the second is the plaster of Paris, of
which casts are made,—it is the alabaster or selenite, of
which vases are made and small figures ;—the phosphoric is
that combination with lime, which constitutes the human and
other bones: there are other combinations, such as the eis
of lime, or Derbyshire spar. 3

Lime in itself and by itself possesses no indurative or
binding property ; it must be combined. Lime is not found
as an oxide of the metal, calcium,—it must be reduced to
that state by the expulsion of the acid with which it is com:
bined,—it is then what is called unslaked or caustic lime; it
is by the action of fire that the carbonic acid is driven off.
Lime possesses a great affinity for water and is capable of
taking up and solidifying a considerable quantity, evolving
much caloric at the same time: having gone through this
process, it becomes a hydrate, or slaked lime, retaining still
its causticity, or capacity for combination with, and power to
decompose vegetable and animal matter.

In this state, 1 has no indurating or cohesive property,
is friable, it must be in combination; and its great affinity is
to silex or sand, to this substance it mechanically attaches
itself with great avidity, and forms what is commonly called
mortar or cement; but it is necessary that water should be
the medium by which the minute particles of each should
be brought into full.and equal contact: there is ne ‘doubt

P

1836.] On the solidifying, or induration of Chunam. 98

that when masonry is excluded from external heat, as it is
in works of thick masonry, it solidifies a further portion of
the water—therefore it is inexpedient to submit works to the
effect of a higher temperature, or rather say to allow it te
dry too rapidly.
_ But thisis not sufficient to give it the indispensable quality
of induration, on which strength and permanency depend.
The lime as far as has been shewn is only an hydrate com-
bined mechanically by the aid of water,—there is another
principle wanting—that is carbonic acid. It acquires this
from the atmosphere gradually, where other means are not
employed to impart it more rapidly—in some places charcoal
is added, and it is very often worked up with impure matter;
for pure lime is not considered to form the best cement: the
purest chunam or lime is obtained from shells. At a distance
from the sea coast where these beds or strata of shell aré
found, what is called stone chunam is used, and is as good
as that of shell for masonry, although the native bricklayers
prefer the shell. In this part of India the use of jaggery
dissolved in water universally prevails, and although it does,
there is not a maistry bricklayer, nor even persons who know
more, can explain the rationale of its use: some say that if
gives an adhesive property from its clamminess—some say
that their forefathers used it and so do they their successors;
others laugh at the use of it and pronounce it to be an unne-
cessary ingredient and reject it altogether. There 1s no doubé
that its use may be dispensed with; the Madras Engineers
it is believed have exploded it altogether, as a measure of
economy. ;
-If we in our days, are more cunning than our ancestors
they were more wise ;—no doubt they had their rationale,
but like the ancients kept the secret to themselves. We
give ourselves great credit-for our discoveries, but there is
good reason for believing that we are only reviving a know-
ledge of things lost. But there is great sense in the appli-
eation of jaggery or sugar water. Modern chemists have dis-
covered the ultimate elements of sugar to be carbon, oxygen
and hydrogen. Here we find a grand source and an abundant
supply of carbonic acid, or at least the elements of

v7

89 On the solidifying, or induration of Chunam. [Aprit

it. They have further discovered that lime is more solu-
ble in a solution of sugar, than in water alone :. the lime
decomposes the sugar, sets free the gaseous carbon and
oxygen which combine in the proportion to form carbonic
acid, and the lime having a very strong affinity for the
earbonic acid attaches it, and thus united with the indurating
principle, or with that gas which gives hardness to the lime,
it becomes that hard and imperishable matter that it is found
in all buildings properly built, particularly in old Indian
masonry of brick and lime. If we examine a fresh brick it
will be found brittleand light—but examine a _ brick of old
masonry, it is as hard as granite.

There is another purpose gained by this ican Winialiicans
Bricks are made of clay, silex, and a certain portion of oxide
of iron, scattered by nature over and among matter, and
which gives the red-colour to bricks ; these are porous and
capable. of absorbing moisture—they consequently absorb
the jaggery water holding the lime in solution, this water in
the brick acts the same part that the unabsorbed jaggery
water does with the lime and sand, and forms within the
brick and in its pores a similar cement to that which binds
the bricks together, bindimg the minute particles. of the
brick, and this accounts for the intense hardness of all the
old Indian masonry.

In this country where the temperature is so high, evapora-
tion rapidly takes place. Moisture is necessary to assist the
lime in attracting and holding carbonic acid, therefore some
extraneous aid must be given which is afforded by the jag-
gery ; and further, masonry 1s so thick in general that the
carbonic acid that is always floating in the atmosphere would
be years, if it ever reached the interior work. In Europe
sugar is too dear to use, and on that account it has never-
been used ; but hair is used in Dlapterigs to keep mortar
together. | j

If a better: rationale than the foregoing can be given, or if
there are errors in the conclusions drawn, it would be adding
to knowledge if it were afforded, and those errors pointed
out.

1836.] On the solidifying, or induration of Chunam. 100

- Suggested—that a piece of well burnt brick, say three in-
pret square be taken, and ascertain what degree of weight it
will require to crush it. Take another piece of brick of similar
dimension, and let it be weighed,—let it remain immersed in
a solution of lime and water for 24 hours—take it out, let it
dry for a month or more, then weigh it—ascertain what-it has
gained in weight—and try what force it will require to fais
ture it as in the preceding.

‘Take a third piece and weigh it—then immerse it in a so-
lution of jaggery water, to which lime has been added—and
which has dissolved as much lime as it is able; let it remain
24 hours, take it out and let it dry well fora month or longer,
weigh it—and then subject it to pressure—and ascertain whe-
ther it will fracture at a less or greater weight = the
other. 7

Take an ounce of worked up chunam without jaggery—

expose it to the open air until dry—put it into a retert—add
muriatic acid, apply the retort to a receiver over the pneuma-
tic trough, see what quantity of carbonic gas comes over.
~ Take asimilar quantity worked up with jaggery water, let
it dry fora week or longer and dothe same with itas the
preceding—these experiments will shew which is carbonated.
the soonest and the most.
’ Note.—The ingenious writer of the foregoing paper has taken up a
subject which is well deserving notice and further investigation; and
in connexion with it might be investigated the causes of the decay of
modern brick and chunam masonry, compared with the hardness and
durability of work executed 50 years ago. The use of jaggery in
chunam is frequently set aside when buildings are executed by the
Enzgineer’s department ; we should be glad to be favoured with the de-
tails of any experiments that have been made, tending to shew the
grounds of this newusage. From a few experimental facts within our
own knowledge we are inclined to believe that this departure from na-
tive practice is not to be commended.—ZJ. B.

101 - [Apri
EF: On! Worise Edupniioa

The subject of Native Education, has of late years attract-
ed a considerable degree of attention at the sister presiden«
cies of Calcutta and Bombay, and much surprise has been
expressed that similar interest has not been excited on this
side of India. The department of Public Instruction at this
Presidency is under the superintendence of the College
Board, and we have reason to know that those gentlemen
have been most anxious to forward the Important object
confided to them. In the year 1825, particular measures
were adopted with the view of training up a better descrip-
tion of teachers and of improving the system of education,
which has hitherto prevailed in the provinces subject to this
Presidency ; but as, after several years trial, neither of these
objects have been obtained to the extent anticipated, it has
recently been deemed expedient to have recourse to a modifia
cation of the system, which it 1s hoped may lead to more
favourable results. As, however, the adoption of the sugges-

tions of the College Board would be attended with some

additional expense, it is necessary, under the existing state
of things, that the sanction of the Supreme Government
should previously be obtained ; and it remains to be seen
. whether the interest which has been evinced for the further-
ance of education in Bengal, will be extended to this Presi-
dency. The following extracts from an able minute of Mr.
Campbell, the senior member of the College Board, on the
subject above referred to, appearing to us to contain much

information that will be interesting to the generality of our ©

readers, we have ventured, with his permission, to communi-
cate them to the public.

“ The original , object of the Collese was to facilitate the
acquirement, by the junior Civil Servants, of the numerous
languages peculiar to the South of India.

« On its first establishment, the non-existence of a sini
English elementary work upon these languages, and the im-
possibility at that time of procuring even incompetent teach-

ers, amongst a people in general ignorant of the grammar of |
their own tongues, were the principal obstacles to their ac-—

1836.] Native Education. 102

quisition. But, auniform standard of qualification in them,
sufficient for the duties of the public service, was also to be
established, by requiring all, previously to entermg upon
public duties, to be certified as qualified, by the same cal-
lective body, guided by systematic rules.

- © The most gratifying success has hitherto attended this
branch of the institution. The liberal encouragement held
out by Government has stimulated many gentlemen to the
publication of English elementary works, on the Tamil,
Carnataca and Teloogoo, the three most prevalent lan-
guages, and even given rise to English translations and
grammatical illustrations, of some of the most difficult moral
compositions in the classical dialects of these tongues. An
extensive and intelligent body of native teachers has been
formed for these languages, as well as for Malayalem, Mah-
ratta, Sanscrit, Hindoostanee, Persian and Arabic, who are
stammatically versed in English, and possess a critica
knowledge of their own tongues; and many of them, by
their talents and acquirements, have gradually been raised
by their former pupils to the highest civil offices filled by
_ natives—whilst a knowledge of the native languages has, by
| these means, become now nearly universal amongst the

members of the Madras Civil Service.

« After good elementary books and competent teachers:
were prosurable in sufficient number to be sent into the interi-
_ or, it was no longer necessary to retain the junior Civil Servants
at the Presidency; where, during the gradual formation of
both, it had been requisite at first to assemble them, in order
- to be within the reach of the best of each previously attain-
_ able. The expediency of stationing them universally in the
| interior, as soon as possible after their arrival in India, has
| ever appeared to me unquestionable. It not only withdraws
them from the allurements to dissipation, inseparable from a
| metropolis, but even deprives them of the’ means of indulg-
| ing in expensive habits, which formerly terminated, too fre-
_ quently, in the sacrifice of their independence as public men.
| Above all, it brings them, at a period of life when novelty
+ gives additional excitement to curiosity, in contact with the
| interesting people whom they are destined to rule; and

i03 Native Education. [Arnin.

affords them an invaluable opportunity for ascertaining their
familiar habits, peculiar feelings, and true sentiments, which,.
unreservedly communicated to others, are too apt to be con-
cealed, or dissembled, before any one clothed with public
authority. It is a knowledge of the natives thus acquired,
before entering upon public life, which forms the best foun-
dation for that indulgent consideration towards them after-
wards, that ought ever to characterize our civil polity in
India.
* * * * & %

« On the first establishment of the College, such was the
deplorable apathy and ignorance prevalent amongst the people,
that it was requisite, not only to instruct the candidates for
the situation of teacher in their own languages, as wellas in
English, but to bestow upon them salaries, to hire them to
learn. ‘The result of my recent examinations at the College
clearly proves that this is no longer necessary. In each of
the languages, I found several unpaid natives, studying ex+
pressly for the office of teacher; and, by a tolerable ac~
guaintance with English, as well as acritical knowledge of
their own tongue, well qualified to hold the situation to
which they aspire. —

* * * % bd e

‘** From the want of that attention and encouragement,
on the part of the ruling power, without which learning
never flourishes in any country, it had so long sunk into
a dormant state in the Peninsula, that if competent teachers
of the spoken dialects were not precurable, still greater dif-~

ficulty was experienced, in filling up the high situations of ic

Hindoo and Mahomedan Law Officer in our courts of Judi-
cature, requiring a knowledge of law and its sister sciences,
buried in the profound depths of Arabic and Sanscrit lore. ~
Accordingly, thé Hindoos at first, selected with the utmost
care, were too often found, on trial, ill qualified for the offi-
ces they filled ; and not a single Mussulmga being discover-
ed in the Madras territories capable of this employment, 1t
was necessary to send to Bengalfor Mahomedan Law Officers,
who arrived here necessarily as ignorant as Europeans of

-

Re

1836:] WVative ‘Education. 1o¢

the various languages spoken by the people under this Pre-
sidency. ‘To remedy these evils, the College were next dis
rected to educate a class of natives of the Madras territories,
versed in its vernacular languages, in the several branches of
Sanscrit and Arabic science, requisite to qualify them for em-
ployment as Hindoo ae Mussulman Law Officers in our
Courts.

“< It is pleasing to state that in this branch also of the Cols
lege, the success has been complete.

«‘ Of the native Law Officers in the interior, most of whom

as Sudr Ameens, now both adjudicate civil suits and: con-
_ duct criminal trials, the far greater number are individuals

educated in this department at the College, and of ten Bra-
mins and ten Mussulmans now holding the twenty.paid fel:
lowships in the law department of the College, who are to
succeed to these employments as they fall vacant, there are
at present only three Mussulmans who have not obtained the
established certificate of qualification, for the eda situations
— they are destined to fill.

* * He * € oe

~. © Of the ten Bramins holding half of the fellowships in que 6

tion, each of the 5first received in addition to his own salary

of 20 Rupees, a further sum of 20 Rupees per mensem, or
100 Rupees altogether, the salary of the former deputy San-
écrit master being divided amongst them, as sanctioned by
Government on the 3d May 1831. But, I found on inquiry,
that these five individuals did not teach more than 20 students,
half of whom are mere children, and that the head master
alone is fully adequate to instruct the whole Sanscrit class,
consisting only of 35 persons. edhe
; % * * a8 i 2% i

“ Of the five first holding the corresponding Mussulman
Law fellowships, two at Madras, and a. third at Arcot, re-
ceive, in addition to their salaries of 20 Rupees each, 9
Rupees per mensem as Tahsildary teachers. The result of
my examination of the scholars, under the two who profess to

| teach in this capacity at Madras, convinced me that their ex-

ertions as masters have been little more than nominal.
: a - * & a %

105 Native Education. [Arriz

“ The attempts hitherto made at the improvement of public
instruction, the most interesting, if not the most important,
department under our charge, exhibit so lamentable a con-
trast with the success attending the other branches of the in-
stitution, and with the great progess made in the improve-
ment of native education at the two sister Presidencies, that
I consider the honour of the service seriously implicated in
our redeeming from censure and reproach the public body to
which we belong, by placing this branch of the institution
under us in an acknowledged state of more progressive ad- °
vaneement,

* * * * SS * Mihaly

‘“* The exertions of the Board in this department have hither-
to been directed—Ist, to the establishment at the Presidency, |
of a central seminary, for the proper instruction of paid can-
didates, entertained for the situation of Collectorate teach-
ers at the principal schools to be established in the inte-
rior of the country—2dly, to the actual introduction, under
these persons, of some of these principal or Collectorate
schools into the’ provinces—3dly, to the establishment of
subordinate or Tahsildary schools there—and, 4thly, ‘to
the composition of improved elementary works on the na-
tive languages, with the view of rendering the general system
of instruction more consecutive in its stages ; and to the dis-
tribution of approved English and other works throughout
the country, in communication with the School Book Society.
Reversing the order in which these have been stated, I
proceed to offer to the consideration of my colleagues a few

observations upon each. a

“‘ As explained in a report which I laid before Government
when collector of Bellary, the grand defect in the education
of the natives throughout the South of India is, that whilst
they learn to write and to read mechanically, the intellect is
restrained from the exercise of its natural powers, and the
heart deprived. of those all important moral impressions,

which can be fixed indelibly only in youth, merely in-conse:
quence of every school-book used being in adialect of which __

the learner is profoundly ignorant. This is the case not
only in all the Hindoo schools as there explained, ‘but in the

1836.] Native Education. 106

Mahomedan schools also ; for the Koran, in its original Ara-
bic, is the only book first placed in the hands of every Mus-
sulman boy.

