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THE

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY

AND

JOURNAL

or

ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY,

AND METEOROLOGY.

CONDUCTED

By J. C. LOUDON, F.L., G., & Z.S.

MEMBER OF VARIOUS NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES ON THE CONTINENT.

LONDON

PRINTED FOR

LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMAN,

PATERNOSTER-ROW.

1832.

oak ;^ird. «x''^n* ; ...-^ *..~^. ..,.^ ^Ino Sow

London :
Printed by A. & H. Spottiawoode,
- New-Street-Square.

PREFACE.

The Magazine of Natural History, our readers, we trust, will
agree with us in thinking, improves as it proceeds ; and this Fifth
Volume, now brought to a close, will be found to excel all that
have preceded it, in the variety and interest of the communi-
cations which it contains. For this superiority we are mainly
indebted to our contributors, among whom, it will be found, are
not only some of the first naturalists of this country, but also
others, whom this Magazine has been the means of exciting to
enter on this branch of study. Our readers cannot have failed to
observe that this work, as well as the Gardeners Magazine, has
derived the greatest advantage from the industry and talent of
our excellent co-editor, Mr. Denson.

In consequence of the increasing number of communications,
we have, for more than a year past, contemplated the idea of
publishing the work monthly ; and we have solicited, from time
to time, the opinion of our readers and correspondents on this
subject. Our correspondents, with very few exceptions, approve
of the proposed change, but we have not the same assurance from
our readers generally. We have, therefore, after mature con-
sideration, determined on continuing the work another year, at
least, on the same terms of publication as heretofore.

In the Index to this Volume we have omitted what we were led
to think by some of our friends would render it more complete,
viz., the separate alphabets of the Queries and Answers, and of
the Retrospective Criticism. We find that this gave readers a
great deal of additional trouble, by obliging them, when consulting
the Magazine on any particular subject, first to refer to the
common alphabet, and next to the separate alphabets, under the
two heads mentioned. We have, in the present Index, endea-
voured to arrange every item of information so distinctly as
seldom, if ever, to have two references to the same pages under
different heads ; a fault (as we think) common to most indexes. It

S A 2

IV

PREFACE.

has also been suggested to us that the Glossarial Index is no
longer necessary ; since our readers, from our preceding indexes
of this kind, and also from the general spread of Natural History
knowledge, as well as from all difficult terms being explained
when they first occur, may now be supposed to be able to dispense
with this kind of information.

Our great object, in commencing the Magazine of Natural His-
tory, and in conducting it, as well as all the other publications
with which we are connected, has been, and is, to convey the
greatest degree of knowledge, to the greatest number, in the most
easy and agreeable manner, and with the least labour and loss of
time. With this aim, we shall continue our exertions ; encouraged
by our past success, anxiously inviting the continued support of
those who approve of our intentions, and sincerely thanking all
our contributors for that able cooperation which has rendered
this Magazine what it is.

J. C. L.
Bayswatevy Oct. 1832.

CORRECTIONS.

Errors are corrected, as soon as noticed, in
the division of the Magazine entitled " Re-
trospective Criticism," which occurs in the
present volume at pp. 98. 193. 292. 393. 487. 588.
673. and 714. Besides the corrections made
under this head, the following are required : —
In p. 48. last two lines, for " the cuticle of the
stem and it bracteas have no perspiring
pores," read " the cuticle of the stem and its
bracteas has no perspiring pores."
In p. 340. line 2. from the bottom, for "the
ordinary length and size," read " half the
ordinary length and size : " the drawing was
reduced in the engraving, and the letterpress
was not altered accordingly.

In p. 390, 391, 392. for « cilise » read " cilia."

In p. 555. for " M.R." read " M.P."

In p. 571. line 11. for " Avfcola" read " Ar-
vicola."

In p. 589. line 18. for " collection in " read " col-
lection of."

In p. 599. line 16. from the bottom, for " 6s in-
nominkta" read " 6$ innomin&tum."

In p. 677. line 21. from the bottom, for " mo-
ment" read " enormous."

In Vol. III. p. 6. in Mr. Dovaston's Biography
of Bewick, for " 1719 " read " 1819."

In Vol. IV. in the Index, for " Hail in the
south of France, &c., 540," read " Hail, &c.,
551."

CONTENTS.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

GENERAL SUBJECT.

Remarks on the Luminosity of the Sea. By J.
E. Bowman, Esq. F.L.S. - -1

Further Account of a Russian Natural History
Expedition in Brazil, during the Seven Years
preceding April, 18jI. By M. F. Faldennann,
Curator of the Imperial Botanic Garden, St.
Petersburgh - . . . 4

An Essay on the Analogy between the Struc-
ture and Functions of Vegetables and Ani-
mals. By William Gordon, Esq., Surgeon,
Welton, near Hull. Read before the Hull
Literary and Philosophical Society, Nov. 19.
1830. Communicated by Mr. Gordon 24. il8.
405. 507

Fairy Rings. By John F. M. Dovaston, Esq.
A.M., of Westfelton, near Shrewsbury - 113

Rough Notes made during a Pedestrian Tour to
the Lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland,
in the Spring of 1830. By G, and H. - 128

Contributions towards an Account of Omens
and Superstitions connected with Natural
History. By J. C. Farmer - .. 209

A Visit to the Surrey Zoological Gardens. By
Observator . - . . 401

Chit-chat. No. I. By John F. M. Dovaston,
Esq. A.M., of Westfelton, near Shrewsbury

497

Remarks on the Spring of 1832, as compared
with that of 1831, together with a Calendar
showing the Difference of the Two Seasons.
By the Rev.W. T. Bree, MA. - . 593

ZOOLOGY.

The Habits of the Barn Owl (Strix fl&mmea L.,
Alilco Rkmmexis Fleming), and the Benefits it
confers on Man. By Charles Waterton, Esq. 9

Fishes new to the British Fauna, contained in
Couch's " History of the Fishes of Cornwall."
By Jonathan Couch, Esq. F.L.S. &c. - 15

An Introduction to the Natural History of Mol-
luscous Animals. In a Series of Letters. By
G.J 31

Illustrations in British Zoology. By George

Johnston, M.D. Fellow of the Royal College

of Surgeons of Edinburgh - 43. 163. 344. 428.

520. 631

Account of the 5imia syndactyla, or Ungka Ape
of Sumatra ; the Anatomy of its Larynx,
&c. &c. By George Bennett, Esq. F.L.S.
M.R.C.S. &c. &c. - - . 131

Remarks on Incubation, in reference to those
expressed in Professor Rennie's Edition of
•' Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary." By
Charles Waterton, Esq. - - .142

Dates and Remarks relative to the Migration
of the Swifts in the Year 1831. By the Rev
W.T. Bree, M.A. . . . U5

The Little, or Barred, Woodpecker (Plcus mi-
nor L.). By John F. M. Dovaston, A.M., of
Westfelton, near Shrewsbury - . 147

On the Claim of certain Lepidopterous Insects
taken in England to be considered as indi
genous. By W. A. B. - - . 149

The Characters of the European Diptera, from
Meigen's " Systematische Beschreibung."
Translated by George Wailes, Esq. - 156

Observations on the Zoology and Comparative
Anatomy of the Skeleton of the Balienoptera
Rdrqual, or Broad-nosed Whale, now exhi-
biting at the Pavilion, King's Mews, Charing

Cross. By Henry William Dewhurst, Esq ,
Surgeon, Professor of Zoology and Compara-
tive Anatomy . . - . 214
On the Faculty of Scent in the Vulture. By
Charles Waterton, Esq. - - 233
Remarks on the Rook (C6rvus frugilegus L.)
By Charles Waterton, Esq. - - 241
Entomological Tour through several English
Counties, and in Wales and Ireland, during
July and August, 1831. By A. H. Davis, Esq.
F.L.S. . . - .245
Captures of Insects during Part of 1830 and
Part of 1831. By J. C. Dale, Esq. F.L.S.
F.C.PS. and Z.C. - - - 249
An Account of the parasitic Musca larvarum
preyed on by parasitic Pter6mali, while both
were in the Body of Phalae'na 56mbyx Cdja.
By Edward Newman, Esq. - - 252

The Habits and Manners of the female Borneo
Orang-Utan (Simla Satyrus), and the male
Chimpanzee (6imia Troglodytes), as observed
during their Exhibition at the Egyptian Hall,
in 1831. By Mr. J. E. Warwick . - 305
A Notice of the Reed Warbler (Curruca arun-
dinkcea Bnsson). By J. G., Stoke Newing-
ton - . - - 309

Further Observations on some of the Fisl>es of
Cornwall. By Jonathan Couch, Esq. F.L.S.
&c. - ... 311

Descriptive Notice of the Char (Salmo alplnus
Z.), and mention of another Species of Fish.
By O. - - - - - 316

On some remarkable Forms in Entomology, in-
cluding a Notice of Mr. Stephens's Description
of Chiasognkthus Grantw. By J. O. West-
wood, Esq. F.L.S. &c. - - - 318

Additions to the List of British Insects. By
Charles C. Babington, B.A. F.L.S. &c., St.
John's College, Cambridge - - 327

List of PapilionidEB occurring in the Vicinity of
Dover. By the Rev.W. T. Bree, M. A. -320

Some Account of a Species of .4'carus (?) which
infests Butterflies. By the Rev. W. T. Bree,
M.A. - . . .S3Q

Remarks en a Species of i^pas cast ashore near
Liverpool on Nov. 7. 1831. By Thomas Wea-
therili, Esq. M.D. - - -339

On Birds using Oil from Glands, " for the Pur-
pose of lubricating the Surface of their Plu-
mage." By Charles Waterton, Esq. - 412

Observations on the Eggs and Birds which were
met with in a Three Weeks' Sojourn (from
May 30. to June 21. 1831) in the Orkney Islands.
By J. D. Salmon, Esq. - - -415

A few Remarks on the Nightingale and the
Blackcap. By Joh n F. M. Dovaston , Esq. A. M.
Oxon., of Westfelton, near Shrewsbury - 425

On the supposed Pouch under the Bill of the
Rook. By Charles Waterton, Esq. - 512

On the Preservation of Egg-shells for Cabinets
of Natural History. By Charles Waterton,
Esq. - - . - . 515

Brief Notices of the Habits and Transformations
of the Dragon Fly ; compiled in explanation
of the accompanying Cut. By J. D. - 517

Additions to the British Fauna ; Class, Mam-
malia. By William Yarrell, Esq. F.L. and
Z.S. 598

Something about Birds and Birdnesting. By
Rusticus . - - 601

On the Power of the Common Bee to generate

Vi

CONTENTS.

a Queen. By Robert Huish, Esq., Author of

" A Treatise on Bees " - - 604

An Introduction to the Natural History of

Molluscous Animals. In a Series of Letters.

By G. J. Letter 10. On their Secretions . 611
On some Peculiarities in the Construction of

the Nets of the common Garden Spider

(Epelra diad^ma). By William Spence, Esq.

F.L.S. 689

Some Account of the ilmax Sow<5rbyi of Ferus-

sac. By John Denson, Jun. A.L.S. - 693

BOTANY.

On ;the Parasitical Connection of Lathr£e"*a
Squam&ria, and the peculiar Structure of its
subterranean Leaves. Read at the I^innean
Society in November, 1829 - - 45

An Account of the Sandal Wood Tree {Sdnta-
lum)f with Observations on some of the Bo-
tanical Productions of the Sandwich Islands.
By George Bennett, F.L.S., Member of the
Royal College of Surgeons in London, &c. £55

On Variations in the Cotyledons and Primordial
Leaves of the Sycamore (.4^cer Pseudo-Plata-
nus L.). By the Rev. J. S. Henslow, A.M.,
King's Professor of Botany in the University
of Cambridge - - - .. 346

On the Fructification of the genus Chkra. By
the Rev. J. S. Henslow, A.M., King's Profes-

f sor of Botany in the University of Cambridge

348

On the Varieties of Pkris quadrifblia, considered

. with respect to the ordinary Characteristics
of Monocotyledonous Plants. By the Rev.
J. S. Henslow, A.M., King's Professor of Bo-
tany in the University of Cambridge - 429

On the Dispersion and Distribution of Plants.
By J. E. L. - - . - 522

GEOLOGY.

Volcanoes. By W. M. Higgins, Esq. F.G.S., and
J.W. Draper, Esq. - - 164. 262. 632

On the Effects produced by the Precession of
the Equinoxes. By Sir John Byerley, P'.R.S.L.

172

On the recent Discovery of Gold Mines in the
United States of America. By Robert Bake-
well, Esq. . - . - 434

Remarks on the Formation of the Dead Sea,
and the surrounding District. By J.W. Dra-
per, Esq., and W. M. Higgins, Esq. F. G.S. 532

Contributions to the Geology of Berwickshire.
By Robert Dundas Thomson, CM. and M.D.,
of the Honourable East India Company's Ser-
vice. [Read before the Berwickshire Natu-
ralists' Club, December 21. 1831.] - 637

METEOROLOGY.

Observations made in the Neighbourhood of
High Wycombe, Bucks, on the Temperature
of the Atmosphere, on the Rain and the
Winds, of the Months of June and July,
during the last eight Years, and on the In-
fluence of tliese Meteorological Phenomena
on human Health. By James G. Tatem, Esq.,
Member of the Loudon Meteorological So-
ciety . - - - - 350

Notes on the Weather, in Switzerland, during
May, June, July, and August, 1831 ; and at
Rome, during Nov. and Dec. 1831, and Jan.
and Feb. 1832. By W, Spence, Esq. - 353

REVIEWS.

The British Naturalist; or. Sketches of the
more interesting Productions of Britain and
the surrounding Sea, in the Scenes which they
inhabit; and with relation to the General
Economy of Nature, and the Wisdom and
Power of its Author - - - 49

Transactions of the Natural History Society of
Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle
upon Tyne - - - - 71

A Manual of the Land and Freshwater Shells
of the British Islands, with coloured Plates of
every Species. By W.Turton, M.D. -175

A Flora of Berwick upon Tweed. By George
Johnston, M.D. &c. Vol. II. Cryptogamous
Plants 178

Reise en Brasilien. By Dr. C. F. P. von Martins
and Dr. J. B. von Spix - - - 181

Fauna Boreali-Americana, or the Zoology of

the Northern Parts of British America
Part II., containing the Birds. By W. Swain-
son, Esq. F.R.S., and John Richardson, Esq.
M.D. F.R.S. &c. - - -360

Insect Miscellanies. [Understood to be by Pro-
fessor Rennie.] - _ - 364

The Botanic Annual ; or. Familiar Illustrations
of the Structure, Habits, Economy, Geo-
graphy, Classification, and Principal Uses of
Plants, with Notices of the Way in which
they are affected by Climate and Seasons, and
a short Sketch of Coniferae. By Robt. Mudie,
Author of " The British Naturalist," &c. 369

Catalogue of Works on Natural History, lately
published, with some Notice of those con-
sidered the most interesting to British Natu-
ralists . 73. 186. 373. 441. 535. 647. 698

Literary NoUcea - - 76. 189. 377. 443. 713

Zoology
Botany
Meteorology

COLLECTANEA.

~ 77. 273. 379. 651. 000
- 87.000

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

Foreign Notices - - - 92

Natural History in Foreign Countries - 444
Natural History in the English Counties - 538
Natural History in Scotland - - 569

Natural Hisiory in Ireland - - 576

Monthly Calendar of Nature for Scotland - 97

Hints for Improvements ... 587
Retrospective Criticism - 98. 193. 292. 393. 487.
588. 673. 714
Queries and Answers 104. 202. 396. 494. 678. 765
Obsequy. By John F. M. Dovaston, A.M., of
Westfelton, near Shrewsbury . - 111

Index to Books reviewed and noticed
General Index . . -

-771
.772

Vll

LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.

QUADRUPEDS.

No. Page

42, 43, 44. 5(mia synd&ctyla, or Ungka ape of

Sumatra - ... 132, 133. 139

91. The Fezzan ram - . - 451

92. The M^ of the Chinese . - 463

93. a. Griffin ; 93. b, tapir - - 465

BIRDS.
S3. A rare kind of the goose family - 80

63. A pair of the reed warbler (Curriica

arundinacea Brisson), with nest - 310

97. The nuthatch (Sitta europje'^a L.) - 488

102. The wryneck (Funx Torquilla L.) - 568

Scale of the notes of the song of the

willow wren - - - 581

126. Windpipe of the goosander (3/^rgus

Merganser L.) . - - 766

127. Windpipe of the red-breasted goosan-

der (M^rgus serrktor L.) - - 766

128. Windpipe of the smew (Jtf^rgus albel-

lusZ.) . . .766

FISHES.

2. The Cili^ta glauca of Couch . 16

3. Spanish bream (5p^ru8 L. Erfthri.

nus C.) • - . 17

4t Corkwing (iabrus L. gibbus L.) - 17

6. Smooth perch (Perca Ch&nnus C.) - 20
5. 7. Dusky perch (P^rca L. robfista L.) 18. 21
8. Spanish mackarel (Sc6mber L. macu.

latus C.) . . - 22

' 9, 10. Mud lamprey (Petrom^zon cae^cus) 23

64. The elleck (Trlgla Ciiculus) - . 312

65. Pellucid ophidium (Ophidium pellh-
cidum Couch) . . - 313

A mode of fishing in China - - 447
LkhTus mscus L. ? (the scale-rayed
wrass)

122.

. 742

REPTILE.
116. Siren /acert'ina

79.

85.
104.
105.

106.

107.

loa

109.
120.

76.

77.
78.

MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS.
Sections of the heart of Octopus vul-

31

- 40

207

344

The hearts of the Cephalopoda
Veins garnished with glandular bodies
Tfethys /eporlna - - .

Heart and intestinal organs of Teredo
nav^lis ...

Minute blood-red worms attached to
the inner surface of the windpipe
of a pheasant - - -

bed. Veiled shells ; e /, cockles j
g. Pinna fr&gilis ; h, Carin&ria vi-
trea : i, Vhnus Chibne ; k, Merita
canrena ; /, TYbchus
Plankria corniita Mm. - 344. 429. 678

E\)lis rufibranchialis Johnston - 428

a and b, Spirula Peronw of Lamarck -
abed e/. Views and sections of a bone
of the cuttle fish ...

Section of a pearl exhibiting its struc-
ture .....
a b. Two views of our native cowry

(Cyprae^a europae^a)
Plan6rbis communis
The S41p£e (or Dag^sse of J9flfnA-*)
Sowerby's slug (Limax Sow^rbyj Fer.)

CIRRI'PEDES.
A species of ifepas cast on shore at

Liverpool . . . _

L^pas anatffera, the bernacle
a, Lhpas anatffera, a smaller but more

perfect figure ...

612

618

694

POLYPUS.

110. C(5ryne glandulbsa JwAH5/on

CRUSTACEOUS ANIMALS.
99. Praniza fuscata Johnston

RADIATED ANIMALS.
29. Lucernaria aurfcuia
58. Actinia Tu^diiB

344

631

- 521

163

INSECTS.

Coleopterous.

tN«. ~ Page

38, 39. Remarkable excrescence on the

eye of Staphyllnus hirtus - - 105

66, Palissusmicroc^phalus L. ; a, natural

size ; b, magnified - - 319

68. ScarabEB'^us macropus, kangaroo beetle 320

70. Mormolyce phyllodes Hagenbach - 322

71. Chiasognathus Grantw Stephens . 323
90. Scarabae^us Atetichus sicer - . 450

94. Caldndra palmarum, female imago - 466

95. a, Caldndra palmarum, male imago ;

b, larva j e, pupa ; rf, cocoon - 467

96. a, Caldndra sacchari ; c, pupa ; rf, fol.

licle or cocoon ; e, larva - - 468

96. i, A variety of Caldndra sacchari - 468

Lepidopterous.

72. Cblias Edtisrt, white-clouded yellow

variety - - - . 332

73. Hipp&rchifl Galathfea var., black and |

but slightly marbled - . 335

74. o, Poly6mmatus I'caru5, com. blue - 338

74. b, Hipparchia Galathfea, marbled white 338
117. a b, 118. e d, Limenltis Camillo, and a

black variety of it, the upper and

under side of each . 667, 668

119. a. The pupa case of probably a species

ofPs5^che - - - 685

119. 6, Pupa case and pupa of possibly Pen-

thophera nigricans . . 685

119. c. Pupa case of Psyche nitid^lla HUb-

ner . . . -685

119. d, Fsfche radi^lla Curtis . -685

122. Argynnis Adippg ? var.

123. Argynnis Agl^i« var. Charl6tta ? .

124. Melitae^a Sil§ne ? var.

125. Himalayan admiral butterfly

HVMENOPTEROUS.

34. Trichiosbma lucbrum and its cocoon

40. Microgaster glomer^tus and its meta-

morphoses

41. Caterpillars of OdynJ'rus found in a

booK - - - .

98. Transformations of a dragon fly

Strepsipterous.

69. St^lops Kirbii Leach

Dipterous.

45. ripula imperious, with a detached

side-view of its head -

46. Xyl6phagus macuia.tus, with the an-

tennae of X. ater

47. Tabknus ^aurlnus ...

48. L^ptis distigma, male

49. Therfeva, a species of .

50. M^das lusit&nicus, wing and antenna

of - - - - 160

51. J?ombylius cruciktus, male - . 160

52. .<4silus chrysitis ... jgi

53. H^bos muscJirius - . . i^j

54. £'mpis opaca . . - 161

55. Tachydrbmia fascikta; and 3 forms of

antenna - - . . jqq

56. C^rtus gfbbus - - - - 162

57. Stratiomys furcita, female ; and head

of S. concinna, male - . 162

67. Di6psis macrophthalma Dalman . 32O
103. Ocular footstalk and eve of the Di6p-

sis macrophthilma ' . . 592

yi'CARUS.

75. A species of .4'carus ? which infests

butterflies ... . 33^

TREES AND SHRUBS.
1. Tea tree of Paraguay . . 8

80, 81, Cotyledons and primordial leaves

of the ^"^cer Pseudo-Platanus i. 346, 347
89. Tabernsemontana alternifolia - 449

HERBACEOUS PLANTS.

30. Lathrae'^a Squamiria, its parasitic

tuber - - - - 46

31. longitudinal section of its leaf 47

749
750
751
752

85

108

109
518

321

- 157

159
159
160
160

Vlll

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

No. , Page

32. Latbrae a Squamana, transverse sec-
tion of its leaf - - - 48

35. A variety of Senfecio vulgJiris - 87

36. et and /S, Varieties of Cineraria integri-

fblia - - . . 88

82. Nucule of the Chara vulgaris L. - 348
86.abcdefg, P^ris quadrifolia Z,., and

parts oC it - - - 430

86. *, Trill! Uijlier^ctumZ. . - - 4^0

GEOLOGY.

59. Diagram of a chain of hills - - 167

61. Sketch of the volcano, Stromboli - 263

6!^. Map exhibiting the relative situations

of the volcanic islands Santorino,

Therasia, Hiera, Little Kan-..tioi,

and Black Island, formed m 1707 - 272

87. Singular subsidence, with a fossil

stag's horn, in the chalk measures
near Meredon, France - - 446

100. Chalk in Norfolk as perforated by Tu-

bicolae - - - - 545

No. Page

101. Fossilised fish from a stone quarry
near Stratford upon Avon

111. Mount Vesuvius and part of Monte

Somma ...

112. Volcano in the Island of Volcano

113. The volcanic mountain, Hecla -

114. Geological map of the parishes of

Eccles, Greenlaw, Polwarth, and
Longformacus, in Berwickshire -

115. Diagram exhibitive of the arrange-

ment of strata in a part of Berwick-
shire - . - -

METEOROLOGY.
129. A pluviometer or rain gauge

MISCELLANEOUS.
37. Various forms of crystals of snow

83. Ground-plan of the domed conserv-

atory for carnivorous animals, in
the Surrey Zoological Gardens

84. Elevation of the same conservatory -

549

635
636

638

643

- 769

90

404
405

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

A. B., 276. 384 ; A. B.C., 591;
A. G., 98 ; Albert, 764. 768 ;
Aliquis, 657.769 J AUis.Thos.,
589. 728,729. 732, 733. 753. 767;
Appleby, S., 558; A.Il.B.,553;
Aristophilus, 590; A. R. Y.,
76. [112]. [208]. 372. 678. 732 ;
A Subscriber, 203. 734. 754.
761 ; A. X., 672.

Babington, Charles C, B.A.
F.L.S., 74. 89. 327 ; Bakewell,
Robert, 434 ; Barker, M. J.,
725; B. B. P., 494 ; Bennett,
Geo., F.L.S. M.R.C.S., &c.,
97. 131. 255.486: B., Lay ton-
stone, 396; ^Ombjrx, 688;
Bowman, J. K, F.L.S., 1 ;
Bree, Rev. W. T, A.M., 107,
108. 145. 200. 275. 330. 336.
36a 399. 489. 491. 496. 589.
593. 668. 673. 677. 715. 730.
733. 747. 753, 754. 760 ; Brown,
John,M.D., F.L.S., 99 ; Byer-
ley. Sir John, F.R.S.L. 172.
201. 494. 588.

C.,394; Cacale, 91; Carr, J.,
296, 297. 396; Cattus, 717;
C.,Birmingham,283; Christy,
Wm., jun., 543; Clarke, W.
B., 101; Clayton, Geo., 81 ;
Couch, Jonathan, F.L.S., 15.
291. 311. 674. 730. 736, 737.
743; C. P., 102. 110. 671;
C. P. (Surrey), 756 ; Creed,
Rev. Henry, 550. 653; Curtis,
John,F.L.S.87.

Dale, J. C, A.M. F.L.S., &c.
&c., 249. 685; Davis, A. H.,
F.L.S., 87.245; D. C, 211;
Dewhurst, Henry W^illiam,
214 ; Dickehut, H. T., Cu-
rator of the Botanic Gar-
den, St. Mary's College, Bal-
timore, 453; D. N., 105. 202.
208. 301 ; Doubleday, E., 394.
767; Dovaston, John Free-
man Milward, A.M., 84. Ill,
112, 113, 147. 293. 299. 381.
425. 497. 661 ; Draper, J, W.,
164.262.532.632; D. S,205;
Duncan, George, 573.

Edgworth, Thos., 398 ; E. P. T.,
397; E. S., 273.

Faldermann, F., 4 ; Farmer, J.
C, 209. 275. 493. 495. 716;
Fennell, James, 763.

G. A., 393 ; G. and H., 128 ;
Gardiner, William, 576; Gib-
son, Samuel, 555; G. J., 31.
611; Gordon, Wm., F.L.S.,

Surgeon, 24. 118. 405. 507;
Greaves, John, 549 ; Green,
J., 208; Greenhow, E, H.,
104. 393. 495. 566.

H., 131 ; H., London, 110 ; H.
B. (Blois), 287. 735.748; H.
B. Somerset, 731 ; Henslow,
H., 588; Henslow, Rev. J. S.,
A.M., King's Professor of
Botany in the University of
Cambridge, 88. 294. 302. 346.
348. 400. 429 490. 494. 546.
755 ; Higgins, W. M.,F.G.S.,
164. 262. 532. 632 ; Hill, Wal-
ter Henry, SO; Howden,
John, 386 ; Hoy, J. D., 278,
279. 281 ; Huish, Robert, 604.

J. A. H., Oxford, 104. 110. 196.
538; J. A. H., Rington, He-
refordshire, 283; J. C, 384;
J. D. M., 195. 577 ; J. D.,
senior, 659; J. E. L., 522.
758; Jenyns, Rev. Leonard,
F.L.S., 104. 302; J. G. (Great
Marlow), 291 ; J. G. (Stoke
Newington), 309 ; J. J., 277.
295; J. M., Chelsea, 76, 77,
78, 79. 83. 91. 304. 442. 448.
489. 660. 687. 689 ; J. M., Phil-
adelphia, 452, 453. 455 ; John-
ston, George, M.D., 43. 163.
344. 428. 520. 631. 678; John-
ston. Sir A., 448 ; Jordan.W.
R., 109. 261, 282.284, 285. 288 ;
J. R.,458. 577; J. S. K., 654;
Juvenis, 85; J. W., 380;

L. J., 104.

Main, J , 674 ; Mancuniensis,
717; M.F.,396; Moggridge,
John H., 446, 447 ; Morris,
Francis Orpen, 733; Moul-
son, Richard, M.D.,765; M.
P., 294. 297. 301. 495. 723. 738.
74a 768 ; M. R., 555.

N., 73. 89 ; Newman, Edward,
109. 204. 252. 399. 488. 495.
654.

O., 111. 204. 316. 495. 544; O.,
(Clapton) 754; Observator,
401 ; Ornis, 288.

Pamplin, James, 288; Parry,
John, 103. 293 ; Phillips, Sir
R., 103.

R. B., 388; R. B. B., 565; R.
J.M.,770; Rennie, J., A.M.
A.L.S., Professor of Natural
History in King's College,
London, 102, 103. [110]. 299.
393 ; Rusticus, 276. 601.

Salmon, J. D, 415. 673. 675.679 ;

Scolopax Rustfcola, 279. 284.
289 ; Scott, Alexander, 666 ;
Scott, George, 770; Sells,
William, M.R.C.S., 452.470.
483. 651 ; Sigma,747. 753. 769 ;
Smith, Richard, senior Sur-
geon to the Bristol Infirmary,
293 ; Somerset^nsis, 282 ;
Spence, W., F.L.S., &c. &c.
353. 655. 689 ; Stephens, J. F.,
F.L.S., 394; Stewart, John
v., 578 ; S. T., 111. 678 ; S.T.
Stokeferry, 763 ; S. T. P., 398.
681,682; S.W., 539; Swain-
son, W., F.R.S. &c., [207],
r208].
Tatem, James G., Member of
the London Meteorological
Society, 350 ; Taylor, R. C,
292. 458 ; T. B., 558 ; T. C,
206 ; T. G., Chipping Nor-
ton, Oxon., 283. 686. 733;
T. G., Clitheroe, Lancashire,
82. 204. 290. 294. 297. 303. 654.
663. 680. 683. 738. 740. 770;
Thompson, Thomas, 77. 197.
295. 297 ; Thomson, Robert
Dundas, CM. and M.D.,637;
Thomson, William, 755. 757 ;
Timbs, John, 763 ; T.K., 299.
397. 577. 731, 732. 735. 770 ;
Turner, Henry, 195. 204. 285.
728. 734. 766 ; Tyro, 686.
U., Cambridge, 397.
Ventris, E., 205, 206; Viator,
543; Vigors, N. A., Secretary
to the Zoological Society,
[109]. [206].
W. A. B. 149 ; Wailes, George,
156J; Wallace, J. 548 ; War-
wick, J. E. 305 ; Waterton,
Charles, Author of " Wan-
derings in South America,"
&c., 9. 142. 233. 241. 412. 488.
512. 515. 590. 673. 676. 679.
684. 727 ; W. B. B. W. 745 ;
Weatherill, Thomas, M.D.
339 ; Weaver, R., 669 ; West-
wood, J. O., F.L.S. &c., 206.
301. 318. 487. 592 ; W. G.,.569;
W . L., Selkirkshire, 295. 400 ;
Woodward, Samuel, 86. 303.
545. 762.
X. . . . - 674
Yarrell, William, F.L.S. and
Z.S. - - 100.384.598
Zoophilus - . - 722
!{:>... 75.181
^ Ht - - - 564

r. (Moray) - - QOf

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY,

JANUARY, 1832,

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I. RemarJes on the Luminosity of the Sea By J. E. Bowman,

Esq. F.L.S,

The valuable observations of Mr. Westwood on the lumi-
nosity of the sea (Vol. IV. p. 505.), induce me to think it
worth while to place on record an extract from my private
journal, which illustrates the view he has taken, and may pos-
sibly assist in establishing at least one cause of this well known
and beautiful phenomenon. It is as follows : — " On treading
upon a tuft of tang [sea-weed] in our way down to the boat, it
•shot out in every direction interrupted rays of phosphoric light,
like a star of artificial firework. This beautiful effect we repeat-
edly produced by stamping on various tufts to force out the
water ; and afterwards, while sitting in the boat, waiting for the
ferryman, we amused ourselves by dabbling our hands and sticks
in the water, which, when agitated, was more highly illumi-
nated than I had ever before observed it. I was soon awai-e
that the luminous matter /«?/ ?ij)on the surface: for, after a little
agitation and dispersion of the surface water from around my
fingers, the effect was much diminished ; and, when I ceased
disturbing it, the light entirely disappeared. The boat swam,
as it were, in a sea of liquid fire, the ripple round its sides
and the dash of the oars being sometimes brilliant beyond
conception, and of a bluish phosphorescent light. It would
seem that the luminous matter was not equally diffused over
the strait : for it varied much in intensity in different parts of
the passage; and, as we approached the Caernarvonshire
shore, the contact of the oars produced very little light."
Vol. V. — No. 23. b

2 Remarks on tlie Lianinosity of the Sea,

This extract refers to a passage across the Menai Strait,
between Garth Ferry and Bangor, in company with my friend
Wilson of Warrington, about eleven o'clock in the evening
of the 27th of July, 1830. The day had been very hot, the
night was dark for that season, and the sea perfectly smooth
and calm. I regretted that I had neither leisure nor oppor-
tunity to bring away some of the water for microscopical
examination : but we had no phial at hand, and were quite
exhausted with a long and difficult, though delightful, ramble
over the sea rocks between Red Wharf Bay and Penmon
Point, and thence to Beaumaris, along the loose sand and
shingles of the coast ; and were, besides, loaded with a rich
harvest of plants, which required all our time and atten-
tion. But, though not then a stranger to the phenomenon, its
singularly vivid appearance struck me forcibly ; and I was
quite convinced that the luminous matter floated, as it were,
upon the surface like a thin coat of oil, for it was dispersed
or repelled by the motion of a stick or the finger, and was
confined to the circumference of an irregular circle around
them. I can scarcely agree with Mr. Westwood that it is
rendered visible by mere contact with the atmosphere, since it
must always be in contact from its lying on the surface ; yet
we have abundant proof that it is only excited by disturb-
ance. It struck me strongly, at the time, that it was elicited
hy friction, to which, I see, others have attributed it ; yet it
must be as sensibly alive to that agent as the iodide of nitro-
gen, for it was produced when I leaned over the boat and blew
upon the water.

It is a well known fact, that dead fishes and MoUusca ge-
nerate phosphorescence during the incipient stages of putre-
faction ; and chemical experiments have ascertained that it is
increased, if it be not in some way caused, by the immersion
of such substances in a solution of some neutral salt. In sea
water, therefore, it is probably produced by muriate of soda
[common salt] ; and may not its situation on the surface be
explained by its uniting with the oleaginous matter disen-
gaged from decomposing animal substances, which, in a qui-
escent state of the sea, would rise and float like a film ? I
throw this out as mere conjecture, but it may help the philo-
sophic enquirer to solve the problem.

This luminous matter, however, which often marks the
wake of a vessel in the night, and crests the waves with a
splendour not their own, is certainly not the only kind of
phosphorescence which the ocean exhibits. During the mild
nights of summer and autumn, innumerable Medus<^ (the
glowworms of the deep) may often be seen spangling its dark

BemarJcs on the Luminosity of the Sea, 3

bosom, or lying on our shores, left by the recedmg wave. I
can never forget with what intense delight my friend Dovaston
and myself once watched them glide past us on a midnight
sail from Oban to Fort William ; nor how willingly, in those
regions of romance, philosophy alternately resigned her sway
to the brownie or the kelpie. But I think, with Mr. West-
wood, these " living fires of ocean " are not the primary
cause of the phenomenon ; and that, until some direct and
well-conducted experiments establish the fact that their lu-
minosity is an inherent and essential condition of their organ-
isation, we may suppose it to be of the nature already men-
tioned, which may adhere to their surface as they swim among
it, or may constitute their food ; and, as such, be seen through
their transparent substance : and, if friction be supposed ne-
cessary to exhibit it, this condition is probably fulfilled during
the process of digestion and assimilation.

One word more " on the suppositions that have been raised
as to the objects of its existence." Those alluded to by your
correspondent are, at least, unsatisfactory ; and, as he has not
given the ingenious and highly probable conjectures of Dr.
MaccuUoch {Description of the Western Islands, vol. ii. p. 201.),
I shall subjoin them. He supposes " the property of phos-
phorescence has been conferred on many fishes, and appa-
rently in the greatest degree on the molluscous animals, whose
astonishing powers of reproduction, and whose insensibility
nearly approaching to vegetable life, seem to mark them as
having been principally created for the supply of the more
perfect tribes, to enable them to pursue their own prey, as
\vell as for disclosing themselves to their pursuers, either
during the darkness of the night, or in those deep recesses of
the ocean impervious to the solar ray." He further adds : —
" The luminous property of dead fish is, perhaps, calculated
for similar wise ends. Tliese, sinking to the bottom, become
capable of attracting the attention of the deep-water fishes;
answering the double purpose of food to these tribes, and
admitting the removal, as in the air, of carcasses which might
produce, even in those depths, inconveniences similar to those
which bodies in a state of putrefaction cause on the surface
of the earth. It is also not improbable that the desire which
fishes appear to show of following luminous bodies arises
from this natural instinct. Herrings are often caught in con-
siderable abundance by a fly or any bright substance, often
by new-tinned hooks, which they seize with great avidity.

J. E. Bowman.
7'he Court near Wrexham., Nov. 7. 1831.

B 2 .

4 Further Account of a Bussian

Art. II. Further Account of a Russian Natural History Expedi-
tion in Brazil, during the Seven Years preceding Jpril,lSSl. By
M. F. Faldermann, Curator of the Imperial Botanic Garden,
St. Petersburgh.

(^Continued from Vol. IV. p. 403.)
Sir,

In the close of the communication which I made to you on
April 18. 183i. (see Vol. IV. p. 403.), I promised to supply
some account of the plants which M. Riedel brought alive
from the Brazilian empire to the Imperial Botanic Garden :
that promise I shall now endeavour to fulfil.

On account of M. Riedel's uncommonly quick passage
(namely, in sixty-four days) from Rio de Janeiro to St.
Petersburgh, above two thirds of his plants were alive on his
arrival at the Botanic Garden ; and, in fact, were in a con-
siderably better state than even many plants which we re-
ceived from France and Great Britain : but we must in a
great measure attribute this very successful transportation,
considering the great many ineligibilities and inconveniences
on board a ship on such a voyage, to M. RiedePs great
exertions in attending the plants over sea. We must like-
wise remember the kind and obliging master of the vessel
Captain Kromtschenko, who came with his cargo for the im-
perial Russian North-west American Company, from their
colonies at Sitcha, and took charge of the plants at Rio
de Janeiro ; for the great care and assistance he bestowed on
M. Riedel and his plants, he received from the Emperor
of Russia a reward of 1000 rubles bco asig. (40/. sterling),
and it was mentioned in the public papers. I notice this only
for the benefit of a great many other captains, who are usu-
ally by no means the most obliging persons to people at sea.

The following is a list of the remarkable plants we received
in the autumn of the year 1830, from the Brazils, into the Im-
perial Botanic Garden, as collected and brought home by
the botanical traveller, L. Riedel ; —

Acacia amazomcdRiedel. Bignonw, sp. from Rio Cassia, 3 sp.

-(4ca,cia, sp. Madera. Clusia, 2 sp.

Amaryllis, sp. Bignonfa, 3 sp. Chiococca, sp.

^ristolochia, 5 sp. Bombax, 2 species, the Coccoloba, 5 sp.

Artocarpiis, sp. stems of which are Capparis, sp.
A'jida brasiliensis. extremely prickly. Compositae, shrubby

Ajieiba TibourboUy from Breclemey<?r«, sp. species.

the river Amazon, lianisteria, 3 sp. Cnemidostachys, sp^

Alsodea physiphora, Begom'a, 2 sp. Crinum, sp.

yiroideae, 7 sp. Clethra, sp. Caroline«, sp.

Bougainville^, sp. Comaspermum, sp. Cecr6p2«, sp.

Bauhinia, 3 sp. Co^m, sp. Cissampelos, 3 sp.

Bignoma tomentosa Cratae'va Tapfa? Costus, sp.

Jttiedel. Cassel/« serrata. Cactus, 6 new sp.

Natural History Expedition in Brazil,

Dichorizandra thyrsi-
flora?

Diosc6re«, sp.

DorstenfaCeratosanthes.

Dorstenifl! arifolia.

Dbrstenf« «rif61ia, var.
)8.

Dorsten^a, shrubby sp,

Dorsteni«, sp.

Erythrina, sp.

-E'chites, sp.

Erythroxylon, sp.

Euphoria, sp.

Eugenia, sp.

JE'uphorbia, sp.

Eu^Bibnum Ayapana

Franclsc<?« uniflora.

JFlcus, 2 sp.

FagarUy sp.

i^ilices, 36 sp. ; amongst
which are 4 shrubby sp.
4 Aneimia, 1 Marattia,
1 Diplazium Riedel-
idnum Fischer, As-
plenium Nidus, Aspl-
dium serra Fischer^
&c.^

Galipea, 4 sp.

Gouania, sp.

Gudrea, sp.

Gesnena, 3 sp.

Gomphia, sp.

Gambogia, sp.

Geoffr6y«, 2 sp.

Gardenia, 3 sp.

Herreri« stellata,

lonidium, 2 sp.

Joncquetia paniculata.

Justici«, 6 sp.
rnga,2 sp.
Kielmeyer«, sp.
Z/aurus, sp.

Lycopodium, sp. *

Leguniinosae, 6 s|).
Myristica Bicaiba.
J/yrtus, 8 sp.
i^feliaceae, sp.
Malpighia, sp.
Malpighidcecs ? sp.
Mutisia, sp.
Mikanfa, 2 sp.
Melastoma, sp.
Marica, sp.

Magnolia, sp. (Talauma)
Mdnihoty sp. (the true

Cassava of South

America.)
\Janipha Aldnikot, see

Gardener^ s Magazine^

vol. vii. p. 470.].
Mangifera indica V
Maina brasiliensis.
Noisettia, sp.
Novum genus.
Neottia, 3 sp.
Neottia rufescens Fi&ch.
Oljra, sp.
O'xalis fruticosa.
O'xalis Barrelieri.
Orchideap,52sp.,amongst

which is a new sp. of

Prescotia.
Petrea volubilis.
Poljgala, 2 sp.
Paullinia, sp.

Panax, sp.

Petiveria tetrandra.

Psidium, 2 sp.

Pathos^ 8' sp.

Pitcairnia, 4 sp.

Piper, 5 sp.

Peperomia, 4 sp.

Pubiaceae, 9 sp.

Phexia, 3 sp.

Phamnese, 3 sp.

Rhizophora Mangle.

Rollinia, sp.

Roitp ditty sp.

Solandra, 2 sp..

Sapindaceae, sp..

Schnellia, sp.

xS'olanum, 2 sp.

Seriana, 2 sp.

^milax, sp.

Scitamineae, 17 species;
amongst which we had
lately Phrynium cylin-
dricum in flower.

Seafortifl, sp.

Tferebintaceae, 3 sp.

Temstrce^mia, sp.

Theobroma Cacao.

Triopteris, 2 sp.

Theophrasta, 2 sp.

Trigonia glabra.

Trigonia, 2 sp.

Turn era, 2 sp.

Trichilia ^teleaefolia.

Tillandsia, 12 sp.

Tradescantia, 2 sp.

Vanilla^ sp.

Vellozia, 2 sp.

List of Palms brought at the same time, by M. Riedel, from
the Brazils : —

Bactris Mardja.
Bactris acanthocarpa.
Desmoncus polyacan-

thus.
G«6noma elegans

Geonoma Pohlia;za. Acrocomia sclerocarpa.

Geonoma acaulis ? Maximiliana regia.

Astrocaryum acaule Diplothemium mariti-
Astrocaryum Ayri. mum.

Astrocaryum campestre? Syagru^ cocoid.es ?

The duty to which M. Riedel bound himself, during his
travels in the interior of the Brazils, was, to collect for
Russia, principally plants to form a Brazilian herbarium, and
also as many seeds and live plants as possible for the Imperial
Botanic Garden at St. Petersburgh. The principal of the
conditions of his engagement was, to have a certain share of

B 3

6 Further Accou7it of a Russian

the whole collection of dried plants. By this means he ob-
tained a considerable herbarium of his own ; and this, added
to the collection which he made at his own expense in the
province of Bahia, before he entered the service of Russia,
gave him altogether a herbarium of about 8000 species of
Brazilian plants, and nearly 60,000 specimens. This very
rich and interesting herbarium M. lliedel offered, on his
arrival at St. Petersburgh, to the museum of the Imperial
Botanic Garden, where it is at present deposited, for the use
of science. The Emperor Nicholas has been pleased to grant
him the sum of 12,000 rubles banc. asig. (480^. sterling), for
his great exertions and indefatigable perseverance during the
time of his travels for the Russian government; and the
emperor has also conferred on him the rank of a captain in
the Russian service. This gracious mark of distinction from
the sovereign will be of great service to him in his further
travels at the Brazils, that being a country where people of
government distinction are in general more respected.

M. Riedel remained during the winter at the Imperial
Botanic Garden, arranging his herbarium for the museum of
that establishment.

On the 14tli of February, 1831, an order was signed by
the Emperor Nicholas, consisting of the following articles : —

" I. That the botanist L. Riedel shall be attached to the Imperial Botanic
Garden, and shall depart immediately again to the Brazils, to collect there,
for the said establishment, principally live plants, of all scarce and new
kinds ; also a herbarium, and any thing belonging to natural history.

" His appointment, as long as he shall travel at the Brazils, shall be each
year 5000 rub. bco. asig.; and after his return to St. Petersburgh to be
employed at the garden for the salary of 3000 rub. bco. asig. annually.

" II. He shall receive for the voyage from St. Petersburgh to the Bra-
zils, from the cabinet of His Imperial Majesty 500 ducats.

" HI. He shall receive the sum of 5000 rubles bco. asig. annually, for the
expenses of travelling in the forementioned country.

" He shall receive the sum of GOOO rub. bco. asig. at once, to buy instru-
ments, maps, books, and all things necessary for his journey into the
Brazils.

" He shall have 5000 rubles bco. asig., to buy, at Rio de Janeiro, three
slaves to attend him on his excursions ; and shall receive an annual sum
of 900 rubles bco. asig. for their maintenance.

" IV. A painter from the Imperial Academy of Arts, and a gardener
from the Imperial Botanic Garden, shall be joined to M. Riedel, and the
first vessel going to the Brazils shall take them there.

" V. The money to maintain the aforesaid shall be taken from the
funds of the Imperial Botanic Garden ; and, in case it should not suffice, it
shall be reported to the minister of His Imperial Majesty's court, who
shall draw the necessary sums from the cabinet of the Emperor.

" The expedition shall be under the general direction and control of
Dr. Fischer, the director of the Imperial Botanic Garden, who shall re-
ceive all the collections for that establishment, and who has to report on

Natural History Expedition in Brazil, 7

them, as well as on the further proceedings of the travellers, to the minis-
ter of this Imperial court."

According to that most noble order of the Emperor,
M. Riedelleft St.Petersburgh in the beginning of March, 1831,
and is now on his way to the Brazils. He proposed to him-
self to go first to London, to buy there some of the necessary
books, maps, instruments, &c., for the use of his new voyage;
but I have since received letters from M. Riedel, informing
me that he had made his preparations at Hamburgh, and
started thence direct to the Brazils, where, no doubt, he will
by this time have safely arrived.

It is proposed that the painter shall attend M. Riedel on
his travels in the interior of the Brazils, but that the gardener
shall remain at Rio de Janeiro, to receive the plants and
seeds which will be sent by M. Riedel out of the interior parts
of the country ; and it is to be the gardener's business to culti-
vate the plants, and prepare them for shipping. He is charged
to send, by every opportunity, to St. Petersburgh, boxes of
plants, herbariums, collections of different species of wood,
seeds, &c. ; but the main collection of the more rare plants,
particularly of palms, is to remain at Rio de Janeiro, and to
be eventually brought over, under the especial care of the
above-mentioned gardener.

We now, therefore, entertain hopes of receiving a good
many of those plants which we at present so much admire
in the books descriptive of that rich country, from the pens of
some noted travellers. Under such promising circumstances,
we may have one day the pleasure to see some of the enor-
mous stoves of the Imperial Botanic Garden filled with a
beautiful Brazilian vegetation. No doubt they will prosper,
as many of the Brazilian and other tropical plants already in
the establishment, under the 59th degree of northern latitude,
thrive uncommonly well ; and, although the garden has only
been about nine years in existence, we have gathered already
fruits of several Eugenz<^, Jamhbsce, Uvariae, Mus<^, Psidia,
. Euphoriae, Xanthochymus, Chrysophylla, Sterculia nobilis,
Sarcocephalus esculentus, Cinnamomum dulce, &c.

I hope subsequently to be able to give you some further
relations of the proceedings of M. Riedel at the Brazils ; and
remain, dear Sir, your most obedient servant,

F. Faldermann.
Imperial Botanic Garden, St.Petersburgh,
August 10. 1831.

B 4

8 RiiSsian Natural History Expedition iri Brazil,

Paraguay Tea, and the Tea Tree of Paraguay , the Plex paragu aiensis,
of the botanist St. Hilaire. {fig. 1 .) — In M.
Faldermann's interesting communication (in
Vol. IV. p. 394 — 403.) on the plants of Brazil,
mention is several times made of the tea tree of
Paraguay. On this account we beg to present
the following interesting extract, relating to it,
which is taken from the fourth volume of the
Seminario de Buenos Ayres of Azara. M. Fal-
dermann remarks (p. 401.) that it should be
spelled tea of Paraquay, and /Mex paraquaien-
sisj but this may be deemed doubtful out of
Russia, where q and g are said to be often con-
vertible:—

" The tea tree of Paraguay, called in the
country yerva mate, is one of the most useful
trees in Paraguay, to which it is nearly peculiar
It is found growing spontaneously, intermingled
with the other native trees, in the forests which
cover the banks of the rivers and streams which fall into the Parana and
Uruguay, as well as the sources of the rivers Ipane and Jejui. The tree
is large, and often equals in size the common orange tree ; but in the places
where the leaf is regularly gathered, it becomes stunted, from the limbs
being cut every two or three years, but not oftener, owing to an opinion
that this time is requisite to season the leaves, which do not fall off in
winter. The trunk is about a foot in diameter ; the bark is smooth and
whitish ; the boughs, which spring upwards like those of the laurel, are leafy
and tufted. The leaf is elliptic, cuneiform, from 4 to 5 in. long; thick,
glossy, crenated, of a dark green above, and paler below. The petiole is
of a dark red , and half an inch long. Its flowers are produced in umbels
of thirty or forty flowers each, with four petals, with the same number of
stamens. The berry is red, very smooth, and of the size of a small pea.

" The method of preparing the leaves is as follows : — A hurdle of
long poles is constructed, in the form of a cylindrical vault, which they call
barbaqua ; under this a large fire is made, and the branches being placed
on the hurdle remain there till the leaves are sufficiently dry. After this
they remove the fire ; and on the hard and hot platform, after being swept
clean, they throw the branches, which they beat to separate the leaves.
In this each is assisted by a boy, called a quayno, who receives the pro-
portion of 25 lbs. of leaves for every bundle of branches he cleans.

" The leaves being separated from the branches, and prepared sufficiently
are next put into a large bag made of hides, which has the four upper
corners fixed to four large stakes placed in the ground, fitted to support a
considerable weight ; into this they put the leaves, and beat them down
with a pole, in the same way as the negroes of the West Indies pack their
cotton bags. When the bag is filled and packed hard, the mouth is sewed
up; and in this state, without farther preparation, the leaves are fit for use,
but not considered as seasoned till they are a few months old.

" We find, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, that this plant
was in common use throughout Paraguay ; and there can be no doubt but
the Indians of Monday taught it to the conquerors, from their being the
natives who lived in the vicinity of the forests. The quantity used by a
person who is fond of it is an ounce. The amount daily gathered by a la-
bourer is from four to twelve, and sometimes more, arrobas. There are
among the Creoles or mestizoes many who falsely charge the Paraguayans
with having exterminated the Indians by making them work at this labour.

These leaves are used in Paraguay, La Plata, Peru, and Quito, at all
hours of the day, by putting a handfiil into a kind of tea-pot called mate
(which has given its name to the herb), and from the spout of this the hot

Habits of the Barn Oxd. 9

liquid is imbibed. Some mix sugar with it, and others add a few drops of
lemon juice ; and by pouring fresh boiling water the infusion may be renewed.
200,000 arrobas, equal to five millions of pounds, are annually obtained
from Paraguay, 110 arrobas of which go to Chile, whence Lima and Quito
are supplied ; the rest is expended in the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres."
(Sent, de Buenos Ayres.^

" There are three kinds of it in its prepared state, though produced
but by one plant. Caa is the distinctive Indian appellation of the plant ;
and the three sorts are called caa-cuys, caa-mini, and caa-guazu, the
last being denominated by the Spaniards yerva de palos. The people of
South America attribute innumerable virtues to this plant. It is cer-
tainly aperient and diuretic; but the other qualities^ ascribed to it are
doubtful. Like opium, it produces some singular and contrary effects : it
gives sleep to the restless, and spirit to the torpid. Those who have once
contracted the habit of taking it, do not find it an easy matter to leave it
off, or even to use it in moderation ; though, when taken to excess, it brings
on similar disorders to those which are produced by the immoderate use of
strong liquors." (Wilcocke's History of Buenos Ayres, p. 494.)

A doubt has been expressed whether the /Mex, which M. Riedel "ob-
served to prevail in Brazil in various places, and which he denominates
/Mex paraguaiensis, may not rather be a species nearly allied to, but still
distinct from, that, and be the species which Dr. Martins has denominated
Cassine GongonhOy but which Mr. David Don has more accurately deno-
minated /Hex Gongonha* This is, however, a question in systematic
botany. In a popular view, it may be remarked that, as M. Riedel shows
(Vol. IV. p. 401.) both /Hex paraguaiensis and /Mex Gongonha to occur m.
Brazil, and also an additional species indicated by the name /Hex
nova species, the former two, and possibly all three, species are equally
applied or applicable to the supplying of that welcome beverage, tea.
While on this subject, it may not be amiss to notice, incidentally.

The Plants employed as Tea in different Countries : — In Mexico, Pso-
ralea (?) glandulosa ; in New Granada, Alstonia thece^oi^mh (Mutis), which
is said to be equal to the tea of China; in North America, Gualthen'a pro-
cumbens and iedum latifolium ; in Paraguay, /Hex paraguaiensis and /Hex
Gongonha ; in New Holland, Corrae^a alba ; in Kamtschatka, Pedicularis
lanata; in China, Camelh« Bohea and viridis, mixed with the leaves of
C. Sasanqua^ or oleifera, and sometimes with those of OHea fragrans. {Don^
in Lambert's Genus 'Pmus, and in Jameson's Journal.)

Art. III. The Habits of the Barn Otvl {Strix Jlammea L., Aluco
Jldmmeiis Fleming), and the Benefits it confers on Man, By
Charles Vv^aterton, Esq.

This pretty aerial wanderer of the night often comes into
my room ; and after flitting to and fro, on wing so soft and
silent that he is scarcely heard, he takes his departure from
the same window at which he had entered.

* From Dr. Walsh's Notices of Brazil (vol. ii. p. 172.) we learn that the town of Congonhas
do Campo, seated at the base of Congonhas, a rugged ridge of rocky mountains piled up to the
clouds, and also the Rio das Congonhas, a considerable stream about thirty yards across, derive
their name from the abundance of the congonha plant found there. It is used universally as tea.
" It grows in marshy places, and Patricio, my Indian guide, brought me some branches of it
from the banks of the river. It attains the size of an orange tree, and has somewhat of its air and
aspect. The leaves are dried, or rather roasted, on twigs before the fire, where they crackle like
laurel, and are then reduced nearly to powder, and kept in pots. It is used sometimes as a hot
and sometimes as a cold infusion. I have drunk it prepared in three ways : either an infusion of
the fresh leaves, or made with the dried leaves like China tea, or boiled with sugar and then
drained off. The clear infusion exactly resembles that of common green tea ; but it is insipid,
and has nothing of its flavour or odour, nor, as far as my feelings warranted me to say, of its
exhilarating or refreshing quality."

10 Habits of the Barn Owl,

I own I have a great liking for this bird ; and I have
offered it hospitality and protection on account of its persecu-
tions, and for its many services to me, — I say services, as
you will see in the sequel. I wish that any little thing I could
write or say might cause it to stand better with the world at
large than it has hitherto done : but I have slender hopes
on this score ; because old and deep-rooted prejudices are
seldom overcome ; and when I look back into the annals of
remote antiquity, I see too clearly that defamation has done
its worst to ruin the whole family, in all its branches, of this
poor, harmless, useful friend of mine.

Ovid, nearly two thousand years ago, was extremely severe
against the owl. In his Metamorphoses he says : —

" Foedaque fit volucris, venturi nuncia luctus,
Ignavus bubo, dirum mortalibus omen." *

In his Fasti he openly accuses it of felony : —

** Nocte volant, puerosque petunt nutricis egentes." f

Lucan, too, has hit it hard: —

" Et laetae jurantur aves, bubone sinistro :" J

and the Englishman who continued the Pharsalia says —
" Tristia mille locis Stygius dedit omina bubo." §

Horace tells us that the old witch Canidia used part of the
plumage of the owl in her dealings with the devil : —
" Plumamque nocturnae strigis. "||

Virgil, in fine, joined in the hue and cry against this in-
jured family : —

" Solaque culminibus ferali carmine bubo

Saepe queri, et longas in fletum ducere voces." 4-

In our own times we find that the village maid cannot
return home from seeing her dying swain, without a doleful
salutation from the owl : —

" Thus homeward as she hopeless went.
The churchyard path along.
The blast grew cold, the dark owl scream*d
Her lover's funeral song."

Amongst the numberless verses which might be quoted

* " Ul-omen'd in his form, the unlucky fowl,

Abhorr'd by men, and call'd a screeching owl." Garth's Trans.
+ " They fly by uight, and assail infants in the nurse's absence."
If " Even the ill-boding owl is declared a bird of good omen."
$ " The Stygian owl gives sad omens in a thousand places."
jl " A feather of the night owl."

4* " And, on her palace top.

The lonely owl with oft repeated scream

Complains, and spins into a dismal length

Her baleful shrieks." Trapp's Translation.

and its Benefits to Man. 1 1

against the family of the owl, I think I only know of one little
ode which expresses any pity for it. Our nursery maid used
to sing it to the tune of the Storm, " Cease rude Boreas,
blust'ring railer." I remember the first two stanzas of it : —

" Once I was a monarch's daughter.
And sat on a lady's knee ;
But am now a nightly rover,
Banish'd to the ivy tree.

Crying, hoo hoo, hoo hoo, hoo hoo,
Hoo hoo hoo, my feet are cold !

Pity me, for here you see me,
Persecuted, poor, and old.'*

I beg the reader's pardon for this exordium. I have intro-
duced it, in order to show how little chance there has been,
from days long passed and gone to the present time, of study-
ing the haunts and economy of the owl, because its unmerited
bad name has created it a host of foes, and doomed it to de-
struction from all quarters. Some few, certainly, from time
to time, have been kept in cages and in aviaries. But nature
rarely thrives in captivity, and very seldom appears in her
true character when she is encumbered with chains, or is to
be looked at by the passing crowd through bars of iron.
However, the scene is now going to change ; and I trust that
the reader will contemplate the owl with more friendly feelings,
and quite under different circumstances. Here, no rude
schoolboy ever approaches its retreat ; and those who once
dreaded its diabolical doings are now fully satisfied that it no
longer meddles with their destinies, or has any thing to do
with the repose of their departed friends. Indeed, human
wretches in the shape of body-snatchers seem here in Eng-
land to have usurped the office of the owl in our church-
yards ; " et vendunt tumulis corpora rapta suis." *

Up to the year 1813, the barn owl had a sad time of it at
Walton Hall. Its supposed mournful notes alarmed the
aged housekeeper. She knew full well what sorrow it had
brought into other houses when she was a young woman ;
and there was enough of mischief in the midnight wintry
blast, without having it increased by the dismal screams of
something w^hich people knew very little about, and which
every body said was far too busy in the churchyard at night-
time. Nay, it was a well-known fact, that if any person were
sick in the neighbourhood, it would be for ever looking in at
the window, and holding a conversation outside with some-
body, they did not know whom. The gamekeeper agreed
with her in every thing she said on this important subject;
and he always stood better in her books when he had

P " And sell bodies torn from their tombs."

1^ Hahits of the Barn Owl,

managed to shoot a bird of this bad and mischievous family.
However, in 1813, on my return from the wilds of Guiana,
having suffered myself, and learned mercy, I broke in pieces
the code of penal laws which the knavery of the gamekeeper
and the lamentable ignorance of the other servants had hither-
to put in force, far too successfully, to thin the numbers of
this poor, harmless, unsuspecting tribe. On the ruin of the
old gateway, against which, tradition says, the waves of the
lake have dashed for the better part of a thousand years, I
made a place with stone and mortar, about 4 ft. square, and
fixed a thick oaken stick firmly into it. Huge masses of ivy
now quite cover it. In about a month or so after it was
finished, a pair of barn owls came and took up their abode in
it. .1 threatened to strangle the keeper if ever, after this, he
molested either the old birds or their young ones; and I
assured the housekeeper that I would take upon myself the
whole responsibility of all the sickness, woe, and sorrow that
the new tenants might bring into the Hall. She made a low
courtesy; as much as to say, " Sir, I fall into your will and
pleasure : " but I saw in her eye that she had made up her
mind to have to do with things of fearful and portentous
shape, and to hear many a midnight wailing in the surround-
ing woods. I do not think that, up to the day of this old
lady's death, which took place in her eighty-fourth year, she
ever looked with pleasure or contentment on the barn owl, as
it flew round the large sycamore trees which grow near the old
ruined gateway.

When I found that this first settlement on the gateway had
succeeded so well, I set about forming other establishments.
This year I have had four broods, and I trust that next sea-
son 1 can calculate on having nine. This will be a pretty
increase, and it will help to supply the place of those which
in this neighbourhood are still unfortunately doomed to
death, by the hand of cruelty or superstition. We can now
always have a peep at the owls, in their habitation on the old
ruined gateway, whenever we choose. Confident of protec-
tion, these pretty birds betray no fear when the stranger
mounts up to their place of abode. I would here venture a
surmise, that the barn owl sleeps standing. Whenever we go
to look at it, we invariably see it upon the perch bolt upright,
and often with its eyes closed, apparently fast asleep. Buffon
and Bewick err (no doubt, unintentionally) when they say
that the barn owl snores during its repose. What they took
for snoring was the cry of the young birds for food. I had
fully satisfied myself on this score some years ago. How-
ever, in December, 1823, I was much astonished to hear this
same snoring kind of noise, which had been so common in the

and its Benefits to Man, Ji3

month of July. On ascending the ruin, I found a brood of
young owls in the apartment.

Upon this ruin is placed a perch, about a foot from the
hole at which the owls enter. Sometimes, at midday, when
the weather is gloomy, you may see an owl upon it, ap-
parently enjoying the refreshing diurnal breeze. This year
(1831) a pair of barn owls hatched their young, on the 7th of
September, in a sycamore tree, near the old ruined gateway.

If this useful bird caught its food by day, instead of hunting
for it by night, mankind would have ocular demonstration
of its utility in thinning the country of mice, and it would be
protected and encouraged every where. It would be with us
what the ibis was with the Egyptians. When it has young,
it will bring a mouse to the nest about every twelve or fifteen
minutes. But, in order to have a proper idea of the enor-
mous quantity of mice which this bird destroys, we must exa-
mine the pellets which it ejects from its stomach in the place
of its retreat. Every pellet contains from four to seven ske-
letons of mice. In sixteen months from the time that the
apartment of the owl on the old gateway was cleaned out,
there has been a deposit of above a bushel of pellets.

The barn owl sometimes carries off rats. One evening I
was sitting under a shed, and killed a very large rat, as it
was coming out of a hole, about ten yards from where I was
watching it I did not go to take it up, hoping to get an-
other shot. As it lay there, a barn owl pounced upon it, and
flew away with it.

This bird has been known to catch fish. Some years ago,
on a fine evening in the month of July, long before it was
dark, as I was standing on the middle of the bridge, and
minuting the owl by my watch, as she brought mice into her
nest, all on a sudden she dropped perpendicularly into the water.
Thinking that she had fallen down in epilepsy, my first
thoughts were to go and fetch the boat ; but before I had
well got to the end of the bridge, I saw the owl rise out of
the water with a fish in her claws, and take it to the nest.
This fact is mentioned by the late much revered and lamented
Mr. Atkinson of Leeds, in his Compendium^ in a note, under
the signature of W., a friend of his, to whom I had commu-
nicated it a few days after I had witnessed it.

I cannot make up my mind to pay any attention to the
description of the amours of the owl by a modern writer ;
at least the barn owl plays off no buffooneries here, such as
those which he describes. An owl is an owl all the world
over, whether under the influence of Momus, Venus, or
Diana.

When farmers complain that the barn owl destroys the

14 Habits of the Barn Owl,

eggs of their pigeon, they lay the saddle on the wrong horse.
They ought to put it on the rat. Formerly I could get very
few young pigeons till the rats were excluded effectually
from the dovecot. Since that took place, it has produced
a great abundance every year, though the barn owls frequent
it, and are encouraged all around it. The barn owl merely
resorts to it for repose and concealment. If it were really an
enemy to the dovecot, we should see the pigeons in com-
motion as soon as it begins its evening flight ; but the pigeons
heed it not : whereas, if the sparrowhawk or windhover should
make their appearance, the whole community would be up at
once, proof sufficient that the barn owl is not looked upon
as a bad, or even a suspicious, character by the inhabitants of
the dovecot.

Till lately, a great and well-known distinction has always
been made betwixt the screeching and the hooting of owls.
The tawny owl is the only owl which hoots ; and when I am
in the woods after poachers, about an hour before daybreak,
I hear with extreme delight its loud, clear, and sonorous
notes, resounding far and near through hill and dale. Very
different from these notes is the screech of the barn owl. But
Sir William Jardine informs us that this owl hoots; and
that he has shot it in the act of hooting. This is stiff autho-
rity ; and I believe it because it comes from the pen of Sir
William Jardine. Still, however, methinks that it ought to
be taken in a somewhat diluted state ; we know full well that
most extraordinary examples of splendid talent do, from time
to time, make their appearance on the world's wide stage.
Thus, Franklin brought down fire from the skies : — " Eripuit
fulmen coelo, sceptrumque tyrannis." * Paganini has led all
London captive, by a single piece of twisted catgut : — " Tu
potes reges comitesque stultos ducere."f Leibnitz tells us
of a dog in Germany that could pronounce distinctly thirty
words. Goldsmith informs us that he once heard a raven
whistle the tune of the " Shamrock," with great distinctness,
truth, and humour. With these splendid examples before
our eyes, may we not be inclined to suppose that the barn
owl which Sir William .shot in the absolute act of hooting
may have been a gifted bird, of superior parts and know-
ledge (una de multis J, as Horace said of Miss Danaus), en-
dowed, perhaps, from its early days with the faculty of hoot-
ing, or else skilled in the art by having been taught it by

* '* He snatched lightning from heaven, and the sceptre from tyrants."
+ '* Thou canst lead kings and their silly nobles."
\ " One out of many."

Fishes new to the British Fauna, 15

its neighbour, the tawny owl ? I beg to remark, that though
I unhesitatingly grant the faculty of hooting to this one par-
ticular individual owl, still I flatly refuse to believe that
hooting is common to barn owls in general. Ovid, in his
sixth book Fastorum, pointedly says that it screeched in his
day: —

" Est illis strigibus nomen ; sed nominis hujus
Causa, quod horrenda stridere nocte solent." *

The barn owl may be heard shrieking here perpetually on
the portico, and in the large sycamore trees near the house.
It shrieks equally when the moon shines and when the night
is rough and cloudy ; and he who takes an interest in it may
here see the barn owl the niffht throucrh when there is a
moon ; and he may hear it shriek when perching on the trees,
or when it is on wing. He may see it and hear it shriek,
within a few yards of him, long before dark ; and again, often
after daybreak, before it takes its final departure to its wonted
resting place. I am amply repaid for the pains I have taken
to protect and encourage the barn owl ; it pays me a hun-
dred-fold by the enormous quantity of mice which it destroys
throughout the year. The servants now no longer wish to
persecute it. Often, on a fine summer's evening, with delight
I see the villagers loitering under the sycamore trees longer
than they would otherwise do, to have a peep at the barn owl,
as it leaves the ivy-mantled tower: fortunate for it, if, in
lieu of exposing itself to danger, by mixing with the world at
large, it only knew the advantage of passing its nights at
home ; for here

" No birds that haunt my valley free
To slaughter I condemn ;
Taught by the Power that pities me,
I learn to pity them.'*

Charles Waterton.
Walton Hall, Novembe?' 26. 1831.

Art. IV. Fishes nexv to the British Fauna, contained in Couch's
*' History of the Fishes of CormvalL'^ By Jonathan Couch,
Esq. F.L.S. &c.

Midge (Cilia^ta glau'ca); Class II. Jugular Fishes.

The Midge {fig. 2.) is about 1 J in. in length ; the body
moderately elongated, the proportions much resembling those

* " They are called owls (striges), because they are accustomed to
screech (stridere) by night."

16 Fishes ?ie'w to the British Fawia,

of the whiting ; head obtuse ; upper jaw longest, having four
barbs, the under jaw one ; teeth in both jaws ; gill membrane
2 with seven rays; eye large and

bright; pectoral and ventral fins
rather large for the size of the
fish ; a ciliated membrane placed
in a chink behind the head ; the dorsal and anal fins reach
almost to the tail, which is large and straight; scales deci-
duous; colour on the back a bluish green, belly and fins
silvery.

Sp. Ch. Back bluish green, all besides silvery, five barbs.

a

It is the mackarel midge of our fishermen, to whom it is
well known, though hitherto unnoticed by naturalists. For
brevity's sake, I have retained only the name Midge, which
is probably descriptive of its minute size ; being the smallest
fish I have any knowledge of.* Compared with the min-
now, it is minute ; and, placed by the side of the mighty
whale, —

" That sea-beast, which God of all his works
Created hugest, that swim the ocean stream ;
Him haply slumbering on the Norway foam,
The pilot of some small night-founder'd skiff

Deeming some island,"

t ■ • -'^ ■

it seems to illustrate the creative energy of that Being in
whom all live and move; for these also " are his offspring.'*

It may, perhaps, be the fish alluded to by Ray {S^/n. Pise,
p. 165.), and seems to be one of the many spoken of by the
older naturalists under the name of A'pua. From their minute
size, and the multitudes in which they sometimes appear,
they judged them produced by spontaneous generation from
the froth of the sea or the putrefaction of marine sub-
stances.

This species is gregarious and migratory, making its first
appearance about the middle of May. Through the summer,
and particularly in fine weather, they are in considerable
numbers, swimming near the surface, when they are followed
by mackarel and pollacks, and other fish, which devour mul-
titudes of them. When winter approaches, they disappear ;
but it can scarcely be supposed that they go to a great
distance.

* The word midgein means a very small quantity, in common lan-
guage, in Cornwall. I find also the word midge used for a gnat in Haw-
kins's edition of Walton's Angler j part ii. p. 104.

contained in Couch's " Fishes of Cornwall" 1 7

Spanish Bream (5'pa^rus L. ^ry'thrinus C); Class III. Thoracic Fishes.

This species {Jig, 3.) bears a great resemblance to the sea
bream, and will best be described in comparison with it. It

3

is the size of a small bream ; the body rather more slender ;
head flatter on the top ; eyes smaller, inclining to oval. Before
the eye the head is more protruded ; the mouth with a wider
gape. Front teeth as in the bream ; grinders more broad
and blunt ; scarcely a depression before the eyes to receive
the nasal orifices, though in the bream they are conspicuous ;
fins as in the bream, even to the numbers of the rays, except
the pectoral, which in the bream reaches opposite to the third
ray of the anal fin ; in this fish, opposite only to the vent.
There is no lateral spot. This description agrees so well
with what Ray delivers of the J^rythrinus {Si/n. Pise, p. 132.),
that I suppose it to be the same fish.

The name given above is that by which it is known to our
fishermen. It is rare, as I have never seen above two or
three specimens. Its habits seem to be like those of the
bream.

CoRKWiNG (Xa^brus L. gi'bbus L.)', Class III. Thoracic Fishes.

This species {fig. 4.) is about three times as long as it is
broad, and much compressed ; jaws equal, mouth narrow,

4

gape small, teeth regular ; first plate of the gill covers ser-
rate, gill membrane with five rays ; large scales on the head
and body ; lateral line nearer the back, bending down sud-
denly opposite the termination of the dorsal fin. Pectoral
Vol. v. — No. 23. c

18 Fishes new to the British Fauna,

fin round, with fourteen rays ; dorsal fin with sixteen firm
and nine soft rays ; ventrals close together, with six rays, the
outermost firm ; anal fin with three firm and nine soft rays,
the last two from one root ; tail slightly rounded, with four-
teen rays. Colour of the head and summit of the back
brownish ; stripes of red and green on the gill covers ; sides
a faint green with numerous lightish red stripes. The fins
are similarly variegated, but all the colours, though subject
to variety as in others of this genus, are fainter than in most
others. Near the tail, close to the termination of the lateral
line, is a conspicuous black mark, which is sometimes want-
ing ; and then it seems to me to constitute the gibbous wrass
of British naturalists, which is therefore only a variety of the
above. The iris of the eye is marked with yellow, green,
and crimson, in concentric circles. It rarely exceeds 4 in. in
length.

The cork wing is common among rocks in shallow water,
where it seeks shelter among the sea-weeds ; it is often found
among them in pools left by the tide. It feeds on crustaceous
animals, and takes a bait.

Wrass (Xa^brus Lin. lu'squs, Lin. ?).

This specimen (Jig, 5.) was 22 in. long, the greatest depth,
exclusive of the fins, 2\ in., the body plump and rounded.

Head elongated, lips membranous, teeth numerous, in several
rows, those in front larger and more prominent, rather in-
curved. Eye moderately large. Anterior gill plate serrate,
six gill rays. Body and gill covers with large scales. Lateral
line nearer the back, descending with a sweep opposite the
termination of the dorsal fin, thence backward straight. Dor-
sal fin, twenty-one firm, eight soft rays, the fin connected with
the latter expanded, reaching to the base of the tail ; pectorals
round, fourteen rays ; ventrals six rays, the outermost simple,
stout, firm, tipped ; between these fins a large scale. Anal
fin, six firm, eight soft rays, the latter a soft portion expanded.
Tail round, fifteen rays. Between each ray of the dorsal,

contained in Couches ^^ Fishes of ConmalV^ 19

anal, and caudal fins is a process formed of firm elongated
imbricated scales. Colour a uniform light brown, lighter on
the belly ; upper eyelid black ; at the edge of the base of the
caudal fin a dark-brown spot. Pectorals yellow, all the other
fins bordered with yellow.

I have never seen more than one specimen of this species;
which was taken with a line, in February, 1830, at the con-
clusion of a very cold season. It differs from the common
wrass and corkwing in its more elongated form and rounder
make ; from the former also in its serrated gill cover. From
the rock-cook and goldsinny it may be distinguished, be-
sides in its larger size, by its longer form, larger mouth,
rounder tail, and by the spot at the root of the tail being far-
ther behind. The eye is larger than in the cook, and nearer
the angle of the mouth ; it may also be distinguished by the
serrated gill cover, form of the lateral line, by more numerous
tipped dorsal and anal spines, less rounded tail ; as well as
by the colours, which are sober, whereas those of the cook
are always splendid, and are little subject to variety, except
of distribution. From all the species with which I am ac-
quainted, it may be readily known by the singular imbricated
process of scales between the rays of the fins. I find some
difficulty in referring it to any described species ; but it seems
to me to approach most closely to the Z/abrus luscus of Lin-
naeus.

Hog Wrass (La^brus sui'llus L.).

Dorsal fin filamentous, above the tail a black spot ; dorsal
spines nine. Osbeck is my only authority for introducing
this species among Cornish fishes. When on his voyage from
the East, the people of the Scilly Islands brought it, among
other fishes, on board of his ship for sale. {Osbeck^ s Voyage^
vol. ii. p. ]22.) The English name I have assigned it is
merely a translation of the Linnaean term.

Smooth Perch (Pp^ecaZ/. Cha'nnus C.)j Class III. Thoracic Fishes.

I had long unavailingly sought for a satisfactory account
of this species in the books on natural history to which
I was able to procure access, when I had unexpectedly the
good fortune to discover it in Gesner {Nomenclator Aquat.
Anim,, p. 27.), under the name of Ch^nnus, or Channa ; his
figure and account being strikingly applicable to this fish in a
peculiarity I had remarked before I was attracted by the note
in this ancient author, from which, indeed, the name is derived.
" Channa piscis moriens perpetuo hiat, ac rictum edit." * As

* " The Channa, whilst dying, perpetually gasps and eructs."
c 2

20 Fishes new to the British Fauna,

the Channus, or Channa, of Gesner is unquestionably the
Channa of Ray {Si/n, Pise, p. 140.), it is the iabrus Channus
of Turton, though it possesses none of the characters of a
wrass. It must, therefore, be denominated Perca Channus.

This fish {Jig, 6.) is about 10 in. long. Under jaw longest ;
teeth in both and in the palate, numerous, irregular, sharp,
incurved ; tongue small, loose. Eyes large, near the top of
the head. First plate of the gill covers serrate, the second
with two (in the female, one) obscure spines, scarcely to be
distinguished, except in form, from the scales with which the
gill covers and body are thickly and firmly covered, and which
are also ciliated. Seven rays in the gill membrane, curved,
the superior broad. Body compressed, deep ; the dorsal fin
commences opposite the ventral, ten sharp and fourteen soft
rays ; pectoral fin ending in a point, fifteen rays ; ventrals with
six rays ; anal with two pointed and seven soft rays ; caudal
fin slightly curved, seventeen rays. Lateral line nearer the
back. Colour of the back brown, in some specimens having
distinct bars running round to the belly ; sides yellow, red-
dish or saffron-coloured, more faint below; two irregular
parallel whitish lines pass along the side from head to tail ; a
third, more imperfect, on the belly. On the gill plates are
several faintish blue stripes, running obliquely downward.
The fins are striped longitudinally with red and yellow, pec-
torals wholly yellow.

I have suspected this to be the P. diagramma Lin., com-
paring his specific character with the description of that
species given by Gronovius ; but I feel some doubt, since the
latter is spot en of as inhabiting Indian rivers. Until this ob-
scurity was removed by discovering its name in Gesner's
Nomenclator Aquat. Anim., p. 2?., as noticed above, I had ven-
tured to name it P. inermis. It is the comber of our fishermen ;
but this name having been irrecoverably assigned to a species
of wrass, I am compelled to affix a name of my own invention,
viz. smooth perch. It is a common fish, and keeps in the
neighbourhood of rocks, not far from land. It is singular
that the spasm which seizes this fish, when taken, never passes

contained in Couch's " Fishes of Cornisoall." 21

oiF; hence it is found long after death in a state of rigidity
and contortion, with the fins preternaturally erect.

Dusky Perch (Pe'rca L. robu'sta C).

The fish [Jig, 7.) from which my description was taken weighed
sixteen pounds, and measured 3 ft. in length, and 7 in. in

depth, exclusive of the fins, the body thick and solid. Under
jaw longest, both, as well as the palate, having numerous
slender incurved teeth ; in front of the under jaw was a bed
of them. Lips like those of the codfish, two large open nasal
orifices, and a large hole under the projection of the nasal
bone. First plate of the gill covers serrate, the second with
a broad flat spine projecting through the skin, and pointing
backward ; the fleshy covering of the gill covers elongated
posteriorly ; seven rays in the gill membrane. Body and head
covered with large scales, lateral line gently curved. Dorsal
fin single, long, expanding towards its termination, with eleven
spinous rays, the first short, and seventeen soft rays, the two
last from one origin. Pectoral fin round, nineteen rays ; ven-
trals fastened down by a membrane through part of their course,
six rays. Vent an inch and a half from the origin of the anal
fin, which fin has two spinous and nine soft rays, the last two
from one origin. Tail roundish, sixteen rays. Colour of the
back reddish brown, lighter on the belly; two slightly marked
lines on the gill covers running obliquely downward, one on
each plate. The gill covers are not ridged. In its aspect
this fish has some resemblance to the jLabri, yet it has none
of the generic characters by which these fishes are distin-
guished. That it should be placed among the perches I
make no question ; but my most industrious search has not
been able to find that it has been either figured or described :
until, therefore, some other naturalist shall be more fortunate,
I venture to denominate it P, robusta, from its great size and
strength. I have never seen more than one specimen, which
was taken with a line.

c 3

22 Fishes new to the British Fauna^

BuRACO DE Velha, Gen. ?

This fish is 12 or 14 in. long, and 4 in. wide ; from the head
the back is elevated and arched; the head itself sharp, in
each jaw a row of very small teeth. The lower part of the
mouth and tongue a bright red, iris of the eye gold and dusky.
A single dorsal fin, the first rays firm, the posterior flexile ;
tail forked; scales moderate, silvery, bluish from the head
along the back; lateral line white. [Ray, Syn. Pise, p. 134.)

I am uncertain whether this fish is rightly arranged among
the Percae ; and unfortunately I was prevented from examining
a species that was taken at Looe a few years since, of which I
received an account from that place. This is probably the
only instance of its having ever visited the British seas.

Spanish Mackarel (aSco'mber L. macula^tus C.) ;
Class in. Thoracic Fishes.

This fish (Jig. 8.) attains the weight of four or five pounds ;
but the specimen described measured no more than 14^ in. in

length, the figure round and plump, 6 J in. in compass near the
pectoral fins, the thickness of its figure being carried far to-
wards the tail. Mouth large, jaws of equal length, teeth small,
tongue movable and pointed. Head large and long; eye
large, l^in. from the snout, and itself | in. wide; from the
snout to the pectoral fin SJ in. Rays of the gill membrane
six, concealed. Lateral line at first slightly descending, then
straight. Scales on the superior plate of the gill covers, as
well as on the body. First dorsal fin in a chink, seven rays,
the first shorter, second and third of equal lengths ; spurious
fins six above and below, the anterior not high ; tail divided,
and at its origin doubly carinated. Vent prominent. Colour
dark blue on the back, striped like the mackarel, but more
obscurely and with fewer stripes ; a row of large dark spots
from the pectoral fin to the tail, sides and belly thickly
covered with smaller dusky spots. The tail, gill covers and
sides, and behind the eye, bright yellow. From the mackarel,
which it resembles, this fish differs in the markings of the
head, longer snout, larger e}e and gape, longer head, and in

contained in Cotich^s " Fishes of Corn^mallJ*

23

having scales on the anterior gill covers. The body is not
nearly so much attenuated posteriorly ; the ventral fins are
sharp and slender, those of the mackarel wider and more
blunt : in the former, the pectorals lie close to the body ; in
the latter, they stand off; in the latter, also, is a large angular
plate, the point directed backward, close above the pectoral
fins, which does not exist in the Spanish mackarel iS, macu-
latus C).

It seems to be the Colias RondeleteV of Ray. {Syn. Pisc.^
p. 59.) I have given it the name by which it is known to our
fishermen. ;

This fish is scarce, but some are taken every year. It does
not often take a bait, although the fishermen inform me that
this sometimes happens ; and that its infrequency is owing to
the difference of feeding rather than to want of rapacity. It
is more frequently taken in drift nets ; but even then it is only
one at a time, and at considerable intervals. It is in no esti-
mation as food.

Mud Lamprey (Petromy"^zon L. c^^cus Ray); Class VI. Chou'
dropterygous Fishes.