** Capt. Harkness, our late Secretary, has the merit of hav-
ing done his utmost to remedy this crying evil. Under him
the College head masters, and others, prepared a series of ele-
mentary books in Tamil, Teloogoo, Hindoostanee and

Sanscrit.
% ¥e % C3 Fd oe

_ “The number of these books which have been sold (2,358)
shews that their value has been appreciated by the natives;
and that the attempt, so far as it has gone, to introduce into
the native schools books intelligible to the learner, has been
successful. But it appears to me that the books themselves
admit of great improvement ; and that, thus improved, the
distribution of them should be attempted on a much more ex-
tensive scale. :
"© The whole of these consecutive works might, with much ad-
vantage, be compressed intoa single volume in each language,’
for they are at present unnecessarily numerous and compli~-
cated. The alphabet of each language should be given in
the largest character—then all the different combinations of
letters used in the language, omitting suchas never occur in’
it, some of which have found their way into these books
| merely because they occur in other tongues. A few pages’
may then be devoted to words of one, two, three and
_ more syllables respectively ; and the book should close, like

an English spelling book, with moral verses and moral tales,
~ such as children can easily understand and get by heart, and
) such as may be calculated to produce salutary impressions
onthe youthful mind. Iam not sufficiently master of the
| language to pronounce a judgment as to the successful exe-
eution of this last part of Vencatachella Moodely’s Jamel
} works—but the novel attempt he has made, to convey to -
native children lessons of morality in verse, in the colloqui- |
al dialect of the Tamil language, though a humble, is a power-.
) fal means for the promotion of virtue and useful knowledge,
deserving of the utmost encouragement.

Om

107 Native Education. {ArriL

_ © Ag all native books commence with an invocation to the
deity, it ought not perhaps to be dispensed with in these
books, but it ought to be couched in general terms, such as
may be applicable to every religion, otherwise bigotry has
been carried so far, Iam ashamed to say, by men calling
themselves Christians, as, for this reason alone, to exclude
some of these books from use; and the universal popularity
which it should be our object to excite in their favour, may
thereby be partially defeated.

<« Whilst we thus endeavour to give a beneficial impulse to the

mind of the rising generation, generally by newly combining
advancement in useful knowledge, and salutary moral im-
pressions, with the mechanical arts of writing and reading,
which alone have hitherto been taught to them; let us not
neglect to satisfy the thirst for improved education, and Hu-
ropean science evinced amongst the higher and more culti-
vated classes of the native community. The mode in which
this should be done, so far as the supply of books is concern-
ed, appears pointed out to us by the past experience of the
School Book Society.

‘< In 1823 that Society reprinted at Madras 500 copies of
Joyce's English Scientific Dialogues. In’1830 they printed
600 copies of it in the Tamil language, incurring a very hea-
vy additional expense for its translation. Of these the price is
the same, and there have been sold of the English transla-
tion 285, of the Tamil 28. Of the former there are now in
store 215; of the latter 472 copies.

‘<‘ This shews that the demand for the English work is six fold
greater than forits Tamil translation, the annual sales being
on an average 24 of the former to only 4 of the latter. It would
be difficult to find a more decisive proof than this, of the expedi-
ency of giving the preference to English as the medium
for communicating to the people, a knowledge of European.
literature ; and in order to excite amongst the more learned. ©
natives, versed only in the higher classical works of their —
own language, a taste for English literature, I would placein ~
their hands such books as Mr. Ellis’s translation of the |

Ww
Re!

1836. ] Native Education. 108

Boni, or Mr. Stokes’ of the Nidineri Vilaccum, in which
also the original text is given in the native language. ©
* * * 4 * *

© Of the Tahsildary or subordinate schools, 61 in the inte-
rior, and 9 at the presidency have been established, at the
_ expense of 9 Rupees each, for the teacher’s salary, or Rupees _
6,480 per annum for the whole. About 2,200 scholars were
stated, in our letter to Government of the 15th November
1832, as then studying at these schools.
3 * * % * *

_ “T regret to be obliged to state my reluctant conviction, that

the establishment of these schools in the provinces, has been
entirely premature, if not prejudicial ; and that no further
steps should, for the present, be taken for their extension.
Until we are better provided with a stock of adequate teach-
ers for the superior or Collectorate schools, we cannot hope
with success to establish even these principal seminaries ; and
as it is to them, chiefly, we must look for the formation of
competent instructors to preside over the inferior schools,
it is straining in vain at an object beyond reach, to attempt
establishing them satisfactorily, before teachers competent to
preside over them are formed.

«The premature establishment of these Tahsildary schools,
indeed, appears to me to have been even injurious to the cha-
racter which we should endeavour to create for all the Govern-
‘ment seminaries, and calculated to degrade them in public
estimation. ‘They are, says the principal Collector in Tan-
jore, *‘ some degrees worse than the common village schools,
acs from which they differ in no respect, except that the mas-
“ ter is more careless from his independence of the scholars,
| “ whose parents are content that they should get a worse
_ © education at a cheaper rate, than the sons of their neigh-
*‘ bours. Werea system of rational instruction established,
[4 and strictly enforced by the constant supervision of a com-
_ © petent person, with authority to punish and reward the
‘* school-masters, according to the progress made by the
« scholars, the occasional visit of a Collector or other Euro-
et pean functionary would have a useful effect ; but any one

s* practically acquainted with the subject, must be aware of

109 Native Education. [APRIL

** the impossibility of a Collector devoting a sufficient porti-
** on of his time, to the establishment or enforcement of such
* a system ; and his visits, at present. do nothing more than
*« Jend the sanction of his patronage to the worst schools in
*“‘ the district, without even the consolation of supposing
** that, bad as it is, an education is given to those who would
“ otherwise have none; for I do not believe that these
*‘ schools are attended by a single individual whose parents
** would not pay for his education elsewhere, were they abo-
*« lished to-morrow.”

*« Believing, as I do, that this is a correct account of the
Tahsildary schools generally, I strongly deprecate their fur-
ther extension for the present ; for I believe that the sole
good arising from them has been, that all alarm against Go-
vernment interference with public education, so characteris-
tic of the people in the South of India, has been prevented,

by leaving the selection of these Tahsildary teachers to.

them ak.

“‘ But, whilst the machinery requisite for the efficient work- |

ing of the Tahsildary schools is under preparation, we should,
not be justified in delaying some effort for the immediate

improvement of the very defective system of education, pre-

valent throughout the provinces. The returns made by the

Collectors in 1823 shew that no less than 12 ,498 schools al-.
ready exist in these territories ; and, instead of adding more
to their number, at the expense of Government, I would sub- .

mit that we should endeavour to improve and render efficient

those which exist, and are voluntarily supported by the pub- .

lic.
* % oe ro id *%

“ Of the nine Tahsildary schools at the Presidency, the

Tamil and Teloogoo schools alone are in an efficient state,
such as reflects honour on their teachers and their visitors, the
head Tamil and Teloogoo masters at the College. They are
attended by numerous children, generally from 15 years

downwards; one by as many as 57 pupils. Several of the —
scholars have been attached to them for 4 or 5 years, and —

have thus become masters of the language they have studied.

In one of these schools the use of the new Tamil elemen- ~

Aa

1836.] Native Education. aye

tary books had been discontinued, under a belief that thev
were discountenanced by the head Tamil master at the Col-
lege, though they were deemed by the master of the school
himself preferable to any other ; but they are in universal
use elsewhere, amongst the presidency Tahsildary schools.
Of all the scholars, a little girl of pure caste, grand-child of
one of the Hindoo masters, particularly attracted my notice,
from the singularity of such an occurrence here. I hope her
example may be followed by others of her sex, and that here,
as in Bengal, females will no longer continue excluded from
learning. It appears to me particularly desirable that these
Tamil and Teloogoo Tahsildary schools at Madras should
be extended, as subordinate branches of the great cen-
tral seminary to be established at the Presidency ; for
we have them here within our reach, and under our
own personal supervision ; and they may thus be made
the models upon which the subordinate schools in the
interior may hereafter be fashioned, if not the nurseries
- for teachers at these more distant future seminaries. As it
| is of importance that these schools, where useful, should be
supported by voluntary contributions from’ the public, in ad-
| dition to the Government retaining fee of 9 rupees per
| mensem, I recommend that it be clearly explained that the
masters are not bound to teach any, except the children of
_the poor, unless the parents consent to give the same fees
for their children, as are usual in other native schools. This
will make the situation of the masters more profitable and
respectable, and the value of the fees realized will enable us

‘are held by the public. I saw several children at these
‘schools, whose parents are in easy, if not affluent, circum-

« With regard to the, provision of school rooms and sta-
(tionery, for the use of either the ‘Tahsildary or the Col-
\lectorate schools, the expense would be enormous, and is by
no means requisite. Europeans, in this respect, may with
advantage take a lesson from Hindoo simplicity. The shade
_of the spreading banyan tree, to be found in every village, is in

oa , Native Education. [Apart

this climate the most wholesome and convenient, as it ever
will be the most appropriate and beautiful scene for the
village school, and the sand beneathit renders stationary al-
together unnecessary. The little girl above alluded to spelt,
with her finger on the floor of the College Hall, every word
I mentioned ; and though there was no sand on it, she, with
the tenacity of habit, obliterated each word as she spelt it, as
if there had been sand upon the floor, to prepare it for the
word that was to follow—where such materials have habi-
tually been used by the people for ages, to supply our schools
with the novel luxuries of pen, ink and paper, would merely
be to organize a system of petty but universal pilfering upon
the public stores by the teachers, whose moral. character it
should be our object to guard from, not expose to, such cor-
ruption.

‘‘The number of paid candidates for the situation of Collec.
torate teachers now educating in the College is 22 ; others, to
the number of 14, have been sent thence into the interior, to
form the principal Government provincial schools, intended
to be established in each Collectorate; making a total of 36,
each of whom receives rupees 15 per mensem. The aggregate
annual expense on this account is, therefore, rupees 6,480.
There is nothing which reflects such disgrace upon the insti-
tution, as this branch of it.

«Of the 14 persons in this capacity deputed into the interior,
the only notice I can findis in our letter to Government of
the 15th Nov. 1832, where only 5 of them are mentioned ag
“ qualified to act as instractors to others,” but not “ suffi-
ciently advanced to be employed as teachers in the provinces;”
and in the recent report from the principal Collector of Tans
jore, who says, “ I consider it my duty to inform you that the
** school master, appointed to the Collectorate school in this
district, is entirely unfit for the situation, both in natural
‘* abilities and literary acquirement, and that at least a score
* of persons might be found in this province, any of whom
** would fill it with much greater efficiency, who have never
“ had the advantage of a College education.” Under such
circumstances, I fear that the deputation of these 14 persons _
into the provinces has answered no purpose, except to bring

a

1836. ] Native Education. 112.

into disrepute the branch of the institution, to which they
have too long been suffered to belong. |

© Of the 22 candidates for these situations also in the Col-
lege, though some of the Hindoos have made considerable
advancement, and are likely to prove valuable instruments
in our hands, all are deficient in a knowledge of English, es-
pecially the Mussulmans ; and many of them are dull men,
ill fitted for the situation, upon whom the labour of tuition is
a fruitless waste of time.

t ; % * % * * *

' « Mr. Stevenson states, that experience taught the Bengal
Committee the inexpediency of uniting, in the same person,
the duty of instruction in both oriental and european learn-
ing. This appears confirmed by the failure of the Collecto-
rate teacher-class here, which, in addition to the causes
above stated, may be also attributed, in part, to a similar
érror of ours, in attempting too much at first, by aiming at
the union of both qualifications in the same individual.

g * * ad % * *

‘ « Tn the English head master, Mr. White, we possess a zea-.
lous and active man, who to the extent of his own qualifica-
tions has ably instructed his pupils. But he is attended by a
host of what are called general students, or unpaid pupils,

seeking with avidity instruction in English, and some of

these, being more distinguished by talents, intelligence and
zeal, than the paid Collectorate students, are apt to divert
him from the tuition of the latter.

~ & T was particularly pleased with the advancement which se-

_veral of these general unpaid students have made in English,

Geography, the use of the Globes, Algebra and the first
élements of Mathematics, and find that our Secretary, Mr.

} Rowlandson, with praise- -worthy zeal, has devoted one day

of the week to the instruction, in these branches of study, of
afew of the most advanced English pupils. One young
Hindoo, the son of a native military officer, I particularly
remarked, who is quite masterof English. By zealous study
he has acquired so much of the genius of our language, as
to have attained a distaste for his own, and though he tran-
slated most fluently into English from his own language, no

Ws Native Education. [Apri

solicitation whateveron my part, could induce him to attempt
giving the meaning of English in his own tongue. He said
that he disliked his own language, that he spoke it at home,
but that, as he did not understand it Sree he must.
decline translation into it.

. T propose that, if the increase of pay to Collectonite teach-
ers, upon qualification, be sanctioned by government, a gene-
_ ral examination be held at the Presidency, to be attended by
the whole of the present Collectorate teachers in the interior,
and the Collectorate students at the College, and any others
who may be induced, by the increased pay eventually to be
granted, to become candidates for the situation—that we then
proceed to purge this class, by selecting from the whole, only
such as possess good natural talents,and are most distinguish-.
ed by a knowledge of English, augmenting the class gradually
hereafter as far as 100—that, in addition to our present Eng-
lish establishment, we apply to government to obtain from
the Honourable the Court of Directors the nomination of a
Professor on 12,000 rupees, and a deputy on rupees 4,200 per
annum, as general superintendents of this branch of the
institution, capable of affording the pupils instruction in Ma~
thematics, Natural Philosophy, and European literature in
general : and that, until their arrival, we be authorized, tem-
porarily, to fill these situations by the most competent per-
sons to be procured, on such salaries, within these amounts,
as we may find practicable.

“ From the statement given by me in a previous part of this
minute, it will be perceived that these, and all the other ad- |
ditional expenses proposed by me, to render efficient this |

most important and mteresting branch of the institution un- |

der our charge, will not exceed an expenditure of Rupees.
103,150, for the improvement of public instruction, through-
out the extensive territories under the Government of Ma-
dras. The Honourable the Court of Directors have ‘autho-
rized funds being placed at our disposal adequate to the ob-
ject in view, and, in laying before the Board the following
return submitted by the India House to Parliament, I refer
to it with confidence to shew, that, compared with the libera-
lity which has. distinguished, the sister presidencies for this

1836.] Native Education. W114

purpose, especially of late years, the amount I have estimat-
ed by no means exceeds the just. proportion due to our na-
tive subjects, in this extensive portion of the Indian domini-.
ons of Britain.

“ An account of all sums that have been applied to the
purpose of educating the natives in India, from the year
1813 to the latest period to which the same can be made out,
distinguishing the amount in each year.

| Beneact. |Mapras.| Bomepay. TOTAL.
cal Ly eon 2a io Y Oi
| nae £. £. | £. |
ig ee 4X0 442 5129 |
bapa pare PEGOG 480 499 | 12585:
7 4405 480 | 537 5422 |
ee 5146 4so | 578 6204
Pe alii 420 795, 6452 |
oil 5211 480 “630 6321
daa 7191 420 1270 s941_ |
pee 5807 480 1401 7688
ee 6882 | 480 594 | 7956
eet 9081 480 594 | 10155}
ilk 80 | 594 7208 |
BEE OOT H 480 1434 21884
HUNG « FAL R92 420 8961 | 66563
aki. (21623 480 5309 27412
~ 30077 | 2140 13096 | 45313
ea e797 <1 2980 10064 35841 |
tH 24663 3614 | 9799 38076.
| 28748 2946 12636 | 44330

- « Madras ought to take shame to itself for its back-
| wardness i in the cause of native education, as exposed in the
| above return to the British Senate; and as no other public
| body can exculpate it from this reproach, except this Board,

I have considered myself bound, as its senior Member, though
sensible of my inability to perform the task adequately, to
sketch the outline of a plan for the improvement of public
instruction, such as may be modified and matured by my
Colleagues. Whilst it embraces a gradual improvement in the
education of the mass of the natives generally, by converting
the symbols of sounds not understood, into the medium of
conveying instruction to their minds, and moral impressions.

WSs Syrian Roofs. [Aprit!

to their hearts, its chief object is to open, to the higher and
more influential classes of the community, access to a new
and superior quality of knowledge, through the medium. of

the English language and the sciences of Europe.”

ey

V.—On Syrian Roofs.—By M.

It has very erroneously been supposed that white ants
will not attack teak wood; and hence that description of
timber is most generally employed, in the roofs of buildings.
We have, however, abundant proof to the contrary, and to
give one or two recent instances, I may mention that the organ
loft of St. Mary’s Church, built of teak wood, was lately re-
newed, having been nearly destroyed by white. ants; im
St. George’s Cathedral, also, they some years ago worked
their way to the organ, through the teak supports of the
gallery, and have lately attacked the sounding board of the
pulpit.

In many parts of this Presidency, it is extremely difficult
to procure teak timber, except at a ruinous expense in land
carriage ; and in consequence, a very unsubstantial description
of roof is employed in private dwellings; and in public
buildings, either the expense is incurred, of procuring teak
timber at whatever cost, or arches of masonry. (almost as
expensive) are substituted! True, the latter last a very long
time, but, the expense being in proportion to the span of the
arch, the accommodation is much cramped, to keep the cost
within moderate bounds. ,

It is extraordinary, that these disadvantages and difficul-
ties, should not have, long since, led to the more general use
of the Syrian roof; a method of construction in which no
wood whatever is employed, and which is moreover ex-
tremely light and durable. .
It is possible that the expense attending its first introduc-
tion, attributable to the novelty of the material, may have
operated with individuals, to prevent the trial being more
generally made: but,as regards public buildings, the same
cause can scarcely be assigned ; the material being the ordi-

1836.] Syrian Roofs. 116

nary potters clay used in making pots and tiles, moulded on
the native wheel, and baked or burnt, precisely in the same
manner; the difference consisting, solely, in the shape of
the cones.

The want of timber is ies glial as the original cause of
the invention of these roofs, in Palestine and Syria, where
they are stated to be in general use. They have been tried |
in Bengal, and are reported to have answered fully the ex-
pectation formed of them; but whether from prejudice, or
other cause, they have apparently again fallen into disuse.

These roofs, it is believed, are never quite flat, but are

formed into arches of every curve; and from their construc-
tion must be capable of resisting very great pressure; they
are formed of hollow cones of pottery, about 10 inches long,
the broader extremity, which is closed, being about 3 inches
in diameter, and the narrower, which is open, between 2 and
8, but they may probably vary, according to the span of the
roof intended to be built ; they are placed by the side of each
other, the interstices being filled with mortar; they are
found to leak with the first rains and crack slightly, but a
coat of oil is applied over the surface, which is afterwards
found to render the roof impervious; it 1s probable that a
course of flat tiles, with a plastering of cpanee Serle answer
the purpose in India.
- I have been given to understand that the Syrian roof has
been successfully constructed at Bangalore, a station where
the destruction of every kind of wood by white ants is felt
as a most serious evil; should any of your correspondents
be enabled to furnish you with particulars, as regard section
of the roof, form and dimensions of the cones, and the cost
of making them, | have no doubt the information will prove
both interesting and useful.

‘Adverting to the ravages of white ants, it may be useful to
mention that the.-Naptha, or Petrolium, produced in abund-
ance on the Tenasserim Coast, and to be purchased in the
bazars of. Madras, under the denomination of earth oil, or
munnoo tylum, is an effectual remedy; it may be used as a
paint, alone, or mixed with common tar; or mixed with
chunam asa plaster. 8
Manras, March 1836. M.

VIL.—4 glance at the Banaganpilly Jaghire, taken while
passing through that territory in Mareh 1836.—By T. J.
MiHOuD, a. pv. ¢. to Brigadier General soins ©. °B!

Topography.—The Jaghire of Banaganpilly vies errs
15° and 16° north latitude, and is situated nearly oe
in the Balaghaut Ceded Districts.

It is bounded, on the north and on the north-east by rks?
territory of His Highness the Nuwab of Kurnul, on the west
by the talik of Punchapollam, on the south and south-east
by the taluk of Koilkdntla. - |

_Its extreme length north and south is about 30 aan and
extreme breadth east and west about 26. |

The eastern and southern parts of the Jaghire consist
generally of a fertile plain watered by rivulets, taking a south
easterly course, and producing large crops of cotton and
various kinds of try grain. The plain is bounded on its
western and northern limits by detached ridges of hills;
which, ranning down from Kurnil, take a south easterly
direction by Gooty, Cuddapah and Tripati, and terminate.
near the eastern coast at Naggery.

A bandy road, connecting the trade of the Ceded Districts
with that of Masulipatam, Nellore, Guntoor, &c. by the
direct route of the Nundi Cunnama ghaut, passes through:
the centre of the Jaghire: over the ghaut itself the road is
impracticable for bandies, consequently the heavier articles
are constrained to go by the circuitous route of Cuddapah
and the Yeddadogoo pass. The lighter goods pass overs
direct on carriage bullocks. |

All the natives, with whom I conversed, agreed that the.
trade would be much increased were the pass opened for
bandies: from what I saw of it, I should say this might be-
done at no very great expence. 7

Geology.— The plain of Banaganpilly is‘ the western ex-! : |

tremity of that wide flat tract, that extends, from the foot of
the Nulla Mulla hills, to the range alluded to above.

es ct SEY OD CRS "
or ES ex RS Se ES SEE ESSE me zi
orem ore

NVote.—The information,here adduced,has, for the most part been ob-
tained on the spot, combined with the result of personal observation, ~~

1836.] - | Banaganpilly Jaghire. 11g

~ These. ranges are of the clay slate and sand stone forma-
- tion—the plain itself is mostly covered with the reygur, or
black cotton ground; in some parts with the alluvium of
the neighbouring hills, not unfrequently intermixed with cal-
careous matter, arising probably from the decomposition of
the kankars, which are found strewn in various proportions
over its surface. Near the foot of the Nulla Mullas are
found nodoles of iron ore, but nearer Banaganpilly these
disappear, and their place is supplied by fragments and
blocks of variously coloured lime-stone—dark blue predo-
minating. ,

. The streams in this neighbourhood generally flow over
beds of this substance. _

* About 3 a mile to the westward of Baneganpiily,lies the
low range of hills, in which the diamond mines are situated ;
to which I shall have occasion to advert presently.

_ Division into 2 Pergunnahs. (a)—During the Mogul ad-
ministration the Jaghire was divided into two .ergunnahs, viz.
those of Banaganpilly and Chinchimulla—the former com-
prising 42 and the latter 21 villages.

The principal places are Banaganpilly, Chinchimulla, Nun--
dawarum and Tungatoor. ,

_ Population.—The total of population is said to amount to
about 40,000, but this cannot be relied on.

It is chiefly Hindu, though there are many Mussulmans,
particularly at the principal town.

fievenue.—The revenue, it is said, used to average about
alac and twenty-nine thousand rupees annually. It is
chiefly derived from land rents, duties on produce, manu-
factures, &c. toddy contract, and a duty levied on traders.

' Products.—The Jaghire produces a large quantity of dry
grain, principally juari, cotton and a small proportion of
rice; arundi and other oils, ghee, tamarinds and toddy.
In some parts culinary salt is produced.

_. At Banaganpilly a variety of cotton cloths are manufac-
tured and dyed. They are chiefly adapted for mussulman

) : ( a) Some say there are 3 Pergunnahs, and that 19 out of the 63 vil-
lages are dependancies on the 44 principal ones.

119 Banaganpilly Jaghire. [Aprip

wear; and by far the larger proportion fry its way to. the
Hyderabad market.
~The diamonds produced. here’are cut wind set'at the town
of Banaganpilly, and used to form an article. of trade.
- Town and Fort of Banaganpilly.—The town of Bana-
ganpilly lies in the plain, near the entrance to a broad defile,
formed by the branching off of two parallel ranges of low:
hills; one taking a north easterly direction; the other a
little south of east. The town is divided by a stream of
clear water, called the Zurairoo, into: two. parts; which are
again sub-divided as follows: Condapettah and Suntapettah
on the right bank, Kungrazpettah and Kushahpettah
on the left. The buildings generally: have an ae ap-
pearance,
' The fort is also situated on the left trartle Py rom she cur-
sory glance I had of it, it appears to be little better than the
ordinary village forts scattered over the Ceded Districts—
and apparently loosely built of limestone cemented with
mud. Its round bastions are connected by curtains, ar
Ww — loop holes for matchlocks.
*The entrance is from the north. Round the whole runs a
ditch now nearly dry: the bottom partly cultivated. and
partly choked up with rank vegetation. The walls enclose
the Nuwab’s zenaneh, his residence and those of the retain-
ers attached to his: person. In the pettah at the northern
side of the fort are some strong and defensible houses of
stone.
“ Our road lay ci the southern sd western faces.of the
fort, on our right the fort ditch, and on our left the Zurairoo, —
which we crossed to some good encamping ground, in a tama-
rind -tope on its right bank. :
Population.—The town of Baradaapallya 18 said to contain
about 12,000 houses—700 of Hindus, the remainder occu~—
pied by Mahomedans.

Allowing each house to average Sie inmates, this will give el

‘a population of 6,000 souls. Two or three months ago, sub-
sequent to the Company’s resumption of the Jaghire, a body

of about 700 Puttans, formerly in the pay of the Nuwab, left

the place for Hyderabad; where, it is currently reported,

1836.] Banaganpilly Jaghire. | 120

they have been taken into the Nizam’s service by Chundoo
Lal. die

Diamond Mines.—The diamond mines‘are situated in and
near alow range of hills, about 4a mile from the town.
The matrix of the gems, agreeably to the statements of Dr.
Heyne and Voysey, regarding diamonds produced in the
South of India, is the sandstone breccia of the clay-slate
formation. This I found also to hold good with regard to
the alluvium found at the base of the Cuddapah hills washed
by the Pennaur, on a recent visit to the diamond mines near
Chinnoor and Condapettah, in the Cuddapah division.

The process of mining is simply digging out the gravel,
breaking up the larger pieces of the breccia, washing and
sifting the fragments, and spreading them out on the ground.
The diamonds are easily detected by the practised eye of the
native. I observed that many of the old heaps of rubbish
had been recently sifted and re-examined; not, I am told,
from the opinion that the diamond is always growing, and
that the chips and small pieces rejected by former searchers,
actually increase in size, and im process of time become
large diamonds, as has been supposed by some; but from
sheer laziness to dig fresh pits, and from its being found
that stones of an inferior size and water have frequently
eluded the search of former miners.

I do not learn that any stones of a greater value than 3 or
400 rupees have ever been discovered here; the specimens
shewn me by the diamond merchants on the spot were cer-
tainly extremely poor; but from the shortness of my stay,
the duplicity and secrecy maintained by natives in matters
of this sort, it would be wrong perhaps to decide that better
means scientifically employed in these diamond districts
would not produce. better results, than has hitherto been the
_ case.

Since the resumption of the Jaghire, mining has been
discontinued.

Besides Banaganpilly, the diamond is found, according to
Hamilton, at Lamdoor and Pinchetgapadoor, in the talik
next to Chinnoor.

12} Banaganpilly Jaghire. [Aprin

Tt is also found at Moonimuddagoo, in the talik of Pun-
chapaulum; at Ovalumpully and Condapettah in the Chin-
noor talik—at Ramulacottah in the Kurnul territory, and
formerly at Wudjrakarure in the Gooty division, The
Ramulacottah mines are the most celebrated. ‘These places
partly furnished the diamonds, for which Golconda diss been
so greatly famed. (0)

Political Skeitch.—The Jaghire of Banaganpilly was re-
ceived by treaty with the Nizam in 1800, together with the
rest of the Balaghant Ceded Districts, but remained under
the original Jaghiredar; who, until recently, retained both
the management and revenue of the country.

In 1832, tempted by our non-interference with its admini-
stration, and the state of misrule into which it had been
thrown by the culpable extravagance and mismanagement of
the present chief, Hussain Ali Khan, the Nizam made an
insidious attempt to annex the Jaghire to his own posses-
sions, but this intention was totally frustrated by the BOR
ous interference of Government.

At present the country is still in a very unsettled state.

Hussain Ali Khan’s expensive habits have involved him
in debt toa very large amount. His creditors are principally
usurious Gossayns and Hyderabad Pathan sirdars, formerly
in his pay. These men have lately returned to Hyderabad.
‘To satisfy their inmportunate claims numerous villages of the
Jaghire have been made over to them, and from the griping
extortion and tyranny practised by these lawless’ mercena-
ries in exacting the revenue, the agricultural classes have
been reduced to great distress, and are anxiously expecting
some change for the better.

jf am assured that the news of the Gareieen s intention
of assuming sr control over the Jaghire towards the close of

,———

Se =

(6) A few geological specimens of the general formation of the
country, also of the matrix in which the diamond is found imbedded,
both from Banaganpilly and Chinnoor, together with one or two gems
of the most common description (rough from the mine) found at the
former place, are presented for the Society’s acceptance. I was unable
to procure any at Chinnoor, as the miners had only just commenced
operations. :

1836.] Prop on an inclined Plane. 122

1835, was hailed by these poor people with unaffected joy.
Indeed had the Nizam even offered them his protection,
there is but little doubt that they would have gladly pre-
ferred it to the oppression of these needy soldiers and avari-
cious Gossayns. Some villages have been assigned over, as
a subsistence, to the numerous illegitimate offspring of the
late chief, Ghulam Ali Khan; and to others of the family,
particularly to Rownuk Ali Khan, cousin to the present
chief, and now in the Nizam’s service a8 a sirdar of horse.

- Hussain Ali Khan is said to be a man of great good na-
ture, which is not unfrequently allied to extreme inaptitude
for business, thoughtlessness and extravagance; all of which
have been fully manifested by his conduct. His wife the
Begum is looked upon as a superior woman, possessing much
influence, when she chooses to exert it, over her husband.
Hussain Ali Khan has no male issue: he succeeded his
father Ghulam Ali Khan about 18 years ago.

Futteh Ali Khan his younger brother, is looked upon as
the next heir. This nobleman has two sons; one a lad
about 10 years old, said to have been adopted by his uncle.

' Banaganpilly has always maintained a close connexion
with the Court of Hyderabad, and also, from its proximity,
_ that of Kurnul. :

es Ce Se, Gees EE Se ©

VII.—Prop on an inclined Plane.

To the Editor of the Madras Journal
) of Science and Literature.
SIR

Having accidentally met with your Journal for October
1835, and fancying myself a bit of a Mathematician, my eye
was eagerly caught by the lines and letters, page 336 and 337,
and I looked for a feast.
~ Imust say, Mr. Editor, I was disappointed to find, in the
second figure, so many lines and letters quite unnoticed in the
solution of the problem, and still more to find the line A C
not in the figure at all. It makes sad confusion, and as it is
to prove that the vertical pressure of a body is zot best sup-
- ported by a vertical prop, contrary to my notion of the mat~-
ter, I should have been very glad to see the solution some-

123: Prop on an inclined Plane. [APRIL

what more clearly made out. Perhaps “A Miner’ will favour
me (and I thnk many of your Subscribers will thank him) by
revising his paper. I must touch upon the first solution, be-
cause that to my reckoning is clear enough to be palpably
wrong. WhenP:W:: BC; A C—if AC and Ware con-
stant, P will be greatest when BC is the greafest. Suppose,
Mr. Editor, we said 2: 4::6:12,if 4 and 12 remain con-
stant, surely 2. and 6 must increase and decrease together as
long as the proportion lasts. Else we should perhaps have
1:4::7:125 and that will never do. In fact I should
say from the body of this solution it would appear P 1s greatest
when P C comes into the vertical position ; which just suits
my fancy, that a vertical pressure is best resisted by a verti-
cal prop.
Your obedient servant,
_ A woutp Be MatHemarician.

To the Editor of the Madras Journal
of Science and Literature.
oe

I beg to return you my thanks for the early perusal of a
letter, signed “ A would-be Mathematician,’ containing
strictures on the two problems regarding the best position of
a prop on an inclined plane, which I had the honour to send
you some time ago. The writer says, “ fancying myself a
‘* bit of a Mathematician” &c. &c. “ I was disappointed to
« find, in the second figure, so many lines and letters quite
* unnoticed in the solution of the problem, and still more to
‘¢ find, the line A C not in the figure, at all.” Now A C is
not requisite, and had the critic been in reality what he
« fancies’ himself to be, or had he read with other motive than
to cavil, he must have immediately observed that A C should
have been printed A G, and verily the only line unnoticed is
PN, which I ‘ fancied’ was inserted in the manuscript sent
to you, agreeably to the copy I had received, and from which
I did not conceive myself justified to depart. However P N
happens to be immaterial ; for whether it be written as the
Journal shows it “ let s and ¢ represent the sine and cosine

1836.} Prop on an inciined Plane. 124

of the angle QD M=B AM,” or as the original before
me has it‘ QP N=B AM,’ those angles being equal, the
resuit will be the same.