This species {Jigs, 9, 10.) grows to the length of 6 in., and
is about the size of a goose-quill. The mouth, when open, is

irregularly oval, throat capacious, teeth large and blunt,
placed circularly from the roof of the mouth to the under
jaw ; upper lip prominent, fleshy, movable at the sides.
Orifice on the head ; apertures for breathing along the sides,
seven in number. The body dilated at this part. No eye
discoverable. Body cylindrical to the vent, which is far
back, thence compressed, tapering. First dorsal fin on the
hind part of the back, small and narrow ; the second close to
it, elevated, and then narrow, passing round the extremity of
the body, and below reaching half-way from the tail to the
vent. Colour a dusky yellow, dark on the back, light below ;
fins light.

c 4

24- Analogy between Vegetables and Animals

This species, from the absence of eyes, is sufficiently dis-
tinguished from others of its genus. It is mentioned by Ray
{Syn, Pise, p. 35.), but omitted in later systems of natural
history.

If in its habits the silver lamprey (P. fluviatilis L,) bears
a resemblance to the glutton (t/'rsus gulo L.\ this makes
as near an approach to the mole ( Talpa europae'a L.), It
frequents our smaller streams, living in the muddy bottom,
from which it rarely, if ever, w^ilHngly emerges. I have
kept it for months in stagnant water, with mud at the bot-
tom, without injury to its health or activity. The only
apparent use of its fins is to enable it to regain its station,
when forced from it by violent torrents. When kept in clear
water it seems to sleep much. I have never found this species
to attach itself to any object by the mouth ; but the lips are
capable of extensive and complicated motions. It spawns
at the end of April and the beginning of May. Fishermen
collect them to use as bait when whiffing for pollacks.

Art. V. An Essay on the Analogy between the Structure and
Functions of Vegetables and Animals. By William Gordon-,
Esq. Surgeon, Welton, near Hull. Read before the Hull Lite-
rary and Philosophical Society, Nov. 19. 1830. Communicated
by Mr. Gordon.

{Continued from Vol. IV. p. 393.)

I HAVE now pointed out the close analogy that exists be-
tween vegetables and animals, in so far as it regards the form
of their ultimate corpuscles, the composition, and extensive
diffiision of their membranous matter, the structure of their
cellular tissue, and the organisation and functions of their
cutaneous system. I shall next endeavour to show that
plants, as well as animal beings, possess a muscular tissue.
In order to do this, I must first take a review of the proper-
ties of muscular fibre, as they are exhibited in the animal
body.

The properties of muscle may be divided into physical and
vital. The former are, cohesion, flexibility, extensibility, and
elasticity. On these it is not necessary for me to make any
observations. The vital property of muscle is what more
immediately concerns our subject, and is termed contractility :
it is that specific faculty which muscular fibre possesses of
contracting or shortening itself. When a stimulant is applied
to a muscle, its fibres are thrown into what is called a state of
contraction : its belly swells out, and grows hard to the touch ;
its surface, which in its natural condition was smooth, becomes

in their Structure and Functions, 25

wrinkled, and its two extremities approximate, so that the
parts to which they are attached are drawn nearer together :
thus, when the biceps flexor muscle is made to contract, the
forearm and hand are raised towards the shoulder. Con-
tractility, or, as it is called by some, irritability, is peculiar to
muscular fibre, and does not belong to any other animal solid
whatever. Blumenbach has, indeed, ascribed to membrane a
kind of contractile power ; but the example of it which he
adduces can, with more propriety, be referred to elasticity.
Muscular contraction never takes place, except on the applica-
tion to the muscular fibre of some irritating agent, which is
called a stimulus. These agents or stimuli are exceedingly
numerous, and consist of mechanical impulses of every degree,
of a variety of chemical substances, of electricity, and of
volition. The older physiologists endeavoured to account for
contractility on mechanical principles, and to refer it to the
operation of elasticity ; but, if we carefully note the phenomena
that attend it, we shall perceive that it bears no analogy what-
ever to this or any other species of mechanical force.

In the first place, the contraction of a muscle is always
greater than the cause by which it is produced : so that it
appears that in contractility there is an actual generation of
power ; whereas, in the reaction of elastic bodies, the effect
produced can never exceed the amount of the cause producing
it. In the second place, in contractility, the reaction com-
mences during the application of the mechanical agent ; but in
elasticity, the reaction cannot take place until the force that
had been impressed is removed. For example, if a straight
piece of whalebone be bent into a curve, it cannot regain its
original form until one of its extremities be liberated ; but, if
the surface of a muscle be scratched with a sharp-pointed
instrument, its fibres begin to contract the very moment the
operation is commenced. In the third place, the contraction
of muscular fibres, after continuing some time, is succeeded
by a state of relaxation or exhaustion, even although the
stimulus continues to be applied to them ; and muscles which
have become exhausted or relaxed, after having been in a state
of contractility, cannot be again excited to act until a certain
period has elapsed. In mechanics, there is nothing which bears
the slightest resemblance to this ; for in every description of
machinery a certain effect will always be produced so long as
the application of an efficient cause is continued. Such are
the properties of muscular fibre, and such are the phenomena
attendant upon and peculiar to contractility.

We shall now proceed to examine some of the actions of
vegetable organs. If we can discover that these actions are
accompanied with phenomena such as we know can only be

26 Analogy between Vegetables and Animals

i-eferred to muscular contraction, shall we not be justified in
concluding that vegetables, as well as animals, are furnished
with muscular organs. Most persons are aware that when
the lower part of the stamens of the flower of the berberry
{Berberis vulgaris) are touched, however slightly, they in-
stantly bend themselves towards the pistil ; in a short time
they become relaxed, and resume their natural position. The
contractile effect in this case, as far as I have observed, is
always much greater than the amount of the cause by which
it is produced; and, in experiments, I have witnessed that
relaxation will take place at the same time that the mechanical
cause which excited the contraction continues to be impressed.
Moreover, the stamen of the berberry can be made to contract,
even after it is cut from the flower, precisely in the same
manner as the heart can be excited to action after it has been
removed from the body. In the sensitive plant [or rather,
humble plant, Mimosa pudica] we perceive very strong indi-
cations of contractility. It is well known that its leaves will
collapse on the slightest touch, and fold themselves up. The
Dionae^a Muscipula is another striking example of the existence
of muscular contractility in plants. The leaves are each ter-
minated by two lobes, which are furnished with long spines,
and besmeared by a fluid substance which they secrete. As
soon as a fly alights upon the lobes they immediately close,
and, by squeezing the insect forcibly upon their points, they
kill it almost instantaneously. The upper surface of the leaves
of the Drosera rotundifolia (common or round-leaved sundew)
is covered with a number of small red hairs, on the extremity
of each of which is placed a globule of viscid fluid. When
an insect comes upon the leaf, the hairs, which are very con-
tractile, bend round it on every side, and keep it fast. The
viscid globules also serve to detain it; but their chief use seems
to be to destroy its life, which, by their excessive acrimony,
they speedily accomplish. The two lips of the stigma of the
Gloxinm*, before fructification, are seen to open; but, as soon
as a particle of pollen falls upon their inner surface, they
instantly close. From these examples, and I could adduce
many more, it will be perceived that several of the actions of
plants are attended with phenomena which can be attributed

* In which, or in every, species of Gloxink ? The stigma in the genus
ikfimulus is also formed of two broad lips, which in warm weather are dis-
tended, but promptly collapse on being touched; M. luteus evinces this
irritability very conspicuously, in which species it was discovered, and first
pointed out to me, by a botanical assistant, Mr. George Woolsey. I have
subsequently examined M. moschatus, and other species of this genus
which exhibit the same phenomenon, although in a lower degree than
M. luteus does. Mi*. David Don informs me that the lips of the stigma
in M. glutinosus are eminently sensitive. — .7. D,

in their Structure and Functions. 27

only to contractility. They cannot be the result of elasticity,
or of any mechanical arrangement, for they entirely resemble
the phenomena which accompany muscular contraction, as
it is exhibited in the animal body. In conclusion, I may
remark, that the strongest indications of contractility are,
perhaps, perceived in the petals, stamens, and other organs
of the flower. Accordingly, we find that these are the most
animalised parts of plants ; for their chemical composition
agrees with that of muscular fibre, the ultimate elements of
which consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, with a large pro-
portion of azote.

That many of the movements of plants are purely mechani-
cal there can be little doubt; we may take, for example, the
movements of the Celosia, and those of the Parietaria, and
of many others : but that those I have enumerated are the
result of contractility, and of contractility alone, cannot, I
think, for a moment be questioned. But perhaps it will be
argued, that, if we assign to plants the property of contractility,
we must likewise endue thern with a nervous system ; because,
according to some physiologists, muscular contraction cannot
take place without the intervention of nerves. They affirm,
that, when a muscle is operated upon by a stimulant so as
to be excited to contract, the impression is not, in the first
instance, made upon the muscular fibre itself, but that it is
first received by the nerves connected with the muscle, and
then transmitted by them to the muscular fibre. It will be
seen, however, from various facts which I shall state, that this
opinion is not correct, and that the property of contractility is
totally independent of the agency of the nerves. In the first
place, it is well known that the heart is formed a considerable
time before the brain ; for, if the chick in an egg be attentively
examined during the earliest periods of existence, the only
mark of life that can be perceived is a small beating point, called
the punctum saliens. This point gradually expands, and is
converted into the muscular substance of the heart. It is not,
however, until some time after the heart has been seen to
pulsate that the brain and nervous system become visible : so
that it is evident that the action of the heart is independent
of the influence of the nerves. In the second place, we know
that the quantity of nerves with which the heart is supplied
bears no proportion to its degree of contractility. Thirdly,
the heart, and many other muscular parts, long after they are
removed from the body, will contract very forcibly on the
application of a stimulant. Fourthly, mature foetuses have been
born, in whom there was no vestige either of a brain or a
spinal cord ; and it has been shown by experiment that the
heart will continue its contractions, as usual, for some time

28 Analogy betweeri Vegetables and Animals

after both the brain and spinal marrow have been totally
destroyed. In the fifth and last place, if the nerves belonging
to the right extremity of an animal be divided, as was done
in the experiment of Dr. PhiUp, related in his Experimental
Inquiry^ while those of the left extremity are allowed to remain
entire, and if the corresponding muscles of each extremity be
made to contract by the direct application of a stimulant, it
will be found that those belonging to the extremity in which
the nerves are divided do not lose their contractility sooner
than those attached to the extremity in which the nerves are
left untouched, and scarcely so soon. Besides, it seems very
clear that the involuntary muscles, as in the heart, &c., which
are continually moving, have no nerves of motion whatever.
They have only nerves of simple sensation ; for these muscles
are not stimulated to contract when electricity is applied to
the nerves which are distributed to them ; and we know that
electric fluid is incapable of acting upon the simply sensitive
nerves, while it operates powerfully on the nerves of motion.
Such are the proofs that contractility is an inherent power
of the muscles, and is independent of the nervous system.

This being the case, then, it is clear that, although plants
may possess a muscular or contractile, they may, nevertheless,
be entirely destitute of a nervous, structure; for it is very
evident that the existence of the latter is not necessary to that
of the former. Since, then, contractility can exist independent
of the agency of the nerves, it follows that it may be exercised
without consciousness ; for there can be no consciousness
apart from a nervous system. Plants, therefore, notwith-
standing they are possessed of strong contractile power, may
be, nevertheless, perfectly unconscious beings. To prove,
indeed, that contractility may be performed without conscious-
ness, we have only to take note of what is going on within
own persons. The heart and blood-vessels are constantly cir-
culating the blood, the bowels are propelling forward the
chyle and faeces, and the diaphragm is every moment con-
tracting and relaxing. All these functions depend upon con-
tractility, and yet they are perfectly imperceptible to the mind.
The instinct of plants (for plants possess instinct as well as
animals) results from their contractile power. Plants will
seek and turn towards the light ; the roots of plants will go
in search of proper nourishment, and, if they approach a
situation which would be injurious to them, they instantly
turn away from it. If a plant be laid on a table, near a
sponge filled with water, it will direct its roots towards the
sponge. If the sponge be removed to another place, the
roots will likewise change their direction in pursuit of it. The

in their Structure and Functions, 29

hop plant, turning round a pole, follows the course of the sun
from east to west : these are all examples of instinct.

I have now endeavoured to prove that a muscular tissue
exists in vegetables as well as animals. My next object will
be to show that plants likewise possess a nervous tissue. In
doing this, I am not unconscious upon what very debatable
ground I am entering. At the same time, I must confess
that the facts which the researches of physiologists have dis-
covered render it more than probable that plants are endued
with nerves. The nervous system, as it is found in man and
the higher classes of animals, consists of the brain, the spinal
cord, the ganglia, and the nerves. The brain is enveloped
in three distinct membranes, and is encased in the bones of
the cranium. The spinal cord, which is merely a prolonga-
tion of the brain, is also enclosed in a strong membranous
covering, and is lodged within the cavity of the backbone.
The nerves are small white medullary cords, which take their
origin from the lower surface of the brain and from the lateral
parts of the spinal cord. They pass out through apertures
at the bottom of the skull and sides of the vertebrae, and are
ramified over every part of the body. The ganglia are found
in various parts of the nervous system. They resemble little
brains, and are supposed to be sources of nervous energy.
In many of the lower animals, as worms and insects, no brain
is to be found, but only one or two longitudinal nerves placed
in the centre of their bodies, having attached to them, at
various distances, minute ganglia from which fresh ramifica-
tions of nerves proceed. The faculty which the nervous
system exercises, is to receive and transmit the impressions of
external objects to the brain; where they may be rendered
sensible to the mind, giving rise to what are denominated
perceptions. This faculty is called sensibility, and it possesses
two distinct modes of operation. The one is produced by
external impressions, which are conveyed by the media
[means] of the nerves to the brain ; the other is derived from
some change being generated in the brain itself, which is
transmitted along the nerves to some of the corporeal organs.
This latter constitutes volition. Notwithstanding, however, that
nervous action is often succeeded by perception, yet there are
many cases in which impressions never become perceptible
to the mind : in other words, sensation is generally attended
with consciousness ; but it may exist without it. For example,
whenever the nerves of any of the external senses are acted
upon by their appropriate stimuli, as, for instance, when light
is applied to the eye, we are conscious of the impression ; but
when food is taken into the stomach, we feel no impression
or sensation at all ; and yet we know that the stomach is as

^0 Analogy bet'wee7i Vegetables and Animals.

sensible to the stimulus of food, as the eye is to that of light.
Are we, then, from these circumstances, to conclude that there
are two different classes of nerves, one of which exercises the
functions of perception and volition, while the other possesses
only the power of transmitting nervous influence, and is in-
capable of exciting perception. Mr. C. Bell, Majendie, and
other physiologists have proved by innumerable facts and
direct experiments, that there are two classes of nerves, per-
fectly distinct from each other. The first class is called the
symmetrical, and consists of the fifth cerebral, and all the
spinal nerves: they arise by double roots, and are ramified
upon the voluntary muscles : they constitute the organs of
perception and volition, and form the means whereby the
animal body is connected with the external world. The se-
cond class of nerves is termed the irregular, and it includes
what are called the respiratory and the ganglionic nerves^
They arise, by single roots, from the base of the medulla
oblongata [the medullary substance lying within the cranium
or skull, which is the beginning of the spinal marrow], and
are distributed to the conservative organs of the body, such as
the stomach, the lungs, the heart, &c., which they connect in-
timately together. They unite with the symmetrical nerves,
and form the bond of union between the two halves of the
body. Their property is to transmit the nervous influence
from one part to another ; but they do not possess the faculty
of communicating either perception or volition. From this
account it appears that there are no less than five distinct
sets of nerves. For instance, the symmetrical or regular
class consists of nerves of sensation and of nerves of motion.
If a nerve of sensation be pricked or irritated, great pain is
produced ; and, if the same nerve be divided, all sensation is
destroyed, but the function of motion is not in the least
impaired or affected : on the contrary, if a nerve of motion
be lacerated or injured, the muscles upon which its fila-
ments are ramified become convulsed ; but, if a motific [mo-
tion-causing] nerve be fairly cut in two, the motion of the
parts to which it is distributed is entirely lost, but their sens-
ation, or power of feeling, remains perfect and natural. The
irregular class consists of the nerves distributed to the muscles
concerned in the function of respiration ; and of the gan-
glionic nerves, which, as I have observed above, are con-
ducive to growth and nutrition. Besides these four sets, there
are the nerves of the external senses, such as the nerves of
touch, the olfactory, the optic, the auditory, and the gustatory
nerves.

{To be continued.')

Natural History of Molluscous Animals.

91

Art. VI. An Introduction to the Natural History of Molluscous
Animals. In a Series of Letters. By G. J.

Letter 9. On their Circulating System,

Sir,

Aristotle divides animals into those which have blood,
and those which have none ; and these primary classes were
appropriately named the sanguineous and exsanguineous.
Among the latter he places the Mollusca, as all naturalists
did for a long time afterwards, and as all, except naturalists,
continue to do. Blood is scarcely known to the vulgar unless
by its red colour ; and so essential is this character deemed,
that it appears to them little less than an abuse of language
to apply the term to any white or colourless fluid. Even
Linnaeus seems to have participated of this prejudice, and to
have yielded to its influence, when he called the circulating
fluid of the Mollusca a safiies : but to call it any thing else
than blood is apt to lead into error ; for it possesses all the
essential properties of blood, flows in an analogous circle of
vessels, and answers the same purposes in the system.

The circulating system of the Mollusca consists of a heart,
either single, or with its parts disjoined ; and of two kinds of
vessels, viz. arteries and veins : and the latter are supposed to
perform the additional function of absorbents ; for nothing

analogous to these has been
yet detected. The heart is
very various in point of
figure, but is always evi-
dently muscular, and has its
interior strengthened with
fleshy cords (columnae car-
nese), interlaced in every
direction, (^g, 24. *) It is
placed in general in the
back, above the alimentary
canal, near to or between
the branchiae, and in a cavity
usually called the pericardi-
um, and considered, accord-
ing to Blainville errone-
ously (Manuel de Malaco-
logie. Sec, p. 13L), as the
representative of the same sac in the vertebrate animals. The

* Interior view of the heart of Octopus vulgaris, from Cuvier. a, The
aorta j b, branchial veins ; c, the valves ; d, columnae carneas.

32 Natural History of Molluscous Animals : —

arteries are very elastic, and probably muscular, although no
fibres can be detected in their gelatinous structure ; their
coats are thicker and stronger than those of the veins, which,
indeed, are so extremely thin as frequently scarce to be distin-
guished from the tissues in which they run. The veins do not
appear to be provided with valves, as you know the veins of
other animals are; but valves are placed at the orifices be-
tween the cavities of the heart, and very often at the entrances
into the primary arterial and venous trunks.

With regard to the distribution of the sanguiferous vessels,
it will be necessary to give a sketch of it in the principal
orders separately; for it is subject to such important and
considerable modifications, that there would be great difficulty
in giving an intelligible view which would be applicable to
molluscous animals as a whole. We may, however, observe,
that, in all, the blood issuing from the heait is distributed
through the body by the medium of the arteries, and returned
towards the centre by the veins, which have united there into
one or a few trunks ; whence, again, they diverge into nume-
rous ramifications, to conduct the blood through the branchiae
or gills, to be brought back by a corresponding set of vessels
to its point of departure. The circulation, therefore, is essen-
tially the same as in the vertebrate animals; but there exists
in the latter an arrangement of vessels of a very peculiar
kind, for a circulation through the liver — the system, as it has
been called, of the vetia porta, — to which there is nothing
comparable in the MoUusca.

In the Cephalopoda there are three hearts. The true
systematic heart, marked a in the diagram annexed {Jig. 25.),
consists of a single cavity, and is situated towards the centre
of the bod}-^, between the gills. By its action the blood is
propelled directly into a large artery or aorta (&), and into
two smaller vessels, to be distributed, by their joint ramifi-
cations, to every organ and point of the body. One of
the small arteries comes off from the inferior surface, and
is destined to supply the testicle or ovary; the other rises from
the anterior surface, and supplies in part the gills, the sac,
and more especially the intestines and chylopoietic viscera;
but it is the aorta, issuing from the heart on the posterior
side, which carries the great mass of blood through the system,
to furnish new materials for its growth and secretions. From
the extreme branchlets of the arteries the blood flows on into
the capillary extremities of the veins, and commences its
return to the centre ; for the small branches of the latter ves-
sels converge and unite, by frequent anastomoses (inoscu-
lations), into larger ones, until they are collected into a few

Circulatmg System,

33

trunks. The veins of the feet and superior parts form ulti-
mately two of these (c), which almost immediately coalesce

into one greater (d) ; and this vessel, after descending through
part of the viscera into the abdomen, and receiving blood
from various little tributaries, again divides into two branches
(e e). Each branch is here joined by a vein (o) of a size equal
to itself, and which has brought the blood from the abdominal
viscera; and a little afterwards by another, from the cloak
and the supports of the gills. When thus augmented, they
proceed to their termination in the lateral hearts, placed, one
on each side, at the root of the branchiae. These hearts {/)
are called pulmonic; they are rather cellular than fleshy in
texture, moderately thick, of a blackish grey colour in some
genera, pale red in others, and pitted internally with many
little cavities communicating together. Two large valves
are placed at the venous orifice, to prevent regurgitation ; but
there is none at the orifice by which the blood enters the
Vol. V. -- No. 23. d *

S4 Natural History of Molluscous Animals: —

artery [g), whose function is to carry it forwards to the gills
or branchiae (/?), where, circulating through the windings of
their beautiful leaflets, it is purified, and thence returned by
veins running in the reverse direction, and which open at last
by a single trunk (z) into the systemic heart, again to run the
same endless circuit,

I have omitted in this description a very remarkable pecu-
liarity connected with the venous system, and which merits
our particular notice. Previously to their junction with the
pulmonic hearts, the two branches into which the great dorsal
vein bifurcates, and their accessory veins, pass across two
large cavities, called 'venous by Cuvier, which communicate
externally by an aperture on each side near the gills. In this
part of their course the veins are garnished with some very
singular glandular bodies (oc x, Jigs, 25. and 26.), of a spongy
cellular structure and yellow colour, from which an opaque
yellowish mucous secretion can be easily pressed in consider-
able quantity. The cells of these bodies open freely into one
another, and they have likewise a very free and direct com-
munication with the interior of the veins to which they are
appended ( fig. 26.); but of their use it is difficult to form an

^ opinion. Cuvier

l^^K yW^^^^-- :p vVf ^# which the venous

^^^^^:w!(^® ^^m. ^UJ t)lood is more fully

^M^IStefiil'%m,. ^^^^^f ^'"^ influence of
^^^^^HSI%''*'^tft • ^ %^ i the circumfluent wa-

<f ^^x^^^^^^^^^ excretory canals, by

^^^ glands pour into the

vein some substance which it could not of itself extract from
that fluid ; or, on the contrary, they may be emunctories, by
means of which the blood is purged of some noxious principle.
This last conjecture, he thinks, is rendered more probable by
the abundance of the yellowish mucus poured out; and it
is certain that the communication between the interior of.
these bodies and the medium in which the animals live is very
open ; for when air or an injection is thrown into the vein, the
air or the injection passes very readily through the glands
into the venous cavity, and thence outwards; or, on the con-
trary, if air is blown by its external orifice into this cavity, it

Circulating Si/stem. " ^5.

passes thence very often into the veins. " Were it practic-
able," says Dr. Fleming, " to analyse the yellow mucusi
which these glands contain, some light might be thrown on
the subject: indeed, it appears not improbable that this
arrangement is analogous in its functions to the urinary
system in the most perfect classes." {Philosophy of Zoology^
vol. ii. p. 4-26.)

The circulatory apparatus of the Gasteropoda is less com-
plex than that of the preceding order. They have a single
heart, the position of which in the body is regulated by the
position and symmetry of the branchiae; for, in molluscous as
in vertebrate animals, the heart is never far distant from the
aerating organs. In the greater number of the Gasteropoda
it is situated in the back, above the intestinal canal, at an
equal distance from each gill when this is paired, or obliquely
to tlie left, and rarely to the right, when it is single. It is
composed of an auricle and a ventricle: the former cavity is
very variable in shape, and has very thin but muscular walls ;
the latter is equally variable, but, in general, of greater
capacity, and more decidedly muscular. It is from one of
the extremities of its great diameter that the arterial or cen-
trifugal system proceeds ; sometimes by a single trunk, or
more commonly by two vessels. Of these, one is anterior,
and the other posterior : the first furnishes branches to the
head, to the gullet and adjacent organs ; while the second
sends its ramifications to the stomach, intestines, the liver,
and the secretory organs of generation. The blood is brought
back from these distant parts, as in other animals, by the
venous, or, as it has been happily designated, tlie centripetal
system ; the numerous branchlets of which, after repeated
inosculations, are at length united into one large trunk, which,
generally without the intervention of any dilatation or auricle,
assumes the character and office of a pulmonary artery, that
again divides and subdivides itself, to conduct the circulating
flood through all the sinuosities of the gills.

The description just given is liable to many exceptions^,
were we to descend to particular families and genera; and,
although in a sketch of the kind I attempt to give you, it is
impossible to notice all their peculiarities, yet it may be useful,
and not void of interest, to select a few examples illustrative
of the most remarkable anomalies in the arrangement of their
circulating system. The Tethys ^eporina {^fig. 27-*), a native
of the shores of the Balearic Isles, will afford our first instance.

* From Cuvier's Memoires pour servir a VHistoire et a VAnatomie des
Mollusques ; the most valuable work by far in this department of natural
history.

D 2

36

Natural History of Molluscous Animals : —

In this singular and beautiful creature, the heart is situated in
the middle of the back, immediately under the skin. Its

a. Veil; b, tentacula ; c, neck ; rf, organs of generation ; e, anus and another excretory
orifice j /, greater branchiae; g, lesser branchiae; h, margins of foot.

oval and very thin auricle receives the branchial veins, which
trend towards it like the spokes of a wheel towards the nave,
and pour into it the purified blood, not by one or two, but
by numerous orifices. The opening from the auricle to the
ventricle is furnished with two very distinct valves ; and, as
usual, the latter cavity is more fleshy and opaque than the
auricle, of an oval form, and strengthened with small muscular
cords. Two principal arteries take their departure from it ;
one of which, proceeding forwards, gives branches to the sto-
mach, oesophagus, to the organs of generation, to both sides
of the back and foot, and lastly loses itself in the veil ; while
the other artery, directing its course backwards, is principally
distributed on the rectum and liver. The veins issuing from
this organ, and from the intestines, run in the sides of the
body, where, in conjunction with the veins returning from the

Circulating System. 37

foot, the back, and the veil, they form ultimately two main
vessels to carry the blood to the branchiae ; which are external,
and arranged like crests, in two rows along the back, the
principal ornaments of the animal.

We may take our next example from among the terrestrial
Mollusca. The heart of the slug (Z/imax ater) is placed
almost on the middle of the pulmonary cavity, " included in
an extremely thin bag or pericardium, in whose cavity there
is abundance of watery moisture, as clear as the purest
crystal." The auricle is of a triangular figure ; the apex
resting on the superior surface of the oval ventricle, and the
much dilated base receiving the pulmonary veins, which, like
those of the Tethy5, open into it by many mouths. But the
peculiarity most worthy of notice in this animal is the colour
of its arteries ; an opaque and pure white, like what it would
be were we to suppose them filled with milk, and rendered
very obvious by the darkness of the grounds upon which the
vessels trace their course ; as, for example, in the intestines,
which are of a dark green ; or in the liver, which is of a
blackish brown colour. The finest injections do not produce
any thing, adds Cuvier, more agreeable to the eye of the
anatomist than the white ramifications of the arteries in the
black slug.

The most singular deviations from the normal structure and
disposition of the blood-vessels in the Gasteropoda are, how-
ever, to be found in the celebrated Aplysia. In this mollusque,
the great branchial vein receives the aerated blood from its
little tributaries, which penetrate it in such a manner that
their orifices form imperfect circles on the inner surface. The
vein itself runs along the convex border of a crescent-shaped
membrane, supporting the branchiae, and opens, as usual,
into the auricle ; remarkable for size and the thinness of its
parietes [walls], which resemble fine gauze, the very slender
fleshy filaments forming a pretty network. The ventricle is
oval, and its walls are also thin, although furnished with fleshy
columns, crossed in every direction. The aperture between
it and the auricle is provided with two valves, which hinder
any reflux of blood. The aorta proceeding from the ventricle
divides into two trunks ; the first, trending directly to the left,
pierces the pericardium, after a very short course, to enter the
abdomen ; the second returns at first towards the right, sends
off" a branch, and then leaves the pericardium also at its right
side. The portion enclosed in this cavity has attached to it
two crests composed of small vessels, which rise from the
trunk itself, and again reenter it, without aflbrding the ana-
tomist any clue whereby to guess the use of such a curious

D 3

^8 Natural Hhtori) of MoUuscoiis Animals : —

formation. It is always easy to inflate or inject these crests;
and Cuvier hazards a conjecture that they may be secretory
organs for the production of the liquid which fills the peri-
cardium.

But a still more extraordinary peculiarity remains for our
notice. The large vessel which carries forward the venous
blood to the branchiae, and w^hich may be named either a
vena cava, or a branchial artery, since it fulfils the functions
of both, after sending off arterial branches to the leaflets of
the gills, remains for a certain space smooth and entire ; but
one part curves itself to the left, and another to the right, and
these two branches assume suddenly anew form and structure;
they become, in fact, absolutely confounded with the great
general cavity of the body. Their walls are now formed of
transverse and oblique muscular ribands, which cross in every
direction, but leave between them apertures visible to the
naked eye, and permeable to all sorts of injection ; thus
establishing a free communication between these vessels and
the abdominal cavity, so that the fluids contained in the one
can readily permeate into the other. This structure is so ano-
malous, that Cuvier was for some time doubtful of the accu-
racy of the dissections which seemed to prove it; but at
last he fully satisfied himself, and ascertained distinctly that
there was no other vessel to carry the blood to the branchiae
except the muscular and perforated cavities just described,
and into which all the veins of the body open directly or
indirectly. It follows, therefore, that the fluids shed into the
abdomen can mix directly with the mass of blood, and be
carried to the branchiae with it ; and that the veins perform
the office of absorbent vessels. This vast communication,
says the great naturalist from whom I borrow these anato-
mical details, is, doubtless, the first step to that still greater
which nature has established in insects, where there is no par-
ticular vessels for the nutritive fluid ; and we have already
seen a trace of it in the Cephalopoda, where the venae cavae
and the abdominal cavity communicate together through the
medium of certain spongy glands.

In the genus Orchidium, a naked mollusque, the venae cavae
exhibit a formation in some respects similar to that in Aplysia ;
but I pass over this, to notice another sort of deviation from
the common, in the ear shell (Haliotis), and in some simple
univalves ; as, for example, in Fissurella. The heart in those
generals provided with two auricles; one of which receives the
vein carrying the purified blood from the right branchiae, and
the other that from the left. The auricles open into the
ventricle each by a single and generally narrow orifice ; but

Circulating Sj/stem, 39

in the Chit6nidse each auricle has two distinct and separated
ventricular orifices ; gf which, according to Cuvier, there is
no similar example to be found in the animal kingdom. Fur-
ther, in these genera, the ventricle, or proper heart, is per-
forated by the straight gut, or, in other words, the heart
encircles that intestine ; a peculiarity not to be observed in
other Gasteropoda.

What, however, is the exception and anomaly among Gas-
teropoda, becomes the usual formation in the Conchifera or
bivalved MoUusca ; for in by much the greater number of
them the gut passes through the heart, or rather, as Blainville
explains it, the heart is curved round the rectum, in such a
manner that the two extremities of its transverse diameter
seem to touch. All the bivalved Mollusca have also two
auricles ; one placed on each side of the ventricle, and open-
ing by a narrow neck into it. They receive the blood through
a branchial vein coming from each gill, and transmit it to the
ventricle, which is an oval or spindle-shaped bag, situated in
the medio-dorsal line.* From the ventricle two aortae depart :
a posterior and lesser one, which passes under the rectum,
and distributes its branches to the posterior parts of the
body; and an anterior one, which runs forward even to the
anterior adductor muscle, furnishes branches to the stomach,
to the liver, the foot, and adjoining parts, then curves down-
wards by an anastomosing branch, which follows the margin
of the cloak, to meet and unite with a similar branch from
the posterior aorta ; forming thus a great arch, of which the
inferior branches go to the tentacular fringe of the cloak,
while the others, of greater size, remount and ramify over the
whole surface of that organ.

Of the centripetal system we find that the venous radicles
of the belly and of the anterior parts of the body unite into
two large trunks, which issue from the hepatic region under-
neath the rectum, and, after having received two veins which
have followed the margin of each lobe of the cloak, they open
into the anterior end of a sort of auricle or venous reservoir,
placed longitudinally below the heart in the dorsal line.
This reservoir receives at its posterior end two other rather
large veins, which have gathered the blood and brought it
back from the posterior parts of the body, and even from the
margins of the cloak. From this reservoir the branchial
arteries likewise originate : they are two in number, one on

* In the oyster, " the auricle and ventricle are very thin in their coats ;
so much so as to make them unequal to apply force to the blood ; but the
ventricle is laterally connected to the great muscle, whose action will
accelerate the circulation." (Home\s Comp, Anatomy ^ vol.iii. p. 160.)

D 4

40

Natural History of Molluscous Animals : —

— ?

11 il

I

ill

m>

ill

r%f

f-%

each side, of considerable size,
and direct their course along
the superior margins of the
branchial laminae, to which they
furnish numerous branches.
These form two series ; one for
the internal face of the external
leaf, and the other one for the
external face of the internal
leaf of the branchiae ; but in
consequence of the many ver-
tical and anastomotic branch-
lets, a close vascular network
is the result of the whole ar-
rangement. The veins, draw-
ing their supply from this net-
work, run backwards in a
direction parallel to the arte-
ries, and form a similar net-
work, but on the opposite faces
of the branchiae.

As it offers some excep-
tions to this account of the
distribution of the blood-ves-
sels in the Conchifera in gene-
ral, I am tempted to extract
for you the interesting descrip-
tion of the circulation in Te-
redo navalis, as given by Sir
Everard Home : — " The
heart," he says, " is situated
upon the back of the animal,
near the head; consisting of
two auricles [Jig, 28.*), of a

h

u

Wl

* Figure of Tferfedo navalis, show-
ing the heart and other internal or-
gans, of the natural size, exposed in
a posterior view, a a. The boring-
shells, separated and turned back ; 1,
the digastric muscle ; c, the intestine
passing over it j dd^ the testicles ; e e,
the auricles of the heart ; //, the
ventricle ; g g, the artery going to the

head; h h, the vessels from the branchiae going to the heart; ii, the

branchiae or gills ; k k, ducts of the testicles, traced through their course ;

//, a strong substance, with transverse fibres, having a pile upon it, to

strengthen this, the weakest part of the animal.

Circulating System. - 41

thin, dark-coloured membrane; the auricles open by con-
tracted valvular orifices into two white strong tubes ; these,
united, form the ventricle, which terminates in an artery
that goes to the boring-shell. The heart is loosely attached ;
its action is distinctly seen through the external covering,
and in some instances continued to act after it was laid bare.

" The first contraction is in the two auricles, which are'
shortened in that action. This enlarges the ventricle before
it contracts. The great artery from the ventricle goes directly
to the head, and the vessels that supply the auricles are seen
to come from the gills. The auricles are lined with a black
pigment, so that their contents cannot be seen through their
coats, and the ventricle, from its thickness, is not transparent ;
but the muscles of the boring-shells are of a bright red, and
all the parts between the heart and head are supplied with
red blood."

In the Teredo, then, every part of the blood " passes
through the vessels of the gills, and then through the cavities
of the heart. As this animal is to work a machine capable
of boring a very hard substance, and to go on working during
the whole of that period of life in which its growth is con-
tinued, to make room for the increased bulk, so it requires
that the blood be more highly aerated, and supplied with
greater velocity to these active organs. The heart, also, to
give it greater advantage in these respects, is placed near to
the boring-shells, so that the blood which goes to them is of
the brightest colour.

" In this circulation, the first action of the heart is to
supply the different parts of the body with aerated blood :
upon this the activity of the heart is wholly exerted; the
blood is returned more slowly through the gills, and remains
there a longer time, so as to receive a greater degree of the
influence from the air contained in the water." {Lectures on
Comp. Anatomy, vol. iii. p. 162, 163.)

In the Mollusca tunicata, the circulating apparatus is simpler
than in any of the other orders. The heart of the Ascidia is
an organ with a single cavity, situated near the stomach, and
presents a less distinct muscular structure than it does in
cephalous Mollusca. It is of an oblong or spindle shape, and
the two extremities are prolonged into two vessels, almost
equal to itself in their diameter. One of these vessels receives,
as it is believed, all the blood from the branchiae, and is in
consequence named the branchial vein ; the other, of greater
length, is an aorta to distribute the blood through the whole
system. {Savigny, Mem. sur les Animauoc sans Vertebres, vol. ii.
p. 1130

4^'2 'Natural History of Molluscous Animals.

Such is a very general outline of the circulation in this
tribe ; nor are the particular modifications to which it is
subject, of sufficient interest to detain us. I may just remark,
that the minute vessels of the branchiae form a beautiful net-
work, similar to that on the branchial leaves of bivalves.

The heart has been seen pulsating in several MoUusca
whose bodies possess a considerable degree of transparency.
The pulsations are slow, and often at unequal intervals ; but
this irregularity may be the effect of weakness or of pain ; for
the animals must be placed in unnatural positions, or removed
from their proper element, before the observations can be
made ; and an attention to this circumstance may explain the
fact of a retrograde motion of the circulating fluid, which has
been observed by some naturalists. The blood itself is of a
bluish white colour, and glutinous consistence. Lister tells
us, that when he kept the blood of a snail in a vessel for some
days, it remained liquid and entire, not separating, in the
manner of human blood, into two portions of unequal densi-
ties ; but, when he applied heat, it readily congealed into an
opaque bluish coagulum, just as the human serum would
have done under the same circumstances. But Lister knew
well that the blood of these creatures was not homogeneous ;
for he adds, that with a good microscope it is easily shown
to consist of globules swimming in a limpid fluid ; that these
globules are truly round, and considerably exceed in size
those of human blood ; they are also heavier than the fluid
part, since they gradually sink to the bottom when kept still
in a glass tube. {Exercitatio Anat. de CocJileis, p. 95. Lond.
1694.) The late experiments of Prevost and Dumas have
confirmed those of the old English naturahst : they have
ascertained that the globules of the snail have a diameter one
third greater than those of man * and quadrupeds ; and, what
is more remarkable, they found the globules to be really
spherical, as Lister has asserted, although analogy would have
led us to a different conclusion ; for they are elliptical in birds,
reptiles, and fishes, to which the Mollusca are certainly much
more nearly allied than they are to the Mammalia. [Zoological
Journal^ vol. i. p. 1 78.) The globules in the bivalved Mollusca

* The red globules of human blood, according to the observations of
Mr. Bauer, as corrected by Kater and others, are one five-thousandth part
of an inch in diameter. {Home's Comp.Anat., vol. iii. p. 4., compared with
p. 12.) But in the foetus, the globules, say Prevost and Dumas, differ in
their form and volume from those of the adult ; the former being double
the size of the latter (Bostock's Physiology ^ vol. ii. p. 200.), and approxi-
mating nearer, of course, to the size of those of Mollusca. The fact is
curious, when considered in relation to some speculations of Carus.

Illustrations of British Zoology, 43

are also, according to Poll, an eminent naturalist of Naples,
much larger than in man ; so that he considers the latter to
be to the former as hemp-seed to millet-seed. {Rudolphi^s
Physiology^ by How, vol.i. p. 132.) The red colour of blood
has been attributed to the existence of iron in it in combination
with phosphoric acid ; but it militates against this hypothesis
when we find that the white blood of the Mollusca, although
the contrary has been asserted, contains the same mineral
ingredient : for Erman has detected iron, and very probably
also manganese, in the blood of the Helix pomatia and Pla-
norbis corneus ; and Poli likewise speaks of iron in the blood
of A'rca glycymeris. (Rudolphi^s Physiology, by How, vol. i.
p. 113.) As the following analysis may probably be applied
with safety to the whole class, I extract the passage entire, not-
withstanding it repeats some particulars already noticed : —
" The blood of the Helix pomatia," says M. Gaspard, " is
rather thick, but without viscosity ; it has a faint smell, a
slightly saline taste, and is so abundant that each individual
contains not less than a drachm and a half. It is of a delicate
blue colour, which is neither altered nor modified by change
of aliment, by asphyxia, or by hybernation. It is miscible
with water, but of. greater specific gravity, and falls to the
bottom in visible streaks or entire drops. When exposed to
the atmosphere, it does not spontaneously congeal, like that
of vertebrated animals, but it separates by rest into two dis-
tinct fluids : the one blue, which swims at the top ; the other
colourless and opaque, remaining at the bottom of the vessel.
In a few days it decomposes with fetor [stench]. It is unal-
tered by muriate of barytes, and by alcohol ; is simply dis-
coloured by potash, and by vinegar and other weak acids :
but acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, and, still more, nitrate
of mercury, occasion a copious dense precipitate. Boiling
w^ater, sulphuric and nitric acid, coagulate it strongly, like
albumen." (Zoological Journal, vol. i. p. 177.)

I am. Sir, yours, &c.
Nov. 1^2. 1831. G. J.

Art. VII. Illustrations in British Zoology, By George John-
ston, M.D., Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edin-
burgh.

1. Lucerna'ria auri'cula.
Sir,
I DO not think that the discovery of any new object or fact
in natural history ever gave me greater pleasure than the first
sight of the little creature here delineated. Its form is so

44 Illustrations of British Zoology.

singular, and so far removed from any with which non-natu-
ralists are familiar, that some of my friends, on seeing the
drawing, have actually asked to which kingdom, animal or
vegetable, the thing belonged; and to uncommonness of
shape, in adds beauty in colour and in ornament, and much
vivacity in its motions. There is, to my eye, not a more lovely
object among the numerous interesting worms that dwell on
our shores. I had, on a summer's evening, taken a favourite
station by the side of a pellucid pool hewn by nature in the
rock, and was admiring the mimic landscape reflected from
the water, when my attention was caught by what seemed
to be a clot of blood adhering to the frond of a sea-weed ;
it might be, was the passing thought, a small bit of the liver
of some mutilated fish, when, lo ! it moved, and suddenly
expanded before me in all its beauty. It was impossible to
restrain open expression of admiration and pleasing surprise.
It had risen up like an enchanted thing, and in a shape so
novel, that fancy had not imagined its existence among ani-
mated beings ; it displayed its ornaments, the beads and
tassels of its border, with such grace, and its rich colour
contrasted so well with the sombre darkness of the weed on
which it had settled, that the most apathetic would have
been warmed ; while I leaped for very joy, and said within
myself. Surely the Creator of all holds this out to lure his
rational creatures to study his works, and search out his
wisdom !

Our figure {Jig, 29.) is of the natural size, and the individual
from which it was taken was of a clear pinkish red colour. It

adheres by a short stalk, which dilates into eight equal oblong
arms, each terminated by a globose tuft of filaments, tipped
with a gland. The arms are mottled with two rows of spots,
produced by the opacity and configuration of the internal vis-
cera ; and they are connected together by a transparent mem-
brane. Between each of them there is an oval vesicle placed
on the edge of this membrane. Within the stalk there is a

Parasitical Connection of hathrda Squamdria, 45

tube, which, prolonged, seems to form the mouth, of a square
shape, projecting in the centre of the arms.

Lucernaria auricula can move about at will, but has appa-
rently not much power for distant excursions, and little in-
clination to roam. Fixed by means of its stalk, which is
presumed to act as a sucker, on the leaf of a sea- weed in some
sheltered pool near the lowest tide-mark, it escapes its ene-
mies, I know not how ; for it is the most helpless of creatures,
without weapons of offence or defence. It catches little ani-
malcules brought within its reach by the tide or their own
destiny ; and, for this purpose, the tentacula are widely dis-
played, and no sooner have they felt the prey, than they in-
stantly contract, envelope it in their joint embrace, and carry
it to the mouth. Lamarck says, that the globules at the tips
of the filaments or tentacula are suckers ; and if the obser-
vation is correct, it is obvious that this structure must enable
them to retain living prey with great additional obstinacy. ;

This Lucernaria is, I believe, a rare animal on our coasts,
of which it was first ascertained to be a native by Mr. Mont-
agu, who took it on the coast of Devonshire, and gave a
figure and description of it in the ninth volume of the Lin-
nean Transactions, In the edition of Pennanfs British Zoo-
logy published in 1812, there is an account of it borrowed
from Montagu's paper, but erroneous in many respects.
Dr. Fleming's description, in his history of British Animals,
is, however, evidently original. He says, the species is found
on different parts of the coast. The colour, according to him,
is " brownish : " according to Montagu, it is variable ; and this
may, with proper limitation, be correct, for our specimen was
of a fine transparent red. It was taken in Berwick Bay.

Lucernaria belongs to the class Radiata, order y^calepha
Cuvier, Mollia of Lamarck.

George Johnston.
Berwick-upon-Tweed, Nov, 10. 1831.

Art. VIII. On the Parasitical Connection of Lathrce^a Squamaria,
and the peculiar Structure of its subterranean Leaves, Read
at the Linnean Society in November, 1829.

Our readers will remember that in Vol. II. p. 105. Mr.
Bowman, in noticing certain differences in habit and external
organs which he had found to obtain in specimens of this
interesting plant procured from, or observed in, various
localities, incidentally announced his having discovered its true

46 Parasitical Connection of LatJir<^^a Squamm^id,

organisation and mode of growth. This discovery is the
subject of a luminous paper, illustrated by eighteen figures
from Mr. Bowman's pencil, in the sixteenth volume of the
Linnean Society's Transactions,

In his highly interesting paper, the author details, with
much clearness and precision, the result of his investigations
on the organisation of this singular plant ; and as they ex-
hibit some striking exceptions from the general laws of vegeta-
ble physiology, not hitherto known, we shall present them to
our readers as fully as our limited space will allow, and illus-
trate them by several of the original drawings confided to us
by the liberality of the council of the Linnean Society.

It has long been known, that every part of the Lathrae^a
Squamaria, except the flower-stems, is at all times strictly
subterraneous ; but we are not aware that any botanist has
hitherto detected the nature of its parasitical connection, or
the anomalous structure of its leaves. It may indeed be
said to set the ordinary laws of vegetable life at defiance,
even in its infancy ; for no sooner has the embryo "plant
emerged from its cotyledons, than, instead of seeking the
surface of the soil, it takes a downward direction, till it comes
in contact with the roots by which it is nourished, after which
it spreads horizontally among them. Its real root, it appears,
is spindle-shaped and branched, terminating in forked fibres ;
which however do not draw moisture from the soil in the
ordinary way, but are furnished at and near their extremi-
ties with very minute tubers, which fix themselves on the
roots of trees and extract their juices. Similar tuberiferous
fibres are copiously produced on the subterraneous stem be-
tween the imbricated scales. The tubers, though not larger
than a small pin head, are exceedingly numerous, hemispheri-
cal, and of a succulent and tender texture. When fixed on
the root, they throw down a funnel-shaped process or tap,
which penetrates through the cortical layers into the al-
burnum (where the sap is in the greatest energy), and com-
so ^J^^^ municates with a system of vessels

of a jointed or beaded structure.
These vessels traverse the substance
of the tuber, and convey their stolen
contents along the connecting fibre
for the support of the parasite. The
annexed figure (Jig. 30.) is a per-
pendicular section of a tuber, highly
magnified, showing the insertion
of its tap-shaped base into the al-
burnum.

a?id Structure of its subterranean Leaves, 47

Kot less wonderfully constructed and admirably adapted
for their situation and office are the imbricated scales, or
leaves, of the subterraneous stem, which, in size, shape, and
colour, very remarkably resemble the human teeth, and have
suggested its various names of Dentaria, Squamaria, and
toothwort. These have generally been considered as roots,
or scaly appendages to the roots ; but Mr. Bowman has
proved by numerous minute and delicate dissections under
the microscope, illustrated by a series of beautiful and highly
magnified drawings, and by a description and reasoning
which we regret our space will not allow us to follow through
all their details, that they are real leaves, adapted by their
peculiar organisation for their subterranean situation, where,
with the ordinary vessels of these organs, they could not
have performed their functions. We shall endeavour, with
the assistance of the drawings, to make this intelligible, after
giving the author's preliminary glance at the usual process
of vegetable life. " By laws which almost universally pre-
vail in the vegetable kingdom, plants imbibe moisture from
the soil by means of their radical fibres, and gases and
moisture from the atmosphere through the medium of pores
in the cuticle of their leaves. These elements are conveyed
into the parenchyma, where innumerable and inconceivably
delicate organs, stimulated by light and heat, throw off the
oxygen, and retain the hydrogen and carbon. These essen-
tial ingredients at once produce the green colour, and are
converted, by a mysterious and hidden process, into the
several substances of the vegetable body." The succulent
interior substance of the leaf of the Lathrae^a is pervaded
longitudinally by a number of parallel cavities or chambers, of
nearly its whole length, and whose sides are full of ridges
and hollows like the human ear. The entire inner surface
of these cells is thickly beset with innumerable papillae or
glands, each fixed on a pedicel, and so minute as not to be
discernible without a good microscope. A longitudinal sec-
tion of the leaf and one of its cavities is shown in the annexed
figure {Jig, 31.)j and a cross section ex-
hibiting all the cavities divided in the
middle, with their papillae, at^. 32., all
much magnified. The only opening into
the cells is between the involuted lower
portion of the leaf and the leafstalk, and
is so narrow and completely concealed as
to elude observation. It may, however,
be detected in a thin longitudinal section of the leaf, and is
seen inj%. 32. As the cuticle of the scales is not perfo-

48 Parasitical Connection of Lathrai'a Squamdria.

rated by any absorbing or perspiring pores, the author con-
32 tends that their office is

performed by the papil*
lae, and therefore that the
imbricated scales are real
leaves. " In the case of
the LathraeX where they
(the leaves) are destined to perform their functions, not
only in the dark, but buried in the earth, such an arrange-
ment (the general law) would have been inexpedient ; it is
therefore substituted by another, admirably adapted to their
peculiar circumstances and situation. Had the cuticle been
furnished with air valves, the soil would have continually
clogged and impeded their ofEce; they are therefore re-
moved by a contrivance, as beautiful as wise, and placed
within the convoluted chambers excavated for them in the
interior of the leaves, where they perform, securely and
unseen, their destined office."

In the course of this able and interesting paper, the author
dissents from the general opinion that the sickly colour of
this and other parasites is to be attributed to their growing
in the shade, as some suppose, or is a consequence of their
parasitical condition, as Linnaeus asserts, or of both com-
bined; and maintains that the total absence of green arises,
at least as much, from their wanting true leaves and a cuticle
perforated with absorbing and perspiring pores. To support
this view, he instances two parasites of British growth : one
of which, C^scuta europse'a, dodder, is destitute of leaves, and
has not a tinge of green, though growing in the full light ;
while the other, Fiscum album*, mistletoe (perhaps the most
strictly parasitical plant we have), is furnished with leaves,
and is green.

* As connected with this subject, and as exciting to further research
on the plants adverted to, it may be worth the space here to present
a remark which Mr. Bowman expresses in a note at the foot of p. 410. : —

" I have observed that the mistletoe dies with the tree on which it
grows ; and, from a notice in the Magazine of Natural History, vol. ii.
p. 294. [by our correspondent L. E. O.], it seems that the Lathrae^a Squa-
maria does so too. It has long been doubted whether Listera Nidus avis
[Neottia Nidus avis of Swartz] be strictly parasitical. Whatever it may
be in the earlier stages of its growth, it certainly is not so in its more
advanced state. If it be carefully got up in a clod, and the soil afterward
washed from around it, the leaves of the central root or caudex may be
seen to terminate in a short curved spur, which tapers to a fine point, and
evidently is not attached to any other vegetable. The cuticle of the stem
and it bracteas have no perspiring pores."

4-9

REVIEWS.

Art. I. The British Naturalist ; or, Sketches of the more inter-
esting Productions of Britain and the surrounding Sea, in the
Scenes ivhich they inhabit ; and with relation to the General
Economy of Nature, and the Wisdom and Power of its Author,
Vols. I. and II. l2mo. London ; Whittaker, Treacher, and Co. ;
1830.

We take shame to ourselves for having so long neglected
to notice this interesting little w^ork, the first volume of which
has been lying on our table, unheeded, we blush to say, for
more than a year and a half! We can assure the author we
intended no disrespect to him by this delay ; a delay, indeed,
which we the less regret, as it enables us to " kill two birds
with one stone ; " or, in other words, to introduce our readers
to the second volume also, which we have now received. Tar-
dily, however, as we have at last entered on the task, we must
content ourselves even now with taking but a slight and hasty
glimpse at the work before us. Our limits would absolutely
forbid us from following our author step by step in all his
rambles

" O'er moss and moor, by mountain and by flood ; "

and, besides, our wish is, to prevail on our readers to go to
the book itself, rather than allow them to put up with what
at best must necessarily be but an imperfect and garbled
account of its multifarious contents. Works on natural his-
tory, both of the scientific and the popular cast, calculated
respectively for the use of the learned few and of the unlearned
many, have abounded in the present day ; and the circum-
stance may be regarded as at once both a proof of the increas-
ing taste for the study of nature, and in great measure as the
promoting cause of such increase. Without drawing invi-
dious comparisons between the respective merits of these two
distinct classes of literary productions, or praising one at the
expense of the other, suffice it to say, once for all, that we
think each very good and very useful in its way. " I admit,"
Vol. V. — No. 23. e

50 The British Naturalist.

says the writer, in his preface, " the merit of the systems and
subdivisions : for those who devote themselves to a single
science, they are admirable ; but to the great body of the
people they are worse than useless." So far from decrying
scientific works, we take the greatest delight in them ; yet at
the same time we profess ourselves admirers of the Selborne
school. Wishing to see a love of nature become more general
and diffused, and convinced as we are " how delightful and
how profitable it would be, if all would be their own natu-
ralists, and go to the living fountain instead of the stagnant
pool," we hail with satisfaction the appearance of any work
which has a tendency to create and foster a taste for natural
history in these kingdoms. Just such a work is the British
Naturalist, Addressed, as it were, " ad populum," and put
forth in a form intelligible to all, the book can hardly fail of
attracting the favourable attention of the public, and obtaining
a very extensive circulation. We are pleased also with the
general tone of good feeling which pervades the whole. In
the introductory chapter, which contains many excellent and
judicious remarks, the student is directed to the proper end
and object of his studies in the field of nature, the know-
ledge and adoration of God. We extract the concluding
paragraph of this portion of the work : —

" The only sure way to become naturalists, in the most pleasing sense
of the term, is, to observe the habits of the plants and animals that we see
around us, not so much with a view of finding out what is uncommon, as
of being well acquainted with that which is of every-day occurrence. Nor
is this a task of difficulty, or one of dull routine. Every change of eleva-
tion or exposure is accompanied by a variation both in plants and in ani-
mals ; and every season and week, nay, almost every day, brings something
new ; so that, while the book of nature is more accessible and more easily
read than the books of the library, it is at the same time more varied. In
whatever place, or at whatever time, one may be disposed to take a walk ;
in the most sublime scenes, or on the bleakest wastes ; on arid downs, or
by the margins of rivers or lakes ; inland, or by the sea-shore ; in the wild
or on the cultivated ground; and in all kinds of weather and all seasons
of the year; nature is open to our enquiry. The sky over us, the eartb
beneath our feet, the scenery around, the animals that gambol in the open
spaces, those that hide themselves in coverts, the birds that twitter on the
wing, sing in the grove, ride upon the wave, or float along the sky, with
the fishes that tenant the waters, the insects that make the summer air
alive ; all that God has made, is to us for knowledge, and pleasure, and use-
fulness, and health ; and when we have studied and known the wonders of
His workmanship, we have made one important step toward the adoration
of His omnipotence, and obedience to His will." (p. 38, 39.)

After the introduction, which we recommend to the atten-
tive perusal of our readers, the subject matter of the remain-
ing portion of the first volume is distributed into six heads, or
chapters, under the respective titles of the Mountain, the Lake,

The British Naturalist. 51

the River, the Sea, the Moor, and the Brook. This plan, it is
intimated, has been adopted in order that the subjects might
be " viewed in those masses into which we find them grouped
in nature ; the plant or the animal having been taken in con-
junction with the scenery, and the general and particular use ;
and, when that arose naturally, the lesson of morality or
natural religion." The boundaries thus prescribed could not,
it is evident, be very rigidly adhered to ; and, accordingly,
our author, in his descriptive narrative, rambles about " ad
libitum " fi'om one object to another, just as we should have
been disposed to do ourselves, had we actually performed,
amid the wilds of nature, these very excursions, which are
here only presented to the imagination. The consequence is,
that subjects are occasionally introduced into each depart-
ment, which might with equal, or perhaps greater, propriety,
have been treated of under some other. This, however, if it
be an evil at all, is but a trifling one ; and as the plan of the
work is at any rate simple, natural, and inartificial, we shall
not quarrel with it on that score. But not to tarry longer at
the threshold, we shall enter at once " in medias res," and
proceed to point out what we conceive to be some of the
beauties and some of the errors of the volumes before us.

In the second chapter, " The Mountain," i. e. the first after
the introduction, some interesting particulars are given rela-
tive to the history of the wood-cat, which, our author strenu-
ously contends, is a distinct species from the common or
domestic kind. We are not prepared to deny this position, in
the face of authority which appears to be grounded on know-
ledge and experience of the subject ; though hitherto we have
always been accustomed to follow the vulgar opinion, that the
one is only a variety of the other. And still we would ask —
Is there more difference between our domestic favourite and
its prototype of the woods, than is reasonably to be looked
for in the case of two animals in such widely different condi-
tions ? " Among domesticated animals," it must be admitted,
** colour proves nothing:" but as to size, habits, and dispo-
sitions, is there not found as great a discrepance between
individuals of the domestic variety, as exists between the
generality of these and the wild cat ? Some, for instance, are
docile, gentle, and fondling in the extreme * ; while others,

* Cats are generally said to be attached to places, not to persons ; and
the remark, in the main, may be true enough. We have known many
instances, however, of their showing a marked and decided preference for
particular individuals. In one instance a cat attached herself inseparably
to a labourer in our employ, attending him at his work, and lying on his
coat like a dog ; and retiring at intervals to the barn or the shrubbery, &c.,

E 2

52 TJie- British Naturalisf,

treat them how you will, are ill-tempered and untamably
ferocious. One, again, is an expert and assiduous mouser,
destroying not only the murine and feathered race, but insects,
reptiles (e. g. snakes), bats, hedgehogs, and even the more
formidable and hard-bitten weasel.* Another is sluggish and
inactive, almost destitute of tlje usual predatious propensity,
and altogether useless in its own profession. Strange as it
may at first appear, it is a most difficult task in some cases to
trace with accuracy our domesticated animals to their true
and undoubted origin. In the present instance we confess we
hesitate to give a decided opinion, and should be glad of a lit-
tle further information. The wood-cat is here represented as

" rather a dangerous animal to catch in a trap, as it is very tenacious of
life; and the moment it is loosened it springs and fastens" with great fury.
Por the same reason, it is dangerous to wound or even to irritate it ; and if
it cannot be killed outright, the safest way is to let it alone." (p. 47.)

Is not the peril of encountering this tiger of the British forests
a little overcharged ?

As we offer our remarks in the same order in which the
passages which suggest them occur, we must be excused if
we appear to jump rather abruptly from the consideration of
animals to that of plants, and back again from plants to ani-
mals. In ascending the " mountain," our naturalist, as might
be expected, meets with several species of Faccinium, of
which there are four indigenous to Britain ; viz. Faccinium
uliginosum, the great bilberry (by far the least common of the
whole) ; V. Myrtiilus, the common whortleberry or bilberry ;
V. Fitis IdaeX the red whortleberry or box-leaved bilberry ;
and V, Oxycoccos (or, according to more modern nomen-
clature, Oxycoccos palustris), the true cranberry. These
plants are each of them distinguished by such well-marked
characters, that there can, to a botanist at least, be no such
thing as mistaking one for another. At page ,57. not a little
confusion appears to be unnecessarily made, owing to the
names, either Latin or English, which are there applied to
one or more of the above species. " The beautiful myrtle-

for mice or birds, which, when caught, she brought and laid at his feet,
sometimes to the number of six or eight, or more, in a day. She would
accompany him when he went a-field, through wet grass, to fetch up the
cows to the yard ; and has been known to follow him from her proper
residence (in spite of repeated efforts to drive her back) to his own house,
a distance of near two miles, and, remaining there the night, return with
him in the morning as he came back again to his work.

* All the above-named animals we have known to have been destroyed
by a favourite cat of our own.

The British NuiuralisL 53

leaved bilberry " is designated by the specific name " mon-
tanum," instead of its good, old, appropriate one, Myrtillus,
which, by the way, is adopted for the plant at page 165. of
the second volume. Why this unnecessary and (as we be-
lieve) unauthorised change of name, calculated to mislead the
young, and perhaps somewhat perplex the more experienced
botanist? In the same page (57.) " ^'^itis IdaeV (it should
have been written " /^accinium Fitis Ida3\a") is called the
*' cowberry;" which, though we never heard it before, may,
for aught we know to the contrary, be one of its provincial
appellations. " The bush," says our author, *' is low and
hard, and so is the berry, which, notwithstanding its fine red
colour, is generally left to the birds." We can tell him from
our own experience, that, in spite of its inferiority in size, and
different appearance, it is not unfrequently gathered for sale,
and passed off upon those who know no better, — the experi-
ment has been attempted upon ourselves, — for the genuine
cranberry; and though vastly inferior to that in size, and
flavour, and juiciness, it is yet no contemptible fruit for tarts.
Again, we read, " In the bogs, at about the same elevation,
the cranberry, or crowberry (Oxycoccos palustris), is very
frequently met with, but it is harsh and austere." Now^, the
English name " crowberry " is appropriated to a very different
thing, jE'mpetrum nigrum, a dioecious plant, whose foliage
much resembles that of the heaths (isVicse); and, though it
may possibly be a local appellation for the cranberry, would
have been better omitted, for the sake of avoiding confusion.
It ought to have been added, too, that although the fruit of
the cranberry may be (as stated, and as its name implies * )
" harsh and severe " when eaten raw, it has an excellent
flavour, and is highly and most deservedly esteemed, when
preserved and used in confectionary^ It is proverbially said,
that " there is no disputing about tastes ; " and therefore we
have no right, perhaps, to call in question that of the author,
for preferring the fruit of the cloudberry (i^ubus Chamae-
morus) to that of the Swedish bramble (i^ubus arcticus) ; and
yet this preference does not a little surprise us.

" The dwarf crimson bramble," we are told, " and more frequently the
luscious cloudberry (i?ubus Chamaemorus), are found fast by the margin of
the snow, as the limit of vegetation. The first of these is a very pleasant
fruit ; but even in the bleakest parts of Scotland it is rare, and it is not
very plentiful even in Lapland f j but the cloudberry is more abimdant, and

* The specific (or, as it is now become, the generic) name, Oxycoccos, is
derived from oxysy sharp or sour, and kokkos, a berry.

-|- Is not this directly at variance with the testimony of Linnaeus, who,
though he calls it " rarissima planta," a very rare plant, immediately adds,

E 3

Mt T7ie British Naturalist,

it is much better. The fruit is single, upon the top of a footstalk, and in
form, size, and colour [!] it is not unlike the mulberry, after which it is
partly named ; but in flavour, taking the place where it is found into con-
sideration, it is superior to all the mulberries that ever grew." (p. 62.)

This is surely rather a high-flown encomium on the cloud-
berry 5 nor is it correct to compare the fruit in size and
colour, and still less, we think, in flavour, to its half name-
sake, the mulberry. We have ourselves slaked our thirst,
ere now, with this ethereal lierry, when exploring the snow-
capped summits of the Scottish mountains, and well know how
grateful to the palate, and how refreshing, on such occasions,
even a far inferior fruit may prove. More frequently have we
been regaled, from the garden, with the high-flavoured and
fragrant berry of J?ubus arcticus ; a berry so fragrant, indeed,
that if a few only be gathered in a saucer, and brought into
the house, they perfume almost the whole room. * And we
must say that, to us at least, this latter fruit, when put in com-
petition with its rival, is, in point of flavour, as " Hyperion to
a satyr." Could it be readily produced in sufficient quanti-
ties, it would form a valuable addition to our desserts ; and in

" occurrit copiose per Lapponiam desertam, prsesertim ad tuguria et casas
liapponum ? " (Flora Lapponica.) " It grows abundantly in the wild parts
of Lapland, especially near the huts and cottages of the Laplanders."
Again, in his Lapland Tour, he says, " I wish those who deny that certain
plants are peculiar to certain countries could see how abundantly the birch,
the Lapland willow, the strawberry-leaved bramble (i^ubus arcticus), &c.,
flourish in this district [Pithpea]." (Lachesis Lapponica, vol. i. p. 203.)

* " Baccae omnibus Europaeis fructibus fragranti odore saporeque palmam
praeripiunt." {Linncei Flora Suecica.) " The berries [of ^ubus arcticus]
surpass all European fruits in fragrance of scent and flavour."

The editor of the Lapland Tour (Sir J. E. Smith), speaking of J?ubus
Chamaemorus, observes, in a note : " The arcticus is a much more valuable
plant for its fruit, which partakes of the flavour of the raspberry and straw-
berry, and makes a most delicious wine, used only by the nobility in
Sweden." (Vol. i. p. 52.) " Confici curant magnates per Norlandiam e
baccis syrupum, gelatinam, vinum rubeatum, &c., quae partim ab illis ipsis
consumuntur, partim Holmiam ad araicos mittuntur, tanquam bellaria sua-
vissima, rarissimaque ; et sane inter omnes baccas Sueciae sylvestres videntur
hae tenere primas." (Fl. Lap.) " The nobility in Norlandia cause to be
made of the berries syrup, jelly, bramble wine, &c., which are partly con-
sumed by themselves, and partly sent to their friends at Stockholm, as the
most choice and delicious dainties ; and, indeed, among all the wild berries
of Sweden, these seem to hold the first place." The pretty compliment
Linnaeus pays to this little plant is worthy of being recorded : — " Ingratus
essem erga beneficam banc plantam, quae me toties fame et cursu fere pro-
stratum vinoso baccarum suarum nectare refocillavit, si ejus integram non
exhiberem descriptionem." (Fl. Lap.) " I should be ungrateful towards
this excellent plant, which has so often refreshed me with the nectareous
juice of its berries, when almost overcome with hunger and fatigue, were I
not to give a complete description of it." He then proceeds to give a
minute description of the plant and its several parts.

The British NcUtiralist, 55

these days of horticultural improvement * it might be worth
while to try the experiment, by bestowing on this beautiful
little flower some extra care in the cultivation, with a view to
increase the produce of its fruit, and thus combine the useful
with the agreeable.

We must now turn to a different subject. Our author's
forte lies evidently in ornithology. In this department of
natural history he seems to have made deep and accurate
research. Accordingly, we are presented throughout these
volumes with many interesting remarks, and much useful
information, the result, as it appears, of close personal ob-
servation, on the subject of British birds. In particular, his
remarks on the eagles, and the larger birds of prey, are the
more valuable, inasmuch as these species constitute some of
the least accessible subjects in natural history. The birds
themselves are, many of them, of rare occurrence ; and, even
when met with, are to be seen, perhaps, but for a few mo-
ments in passing. They suffer us not to approach them near ;
and consequently are difficult to be procured for minute
examination. They differ, too, in many cases, so much in
their plumage, according to sex or age f , that the greatest
confusion has prevailed respecting their several species, which
even yet, perhaps, have not been thoroughly ascertained.
We cannot now enter into particulars, but incline to think
that the reader of the British Naturalist will find consider-
able light thrown on this subject at p. 113, &c.

In treating of the golden eagle, our author has been
tempted, in an evil hour, we think, to introduce the story of
Hannah Lamond; whose infant (so the tale goes) was
snatched up by an eagle, and carried ofF to the eyry, but
rescued again, mirabile dictu ! safe and sound, by the mother
herself, whose maternal feelings roused her to such a pitch of
physical strength and boldness as to enable her actually to
scale a hitherto inaccessible clifF, which even Mark Steuart,
the sailor, turned his back upon and attempted in vain ! This,
no doubt, is a very pretty story, and afFectingly told (we have
even seen tears shed at the narration), but, unfortunately, it
is wholly incredible. Such a tale might have cut a figure in
some fashionable novel ; but is, we presume to think, quite
out of place in a grave work on natural history. Surely there

* Linnaeus says it is difficult of cultivation, and commonly proves barren
in the gardens : — "In hortis non facile colitur, et communiter sterilis eva-
dit." {Fl. Lap.} We have ourselves found it thrive very well, and spread
itself when planted in peat soil ; nor has it proved shy of bearing fruit.

f " iEtate sexuque variant." {Linncci Syslema Nattcrce.)

E 4

56 The British Naturalist.

is enough to engage our interest and excite our admiration
really to be found in nature, without having recourse to the
marvellous and fictitious. We must protest against such
clap-traps, introduced merely ad captandum vulgus, at the
expense of all truth and probability. Should the work go, as
we hope it will, to a second edition, we trust the author will,
for his own sake, have the good sense to erase this fable from
his pages, unless he be content to rank among those

" who greedily pursue

Things that are rather wonderful than true j

Make nat'ral history rather a gazette

Of rarities stupendous and far-fet ;

Believe no truths are worthy to be known,

That are not strongly vast and overgrown." * '^

As fair specimens of our author's style, we extract from the
third chapter the following valuable passages on the beauty
and the use of lakes ; observing, as we pass, that he is always
for pointing out, as far as discoverable, the end and object, the
good effected, by any phenomenon in nature : —

" To the enthusiast in the picturesque, nature no where presents an
aspect of such varied beauty as amid these combinations of hill, and water,
and glade. That monotony which characterises a wide expanse of unbroken
plain, even when clothed in a mantle of uniform hue, and that unrelieved
sense of awe and loneliness which a mountain range, without this soothing
accompaniment, is apt to suggest, are alike absent here. All that is most
sublime is softened by all that is most beautiful, and all that is most beau-
tiful is elevated by all that is most sublime. The pervading and perpetual
presence of water clothes the earth in its richest robe of verdure ; and
there is a spirit of life and motion over all, which prevents that feeling of
oppression and melancholy with which man finds himself bowed down in
the immediate presence of nature, in her mightier agencies. The air is full
of soothing sounds, poured from a thousand naturd sources ; the ripple of
the mimic wave upon the mimic beach; the murmur of the cascade; the
roaring of the cataract ; the sighing of the breeze, or the rushing of the
blast among the rocking woods, all blend into one wild but enchanting
harmon}', repeated by a thousand voices, from hill, and grove, and glade,
that it might well suggest a mythology like that of the Greeks of old, and
lead the imagination to people every cliff, and stream, and tree with a
dryad or a faun." (p. 96.)

After noticing the fertilising effects of lakes, and the more
equable temperature produced by their presence, the author
thus proceeds : —

" But lakes in mountainous countries have another advantage; they
prevent those floods of the rivers which are so destructive where there
are no lakes ; and if they be in warm latitudes, they prevent the soil from
being burnt up and becoming desert. Rains fall with greater violence upon
varied surfaces than upon plains, because there the atmosphere is subject
to more frequent and rapid changes ; the slopes of the surfaces precipitate
the water sooner into the rivers, and thus the rain passes off in an over-

* Butler's " Elephant in the Moon," 1. 527,

The British Naturalist, 57

whelming flood. By the interposition of lakes this is prevented : they act
as regulating dams ; the discharging river cannot rise higher than the lake ;
and thus when the lake is large, a flood which otherwise would flow off in
a day, and destroy as it flowed, is made to discharge itself peaceably in
weeks. Besides the preventing of devastation, this is of advantage to the
country. When the flood passes off, while the rain is falling, and the air
is moist and not in a state for evaporation, the land derives but a small
and temporary advantage from the rain : but when the water is confined
till the state of the atmosphere changes, a considerable portion of it is
taken up by the process of evaporation, and descends in fertilising showers.
A decisive proof of the advantage of lakes, and the casualties that result
from the want of lakes to regulate the discharge of mountain rivers, was
unfortunately given in the floods in Scotland, in the summer of 1829. The
whole of the rivers that flow eastward from the Grampians have steep courses,
but no lakes to regulate their flow; and the consequence was, that they
threw down the bridges, flooded the fields, washed away the soil and
crops, and did other damage ; while those streams farther to the north,
that roll an equal or a greater mass of water, but which are expanded into
lakes, did no harm. Mountainous countries, in which there are no lakes,
are usually barren, or in the progress of becoming so. The Andes in
America, the ridges in Southern Africa, and many other lakeless elevations,
are utterly sterile. The mountains of Scotland, and even those of the
north of England, have little beauty where there are no lakes; they are
covered with brown heather, unbroken by any admixture, save dingy stone
and red gravelly banks, where the rains have torn them to pieces. There
are none of those sweet grassy dells and glades, and none of those delightful
thickets, coppices, and clumps of trees, that spot the watered regions."
(p. 99— 101.)

In celebrating the praises of the Bala Lake, within a page
of the foregoing extract, our naturalist, mounting his Pegasus
without a curb, becomes quite poetical and enthusiastic.

" Bala," he says, " though designated by the humble name of a pool, is
capable of softening down the fiery spirit of the Cambrian, as he gazes on
it from the mountain's ridge ; and the waters are so limpid, that * the
lasses of Bala,' by laving their beauties in it on May-morn, excel in
brightness all the other daughters of the principality." (p. 102.)

We mean no offence to the " lasses of Bala,'* whose
charms we shall not call in question ; but it requires a spirit
of gallantry far beyond what we profess to be possessed of, to
put implicit faith in such statements. In short, we consider
such effusions as no better than downright trash. The fol-
lowing passage is in better taste, and more consistent with
sober truth and reality : —

" The most apparently trivial habits of organised bodies are just as
demonstrative of infinite wisdom, as those that attract the vulgar by theii-
novelty, or by some real or fancied resemblance to the marvellous among
mankind. The times at which the heron resorts to the water to fish, are
those at which the fish come to the shores and shallows to feed upon
insects, and when, as they are themselves splashing and dimpling the
water, they are the least apt to be disturbed by the motions of the heron.
The bird alights in the quiet way that has been mentioned ; then wades
into the water to its depth, folds its long neck partially over its back, and
forward again, and with watcliful eye awaits till a fish comes within the

58 The British Naturalist,

range of its beak. Instantaneously it darts, and the prey is secured.
That it should fish only in the absence of the sun, is also a wonderful
instinct. Every one who is an angler, or is otherwise acquainted with the
habits of fish in their native element, knows how acute their vision is, and
how much they dislike shadows in motion, or even at rest, projected from
the bank. It is not necessary that the shadow should be produced by the
bright sun ; full daylight will do it ; and we have seen a successful fly-
fishing instantly suspended, and kept so for a considerable time, by the
accidental passage of a person along the opposite bank of the stream ; nay,
we once had our sport interrupted by a cow coming to drink ; so alarmed
are fish, especially the trout and salmon tribe, at the motion of small
shadows upon the water, though shadow, generally speaking, be essential
to their surface-operations. They do not feed, and therefore we may con-
clude that they do not so well discern [?] small bodies upon the surface,
when the sun is bright. Fishes are, in fact, in part, nocturnal animals ;
and the heron, that lives upon them, and catches them only in their feeding-
places, is partially, also, a nocturnal animal. There is one case in which
we have observed herons feeding indiscriminately in sun and shade ; and
that is, when a river has been flooded to a great extent, and the flood has
passed off, leaving the fish in small pools over the meadows. How the
herons find out these occasions it is difficult to say; but we have seen
several pairs come after a flood to a river which they never visited upon
any other occasion, and within many miles of which a heronry, or even the
nest of a single pair, was never observed." (p. 106 — 108.)

" The case char (Sahno alpinus)," we are informed, '* is
found chiefly, if not exclusively, in Winander-mere." If by
this be meant the fish usually known by the name of char in
the north of England (of which, however, from the account
here given, we entertain some doubt), it occurs more particu-
larly in Coniston and Buttermere lakes. The char which
we have there seen has the eyes remarkably prominent ; the
back rises more into an arched form than that of the trout,
and the belly is rather concave to correspond ; so that the
whole fish is in the form of a gentle curve, or a bow slightly
bent. We did not know that our char ever entered the salt
water. It certainly is a most excellent fish; superior, we
think, to the trout, and deservedly esteemed, independently
of its rarity. We apprehend our author must be speaking
of a different species. The genus ^Salmo still requires much
investigation ; the true diagnosis of the species being a per-
plexing knot in natural history, which has not yet been
unravelled.

Variety, and species, and even genus, are terms continually
used synonymously in ordinary conversation ; and it is quite
surprising to see how little their true meaning, as employed
in natural history, is generally understood, even by people of
education. But we should not have expected that an accom-
plished naturalist would have committed the vulgar blunder
of confounding these terms ; yet so it is. '' Of the dragon
fly (Libellula)," we are told, «« there are several varieties,"

The British Naturalist. \S&

&c. The author evidently means several species. True it is,
that of some of these species, there are several varieties, espe-
cially in the smaller kinds, as A'grion puella and Calepteryx
Virgo [Stephens), each of which occurs of such totally diver-
sified hues, that an inexperienced observer v^^ould at once
suppose them to be so many distinct species.

A lively and accurate description of the most common-
place occurrence in nature never fails to afford pleasure in
the perusal, just as a faithful sketch of some homely scene
always gratifies the beholder. The following picture of the
lashing of the beach by the waves of the sea is drawn to the
life ; —

" Even when seen from the pebbly beach of a lee-shore, the ocean in a
:$torm is a sight both to be enjoyed and remembered. The wave comes
rolling onward, dark and silent, till it meets with the reflux of its prede-
cessor, which produces a motion to seaward on the ground, and throws the
approaching wave ofl'its equilibrium ; its progress is arrested for a moment ;
the wall of water vibrates, and as it now meets the wind, instead of moving
before it, its crest becomes hoary with spray ; it shakes, it nods, it curls
forward, and for a moment the liquid column hangs suspended in the air ;
but down it dashes in one volume of snow-white foam, which dances and
ripples upon the beach. There is an instant retreat, and the clean and
smooth pebbles, as they are drawn back by the reflux of the water, emu-
late in more harsh and grating sounds the thunder of the wave." (p. 206.)

They who doubt (for such we believe there are) the specific
difference between the herring and the pilchard, will find
some ready marks of distinction between the two pointed out
at p. 282.

" In the pilchard, the dorsal fin is placed exactly over the centre of
gravity, so that if the fish be suspended by it, the body hangs in a horizontal
direction. In the herring, it is placed farther back than the centre of
gravity, so that the head droops when the fish is lifted by it. The same
distinction holds in the fry as well as in the full-grown fish. The fry of
both are taken in great numbers, and known by the common name of
sprats."

We shall detain our readers only a little longer with any
remarks on the contents of the first volume; but we cannot
refrain from pointing out what we conceive to be a palpable
error on the subject of that amusing bird, the swift. " The
nest," says the British Naturalist (p. 365.), " is constructed
much in the same manner as that of the common swallow."
Now, the swallow's nest, it is well known, is a neat piece of
masonry, composed externally of much the same materials as
that of the marten ; that is, of mud or clay : but as the swift,
by choice at least, never settles on the ground, and, if it does
by accident, is scarcely able, from the shortness of its legs *
and the length of its wings, to rise again into the air, we are

* The specific name, ^^pus, signifies without feet.

60 The Brithh Naturalist.

at a loss to conceive how it can collect mud or clay for the
purposes of nidification : nor is the fact so ; for the swifts'
nests which we have examined in the days of our youth were
loose and slovenly structures, composed chiefly of feathers
and such other substances as might be collected by the bird
in the air. We never detected the swift in the act of " pulling
grass, feathers, &c., very dexterously from other birds," and
therefore cannot speak to the point ; but that such may be
the case is by no means improbable.

Entomology is a department of natural history in which
our author appears to have made no very, great proficiency.
He speaks (p. 366.) of moths being " always indolent."
Doubtless, like all other animals, they are so, when at rest ;
and the majority of moths being nocturnal insects, the period
of rest to them is during the daytime : but many Phalae^nae
fly abroad by day as well as by night, and evince no incon-
siderable activity and power of flight. Every person of the
least observation must have witnessed the evolutions of the
common golden Y moth (A^octua gamma) for example,
which visits our gardens all through the summer, and to a
late period of the autumn, hovering about the flowers that are
still in bloom, somewhat in the manner of the humming-bird
sphinx (Macroglossa stellatarum), inserting its proboscis into
the blossoms, and adroitly extracting the nectareous juices,
while it poises itself on the wing.

The second volume of the British Naturalist, to which we
now advert, contains (besides a short introduction) three
parts severally entitled the Year, Spring, and Summer.
We have quoted so largely from the first volume, that
we must endeavour to be somewhat more sparing in our
extracts from the second. We cannot, however, resist the
inclination we feel to transcribe the following rather length-
ened passage, as it lays the axe to the root of a very pre-
vailing and obstinate vulgar error : —

" There is nothing more common than to predict the future state of the
season, from some single appearance in the early part of it ; and yet there
is nothing more unphilosophical or fallacious. An early blossom, an early
bee, or an early swallow, or the early appearance of any other production
of nature, is no evidence whatever of the kind of weather that is to come,
though the belief that it is so is both very general and very obstinate.
The appearance of these things is the effect of the weather, not the cause,
and it is what we may call an external effect ; that is, it does not enter
into the chain of causation. The weather of to-day must always have
some influence upon the weather of to-morrow ; but its effects will not be
altered in the smallest tittle, whether it does or does not call out of the
cranny in which it has been hybernated, some wasp, or some swallow that
was too weak for the autumnal migration. Birds, blossoms, and butter-
flies do not come in expectation of fine weather ; if they did, the early

The British Naturalist, 61

ones would show that they see not far into futurity, for they generally
come forth only to be destroyed. They come in consequence of the good
weather which precedes their appearance, and they know no more of the
future than a stone does. Man knows of to-morrow only as a rational
being ; and were it not that he reasons from experience and analogy, he
would have no ground for saying that the sun of to-day is to set. The
early leaf and the early blossom of this spring may be a consequence of the
fine weather of last autumn, which ripened the wood or forwarded the
bud ; and the early insect may be evidence that the winter has been mild :
but not one of these, or any thing connected with plants or animals, taken
in itself, throws light upon one moment of the future ; and for once to
suppose that it does, is to reverse the order of cause and effect, and put
an end to all philosophy — to all common sense.

" And are we to draw no conclusions from the phenomena of plants and
animals, which have been popular prognostics of the weather from time
immemorial ; not from the face-washing of the cat, or the late roosting of
the rook, which have been signs infallible time out of mind ? No, not a
jot from the conduct of the animals themselves; unless we admit that
cats and crows have got the keeping and command of the weather. These
actions of theirs, and very many (perhaps all) phenomena of plants and
animals are produced by certain existing states of the weather; and it is
for man to apply his observation, and find out by what other states these
are followed. The cat does not wash her face because it is to rain to-
morrow ; that, in the first place, would be " throwing philosophy to the
cats ; '* and, in the next place, it would be doing so to marvellously little
purpose, inasmuch as, if puss were thus informed of the future, she would
only have to wait a day in order to get a complete washing without any
labour or trouble. When the cat performs the operation alluded to, it is
a proof that the present state of the atmosphere affects her skin in a way
that is disagreeable, and the washing is her mode of relief; and, in as far
as the cat is concerned, that is an end to the matter. Man, however, may
take it up, and if he finds that in all cases, or in the great majority of
cases, this happens only before rain, he is warranted in concluding that the
state of the atmosphere which impresses this action upon the cat is also
the state which precedes rain ; and that in the cases where the rain does
not follow, there has been a subsequent atmospheric change, which is also
worthy of his study.