Surely, Mr. Editor, such sweeping censure for typogra-
phical errors not affecting the solution, might have been
spared by one anxions to promote the circulation of
knowledge; and as I affirm, having proved it, that they
in no way “ make sad confusion,” this phrase of the fanci-
ed Mathematician’s might have been softened. The very
fact of the line A C not being drawn in the figure, ought to
have led a very superficial reader even, to correct the prin-
ter’s mistake before alluded to. But I now proceed to notice
the “ would-be Mathematician’s’’ remarks on Solution the
First. But, én passdnt, I must observe that, as I gave the
avowed author’s name, I do not feel myseif bound to enter
into any controversy for his defence, though I think I may
very safely do it on the present occasion. Permit me also to
notice in this place, as we are harping on that string, that for
cur future harmony it would be better if the words “ 2d so-
lution”? came in their proper place, opposite the para. imme-
diately above where they now appear, and “ By the Rev.
Jd. Harker’ at the close of the sentence immediately pre-
ceding—G H should also have been printed g H with a
little g—(though any tyro would have ndbindd™ this, and it
creates no confusion.)

Having thus corrected the press, I venture to press the
following on your notice, in the hope that our friend will cor-
rect his hasty reckoning, and that he will prop up the Journal
with more proper contributions than the last. IJ love gentle-
manly discussions, am alive to their value, will always yield
with acknowledgment to proof and reason; and the “ would.
be Mathematician” shall find that, though “ A Miner,” when
the * blow up’ is over I am, like a “ good crater,” open to as-
sault. I shall be glad to hear what he has to say against the
convincing proof of No. 2, which

*« Shows by lines and tangents straight
_“ What is small and what is great.”

125 Prop on an taclined Plane. [Apri

Now for No. 1

“fF B E is perpendicular to AC the:

peti / | direction. of the weight ; and
oral | A B perpendicular to B C the di-

: i. yi rection of the power.
To BPS ye ee a oe
ee Te Bee eee a by
cS eR aS estat did similar triangles ; therefore

ehh hy Pot Wet SABC yee Ovand

Py AC=W x BC when in equilibrium.

But now, leaving AC and W out of consideration, or con-

stant as it is termed, what will be the result if B C be reduc-

ed one half in value or weight ? Why its proportion to P, of

course, becomes changed to that extent, or Pis redatively one

half greater.

hus 2) 5 4o° 6. 12 and 2X12 =4x6

; or 2=4 X%6=2. ie2 % 4% 6whenin

P:W::BC;:Aac wi “RB equili-

| __ brium.
But now altering the 6 into 3 (this figure representing B C.)

ce i = | that 1s 2 has now a proportion to 1,

or P is now double in power; and so the more you reduce one
side the greater becomes the other (not to preserve the
‘ equilibrium,’ mind, for the very reverse is attempted to
make the power superior to the weight), and, when B Cis a
minimum, P becomes a maximum.

But a lever will at once illustrate this ; perhaps more
familiarly, |
merihh a ra The case here is similar,
ie ys m4 for, according to the pro-
| perty of the lever, PxA
ee | C= W xB Cas before.
ATS ‘O-“ Now if we reduce the

weight on the right hand

side, the left arm falls,

and P becomes so much
heavier in comparison; or, which has the same effect,
if we shorten one arm the other is relatively longer,and so on.
The more we reduce B C the greater becomes the energy of
P; and its effect is greatest, or a maximum, when B C is
shortest, or @ Minimum.

1836.] Prop on an inclined Plane. 126

But, to show that our critic’s reasoning 1s erroneous, with
reference to a prop he asserts that “ Pis greatest when BC
is greatest,” and that “ P is greatest when BC comes into
the vertical position,” (or into the direction A C). But now
draw all the BCs as inthe annexed figure and carry them

on to an extent bordering

4 oninfinity. The last is great-
sie est of course (not A C); and
ee where is he ? Why with the
fey ee weight at one end of a long
ees lever almost horizontal, and

B “~~ x. the support at the other ; the
" very weakest position possi-
: ble. .

The fact is, people who discuss this matter, like the “ would-
be Mathematician,” do not recollect that the proportion or
equation is, in this problem, purposely altered, and that the
only point to determine is how the change on one side will
affect the other. To preserve an equilibrium, or the propor:
tion, our friend argued correctly ; that is, when B C is great-
est, P, or the power, must be increased or made greafes?, to
preserve the equilibrium (the necessity for which we want to
avoid), and which is the same as saying when Bb Cis éeasé, P,
the power required to restore the balance, is least, (the very
thing desired), or, in other terms, when B C is leasé, the ori-
ginal P (without alteration) is greatest. It is worthy of
remark that the system now adopted at Chatham for Mine
Frames, after long discussion and experiment, accords with
this theory. The props, in descending galleries, are always
placed perpendicular to the inclined plane.

Hoping you will excuse this long dissertation, believe me
that you have a sincere friend to the Journal, in

A MINER.

Dace -—Is oe the point, discussed in the foregoing papers, one involv-
ing a question of practice, as much as of pure science >—It seems rea-
sonable to suppose that a verfzcal prop, must be a better support to a di-
rect downward pressure, than a sloping prop: but it is quite as reason-
able, on the other hand, tosuppose that a prop at right angles to the
shaft of the mine, would be found the most convenient and sufficiently
effectual in practice, and that therefore it may be preferred. It is cer:

127 [Apri
VIll.— ints regarding the Cape of Good Hope.

The following letter, with which we have been furnished
by an intelligent friend who has. recently returned from
the Cape of Good Hope, will afford much useful informa-
tion to such of our readers as may have intentions of
visiting that Colony.

“ My Dear

“Yn sending you ne following hints, for a damnit going
from Madras to the Cape of Good Hope, I speak feelingly when
I say that I have no doubt they may be the means, if at-
tended to, of adding materially to comfort, and of saving
Rupees.

s You have been at sea before, but, it may be, not of late
years, or with a family ; a few general suggestions may not
prove valueless.

«* Have all your trunks well corded, to prevent their adh
rolled over in the hold; marked with your name, and num-
bered tn paint; cards would do, were they. not liable to
destruction by cockroaches. Let every thing in your cabin,
be snugly stowed, lashed and cleated, before you take your
family on board ; beds made, lamp trimmed, a small hand
lJanthorn ready to convey a light in, and acouple of candles,
ready to burn all night ifneed be. Do not trust to being in
time when you embark to set your cabin to rights, or to

the carpenter’s assistance in making all fast! for, in all.

probability, others will do so too, and, as he cannot help every
body, some will go to sea, with cots, trunks, &c. adrift, and
you will have a wretched first night of it. A portable kitch-
en will prove a useful thing, both for that purpose, and as
a night lamp; have a supply of hooks, for lamps, log or

a ca ca a a LS

tainly clear that if asingle prop had to supporta free weight on the

Earth’s surface, as a block of stone, it must be placed upright, or ina —

line tending to the cenire of the Earth. And, as this is a plain principle,
there seems no good reason why it should not hold good in principle,

‘whether the prop has to support a weight on the surface of the Earth, or

atsome distance below its surface. As said before, there may be good

reason for Puneat differing : the question “which is the best posi- —

tion for the prop” may refer to practice as well as to principle; if our

correspondents continue the discussion it may perhaps be well to bear ig

this distinction in mind.—J, B,

1836.] Hints regarding the Cape of Good Hope. 128

merline for lashings, and hanging clothes or towels upon ;
a pair of pincers, hammer, nails of sorts, screws, hooks, gim-
blets and turn screw ; a smal llooking glass, clothes brush, one
or two small hand swabs, a mop, a hand broom and dust pan.
You should have asupply of two dozen of (bottled) good water
én the cabin, and a reserve (sayfourtosixdozen ) in the hold.
On no account be persuaded to transfer it to the Captain’s
steward, on the promise that he will supply you when you
require it; he, in ali probability, has none, except the
ship’s stock in the hold; and you would find it a poor sub-
stitute for your own, when you most needed it. A couple of
large Bengal guglets will be useful, to keep your supply of
washing water in; one or two of pewter (the round China
guglet is very good) standing (or rather hanging) in a grum-
met of rope or rattan, with the means of hanging them up,
are required, to bring your daily supply of fresh water for the
cabin from the fore-hold, and two or three common tin pots, for
bringing hot water from the galley ; one or two China wooden
lackered washing basons (for which there will probably be
an early call unless your party are all good sailors), a clasp
knife, cork-screw, a small bucket and rope, a small foot tub,
and the means of obtaining a light; but not by the use of
acids, or other liquids, lest you endanger the ship. Do not’
forget comfortable chairs without castors: children are best
off on board on morrahs or hassocks. ~You must provide

‘oil for your lamp in stone bottles, and cotton wick ; have two
lamps, one of thick glass (a globe) for oil, another a sliding
‘shade for candles, and a spare glass for it; tumblers, and,
‘when there are children, strong drinking mugs ; take on

board some coarse stuff for curtains, with spare brass rings,
a few iron rods, and screw eyes for hanging them. You will

require for children a good supply of toasted bread, bis-

cuits and ginger-bread in tin cannisters, arrow root, sago,

tollong, tea and sugar’in stone jars: and you will find

Bruce’s mulligatawny paste a very grateful addition to broth.

Bring all your musquito curtains with you, they will be use-

ful in Cape Town, and are a good protection on board against

‘cockroaches. You may derive not amusement only, from hav-
‘ing in your possession three or four skeins of Kurope logline,

129 Hints regarding the Cape of Good Hope. [Aprit

and a dozen of cod-fish hooks, with a leaden weight of from
8 to 14 1b: an opportunity sometimes offers of good cod-fish-
ing on the bank L’Agullas, in from 35 to 70 fathoms water.
So much for equipment.

«¢ A material point for early consider ation is, what servants
you should take with you from Madras ; but it must’be a
sine qua non, that religious prejudices are not to interfere with
the performance of such duties as you may require from them,
ox with the acceptance of such provisions on board as are
available; of course the master will seek to render the situa-
tion of his native servants as comfortable as possible, if from
no other motive, for his own interest, as he would have to send
them back if dissatisfied. As to the number for the voyage,
you will be best able to estimate, with reference to the
number and ages of your party; but by no means bring
any men or women of delicate constitution or indolent ha-
bits; I mean such as are likely to give up, under the first
encounter of the climate, &c. &c. which they will find greatly
different from what they have been accustomed to.

“‘ Natives of Madras are sadly “‘ taken aback,” on first going
to sea; they become sea-sick, heartless, disgusted and use-
less ; but soon recover if taken care of. A well devil’d biscuit,
or kaw of hot pepper-water, or mulligatawny, sets them up
famously; andif they find that you have provided for their
comfort, their good humour willinall probability return, and
you have willing and useful attendants; but to effect this,
you must attend to some of their comforts hereafter noticed.
A good active Avah, or cloth woman, who speaks English well,
will be found a most valuable servant, if not a fine lady, as all
the native female servants at the Cape are, who require high
wages, and will do little work, in the service of temporary
residents, particularly ‘* Hindoos!” who appear to be consi-
dered on all sides “ fair game,” (thanks to one or two Bahau-
cars, who gave out that the cost of a purchase should deter-
mine its quality). They (the Hindoos) are charged with haying
spoiled the market, but I think without sufficient grounds,
for, on arrival at the Cape, if dependent on the place for ser-
vants, an Indian requires their services immediately, and is
obliged to submit to imposition (for, except he has friends,

1836.] | Hints regarding the Cape of Good Hope. 130

there nobody will assist him) at least at first ; and he may
consider himself extremely fortunate if, once having been
obliged to pay high, he can subsequently come down to are-
duced scale of wages.

** T am addressing myself to those whose purses have a bot-
tom to them ! and therefore assume, that, on the score of eco-
nomy and comfort, a family will endeavour to get a house of
their own as early as possible. If such are your objects, the
country, in my estimation, is preferable; and you may obtain
a capital house and grounds, on moderate terms, for a year or
18 months certain (about 100 dollars a month), Ifyou wish to
be gay, my hints will not suit your purpose. For such an object
bring an active plain cook with you (itis difficult to get one at
the Cape on reasonable terms, and they are quite unmanage-
able*), who understands marketing, and is not likely to sub-
mit (long) to imposition. He is perhaps the person least
likely to be subject to it, after becoming acquainted with the
value of dollars, shillings, pence, half-pence, doublegees and
stivers ; that is in Cape Town, the competition in the market
being sufficient security. An active hard working matey, or
alascar willing to turn his hand to any thing, would bea
capital stand by; but bring none who are given to tippling;
temptation, opportunity and example are abundant. A tailor,
combining any other useful calling as dressing boy, child’s
servant, or the like, would be founda treasure; for work-
women are scarce and very expensive; tailors (according to
Indian acceptation) are not to be 2 and regular tailors are
extremely extravagant.

_ Tn taking your passage to the Cape, you will (in general)
find youself obliged to pay nearly the price of similar accom-
modation to England! In such ease, you have a right to
look for liberal treatment from the captain; you ought not

_ «*J] heard ofan instance, from undoubted authority, when a lady ex-
pecting a party to dinner, had ordered a certain number of dishes. At
the hour named, no dinner was ready, and, after repeated messages,
she went herself, and found the monarch of the kitchen, seated with
hislegs on the dresser and a segar in his mouth, directing the dishing
up of about half what had being ordered, and when questioned on the

subject, replying very coolly that it was enough for the party !!! For

this you have no redress but to part company, and the successor will
prob ably do the same. -

131 Hints regarding the Cape of Good Hope. [Arrim

to be charged any thing extra, for a full proportion of
servants ; and baggage should be at discretion. If, however,
you must pay, the rate should never exceed 100 Rupees a
head for servants, the captain providing every thing; but
do not trust toa general promise verbally given, that your
servants shall be fed! They are under your protection.
The captain will desire his steward ‘‘ to look after them,”
and /e will consider a table spoonful or two of ill boiled rice
a handsome provision, with some broken meat and biscuit for
the day; or the. ship’s allowance of salt junk, biscuit and

grog will be offered! JI would however advise an agreement |

(to be duly entered into by both parties) that coarse rice,
chillies and curry materials (usually laid in for public fol-
lowers), with a supply of saltfish, and a specific quantity of

biscuit and water per head, should be allowed daily, and.

some broken fresh meat, once or oftener in the week, from

the cuddy table. Such an arrangement would tend to keep.

your servants in health and good humour, and would not ruin
the skipper! An iron pot, or sauce pan, should be provided

for the servants to cook in, and a specific hour or two stipu. -

lated for, in which they might cook in the galley without
being interfered with. Give the native men a 3 or 5 gallons
keg to keep water in (with means of slinging it, and advise
them to take it on board filled with water) and a strong
vessel, such as a pewter guglet or closed tub, in which they

may receive and carry their allowance of water from the ~
hold. Their berth should be distinctly allotted, and their -
trunks deposited and cleated down there before sailing, or

you will have everlasting requisitions for their boxes.

“The women would eat their meals with the cuddy servants, 7
and their allowance of water is generally served out, with .

that of the family, to the cabin.

«« As you will probably be one winter at the Cape, both men i.

and women should have warm clothing; indeed they would
in all probability require it on the voyage, if leaving India

in the beginning of the year. Flannels to be worn under chintz, .

&c. are recommended, and a coarse warm wrapper or shawl ;

worsted stockings for the voyage, as they are to be had of |

that quality in abundance at the Cape, and reasonable in

1836.] Hints regarding the Cape of Good Hope. 132

price. They should all have good stout leather shoes double
soled, calculated to be worn with worsted stockings; they
cost at the Cape six shillings a pair.

«‘ The men should have at least three coarse flannel bannians
each, and three pair of flannel drawers, two pair cloth trow-
sers, two cloth jackets, oneof which should be very warm, say of
duffle, and both lined with serge or baize. If they will wear
around jacket and trowsers, you may buy them ready made
at the Cape; but if they are to be of their own fashion, have
them made in India by all means, for the Cape tailors of any
class, will not condescend to work for them. Abundance of
good Bengal rice is to be had at the Cape cheap, but the
Madras natives do not like it, and your bringing a stock with
you, if not obliged to pay an extravagant freight, would ke a
great indulgence to them, and afford you the means of
punishment for neglect of duty, by withholding it.

«Tf you like curry! bring a large supply of curry powder
with you, or make arrangements for having your stock re-
plenished occasionally; what you buy at the Cape has no
flavour. Green ginger is not abad thing to bring or have
sent ; it keeps well for many weeks, packed in a deal box in
dry river sand. Wax candles are better and cheaper at Ma-
dras, and, unless you can make up your mind to use tallow,
bring a supply, with pillar shades and bed-room candlesticks.

*¢ Few Indians like the Cape wines, but this may be attri-
buted to the trash they taste at the boarding houses ; very
nice madeira and pontac may be had from the wine mer-
chants ; the former from 18 to 25 dollars the half arm, the
latter from 22 to 30 dollars. Of European wines, if you
prefer them, you had better bring a stock ; what you can buy
in Cape Town are dear and not fine. You pay a duty on im-
porting wines of 10per cent. on the value. Good cogniac brandy
may be bought there very reasonable. The Cape beer is very
pleasant, and (perhaps) in general preferred to Hodgson, and
much cheaper ; but. ‘“‘ Hindoos’’ very often sigh for the old
malt! A brewery has lately been established in Cape Town for
draught ale of malt and hop, and promises to answer admira-
bly; the price of a hogshead of it (Collison’s) is £3-15. _
Teas will now probably be as good and cheap as in India,

133 Hints regarding the Cape of Good Hope. [Arnit

but if you prefer chinchew to lump sugar, bring it with you.
Bring your own cot and bedding, well packed and secured
against vermin on board, and cots for your children to suit
land or sea, for these are very expensive at the Cape. Fora
child a pair of bullock drawers placed end to end, witha
wooden frame rattaned at bottom, and sides to ship on the
top, answers admirably. Each trunk should be from 2 feet 1 to’
2 feet 6 in length, by 20 or 22 inches in breadth; these will
give a cot of 4 feet 4, or 5 feet 2, according to the height of |
the child. If you have any carpets, or Bengal floor mats, and
purpose keeping house at the Cape, bring them, unless you
have to pay very high freight ; also table gear ofall sorts, but ©
~ donot buy for the purpose, as probably you would do so as
cheap at the Cape. Children’s shoes are not made, and those
from England are very dear,a large stock therefore is desira-
ble, a good proportion of which should be with strong double
soles,and calculated for wearing with woolen socks—those for
the. house may be made of jean or prunella, chilblains “being
common in winter. Lamb’s wool stockings are seldom to be
got at the Cape, so, if you have the opportunity, bring a good
stock with you; socks of chamois leather are very comfort-
able under cotton, and a jacket of the same material over
your shirt, will save you from the piercing effects of sudden |
gusts of wind, to which you will be liable at all seasons in ©
Cape Town and its neighbourhood. Bring a carriage with |
you, or a bandy ; the wheels and springs should be in perfect
order, as they will meet with rough roads: horses are not |
driven en postilion, so you must mount a dickey. Also bring
your harnesses and saddlery, the former should all be provid-
ed with breechings. Your conveyances should be well packed
to exclude cockroaches on board, or you will fall into the
clutches of the coach-makers, who will not spare you when
making out your bill. You will now I think start fair, so
adieu, till we meet again in Table Bay. '
« Arrived in the bay, abundance of excellent boats will come |
off to the ship, but you must not attempt to land, until the
Officer of Health has given his permission; and you must be —
cautious not to be caught by a south-easter, when it is un- _
pleasant, and often unsafe, to attempt landing. You have only —

1836.) Hints regarding the Cape of Good Hope. 134

to consult the boatmen, however, who understand the thing
perfectly ; only, if they require you to start, do so, and do not

trust to your own judgment as regards weather, or delay

landing your family, to wait for your baggage. It is better to
pay for two trips than run the risk of delay, or a boat heavy
laden. But, before landing, I recommend, for your attentive
perusal, the annexed extract from the leading article of the

4 South African Commercial Advertiser,’ dated 7th April

1833, written in review of part of an article published in the

Bengal Hurkaru, and having reference to the particular pas-

© The sum annually spent by sagein the margin. I give you

“us Indians (in this agreeable’ this extract, with a view to
“half way House, is computed exonerate myself from being
“at £. 30,000; one half of which, charged with libelling His Ma-

it may be fairly assumed,we jesty’s lieges of South Africa,
* should not spend, if the honesty and the authority is, I can as-
‘of the residents were propor- gure you,of the best, at least in

“tioned to the liberality of our the estimation of the writer.
“ dealings.” if

“*: Now, if the case be considered fairly, supposing thig
-estimate to be correct, we would ask, in what country in
the world wouldsuch Jiberality promote honesty? Ifthe
"writer can name any town or city in the East or West, where
the misguided stranger is willing to pay two prices, and
where the ‘ Natives,” from mere honesty, charge no

“ more than they could screw out of the most skilful bar-

gain maker among themselves, then we will admit the
' charge asa true bill against the Cape. But if no place can
be found where such a quaker-like practice prevails, the
writer must admit that he has laid against the Cape, in
particular, a charge that holds against human nature uni-
versally. Ifa buyer throws himself upon the “ d¢beradity”’
of the seller, and thereby constitutes him for the time
his agent, to cheat him is abominable, but then he owes
‘ the seller, a salary or per centage for his new office, and
*¢ when the ticklish nature of the trust is considered, in which

-€ conscience and custom are so directly opposed to each

« other, the allowance should be pretty “ liberal.”
© Every body knows, that men when making a monéy

135 Hints regarding the Cape of Good Hope. [Aprrit

‘* bargain, are, for the instant, in astate of war. The very
** opening of the business is a declaration of hostilities, and
** though habit itself has a conscience, and to go beyond
‘‘ certain bounds on either side, whether of selfishness or
liberality, is inconsistent with a trading reputation, yet
“s§ there is a wide scope for opinion respecting the highest
«* and the lowest price of articles. If the price of any artt-
© ele rises, the shopkeeper is not bound to continue selling
“ at the old rate, because, should prices on the other hand
fall, the purchaser is not bound to pay the same price as
‘* before, till the stock on hand is exhausted. The univer-
** sal rale for the shopas well as for the counting house is
« © to buy as cheap and sell as dear as posible.’ This all
‘ men can understand and all men can, or should be able
€ to, practise, for there is no other principle on which trade
‘© can be carried on. !

« The opinion that Indians are cheated by a combinati-
on of natives against them, is we think untenable. There
* ig no corporation of trades or professions at the Cape.
« But the same causes will produce the’ same effects in all
** the shops. If every Indian is green, every shopkeeper
« will find it easy and safe tosqueeze him. Even nettles in
‘‘ that state may be handled with impunity. Even the
«‘ scrupulous shopkeeper will take, not a cheating but, the
‘ highest pricefrom him. The native may honestly claim
“ the article at the lowest. price, because he has spent time,
*¢ which is value, in acquiring that knowledge which the
“ Indian wants. Is it desirable that ignorance should reap
“ the fruit of knowledge ?!!1’ |

‘“‘ Now, friend Mull, having perused this document, you know
how you stand : you are, for the time being, that is whenever
your hand is destined to visit your pocket for the purpose of
drawing therefrom coin, much or little, in “a state of war
with the natives.” You are to avoid being considered
‘“ green” anda legitimate subject for “ squeezing.” You
have no right to expect that any thing will be sold to you at
the lowest price, because you want “ knowledge” of what
that price is! As the extract is taken from the Cape oracle
let me advise you to forget that, where you come from, the

| 1836.) Hints regarding the Cape of Good Foye. 136

prices of goods for sale in shops are the same for all
customers ! you are if you have any regard for your own in-
terest to understand, that the sum asked of you is not the
real market value of the article, and what you ought to pay
for it, but the measure of the party’s conscience who makes
the demand! Therefore do nothing without making your
bargain beforehand! and first for boat hire—you should
land your family for six shillings at the highest, if the
weather is fine, but, beware, the boatmen will charge sepa-
rately for every person, not of your family, whom you may
invite to land with you, unless you have taken the boat spe-
cifically without reference to whom your party may consist of,

You should go on shore, in the first instance, yourself, and
secure quarters. ‘The climate admits of your walking, if not
a great invalid, but if you require a conveyance, a person
from the stables generally comes on board to take instruc-
tions ; the conveyances are carriages and buggies, and the
rates of hire about the same as at Madras..

You must go to the Custom House, and. get a permit for
Janding your baggage, specifying if you can the number of
packages you will require; and a separate order, after paying
the duties, for liquors and conveyances. These you will de-
posit with the searchers, or tide-waiters on the wharf, and
_ your boatman (with whom you had better make a bargain for
all your work) will procure waggons or coolies to convey your
baggage; and their hire is best arranged by bargain, for
they will scarcely work for anew comer at the regulated
price. pyle

You will do well, with a family, to go to a lodging house
for a few days; there are abundance of them—the best are
Mrs. Vanschoor’s, Mrs. Cambier’s and Miss Rabes’.. The
terms are generally the same per day, but if your party is
large, or you propose remaining some time, say beyond a fort-
night, you will be able to obtain a reduction. The usual
rate is rix dollars 6 per day per head for adults, 3 for a
_ child, and 1 for a servant; I have known it reduced to 5,1,
and 4 respectively : this provides lodging, breakfast, dinner
and tea, with Cape wine and beer. You may make a very
reasonable bargain for board and lodging (at a second rate

137 ffints regarding the Cape of Good Hope. [Aprit

boarding-house) by the month: a man and his wife £l5a
month, providing their own liquors and firing.

Almost the first person whose services you will require,
after landing at the Cape, will be the washerwoman. They
are excessively extravagant and bad; not one tenth of your
clothes will be washed at all, and you will have to pay from
2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. per dozen pieces, but you have no remedy,
and are at their mercy. After the board ship clothes are
washed you will hire a woman to wash by the month, the
rates are for a single person from 10 dollars upwards, for a
family considerably more; I have paid 40 dollars a month,
for washing the clothes of my family consisting of my wife
and self, 3 children, 3 Indian servants and 2 English girls.

The wages of a housemaid are from 12 to 20 dollars a month
with board ; they g generally work at the needle, but are fond of
idling and require much looking after. Your Indian ser-
vants should as soon as possible make themselves acquaint-
ed with the nature of the current money, and bazar rates ;
till when, they will most certainly be imposed upon. ‘The
bazar currency, sovereigns, half crowns, shillings, six pences,
penny pieces, half-pennies, farthings, rix dollars (1s.6d.) shil-
lings, (21d.) stivers (6 toa shilling) and doublegees (3d. each.)
Beef of excellent quality from 2d. to 3d. per lb., mutton 2d.,
fresh butter 2s. in summer, and from that to 3s. per lb. in
winter, good salt butter 8d. and 9d., fish very cheap and
good ; vegetables and fruit abundant and cheap in the season ;
bread good and about the same price as at Madras, milk 3d.
a bottle, but it is often a little sky blue, and the bottle is
barely an honest pint.

The Cape summer season is from the beginning of Octo-
ber to April, during which the residents are generally out of
town ; you may at this season get a house or lodgings in
Cape Town at a moderate rent, and a country residence is
expensive. The case is vice versa with the change of season.
If you want quiet and fine air, the country is‘the place
throughout the year; if gaiety is your object, you must fol-
low the fashion, and return to town for the winter. There
are some very comfortable bungalows at Wynberg, eight miles

1836.] Hints regarding the Cape of Good Hope. 138

from Cape Town ; supplies abundant and good, and the coun-
try tolerabiy pretty. Sales by auction are held three or four
times a week in the streets of Cape Town, at which are sold
all sorts of domestic stores, but (Gt is said) an Indian
must avoid bidding in proprid persond, or the article
is Immediately run up. If you go into the country
you will have to find the means of conveying your
stock of supplies from Town; the best way is to treat
with some of the labourers in the neighbourhood, who
own carts and who occasionally take into the Town for sale,
a load of reeds or rushes, &c. If inthe country, make early
enquiry, and lay in your winter stock of firewood, oats and
hay ; take care the wood is dry, and look well after the cook
who will otherwise ruin you in expenditure in fuel. Oats
and hay should be purchased after Christmas when a
part of its fresh moisture has gone off; but do not wait be-
yond January or the price will rise, (coals you must procure
from Town) and in taking a groom stipulate that he is to
draw water and chop wood for the house. Do not trust to
a house being “ furnished,”’ as that usually consists of an old
table and a few rickety chairs. Some furniture (particularly
beds and bedsteads) is very dear, other kinds reasonable.
A new table of cedar wood in three pieces, 9 feet long by 5 feet
broad, costs from 65 to 75 dollars; a dozen chairs from 90 to
100, and a deduction is made fora good order and ready
money. Carpeting from 2 to 4 shillings a yard, the shops are
well provided with all sorts of Europe articles, but labor is
excessively dear. Mulitary men from India have adopted the
fashion, I know not why, of throwing off every part of their
military dress at the Cape, thereby incurring a heavy expense
in fitting out at the tailor’s. Horses are very good at the Cape,
but you should take time to select. A good buggy is a plea-
sant conveyance out of Town, but scarcely sufficient for the
winter. The coachmen drive well, but their wages are very
high (30 to 40 dollars a month and food) ; such a man ought
to take care of your carriage and horses and be otherwise
useful, as chopping firewood, going to market and errands.
If you have more horses than three, you will require a boy as an

159 Hints regarding the Cape of Good Hope. [Arrit

assistant at about 8 dollars a month ; unless you require him
to ride with you, when you would want a more regular groom,
who would receive about 20 dollars a month.

Your best means of remitting funds (for Rupees or draw-
ing on India is ruinous) is to bring Ceylon, Mauritius or
Navy Bills on England, which you may generally sell at a
premium. Sovereigns and all English silver money, are
current at the Cape. ‘The Madras Rupee is worth no more
than Is. 6d.

The houses of Agency are extremely polite, and will re-
ceive your bills, allowing you to draw against them; this is a
very desirable arrangement if you go into the interior: or
you may pay them into the discount Bon, which will answer
your draughts. :

As a valuable factotum and a worthy person, let me re-
commend you to make early acquaintance with Mrs. Saun-
ders, confectioner in the Here Gracht, who will gladly ex-
ecute all your little commissions in Town, and has some
remains of a conscience.

The household expences of a small family (consisting ofa
pail and one child) may be thus enumerated.

Accommodation in a boarding-house for 6 months cer-
tain, 300 rix dollars, washing and personal servants extra.

Accommodation in separate quarters.

Rent of a small unfurnished house, 80 dollars.

Do. of apartments furnished 100 dollars..

Do. of afamily house do. 250 do.
AVERAGE ORDINARY EXPeENces.

3 ; Dollars.
Cook’ 25, nouse boy lore og a a eee
Butcher’s? bill’40,-baker’s:25..2-::c%, Badin wh Pe oy SiG
Milk 15, wood 20, salts 6........ sith bs inte Has oe 1 a
‘Coffee and tea 10, vegetables 10..... ctepotcss, hele ae alte

Pucaracandles,roil.. 5:14 ... sv 5 stkdderegaeAl, GG Bee ee eee
Washing 30, house 30, groom 30.........ceeeceeees+ 90
Fruit, coals, &czl 6; wme&e. 300.5 4 .hegt cree 46

Total 402

1836.) Hints.regarding,the Cape: F. Good. fTope.; 140
Table: of Weather, hepts eNO: the. timits of. Cape, Town.

ths
a as Se ae en on mc ce

Thermo- SST EL ot es
_ Ineter,:
sl e[3
by 201 Bel a.
TEE 24
leleli se
“O[ a ots
lee |e
EE ed iid r :
May. » » «{64{56 63.6. |Generally fine—4 days rainy, I stormy & do.
June. .«..|64)53/58 & (Generally fine—6days rain, 4 days taney; wind
a | southerly, bof them stormy with rain.
July. ..../62/51/5542 2\Gonerally. fine—6 days rain, 3 days stormy ae
rain.
August. i 535575 7|Ni ine days rain, 9 days Hlondy,. | ‘
Septet 59 bs 2. CE menage fine—6 days rain, 34, 4th and 5th of
4 _ the-month stormy, w ith wind from. .south
easterly.
“October. . 65 54 5823 2\Generally fine—2 days rain and 2 days stormy,
7 : on one of them wind westerly.
Magomber, 69 59 6242 6| Generally fine—Ist, 11th, 15th, Leet
16th, 17th, 18th, stormy wind N. W..
December. 401 62 64, |Generally. fne—a few- days. Tight. rain, wind
| sterly. —
January... 171/63 67a: Generally fine—3 days rain, wind! s. Ww. 8. E.

ee 176165! a Generally lees, S. W.Ss 3, Easterly.

March. ns | ceneray fine—15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, very

boisterous, wind SW.

spt {67 60'6314!Generally fine—wind S. E. 8. W. till 14th, when
_ it began torun.to N. Westerly...
cop _ \Generally fine—5 days rain, wind N. W. W.
Ju une. he 5944 Generally fine—5 days pula W.N. We
2 J ily? : ie : [00 ey) 56-2, Gener ally fine—5 days rain, snow in the month,
a | iJ wind 8..E. and N. \
: |
Ne: and Sept | sles .| Incomplete.