" What it is in this case, and whether connected with the little action
in the fur of the animal by which electricity can be excited, we shall not
enquire; but in the late roosting of the crows [rooks?] the cause is ap-
parent : they feed upon larvae and earth-worms ; these, especially the latter,
come most abroad in the evenings before rain ; and, as most animals
gorge themselves where food is easily found, there is no reason why rooks
should not follow the general law.

" These familiar instances have been noticed in order to point out how
apt we are to miss the lesson that nature would give, and break down the
fabric of philosophy, by giving a purpose and a prescience of the future to
that which cannot reason." (p. 86 — 89.)

Allusion is made again to the same subject at p. 240. : —

" The appearance and first song of birds are, like all other seasonal,
phenomena, part of the history of the year, and of value retrospectively
in telling what has been, though not of the smallest use in telling what is
to be."

There are few greater impediments to the progress of
knowledge and the discovery of truth, than an implicit re-

62 The British Naturalist,

liance on the dicta of high authorities. The idle habit of
too readily assenting to the assertions of others, without in-
vestigation of the subjects themselves, checks at once the
spirit of research and enquiry, and serves oftentimes to con-
firm and propagate a belief in the grossest errors. Men of
eminence as naturalists have maintained, as it were, " ex
cathedra," that swallows retire under water at the approach
of winter, and remain in that element till the ensuing spring *,
that hawks keep truce with lesser birds and poultry during
the season of the cuckoo's singing f, in order that these may
enjoy leisure while building their nests, hatching, and rearing
their broods ; and there are still to be found those, in whose
minds these and similar opinions obtain credence. We have
very lately been gravely told that cuckoos remain dormant
in this country, and are to be met with during the winter
rolled up in moss and leaves in the holes of banks, &c. Our
author, however, is one (and we hope his example may be-
come more general among the fraternity of naturalists) who,
instead of taking things entirely upon trust, chooses to think
and believe for himself: —

"Nullius addictus jurare in verba magistri,"

he prefers looking at nature, and listening to her, with his
own eyes and ears, and forming his opinions accordingly,
rather than putting up with the reports of others, and be-
lieving just what he is told to believe. We find him, accord-*
ingly, a little sceptical as to some points in the natural history
of the cuckoo, which, though anomalous and extraordinary in
the highest degree, are yet universally credited.

" We have no wish," he observes, " to offer any decided opinion on the
singular propensity alleged of the cuckoo, that the female generally deposits
her eggs, one by one, in the nests of small birds, where they are hatched
by their foster-mothers, and fed by them till they thus are fledged; in the
course of which time, they most ungratefully eject their foster-brothers
and sisters from the nest. In the face of the many grave and learned
authorities by which this is stated, it would not become us to give an
opinion ; all that we can positively say is, that, although we have seen
very many young cuckoos in nests, sometimes two, but never more in any
one nest, and generally only one ; and although we have seen them in
nests disproportionally small, and of the same structure as the nests of
smaller birds, we have never met with the egg of the cuckoo along with
that of any other bird, have never scared a little bird from the act of in-

* " Hirundo rustica unaque cum urbica autumno demergitur, vereque
emergit.*' ( Linnesi St/stema Natures.)

f " Paciscuntur inducias cum avibus, imprimis domesticis, quamdiu
cuculus cuculat, ut hae feriantur sub nidificatione, incubatione, pul-
litie." (Id.)

The British Naturalist. 63

ciibation in a cuckoo's nest, and never have detected one little bird in the
act of feeding a cuckoo, either in the nest or out of it. We do not say
that these matters cannot, or even that they do not, happen ; we merely say,
that we have never seen them. When we enter upon study where there
are facts to appeal to, we must really be on our guard against names,
however eminent, or however deservedly they may be so." (p. 131.)

Again : —

" We are not denying the common theory of the cuckoo; but we repeat,
that in the course of a great deal of observation, we have not met with a
single fact which could not be fully and perfectly explained, upon the
hypothesis which the anatomy of the cuckoo, and the analogy of all the
rest of the feathered tribes suggests ; namely, that the cuckoo often takes
possession of the nests of other birds, either after these had quitted them,
or after it had made a meal of the eggs, and then performs all the incuba-
tion and nursing itself." (p. 134.)

We must leave our readers to form their own opinions, or,
we would rather say, to institute their own experiments, on
this curious subject; reminding them, that the only infallible
method of arriving at the truth, and setting the question at
rest, is a close attention to the facts which Nature herself
presents. For " denying without proof, in natural history, is
just as bad as asserting without proof."

Some very interesting remarks on the habits and man-
ners of " the crow tribe" occur at p. 154, &c. ; but they are
too long for extraction, and we must refer our readers to
the work itself: just recording our opinion, as we pass, in
unison with that of the author, that " probably the good that
is done by the whole race more than counterbalances the
evil ; and experience has shown that with the rook this is really
the case."

That most extraordinary, thrilling, vibratory noise (we
scarcely know what else to call it) which is emitted by some
species of woodpecker, especially the smaller or spotted
kinds, and which, familiar as it is to our ears, we yet never
hear without stopping to listen in astonishment, is, with great
probability, we think, considered by the British Naturalist as
the love-note of the bird.* We are led to this opinion by
the circumstance of our almost invariably hearing the sound
near our own residence, for a short period in the spring
(March and April), and never, to the best of our recollec-

* Linnaeus, if we understand his meaning right, seems to intimate that
this noise is made by the woodpecker for the purpose of frightening the
insects, and causing them to come forth from the wood. This, however,
we very much doubt. As the birds destroy timber-boring insects, and
never pierce perfectly sound wood, they may be considered beneficial
animals, and ought not to be unjustly proscribed, as they often are,
on account of the supposed injury they do to timber. " Pici larvas insec-
torum lignum intus rodentium, rostro secante, sono stridulo terrefaciente,
auditu percipiente, lingua acuta hastata intrante extrahunt, injuste pro-
scripti." {Systema Natures.)

6 if The British Naturalist.

tion, at any other season. We have watched the bird during
the operation, at the distance only of a few yards ; but are
still at a loss to understand exactly how the sound is pro-
duced : the strokes of the bird's bill against the tree, rapid
though they be, falling far short, as it appeared to us, of the
almost incredible celerity with which the sounds were re-
peated. Perhaps we do not make ourselves understood :
our meaning is, that if the stroke of the beak be supposed to
be repeated, say four or five hundred times in a minute, the
sound produced appears to require that it should have
been repeated twice or three times as often in the same space :
in a word, the noise which falls upon the ear, seems far more
rapid than the tapping of the beak which is visible to the
eye. May not the horn-tipped tongue of the bird, as well as
its bill, come at the same time in sonorous contact with the
wood, so as to produce at every stroke a double sound ? We
throw out this hint merely in order to invite enquiry on this
curious subject ; and for the same reason, need make no
apology for transcribing our author's remarks, which are
just, and highly descriptive of the phenomenon in question.

" It is not a little singular that the love-note of the woodpecker should
not be a voice, like that of most other birds, but a tapping upon the trunk
of a tree. The muscles of the neck of the bird are so constructed, that it
can repeat the strokes of its bill with a celerity of which it is difficult to
form a notion. They absolutely make one running jar, so that it is impos-
sible to count them. We have often tried with a stop-watch, but could
never ascertain the number for a minute, although we are certain that
it must be many hundreds ; and as, from the sound, the space passed over
must be at least 3 inches backwards and as much forwards, at every stroke,
which, in the rude estimate that we were able to form ( and it was a very
rude one), would make the motion of its beak, one of the most rapid of
animal motions, nearly 200 miles in the hour, yet the bird will continue
tapping away for some considerable time." (p. 293.)

Such, indeed, is the rapidity of the motion, that, were its
powers of wing in proportion to those of its neck, the bird
might almost vie with Puck, and

" put a girdle round about the earth

In forty minutes." Midsummer Nighfs Dream.

There are some unlucky animals in the creation, which,
having once been most unjustly robbed of their good name
and character, are for ever after persecuted by man with un-
relenting rigour, while, in fact, they do him good and faith-
ful service. The hedgehog, we believe, and the toad might
be adduced as instances in point. But the race which we
had more especially in our eye, and which drew the remark,
from us, is that of those amusing little birds the titmice. A
price is frequendy set upon their heads, even in these en-
lightened days ; and incredible sums are sometimes expended

The British Naturalist 65

and entered in the churchwardens' accounts for their de-
struction. So strong, indeed, and universal seems to be the
prejudice against them, that it is next to impossible to per-
suade some people that, so far from being injurious, these
birds are exceedingly useful.* It is with great pleasure,

* The chaffinch is generally considered a most pernicious bird in gar-
dens, and is treated accordingly. We once knew a market-gardener who
used to say that " one chaffinch was well worth a charge of powder and
shot." And it must be confessed, that it does commit considerable depre-
dations among seed-beds, especially those sown with the seed of the cru-
ciform or Tetradynamia class of plants (radishes, turnips, cabbages, &c.),
destroying the seed just as it is sprouting and coming up. In some cases,
perhaps, even this operation may be beneficial, and may serve as a salu-
tary thinning or pruning of the beds ; seeds being very commonly sown too
thick, and few owners having the courage to thin enough, either in the
case of seed-beds, fruit, or any other crop. Be this as it may, however,
the bird at all events destroys an enormous quantity of insects ; and in
this way makes amends for any injury it may do to our gardens in other
respects. This opinion, we ai'e happy to find corroborated on the authority
of Mr. Main (see Vol. IV. p. 417.), who speaks of these birds as frequent-
ing gardens, " where," says he, " they are useful, being, during summer,
entirely insectivorous."

In the early part of last summer our attention was attracted by a chaf-
finch, which, as we sat in our room, we observed to pay repeated visits to
a broom bush (<S'partium ^coparium) immediately in front of our windows.
The bird remamed a considerable time in the bush at each visit, and
appeared exceedingly busy about something, hopping from spray to spray,
searching and rummaging among the branches, and evidently using its bill.
We suspected that the object of plunder was the young soft seed of the broom,
which at the time was much in the same state as peas are in, when fit to
gather. Upon examination, however, we found every pod whole and
untouched ; but the bush was smothered with aphides ; and these, we
ascertained, (not the soft seeds, as we had supposed,) were what attracted
the chaffinch. Whether the bird devoured the aphides itself while in the
bush, or (as we rather suspect) carried them off for the purpose of feeding
a young brood, we cannot say ; but an immense number of aphides must
have been destroyed during its repeated visits.

When any mischief is done in the garden, the orchard, the plantation, or
on the farm, we are very apt too hastily to lay the blame on such animals
as may happen, in pursuance of their usual habits, to be occupied in or
near the spot where the mischief takes place. Frogs and toads have be-
fore now been accused of eating the strawberries, because they are often
met with among the strawberry-beds. We have been told of a gentleman
who charged the rooks with having stripped his oak trees of their leaves.
That the oaks were nearly bare, was beyond dispute ; and he had himself
seen the rooks settling upon them by thousands, and pecking away right
and left with their bills. War was therefore declared by the owner against
the rooks, and good store of ammunition laid in for the occasion. But,
fortunately for the "black population," before hostilities actually com-
menced, the gentleman was convinced by some one who stepped in, and
knew more of natural history than he did himself, that the rooks were not
in fault ; quite the contrary ; they had only flocked to the trees for the
sake of devouring the myriads of cockchafers, and of the larvae of moths,
which were the real depredators. Every country gentleman, every gar-
dener, every farmer, every person, in short, who owns or is occupieil about
Vol. V. — No. 23. f

66 Tlie British Naturalist.

therefore, that we find the British Naturalist standing up itl
defence of their character, and bearing his testimony in their
favour. Common justice as well as humanity compels us
to transfer his remarks on this subject to our own pages.

" The titmice are among the most active and courageous creatures of their
size with which we are acquainted ; and they are also exceeding useful to
man ; useful, indeed, in preventing the whole of the trees from being de-
voured by insects. In spring they are pruners, whisking about and cutting
off opening buds with their strong conical beaks ; and, though they be
often blamed for that part of their economy, it is always an advantage, as
they care riot for the bud itself, but only for the worm that it contains,
which worm would be certain to destroy that bud before it underwent its
transformation, and might, in the course of the season, produce a progeny
that would destroy thousands more. In the later period of the season,
when the eggs of insects cease to be hatched in leaves, and new ones are
deposited in the crevices of the bark, the habits of the titmice change, and
they become tree creepers, running along the stems and branches in all
directions with the greatest ease and rapidity, and clearing the crevices of
every living thing that they can discover. There is no bird that it is more
amusing to watch than a titmouse, when it is thus occupied ; their mo-
tions are so lively, and they can run back undermost with the greatest
ease." (p. 308, 309.)

" In a fruit country, the destruction of the great titmice would be about
as wise and profitable as the extirpation of rooks has proved to be to those
grain farmers, and even grass farmers, that have attempted it." (p. 311.)

Again : —

" As the blue-cap is among the trees at all seasons, the quantity of in-
sects which it destroys, and the number of which it prevents the existence,
must be very great ; and therefore it and its congeners, and indeed all the
scandent birds that feed upon insects, are to be regarded as nature's guar-
dians of the orchard and the forest ; and when we take that in conjunc-
tion with the handsome appearance and lively manners of this little bird,
we find such a union of beauty and utility as makes us forget that those
birds have no tuneful song." (p. 320.)

Their note, however, it may be remarked, though harsh
and unmusical in itself (it has not unaptly been compared
to the filing of a saw), is yet from association agreeable, being
among the very earliest intimations of approaching spring.
For a somewhat similar reason, the scream of the swift,
which is chiefly heard in the most serene summer weather,
is to our ears one of the most joyous and delightful sounds in
nature.

" Sounds inharmonious in themselves and harsh.
Yet heard in scenes where peace for ever reigns.
And only there, please highly for their sake."

Cowper,

any portion of the earth's surface, ought to learn something of natural
history ; for otherwise he runs the risk of persecuting and destroying his
best friends.

The British Naturalist. 61

At p. 32 1 . our author, rather too indiscriminately, we think,
denies " the swallow tribe " the merit of possessing song.
They have, he says, " merely a sound or noise, and some of
them a screech." Ought not the swallow (i/irundo rustica),
among our British species, to have been made an exception ?
We agree with Mr. Main (Vol. IV. p. 413.) in the propriety
of giving to this species a place among the song birds ; though
we admit, with him, that it may rank " rather low on the scale
as a vocalist." Of all the feathered musicians the swallow is
one of the earliest risers, commencing its song even before it
is well light, while night is yet

" At odds with morning, which is which."
Not unfrequently have we been roused at or before daybreak,
and kept awake, by the continuous song of this harbinger of
summer, as it sat twittering on our chimney top,^or perched
on some projecting ledge adjacent to our bed-room window.

We must trespass on our limits, for the sake of making
another extract, which, for its accuracy, and the important
bearing the subject has on natural history, ought not to be
omitted : —

" When man alters the soil and the vegetation, the animals alter along
with it. In consequence of the improvement in agricultm'e and of planting,
many of the birds that are probably with accuracy described as having been
confined to the southern parts of England, are now met with in the north,
and also in the cultivated parts of Scotland. The plover comes in place
of the grouse; the partridge in place of the plover; and where coppices
become abundant, the pheasant, in turn, invades the dominion of the
partridge. The trees and plants, with more succulent leaves, that cul-
tivation introduces instead of the heath, the hard grass, the furze, the
broom, and all those native vegetables of the north that have austere
juices, necessarily bring along with them a vast number of insects. We say
* necessarily;' for wherever the proper food for any of the productions
of nature is to be found, thither will that production come to it, by means
that no one can find out : as, for instance, if roses or cherries are intro-
duced, there are sure to be aphides ; if any of the brassicas, there are sure
to be caterpillars ; and, if there be even an introduction of nettles, their
beautiful butterflies will visit them. When they have increased to a certain
amount, they are sure to bring not only those resident birds that feed them-
selves and their young upon larvae, but also the warblers and other summer
visitants." (p. 332, 3^3.)

These remarks we can verify by similar instances, which
have come within our own experience. Having made some
oak plantations, though only on a small scale, near our resi-
dence, we have occasionally found therein Theclflj quercus
(purple hairstreak butterfly) and Melitae'a Euphrosyn^ (pearl-
bordered fritillary), insects which previously we had never
seen within some miles of the spot. We have seldom planted
the Athenian [?] poplar without finding it taken possession of
by Smerinthus populi (poplar hawk moth), and Ceriira vinula

F 2

68 The British Naturalist.

(puss moth), and sometimes by other less common Phalse'nidae.
The copious growth of broom in our plantations induced for
several seasons the appearance of Phalse^na spartiata (broom
moth, Chesias spartiata Stephens)', a species which we had not
observed before, and which has disappeared again since the
removal of the broom on which the larva feeds. The cater-
pillar of Acherontia A'tropos (death's head sphinx), it is well
known, feeds on the potato ; the very extensive cultivation
of which valuable root in the present day will at once account
for the far more frequent occurrence of this fine insect of late
years than formerly,* The same law, or something analo-
gous to it, holds good also in the vegetable as well as animal
world. Plants sometimes spring up, as it were, spontaneously,
or, at least, nobody knows how, as soon as the soil and
situation are rendered suitable to their growth. The spon-
taneous appearance of ^pipactis latifolia in a new-made
plantation has already been recorded by one of our corre-
spondents in this Magazine (Vol. II. p. 70.), and we have our-
selves observed a similar instance in the case of Orobanche
major, on our premises, in a spot where gorse { U^lex europae^a)
and broom had been introduced and encouraged.

To advert once more to a subject of ornithology, we must
ask, whether our naturalist is not manifestly in error, when
he states (p. 373.) that " the crake (Rallus Crex) has a strong
muscular gizzard f, like poultry and the other birds that live
upon seeds ?" It is never without hesitation that we dare
venture an opinion, on a question of ornithology, at variance
with that of the British Naturalist: sometimes, however,
bonus dormitat Homerus ; and sure we are that the bird in
question is one of those which are sometimes vulgarly, though
not unaptly, termed by cooks " gut-birds ; " i. e. such as are,
and ought to be, dressed woodcock-fashion, without being
drawn, and with the trail in them. We have often partaken
of this most delicate dish at table ; and on such occasions
have, upon examination, never met with " a strong muscular
gizzard like poultry;" but, instead, a small bag or stomach,
like that of the snipe and woodcock, and have found therein

* We are Informed by an able practical entomologist, that some of the
fir-feeding Lepid6ptera (<S'phinx pinastri ? and Geometra piniaria), which
formerly occurred in scarcely any other part of this island save Scotland
or the north of England, have of late years, since the growth of firs has
been more extensively encouraged, been taken, one or both of them, in
great abundance in the more southern parts. See Haworth's Lep. Brit.y
p. 278, 279.

\ A strong muscular gizzard is also attributed (erroneously, as we think)
to the water rail (Rallus aquaticus), which, we may add, is likewise a
" gut-bird." (vol. i. p. 362.)

The British Naturalist, " 6S

little save the remains of insects ; the broken elytra of Cole-
optera, for instance ; and never, unless we greatly mistake,
any thing like the remains of corn : and for this reason,
though it becomes us not absolutely to deny, we yet very
much doubt, the fact of the crake ever feeding upon grain,
" They are, in general, gone," says our author, " before
they can do any injury to the crops." How " gone?" The
corncrake is continually met with by the sportsman in the
earlier season of partridge-shooting ; and once we remember
to have seen one drop to our own gun in the beginning of
November.

The wood-cuts which illustrate these volumes, though by
no means of the first quality, call, nevertheless, for a few
remarks. Some of them, and some of the best too, are
evidently copied from Bewick. We do not Hke them the
less on that account : but the spirit of the originals has sadly
evaporated in the copies. What we have most to complain
of is, that the subjects have not been very judiciously chosen :
there are the heron, the kite, the raven, the magpie, the jay,
and the jackdaw, with many others, equally familiar to all. It
would have been better to have illustrated by figures the less
known, rather than the commonest species. If, for example,
instead of a portrait of the lark, a bird perfectly well known to
every body, the author had presented us with a good delinea-
tion of the several kinds of pipits (of which, we are told, there
are, at least, three species found in Britain, and these, as it
seems, not always clearly understood, but involved in some
confusion), we should have felt ourselves under far greater
obligations to him. Or, again, we would most willingly have
dispensed with all the cuts in the work, to have had in their
place accurate figures of those charming, but perplexing
tribes, the whitethroats, pettychaps, and willow wrens. The
figure of ASphino; (Acher6ntia) A'tropo5 we could have wished
had been either a little larger or a little less, and we do not
much care which. In the one case it would have been quite
palpable that the insect was represented on a diminished
scale ; in the other, of its natural size. As it is, it scarcely
looks like either one thing or the other, and may mislead the
less informed. Of the ornithological frontispiece in the
second volume we can say nothing in praise. The birds
there represented are stiff and formal in the last degree ;
and the cuts, having been made, we suspect, from stuffed spe-
cimens, are totally devoid of life and character. We should
hardly have recognised the several species, had not their
names been underwritten. Then there is in the titlepage
opposite a most rural vignette (the artist ruined a useful block

F 3

70 Tht British Nahiralist.

of boxwood when he cut it), which, together with certain
others of like manufacture, we do hope the author will omit
in the next edition, and give us, by way of make-weight, in
the room of them, that most necessary adjunct to every thing
in the shape of a book, an index ; the absence of which we
have sorely felt. Our readers will perceive that we think
but meanly of the ornamental parts of the British Naturalist,
It is but justice to add, however, that the cut of" Rook's Re-
tribution" is neat, tasteful, and characteristic. We cannot
help suspecting that this also may be a copy, though we do
not immediately recollect to have ever seen the original.

One word more of complaint, and we have done. Of our
author's style no unfavourable judgment will have been formed
from the examples we have given. Sometimes he indulges
in tediously long-winded sentences, which put us absolutely out
of breath before we can get to the end of tliem ; and even then,
perhaps, their meaning is scarcely intelligible without a second
perusal. We refer, as an instance in point, to the opening
paragraph of part iii. (Summer) in vol. ii. The passage itself
is too long to extract, nor is it worth the trouble. Sometimes
we have to encounter a sentence equally obscure, in a different
way; e. g.

" Thus, though a careful examination of those places, not with a view
to ascertain how the strata of the earth were originally made (of which, as
we have nothing very analogous to it going on, we can have very imperfect
notions), but, as to what part in its present form may depend upon causes
that we can understand, can give information, it will not give us dates."
(vol. ii. p. 287.)

We do not like such expressions as " too singular for
being passed over," and " rather harsh and hard for being
eaten." (vol. i. p. 261. 304.) Sometimes, again, we meet
with an occasional Scotticism (our author, we presume, is a
Scotchman), such as " would " for " should," &c. (vol. ii.
p. 225.) ; and, now and then, with an example of false con-
cord : —

" They do not attack any vegetable substance in those parts, except
the gum upon a wild cherry, or berries, and the former «re not very
numerous, and the bilberry^ the most abundant of the latter, are not
quite to their taste." Again : " Their slender bills^ slightly awl-shaped,
and having the top of the upper mandible a little curved downward at the
tip, does not adapt them for that operation." (vol. ii. p. 299. 323.)

Of incomplete sentences, or rather series of w^ords in-
trenched between two full stops, which yet contain no propo-
sition, neither affirming nor denying any thing, many instances
might be pointed out ; let one, however, suffice : —

" As it does not frequent gardens at the time when the cultivated cher-

Northumherland Nat, Hist, Society's Transactions, 7 1

ries are in crop, unless they be in the immediate neighbourhood of a wood,
in which it can shelter." (vol. ii. p. 223.)

What the writer means in the latter part of the following
sentence, we are utterly at a loss even to conjecture : —

" The sand- marten (jH'irundo riparia) is the species most frequently met
with in such localities, as it nestles in holes of the steep banks, generally
in colonies at one place, whichsoever the stream hath upwards and down-
wards:'* (vol. ii. p. 381.)

Errors and imperfections, like those above noticed, occur,
we are sorry to observe, far more frequently in the latter part
of the second volume, which, indeed, exhibits indisputable
proofs of hasty composition, and most unpardonable negli-
gence. On the whole, though we cannot entirely acquit the
author of the sin of book- making, we are ready to acknow-
ledge that he has contrived to make a very pleasant and a
very useful book. With the omissions, alterations, and cor-
rections at which we have hinted, with a view to a future
edition, we venture to recommend the work to the favourable
notice of our readers ; many of whom, we doubt not, will
derive as much pleasure and information from its perusal as,
we are bound to say, we have done ourselves.

A. R. Y.

Art. II. Transactions of the Natural History Society oj' Nor thum-
berlandf Durham, and Newcastle upon Tyne. Vol. I., and Part I.
of Vol. II. 4to. Newcastle, 1831.

The Society whose Transactions are before us was esta-
blished little more than two years ago, and it has already
published one large volume, and a considerable portion of a
second. The fact affords the best possible evidence of the
zeal of its members ; and the contents are very tolerable
specimens of their talent and aptitude for observation. The
work is handsomely printed in quarto ; which, we think, is to
be regretted, for Transactions of provincial societies can never
be too cheap. Their principal use and object is to diffuse an
accurate knowledge of a particular district among the bulk of

* The following also is very obscure, and cost us some trouble to under-
stand, if, indeed, we even now comprehend the author's meaning : — " The
eggs of birds, when properly described, are very useful for distinguishing
the species, ' as in the same one they often differ less in colour than the
birds.' " (vol. ii. p. 367.) We wish it to be understood that we have been
the more particular in pointing out individual errors and imperfections, in
the hope that they may be corrected in a second edition of the book,
which, if we do not mistake, will, in due time, be called for.

F 'i

72 Northumberland Nat Hist. Society's Transactions,

its inhabitants, and to instil and cherish a taste for natural
science among them ; and it seems very obvious that this end
can be accomplished only very partially, unless the papers
are printed in a form which may admit of their being sold at
a price that will at least not necessarily narrow their circula-
tion. We are anxious to press this upon the attention of
directors of provincial societies iln general ; for while we enter-
tain high notions of the utility of such institutions, we are also
fully convinced that their usefulness in one respect is marred
and nullified by the prevalent practice of making their pub-
lications a sealed book to all, save to their own members, or
to the rich, few of whom care for these things. How much
the Linnean Society has erred in this respect is notorious, and
is a matter of lamentation to many who know how much of
valuable matter is locked up in their Transactions ; and we
regret that the Newcastle Society follows such a bad example.

Of the papers in zoology, we would particularise Mr. Win-
gate's notice of C5'gnus Bewick?/, a new species of swan,
which he was the first to distinguish from the common wild
swan ; we say the first, because some have attempted to rob
him of this merit, and, in spite of fact and dates, to assign it
to Mr. Yarrell. Mr. Selby has well illustrated this Cygnus
in the same volume, which contains also, from the pen of this
celebrated ornithologist, a notice of Cypselus alpinus, and
ikfergus cucuUatus as natives or visiters of Britain; and a
complete catalogue of the birds hitherto met with in the
counties of Northumberland and Durham. Mr. Alder's paper
on the land and freshwater testaceous Mollusca found in the
vicinity of Newcastle is excellent, and includes the descrip-
tions of two or three new species. A notice of Falco ^pivorus,
by the Hon. H. T. Liddell ; of ^alse'na 56ops, by Dr. John-
ston ; and some remarks on the curious mechanical feats of a
small spider, by the Rev. Mr. Turner, complete the list of
zoological papers.

In botany Mr. Winch is the only contributor. In the first
volume, this well-known botanist gives some interesting re-
marks on the distribution of the indigenous plants of North-
umberland and Durham, as connected with the geological
structure of those counties; and a Flora, as a catalogue
perhaps the most perfect which has been yet published in this
country, of the same district, occupies what has been pub-
lished of the second volume.

The papers illustrative of the geology of the counties of
Northumberland and Durham are numerous, and it may be
useful to some of our readers to have a list of them : — 1. No-
tice of a Whin Dyke in the Fenham Division of Benwell

Works 071 Natural History,

Colliery, by Mr. Buddie, who gives likewise an account of
the explosion which took place in Jarrow Colliery, on the
3d of August, 1830; and a Synopsis of the several Seams of
Coal in the Newcastle District. 2. Notice on the effects of a
Basaltic Dyke, at Butterknowle Colliery, by Mr. Michael
Forster. 3. Notice of a Bed of Whin, at Stanhope, in Wear-
dale, by W. C. Trevelyan, Esq. 4. Notes on the New Red
Sandstone of Durham, below the Magnesian Limestone, by
Mr. Hutton. 5. Observations on the Geology of Ratcheugh
Creg, near Alnwick, by Mr. Francis Forster ; and, by the
same individual. Observations on the South Welsh Coal
Basin. 6. On the discovery of Hazel Nuts, in working a
lead ore vein in the manor of Alston Moor, by Mr. Pattinson.
7. Remarks on the Geology of the Banks of the Tweed, by
Mr. Winch. 8. Description of a group of Dykes, termed
Ryders, discovered in the Whitehaven Colliery, by Mr. Peile.
9. Notice of the Edge Seams of Mid-Lothian, with a descrip-
tion of Gilmerton Colliery, by Mr. Dunn ; and an extract
relative to the explosion at Harraton Colliery, in the year
1808, by the same. 10. On the Red Sandstones of Berwick-
shire, by H. Witham, Esq., who communicates also a descrip-
tion of a Fossil Tree discovered in the quarry of Craigleith,
near Edinburgh. 1 1. Account of some Fossil Stems of Trees
found penetrating through the strata above the High Main
Coal, at Killingworth Colliery, at a depth of forty-eight
fathoms, by Mr. Wood ; who has another paper on the
geology of a part of Northumberland and Cumberland.

There is another paper, a Sketch of the Life and Works
of the late Thomas Bewick, by Mr. G. C. Atkinson, which
we have read with pleasure and interest ; and no one, we
presume, will question the propriety of its insertion in a
volume proceeding from the Natural History Society of New-
castle. N.

Art. TII. Catalogue of Works on Natural History, lately published,
with some Notice of those considered the most interesting to British
Naturalists,

Britain.

Anon. [Understood to be by Professor Bennie] : Insect Miscellanies.
12mo. London, Charles Knight, 1831. Forming another Volume of
the Library of Entertaining Knowledge, and completing the subject of
Insects.

A most interesting volume, rich in amusing and instructive information,
and adorned with very numerous wood-cuts. The compiler has been very
prompt in availing himself of all that has been published up to the hour

7i Don^s comjylete Sj/ste?n of Botany and Gardening,

of putting his book to press; even the essence of our correspondent Mr.
Parson's communication on the Visual Organs of Insects {Mag. Nat,
Hist, vol.iv. p. 124. 220. 363.) is not omitted.-— J. D,

Sir, At p. 49. of Insect MiscellaiiieSy Mr. Rennie has expressed great
doubt of the truth of Mr. Ruber's declaration, that the humble bee, not
being able easily to obtain access to the honey reservoir of many flowers,
"drills an aperture at the base of the tube, through which it insinuates its
sucker." To obviate Mr. Rennie's scepticism, I beg to say, I have myself
seen both the humble and the hive bee gnaw a hole at the base of the
flower of the greater snapdragon (/Antirrhinum majus), and the common
white jasmine (e/asminum officinale), for the purpose of obtaining the
honey, and after repeated observation I have never been able to see them
enter the flowers of the greater snapdragon at the mouth, as expressed
by the figure in p. 49. [For other corollas perforated by bees, see p. 86.]
I am. Sir, &c. — Charles C. Babington, B.A. F.L.S, St. John's College,
Cambridge, Oct, 18. 1831.

Douy George, F.L.S. : A general System of Gardening and Botany; con-
taining a complete Enumeration of all Plants hitherto known ; with
their Generic and Specific Characters, Places of Growth, Time of
Flowering, Mode of Culture, and their Uses in Medicine and Domestic
Economy. Preceded by Introductions to the Linnsean and Natural
Systems, and a Glossary of the Terms used. Founded upon Miller's
Gardener's Dictionary, and arranged according to the Natural System.
In 4 vols. Vol. I. 4to. London, 1831. 3/. 12*.

Deserves notice in this Magazine as a work on botany, which it is more
properly than a work on gardening. Its object is to describe in the order
of the natural system all the plants at present known in the world ; to
notice whatever properties useful to the purposes of life any species or
genus may possess ; and to supply directions under every family for its
successful culture and propagation.

The appearance of this book forms an epoch in the progress of botanical
knowledge in Britain ; for it cannot fail most sensibly to impel, and promote
that knowledge among us ; and would have produced this effect still more
extensively could it have been sold cheaper. The work is one which has
been long wanted in Britain. So many plants, and specimens of plants,
have been gathered together from all parts of the world about us, that at
every turn we are reminded of our ignorance, and have our wishes excited
to know something about these lovely beings. To gratify these wishes has
been, however, to a great extent impracticable, save to those rich enough to
buy, and learned enough to read, the hundreds of detached and depart-
mental volumes, in which these plants were respectively treated of. The
expense of very many of_these books, and the difficulty of reading them,
are both dispensed with by a comprehensive work like the present, and this
work written in English. To the botanist who is already rich in books and
botanical knowledge it will be very valuable ; for the introduction informs
us, that, " when finished, it will be found to be the most complete system of
plants yet published ; comprehending, besides all the genera and species
which have been published up to the present time, descriptions of numerous
plants never before published, and derived chiefly from the Lambertian
Herbarium. The characters of all the genera and species are derived either
from the plants themselves, or from the original authorities where authentic
specimens could not be procured." To those already initiated in system-
atic botany, but who only understand the English language, the work will
be inestimably valuable; and for those who wish now to take up the study,
brief introductions to the Linnaean and natural systems, and a copious
glossary, are given : it is, however, not the most eligible of works for real
novices in botany. — J. D.

Norih American Books* TS

Johnston, George, M.D. &c.: A Flora of Berwick upon Tweed. 8vo, 340
pages with plates. Volume the Second, containing the Cryptogamous
Plants. Edinburgh, Carfrae and Son; London, Longman and Co. 1831.
7s. 6d.

In Vol. IL p. 234. the first volume of this work is reviewed, and we
purpose to submit this second volume to the same reviewer. In the in-
terim, we hesitate not to pronounce it an able production, characterised by
a high and admirable degree of originality, and presenting facts and views
of much interest to universal botany. — J. D.

Hack, Maria: Geological Sketches, and Glimpses of the Ancient Earth.
12mo, 400 pages and several plates. London, Harvey and Darton, 1832.
Bound in cloth, 9*.

An amusing and instructive volume, and an eligible present to youth.
Its scope and calibre will best appear in the authoress's own words : — " A
traveller passing through a picturesque country may add to his enjoyment
by delineating the cottage, the rock, or the tree, which happens to please
his fancy, without venturing to portray an entire landscape ; and thus,
while reading the works of eminent geological writers, amused by ingenious
theories, and interested by their application to well authenticated facts, I
have sought to perpetuate my own pleasure, and also to contribute some-
thing towards the entertainment of others, by attempting a series of
sketches, which, without pretending to the completeness of a system, may
afford some glimpses of the structure of the earth. . . . This little volume
is not designed exclusively for young persons, but for all to whom the sub-
ject is new, and who have not inclination or opportunity for studying it
scientifically. The references will show that the works of those who are
considered the best authorities have furnished the materials. As to the
mode of arranging them, the adoption of colloquial intercourse seems to
afford the greatest freedom and variety of illustration."

North America.

Transactio72s of the Literary and Historical Society ofQjuehec, founded Jan. 6.
1824. Vol. L 8vo, pp. 833. Quebec, 1829.

This institution owes its origin to the Earl of Dalhousie, late governor-
general of Canada ; and although its title does not seem to have been very
happily chosen, since only one of the papers communicated to the Society
is on a literary or historical subject, it has called forth the contributions of
another class, the readers and students of the great book of nature, which
is opened in this country at one of its most curious and ample pages.
These Transactions are almost entirely on geological and botanical subjects,
with a good paper " On the recent Shells which characterise Quebec and
its environs." We owe to our Canadian friends a debt of gratitude for
their zeal in the cause of science, and have no doubt that their labours
will be duly appreciated and acknowledged by those in the parent country
who are pursuing kindred subjects. We regret that our limits do not per-
mit us to analyse the several papers, and that we are prevented from giving
extracts from the curious one, entitled, " A Journey across the Continent,
by an Indian Chief." The volume, however, is to be found in most of our
scientific libraries, to which it has been transmitted by the liberality of the
Quebec Society. -

A Monthly Journal of Geology and Natural Science was commenced at
Philadelphia, in July last, conducted by G. W. Featherstonehaugh, Esq.
F.G.S. &c.
Most heartily do we wish prosperity to this transatlantic contemporary.

76 luiterary Notice,

Harris^ Thaddeus Mason^ D.D. : Natural History of the Bible.

I beg leave to call the attention of your readers to this interesting work,
by the learned Thaddeus Mason Harris, D.D., of Dorchester, near Boston,
Massachusetts. Boston, 1820. The first edition was published in the
year 1793. The second is in 8vo, pp. 479. I am sure that it will give
great satisfaction to every one who studies it. The biblical student, espe-
cially, will be delighted with it. Few works exhibit greater proofs of learn-
ing and research. — J. M. Philadelphiay August y 1830.

Bafinesque^ C. S., A.M. &c. : Precis des Decouvertes Somiologiques,
ou Zoologiques et Botaniques. Palerme, aux depens de I'Auteur,
1814.

The name of Rafinesque is by no means unfamiliar to naturalists ; and
this little book testifies that it ought not to be. It makes known 190
species of animals and plants that this author had, as early as 1814, dis-
covered and described. These species, the names he has applied to them,
and short characteristic descriptions of them, are the contents of this
hook.— J. D.

Anon. : Popular Lectures on the vertebrated Animals of the British Islands,
with an Appendix, containing a Sketch of Extinct Animals. 8vo,
96 pages. Birmingham, Wrightson, 1831.

Contains much delightful matter, and will be farther noticed hereafter.

Rafinesque, C. S., A.M. &c., Professor of Botany, Natural History, &c.,
Philadelphia: Principes Fondamentaux de Somiologie; ou, les Loix
de la Nomenclature et de la Classification des Corps organises. 8vo. Pa-
lerme, aux depens de I'Auteur, 1814.

This work, although printed in Italy, was received from Philadelphia,
where Professor Rafinesque now resides. The " Laws " are necessarily
familiar to all professed naturalists ; but we have never before met with so
welcome a synoptical digest of them, and we may some day present a
selection of them for the information of our juvenile readers. Somiology
is designed to express the science of organised bodies in one word, and
seems derived from soma, a body, and logos, a discourse ; and, without it, two
must be used, as Zoology and Phytology or Botany. Professor Ra-
finesque's "Laws," or rules, are 186 in number; and to these are subjoined
his divisions and subdivisions of Somiology, with a definition of each. — J.D,

Rafinesque, C. S., A.M. &c. : Medical Flora, or Manual of the Medical
Botany of the United States of North America. 2 vols. 8vo, with
100 wood-cuts. Atkinson and Alexander, Philadelphia, 1828.

These two volumes include above 500 closely printed pages, from which
we may eventually select some extracts useful to our readers. It
contains considerable contributions to critical and technical botany, and
which should by no means escape appropriation by botanic systemato-
logists. The wood-cuts are not equal to those of Britain, nor are they
improved by being printed in green. — J. D.

Art. III. Literary Notice,

Mr. Samouelle's new work. The Entomological Cabinet,is in the press,
and the first number will soon make its appearance.

77

COLLECTANEA.

Art. I. Zoology.

Hares talcing the Water. — Sir, Some of your correspondents geem to
doubt if hares ever take the water voluntarily. I can affirm that I have
frequently seen them do so when I have been fishing. Two years ago,
whilst standing on the banks of the Ure, in Wensleydale, I remember seeing
a hare come to just opposite me, and sit for five minutes, looking across
the river : at length he quietly sprang into the water, and swam towards
me. I remained motionless, and he came out not five yards from me, and
cantered off to the other end of a large field, where he joined another hare
(I suspect a female). They there gamboled together for above half an
hour. He then returned, took the water again about fifty yards fi-om me,
and landed on the other side. On this occasion, I am convinced the all-
powerful passion of love was the motive which induced the hare to take
the water ; and, as on other occasions I could never discover any symptoms
of fear, I conclude that has generally been the occasion of their doing so.
The hares I have seen swim high out of the water, and boldly, as if accus-
tomed to it. Yours, &c. — Thomas Thompson, Hully Aug. 4. 183L'

Some Account of the Stoat. — The stoat (ikfustela erminea) has much
the same habits as the weasel ; and, though more timid, is equally mis-
chievous among poultry and their eggs. It is more abundant than the
weasel, probably in consequence of its not being able to enter the holes of
the reptiles by which it is killed. The stoat does not change its colour
here, as in the northern parts of the world, by which its fur becomes so
valuable an article of commerce, though it has been observed that its
breast and throat are whiter in winter than in the summer months. — J, M.
Jan. 23. 1831.

As a balancing good to the evil of the stoat's destroying poultry, &c., it
appears also to destroy the water rat. See Vol. III. p. 145. — J. D.

Some Account of the Weasel. — Jan. 23. The foot-marks of the weasel
(jliiistela vulgaris) are now visible on the snow by hedge sides. It lives in
holes (usually made at first by the mole) under the roots of trees and
hedges, and preys on mice, small birds, &c., and consequently destroys or
drives from the neighbourhood of its residence all of these tribes within its
reach : of course it must prowl about by night for supplies. It is a bold
audacious little animal, and often commits depredations on the chicklings
of the poultry-yard. This makes the farmer its enemy, though it is some-
times his friend, when it happens to choose a corn-rick for its domicile, as
it drives thence all other vermin. For the sake of the poultry, however,
its haunts should be known, and there is no readier way than tracing it
home in the snow. At daylight on mornings weasels may be seen hurry-
ing home with a mouse or bird in their mouth ; and if intercepted, will
retire into a hedge, lay down their load, return and peep out, till they think
they can proceed in safety. Their young often fall a prey to the viper
(Coluber jBerus), when they meet in their holes. Cats kill the weasel, but

78 Zoologij.

seldom eat tliem, unless pressed by hunger. In the north this animal is
called the foumart, and sometimes whitret, as if white rat. — J. M.

The weasel's tenacious reluctance to relinquish its young and its prey is
noticed by <Sc61opax rusticola in his article " On the Habits of the Weasel,"
Vol.1 V. p. 337.; and some highly interesting particulars on the habits of this
animal are given by W. L., Vol. III. p. 234. — J, D.

The Mole shows Changes of Weather ^ Sfc. — Jan. 20. Mole (Talpa euro-
pae^a) works. It is remarkable that this animal sometimes gives notice of
a change of weather. The temperature or dryness of the air governs its
motions as to the depth at which it lives or works. This is partly from its
inability to bear cold or thirst, but chiefly from the necessity it is under of
following its natural food, the earthworm (Zumbricus terrestris), which
always descends as the cold or drought increases. In frosty weather, both
worms and moles are deeper in the ground than at other times, and both
seem to be sensible of an approaching change to warmer weather before
there are any perceptible signs of it in the atmosphere. When it is ob-
served, therefore, that moles are casting hills through openings in the frozen
turf, or through a thin covering of snow, a change to open weather may be
shortly expected.

The cause of this appears to be as follows : — The natural heat of the
earth being for a time pent in by the frozen surface, accumulates below it ;
first incites to action the animals, thaws the frozen surface, and at length
escapes into the air, which it warms and softens; and if not counter-
balanced by a greater degree of cold in the atmosphere, brings about a
change. Changes from frosty to mild weather, caused by the ascent of
heat from the earth, are often' so evident, that the circumstance needs no
confirmation. Stronger proof, if proof were necessary, cannot be given than
the common appearance of frost or snow remaining longer upon ground
having a stratum of rock beneath, than upon that where there is none. Old
foundations of buildings, which have not been dug out, are easily traced by
the same appearance ; and any subterraneous solid body, as large stones,
drains, planks, or pieces of timber, may be discovered in the same way ;
and even a plank laid across a ditch at such times will remain covered
with snow for many hours after the snow on the ground is all melted and
gone.

This sufficiently accounts for the activity of the mole before a change of
weather, and deserves to be noted by the meteorologist among his other
prognostics of the weather.

The mole, though generally a despised and persecuted animal, is never-
theless useful in some degree to the husbandman, in being the natural
drainer of his land, and destroyer of worms. To other inferior animals he
is a sapper and miner, forming for them their safe retreats and well-secured
dormitories. — J. ilf. Jan. 20. 1831.

Some very interesting remarks on the physiology and habits of the mole
will be found in our Vol. II. p. 420, 421.

Do moles swim of choice ? I have known them prevail in an allotment
of land which was every where bounded by streams, except at the gateway
by which access was obtained. It is far more likely that the moles swam
to the allotment, than distinguished the gateway. — J. D.

Uses of the Mole. — Agronome remarks. Vol. IV. p. 557., " Whatever
James Hogg may say in favour of moles, I am of opinion that they are
noxious vermin, and ought to be extirpated the kingdom." As some of
our readers may not be aware how much James Hogg has said on the sub-
ject, we present an extract : — " The most unnatural of all persecutions
that ever was raised in a country is that against the mole, that innocent
and blessed little pioneer who enriches our pastures annually with the first
top-dressing, dug with great pains and labour from the fattest of the soil
beneath. The advantages of this top-dressing are so apparent and so

Zoology* 79

manifest to the eye of every unprejudiced person, that it is really amazing
how our countrymen should have persisted, now nearly half a century, in
the most manly and valiant endeavours to exterminate the moles from the
face of the earth. If a hundred men and horses were employed on a com-
mon-sized pasture farm, say of from 1500 to 2000 acres, in raising and con-
veying manure for a top-dressing of that farm, they would not do it so effec-
tually, so neatly, or so equally, as the natural number of moles on that farm
would do of themselves." {Quaiierly Journal of Agriculture.^

Notes on the Water Shrew. — Ja7i. 28. Water shrew (6'6rex fodiens)
appears. This is a curious little animal, and not often seen, except by
those acquainted with its habits. It resembles the common shrew, but is
twice the size ; the upper part of the body black ; beneath, dirty white ;
the fur like that of a mole. Water shrews burrow and live on the banks
of rivulets and spring-water ditches, and appear to collect their food, which
probably consists of the larvae of some of the ephemeral flies, from among
the loose mud. If cautiously watched, they being naturally shy, they may
be seen crouching at the mouths of their holes, looking intently into the
water J and should a shoal of minnows (Cjprinus Phoxinus) or sticklebacks
(Gasterosteus aculeatus) pass near, the shrew plunges amongst them, but
seldom succeeds in making a capture ; and, returning to his station, looks
out for another chance. They dive with much adroitness, and can remain
under water for the space of a minute. Their fur repels the water from
their bodies, as while they are submerged they appear to be almost white.
When pursued by the weasel, they drop into the water, and pass to the
opposite side. — J. M. Jan. 28. 'l828.

The date of this communication, which we received almost as soon as
written, shows that we should have published it anteriorly to Mr. Dovas-
ton's esteemed article on the same subject, dated May 6. 1829, published
in our Vol. II. p. 219. That communication has excited contributions to
the more complete history of this interesting animal at p. 399. and 483. of
Vol. II., and p. 90. 188. 236. and 471. of Vol. III.; and the information
contained in the present account will be found confirmatory and additional
to that contained in the previous ones. W. W.'s (of Liverpool) notice.
Vol. III. p. 471., of the differences in character which he observed in the
captured specimens he examined, from the specimens described by Mr. Dovas-
ton, Vol. II. p. 221., induce us to refer W. W. to Mr. Ainsworth's remarks
in Vol. II. p. 483., which go to prove that there are two British species of
water shrew. — J. D.

Notes on the Common Shrew. — April 2. The common shrew (^Sbve^
Jraneus) appears. The shrew is well known, especially to mowers and
reapers. Their economy is much like that of the field mouse (ikfus sylva-
ticus). It is observable, that, if two are seen together, they are almost
always quarrelling. Whether the contest be amatory or malicious is un-
certain ; but the sufferer's cry is the most piercingly acute of any sound
with which the ear can be assailed. Cats kill, but seldom eat, the shrew.—
J. M. April 2. 1831.

The last sentence asserts a fact exceedingly familiar to the inhabitants of
the fens of Cambridgeshire, but where the name of shrew is scarcely known.
Its name there is mog-mouse ; almost without question, a corruption of
bog mouse. W. L. (Vol. III. p. 236.) says, " the cat kills, but does not
eat, the common shrew." — J. D.

A rare Variety of the Goose Family. — Sir, The severity of the season
[winter of 1829-30] having brought with it the usual accompaniment of
numerous flocks of wild fowl, it has happened, as is generally the case,
that some rare specimens of the yi^nas tribe have found their way from far
distant lands, to seek protection for a while on our shores. Amongst
others, a beautiful variety of the goose family has been shot in the neigh-

80 Zoology,

bourhood of Frampton on Severn. Not having any work of reference

where I am now writing, I cannot exactly say whether I am 'correct in. its

g^^^ V 33 * name (the *Cape goose). En-.

^^Hp^ ^^ . . closed is a small,* but tolerably

'^hI ^^fti^K accurate, ske'tcji ( fig. 33. )j

Jn ^Hj^H^ ^^ roughly made by. me, since the

■^^^ sB^t^^^^ "^A \ ^^^^ ^^^ heen set up. This, with

^^^^^^^^^^^^■^^^^^^^ j\ the description,- will enable your

^^^|^^^H||^^^^^^^^^^^y readers to form a tolerable no-

hjiL^|^9|^^^^^^^^^^^^^^<(/-^ tion of this very handsome bird.

^^H^^^^^l^^^^^^^^^^^^ The head is ash colour, mixed

^r^-^^^m^^^^^^^^^^^H^^^^!^ with chestnut ; the patch sur-

'^^m^^mi^^^^^S^B^\mmlil/m rounding the eye bright chest-

^'^^^^^^^^mB^^^^SS^/lMPy ""^ * ^^^ ^^ck ash colour, in-

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Jtv// clining to chestnut; bill small,

Ji^^^^^~^^^^^^^^r~^"^'^^7^ rather high in the middle-; the

. *^^^^^^^^^^^^»^^^*;^^ nostrils ^nd the edges of the bill

^^'^=*^s^=-;,,-_^;.;^..^:j^P^>^ black. Round the lower part of

the neck is a bright chestnut ring j breast ferruginous, speckled with black,
and on the lower part of the breast is a large patch of bright chestnut. Sca-
pulars ash colour, on a light chestnut ground, pencilled with black. Pri-
maries glossy black. Bastard wing white, divided by a line of glossy green
feathers, the rest of the wing dark chestnut, slightly pencilled with black.
Belly dusky, and speckled vent, ferruginous rump, and tail black. Legs
and feet red, toes black. Length from top of the beak to the end of the
tail 2 ft. 4 in. From the bird's being set up, as drawn, I had no opportunity
of measuring the breadth. Jt was pursued for many days before it was
shot. Yours, &c. — Walter Henry Hill. January 13. 1830.

The Kentish Plover not a variety of the Ring Plover y or Dulwillyy as it is
asserted to be in Rennie*s Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary, — Sir, Hav-
ing taken up the second edition of Montagues Ornithological Dictionary^
edited by James Rennie, A.M. A.L.S. &c., in hope of finding some account
of the Kentish plover, I found it stated to be a " variety of the king-
plover," or dulwilly [Charadrius hiaticula hinn?^. Now, as, in the same
work, it is justly affirmed, " that it is by observation alone that science can
be enriched, while a single fact is frequently sufficient to demolish a
system ; " and as I only wish to accomplish the first part of this quotation ;
I do not conceive I shall incur the charge of presumption if, in opposition
to Montagu's opinion, strengthened as it is by that of Mr. Rennie, I lay
before you my reasons for thinking the Kentish plover to be a distinct
species : hoping that, through your Magazine, either my error, or that of
the ornithologists who doubt the Kentish plover's being a species, may be
corrected. In May, 1830, I first met with these birds, in Pegwell Bay,
and on the Sandwich Plats, in Kent. They were then in pairs, and pro-
bably bred in the banks of shells which abound there. On examining a
bird shot on the 25th of May, 1 found it to be a male, according exactly
with Latham's description of the bird given in Bewick, except in size ; the
following being the measurement : — Length from the point of the bill to
the tip of the tail, 6^ in. ; breadth, 13i in. Latham says it is of the same
size as the ring plover ; now the latter bird measures nearly 1\ in. in
length, and 17 in. in breadth; making a difference between the two of
nearly an inch in length, and 3^ in. in breadth. The bill of the Kentish
plover is more slender than that of the ring plover, and measures five
eighths of an inch. The female differs from the male, in having no black
or rufous colour in her plumage ; her markings are otherwise the same as
in the male bird. Although I cannot say that the Kentish plovers did not
mix in the flocks of ring plovers and dunlins in feeding ; yet I never saw
them join them in the air. Indeed they seldom took wing ; but, on being

Zoologi/. " St

approached, generally ran, uttering a shrill cry, towards the nearest bank of
shingle or sjiell, where, being always difficult to be seen, they sometimes
rendered then^selves still more so by crouching down. I obtained in all
seven specitnens, thj'ee males, and" four females; amongst which there was
no material difference. I conceive these birds have hitherto, by some orni-
, thologists, been confounded with those varieties of the ring plover which
are occasionally met with wanting the gorget, &c. ; but they appear to me
to be perfectly distinct ; the birds I met with being altogether of a lighter
form. I remember observing this difference particularly on seeing a Kentish
plover and a ring plover placed in the same case, as a pair of the latter
species, in the shop of a noted preserver of specimens of natural history,
in London. Hoping that this may lead to some further elucidation, I am.
Sir, yours, &c. — George Clayton. Rochester, September 19. 1831.

Identity of the Green Sandpiper and the Wood Sandpiper. — Sir, The
question whether the green and wood sandpipers are the same species
seems, from Mr. Rennie's edition of Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary,
to be undecided; but, as a specimen has just come under my notice which
appears to me to clear up this difficulty, I shall offer no apology for sending
you a description of it. The length from the bill to the tail is 10 in. ; to
the end of the toes, llfin.; breadth, 17in. ; length from the knee to the
toe, 2|in.; thigh joint to the toe, 5iin. The bill measures l|in. from the
corner of the mouth, and is very slender ; the upper mandible, which is
black, and slightly curved at the point, is a little longer than the lower
one, which is a dark green at the base, and black at the point ; a dark
streak extends from the base of the upper mandible to the corner of the
eye, and above it is a patch of dirty white, intermixed, with minute dusky
spots ; a small circle of dirty white surrounds the eyes : the chin is white ;
the cheeks, throat, and forepart of the neck white, spotted with dusky,
with which colour a few laminae at the end of each feather are marked their
whole length ; the breast has a dappled stripe, of the same colour as the
throat running down the middle of it ; with this exception, it is white, as
are also the belly, vent, and under tail coverts.

The crown of the head and hinder part of the neck are a dingy brown,
which, on the neck, has a shade of ash colour ; the bend of the wing and
lesser wing coverts are brownish black; the whole upper part of the
plumage is of a glossy brownish green, which is spotted on the middle wing
coverts with minute white spots, that change to a dingy yellow on the
back, scapulars, and tertials, the last of which have twelve spots on the
outer margin of the feathers, and six on the inner one ; the tertials are
very long, the longest of them reaching to within a quarter of an inch of
the extreme top of the wing, which reaches to the end of the tail ; the
quill feathers are wholly black, as are also the secondaries ; the upper part
of the rump -is black, and each feather slightly tipped with white, which
forms small wavy lines on that part of the plumage; the lower part of the
rump and upper tail coverts are pure white ; the tail, which is even at the
end, consists of twelve feathers, which are barred with black and white
alternately. At the end of Bewick's description of the green sandpiper
there is a very exact representation of a cover feather of the tail, and an
inner wing covert, which will give a better idea of their appearance than a
page of letterpress. The legs are dark green, the outer toe connected with
the middle one by a membrane as far as the first joint; toes very slender,
middle one 1^ in. long. Weight 2| oz. Killed on the 17th of September,
1831, near Stoneyhurst.

I have been thus minute in my description, from a wish to clear up the
doubt that appears to exist as to the identity of these two birds ; the one
I have now before me is undoubtedly the green sandpiper of Bewick, but it
corresponds, in so many particulars, with the wood sandpiper of Montagu,
and appears to combine so many of the peculiarities of each, without
Vol. V. — No. 23. g

82 Zoology,

exactly agreeing with either, that 1 think it proves satisfactorily their iden«
tity. The glossy green of the upper plumage, the barring of the under
wing coverts, and the tail, identify this bird with the green sandpiper, whilst,
on the other side, the yellowish spots on the scapulars and tertials, the
black rump, the length of the leg, and the web between the outer and
middle toes, are characteristic of the wood sandpiper of Montagu. I leave
your readers to decide whether this description (which is as accurately
given as I am able with the bird before me) is sufficient to identify the two
species. — T. G. Clitheroe, September 23. 1831.

The Middle-spotted Woodpecker of Bewick, — Among the few rare British
birds which it has been my good fortune to procure, is a woodpecker
which is not described in MontagiCs Dictionary^ although it is mentioned by
Bewick as a dubious species under the name of the middle-spotted wood-
pecker. I sent Mr. Rennie an account of this bird some time ago, but as I
know not whether he ever received my letter, I shall now repeat the descrip-
tion : — A pair of these birds had built their nest, or rather hatched their
young (for there was no nest), in a hole in a decayed ash, about 20 ft. from
the ground : there were two young ones, which I secured, as well as one of
the old ones, and they are all now in the possession of a friend of mine,
who is a collector of specimens of ornithology. The old one measured
9i in. long, and weighed 46i dwts. an hour after it was killed ; the forehead
is a dirty buff, and the whole crown of the head a bright crimson ; in other
respects it corresponds with the description of the whitwall (Picus major)
in Montagu and Bewick ; the young ones have also the bright crimson
head, and do not differ very materially from the old ones. — TV G. Clitheroey
September 2^. 1831.

Notes on the Scoter (A^nas nigra Lin., Oidemia nigra Flem.). — I killed
one of this species on the Ribble, on September 16. 1831, and. I mention
it, on account of the contradiction it gives to some particulars of the
description of this bird in Rennie's Montagues Dictionary. There it is
stated that " this bird is only seen with us in the winter season, and is
never observed to visit our rivers or freshwater lakes." The 16th of Sep-
tember, in this year, 1831, could hardly be called winter, and the place
where I killed it is forty miles from the sea. — T, G. Clitheroe, Septem-
ber 23. 1831.

Notes on the Turtle Dove, — May 6. Turtle dove (Columba jTurtur)
arrived. The poetical character of this innocent and beautiful emigrant
excites an interest in its favour even in the breast of the keenest sportsman.
They visit us in pairs, and take up their abode in some thick wood. Their
unsuspicious temper makes them not over careful in concealing their nest,
it being built on a sprayey part of a horizontal branch of a tree, about 8 ft.
or 10 ft. from the ground. They lay two eggs, and consequently breed but
one pair of young ones ; and this they do but once in the season. It is
probable they live many years, as the same spot is chosen for their nestling
for a course of years, though it is impossible to ascertain whether it be by
the same birds. They are remarkably swift on the wing, and can easily
escape from their mortal enemy, the sparrow-hawk, unless taken by sur-
prise. Their plaintive call of tur-tur^ tur-tur, is peculiarly pleasing, resem-
bling so much the accents and language of affection. Before they leave us
for the winter, they congregate in little bands of ten or twelve together,
about the end of September, and soon afterwards take their departure to
the southward.

They are particularly useful in this country to the farmer, by living chiefly
on the seeds of tine-tare (JS^rvura hirsutum), where it abounds ; and, as
this tare never vegetates but in wet seasons, the turtle may be observed
searching for the dormant seeds in dry ones. As they are seminivorous
birds, it is not likely that they go far to the southward in winter, as the
stubbles in the south of Europe will always supply them with food. They

Zoology. SS

are easily tamed, and easily preserved, if kept warm enough in winter. — ♦
J. M, May 6. 1831.

The same writer has additional remarks on this subject in the British
Farmer's Magazine for August, 1831, p. 347, 348., which we here present.
" Tine-tare is a most troublesome weed both in the field and the barn. In
the first, it literally strangles the crop ; in the second, it causes much
additional labour in sifting, to pass its seeds, and to bring its unbroken pods
to the surface to be picked off. Of this weed it is truly said, that the seeds
lie dormant in the soil for years, as they only vegetate in moist warm
summers. Turtle doves are particularly fond of this small pulse, frequent-
ing the stubbles in the autumn where the tares have grown ; and again in
May, when these stubbles are getting into order for turnips, or are pre-
viously sowed with oats or other crop." — J. D.

The Pied Flycatcher y or Goldfinch (Muscicapa luctuosa*), is said by all
the books to be common nowhere ; perhaps it is nowhere numerous : but
from my earliest years I have seen one or two, and this year, in company
with your fanciful correspondent Von Osdat, three pairs, among the old
oaks, on the slope close to the western walls of that stern and august man-
sion. Chirk Castle, where the rocks overhang the rapid Ceiriog, exactly
where OiTa's Dike crosses that river. I also even see them, in their season,
among the venerable and quiet shades of Vale-Crucis Abbey ; and in the year
1823 1 saw several in Gowbarrow Park, Cumberland, on the banks ofUlls-
water, as I perambulated that delicious country with my friend, that indus-
trious and scientific naturalist, John E. Bowman, Esq. F.L.S. For a de-
scription, I refer to my lamented friend Bewick, whOy in his modest diffi-
dence of his own surprising powers, has given two spirited cuts j both of
which are correct and striking attitudes the bird often assumes. Its man-
ners somewhat resemble those of the M. Grisoluy by snapping flies, and re-
turning again and again to the same stand. It has two notes, soft but very
audible, and not unmelodious, which it repeats alternately for eight or ten
times frequently. Its song is extremely like that of the redstart, and for
which, by an unornithic ear it might be readily mistaken, as it was even by
my accurate friend Wood, till I pointed out a slight diiference of the rough
curl in the middle of the short, but often resumed, song : and, like that
bird, it has a very favourite habit of just alighting a moment on the ground,
or hastily and insecurely on the side of a tree, picking an insect, and
instantly returning to the same perch. Early in every April, I observe a
pair in my orchard, where they play and feed for a day or two, probably on
their way to Wales. They are readily disting-uished, particulai'ly the male,
by the very striking contrast of extreme black and white; a magpie in
miniature, with a white spot, as it were the last snowdrop, very conspicuous
on the forehead. I am sure they return annually to the same holes in ths
old oaks,

** whose boughs are moss'd with age.

And high tops bald with dry antiquity;"

and, I think, by the very same line, as I generally see them in or near the
very same trees in my orchard on their passage : and so well do I know
when and where to watch for them, that one April, going to show my
amiable friend Tudor (your Bean-bee Tudor, Vol. IV. p. 94.), while adjust-
ing the focus of my small ornithoscope upon a post, the then-arrived bird

* Muscicapa luctuosa. It is seldom I like to see the good old names of
Linnaeus changed, who calls this bird Atricapilla : his cap, indeed, is not
entii'ely black; and the new specific term, luctuosa, better depicts the
fiomewhat mournful bearing of the bird, both in plumage and motion.

a 2

SI Zoology,

actually appeared within its field. — John Freeman Milward Dovaston.
Westfelto7i, near Shreivsburj/y July 20. 1831.

Intrepidity of the Sivallow. — G. M. remarks (Vol. IV. p. 146.) its attack-
ing the stoat (i^fustela errainea) : I have seen it attack the common cat in
the same manner. Swallows were and are allowed to build in out-houses
belonging to my father ; the house cat would often bask in the sun beside
the out-houses, when the swallows always testified their detestation of her
by flying over her head in a rapid sweeping curve, almost touching her in its
lowest inclination ; and they shrieked their hatred as they flew. The cat
was young and playful, and annoyed them in return by catching at them as
they passed : this time they would fly in front of her, next time behind
her ; and this alternation kept her oscillating, as it were, as her hind quar-
ters still lay on the ground, from side to side. Now and then, as if enraged
by their pertinacity and her own want of success, she would spring up into
the air at them as they passed, with her best vigour and agility ; but I never
knew her catch one. Mr. Main describes (Vol. IV. p. 413.) the dauntless
bravery of the swallow, and says, it is " one of the most vigilant videttes
for the safety of the feathered race." (See Vol. IV. p. 413. for farther in-
formation.) — J.D.

The Veridaniy a periodical, commenced two or three years ago, and
since discontinued, gave, in one of its Numbers, the following interesting
account of

A Cat wJiich caught Swallows on the Wing, — The thing appears, a priori^
nearly impossible, and yet we stake our credit on the authenticity of the
fact, having seen the whole process of grimalkin's wonderful cunning, and
almost miraculous rapidity. It was in the early part of May, when insects,
in consequence of the cold, fly low, and of course the swallows are forced
to hawk for their prey by skimming the surface of the ground. The wily
cat, taking advantage of this, stretches herself upon a sunny grass-plot,
with her legs extended, as if she were dead ; the flies collect about her, as
flies always do when they can find any animal as patient as my Uncle
Toby, to endure their tickling and buzzing; the simple swallows, dreaming
of no harm, and thinking they can here make a good meal, dip down from
the barren air, dart with open bill upon the flies ; when puss, perceiving
her prey within reach, makes a spring like a flash of lightning, and strikes
down with her paw the poor thoughtless swallow. The best marksmen
know how difficult it is to shoot a swallow on the wing ; but the cat found
her patience, cunning, and rapidity, well rewarded by her unerring success
whenever a swallow ventured within her reach. (Verulam.)

Tongue of the Frog (B.dna tempordria). Sir, Having, while dissecting a
frog, observed the peculiar construction of its tongue, and thinking it may
be as new to some of your readers as it was to myself, I am induced to
transmit to you the following remarks upon its structure and uses : — The
most striking peculiarity consists in the tongue being affixed to the anterior
part of the lower jaw, its greatest breadth being at the root, where it unites
with the jaw, and the point lying at the back part of the mouth ; it is also
partly confined by a membranous fraenulum [a membranous string under
the tongue], of the same substance as the tongue, and capable of some
expansion. The only conjecture I can oflfer as to the purposes this singular
structure is designed to effect is, that the food of this reptile, consisting of
molluscous animBls, whose tenacity of life is very extraordinary, and the
animal heat of the frog not being sufficient to destroy them immediately
after being received into the stomach, they might endeavour to escape,- and-
as this viscus is in the same direction as the mouth, it would favour their
so doing, did not the tongue effectually prevent them, by pressing against
the upper palate. According to this idea, this deviation from the general
structure fulfils the design of the Great Author of the Universe, whose

Zoology.

8^

^'mercies are over all his works." Yours, &c. — Juvenis. Edmonton,
November 25. 1831.

Trichiosoma lucdruniy the Pupa and Imago of, a Habitat of, and the
destruction of by one of the \chneum6nidce . — Sir, I find that the author of
Insect Architecture has passed by unnoticed the curious follicle formed by
the caterpillar of the Trichiosoma lucorum ; I therefore beg to furnish you
with the following facts respecting it : — My little boy, being very fond
of prying into the manners and customs of insects, brought home last
autumn several cones or follicles containing the pupae of the above species.
These he found on a hawthorn fence in Southwell Road, situate a few
hundred yards from Brazen Doors, in the south-west side of Norwich ;
and they were enclosed in a paper box, and remained in my study during
the past winter. To my surprise, on the 24th of April, 1831, my daughter
informed me that her brother had confined two bees in his box ; which,
on examination, proved to be two specimens of imagos of the above-
named species, that had changed from their pupa state, and escaped
from their follicles. This they had effected by working a transverse
groove in the inner surface of the follicle, with the strong mandibles
with which they are furnished j and, getting one of these through, they
cut the follicle nearly all round as if with a pair of shears, and this
done made egress readily. These curious follicles or cones (see^g. 34.)
34 ik^^ are formed of the

insect'sglutenand
of the contiguous
leaves of the haw-
thorn, which grow
in tufts on the
young twigs : se-
veral cones in my
possession have
the exterior leaves
entire. My curio-
sity induced me
to open one of
the cones or fol-
licles, which pro-
ved of so tough a
texture, that a
penknife entered
it with consideir-
able difficulty.

The inside of
the follicle had a
perfectly smooth,
I may say a po-
lished, surface ;
the outside had a
fibrous appear-
ance from the tex-
ture of the leafy
material out of

which the cone or follicle is constructed, and possibly also, in part,
from the agglutinated hairs of the larva. These cones, thus constructed,
must completely screen the insects from the observation of their larger
enemies ; but they have others to fear of a smaller kind. The Zchneiimon
[which species ?] deposits her eggs in the caterpillar or larva, which car-
ries them with it into its pupa state ; and these eggs of the /chneiimon,
are themselves afterwards hatched into caterpillars that eat up the insect

Or 3

86 Zoology.

in which they had been deposited. A specimen of the Trichiosdma was
found by a companion of my boy's, which was full of these /chneumon
caterpillars ; and an old empty follicle, which I found, had likewise had its
occupant destroyed by the same kind of depredators. The imagos or
flies of the Trichiosdma appear to be tolerably abundant in the habitat
mentioned.

The accompanying figure is sketched from nature by my young na-
turalist (now 9| years of age), who is entirely self-taught, and I hope it
may be sufficiently to your purpose to have it engraved ; as it would pro-
bably induce others to direct the attention of their children to the study of
nature. lam, Sir, yours, &c. — Samuel Woodward. Norwich, May 16. 1831.
The above instance of the check effected by the /chneuraonidae to
superabundant increase in the insect population, should be added to the
other instances enumerated p. 105. — J. D.

Corollas and Petals perforated by Bees. — Mr. RennLe disputes (Insect
Miscellanies^ p. 50.) the younger Ruber's assertion, that bees perforate
the tubes of bean flowers (-Faba vulgaris); he will find that assertion con-
firmed Vol. IV. p. 93. of this Magazine ; and that of their perforating the
nectaries of aconite blossoms averred Vol. IV. p. 479, In the present
Number, p. 74., he will perceive questionless testimony that bees also
perforate the blossoms of Antirrhinum majus, which Mr. Rennie (Insect
Miscellanies, p. 49.) disputes ; and also those of Jasminum officinale. In
addition to these instances, we present the following: — Dr. Withering,
in noticing our native columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris), in his Arrangement
of British Plants, observes, "The elongated and incurved nectary of this
flower seems to bid defiance to the entrance of the bee, in search of the
hidden treasure; but the admirable ingenuity of the sagacious insect is not
to be thus defeated ; for, on ascertaining the impracticability of effecting
his usual admission, he with his proboscis actually perforates the blossom
near the depot of honey, and thus extracts the latent sweets without
farther difficulty." (B. Maund, in his Botanic Garden for September, 1831,
under Aquilegia canadensis. No. 322.)

The following notice of petals perforated by bees, we quote from the
Jjancaster Herald of June 30. 1831 : —

" The Humble Bee. We have had a singular instance of the destructi-
bility of this insect, amongst carnations, communicated to us by Messrs,
Connelly and Son of this town, who have had many of their best flowers
destroyed by it. It appears that, as soon as the bud begins to open, the
bee settles upon it ; and by causing some injury to the foot of the petals,
by its proboscis, all farther process is stayed, and the bud dies, scarcely
half blown. This fact was mentioned to Mr. Loudon, who, when here,
found Mr. Connelly, jun., engaged in destroying the bees, and washing the
buds of his plants, to prevent farther injury." — J. D.

Hydrbbius lateralis not a British Insect. — Sir, Mr. Curtis having upon
my authority introduced into his valuable Guide * Hydi'obius lateralis Fab.
as a British insect, I feel it due to that gentleman as well as myself, to
state that its admission as such was erroneous, and that it has no claim
to be so regarded.

The fact is, that one or two entomologists in a distant part of the coun-
try (whose names I will not mention, believing them to be ashamed of
the transaction) managed to foist this insect on a very assiduous collector,
but possessing no scientific knowledge, by dishonourably substituting it
for an insect of a genus, to an unpractised eye, somewhat resembling it in
external appearance. The poor man, without any suspicion, disposed of
the insect as British, and of his own capturing, to the highly respectable

* A Guide to an Arrangement of British Insects, by John Curtis.
Reviewed in p. 429. of our Fourth Volume.

Botany,

n

gentleman in whose cabinet I observed it. Both this gentleman and the
collector, who is a very deserving and honest man, are now satisfied they
have been grossly imposed upon.

I cannot but express my unqualified detestation of all such attempts
at imposition, from whatever motives they may arise; but especially in
this instance, in which I have reason to believe the design of the parties
was utterly unworthy of men professing the slightest regard for science
I am. Sir, yours, &c. — A. H. Davis. London, Sept. 19. 1831.

Ravages of Cetonia hirta of Scopoli and Fabridus. — Sir, In some re-
marks on the Cetoniae, in the 94th number of British Entomologyy I
alluded to a letter addressed to the Horticultural Society of London, on
the subject of the ravages of a species of Cetonia, an extract from which
letter was transmitted to me, with specimens of the insect, for my opinion
respecting the species j and, as I regretted not being able to subjoin this
account to my observations, I hope you will do me the favour to give it a
place in your Magazine.

Mr. St. John says, " And a gentleman [the Cetonia hirta Scop, and
Fab.] which the Maltese call BouzufF, and the English inhabitants the
Botany Bay, after he has filled himself, retires under ground till the March
apricot blossoms, when he emerges ; and I am for two months obliged to
have people employed solely to pick him off the blossoms, of which he
readily eats the nectary ; and, having eaten one, he goes to the next. He is
very active, and flies like a bee. When the roses are in blossom, these
beasts are so fond of them, that you may take twenty out of one flower,
and in ten minutes as many more. A dark-coloured flower they never
touch. I don't think he is known in cold climates."

The beetle above alluded to by Mr. St. John is very similar in size and
<jolour to the Cetonia stictica figured in British Entomology (pi. 374.) ; but
it is duller and more hairy, and appears to me to be the Cetonia hirta of
Scopoli and Fabricius, which is found as far to the north as Paris. I am,
Sir, yours, &c. — John Curtis. Grove Place y Sept. 1831.

Art. n. Botany.

A VARIETY of the common Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris). — Su', I have on
three or four different occasions met with a variety of the common ground-
sel (^Venecio vulgaris), which I do not find noticed in our English Floras.
The florets, invested by the pappus, seem to be unnaturally protruded be-
yond the summit of the involucrum. This appearance reminds one of the
female flowers of Gnaphalium dioicum, and Tussilago Petasites. Having
found a specimen of this variety three days ago
near St. Albans, I send you a drawing of its in-
florescence (^g. 35.). a and b represent two
, states of the capitulum, of the natural size, and c is
'ja magnified floret. One striking deviation in this
variety from the ordinary character of the plant,
consists in the considerable exsertion of the stigma
beyond the anthers and far beyond the corolla,
arising from the elongation of the style; whereas
the stigma is in general scarcely, if at all, protruded.
Smith, in the English Flora (vol. iii. p. 428.), makes
it a generic character of iS'enecio, that the style is
" the length of the stamens," whose anthers, how-
ever, are not always, as in the present variety,
wholly within the corolla. Another anomaly in
the florets of this variety consists in the length of
the ovai-ium ; being twice that which it has in the
G 4

$&

Botany,

ordinary state. The stigmas, anthers, and pollen appeared to be quite per-
fect, and to possess their usual characters ; but I believe that all the seeds
would have been abortive, at least all the ovaries that I dissected were
incomplete. We may probably ascribe the elongation of the style and
ovarium to their appropriating that portion of nutriment, which would
otherwise have been employed for developing the embryo. I am. Sir, yours,
&c. — J. S. Henslow. Cambridge^ Sept. 6. 1831.

Fumdria Vailldntu, a British Plant. — I had gathered this plant on Chat-
ham Hill, Kent, about five years ago, and had placed it in my herbarium as
a variety of F. parviflora ,• when, accidentally looking over some of the
species of this genus with Professor Lindley, a specimen caught my atten-
tion which I immediately identified with the Chatham Hill plant. This
specimen was subscribed F. Vaillantw; and upon my return to Cambridge,
I forwarded my own specimen to Professor Lindley, that he might compare
it with his. He has decided it to be the same, and I therefore do not hesi-
tate to add this species to our British list. — J. S. Henslow. Cambridge,
Sept. 16. 1831.

Mr. David Don, on inspecting the specimens marked F. parviflora in the
herbarium of Mr. T. F. Forster, has found all of them to be F. VaillantM,
except some derived from Kent ; and he hence conceives it probable that
F. Vaillantw is even a more frequent plant than F. parviflora. Mr. Don
still considers the description in Smith's Fng. Flora^ vol. iii. p. 236., to be
accurately applicable to F. parviflora, except in the habitats. — J. D,

Cineraria integrifolia, and its Varieties. — Sir, In looking over Sir J. E.
Smith's description of Cineraria integrifolia (Fng. Flor., vol. iii. p. 445.), I
find that he was rather inclined to consider the var. /3, called by some
C. jjriarltima, but not that of Linnaeus, a distinct species, but was deterred
by the very variable nature of the Cinerariae nearly allied to this species;
He observes concerning it, " It is twice the size of the above (var. a), with
numerous broad teeth to some of its radical leaves, with four to six flowers
in the umbel, nearly twice the size of those on the Newmarket Heath
specimens ; " L e. the var. a. (Jig. 36.) My reason for calling the attention
of your readers to this is, that on the 8th of
last June, when searching on the Gogmagog
Hills, near this place, for the var. a, which
generally grows there in great plenty, I was
unable to obtain any specimens, but found the
var. /3 in the greatest plenty, growing in the
very same place in which the var. a is com-
monly found. Now, it appears from this that
the moisture ofthe weather duringlast spring had
the same effect here which the vicinity of the
sea has at Holyhead, where this large variety was
found byMr.Davies, as recorded by Smith, name-
ly, that of converting this species from the small
state in which it is usually found, into the large
and dissimilar plant called by Mr. Davies Cinera-
ria marltima integrifolia. We may, I think,there-
fore, from the var. /3, which was, I believe, not
before known in that locality, having last year
totally supplanted the var. a, which had always
previously been found in that place, and was not
to be seen last year, conclude that the two are
nothing more than varieties of the same plant,
caused by difference in the degree of moisture.
I have sent the accompanying specimens, that you may see the great differ-
ence in size and appearance of the two varieties ; of which var. a was
gathered on the Devil's Ditch, Newmarket Heath, June 5. 1820, and var.

Meteorology, 89

(i on the Gogmagog Hills, June 8. 1829. In some specimens of this last
there were four or even five stems to one root. It may be as well to add,
that the var. /3 has never before, so far as I know, been found at such
a distance from the sea. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — Charles C. Babington.
St. John's College, Cambridge, Feb. 12. 1830.

Art. III. Meteorology.

The East Wind. — The ill effects of the east wind on health have always
been noticed. It is well known that air, as it grows warmer, becomes
capable of holding in solution (or drinking up) a greater quantity of
moisture ; a current of cold air rushing into a place which is warmer will,
therefore, dry up a great deal of wet. For this reason, damp clothes in
winter, placed in the open window of a warm room, dry uncommonly fast.
Now, it is well known that nothing is more pernicious to the health than
a sudden drying up of the perspiration. Whether this be owing merely to
the cold caused on the skin by the evaporation of so much moisture, or to
the deranging of some other link in the animal economy, need not be
asked ; it is sufficient that the fact is so. For this reason, exposure to
any current of air which is acquiring heat, and is therefore becoming drier,
is uncommonly prejudicial. Every one has observed how disagreeable
are currents of air m warm rooms ; in fact, the warmer the room, and the
nearer we are to the fireplace, so much. the more annoying is a draft from
any of its crannies. Such a current, increasing in heat as it passes from
the cold of the external air to the warmth of a room, will absorb double
its former moisture, and of course will dry the perspiration on the body
faster than it can be supplied, causing by that means rheumatism in all its
forms, toothache, headache, &c. Now, it is evident that the same reason
which causes a draft from the open air into a room to be disagreeable, will
cause any Avind jjlowing from a cold region into one that is warmer, to
have exactly the same effects. The east wind is in this predicament ; it
blows from a colder continent, which retains the cold of winter longer
than the marine tract on which we are situated, the temperature of which
is more equal, and at such times warmer. Damp or misty winds are
also proverbially hurtful, and their injurious effects seem to arise from
the moisture continually deposited by them on the body, which is evapo-
rated by the natural heat, and causes in that process an unusual and hurt-
ful degree of cold, or diminution of the animal temperature. — N.

London Fogs. — Mr. Davy, the brother of Sir Humphry Davy, was,
I believe, the first person who broadly laid it down that fogs arise when-
ever the air becomes colder than the water. From this principle we
can draw the following conclusions: — 1. Fogs will be most frequent in
autumn, after the earth has been heated during the summer, the air cooling
faster than the earth. 2. Fogs will be greatest after the hottest summer.
3. Fogs show that the air has become suddenly colder, and therefore are
a sign of snow. 4. Fogs will be rare in hot climates, where the air is
usually very hot. 5. Fogs will be very frequent in the arctic regions, where
the sudden depressions of temperature are enormously below the mean
temperature. 6. Fogs will be most frequent over shallow water, which
sooner partakes of the temperature of the bottom, than the deep water.
The end of the deep water is known, near the banks of Newfoundland,
by the sudden commencement of the fogs. The thick fogs which appeared
during Captain Franklin's last expedition prove that the sea is very
shallow, and the mean temperature not very low, upon that part of the
arctic coast. 7. If the London fogs have increased during late years, it
will prove either that the mean temperature has increased, or that the

90

Meteorology,

variations of temperature have increased, or that a disproportion of
temperature between the water and air has increased, or that the
Thames has diminished in depth. It is my behef that the last has
occurred, partly from the natural rise of all embanked river beds, and
partly from the effect of Waterloo Bridge. This bridge is unhappily placed
near a bend of the river, and it is to be feared that the allignment of the
arches of the other bridge, and the course of the current, have not been
duly considered. The only remedy is to narrow the channel, so as to
increase its depth, upon some such plan as Colonel Trench's. The quays
of the insignificant Seine are open, the Thames is inaccessible. It is,
however, very dubious whether that great work would pay as a commer-
cial speculation. {Courier ^ Nov. 20. 1827.)

On the Crystallisation of Snow. — Sir, Having been so fortunate as to
meet with the snow crystals in great plenty this winter, I cannot help
thinking that, as I believe they are not often seen in this country, it may
be acceptable to some of your readers to have the following short account
of them : — On the 4th of this month (Feb. 1830.), and for some days after,
the thermometer standing at about 22°, and the wind from the E.N.E.
nearly all the snow that fell was of that beautiful stellated form, called by
Scoresby, in his work on the Arctic Regions (vol. i. p. 477.), the " lamellar
stelliform crystals." They consist mostly of six points, radiating from a
centre, forming with each other, at that centre, angles of 60°, and having
commonly additional ramifications on the primary ones, in the same plane
with them, and forming angles of 60° with the primaries, as in the following
figures {Jig. 37.), of which the form b was the most common, and after that

c and d. e and / were but seldom seen, and g I met with but once.
The last three appear to be formed by the obliteration of the alternate
rays, so as to form angles of 120° instead of 60°; the additional rami-
fications still forming angles of 60°, with the primaries, hy i, and k,
which I did not see myself, but which were communicated to me by a friend,
appear to be crystals in a progressive state of formation. The size of the
crystals varied from one eighth to one third of an inch in diameter. It
appears from Scoreby's table (vol. i. p. 433.), that the time when the
greatest quantity of crystals fell was when the thermometer stood between
16° and 22°, and the wind was N.E. or N.N.E. ; which nearly corresponds
with what was observed here. Th& forms observed do not exactly agr^e

Meteorology, 91

with those figured by Scoresby ; but /, m, w, o, and /), are those of his which
come nearest to the English ones. — Cacale. Cambridge^ Feb. 12. 1830.