October. . avs sla Fine wind S, & with mae and N. W.

SaaS

eee latcan cellist

zi
vy

—-—

14]

IX.—Distance of objects at sea, [Arrin

To the Hditor of the Madras Journal

A

SIR,

of Literature and Science,

In Adam’s Geometrical and Gra-
phical Essays at page 117, the follow-
ing problem is given, viz.—The dis-
tance of three objects A, B& C, from
each other, and the angles A DC,
CDE,CED,C EB being given,
to find the sides AD, DC,D E,
E Cand EB. |

The method of construction 1s there

calculation, but a direct general for-
mula for the solution of the problems
may be found. To simplify the cal-
culation, let the three points A C B
be conceived in a straight line, and
producing the limes B EK and A D to
M.

the angle M =a +684 6 + « —1802, and calling the angles
ABE = yand BAD = ¢ then

e+ y = 180 —M = 3600 — (a+ A +6 + 6)then

in the triangle C BIS we have CH a Ph pene Ue!

sin B

and in the triangle D C EF. we have

In the triangle C A D we have DC =

C E. sin ip cig CB. siny sin (e ~b 6)

SS ects ees ee a ee er eS

AG. sin %
Peet moe
sin @

and in the triangle D C B we have

ED=—

DC. sin (€ ++ 0) iss A €. sin @ sin (e + 0)

ore

= —eeeee . .
sin r3} sin @ aes,

and equating the two values of ED there resuits

C B. sina sin §

sin £
— whence

sin pin y

given, and also an indirect method of

1836.] Proceedings of the Madras Lit. Society, &c. 142

CB.sina.sind +AC. sin A.sine_sinx+siny_tang3(v +)
CB.sina.siné6—AC.sinBsine sing —siny tangi (aw y)

CB. sina sin €

= taking tang 9 =—.—--_- we have

AC. sin B sing x
tang 3 ( — y) = tang 3 (e + y). tang @ — 45s)
by which the value of # and y are found, and therein the
values of any of the required quantities.
Yours obediently,

&.—At a General Meeting of the Madras Literary Society and
Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, held at the College, on Satur-
day, the 30th January, 1836.

PRESENT.
The Honourable Sir Rogert Comyn, President, tn the Chair.

The Honourable Wittiam Oniver, Esq. Vice President.
The Venerable Archdeacon H. Harper, A. M.

J. ANNESLEY, Esq. W. Lavi, Esq.
R. Cors, Esq. J. OucHTERLOonY, lisq. and
Captain Keicuty. | Revd. I. Spring, A. M.

The meeting having been opened by the Honourable the President,
the Revd. Mr. Spring, for the Secretary, laid before them a statement
of the funds of the Society, in both its branches.

The following donations having been made to the Society since the
last annual general meeting, the thanks of the meeting were unani-

mously voted to the donors.
FOR THE LIBRARY.

3 Copies of Koros’s Tibetan Dictionary and

Grammar ..... E Aaclie Gah) ee de beh WS Supreme Government

of India.

Essays on Beriberi and Rheumatism, by J. G.

Malcolmson, Esq. .....ccscccecsee cece Madras Medical Board.
Result of the Madras Astronomical Observa-

tions, for 1832 and 1833...... a DR Bs Madras Government.
Wight’s Contributions to the Botany of India.. The Author.
Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society,

volume Sd, Warhod al 20.0% 3. tnd 5 » Royal Asiatic Society.
Ram Raz’s Hindu Architecture............ o- Do.
Evlya’s Travels in Europe, Asia and Africa... Do.
Sangermano’s Burmese Empire..........-... Do.
Travels of Macarius—part V......scesseceee Do.

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,—the
three first Nos... ..0.-cccsenevevscesoees Do.

143 Proceedings of the Madras Lit! Saviety, &c. [Avnic E

Report of the Oriental Translation Fund.,?... Royal Asiatio Society.
~-Alfiyya- ou la Quintessence dela Grammaire. __ a coon
Arabe—par le B. 8. de Sacy...... ..... Do.
Les Cluvres de Walli—Publiées ‘én “Hindou-
- stani—par-M. Garcin de-Tassy........«.Mons. G. De. Tassy.
Notice sur les Fetes at aa des Hlindous
par M. G. De Tassy.. a eR Ne /Mons. G. De Tassy.
Two copies of the Index m ine Asiatic Re-
Beavches, <.. SOR eae leew eee Bengal Asiatic Society.
The Cape of Good Hope Literary Gazette
OANos; for L839)... Pisce’ wien ee UBresen tell thro’ G. Lys
_ Esq. from the Literary
Asis eR beri i __ Society . of the Cape.
Two es tionuls of books i in the South African nigh |
Public Library... 5 ge. cos. eee dae, OS
“i Supplement to décs waa, —sed- vilersnste® SdleabeDO.
ce iof the: first 2 mnie ania) fp sates bf 5
“the'friends of the Popular: Library, Cape 2
TOWN... geen ere ecnee See tee ete tesennes iatay Oe
ee s Essay on the "paiative Univer sal i
Standard of Weights.and-Measures......The ‘Author. aE,
“ Rask’s Samlede Alfhandlinger, 6 Oepics ....Presented thro’ Arch-
- deacon Robinson, from
the University of Co-

;penhagen. iias0e y,,

Nouvelles Restatchiess sur ‘Piasoripton en let- pe far
~ “tres Sacrées du Monument De Rossette.. “| ‘Do.
Vejledning til Akra Sproget—af Prof. R. Bal - Do.
Solemna Scholastica ad Celebrandum...... ‘eds P.Do.
Singalesisk Skrifteere af Prof. R. Rask.:..... ~~» Do.

__ Annual Report of the Royal Society of Nor- a)

thern Antiquities at Open AREER eee spiky ee

Nordift' Zidsftrift for Oldtyndighed. patios es Do.
Oriental Historical Manuscripts.......: Maes: end W. aylge

The following books, in the Chinese directed) were presented by
Lieutenant Newbold, in the name of the -Rev. Mr. Evans, of the Anglo-
Chinese College at Malacca, as specimens of the produce, of the Chi-
“nese Press of ‘that Institution. | )

Holy Scriptures in the Chinese angie, 21

MOMGMES 05). 22 oicinsaicirn, soyahn e c¥ eee a Lieutenant Newbold—
| in thename of the Rev.
i fie enol iow of co PO BU 0)” Wer vents,
Seripiuve Proof in.d0..3 vols... ccetsdlsust sicko cteeeeypeeienel VOue See
History of Kéa-kus—Chinese emperor 6vols. . Do.
Family Instructor—4 vols..........- e Hleee Do.

Chinese translations of religious works 41 vols. Do.

1836.] Proceedings of the Madras Lit. Society, &c. 144

_ Malayan: translation of the- Bible printed at
Harlem .....,, ie eriaisei2> “ei: wee morncinnsLacatenant Newbold—
in the name of the

Rey. Mr. Hughes.

Do." Do: Do. printed at Serampore Do.
The New Testament:i VAY ICMR aed A pes Do.
MicwGOaels AbdeACts IN -dO.. wo... 6s «sence Do.
Twenty-six pamphlets—translations of reli-

pears workcuin Malay... ..... cc cs.ness Do.
FOR THE MUSEUM.

A ‘bow and four arrows taken from one of the
_ rebels of the Kimedy country...........W. Gilchrist, Esq.
atk collection of Geological specimens, chiefly
from the Northern parts of India, being
duplicates from the Bengal Society’s
Museum, presented through Dr. Benza,
Gc te nee tee Neocon eo, . The Neiatie Society of
Bengal.
A series of Mineral specimens, one hundred
and four in number, illustrative of the
Geology of the Neilgherry Hills, by... .Dr. Benza.

These specimens illustrate the very able and interesting paper by
“Dr. Benza, on the Geology of the Neilgherries, contained in the
_ Bengal Journal of Literature and Science, for August 1835. It is
to be regretted, however, that the specimens presented to the Madras
Museum, are not numbered according to the references contained in
that paper; a classification which would very mueh enhance their
value, in the eyes of the geological student, who may hereafter wish
to refer tothem. A member of the society having engaged, in com-
munication with Dr. Benza, to arrange the specimens in the order in
which they are describedin the paper above alluded to, there is no
doubt but that this desirable end will be attained.*

A collection of Geological specimens from the
Nome Circars; by or PsP Pe Dr. Benza:
The formations in the district whence the above were taken, are
described by Dr. Benza in an appendix to the paper cited above.:
A number of most beautiful specimens of the

Trap formation near Poonah, presented
DY cerereee cree ecte cee tees eet e cece ead, G. Malcolmson, Esq.

: tree ed
rer a ET a oe

* The Neilgherries being located within the limits of owr own province, we eg
hereafter to give an abstract of Dr. Benza’s paper, or to transfer it entire to the pages
our Journal. As the Doctor is again on the Hills, perhaps he may have something Be
add to his former observations.--Hp1ToR.

145 Proceedings of the Madras Lit. Society, Bc. [APRIL

These consist of vesicular Trap, or Amygdaloid, of a dull reddish
brown colour, containing embedded crystals of fibrous Zeolite, Cubicite,
Green Earth, Rock Crystal and Chalcedony.

The following notice, froma paper by Mr. James Bird, in the 3d
number of the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, will afford an idea

of the formations whence these specimens are derived.

« The elevated table-land of the Dekkan is exclusively composed of
rocks belonging to the floetz-trap formation. The hills which rise on
the western. ghats asa base have conical or tabular forms, and are
sometimes distributed in long ridges or terraces which run east-north-
east.

“© At the openings in the hills west of Punah, known by the name of
the Ghats, and which are the passages from the lower land of the Kon-
kan into the higher land of the Dekkan, these tabular forms are grand
and beautiful. They are generally triangular shaped, and insulated
from each other by broad and deep ravines, of which the perpendicular
descent cannot be less than twelve or thirteen hundred feet.

‘ The rock composing these tables is compact basalt of a black co-
lour, in which hornblend predominates. | | Wd

«“ About Punah, and further-south-eastwards, the rocks are generally:

amygdaloidal, and become lighter in colour the farther they are re-
moved from the western entrance. This amygdaloid is in no respect
diferent from the toad-stone of extra tropical climates. It shews
embedded masses of calcedony, zeolites, and green earth; and in the
neighbourhood of water courses, at the depth of five-and-twenty or
thirty feet below the surface, contains drusy cavities of crystallized
quartz, the appearance of which, in digging wells, indicates that water
is near.”
A-collection of Mineral specimens from vari-
ous parts of the Peninsula of India, by..Captain Boileau.
A figure of a Burmese Deity......... Wks ae ak: Hon. Sar R. Palmer.
The sumpitan, or blowpipe, and a quiver of
poisoned arrows used by the Jacoons, a sa-
vage race inhabiting the mountains and for-
ests of the Southern parts of the Malay
Peninsula, once the property of one of
their Batins or chiefs, by whom they were
presented to the donor...... te ee Lieut. Newbold.
A specimen of the rude cloth worn by them
round the loins, made from the fibrous bark

of the Terap tree......... Sto terest wale Do.
A hunting basket worn across the shoulders. . Do.
A rude call or whistle used by the Malays.... Do.
4& Malayan Buah-raga, or foot-ball.......... Do.

A Malayan-spear used by the Malayan chiefs.. Do.

:

1836.] Proceedin gs of the Madras Lit. Society, &c. 146

a common, Malay Kris... ui. .ci.ce0esreseeoees Lieut, Newbold.
A common Malay fishing line ............. : Do.
A bow obtained from a native of the Celebes.. Do.
A bundle of arrows from do. d0....... 4 Do.
A Malay sling made of human hair......... : Do.
Specimen of tin of Salangore.............. : Do.
Specimen of stream Ore........0-cececeee sis Do.
A Chinese Abacus,’ or calculating board with
apparatus for writing .....cs.esecoeses als Do,
A Chinese opium pipe......- Beast codes deity Do.
WA Packet of-upas' poison... 0-0. ...0/.cceevaee : Do.’

A. small Cobra di Capello, about 1 feet long,
in the act of swallowing a smaller snake
of another species, of which it has effect-
ed the deglutition of about one third...... Revd. Mr. Spring, in
the name of Captain
| : Bernard.
The following gentlemen have been elected members since the last
general meeting :—
C. R. Baynes, Esq. H. Morris, Esq.
T. Jarrett, Esq. . A. H. Harris, Esq.
N. B. Acworth, Esq.
The following vacancies have occurred by death or retirement since
the last general meeting.

J.G.' Maleolmson, Esq. gone homie. Captain Lane, _ gone home,
Ven. Arch. T. Robinson, a.m: do. | W. E. Underwood, Esq. Retired.

W. H. Richards, Esq. do. T.. H. Davidson, Esq. do.
Captain Boileau, do. Captain Alexander . do.
Colonel Pearse, do. C. A. Kerr, Esq. Dead.

Resolved,—that an early. meeting of the Committee of Management
be called, for the purpose of taking into consideration the best means of
éffecting an improvement in the selection of books from England, and
the expediency of disposing of any useless works which may now form
part of the Library.

The meeting proceed to elect three members for the Committee of
Management for the ensuing year, in succession to Lieutenant Colonel
Cullen, A. Robertson, Esq. and Captain Rowlandson—when the Vene-
rable Archdeacon H. Harper, a. m. and James Minchin, Esq. were duly
elected and Captain Rowlandson re-elected.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to the Honourable the Presi-
dent, for his able conduct in the chair,

447 XL— METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER xerr ax tu MADRJ ee

ser

Fe ciaeienieniennen tiene

‘Standard Bar omter No. 3, by Gilbert. | Standard Therm. by Troughto | "
e ° ” Py ne ° ay wal
2 s | = | 3 x si =S 2 eS a = % |
Days a eS S a Pp . a a a le a
3 Tha ip ede |eislFla 4
“Dee. jinchesy_ piialnee : it |
0,164) 30, 152 30,130] 30,122| 30,154) 30, 150|] 73,2| 77,5] 79,0] 79,6) 77,9| 76,0]
a Hess : ke 146] Toa] ,108}, 144] 148! 76, || 79,3) 80,4] 79,0] 79,5)74,51 79h)
3 136 3172 ‘ibe 110| 7126} 31444 7154\173,7178,5) 79,41 79,5] 77,0] 76,01 Zap
“| 7156 2180; 164) 5146) 150) ,174| || 72,0 mo 19,0] 79,2} 74,0] 76,2) Zay |)
| "7621 -,210} ,180, ,150) 144) 4174 a 71,0| 78,1] 7%,8! 77,01 75,7175,5)=9 |!
) gi} ,18a|_ .,146].. ,154).. ,174| 11 73,011 77,21 77,3) 76,5] 7, Gem
“| "135 188] 163 124] ,150}———}] 73,5] 79.3) 75,2)-——| 74,2] 74,3}
at rao] 21sa{ 2150l liz] 104] 5154) —-_—}) 73,4179, 1) 79,81 79,6] 77, 1) 76,3)
9} 2150] ..774] ,144| ,100 144 77,2| 79,0 18,2] 75,9] 75,3
10} 3136] 5172] 152) 9] 770 79,2, 78,9! 75,0) 74, !
; 1 172) 15 | 75,0] 78,6|78,0) 77,0] 75,9 7a.
19 "168 ‘| oF 5178] 132 76,2|77,4| 78,3] 76,4] 75,7
13) 2158} 21sg, ,154| , 108 77,8) 78,9}*0,0] 77,0176,
14] [136]. veo} ,144! 116 78,2] 78,0179,6| 76,5] 75,0) 7
45 5150] 3178) 155] 110 | 77,0] 80,0] 80,5) 77,5| 76,31
5 iso] ,146 76,0! 79,31 79,0] 76,7| 75,6}
1e| 21a] ’are| 200] 7166 |78,1| 77,7| 78,0| 75,6) 73,5] 7
18| 7208] 7920, 188] ,162 76,6] 78,4|78,6] 78,0! 74,9
191 7154 {196 5154) 132 75,3| 77,4 78,81 75,2| 70,81 6
20| sie 5146] 5122 ——|76,7|77,2| 76,0 72,6
180 j 76,3) 77,7|77,9| 76,2| 73,7 \+
3 al "186 "15e 16 : 76,2) 77,0| 77, 7| 76,0) 75,11
93| 7154) 208] 180) 156] 16: 75,1] 79,0] 78,7| 77,0) 74,8} 4
Hl "1541 202] 51 8] .134] ,124 : (0) 75,7|77,4|78,41 76, 1| 72,61
951 °132| “16d| .428}———! 5108] 114) ,148)170,'| 74,2) 77,0; 75,1) 70,9)
190 5114} ,140}169,0| 74,7] 76,2| 77,5] 75,21 72,0
2g| 7138) 182] Jl5zt Jina! 5104) ,'32] 128 65,8) 73,6) 76,4 76,9| 73,21 69,21 &
29} 31221 158 71281 2102| 3096] ,1 6! ——||63,6| 73,4] 76,5] 77,3] 72,2] 69,5}-
30) 08 7160! 2122] 5080} ,10z] 136,144 66,94 75,2| 77,2176,9] 75,5 73,2)
gif 150] 178] 160] 116) 120] 138] ,142 l67,2 74,0! 76,3| 76,4| 75.7, 73,9)"
Mean.|30, 30,145 | 30.1 184] 30, 159130,126 30,126 |30, 30,1301 30,151! 30,162|| 70,6] 76.4] 78.0] 78,31 76,0 74,1) Be

?

Be
)

=X o 4 é ‘
a Bee ~3 Uae Os
fe) ~ co; e 4
: 27802 fp Fates 22 e oe oe
ace ‘ og. 8606 ® E See ee {
Fees > 2 (| pate) mo rs a ee) a {
é 3a a ia RS ego Sd !
ma Sots ee B36. 0 = (opatetie: ce
5 Pb 535 s .. oa Se S peieeoee ee
es SS omg : - wr Oo ‘Ts j G os iS
S 5 38 B Aes avo oe ae 4
4 3 3 BP, = ore 8 3B 38 3 a a) t i
cs SoBe 4 BPs eS a. Be cA
Oe es a eo es La a2. =
- gst z Posh so Ss s) &B ay © SS
Bie SoS ea o 3 TS : S 18S iS)
Leon ae) es SO Sry ° me > bs F
Se Pe eae) SO Se eet Zee oS S woes os ap
Se Bs ae pO gS Pp SS oo 2
= Sy (Sy noes xo} al (oo See OC Ba e ees) or
te = eae a. oo 2 a) 1, eB taki oe ao {
a3 ee, = “Bena BS = ® Se LS
Qo MESS OA Booaa ga = 3S ees :
| ee dees a 3 : minksan S|
sS ‘ é : “35
(ees °
= _ Bee a ae A ; J ‘e ° 2 S G O
= = ' Pa AZ eee es Rae 2 ol A ee Bee eo
a ee ee : a Aaa aa Ae eg a
eo — ! ZH 4424 Zz Sin pae se tees SE eee a8 ze 6 ee a cr se A
ODO > 3 a > GOO eae iy & a ;
aq ; } Oe i A Z-8' 4 ZZ pe ee ee ee Bl
| uoyerodea sy; =| ~ | rH Sy tit GA Fo FA
: (en) : C 1} o| sealele ah (ania, at F — pee
: z 3 i] se)
el 7 =] oe
P 13 “30S ung | (0.5) aT . = oS aes
ld 5 = ie | fay
mi. 8 a ms 0
Hii ee : © ete os
Z, | asta ung | eal aa as
© 24 ae cy ee.
em H ; |
a et
= Bake
gi ¢ eo
i a Toes [cs ce eae de ate
ba totes TT lap les ot
a de ae | ow Sos aS a ‘
: NW: : ; NM Petar oN —,ON mFS
2 2 jes unk, a CN GO O19 ois ois SSP NN CONIQD R= a OS
: i A ——— Be ee ee HONCN WMerena GO 8 00 =—O6D0OOS Sisoane ft | :
- lg “ie OARS Spa SHOP F GOPAS id save A ee eae
ss ae ad? aS Se Sil ee St a oo Se Cad 19 onl
= e Ree Ne oe ee en DS00D AHH — =o ed
ES ——}| ——_____ OQ SHA dad Ht Seas DN 10 AG
(2) .E ae Ono mw OND adwos = | Oe a
ey u0o N Se ee OD BS OG ee a ES Orissa % a
se {| Sf j— WHSSS wT! co he Sea. a aoe = air ae
- GSAS Pee oF ANGAS ABWON
oa a "Ww ov ¢ : Soe a oN SNT oS on gem acgen ee
Sol g ero eas Tees aso ese see? cae
eo : A | ‘esix unc] = SS Filo an SMDON SO— HH
a S'S) Gen ae FO ASH Hen eo eat Oa OON 19 stood ~
a Eloe Say Sea Lee |

149 METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER xerr ar-rne MADRAS

| Standard Barometer No.3, by Gilbert.

‘
AGRE ee

Standard Therm. by Troughton}

ai2 P ee ge ia 2 teicg | at hes
my ° ‘ ‘6 o.
Days e o E ey 4 is : 41 3 ate !
i | = nS aD @0 D2 ki NN Pe |
Jan. finehes aren ri |
1}30,134 130,144 | |
2120, 100 "136 30. 086 30.072 (30. 078 30. 112 30.126 77.6178.0176.7 |72.7 (7h ll
Dippin o 094 78.3178.7\76.4|74.0 '7) iil
4| ‘r30} ,1s0 “160 108 106 Te 78.4179.3)77.0)75.0|74 ||
8} ,!28) ,l44) 122) 054 0744 = .100 77.0177.4|74.9 '74,3|—# ol)!
6! joo4] 140] .128} .102] .086] .116 178.4178.5'75.4l74°3 708 (il!
7) ya6t) 161 154) tO) 110F * 130 \78.6 178.7 175.8 179.0 iy
$} ,110j-———] .118; .080! .078] .108 78.4 179,.3175.9 171.0 16% 44
9} 220) .'52] .144] .100| 104] .128 77.0 |78.0176.2175.2 (74 Sih!
TO, igi) ae 0B) 02s a) ra0 78.1 179.0177.0175.8 il
11] 141] .156] 134] 100] 094] 110] .130|/64.8)78.0|79.0|78.7|76.9|76.0 i
Popo eh WA pT sa ei ee 1y..
13! o91| .126! .110} .090] .200f .114] .118|163.7!77,6179.3 |79.0176.0|72 8 174
14} -(082{ .136] .116] .1C0} 094] .130] 1146/16! 0177.8}80.2 180.7 177.0'74.9.17% gy
15] jog] 160] 152] 118) 106) 124] 140} /66.9)77.0]79.0)79.0176.0 74.2 17% Ani}
1g) ,136| 160] .1504 -128] .110] .126' .150 ||65.9;78.0]78.8 |79.8175.7
17| ?146{-——-—}" 1140] 120)" 102] 126 het 81_= 177.9!78.0176.2
18] 2146) .200) 182] .140| 146] .168| .190//60.8|76.3177 0|77.7 |75.6
19} {182} .228] .196| 160] .142] 146] .150]|63.1 176.3 |77.8|78 3175.2
20! 2126] -174| 157} 124) 0120] 1281 .1344161.1 176.0|77.4178.3 175.5
ai} ,146] -'94) .154| .128] .150] .150| .154| 64.5 76.9 77.8 178.9 176.0
92| 7175| .216| .200) .160) 152) 172) —})60.6)75.2 |77.3177.9|75,6
93! 7182) .2187 .196] .158) .150) 162) .1921'60.1)76.2/77.3 177.7 175.8
94| *195|———| .194| .165| .178{ 1921 .2'4] 6'.6|—--177.0/78.0176.0
25} 7188, .252| .2i4; 172} 186 206] .208| 58.5 75.5 |77.5|78.0175 5
a6) .204| 258! 212] .180] .188) .226|———1|61.4|76.9|78.0|78.7 |75.9
o7| “214| .960| 2s) 82| 172; 1212] 214/645 |77.2]78.7,79.0|75.9
os] “14 | 282]. 2501 200) 1198) 224) 252] 6!.5177.4177.8|75,8 |76.0
99| °2'8| .276| .240] -202] .2'4| .230) .244 [61.2 76.7 178.3 |78.4|75.9
30; 2224, .290| -258) -2!4) .204) .220| .240|/61.3)77.2 ade (79.0 176.5
ae 246|———| .2464 .202) .196} 216] .222)161.0 iad 8 79.4 177.3
win 30.194 [30.169 [30.125 130.121 |30.152|30.1 63\162.4|76 5178.1 783 76.0(74 4th)

15d

PBSERVATORY; ror raz MONTH or JANUARY 1836.

pee

= = B aD : = i | : }
® SS) ro O58.e 6 Eee nies "Ro zs .) = ,
poet = La en} ‘ = _ peeee pee yest = @)
= ans So Ud dd i Sete eee = a5 gs OS = : }
; 3. o8 os es 80 eb Ss Seas) S S
| BS oe oe Bo A eos pres See
Td. a Baka = 9 oo i ee i
» = ie cre} ny Ta D ray ‘
a ee Secen. 64 oS a a ee |
a) 5 m= (o) e : i;
2 eee. See SES soe ee ee ae
= So See BO GE ag ee |
So 09 4 pO {i eee ee os By |
| Roo Pa Poo oo 8 aS aS = aa oe
SARSS BARBRA A RMS BARR RES EQ mA RUAN {
: > “J < cee cee Ss
i Oo
as s a |
rd : :
28 gas Orca eat "pence : :
ro) ° CHER Vea re ee 2 ° g cy sa) se, © ; Fe) i
AAA RA A - &« fF ABA Ba Ae a i
a easter Fag et re Pe a ier ee ee ee
a AZAAZAZ 244244 4 424424 424242243 44002 aude 8
een SS eee ed [= asf tees {| | eS Tf ' |
vomoieenl TILL STL TEU Hils HUTT TS
as a on Set (stoma rt) (esl N ees RAMU eS a a ea |
- a
| | nef | =| | es | |
| | mee |
{
same) FULL LTE TELE EE TEER WUT
ae scl Nile bee ate lel fea |< eet eer] ale ay
BS a lehek ca ty |
een TIMIITBTT! he Ee Hed Pd
: i
eae ee tte) ce aa
set : pa tae =
— Toul eee Oe ee. ee. See fee ee
: t | Sata NWA SLI SS SO oS ot | od a Sie ON et
El woeayg | (RRO wotat Soe qtnns amaon aAnngoo oO is
o aos svat Sle
Bg la rama AOMSO NOR
= yes ung | J wistt stimisdus 1s | oor
2 =
Be foneS BaMAS = POSs
an Wd 7% [COSTS NSN o 6 [NN
7 om. SSGS GSII a RAS
ees naa Holle oejite) MODIS xs | ONS
° 2355. - = —~
: OS pan Risa) aS 6
ae ee Se or OPO oA pA prices
AQ Isr SSS ee “we PINA
n Bi Ss is a SI ah (ace pane :
F 05 HAS Aaaala ante Hox Wan ~lice
| : A NOMS ONDAHS Haass

XI. METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER rer ar rar MADRAS]

| Standard Barometer No. 3, by Gilbert. |

2} Sun rise.
Noon.

30, 170 30, 142 {30,150} 2
28} jLld} 4127

ee |

J£160, 12 23 166,7 78,3 3} 80,7 30,7189, 7

Standard Therm. by Troughton. ©

60,9}77,2

60,1 176,017

62,2|75,0|77,7

60,5 75,3. 77,3

si eanaae
78,0
79,2
7

61,8|77,0
66,0177,7
6',9
él, 2
62, 9

Se

“I

~J
we
WH
IS
ToWOO

CoE -

76,2
77,\ 78,¢
76,9 796s

79,9 1S1,2
1{RO,0 (81,2

I
=]
ROP)
iS
~I
oes

SF

I< 00 3 GO
PS Dre nN

oe

>

VU OS

a) 25)
e a)

Vos

“I

<

.

CO LOLONT

.)

SO

—t

J

S
wT \
0

s

og
So

.

SEP

cacao

.)

S
VO to
GO 30 GO or GO
Qaaay Sas

S&S

Se

“ © So
= »

ww
~OMOwH. NOCOW WONS

)

Oayvo NRO O

~

23
IN

CEO bet
SY

sj

Sy

ie}
oss
— i

&
Ce
rere

J

oF
Ss
bo
=}
@ ;
x
the {
oa
as
era
@ GO GD
sus
FOO SO
tohote
aT SI
“100
WH

v
.

‘tn

80,7178, 76,9 750

= |
0 42 te st? & .6 >Re :
ms Q Ss = S = te 3 tak = ° ° ° :
- Bc @ om oS Boe Oo sos |
= =| 5p. og & i=) 36.626:
Geese S250 gESeo Seeas sess |
q, ~-S & Zio w o's 3 8 Pee i)
= : ac a9 rg Aw oO 8g
j Soy oe en SO a | ee
we Bs) Gs, eechse a a Bee ae S om SO
3 SR ZSITGS Shei om a8 5 and 69
+ CR at i or on
ae Se eee ee
tol C oS 3 BD S a °
: ees Stas ESRI GESTS SSeS
a4 . uw mH me BT flies ro ro
a) [S) a eeu x oe OE ar} Sm ms
a ba (Sirs) 3 by 3 Seen ao $B Prd
s Br tet oe Seco Sn gt ee
2) 2 S-seceg CHolsg “Le Gee Gino = ee oC eo ore
a O S758 See ec eee eS ea
26 oS Ss ee Ga SssS S255 s3a3
oi ae Osa a =e Ot
fa a a ee
=< a
= A
= = cs weg 2 See AE
e a ye See ee aa a
; Henk gg tea 8R2SE Bonds Fw He
ic PA eee oes ae Fone. at ae nA 2 9
iy tio + A OG np AAR NM ag egg yee
‘uotyeI0dea | 2 | | eat tess toe eet al =a a ca non wo
be nee ee | ede | labs Pe eee
6 Sey Se Taal Plo ley t | eed ial |
(tae as ea ee alee ch aber el
Es : qas ung ie | | |
ZA |e j——I—— et lll
ON | peste ry | a
: paren | 4 S| | | Bees a
= | © 4 0] SENS ON wan mae ae pie ee
Bela SS Soi Signa onan el tos ee Ee | ae
ea o Nd gQ| BANDS atonw wae. Osl ss cosas Kod _ |
9 <= |—— OI Le a nF eR eg TN OO OS a
a HORM Nida Salsas isSisies NSS Hoo Ova | %
ss : Nudd 4100 : DOINGS Nr Goods 7
GC ysune | Sosa ODM Homa —— wD wcow rw 110
en pe} S [or Werken yop} Nf 8 nN nN age > SO 1D CO Ss panos —
ar = OW rmRi6 Asis x PIAA IAI AS BN Ow w Od iy 1D tw
= 3 — SSS Se 2 MOD BIOSST NISL www jw
‘la °° a cas ey 2 MID ON IDO On Ose SS :
Gel fo ee eee ee oesae SFSne Beg Taam 1S
WOON | mea ee oe I OE NOS Se
<q o Re aE eof aS he 9) ae SiGiaia wae WAMWMMmM MON. 1
ie S. WV Qj (_ en So, asta Ook eS BODdOw Sows | 06
ae Se Ee Pa hae hoe ek ee Se FORO See eee
‘OStl he NS es SI CO Co ee LS ES SS IT les
n- sang | Satdtaic ia oe 10) Gb 9) 6) OD oin i
® ON S919 ost HPais aw NN = ON art NN 0O —_—_—_—
fa = Sons wena Sadar ifn ON SCS @- | &
oc — Serene tec bastees 2 nmooe adodcoy , o>

The instruments with which the foregoing’ observations
have been made, are placed upon a table about 4 feet above
the ground in the western verandah of the Honorable Com-
pany’s Observatory; which is situated in the longitude 5h.
21m. 9s. E. latitude 13h: 4m. 9s. N. at about two miles from
the sea and about 27 feet above the low water mark.