Anchor Frosts. — Jan. 22. 1828. The state of the weather forms a prin-
cipal part of our every-day conversation ; much of our personal comfort,
and very often our health, depends on it. The approach of winter is par-
ticularly felt, for

— - " This is the season when
An icy gale, oft shifting, o'er the pool
Breathes a blue film, and in its mid career
Arrests the bickering stream : " Thomson.

and which sometimes takes place in a wonderful manner. It is necessary
to premise that it is as natural for the element of water to be solid as fluid,
and that its fluidity only depends on that temperature of the atmosphere
which is marked by Fahrenheit's thermometer at the thirty-third degree :
at and above this point, water is fluid; and, below, it is solid, or in the state
of ice. From the short days, and oblique direction of the sunbeams, the
heat received by the surface of the earth in the day is soon radiated ofi',
and the colder air from the higher regions of the sky descends and reposes
on the surface of the ground. At the same time, too, if the face of the
ground becomes incrusted by frost, the natural heat of the earth is pre-
vented from escaping to increase the temperature of the air, and this being
cooled down to the thirty-second degree, water becomes congealed, and, as
the poet has said, the rapid river is even arrested in its course. In ordi-
nary cases, the crystallisation begins on the surface j on every part simul-
taneously on stagnant pools, if the air be perfectly calm ,* but on water in
motion, whether as that of a stream, or when ruffled by wind, the crystal-
lisation begins at the sides, and gradually shoots across the surface, till the
whole is a connected plate, and, in continued frost, increases in thickness
from below. But great bodies of ice are formed, and stop the current of
rivers, in a very difierent way, and this, when it happens, is called by the
owners of water-mills an anchor frost. In this the ice begins to form at the
bottom of the stream (it never happening in pools or stagnant water),
instead of on the surface. This unusual phenomenon, so contrary to our
common ideas respecting the action of frost, may, however, be rationally
accounted for by any one who has attended to it. The streams in which
anchor frosts are most commonly seen are such as contain water of different
temperatures, viz. surface drainage and land springs, and supplies from
main springs. The first are always several degrees colder in winter than
the latter, which is never less than 40°, even in the severest frosts. This
mixed stream is partially affected by the air when below the freezing point.
The colder globules are first frozen, shoot into crystals of various shapes,
jand may be seen floating on the surface individually, and are prevented
coalescing by the intermediate main spring water, which, although warmer,
does not entirely dissolve the already frozen particles. In the deeper parts
of the river no accumulation of these crystals is visible; but in the shallows,
where the water percolates through or over a pebbly bottom, there the crys-
tals are intercepted between the interstices of the stones, and then become
heaped together in thick beds, so as even to throw the current out of its
channel. At the gratings of the water-gates of mills, the spicula are also
accumulated, and are greater annoyances to the miller than the thickest
ice on the surface of the mill-pond, because of the difficulty of clearing it
away. The fact of the crystals of ice (which are specifically much lighter
than water) sinking below the surface, is an attending circumstance which
requires explanation. They do not sink from theii- specific gravity, but in
the commotion of the current they are occasionally submersed, and while
so are stopped by any obstruction, where they commence and compose the
aggregation. — /. ilf. Ja«.22. 1831.

92

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

Art. I. Foreign Notices.
POLYNESIA.

Notices on the Native Plants of the Island of Rotuma, Southern Pacific
Ocean. — This beautiful island, clothed in verdure, has a fertile and pictur-
esque appearance. As its shores are approached, cocoa-nut palms (Cocos
nucifera), in an infinite number, are seen elevating their feathered tops
above the other trees ; and, on a nearer approach, native houses can be seen,
near the beach, mingling with the beautiful tropical vegetation. On landing,
the luxuriance and beauty of the vegetation charms the eye. Near the
beach, the fifau (Calophyllum Inophyllum) and several species of the
Panddnus are seen, apparently enjoying the moisture from the sea. On
proceeding farther inland, not only the cocoa-nut palm, with its feathery
fronds waving and rustluig to the passing breeze, but an infinite variety of
shrubs and plants, meet the eye, glowing in nature's most brilliant colours,
and teeming with fragrance. Occasionally the wildness and luxuriance of
nature gives place to the art and industry of man, diversifying the scene.
In a cleared spot are seen the plantations of yams (Dioscorea sativa, or per-
haps aculeata), and the J'rum esculentum : the root of the latter is much
esteemed when cooked, although poisonous in a crude state ; the acrid
poison being removed by the action of fire. This root, here named ahan,
is more commonly known by the name of taro among the Pol3'nesian
Islands. Plantations of sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum), bread-fruit
(Artocarpus incisa et var.), and plantains (Musa paradisiaca), are also
seen ; and, although all are cultivated in a rude manner, this cultivation
sufficiently shows the industry of man in a savage state, when stimulated by
necessity. There is a large species of ^Vum also cultivated, named aper
by the natives ( J^rum costatum), the root of which is also eaten ; but the
other species of JVum are usually preferred. *

Casuarina equisetifolia. Among other beautiful trees is the toa, or Casua-
rma equisetifdlia : it has a delicate drooping appearance, and is a tree of
very elegant growth. It is usually seen planted in clumps about the vil-
lages, or displaying its mournful appearance in the native burial-places
(morals), for which its sombre appearance renders it an apt ornament.
The wood of this tree is very hard, and of a beautiful dark reddish brown
colour; and, from its hardness and durability, has been named iron
wood by Europeans. The natives employ the wood in the manufacture
of clubs, spears, &c.

Calophyllum inophyllum. Another elegant tree is the fifau, or Calophyl-
lum inophyllum, usually seen growing by the sea-side : it is a lofty branch-
ing tree, with thick, ovate, transversely linear, dark green leaves ; the flowers
are in clusters, of a white colour, with yellow anthers, and have much fra-
grance; the fruit is, when mature, of a reddish brown colour, and is also fra-

* It is named cabbe at Tongatabu, and ape at Tahiti,

Foreign Notices : — Polynesia, 93

grant. A scented gum-resin is produced from this tree, which at first exudeS:
of a clear amber colour, but soon after becomes of a greenish yellow. The
wood is hard, of a red colour, and handsomely veined; varying, however, in
the beauty of its veins; it is close-grained, and, according to the cabinet-
maker's phraseology, " bottoms well." It resembles Honduras mahogany'
in the working, as also, in some degree, in appearance. The tree attains
an elevation of 50 or 60 ft. ; and about 10 or 12 ft. in circumference. The
wood is used by the natives for a variety of purposes ; and they value and
plant the tree for the shade it aflbrds them, as also for the beauty and
fragrance of the flowers. *

Spondias dulcis. A tree highly valued for its fruit is the vi (5p6ndias
dulcis of Parkinson) [called in English books on botany the Otaheite
apple] : it is found also abundantly at the Society Islands. It is a lofty
and handsome tree, attaining the height of 60 ft., and a circumference of
12 or 15 ft. It is one of the few trees found to be deciduous in Poly-
nesia. The leaves are pinnate, of a light green colour, with serrate and
transversely ribbed leaflets, the petioles are round ; the flowers are racemed,
small and white ; the fruit is oval, in size about that of a goose's egg, and,
when mature, of a bright yellow colour ; the external covering has a tere-
binthinate [turpentine] flavour, but the pulp is sweet and pleasant to the
taste ; it grows in bunches. The core is spiked, and is usually two-celled.
An albuminous substance is found in some quantity about the core. This
tree yields a resinous gum, of a greenish yellow colour and fragrant odour.
The wood is used at Tahiti in making canoes.

Sapindaceous ? Trecy near the Genus Euphoria. Indigenous to this island
(and the only one, among the Polynesian group that I visited, at which it,
was observed) is a lofty tree, which appeared to be of the natural family
Sapindaceae, related to Euphoria, and is called thav by the natives : it
attains the height of 50 or 60 ft., and a circumference of 7 or 8 ft. ; it
bears a fruit, about the size of a walnut, with a thin rind, which being removed
displays a white glareous pulp, enveloping several rather semilunar brown
seeds ; the fruit has an agreeable flavour ; the leaves are pinnate, large, and
of a dark green colour. It is found in fruit about the months of December,
January, and February.

Uvdria odordta. On elevated land, as well as occasionally planted about
the native habitations, is seen the Uvaria odorata, called mouscoi by the
natives. It is a small tree, with somewhat pendent branches. The leaves
are ovate-lanceolate, and of a dark green colour ; the flowers have long
linear-lanceolate petals, of a light yellow colour, with a red spot situated
internally at the base of each petal ; the flowers have a powerfully fra-
grant smell, which is retained for a very long time when they are in a dried
state. The natives dry the petals, and use them for scenting their cocoa-
nut oil. The flowers are succeeded by a fruit, which grows in bunches of

* This tree is called tamanu, or ati, at the island of Tahiti, where the
wood is used in making canoes, and is also held valuable for shipbuilding.
It was formerly a sacred tree, and planted in the morai, where it was death
to break a branch, or in any way to injure it. In India, this tree is named
qashumpa, and the oil extracted from the nuts is there used as a liniment
in rheumatism, &c. The gum-resin, which exudes both spontaneously and
on incisions being made in the trunk, is the tacamahaca resin of commerce,
which was formerly held in high estimation as an ingredient in warm
stimulating plasters, &c. The females of Tahiti use the resin as a scent,
as also the fruit, which is possessed of much fragrance, and is said to
yield a yellowish dye. The fruit is also scraped, and mixed with the bark
of the ante (Broussonetea papyrifera), for the purpose of giving a fra-
grant smell to the cloth.

94 Foreign Notices : — Polynesia,

tea to eighteen, of small size, and a very dark green colour; each capsule
contains six or more small brown seeds, embedded in a white pithy sub-
stance.

The Inocarpiis edidis, or if o£ the natives, is also abundant at this island:
it is the maipe, or rata, of the Island of Tahiti ; and is called the South
Sea [or Otaheite] chestnut by Europeans. It is a lofty tree, attaining
the elevation of 50 or 60 ft. The trunk of this tree has a singular appear-
ance, more particularly after it has attained some age : this singularity con-
sists in projections from the trunk, like buttresses, standing out some dis-
tance from what seems to be the actual trunk, and may be said to have an
appearance of several trees united together ; these buttresses extend from
the root to the branches, being widest at the base. The wood of this tree
is close-grained, but not durable, and is seldom used, except as fire-
wood ; the leaves are oblong, long, and of a dark green colour. The
flowers are in racemes, small, white, and fragrant. The fruit is highly
esteemed, and, when roasted or steamed, has the taste of a chestnut. " It
fattens man as well as pig," say the Rotuma natives ; and is much used by
them as an article of food. The fruit grows in clusters, is flat, and some-
what reniform. The kernel is solitary, and enclosed in a thick tough co-
riaceous covering, of a dark yellowish colour when mature, and contains
much farinaceous substance. This tree is of very handsome growth. At
Rotuma I usually observed it growing on the elevated land. At tlie
Island of Tahiti, it appeared to grow most luxuriantly in the valleys, by the
margins of rivers, &c.

Vrtica argentea. By the pathways, growing in a wild state, may be
observed the f/rtica argentea, called amea by the natives : the inner bark
of which is used by them in the manufacture of a fine kind of matting, as
well as of fishing-nets, lines, &c.

Tunning Plants. Twining over the dense thickets are seen several species
of Convolvulus, as well as a species of H6y« (which I saw also at Ton-
gatabu and Erromanga) bearing greenish white flowers [Hoya viridifl6ra ?] ;
also the foi (Convolvulus brasiliensis), hoi of Tahiti, with its broad, cor-
date, dark, shining, green leaves, and bearing a potato-like fruit, which is
only eaten in times of scarcity, and then, previously to being used, is soaked
for a short time in water.

Fan Palm. Among the palm tribe (besides the valuable cocoa palm) I
observed a small species of fan palm, called fakmor by the natives ; the
leaves of which are used as wrappers for their mats,&c., and also serve the
purpose of umbrellas. A native carries one over his head, to shelter him
from the fervency of the tropical sun.

A Species of Sagus. On the elevated land grew (both wild and planted
by the natives) a species of Sdgiis ; differing from that found in the Eastern
Archipelago, &c., in having pyriform instead of rotundiform fruit : the
petioles of the leaves, as well as the trunk, are armed with thorns, growing
in a retrorse or downward direction ; the back part of the central stalk of
the leaflets is also epinated [aculeate] ; the fruit grows in large bunches.
This palm is called hoat by the natives ; and I have seen it growing to the
height of 20 or 30 ft. Some natives of Tongatabu, who were on board
our ship at the Island of Rotuma, when they saw the fruit, said it also
grew at the Island of Tongatabu, where it was called niu sava. I never
observed it myself at that island. The natives of Rotuma eat the pith of
the tree, which they said " tasted like the mara, or arrow-root." They
extract the pith, and rub it down between stones. The fruit is also eaten
when very young ; that is, the soft pith-like substance which surrounds the
hard stone. The fruit, however, is principally kept for planting, as the tree
is also highly valued for its fronds, which, on account of their durability,
are used for thatching their houses. I should consider this species as
peculiar to elevated land, as I never, in one instance, at Rotuma, observed

Toreign Notices : — Polynesia, 9i

it growing on low land. I have presented a young specimen of this palm
to the botanical collection of the British Museum.

Of the Genus Viper, they have the kava or ava plant (Piper methis-
ticum), which is cultivated for use ; and also a twining species, called shas
by the natives, which envelopes the trees in its vicinity with its dark
foliage.

Of Plants allied to Amomum. The turmeric plant is abundant, both wild
and cultivated : the root is used by the natives in the formation of a
colouring substance for daubing their bodies on particular occasions. By
cultivation, the roots attain a larger size and better quality. The ginger
[Zingiber officinale ?] is also seen abundant, wild, and is called rang apua
by the natives, and at Tahiti, rea : it is also abundant, wild, at the New
Hebrides group.

Dioscorea, or Yam. The natives of this island have a small species of
yam (Diosc6r<?«), named by Europeans the Rotuma potato, and by the
natives, ule: it occasionally grows large j but the small ones are con-
sidered of the best quality.

The Ahan or Taro (A^'rum esculentuni) is also cultivated ; but, from A
deficiency of water irrigation, it is principally confined to the mountain
variety. The taro plant requires a moist soil, and that the roots should
be kept covered with water : this is indispensably requisite for the pro-
duction of good taro. If the soil is not sufficiently moistened, the roots
become watery, and not eatable. It can be planted at any season of the
year, and is propagated by means of the tops and young shoots ; and
requires about six months to attain perfection. There are also several
varieties of mountain or dry land taro ; but the roots are not equal to
those which grow in a moist or watery soil.

Of the Tho, or Sugar Cane, they have several varieties ; but the cane is
(as at the whole of the Polynesian Islands) only eaten in a raw state.

The splendid Barringtoma speciosa, or huthu of the natives, is abundant ;
as also at Tongatabu, where it is named futu ; and at Tahiti, where it is
named hutu. It is lofty, branchy tree, and bears a profusion of mag-
nificent pinkish flowers, which are succeeded by a large quadrangular
drupe containing a four-celled nut : it attains the elevation of 40 or 50 ft^,
and a circumference of 10 or 14 ft. : the leaves are entire, obtuse, shining,
coriaceous, and of a dark green colour. The wood is seldom or never
used, except as firewood; but the fruit is used (as at Tongatabu and
other of the Polynesian Islands) for poisoning fish.

Pandanus, Species and Varieties of. There are several species of the
Panddnus on the island, bearing the native names hoshoa, pauhuf, sahang,
and hat. The first attains a very large size, and the foliage is several feet
in length. The fruit is of. great magnitude; one I procured weighed 60
pounds. The pauhuf is the male tree of the Panddnus odoratissimus (the
female tree has a distinct native name of hat) ; the floral leaves are of a
milk-white colour, and very fragrant. I am not aware that the farina or
pollen is possessed of any fragrance. The younger leaves of the species
named sahang are bleached, and afterwards used in the manufacture of
the varieties of matting, named by the natives ape sala, &c, ; and from the
older leaves a coarse matting is manufactured, named ehap.

Of the Porij or Plantain Tree (Musa), they have several varieties;
and they have also the mountain variety (the fei of Tahiti) named shai.
This variety differs in its mode of growth from the lowland varieties, in
having clusters of fruit rising erect from a short thick stalk in the centre
of the tuft of leaves at the summit, whilst the others have them pendent
from the stem. The mountain variety, when roasted, either when green or
mature, is excellent ; but, when raw, has a roughness, even when ripe,
which renders it not very agreeable to eat. The colour of the fruit ex-
ternally is of a bright orange, and internally the pulp is of a bright yellow.
The broad expansive leaves are of a very dark shining green. The trunk,

96 Foreign Notices : - — Polynesia,

on being cut, yields a quantity of purplish-coloured juice: I collected some
quantity of it during my visit to the Island of Tahiti, in October, 1829.

A Species of Urania, On the elevated land, I found a species of Urania
in flower.

An Aroideous Plant. There is a plant, abundant at the Polynesian
Islands, as well as in the Eastern Archipelago, with a long rough petiole
terminating in a pinnatifid umbellated leaf: it resembles much an A^Yum
in growth, and is probably a species of Calddium; it is named shoa
at this island (and teve at the Island of Tahiti). The roots possess very
acrid properties. A young chief (Iraf ), when I gathered a specimen at
Rotuma, which he thought I intended to eat, observed, " No good, you
eat it make mouth sore."

JMardnta artmdindceay Tacca pinnatijida, ^-c, siijyjyly the Arrow-root of
Commerce. The farina or flour from the roots of various tribes of plants
constitutes the arrow-root of commerce. In India it is prepared from the
Maranta arundinacea, and at Tahiti and other of the Polynesian Islands
from the Tdcca pinnatifida : this latter plant is seen growing in a dry soil,
on low land, and sometimes also on the declivities of the mountains. The
leaves arise from the root by petioles, which are from 1 ft. to li ft. in
length ; they are pinnatifid, umbellated, broad, and of a light green colour;
from the centre of the foliage arises a tall, erect, naked, flowering stem,
bearing flowers of a greenish colour, which are almost unbellated, with
some pedunculate, others almost sessile ; the peduncles are capillary, in-
termixed with long hanging filaments ; the involucre is composed of several
large sessile leaflets, sheathing at their base, longer than the flowers. The
fruit is an oval berry, narrowed at both extremities ; and, when ripe, of
a gr^nish yellow colour, has six longitudinal ribbed marks externally,
and contains numerous small light brown seeds, striated longitudinally, and
embedded in a watery pulp. The roots are roundish, of a reddish colour ;
and, in an unprepared state, are possessed of acrid properties. At Tahiti
and the Sandwich Islands, this plant and the farina produced from it is
named pia ; at the Island of Rotuma, mara ; at the Island of Tongatabu,
maa-euah; and at the Island of Tucopia, massoa. When the leaves
perish, which occurs annually, the roots are dug up, and are prepared, at
this as well as the other Polynesian Islands, in the following manner: — The
roots are washed, and grated on a piece of coral into a large bowl of
water; the grated portion is afterwards strained through a sieve (generally
made from the fibrous net-like covering found at the base of the frond of
the cocoa-nut tree) ; and the farina or flour settles at the bottom of the
vessel : the water is renewed daily, until the farina assumes a very white
appearance ; and by this process the acridity of the root is also removed :
the farina, when taken out, is found formed into a solid mass : it is then
broken into pieces, and well dried in the sun. Formerly, the natives of
Tahiti formed the farina into large balls. These the sun not being able to
penetrate, the interior was usually moist and damaged, which occasioned it
to get into disrepute as an article of commerce : they now adopt a better
method. This farina or flour is found excellent for bread, when mixed
with one half of wheaten flower, and is used by the missionaries at Ta-
hiti in that manner, as their supplies of flour are very precarious ; it is
also used as a starch for linen, &c.

Bonnets of the Native Females. The native females at the Island of
Tahiti prepare the stalk of this plant in the following manner, and, plaiting
it, use it in the manufacture of bonnets (they also use a kind of grass in
the manufacture of bonnets). The stalk of the Tdcca pinnatifida is split
down, and, the inner substance having been scraped away with a shell, is
frequently again scraped, with the addition of water, until it is well cleaned;
the outer green epidermis is then removed, in a similar manner, from the
other side, which seems to be the most difficult part of the process : after
this has been done, a fine shining white thin substance remains, which,

Monthly Calendar of Nature for Scotland,

97

after being dried in the sun, is ready for use. The bonnets made from
this material have a neat appearance. — George Bennett^ F,L.S. M.R.C.S.,
^c. Lo?idony December 5. IS31.

Art. II. MontJdy Calendar of Nature for Scotland,

Extracts from the Meteorological Register kept at Annat Gardens, Perth-
shire, N. lat. 56° 23i^ above the Level of the Sea 172 Ft., and 15 Miles
from the Coast; being the Mean of daily Observations at 10 o' Clock
Morning and 10 o' Clock Evening.

Results for October.

Month.

Mean
temper,
ature.

Mean
of dew
point.

Mean of
minim,
temper-
ature.

Mean of
barometer.

Depth of
rain in
inches.

Depth of
evapor-
ation.

October 1. to 10.
10. to 20.
20. to 31.

52-9°

55-3

54-7

48-2
53-5
49-4

43-2°

48

42-7

29-30
29-38
29-34

3-00

1-01

•70

-21
-35
•40

Monthly mean

54-3°

53-3°

44-6'^

29-40

4-71

•96

The average mean temperature for October, at this place, is 48'4"'. This
season it has been nearly 6^ higher, and 4° higher than in any correspond-
ing month for the ten past years. The heavy fall of rain in course of the
first ten days, amounting to 3 in., is also of rare occurrence. The dew
point was also nearer the mean temperature, and the evaporation less, than
usual. The following are the

Results for November.

Month.

Mean
temper-
ature.

Mean
of dew
point.

Mean of
minim,
temper-
ature.

Mean of
barometer.

Depth of
rain in
inches.

Depth of
evapor-
ation.

Nov. 1. to 10.
10. to 20.
20. to 30.

38-5°

36-9

43-6

36-0°

35-5

40-0

32-9°

31-3

36-9

29-32
29-33
29-84

-80

3-10

•40

-21
•31
•18

Monthly mean

39-6°

37-1°

33-7°

29-49

4-30

•70

The average mean temperature for November, at this place, is 42-3°,
This season the unusual warmth in October was followed by a severe storm
of frost and snow early in November.

The lowest temperature in October was on the 27th : extreme cold,
39° J wind north- west. The warmest day in that month was on the 18th :
mean temperature of that day, 62°, an elevation which it seldom reaches in
October in this climate ; extreme heat, 68° ; wind westerly. On 26 days
the wind blew from westerly points ; on 2 days, from easterly points ; and
on 3 days, it was variable. There were loud winds, about the velocity of
10 miles an hour, on the 22d and 30th. There were 9 days of clear, and
3 of partial, sunshine ; on 18 days the atmosphere was cloudy.

The coldest day in November was on the 19th : mean temperature of

Vol. v.— No. 23. h

98 jRetrospedive Criticism,

that day, 20^ ; extreme cold, 22° j wind north-west. The warmest day in
that month was on the 12th: mean temperature of that day, 53°; extreme
heat, 57^; wind west. On 13 days the wind blew from west and south-
west ; on 6 days, from north-west ; on 7 days, from due north ; and on 4
days, from easterly points. There were 10 days of clear, and 2 of partial,
sunshine; 18 were cloudy.

The copious rains, and unusual warmth, in the early part of October,
produced a sort of late autumnal growth in trees and shrubs, which has
made them more tenacious than ordinary of retaining their foliage, not-
withstanding the severe frosts in November. The laurustinus was in full
blossom by the end of October ; and on the 5th of November the Highland
hUls were covered from to 1 to 2 ft. deep with snow : violent winds from
the north-west, blowing over the snow-clad hills, gave early indication of a
storm, which followed on the 16th, and several subsequent days. The
storm had spent its rage by the 20th ; and on the 23d the thermometer
stood at 53°, or 29° higher than on the 19th and 20th. In the fields early
sown wheat is rather forward, much having the coronal roots already
formed; a general precursor of a small ear, these roots being often hurt
by the winter or spring frosts. Wheat sown on the Sd of November is just
beginning to appear, but is not yet fully brairded. The fieldfares and wild
geese arrived in the low carse [vale] early in November. In the cultivated
districts partridges have been strong, and in great plenty ; and the moorfowl
aiforded fine sport (if sport it can be called) on the hills. The J'rbutus
C/^nedo was in full blow by the middle of October, and its berries [those
from the blossoms of October, 1830] are now assuming a scarlet colour.
JVarcissus, and other bulbous-rooted plants, begin to send their foliage
above ground. The flowers of the sweet-smelling coltsfoot (Tussilago
fragrans) have been nipt by the frost, when left in the open air ; no plant
pays better with scent in the green-house in the winter months. The
Tritoma media shows a vigorous flower stem in the open border, notwith-
standing the late severe frost ; and the Aponogeton distachyon is now in
full blossom in a well where the temperature of the water is 47°. — A, G,
Annat Gardens y December 1. 1831.

Art, III. Retrospective Criticism.

The Mot in Sheep, asremBrked on in Vol. IV. p. 284. 472. — D. N. has
had but few opportunities, I fear, of examining sheep in the early stages
of the rot, or he could scarcely have hazarded his theory of the biliary
circuit and deposit of tubercles on the liver. (Vol. IV. p. 472.) It cannot, T
conceive, be demonstrated that bile is thrown back upon the system, and
mingles with the circulating fluid ; for in the early stages there is no obstruc-
tion to the bile ; and in the latter, what little is secreted is intercepted by
the flukes (Vol. IV. p. 284. fig. 51.) on the hepatic side of the gall-bladder.
The eye, which D. N. takes as an index to the bilious condition of the sys-
tem, has really not that " tinge of yellow and jaundiced-like appearance '*
at the commencement of the disease. On the contrary, the peculiar white-
ness of the eyes is the first symptom which guides the shepherd to the
unwelcome truth. If the bile ducts be carefully examined in the earliest
stage of the complaint, there will be found a few flukes in the duct which
conveys the bile from the gall-bladder to the intestine, but none in the gall-
bladder, and none beyond it, a sound liver, no " tubercles," no " abscesses,"
■and withal a fine fat healthy-looking carcass. If it be in the latest stage
when the examination is made, the gall-bladder will be found filled with
flukes instead of bile : and the animals will be seen making their way up

Retrospective Criticism, 99

those channels which convey the bile from the liver to the gall-bladder,
arresting it in its course, and pressing forward and enlarging the biliary
tubes. Thus, when but few of these animals have possession of this viscus,
its function is not materially impaired ; the parenchyma, or substance of
the liver, is unaltered in appearance ; the mucous channels, which convey
the bile to the gall-bladder, and from the gall-bladder to the intestines, have
not yet felt their presence, and the bile itself is secreted apparently un-
altered in quality or quantity : but here, as they live in a medium of per-
petual nourishment, they multiply to an extent incredible, and impede the
natural action of the liver and subordinate organs of the body. They
at length completely block up the conduits of bile, devouring the bile as
fast as it is secreted; spreading irritation and disease from the vessels in
which they live to the whole mass of the liver itself j and in some instances
they carve their way through the membrane which encircles them, and
escape by myriads into the cavity of the abdomen ; thus completing the
destruction of an important organ, and with it the life of the animal. These
extreme states are generally associated with dropsy and a total degeneracy
of the muscular tissue; the blood is deficient in quantity, very serous, and
almost destitute of fibrin. A correspondent (Vol. IV. p. 284.) enquires
the class and family of the fluke, in hopes o^ finding a remedy for a disease
so fatal. He will find it in the class Fermes, and order Intestina, and it is
the Fasciola hepatica. Contemplating it, as it is, as a variety of exotic
worm, it occurred to me that vermifuges, destructive to other species,
might be employed with advantage against this. But in instituting experi-
ments on the living animals, I discarded those popular remedies which
have only a mechanical action, and which could never reach the liver, for
those which operate by a wider range of influence. What I have observed
is, that there are in this class of remedies those which have little or no
effect when brought in contact with the living fluke ; and there are others
which destroy the animal immediately. To the first of those which are
inert, belong solutions of vegetable bitters, spirits of tar, and several others,
which need not be enumerated. To the second, or to those which destroy
the animal, belong solutions of mercury and the spirits of turpentine. For
example : a little calomel suspended in water, and dropped upon the animal,
quickly deprives it of life ; and a drop of the spirits of turpentine kills it
in a few seconds. The oil of turpentine is a deadly poison to the fluke.
The next consideration is, how far it may be safe to administer this medicine
to the living sheep, and what probability there is of its disturbing an animal
inhabiting the liver. With regard to the first exception, there can arise no
difficulty. The spirit of turpentine is borne readily by children, and has
been given to adults in doses of a quarter of a pint ; it is likewise applied
externally to blistered surfaces, and as a styptic to the bleeding mouths of
ruptured blood-vessels. There can be as little doubt with regard to the
second exception, when we consider the penetrating nature of this drug ;
when we know that the mere immersion of the hand in it is sufficient to im-
pregnate the urinary secretion ; nor can we doubt that its influence will be
acknowledged by an organ approximating and communicating with the sto-
mach, and by the worm inhabiting that organ. — John BrowUy M.D.F.L.S.
Boston^ Oct.^\, 1831.

Hares taking the Water. — A harbour of great extent on our southern
coast has an island near the middle, of considerable size ; the nearest point
of which is a mile distant from the main land at high water, and with which
point there is frequent communication by a ferry. Early one morning in
spring, two hares were observed to come down from the hills of the main
land towards the sea side ; one of which, from time to time, left its com-
panion, and proceeeding to the very edge of the water, stopped there a
minute or two, and then returned to its mate. The tide was rising; and
after waiting some time, one of them, exactly at high-water, took to the

H 2

100 Betrospective Criticism*

sea, and swam rapidly over, in a straight line, to the opposite projecting
point of land. The observer on this occasion, who was near the spot, but
remained unperceived by the hares, had no doubt they were of different
sexes, and that it was the male (like another Leander) that swam across
the water, as he had probably done many times before. It was remarkable
that the hares remained on the shore near half an hour; one of them
occasionally examining, as it would seem, the state of the current, and ulti-
mately taking to the sea at that precise period of the tide called slack water,
when the passage across could be effected without being carried by the
force of the stream either above or below the desired point of landing.
The other hare then cantered back to the hills. — W, Yarrell. Ryder
Street y St. James's, Nov. 7. 1831.

Hares taking the Water. — Sir, Your correspondent (Vol. IV. p. 274.)
deserves my thanks for his endeavour to set your readers right respecting the
Havergate hares, which, it seems, I have unintentionally defamed. Since I
last communicated with you, I have also seen the proprietor of the island ,•
and from what he then expressed, I confess that I did certainly " misunder-
stand " him in what he had previously told me. But on referring to the
notes which I made when I was on the island, I find that the steward asserted
that he had frequently seen hares swimming across S. V. W.'s formidable
barrier; and 1 perfectly recollect that a conversation took place on the
subject amongst the party who were then and there assembled ; at the com-
mencement of which I was almost as sceptical as your correspondent
(p. 274.). I am obliged to S. V. W. for his correction of my error
respecting the mode of colonisation of Havergate by hares : but as my letter
to you was intended to relate not an exception to, but an example of, the
habits of their race, the principal fact of the hares swimming across the
water in search of pasture, or what not, is still untouched ; and if only two
or three of the hares, which are in such abundance there (and Mr. Edwards
admitted, when I saw him last, that this might be the case), have been
found guilty of my charge against them, I suppose the judgment cannot be
set aside, although I have rashly preferred making Havergate Island a
fashionable watering-place for hares, instead of considering it, with S. V. W.,
a sort of leporine Botany Bay. I believe many of your readers doubted,
till your correspondents produced testimonies to the contrary, that snakes
would take the water ; and, notwithstanding that fact is now well esta-
blished, I dare say hundreds who do not read the Magazine of Natural His-
tory still disbelieve it : and if those who know that hares will also take
the water would give their evidence, the Havergate hares might not be
supposed so completely exempt from the use of their legs, in a way common
to most animals who possess four, as S. V. W. would wish them to be
represented. During the march of intellect, I do not see why hares should
not be allowed to swim, since we see other animals of the long-eared tribe
allowed to elect members of parliament. But I never supposed that every
hare in Havergate had got thither by the exercise of any hitherto unknown
art or accomplishment; for I imagine that they breed there as well as on
the other side of the " formidable aqueous barrier." Allowing that almost
every hare was born and educated, or transported to and naturalised in Ha-
vergate Island, Ido not see how that disproves the assertion of the steward,
upon which I commented ; nor have I ever met with any act of legislature
by which hares are prohibited from imitating, if they are so inclined, the
aquatic pastimes of Leander of old, who swam over the Hellespont, under
the influence of a passion which, if it did not equally affect all the creatures
in the universe, my esteemed friend, Mr. Edwards, might in vain attempt to
turn to account in the colonisation of his island. I have the testimony of
a Cambrian sportsman, who knows more about hares than I do, and almost
as much as S. V. W. does, to the effect that hares will swim across a stream
even more than " 200 yards in width " in search of food or shelter, and

Hetrospective Criticism, 101

that he can attest the fact in the case of the islands in the northern lakes.
If this be true, as I doubt not, the Havergate hares do not perform such
an extraordinary feat as is supposed, when it is asserted that they cross a
current, by no means " rapid," at certain stages of the tide, and certainly
not so wide as S. V. W. makes it. I wish S. V. W. had gone to Haver-
gate ; he might have seen there a more interesting thing than a multitude
of hares, and a " formidable aqueous barrier " to keep them from playing
the truant : he would have seen what, to a geologist, as he is, would
be a pleasing subject of consideration, the unfailing spring of water which
bursts up from an immense depth below the island, and which is affected
only by the changes in the level of the " barrier " aforesaid. After the
hares have been well digested, our diiFerences may be washed down by a
draught from the said spring ; but at present I must leave that phenomenon
to a more fitting occasion. The only difficulty touching the hares is in
the saltness of the water about the island; but salt is good to season
criticism withal, as well as to keep hares from becoming amenable to the
vagrant act j and, so that S. V. W. is satisfied that I do not mean to hoax
your readers, I do not care, if, in a punning humour, he says of me, in the
words of Plautus, '* Nee quisquam plus salis, plusque leporis habet." * —
W. B. Clarke. Brussels, May 13. 1831.

P.S. I have only just seen your Eighteenth and Nineteenth Numbers, or
I would sooner have requested you to correct a few typographical errors
in the letter in Vol. IV. ; such as, p. 190. Leonhard for Lemhard; p. 191.
Layham for Logham, &c. — W. B. C.

Hares taking the Water. — Your more recent Numbers have come to hand ;
and I beg to thank your correspondents for helping my unhappy Havergate
friends over the stile of S. V. W.'s criticism. I hope he will now spare
the " sauce piquante " of his facetious humour, and let my nautical hares
take their place on your editorial table, to be dissected and swallowed
according to the direction of good Mrs. Glasse, who, when she ordered that
" hares" should first" be caught" before "cooked," doubtless never dreamed
of shutting them up in an island by way of saving the sportsman the trouble
of running after them. Had the Magazine of Natural History been in
vogue then, she would probably have written, " First shut up your hares in
Havergate Island, and then you can catch them ad libituni,nnd having caught
them," &c. &c. &c. I suppose nobody believed Belgians could run, till
the other day, when they stretched their legs at Louvain ; but in these
days of reform, we shall soon hear of greater wonders than swimming
hares or flying soldiers, or of other people as easily mistaking as your ex-
insular correspondent. — W. B. C. Brussels, Oct. 15. 1831.

£ggs cojitaining Chicks not to be successfully hatched if suffered to cool. —
I am exceedingly obliged to your travelled correspondent, Mr. Waterton,
for his attempted correction of my supposed mistake about hatching,
truth being always preferable to hollow authority ; but he can know little
of me when he represents me as a book naturalist, deficient in " bog edu-
cation." (Vol. IV. p. 517.) Had Mr. Waterton, however, spent a little more
time " amongst books " than " in bogs," he might have learnt a little more
accuracy ; for his facts brought to prove my " errors " are too vague to
support any inference. If he means to say that eggs with chicks in them
can be left till they are " cold as any stone " (what degree of the thermo-
meter he does not say), and then successfully hatched, I should advise him
to take out a patent for hatching eggs without heat. No practical na-
turalist will credit the fact. Every naturalist knows that the terns, &c.,
leave their eggs for whole days uncovered ; but then it is in very warm
weather. I cannot pretend to have travelled as extensively as he ; but so
far as I have had opportunities, I have been, not a book but a field naturalist,

* " No one has more of salt [mirth] and hares [pleasantry]."
H 3

lOfi Retrospective Gritieism.

and constantly make excursions, as often as my very limited income per-
mits. With all your correspondent's opportunities, it is to be lamented
that he has hitherto published nothing respecting the economy or faculties
of animals of the least use to natural history. If he will take my humble
advice, before he publishes any thing else on hatching, he will provide him-
self with a good thermometer and a stop-watch. — ./. Rennie. Lee, Kent,
Nov. 3. 1831. [Mr. Waterton uses a watch in his observations : see p. 13.]
J%g5 wkeji covered and moistened more easily hatched (Vol. IV. p. 517.).
— Possessing but very little ornithological knowledge, and certainly with-
out having profited by the advice of Mr. Waterton, of journeying to the
East to consult the vizier of Sultan Mahmoud, learned in the language of
birds \ having, too, wandered amidst the bogs, rather in search of plants
than to study the habits of the feathered race, and therefore knowing
better the haunts of the pale pimpernel (^nag^llis tenella) and the ivy-
leaved campanula (Campanula /icderacea) than of dabchick or waterhen,
it may seem presumptuous in me to venture a suggestion respecting the
covering of their eggs by certain birds when leaving their nests. I know
not whether this habit is peculiar to water birds, or whether it is done by
all, or nearly all, of the Linnaean orders Grallae and yl'nseres, as in this
respect my knowledge is limited to the tame duck and the goose ; both of
which, particularly the latter, cover their eggs with the greatest care. May
not this be done rather to prevent the shells from becoming too much
hardened by exposure, than for the purpose of keeping them dry and warm,
as suggested by Mr. Rennie, in the passage of his work quoted by Mr. Wa-
terton ? I believe these shells are naturally hard and thick ; and it is a fact
well known to the rearers of these birds, that unless they have whilst
sitting free access to water, and can return at intervals with moistened
plumage to their nests, the embryo chicks find it impossible to break their
shelly enclosure, and consequently perish : to prevent which fatal cata-
strophe, water is sometimes sprinkled over the eggs. It would not, there-
fore, appear that moisture is injurious to the embryo ; but rather that, in the
case of some birds, at least, it is a requisite in the process of hatching. I
should, however, add, that when the eggs are thus sprinkled with water, it
is always tepid, perhaps to resemble, as nearly as possible, the degree of
heat it would imbibe from the bird whilst returning to its nest ; and that it
is also sometimes done, in very dry weather, to the eggs of the common
fowl when the process of incubation is nearly completed. Whether
doing so is, in all cases, the result of experience, and therefore right, or
whether it is only a vulgar error, I leave to others more capable than my-
self to determine. — C. P. Surrey, Kov. 1831.

Sir J. Byerley's Theory, which accounts for Geological Phenomena by the
Precession of the Equinoxes. — Sir, I have seen a very specious paper in
Vol. IV. p. 308., by an old correspondent of mine. Sir J. Byerley, alto-
gether in error in its reference to any doctrine of mine, and equally so in
the doctrine which it assumes.

It is alleged that I promulgated the idea, that the geological changes
arise from the precession of the equinoxes : but this I never taught ; for the
precession produces no physical effect, and no alteration of mechanical
power ; but merely carries back the nodes ; and, with reference to the equi-
noxes, causes the stars apparently to move forward, or in about 25,868
years to go round the ecliptic. This was not my idea : but I taught that
the geological changes arise from the advance of the line of apsides around
the ecliptic in about 20,930 years, because the extremities of that line con-
stitute the aphelion and perihelion points ; and as in these the difference
of distance is 3,000,000 of miles, so a difference of action and reaction
arises, sufficient to cause the mobile waters to respect the declination of
the perihelion, or point of greatest action. This theory I promulgated
at some length in the Monthly Magazine, so long since as 1813; and I
reprinted the same paper, as one of my Twelve Essays, in 1820.

Retrospective Criticism. lOS

Both these motions are very distinct, though they are only varied ex-
hibitions of one very simple cause ; viz. the necessary circumstance that
every body which performs an orbit, as a consequence turns once on its
own axis. The earth does so, and thereby gains on its own absolute
orbit a space equal to its own circumference, adding a forty-seventh for the
moon ; and arrives at its nodes in the equator so much sooner every year
than in the preceding, thereby creating the exact precession of the equi-
noxes. The same advance of the stars then carries forward the place of
the apses by a proportionate quantity, insomuch that the earth's circum-
ference +:jV fo^ the moon, is an exact mean proportional of the other two
quantities. The times are 20,931, 23,190, and 25,868 years ; the angles
50- r^, 55-69'", and 61-9''; and the miles in space, 23,317, 25,426, and
27,724 ; whence it appears the sun's mean distance is 93,820,000 miles.

With reference to the detailed inferences of Sir John, and his friend
Guesney, the whole is a whimsical error, arising from globe-makers locat-
ing an ecliptic for the practical purpose of determining declination ; but
the ecliptic of our terrestrial globes is not the ecliptic of nature, which
having no terrestrial locality, all the deductions of those gentlemen afe
gross errors.

When astronomers say the pole of the equator goes round the pole
of the ecliptic, they indicate no change in the oblique relations of the
equator and ecliptic, but merely refer to the succession of the constella-
tions by the precession or falling back of the nodes. This motion has no
physical effect, because it is of no consequence whatever whether one
constellation or another is vertical at the equinoxes j but the progression
of the line of apsides has physical effects, because it changes the declina-
tion of the aphelion and perihelion points by 47°, and of course the direc-
tion of the least and greatest action and reaction.

If we want to know why there are tropical productions in northern
climates, more than currents would warrant, we seem to have a cause in
the narrowing of the obliquity, at the rate of a minute of a degree in 120
years, or a degree in 7200 years. If, then, this law is constant (but I sus-
pect it is a decreasing series), 144,000 years would extend the tropics to
the Alps, and 216,000 years would extend them to Liverpool; since
which there would have been ten revolutions of the line of apsides, or
transitions of the ocean from one hemisphere to another.

The cause of the inclination of the axis of a planet to its orbit is the
inequality of its solid masses, the sphere being made up by the waters,
but not the density, and the axis passing through the centre of density.
The diminution arises from the constant force tending to bring the equa-
tor into the plane of the orbit motion, which is assisted by the action of
water, air, &c., on the solid masses.

The whole of the celestial phenomena, as I have shown in every instance,
are strictly mechanical, and subservient to the ordinary laws of mechanics,
without any attraction, gravitation, or other superstitious fancies : but my
present purpose is to rescue myself from the mistakes of Sir John Byerley
and M. Guesney. They could not have read the essays which they
quote, and probably have not seen my protest and supplement. I am.
Sir, yours, &c. — 7^. Phillips.

" Wilson, the Ornithologist,'' did not die " a short time since," as stated in
your last (Vol. IV. p. 558.), but in 1809. — J. Rennie, LcCy Kent, Nov. 3.
1831.

Mr. Alexander Wilson was born in Renfrewshire, Scotlahd, on the 6th
of July, 1776; emigrated to the United States in the year 1794, and died
in Philadelphia, of the dysentery, Aug. 23. 1813, aged 47. — John Perry.
Manchester, Nov. 23. 1831.

[The first correction dates Wilson's death 1809 ; the latter, 1813: which
is right ?]

H 4

IQ* Queries and Answers.

Art. IV. Queries and Ansiuers,

The Chough of Cornwall (Vyrrhbcorax Grdculus Temminck, Corvus Grd-
culus Lin.). — Sir, In Camden's account of Cornwall, the chough (Corvus
Graculus) is thus described : — "In the rocks underneath, and all along
this coast, breeds the Pyrrhocorax, a crow with red bill and red feet j not
peculiar to the Alps, as Pliny imagined. This bird is found by the in-
habitants to be an incendiary, and very thieving ; for it often sets houses on
fire privately, steals pieces of money, and then hides them. Can any
of your correspondents in that county inform me how this bird became
subject to the charge of arson, and whether it is really as mischievous as
above described ? — J. A. H.

Is the Woodlark of White the Alauda arborea of Shaiv ? — Sir, White, in
his Natural History ofSelborne (as published in Constable'' s Miscellany^ p. 88.,
refers to the woodlark, as in the following lines : —

" While high in air, and poised upon his wings,
Unseen, the soft enamour'd woodlark sings."

" In hot summer nights, woodlarks soar to a prodigious height, and hang
singing in the air." Is the woodlark of White the Alauda arborea of
Shaw 'i — E.H, Greenhow. North Shields, Sept. 22. 1831.

The 'Rana esculenta (^Eatable Frog) in Forfarshire. — Sir, In the late
Mr. Don's account of the plants and animals found in Forfarshire, it is
asserted by the author (p. 37.) that a few of the eatable frogs (the i?ana
esculenta of Lnmaeus) are occasionally to be met with about the lakes in
that district, although rather rare. It is much to be desired that any of
youf readers, who may have it in their power to visit that county, would
endeavour to verify this point by further enquiry and observation ; since it is
the only instance, of which I am aware, of a native locality being mentioned
for this species of frog, whose claims to a place in the British fauna have
been considered somewhat doubtful. If they should be so fortunate as to
discover the animal, either there or in any other part of the country, perhaps
they will be kind enough to make the fact known through the medium of
your Magazine. The eatable frog is distinguished from the common sort
principally by its larger size, and by the presence of three longitudinal
yellow lines on the back. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — L. J. Cambridge,
Dec.2.\^3\.

Reptiles in Ireland. — Sir, H. N. has communicated (Vol. IV. p. 269.
452.) some account of the birds and quadrupeds found at and near Lon-
donderry. Can he give me any information with respect to the reptiles
of that neighbourhood ? I have heard it asserted that there are no animals
belonging to that class to be met with in Ireland. Can he from personal
observation contradict this statement? and, if so, will he be good .enough
to add what species have occurred to his notice in that country ? I am,
Sir, yours, &c. — L. Jenyns. Cambridge, Dec. 2. 1831.

Agronomc, who has resided some years in Ireland, states (Vol. IV,
p. 357.), as the result of his experience, " There are neither toads in Ire-
land, nor snakes to eat them; neither did I ever see a mole there."

Remarkable Appendage to the Eye of Staj)hylinus hirtus. — Sir, I have
read with much interest the pleasing and instructive communications of
Mr. G. Parsons on the visual organs of insects and Crustacea. (Vol. IV.
p. 124. 220. 363.) Having lately captured a Staphylinus hfrtus, upon the eye
,of which is attached an appendage (to me) of unusual occurrence, I shall
endeavour to give as plain a description of it as possible, in the hope that
Mr. Parsons, or some of your numerous correspondentSj will inform me,
through the medium of your Magazine, if it is of frequent occurrence; of

Queries and Answers, 105

its supposed use ; or if only accidental. Fig. 38. is a front
view of the eye magnified. «, The transparent cornea,
through which is seen the numerous lenses ; b, the margin
of the eye j c, an attachment, round, and thicker than any
other part, the base of which is somewhat spread upon the
surface of the cornea ; d is about three times longer than
c, but about half as thick; e is a sort of knob attached
to the end, and half as thick again as d. Fig. 39. is a
side view of the same eye. — D. N. Worksop, July 20,
1831.

Microgdster glomerdtus, — We have had the pleasure to insert several
previous contributions to the history of this interesting little insect. That
by T. H., Vol. III. p. 50 — 52., with its figures, is rich in information re-
specting it ; but that gentleman had the misfortune to apply to the insect
the name of /chneumon or Platygaster ovulorum, which, of right, belongs
to a distinct species. Out of this misnomer arose, however, the benefit of
Mr.Westwood's scientific correction in Vol. III. p. 452., where, in connection
with that correction, valuable information is supplied on the /chneumonidas
generally. Mr. Morgan asks a question about this insect in Vol. III. p. 476.
under the title of " Flies and Butterflies ;" and Mr. Westwood replies to
this question in Vol. IV. p. 95. under the title of" Mr. Morgan's Worms."
To the same question our esteemed correspondent Mr. Bree also supplied
an answer, which, by an almost unpardonable mistake, we inserted in the
Gardener's Afagazine, vol. vii. p. 121. We know no better mode of
correcting our error than to reprint the article into this Magazine, that the
communication may follow in its due order, and be seen by such of our
readers as are not accustomed to peruse both works.

Greenish black-marked Caterpillars on Cabbages. — In your last Number
(Vol. III. p. 477.) Mr. Thomas Morgan puts a question concerning a
" number of minute eggs" enveloped in a silky substance, and apparently
produced by " the greenish and black-marked worms found on cabbages."
Presuming that by "the worms" described he means the caterpillars of
Pontia brassicae (large garden white butterfly), which I have no doubt are
what he alludes to, I feel no hesitation in referring " the minute eggs" to
the pupae of a well-known small parasite called Microgaster glomeratus
(/chneumon glomeratus of Linnaeus), of whose operations I extract the
following account from Insect Transformations y p. 61, 62., where a figure
of the insect will be found in its diflerent states, together with that of the
caterpillar on which it preys. The insect has also already been figured in
your Magazine (Vol. lit. p; 52.) under the erroneous name of Platygaster
ovulorum as shown at p. 452. of the same volume. " It must have occurred
to the least attentive observers of the very common cabbage caterpillar (Pon-
tic brassicae), that when it ceases to feed, and leaves its native cabbage to
creep up walls and palings, it is often transformed into a group of little balls
of silk, of a fine texture, and a beautiful canary-yellow colour ; from each of
which there issues, in process of time, a small four-winged fly (Micro-
gaster glomeratus Spinola), of a black colourj except the legs, which are
yellow. By breeding these flies in a state of confinement, and introducing
to them some cabbage eaterpillars, their proceedings in depositing their
eggs may be observed. We have more than once seen one of these little
flies select a caterpillar, and perch upon its back, holding her ovipositor
ready brandished to plunge between the rings, which she seems to prefer.
When she has thus begun laying her eggs, she does not readily take alarm ;
but, as Reaumur justly remarks, will permit an observer to approach her
with a magnifying glass of a very short focus. Having deposited one egg,
she withdraws her ovipositor, and again plunges it with another egg into
a different part of the body of the caterpillar, till she has laid in all about
thirty eggs. It is not a little remarkable that the poor caterpillar, whose

1 06 Queries and Answers,

body is thus pierced with so many wounds, seems to bear it very patiently,
and does not turn upon the fly, as he would be certain to do upon another
caterpillar should it venture to pinch him, a circumstance by no means
unusual. Sometimes, indeed, he gives a slight jerk ; but the fly does not
appear to be at all incommoded by the intimation that her presence is
disagreeable,"

" The eggs, it may be remarked, are thrust sufficiently deep to prevent
their being thrown off when the caterpillar casts its skin ; and, being in due
time hatched, the grubs feed in concert on the living body of the caterpil-
lar. The most wonderful circumstance, indeed, of the whole phenomenon,
is the instinct with which the grubs are evidently guided to avoid devouring
any vital part, so that they may not kill the caterpillar, as in that case it
would be useless to them for food. When full grown, they even eat their
way through the skin of the caterpillar without killing it; though it gene-
rally dies in a few days, without moving far from the place where the grubs
have spun their group of silken cocoons in which to pass the winter."

The above insect has long ago been described and figured by Albin, in
his History of English Insects, plate 1.; which figure also has been in part
exactly copied by Wilkes, in his English Moths mid Butterflies (see his plate
of the large garden white butterfly). As the Microgaster is the destroyer
of that " pest of gardens," Pontia brassicae, it may be considered a bene-
ficial insect.

Very many other lepidopterous larvae are subject to be preyed upon by
parasites analogous to Microgaster glomeratus, and thus occasionally cause
no small disappointment to the breeders of insects, who, instead of seeing a
brilliant butterfly or moth proceed from a chrysalis, as they naturally ex-
pected, are presented in its room with a number of small flies. I once
fed in confinement a caterpillar of Lasiocampa quercus Stephens (large
eggar moth), which, after having spun its cocoon, and changed to a pupa,
in due time produced a host of small ichneumons*, with long ovipo-
sitors, somewhat resembling /chneumon manifestator in miniature. The
generation of these parasites was a subject which seems to have greatly
perplexed our earlier entomologists : " mira, imo vix credibilia aut ante au-
dita," " wonderful things, nay, scarcely credible or before heard of," are the
words of Joannes Goedartius, in reference to the above Microgaster ; and
after mentioning the case of a second and still different parasite which he
reared from the same species of the cabbage butterfly, he thus expresses his
astonishment : — " Haec ipse expertus sum, et non sine admiratione obser-
vavi; quia praeter, imo contra, consuetum naturae ordinem esse videtur, ex
uno eodemque animali, diversae speciei prolem generari j atque unum idem-
que brutum, tribus diversis modis procreare; quae tamen in his erucis, ex iis
quae breviter enarravi, manifesta sunt." " These things I have myself
found by experience, and observed not without astonishment ; because it
seems beside, nay, contrary to, the usual course of nature, that from one and

* The cocoon and specimens of the ichneumons I herewith send you.
The latter, now in my possession, amount to 48 in number ; some have
probably been lost, and others, I know, have been given away to different
collectors. The variance in the size and appearance of the specimens sent,
I conclude, arises from sexual difference; the larger ones (females?) are
far the most numerous. On referring to these specimens (which I could
not exactly lay my hand on M'hen T first sent you the notice) I find they
resemble /chneiimon manifestator much less than I had supposed. This
thought has occurred to me : does each species of ichneumon invariably
keep to one and the same species of moth or butterfly ? or do many of
them attack larvae promiscuously? They are interesting creatures and
far more useful than we are commonly aware.

Qiieries and Answers. 107

the same animal an offspring of a different species should be generated ; and
that one and the same creature should procreate in three different ways ;
which yet is manifestly the case with these caterpillars, from what I have
briefly related." (See Goedartii Metamorphosis, Exper. xi.) Your cor-
respondent, therefore, it appears, is not the first person who has been
amazed and puzzled by the production of parasites from lepidopterous
larvae, though the natural history of these insects is now understood by all
who have paid the least attention to the subject. See also Insect Trans-
formations, p. 59, CO., for information on the opinions of the earlier natu-
ralists. Yours, &c. — W. T. Bree. AUesley Rectory, Sept.'iQ. 1830.

From the same invaluable contributor we have also subsequently received,
on the same subject, the following communication : —

Microgdster glomcrdtus. — Sir, Towards the end of June last I observed
a brood of the caterpillars of Pontia brassicae (large garden white butterfly),
amounting in number to twenty four, feeding on the cabbages in my garden.
I placed them in confinement ; and, as they were nearly full grown, they
soon commenced preparing for their transformations. By the 1st of July
nine out of the twenty-four had turned to the chrysalis state, and the
remaining fifteen produced the silken clusters of pupae of Microgdster
glomeratus. I mention this circumstance, not at all under the idea of its
being any thing new or extraordinary j for I am aware, on the contrary,
that it is one of every-day occurrence, and that the subject, too, has
already been alluded to more than once in the pages of your Magazines.*
The object of my present notice is merely to call attention to the enor-
mous extent to which the destruction of Pontia brassicse is effected by the
Microgaster. Nine caterpillars only out of twenty-four came to maturity
as butterflies, the remaining fifteen (i. e. nearly two thirds) were destroyed
by the parasite. Now, if the present instance is to be taken as a fair average
example of what usually occurs (and I see no reason why it may not),
we should have had this season, were it not for the ravages committed by
the Microgaster, almost two thirds more of this already very abundant
butterfly than we now have. In the course of a few seasons, supposing
no other " preventive check " to come into operation, the cabbage butter-
flies would increase in a kind of geometrical proportion ; our gardens
would soon be absolutely devoured and laid waste by the caterpillars ; and
it would scarcely be possible to walk abroad without being smothered by
the winged insects. So greatly are we indebted to this apparently con-
temptible little parasite (whose operations are unheeded by all but natu«
ralists, and of whose very existence the generality are perhaps scarcely
aware), for keeping down the increase of an insect which would otherwise
become a serious and alarming evil.

I may observe, that, though the cabbage butterflies did not come forth
from the chrysalis till July 18th to 20th, the silken pupae of Microgaster
produced swarms of the winged insect by the 12th, ready to go forth, and
commence their destructive operations on fresh broods of caterpillars. —
W, T. Bree. Alksley Bectory, July 26. 183L

B.S. August 9i The cabbage butterflies appeared to me to be unusually
abundant between London and Dartford the first week in August ; I ob-
served them even hovering about the stalls and green-grocers' shops in

* See Vol. IlL p. 52., where a figure is given of Microgaster glomeratus,
under the name of Platygaster ovulorum ; p. 452*, where the error is cor-
rected by Mr. Westwood ; p. 476., Mr; Morgan's enquiry about the insect ;
Vol. IV. p. 95., Mr. Westwood's reply to Mr. Morgan's enquiry ,• and the
preceding answer to Mr. Morgan, inserted by mistake in the Gardencr^s
Magazine, vol. vii. p. 121.

108

Queries and A?is'wers.

the outskirts of London, attracted, no doubt, by the cabbages and other
vegetables exposed for sale. — W. T. B. Dover, August 18. 1831.

P.S, Mifchamy Surrey, Oct. 10. Subsequent observation induces me to
believe that I have by no means over-rated the ravages of the Microgaster

(^g. 40.); but that what is stated
above, may be considered as no more
than an average example of its de-
structive powers. The chalk cliffs
at Dover abound with the wild cab-
bage (jBrassica oleracea), which, as
might be expected, aflbrds food to
an immense number of the cabbage
caterpillars ; and, accordingly, the
butterfly is exceedingly abundant in
that neighbourhood. The latter end
of September I saw many of the cater-
pillars creeping about the cliffs, and
undergoing their transformation ; and
I remarked that those which were
infected by the Microgaster, far ex-
ceeded in number those which would
arrive at the chrysalis state. I have
also had occasion to make the same
remark in the place from which I
date this postscript. I may add, that
on the 25th of September, I observed
at Dover many specimens of Micro-
gaster in the winged state, adhering
. c^-u , , . . ^ >n i to the puna, from which they ap-

o, Larva of the natural size^: 6, magnified. i f i • i ^i

c. Imago of the natural size; rf, magnified. peared to have just emerged J and

e, Perfect insect, natural size ;/, magnified. the Same also at Mitcham on the

^, Cocoon, natural size; A, magnified. £.,, c r\ ^ i rr\ n- ^u

i. Cluster of cocoons around the larva of V(m. oth ot October. 1 he tlies thuS pro-

tia brassicag. duced at this late season of the year,

would, no doubt, attack the later broods of cabbage caterpillars ; which
are often to be met with so late as the end of October, or even in Novem-
ber. The large and continuous supply of this little parasite throughout
the summer and autumn, i. e. so long as its services are required, is one of
those wise and beneficent provisions, which cannot but excite our admir-
ation.—W^. T,B.

An additional instance of the check to superabundant increase effected
on a species of Trichiosoma by one of the /chneumonidae, is given in the
present Number, p.

On January 1. 1831. I took a cluster of minute, dirty, pale-yellow co-
coons off the face of Kensington Garden wall, and enclosed it in paper.
On opening this paper, in the close of the summer of 1831, almost or
quite every cocoon had yielded a Microgaster glomeratus, and the little
flies were all dead in the paper. The lids of the cocoons were quite ob-
vious, as shown in the appended figure {Jig. 40. h) ; some detached,
others hinged. In the end of September, or early in October, 1831,
along the last IrV furlong of Kensington Garden v/all (beside the Bays-
water road), I witnessed nearly a dozen caterpillars of Pontia brassicge
which had just yielded, or were then yielding, both their lives and large
clusters of cocoons of Microgaster glomeratus. These cocoons were
then especially conspicuous, from their bright rich yellow hue ,• but with
the dirt of the road, and the filth, which the rain washed off the wall's face,
upon and over them, were, in a fortnight or about, so obscured as to
obfige me to search to find a cluster. On finding a cluster, I was a
little surprised to observe two or three cocoons empty, and to notice a

Queries a7id A?iswers.

109

winged Microgaster or two escaping from others. This confirms the remark
to the same effect by Mr. Bree, above; and, connected with those I cap-
tured unhatched in January, 1831, teaches that the pupae of Microgaster
glomeratus have not a determinate time for changing into the fly state.
— J. D.

Microgaster glomeratus^ a hair-like appendage to the abdomen of its larva. —
The Phalae'na ^ombyx Caja is a frequent prey to the great /chneumon
instigator (a large black species with red legs, which has a powerful scent),
and also to the Microgaster glomeratus, a small species, which leaves its
prey while yet in the larva state, and spins its little silken cocoons among
the long hairs of the Pombyx. I observed of the latter insect, Microgas-
ter glomeratus, a very curious fact during the present autumn, which, as I
cannot find it noticed by any author, I shall just mention ; hoping that some
of your readers may be able to account for it, or throw some additional
light on the subject. On opening a larva of Pontic brassicae, which from
its manner I supposed to be infested, I found about 45 of the larvae of
these parasites with their heads apparently inserted in the skin of the
lepidopterous larva as if about to make their egress ; and to the end of the
abdomen of each was appended a long transparent process, about the size
of a hair, which I could not separate from the little grubs without causing
their death. I repeated the experiment on several other larvae of Pontia
brassicae, and always with the same result. I had several times the plea-
sure of observing the grubs in the actual fact of making their exit : on draw-
ing these out I found the same appendage invariably ; but when left to
themselves, they twisted about for forty or fifty minutes, and thus released
themselves from it before they commenced their cocoons. It is possible
these beings can thus receive their nutriment, as the human foetus is known
to do, through the umbilical cord ? If this be the case, the same may be
presumed to hold good in Stylops ; the position of the larvae of that re-
markable insect being the same, with the head " immovably fixed just at
the inosculations of the dorsal segments of the abdomen" (Monographia
Apum, vol. ii. p. 111.); and thus a relation of affinity, as the cant term
expresses it, may be eventually established. I am, Sir, yours, &c. —
Edward Newman. Deptford^ Nov. 1831,

Polyommatus ArgiohiSy or Azure Blue Butterfiy^ a douhle-brooded Insect. —
Sir, In reply to Mr. Bree's query. Vol. IV. p. 477., this species is without
a doubt double-brooded. I have seen living individuals in April, and again
in September this year (1831); and, although not an entomologist, have fre-
quently admired these lovely aeronauts spreading their azure wings, and
flitting from flower to flower. — W. R. Jordan, hugehay^ Teignmouth,
Devon, Dec. 4. 1831.

Caterpillars found in a Booh {fig. 41.). — Sir, I enclose a sketch of

the appearance of the leaves of a closed book, against which, between the
boards, were found, in July last, several caterpillars in webs, of which I

1 10 Queries and Ajiswers,

should be glad to know the names and natural history, a. Two cater-
pillars J A, by caterpillars nearly concealed by fine webs j c, empty cell. —
H. London, Nov. 8. 1831.

Unojiened blossoms of Drosera rotundifolia. — Has any person ever seen
the blossoms of the round-leaved sundew (Drosera rotundifolia) fully
expanded ? It is so represented in the figure of it in the BncyclopcBdia of
Plants {[^, 233.), but in such a state it has never fallen within my observation.
Wishing to obtain a specimen of this little plant with its flowers in full
bloom, to sketch from, I have visited, at almost every hour of the day,
a bog traversed by a small rivulet, whose margin is thickly dotted with
its glowing leaves, looking as if they had indeed impaled drops of the
morning dew, to cool them through the day. I have watched it from
the time in which its slender scape first rises from amidst a bunch of cir-
cinate leaves, to that in which it forms at top into a nodding raceme ; but
never have I seen its minute white flower-buds unclose. They would
always appear as if about to open, and so lead me on in this hope, untU
the gradual enlargement of the seed-vessel within them warned me to give
up the expectation. Does this pretty lover at once of an exposed situa-
tion and of moisture, then, never expand its flowers, or does it open them
for a short time at sunrise, or when it is hidden beneath the soft twilight
of a summer night ? Perhaps some one more skilled in botany than my-
.^elf will kindly answer the question. — C. P. Surrey , Nov. 1831.

The Ore called Mundick in Cornwall. — In the additions to the history of
Cornwall is the following curious account of raundick : — " In the working
of these tin-mines there has been often found mixed with the tin another
sort of ore which was yellow, commonly called mundick ; neglected for a
long time by the tinners ; and when it was worked along with the tin, went
all away in a smoke which was looked upon to be very unwholesome : but
lately it has been tried and wrought singly by some curious undertakers,
and is found to turn to very great advantage, by affording true copper : so
that, whereas, before, the value of the tin made it neglected ', now, the ex-
traordinary return that copper makes is like to lessen the value of tin.
This mundick, as in some respects it is very unwholesome, so in others it
is a sovereign remedy. Where there have been great quantities of it,
working in the mines was very dangerous, by reason of the great damps
and unwholesome steams which, often rising on a sudden, choked the
workmen. But for this it makes amends by an effect entirely contrary;
.for being applied to any wound before it is wrought, it suddenly heals it ;
and the workmen, when they receive cuts or wounds (as they often do in
the mines), use no other remedy but washing them in the water that runs
from the mundick ore. But if it is dressed and burnt, the water in which
it is washed is so venomous that it festers any sore, and kills the fish of any
river it falls into." What is the difference between pyrites and mundick
and how many of the qualities formerly imputed to the latter are fabulous ?
^J.A.H.

Humming in the Air. — In the miscellaneous observations of White, the
celebrated and often-quoted naturalist of Selborne, published a few years
after his death by Dr. Aikin, he mentions an audible humming in the air,
which occurs occasionally on the elevated parts of the Sussex Downs,
near that beautiful village, on fine still summer days ; which he is unable
to account for. Many of your readers must have heard similar sounds
in their summer rambles. I perceive, on reference to my journal, that the
sound was heard on the 24th of June, 1830, on an open part of the forest
at Wanstead, in Essex ; and again on the Downs, Hackney, in July last.
Now, it appears to me that the sounds do not proceed from bees, as you
would naturally imagine, but from vast quantities of small winged insects,
which at this period of the year are sporting in the air, and in such
weather are more stationary; for it is to be observed, that the humming is

Obsequy. Ill

never heard except on remarkably hot and still days, and always on open
places. The sound is exactly as if a swarm of bees were in your immediate
neighbourhood, though not one may be visible. Perhaps some of your
readers can throw light on this subject. — O. Sept. 5. 1831.

Luminous Ap2^eai'ance on the Ears of a Horse. — Sir, Some years ago I
met with the following adventure ; the rationale of which I have never
satisfactorily discovered. I will describe it simply as it occurred, leaving
you or your readers to elucidate it as best you can. I was returning on
horseback one autumnal evening from a journey of about twelve miles,
when a heavy rain came on, and continued nearly all the way. Of course
I did not take it very leisurely, but came on at a brisk trot ; and what
with the rain and the exercise, my horse waxed pretty warm. When
about half wa}^, on his throwing up his head (an action usual with some
horses, when a little distressed for breath), I thought I saw a luminous
spot or two on his forehead. I examined more closely : it increased in
size, and by degrees extended itself up the ears, till the tips and edges
were distinctly marked out by a line of fire resembling phosphorus in
colour. Thus it continued for perhaps a mile, until it gradually disap-
peared ; leaving me in no small wonderment at the cause of so singular
and fairy-Hke a visitation. If you or any of your correspondents can
throw any light on the cause of this appearance, I think it may be interest-
ing to many, and I am sure will be gratifying to, Sir, yours, &c. — S. T,
Stoke- Ferrt/y Norfolk, Oct. 3. 1831.

Art. V. Obsequy. By John F. M. Dovaston, Esq. A.M., of
Westfelton, near Shrewsbury.

" Mine be a breezy hill, that skirts the down ;
Where a green grassy turf is all I crave,
With here and there a violet bestrown,

Fast by a brook, or fountain's murmuring wave;
And many an evening sun shine sweetly on my grave."

Dr. Beattie,

Sir, As this Magazine is very seldom the vehicle of verses, from the
affecting impression made on my heart by the " Wish " of poor Wilson,
the great ornithologist, recorded in the Obituary concluding your last
Volume (p. 558.), I offer you (though I had on the anvil metal more attrac-
tive) a few, written some years ago, in consequence of my having raised a
mound of earth in a grove near my residence, for the purpose of my own
grave ; whenever it shall please the Almighty to call me from this state,
where He has so very largely blessed me with happiness, to an eternal
existence, which I rationally believe will be perfectly and inconceivably
blessed. They are addressed to a near and dear kinsman, with an earnest
injunction to him, and my other friends, to see my body there deposited :
for, like the above great, good, and lamented naturalist, I had ever a
" wish to be buried in some rural spot, sacred to peace and solitude,
whither the charms of nature might invite the steps of the votary of the
muses, the lover of science, and where the birds might sing over my graved'* —
John F. M. Dovaston. Westfelton^ near Shrewsbury y November 10. 1831.

OBSEQUY.

Lay me not in the charnel ground

Where flesh and bones are mangled ,•
Nor let the sullen death-bell sound,

Nor silly chime be jangled.

112 Obsequy,

But lay me aneath my native trees,

Where the waving boughs are wreathed ;

And let no sound but the sighing breeze
Be o'er my burial breathed.

Let no proud priest in hollow slang

Blaspheme or blatter nigh me:
Nor senseless stave, nor nasal twang,

Be drawl'd or drivel'd by me.

But let the Winter Redbreast sing

His hymn of Resignation ;
Or the full-throated choir of Spring

Shout peals of Jubilation.

Let no friend's hand be flimsy-gloved.

No silk-bands sick declining:
But wear the sunny flowers I loved,

Or ivy green and shining.

Let not my name on staring stone

With loud bare lies be worded :
What little good or ill I've done

Elsewhere is safe recorded.

Some men are more than half divine.

Through every age I greet them;
And their high souls enkindle mine

Preparing it to meet them.

Then to my honest halls retire
In Mirth's high revel bright'ning;
^ Blow every pipe, strike every wire

To strains I've play'd on lightning.

Taste no cake-sop, no syrup-wine.

With visage-mockery sober;
But slice the savoury haunch and chine,

And broach my brave October.

And as with Shakspeare, Scott, or Burns,

'Mid Fairies, Ghosts, or Warlocks,
Ye wreathe the rosy hours by turns.

Repeat my glorious marlocks.

One bumper of my bright Falstaff,

Ere your gay band be parted.
To me in cordial memory quaflj

Me — Jack the happy-hearted. *

These bests obey, friend-cousin mine,

So, (when these rites betide me)
Be my bless'd Fate and Fortune thine

'Till thou art laid beside me.

John Freeman Mihuard JDovaston.
West/elton, near Shrewsbury^ May 15. 1829.

* At Oxford they still talk of " Crazy Jack of Christchurch," where
they call me (from Homer) Vti^bawoc. Krjp.

APPENDIX.

(Printed at the expense of the respective Writers. — The additional
sheet of " Original Communications," forming part of this Number, is
given entirely at the expense of Mr. Vigors, conformably with his sug-
gestion expressed Vol. IV. p. 559.)

Controversy betvoeen W, Sxvainson, Esq. F.R.S. L.S, SfCj and
N. A, Vigors, Esq, A.M. F.R.S, Sfc,

My dear Sir,
My absence from England for some weeks past has prevented me from
seeing, until within these few days, a letter from Mr. Swainson, printed in
your Vol. IV. p. 481., professing to be a reply to my letter to you of
the 20th of June last. (Vol. IV. p. 319.) I consequently have not time
to take the notice I should wish of that letter in your forthcoming Num-
ber ; more particularly as matters of greater interest than any subject con-
nected with Mr. Swainson call at this moment for my undivided attention.
I shall however resume the subject in your next publication. In the
mean time my cause will suffer nothing from the delay. Your readers have
already before them Mr. Swainson's unwarranted attacks upon me, as
advanced in his original letter of the 13th of December, 1830 ; as well as my
answers to them in my letter of the 20th of last June : and they can
judge for themselves, without any additional observations on my part,
whether I have not given a full and triumphant answer to every one of
his charges.

Mr. Swainson, in his second letter, leaves all these my answers perfectly
untouched : he resorts in it merely to the stale device of a baffled contro-
versialist, that of doggedly reiterating the assertions which had been again
and again refuted; and, flying off to subjects utterly unimportant in them-
selves, and equally irrelevant to the points at issue, exhibits, by his mis-
representations, misquotations, and the contradictions contained in his
statements and arguments, but the intemperate ebullitions of disappointed
malice. To these new points of discussion I shall address myself one by
one in your ensuing Number.

There is also a letter in your last Number (Vol. IV. p. 487.) professing
to be the production of M. Lesson. As that gentleman seems not to under-
stand the nature of the subject at issue between himself and me, but to
view it through the medium of others, certainly not much more friendly
to him than to myself, I shall take an early opportunity of representing
to him and to your readers the real state of the question.

I remain, dear Sir faithfully yours,

N. A. Vigors.
Regent's Park, Dec. 10. 1831.

Vol. V. — No. 23. [h]

[110] APPENDIX.

The Stvainsonian Controversy. — Sir, I am exceedingly averse to mingle
in the controversy between Mr. Swainson and Mr. Vigors ; but I owe it to
my own character to say, that Mr. Swainson has published extracts from my
letters to him, which I expressly told him were private : because, after I
had, in the passage published Vol. I V.p. 485., stated to him my difficulty as to
whether Mr. MacLeay's system was considered by himself and his disciples
a natural or an artificial system (thinking, as I still do, that, in matters of
science, such as this, there ought to be no privacy), I received a letter from

Mr. , saying that his remarks on my objections to the quinary system

were for my " private and individual consideration." With the next post
I accordingly wrote to Mr. Swainson, enjoining him not to publish this
opinion of Mr. — — , that he considered the system artificial which I had
thus, unconscious of wrong on my part, requested his (Mr. Swainson' s) opi-
nion about. But, without further communication on the point, Mr. Swain-
son has published this very passage. This explanation will, I hope, save
me from being " felled with a 4to volume," as M. Desmarest was afraid of.
(Vol. IV. p. 488. note.) With the above reservation, so far as I am personally
ccncemed, I care not if he publish all my correspondence about the qui-
narians, who, one and all, seem determined to mystify the world as to what
their system is ; each and all asserting that nobody, not even themselves in-
dividually, understands it. After all, is it worth understanding? I have been
abused, indeed, by more than one respectable journal for treating the
subject seriously. Controversies of this kind seem to me to do good in
the end, though they for the moment foster ill feelings : they certainly (as
in the cases in your Magazine) bring the combatants to their true level,
and tend to clear up disputed facts. — James Hennie. Lee, Kent, Nov. 3.
1831.

Swainson's Zoological Illustrations.

Sir,
Your readers and yourself, I suspect, are more than tired of the various
controversies, and somewhat angry disputations, which have of late occupied
no inconsiderable space in the pages of your Magazine. I cannot forbear,
however, adding a few words, and they shall be but a few, in answer to
Mr. Swainson's reply in your last Number (Vol. IV. p. 554.), on the sub-
ject of his Zoological Illustrations. Mr. Swainson observes that " my
arguments touching this work are built on a false foundation, and that
my inferences, consequently, are unjust." He then proceeds to state his
reasons : — First, he says, " the work is not published by subscription ;
therefore there can be no subscribers." Now, this is a truism, which, con-
sequently, no one will have the hardihood to deny. But I really am sur-
prised that Mr. Swainson should catch at such a broken reed, and attempt
to rest any part of his defence on so flimsy a foundation : for who does
not perceive that I employed the term " subscribers" as synonymous with
that of " purchasers ; " a form of expression this, continually in use with
periodical authors and editors themselves, in reference to those who buy
their works ? And be they subscribers, or be they purchasers, who are im-
posed upon, or whatever else they may be, is a matter of little or no mo-
ment J since imposition is wrong, and to be deprecated, be it practised upon
whom it may. Secondly, Mr. Swainson says, " The prospectus of the new
series stated that it would be published similarly to the old series. There

APPENDIX. [IH]

is, therefore, nothing * unwarrantable ' in the charge I complain of. The
purchasers are told at the commencement what they are to pay, and what
they are to expect." I have not the prospectus by me to refer to, and
therefore will take Mr. Swainson's word for the truth of the foregoing state-
ment : but, admitting the case to be as he says, still he appears to me to
be only shifting the o)ius one step farther back, and transferring the blame
from the author of the second series, now in the course of publication,
to the author of the first series, commenced, I believe, in 1820-1. For,
let me ask one question : Was it stated in the original prospectus or
advertisement of the first series, or even on the cover of the first number
published, that the purchasers (I must not call them subscribers) were to
be charged, 2s. 6d.y at the conclusion of each volume, for a few pages of title-
page, preface, and index ? If Mr. Swainson will tell me, on the word of a
gentleman, that such notice was given ; though even in that case the extra
charge would be, I should say, a very injudicious and objectionable mode of
reimbursing himself; — but if, I repeat, such notice, or any thing equivalent
to it, was given, then there is an end of the controversy, and I shall be
ready to acKnowledge that, in strict justice, I have no right to complain.
But if it was not, I do hold this charge to have been a very unwarrantable
transaction in the first instance, and only to be defended now by means of
a bad precedent. The case amounts to this : — Unless I greatly mistake,
the extra-charge was made without notice, and in an underhand way,
during the first or old series : at the commencement of the second or new
series, the purchasers and the public are plainly told that they are to be
treated in the same manner. To myself individually, and to every one, I
suppose, who takes the work, the extra-charge of 2s. 6d. at the end of each
volume can be but a trifling consideration in a pecuniary point of view :
but I detest any thing bordering on imposition or unfair dealing. I hear
the transaction 1 allude to universally reprehended ; the author reflected
upon, and his good faith impugned ; and I see, moreover, periodical works
in general fall into neglect and disrepute with many, in consequence of
these and similar practices. Of Mr. Swainson, as an author and a naturalist
of eminence, whose beautiful works are before the public, every one must
think well ; of his private character, too, I happen to have heard, from
those who know him, some traits which would do honour to the character
of any man : it is, therefore, the more to be regretted that such a man
should lay himself open to the imputation of shabby dealing, and that, too,
for the sake of so trifling a remuneration. Mr. Swainson will excuse me
for saying one word more, not in the spirit of angry complaint, but in per-
fect good-humour and good-will, on a point which concerns himself, per-
haps, as much as his purchasers : I allude to the irregularity in the
publication of the numbers, and to what I may call the absence of noti-
fication, or want of making such publication known. My bookseller has
a general order to supply me with the numbers as they come out. My
last number (xvi.) I received so long ago (t quite forget the exact time),
and I had so often enquired in vain tor the next, that I concluded the
work was finally discontinued. It was not till I had seen Mr. Swainson's
reply in your Magazine for November, that I was aware that Nos. xvii.
and xviii. of Zoological Illustrations were published. I then made, in
consequence, a fresh application to the bookseller, who supplied the de-
ficiency without delay. Would it not be for Mr. Swainson's advantage
rather to put forth his numbers, if possible, at regular stated periods, well
known to all concerned ; or, if the non-regular system be still continued, to
adopt some method of making his purchasers acquainted when the pub-
lication has actually taken place, so that they might make their application
accordingly ? As things now go on, the numbers come out nobody knows
when; the booksellers do not take care to procure them, without a

[1]2] APPENDIX.

renewed and special order; and it is only by accident that the purchasers,
some of them, at least, come to know when such order may be given witlr
effect. Mr. Swainson's polite message to me on the subject of returning
my copy to him through Messrs. Longman, as well as my own good wishes
for the success of his undertaking, have induced me to add these latter
remarks, in the hope that they may be of service to him.

I am. Sir, vours, &c.
Nov. 14. 1831. ' A. R. Y.

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY.

MARCH, 1832.

ORDINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I. Fairy Rings. By John F. M. Dovaston, Esq. A.M.,
of Westfeiton, near Shrewsbury.

" 'T is very pregnant,
The jewel that we find, we stoop and take it.
Because we see it ; but what we do not see,
We tread upon, and never think of it."

Measure for Measure.

Sir,
The fair authoress of The Mummy well and wisely observes
that " There is an invincible feeling implanted by nature in
the mind of man, which makes him shudder with disgust at
any thing that invades her laws." To such who study and
esteem her laws, there cannot be a truth more triumphant.
Yet the unthinking mind of man not only indulges in, but
doats on, mysteries without meaning, and superstitions with-
out support. Some of these, indeed, in themselves innocent,
have, by the genius of poets, been made the vehicles of ele-
gant amusement, and allegorical instruction ; while others,
dismal and diabolical, have, by the cuiming of bigots, become
predatory on society, and blasphemous to Heaven. There is
a perverse propensity in unenlightened minds to embrace the
incomprehensible, and reject the obvious ; and millions at this
moment implicitly believe in Nixon's Prophecies, and those
of Moore's Almanack^ who smile with coarse incredulity at

Vol. V.~No. 24. i >

114 Fairy Rings.

being told of the rotatory motions of our globe, or the cause
of an eclipse : doubting what is demonstrable to a child of the
commonest capacity, and admitting what would stagger the
soundest philosopher. Like the poor woman who, receiving
her son from the West Indies, listened with satisfactory con-
viction to his marvellous narrations of rocks of sugar and
rivers of rum, but shuddered, and gave him the flattest con-
tradiction, when he averred that he had seen fishes that could
fly ; when a moment's reflection, even of her mind, would
have shown as near an affinity between fowls and fishes, as
between sugar and sand. But these good though simple souls,
" most ignorant of what they 're most assured," whose delight
is in the marvellous, did they but turn to Nature, would find
her kingdom peopled and furnished with incalculably more
wonders, ay, and true ones too (were that any recommend-
ation), and each perspicuously and indubitably indicating
almighty power, wisdom, and benevolence, than all the abor-
tions that were ever spawned from the monstrous womb of
Superstition ; even more incongruous and copious than " the
stuff which dreams are made of," — more charming, more
changing, and more enchanting. What are the tricks and
transformations of the most cunning necromancer, compared
to the metamorphoses of millions of insects, that actually, and
almost hourly, unfold before us ; from the smooth and com-
pact e^gg^ to the rough and frightful reptile, through the
curious mummy of a chrysalis, to the splendid and celestial
butterfly? Look at the myriads of monadal and polypodal
molluscous creatures that people every part of the multitudi-
nous ocean ! Minuteness, indeed, rather than an argument
against, is an augmentation of, astonishment; equal wisdom
being displayed, and wonder excited, in the articulations of
an elephant or an aphis, in the ramifications of a forest or a
fern, in the fructification of a melon or a moss ; indeed, the
last is incomparably the most intricate and interesting. Look
at the fantastic and often, at first, repulsive formations, and
apparent deformities, of these creatures of the waters, with
limbs and organs in every place and shape but what we ex-
pect, and tentacles hundreds of times longer than themselves !
W^hy, heraldry itself never came up to these, with all its hip-
pogryphs, dragons, wiverns, hydras, chimeras, and amphis-
baenas dire. Some flowers that are now brought from
abroad are so extravagantly eccentric in composition, so
magnificent in structure, and so dazzlingly glaring in colours,
that the most imaginative painter would never have thought
of limning such. Some parasites so expansive and ponder-
ous, having blossoms many feet in diametei*, exist on trailing

Tairy Rings, 115

plants utterly unable to support themselves. Nay, the mo-
mentary actions of nature are ceaseless successions of mi-
racle ; evaporation, condensation, suspension of odour, and
vibration of sound. Even poetry is surpassed ; for what
fairy grotto ever equalled the feathery crystallisations of a
frosted pane, glistening and sparkling in splendid brilliance?
Or what sparry groves or coral caves of the Nereids,
deep in the vast abysms of ocean, could ever vie with a silent
frost-forest ; heavily still, and candied with spikes of hoary
rime, spangling and blushing in the earliest beams of the
golden sun ? What gigantic palace of enchantment copes
in splendour with the columnar shafts of icicles congealed
around a winter waterfall ? or, in curious castellets, embra-
sures, and bastions, with the masses of powdery snow sifted
fantastically through a hedge into a deep lane ? Thus, though
lost in the immensity of boundless space, all breathing with
creation, the humble student of nature, one of the happiest of
earth's creatures, may exclaim with the sublime Callias (in
AnacJiarsis\ " The insect which obtains a glimpse of infinity
partakes of the greatness which overwhelms it ;" and may
cordially say with the philosopher, " Even to such an one as I
am, an idiota, or common person, no great things, melan-
cholising in woods and quiet places, by rivers, the goddesse
herself, Truth, has oftentimes appeared :" but on opening his
eyes on the pampered and artificial world (whether civil or
religious), he will feel with King Lear's honest fool, that
"Truth's a dog that must to kennel ; he must be whipped
out, when Lady, the brach, may lie by the fire and stink."
It is an unconfutable truth, that among people who have
made the greatest progress in natural history, their ideas of
the Deity have always been more refined, exalted, and sublime ;
while in the darkness of theirs where that science has slept,
or been sluggish, their notions of his nature and attributes
have been derogatory, detestable, and even diabolical.

But to my intention ; or I shall be like Bayle, who, in his
work on comets, has forgotten them, and filled his volumes with
every thing beside, eccentrically erratic : and so may I be here-
in like a stuffed toucan, all bill and no body. I was led into
this lengthened preliminary by some reflections on fairy rings,
for the cause of which I think I can account, without offence
to that airy people, for whom I confess I have a hankering
fondness, in consideration of one William Shakspeare, and
his fanciful brethren, who have given them a permanent
ascendency they long ere this had lost, but for the embalming
power of song ; so I shall proceed with all due loyalty to the

I 2

1 re Fairij Rings.

jealous King Oberon, his crown and dignity : confining my-
self to the two prevailing opinions of their canse ; the first
whereof I think I shall confute, and estabHsh the second.
Let the incredulous in philosophy continue their superstition ;
this is a harmless one : for though the fairies have long ago
left off dropping testers in our shoes, they do not pick our
pockets.

It is asserted that these rings are occasioned by centrifugal
fungi, which the ground is only capable of producing once ;
and these, dropping their seeds outwards, extend the rings,
"like circles on the water." Fungi I conceive to be the
effect, and not the cause, of these^ rings : and ground pro-
ducing fungi once, is not incapable of reproductiveness, as
the possessors of old mushroom-beds well know ; for simply
by watering, they will reproduce exuberantly, without fresh
spawn, for many years. Besides, we find all these fungi
without rings, plentifully ; but very rarely without some
visible (and never perhaps without some latent) excitement;
such as dung, combustion, decomposing wood, or weeds ;
indeed, the seeds of fungi are so absolutely impalpable, that I
have sometimes thought they are taken up with the juices
into the capillary tubes of all vegetables, and so appear, when
decomposition affords them a pabulum and excitement, on
rotten wood and leaves : and this seed is produced in such
excessive quantities, thrown off so freely, and borne about so
easily, that perhaps there is hardly a particle of matter whose
surface is not imbued therewith ; and had these seeds the
power of germinating by mere wetness alone, without some
other exciting cause, all surface would be crowded with them,
and pasturage impeded. Now, were these rings caused by
the falling of the seeds centrifugally, they would enlarge,
which they do not, but after a year or two, utterly disappear ;
though plenty of the seed may be seen to load the grass all
around. I have brought large patches of these rings into
other fields, but never found them enlarge ; and the turf I
have taken back to replace in the rings has never partaken of
their nature. Why, too, should the grass be more rank in
the rings ? one would conclude the seeds of fungi would make
it less so. Now, the exciting cause that occasions these
fungi, and deeper verdure to come up in circles, the true,
the nimble fairies —

That do by moonshine green sour ringlets make.
Whereof the ewe not bites ; whose pastime is
To make these midnight mushrooms" —

Fairy Rings. 117

I hold to be strokes of electricity : and I owe you " the
pickuig of a crow," good Mrc Loudon, for refusing, some
time ago, the admission of a gentleman's Essay on Electricity,
averring it incompatible with Natural History; when you
very well know that no part of organised nature can go on
a moment without it, and that no part of inorganised matter*
exists, not subject to its pervasive influence.

A very considerable portion of those volleyed lightnings and
rolhng " thunder, that deep and dreadful organ-pipe," which
often keep such awful coil and " pother o'er our heads," has
frequently very little or nothing to do with us; for though
a nimbus be heavily discharging its rain, cumuli are bagged
up in different heights the lobed and thin edges of which may
be often seen through the shower, tinged by the flash ; as
one cloud is giving or receiving the fluid, according as it is
more or less disposed. This may be proved by theory : but
I have very often witnessed it, safely seated on the tops of
very high mountains, in the calm and quiet sunshine and
sweet serenity of a blue sky : and some who read this article
will remember witnessing it with me on the craggy heights
of the Glissegs, and even from so low an elevation as the
Balder-stone of the Wrekin. But when a column of electric
fluid affects the earth, either ascending or descending (for
I confidently contend, in the very face of some modern theo-
rists, that it ascends innumerously oftener than it descends,
though I must not pause to prove it here), it scorches the
ground all around its edge, where there is plenty of oxygen
in contact with it, and leaves the centre unscathed, where the
oxygen is either expelled or destroyed, and so fertilises the
extremity : the consequence is, that the first year the grass is
destroyed, and the ring appears bare and brown; but the se-
cond year, the grass resprings with highly increased vigour
and verdure, together with fungi, whose dormant seeds are so
brought into vegetation, that without this exciting cause might
have slept inert for centuries. These fungi are most generally
of the ^garicus, J5oletus, or Lycoperdon, sometimes Clavaria,
genus ; I have very rarely seen any other. The fertilisation of
combustion, as agriculturists well know, though violent, being of
short duration, these circles soon disappear. They are, more-
over, generally found in open places, on hill-sides, wide fields,
and broad meadows, where lightning is more likely to strike ;
and seldom near trees or woods, which throw off, or receive

* Excepting glass, and a very few others similar ; to which, however, it
may be most easily communicated by the intervention of metal, and made
to retain it perfectly when the metal is removed.

I 3

118 Analogy between Vegetables and Animals.

the fluid silently and imperceptibly. I have indeed sometimes
seen one all round a tree, which must have been by a stroke,
from which trees are by no means exempt. I confess I have
never been able to produce a single spot by electricity:
though a learned friend and myself one summer collected and
repeatedly discharged a prodigious accumulation of battery
on the grass-plot before my dining-room window: but it
requires, to produce a very small ring, an incalculably larger
column than it is in the utmost power of man to accumulate
or discharge. The following year, however, my friend was
pleasingly amazed at beholding a noble fairy ring on the very
spot ! and was long in doubting suspense, till I informed him
I had made it with what really acted on the same principles,
— fresh soot.

I remember (though for relating it " I may chance have
some odd quirks and remnants of wit broken on me " ), when
a youth at Christ-church, some Oxford wags traced with
gunpowder, and fired on the short-mown grass of the Grand
Quadrangle in that College, in large capitals, the short mono-
syllable that so much appears to puzzle poor Malvolio in the
epistle forged by his Mistress Olivia's chambermaid ; and to
the affected indignation of the old dons, and the titillatory fun
of the merry Oxonians, the little word flourished there in
brown and green for two years ; and may be still talked of yet
in those frolicksome regions, by such humourists as,

Sir, yours,

John F. M. Dovaston,
WestJ'elton, near Shrewsburj/,
Dec, SO. ISU.

Art. II. An Essay on the Analogy between the Structure and
Functions of Vegetables and Animals. By William Gordon,
Esq., Surgeon, Welton, near Hull. Read before the Hull Lite-
rary and Philosophical Society, Nov. 19. 1830. Communicated
by Mr. Gordon,

(^Continued from p. 30.)

Having now given this brief outline of the nervous system,
I shall proceed to prove that there is a structure very analo-
gous to it in plants. In the first place, the most superficial
observer cannot but have perceived the great similitude that
there is between the pith of vegetables and the spinal cord of
animals. They are both surrounded by a membranous cover-
ing; they are in every way carefully protected from injury;
and they both send off branches in a manner precisely analo-

in their Structure and Functions. "^^ 1 19

gous : the pith gives off its medullary rays, which are distri-
buted over every part of the plant, exactly in the same way
as the spinal cord gives off the nerves, and diffuses them
through the animal body. In the second place, phytologists
have discovered that the pith contains within its cells a num-
ber of globular bodies, resembling nervous ganglia. The
number of these nervous globules bears a close proportion
to the quantity of pith. Their size and number differ very
much in different plants, and in the same plants at different
stages of their growth. In the third place, the pith is most
abundant, and the globular corpuscles found in it are the
most numerous, in plants which are young and growing ; the
period when vegetable life is in a state of its greatest vigour.
So, in infancy, when the increase of the body is most rapid,
the nervous system is proportionally larger than in adult age.
The brain, at birth, forms the sixth part of the whole body ;
but in full-grown man it forms only the thirty-fifth part.
Some have supposed that the pith is essential to the produc-
tion of the fruit ; some, that it promotes the circulation of the
sap ; and others, that it supplies the leaves with moisture for
exhalation. These opinions, however, have not been esta-
blished by facts. Indeed, from the circumstances which
I have mentioned, there can be little doubt that the pith
performs functions very similar to, if not identical with,
those of the nervous system. It appears that the one, as
well as the other, is the source of vital action : for we find
them both presenting the same form, the same arrangement,
and the same distribution; and we observe them both ex-
hibiting the greatest magnitude when the functions of growth
and nutrition are the most actively exercised, and when the
vital power, upon which these functions depend, is required
to act with the greatest energy. The other proofs of the
existence of a nervous system in plants I have drawn from
the effects produced upon them by certain poisonous agents,
and also, from their capability of preserving a certain degree
of temperature under a great variety of circumstances. Most
persons are acquainted with the deleterious effects which
prussic acid, belladonna, nux vomica, and similar substances
are capable of exerting upon the animal frame. If a large
dose of prussic acid be administered to an animal, it produces
death in the course of a few minutes. If a less quantity be
given, it occasions loss of sensibility, and other alarming
symptoms. Results similar to these are observed to take
place in plants exposed to the influence of prussic acid. For
instance, if concentrated prussic acid be dropped upon a plant,
it speedily destroys its life ; but if the diluted acid be em-^

I 4

' i"?0 Aiialogy between Vegetables and Animals

ployed, its application is followed only by impaired irritability.
Again, if a strong dose of the infusion of belladonna be given
to a man, it occasions vertigo, sickness, convulsions, para-
lysis, and death ; if the same infusion be poured over a plant,
the leaves become affected with a sort of spasmodic action :
they then grow flaccid, and in the space of a few hours the
plant dies. Now, it has been long known that the poisonous
agents which I have named do not operate injuriously upon
the animal body by destroying its fibre, but by interrupting
the functions of the nervous system. It therefore seems pretty
evident that, since they act in the same manner on vege-
tables as they act on animals, the former must, like the
latter, be endowed with nervous structure. It has been a
question among physiologists to determine in what maimer
poisonous bodies produce their specific effects upon the
animal system. On this point several opinions have been
advanced. Majendie came to the conclusion that they were
absorbed by the veins, and passed directly into the circula-
tion. Brodie supposed that they sometimes operated by
entering the circulation, and at others by acting on the sen-
tient extremities of the nerves, and, through them, on the
brain. There are others, again, who imagine that they
indirectly enter the circulation by absorption through the
lymphatics, but that, before they can exert their specific effects
upon the general system, they must be brought into absolute
contact with the brain. Morgan and Addison, in an essay
published about fifteen months ago, argue " that all fair
analogy forbids the conclusion, that at one time a poison
shall be taken up by the veins, and carried through the cir-
culation to the brain, before it produces any sensible effect ;
that at another time the absorbent vessels shall take up the
substance, and, by their communication with the subclavian
veins, be thus instrumental in carrying the specific agent into
the circulation, and thence to the brain ; and again, at another
time, the impression made upon the extremities of the nerves
of the poisoned part shall at once, by the medium of those
poisoned nerves, be conveyed to the brain, independently of
absorption either by the veins or absorbent vessels. ... As
reasonably," say they, " might it be presumed, that at one
time the sense of taste was communicated by a branch of the
fifth pair of nerves, and at another time by the salivary
ducts, as to entertain a belief that veins, absorbents, and
nerves individually performed a function of precisely a simi-
lar nature." These gentlemen, therefore, after performing
many scientific experiments, conclude, and apparently with
great correctness, that all poisonous agents produce their

in their Structure and Functions, ^ l|^l

specific effects upon the brain and general system through
the sentient extremities of the nerves, and through these
only; and that, when introduced into the current of circu-
lation in any way, their effects result from the impression
made upon the sensible structure of the blood-vessels, and
not from their direct application to the brain itself. Since,
then, it is proved, that certain poisons can act upon the ani-
mal body in no other way than by affecting the functions of
the nervous system ; and since it is further proved that they
occasion their specific effects upon the general frame through
the medium of the nerves, and through these alone ; and since
these poisonous agents produce the same injurious effects
upon vegetables that they produce upon animals ; I think we
have a right to infer that plants not only possess a nervous
system, but that they possess one very much resembling that
which exists in the animal body. Again, it is well known
that both plants and animals have the faculty of preserving
a certain degree of temperature, let that of the medium in
which they are placed be what it may. For instance, the
temperature of the interior of the stem of a tree will seldom
sink below 56^, although that of the atmosphere be not higher
than 20°. The human body never has its temperature re-
duced below 98° or 96°, not even if surrounded by an atmo-
sphere cold enough to effect the freezing of quicksilver. Now,
there can be no doubt that the heat of vegetables is produced,
in a great measure, by various chemical processes going on
within their different organs : yet it is very clear that it must
arise also from other causes ; for it continues to be generated,
though in a less degree, even in winter, when every chemical
action within the plant is almost entirely suspended. Some
have supposed that at this season it is transmitted, through
the roots, from the earth in which the plant is growing. But
if this were true, how does it come to pass that we sometimes
find the water immediately surrounding the roots and their
spongioles in a frozen state, while that within them and within
the stem is quite fluid ? and how comes it to pass that plants
situated on the side of rocks, whose roots, from the deficiency
of soil, are almost as much exposed as their branches, possess
as much warmth within the interior of their stem, when the
thermometer stands at 30° below zero, as those whose roots
are deeply buried in the earth? Animal heat, like that of
plants, likewise depends very much upon a chemical process,
viz. the combination of the oxygen of the air with the carbon
of the blood, forming carbonic acid. It is not, however,
derived entirely from this source. The experiments of Brodie
and of Sir E, Home show that it is to a considerable extent

122 Analogy between Vegetables and Afiimals

generated and maintained by the action of the nervous
system.

Since, then, the temperature of the animal body is found to
be produced and supported by the functions of the nerves;
and since it is ascertained that plants possess the property of
always maintaining, under a great variety of circumstances,
a certain degree of temperature ; and since this property can-
not altogether be referred to any mechanical or chemical
process, we are bound, I think, to conclude that plants are
endued with a nervous structure.

I have already stated that the higher classes of animal
beings are furnished with no less than five distinct sets of
nerves. The lower orders of animals possess a much fewer
number, and some of them have no nerves at all. Dr. Darwin,
from what he has advanced in his works, seems to infer that
vegetables possess as many classes of nerves as are found to
exist in animals of the most complicated and perfect struc-
ture. No one, I think, can agree with the opinion of this
fanciful but learned and amusing writer. It would be waste
of time to show that plants have neither nerves of percep-
tion nor of volition, nor nerves of sight, hearing, taste, or
smell. To endow them with these, would be to render them
at once intelligent beings. On an attentive consideration of
the subject, however, it appears to me that some vegetables
are endued with nerves of touch, with respiratory nerves,
with nerves of motion, and with ganglionic nerves.

The sense of touch resides in the nerves distributed to the
skin. It is the only one which appears common to animals.
It has been ascertained that zoophytes, many of the mollus-
cous and articulated worms, and the larvae of various kinds of
insects, are not endued with vision ; and the sense of hearing
is found to be wanting in several species of insects and mol-
lusca. Many animals appear not to possess the faculty of
taste ; and it is doubtful whether there is an organ of smell
in cetaceous tribes, in amphibials, and in worms. There is
no animal, however, not even the most simple infusory ani-
malcule, in which the sense of touch does not exist. In con-
sequence of the sense of feeling being so universally present
in the animal kingdom, physiologists have considered it to be
the most simple and least elaborate state of the sensorial
power, or that subtle fluid which is secreted by the nervous
system, and constitutes the principle of sensation and motion.
There is likewise reason to conclude that from the material
of touch all the other senses are produced, by the operation
of peculiar and appropriate organs upon it. Thus, the optic
nerve converts it into vision, the auditory nerve modifies

m their Stnicture mid Futictions, 123

it into hearing, and the gustatory and olfactory nerves into
taste and smell. The sense of touch, besides being distri-
buted over the whole surface of the body, possesses, in the
mammal class of animals, and in some birds and insects, its
peculiar local organ, as well as the other senses. In man, the
local organ of touch resides in the tongue, the lips, and the
points of the fingers : in the horse it exists in the nose and
tongue, and in the pig it is situated in the snout. We find,
however, that those animals which possess a local organ of
touch of a complete and perfect kind, and capable of receiv-
ing the most delicate impressions, are all furnished with a
brain and a complicated nervous system ; but in the inferior
tribes of animal beings, as the mollusca, shell-fishes, and the
larvae of insects, in which the sense of touch has no local
organ, but is merely diffused over the general surface of the
body, the brain is entirely wanting, and the nervous system
is of a less perfect conformation. From the most satisfactory
evidence, then, it seems that the faculty of general touch or
feeling, or common sensation as it is called, is the most simple
and common of all the senses ; and that the presence of a
brain is not necessary to its existence, for it is as strikingly
displayed in the lowest orders of animals as it is in those
which are the most highly organised. Now, it has been ob-
served that temperature produces upon plants effects which
cannot be referred to any of its mechanical or chemical ope-
rations ; we can therefore scarcely entertain a doubt that they
are furnished with organs adapted to receive the impressions
of heat and cold ; in other words, that they possess the nerves
of the sense of touch. Whether plants are susceptible of
the pressure of contiguous bodies is less certain ; but even if
they be not so, still the possibility of their possessing nerves
of touch is not destroyed or diminished ; for it seems that
these nerves are divided into two distinct sets, because it is
found that we possess a sensibility to temperature, and also
a sensibility to resistance, and these two bear no proportion
to each other. Cases are not wanting in which individuals
have been sensible to the impressions of temperature, and yet
have been insensible to those of resistance ; others, again, have
occurred where sensibility to resistance has remained perfect
and sound, while that to temperature has been completely
lost. Since, then, the sensations of heat and cold reside in
nerves distinct from those which form the seat of the sens-
ations of resistance, it is clear that a living body may possess
the former, and yet be destitute of the latter ; so that, although
plants may be incapable of feeling the resistance of bodies
placed in contact with them, they may nevertheless be sensible

JSI? Analogy between Vegetables and Aimnals

to variations of temperature. The function of respiration
is partly under the control of the will, and it is partly inde-
pendent of it. For instance, we can breathe slowly or
rapidly, and, to a certain degree, we can stop the breathing.
The principal agent concerned in carrying on the respiratory
function is the diaphragm, which is a large muscle separating
the chest from the cavity of the abdomen. I have already
mentioned that no muscle will contract, unless its fibres be
excited by the application of some stimulus. Tlie involuntary
muscles contract in consequence of the stimulus being made
to act directly upon them. The heart, for example, is stimu-
lated by the contact of the blood, the stomach by that of the
food, and the bowels by the chyle and faeces. The stimulus
by which the action of the voluntary muscles is produced
is volition, which is sent to them from the brain through the
medium of the nerves. Now, it is clear that the diaphragm
does not, like the heart and stomach, contract, owing to any
substance being immediately applied to it Neither do its
ordinary contractions proceed on the principle of voluntary
muscles ; for volition is exercised upon it only very occasion-
ally. It must, therefore, have some stimulating power trans-
mitted to it from some source which does not supply the
other muscles. Now, it is well known that the diaphragm,
besides having nerves of sensation and volition whence it
derives its voluntary power, receives likewise a particular
set of nerves from the middle of the spinal cord. These
nerves are independent of the brain. They are incapable
of communicating perception or volition, and have only the
power of exciting the fibres of the diaphragm to contract.
It is by the peculiar agency of these nerves that the con-
tractions of the diaphragm can go on without our con-
sciousness. Hence it is that we are able to breathe during
^leep, and during insensibility from disease. On the banks
of the Ganges there grows a plant called the J/edysarum
gyrans [Desmodium gyrans Decandolle'], The leaves are
continually in motion. These motions are connected with
the function of respiration ; and we are informed by Sir
J. E. Smith that they will continue when the plant is
removed from the light and every external agent. From
this circumstance, they must depend upon some internal
cause ; and to what cause can we refer them, except nervous
power, or something very closely similating it ? There seems,
I thiiuk, very little difference between the motions of the
leaves of the Desmodium gyrans and the ordinary contrac-
tions .of the diaphragm. They both originate from some
internal stimulus : they are both concerned in the function

in their Structure and Functions. 1 25

of respiration, and both are unconnected with the faculties of
perception and volition. It therefore appears that the Des-
niodium gyrans is endued with something like respiratory
nerves, upon the agency of which the motions of its leaves,
which resemble the contractions of the diaphragm, entirely
depend.

The motions of the animal body are divided into volun-
tary and involuntary. Now, it appears that volition, or the
act of the mind which forms the will, is the chief stimulus of
the nerves distributed to the muscles of voluntary motion ;
for instance, if we wish to move a limb in a certain direction,
provided the nerves and muscles belonging to it are in a sound
state, it is immediately moved. In this case, a certain state
of the brain is induced by volition : this is conveyed to the
nerves, which, acting on the muscles, cause them to contract,
and to move the limb. But the nerves which place the
muscles under the guidance of the will can act upon and
produce contractions in these muscles, without themselves
being operated upon by volition. This is proved by the act
of deglutition in new-born infants, which depends on certain
muscular motions. These motions cannot, of course, be re-
garded as voluntary ; because there must always be present
in the mind a motive before voUtion can be exercised ; and
since there does not exist in infancy any mental feelings
whatever, we are bound to conclude that deglutition at this
period of life is an involuntary but a spontaneous act. That
the muscles of deglutition, during infancy, act in consequence
of the stimulating power of the motive nerves, there can be
no doubt ; because they perform their office independently
of all external circumstances, and because they cease to per-
form it if the nerves ramified upon them be divided, or dis-
abled by disease. It is clear, from what has been said, that
the motive nerves can act on the muscular fibre, whether they
themselves be acted on by volition or not. In the former
case, i. e. when acted on by volition, they produce what is
termed voluntary motion ; in the latter case, i. e. when not
acted on by volition, they give rise to spontaneous motions.
It is well known that the pistil of the tiger lily will bend,
first towards one stamen, and then towards another, until it
has inclined towards them all. Each stamen of the 5axi-
fraga* will in regular succession approach the pistil, and
as soon as it has shed its pollen over it, it retires, and
gives place to another. These movements do not depend

* Which, or every species ? Parnassia palustris also instances the same
phenomenon. — J,D, .

126 Analogy het^ween Animals and Vegetables

upon any mechanical arrangement, and they are perfectly
unaffected by any external causes. We must, therefore,
refer them to some internal stimulus. I must confess that I
can see no difference between the muscular motions employed
in the act of deglutition during infancy and the motions of
the pistil of the tiger lily, or of the stamens in the <Saxifraga.
Both are produced by some internal impulse ; both take place
in the absence of all external agents ; both are exercised
without volition ; and both are performed to accomplish an
important effect in the economy of each. Since, then, it has
been shown that the former depend upon nervous action, the
latter, which closely resemble them, ought to be referred to
the same agent. On these grounds, I conceive that plants, as
well as animals, are possessed of nerves of motion.

I have already made some observations on the ganglionic
nerves : these, 1 remarked, were incapable of communicating
perception or volition. Their office is to unite the whole sys-
tem together, and to regulate the functions of the stomach, the
liver, and other organs of digestion : in fact, they preside over
all those functions which maintain, or are essential to, life.
These nerves are capable of receiving impressions from their
appropriate stimuli, but of these impressions the mind is
never conscious : the food, for example, acts upon the sto-
mach, but we never feel its action ; the lacteals absorb the
chyle and transmit it to the veins, and the blood-vessels cir-
culate the blood to every part of the system, but of neither
of these operations have we any consciousness. The sensi-
bility, therefore, of the ganglionic nerves is of that kind
which is unaccompanied with perceptibility. When, how-
ever, the functions which depend upon them proceed with
proper vigour and regularity, the result is a universal feeling
of energy, elasticity, and pleasure, which is considered and
called the state of perfect health : but when, on the contrary,
the ganglionic nerves, and the functions over which they
preside, become disordered, the delightful feelings which we
denominate health entirely disappear, and others of a most
distressing character occupy their place j a general languor
and inertness seize upon the body, and the mind grows weak,
unsteady, and irresolute, and in more severe cases it often
becomes so irritable, gloomy, and desponding, as to render
life a state of almost insupportable wretchedness. It has been
stated by some writers, with regard to vegetables, that their
growth, and the other changes which take place in them, are
the effect of mechanical and chemical actions alone ; so that,
from this view, the life of plants would seem to consist in a
physical and not a vital connection of their different functions :

■ i7i their Structure and Functions, 127

in other words, it is inferred that plants can have no gan-
glionic nerves by which their conservative functions are in-
fluenced. This, probably, might have been the case, if the
functions of plants had consisted merely of circulation and
respiration; but we cannot for a moment suppose it to be so
when we consider that the vegetable functions consist of ca-
lorification, of absorption, of assimilation, of sanguification,
of secretion, and of generation. If these functions require
to be regulated and connected together by a circle of nerves
in animals, surely they require the same bond of union and
regulating power in plants, in which they are conducted on
the same principle as in the animal system. The most con-
clusive proof that vegetables are endowed with ganglionic
nerves is their power of generating heat. Sir E. Home
has discovered that animal heat is not produced by every
part of the nervous system, but only by the ganglionic
nerves. He observes that the temperature of those ani-
mals which possess only a brain, or some part equivalent
to it, never exceeds that of the medium in which they
are immersed; while those whose temperature is always
found greater than that of the medium which surrounds them
are supplied with ganglia. The ganglionic nerves appear then
to possess the specific faculty of generating heat. If then
animals derive their power of creating heat from the gan-
glionic nerves, it is to be presumed that vegetables, which are
endued with the same power, obtain it from the same source.
There can be no doubt, therefore, (and it is more consistent
with our ideas of the general harmony of nature to suppose,)
that plants possess gangUonic nerves, and, of course, that
peculiar sensation dependent on these nerves ; not sensation
with perception, but that state of consciousness, or pleasurable
feeling, to which the name of health has been applied. The
conjecture which I have advanced respecting the existence of
ganglionic nerves in plants has been corroborated by the testi-
mony of M. Brachet. This eminent physiologist, in a work
entitled Recherches Eocperimentales sur les Fonctions du Systeme
Nerveux Gangtionnaire, &c., which was only for the first time
made known in England in January last (six weeks after my
paper had been read to the Hull Literary and Philosophical
Society), expresses the belief that vegetables have the faculty
of sensibility, and that this sensibility is derived from a gan-
glionic system of nerves, which, by a variety of experiments
and arguments, he has satisfactorily proved they possess.

Sir J. E. Smith, too, conceived that plants are endued with
sensation, although he makes no allusion to their possessing
either ganglionic or any other kind of nerves. In his Intro-

128 Bough Notes of a Tour to the LaJc£s

ductiofi to Physiological and Systematical Botany^ says this
elegant and learned writer, " as they (vegetables) possess
life, irritability, and motion, spontaneously directing their
organs to what is natural and beneficial to them, and flourish-
ing according to their success in satisfying their wants, may
not the exercise of their vital functions be attended with some
degree of sensation, however low, and some consequent
sliare of happiness ? Such a supposition accords with all the
best ideas we can form of the Divine Creator, nor could the
consequent uneasiness which plants must suffer, no doubt in a
very low degree likewise, from the depredations of animals,
bear any comparison with their enjoyment on the whole."

Art. III. Rough Notes made during a Pedestrian Tour to the
Lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland^ in the Spring of 1830.
By G. and H.

{Continued from Vol. IV. p. 302.)

Sir,

In forwarding you a continuation of the " Rough Notes made during a
Pedestrian Tour to the Lakes," I am anxious of offering some explanation
and apology to your readers for intruding into your pages papers having
little of interest and less of elegance to recommend them.

They were not composed by the parlour fire, for the amusement of the
public, but penned by my pedestrian friend and myself, in the little Cum-
berland inns, whilst surrounded by the scenery which they faintly attempt
to describe, when the long march of the day or the anticipated climb of
the morrow demanded some such quiet evening's amusement. Under such
circumstances they were more likely to bear the stamp of truth than the
polish of authorship and leisure : inclination or ability has since been
wanting to dress up our crude notices for the refined taste of your critical
readers.

Our object in sending them for insertion, however, is not the gratifica-
tion of such, but the humble hope that other of your subscribers, blessed
with an equal share of health and strength, but having, like ourselyes, but
little leisure and little cash, may be induced to devote them to this most
enchanting tour of the north-western counties. Here they will meet with
scenery surpassing the most highly coloured painting of fancy; and should
they discover one new plant, or capture one new insect, we shall feel amply
repaid for the trouble of transcribing, and care little for any anathema that
our homeliness may draw down upon us.

Your obedient servant,
Kennington, November 15. 1831. G.

Wednesday, May 19. 1830. — Upon looking out this morn-
ing, our prospects remained clouded, and " the mighty Hel-
vellyn " was still enveloped in impenetrable fog. We were
resolved, however, to reach Ambleside to-day, and were

of Cumberland a7id Westmoreland, 1 29

unwilling to pursue any route except that which lay over the
mountain's brow. To have accomplished it without a guide
would have been next to impossible ; we therefore sent for the
village Vulcan, w^ho acted in this capacity, and, upon consult-
ing him as to the practicability of finding our way through
the mist, he encouraged the attempt, and agreed to conduct
us. Full of anticipation, we set out without loss of time, and
having pursued the course of the stream, with the beauties of
which we had been so much pleased yesterday, for about two
miles, crossing it, we began our ascent by a narrow sheep-
walk, the view gradually opening to our delighted eyes as we
advanced, and ere we reached the ridge of mountains upon
which are the bases of Striden-edge and Catchedecam (by
either of which we might ascend Helvellyn) the prospect had
become the most extensive we had ever seen. Having enjoyed
it for a short time, we directed our course towards Striden-
edge, determining to make our ascent in that direction, it
being by far the most grand, though at the same time the
most dangerous and difficult. Here we were very soon
enveloped in thick mist, which quite obscured all distant ob-
jects from the sight, except at intervals. Continuing, however,
slowly to follow our guide, amongst rocks and stones (passing
round some, and over others), the footing gradually became
more steep and uncertain, until, for some distance, the pass
did not exceed 2 or 3 ft. in width ; whilst at other times we
were compelled to work ourselves along with the assistance of
our hands and feet, whilst striding across this terrific wall.
The appearance of the mountain was indeed at this time
very grand : on our right was a slope towards the Red Tarn,
of about 500 ft. ; and on our left a perpendicular steep, of
nearly 2000 ft., of rugged pointed rocks, bristling up in every
direction, and rendered more interesting by the momentary
and uncertain peeps we obtained of them between the passing
clouds. After some steep climbing we arrived at the summit
of our present wishes, by standing on the top of this noble
mountain, of which we had in vain attempted to get a sight
for the two previous days ; nor did we now see it till actually
cUmbing up it. The mist continued impenetrable, and the
temperature at this elevation was extremely cold. Our time,
which had it been clear would have been occupied in enjoy-
ing the views, was now put to other account, and we were
glad to keep ourselves warm by turning over the loose stones
which cover this mountain's top in search of insects, being
unwilling to omit any favourable opportunity of capturing
them. I was therefore employed to my heart's content, and
took in great plenty Carabus glabratus and Helobia Gyllen-
VoL. V. — No. 24. K

1 30 Rough Notes of a Tour to the Lakes.

hahV. On arrivinf^ at the highest point we had dismissed our
guide, he having first pointed out to us the direction of Kes-
wick ; and now we heard his sepulchral cries far below us,
sounding through the mist, as though they came from an
inhabitant of some other world, and reechoed again and again
by the surrounding mountains. The clouds, which had pre-
viously bounded our horizon, now cleared away as if by
magic, and opened to us here and there the most superb and
distant glimpses. At one moment we could distinctly see
Ulswater, all bright and sunny; at another, Thirlmere, and
part of Bassenthwaite Water : this sort of enchantment lasted
but for a few seconds, and the next all was again dark, cold,
and gloomy as before. I was very anxious to meet with the
nest and eggs of the dotterel [Charadrius Morinellus], which I
was informed had been found here, but we only saw the bird
as it was wheeling round us in the fog. I took, in climbing
the mountain, six species of the genus Carabus in abundance,
namely, glabratus, cancellatus, hortensis, arvensis, catenulatus,
and violaceus. We had seen all we could, and therefore be-
gan our descent towards Keswick. The ascent of the moun-
tain, on the western side, is very easy, and gives any one but
a poor idea of the grandeur of Helvellyn. We made our way
in the direction of Thirlmere, and penetrating the cloud, which
only capped the mountain, we were soon gladdened and
warmed by the sun's rays. Thirlmere is a pretty little lake,
and very narrow in the middle, where it is crossed by a bridge.
Before approaching very near to it, you gain the road to Kes-
wick ; and, whilst quenching our thirst at the little " honest
alehouse " at the foot of the mountain, the Lake Tourist
coach passed us. This day's march was concluded by a five
miles' walk to Keswick, the near approach to which is very
imposing. Descending into the town, you catch a full view of
Derwentwater, and its wooded banks and islands, backed by
lofty mountains on your left; whilst the tamer scenery of Bas-
senthwaite, connected with them by a flat cultivated plain, and
Skiddaw rising high over all, bound your prospect to the
right. We took up our quarters in the travellers' room of
the Royal Oak Inn, and having made all the toilet our
knapsacks would allow, and refreshed ourselves by a plen-
teous potation of tea, we sallied forth to explore the town
and neighbourhood. Our first enquiry was for the residence
of the poet laureate, and we had pointed out to us a house
exhibiting as little of taste, or of the picturesque, as you can
well imagine. In passing through the street, we were annoyed
by a host of idle lounging fellows, yclept guides and boat-
men; a set of scoundrels, who drink all summer, and live

Account of the Smia $yndActyla, 131

npon the parish in the winter. Dispensing with their prof-
fered services, we went to Hutton's Museum, more to see the
man than any other curiosity ; but he being, unluckily, from
home, his daughter, an elderly woman, who has lived some
years at St. Petersburgh, showed it to us. What principally
attracted our attention was a large stuffed dog (very much
resembling a wolf, and having its propensities), which some
years ago spread devastation amongst the flocks of sheep in
this neighbourhood : a reward was offered for its destruction,
and, though hunted by men and dogs, its caution and swift-
ness eluded their pursuit, till it was found asleep under a
hedge, and in that position shot. Our next visit was to the
Lake of Derwent, where we rowed ourselves round the pretty
islands which adorn its glassy bosom, and were serenaded
by several herons soaring at a great height above us. [See
Vol. IV. p. 279.] In Keswick the number of notices of " bo-
tanist and mineral dealers " amused us, and we went to roost
highly delighted with the glorious treat which this day's walk
had afforded us. EL

( To be continued.)

Art. IV. Account of the Simia synddctylay or Ungha Ape of
Sumatra; the Anatomy of its Larynx, 8^c. Sfc. By George
Bennett, Esq. F.L.S. M.R.C.S. &c. &c.

During a visit to the Island of Singapore, on the 1 3th of
November, 1 830, a male specimen of this interesting animal was
presented to me by E. Boustead, Esq., a mercantile gentleman
resident at that island, and who evinced a great and laudable
desire of forwarding pursuits of natural history. The animal
had been recently brought by a Malay lad from the Menang-
kabau country, in the interior of Sumatra. The Malays at
Singapore called this animal the Ungka; by Sir Stamford
Raffles it has been stated as bein^ called the Siaman^ amonff
the natives ; and the Ungka ape is described by F. Cuvier as the
Onko, in his splendid work on theMammalia, plates v. and vi. On
making enquiry among the Malays at Singapore, they denied
this animal being the Siamang, at the same time stating that
the Siamanoj resembled it in form, but differed in havinor the
eyebrows and hair around the face of a white colour.
' The iSimia syndactyla is described and figured in Dr.
Horsfield's Zoology of Java ; but the engraving does not give
a correct idea of the animal. The following sketches {fgs. 42,
43, 44.) are taken from drawings made by Charles Landseer,

K 2

1352

Account of the Simia synddctyla,

Esq., from the original, which is now deposited in the British
Museum.

The object of this communication is to relate the habits
of the animal as observed on board the ship Sophia during the
passage to England. The measurement of the animal was as
follows : — From the os calcis to the vertex of the head, 2 ft.
4 in. ; span of the arms, 4 ft. ; length of the arm, from the
axilla to the termination of the fore finger, 1 ft. lO^in. ;
length of the leg, from the groin to the os calcis, 11 in.; length
from the xiphoid or ensiform cartilage to the crest of the
pubis, 7J in.

The teeth are twelve in each jaw ; four incisors, two canine,
and six molares : in the upper jaw the canine were placed
widely apart from the last incisor, giving an appearance as if

42 a tooth was deficient :
this did not occur in
the lower jaw. The
teeth of the animal
were in very bad con-
dition. The colour
of the animal is en-
tirely black, being
covered with stiff
hair of a beautiful jet
black over the whole
body ; the face has no
hair, except on the
sides as whiskers,
and the hair stands
forward from the
forehead over the
eyes ; there is little
beard. The skin of the
face is black; the arms
are very long, the
radius and ulna be-
ing of greater length
than the os humeri ;
the hair on the arm
runs in one direc-
tion, viz. downwards,
that on the forearm
upwards; the hands
are long and narrow,
fingers long and tapering; thumb short, not reaching farther
than the first joint of the fore finger; the palms of the hands

or XJngJca Ape of Sumatra,

133

and soles of the feet are bare and black ; the legs are short in
proportion to the arms and body ; the feet are long, prehen-
sile, and, when the animal is in a sitting posture [Jig, 42.), are
turned inwards, and the toes are bent. The first and second toes
are united (except at the last joint) by a membrane, from which
circumstance he has derived his specific name. He invariably
walks in the erect posture when on a level surface ; and then
the arms either hang down, enabling him sometimes to assist
himself with his knuckles ; or, what is more usual, he keeps his

arms uplifted in an
erect position, with
the hands pendent
(Jig, 43.)j I'eady to
seize a rope and
climb up on the
approach of any dan-
ger, or on the ob-
trusion of strangers.
He walks rather
quick in the erect
posture, but with a
waddling gait, and
is soon run down
if whilst pursued
he has no opportu-
nity of escaping by
climbing. On the
foot are five toes,
the great toe being
placed like the thumb
of the hand; the form
of the foot is some-
what similar to that
of the hand, having
an equal prehensile
power ; the great toe
has a capability of
much extension out-
wards, which enlarges
the surface of the foot
when the animal
walks ; the toes are short, the great toe is the longest. The
eyes of the animal are close together, with the irides of a hazel
colour : the upper eyelids have lashes, the lower have none :
the nose is confluent with the face, except at the nostrils,
which are a little elevated ; nostrils on each side, and the nose

K 3

134«' Account of the Simia synductyta,

united to the upper lip : the mouth large : ears small, and re-
sembling the human, but without the pendent lobe. He has
nails on the fingers and toes ; he has two hard tubercles on
the tuberosities of the ischium, but is destitute of a tail or
even the rudiments of one.

His food is various : he prefers vegetable diet, as rice,
plantains, &c., and was ravenously fond of carrots, of which we
had some quantity preserved on board. He would drink tea,
coffee, and chocolate, but neither wine nor spirits : of animal
food he prefers fowl to any other ; but a lizard having been
caught on board, and placed before him, he took it immedi-
ately in his paw, and greedily devoured it.

The first instance I observed of its attachment was soon
after the animal had been presented to me by Mr. Boustead.
On entering the yard in which he was tied up, one morning,
I was not well pleased at observing him busily engaged in
removing his belt and cord, at the same time whining and
uttering a peculiar squeaking noise. When loose, he walked
in the usual erect posture towards some Malays who were
standing near the place ; and after hugging the legs of several
of the party, he went to a Malay lad, climbed upon and hug-
ged him closely, having an expression, in both the look and
manner, of gratification at being once again in the arms of him
who, I now understood, was his former master. When this
lad sold him to Mr. Boustead, whenever the animal could get
loose he would make for the water-side, the Malay lad being
usually on board the prau in which they had arrived from
Sumatra ; and the animal was never taken until, having
reached the water, he could proceed no farther. On sending
him aboard the ship (Sophia), he on arriving, after rewarding
his conductor with a bite, escaped, and ascended the rigging ;
but towards the evening he came down on the deck, and was
readily secured. We sailed from Singapore for England with
him on the 18th of November.

He is not able to take up small objects with facility, on ac-
count of the disproportion of the size of the thumb to the
fingers. The metacarpal bone of the thumb Jias the mobility
of a first joint ; the form of both the feet and hands gives a
great prehensile power, fitted for the woods, where it must
be almost impossible to capture an adult animal alive.

Under the throat is a large black pouch, a continuation of
the common integument, and very thinly covered with hair :
this pouch is not very visible when undistended : it is a thick
integument, of a blackish colour and corrugated appearance.
It extends from the under part of the chin to the throat, and
is attached as low down as the upper part of the sternum,
and is also attached above to the symphysis of the lower jaw:

or U/igka Ape of Sumatra. 135

its use is not well known, but it is not improbable that it is an
appendage to the organ of voice. Sometimes, when irritated,
I have observed him inflate the pouch, uttering at the same
time a hollow barking noise * ; for the production of which,
the rushing of the air into the sac was an adjuvant. The in-
flation of the pouch was not, however, confined to anger ; for,
when pleased, he would purse the mouth, drive the air with
an audible noise into the sac ; or when yawning, it was also
inflated ; and in all instances he would gradually empty the
sac, as if he derived a pleasure from it. When the sac has
been distended, I have often pressed on it, and forced the
air contained within it into the mouth, the animal not evincing
at the time any sign of its being an annoyance to him. When
uttering the barking noise, the pouch is not inflated to the same
extent as when he yawns. It has been stated in an American
publication, that the use of the air-sac is for a swimming-
bladder. It may be said in refutation (if the assertion is not
too absurd to be refuted) that the animal being one day washed
in a large tub of water, although much frightened, did not
inflate or make the least attempt to inflate the sac. He is
destitute of cheek-pouches as a reservoir for food.

When sleeping, he lies along either on the side or back,
resting the head on the hands, and seemed always desirous of
retiring to rest at sunset; but would often (I suppose from
his approximation to civilisation) indulge in bed some time
after sunrise ; and frequently when I awoke I have seen him
lying on his back, his long arms stretched out, and, with eyes
open, appearing as if buried in deep reflection. The sounds
he uttered were various : when pleased at a recognition of his
friends, he would utter a peculiar squeaking chirping note ;
when irritated, a hollow barking noise was produced ; but
when angry and frightened, or when chastised, the loud gut-
tural sounds of ra, ra, ra, invariably followed. When I ap-
proached him for the first time in the morning, he greeted me
with his chirping notes, advancing his face at the same time,
as if intended for the purpose of salutation. He had a gravity
of look and mildness of manner, and was deficient in those
mischievous tricks so peculiar to the monkey tribe. In only
one instance did I experience any mischief from him, and that
was in his meddling with my inkstand : he had a penchant for
the black fluid, would drink the ink, and suck the pens, when-
ever an opportunity offered of his gratifying this morbid pro-
pensity. He soon knew the name of Ungka, which had been

* When the barking noise was made, the lips were pursed out, and the
air driven into the sac, at the same time that the sound was uttered, the
lower jaw was also a little protruded.

K 4

136 Account of the Siinia synddctijla^

given to him ; and would readily come to those to whom he
was attached when called by that name. His temper was mild,
and not readily irritated ; his mildness of disposition and play-
fulness of manner made him a universal favourite with all
on board.

When he walks in the erect posture, he turns the leg and
foot outwards, which occasions him to have a waddling gait
and a bow-legged appearance. He would walk the deck,
being held by his long arm, and then had a resemblance to a
child just learning to walk. He has an awkward manner of
drinking, by which the liquid is much wasted : he first applies
his lips to the liquid, throwing the head up, which may in
some degree be attributed to the prominency of the lower jaw ;
and if the vessel in which the liquid is contained should be
shallow, he dips the paw into it, holds it over the mouth, let-
ting the liquid drop in. I never observed him lap with the
tongue when drinking ; but when tea or coffee was given to
him, the lingual organ was carefully protruded for the purpose
of ascertaining its temperature.

He usually (on first coming on board), after taking exercise
about the rigging, retired to rest at sunset, in the maintop,
coming on deck at daylight. This continued until our arrival
off the Cape, when, experiencing a lower temperature, he
expressed an eager desire to be taken in my arms, and in-
dulged by being permitted to pass the night in my cabin, for
which he evinced such a decided partiality, that on the return
of warm weather he would not retire to the maintop, but was
always eager to pass the night in the cabin.

He was playful, but preferred children to adults ; he be-
came particularly attached to a little Papuan child (Elau, a
native of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides group) who
was on board, and who, it is not improbable, he may have in
some degree considered as having an affinity to his species.
They were often seen sitting near the capstan, the animal
with its long paw around her neck, lovingly eating biscuit
together. She would lead him about by his long arms ; and
it was very amusing to see him running round the capstan
pursued by or pursuing the child ; he would waddle along at
a rapid pace, sometimes aiding himself by his knuckles ; but,
when fatigued, would spring aside, seize a rope, and ascend
a short distance, safe from pursuit. In a playful manner he
would roll on deck with the child, displaying a mock combat,
pushing with his feet (in which action he seems to possess
great muscular power), entwining his arms around her, and
pretending to bite ; or, seizing a rope, he would swing towards
her, and, when efforts were made to seize him, would elude

;, m- Ungka Ape qfSimatra^k 137

the grasp by swinging away ; or he would drop suddenly on
her from the ropes aloft, and then engage in various playful
antics. He would play in a similar manner with adults, but
always seemed to have a preference for children. If an attempt
was, however, made by the child to play with him when he
had no inclination, or after he had sustained some disappoint-
ment, he usually made a slight impression with his teeth on
her arm, just sufficient to act as a warning that no liberties
were to be taken with his person ; or as the child would say,
*' Ungka no like play now." Not unfrequently, a string being
tied to his leg, the child would amuse herself by dragging the
patient animal about the deck ; tired, however, of such prac-
tical jokes, without having himself any share in the fun, he
endeavoured to disengage himself and retire : on finding his
efforts fruitless, he would quietly walk up to the child, make an
impression with his teeth on one of the members that were the
nearest, soon terminate the sport, and procure his liberty.

There were also on board the ship several small monkeys,
with whom Ungka was desirous of forming interesting " con-
versaziones," to introduce a social character among them, to
while away the tedious hours, and to dissipate the monotony of
the voyage; but to this the monkeys would not accede, and they
all cordially united to repel the approaches of the " little man
in black," by chattering, and sundry other hostile movements
peculiar to their race. Ungka, thus repelled in his endea-
vours to establish a social intercourse, determined to punish
them for their impudence: when they again united to repel
him, by chattering and divers other impudent tricks, he
seized a rope, and, swinging towards the nearest, seized his
" caudal appendage," and hauled away upon it, until the agi-
lity of the monkey obliged him to relinquish his hold. But it
not unfrequently happened that he made his way up the rigging,
dragging the monkey by the tail after him, and if he required
both hands to expedite his ascent, the tail of his captive would
be passed into the prehensile power of his foot. These ludi-
crous scenes were performed by Ungka with the most perfect
gravity of countenance ; having no caudal extremity himself,
he knew that he was free from any retaliation. As this treat-
ment was far from being amusing to the monkeys, they after-
wards either avoided him, or made so formidable a defence
on his approach, that Ungka was obliged to refrain from in-
dulging himself in " tale-hearing,^^ He had, however, such
an inclination to draix) out tails^ that, being obliged from
"peculiar circumstances" to relinquish those of the monkeys,
he cultivated the friendship of a little pig that ran about the
deck, and, taking his tail in his hand, endeavoured, by fre-

138 Account of the Simla syndactyla^

quent pulling, to reduce it from a curled to a straight form ;
but all his efforts were in vain : although piggy did not
express any ill-feeling at his kind endeavours. On the din-
ner being announced by the steward, he invariably entered
the cuddy, took his station near the table, and " scraps were
thankfully received." If when once at dinner he was laughed
at, he vented his indignation at being made the subject of
ridicule, by uttering his peculiar hollow barking noise, at the
same time inflating the air sac, and regarding the persons
laughing with a most serious look until they had ceased,
when he would quietly resume his dinner. He disliked
confinement, or being left alone ; when shut up, he would
display great ebullitions of temper, but would be perfectly
quiet when released. At sunset when desirous of retiring to
rest, he would approach his friends, uttering his peculiar
chirping note, beseeching to be taken into their arms : his
request once acceded to, he was as difficult to remove as
Sinbad's Old Man of the Sea, any attempt to remove him
being followed by violent screams ; he clung still closer to
the person in whose arms he was lodged, and it was difficult
to remove him until he fell asleep. His tailless appearance,
when the back is turned towards the spectator, and his erect
posture, gives an appearance of a little black hairy man ; and
such an object might easily have been regarded by the super-
stitious as one of the imps of darkness.

The limbs, from their muscular and strong prehensile power,
render the animal a fit inhabitant for the forest {^Jig. 44.) ; en-
abling him to spring from tree to tree with an agility that we
have frequently witnessed him display about the rigging of
the ship ; passing down the backstays, sometimes hanging by
his hands, at others by walking down them in the erect posture,
like a rope-dancer, balancing himself by his long arms ; or he
would spring from one rope at a great distance to another,
or would drop from one above to another below. Being
aware of his inability to readily escape pursuit when running
on a level surface, his first object, when about to make an
attack, was to secure a rope, and swing towards the object
he was desirous of attacking ; if defeated, he eluded pursuit
by climbing out of reach. He was very fond of sweatmeafs,
dates, &c. ; some Manilla sweet cakes that were on board he
was always eager to procure, and would not unfrequently
enter the cabin in which they were kept, and endeavour to
hft up the cork of the jar : he was not less fond of onions,
although their acridity would cause him to sneeze and loll out
his tongue; when he took one he put it in his mouth, and eat
it with great rapidity. He could not endure disappointment.

or Vngka Ape of Sumatra, k.

139

and, like the human species, was always better pleased when
he had his own way ; when refused any thing, he would dis-
play all the ebullitions of temper of a spoiled child, lie
on deck, roll about, throw his arms and legs in various

directions, dash every thing about that might be within his
reach, walk about, repeat the same scene as before, uttering
during the time the guttural notes of ra, ra : the employment
of coercive measures during the paroxysms reduced him in a
short period to a system of obedience, and the temper was in
some degree checked. He had not an unapt resemblance to
a spoiled child, who may justly be defined as papa's pride,
mamma's darling, the visiter's terror, and an annoyance to all
the living animals, men and maid servants, dogs, cats, &c., in
the house that he may be inhabiting.

The position of the feet, when the animal walks, is turned
outwards, and the great toe, which has a capability of great

lAsO Account of the Simia syndactylay

extension, is spread out wide, giving a broader surface to the
foot ; when he walks, to use a nautical phrase, " he sways the
body," and stepping at once on the whole of the under surface
of the foot, occasions a pattering noise, like that which is heard
when a duck or any aquatic bird walks on the deck of a ship.

When the weather is cold, he is seen huddled together,
loses all his lively and playful manner, and sleeps much dur-
ing the day : on the return of warm weather, it imparts life to
the animal ; his spirits revive, he resumes his gambols and
sportive gaiety. Although every kindness was shown to him
by the officers and crew, and sweetmeats were given to him
by them, he would not permit himself to be taken in the arms,
or caressed familiarly by any person on board during the
voyage, except the commander, Mr. Hays the third officer,
and myself; all those, in particular, who wore large bushy
whiskers he particularly avoided.

When he came at sunset to be taken into my arms, and
was refused, he would display a paroxysm of rage, but that
being unsuccessful, he would mount the rigging, and hanging
over the deck on which I was walking, would suddenly drop
himself into my arms.* It was ludicrous to behold the ter-
rified looks of the animal, and half-suppressed screams, if his
finger was taken towards a cup of hot tea, as if to ascertain its
temperature. He would frequently hang from a rope by one
arm, and, when in a frolicksome humour, frisk about, shut
his eyes, and have a resemblance to a person hanging and in
the agonies of death.

When strangers came on board, he approached them at
such a distance as he considered consistent with his ideas of
safety. The only lady who had honoured him with her notice
was one who came on board from a ship (Euphrates) we spoke
at sea; he evinced, however, no partiality to the gentle sex,
and would not permit her to caress him : whether it was the
bonnet, which was ala mode of 1828, or other portions of the
lady's dress, that excited his indignation, I know not ; but he
was evidently not eager to become acquainted with her : as
she appeared at first timid of approaching the animal, it may
in some degree have occasioned the cunning brute to keep
up the feeling.f

* The account of the orang-utan given by Dr. Abel, in the Narrative of a
Journey in the Interior of China^ accords with the habits of this animal, and
the comparison is very interesting.

-|- I was acquainted with a lady in Ceylon, who, having been bitten by
a cockatoo, always evinced great terror at the approach of one which was
kept in the house : the bird appeared aware of it ; for, when he saw the lady
approach, he would flap his wings, elevate his crest, shriek out, and at the
same time pretend to pursue her, at which she ran away quite terrified.

or XJngka Ape of Sumatra, 141

On the 19th of March (1831) we had reached the latitude
45° 4r N. and longitude 24° 40' W. ; the animal seemed
(although clothed in flannel) to suffer much from cold, and
he was attacked by dysentery : his attachment was so great,
that he would prefer going on the deck, in the cold air, with
the persons to whom he was attached, to remaining in the
warm cabin with those whom he did not regard. On the
24th he became much worse, his appetite gone, and he had a
dislike of being moved ; the discharge from the bowels was
bilious, mixed with blood and mucus, sometimes entirely of
blood and mucus, with a putrescent odour : the breath had a
sickly odour, mouth clammy, eyes dull and suffused ; drank a
little water occasionally, and sometimes a little tea ; he gene-
rally remained with his head hanging on the breast, and limbs
huddled together; he would, however, when yawning, inflate
the pouch as usual. On the 29th we had prevailing easterly
winds; and he was daily sinking until the 31st of March,
when he died, in latitude 48° 36' N., longitude 9° V W.

On examination, the thoracic viscera were healthy ; the
spleen was healthy, of small size, and lobulated at one extre-
mity ; the liver was large and healthy, the difference in size
between that organ and the spleen was considerable in com-
parison with the relative proportions of those organs in the
human subject; the gall bladder contained a small quantity
of dark, thick, and viscid bile ; some of the mesenteric glands
were enlarged, some being of a white, others of a dark colour.
On laying open the duodenum, it was found to contain a
quantity of mucus slightly tinged with bile ; the colon and
caecum were full of liquid bilious faeces mixed with mucus,
and several small ulcerated patches on the inner surface,
and a dark spotted appearance at others ; the rectum also
contained similar faeces, but mixed with a curdy matter, and
there were several large patches of ulceration on the inner coat,
more particularly near the termination of the gut : the kidneys
were healthy, on the right the capsula renalis was large, but
none was visible on the left; the bladder was quite empty, the
inner surface scarcely moist. The animal had been castrated,
but the spermatic cord terminated in the scrotum in two small
oval substances, rather larger than peas ; the sacrum and os
coccygis were similar to those parts in the human subject.
The communication of the larynx was examined ; the epi-
glottis was only indicated by a slight obtuse angular rising ; the
sacculi laryngis three eighths of an inch in the long diameter,
one eighth in the short; their margins were well defined,
continued forwards below the body of the os hyoides into a

142 Remarks on Incubation,

membranous sac situated internal to the external thick one.
This animal has one common sac, and thus differs from the
orang-utan, which has two ; the lungs also differ from those in
the orang-utan * in being subdivided on each side, the right
lung having three, the left two lobes, as in the human sub-
jectf The extremities of the bones of the animal were car-
tilaginous.

London, January, 1832.

Art. V. Remarks on Incubation, in reference to those expressed
in Professor Rennie's Edition of^^Montagus Ornithological Dic-
tionary.'' By Charles Waterton, Esq.

" I most earnestly entreat my readers to weigh ewery fact, and rigidly
scrutinise every inference." (See the Professor's "Use of System,"
p. xxi. in said Dictionary.)

The Professor tells us, in the last Number (p. 101.) of
this Magazine, that " the terns, &c." (this " &c." is very
vague) " leave their eggs for whole days together." In his
" Plan of Study," he informs us that the careful dabchick
covers her eggs with a quantity of dry hay, mind, reader, to
keep them *marm till her return.

Now, the dabchick lays her eggs at the same time of the
year that the terns lay theirs. The eggshells of the dabchick
and of the tern are of the same thickness, as near as may be,
and their contents are precisely of the same nature. If, then,
the ^^<g of the dabchick requires to be covered in order to
keep it warm when the bird leaves the nest, that of the tern
requires the same precautionary measure, for the same reason.
Or, vice versa, if the egg of the tern be left uncovered for
whole days together, then, by a parity of argument, the egg
of the dabchick might be left uncovered for whole days toge-
ther. But the Professor tell us expressly, that, if the dabchick
quits her eggs for a moment without covering them, their
vicinity to moist plants, or to water, would certainly prove
fatal to the embryo chicks.

From these two extreme statements of the Professor, first,
that the terns leave their eggs uncovered for whole days to-
gether ; and, secondly, that the dabchick covers her eggs with
dry hay, if she leaves the nest for a moment, as their vicinity

* See Mr. Owen's dissection of the Orang-utan, in No. I. of the Proceed-
ings of the Zoological Society of London.

\ The larynx and a portion of the ulcerated intestine have been depo-
sited in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London.

in reference. to tJiose in Rennie^s "'Montagu,^* 143

to moist plants or to water would certainly prove fatal to the
embryo chicks ; I come to the following conclusion, viz. that
the Professor knows nothing at all about the true reason why
the dabchick covers her eggs when she leaves the nest. Where-
fore I here enter my protest against this part of the Pro-
fessor's "Plan of Study," as it cannot be of the least use to
natural history. On the contrary, it will do harm. It is a
mere exhalation of his own brain ; a kind of " Will o' the
wisp," which will lead his pupils into the swamp of error.
No doubt his intentions are good ; but it would be well to bear
in mind " tantum ne noceas, dum vis prodesse videto." *

I must here remark that the Professor tells us that it is in
very warm weather when the terns leave their nests ; still, It
somehow or other so happens that during their breeding
season the weather is often very raw and cold, and that there
are sometimes hail- storms, and even snow.

In p. 101. the Professor asks if I mean to say that eggs,
*with chicks in them^ can be left till they are " cold as any
stone ?" I mean to say no such thing, nor have I said any
such thing. See my remarks. Vol. IV. p. 518. When I in-
troduced " cold as any stone," I particularly alluded to the
time of laying, hefoi^'e the bird begins to sit j and I asked the
question, viz. if the new-laid eggs be covered with hay for the
purpose of keeping them warm, during the absence of the
bird from the nest for at least four and twenty hours. I have
no need to attend to the Professor's suggestion of a thermo-
meter and a stop-watch. He who thinks it worth while to
read my remarks in Vol. IV. p. 517., on Professor Rennie's
new edition of Montagu, will there see that I took up the
pen for no other purpose but to expose the Professor's plau-
sible, though at the same time very erroneous, theory, that
the careful dabchick covers her eggs every time she leaves
the nest with a quantity of dry hay, to keep them warm till her
return.

From the dabchick's nest in the bog, the Professor conducts
his pupils to a carrion crow's nest, of course on the top of a
tree. He says, " The carrion crow, for example, who lines
her nest with wool and rabbit's fur, always covers her eggs
with a quantity of this before leaving her nest, no doubt for
the same reason that the dabchick employs hay."

Where, in the name of carrion, I ask, has the Professor
learned that this crow covers its eggs with wool and rabbit's
fur ? Before I enter into the demerits of this whimsical state-
ment of the Professor, I must here inform the reader that
even waterfowl, whose nests are, comparatively speaking, but
* '^Beware of doing an injury whilst you wish to do good."

144? Remarks on Incubation.

loosely put together, do not take any part of the lining or in-
side of them to cover their eggs when they leave their nests.
You may see these birds, from time to time, while on the nests,
stretching out their necks, and pulling towards them little bits
of grass and drifting sedges ; these they place all around them,
on the outer rim of the nest. They cover their eggs with
these materials when they leave the nest, and not with any
part of the lining.

Now, if, as the Professor states, the carrion crow covers her
eggs when she leaves the nest, how is she to act ? Is she to
fly off to the rabbit and the ram, for a fresh supply of fur and
wool ? Or is she to have recourse to the lining of the nest,
which has been most beautifully formed and arranged with
nice art before she began to lay ? In this case she will be
driven to the necessity of undoing part of the lining every
time she leaves the nest, and on her return she must con-
trive to replace it before she gets upon her eggs ; for, after
she has once got upon them, you will see by the contour of
the nest that she can do little or nothing more to the lining
under her. On resuming her seat, she certainly does not
push the fur and wool (our carrions here never use rabbit's
fur), with which the Professor tells us she covers her eggs,
to the outer edge of the nest, as the waterfowl do the bits of
grass and sedges with which they cover their eggs ; because,
if this were the case, we should see these materials lying there
when we ascend the tree. Now, I always know to a certainty
that the carrion crow has forsaken her nest for ever, if I find,
on mounting up to it, that any part of the lining is displaced
and put on the outer rim. Some unlucky schoolboy or
other enemy has been there, and either robbed it of its trea-
sure, or done to it that by which the crow instinctively knows
that it is neither safe nor profitable to return to it.

The real fact is, that the Professor's specious theory about
the carrion crow covering her eggs with rabbit's fur and
wool, for the same reason that the dabchick employs hay,
simply comes to this, viz. that the carrion crow never covers
her eggs at all, when she leaves the nest.

Last year, I had fifteen carrion crows' nests in the park ;
some of them, by the by, upon very high trees. In the many
visits which I paid to these nests, I could never find the eggs
covered, though I looked pretty sharply after them, and
pretty often into them.

Here I will stop for the present, and merely observe, that one
day, on looking into the new edition of Montagu^ and casting
my eye on that part of the Professor's "Plan of Study" where
he [p. xvii.] remarks that " most authors occasionally indulge

Migration of the Sxmfts m 1 8 3 ] . 145

in fancying facts, instead of proving them by observation," I
could not help thinking that this remark of his would prove
a formidable weapon in the hand of any body who would
wish to make a home thrust at the Professor of Natural His-
tory in King's College in the City of London.

Charles Waterton.
Walton Hall^ Jan. 7. 1832.

Art. VI. Dates and Remarks relative to the Migration of the
Swifts in the Year 1831. By the Rev. W. T. Bree, M.A.

Sir,

Happening to be under the necessity of making a journey
last summer from this place, through London, to the Kentish
coast, about the time at which the swifts take their departure,
I had a favourable opportunity of noticing the appearance or
non-appearance of these birds in the different parts of the
country through which I passed. A plain statement of the
result of my observations may, perhaps, prove acceptable to
such of your readers as, like myself, take an interest in watch"
ing the migration of our jy^irundines. The swifts appeared to
have taken their departure early from this part of the country
( Allesley, Warwickshire). I could only observe a single one
here on the 31st of July : none had been seen by me for some
days previous. I left home on the 1st of August; and, as I
journeyed south-eastward, could perceive no swifts all the way
till I came to Stony Stratford in Buckinghamshire (a distance
of forty-one miles), where two appeared; and two more the
same day, at Brickhill, one stage nearer to London. Many
were to be seen at Crayford and Dartford in Kent, and near
Gravesend, on the 4th of August ; and in the evening of that
day, I observed a very large assemblage of them sporting
high in air, and uttering their " joyous scream " over the pre-
cincts of the latter town ; they were to be heard again at the
same place early in the morning of the 5th of August ; and
the same day, a few more appeared in one or two places be-
tween Gravesend and Dover. At Dover I could observe none
till the 7th of August, when some five or six or more in a
pack were to be seen and heard as they dashed round the
ancient towers of Dover Castle, in the morning ; and a few
more in the evening, over the town and basin. I then lost
sight of them entirely until the 14th of August; on the even-
ing of which day, three, or perhaps more, appeared again

Vol. V. — No. 24. l

146 Migration of the Swifts in 1831.

about the castle. These, I had calculated, would have been
the last I should see for the season ; but, to my surprise, a
pair of swifts presented themselves to my notice on the 10th
of September * (none having been observed in the mean
time between that day and the 14th of August), hawking
about with other Hirimdines just before dusk (a little after
six o'clock), between the Marine Parade and the town of
Dover.

From the above facts, it should seem that the swifts for the
most part retire from the interior parts of our island consider-
ably earlier than they do from places near the sea-coast ; for
they had entirely disappeared in Warwickshire by the 1st of
August or before, as well as from the parts of Northampton-
shire through which I passed on that day ; while they were
still found in considerable force at Dartford, Gravesend, &c.,
on the 4th and 5th of August ; and some at Dover, on the 7th
and 14th of that month. The pair that I observed on the 10th
of September, there can be no question, were on their passage
to more southern latitudes ; and, like so many other travellers,
had, no doubt, very recently arrived at Dover, where they rested
for the night, with a view to embark for distant climes on the
following morning. For it should be remembered that not
one was to be seen at Dover for the space of nearly a month
previously; and 1 looked for them on the 11th, and several
following days, in vain.

It may not be out of place here, to mention that I am in-
formed, on the authority of Mr. Le Plastrier of Snargate
Street, Dover, that some years ago he discovered a swift
alive, among the bells in the tower of St. Mary's church at
Dover, in the winter, I much regret that my informant was
unable to state the month in which this unusual fact occurred ;
but he is quite sure that it was in the winter, and that the bird
was a swift. I am also assured by the same intelligent observer,
that he recollects many years ago a similar instance of a swift
being found in the winter among the bells of Stepney church.
Mr. Le Plastrier's father had the care of the church clock;
and on various occasions, when he went to repair or wind it
up, was in the habit of being attended by his son, then a boy,
who was an eye-witness of the above fact.

* This is the latest date at which I ever myself observed the swifts with
us, save one, and that was the 15th of September, 1817, at Penzance;
where and when two or three were seen under precisely similar circum-
stances : a few birds only, associating with the swallows and martins,
observed just before dusk in the evening, on the sea-coast, remaining for
one day only or part of a day, and appearing after an interval of a month
or more had elapsed without a single one having been visible. (See *' Table
of earliest and latest appearances of ITirundines," Vol. II. p. 19. note f)

Barred Woodpecker (Picus mhior), 147

I here present you, in a tabular form, with the first and last
appearances of the swallows and martins for the year 1831: —

First seen. Last seen.

Swallow - April 11.* (at Allesley.) October 17. (atMitcham, Surrey.)
Martin - May 6. (Do.) October 15. (Do.)

Swift - May 13. (Do.) Sept. 10. (Dover.)

I had no opportunity of observing the migration of the sand
martin this year.

I am, Sir, yours, &c.
Allesley Rectory, Nov, 29. 1831. W. T. Bree.

Art. VII. The Little, or Barred, Woodpecker [Vicus minor L.).
By John F. M. Dovaston, Esq. A.M., of Westfelton, near
Shrewsbury.

Sir,
After all that has been so perspicuously said in the
very able and admirable review of The British Naturalist
in your last Number, about this surprising and minute bird
(p. 63.), I have yet a few remarks to add : particularly as I
observe that authors collect the scattered scraps sprinkled
throughout our Magazine, to further the augmentation of
their respective histories; which shows the great utility of
these short communications from divers places. This bird
is a very frequent, but uncertain, visiter to the w^oods
around my residence here; but never fails in April to asto-
nish me with his prodigiously loud churr on the ranpikes of
trees ; which, the atmosphere being favourable, may be heard
more than a mile. White elegantly observes, that " where-
ever there is love, there is music." Now, if this, as the judi-
cious reviewer opines, be a " love-note " (and many insects
use similar amatory serenades), the bird has a taste consonant
to that of the magnanimous and delicate Bully Bottom, who
averreth that he has "a reasonable good ear for music,"

* The dates above recorded relate only to what fell under my own
observation. Swallows, I am told, were seen by others at Allesley on the
10th of April. I am informed also, by an attentive observer of these birds,
that he saw three martins [sand martins ?], late in the evening, flying over
the reservoir near Daventry, on the 2.3d of March ; and one swift at Lea-
mington, on the evening of the 1 st of May ; and also that two swallows were
seen near Coventry so late as the 28th of October. 1 may state, too, that
my friend the Rev. Thomas Whately of Cookham, in Berkshire, informs
me, that,.in the year 1830, he saw swallows (^irundo rustica) in that neigh-
bourhood, on the 22d of March j and this year ( 1831), on the 8th of April*

L 2

148 Barred Woodpecker (Ptcus minor).

when he preferred "the tongs and the bones" to the
seraphine harmonies of the Fairy Queen and her elves. It
much resembles the snorting of a frightened horse, but
louder and longer. 1 have, indeed, occasionally heard this
churring in autumn; but very infrequent, and far feebler:
nor does this militate against its being a signal of love ; as
Nature often, with a fading though sunny smile, flings many
a vernal glance and expression into the serene features of
Autumn. My friend Bowman long ago suggested this was a
love-note, as our conversations were startfully interrupted by
it, amid the forest-like woods of Erddig, near his residence
at the Court. The acute and accurate Ray, with his amiable
integrity, doubted the mode of its performance, by his repe-
tition of the word vel (either). His emphatic words are well
worth quoting — -"Avis haec, vel rostro suo in rimam ar-
boris inserto et celerrime hue et illuc agitato, vel creber-
rima percussione, sonum efficit crepitantem clarum, qui e
longinquo exaudiri potest," * Now, I can assure your readers,
from the closest observation, that the bird does not slurr his
beak round a hole or fissure ; but, with inconceivably rapid
percussion, vibrates it against the tree. The motion is so
quick as to be invisible, and the head appears in two places
at once ; like that of the ivory ball on the end of a long and
very elastic whalebone, used for the playing on the pretty
instrument of unequal bars called the staccato : and it is
surprising, and to me wondrously pleasing, to observe the
many varieties of tone and pitch in their loud churring, as
they change their place on boughs of different vibration ; as
though they struck on the several bars of a gigantic staccato.
"When actually boring they make no noise whatever, but
quiet and silently pick out the pieces of decaying wood ;
which, lying white and scattered beneath on the ground and
plants, leads the eye up to their operations above. They
have several favourite spots, to which they very frequently
return. Their voice is a very feeble squeakj repeated
rapidly, six or eight times, ee ee ee ee ee. They bore numer-
ous and very deep holes in decayed parts, where they retire
to sleep early in the evening ; and, though frequently aroused,
will freely return. Whatever be the purpose of this enor-
mous noise, they certainly do very nimbly watch, and eagerly
pick up, the insects they have disturbed by it. The white

♦ " This bird produces a clear clattering sound, which may be heard a
great way off, either by its beak inserted into the chink of a tree, and most
rapidly agitated to and fro, or by excessive thickly-close percussion.'*
(^Ray's Sj/nopsis Avium, p. 43. 8vo, 1713.)

Lepidopterotis Insects considered indigenous, 14-9

bars on the back are very beautiful. They fly in jerks like
their congeners ; always alight on the side of a tree ; and the
cock has a very rich crimson spot on his head. Your in-
genious correspondent, the Rev. W. T. Bree, with his never-
failing felicity, calls him the pump-borer. (Vol. I. p. 301.)
Indeed, the communications of this gentleman, on whatever
subject, display such versatility of knowledge and elegance of
taste, that tliey always elicit the most cordial admiration ofi ;

Sir, yours, &c.
Westfelton, near Shre'wsburi/, John F. M. Dovaston.

January 21. 1832.

Art. VIII. On the Claim of certain Lepidopterous Insects talen
in England to be considered as indigenous. By W. A. B.

That most interesting branch of natural history relating
to the geographical distribution of organised existence, is
making that progress towards perfection which the daily
discovery of new forms, and the most accurate discrimination
of specific characters, can alone effect. In this, as in all other
departments of science, till settled down on the firm and im-
mutable basis of evident truth, we may allow ourselves the
aid of theory as of a scaffolding to assist in the erection of a
pile which is to endure for ever ; cautious, at the same time,
how we argue upon facts stubbornly at variance with our pre-
conceived ideas ,* resistance to which may close our eyes to
conviction, that might eventually have burst upon our view
with the clearness of noonday.

The observations of our distinguished countryman, Mr.
Stephens, in his admirable Illustrations of British Entomology,
on S'phin.r Carolina, quinquemaculata, Drur<rV, and some
other American lepidopterous insects that have been captured
at large in England, have occasioned the following strictures
upon what appears to me very inconclusive reasoning against
their right to rank as indigenous productions of this " our
favoured isle." In venturing these my opinions, in opposi-
tion to so great an authority, I am actuated by no wish to
dogmatise, but, by challenging enquiry by others, to clear up
what I am incompetent singly to decide.

Mr. Stephens seems to consider it as an established prin-
ciple, that a species predominant in one quarter of the
globe cannot with propriety be looked upon as aboriginal
when found at large in another, although the frequency of
its occurrence might otherwise sanction the opinion of its being

L 3

150 Claim of ceiiain Lepidopteraiis Insects

indigenous. His views of natural distribution appear on this
point as limited as are the boundaries of land and water,
within which he would confine the species to whom he denies
the rights of citizenship, on the plea of their being interlopers
escaped from a foreign land. He puts out of the question
the important influence of temperature, and the numerous
aberrations of Nature from her own general laws ; deviations
so numerous, as generally to leave our most specious theories
terribly at fault.

A man of such extensive information on all subjects con-
nected with natural science as Mr. Stephens, must, no doubt,
be aware that vegetable and animal forms of specific identity
are often produced in very distant regions, to the exclusion
of those immediately contiguous or intervening; in which
ease, be it observed, there is for the most part a decided cor-
respondence, or at least approximation, in temperature, soil,
elevation, or other requisite condition, between the two coun-
tries. Circas^fl! lutetiana is found in the moist vallejj^s of Ne-
paul*, as in our own climate : many of our plants are truly
indigenous to the northern parts of Ameiica. Wahlenberg
remarks, in Flora Sueczca, upon Feratrum album, that it oc-
curs copiously on the alpine ridges of Norway and Switzer-
land, while we may search in vain for the same plant in any
intermediate locality. To confine ourselves to our legitimate
class for an illustration, our own beautiful Cynthia cardui is
found without a varying mark, according to LatreilJe, not
only at the Cape, but in New Holland, " though oceans roll
between ;" this common insect being fitted to exist under
very different ranges of temperature. In the same way is
Vanessa Antiopa distributed over all Europe and a great
part of the northern continent of America.

It may be objected to us, perhaps, when advocating the
claims o£ Sphina: Carolhia, quinquemaculata, Drurr(?V, &c., to
a place in our indigenous catalogues, that the instances of their
capture in this country are loo ^^ kw and far between" to
warrant the concession of such a privilege ; that their appear-
ance is of modern date, no mention of them being made by
the older entomologists, nor any instance of their capture
recorded prior to the middle of the last century.

To this we answer, that paucity of number cannot be
urged as an objection, without implicating many insects of
indisputable British origin in the general suspicion of ex-

* In Smith's English Flora, vol. i. p. 210., is this remark on Galium
Sparine : — " This common European plant has been found wild in the
remote country of Nepaul by the Hon. Captain Gardner, from whom
Dr. Wallich has sent us specimens." — J. D.

to he considered as indwenous, 151

to'

traneous descent. As far as we have had an opportunity of
learning, a multitude of our finest insects, amongst which
may be enumerated Deilephila lineata, euphorbias, and galii,
though pretty widely distributed, were nOt dreamed of by the
old collectors as natives of our own territory ; and, if we mistake
not, many of those scarcely included inter rariores at the
present day, e. g. Papilio Machao?z, Vanessa Antiopflr, &c.
were hardly known lie fore the time of Petiver, when the
votaries of entomology became more numerous. It was re-
served for the piercing scrutiny of a more scientific era; for
the indefatigable researches of a Stephens, a Leach, a Curtis,
and a Dale, to draw the highly interesting species that now
enrich and adorn our cabinets, as Eulepia graminea, Lycse^n«
dispar, Lse^iitf caenosa, with a host of others, fi'om an ob-
scurity as complete as if they were utter strangers in the
land. Yet no one, I presume, will venture to arraign their
title to adoption, were it only that the greater part, if not all
of them, are known to belong to strictly European species.

If frequency of occurrence is to be thrown into the scale
in favour of Mr. Stephens's hypothesis, then may »Sphinj:
Carolina or quinquemaculata boldly await the issue of the
decision, opposed to Deile})hila lineata or /Sphinx: pinastri,
since it appears that the former, or one of the two (if leally
distinct), has at least been taken alive in this countr}?^ nearly
or quite as often as the last-mentioned insect; which remark
may likewise be extended to species belonging to different
genera, of infinitely greater rarity, but indubitably British, as
Catocala fraxini, Colias Chrysothem^, &c.

Let us examine the validity of Mr. Stephens's objections
grounded on a note appended to his remarks upon Deilephila
Celerio, in his excellent Illustrations of Entomology*, where-
in he mentions the capture of nearly fifty species of exotic
insects in the West India Docks, and among the rest three
of the huge Mygale Avicularia. Then follows an observation
upon the extraneous origin of the jBlattse, so common in the
houses not only of the metropolis but also in those of most
of our seaport towns, which we think few will venture to con-
trovert. The note then concludes with an enumeration of
several exotic coleopterous insects, and one of the Orthoptera,
found at large in this country. It remains to be seen what so
formidable a cloud of insect evidence can achieve.

Mr. Stephens has not favoured us with an account of to
what orders, natural or artificial, the insects belonged, stated
to have been caught in the West India Docks ; but, from the

* Haustellata, vol. i. p. 129. infra,
L 4

152 Claim of certain Lepidopterous Insects

enumeration of such as he has himself detected, it may be
inferred they were mostly of the beetle tribe, and wood-
borers in their larva state. Can any thing be more apparent
than that the insects in question were imported along with
foreign wood, in which the larvae or pupa^ were embedded
till the appointed time for their disclosure arrived ; or the
imago itself might have taken up its abode in some crevice,
and so be conveyed across the Atlantic, endued as insects of
this class are with astonishing powers of abstinence. ikTygale
Avicularia has frequently been taken in other parts of Europe,
generally we believe amongst piles of wood ; but knowing as
we do the habits of the ^rachnidse, their propensity to con-
cealment, and their capability of resisting a long privation of
food, our wonder may cease at occasionally finding them at
large in less genial climates than their own. The appear-
ance of the Chinese Conocephalus is at once accounted for by
supposing its accidental introduction into one of the Com-
pany's tea boxes ; and surely, amidst such abundant good
cheer, passage free, and a secure berth, what earthly reason
could there be for his feeling mal a son aise, and not arriving
safe and sound ? Of these Mr. Stephens may truly say,
without danger of contradiction, " Vix ea nostra voco." ["I
can scarcely call them ours."]

Not so, however, I apprehend, of our outlawed Sphinges,
whose appearance it would puzzle a divine to account for on
the above principle. We have here to deal with a class of
insects of great size, and comparatively delicate organisation ;
their larvae, bulky, and conspicuous from the variety and
beauty of their colouring, are ill fitted to escape observation,
and seek retirement in holes and corners, few of which could
be found ample enough to conceal them effectually, did their
habits incline them to do so otherwise than by availing them-
selves of the partial shelter of some leaf; their transform-
ations into pupae are conducted below the surface of the
earth, the only condition under which animals of this exten-
sive order can exist for any length of time without taking
nourishment. With so many impediments to their acci-
dental transport, by what means can we conceive their
introduction to have been accomplished, presuming it always
to have been a fortuitous one ? We have demonstrated the
difficulty as it regards the larva, the necessary pabulum for
which is not to be looked for amongst the ship's stores ; the
subterraneous habits of the pupa are not less formidable ob-
stacles ; and the imago, it may be confidently asserted, could
not sustain a voyage across the Atlantic without the requisite
supply of its nectareous food. To conjecture that the eggs

to be consideird as indigenous, 155

may have been attached to some piece of wood or other
matter by the parent moth, which pieces of wood may have
been afterwards conveyed on board, and the ova hatched in
another hemisphere, is a gratuitous assumption, unwarranted
by experience of natural habits, not to mention the extreme
improbabihty of the larva being fehcitously landed, and
placed, just at the moment of its birth, in the enviable neigh-
bourhood of a potato field or a plant of tobacco.

I must confess there is one avenue by which our insects
may have gained a footing in this country which it would
be uncandid not to avow, it being the only plausible mode of
accounting for their adventitious dissemination. One may con-
ceive it possible for the pupag to been have dug up by chance,
and conveyed in the mould employed to preserve the ger-
minating faculties of many North American trees and shrubs
whose seeds require such treatment ; or in the bog earth [heath
mould] sometimes brought over in ballast by our vessels, for
the use of the nurserymen. But the fact that these supposed
strangers have so often made their appearance, and that too
sometimes in pairs, unaccompanied, as far as I know, by
other North American species likely to have made them-
selves simultaneously visible, if such were their origin, renders
the above supposition extremely hypothetical. We concede,
also, the possibility of several extra-European specimens that
have once or twice solitarily occurred owing their intro-
duction to the zeal of insect disseminators ; but we cannot
persuade ourselves to ascribe a similar origin to such as have
repeatedly been captured, and that sometimes in pairs and in
the larva state.

Speaking of »Sphin^ Carolina, Mr. Stephens says : — "The
simple fact of Mr. Atkinson's specimen having been reared
from the larva is not indicative of the native origin of the
species." Surely this is flying in the face of the strongest
evidence that can be adduced in favour of our insect clients.

We have shown the almost physical impossibility of their
introduction as larvae, and we know that the major part at
least of the iSphing^W^ will not breed in confinement * : to
what then can we ascribe the discovery of the caterpillar at
large, if not to the spontaneous union of the species in a

* This is too frequently the case with the larger Lepidoptera. Two
years ago I kept, at my lodgings in Paris, nearly twenty-five living speci-
mens of Sat. pyri, obtained from larvae found on elms, &c., around that
capital the preceding year ; and though the males were very active, espe-
cially at night, and had the full range of the apartment, I could never
accomplish my purpose of obtaining a stock of fertile eggs from the numerous
females associated with them. 1,::--;:.