T. G. TAYLOR,

Hl. C. Astronomer.
96th March 1836. |

1836. } : hod

MISCELLANEA,

1.—Prroussion Caps ror Muskerry, &c.—We copy the following
from a private letter dated in August last, from an intelligent and
Scientific officer in chargeof H. M’s Armoury Mills for the manufac-
ture of small arms, swords, &c. situated a few miles north of London
on the river Lea :—‘‘ We have been bewildered by a multiplicity of
inventions, but our original and safe principle of the nipple and cap is
working its way gradually and securely to the top, and I have no
doubt will eventually succeed. We have offers as low as ls. 10d. per
thousand for the caps uncharged, as it is proposed that the whole are
to be primed with the fulminate by the laboratory at Woolwich. A
man at Birmingham has offered a machine by which one boy can
prime 50,000 caps per Hour !! ! what think you of that !—And lam now
in treaty. with a Frenchman for a machine, or collection of machines,
that is capable of stocking a musket complete at the. rate of 600.per
day. I have seen one of his stocks with the barrel, lock, brass work,
ramrod, &e. let in very neatly.—This if it is brought to bear will cause a
re-action inthe gun trade. We are now busy arming the Spanish
auxiliaries, and are sadly pressed for men.”
J.B

2.—New Iron Mine in Swepen.—Another competitor has started
up near Thorshalla,a little town about 90 miles inland from Stockholm.
A Mr. Zerthelius is working the ore there after the English manner,
and produces better ore than the Dannemora mines, who have already
been obliged to lower their prices 30 percent. I have written toa
friend at Stockholm to send mea specimen of the ore and a sample of
the iron, which, if I succeed in procuring, I will find some opportunity
of communicating to you.

3.—DRILLING HOLES IN GLass.—A common drill, dipped in spirits
of turpentine, is said to make quick work in boring through glass, and
not to be more blunted than by piercing iron of the same thickness.
It is a recent improvement adopted from the French.

4,—Cosr oF PariaMentary Sanotion.—“ In round numbers the
following are the costs of a few of the late bills as given tome by
those who profess to have the means of knowing. The London and
Southampton railway bill cost 31,000Z£, exclusive of the opposition to
the great Western.—The Birmingham railway 90,000£.—The Lon-
don Docks 100,000.—The great Western (railway) it is calculated will
fall little short of 150,000£, whether the bill be obtained or not;
hence the last bill including the expenses of opposition may be set
down at least at 260,000£.”— Mechanics Magazine, August, 1835.

5.—ANALYSIS OF THE NELLORE Copper Ores; by James Prinsep,
Esq. Assay Master at Calcutta.

“ Through the kindness of Mr. C. A. aoe I have had a further op-
portunity of examining the produce ef the Nellore copper mines, of

155 Miscellanea, [Arrim

which cabinet specimens were presented to the Asiatic Society two
years ago*, before the formation of the “ Indian Copper Mining Com-
pany” at Madras, for the purpose of turning to profit the mineral stores
of this promising district.

“ From a pamphlet published at ; Made as, we learn that the copper
mines in the Nellore and Cuddapah districts were discovered about
40 years ago, by Mr. Benzyamin Hrynz, whose report to Government,
inserted in his Jracts on India, gives the fullest and most satisfactory
account of them.

“« Mr. Heyns seems to have been wrong in imagining, that the natives
had only discovered these mines 50 or GOyears before (about1750). Mr.
Kerr, who has since visited the whole of the mining district, and ex-
amined all the formations, and the old works, with great care, states,
that the former excavations are of prodigious magnitude, many of them
occupying several hundred feet square, and having a depth of 50 or
60 feet. The matrix rock and rubbish are now accumulated in these
immense tanks ; but on clearing them away, the mouths ofthe galleries
extending into the rocks were discovered; blocks of the ore, (perhaps
some that had been gathered previous to the discontinuance of work-
ing the mines from some political convulsion or oppression,) have
been used to mend the village tank at Guramanypenta ; and Mr, Kerr
imagines that any quantity of the richest ore{ may be obtained at a
trifling expence, and within 100 feet of the surface. Extensive hills,
formed of lumps of ferruginous slag, now covered with vegetation, point
out the situation of the ancient smelting houses. A piece of this slag
(which was at first mistaken for a volcanic product) was analysed by
myself. It yielded but. faint traces of copper, shewing that the native
processes of extraction, however rude, were effectual in completely
Separating the metal. But I must now proceed to observe upon the
actual specimens of the ore submitted to my examination, purposely
avoiding all allusion to the mercantile value of the mines, the estimates
of the expence of working them, and the invitations to join in an asso-
ciation for this purpose :—objects which are highly interesting to the
community, connected with so laudable a measure for developing the
natural riches of the country ; but which cannot with propriety be
entered upon in a work devoted exclusively to literature and science.

“The ores now presented to me are from three different localities.
They differ considerably in quality one from the other, and all from
the former ore, which Dr. Tuomson pronounced to be an anhydrous
carbonate, new to mineralogy.

“No. lL. A parcel, weighing 90lbs. of roughly-picked and cleaned
ore, has a quartzose matrix, in some parts colored green, or appearing
so from the malachite beneath the transparent crystal. It contains

* See Proceedings of the Asiatic Society, Feb. 1833, in vol. ii. p. 99.
+The ‘‘steel-~grained, crystalized silvery ore, invariably found in green-stone slate,
and partly imbedded in quartz, the richest ore met with,’’ is doubtless No. 3, the sul.
phuret.--J. P.

7, ¢
,
“yh

£836.) & Miscellanea. 156

much iron, which, on solution in an acid, appears in the form of a yel-
low ochre. ‘'T'en per cent. of quartz was separated from this specimen
on pounding it roughly, before setting it apart for analysis.

“No. 2. A parcel of the same weight is labelled “Bungeral Mettah,’’
and is the species stated to be found in clustered nodules in the alluvi-
um, of rounded exterior, as though they had been detached from their
original site, and reburied here. The ferruginous matrix of this ore,
on solution, assumes the appearance of a dark-red oxide. It is the
same probably as that of Dr. THomson’s specimen. The carbonate of
_ ¢opper runs through it in veins, but the mixture of sulphuret of iron
and perhaps of copper with the oxide, gives the whole a dark arenace-
ous texture. :

“No. 3. The richest ore of the three is at the same time the most
abundant, and promises to yield the safest return, as it runs in unbroken
veins. This ore is a combination of carbonate and sulphuret, the for-
mer intermixed with the latter, but readily distinguishable from it, as
the sulphuret is crystallized, and has the grey metalic lustre of galena.
The specific gravity of this ore is 3°77, being intermediate between
that of the carbonate, 3°2, and the sulphuret, 4°5.

“ The analysis was conducted for the sake of expedition on separate
parcels of 100 grains each, in lieu of attempting the separation of the
ingredients from a single parcel. Some variation may thus be in-
duced from the irregularity of the ore; but, onthe whole, the results.
ought to be more trust-worthy. Thus: the carbonic acid was estimat-
ed by the loss of weight on digesting 100 grains, finely pounded, in
dilute nitric acid. . The water, (for none of these ores was found to be
anhydrous,) by heating ina glass tube, removing the aqueous vapour
by bibulous paper, and ascertaining the loss. As the ore generally
lost its-green colour by this operation, it is possible that a portion of
carbonic acid was also driven off. Calcination in an open dish, in the
muffle of an assay furnace, gave a loss, which was compounded of that
of the carbonic acid and the water. Calcination drives off the sulphur
also, but the equivalent of oxygen, which replaces it, being of precisely
equal weight, this operation affords no test of the quantity of sulphur
present.—In fact, not expecting from Dr. THomson’s analysis, to find
sulphur in the Nellore copper ore, I at first. neglected the precautions
necessary for its separation... This was accordingly effected on other
samples, by boiling in strong nitric acid, which from its heat, caused
part of the sulphur in a pure state to rise in fused globules to the
surface: while a portion, being oxygenated, was afterwards separated
by precipitation with barytes.

“The quantity of copper was most conveniently estimated from the
black oxide taken up from the calx by dilute nitric acid. It was also
obtained directly from other samples by redaction of the oxide with
charcoal and borax.—The iron and pyrites were deduced from the
difference between the residue in the cold solution, and that from the
-hot dissolution in strong acid of another parcel, before calcination.

iS7 Miseelianea. [APRIL

‘* Collecting together the results of the above operations, we have
the following data, whence to deduce the composition of the three

specimens. No. 1. No. 2 No 3.
a. Loss ofcarbonic acid by digestion in di-

lute mitric’ wend, SSeS. Seen Meee 12.0 14.6 7.0
8. Loss of water (and some carb. acid ?) by

heating without air in glasstube,.... 5.0 7.0 3.0
¢. Total loss oncalcination with access of air, 17.5 17.8 21.0
¢ 2. Ditto average of two other trials (more

CHEMOMARGL sc eo ite lene tales nec cietcia # or 20.0 20.3 23.5
d. Oxide of copper taken up from calx ¢

by . dilute/dertls 133/005 Pale ig eae 37.0) G2 (OT
s. Residue of insoluble earths and ox. iron,

alten ato. re hes A Se ee nes i 44.8 33.0 5,3*
jf. Residue from digestion of crude ore in !

orig nrtrie acids...) Seas re kes 20.0 13.9 19.6
g. The same, after burning off the sulphur

and redigestine. Wrdd’. i. Chao ws + oe 20.0 ? 8.5 0.0.
hk. Sulphur, separated on boiling in strong :

aeide ts eae Ph SRR Sah dei htt SP iran AME 0.6 2.1 9.0
i. Sulphate of barytes precipitated after-

Wands 6 Sa. | ce eee ee aan Oe ne 1.4 17.8 28.5
&, Weight of metallic nape actually reco-

Merced Grol ¢ Moveeo ck. sie lelaiogel sb aie 2800 > Jee. OU

“In regard to d, No. 3, it was observed on digestion in cold nitric.
acid, that a very considerable portion of the calx of copper was ofa
red color, or in the state of protoxide, or perhaps ina metallic state,
and was not taken up without disengagement of nitrous gas;—the
weight 73.7 must therefore be increased, to give the true weight in
terms of the peroxide. This is also proved by the amount of loss in
e, 21.0, which is considerably in excess; and it was remarked on
removing the calx from the fire that it was agglutinated, so as per-
haps to have prevented the access of air to oxidate the interior.—The.
sulphur enables us to approximate the correction of this item; for 12.8
requires 51.5 copper,=64.3 black or peroxide; and this, added to 22.8,
the peroxide of the carbonate, would give 87.7; which is 14.0 greater.
than the actual return from the fire—Again, deducting the deficiency
after calcination (c) 21.0,from the sum of the three volatile ingredients—
sulphur, 12.8; carbonic acid, 7.0; and water 3.0=22.8, there remains
but 1.8 for the weight of oxygen absorbed in place ofthe sulphur ;
whereas 12.8 are required.—Adding the difference 11.0 tod, we shall
have 84.7. This number will be found to be a little in defect from the

subsequent results; while 87.7 isa little too great; a mean may there-
fore be adopted. |
* This residue may have consisted partly of sulphuret of copper that had escaped de~

composition in the fire; for another specimen was wholly soluble, and little iron was.
present in the solution,

1836.] Miscellanea. — [58

' & From the above data, we may now proceed to extract the simple
elemenis of each specimen of ore:

No. 1. Wo. 2. No. 3
%. Metallic copper, calculated from the

BCR asa sc tae ee ek ses eset ss 5 50.2 39:5 69.0
m. Pure sulphur, from A and i,......... ra 0.8 45 12.3
A. Carbonic acid, less th for hygrome-

trie. Moisture... 0... ; sone. s dioia 10.8 13.1 6.3

‘“‘ The carbonic acid being supposed to be wholly combined with cop-
per, while the sulphur may be partly united with iron, we may cal-
culate the proportions of the carbonates and sulphurets by means of
the scale of chemical equivalents, thus :
| Wo. Io Wo. 2.. Vo. 3:
6. The carbonic acid will require copper,.. 31.4 886 18.3
“© Now in the first two of these, the copper required so nearly agrees
with the calculated weight of metal, J, that the latter may be looked
upon as existing here wholly in the form of carbonate, and the suphur
as united entirely with iron*. In No. 3, however, we find that the
majority of the copper remains; and knowing the nearly total absence
of iron in this specimen, we may conclude it to be a mixture of nearly
two parts sulphuret, with one of carbonate.
~ “ ‘The miner would rest content with the determination of the pure me-
tal in the ore, and would have good reason to be satisfied with the 60 per
cent. “actual yield” of No. 3, or even with the 30 per cent. of the poorest
of the three ores ; but the mineralogist will prefer an exhibition of the
component salts of the ores, according to the usual synthetical formula.
I may here remark, that the water separated (+) is more than is re-
quired to convert the carbonate intoa hydrate or ordinary malachite:
sa,
Noy Ni No. 8. Nog 3,
y. Thecopper combined with carbonic acid
iis Rel OreTa rEg Ola Nm AI Re Be ilags ce 30.2 39.5 18.3
gq. Will require water to hydrate it,....... : 4.2 5.5 2.6
The excess in 6 may have been carbonic acid, partially driven off.
“© The chemical composition of the three minerals may therefore be
thus expressed :
No. 1. No. 2, No. 3
Hydrated carbonate of copper,.......2000¢ 524 685 317

RNTMEEEE, Of, COPDED, on os cue soidiee sein deco 0: 0-2 63-0
SM MMe Of (FON. Se ew ssn fa eatrea ats 2:1. . [2-4 0:0
Oxide ofiron, silex,&c........ MARR Soe ie 43°5 25:1 3-3

UMAR ERC ESS Io sfc. « «o's % » 6 d¥oinie ora 4.56 cuban 20 —60 0-0

——S

1000 100:0 100-0

ap SEARS OES OP CEI ETD SORE EY RY CEA ED
ey

* In the second Analysis of No. 2, however, the copper actually recovered, %, so much

exceeds this quantity, that it is evident this ore frequently contains sulphuret, or is of
very variable quality.

159 Miscellanea. [Apri

“The excess in No. 2,is doubtless owing to the irrecularity of the
rocky admixture in different specimens, whereof one yielded 44, and
another only 13.9 of insoluble matter, on digestion in acid.

“ The richness of the last of the three minerals will more than com-
pensate for the inerease of trouble and expence in the reduction of the
ere by successive roastings; and practical miners assert, that the
glance or grey sulphuretis a much steadier and more plentiful ore than
the carbonate. Me

“7 should add, before concluding the above imperfect analysis of the
Nellore copper ores, that 1 tested them in vain for silver and other
metals. Neither did arsenic appear to be present.

“ J may here mention, that among the specimens of minerals present-
ed to me by Mr. Kerr, as occuring within the copper mining district,
associated with the micaceous schist, are the following; corundum and
adamantine spar, garnets, dark-green actinolite, red chalk, manganese ;
besides carbonote of magwesia, and other minerals of which specimens
have not yet reached me. Anore of mercury is also suspected to exist
in the same range of rocks. The surface of the gneiss or micaceous

schist, where exposed to the air, is frequently seen tinged of a green

colour, from the trickling of water holding carbonate of copper in solu-
tion, through crevices of the rock.”

7. WaTER OF THE WELL ZEM-ZEM AT Mecca.

May 14.—A paper was read, entitled, “An Account of the Water
of the Well Zem-zem, with a qualitative analysis of the same by Pro-
fessor Faraday”; inaletter from John Davidson, Esq., to the Se-
cretaries, and communicated by them.

“The author having, during his stay at Jedda, the port of Mecca, suc-
ceeded in procuring about three quarts of the water from the well of
Zem zem, to which the Mahomedans ascribe a sacred character and
extraordinary virtues; and wishing to preserve this water for the pur-
poses of analysis, had the canin which it was contained carefully seal-
ed; but, unfortunately, on its arrival in the London Docks, the can not-
withstanding the directions written on it, was opened, and the gas with
which it was highly charged, and by which it held in solution a very
large quantity of iron and other matters, was allowed to escape. The
precipitate thrown down, in consequence of the loss of this gas, was
found, by Professor Faraday, to consist of carbonate of protoxide ofiron
in the enormous proportion of 100.8 grains to the imperial pint of water.
The clear fluid was neutral, and contained much muriate, anda little
sulphate, but no carbonate; together with a little lime, potash, and
soda. There was also found analkaline nitrate in considerable quanti-
ty; this Mr. Faraday conjectures to have been saltpetre, which had
been added to the water by the priests.”

Transactions of the Royal Society.

i

ay

mu a

iy,

Re

A : : En, ‘ a : end
Sey by Si EO gt ah al
eer ee iy

ne Vee Sey eoerak

‘ike

4
wis

se

Bes wie ae

ay
ot

¢ '
x
soaks

Sarre

= I Tem eS
sigumaske os =

ra ah Poe : Ses
: ’ ; PS ad

eg geen *)
hye inet

De