154 Claim of certain Lepidopterotis Insects

climate favourable to their propagation? It cannot have
escaped the observation of those who have attentively con-
sidered the subject in reference to the soundness of Mr.
Stephens's views, that the recorded instances of the capture
of /SphinjT Carolina, T>vuvce^iy and quinquemaculata, with
otliers of the same genus, have occurred in parts of the king-
dom least favourable to the idea of their American import-
ation ; at Leeds, London, Sunderland, Isle of Wight, &c.,
places on the southern and eastern parts of our island, inland
as well as on the coast, and very remote from ports the most
frequented by ships from the New World, as Bristol or Liver-
pool, in whose neighbourhood no examples of their discovery
have hitherto been cited. It may be remarked, enpassant, that
the soil of Great Britain is particularly rich in the family of
the SphiY)gid<^, as, with the exception of Deilephila ? nerii,
Deilephila Fes})ertilio, Hipj^phae, and Smerinthus quercus,
we possess (unless greatly mistaken) all the other European
species of this cliarralng group.

As a proof of fallacy on my side, it may be said, if the
insects in question are truly indigenous, then should indigenous
plants be their common source of nutriment; whereas it is
distinctly stated by Abbot, and other authors, that the larva of
^phin^ Drura^i feeds on the Convolvulus Battdtas; that of
jSphirLT quinquemaculata and Carolhia on the potato, to-
bacco, and Jamestown weed, which latter is, I believe, the
Datura Stramonium, now a naturalised plant in England, and
which I have seen growing in very sequestered places, most
abundantly, along with another American (ffiiothera biennis),
in the forest of Fontainebleau and also in Hungary. With
as much propriety may the title of our insect to American
origin be questioned, since, with the single exception of the
Jamestown weed, all the other plants asserted to serve as their
usual food are foreign to the United States; but the objection
is at best a very feeble one, when it is considered that many
Lepidoptera in our own country are rarely found as larvae
upon any other than foreign plants which adorn our gardens,
or minister to our necessities. Thus Acherontia A'tropo^ is
seldom found but feeding on the potato or the white jasmine
(Jfesminum officinale), though we know the elder and the
bitter-sweet (Manum Dulcamara) to be its proper food in
this country, if not equally grateful with the first. Again,
jSphinjT ligustri, a strictly European species, is as often found
on the lilac as on privet; and Deilephila? nerii is met with
occasionally in all the temperate countries of Europe, except
our own island, feeding constantly on that tender green-house
shrub the Cerium Oleander, nor is it know a to betray a par-

to be considered as i?idigenous, 1 55

tlality for any other food; and yet, from its not unfrequent
appearance in the north of Germany in particular years, as
well as in other parts of the Continent, where that beautiful
plant requires careful protection from the severity of the
winters, it is to be presumed this magnificent moth has some
more abundant pabulum to resort to as a derfiiere ressource,
when compelled to forage in its native haunts, perhaps the
VincsL major, minor, or some species of Cynanchum, all
belonging to the same natural family of .^pocyneas. Few
polyphagous larvae are restricted to one natural family of
plants for subsistence ; but, were that the case, the soil might
furnish an acceptable treat to the subjects of the present dis-
sertation in our two indigenous >Solana, our henbane, deadly
nightshade, Ferbascum, or naturalised thorn-apple, while
^phin^ Drur<^V would probably feel quite at home making
a meal on our gracefully twining bird weeds.

To infer the exotic origin of any insect merely from the
foreign growth of the plant it feeds on, is an argument much
on a par with one that should go to prove the present in-
habitants of Wales unconnected by descent with the ancient
Britons, simply because thej^ no longer subsist like their an-
cestors on the spontaneous productions of their woods and
forests.

Having thus endeavoured to solve the enigmas which
these monsters of the insect race, like their prototj^pe of old,
have propounded to modern QEdipi, I shall conclude this
dissertation with a short summary of my ideas respecting the
propriety or impropriety of admitting into our lists of indi-
genous insects such as are recognised as inhabitants of other
and distant regions. We may do this, it appears to nie, with-
out risk of confusion, —

1. Wlien an insect is known to inhabit countries pretty
similar in climate, and having nearly the same mean temper-
ature with that in which it has been found at large, as is the
case with the southern part of Great Britain and the middle
portion of the United States ; though the average of each
season, taken separately, differs widely in the old and new
continent.

2. When the same insect has been repeatedly taken in
distant localities ; sometimes in pairs, and especially when it
has appeared in the larva state.

3. When the appearance of such insect cannot be ac-
counted for, except in a manner very problematical and
unsatisfactory.

On the other hand, we must regard such insects with
suspicion as —

15^ Characters of the European Diptera^

1. Have only once or twice been taken, as solitary speci-
mens, in situations favourable to the idea of their importa-
tion.

2. When known to belong to exclusively tropical genera
or species; occurring only on particular spots, and with
habits permitting their transportation from distant climates.

We have extended the above remarks much beyond what
the nature of the subject may appear to deserve ; but the
study of animal geography, if we may so term it, involves so
many curious and important considerations, which must be
reasoned upon ere they can be understood, that any attempt
to elicit truth may, we hope, plead in extenuation for our
want of brevity.

Clifton, Aug, 21. 1831. W. A. B.

Art. IX. The Characters of the European Diptera, from Mei-
gens " Systematische Beschreidung," Translated by George
Wailes, Esq.

Sir,
After the high encomiums bestowed upon Meigen's
Systematische Beschreibung der behannten Europa'ischen Zwei-
flugeligen Inseckten, or Systematic Description of the known
Dipterous Insects of Europe, in the Zoological Journal, and the
anticipation therein expressed, that, with the assistance afforded
by that work, the Diptera will form a favourite study of the
British entomologist, your inserting the synopsis of the
family and generic characters prefixed to the above publica-
tion, in an English dress, will, I trust, prove acceptable to the
young entomologists of this country, and tend to call their
attention to that interesting but hitherto neglected order of
insects. I am. Sir, yours, &c.

George Wailes.
Newcastle on Tj^ne, June, 1829.

DFPTERA.

Wings 2. Halteres 2, placed behind the wings.

Division I. Probosci'de^.

Proboscis terminating in a fleshy hbium, and with the haustellum covered
by a homy lahrum ; in front of the same are 2 articulated palpi.

Tfpula imperiklis, and side

from Meigen's " Systematische Beschreibung" 157

A. Anteiince mth numerous Joints.

Fam. I. TlPVhA'iam. (fgA5.)

Antenncs porrect, or directed forwards, having 6 or
more distinct joints. Palpi exserted (fixed ex-
ternally), articulated. Halteres naked. Abdomen
with 7 or 8 segments.

a. Culicifo'rmes.

l^yes lunate. Ocelli wanting. Antennce of the
males plumose, of the females pubescent. Mouth
not elongated. Palpi 5-jointed. Thorax without
a transverse suture. Abdomen with 8 segments.

* Proboscis porrect, longer than the anten-
nae ; Palpi straight : Wings with the
nervures and margm squamose. view of the head.

Genus

1. Cu'^LEx. Palpi of the males longer than the antennae, of the females

very short.

2. ANc'rHELES. Palpi of both sexes longer than the antennae.

3. Abides. Palpi of both sexes shorter than the antennae.

** Proboscis shorter than the antennae ; Palpi incurved.

4. CoRE^'THRA. Wings with the margins squamose, the nervures hairy.

5. Chiro'nomus. Antennce of the males 13-jointed,. of the females 6-

jointed.

6. Ta'nypus. Antennce 14-jointed, of the females with apex incrassate^

7. Ceratopo^gon. Antennce 13-jointed, the last five joints elongated.

Legs all equal.

8. Macro'peza. Antennce 13-jointed, the last 5 joints elongated. Hind-

legs very long.

b. 6?ALLl'C0LiE.

JSi/es lunate. Antenncs verticillate, or furnished with circles of hairs.
Palpi incurved. Wings villose, obtuse, with 2 or 3 longitudinal ner-
vures. TibicJB ecalcarate (without a spine),

9. Lasio'ptera. Wings with 2 longitudinal nervures. Ocelli wanting,
10. Cecidomy^ia. W^ing* with 3 longitudinal nervures. Oce/&' wanting.
i 1. Campylomy^za. Ocelli 3.

C. iVbCTU^F0''RMES.

Eyes lunate. Ocelli wanting. Antennce moniliforra, or like a row of
beads, verticillate. Wings broad, villose, with many longitudinal but no
transverse nervures. Tibics ecalcarate.

12. PSYCHO^DA.

d, ROSTRA^TJE.

JEj/es roundish, divided above by the frons (or forehead). Ocelli wanting.
Head produced into a rostrum. Palpi incurved. Thorax with an arcuate
transverse suture in the middle. Abdomen with 8 segments. Tibia ra-
ther more calcarate.

13. Erio'ptera. WingSf nervures villose. Intermediate pair of legs

shortened.
14). LiMNO^BiA. Wings, nervures naked. Antenrus from 15 to 17-jointed,

simple. Pff /pi, joints equal.
15. Rhipi'dia. Antennce 14-jointed; joints globose, remote; of the male

bipectinate (twice branched, like the teeth of a comb).

158 Characters of the European D'lptera,

16. Cteno'phora. AntenruB 13-jointed, of the male duplicato-pcctinate

(doubly-pectinate). Wings shining.

17. Ti'puLA.f J«^t*««<z? 13 jointed, alike in both sexes. Pa/jtji, last joint

elongated.

18. Nephro'toma. Antenncc of the male 19-jointed, of the female 15-

jointed, alike. Palpiy last joint elongated.

19. Ptycho'ptera. AntenncB 16-jointed. Palpi, last joint elongated.

WingSy posterior margin plicate (plaited).

20. Nemato'cera. Antenrus 6-jointedj joints of the clavola (or club-

shaped portion) equal.

21. Aniso'mera. AntenncB Q ]o\nied'y basal joint of clavola very long.

22. Tricho'cera. AntenncB seti^oYm; 2 basal joints thick, remainder very

indistinct. Palpi 5-jointed.

e. FUNGl'COL^.

Eyes round or oblong, divided above by the frons. Ocelli unequal, large,
or apparently wanting. Palpi incurved, 4-jointed. Thorax without a
transverse suture. Abdomen with 7 segments. Coxce long. Tihice cal-
carate (or furnished with a spine).

* AntenncB setiform, for the most part with indistinct joints, the two
basal ones incrassate.

23. Di'xA. Ocelli wanting.

24. BoLiTo'pHiLA. Ocelli 3, in a line.

25. Macro'cera. Ocelli 3, in a triangle.

** AntenncB compressed, 16-jointed.

26. Sy'napha. Eyes round. Ocelli 3, in a line. Tihics sides unarmed.

27. Myceto'^bia. Eyes reniform. Ocelli 3, approximate in a triangle.

28. Platyu^ra. Eyes very round. Ocelli 3, approximate, in a triangle.

Ahdomeny apex depressed, enlarged. Tibics unarmed (without spines).

29. Gnori'ste. Proboscis elongated. Ocelli 3, in a triangle. Tibia: y

sides spinose.

30. Scio'pHiLA. Ocelli approximate, in a triangle. TibuBy sides spinose.

Wings with a small intermediate, subquadrate, nearly square cell.

31. Lei^a. Ocelli 3. TibicSy sides spinose. Wings without a small inter-

mediate cell.

32. Myceto'phila. Ocelli only 2, distinct, placed at the margin of the

eyes. TibicBy sides spinose.

33. Co'rdyla. Ocelli wanting. TibicBy sides unarmed.

/ LU^GUBRI.

Eyes nearly confluent (joined together), deeply emarginate (notched).
Ocelli unequal. Antenna cylindric. Palpi .3-jointed. Thorax without
a transverse suture. Abdomen with 7 segments.

34. Scf ara.

g. Latipe'nnes.

Eyes (red) of the males confluent, of the females distant, reniform. Ocelli
wanting. Antenna cylindric. Palpi 4-jointed. Proboscis porrect, per-
pendicular. Abdomen with 8 segments. Wings very broad.

35. SlMU^LIA.

h. i^fuSCEFO'RMES.

Eyes (black) of the males confluent, of the females distant, roundish.

-|- Mr. Curtis's genus Dolichopeza, which may be characterised as having
the antennaj 12-jointed alike in both sexes, and palpi with the last joint
elongate, is by him considered as connecting Limnobia and T'jpula. (Cwr-
tis*s British Entomology y vol. ii. pi. 62.)

from Meigen's " Systematische Beschreihun^

159

Ocelli 3, equal in size. Antenrus cylindric. Thorax without a transverse
suture at the middle.

36. ScATo'psE. AntenncB 1 1-jointed. Eyes lunate.

37. Pentiie''tria. Antennfs W-^omieA. Eyes o\q\. Z/<7g,? unarmed.

38. Di^LOPHUS. AntenncB 1 1-jointed. Fore-tibia with the apex radiated

39. Bi'viio. AntenncB 9-jointed.

40. Aspi'sTES. AntenncB 8-jointed, the apex clavate.

41. Rhy^phus. AntenncB 16-jointed.

B. Antennce mthfew Joints.

Fam. II. XYLO'PHAGI. (/g.46.)

AntenncB porrect, approximating at the
base, triarticulate ; third joint 8-ringed.
Proboscis retracted (drawn into the
head), only the labella exserted. Ocelli
3. Abdomen with 8 segments, Hal-
teres naked. Wings parallel, incum-
bent (lying on the back). Onychii
3.t

42. Be^ris. Scutellum multiradiate.

43. Xylo'phagus. Scutellum unarmed.

44. CcENOMY^iA. Scutellum biden-

tate.

Fam. III.

Xyl6phagus maculktus, with the antenna
of X, ater.

rABA^NII.

AntenncB porrect, approximating at
the base; either 3-jointed, with
the third joint from 4 to 8-ringed,
or 6-jointed. Proboscis and palpi
exserted. J6c?o?we«with7segments.
Halteres sub-concealed. Wings
divaricate (spreading), or deflexed
(turned downwards). Onychii 3.

(/g.47.)

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

Tabinus teurinus.

a. AntenncB ^-jointed.
Pango'^nia. AntenncB y third ]0\nt

8-ringed. Ocelli 3. Proboscis

exserted, elongated.
Si'lvius. AntenncBy basal joint cylindric, second cyathiform, third

5-ringed. Ocelli 3.
Taba^nus. AntenncB, third joint 5-ringed, the upper side excised (or

notched) at the base. Ocelli wanting.
Chry^sops. AntenncBy 2 basal joints cylindric, equal, third 5-ringed.

Ocelli 3.
HJEMATo'poTA. AntenncB, third joint 4-ringed. Ocelli wanting.

50. Hexa'toma.

b. AntenncB 6'Jointed.

Fam. IV. LETTIDES. (Jig. 48.)

Antenncs porrect, approximating at the base, triarticulate, third joint not
ringed. Proboscis and Palpi exserted. OcelM 3. Abdomen with 7 segments.
Halteres naked. Onychii 3.

f This term is used by Meigen to designate those pulvilli of Kirby
and Spence, which are situated between the unguiculi. (See^g. 57. a.)

160

Characters of the European Dipt era,

61. Le'ptis. Antennce, third joint conic,
with an apical seta (see ^g. 49. a).
Ocelli 3, vertical.

52. A'therix. AnfcnncB, third joint ovate,

with a dorsal seta.

53. Clino'cera. AnteniKSy third joint

conic, with an apical seta. Ocelli 3,
frontal.

I^ptis distigma (male).

Fam. V. XYLO'TOM^. (/g. 49.)
AntenncB porrect, approximating at the base, triarticulate ; third joint not
ringed. Proboscis retracted. Ocelli 3. Abdomen with 7 segments, conic,
Halteres naked. Wings divaricate. Onychii 2.
54. ThereVa.

49

M^das lusilanicus.

Fam. VT. MYDA^ SII. (Jig. 50.)
AntenncB porrect, 5-jointed, the joints dissimilar, the last clavate

55. My'das.

Fam. VII. ^OMBYLIA^RII. (/g.51.)
AntenncB porrect, triarticulate, third joint not
ringed. Hypostoma ( " The region of the
head between the antennae, eyes, and
mouth." Meigen), not bearded. Frons
flat. Ocelli 3. Abdomen with 7 segments,
cylindric or elliptic. Wi7igs expanded.
Halteres naked.

56. HiRMONEU^RA. J72^£'ww^, joints globose,

third with a long terminal style. Ocelli,
frontal one remote from the other
two. Proboscis concealed.

57. Falle^nia. AntenncB, ]oints globose, third with a Ion

Proboscis elongate, bent under the body.

58. Sty'gia. AntenncB contiguous, basal joint with the apex dilated, third

with a terminal style. Proboscis concealed.

59. i^^NTHRAX. AntenncB distant, basal joint cylindric. Proboscis re-

tracted or sub-exserted. Eyes reniform.

60. iWu^Lio. Antenna; distant. Proboscis exserted, horizontal, as long as

the head. Eyes elliptic.

61. ^omby'lius. Jw^t'7mce contiguous, third joint compressed. Proboscis

exserted, horizontal, longer than head. Body wooWy. Abdomen ovate.

62. Phthi'ria. AntenncB contiguous ; third joint fusiform, compressed.

Proboscis exserted, horizontal, longer than the head. Body downy.
Abdomen cylindric or flat.

63. Ge^ron. Antennce contiguous; third joint subulate (or awl-shaped).

Proboscis exserted, horizontal, longer than the head.
64 U^siA. AntenncB contiguous ; third joint fusiform, obtuse. Proboscis
exserted, horizontal. Body villose.

jSombylius cruciatus (male).

terminal style.

from Meigen^s ** Sijstematische Beschreihung.^

161

65. Floras. Antenncs contiguous, basal joint very thick, conic. Proboscis
exserted, horizontal, as long as the head.
. 66. Cylle'nia. AntcnncB contiguous, basal joint cylindric, third conic.
Proboscis exserted, horizontal, as long as the head.

67. Toxo'pHoRA. Antenncs contiguous, cylindric, third joint short, acute.

Proboscis exserted, bent upwards. . «. , .

Fam. VIII. Jsi'lici. {fig, 52.)

AntenncB porrect, approximating at the
base, turned upwards, triarticulate,
third joint not ringed. Hypostoma with
a mystax (" a semicircle of bristles or
hairs above the mouth." Meigen.).
From impressed. Proboscis horizontal,
porrect, short. Abdomen with 7 seg-
ments. Haltei-es naked. Wings paral-
lel, incumbent.

a. Tarsi ivith 2 Onychii. ^silus chrysitis.

68. Dio'cTRiA. J72^eMWfP, third joint having an obtuse biarticulate apical

style or bristle. liind tibice straight, ciliated on the internal side.

69. Dasypo^gon. AntenncB, third joint having a short acute apical style.

Tibics straight, not ciliated. Anns of the females spinulose.

70. La^phria. ^?z^ewwce, third joint obtuse, without an apical style. 7W(S

arcuate.

71. ^si^Lus. AntenncB^ third joint having a naked elongate setiform apical

style. TibiiB straight, spinulose.

b. Tarsi with no Onychii.

72. Leptoga^ster.

Fam. IX. HYBOTINiE. (/g.53.)
Antenna: porrect, approximating at the base,
triarticulate, the two basal joints very closely
united, so as apparently to constitute one ;
third joint not ringed. Hypostoma not
bearded, flat. From flat. Proboscis hori-
zontal, exserted, short. T'mw^ very gibbous.
Abdomen slender, with 7 segments. Halteres
naked. Wings parallel, incumbent.

73. Hydros. AntenncB, third joint conic, with

an apical pubescent seta. Hind femora clavate.

74. Ocydro'mia. A7itenncs, third joint lenticulate (of the form of a lens),

with an apical seta. Legs all simple.

75. CEda LEA. AntenncB third joint elongate, compressed, without an

apical seta. Hind femora (thighs) clavate.

Fam. X. ^MPFDIiE. {fig, 54.)
AntenncB porrect, approximating at the base,
triarticulate; third joint not ringed, the apex
with a style or seta. Hypostoma not bearded.
Ocelli 3. Proboscis exserted, very perpendi-
cular. Palpi incurved. Abdomen with 7
segments. Wings parallel, incumbent. Ony-
chii 2.

76. Hi'lara. AntenncB, third joint subulate,

with an apical style. Proboscis shorter - -»"- ^f^^'*-

than head. Wings with an oblique transverse nervure at the apex.
Vol. V. — No. 24. m '

H^bos musckriufc

l^'mpis opaca.

162 Meigen*s Characters of the European Dtptera,

77. Brachy'stoma. AntenncBy third joint conic, with a very long terminal

seta. Proboscis the length of the head. Wings with an oblique
transverse nervure at the apex.

78. Glo^ma. AntenncBy third joint globose, with an apical seta. Wings

with an oblique transverse nervure at the apex.

79. ^'mpis. AntenncBy third joint conic, with an apical style. Proboscis

longer than the head. Wings vf'iih. the transverse nervure at the
apex very pferpendicular.

80. Rhamphomy^ia. Wings without a transverse nervure at the apex.

Fam. XL TACHYDRO^MIiE. (fg. 55,)

AntenncB porrect, approximating at the base,
" biarticulate, with an apical seta. Ocelli^. Pro-

boscis short, perpendicular. Palpi incumbent

on the proboscis. Abdomen with 7 segments.

Onychii 2.

81. Hemerodro^mia. Anterior coxes elongate.

82. Tachydro^mia. Anterior or intermediate

femora incrassate.

83. Dra'PETIS. Legs all alike. Tachydrbmia fascikta. and three

various forms of antennae.

Fam. XII. INFLA^TiE. (Jig. ^^')
AntenncB very minute, biarticulate. Head almost
wholly occupied by the eyes. Ocelli 3. Abdo-
men very thick, with 5 segments. Onychii 3.

84. Cy'rtus. Proboscis exserted, longer than

the head.

85. AcRo'cERA. Pro6o5m concealed. AntenncB

vertical.

86. He^nops. Proboscis concealed. Antennes

inserted on the superior margin of the
mouth.

56

C^rtus gibbus.

Fam. XIII. STRATIO'MYDJE.

AntenncB porrect, approximating at the base, triar-
ticulate ; third joint ringed. Proboscis with only
the labella exserted. Ocelli 3. Abdomen with
5 segments. Onychii 3.

87. Pachyga'ster. -4 w^eww^ third joint globose,

4-ringed, with a terminal seta. Scutellum
unarmed.

88. i^A'RGUS. AntenncBy third joint lenticulate, 3-

ringed, with an apical seta. Scutellum un-
armed.

89. Nemotelus. AntenncB inserted on a conical

hypostoma ; third joint fusiform, or spindle-
shaped, 4-ringed, with an apical style. Scutellum unarmed.

90. Clitella^ria. AntenncSy thu-d joint conic, 5-ringed, with an apical

style.

91. Oxy'cera. AntenncBy third joint fusiform, 4-ringed, with an apical

style. Scutellum bispinose.

92. Strati' OMYS. iin^enius, third joint sub-fusiform, 5-ringed. Scutellum

bidentate.

Stratiomy;
head of i

furckta (fem.), and
S. concinna, (male).

Illmtratiom of British Zoology.

163

Art. X. Illustrations in British Zoology. By George John-
ston, M.D. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edia^
burgh. •'

2. Acti'nia Tue'di^e. (Jig.58.)
CI. Radiata, Ord. Echinoderraata, Fam. Fistulides, Gen. Actinia. '

A. — Corpore crasso, cylindraceo, laevi aut rugis sponte circinato ; tenta-
culis crassis, numerosis, conicis, striatis, castaneis, corpore brevioribus.

A. — Body thick, somewhat cylindrical, smooth or wrinkled, with circular
folds J tentacula thick, numerous, conical, longitudinally striate, chest-
nut-coloured, shorter than the body.

f

. ' ' '■ '■ i

c-Sl^tfa

v^'i ^^ma

The only British species of this genus to which the one
before us has any relation is the Actinia sulcata, described
and figured by Dr. Gaertner in the 52d volume of the Philo-
sophical Transactions^ p. 78. 1. 1. fig. 1. Both species corre-
spond, or at least do not differ materially, in colour and size ;
and they are both equally incapable of retracting and conceal-
ing their tentacula within the oral aperture ; but they differ
in the relative proportions between these organs and the body,
and in the sculpture of the latter, which in A. sulcata is grooved
in a longitudinal direction ; and this character forms so pro-
minent a part both in the figure and description of Gaertner,
that an animal destitute of any such markings, as ours is,
seems entitled to the rank of a distinct species ; the more par-
ticularly, as neither Dr. Gaertner nor myself have drawn up
our descriptions from one, but from the examination of seve-
ral individuals. : *

M 2

164 Volcanoes.

Actinia Tuediae is amongst the largest of our species. The
body, when relaxed, generally measures 3 in. in length, and
about the same in diameter ; it is of a uniform reddish or
brownish-orange colour, and either smooth or contracted at
pleasure into circular folds. The base is smooth and orange-
coloured, with a thin areolar skin. The mouth is ever vary-
ing in size and form ; and there are often protruded from it
yesicular-like lobes of a reddish colour, scored with fainter
lines. When fully expanded, the oral disk is not less than
4 in. across ; there is a smooth space between the mouth and
tentacula, which are very numerous, and placed in several
rows around the circumference ; those of the inner row are
larger than the others, measuring frequently 2 in. in length,
and they become gradually smaller in the exterior series.
They are of a chestnut or reddish flesh colour, often darker-
coloured towards the bases, but never variegated with rings
of different hues; thick and clumsy, tapered to an obtuse
point, marked longitudinally with distinct lines or impressed
striae, tubular, perforated at the ends, and constricted at their
insertions. The creature has no power of withdrawing them
within the oral aperture, as the greater number of Actiniae
have ; nor does it seem capable even of shortening them in
any considerable degree, but it twists them in a wreathed or
spiral form, or gives the whole circle a greater or less degree
of expansion.

The trivial name which I have bestowed on this species is
intended to indicate the place of its first discoveiy, Tuedra
being, according to Sir Robert Sibbald, the ancient name of
the maritime parts of Berwickshire. It is not uncommon on
this coast, but is found only in deep water, whence it is drag-
ged up by our fishermen. I have often found the tentacula,
in a separate state, adhering to their lines; and as these retain
their irritability and motion for a long time, they are apt to
be mistaken for independent and perfect worms, which they
much resemble. Our figure represents the animal about one
half of its natural size. I am, Sir, yours, &e.

George Johnston, M.D»
Berwick upon Tweedy Jan, 7. 1832,

Art. XI. Volcanoes, By W. M. HiGorNS, Escj. F.G,S., and
J. W. Draper, Esq.

From the similarity which is observed between inorganic
objects in all countries, it may be supposed that there is less
value in the detail of observations relating to them than in

Volcanoes. 165

those investigations which are directed to other branches of
natural science. This is a mistake into which nearly all
early scientific travellers fell. When they visited a foreign
country, they found themselves surrounded, both in the vege-
table and animal creation, with so many novel objects, that
they paid little or no regard to the physical and geological
characters of the district, but satisfied themselves and their
readers with a vague remark that it was more mountainous or
level than this or that portion of their native country ; and
was formed of granite or sandstone, resembling that which
occurred at some other specified place. But as soon as the
science of geology attracted the attention of naturalists, the
importance of an extensive observation of inanimate nature
was generally admitted; for it required little experience to
discover that by this means alone any knowledge could be
obtained of the superposition of rocks and their probable
formation. But in spite of the extended observations which
have been recorded, these problems are still hypothetical
points in geology, which cannot be satisfactorily determined
from the data we possess. Geology must be brought to the
simple but noble condition of a practical science; and, like
chemistry, watch over its accumulating facts, jealous of hypo-
thesis. So long as Stahl and Beccher haunted chemistry
with their phlogistic phantom, every phenomenon was wrapt
in the mist which it generated. But, in speaking of geology,
almost every author has found a world which can only exist
so long as it preserves the character which his imagination
has given it; and could not have existed at all, had it not been
formed according to his opinions. When geologists are cured
of the mania which has seized them, and turn their powerful
energies to the discovery of facts, our knowledge of volcanic
districts, and the phenomena which attend volcanic activity,
will proportionally increase ; for the geologist alone is capable
of making those observations upon which rational opinions can
be formed. There was a time, and it is almost within the
memory of some of our readers, when the mounts Etna and
Vesuvius were made the types of universal volcanic action ;
but the more extended observation of modern science has
already given us a juster conception of this subject, has
exposed many facts presumed to be connected with their
causes, and made us tolerably acquainted with their geological
position and periods of activity.

There is no term more vaguely applied than the word vol-
cano. Sometimes it is used to signify hot springs ; at other
times, cones which eject mud, as at Turbaco in South Ame-

M 3

166 Volcanoes.

rica ; while oy other writers it is applied in the same page to
a fissure through which a cohimn of smoke is projected, and
to immense mountains that eject liquid rocks. Now, how
pertain soever it may be, in the theories of some speculatists,
that they all derive their origin from the same cause, some
difference should be made in language : and therefore, in-
stead of applying the term to every situation in which heated
substances are ejected, we shall confine it to those elevations
which are terminated by an interior cavity, and appear to have
gected liquid earths.

There has been much doubt among geologists whether we
are to attribute hot springs to the same agent as volcanoes.
In some instances there can be no doubt that they derive
their caloric from the same source, but in others there seems
every probability that it arises from other causes. Few per-
sons, for instance, would doubt that the geysers of Iceland
have an intimate connection with the numerous volcanoes
with which that singular island abounds : but there may be a
reasonable scepticism in attributing the hot springs of our own
country, most of which arise in the lias beds, so remarkable
for sulphuret of iron, to the same cause.

Volcanoes, according to our definition of them, may be
divided into two classes, extinct and active. There is some
difficulty in determining when a volcano may be considered
extinct; for, in our own times, craters which have not suf-
fered eruption in the age of history, have suddenly assumed
all their activity, and, with renewed energy, spread their de-
structive effects over the adjacent districts. We must, then,
regard all volcanoes extinct which have not been active in the
memory of history, till some proof of present activity be given.

One of the most interesting series of extinct volcanoes with
which we are acquainted is that of Auvergne in France. The
most recent of these had certainly no relic of activity at the
time Julius Caesar invaded Gaul ; for although he encamped
upon them, he has not referred to their volcanic origin.
How long before this they became extinct we cannot say, as
no historical records refer to them.

The most recent part of this district is that to the west of
Claremont (Scrope's Central France). This fact is not deter-
mined by any distinctive difference in the characters of the
lava, for the deductions formed on these have ever been found
erroneous, but from its position. For in some instances it has
flowed down the contiguous valleys, and hence was ejected
after the valleys were excavated ; while in other instances it
only occurs as an outlier, or, in other words, caps the hills
which surround these valleys ; and hence was formed before

Volcanoes.

167

the valley, as its excavation has destroyed the continuity of
the beds. Now, it is generally acknowledged that these val-
leys were formed by the last great diluvian action ; therefore
we have a convenient and natural division of extinct volcanoes
into ante and post diluvian.

For the sake of illustration, let us suppose Jig, 59. to

represent a chain of hills, in which the outliers «, h, and c
are composed of the same volcanic rock. It is evident, we
think, from their situation and dip, that they were once con-
tinuous, and that the catastrophe which excavated the valleys
destroyed the intervening portions of the bed : therefore the
valley is antediluvian. But if we find the cone d and its con-
tiguous valley to be covered with a bed of lava, there will be
no danger in ascribing to it a postdiluvian origin.

It is not uncommon to find volcanic rocks, or, at least,
rocks which so much resemble those which are now produced
by volcanoes, that few geologists, reasoning by analogy, doubt
their igneous origin, alternating with, or interposed between,
stratified deposits. The rocks of this class are generally
known by the name of trap, and consist of greenstone, basalt,
porphyry, &c. The rocks of the Pic du Midi de Bigorre
"(Schubert), for instance, particularly the limestones, are gene-
rally superposed by trap. At Christiania, in Norway, slate
and grauwacke are covered by a bed of porphyry, not less
than 1600 ft. in thickness; " and in another part of the coun-
try, at Holmestrand, the same mass of porphyry, covering
beds of sandstone, is seen to pass in the lower part, by almost
insensible gradations, into a hard, fine-grained, black basalt,
containing brilliant crystals of augite." (Bakewell's Geology.)
In the Island of Skye, red sandstone is traversed by a great
number of trap veins, and in some places is superposed by
this rock. The alternation of rocks observed in Lamlash is
sandstone, trap, conglomerate, and clinkstone, the whole of
which is intersected by a vein of spheroidal trap, (Macculloch's
Western Isles.)

M 4

168 Volcanoes.

Active Volcanoes may be divided into aerial * and sub-
aqueouSj or those which have their craters exposed to the
action of the air, and those which are under the water. There
must be a considerable difference between the phenomena
which attend these classes ; namely, in proportion to the
density of the obstructing medium. At present, however,
our knowledge of the phenomena which attend subaqueous
activity is exceedingly circumscribed : we shall, however,
separately consider the phenomena which precede and accom-
pany the activity of these two classes of active volcanoes.

The points of enquiry that most forcibly strike the atten-
tion, when thinking upon the volcanic agent, are the pheno-
mena which precede and attend its activity, the geographical
position of volcanic mountains, and the character of the sub-
stances they eject. We are then, by a natural train of thought,
led to enquire what can be the cause of these destructive phe-
nomena, and what the methods by which volcanic mountains
are formed and destroyed. These are the subjects which will
chiefly demand our attention in the following pages ; and will,
we hope, develope all the most important and striking facts
connected with the subject.

The Phenomena nxihich precede volcanic Action. — In every
age of the world there have been some who, separating them-
selves in part from the common amusements of mankind,
have devoted their leisure to the investigation of natural phe-
nomena. These have searched into the secrets of Almighty
Intelligence, and gazed in admiration upon the beauty of his
creatures, and the contrivance displayed in their formation.
But the more solemn and destructive of his agents, in their
moments of sublime excitement, have drawn the attention of
those who were unimpressed by Nature in her periods of
beautiful repose. The accuracy of this remark will be ad-
mitted by those who have never witnessed a more violent dis-
turbance than a passing thunder-storm ; but how much more
fully would it be received by those who have gazed on their
native hills when torn by the impetuous tide of subterranean
fire ! It is the importance which all men attribute to unfre-
quent phenomena, and particularly when of a fearful charac-
ter, whether they are seen, or known by tradition, that has
furnished us with an ample fund of information concerning
the many volcanic mountains with which every quarter of the
globe abounds.

* We have preferred the term aerial to sub-aerial, because the subaque-
ous may be said to be under the air as well as those exposed to the action
of the atmosphere.

Volcanoes. 169

From these observations it appears that the phenomena
which precede volcanic eruptions of the same class, universally-
present a remarkable similarity of character, though they
greatly vary in power. The energy chiefly depends upon the
force required to open a passage for the liquefied mass, and
the attendant gaseous fluids. Hence it is that the phenomena
which result from the activity of a subaqueous volcano are
probably very different from those which attend an aerial
eruption. Particular attention, therefore, must always be
paid to the situation of the vent, and the density of the fluid
resisting the volcanic energies. On this account it is neces-
sary that we should in this and the following section take a
separate view of these classes.

If the vent of a habitual volcano, whether aerial or sub-
marine, be much obstructed by the accumulation of a large
quantity of the lava resulting from a previous eruption, greater
power will be required to force the heated matter through the
crust of the earth, than if no such obstruction were presented.
And if it be necessary to form an entirely new vent, a still
greater force must brought into action, and that in proportion
to the solidity, position, and weight of the superposed mass.
There is not, we believe, a single instance within the range
of historical records, in which a new vent has been formed
in a country never before the seat of volcanic action. It is not
uncommon to hear of the eruption of volcanoes that have been
supposed extinct, nor is it improbable that entirely new vents
are sometimes formed in the neighbourhood of those situations
where the same power has before exerted its energies. In
both these cases the great obstruction presented to the volcanic
agent by superposed rocks has been removed by former
eruptions, and therefore but little increase of power is required
to force a passage for the melted materials. We might,
perhaps, deduce from this fact, either that the volcanic energy
has decreased, or that there is such a connection in the sub-
terranean abyss, that the weakest portion of the earth's crust
is broken, which is a volcanic vent ; but we forbear to theo-
rise.

Having premised these general observations, we may now
enquire into the character of those phenomena which precede
volcanic eruption. The most invariable of these is earth-
quake. The same night that Lima was destroyed by earth-
quake, four new volcanic vents were formed in the Andes. In
the year 447, the earth was convulsed for six months, almost
without intermission, from the Black to the Red Sea ; and oji
the 20th of May, 520, Antioch was destroyed, and 250,000 of
the inhabitants buried in its ruins. Soon after the earthquake at

17t^ Volcanoes.

Lisbon in 1755, various parts of the world suffered under the
effect of a similar cause, and within a few succeeding years
there happened some of the most violent eruptions that ever
afflicted the world. In 1759 the American continent was
dreadfully agitated, and Jorullo was in a condition of violent
eruption, attended with some most remarkable phenomena.
In 1760, Vesuvius opened at once fifteen fissures, and from
each vomited immense volumes of lava ; and during the same
year Kattlagiaa, in Iceland, broke out with intense parox-
ysmal violence, attended with such electric phenomena as were
never before witnessed. Thirty days after the destruction of
the city of Caraccas, the volcano of St. Vincent became
active ; and at the moment it broke forth, a subterranean
noise was heard, and the earth was shaken for nearly 2200
square leagues^ From these, and numerous other similar
facts which we might have selected, it will be evident that
earthquake of most alarming character frequently precedes
volcanic eruption; but it is only when the activity is very
intense that the earth is thus severely shaken. We should,
perhaps, be warranted by facts, in stating that the vio-
lence of the earthquake is always a criterion to the intensity
of the subsequent eruption ; but, however this may be, we do
not remember an instance in which volcanic action has not
been preceded by earthquake. But earthquake has frequently
been unattended with eruption, which may have resulted
either from a want of sufficient energy to form a vent, or from
the escape of the gases generated by the subterranean heat.

The violence of an earthquake seldom lasts more than a
minute ; but successive shocks are sometimes felt at very short
intervals. During the agitation immense chasms are fre-
quently formed, through which flames, torrents of water, or
dense volumes of gaseous fluid, are thrown. The effects,
therefore, of earthquakes, independent of the volcanic action
which usually follows, are of a most extensive and dreadful
character, and little inferior to the actual ejection of lava. A
more appalling description of the consequences of an earth-
quake cannot be given than a relation of the circumstances
that followed this awful catastrophe in 1638, as observed by
Kircher. The father was on his way to Euphemia ; but so
violent was the agitation of the water, and so dreadful the
noises which seemed to issue from it, that it was found impos-
sible to proceed, and he landed with his companions at Lopi-
zicum. " Here," he says, " scenes of ruin appeared every-
where around me ; but my attention was quickly turned from
more remote to contiguous danger, by a deep rumbling sound,
which every moment grew louder. The place where we

Volcanoes. 171

stood shook dreadfully. After some time the violent parox-
ysm ceased. I stood up, and turning my eyes to Euphemia,
saw only a frightful black cloud. We waited till it passed
away, when nothing but a dismal and putrid lake was to be
seen where the city once stood."

If such are the effects of earthquakes, it is not surprising
that the inhabitants of those countries in which they have
been felt, should be seized with an extreme terror at the
least agitation of the earth. Captain Basil Hall states, in
his interesting Voyage to Chili and Peru^ that when paying a
visit at Valparaiso, the whole party was suddenly thrown
into a state of violent alarm, and rushed into the street,
crying, Miser icordia ! misericordia ! The whole population
seemed to have been aroused by the same feeling ; the streets
were filled with people in a state of wild confusion and
alarm. The cause of this instantaneous terror was, our
traveller afterwards found, a violent shock of earthquake,
though he was perfectly unconscious of the least motion.
But Humboldt describes the feeling experienced on the
coast of Peru in a far different manner. " From our infancy,"
he says, " the idea of certain contrasts fixes itself in our
mind ; water appears to us an element that moves, earth
a motionless and inert mass. These ideas are the effects of
daily experience ; they are connected with every thing that
is transmitted to us by the senses. When a shock is felt,
when the earth is shaken on its old foundations, which we
had deemed so stable, one instant is sufficient to destroy
long illusions. It is like awakening from a dream ; but a
painful awakening. We feel that we have been deceived by
the apparent calm of nature; we become attentive to the
least noise ; we mistrust, for the first time, a soil on which we
had so long placed our feet with confidence. If the shocks
be repeated, if they become frequent during successive days,,
the uncertainty quickly disappears. In 1 784, the inhabitants-
of Mexico were accustomed to hear the thunders roll beneath
their feet, as we are to witness the vivid flash in the region
of the clouds. Confidence easily springs up in the human
mind ; and we end by accustoming ourselves, on the coast of
Peru, to the undulations of the ground, like the sailor to the
tossing of the ship caused by the motion of the waves." (Pers.
Nar., vol. iii. p. 321.)

The shocks of an earthquake are invariably most violent
in volcanic countries, but not in those parts which are nearest
to the seat of volcanic action. The effects, however, are
sometimes very extensive. During the earthquake at Lisbon
in 1755, the waters in every part of Europe were agitated.

1 72 On the Effects produced by

and in some places became thick and turbid. Lake Ontario
also felt its effects, and the sea round the Eastern Antilles,
Antigua, and its neighbouring islands ; and, although the tide
is not known to rise more than 18 inches, it suddenly rose
20 feet.

The atmospheric and other phenomena which usually
accompany earthquake, and consequently precede eruption,
are, an unnatural calmness of the air, a violent and remark-
able agitation of the sea, the sudden bursting forth of sulphu-
reous springs, deep rumbling sounds, and violent explosions,
resembling the discharge of artillery. The phenomena which
precede subaqueous activity are precisely similar to these,
except as they may be affected by the mass of water which
covers the vent.

(Tb be continued.)

Art. XII. On the Effects produced hy the 'Precession of the Equi-
noxes» By Sir John Byerley, F.R.S.L.

{Continued fromYo\.lV.^.'6\Q.) '

Sir,

In advancing a new theory, I had not the ridiculous pre-
tensions of imagining that it would at once attain universal,
or even general, assent. The astronomical system of Pto-
lemy and the vortices of Descartes have still their partisans,
who look down with pity on Copernicus and Newton. Even
whole scientific academies have adopted errors which a
schoolboy of the present day would blush for. To cite only
two relative to my subject: — In 1693, the French Academy
of Sciences decided that it was preposterous to suppose that
the sea and land on the globe did not present an equal extent
of surface. Sir Isaac Newton had determined, by theory,
the earth to be an oblate spheroid ; but, strange to say, the
measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French
mathematicians, which ought to have confirmed Sir Isaac's
theory, led the French Academy of Sciences to an opposite
conclusion ; and for forty years they taught the world to
believe the earth to be a prolate spheroid; or sharpened,
instead of flattened, at the poles.

As to theories of the earth, they are innumerable; all
beautiful, all poetical; from Burnet and Whiston down to
Buffon and Delisle de Sales ; the latter of whom supposes
the solar system to consist of about 1 7,000,000 of planets
and comets.

the Precession of the Equinoxes, 173

They are all advocates of a central fire, which they pro-
bably caught from Newton ; who, in one of his few aber-
rations in science, had calculated that the comet of 1680 was,
at its perihelion, 2000 times hotter than red-hot iron. Che-^
mistry was then in the infancy in which Boyle had left it, and
no one asked himself the question whether comets possessed
such a capacity for caloric, or whether the solar rays were
really hot. It is very poetical to talk of " The golden orb,
pouring forth floods of light through boundless space:" we
now know that planetary space is neither warmed nor illu-
mined by the solar rays; all is cold* dark night, save within the
atmospheres of the planets; there, the solar rays, acting on
the atmosphere, produce combustion, from which light and
heat are evolved. This is one argument against a central fire :
but before I develope the whole of the new theory, I wish
the truth of its basis to be brought to the test of actual
experiment.

I have advanced that the ecliptic is a real circle on the
earth ; that, by the precession of the equinoxes (arising from
the earth's figure) the equator cuts it in a different point
every year, returning to the same point in 25,920 years
(according to De Lambre). By this motion, the poles of the
equator revolve round the poles of the ecliptic on a radius of
23° 28^, or about 1400 geographical miles. Thus far astrono-
mers agree with me ; and here, I am sorry to say, we part com-
pany. They do not admit that this can produce any changes
on the earth's surface ; whereas I attribute nearly the whole
of them to it, and I will even appeal to them, and them
alone, to decide the question.

Now, if, as I assume, the pole of the equator revolves in
the circumference of a circle of 2800 miles in diameter, all
churches and buildings erected due north and south, even
only one hundred years since, are no longer so ; that no
sundial erected the same length of time is at present cor-
rect ; that no meridian, traced with care at such a period, is
at present true ; that all latitudes and longitudes, determined
with the utmost care 50 to 100 years since, differ from those
taken by recent observers ; and that it is easy to state before-
hand not only on what side the supposed errors lie, but their
amount.

I do not wish to prejudge the question ; as I have already
stated, the astronomers shall decide it : but I may be per-

* The late Baron Fourier, perpetual Secretary to the Royal Academy
of Sciences of Paris, calculated planetary space to be 90 degrees below the
freezing point of Fahrenheit.

C^^

174» Effects of the Precessimi of the Equinoxes.

mitted to state a few historical facts in support of the theory
I advance.

Tycho Brahe traced a meridian at his observatory, at
Uranienburg, which M. Picart found incorrect, and declining
to the west. Cassini traced one in the cathedral of Milan,
in which the same error is found.* All who have recently
determined, by astronomical observation, latitudes and longi-
tudes suppose dieir predecessors to have not taken due
care, or to have had defective instruments ; and M. de
Pouqueville, in his excellent Histm-y of Greece, informs us
that the Venetians laid down all the Greek coasts falsely
in their charts, in order that the vessels of other nations
might be stranded : a hard sentence on the husbands of the
Adriatic, which we may probably be able to reverse.

To put, therefore, my theory to the test, I earnestly entreat
that astronomers and persons possessing exact chronometers,
will, at the approaching equinoxes, ascertain whether our
cathedrals, churches, abbeys, &c., are now in the meridian,
and whether old sundials are not also erroneous. If my
theory be true, and that they were, when built, erected cor-
rectly to the four cardinal points, they will all, without excep-
tion, be now found to decline to the west; and from the
quantity of the declination the date of their erection may be
ascertained to four or five years : this is a new art de verifier
les dates, which, if founded in truth, will be of great importance
in chronology.

The communication of the results to your valuable work
I earnestly solicit, whether they be for or against me.

" If right, I'll smile; if wrong, I'll kiss the rod."
London, Feb. I. 1832, J. Byerley.

. * I wrote to our astronomer royal, Mr. Pond, to ask if the meridian
which I supposed must have been traced by Flamsteed was now correct.
Mr. Pond obligingly informed me that there existed no traces of Flamsteed's
meridian at the royal observatory of Greenwich.

17S S'1'1

REVIEWS.

Art. I. A Manual of the Land and Freshxioater Shells of the
British Islands^ tvith coloured Plates of every Species. By W.
Turton, M.D. Foolscap 8vo. London, Longman, 183L 10s,6d.

This is a very neat and beautiful little volume ; and will be,
we doubt not, a very acceptable present to the bulk of British
conchologists, since it will enable them to classify their col-
lections of native land and freshwater shells according to the
most approved system of the day, and to attach their respec-
tive names with facility and with certainty. The descriptions
of the species are not merely correct : they are remarkable for
elegance, perspicuity, and propriety of language, the techni-
calities of the science being used only on necessary occasions ;
while the figures are characteristic, and both engraved and
coloured in a very creditable manner.

We know not that we can say more in favour of the book,
and it would not have been just to its author to have said less.
Its main defect lies in the want of information relative to the
anatomy, physiology, and habits of the animals. Miiller said,
long ago, that we had amused ourselves sufficiently with
shells, had expressed enough of wonder about their forms and
colours ; and that it was time to leave these things to children,
and bind ourselves up like men to study the living inmates,
their structure, and manners. How the call has been answered
on the Continent, it boots us not to enquire : in this country
it found no responsive echo ; and if at this late hour we begin
to feel and acknowledge its justice, it must, nevertheless, be
granted, that very few among us (and Dr. Turton is not of the
few) even yet cultivate this department of natural science as
Miiller bade us, and as common sense would dictate. The
greater number of our living conchologists care more for rare
species, and perfect specimens, and pretty and uncommon
varieties, and such similar absurdities, than for the anatomical
discoveries of a Lister or a Cuvier, for the high discussions
of a Lamarck, or even for the economical observations of a
Miiller and a Montagu.

The history of conchology in Great Britain during the
present century is, indeed, any thing but creditable to the
reputation of us who are conchologists. If we except some

176 Turton'sMamml of British

few but excellent detached essays in the journals, and, perhaps,
Sowerby's Genera of Recent and Fossil Shells (for even in that
work the animal plays too subordinate a part), there has not
been published, during the thirty-one years which have elapsed,
a single work that is worthy of the advanced state of our
knowledge, a knowledge contributed almost entirely by fo-
reigners. The introductions most popular amongst us * are
bare expositions of a system which in every step runs counter
to nature and to sense, with a supplementary explanation of
useless terms, or of terms which require no explanation.
Other introductions there are, we are quite aware; but even
these are merely systematical, and make no pretensions to
originality: and what are our recent systematic works but
repetitions of a twice-told tale, descriptions of things which
have been described as well before, without spirit, or life, or
variety ? On running over these works, one might suppose
that the animal was beneath a naturalist's notice, so sedu-
lously is every particular relative to it avoided ; and if a chance
remark is made, it is done with all caution, and as a by and
by affair. There, for example, lies before us the Conchological
I)ictionaiy of Dr. Turton, where we see in every page a mark
that the author had seen the species in a living state : but he
would be a most credulous man who should turn to that vo-
lume for any useful knowledge. And this is the more to be
regretted, as few have had, or can have, the opportunities of our
author in investigating the economy of these animals. Who
that is not a mere conchologist — who does not envy him, in
particular, the possession of his noble Serpulse ? and who, that
ever saw the tenants of even our common species, does not
regret that they had fallen into hands who knew not their
value and their curious beauty ? Conchologists deem little of
the pleasure, the interest, or the nobleness of their study,
when they confine themselves to the examination of the out-
ward and inorganic covering.

Dr. Turton himself seems now aware of this. Conchology,
he tells us, in the dedication of the present volume, "is
scarcely beyond its infancy." And again he says : — " Till the

* The works alluded to are those of Brown, Brooks, and Burrows ; of
which the latter has reached a second edition : the best proof possible of
its popularity. Brown says (1816), of the Linnaean system, that no one
has been able to supersede it by a better ; and that " its beauties must
perpetuate its preeminence." The perpetuity of Captain Brown is, we
suppose, a cycle of about ten years ; for in his late work, entitled Illustra-,
tions of Conchology y this preeminent system has not the precedence, and
newly proposed genera are adopted in such numbers as to alarm even our
reforming spirit. Brooks and Burrows are no less laudatory of the Linnaean
system, and abusive of every other ; but they are consistent.

Land and Freshwater Shells. 1 77

animal has been dissected and accurately displayed, specific
distinction can hardly be determinately fixed." Although
these opinions are not ours, yet they are not unwholesome
ones ; but, unfortunately for Dr. Turton, they are opinions
merely, for he has taken no steps to loosen Conchology from
her leading-strings ; he has made no dissections of species,
and vastly few observations even on their outward form. We
are told that some families have four, and some two, tenta-
cula ; and that these organs vary in shape, and have eyes on
their tips or at their bases ; but beyond these novelties this
deponent sayeth not. This deficiency, we repeat, is to be
regretted ; for, had he entered even on some economical details,
he would have added very much to the interest as well as use-
fulness of his volume : and, as a proof of our assertion, we
will refer to his own article on Helix pomatia, which, we feel
certain, his readers will regard as the best and most entertain-
ing in the book. Even on that article, Dr. Turton will excuse
us for making two remarks. " The calcareous epiphragm,
with which the animal closes the shell during winter, is dis-
solved upon the approach of summer," says our author ; *' not
by the increased heat of the atmosphere, but by a phosphorous
acid which at that season it abundantly secretes." The evi-
dence on which the acid is pronounced to be phosphorous
ought, we think, to be stated ; for it is very singular to find
an animal, that exudes its calcareous matter in combination
with carbonic acid, secreting a very different acid for its so-'
lution : and, were it proved that the acid was phosphorous,'
some light would be thrown on certain points in the general'
doctrine of the formation of shell which are still very doubtful."
Our second remark is of a matter much less important. " At-
one period," says Dr. Turton, " it seems that they (Helix
pomatia) were admitted at our own tables; as Lister, in his'
Hist. Anim. Angl., p. 111., tells us the manner in which they
were cooked in his time : — * They are boiled in spring water,
and, when seasoned with oil, salt, and pepper, make a dainty
dish.' " The quotation, it is obvious, has neither meaning nor
point, unless Dr. Turton means that we shall infer from it
that, according to Lister, snails were thus dressed in this
country ; but, if we turn to Lister, we shall find he says no
such thing. Lister's assertion is, that they are very commonly
eaten " in Gallia Narbonensi " (that, surely, is not Britain) ;
and are also sold in great quantities in Paris during the sea-
son of Lent ; and, after giving us this information, he adds the
cookery receipt translated by Dr. Turton, leaving us to infer,
as a matter of course, that they were so cooked in Paris. Dr.
Lister, in fact, says not a word of their being eaten in Bri-
VoL.V.~No. 24. N

178 Johnston* s Flora of BermicJc upon Tweed.

tain, although he, perhaps, made the trial himself; for he avers
that the animal is very fleshy, nor just altogether nauseous
( ''nee palato nimium ingratum"). Now, after this exposition,
we might, in our capacity of critics, charge Dr. Turton with
wilfully concealing the truth, and making partial extracts to
suit and prop up his argument; but this be far from us, for
we sincerely believe that the memory only is here to blame,
and at fault; and we have entered into the discussion to show
the doctor how easy a matter it is to get up heavy charges
against good and honourable men, such as he himself has
made against such men in the preface to his Dictionary^ and
in a manner which is scarcely excusable.

Art. II. A Flora of Bertvick upon Tweed. By George John-
ston, M.D. &c. Vol. II. Cryptogamous Plants. 8vo, 330 pages,
and plates. Carfrae, Edinburgh; Longman, London; 183L
7s. 6d.

We had the satisfaction of noticing the first volume of this
judicious and agreeable work in Vol. II. p. 234., containing
the phaenogamous plants growing around Berwick. The pre-
sent contains that miscellaneous assemblage of vegetation
which is usually comprehended under the term cryptoga-
mous; or, which will be better understood by ordinary
readers, those plants which propagate themselves by myste-
rious methods. It is that residuary bit of vegetable nature
which is left after we have disposed of the more intelligible
portion. The different orders of it have no common charac-
ters, and they are grouped together chiefly on the ground
of convenience. A mushroom and a moss are distinguished,
easily enough by the most careless observer ; yet the ordinary
mode of classing them near each other is apt to mislead the
beginner, by his inferring that this contiguity in arrangement
points out a similarity of structure. No such inference must
be drawn ; but the student must study, if he would study use-
fully, each tribe separately, and as a distinct form of nature.
Having done this, he is at liberty to discover as many simi-
larities and analogies as he can find. Dr. Johnston has pur-
sued this course, and it is a discreet and safe one. We should
have preferred to have seen the Charae among the unknown
residue.

We are pleased to have it in our power to add (what, by
the way, we seldom can do) an observation to the facts stated
by the author respecting the silex in the JE^quisetum hyemale,
commonly sold under the name of Dutch rushes, for the pur-

Johnston* s Fiora of Berwick upon Twf^ed. 179

pose of polishing wood and ivory. If the rush be burnt care-
fully, a residuum of unconsumable matter will be left, and
this held up to the light will show a series of little points,
arranged spirally and symmetrically, which are the portions of
silex the fire had not dissipated ; and it is this serrated edge
which seems to render the plant so efficient in attrition.
Wheaten and oaten straw are also found by the experience
of our good housewives to be good polishers of their brass
milk vessels, without its being at all suspected by them that it
is the flint deposited in the culms which makes it so useful.

The author has taken great pains to make out those scep-
tical species of ferns, passing under the names of Aspidium
aculeatum, vulgare, and lobatum, and has given a plate to
illustrate the subject. Those who are curious in such distinc-
tions will do well to refer to him ; but " de minimis noii
est disputandum." In the ferns and lycopodiums, the
author has followed the nomenclature of Sir J. E. Smith,
"dignissimus Linnaei haeres " [ " the worthy successor of Lin-
naeus" ], as Sprengel designates him : and, at parting with his
candid and erudite guide, passes a just eulogium on his merits,
which will be appreciated by all who delight in the calm pur-
suit of his favourite science.

Dr. Johnston's list of mosses is very small, and we suspect
might be much increased by those who devote themselves
more particularly to this family. He has followed, in his
arrangement, Drs. Hooker and Taylor. The Jungi and the'
^'Igae have engaged more of his attention ; and the reader can-
not fail to be gratified, nay charmed, with the manner in
which he treats his subject. We profess not to be learned in
this department of Nature's secrets ; but we see enough to^
justify us in recommending the author as a judicious and safe
authority ; and if the noviciate has any touch of poetry in his
composition, and can read the Eternal Author in the glorious
book of Nature, he will find Dr. Johnston's second volume, ■
as well as the first, a delightful companion of his musings,
and which will convert many an otherwise blank page into
one rife with instruction, rouse his dull and dormant admir-
ation, and lead him from the joys without to those within.

" To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell.

To slowly trace the forest's shady scene.

Where things that own not man's dominion dwell.

And mortal foot hath ne'er, or rarely, been ;

To climb the trackless mountain all unseen.

With the wild flock that never needs a fold ;

Alone o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean ;

This is not solitude : 'tis but to hold
Converse with Nature's charms, and view her stores unroll'd."

Rt/ron.
N 2

180 Joh?istd?i's Flora of Berwick upon Tweed.

Now, there is a large class in this world of plodding, indus-
trious, devout worshippers of Mammon, and another class,
scarcely less numerous and just as irrational, of proud yet
shallow thinkers, who pronounce these " cullers of simples "
and other objects of natural history to be the idlest triflers in
this trifling world. Yet we, sitting on our hillock of turf,
*' sub tegmine fagi," and recruiting ourselves after collecting
our butterflies and our mosses, denounce all such judges as
bigoted and exclusive ; and we think we are just as well and
as usefully employed as he whose lofty ambition is to die
richer than his neighbours, or with a coronet upon his brow.
We lay our bodies down in peace, with other honours em-
blazoned upon our escutcheons. We accumulate riches, too,
but of another kind than gold and silver, though we have our
precious stones. The honoured and ennobled of our race leave
behind them 50,000 specimens, not pounds, collected from
the four corners of the earth. We lay up our treasures in
shelves, and cases, and cabinets, not in stocks and mortgages ;
and we have our treasures in heaven, too, for we have " the
fruit of the Spirit, which is love, joy, peace, gentleness, meek-
ness, temperance." We are also fired with our noble ambi-
tions, as well as others ; and we will adduce three living ex-
amples, which will stand a comparison with any thing in the
lives of those common-place heroes, Alexander and Cassar.
The first is of a learned entomologist, who, hearing one
evening at the Linnean Society that a yellow *Scarabae'us,
otherwise beetle, of a very rare kind was to be captured on
the sands at Swansea, immediately took his seat in the mail,
for that place, and brought back in triumph the object of his
desire. The second is Mr. David Douglas, who spent two
years among the wild Indians of the Rocky Mountains, was
reduced to such extremities as occasionally to sup upon the
flaps of his saddle ; and once, not having this resource, was
obliged to eat up all the seeds he had collected the previous
forty days in order to appease the cravings of nature. Not
appalled by these sufferings, he has returned again to endure
similar hardships, and all for a few simples. The third ex-
ample is Mr. Drummond, the assistant botanist to Franklin
in his last hyperborean journey. In the midst of snow, with
the thermometer 15° below zero, without a tent, sheltered
from the inclemency of the weather only by a hut built of the
branches of trees, and depending for subsistence from day
to day on a solitary Indian hunter, " I obtained," says this
amiable and enthusiastic botanist, " a few mosses ; and, on
Christmas day," — mark, gentle reader, the day, of all others,
as if it were a reward for his devotion, — "I had the pleasure

Martins and Sjnx^s Reise in Brasilien, 181

of finding a very minute Gymnostomum, hitherto undescribed.
I remained alone for the rest of the winter, except when my
man occasionally visited me with meat ; and I found the time
hang very heavy, as I had no books, and nothing could be
done in the way of collecting specimens of natural history/'

" The force of nature could no farther go.
To make the third she joined the other two,'*

Art. III. Reise in Brasilien. By Dr. C. F. P. von Martius and
Dr. J. B. von Spix. Munich. 4to. Vol. I., 1823 ; Vol. II.,
1828; Vol. III., 1831.

Having received from Munich the third and last volume
of the Travels of Dr. von Martius and the late Dr. von Spix in
Brazil, whither these learned persons were sent by the Bava-
rian government, we extract from it the following picturesque
description of the atmospheric changes daily observable in the
northern quarter of the Brazilian empire, and of the effects
of those changes on the vegetable and animal worlds. This
description of a single day answers for almost every day
throughout the greater part of the year ; for the various phe-
nomena, so minutely and graphically portrayed, recur with a
wonderful uniformity. Dr. von Martius, wishing to com-
municate to his friends some idea of the impression which
these phenomena made on him, has inserted in the present
volume a leaf from his journal, dated August 16. 1819, in
which he noted down, as they occurred, his observations on
the extraordinary scene before him. The point from which
the observations were made is a country-house, called " the
Rossinha," within about a mile of the town of Santa Maria
de Belem do Gram Para. This Saint Mary of Bethlehem is
situated in a plain on the eastern bank of the Grand Para, at
the distance of 16 German miles from the sea. The river
Para appears on the map to be a continuation of the Tocatius ;
but at a point where it communicates with the waters of the
Amazons through the canal of Tagepuru, and receives several
small streams, it becomes widely expanded, and changes its
name with its magnitude. Opposite to Belem, the Rio das
Amazonas and the Rio do Para form between them an island
called Marajo. The travellers resided at Belem, or Para, as
the town is sometimes called, during two different periods
of the year : first in July and August ; and, on the second
occasion, in April, May, and June. At the turn of the sea-
son, which takes place in that region in October and Novem-
ber, they were not in Belem, and, therefore, had no personal

N 3

182 'Martius and Spix^s

experience of the changes which then occur. Dr. Martins
states, however, that from August to October the climate be-
comes more dry, and that the rain then recurs less regularly.
The proper rainy season begins in November, accompanied
by much and long-continued thunder. The rains continue
heavy until February and March, but sometimes the period
is prolonged. In the interior of the continent the travellers
likewise observed this distinction of seasons. In September,
when favoured by the wind, they sailed up the river, and
experienced the greatest dryness : on the contrary, deluges of
rain prevailed on their return in the month of March.

The following is a translation of the leaf from the journal
of Dr. Martius, dated Para, August 16.1819; and describes
an equatorial day, as observed near the mouths of the Para
and the Amazons : —

'* How happy am I here ! How thoroughly do I now
understand many things which before were incomprehensible
to me ! The glorious features of this wonderful region, where
all the powers of nature are harmoniously combined, beget
new sensations and ideas. I now feel that 1 better know what
it is to be a historian of nature. Overpowered by the con-
templation of an immense solitude, of a profound and in-
expressible stillness, it is, doubtless, impossible at once to
perceive all its divine characteristics ; but the feeling of its
vastness and grandeur cannot fail to arouse in the mind of the
beholder the thrilling emotions of a hitherto inexperienced
delight.

" It is three o'clock in the morning, I quit my hammock;
for the excitement of my spirits banishes sleep. I open my
window, and gaze on the silent solemnity of night. The stars
shine with their accustomed lustre, and the moon's departing
beam is reflected by the clear surface of the river. How still
and mysterious is every thing around me ! I take my dark
lantern, and enter the cool veranda, to hold converse with my
trusty friends the trees and shrubs nearest to our dwelling.
Most of them are asleep, with their leaves closely pressed
together; others, however, which repose by day, stand erect,
and expand themselves in the stillness of night. But few
flowers are open ; only those of the sweet-scented VauWmia
greet me with a balmy fragrance, and thine, lofty mango, the
dark shade of whose leafy crown shields me from the dews of
night. Moths flit, ghostlike, round the seductive light of my
lantern. The meadows, ever breathing freshness, are now
saturated with dew, and I feel the damp of the night air on
my heated limbs. A Cicada, a fellow-lodger in the house,
attracts me by its domestic chirp back into my bedroom, and

Reise in Brasilien. 183

is there my social companion, while, in a happy dreaming
state, I await the coming day, kept half awake by the buzz of
the musquitoes, the kettle-drum croak of the bull-frog, or the
complaining cry of the goatsucker.

" About five o'clock I again look out, and behold the morn-
ing twilight. A beautiful even tone of grey, finely blended
with a warmth-giving red, now overspreads the sky. The
zenith only still remains dark. The trees, the forms of which
become gradually distinct, are gently agitated by the land
wind, which blows from the east. The red morning light and
its reflexes play over the dome-topped caryocars, bertho-
letias and symphonias. The branches and foliage are in
motion, and all the lately slumbering dreamers are now awake,
and bathe in the refreshing air of the morning. Beetles fly,
gnats buzz, and the varied voice of the feathered race resounds
from every bush ; the apes scream as they clamber into
the thickets ; the night moths, surprised by the approach of
light, swarm back in giddy confusion to the dark recesses of
the forest ; there is life and motion in every path ; the rats
and all the gnawing tribe are hastily retiring to their holes,
and the cunning marten, disappointed of his prey, steals from
the farm-yard, leaving untouched the poultry, to whom the
watchful cock has just proclaimed the return of day.

" The growing light gradually completes the dawn, and at
length the efiiilgent day breaks forth. It is nature's jubilee,
The earth awaits her bridegroom, and, behold, he comes !
Rays of red light illumine the sky, and now the sun rises.
In another moment he is above the horizon, and, emerging
from a sea of fire, he casts his glowing rays upon the earth.
The magical twilight is gone ; bright gleams flit from point
to point, accompanied by deeper and deeper shadows. Sud-
denly the enraptured observer beholds around him the joyous
earth, arrayed in fresh dewy splendour, the fairest of brides.
The vault of heaven is cloudless ; on the earth all is instinct
with life, and every animal and plant is in the full enjoyment
of existence. At seven o'clock the dew begins to disappear,
the land breeze falls off*, and the increasing heat soon makes
itself sensibly felt. The sun ascends rapidly and vertically
the transparent blue sky, from which every vapour seems to
disappear ; but presently, low in the western horizon, small,
flaky, white clouds are formed. These point towards the sun,
and gradually extend far into the firmament. By nine o'clock
the meadow is quite dry, the forest appears in all the splen-
dour of its glowing foliage. Some buds are expanding ; others,
which had effloresced more rapidly, have already disappeared.
Another hour, and the clouds are higher; they form broad,

N 4

18* Martius and Spioc's

dense masses, and, passing under the sun, whose fervid and
brilliant rays now pervade the whole landscape, occasionally
darken and cool the atmosphere. The plants shrink beneath
the scorching rays, and resign themselves to the powerful in-
fluence of the ruler of the day. The merry buzz of the gold-
winged beetle and hunlming-bird becomes more audible.
The variegated butterflies and dragon-flies on the bank of the
river, produce, by their gyratory movements, lively and fantas-
tic plays of colour. The ground is covered with swarms of
ants, dragging along leaves for their architecture. Even the
most sluggish animals are roused by the stimulating power of
the sun. The alligator leaves his muddy bed, and encamps
upon the hot sand ; the turtle and lizard are enticed from their
damp and shady retreats ; and serpents of every colour crawl
along the warm and sunny footpaths.

" But now the clouds are lowering ; they divide into strata,
and, gradually getting heavier, denser, and darker, at last veil
the horizon in a bluish grey, mist. Towards the zenith they-
tower up in bright broad-spreading masses, and assume the
appearance of gigantic mountains in the air. All at once the
sky is completely overcast, excepting that a few spots of deep
blue still appear through the clouds. The sun is hid, but the
heat of the atmosphere is mor« oppressive. The noontide
is past; a cheerless melancholy gloom hangs heavily over
nature. Fast sink the spirits ; for painful is the change to
those who have witnessed the joyous animation of the morn-
ing. The more active animals roam wildly about, seeking to
allay the cravings of hunger and thirst ; only the quiet and
slothful, who have taken refuge in the forest, seem to have no
apprehension of the dreadful crisis. But it comes ! it rushes
on with rapid strides, and we shall certainly have it here.
The temperature is already lowered; the fierce and clashing
gales tear up trees by the roots. Dark and foaming billows
swell the surface of the deeply agitated sea. The roar of the
river is surpassed by the sound of the wind, and the waters
seem to flow silently into the ocean. There the storm rages.
Twice, thrice, flashes of pale blue lightning traverse the clouds
in rapid succession : as often does the thunder roll in loud
and prolonged claps through the firmament. Drops of rain
fall. The plants begin to recover their natural freshness ;
it thunders again, and the thunder is followed, not by rain, but
by torrents, which pour down from the convulsed sky. The
forest groans; the whizzing rustle of the waving leaves becomes
a hollow murmuring sound, which at length resembles the
distant roll of muffled drums. Flowers are scattered to
and fro, leaves are stripped from the boughs, branches are

Meise in Brasilien, 185

torn from the stems, and massy trees are overthrown ; the
terrible hurricane ravishes all the remaining virgin charms of
the levelled and devastated plants. But wherefore regret their
fate ? Have they not lived and bloomed ? Has not the Tnga
twisted together its already emptied stamens? Have not the gol-
den petals fallen from the fructified blossoms of the Banister/flr,
and has not the fruit-loaded ^'rum yielded its faded spathe to
the storm ? The terrors of this eventful horn* fall heavily even
on the animal world. The feathered inhabitants of the woods
are struck dumb, and flutter about in dismay on the ground ;
myriads of insects seek shelter under leaves and trunks of
trees. The wild Mammalia are tamed, and suspend their
work of war and carnage ; the cold-blooded Amphibia alone
rejoice in the overwhelming deluge, and millions of snakes
and frogs, which swarm in the flooded meadows, raise a chorus
of hissing and croaking. Streams of muddy water flow
through the narrow paths of the forests into the river, or pour
into the cracks and chasms of the soil. The temperature
continues to descend, and the clouds gradually empty them-
selves.

" But at length a change takes place, and the storm which
lately raged so furiously is over. The sun shines forth with
renovated splendour through long extended masses of clouds,
which gradually disperse towards the horizon on the north
and south, assuming, as in the morning, light vapoury forms,
and hemming the azure basis of the firmament. A smiling
deep blue sky now gladdens the earth, and the horrors of the
past are speedily forgotten. In an hour no trace of the storm
is visible ; the plants, dried by the warm sunbeams, rear their
heads with renewed freshness, and the different kinds of ani-
mals obey, as before, their respective instincts and propen-
sities.

" Evening approaches, and new clouds appear between the
white flaky fringes of the horizon. They diffuse over the
landscape tints of violet and pale yellow, which harmoniously
blend the lofty forests in the back-ground with the river and
the sea. The setting sun, surrounded by hues of variegated
beauty, now retires through the western portals of the firma-
ment, leaving all nature to love and repose. The soft twilight
of evening awakens new sensations in animals and plants, and
buzzing sounds prove that the gloomy recesses of the woods
are full of life and motion. Love-sighs are breathed through
the fragrant perfumes of newly collap^^d flowers, and all ani-
mated nature feels the influence of this moment of voluptuous
tranquillity. Scattered gleams of light, reflected splendours of
the departing sun, still float upon the woodland ridges; while.

186 Samouelle's Entornological Cabinet.

amidst a refreshing coolness, the mild moon arises in calm
and silent grandeur, and diffusing her silver light over the
dark forest, imparts to every object a new and softened aspect.
Night comes ; — nature sleeps, and the ethereal canopy of
heaven, arched out in awful immensity over the earth, and
sparkling with innumerable witnesses of far distant glories,
infuses into the heart of man humility and confidence, — a
divine gift after such a day of wonder and delight ! "

Art. IV. Catalogue of Works on Natural History ^ lately published^
tvith some Notice of those considered the most interesting to British
Naturalists.

SwAiNSON, W,, F.R.S. &c., and Richardsoji, John, M.D.
F.R.S. &c. : Fauna Boreali- Americana, or the Zoology of
the Northern Parts of British America. Part II. containing
the Birds, illustrated by numerous Plates and Wood-cuts.
4to, nearly 600 pages. London, Murray, 1831. 4/. 45.
This seems a superb production, on which more hereafter.

Rennie, J"., A. M. : Notes of a Naturalist ; in Time's Tele-
scope for 1832. 8vo. London. 95.

A wreath of pleasing quotations, with a good proportion of
poetical ones, interspersed by some original remarks, and
distributed into 12 monthly chapters; all form a pleasing,
instructive, and appropriate appendage to Time's Telescope;
and it is pleasing to see Natural History at every turn re-
ceiving adaptation to the business and bosoms of all. The
engraved device, including the title of " Notes of a Naturalist,"
is elegant and appropriate ; in short, we think, exquisitely
tasteful: it is a chain disposed in an ellipsis of miniature
pictures, each including some pleasing and well exhibited
object of nature.

Samouelle, G., A.L. S., Author of the " Entomologist's useful
Compendium," and other works : The Entomological Ca-
binet, or Natural History of British Insects. In Monthly
Numbers, with coloured Plates. Foolscap 8vo. 25. 6d,
Numbers I. and II. have appeared.

In the pages of this elegant periodical it is the author's in-
tention to apply the results of thirty years' extensive research
and observation to the illustration of the orders, the families,
the genera, and, lastly ,'^itie species, of British insects ; and in
such a way as to render his work a " hand-book to the juvenile,
a text book to the tyro, and a magazine to the scientific."
How well he is able to effect this desirable object, the pub-

Ni'wma7i's Sphi?ix \espif6rmis, 187

lisbed numbers sufficiently evince. In these the insects pre-
sented to the reader are elucidated in language sufficiently
precise, and at the same time entirely free from the techni-
calities that too often render entomological works uninteresting
to all but the initiated. We have one fault to find, which,
however pardonable in works exclusively scientific, cannot be
passed over in one that aims at general utility. Mr. Samouelle
is a naturalist of long standing, and his constant association
with men of science has rendered the correct pronunciation
of entomological terms familiar to his ear : but " the juvenile"
and "tyros," for whose instruction his work is especially adapted,
may not be so fortunate, and they will hesitate at encountering a
Greek or Latin word. It is the fear of ridiculous pronunciation
that renders the use of systematic names slow of introduction
amongst people otherwise well informed. J51atta orientalis,
for example, is quite as euphonious as cockroach or black
beetle, and the sounds themselves as expressive ; nor is there
any reason in the ears of men why one should be chosen
rather than another. The preference arises solely from un-
certainty about the pronunciation. Place an accent over the
proper vowel, and the difficulty is removed ; the word comes
trippingly off the tongue, and slides into common use. Nor
is the substitution of a more correct term all that is gained
by the introduction of systematic nomenclature into the com-
mon language of life. Scientific names are usually founded
on some fact in the .economy or history of the animal, and
convey some information, more or less important, regarding
the beings to which they are applied. In the instance already
adduced, cockroach and black beetle are unmeaning or use-
less phrases, for the colour speaks for itself: but orientalis
(eastern) involves a portion of the history of the animal, and
indicates the region whence it was received. In every case,
therefore, the systematic name should be translated, and the
reason of its application given, that the word may be enriched
with all the meaning of which it is susceptible. We are con-
vinced that we have only to suggest these improvements to
secure their adoption. The work, considering the style of
the plates, is abundantly cheap, and we hope it will receive
the encouragement to which its excellence fully entitles it.

Newman, Edward : S^hmx t^espiformis ; an Essay. 8vo,
pp. 54-, with engraved diagrams of circles of affinity. Lon-
don, Westley and Davis, 1832. 45.

Under this unassuming title, the author has furnished an
able and talented essay, designed as an enquiry into what is
the true natural system. The object of this, the first of a
proposed series of essays, is to ascertain the precise point

tB8 Newman's Sphinx \espif6rmis.

which the ^phin^r wspiformis of Linnaeus occupies in the
animal kingdom; and, in prosecuting this enquiry, Mr. New-
man has manifested much comprehensiveness of mind, acute-
ness of reasoning, and power of illustration. Dissatisfied, as
we believe every scientific admirer of natural history is and
must be, with every existing system by which animated
nature has hitherto been arranged, Mr. Newman, whose at-
tention appears to have been long since awakened to the
subject, has attempted to establish a theory based on the
circular system of Mr. MacLeay, but abandoning that acute
naturalist's quinary arrangement, and substituting in its stead
one of a septenary character. Carrying out this idea, Mr.
Newman finds that many of the anomalies and difficulties at
present experienced are effectually removed ; and he antici-
pates that further research and examination will justify his
decided opinion that a series of septenary circles will even-
tually be found the true natural system.

One feature in the author's theory appears to us deserving
impartial and candid examination, that the central group of
each series of septenary circles is always that which has the
greatest variety of form and character, combining in itself
typical forms of all the other groups by which it is surrounded.
On this principle he considers Neuroptera to occupy the
central position in the Insecta; and that the Libellulae, from
"their imperial flight, their enormous size, their richly
variegated colours, their despotic and cruel habits," must be
placed in the " heart's core" of the circle, and rank as " em-
perors of the insect world." Mr. MacLeay also disallows any
such group of animated beings as Insecta : dividing the crea-
tures which we commonly call insects into two orders, Man-
dibulata and Haustellata; and these, with the Crustacea,
Ametabolia, and ^rachnoida, constitute a class which he terms
Annulosa. Mr. Newman, we think with great justice and
propriety, restores the expressive term and excellent group
" Insecta," and regards the binary division of the group into
Mandibulata and Haustellata as utterly futile ; and really,
when we reflect that, to sustain such an artificial division, it is
necessary to suppose facts which have no existence, we may
be allowed to hesitate, before bending the knee to any authority
however great.

Mr. Kirby's order Trichoptera, the leading character of
which, as given by himself, is " Emandibulate," cuts but a
sorry figure amongst the mandibulate insects ; where it seems
placed more to eke out the number five, than for any more
laudable purpose. The genus Thrips, again, although de-
cidedly mandibulate, has been for some similar reason termed
haustellate, and placed with the A^phides, &c. It is to be

Works oil Natural History, 189

lamented that our publishing entomologists, Messrs. Stephens
and Curtis, unhesitatingly adopt these and other glaring
inconsistencies.

In the arrangement of the class Lepidoptera, Mr. Newman ,
complains with justice of the carelessness which has been
hitherto manifested ; authors appearing to regard the insects
which compose it as too diversified to be brought under any
arrangement which does not abound with anomalies. We
have not sufficiently examined his classification to give it our
unqualified approbation; but a glance at the diagram will
convince the reader that he has not, like some writers, com-
pletely set at nought natural combinations.

It would be impossible for us to follow Mr. Newman in
the various arguments and facts which he adduces, in behalf
of the views he has so forcibly stated. We are quite satisfied
that the essay will attract considerable attention among all
scientific naturalists ; and we cordially recommend it as
necessary to the library of every entomologist, especially
of those whose love of this delightful branch of natural history
extends beyond the mere collection of beautiful objects.

Stephens, J. F., F.L.S. : A Description of Chiasognathus
Grantii, an Insect forming the Type of an undescribed
Genus, with Remarks on its Structure and Affinities.
A notice of this pamphlet (a separate and presentation
copy of the article as recently published in the Camb7idge
Philosophical Trarisadions) is promised us by an able ento-
mologist for the next Number.

Mudie, Robert, Author of « The British Naturalist:" The
Botanic Annual ; or Familiar Illustrations of the Structure,
Habits, E<:onomy, Geography, Classification, and principal
Uses of Plants, with Notices of the way in which they are
affected by Climate and Seasons; and a short Sketch of
Coniferse. 8vo, with cuts. London, Cochrane and Co.
1832. 155.

We have not had time to examine this apparently me-
ritorious book, but have committed it to the scrutiny of a
reviewing friend more at leisure; by whose aid justice will
be done it in our next.

Henslow, Rev. J, S., M.A., Professor of Botany, and Se-
cretary to the Cambridge Philosophical Society : On the
Examination of a hybrid Digitalis. From the " Transactions
of the Cambridge Philosophical Society." 4to. 1831.
A contribution to botanical physiology of great value and
great merit : it will be noticed in detail in some future Num-
ber of the Gardener's Magazine,

190 Literary Notices.

Art. V. Literary Notices.

Gould, John, A.LS., Author o^ Illicstrations in Ornithology
from the Himalaya Mountains, is about to publish an entirely
new work on the birds of Europe. The author, by his prospec-
tus before us, considers that the birds of Europe have been less
illustrated, and are proportionally less known, than the birds
of other parts of the world. He proposes that his work shall
fill up this inequality, and gives the following sketch of his
means and terms : —

" Eight years almost exclusively devoted to ornithology,
more particularly that of Great Britain ; extensive acquaint-
ance and constant communication with the most celebrated
cultivators of this branch of natural history; and resources in
art beyond those which have already given such universal
satisfaction, insure to the author advantages of no common
extent. Assisted by experienced collectors at all the most
favourable localities, it is intended that the artists employed
on this work shall have, as far as possible, a constant supply
of living, or very recently killed birds; thus insuring a degree
of truth both of character and colouring, which museum spe-
cimens, however well preserved, can never supply. All the
interesting periodical changes of plumage will be particularly
illustrated ; and the author hopes to secure for this arduous
undertaking that degree of support which its merits and exe-
cution will be found to deserve.

" The work will be published in parts, one of which will
appear every three months. The first part will be ready on
the 1st of June, 1832; and each succeeding part on the first
day of every third month afterwards, till the whole is com-
pleted.

" Each part to contain twenty plates (their size the imperial
folio), fifteen of which will be devoted to the representation of
British birds, and ^so, to those of the European continent.
The price of each part to subscribers will be 3/., to be paid
for on delivery.

" Subscribers desirous of possessing the British birds only,
are requested to signify their wishes ; and the author, con-
fidently anticipating the support of all the subscribers to the
completion of the work, pledges himself, in that case, to a
regular and equally perfect performance throughout.

" Only 300 copies will be printed off; and the work when
complete will form two interesting and handsome volumes of
the land and water birds of Europe. Portions of letterpress,
forming together a history of the subjects of the plates, and
minutely detailing the habits and manners of all the species.

Literary Notices. 191

as well as describing and explaining the various changes of
their plumage, hitherto so imperfectly understood, will be pub-
lished occasionally ; forming, by the time of the completion of
the figures, two volumes large 8vo, which will not exceed 2/."

The Natural History of the Birds of Africa^ translated from
the French of F. Le Vaillant, with copious notes and synonymes,
by Professor Rennie, will be published early in the spring.
The work is intended to make two volumes. A translation of
Le Vaillant's Birds of Paradise and the Parrots^ uniform with
the above, and with Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary, is
also in a forward state of preparation.

The A?igler's Museum, edited by a member of the Walton
and Cotton Club. A printed prospectus of a work to be thus
denominated has been issued by Mr. Wood for circulation
among the members of the club and the friends of the editor.
A copy has reached us, and we have perused it with real
pleasure, because it is written unassumingly, clearly, and ably.
The author complains that the pursuit of angling has not
hitherto been duly accompanied by those correlative consider-
ations in natural history which it is eminently calculated both
to excite and to gratify. Besides the acquaintance with the
general philosophy of nature to which it tends to introduce
us, it leads us, with an almost irresistible directness, to an in-
creased and increasing acquaintance with ichthyology, ento-
mology, botany, and meteorology; and the editor both regrets
that the knowledge of these sciences has been hitherto so little
coupled with the prosecution of the art of angling, and pro-
fesses his ardent desire, and we think evinces his ability,
if the public will but encourage him to the task, to render
this no longer the case. The editor also proposes, as indeed
would be expected of him, to collect and collate whatever
contributions to improvement, both in the practice of the art
and in considerations of science and philosophy connected
therewith, the modern school of angling may have developed,
and to add these improvements to, and blend them with, all the
excellencies of the older school. He will thus perform an
acceptable service to all interested in the pursuit of angling ;
for it is difficult to conceive any thing more annoying than the
necessity of procuring and perpetually recurring to numerous
books for information on a single subject. This is our feeling ;
and the welcome patronage the public has latterly bestowed
on comprehensive works attests that we are not singular in
the possession of this feeling. The editor farther proposes to
do what indeed will require superlative familiarity with his
subject to do well ; it is as follows : — to supply " a biblio-

195 Literary Notices.

graphical list and review of all books written either for the
improvement in, or that are descriptive of, the art of angling,
commencing with the Treatise of Fysshynge "myth an Angle ^
originally printed in the ' Boke ' of St. Alban's, and attri-
buted to Dame Juliana Berners, and continued to the last
work which has appeared on the subject ; combining criticism
with copious and characteristic extracts and analyses, and
biographical sketches of authors and editors." In the mode
of publishing the proposed work, " the form of a magazine
has been decided upon."

As worthy the remembrance of our junior readers, and as
instancing the editor's style of treating his subject, we present
an extract : — " Every one who is acquainted with the habits
of fish is sensible of the extreme acuteness of their vision, and
well knows how easily they are scared by shadows in motion,
or even at rest, projected from the bank ; and often has the
angler to regret the suspension of a successful fly-fishing by
the accidental passage of a person along the opposite bank of
the stream : yet, by noting the apparently trivial habits of one
of nature's anglers, not only is our difficulty obviated, but
our success insured. The heron, guided by a wonderful in-
stinct, preys chiefly in the absence of the sun ; fishing in the
dusk of the morning and evening, on cloudy days and moon-
light nights. But should the river become flooded to dis-
coloration, then does the ' long-necked felon ' fish indiscrimi-
nately in sun and shade ; and in a recorded instance of his
fishing on a bright day, it is related of him, that, like a skilful
angler, he occupied the shore opposite the sun."

De Ferussac, Baron : Histoire Nat:irelle generale et parti-
culiere des MoUusques, tant des especes qu'on trouve au-
jourd'hui vivantes que des depouilles fossiles de celles qui
n'existent plus ; classes d'apres les caracteres essentiels que
presentent ces animaux et leurs coquilles. This work is
resumed ; and the author, during the period of suspension,
which, he represents, has been most diligently occupied, has
prepared livraisons on the Cephalopodes, Pteropodes, and
Gasteropodes, several of which are ready for delivery.

Of the Histoire Naturelle des MoUusques terrestres etfluvia-
tiles seven livraisons are ready to appear, and will be published
in the course of 1832. All who have seen this most valuable
and useful work will feel as much pleasure in receiving this
information as we feel in communicating it.

APPENDIX.

(Printed at the expense of the respective Writers,)

Controversy between W. Swainsony Esq. F.R.S. L.S. ^c, and
N. A, Vigors, Esq, AM. F.R.S. 8fc.

My dear Sir,
I HASTEN to redeem my pledge of replying to Mr. Swainson's letter of
the 1st of October. My observations on that letter will necessarily be
lengthy, and from the nature of the subject they cannot but be tedious,
I offer no apology, however, on this head. The arrangement I have
made with you, by which any controversial writings of mine, even although
I am forced into the contest, become a gratuitous addition to your Maga-
zine, insures the good effect of their not debarring your readers from more
scientific matter, and equally that of not iixiposing a task upon their
purses. The reading of them, it is true, may impose a tax upon their
time : but that time is at their own disposal, and if they choose to throw
it away on any lucubrations of mine, it is their own fault that they make
the sacrifice.

Would that the saa'ifice on my part had been equally optional ! Would
that 1 could have avoided this war of words, so uncongenial to my feelings
so foreign to my habits, — this deplorable waste of time, on a subject as
paltry as it is unprofitable I But the duty I owe those valuable friends
who have volunteered their kindness on this and many other occasions ;
the duty I owe to the public, which has confidentially assigned to me
places of no slight trust and importance ; have imperatively demanded, and
still demand, that I should absolve him, whom they have so honoured
with their friendship and confidence, from the foul calumny which this
writer has dared to propagate.

The mode in which 1 can bring the attacks of so evasive an adversary
as Mr. Swainson before the reader is not easily selected. No compre-
hensive or systematic view can be taken of the observations of a writer so
desultory, so regardless of the point at issue, so inconsistent with himself,
and, at times, so contradictory even of his own statements and arguments,

" Quo teneam vultus mutantem Proteo nodo ? "

The only feasible mode, I apprehend, of giving any adequate represent-
ation of the contents of this writer's last letter, is that of following his
own incoherent order, laying hold of his observations one by one as they
occur, and pursuing the rambling series from the outset to the end. A
humorous story is related by our friends, Dr. Buckland and Mr, Broderip
{Zool. Jour., vol. ii. p. 19.), of a hedgehog despatching a snake by passing
its body through its jaws from head to tail, and regularly cranching each
of its vertebrae in succession. In imitation of this honest quadruped, who
thus methodically puts his slippery antagonist hors de combat, I shall
separately lay hold of each prominent portion of this wily gentleman's
epistle, and extract and expose, for the reader's observation, the true sub-
stance of which it is composed.

Vol. V. — No. 24, [n]

[192] APPENDIX.

1. •' When a man," says our worthy logician, " for defending his friend, receives abuse, he
justifies [whom or what does he justify ?], not to the insulting party, but to the bystanders. I
address myself therefore to you and your readers."

Most cogent and undeniable is the truism in that former sentence ! It
wants only relevance to the concluding " therefore," and to the subject at
issue, in order to be highly instructive ! It is already known to your
readers (see my reply, Vol. IV. p. 327.) that the gentleman for whom
Mr. Swainson imbibed so sudden, so romantic, so highly wrought a friend-
ship, never was attacked, at least by me, and stood in no need of such a
Quixotic champion against an imaginary assailant. The details of the
affair between M. Lesson and Dr. Horsfield and myself, will be shortly
laid before you in a separate letter, in which it will appear, that if the
word " attack " is at all applicable on the occasion, it must be applied to
that gentleman, who commenced the warfare, and not to us, who reluct-
antly replied in our own defence. This has already been fully stated.
Mr. Swainson must now be aware of the fact, if, indeed, he ever had a
doubt of it ; and nothing but the most sullen and dogged obstinacy in
adhering to a barefaced assertion, even in the face of conviction, could
induce a man to resort to the stale and pitiful trick of reiterating a charge
that had again and again been refuted,

•♦ Receives abuse."

Mr. Swainson personally and virulently attacked me in a manner un-
authorised by the common forms of society. His accusations were proved
by me to be false j his arguments were refuted ; their contradictions and
absurdities pointed out; and the malign spirit of his attack exposed j
and this he calls " abuse ! " I trust that every asperser of his neigh-
bour's fame, that misuses the noble freedom of the press, by making it the
organ of his own private piques and paltry jealousies, may meet with
similar " abuse" and similar discomfiture !

2. " Violent and reiterated attacks have been made on M. Lesson, and other French naturalists.
These attacks have been vindicated by one party, and deprecated by me. The name of Mr. Vigors^
either as author, abetter, or editor, is attached to all."

Another stale reiteration of assertions long since proved to be false !
I referred in your Magazine (Vol. IV. p. 327.) to the only two instances
in which I myself came into collision with Continental naturalists. These
were defences, not attacks. I equally showed that every other contro-
versial paper with which I had any connection, as editor of the journal in
which they were printed, was purely defensive j and I advocated the prin-
ciple, that it was not only justifiable, but necessary and praiseworthy, to
defend opinions which had unjustly been assailed. Mr. Swainson totally
evades this train of reasoning ; by not replying to it, he tacitly admits its
force. He even blindly acknowledges the principle which I advocated, by
applying it in justification of himself (see p. 197.); and now, with equal
blindness, he fancies he can obtain credence to his ten times refuted asser-
tions, merely by reiterating them ! The sturdy convict that asserts his
innocence in tne teeth of a condemning verdict is not more infatuated
than he.

3. " Of the last and worst, * published under the superintendence of the Secretary, and with tBe
sanction of the Council,* Mr. Bennett steps forward as theavowed author. This may be true."

May be true I The assertion of an honourable gentleman may be true I
Such is the courteous and condescending admission of this sojourner in
" courts and camps 1" From his high and dictatorial station he stoops to
admit that an author may have composed his own book. " Garth viay
have written his own Dispensary." Verily, our science is placed in an
awkward position, when a man cannot assume the credit of a work which
he cpmposes, and publishes openly with his name, until Mr. Swainson
deigns to acknowledge him as the author !

APPENDIX. [193]

But mark the mode in which the words avowedly quoted from the
work in question are garbled ; " published under the superintendence of
the Secretary, and with the sanction of the Council." The most im-
portant part of the sentence professedly quoted, the words " and of the
Vice-Secretari/^^^ are entirely omitted. It served, it appears, Mr. Swainson's
purpose to keep from observation Mr. Bennett's participation in the
management of this work, the particular share which he held in which
was fully promulgated on a succeeding leaf; and for this purpose he omits
the foregoing most important words ; thus attempting to deceive the reader
into the belief that the titlepage assigned the whole and exclusive re-
sponsibility to me. I shall have occasion, before I conclude this letter, to
point out many similar instances of false quotation, which will fully illus-
trate the nature and depth of Mr. Swainson's argumentative powers.
These paltry tricks in argument are by persons of a certain calibre of
mind deemed to indicate ingenuity and cleverness. But the moralist,
the philosophic reasoner, the searcher after truth, detects them at once,
as betraying hollowness of cause and dishonesty of purpose.

4. " But I have yet to learn," continues Mr. Swainson, " the difference between the man who
originates, and the man who knowingly propagates a calumny ; who ' superintends ' its concoc-
tion ; gives it the public support of his name j and implicates a set of gentlemen as sanctioners of
the libel who never saw it."

Perfectly just. These are sentiments from which, in the abstract, no
man will dissent. But how, in the name of all that is logical, can we de-
duce any conclusion from them applicable to the present case ? Where is
the libel, and where the calumny ? Mr. Bennett advanced some observ-
ations, against which Mr. Swainson directed, as he thought, a very formid-
able battery. Mr. Bennett repelled the attack, convicted him of gross
misrepresentation, and triumphantly maintained his position. Mr. Swain-
son has indeed much to learn ; he has yet to understand that truth is no
libel, and justice no calumny. That there have been libel and calumny in
the present disgraceful controversy, I must with sorrow admit. But the
calumny has been concocted in Mr. Swainson's brain, and the libel has
proceeded — impotent, it is true, in its attempts, and abortive in its effects,
— from Mr. Swainson's tongue.

But it is worth while to mark the last part of this sentence : — >

*' Implicates a set of gentlemen as sanctioners of the libel who never saw it."

If this means any thing, it aims an innuendo at me, that I have impli-
cated the Council of the Zoological Society in giving their sanction to the
publisher of the work in question, to describe the animals in their gardens
and menagerie. But in what possible manner can I be considered respon-
sible for such an open and official act on their part? A publisher asks the
Council to sanction a purposed undertaking : he obtains his request ; and
he gives publicity in his titlepage to the permission thus granted. The
whole is a matter of record, entered in the Council Minutes ; and I am no
further associated with the transaction than as being one of the Members
that granted the applied for sanction,, and the Secretary who caused it
officially to be recorded. The Council, in point of fact, went no farther
than giving their sanction to the undertaking; they are implicated in no
respect in the success or failure of the work ; and, even if they were, none
but a caviller of the most confused or perverted imagination could insinu-
ate that I was the person who so implicated them.

Our profound legislator next proceeds to lay down the law respecting
the duties of an editor : and then most logically, as will be seen, proves my
total dereliction of these duties : —

5. " An editor, in my estimation, is bound to strike out all passages of personal abuse ; all
charges of base motives; all violent and unwarrantable expressions, . Since his name is unavoid-

[N] 2

[l^'i-] APPENDIX.

ably coupled with controversy, he will be doubly cautious In becoming himself an antagonist,
Mr. Vigors has neither evinced this discretion, nor manifested this spirit. Had he loved peace,
he would not have printed (at whose expense?) the well-known letter on the dichotomous system,
(^fter it had been published, in a softened tone, elsewhere."

[Note.3 " It is somewhat singular that the library of the Linnean Society should have been
fixed on as the deposit of ih\s private reprint, whence the copies were disseminated." ,

Now, Sir, I mean not to quarrel with Mr. Swainson's editorial pandects.
The logical accuracy with which he brings them to bear upon me is all that
I wish to arraign. Would not any reader naturally conclude that the in-
stance which he exemplifies as a proof of my deviating from the duties of
an editor, was the publication of a controversial paper in a work which I
edited ? And yet nothing is farther from the truth ! Mr. MacLeay's letter on
the Dichotomous System was printed in the Philosophical Magazine y of which
my very valued friend Mr. Taylor is the editor ; and with which I am not
in the slightest degree connected. My only ostensible connection with the
letter, as far at least as Mr. Swainson or any other man has a right to im-
pute such to me, consists in its being addressed to me by Mr. MacLeay.
Again, Sir, would not any reader conclude, from the above-quoted passages,
that there were hvo publications of the letter ? That there was a reprint,
in short, of it after it had been published elsewhere ? And yet here again
is a false assertion. Strange it is to say, that not even in the most trivial
particular can the honesty of this writer be relied upon. The letter was
set up in type, once only^ for Mr. Taylor's Magazine. Copies of it were
struck off, according to Mr. MacLeay's instructions, to be distributed among
his friends. These copies form what Mr. Swainson calls a reprint, and
they were distributed before the letter appeared in the Magazine, some
months indeed before some portion of it appeared, but all being from the
same type. Mr, Taylor certainly omitted some passages in the concluding
portions of this letter, for reasons into which I have never enquired. But
the alterations took place after, not before, as Mr. Swainson with so much
effrontery asserts, the distribution of the private copies.

i " He would not have printed {at whose expense?) " —

In the midst of the melancholy exposure which Mr. Swainson affords of
spleen and rancour, there is something at times so truly ludicrous in his
quaint observations, that we feel an occasional relief from the general gloom
that pervades the subject he discusses. At whose expense ? With what
simplicity are the propensities of some men betrayed; the yellow clay
breaking through the plaster of Paris ! Mr. MacLeay cannot publish his
views or express his feelings in print, but Mr. Swainson must be informed
of the name of the person who bears the expense ! These penny-a-line
gentry cannot be apprised of a scientific publication, without associating
with it the ideas of pounds, shillings, and pence ! At whose expense ? If
Mr. Swainson cannot restrain his gossiping inclinations on this subject, let
him apply to the parties ostensibly concerned in the publication, who may,
perhaps, be civil enough to gratify him with the wished-for and important
information.

" It is somewhat singular that the library of the Linnean Society should be fixed upon as the
deposit [query, depository ?] of this private reprint."

Here, again, are betrayed the propensities of the man. Every thing to
him is a mystery ; every thing from him an abortive innuendo. He cannot
speak out. He just " hints a fault, and hesitates dislike." The plain and
simple explanation of the fact, on the " singularity " of which this man of
mystery suggests his astonishment is this : — Mr. MacLeay gave instructions
that copies of his letter should be distributed among his friends and the
friends of science. Several copies were accordingly sent for that purpose
to the Linnean Society, among other various deposits; that society being

APPENDIX. [195]

one to which a great proportion of his friends belonged, as well as other
scientific persons who were likely to be interested in the subject.

6. " In all this [i. e. in my violation of the duties of an editor], however, there is nothing dis-
honourable. What I say is, that it implies a want of judgment, and a love of controversy."

This is meant, I suppose, as explanatory of the allegations he brought
against me in his letter, printed in your March Number (Vol. IV. p. 97.) ;
and which, if brought home, would have convicted me of most dishonourable
conduct. Forsooth, he meant to allege nothing dishonourable I His charges
went no farther than to impeach me of want of judgment and love of contro-
versy. Thus will the writer meanly and pitifully attempt to retreat from
a position to which he had the rashness to advance, but which he had not
the courage to defend. But we must not allow him thus to escape. His ac-
cusations are matter of record ; their import cannot be mistaken. Let him
prove them ; or, by his apology, or equally expressive silence, admit their
falseness. Yes, Mr. Swainson, you irretrievably committed yourself by
advancing, among other charges of dishonour, those of my having published,
in a periodical journal of which I was editor, private letters, not intended
by their writers for the public (Vol. IV. p. 97.) ; of being the detractor of
men of merit (p. 104.) ; of not acting in accordance with my own profes-
sions (p. 98.); of making my professions of truth (so printed in italics for
the greater effect) being my guide utterly worthless, by not putting them
in practice (p. 105.), &c. &c. &c. I must nail you to these points. Here
there shall be no evasion. These charges are either true or false : and on
their truth or falsehood depends the reputation of the accuser or the accused.
You have not stood to your charges. By a paltry subterfuge, you have en-
deavoured to shift your ground ; and by your failing to substantiate the
accusation of dishonour, you are virtually convicted of the dishonourable
conduct which you had the temerity to impute to me.

7. " You are told, indeed, that I was the first to begin this system. This the asserter knows to
be false."

I would here, Sir, ask you, is it possible that a man can be in his sane
mind who ventures on such a hazardous expedient as that of misrepresent-
ing his opponent's observations, when the misrepresentation maybe detected
by the reader's turning back to a few pages in the same work ? Let us
turn over these few pages, and we shall find that " you are told " no such
thing as Mr. Swainson commits himself by asserting that you are. My ob-
ject in the passage alluded to (Vol. IV. p. 322.) was to justify myself in intro-
ducing papers of an alleged controversial nature into a journal of which I was
editor, by showing that these papers were defences of the previous opinion
of their authors, not attacks upon others j and, consequently, that the pub-
lication of them was both just and necessary. 1 went still farther: I
observed, that, even were I culpable in publishing such defences, Mr. Swain-
son himself shai'ed the culpability, for he was the first that tempted me to
the deed. My words — and I was cautious in using them, being aware of
the disingenuous character of my opponent — were expressly as follows : —
" Your readers will be startled at finding that the very first paper, of a
controversial nature, ivhich I had any share in having inserted into that jour'
naly was written by Mr. Swainson himself! " Now this is the assertion on
my part, which Mr. Swainson, in the language of " courts and camps," says
" I knew to be false." And how does he prove this ? Because " the very
first article of this description in my journal is an attack upon him." That
previous attack *, however, to which his paper was an answer, was intro-

* The reader will also perceive, on turning to the passage in question,
that I actually absolved Mr. Swainson from any blame, by referring to this

[N] 3 . - , . .

[196] APPENDIX.

duced into the journal months previously to my having any connection with
it. I knew not of its insertion until I read the published article, like any
other purchaser of the work. Even the share I had in inserting Mr. Swain-
son's paper into the journal was that of using my personal influence with
the then conductors to employ Mr. Swainson as a contributor to their
work; and several months, as I have already said, elapsed before the
journal could be called mincy even if my connection with it as editor could
entitle me so to consider it.

My assertion, therefore, that the first paper of a controversial nature that
I had any share in introducing into that journal " was written by Mr.
Swainson himself," is perfectly borne out by the fact ; and, contrary to the
assertions clothed in Mr. Swainson's " courteous and camp-like " phraseo-
logy, the asserter knows it to be true.

• 8. " My answer was the first and the last [i. e. controversial paper], until now,'that I ever pen-
ned : it occupies four pages. The controversial papers of Mr. Vigors, avowedly by himself, fill
exactly forty. {^Zool. Jaurn., vol. iii. p. 92—123., vol. v. p. 134—141.) "

It would appear, by Mr. Swainson's reasoning, that controversial

?apers, like the Sibyl's books, increase in value by decreasing in extent,
never wish to interfere with the opinions of any man on such specula-
tive points ; but Mr. Swainson will allow me, I hope, and other readers,
to form our own judgment on these points, and square our practice by
this judgment. He ought, however, to have given an honest statement of
the particular case which he has just adduced; and have added, that of
one of the above papers, the first and longest, amounting to thirty-three
pages, not one sixth is controversial. He should also have assisted the
reader's judgment in reference to that paper, by adding to his account of
its length some opinion as to its merits. His own words, taken from a
letter now before me, publicly addressed to the referees to whom I
wished to leave the arbitration of this unprecedented controversy into
which he has forced me, supply the deficiency. At a period subsequent to
the publication of his first letter, he thus expresses himself: — " Mr. Swain-
son has distinctly stated his impressions upon this paper. It is remarkably
well written; and, as he has said before, he considers the views and
sentiments generally to be 'just.' " How he comes to quarrel with the
length of a paper, the views and sentiments of which he pronounces to be
" generally just," remains to be accounted for.

- Mr. Swainson now proceeds to explain his connection with the Zoo-
logical Society : but in a statement which leaves entirely untouched the
main points at issue. It will be in the recollection of your readers, that
he accused the society of illiberality, because he, " not being a member,
was prohibited from making any effectual use of the Society's Museum,"
and was therefore forced to go to Paris for study. It was proved against
him, first, that he had been a member ; and would have continued to enjoy
all the privileges of a Fellow, if he had adhered to those engagements
which every man of honour holds sacred, and not the less sacred because
they are but honorary, and may not be enforced by the common process
of law. It was proved that, even in spite of this defalcation on his part, —
a defalcation which would for ever have slept in oblivion, if he himself had
not raked up his own dishonour, — every facility was liberally granted to
him of making " an effective use " of the Museum. It was, in the last
place, proved, that he, not content with this unhandsome conduct towards
a public body, carries his unaccountable hostility against it so far as to
accuse it of that very illiberality of which he himself was convicted.

previous attack upon him. This, in fact, was my strong point ; and Mr.
Swainson, according to his usual want of tact, plays into my hand, by using
my own argument to exculpate himself.

APPENDIX. [197]

Against all these proofs he opposes the following random and irrelevant
statement, which leaves their whole strength unimpaired.

9. " Mr. Vigors, by personal importunity, got permission to write my name on the paper sent
round for its establishment. Sir Stamford Raffles was then alive ; and Dr. Horsfield, I was told,
was to be secretary. Upon these names I relied for a liberal set of measures. I soon, how-
ever, quitted London, and never heard more of the Society, until I received the subjoined letter,
&c. &c. Sir Stamford in the interim had dred ; Dr. Horsfield had retired ; and the whole con-
cern had assumed the characteristics of any thing but of a liberal scientific institution. I conse-
quently would not confirm my first intention, and declined joining a Society where -science was
not wanted."

It happens, fortunately, that, in the present controversy with Mr. Swain-
son, I am saved much trouble in replying to his statements, by using his
own words and arguments to convict himself. My reply to the foregoing
paragraph will be an extract from the same letter which I have already
quoted, in which he gives a different, and, I must add, a truer version of
this matter. Before I extract it, however, let us examine the statement
itself. He joins our Society in consequence, as he alleges, of the personal
importunities of its Secretary — that very illiberal Secretary, with whose
sentiments, conduct, and scientific attainments he had so much cause to
be dissatisfied. I should, perhaps, point out the incongruity of this cause
with this effect, did I not recollect a precedent in point where a similar
reason had led to a similar result : the well known case. Sir, of the lady
who married a worthless suitor, in order to get rid of his importunities !
Dr. Horsfield, he was told, was to be Secretary. The importunate Secre-
tary, who inveigled him into the act of signing his name in the list of
members, if he had been asked at the time of such temptation, would have
told him who had been the holder of the office from the first institution
of the Society, and would have added, that he was ably assisted by
Dr. Horsfield, in the no less efficient office of Vice- Secretary. He retired,
Mr. Swainson continues, from London, and never heard more of the Society
until he received a circular letter calling upon him to fulfil his engage-
ments, or decline being a member. I only here observe, that individuals,
wishing well to science, generally make the enquiry of their own accord
as to its progress; or, at least, they open their eyes to the public accounts
of such progress stated periodically in scientific publications : while indi-
viduals anxious to discharge their pecuniary obligations generally volun-
teer to ascertain the means of ridding themselves of such obligations. The
death of the first President, he continues, and the retirement of Dr. Hors-
field, followed. Now, Sir, the former was succeeded in the presidency by
the Marquess of Lansdowne, and subsequently by Lord Stanley: Dr. Hors-
field was succeeded by Mr. Bennett. Unfortunately, however, such names
were ao guarantee in the eyes of Mr. Swainson for securing to the concern
the character of a liberal scientific institution ,• and, alas ! for the interests
of the society, Mr. Swainson withdrew from it the magic of his name, as
well as the promise of his two pounds' yearly subscription. But science
has still some hope in reserve ; still is there some counterpoise to this
apparently irretrievable calamity. He has transferred the halo of his
reputation to another " concern," where he finds " science is wanted; '*
and, according to the announcement now travelling the round of the
newspapers, with an interest almost equally absorbing as that which
attends the daily bulletin of the advance of the Cholera, or the jxrogress
of Reform, he has accepted the dignity of Joist Honorary Zoologist to
the Surrey Zoological Gardens I

But to come to his own statement of the case, when less under the
influence of the irritating feelings of discomfiture. The following is a rea-
sonable statement of it ; and if he had restrained his hostility to the
institution on which, as appears by his own showing, his circumstances
did not permit him to confer his good will, it would have afforded a isatis-
factorv explanation.

[N] 4

[198] APPENDIX.

" Mr. 8waln6on*s name was among the first set down : this was done
when he had resolved .upon living in London. Soon after, however, cir-
cumstances induced him once more to return to the country, and fix his
residence at St. Albans. An interval of near two years had elapsed ; and
he had never been able to visit the Society's Gardens or Museum, or had
he heard any thing of its present plans or progress. On writing, there-
fore, for some information, and learning that the Society was not, like
others of a scientific nature, interested in receiving papers or publishing
transactions, and that the only advantage he would derive would be the
permission to see the Museum and Gardens ; Mr. Swainson requested to
withdraw his name ; first, because the advantages held out in return for a
heavy payment were of such a nature that he could rarely, if ever, avail
himself of them j and, secondly, because his fortune is not sufficiently large
to allow of his belonging to any more Societies where honours are to be
purchased,'*

Mr. Swainson goes on to state the particulars of the case on which he
grounds his charge of illiberality : —

10. " Subsequently, for the adTantage of Dr. Richardson's work, I asked permission to use their
Museum : permission was granted, but with this extraordinary condition, that whatever 1 wished
to know was to be learned at the discretion of the Secretary ; in other words," —

Mark the accurate logic of this subtle reasoner ! —

** in other vjords, I was prohibited the free use of my own eyes and my own judgment; and
Was to solicit those of another, incompetent to understand, much less to throw light upon, my
enquiries. I went, however, to Bruton Street, — and I was pencilling some notes upon a well known
bird, when Mr. Bennett, with evident reluctance, interfered. He stated that, as Mr. Vigors was
absent, I could not, agreeably to his express orders, proceed with my notes, the species I was
examining not being an atretic bird."

|;Note.] " I accordingly applied a second time for • unrestrained ' permission, and was then
ofccially refused."

It would be a senseless waste of time to throw it away upon a reply to
the earlier part of the above paragraph. Is there an institution in the
world, of which a stranger can be allowed the privileges without some
restraint ? The Council would have deserted their duty, they would have
nullified the privileges of the supporters of the Institution, had they granted
Mr. Swainson's request without this necessary, this usual condition. They
did no more than the managers of the Paris establishment in the very
instance of liberality afforded to Mr. Swainson himself; where the per-
sons in authority merely exercised the discretionary powers vested in them.
Mr. Swainson, had he not sought for a ground of cavil, had he really
desired to consult the contents of the Museum, would have found the
same extensive compliance with his wishes as he met with in Paris, and
which, it is to be hoped, he would have experienced in every quarter of
the globe where science is cultivated. Dr, Richardson met with it, when
engaged on the same undertaking ; and Mr. Swainson, from his constant
intercourse at the period with Dr. Richardson, must have equally been
aware of the extent to which he could have commanded it.

But it appears that Mr. Bennett interfered with Mr. Swainson's free
inspection of some birds in the Museum. Now, Sir, I wish I was as cor-
dially given credit for Mr. Bennett's good qualities as I am for his imputed
misdemeanours. But really it is not fair to make me at all times answerable
for what Mr. Swainson considers his misdeeds, either in print or in office.
On this point, however, Mr. Bennett distinctly states that he has no re-
collection of any such observations having fallen from him in his inter-
views with Mr. Swainson, as those imputed to him above. On the contrary,
he agrees with me that it is impossible he could have said that, " as
Mr. Vigors was absent, Mr. S. could not, agreeably to his express orders,
proceed with his notes." Our reasons are, in the first place, because the
Secretary never gives ordei's to the Vice- Secretary, who, according to the

APPENDIX. [199]

Bye Laws of the Society, has all the authority of the Secretary during
his absence, and is equally uncontrolled in the exercise of his duties ; and,
secondly, because it was not possible that he could have given the express
order in the particular case before us, as he could not have anticipated the
exact nature of Mr. Swainson's application. I have myself to add a third
reason, more powerful than either of the above, for it is a matter of fact,
not of presumption : it is, because / did not give such orders, and, conse-
quently, that Mr. Bennett never asserted that I did. The real fact is, that
Mr. Bennett, finding Mr. Swainson at work on some Sumatran birds
(common or uncommon he knew not, for he had not studied the subject
at the time), mentioned the fact to Mr. Swainson, that this very Sumatran
collection was about to be described by the Secretary, and he suggested
whether it might not be more delicate to postpone any inspection of them
during his absence.

But the best reply is from the same source as the preceding, — from Mr.
Swainson's own words. I proceed to quote them. They are from the
same explanatory letter from which I before made extracts.

" Now to the main point. Mr. S. has asserted the refusal he received
from the Council was illiberal. He thinks so still. Let us look to the
simple facts. Here are two naturalists, Mr. Swainson and Dr. Richardson,
engaged upon a national work. To Dr. Richardson every facility is given.
But so soon as Mr. Swainson goes to the Society's Museum, on the strength
of their general promise of assistance, and takes out his book to pencil
a few notes upon two or three Indian birds long ago described, he is politely
told by the Vice- Secretary that such proceedings cannot be allowed with-
out a special order. An official application, therefore, for unrestrained
permission was asked. After an interval of nearly a month, a polite refusal
was given, with a voluntary offer from the Secretary, stating his wish of
giving Mr. S. * every information ' in his power. So far Mr. S. has
reason to thank Mr. Vigors personally."

Let your readers, now. Sir, compare these two discordant represent-
ations of the same circumstances by the same hand, and at the same
time compare both with the third version of the same occurrence, which
appeared in the commencement of the attack in No. XVIH. of your
Magazine (Vol. IV. p. 97.) ; and I will ask him, whether a charge ever was
brought forward against a public institution more paltry in its nature, more
unfounded in fact and unsupported by testimony, or one which has more
effectually broken down under the unskilful management of him who
undertook to handle it ?

11. " In this way has been manifested that ' spirit of disinterestedness and liberality,' which, a*
Mr. Vigors says, ' renders him a marked man.' "

I quote the above passage merely to point out an instance of Mr.
Swainson's dishonesty in quotation. Any reader would suppose that
T had made use of the words quoted above, and in the sense which the
juxtaposition of the two clauses of the sentence would infer. And yet.
Sir, such is not the fact. I simply stated (Vol. IV. p. 335.) that " the
attempt to introduce into science a spirit of disinterestedness and liberality
could not fail to excite a hostile feeling on the part of those whose con-
nection with science was based on selfish and sordid considerations ; " and
after the interval of a page, having declared that " the attempt to impart
a higher tone, and a purer spirit, into natural science, is a crime not to be
pardoned," I added, " the reformer becomes a marked man." Can any
subterfuge be more despicable than that of thus distorting one's words and
meaning ; or arty cause more debased than one which has recourse to
such flagrant dishonesty ?

But Mr. Swainson is as great an adept in shifting his own grounds as in
misrepresenting his adversary's words. I met his charge against myself, of

[200] APPENDIX.

illiberality in debarring men of science from the use of the Zoological
.Society's Museum, by mentioning that the greater part of that Museum
had been my private property, and that, if I had been tenacious in securing
its advantages to myself, I had the full power of so doing. He does not
deny this : but he rejoins, that the collection is not w^orth being consulted.
^ 12. [Note.] " This collection, so much vaunted,"

Where has it been vaunted ?

** I have often seen. I may safely say it is decidedly inferior to the duplicate series of birds,
insects, and shells in my own collection."

And yet this is the very collection which he solicited permission to con-
sult ; by which, even under the peculiar circumstances of his defalcation to
the Society, he had the indelicacy to endeavour to profit ; and for their
alleged refusal to open which to his unrestrained investigation, he had the
temerity to accuse the Society of illiberality ! By such strange lapses of
memory, by such palpable and unaccountable contradictions, does this
writer refute his own assertions. His own breath is sufficient to level the
frail erections of his malice.

But he has another subterfuge in reserve. The Secretary, he fears, may
perhaps be thought to have shown some liberality in transferring his col-
lections to the Institution to which he was attached ; but then he has
bartered that gift for the patronage which his office confers upon him.

13. [Note.] " There is a vast deal of patronage, / hear, in a small way, in the gift of the
Secretary."

A man of honourable feeling, if he had heard such reports, would have
hesitated, following the dictates of his own bosom, to have given credit to
them : but, before he had ventured to whisper them to the world, he would
have enquired from authentic sources into their truth. Had Mr. Swainson
acted this honourable part, he would have heard^ that in the course of the
six years during which I have held the confidential office of Secretary, I
have made one appointment, — an appointment, made at the very outset
of the Institution, at the express request of Sir H. Davy and Sir S. Raffles, —
the letter of the former to the latter on the subject is now lying before me,
— and one which naturally fell to my nomination, that of assistant to myself
as Secretary. He would, moreover, have heardy that, from that hour to
the present, although hundreds of persons have been employed in our
"establishment, and tens of thousands of pounds have been expended in the
advancement of its objects, I have not used the influence which my office
may be supposed to have conferred upon me, in recommending a single
individual to any place of trust or emolument, to whom I can in anywise
directly or indirectly be supposed to be the patron. I boast not of this
fact ; nor am I singular in being swayed by this principle. Mr. Swainson
may learn, if he enquires, that there have been other members of our
Council, of greater authority and still higher pretension to influence than I
could ever advance, who have laid down to themselves on entering office
the same disinterested principle, and have imiformly acted according to its
dictates. Let Mr. Swainson make these enquiries, and he will probably have
•a higher opinion of human nature than he seems at present disposed to form
of it.

I pass over the next paragraph, merely because I really cannot compre-
hend the writer's drift. He tells us that he has " divested this subject
of all personal considerations," and yet he enters at the very next page
upon " personal reflections !" He tells us again "he will return to it (this
subject) ere long ; " and yet a short time afterwards he informs us, that
" nothing shall now tempt him to another reply !" In speaking of his dis-
carding " all personal considerations," he gives the following motives for so
doing : — "/o/* a large body of liberal-minded gentlemen shall not be brought

APPENDIX. [201]

into disrepute and contempt by the petty jealousies of a few "monopolisers
of petty power." For this curious non sequiiur, and the other extraordi-
nary contradictions of this curious paragraph, I must really blame your
printer's devil, who ought to have assisted in giving intelligible utterance to
remarks which Mr. Swainson's angry feelings rendered himself too confused
to express with clearness, — Proceed we now to the " personal reflections."

14. " First, then, on my • grade ' and * profession." My interrogator was, or is, in the army ;
consequently he knows, or should know, that he bf whom he writes is his superior officer, and
that, in ' camps and courts,' he must give him place."

The exact degree of precedence that exists between Mr. Swainson and
myself in " camps and courts," I must leave to himself to determine. He
will find me little solicitous on such points ; and not the less so because
they refer to matters of facts, not of words. A man's birth, his station in
life, the estimation in which he is held by his countrymen, are matters not
of opinion or argument, but of record and history. There let them lie.
One word only as to Mr. Swainson's military and courtly supremacy. Al-
though some of the happiest associations of my early days are connected
with arms, yet the circumstances of having borne the colours of a gallant
regiment for the short period of one or two years — a period rendered thus
limited by the accidents of war — give me but little pretensions to rank or
preeminence, even were I disposejd to assert any, or even were such claims
allowed to supersede those of birth or hereditary station, Mr. Swainson's
pretensions on this score are even, if possible, still less than mine. His
connection with the army, as far as I can collect from his own observations,
— if I have mistaken him, I am open to correction, — originated in his being
in some way employed in the commissariat department.

This is amongst the worst of those ludicrous exposures into which Mr.
Swainson has been betrayed in his ill-digested attempt at exalting himself
into consequence by the aspersion of one whom he conceives to be a rival.
Had he a more just and extensive knowledge of human nature in general,
or a less exalted opinion of himself, he would have known that liberality of
sentiment and a nice sense of honour are confined to no station in life ;
and that it is only the vain pretensions to superiority, swelling out beyond
the narrow limits of a lowly grade, that exposes the pretender to derision.
These are truly the " fantastic tricks " which, although they may make
" the angels weep," cause no inconsiderable share of merriment among
frailer mortals. Sterne's Marquis, when he betook himself to the coUec--
tion of pounds and pence, deposited his sword among the archives of his
ancestors : but Mr. Swainson perseveres in retaining the sword in con-
junction with the palette, in a happy union of Cocker and the cockade ;
with him knight-errantry struts about, and " frets its hour," on the
Exchange. Here we have a Bobadil of the quill, a Drawcansir of the
scraper, a veritable Copper Captain !

15. " Opprobrious expressions are heaped upon me [where ?] for receiving pecuniary recom-
pense for my writings. Here, again, I find myself in a goodly company, headed by Sir Walter
Scott, ff'e are all, it seems, ' jobbers,' — ' money-changers,' — ' dealers in literai-y ' "

How comes the epithet introduced on this occasion V

*' * or scientific peltry ! ' With such epithets does this writer insult that mighty and intellectual
power of the country, engaged to instruct or delight the world ! "

Excellent ! another most congruous association ! Parnassus in alliance
with Grub Street ! The modesty of the man, in linking himself with the
author of Waverley, is nearly as amusing as the honesty of the quotation by
which he slily attempts to effect the union. I have seen it somewhere
recorded, that, at the representation of a certain splendid equestrian drama,
where the quadruped performers vied with the biped in eliciting the thun-
dering applause of the spectators, an honest saddler in the pit, transported

[202] APPENDIX.

by the enthusiasm of the moment, and anxious to identify himself with the
merits of the exhibition, roared out in an ecstasy of delight, " I made the
saddles ! I made the saddles ! " With equal enthusiasm, equal ndivetky and
nearly equal justice, does Mr. Swainson call out for a participation in the
honours due to that mighty and intellectual power, born to instruct and
delight this nether world.

But I must, if possible, be serious. I shall not allow for a moment the
insinuations of this wily gentleman to convey the impression that I should
ever hazard a word of contempt upon those master spirits of the present
or any age, who have worked out for themselves an honourable recom-
pense by the labours of the mind. To the principle of achieving independ-
ence by such glorious labours I give my most hearty concurrence, not only
as consistent with every honourable feeling, but as absolutely necessary in
the present state of society to urge men of science to active exertion. It
is the abuse of the pinndple alone that I reprobate. I will even go farther.
I will maintain that it is not those alone who exchange for their daily sup-
port the results of these labours of mind or body which nature has placed
at their disposal, that come within the scope of our present observations.
The most apparently independent man in the empire, the very landed pro-
.prietor who leases out his hereditary domains for a yearly rent, is as sub-
ject to the imputation of bartering for money the advantages of his birth,
as he that exchanges for a similar recompense the equivalent advantages
of nature. But it does not follow, because commerce may exist on a large
and liberal scale, because the " merchant princes " of the world, by their
zeal, their enterprise, the unbounded magnificence of their labours, may
pour down innumerable blessings on their fellow-creatures, in return for
the advantages they confer on themselves ; — it does not, therefore, follow, I
say, that rapacity and extortion, and sordid feelings and mercenary motives,
do not prevail in the inferior grades of commerce. Nay, have not the
most atrocious crimes been perpetrated from appetite of gain — from the
days of him — the first arch-betrayer — him of the thirty pieces of silver —
down to those of the wretched miscreant who has lately expiated upon the
scaffold the crime of extinguishing that life which he could not confer, for
an equally despicable recompense ? And shall we not conclude, by a simi-
lar train of inference, that although, in the higher grades of intellectual
commerce, the princely merchants, if I may so call them, of the mind may
'continue to instruct and delight mankind without a blot on their fair fame,
still the meaner passions of avarice and sordid jealousy may tempt the in-
ferior plier of the trade to base and disgraceful subterfuges ; nay, to the
breach of all social obligations j to the betrayal of the cause which he pro-
fessedly espouses ; to the defamation of his fellow-labourer's name ; to the
murder of his reputation j in the paltry hope of monopolising to himself all
the pecuniary advantages that may be supposed to accrue from the extinc-
tion of a rival ? Again, Sir, I repeat, that it is the abuse of the principle
that excites my indignation. Let Mr. Swainson steer clear of this abuse,
and his labours will have my warm and unqualified commendation.

But Mr. Swainson disclaims all such motives, and appears indignant at
my pronouncing him to have been " employed " by Dr.- Richardson, and to
have received pecuniary recompense for such employment. Your readers.
Sir, on turning to my observations on this subject (Vol. IV. p. 333.)
,will perceive that their drift was to the following effect : — Mr. Swain-
son accused the Council of the Zoological Society of illiberality, inasmuch
as they did not permit him, as he alleges, to consult the contents of their
Museum towards the completion of a " national work." I disproved his
charges, by showing that he had every facility of consulting the collection,
if his own temper had permitted him to profit by the Council's truly liberal
compliance with his wishes. I, moreover, carried the war into the enemy's

ATPENDIX* (50^'

quarters, retorting upon him most justly the charge of illiberality, in en-"
deavouring to appropriate to himself the advantages of a Society, which he
had not sufficient generosity to support ; and more particularly when he
sought these advantages for the purpose of benefiting a work on which he
was employed, according to common rumour, with liberal pay. His en-
deavour, in his present reply, is to persuade the reader that he received no
pay for this work ; nay, that he prosecuted it at a considerable sacrifice of
expense and labour. His defence is well got up — indeed, it is the only
instance of his attempting to advance any proof, or adduce any witness to
support his assertions; well got up, I mean, in reference to the ingenuity,
not to the honesty, of the attempt ; it is worth transcribing : —

15. " I am moreover employed by Dr. Richardson. The nature of this employment will. be
best understood by the following extract of his letter : —

" • Dear Sir, I have had the honour of your acquaintance now for upwards of three years, during
which we have been mutually engaged on the ornithological part of the Fauna Boreali-Ameri.
cana ; and, so far from your being guided solely by mercenary motives, you have voluntarily, and
at a great personal sacrifice of time, and a considerable one of expense, contributed a large and
most material part of the letterpress to that work ; although you have not received any pecu-
niary reward for these exertions, and were perfectly aware, from the first, that you never could
derive any. Your conduct to me has been gentlemanly, and strictly honourable throughout, and
I have derived both pleasure and profit from your society.

• 1 remain, ever your sincere friend,

' John Richardson.' " .

There is but one fault in the getting up of the above defence, or rather,
I should say, in the testimony that is adduced to support it — it is over-,
done. The doctor's extreme anxiety to absolve Mr. Swain son from the
imputation of receiving emolument from the letterpress of the work; his
over-solicitude to express the honour, the pleasure, the profit he derived
from his acquaintance for upwards of three years ; the extraordinary sin-
cerity of his friendship towards Mr. Swainson; all this exuberance of
good-will is so utterly out of place on the present occasion, where the
simple question of f;«j/, or no pay, for a particular work is to be decided,
that a reader is tempted to imagine something is intended to be glossed
over. Who has not seen a lapwing fluttering round the dog that hunts,
after her nest, and betraying by her overstrained solicitude that there is
an object, not far distant, from which she would lead him astray ? The
pursuer may be deceived ; but the cautious by-stander immediately detects
the artifice. The point at which we wish to arrive in the present investi-
gation is not, as Dr. Richardson has been led to imagine, — for I entirely
acquit him of all share in the attempt at deception, — is not the liberality
of Mr. Swainson in providing a particular portion, namely, the letterpress,
of the work ; every person knows that this portion of such undertakings
is ever supplied gratuitously ; nor is it Dr. Richardson's highly wrought
feelings on the subject ; but, whether Mr. Swainson was, or was not, em-
ployed by him. Dr. Richardson, for recompense, on the work in question.
This, Sir, is the fact, — the fact, in despite of all Mr.Swainson's ingenuity to
conceal it,— the fact, in despite of all the doctor's flutter and solicitude
to gloss it over ; it is the fact, that Mr. Swainson was employed by Dr.
Richardson, on the part of government, in engraving the plates of the
work, the only portion of such works on which there is ever a question
regarding recompense. It is equally the fkct that he was amply paid for
the employment.

But it would appear that Mr. Swainson feels sore at the imputation of
being " employed " by any man. Even here was I cautious : aware of
the sensitiveness of these gentlemen of the quill, who strut occasionally
in military masquerade, and talk largely of precedence in " courts and
camps," I was select in my phraseology; I was guarded in confining
myself to the use of words applied to our military acquaintance by his
sincere friend and honoured coadjutor. I transcribe the following note,
as well to demonstrate that I had a precedent for the use of the term

[204] APPENDIX.

" employed," as to justify myself in alluding to Mr. Swainson's " profes*-
sional pursuits," by evincing that his own immediate friends make no
scruple in treating him as an artist by profession, and that by his own
desire.

" Dear Sir, London, Dec. 29. 1830.

" Mr. Swainson, supposing that Captain King may be assisted by
government in publishing his Ornithological Discoveries, is desirous of being
employed to make the drawings, without reference to the text. If you can
assist him in this matter I shall feel obliged, and I am certain that no
English artist can do them greater justice. Yours truly,

" John Richardson."

"What ! you will here, Sir, probably exclaim, of what importance is all
this parade of Mr. Swainson's pretensions, or his professional labours, in
the eyes of the public ? Certainly, Sir, I will answer, not of the slightest.
But Mr. Swainson is accountable for the introduction of the frivolous
discussion. He volunteered to charge a distinguished public body with
illiberality ; and it is of importance that the true nature of such an im-
putation should be sifted out, and the true character of the impugner
exposed, even at the expense of much paltry detail. The very date of
the above letters is of consequence. It shows the disposition and cha-
racter of the man, who, on the 27th of December could authorise an
application for employment to individuals connected with a Society which,
at the very moment of his application (for this letter of the 10th of the
same month must then have been passing through the press), he was in
the very act of daring to traduce. Had not Mr. Swainson voluntarily
outraged the common courtesies of life, by this wanton attack upon a
Society which the general esprit de corps of scientific men would have
taught him to respect, no such exposure would have come to light. His
professional exertions would have been cheered, encouraged, and with
justice commended, by every man connected with his science.

Ohe ! jam satis ! — Weary am 1, and weary must you. Sir, be, if you
have travelled so far in my company, over this dull and dreary road;
and yet there is still more toil before us. A word as to my profound igno-
rance of my own principles of science.

16. " Here we have one party meanly betraying, or ignorantly misrepresenting, his master : —
.... He ' who adopts theories he does not understand ' is Mr. Vigors. He has proved this, in his
own words, in his published writings- I have convicted this person, moreover, of being pro-
foundly ignorant of the very essence of that quinary and circular system upon which he publicly
lectures."

Here, Sir, at last is a question of some real importance ; the only point,
certainly, in the curious farrago of logic and science before us, that de-
serves the attention of the naturalist : of course, I cannot enter upon it in
this place; assertion is all that we have before us ; and I do not mean to
contend with a shadow. Mr. Swainson's views in science are published
elsewhere. As yet I have refrained from consulting them, being desirotis
of keeping all scientific matters apart from this frivolous discussion ; but
I hope shortly to have leisure to give his work that dispassionate attention
which will enable me to ascertain, and fairly review, its pretensions. At
present I claim a few words as to ipy imputed ignorance of Mr. MacLeay's
principles.

Nothing, Sir, is more easy than for a writer to hazard an assertion, the
truth of which apparently can be ascertained only by an appeal to a distant
witness. It requires time to collect such testimony ; and the assertion, in
the interim, may obtain some credence, from the want of contradiction.
But it fortunately happens, in the present case, that there is no want of
evidence to disprove Mr. Swainson's assertion.

The question before us, let it be remembered, is not, whether my views

APPENDIX. [205J

of nature are right or wrong, but whether they do or do not accord with
Mr. MacLeay's principles.

Now, Sir, I have ever avowed that my first connection with zoology, at
least as a practical student, took its rise from the perusal of Mr. Mac-
Leay's first work, the HorcB EntomologiccB. I was attracted by the
originality of his principles, by the depth of his philosophy, and by the
superior luminousness of the mode in which he elucidated the great truths
of nature. I sought, and had the happiness of attaining, Mr. MacLeay's
intimate friendship. I continued for some years in daily intercourse with
him, consulting him on the very principles now in question, from all which
advantages Mr. Swainson knows he was himself precluded: and my
arrangement of the groups of Ornithology, as published in the Linnean
Transactionsy and on which any public lectures which I may subsequently
have given were founded, was commenced and prosecuted under his
auspices. Nay, the very paper itself, which contained that arrangement,
went under his immediate revision, sheet by sheet, as it passed through
the press ; he having undertaken the official duty of superintending it, in
the place of his father, who, at the time, was secretary of the Linnean
Society. Here is proof — strong presumptive proof, at least, — that the
principles which I profess are not at variance with those of my friend.

But we are not limited to this presumptive evidence. We have positive
proof,, the direct testimony of Mr. MacLeay himself, given as if in anticipa-
tion of the reference that would be made to his opinion, clearly demon-
strating that in one, at least, of the grand principles which it was his object
to establish, and that, perhaps, the most important, — the law, I mean, of
continuity existing in nature, as it relates to forms of matter, — my re-
searches in Ornithology have been conducted upon the same principles,
and my conclusions have been similar to his own. Referring to this con-
tinuity, he thus expresses himself: — "I think I have proved this in my
Analysis and Synthesis of Petalocerous Coleoptera : you, my dear Vigors,
have proved it in Birds." *

I shall not throw away a moment upon the curious correspondence intro-
duced at page 485. Vol. IV. of Mr. Swainson's letter ; in which are some
passages that serve him as a foundation for his assertion that I have
meanly betrayed, or ignorantly misrepresented, Mr. MacLeay. Such a
mass of confusion prevails throughout the garbled quotations in that page,
that I confess myself at a loss to discover their drift, or their relevance
to the subject : but I conjecture that they refer to some observations of
mine as to the injudicious use of the terms natural and artificial systems,
I had stated in one of my lectures my wish that naturalists, in the use of
these terms, would confine themselves to their strict acceptation ; and
thus avoid the ambiguity that attends the indiscriminate application of
them to the arrangements of Natural History. I suggested, in accordance
with Mr. MacLeay (Zool. Jour.^ vol. iv. p. 404.), that there is hut one natural
system^ namely, the original plan of the creation ; and that the systematic
arrangements of man, however faithfully they may represent this one natural
system^ must themselves be artificial. Mr. Swainson, it appears, thinks
diiFerently. He pronounces the system, at least, of one naturalist, — the
quinary system, — to be the natural systeniy or rather, as he corrects him-
self in a note, to be part of the natural system. Here we are at issue;
probably Mr. Swainson may be right, and I wrong ; but let the difference
between us be understood. I say that any system proposed by man may
well represent the objects of nature, but still will artificially represent
them : Mr, Dollond's terrestrial globe, for instance, with all its zones,
meridian lines, &c., may be a faithful but still an artificial symbol of the

* Letter on the Dying Struggle of the Dichotomous System, p. 22.

C206] * Af»PENDlX.

earth. Mr. Swainson, oh the other hand, declares that it is " the great
globe itself," or perhaps a part of it. Of this, however, more elsewhere.

But my patience, and indeed my time, is exhausted. Many ludicrous
points in this entertaining epistle of our military scribe remain yet un-
touched, and must continue so for the present. One last instance of his syl-
logistic powers I must, however, adduce. In his first letter, commencing
his attack on me, he begins with a lamentation over the fall of science ; he
consoles himself, however, in his troubles, by being able to trace the causes
of this fall. They amount to three : — the denial of great truths ; the mis-
understanding of great theories j the introduction of great oratory. In my
reply to his epistle, I ventured to doubt the fact that science had declined,
and I decidedly denied the influence of any such causes as he specifies, even
allowing them to have existed, towards the production of any such effect.
I suggested, in short, the deficiency of Mr. Swainson's logic. He again
returns to the subject ,• and how does he rebut ray observations ? — by
showing that our science has declined ? — by proving that his three-headed
cause has been in operation, or could have had any influence over the true
interests of science ? No, Sir j he simply takes up his parable against me,
and says, " I am the man." I, in short, am the delinquent, whose want
of understanding the subject of which I treat, has overturned the goodly
edifice of science in this country I So, then, I am, it seems, the mighty
Atlas that sustains the whole weight of science on his shoulders ; and,
because I may be a blockhead. Zoology falls to the ground. How
blindly does this man exalt the person whom he means to depress ! One
would imagine that I had laid the snare for him by which he is thus
unwarily entrapped. But such is not the case : he has fallen into a pitfall
of his own construction. Mr. Swainson, indeed, as I have said elsewhere,
has much to learn. Let him emerge awhile into light from his murky
seclusion, which serves but to foster the " sweltered venom " of his nature,
^nd look abroad into the world of science, and he will find that at no period
has Zoology — from the immense accumulation of facts, as well of ancient
as of recent date, from the vast accession to her stores in Physiology and
Comparative Anatomy, from the comprehensiveness of the views with which
these materials are applied to the purposes of science, and the number and
ability of her votaries — attained such an elevation as at the present mo-
ment of her alleged decline and ruin. He will find, I repeat, that her cause
does not hang in suspense on the prowess of a single arm ; but that, even
if the humble individual should fail, whom his inconsistent malice has ex-
alted into the " Piercy " of the field, still will she have in reserve, to unfurl
her banners and maintain her battle,

" Five hundred good as he."

I would fain add a few more last words : but time is pressing, and the
little leisure I can at present snatch from more serious pursuits, to throw
away upon this worthless subject, is now exhausted. Much Nemains yet to
be noticed in Mr. Swainson's letter. I shall probably return to it before
long.

I have also to apologise for not sending you the reply which I had pro-
mised to M. Lesson's letter. In your next Number I hope to be more
punctual. I am, dear Sir, truly yours,

N. A. Vigors.
Regeni^t Park, Feb, 1832.

APPENDIX, [207]

Reply to Mr, Rennies Remarks on the Svoainsonian Controversy
(Appendix, p. [110.]). By W. Swainson, Esq. F.R.S. L.S. &c.

Dear Sir, .1

I HAVE to say, — 1st, that Mr. Rennie forgets. / have not published

any part of the letter containing the secret opinions of Mr. on the

quinary system. This third letter is the letter prohibited. I quote only
tivo. Secret opinions, in matters of pure science^ are eminently ridiculous.
2dly, Neither MM. Desmarest, Lesson, nor myself will read, much less reply
to, any thing from Mr. Vigors ; and, to insure this, 3dly, my bookseller in
future will tear out the Appendix.

Yours, &c.
Feb, 17. 1832. W, Swainson.

Controversy regarding Swainson s " Zoological Illustrations j** "'
between A. R. Y. and Mr, Swainson.

Sir,

The packet which I received from you on the 22d of February conveyed
to me the following very handsome and gentlemanlike letter, from Mr.
Swainson, on the subject of the little controversy which has lately taken
place between us. As the letter in question at once does both credit to
Mr. Swainson, and (I think) justice to myself, and as I have his full per-
mission to publish the same, I cannot resist the inclination I feel to request
you to insert a copy of it as an appendix to an early Number of your Ma-
gazine, and, according to your justly established rule, to charge the expense
of printing it to my account.

I have only one further observation to offer. Mr. Swainson states, that
from the half-crown numbers, of which I ventured to complain, less profit
results than from any of the others, and that the price is not a remunerat-
ing, but a losing one. This statement does certainly surprise me. But
although I am not sufficiently skilled in "the tricks of printing" to be
able to account for what appears to me so extraordinary a fact, I must de-
clare that I am the last person to doubt the veracity of a gentleman, and
more especially of one who so candidly admits that my reasoning on the
subject is not ill founded.* As the objectionable practice with which I
found fault is, it seems, productive neither of profit to the author nor
satisfaction to the purchaser, I trust it will henceforth be avoided by all
who may in future commence a periodical publication.

For Mr. Swainson's kind offer to supply me with the two remaining
Numbers of his Illustrations I feel truly obliged, but need not trouble him,
as, no doubt, I shall be able to procure them, as heretofore, through the
bookseller.

* I wonder whether the author, or editor, or publisher of the Botanical
Register, or whoever may be the person concerned, is prepared to make a
like candid avowal and explanation in his case. The practice of charging
one shilling for a titlepage and index for this work, and, what is worst of
all, impudently styling the same an Appendix, has still been persisted in up
to the first of the present month. I think Mr. Lindley, whose honourable
name occupies so conspicuous a place in this costly titlepage, ought to
come forward with an explanation, were it only to exculpate himself (as I
have no doubt he could do) from any participation in the blame.

Vol. V. — No. 24. [o]

[208] APFENDIX.

I now take my leave of this controversy, assuring Mr. Swainson, that,
forgetting all that has passed, I should feel happy, had I the honour of an
introduction, to shake hands with him on the most friendly terms.

I am, Sir, yours, &c.
February 23. 1832. A. R. Y.

To the Editor of the Mag. Nat. Mist.

(Copy of Mr. Swainson's Letter to A. R. Y.)

Tittenhanger Green, St. Albans, January 2. 1832.
Sir,

It is at all times repugnant to my feelings to carry on any discussion
which borders upon controversy, with one for whom I entertain either
respect or kindly feelings j and your writings (however we differ in opinion)
have certainly excited both. I shall not, therefore, pursue the subject far-
ther. It was perhaps ill-judged in adopting the practice you complain of in
the first instance, and you reason well upon the subject. It may be obsti-
nacy in me, perhaps, to continue it ; but, having fixed upon this mode of
publishing my own works, the public must take them for better or for
worse. You may, perhaps, think it incredible that less profit results from
the half-crown numbers (originating in the tricks of printing) than from
any of the others ; the price, however high, is consequently not a remune-
rating, but a losing one. I had some thoughts, now that my labours for Dr.
Richardson have closed, of continuing the Illustrations with regularity and
spirit ; but I cannot bear the public imputation of having acted meanly and
sordidly; and I shall therefore close the work with two more numbers.
Your own copies shall be sent you, if you wish them, to the care of IVIr.
Loudon, or to Messrs. Longman and Co. This will insure you a perfect set,
without the trouble of giving repeated orders to your bookseller. I might
have mentioned this as one of the consequences of " perpetually assisting
others," rather than first attending to my own interest, and prosecuting the
regular publication of my own works. I should have remembered the
fable of our youth, about the Good Man and the Ass.

For the handsome manner in which you have spoken of me individually,
accept my best thanks, and allow me to subscribe myself

Your sincere well-wisher,

William Swainson.

P. S. — I believe no notice, such as you allude to, was published in the
prospectus of the first series ; and if you think this admission should^ in
justice to yourself, be made public, you are at full liberty to send this letter,
or any part of it, for Mr. Loudon's next Number.

To A. R. v., care of Mr. Loudon.

19.'

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

Art. L Iletrospcctiie Criticism.

Corrections to the last Number. — Ncottia NiJus avis. In the mention of
this plant, p. 48., for "the leaves of the central root or caudex" (in line A.
from the bottom), read " the base of the central root or caudex." — P. 83.
line 20. for " even," substitute " ever." — P. 108. line 17. from the bottom,
to the " p." for page, add the figures " 85."

Lhvusus, as reflecledon in Jiennie s^^ MontagiC s Ornithvlogical Dictionary ^
— Sir, On perusing Mr. llennie's edition of MontagiCs Ornitlwhgical Die-
tionary a short time ago (noticed in Vol. IV. p. 422.), I was both surprised
and vexed to find the editor endeavouring to depreciate the character of
Linnaeus, v/hoss works should be dwelt upon with admiration and delight,
by every pei'son who has made the study of natural history an object of
pursuit, or who can set a true value on hixn who, by the greatest mental
and bodily perseverance (combined with no common natural abilities)
raised the science of natural history to an elevation it had never before
attained. Whatever may have been his defects (and I do not assert that
he was infallible), we cannot but look upon him as the founder of a vast
system ; an index to almost every branch of nature, animate or inanimate,
by a reference to which, the object sought for is found named, and classed
in regular order, accompanied by the remarks of the author. Before the
time of Linnffius, the study of natural history presented comparatively few
attractions to the student ; he had no book of reference ; all was like chaos,
and he must either have invented names and classes for himself, or wanted
them altogether. When this " rare master-spirit " (to make use of Mr.
llennie's own phrase) appeared, every thing assumed its place in his great
volume, and, to the student who Hved after him, all was plain ; the way
had been paved for him, and the study, before laborious, was now rendered
comparatively easy.

Mr. Rennie, in making remarks on the Linnaean classification, seems to
be criticising one whom he conceives to have devoted his entire attention
to the study of ornithology alone, as it is in this department that Mr.
licnnie finds most defects, and to which his observations have been parti-
cularly directed. Was it to be expected that the all-comprehensive
system of Linnaeus could be correct in every part ? Is it not almost beyond
the boimds of possibility that any one man should devote a portion of his
time and labour to every branch of natural history, and make each depart-
ment so correct that no errors could afterwards be discovered. A man
who employs his time and talents in the study of ornithology alone, must
be expected to have a much more minute and accurate acquaintance with
it than one who has applied himself to_ the more extended branches of
zoology. To several eminent ornithologists who lived some years since,
and to some of those who are now giving their remarks to the world, we
ixre indebted for improvements in the Linnaean system ; but do their
observations do more than show that Linn;)eus had overlooked some of
those more minute differences, which in the present dav arc deemed of

Vol. v. — No. 21. o

194.

Retrospect ivc C) iticism.

greater importance in illustrating some of the difficulties of the science.
Many of the names given by Linnseus have been entirely laid aside, and
superseded by others, now considered correct, but which, in the lapse of a
few years, may be thought as inconsistent with the character of the animals
designated by them, as those of Linneeus are at the present day. It must
surely be admitted, that the study of ornithology, according to Linnaeus,
though, perhaps, not so minute as at present, was much more plain and
intelligible than that according to the more modern systems ; because many
are now inventing new names, which they consider more expressive of the
character and appearance of the animal than those given by their predeces-
sors. If, for example, I sit down to make out a list of birds, and come to
the common or pied v/agtail, I must either write the Linnaean name, Mota-
cilla alba, the one I have been always accustomed to, and by which I
know the bird best, or adopt the one given to it by Mr. llennie, Motacilla
lotor : next year another author may not be content even with Mr.
Rennie's name, and may term the bird differently. This system of chang-
ing names may be continued year after year, until the original appellation,
and perhaps the plainest of all, may be lost in the mazes of more modern
nomenclature. While on this subject, I must certainly object to Mr;
Rennie's changing the names so much from those in the original edition of
Montagu, but more particularly to his making use of provincial and vulgar
names, for those expressive of the habits or appearance of the birds. For
example, I would ask, in what consists the superiority of the term chick-
stone to the original one of stonechat ; cobb to that of black-backed gull ;
cobble to that of speckled diver ; hay-bird to that of willow wren ; boonk
to that of Httle bittern ; richel-bird to that of lesser tern ; skitty to that of
spotted rail ; whitwall to that of spotted woodpecker ; and many others I
could mention. Now, let any person (even one unacquainted with orni-
thology) compare these names, and pronounce which he should prefer, as
being plainer, or by which he would sooner expect to ascertain the birds,
and I feel confident that he must concede the superiority to the original.
Would any one who had not Mr. Rennie's book at hand know that the
cobb signified the black-backed gull, or that by the richel-bird he was to
understand the lesser tern ?

We have now seen the changes made by Mr. Rennie in the English
names of many of the birds, whether for the better or otherwise I must
leave to the reader to determine. Let us turn our attention for a little to the
Latin names, and contemplate the alterations there. At the head of each
description of a bird Mr. Rennie gives the Latin name, included in a paren-
thesis, immediately after the English or provincial term ; and of course we
are to conclude that Mr. Rennie considers the Ljitin name thus selected
preferable to all which follow. For the reader's information, I shall point
out a few examples, and show the changes he has made : —

Genus A\-\&s of LinnjEus.

1.

^^nas spectabilis Lin.

2.

Fuligula

a

Cr.5cca

4.

clype'ita
Taddrna

5.

a

nigra

7.

Marlla

8.

glaciJilis
Penelope

9.

10.

acDita

11.

fertna

12.

fusca

Mr. Rennie's selection.
Soraat^ria spei tabilis oi Fleming.
Fuligula crist'kta oi Stephens.
Ciuerqu(?dula Cr^cca of Stephens.
Spathtilea clypeata of Fleming.
Tadorna /'ulpiiiiscr of Rat/.
OXAhvaia. nigra of Fleming.
Nt/rdca Mania of Fleming.
Clangula gldcialis of Fleimng.
Mareca fistul'iris of Slefhens.
Dnfila caudacuta of Leach.
Nyrhca ferlna of Fleming.
Oid&mia fusca of Fleming.

Here, Sir, we have one genus of Linnaeus converted into ten, accord-
ing to the selection of Mr. Rennie. Which of these systems, I would
ask, is it likely a young student desirous of commencing ornithology
would wish to take as a standard. Snrelv not that in which he finds so

Retrospective Criticism. 195

very great a diversity of names by no means easy of recollection. Will he
not rather select that of Linnaeus, so simple, and yet so consistent with the
character of the birds ? It were useless to enumerate more. I might go
over three fourths o^ the birds in our fauna, and find them all, according
to Mr. Rennie's book, changed, and, in my humble opinion, not certainly
for the better. Many of those which Mr, Rennie has thought proper to
alter have met with the approbation of several eminent naturalists, and
among them of none more capable of judging of their propriety than Mr.
Selby, who has made the department of ornithology his almost exclusive
study, and, by his accurate investigation, has contributed so much to eluci-
date that branch of natural science. Surely, the simpler a system is, the
more likely it is to find advocates, and the more extended will be its circu-
lation. It is not by the infinite subdivision of classes, and multiplication,
of genera, that the study of natural history is to be advanced ; the less we
encumber our system with divisions, unless with such as are absolutely
necessary, the more easily will it be recollected by the studejnt, and the
more leisure will he enjoy for studying the manners and habits of those
animals to which he may have directed his attention ; and which he should
make his principal aim, in studying any branch of zoology.

But I do not wish to take up the pen of a critic. My object has been,
not to furnish you with a review of Mr. Rennie's edition of Montagu, but
to vindicate the character of a great man, which I could not but coasider
unjustly aspersed. It demands not the operation of first-rate talents to
detect a fault in the design of the most magnificent and best constructed
edifices; the works of the most celebrated architects have not escaped the
censure of vastly inferior artists; but no one would desire on that account
to detra-ct from the reputation of those great masters of their profession.
If this obsei-vation be true with respect to those arts whicli can be placed
more inmiediately under the eye of the artificer, and are with such fiicility
submitted to his correction, how much more forcibly may we not apply it,
in defence of the great Linnaeus, who had to explore his path amidst all
the snares and labyrinths of a science which the false speculation and
erroneous theories of his predecessor had conspired to render more intri-
cate and uninviting!

I do not apprehend that I shall meet with contradiction when I as-
sert, that Linnaeus has anticipated our progression by at least two cen-
turies. It is impossible to pronounce with any degree of certainty in what
state the science would have been found at the present day, had the bright-
ness of his genius not shone upon the obscurity in which it was involvecL
He laid the foundation, I might almost say, of practical natural history z
but his indefatigable spirit did not rest there ; he prosecuted his labours
with unremitting perseverance, and set an example worthy of being fol-
lowed by every lover of natural history. Yours, &c. — J. D. M.

The Kingfisher at Bury St. Ebmmds. — Observing (VoL IV. p. 275.)
that the kingfisher occurs only in winter in a part of Yorkshire, and in
other places only in the summer, I beg to amend my account {Vol. IV.
p. 450.) of its occurrence here, by stating that the kingfishers remain
about Bury St, Edmunds all winter certainly, and I even think they are
more numerous in winter than in summer ; although they have, I think,
been more abundant than usual this summer. — Henry Turner. Bury St,
Edmunds, October 17. 1831.

Influence of Rocks iqion native Vegetables. — Dr. A. Murray of Aberdeen
has, in Jameson's Journal for June, 1831, made some remarks on our corre-
spondent Mr. Thomson's paper, "On the Relations subsisting between Strata
ancj the Plants found in their superincumbent Soils." (Vol. III. p. 410.)
After a variety of observations relative to districts which he has examined,
he arrives at the conclusion, that " it may be laid down as a rule, that vege-

196 Mitvos^cdivc Criticism,

table species are not limited and determined by the subjacent roclcs; butfo
this there may be a few exceptions. Thus, it is certain that plants must be
affected by rocks which influence the moisture of the soil; and, considering
the peculiar and energetic properties of lime, it is not an improbable guess
that it may be eventually established that certain plants are confined to the
limestone rocks." The question as to the relations subsisting between soils
and plants. Dr. Murray acknowledges to be a subject far more difficult than
the influence of rocks on plants. He does not discuss this subject ; but he
says, " In all probability, the native plants of any given region will, when
other circumstances are equal, grow and prosper in any soil, some excep-
tions being necessary, chiefly on the score of moistness."

" The limiting of certain vegetables to certain soils is favoured by no
analogy which can be drav/n from animals, who live and prosper in nearly
all regions."

Vegetables in a state of cultivation, and especially those cultivated for
particular parts, as the root, fruit, &c., may be favoured by circumstances
in the rock and soil, that do not influence native uncultivated species,
which alone form the subject of these remarks. From all that we have been
able to observe and to read on this subject, we are inclined to conclude
that climate has a much greater influence on plants than either rocks or
soil. The geological circumstances of the earth's surface cannot be mate-
rially different in every zone, and yet the plants are materially so.

Dr. Murray's article occupies nearly ten pages ; and, although published
in June, is dated January 19. 1831. Strictures on J>. Murray's first article,
and on Mr. Thomson's remarks on it, as given in our Vol. III. p. 410., occur
by Causidicus (Vol. IV. p. 460.), headed " Geological Relations of Plants.'*
These strictures we received on January 7. 1831, and regret that we omit-
ted the date at the close of the article. As they were written prior to Dr.
Mumiy's second article, and we did not publish them till September last,
it is probable that they have not yet met Dr. Murray's notice. — Cond.

Changes in the Habitats of Plants. — Sir, The interesting remarks of your
correspondent Mr. Lees (Vol. IV. p. 437.), in which he appears unable
to account for the changes in the habitats of plants, have induced me to
offer a few observations, which, I trust, will cause somebody of greater
experience to take our hopes and fears into consideration, and give an ex-
planation satisfactory to us both. It appears, even from Mr. Lees's own
showing, that the loss of rare plants from particular places must, in some
measure, be attributed to enclosure and cultivation ; but, I fear, the hands
of numerous collectors must also be blamed for their entire removal from
well-known habitats. On the other hand, Mr. Lees says, " beautiful plants
occasionally rise up in stations where they were before unknown." It may
be some consolation lo prove that this is also caused by cultivation ; and,
therefore, I trust we not only run no risk of losing old favourites, but that,
as long as any waste land remains to be ploughed up, we may look forward
to new plants discovering themselves. I am led to hope this from the fol-
lowing circumstance : — A friend who had been in the habit of peeling turf
from a hill for his lav/n and garden, remarked to me that, at whatever time
of the year this was done, plants of various kinds sprang up, when it was
scarcely possible the seeds could have been sown there after the turf was
Cut ; and, consequently, I imagine they must have lain in the soil an
unknovv'n time. Perhaps some one of your correspondents better acquainted
with the subject, will be able to inform me what time it is probable seeds
will remain in the ground without vegetating ; if, as in this instance, they
were prevented by a thick coating of grass, with its matted roots, through
which, I understood, the plants were not accustomed to force their way.
1 am. Sir, yours, &c. — .7. //. H. Oxford, Sept. 1 7. . 1 83 1 .

Ascent of the Sap. — Sir, In Vol. IV. p. .542. is an ingenious theory of the
ascent of sap in trees, by H., as follows : — " The theory I wish to prove

Helrospectivc Criticism, 197

is tlie following : — The sap in its ascent in the stem becomes depfiveJ of
some of its constituents, more especially of its aqueous part; this depriv-f
ation is effected by the vital principle oi the plant decomposing the aqueous
parts, and assimilating the resulting gases to its own constituents. As the
assimilation takes place a partial vacuum is formed by the change of gases
to a solid form, and this vacuum is immediately filled with sap rushing,
into it, according to the well-known law of the tendency of fluids to rush
into any cavity deprived of the presence of air."

This theory would be very convincing, but for one circumstance ;
namely, for once, that is to say, for the first time, the sap must rise into
the upper part of the tree, there to be " deprived of some of its con-
stituents," owing to some other cause than the one proposed in the theory,
of H. : when once it has risen then H,'s theory would account for its
continuing to ascend.

What I want H., therefore, to explain is, what is the cause why the sap
rises in the first instance into the upper part of the stem ? What impulse
forces or drives it up primarily, in order that, when it has ascended, the
process of assimilation, &c., vacuum, and renewed supply, may take place
in th2 manner his theory supposes.

When H. has given us that information, I shall rest satisfied. This,
however, cruel as it may be, will most likely throw H.'s theory overboard ;
as it occurs to me that the cause which produces the first rise of the sajj
will suffice to account for its subsequent ascent. In plain English, although
I fully admit the ingenuity of H,'s theory, I feel confident it cannot be the
true one; as the sap must have ascended once before his system can come
into play. Yours, &c. — Thomas Thompson. Hully Nov. 9. 1831.

Relative Scarcity of certain Species of, British Plants y Changes in their Ha-
bitatSy and Introduction of Exotic Species in'o British Localites. — Sir, Tlie
remarks of Mr. Lees (Vol. IV. p. 437.) relative to my notice (Vol. IV. p. 28.)
of /Vis tuberosa as a native of Ireland, induce me to add a word or two
of explanation on that subject. Mr. Lees is a practical and intelligent
botanist, and I do not wonder that he should be a little sceptical on the
point in question. All that I positively contend for is, that this Vvis has
as strong claims to be considered a native of Ireland as many other plants
which are admitted into our indigenous list. The plant is undoubtedly of
exotic mien and aspect; and the circumstance of its being met with near a
large town, and in the vicinity of an old ruin, which Mr. Lees justly con-
siders as casting a degree of doubt on its claims as a genuine native, had
previously occm'red to my own mind, and created the same suspicions.
Should these remarks meet the e3'e of Mr. Drummond, to whom I am
indebted for having introduced me to the Irish habitat of /^ris tuberosa, he
possibly might be able to throw some additional light on the subject. I
entirely concur in all that Mr. Lees advances about the botanical or hor-
ticultural propensities of the monks in olden time ; and admit the propriety
of his remark, that " v/hen we find any rare plant on, or in the neighbour-
hood of, a ruin, we ought to be very suspicious whether the plant is not a
naturalisation, rather than a real denizen." Our Hibernian /Vis, accord-
ingl}', may possibly have been introduced. I do not think, however, that
its introduction has been a fraudulent one, or that it is of recent date ; and
at all events the species has nov/ become naturalised, and therefore, as I
have already remarked, has as fair a claim as many other plants to a place
in our British flora. There are, I believe, those who contend that ^'rbutus
C/'nedo, which grows so abundantly on the rocks and islands of the romantic
Lake of Killarney, is no original native, but has been introduced to that
station by the monks of Mucruss. Be this as it may, whoever has seen the
shrub luxuriating as it does in the wild distiict of GlyngarafF, near Bantrj'
Bay, can hardly doubt its being truly indigenous.

o 3

398 Retruspeclive Criticism,

Mr. Lees's observations (Vol. IV. p. 437.) on " The relative Scarcity of
certain Species of Plants, and on Changes in their Habitats," are, it strikes
me, so just, and full of interest, that 1 may be excused, perhaps, for follow-
ing him a little more in detail, and adding to them a few corresponding
remarks of my own. And here I must candidly avow, that, like Mr. Lees,
and some few other of your correspondents, 1 am no friend to the prac-
tice, whatever may be said in its defence, of scattering the seeds of exotic
plants among our wild woods and rocks, whether this be done " for the
purpose of astonishing the traveller, or hoaxing the scientific collector," or
(as I have, ere now, heard it strongly suspected) in order that the very
person who sowed or planted the species might afterwards find it again,
and take to himself the merit (such as it is) of being the discoverer of a new
and rare native plant. In this latter case the practice is worse than childish ;
it is truly a botanical fraud in the most offensive sense of the term, and a
pitiful falsifying of natural history. " The garden," says Mr. Lees, " the
plantation, and the pleasure-ground, are the proper places for the exhibition
of the effect of man's sportive and improving handj but let us leave the
woods and rocks to their native wildness and magnificence, as long, indeed,
as the advance of population allows us to retain any wilds at all." I may
add for myself, that the choicest double rose or show tulip would, in my
eyes, be at best but an impertinent plant, when met with introduced in our
British woods and mountains. Every botanist, every lover of Nature a»
she is, will participate in the feelings which Mr. Lees expresses in the fol-
lowing passage : — " Last week I passed through a wood covering one of
the transition limestone hills, near Ledbury, which was most profvisely orna-
mented by the beautiful Ticia sylvatica *, festooning the trees on all sides.
I was delighted in the extreme at this wild production of nature, so strik-
ingly lovely : but had it been in the power of any person to have informed
me that some ornamenter of wilds had been profusely sowing the plant in
the wood, my pleasure would have been much abated, nor could I have i»
that case concluded that a calcareous soil was the natural home of the
plants." By far the largest and most luxuriant specimens of il/fmulus
luteus I ever saw, so nmch so, indeed, that they made quite a splendid
and magnificent show, were growing an the boggy margin of a mountain
rill, not more than a mUe or two from Abergavenny. But as I did not for
a moment suppose that the plant was a native in that situation, or any
other than introduced by the hand of man, the sight, brilliant though it
was, did not afford me tliat pleasure which the discovery of some truly
indigenous, though far less conspicuous, botanical rarity would have done.

Mr. Lees informs us that " .Saxifraga umbrosa may now be found on
some of the rocks at Malvern j " but he very properly assigns to it a garden
origin. Some years since, while touring in Yorkshire, I was at no small
pains in endeavouring to meet with this plant in a truly wild state, and
with this view visited the spot (Hesleton Gill) so minutely pointed out as

* Why is not this beautiful climber (certainly one of the most charming
and elegant of our native plants) more frequently cultivated in the garden '^
Is it on account of any peculiarity of the soil which it requires ? or the
difficulty of making it succeed in a state of cultivation? It generally pre-
fers a chalky or calcareous soil ; thus I have observed it in beautiful luxu-
riance in the neighbourhood of Clifton and Bristol, also in the vicinity of
Oxford, and lately near Dover. But it also occasionally occurs in a light
sandy soil, as, e. g., in Bentley Park, near Atherstone, in this county. I have
more than once sown the seeds in the garden, and seldom succeeded in
making them come up, or at least in raising them to perfection. What is
the cause of the failure ?

Retrospective Criticism, 199

]ts habitat in English Botany (see pi. 663.). The result, however, of my
examination was only an increased doubt as to the species being even in
this sequestered spot really of spontaneous growth,* It has been con-
fidently asserted that the species occurs wild in Ireland ; but erroneously,
I believe; unless, indeed, the discovery has been made of late years. The
" London prides," which grow unquestionably wild, and so profusely adorn
the rocks and mountains of Kerry (e. g. the Gap of Dunloe, and the rocks
near Killarney), are not iS'axifraga uuibrosa, but some allied species, be they
two {S. 6r'eum andhirsiita?) or more, with their perplexing host of endless
varieties. And I very much doubt whether any truly wild habitat for
iVaxifraga urabrosa be yet known either in Ireland, England, or even Scot-
land ; or, indeed, whether the plant be in fact originally indigenous. Ire-
land is the proper country of Robertsonitz?, by which name the London pride
family o? the genus /Saxifraga is now distinguished. In some parts of that
country they grow in astonishing profusion ; but among all the countless
varieties which are to be met with, I never could see, in a wild state, any
one that could be mistaken by a botanist for the true S. umbrosa.

Valeriana rubra Mr. Lees considers, and with great probability, as another
*.' insinuating emigrator," of foreign origin, but now become naturalised.
Till lately I never met with it but in suspicious situations, as, e.g., on some
city wall, or " old ruin," &c. During the last summer, however, I observed
it apparently wild about the chalk-pits, by the road-side, near Dartford, in
Kent, and again on the cliffs by the sea-side at Ramsgate.

As to the relative scarcity of j)lants, i. e. their rarity or abundance rela-
tively to different parts of the country, I will refer but to a few instances
out of an immense number that might be mentioned. Of those noticed by
Mr. Lees, Adoxa Moschatellina is abundant in this parish, growing on moist
banks, and the margins of brooks ,• Cotyledon Umbilicus I scarcely recollect
to have seen in this county, save on the ruins of Maxstoke Priory, and
there but sparingly ; while in some parts of Somersetshire and of the
county of Wicklow, as well as in many other places, it is exceedingly abund-
ant on walls and banks. It must be near thirty years ago that I once saw
gathered a single specimen, and that a weiik one, of Zycopodium 5elago,
and also of Osmunds regalis, in the bog below Coleshill Pool (see Purton's
Midland Floray where the above habitat is inserted on my authority). But
repeated search has never subsequently been rewarded by another specimen
of either plant in that situation, ^splenium lanceolatum, one of the most
elegant of our British ferns, I never saw alive, and could only with difficulty
obtain a dried specimen of it, till I visited Penzance. There it occurs pro-
fusely, springing out of every wall, and under every hedge-bank.

True botanist-like, Mr. Lees seems to regret the ravages which are com-
mitted on our native flora by agricultural improvements, roadmaking, &c.
And it must be confessed that, owing to the march of civilisation, some of
our rarer plants, and, I might perhaps add, insects also, have wellnigh
become extirpated from various parts of the country. A pit in this parish
formerly abounded with Aspidium Thelypteris ; the entire surface was so
completely scummed over (if I may be allowed the expression) with a thick
blanket of the matted roots of the fern, interspersed with ^Sphagnum, Cd-
marum palustre, &c., that no water was visible; and, more properly speak-
ing, the spot should not be called a pit, but a shaking bog. Some years
ago the field was brought to the hammer, and purchased by an industrious
hard-working man, who, at no small expense of labour, drained the bog,
and converted it into profitable ground. Of course there was an end to
Aspidium jThel jpteris in that situation ; nor do I at this moment know any
other habitat where it is to be found. I could mention also the case of a

* See Haworth's Saxifragedrum Enumcrdtio, p. 55,, and preface, p. xiv.

o 4

200 Rdrosprclive Criticisuu

charming bo^gy meadow, on the skirts of Chemsley Wood, near Coleshil!,
abounding witli Pingiiicula, Drosera, Parnassia, Eriophorum, Oxycoccos,
i'pipactis, &c., and the breeding-phice, too, of Hipparchi« GahuhajV, and of
the far rarer Melitae^a A'rtemi*, in short, one of nature's own botanical gar-
dens, which has long since shared a similar fate with the pit of Aspidiuni
Thelypteris, in this parisli. I was delighted with this spot in my youth,
and have spent many an hour in exploring its natural treasures. The last
time I saw it I was attended by a botanical friend, who accompanied me for
the purpose of being introduced to a place where he might collect bog
plants for cultivation in his garden ; when, to our surprise and mortifica-
tion, we found the whole meadow, the former residence of such plants as
Narthecium, Triglochin, &c., converted into a prolific potato^round.
But it is not only to the cultivation of waste lands, and to agricultural
improvements, that the extermination of some of our rarer plants is owing;
it may be attributed, also, in part at least, to the rapacity of botanists and
collectors, who in some cases too greedily pluck up, root and branch, every
specimen of a rare plant they can meet with. It is owing to this cause, in
great measure, that the beautiful Cypripedium Calceolus (that prince of
British Orchidcee) is now, I believe, scarcely to be found in the wilds^ of
Yorkshire.

Though my remarks have already extended to a much greater length than
I anticipated, I cannot conclude them without briefly reverting again to the
subject v/ith which they commenced. Last autumn, about the time that I
communicated the notice of /'ris tuberosa, 1 procured some roots from the
friend's garden before alluded to, where (as I have said) the plant thrived
and bloomed so well. These roots were strong and vigorous, and appa-
rently gave every promise of flowering in the ensuing spring. My friend,
indeed, selected such as she said she Vv'as confident, from the thickness of
the shoots, would produce blossoms. These were planted in my garden,
and fenced during winter from the severity of the frost by some dry fern.
There, hovv'cver, they produced no flowers. The failure, you will at once
be ready to suggest, was ovring to the removal of the roots ; and possibly
it might be so. In the spring I paid a visit again to my friend's garden,
expecting to see the /^ris, as heretofore, Vv'ith some twenty or thirty blos-
soms in full beauty ; but, strange to say, though no alteration in the mode
of culture had been adopted, not a single flower v/as produced there, during
the season, from patches of the plant v/hich previously, for seven or eight
years, had flowered so copiously. What was the cause of this failure, and
how it is to be remedied, I am at a loss even to conjecture, and should be
glad to be informed. In superstitious times it might, perhaps, be said, that
the spirit of the 7'ris was affronted at my interference, and withheld its
blossoms in disapprobation of the liberties which I had taken v.'ith it. And
in truth it must be considered as a most capricicus plant as regards the dis-
play of its sombre charms. But enough ; as I greatly fear the above maj'
be deemed a dry and tedious discussion by the majority of your readers.
To the congenial mind of Mr. Lees it may not, perhaps, prove uninterest-
ing. To that gentleman my thanks are due, for the handsome manner in
which he is pleased to speak of my contributions. Yours, &c. — W. T.
Bree. AUesley Rectory, October 2 7 .' 1 83 L

Vrls tuberosa is a Native of Comma//, on the following evidence : — Mr.
Arthur Biggs, curator of the Botanic Garden, Cambridge, received, about
four years ago, tubers of a plant from a brother of Mr. Goode's, St. John's
Street, Cambridge, which were obtained in Cornwall, and near the sea ; and
Mr. Biggs was informed that these tubers were of a plant that is plentiful
and wild in that neighbourhood, but where nothing is known of its name.
These tubers, on being planted, developed plants of Pr:s tuberosa, past all
question; for, although they have not yet produced flowers, 7. tuberosa is,
I believe, the only species of plant, out of the several thousands which

Retrospective Criticism, 201

our gardens contain, that possesses four-edged leaves, and this character is
(hdy obvious in the leaves of the plants in question. The address of Mr.
Goode's brother is, " Mr. E. Bell, No. 70. Portland Square, Plymouth ; "
by a post-paid letter to whom more definite particulars may be learned.

To blossom 7Vis tuberosa satisfactorily, do thus : — Let it stand two or
three years in succession in the same spot ; then, and oftener if you wish
to increase it, dig up its tubers as soon as its leaves, by turning yellow,
indicate its growth finished for the season : this will be usually in July.
Divide the tubers all you please, for even small fragments of these will
produce plants ; but just in proportion to the smallness of the divided
portions will be the time occupied in their acquiring sufficient vigour to.
produce blossoms. The tubers are shrivelled and weakened by being dried,
being very far less patient of drying than bulbs of crocus, tulip, and
hyacinth. Divide them, therefore, as soon as dug up, and replant them
immediately, 6 in. deep, in a compost formed of half friable loam and half
leaf mould or old hot-bed dung rotted to the consistence of soil. Let the
situation be a dry bed or border at the base of a wall, with a southern
aspect, and plant the tubers close to the wall, or only at a few inches from
it. Thus treated, 7'ris tuberosa, in the Botanic Garden at Bury St. Ed-
munds, every spring exhibits its peculiarly coloured and constructed and
delicately fragrant flowers, and occasionally also produces seeds : these, if
sown the moment they are ripe, produce plants which flower in the fourth
year of their age. One observance in the cultivation of this plant should
be absolute ; never to stir the soil within a foot of it after the 1st of Septem-
ber, for it will by this time have commenced the emission of roots for the
imbibition of the requisite energies for its next year's flowering, although
it may not send its foliage above ground to tell you so until even Novem-
ber. " This last remark applies to most, perhaps all, hardy bulbous plants,
and to many hardy tuberous plants : but this is gardening.

The figure of /'ris tuberosa in Vol. IV. p. 29. fig. 9. is admirable in its
general outline, but does not portray the peculiar four-edged character of
the foliage, and the plant has, I believe, never such a scaly creeping sucker
at its root as is there represented. — J. D.

Ile-ply to the Remarks by Sir Richard Phillips on Sir J. Byerley'^s Theory
which accounts for Geological Phenomena by the Precession of the Equinoxes.
— Sir, Your last Number contains (p. 102.) a testy article by Sir Richard
Phillips against his former " correspondent," myself. I am sorry to have
disturbed the philosopher's bile. In attributing to him the priority of
an important discovery, I confess I purposely strained a point in favour of
an old and worthy servant of the public whom the world has used unkindly.
He says 1 have not read his work. I should be ashamed to own that I had
not, as he presented me with each successive modification of his infallible
doctrines. Alas ! I had to do more than read it ; for on the titlepage of
his last present he wrote, " Lend it to Count Lanjuinais and Benjamin
de Constant." Lending was not enough : I was called upon to explain it
to those two friends of mine, to whom I had introduced Sir Richard ; and
I was obliged to confess, with the members of the French Institute, that
there was very little of it I could understand, having the misfortune to
believe in Newton and " attraction, gravitation, and other superstitious
fancies," which Sir Richard has blotted out from his creed.

As to his real theory, he has laid it before your readers ; and far be it
from me to prevent his making one proselyte. Mine, too, or rather that of
Hipparchus, applied by M. Guesney and myself, is also before the public.
Innumerable phenomena are capable of a rational solution by it; but I am
no dealer in infallibilities, like my quondam friend. Sir Richard, and
I therefore point out in an article sent herewith (p. 172.), an easy method
for astronomers to decide definitively on its truth or falsehood, by direct
observation, at the approaching equinox. I am, Sir, ^ours, &c. — J. Byerlctf.
Jan. 15. 1832.

202 •Queries and Answers*

Art. II. Queries and Answers.

The Rot in Sheep; what are Us Causes? — Dr. Brown (p. 98.) appears to
doubt the possibility of sheep becoming jaundiced except by the obstruc-
tion of the ducts of the liver, and conceives it cannot be demonstrated
that bile is thrown back upon the system : for in the early stages there
is no obstruction to the bile ; and in the latter, what little is secreted is
intercepted by the jflukes. Dr. Brown is, doubtless, aware of the difficult
pathology of the liver, but cannot be a stranger to the facts that jaundice is
produced by derangement of the bowels alone, by inflammation of the lower
portion of the right lung, by inflammation of the liver itself, and that some-
times only a small portion, &c. &c. The present state of science appears
deficient in the production of facts to disperse the obscurity of the causes
of jaundice in ever}^ case; although in the present, I think, there is not any
difficulty, jaundice being produced by the absorption of bile into the cir-
culating fluids, and without the obstruction of any foreign body. I think
that the tinge of yellow, or jaundiced appearance of the eyes, is really the
first and earliest symptom (generally speaking) " which guides the shep-
herd to the unwelcome truth." The " peculiar whiteness of the eyes " is
only secondary, as the following fact will prove : — A large flock of sheep,
the whole of the summer of 1830, ran in a dry forest pasture; they had
every appearance of health, and were in excellent condition. In the autumn,
an indiscriminate part of them were turned into a meadow pasture of luxu-
riant growth ; and in a short time the shepherd observed that some of them
had become listless, and had lost their usual vigour and activity ; that they
eat but little, were generally lying down, and that their eyes were dim and
yellow ; and that these sheep were not so soon roused by the accustomed
summons of his dog as those which had not yet felt the change of pasture
(as he expresses it), and whose constitution was stronger. They remained
in this state from fourteen to twenty-four days ; and the yellowness of the
eyes, in the course of this time, gradually decreased, and at length became
of a pearly white. The whole of this part of the flock went through the
same symptoms, while those sheep which remained upon the dry forest
pasture continued in perfect health. Examining the liver of one about six
weeks after the change of pasture, it was found to be increased in size;
and in various parts to be studded with small tubercles, varying in size from
a mustard seed to that of a pea, of a dirty yellow colour, and of the consist-
ence of curd or soft cheese, and with a few flukes (Fasciola hepatica) in
some of the ducts; in the liver of another of the sheep there was an abscess
containing about 4oz. of matter, and in that also only a few flukes. I might
multiply cases, but my chief object is their application to practical utility ;
and my particular enquiry is, " What are the causes producing so destruc-
tive a malady ?" If, as I have stated (Vol. IV. p. 472.), it is the loss of the
stimulating qualities of the grass, arising from the quickness of its growth,
that produces derangement of the chylopoietic viscera [chyle-secreting
organs], this, the first step in the disease, is of primary importance ; and
the simple remedies are, the removal of the sheep to a drier pasture and
stronger food, and giving a few doses of saline aperients, with any bitter
infusion,* as a stimulating tonic, and mild mercurials to promote the secre-
tion of bile. I wish it to be perfectly understood that this is not for the
destruction of the flukes ; nor do I think, in the early stage, any are found
in the liver. To know the cause producing disease I consider of the
greatest importance, particularly in the present instance, as such varied and
absurd opinions on it are entertained by the farmers themselves; and until
the cause is pointed cut, they will continue to expose their flocks to the
exciting cause, from the want of knowing better. — D. N. Worksop, Jan. 17.
1832..

Q:iieries and Ansivcrs. ^0^

Ilah'iU of the hng'lcgged ivhistling Diwks, and of the Sheldrake. — Sir, In
Vol. IV. p. 474i., Mr. Swainson asks information of the habits of the long-
legged whistling ducks of the West India islands ; and of the sheldrake
(A^nas Tadorna). Of the first, Mr. Swainson omits giving the scientific
name ; I, therefore, cannot decide to what bird he alludes : but a friend
of mine lately made me a present of a pair of ducks he brought from Ja-
maica, that are decided whistlers, as they whistle to one another for an hour
together ; that is, they used to do so, until a fox ivhistled off the drake a
night or two ago, who would be gay and sleep out at nights ; and his widow
now consorts with the turkey-cock, perching every night on an open ve<
randa against the house, about 7 ft. from the ground. These ducks are
very large birds, but not long-legged, and are neither more nor less than
very fine Muscovy ducks ; but such as they are, Mr. Swainson is quite wel-
come to the description of them : and, if he will pay me a visit, he may try
the flavour of them. As to the sheldrake, I am expecting to receive some
from Lincolnshire, which were faithfully promised to be procured for me;
and if I succeed in having them, I will not forget to note down every thing
remarkable that I observe in them, for Mr. Swainson's benefit. I am, Sir,
yours, &c. — A Subscriber. Southampton, Dec., 1831.

Whirls of the Tumbler Pigeon. — I am obliged to Mr. Swainson for his
early attention (Vol. IV. p. 557.) to my enquiry (Vol. IV. p. 473.) on this
subject. In reply to his recommendations, I have to inform you, that I am
certain that " the movement is common to both sexes," as I have often
amused myself with watching the alternate pranks of a single pair; that
" it is done at all seasons," and not at particular seasons, such as incuba-
tion, &c. ; for at that time the male bird covers the eggs by day, while the
female takes charge of them at night. I agree with Mr. Swainson in think-
ing the movement indicative of pleasure or excitement; as I can fancy that
the feeling that causes it is the same as that which prompts a man to rub
his hands together with delight. Since the discovery of the Columba
arquatrix (I think, by M. de Vaillant), the domestic tumbler has acquired
an importance, at least in my mind, which naturalists have hitherto denied
it. All writers on natural history, in their classifications, have declared the
varieties of the Columba domestica to be derived from one stock, the C.
rupicola, or rockier. M. Temminck ridicules Buffon's idea of all the
foreign varieties having the same source ; but I think Buflfbn's theory just
as probable as that the domestic tumbler has any (Connection whatever with
the Columba rupicola. If it has, why do not other varieties of the Columba
domestica occasionally tumble ? and why is the practice confined exclu-
sively to this variety, which, unless bred pure, loses the propensity : and
now it appears there has been lately discovered a wiid species that has the
same propensity, or at least something very like it. Is it not probable that
this bird may be a descendant of the newly discovered species, its pro-
pensity to tumbling being increased by domestication ? — A Subscriber.
Soidhamj)ton, Dec., 1831.

A Swift {Cj/pselus murdriiis Temminck) killed by its Jlying against a Wall,
— Sir, Some few summers ago, being on a visit at Hastings, I stopped,
during an early morning's walk, to watch a party of swifts (Cjpselus nmra-
rius Temm., //frundo J^pus Linn.) dashing round the ruins of the old castle
which overlooks the town. While I was thus amusing myself and ad-
miring the extraordinary rapidity of their flight, to my infinite astonish-
ment one of them flew directly against the castle wall. My surprise was
so great that at first I thought I was mistaken ; but as the spot where the
bird fell was not very difficult of ap[)roach, I climbed up, and there found
the bird fluttering on the ground. I picked it up, but in a very few minutes
it died in my hand. I pursued my walk, marvelling at the oddness of the
adventure, not knowing to what to attribute so strange an accident. It
could not be that the bird, in its eager pursuit of prey, miscalculated the
distance, and thus met death ? this was just i)Obsiblc, but not very pro-

20 1 Queried aJid Amiiccrs.

bablc. Blindness was out of the question, as botii eyes seemed perfect. I
was thus completely puzzled. Thinkiuiij over the affair some time after-
wards, a more satisfactory solution of this ornithological p,roblem occurred
to me. It is well known that this bird, I believe, more pjirticuhirly than
the rest o^ its congeners, is infested Vvith the insects called Hippobosca
i/frundinis ; I have, therefore, but little doubt that the poor bird, in a
paroxysm of suffering, occasioned by these tormenting insects, dashed itself
unheedingly against the wall. I am the more confirmed in this belief by
recollecting that several small reddish insects ran about my hand at the
time I held the bird. I shall feel much obliged if you, or any of your cor-
respondents, would favour me with an opinion on the subject. — O,
ClaptoHy Nov, 1831.

I recollect having found i/irundines alive on the ground thrice in the
course of my life : the first (when a schoolboy), //.yi'pus, on longish grass, in
a village churchyard ; the second, H. rustica, long after, on a flower-border at
the foot o.' a 10 ft. wall; the bird being partially hidden by the plants which
grew in the border. Both of these, on being elevated in my hand, flew
away : the second, however, but feebly, and for only a short distance. The
third was, I am pretty certain, a martin {H. urbica), which I found six
or seven years ago, also at the foot of the wall above named. On exa-
mining it closely, I soon discovered the cause, without question, of its for-
lorn condition ; viz. three luxuriant individuals of the sv.allow tick (Hip-
pobosca ifirundinis), which ran so nimbi}', and played at hide and seek so
dexterously among the feathers of the bird, that I had some difficulty in
securing them. The bird was afterwards set down on the ground to take
its chance. These ticks were not, however " small and reddish," as O.
describes his to have been, but rather large, and tinged with a bluish green
hue : disagreeable objects, but singular in their lanceolate wings, it is
possible, and perhaps probable, that the two first-named birds were, from a
similar cause, driven in despair to rest on the earth. — J. D.

The Creeper {Qertkia familidris) resident^ not migratory^ in Lancashire. — •
In reply to W. H. White's query (Vol. IV. p. 473.), I have to state that it
remains here the whole year. Specimens are numerous in this neighbour-
hood, but are not in winter so frequently observed as they otherwise would
be, in consequence of their often associating at that time with the different,
species of titmouse ; and using the same call-note, which is very different
from that used by them when they are in single pairs, as is the case when
they are not in company with the titmice. But they are most frequently
seen in company with the ox-eye (Parus major), the blue (P. ca^ruleus),
cole (P. ater), and marsh titmouse (P. palustris), which associate in small
flecks, and use the same call-note as if they were all of one species. —
T. G. Clilheroe. Lancashire ^ Jan. 17. 1832.

The Creeper (Certhiafami/idris) may be occasionally seen in the southern
counties throughout the year. I never heard that it was even thought to
be migratory. — Edward Kewman. Deptford, Sept. 19. 1831.

The Creeper {Ccrthla familiar is).— Mr. White asks (Vol. IV. p. 473.),
is this bird migratory or not ? As a contribution towards an answer, I beg
to say it is by no means uncommon in this neighbourhood during summer j
but of it in winter I can only say that I saw one shot here either in the
end of December, 1830, or early in January, 1831. — IIe7irj/ Turner. Biny
SL Edm unds, Oct. 24.1831.

In Kensington Gardens this bird may be seen through the winter. I saw
it thera in the middle of November, and in the end of January, 1832. At
both times it was most diligently occa{)ied in entom.ological research : in the
first case it was exploring the bark of a tall acacia tree (Cobbett's locust
tree, llobinia Pseud-y'/cacia L.). The surface of the trunk of an acacia tree
is very uneven, exhibiting deep irregular longitudinal grooves, besides the
prevalence of chinks in the bark, as is common to all trcL-s, but which

Qjicrics and Ansivrrs. ' ^05

cliinks in the bark arc themselves deep in the acacia, perhaps more so than
in most trees. Both grooves anil chinks,however, the creeper can well enough
explore by virtue of the length of its bill (in Montagu's Dictionary^ " half
an inch ; " is it not slightly longer ?) ; and the elegant attenuation of its
mandibles, and the acute points in which they terminate, enable it easily to
take the smallest insects. An adaptation of structure to function is herein
perceptible; and, if I rightly remember, Mr, Yarrcll has told me that the
breast-bone of this bird has little or no keel, to the end that its climbing
habits may not receive the impediment which a prominent keel would occa-
sion.— J.D.

Oniithoscope (p. 83.). — Is this a newly invented instrument, possessing
peculiar optical powers; or is it but a new name for the common telescope,
expressive of the ornithic scope to which the telescope is applied ? — D. S.
Jan. 26. 1832.

7^/ie rolyomwaliis Argiohis {Azure-hhe BiiUerfly^ is doiiblc-hrooded . —
Sir, Mr. Brce asks (Vol. IV. p. 477.) if this is a double-brooded insect;
and Mr. Jordan answers (Vol. V. p. 109.) in the affirmative. 1 think he is
right. I have seen, both in the spring and autumn, what I consider the
same species ; and should I have an opportunity of observing it this year,
I will preserve some specimens at both seasons. About five miles east of
Cambridge, in a low meadow of coarse grass, adjoining a shrubbery, and
bordered by a rivulet, I saw this butterfly, about the end of August, 1830,
in great numbers. In the spring of 1831, I saw it in the same situation,
though much less numerous ; but in the autumn of that year, I passed seve-
ral times without seeing a single specimen; and I conclude I was either too
early or too late for it. Mr. Bree speaks of the caterpillar feeding upon
holly and ivy; but there was, I believe, neither of those trees in the neigh-
bourhood where I saw the butterfly. I'he Butterfly Collector's Fade Meciini
says it feeds on grass ; and from the situation in which I saw it, 1 am
inclined to think that statement correct. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — E. Ven-
tris. Cambridge, Ja7i. 25.1832.

Humming in the Air, — Sir, The humming spoken of by your correspond-
ent O. (Vol. V. p. 110.), I have no doubt, proceeded from the common
gnat (C'ldex pipiens). I have frequently heard (at first with surprise) the
noise he speaks of, when the authors of it have been invisible. At other
times I have heard exactly the same sound ; and looking upwards for some
time, I have just been able to see the van of an army of gnats. The super-
natural music in the air, described by superstitious villagers, must be attri-
buted to the same cause. Kirby and Spence (/n/rorf. to Entom., vol. ii.
p. 377. 1st ed.), alluding to the passage in White's Natural History of Sel-
borne, remark: — " The hotter the weather, the higher insects will soar;
and it is not improbable that the sound produced by numbers may be heard
when tho.se that produced it are out of sight." The gnat has long been
celebrated as a trumpeter. Homer, in his Batrachomyomachia [Battles of
the Frogs] says : —

Koi rorf KwvojTreg /.isyaXag (raXTnyyag t^oj-Tfr,
Amur taa\TTiZ,ov TtoXkjxov ktvtvcv.

" Huge * gnats.

Through clarions of unwieldy length, sang forth
The dreadful note of onset fisrce." Coicpcr.

And Spenser, in his Faery Qncene (b. ii. c. ix. IG.), says : —

* The epithet huge is a volunteer of the translator's; and fnycWai rraX-
TTiyytc is used from the great sound, rather tluui the unwieldy length, of
their instruments.

20Q ' Queries and Jiisivers.

" As when a swarme o^ gnats at eventide, . ,

Out of the fennes of Allan doe arise, '

Their miirmunng small troinpcts soiinden wide;
Whiles in the aire their clust'ring army flies.
That as a cloud do'.h seeme to dim the skies."
— E. Ventris. CamhmJge, Jan. 25. 1832.

In Insect Transformations it is the Tail of the CatcrpiUar which becomes
the Head of the Butterjltj. — I have lately observed a curious fact, which I
have never seen noticed in any book which has fallen in my way, viz. that
it is the tail of the caterpillar which becomes the head of the butterfly. I
found it hard to believe till I had convinced myself of it in a number of
instances. The caterpillar weaves its web from its mouth, finishes with the
head downwards, and the head, with the six front legs, are thrown off from
the chrysalis, and may be found dried up, but quite distinguishable, at the
bottom of the web. The butterfly comes out at the top. Is this fact
generally known '? — T. C. Turvey, Jidy 25. 1831.

Caterpillars found in a Book (p. 109.). — These grubs appear to be of a
worm-like structure, and are probably those of a small species of solitary
wasp (Odynerus); at least, the following passage in Curtis's British Ento-
mology ^ p. 137., seems to record a perfectly similar fact : — " Mr. Charles Fox
detected, upon the top of a book across which another was laid, some cells
of a somewhat triangular form, covered externally with mud, and formed
of a silky substance within. He very obligingly transmitted the book to
me last winter ; and in the spring, nearly twenty specimens of the insect
figured (Odynerus parietinus) made their appearance ; they were all females,
and did not vary in the least." Is H sure that one cell contained two
grubs, as in fig. 41. a ? and will he communicate any fresh facts respecting
them ? — J. O. Wcstwood. Jan. 28. 1832.

Notes on Intestinal WormSy in reply to Agronome^s Qneries. — Sir, Agro-
nome (Vol. IV. p. 476.) appears particularly anxious to have some of his
queries answered. I do not consider myself wholly competent to fully
elucidate such obscure productions of nature, but I think there are some
points which Agronome must consider. The hairworm, found in the body
of the common black beetle as well as in other insects (Vol. II. p. 211.),
I think is not the G6rdiu5 aquaticus, but a species of the genus Filaria ;
which are generally found in the interior of animals, in the cellular sub-
stance, in the muscles, and in the parenchyma of the viscera. The most
celebrated species is the Filaria medinensis of Gmelin., very common in
warm countries; which insinuates itself under the human skin, principally
of the legs, and often occasions serious injury. It is sometimes found 10 ft.
in length. It is extracted by slow degrees, for fear of breaking in the
wound, and the negroes are very dexterous in thus withdrawing it. The
distinctive character is, to have the ends of the tail pointed or bent. (See
Stark's Elements of Natural History, vol. ii. p. 408.) I cannot think that
the Gordim aquaticus, an inhabitant of water, could live in the interior of
any animal either warm or cold blooded; an element so different from theif
natural habitat. As W. W. asserts the distress it was in even when carefully
placed in the palm of his hand, audits speedy death (Vol. II. p.' 103.), may
not they have attached themselves to the legs of birds who have been in
pools of water, and thus found a ready conveyance to W. W.'s garden.
The sexual organs appear to be separate in each individual of this
tribe. — Agronome also asks, what is the origin of the tapeworm and
other worms, in man or beast, or what is their ultimate or last stage of
perfection ? Their first origin, as well as many other wonders of the crea-
tion, will ever remain hid in the deep recesses of dame Jsature. They, as
worms, have obtained their last and perfect stage, undergoing no further
change. How does the tapeworm propagate its species ? With sexual
organs, or at least distinct ovaries. It was the opinion of the ancients that

Queries and AnswerL

20'

each joint, if broken off, became a complete worm ; but it is now acertainedi
that, when this is the case, the portion is expelled : but, if a living head be
attached to one or more segments, the animal grows to its usual length by
the addition of new joints. Domestic animals are equally subject to the
attacks of the different species of Y'se^nia.

I do not wonder at the supposition of some of the ancient naturalists,
that the intestinal worms and hydatids were engendered spontaneously ;
so difficult does it appear to account satisfactorily for their reproduction.
It is, however, now ascertained not only that the greater part produce ova
or living young; but that many have separate sexes, and couple as ordinary
animals. The hydatids sometimes are found alone in cysts, and sometimes
in society, and many groups in various parts of the body, as the liver, the
brain, the eyes, and even penetrating the heart. [See
p. 99.] How minute must be their ova, to pass through
the small tubes of the various structures of living
bodies, and lodge in the small ramifications of the liver,
brain, &c. ! Worms and hydatids, it appears certain,
have their sexual organs either united in each individual.

/

A, The lower part of the trachea of a phea-
sant cut open.

a and [>, Branches to the right and left lungs.

c. Worms of a blood-red colour attached to
the inner surface of the trachea, by two
heads or suckers, varying in length from
one fourth of an inch to an inch.

d, Cone-shaped tubercles, in which the heads
of some of the worms are inserted.

B, A worm of the natural size.

c. The same magnified when in water.

e. Variously marked. The lower part similar
to the convolutions of the bowels, of a light
yellow colour, with streaks of blood-red.

/, The head or sucker, surrounded on the
edge with a transparent horn-like subl
stance.

g. In the middle is a dark-brown, somewhat
transparent, line, with convolutions differ-
ent from e.

h. The head. Its sucker is smaller than/.

or separate sexes; however, they produce ova, which ova are
circulated with the blood, and communicated to the child in
utero by the mother as well as the eggs during their progress
of formation, and develope themselves in various parts of the
body. How long they are before they develope themselves I
cannot say, nor the duration of the existence either of worms
or hydatids : as they have been found both in old and young
animals, their developement I think depends upon some favourable state of
the constitution, from disease or derangement of some of its organs.

Birds are also liable to the depredation of worms and hydatids. A
short time since, a farmer, who is in the habit of breeding many domestic
fowls, had several died in a singular manner. They appeared affected

208 Qucru's and Answers.

with giddiness, and turned round involuntarily as though running after their
tails, until they died with exhaustion. I was not informed of this circum-
stance until some time after it had occurred, therefore had not an oppor-
tunity of an examination ; but have no doubt it was an affection of the
brain, similar to that to which sheep are subject, that is, hydatids (Cosnurus
cerebralis Lat., T^'nia cerebralis Gmel.) in the substance of the brain.
Among the game in the preserves around us, the mortality occasioned by
these has been very great, attacking the pheasants in particular, both wild
and those kept in confinement; the young appear more liable to them
than the old ones. Whole broods, after appearing perfectly healthy, and
growing to the size of a pigeon, die of a disease called here the gapes, from
the manner of its affecting them. They are constantly gaping ; and, being
gradually exhausted, die. '

A gentleman, after great trouble and expense, had hatched eighty rare
pheasants ; and after anxiously watching them until grown to the size of
a pigeon, or to the state of moulting the large feathers, had the mortifica-
tion of seeing them gradually die of the gapes, with but few exceptions.
Upon opening the trachea or windpipe, there were found a number of worms
attached to the surface throughout the whole length of the tube, but he
has not yet found them in any other part of the body. The accompanying
sketch (fg. 60.) will convey a better idea than any description 1 can give.

If Mr. Sweet, or any other of your zoological correspondents, will favour
me, through the medium of your Magazine, with any mode of treatment
for the cure of birds when so affected, or with any preventive, with such
remarks as his experience and observation may suggest, he will greatly
oblige. Sir, yours, &c. — D 2^. Worksop^ Sept. 1831.

Ijuminous Appearances on Flowers. — Sir, I send you an account of a
curious and interesting phenomenon I witnessed, in May last, on the corolla
of a plant of the Papaver orientale, thinking it may be of some interest to
your readers, and that, in the approaching spring, they may narrowly watch
the above-named plant, and endeavour to discover the cause of such won-
derful effects. I was assisting a gentleman in adorning his garden, when he
happened to walk near a flower-bed, in the centre of which the poppy
alluded to was in full bloom, and overtopped the other flowers. At the
moment he was passing, he saw, or fancied he saw, a beautiful luminosity
over the corolla of the plant ; and called me to see it, for the purpose of
convincing him whether it was the fact or not. Afterwards, several other
friends were called, and we all saw it, at intervals of about ten minutes,
sometimes like a large butterfly encircling the whole of the corolla, some-
times at points on the petals. We went to several other plants in the gar-
den, but could not observe any thing of the kind on any of them. We
saw it in this manner for three successive evenings. It was about eight
o'clock in the evening, and the atmosphere appeared to be in a very hu-
mid and electrical state ; drops of water were deposited, and the pollen
very much scattered within the corolla. Has not this an electric origin ?
and does not the edge of the petals act in the same manner as points, and
conduct the electric fluid from the earth to the atmosphere, and vice versa ?
A practical horticulturist (author of T/ie Domestic Gardener''s Manual)
says, vegetables arc the most important instruments of conduction, and
that they are constantly employed in regulating the atmospheric electricity.
It is recorded that Linn£EUs's daughter observed a phenomenon similar to
the above on the nasturtium (Tropae'olum majus) ; and a similar appearance
has been lately witnessed on the tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa). I am, Sir,
yours, &c. — J, Green. Great Marloiv^ Sc2)t., 1831.

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY,

APRIL, 1832.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I. Contribution totvards an Account of Omens and Super-
stitions connected mth Natural History, By J. C. Farmer.

Sir,
In reading tliat pleasant volume, by the late Sir H. Davy,
entitled Salmonia, I was so struck with the following remark
respecting omens, that I transcribe it, and add to it an account
of some which I do not think have yet found their way into
print, in the hope that others may do the same, and add such
explanations as may suggest themselves to account for such
seeming absurdities. " The search after food, as we agreed
on a former occasion, is the principal cause why animals
change their places. The different tribes of wading birds
always migrate when rain is about to take place ; and I re-
member once, in Italy, having been long waiting, in the end
of March, for the arrival of the double snipe in the Cam-
pagna of Rome ; a great flight appeared on the 3d of April,
and the day after heavy rain set in, which greatly interfered
with my sport. The vulture [see its habits narrated p. 233.
of the present Number], upon the same principle, follows
armies ; and I have no doubt that the augury of the ancients
was a good deal founded upon the observation of the instincts
of birds. There are many superstitions of the vulgar owing
to the same source. For anglers, in spring, it is always
unlucky to see single magpies; but two may always be re-
garded as a favourable omen ; and the reason is, that, in cold
and stormy weather, one magpie alone leaves the nest in
search of food, the other remaining sitting upon the eggs or
the young ones ; but, when two go out together, it is only
when the weather is mild and warm, and favourable for fish-
ing." (p. 156. 1st edit.)
Vol. v. — No. 25. p

210 Omens and Superstitions

This reasoning will, in general, be found correct, and may
be applied to solve many of the superstitions in the country;
but the case of the magpie is entitled to a little more consi-
deration. The piannet, as we call her in the north of Eng-
land, is the most unlucky of all birds to see singly at any
time ; this, however, does not often happen, except a short
time during incubation : they either appear in pairs or in
families ; but even this last appearance is as alarming to our
grandmothers. The following distich shows what each fore-
bodes : — " One sorrow, two mirth, three a wedding, four
death." This bird, indeed, appears to have taken the same
place with us, as an omen of evil, that the owl had amongst
the ancients. [See its ominousness exploded, and its positive
benefits to man demonstrated, by Mr. Waterton, p. 9.] The
nurse is often heard to declare that she has lost all hopes of
her charge when she has observed a piannet on the house-top.*

Another prejudice, indulged in even by our goodwives, is
that of destroying the feathers of the pigeon, instead of saving
them to stuff beds, &c. They say, that, if they were to do so,
it would only prolong the sufferings of the deathbed ; and
when these are more than usually severe, it is attributed to
this cause : and the reason given, " because the bird has no
gall," is to them quite conclusive, but to me perfectly irrele-
vant and unsatisfactory. A belief amongst boys, that to harm
or disturb the nests of the redbreast or swallow is unlucky,
appears very general throughout the kingdom ; and the keen
bird-nester, who prides himself on the quantity of eggs blown
and strung bead-fashion, here often gets mortified by finding
his trophies destroyed by the housewife, who considers their
presence as affecting the safety of her crockery ware. This
belief may have been encouraged, if not invented, for a humane
purpose ; but how are we to account for the efficacy of the
Irish stone in curing swellings caused by venomous reptiles,
by merely being rubbed upon the part affected ? The fullest
faith in the practice appears to have prevailed in the country
at no distant period, and is yet far from extinct. The swal-
low and the cuckoo are generally hailed as harbingers of
spring and summer ; but, perhaps, many of your readers are
not aware that it is only lucky to hear the cuckoo, for the
first time in the season, upon soft ground (in contradistinction
to hard roads), and with money in the pocket, which the
youngster is sagely advised to be sure then to turn over.

* A rare sight in England, even in villages. The magpie here avoids
man and his houses all it can. Gerarde, in his Herbal, incidentally re-
marks that magpies are " called in some places pie-annes," which helps
us to an etymon of the above term piannet.

conTiecfed with Natural History, '21 1

Perhaps the season of the year may satisfactorily explain all
these observances. Several superstitious customs are men-
tioned in this Magazine * [Vol. I. p. 93. 196. 303., Vol. II.
p. 105. 209. 405.] regarding bees, some of which are not
practised in the north, yet it is fully believed that the death
of the stock of hives too often foretells the " flitting " of the
bee-master. W^et cold years, unfavourable to the insects, are
also equally so to the farmer upon thin clays, v^^hich border
the moors, where bees are mostly kept. Has the use of the
mountain ash, " rowan tree " [Pyrus aucuparia Gcsrtner'], as a
charm against witchcraft, ever been accounted for ? The be-
lief in its efficacy must be very old, if we are to credit some of
Shakspeare's commentators, who give this word as the true
reading in Macbeth, instead of " Aroint thee, witch ! " f

* The following additional instance has been lying by us some time, and
may be here fitly introduced. — J. D,

Superstition respecting Bees. — Sir, The following passage, which I have
extracted from a Tour through Brittany^ published in the Cambrian Quar-
terly/ MagazinOy vol. ii. p. 215., gives us some interesting information of the
regard which seems in most countries to be paid to these esteemed little
animals : — " If there are bees kept at the house where a marriage feast is
celebrated, care is always taken to dress up their hives in red, which is
done by placing upon them pieces of scarlet cloth, or one of some such
bright colour ; the Bretons imagining that the bees would forsake their
dwellings if they were not made to participate in the rejoicings of their
owners : in like manner they are all put into mourning when a death occurs
in the family." There are instances mentioned of their being put into
mourning, in your First and Second Volumes; but I do not remember one
of their having a share in the marriage rejoicings. Yours, &c. — D. C
Oxon.y April 4!. 1830.

f It is hoped the appended quotation will not be deemed inconsequent
here. — J. D.

Superstitious Belief in the Power of Trees. — Near Boitpoor, in Upper
India, " I passed a fine tree of the mimosa, with leaves, at a little distance,
so much resembling those of the mountain ash, that I was for a moment
deceived, and asked if it did not bring fruit ? They answered no ; but that
it was a very noble tree, being called * the imperial tree,' for its excellent
properties : that it slept all night, and wakened, and was alive all day,
withdrawing its leaves if any one attempted to touch them. Above all,
however, it was useful as a preservative against magic ; a sprig worn in the
turban, or suspended over the bed, was a perfect security against all spells,
evil eye, &c., insomuch that the most formidable wizard would not, if he
could help it, approach its shade. One, indeed, they said, who was very
renowned for his power (like Loorinite in the Kehama) of killing plants,
and drying up their sap with a look, had come to this very tree, and gazed
on it intently : ' but,' said the old man, who told me this, with an air of
triumph, * look as he might, he could do the tree no harm ; ' a fact of
which I make no question. I was amused and surprised to find the super-
stition, which, in England and Scotland, attaches to the rowan tree, here
applied to a tree of nearly similar form. Which nation has been, in this
case, the imitator ? or from what common centre are all these common
notions derived ? " {Bishop Hebcr.)

V 2

4l2 Omens and Superstitions

It often happens that the careless observer has for the first
time his attention called forcibly to some appearance of nature
by accidental circumstances : if at all superstitious, he imme-
diately prognosticates the most disastrous consequences from
that which a little more observation would have convinced
him was but a phenomenon a little more conspicuous than
usual. The northern lights are said to have caused much
consternation when first observed ; and they have lately been
viewed with more than ordinary interest, as it appears from
the Newcastle Chronicle, that last autumn [1830];, when they
were more than usually brilliant, some of the inhabitants of
Weardale were convinced they saw, on one occasion, very
distinctly, the figure of a man on a white horse, with a red
sword in his hand, move across the heavens; and are, no
doubt, now certain that it foretold the present eventful times.
Even this belief may be accounted for on such accidental
coincidences, or even philosophically, by assuming as a fact
that this phenomenon is the result of an electrical change in the
atmosphere, and that such a change usually precedes rain.
Now, if such happen in spring or in summer, and before such
a quantity of rain as is found to affect the harvest, it may too
often betoken scarcity, discontent, and turbulence, as such are
the times when all grievances, either real or imaginary, are
brought forward for redress. The origin of the superstition
of the sailors, of nailing a horse-shoe to the mast, is to me
unaccountable, unless it may have been, like the following, a
trial of the credulity of the superstitious by some person for
amusement. [Sailors sometimes make considerable pecuniary
sacrifices for the acquisition of a child's caul (foetal envelope of
the head), the retaining of which is to infallibly preserve them
from drowning. — J. Z).] Some years ago a pretty wide district
was alarmed by an account of the beans [jPaba vulgaris var.
equina] being laid the wrong way in the pod that year, which
most certainly foreboded something terrible to happen in a
short time, and this produced much consternation amongst
those who allow their imaginations to run riot. The whole of
the terrible omen was this : the eye of the bean was in the
pod towards the apex, instead of being towards the footstalk,
as might appear at first sight to be its natural position ; and
some were scarcely convinced that this was the natural posi-
tion of the beans in the pod ever since the creation, even on
being shown the pod of the preceding year with the seed
in the same position.

As yet, however, I fear we must sum up in the words of
Davy : — " Phi/s. But how can you explain such absurdities
as Friday being an unlucky day ; and the terror of spilling

connected with Natural History. 213

salt, or meeting an old woman ? Poiet. These, as well as the
omens of death-watches, dreams, &c., are founded upon some
accidental coincidences; but spilling of salt, on an uncommon
occasion, may, as I have known it, arise from a disposition to
apoplexy, shown by an incipient numbness in the hand, and
may be a fatal symptom ; and persons dispirited by bad omens
sometimes prepare the way for evil fortune ; for confidence of
success is a great means of insuring it. The dream of
Brutus before the battle of Philippi probably produced a
species of irresolution and despondency which was the prin-
cipal cause of his losing the battle ; and I have heard that the
illustrious sportsman to whom you referred just now was
always observed to shoot ill, because he shot carelessly, after
one of his dispiriting omens. Hal. I have in life met with a
few things which I have found it impossible to explain, either
by chance coincidences or by natural connections; and I
have known minds of a very superior class affected by them * ;
persons in the habit of reasoning deeply and profoundly."
(p. 159.) I am, Sir, yours, &c.

J. C. Farmer.
Coquet dale ^ Northumberland, May, 1831.

P.S. In p. 244. oiSalmonia is an excellent exposure of the
tale of the mermaid having been seen in Scotland ; and in
Butler's Reminiscences^ vol. ii. p. 103., is given a scene between
Sir P. Francis and Burke, which shows the latter's devotion
to natural history. — J. C. F.

* Shakspeare paints Cassius as a character exactly illustrative of this
remark, in his Julius CcBsaVy act v. Cassius, apprehending an unsuccessful
issue to the approaching battle of Philippi, thus remarks : —

Messala,

This is my birth-day ; as this very day
Was Cassius born. Give me thy hand, Messala ;
Be thou ray witness, that, against my will,
As Porapey was, am I compell'd to set
Upon one battle all our liberties.
You know, that I held Epicurus strong.
And his opinion : now I change my mind ;
And partly credit things that do presage.
Coming from Sardis, on our foremost ensign
Two mighty eagles fell, and there they perch'd,
Gorging and feeding from our soldiers' hands ;
Who to Philippi here consorted us ;
This morning are they fled away, and gone ;
And in their steads do ravens, crows, and kites.
Fly o'er our heads, and downward look on us.
As we were sickly prey ; their shadows seem
A canopy most fatal, under which

Our army lies, ready to give the ghost." J, D.

p 3

2 1 4 XooJogy and Comparative Anatomy

Art. II. Observations on the Zoology and Comparative Anatomy
of the Skeleton of the Balcenoptera Rorqual, or Broad-nosed
tVhaley notv exhibiting at the Pavilion, King's Metvs, Charing
Cross. By Henry William Dewhurst, Esq., Surgeon, Profes-
sor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy.

GENERAL HISTORY OF THE WHALE TRIBE.

The whales constitute a tribe of mammiferous animals
which, from their external appearance and peculiar habits of
life in their native element, the water, appear at first sight
to approach so near to the other kinds of oceanic inhabitants,
that it is no wonder the ancient writers on natural history,
who were but little acquainted with either the correct history
or structure of these creatures, should arrange them as
belonging to the class of Fishes.

There are no less than five species of whale which strictly
appertain to the genus J5alae'na. There is the same number
of species of the dolphin tribe, inhabiting the northern seas ;
and which have been commonly considered as whales by, the
public, without paying any attention to their distinguishing
characters.

The natural history of the whale is an object well worthy
the attention of the philosopher. In all probability it was
the whale which gave rise to the fabulous stories of hyper-
borean monsters; such as the kraken, which has been
stated to extend many thousand yards in length, like an
immense bank of sand, or a reef of rocks, upon the surface of
the water. Such exaggerations are, however, totally unne-
cessary for the purpose of exciting our wonder; for the
animals in question, in their own proper dimensions, are
sufficient for our astonishment. Those dimensions, when
sufficient time has been allowed for the full developement of
the animal, are certainly prodigious : — " There is no doubt,"
observes Baron Cuvier, " that whales have been seen at cer-
tain epochs, and in certain seas, appearing to measure 300 ft.
in length, and to weigh more than 300,000 lbs. Among the
various species of this genus, occasionally met with at the
present day at a considerable distance from the arctic pole,
there are some measuring from 70 to 100 ft. long."

It is in the order Cetacea that we find the largest animals ;
and the whale genus alone forms the most stupendous in the
whole range of animated nature.

Whales generally congregate in numbers ; the male never
abandons the female, which suckles her young until the birth
of its successor.

The Organ of SmelL — The great developement of the

of the Skeleton of Balcenoptera Rorqual. 215

nasal bones, and the power of the organ of smelling, enable
these animals to scent odorous bodies at a great distance.*

Non-existence of Teeth in Whales, — Their being devoid of
teeth forms a distinctive characteristic of the whales, from
the other Cetacea with which they have been popularly allied ;
but instead of teeth we find a series of lamina?, or layers, of
a substance resembling horn, denominated baleen, that has
erroneously been called whalebone, and which is supposed to
serve to retain their food.f

The Organs of Vision. — The eyes are extremely well
adapted for the element which whales inhabit ; and it is not a
little remarkable that, notwithstanding the immense size of the
animal, the whole diameter of each ocular globe does not exceed
3 in. : it is, in fact, about the size of an orange ; and, according
to Baron Cuvier, the crystalline lens is not larger than a pea,
when it is dried. The eyes are placed in the posterior part
of the head, in an orbit formed by cartilage and fat ; the lower
boundary of which is formed of a small process of bone,
which connects the lateral portion of the cranium to the
bones of the face. The situation of the eyes gives them
the facility of perceiving objects both before and behind
them, as also any that may be above their heads, when they
are below the surface of the water. These organs are
guarded by eyelids and eyelashes, as in quadrupeds and other
MammaHa ; and from what I have myself witnessed, I should
conceive these animals to be extremely quick-sighted, inas-
much as the seamen employed in the whale fishery suppose
them to be able to perceive objects under water at a very
considerable distance, and believe that the sight of a boat

* On perusing an excellent paper by Mr. Gordon, on the " Analogy be-
tween Vegetables and Animals," I observe that he doubts (p. 122.) whether
this sense exists in the Cetacea. The following experiment will, I believe,
remove that idea ; it is recorded by Count Lacepede, in support of the
commonly received opinion, that whales dislike bad odours : — " The Vice-
Admiral Pleville-le-Peley, being one day at sea, with his fishers, perceived
some whales above the horizon. He prepared to give way to them, but in
order to stow away the cod-fish which were in the boat, he ordered a great
quantity of putrid and pestiferous water, then in the hold, to be thrown
overboard, and the hold itself properly cleaned out ; as soon as the stink-
ing water began to spread its noxious odour, the whales instantly made off
and disappeared. The Admiral tried this experiment several times, and
the results were uniformly the same."

f " The plates of baleen strain the water, which the whale takes into its
mouth, and retain the small animals on which it subsists. For this pur-
pose the baleen is in subtriangular plates, with the free edge fringed
towards the mouth, the fixed edge attached to the palate, the broad end
fixed to the gum, and the apex to the inside arch. These plates are
placed across each other at regular distances." {Fleming^s FUlosophy of
Zoology.) ,

p 4

2J6 %oo7ogy a7id Comparative Anatomy

and its oars frightens them exceedingly. In clear water, Cap-
tain Scoresby informs us that he has known them to discover
each other at an amazing distance. This, however, is cer-
tain, that although they are capable of seeing objects through
the medium of their native element, yet in the air they are
unable to see far ; that is to say, when they are lying on the
surface of the water ; consequently, from this cause, they
are easily captured. The eyes are situated almost over the
entrance to the ears.

The Organ of Hearing. — The organ of hearing is very
nearly as acute as those of vision, by which means these
animals are warned of any approaching danger. Thus it
would seem that the great Author of nature had given
them these advantages, as they multiply but little, in order
that the species may be preserved. It is true, however, that
they have no external ear, and the opening leading to the
internal is almost imperceptible; but were this otherwise,
it might probably embarrass them in their natural element:
but when the delicate external scarf-skin is removed, a black
spot is discovered behind the eye, beneath which is the canal
leading to the organ of hearing. In short, the whale hears
the smallest sounds under water ; but above it. Captain
Scoresby considers these animals extremely dull of hearing :
for a noise in the air, such as is produced by a person loudly
shouting, is not noticed when only at the distance of a ship's
length ; but a very slight splashing in calm water excites its
attention, and occasions great alarm. The sailors frequently
preserve the internal organ of hearing ; the bone composing
it is extremely dense, and capable of the highest polish : it is
contained, according to M. Dubar, in two bones totally un-
connected with the skull, or any of the envelopements of the
brain ; it is irregular, being united to it by means of firm
ligaments. As in man, and other animals, this part is fre-
quently denominated the petrous or rocky bone. Baron
Cuvier describes the anatomy of the internal ear, which,
according to this eminent zootomist (Regne Animal, iv. 414.),
presents the following interesting peculiarities: — "From the
external orifice there is a narrow cartilaginous tube proceed-
ing to the tympanum or drum of the ear, winding through
a bed of fat : this canal pierces the superior maxillary or jaw
bone, and terminates above the spiracle or blow-hole in an
orifice rendered, by means of a small valve, impenetrable to
water. The internal ear is composed, similarly to that of other
Mammalia, of a labyrinth or cochlea, cochlearian orifice, three
semicircular canals, a vestibulum and its orifice, a tympanum
and its membrane, also articulated osselets placed within the

of the Skeleton of Balcendptera Rorqual. 217

tympanum from its membrane to the vestibulary orifice, a
Eustachian tube, with a canal leading from the membrane of
the tympanum, and opening to the small external aperture
already mentioned."

The Organ of Touch, — No portion of the whale has as
yet been discovered by zootomists to which this organ can
be referred ; yet, from the great maternal protection afforded
by this animal to its young, which it carries and preserves
under its fins, I cannot believe it to be destitute of this important
sense, which is found in every other known animal ; besides,
the habits and manners of the whale form sufficient evidence
in my mind of its existence, and of the great pain it endures
when the skin is wounded by the harpoon.

The Emhryo Whale, — The young whale, when discovered
in its earliest foetal state, is generally about 1 7 in. in length,
and of a white colour ; but the cub when born is black, and
varies from 10 to 14 ft., and Baron Cuvier asserts it to be
20 ft., which sometimes may be the case. Generally speak-
ing, only one cub is produced, occasionally two, but never
more. When the female suckles her offspring, she throws
herself on one side on the surface of the water, and the young
whale attaches itself to her breast. They continue suckling
for a year, during which time they are named shortheads by
the sailors, and yield above 50 barrels of blubber ; at two
years they are called stunts, and thrive but little when weaned,
scarcely affording more than 20 barrels ; after this period they
are called skull-fish, and their age is wholly unknown.

The Brain, — The brain of the whale is, like the eye,
extremely small in proportion to its enormous bulk. Cap-
tain Scoresby examined the brain of a whale 19 ft. long, and
it weighed only about 3} lbs., notwithstanding the weight of
the animal was near 11,200 lbs. Here the weight of the
brain was about ^oVo V^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ entire body, whilst
that of an adult man is equal to -jV part of the whole body.*

The Mouth, — This is generally of a serpentine form; the
lips are about 20 or 25 ft. long, and display, when open, a
cavity sufficiently large to afford a reception to a ship's
large jolly-boat and her crew. Duhamel-Dumonceau relates
that a whale captured in the bay of Sonsure, in 1726, had a
mouth so wide, that, when opened, two men might go in
without stooping.

The Baleen or Whalebone. — Teeth, of which the jaws are
divested, are substituted in the upper jaw by two rows of
laminae, denominated baleen, erroneously denominated whale-

* Dewhurst's Dissertation on the Component Parts of an Animal
Body, p. 57.

218 Zoology and Comparative Anatomy

bone, or, as Captain Scoresby calls them, fins. They are
suspended from the bones named by the seamen the crown-
bone, which forms the upper part of the mouth. Each of
these laminae is composed of a species of stiff hair or bristle
united longitudinally, and placed side by side. They are
connected together at their origin by a species of rabbet,
with a peculiar glutinous substance called gum, which is
white, fibrous, tender, and tasteless : it also cuts like cheese,
and bears some resemblance to the kernel of a cocoa-nut. The
laminae vary in number from 300 to 400 on each side, and
are of a bluish black colour.

Milk of the Whale. — Dr. Jenner tasted the milk of the
whale; and, according to him, it resembles that of most
quadrupeds in appearance, and he was of opinion that it is
exceedingly nutritious, that it contained more cream, and is
rich and well flavoured.

Velocity of the Whale, — Whales descend with immense
velocity, and frequently to the depth of 300 or 400 fathoms,
and that in the space of five or six minutes ; and are capable
of ascending in a similar manner, so as to appear as if dart-
ing out of the water. When they perform this feat, the whole
surface is thrown into the most violent agitation.

Colour of the Whale. — This is generally of a bluish or
blackish grey, sometimes they are piebald; the aged ani-
mals contain the greatest quantity of greyish matter, mixed
with white, whilst the younger are of a bluish black, and
sucklings of a pale blue or bluish grey colour.

Quantity of Blood in a WJiale. — Tlie quantity of blood
which circulates in the whale is much greater than that
which circulates in the vessels of quadrupeds. The diameter
of the aorta, or large artery arising from the heart, being
sometimes more than 13 in.; and the late Mr. John Hunter
estimated the quantity thrown into it, at every contraction of
the heart, to vary from 10 to 15 gallons, and that with
immense velocity. The heart of the whale is broad, flattened,
and larger in this animal, in proportion to its size, than in any
quadruped, as also are the blood-vessels.

The Pectoral Fins. — The fins are placed on each side of
the chest, and contain bones similar to the anterior extremity
of the digitated animals, strongly enveloped in strong con-
densed adipose membrane of a semi-cartilaginous substance.
From the peculiarity of structure in the fin, they have re-
ceived the name of swimming paws from Dr. Fleming, which
term is now generally adopted.

Longevity of the Whale. — There are no certain data, on
which we can form any accurate idea of the longevity of these

of the Skeleton of Balcenoptera Rorqual . 219

enormous animals. It may be presumed, however, that indi-
viduals of the larger species may have lived, according to the
estimation of Baron Cuvier made respecting the B. Rorqual
at Charing Cross, more than 1000 years. Should this be
any thing like correct, we need not feel surprised that the
genius of allegory should adopt the whale as the emblem of
duration.

HISTORY OF THE BALiENOPTERA RORQUAL,

Balaenoptera, from haUsna^ a whale, and pterouy a wing or fin. Rorqual,
in the Norwegian language, signifies a whale with furrows ; hence it is very
expressive of the distinguishing characteristics of this animal.

The history of the species of whale, whose skeleton I shall
shortly proceed to describe, may not be uninteresting to the
reader.

On the 4th of November, 1827, some fishermen of Ostend
discovered the dead body of a female whale floating in the
sea, between the coasts of England and Belgium. Not being
able to tow the enormous carcass themselves, the master of
the shallop Dolphin of Ostend, who had likewise discerned
it, employed the aid of his vessel and crew to move it, but
without success. They then called to their assistance two
other vessels, and by their united efforts surmounted the
difficulty, and were enabled to appear in sight of Ostend at
4 o'clock next day ; as soon as they entered the harbour, the
rope broke, and it was cast upon the eastern side.

The appearance of a whale of such enormous dimensions
created a great sensation; inasmuch as those which had
formerly been stranded or captured on the coast of Flanders
were of much smaller dimensions, and none had appeared
during the present century. These, however, we will briefly
notice.

In the year 1178, the magistrates of Bruges offered to
Count Philip a sea monster or whale, which had been
thrown, in consequence of a great tempest, on the coast of
Ostend. This animal measured 42 ft. in length. The form-
ation of the mouth and head is recorded as bearing a resem-
blance to the beak of an eagle and the figure of a sword.

The chronicles of Flanders report, that, in the month of
November, 1402 or 1403, there were thrown eight whales
before the port of Ostend : the longest measured nearly 70 ft.,
and produced nearly 24 tons of oil. On the 20th of January,
1762, there was discovered a dead whale, measuring 40 French
feet in circumference, on the ride between Blankenberg and
Ostend, nearer to the latter city. After having been exposed
to the public for five days, it was sold for the benefit of

220 Zoology and Comparative Anatomy

the sovereign, for the sum of 192 Flanders florins (about
16/. 135. 4^.). Several of these creatures have at different
times been killed or stranded upon the British coast. Captain
Scoresby has recorded several of these events. One was
captured on the coast of Scotland, in the year 1692. Another
was 52 ft. long, and had been stranded near Eyemouth, on
the 19th of June, 1752. Another, nearly 70 ft. in length,
ran ashore on the coast of Cornwall, on the 18th of June,
1797. Three were killed on the north-west coast of Ireland,
in the year 1762, and two in 1763. One or two have been
killed in the river Thames. Another was embayed and
destroyed in Balta Sound, Shetland, in the winter of
1817-18, some of whose remains were seen by Captain
Scoresby, who thus states its dimensions: — Length, 82 ft.;
lower jaw-bones, 21 ft. each; longest blade of the baleen or
whalebone, about 3 ft. Instead of hair at the inner edge and
point of each lamina, it had a fringe of bristly fibres, and
was stifFer, harder, and more horny in its texture, than the
same part in the common Greenland whale. The quantity
of oil produced from the blubber of this animal was only about
5 tons, of very inferior quality, some of which was extremely
viscid and bad. The total value of the whole, deducting all
expenses of extracting the oil, &c., was no more than 60/.
sterling. It had the usual sulci or furrows about the thorax
and dorsal fin.

To return to our Rorqual : M. Herman Kessels of Ostend
formed the idea of preserving so valuable an acquisition in
zoology and comparative anatomy within the kingdom, in-
stead of allowing it to be made a source of mere pecuniary
profit. The perseverance, philanthropy, and enterprising
spirit of this gentleman are well known. During the incle-
ment winter of 1827, he contributed to the comforts, healthy
and happiness of thousands of the indigent of Ostend, by
daily distributing food, soup, and warmth among them. To
cover the great expenses of this benevolent act, he addressed
himself to the wealthy of the town to further his beneficent
design, which alone procured him the blessings of all who
who had tasted of his bounty. M. Kessels had scarcely
formed the idea of preparing the skeleton of this whale ere
it was commenced ; as he publicly purchased it for the sum of
6230 francs (about 259/. lis. 8d.), jointly with M. Dubar,
an eminent physician of Ostend, on the 1 6th of November,
1827. From the time the Rorqual was thrown into the har-
bour, considerable doubt was entertained in the minds of
many scientific naturalists as to what species it belonged to ;
some declaring it a cachalot, other? a gibbous whale,. &c. &c.

of the Skeleton of Balcendpteva Rorqual. 221

However, from its possessing the longitudinal folds extending
from the throat towards the middle of the trunk, it was indi-
cated to be either a Rorqual, or the Finner of the whalers :
the latter is the pike -headed whale of Pennant. Various
reasons decided it to belong to the former species ; but every
work by professed naturalists exhibited contrary opinions.
Even the illustrious Cuvier himself was in error, inasmuch as
he states that all Cetacea with folds belong to one and the same
species ; whereas, according to Count Lacepede, the dorsal
fin proved it to belong to the second class of the whale genus,
which he has named Balsenoptera.

Towards the end, of November, 1827, M. Kessels went
to Paris, where he consulted Baron Cuvier, and returned with
Messrs. Dubar and Paret, the latter an eminent amateur
naturalist, on the 20th of December. They had exhibited
to this zoologist the whole of the dra wrings which had been
taken of the animal; and he informed them that the Balae-
noptera Rorqual and the Balaenoptera Juhai'tes, which
Lacepede and other naturalists had described as two spe-
cies, were only one and the same ; as their distinguishing
characters were so trifling that they might be easily con-
founded with each other. However, M. Dubar, notwith-
standing this opinion, determined on considering it a Rorqual
in the work which he published on this subject. To what-
ever species the individual specimen in question belongs, it
is doubtless the largest animal that has ever been captured,
and I do not hesitate to say that the skeleton is the most
perfect in Europe.

The following measurements will give the reader some idea
of the bulk of this animal : —

Total length of animal, 95 ft. ; breadth, 18 ft. Length of the head,
22 ft. J length of the lower jaw-bones each, 22 ft. ; height of the skull,
4| ft. Length of the spine, 69i ft. ; number of bones composing it, 54.
Length of ribs, 9 ft.; number (14 on each side), 28. Length of the fins,
12i ft. Length of the fingers, 4^ ft. Width of the tail, 22^ ft. ; length of
the tail, 3 ft. '■

Weight of the animal when found, 249 tons, or 480,000 lbs.

Weight of the skeleton, only 35 tons, or 70,000 lbs. ; being a little less
than one seventh of the entire bulk.

Quantity of oil extracted from the blubber, 4000 gallons, or 40,000 lbs.

Weight of the rotten flesh buried in the sand, 85 tons, or 170,000 lbs.

The dissection of this animal commenced under the super-
intendence of Dr. Dubar, on the 14th of November; in the
presence of a great number of medical and other scientific
men. The workmen were sixty-two in number, who were
employed both day and night ; they constructed a wooden
house close to the spot. By the 1 9th the skeleton was dissected
out, and deposited in a place prepared for that purpose ; but it
was not untilthe 20th of April, 1828, that it was articulated,

222 Zoology and Comparative Anatomy

and fit for exhibition. For this purpose the carpenters com-
menced on the 14th of January the construction of the
pavilion for its reception, the same now at Charing Cross.

When completed, M. Kessels, with the greatest Hberality,
gave several grand entertainments to the scientific men of the
town, as well as to the workmen who had been employed,
and likewise to the poor of the town ; in fact, there were
several days of great rejoicings. Medals of gold were pre-
sented from M. Kessels, by the governor, the burgomaster,
and by Lieutenant-colonel Dufrenery, commandant of the
place, to the heads of the following Societies : — To M. Jacques
de Ridder, as president of the Royal Society of Saint Sebas-
tien; to M. Philippe de Brock, president of the Society of Saint
Andrew; to M. Aime Liebaert, president of the Royal
Society of Rhetoric, who also received from the same gentle-
man the fourth medal, which had been offered as a prize to
the musical department of the Society.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE WHALE GENUS.

Naturalists of the present day divide these animals into two
genera ; viz. those which are without the dorsal fin form the
true ^alae^nae ; while those possessing it ar^, as already stated,
placed by Count Lacepede in the second genus, and deno-
minated the Balaenoptera.

The Rorqual belongs to the second genus, and may be
arranged as follows : «—

Class, Maramalia. Order, Cetacea. Tribe, -ffalae^nEe.
Genus, Balaenoptera. Species, Rorqual.

This genus is found not to remain so much to the north-
ward as the common Greenland whale {B. ik/ysticetns),
inasmuch as I have already stated its occasional occurrence
in the seas about Great Britain, Ireland, Norway, and other
nations near the arctic seas ; it has also been found in the
Mediterranean, near the Straits of Gibraltar. The pro-
portion of oil which whales of this genus and species fur-
nish is not to be compared with that supplied from the
jBalas^ia ikfystic^tus ; and the baleen, or whalebone, from
its smallness, is not so valuable. These circumstances, toge-
ther with its great velocity, make this species a matter of in-
difference to the whalers, who rarely attempt its capture.
This protuberance, in conjunction with a series of longitudinal
furrows from the throat to the anus, points out the indi-
viduals possessing them as either of the kind called pike-
headed whale, or Rorquals. Both kinds are discovered near
the 75th degree of north latitude. The Rorqual subsists
principally upon herrings and smaller fish, and its consump-
tion of these must be immense, when we consider its vast size.

of the Skeleton of Balanoptera R6rqual. 223

The back of our whale, when captured, was of a blackish
hue, and the belly white. The lower jaw is less pointed than
those of the other Cetacea, which is also a distinguishing mark
of this genus. The eye is situated near the opening of the
posterior part of the lips ; and as the condyles [knobs which
fit into sockets at joints] of the lower jaw are very high, so
that the top of the head is almost on a level with the neck,
the visual organs are therefore so contiguous to the top of the
head, that they frequently appear above the water, when the
Rorqual is swimming on the surface. The pectoral fins are
placed at a short distance from the opening of the mouth, and
nearly at right angles with the lips when extended. The dor-
sal fin is situated above the opening of the anus, and is very
small in proportion to the size of the animal. The tail is
divided into two lobes, with a convexity on the posterior por-
tion of each ; the inner margins of each lobe unite directly
in the middle, in a line with the termination of the spine.

The inhabitants of Kamtschatka make use of every por-
tion of the Jubarte or pike-nosed whale. The oil serves
them partly for fuel, in the preparation of their food, and
affords them light. The delicate pieces of baleen, or whale*
bone, they make into threads for the manufactui-e of fishing-
nets, lines, &c. The lower jaws are used as portions of
sledges, handles of instruments, &c. ; sometimes the ribs form
the framework of their cabins ; the nerves answer the pur-
poses of cord ; and the various portions of the stomach and
intestines form vessels to contain their drink and oil. The
skin, which they rudely tan, they form into sandals, bags, and
harness.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE ANATOMY OF THE SKELETON.

Having given a brief outline of the zoological character-
istics of this whale, I now proceed to make some observations
on the anatomy of the skeleton, which, as I have remarked
above, is that of a female.

In this skeleton there are several anomalies by which it is
rendered peculiar, when contrasted with the other Mam-
malia. There are but two distinct kinds of articulation, viz.
first, the hinge kind, as in the articulation of the lower
jaw with the head; and, secondly, the ball and socket
kind, forming the joint of the shoulder, on the articulation
of the arm-bone with the scapula, or shoulder-blade. There
are none of the movable or the semi-movable articula-
tions. Those I have mentioned possess cartilaginous surfaces,^
as they do in other animals ; and thus the effects of friction
are prevented : the other bones are only united by ligaments,
which, however, do not form any capsules ; they are inter-

224 Zoology a7id Comparative Aiiatomy

osseous, and serve more the purposes of agility than flexi-
bihty. The greatest portions of the skeleton are united
through the medium of intervening cartilages, even to the
fingers, that is, the bones within the pectoral fins. The
sutures are imperfectly formed, and in some places the kind
of suture termed harmonia can hardly be said to exist ; in
the head, especially, the union of the bones is so feeble, that
they appear nearly disunited.

Most of the bones of these animals are very porous, and
contain large quantities of very fine oil. The lower jaw-bones,
which measure usually from 20 to 25 ft. in length, are fre-
quently preserved on account of the oil, which can be drained
from them when they are conveyed into a warm climate.
When this is exhausted, these bones float freely in water.
They have very little of the compact substance which usually
characterises bones, and in some parts form portions which are
denominated epiphyses, that are but feebly connected to the
other bones ; and in the spine thirteen transverse natural
processes were found detached from the body of the bone,
without any apparent cause. Another peculiarity exists in the
articulation of the ribs, which are not united to the bodies of
the vertebrae, as in other Mammalia, but are connected through
an intervening cartilage to the transverse processes of the
dorsal vertebrae. This portion of the skeleton is pretty nearly
solid.

According to the observations of Sir Charles Giesecke, the
^alae^na ikfysticetus, or common whale, possesses thirteen ribs
on each side ; whilst in the B. Rorqual there are fourteen. An
additional distinguishing character in the Rorqual is the cir-
cumstance of there being at the muzzle a few small blades of
baleen, or whalebone, a character not found in any other
species of the whale genus, with a small bristly tuft, like the
mane of a horse, only much firmer in texture. This im-
portant feature in this animal is finely preserved in the skele-
ton. This fact has neither been mentioned by Pennant nor
Cuvier, and the Rorqual in Lacepede's Hist. Cetac, is any
thing but a true representation. There are no abdominal or
hind limbs in any of these animals ; neither is there any
vestige of pelvis, with the exception of a small portion of
bone analogous to the ossa pubis of quadrupeds.

The Head. — This portion of the whale bears some resem-
blance to a pyramid lying on its side, the point or apex being
in the front, and the base attached to the spine. We may
not improperly divide, for the purpose of description, the head
into five surfaces, viz. a superior, an inferior, a posterior, and
two lateral. The superior surface is of a triangular shape ;
its length being about 25 ft. : it is terminated anteriorly by the

of the Skeleton of BalcenSptera Rorqual. 225

muzzle or extremity of the palatine bones ; and posteriorly
by the vault of the skull, which is occupied by the brain, and
is distinguished by the frontal bone, which, passing in a semi-
lunar direction, terminates in a process that contributes
to form the anterior portion of the zygomatic arch ; thus
exhibiting an analogy to quadrupeds. From the top and
anterior part of the frontal bone the nasal bones are articu-
lated by sutures, and extend the whole length of the upper
part of the mouth. Beneath these are two vomeres [plough--
share bones], forming two thin osseous laminae, and these are
closely connected to the inferior part of the frontal bone.

The superior surface of the palatine bones may be perceived
externally, and they are of a more spongy texture than the
preceding. They are of a ti'iangular form, and are curved
at the external margin. Towards the posterior part there
are five or six large foramina [orifices], which afford a pass-
age for the nutritive arteries, &c. Between the above bones
there is a large space left in the upper part of the mouth,
which affords a lodgment to the ethmoidal bone [a bone that,
in the superior part of the human nose, resembles a sieve]; and
also for the spiracles, through which the animal ejects water ;
and these are popularly denominated the blow-holes. The
ethmoidal bone is placed in the cavity formed by the nasal
bones, and by which it is concealed : it is light, spongy, and
formed of thin laminae.

The lateral surfaces of the skull are likewise nearly trian-
gular, and extend superiorly only to the sides or parietes
[walls] of the nose ; presenting several furrows which afford
a lodgement to sevei-al important blood-vessels and nerves.
The use of these bones is to augment the nasal cavity ; they
are lined by a dense, thick, olfactory membrane, in which the
organ of smell is situated.

The inferior surface, like the rest, is triangular, and is
mostly formed by the principal part of the palatine bones,
and likewise possesses a great number of furrows and canals
which afford a passage to the nutritive vessels and nerves ;
in the exterior boundary there is a sulcus [furrow], which
indicates the place where the baleen or whalebone is inserted.
At the posterior part of this surface, and between the mastoid
processes [processes of the neck bone, shaped like the nipple
of the breast], the two bones containing the organ of hearing,
denominated the petrous, or, as I term them, the acoustic
bones, are placed. In the interior there is a nervous pulp, in
which the sense of hearing is supposed to reside.

The posterior surface or base of the skull is of a semicir-
cular form, with two large alae or wings on its sides, ^t the

Vol. V. — No. 25. q

226 Zoology and Comparative Anatomy

bottom of the pterygoid [wing-like] processes of the sphenoi-
dal [wedge-like] bone. There are the humular or hook-like
processes, to which the pharynx [upper part of the gullet] is
attached. The great occipital foramen [orifice in the back
of the head] for the passage of the spinal marrow from the
brain, is situated a little above the preceding. On each side
of this foramen [orifice] there are the semilunar condyles
[knobs] of the occipital [hind head] bone, which are articu-
lated with the atlas [the first bone of the neck] as in the other
Mammalia. The remainder of this portion of the skull is
occupied by the greater part of the occipital and the mastoid
processes.

The lateral surfaces are formed by the end of the palatine
bones anteriorly ; the zygomatic fossa [cavity] and its arch
posteriorly. This surface embraces portions of the temporal,
occipital, and the sphenoidal bones.

On viewing the head vertically, we find several interesting
peculiarities ; the occipital bone measures more than 3 ft,
in thickness, and is very spongy in its texture, whilst the ex-
ternal table is at the same time extremely thin ; consequently
the specific gravity must be very little, notwithstanding its
immense size. The nasal cavities are very largely deve-
loped, and in the living animal not only contain the olfactory
membrane, but likewise the spiracles, or organs by means of
which the whale is enabled to project water to a considerable
height above the surface of the ocean. The cerebral cavity,
when contrasted with the dimensions of the other portions of
the body, is extremely small ; beneath it is the point of union
of the vomer with the occipital and part of the ethmoidal
bones. "With the exception of the lower jaw-bones, all those
composing the head are of a spongy nature, and appear to
be formed of a series of laminae. The lower jaw, like the
same portions of other animals, and of the human infant at
birth, is formed of two distinct pieces of bone, vmited together
at the point or chin by symphysis, or a thin layer of inter-
vening cartilage ; each one forms a curve terminating in its
condyle, and measures 22 ft. in length from the chin to its
articulation with the bones of the head. It is extremely hard
and compact; the coronoid process which is separated from
the condyles by an almost horizontal space, which occupies
the place of a semilunar cavity found in the other Mam-
malia, affords insertion to the temporal muscle. They arti-
culate themselves with the glenoid cavities of the occipital
bone, in such a manner as to form a perfect hinge joint.
The superior margins of these bones are perfectly smooth,
and exhibit not the slightest vestige of any alveolar cavities

of the Skeleton of Balcerioptera Rorqual. 527

for teeth, which are found in several genera of the order
Cetacea.

There is a number of large foramina on the labial surface
of these bones, for the passage of large blood-vessels. The
anterior mental foramen is placed externally near the chin, and
is sufficiently large to admit a man's thumb : this leads to a
large canal, which traverses the body of the bone ; it con-
tains blood-vessels and nerves, which, having performed their
important duties in nourishing the bone, pass out by another
large hole on the inside of a hole that is situated about 2 ft.
from the back of the condyle.

The Os Linguale, or Bone of the Tongue. — This is of a
triangular shape, and its appendages make it appear an
immense volume of bone ; it is situated between the shoul-
ders, and above the bones forming the sternum [bone of the
chest or breast]. The body of this lingual bone is curved in
its form, the convexity of which projecting anteriorly, its in-
ferior margin is crescent-shaped. There is to be observed a
semilunar cavity at its smallest part, which, with the cartilages
and ligaments, aids in the living animal towards forming the
cavity of the throat. On its sides are some asperities, which
give attachment to some of its powerful ligaments, &c. The
top contains a deep sulcus [furrow], likewise lined with a
similar surface, for the purpose of allowing origin and inser-
tion to the muscles of deglutition. The bony appendages of
this bone are two in number, and are articulated by means of
loose ligaments to two extremities of the lingual bone. They
are curved throughout their length, the convexity approach-
ing inwards, where is a large and almost circular space in
their upper part, that in the living animal contains enormous
masses of fat. The remainder of these appendages are smooth,
and appear only to give connection to a few muscular fibres.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE SPINE.

This portion of the skeleton is composed of fifty-four bones,
and, with the head, forms a length which at first sight seems
impossible to have belonged to an animated being, did we
not know the creative power of an almighty and w^ondrous
God.

As in most of the other Mammaha, we can divide the bones
of the spine into four series : cervical, dorsal, lumbar, and
caudal.

'- Of the Vertebrce or Bones of the Neck, — The first three of
these have no spinal processes; but it appears, from its
projecting from the cranium, that the spinal marrow passes
from the brain into its proper canal, which is formed by the

Q 2

228 Zoology and Comparative Anatomy '■

three lateral processes of the first three bones of the neck,
(" Forme par des apophyses laterales des trois premieres cer-
vicales." Dubar.) This, it is to be observed, is only a suppo-
sition of the superintendent of the dissection, M. Dubar, who
states that the soft parts were in such a state of decomposition,
that it was almost impossible -to distinguish it. The true
spinal canal commences at the fifth cervical vertebra, and
extends nearly to the last caudal vertebra, being lost at the
fifty-fourth.

This canal is formed of a triangular shape, by a series of
spinous processes which make the arch on the bodies of the
bones composing the spine, for the reception of the spinal
marrow.

The Atlas, or thejirst Bone of the Nech — The anterior sur-
face presents two articular fossae [cavities] for the reception
of the condyloid processes [knobs] of the occipital bone, and
is the means of the head articulating upon the trunk ; supe-
riorly and laterally there are two canals capable of receiving
the human little finger, which give passage to the vertebral
vessels. The two transverse processes are tuberose and
asperated [roughened], for the attachment of the adjacent
muscles and lateral ligaments, permitting the head to perform
the various motions intended for it by the great Author of
nature. The posterior surface of this bone exhibits nothing
beyond a few irregularities by which it is attached to the bone
behind it. There is no hole or foramen in the transverse
process of the atlas, for the passage of blood-vessels and
nerves.

The second Bone of the Spine is of a curious yet regular
shape, presenting an oval figure, the great diameter of which
is transverse. This bone has no spinous, but has two enormous
transverse processes; each of which possesses a very large-
foramen, which exceeds that of the occipital bone by twice its
diameter. The third, fourth, and fifth cervical vertebrae have
double transverse processes, so that they do not, as in the
second, form a complete foramen or hole ; and the fifth exhi-
bits the rudiments of a spinous process. The sixth forms a
curve on its body, that, when united, has its convexity down-
wards.

The Bones of the Back. — These are fifteen in number,
although the ribs are but fourteen on each side ; the first of
which, being bicipital [two-headed], is united to the first two
dorsal vertebrae. The transverse processes have at their ex-
tremity an articulating surface for the union of the ribs — a
phenomenon peculiar to these animals ; and, consequently, the
motions of the ribs must be somew^hat limited. The bodies and

of the Skeleton of BalcenSjptera Rorqual. '229

processes of these vertebrae are very large, and in substance
they are more dense and compact than the other vertebrae ;
which may be supposed to be thus made stronger

" By Him who never errs,"

in consequence of their having to support the whole weight
of the chest, whh the heart, lungs, &c. &c. ; together with the
fins or swimming paws, and shoulder bones. This portion
of the spine is curved, the convexity is upwards : by this
means the cavity of the chest is greatly enlarged.

The Bones of the Loins are sixteen in number, and bear
considerable resemblance to the preceding, and are without
any articulating surfaces ; but it may be here observed, that
there exists not the slightest vestige of any abdominal limbs :
and there are found attached to these bones, by means of
muscles, two little bones, forming the ossa pubis ; and this
forms the only vestige of a pelvis. But I shall revert to this
subject presently.

The caudal Verteh^ce, or those approaching towards the
tail, are eighteen in number, and have bony appendages at
their inferior surfaces, with the exception of the eight nearest
to the tail where the appendages disappear. This portion of
-the spine tapers towards the extremity ; and, where it joins
the tail, it exhibits a slight curve, the convexity of which is
placed inferiorly.

Of the Ribs. — These are fourteen on each side, and form
the walls of the chest. The structure of these bones is dense,
firm, and compact ; which, with their size and thickness, ren-
ders the animal capable of resisting the most violent shocks :
with the exception of the first, which is almost vertical, the
others take a more posterior direction. The head of the first
rib is double, and articulated with the transverse processes of
the seventh and eighth vertebrae by means of tubercles received
into the articulated fossae [cavities] of the vertebrae. The
dimensions of this rib are very considerable, and the sternal
extremity of it is much larger than the sternum itself.
There is but one actual sternal rib on each side which is
fairly articulated with the sternum ; whilst the others are, as in
most other Mammalia, connected to that bone by a thick and
powerful intervening cartilage, of which only the first five
pair are real true ribs, and form any attachment to the ster-
num : the others are united to each other as the false ribs
usually are, and the last three are not connected at all ; con-
sequently, we not improperly denominate them floating ribs.
The fourth rib is the longest, and measures 9 ft, in length ;
the others gradually diminish as they approach the four*

Q 3

230 Zoology and Comparative Anatomy

teenth, which is the smallest. The appearance of the chest
as a whole will give the spectator a very good idea of the
framework of a small sailing vessel ; and it is impossible to
form any accurate idea of the dimensions of this cavity, with-
out making an examination of the interior : there only it is
that a true conception can be formed.

The Sternum or Breast-bone, — This bone, when contrasted
with the immense dimensions of the chest, is very small and
spongy in its texture ; and the layer of compact osseous tissue
covering it is so thin as hardly to be perceived. The shape
bears some rude resemblance to a cross, the apex or top of
which is carried forward. This bone gives attachment to the
first rib on each side, and is composed of three bones con-
nected by cartilage. It has two plain surfaces, and exhibits
nothing else worth mention.

o ^^

The Bones of the Pelvis. — The pubic bones, which I have
already cursorily mentioned, may not unaptly be considered
as appendages of the spine. They are extremely small, and
each has somewhat a triangular shape ; but one of the angles
is elongated upwards, and they bear altogether no small
resemblance to the marsupial bones found in the kangaroo
and other animals of New Holland, &c. They are found float-
ing in the muscular walls of the abdomen ; and the only con-
nection they have with each other is by a very loose ligament.
From their position, they, as far as we can perceive, can be
of very little service to the animal, inasmuch as they neither
possess size nor strength sufficient to protect the generative
organs, or to guard, during the pregnant state, the foetus
within. However, there is not the least doubt but these bones
must answer some important purpose in the animal economy,
else the allwise Architect of the universe would never, in his
wisdom, have constructed an organ insubservient to some
useful function.

THE ANATOMY OF THE THORACIC EXTREMITIES, OR PECTORAL

FINS.

The whale being deprived of clavicles, or collar bones,
the pectoral fins are composed of the shoulder-blades, and
what are, strictly speaking, the pectoral fins.

The Scapula or Shoulder-blade, — This is placed on part of
the last cervical vertebra, and partly on the first dorsal, which
it partly covers ; it is a very large bone, of which the supe-
rior part is semicircular, and the inferior nearly quadrangular.
The external surface is extremely smooth : there is no spinous
process ; but one, analogous to the acromion process of other
animals, projects about 15 in. beyond the neck of the scapula.

oftlie SJcelet07i of Bal^jendptera Rorqual. 231

This must afford attachment to some of the muscles ; the
remaining muscles must form connections with the smooth
surface, or with the superior margin of the bone.

The costal or internal surface has several strongly marked
prominences and canals, which diverge towards the semicir-
cular margin. These canals are evidently produced by the
ribs during the foetal or infantile state of the animal. The
superior semicircular margin has several strongly marked as-
perities, where several very powerful muscles are inserted.
The anterior margin, which is the shortest, is likewise the
thickest at the inferior part of this, and at the anterior angle ;
the coracoid process [resembling a crow's beak], and the one
analogous to the acromion just described, both of them pro-
jecting anteriorly, are separated by a very deep canal, which,
in the recent state, is filled up with a very fat cellular tissue.
The glenoid or articular cavity of the shoulder joint is found
at the anterior margin of this bone : it is very flat, and there
appears to be no attachment of the scapulo-humeral ligament,
from which the animal enjoys motion at this part to a greater
extent than the other Mammalia ; for the head of the brachium
or arm-bone, which is enormous, can ultimately employ all its
surfaces; in fact, it can describe full two thirds of a sphere. Be-
sides, the pectoral extremity not being controlled by a clavicle,
its actions are less likely to be limited. This is the largest flat
bone in the skeleton, next to those of the head ; its structure
is rather spongy, being only covered with a thin layer of
dense substance. The fins contain bones analogous to the
superior extremities in man, which I proceed to describe.

The Os Brackii, or Arm-bone^ is short, but thick; the
head is directed obliquely from outwards to inwards, where
it articulates itself wdth the glenoid cavity of the shoulder-
blade by means of a smooth and even articular cartilage ;
its cubital extremity is almost flat, and is articulated by simple
ligaments to the radius and ulna. All the external surface of
this bone is asperated, for the insertion of the muscles of the
shoulder, and also of those which give motion to the fin.

Of the Bones of the Forearm, — The radius is flat, larger
and thicker than the ulna, and offers no striking peculiarity,
except the hardness of its compact tissue. Its articulation
with the body is the same as with the ulna. The Ulna, or
Cubitus^ forms the inferior margin of the forearm ; it is flat
but curved through all its length: at the brachial extremity
is a flattened tuberose process, which gives origin to strong
tendons passing to the extremity of the fingers. The carpal
extremity is united to the hand by a powerful tendinous sub-
stance : all the body of the bone has externally a dense com-

Q 4

53^ Skeleton of Balcendptei'a Rorqual.

pact tissue of ossific matter. The interosseous Spdce^ or cavity,
between the radius and ulna, is very narrow ; it has a very
thick membrane, not unhke a piece of leather.

The Carpus, or Wrist, — This is composed of six large
bones ; some in the form of a cube, others in that of a cylin-
der. They appear to have no articulated surfaces ; but, on
the contrary, are at very great distances from each other, and
seem as though they were fixed in a thick tendinous sub-
Stance, which envelopes them on all sides ; so that, to pre-
serve these bones in their natural state, it was impossible for
M. Dubar to pay any attention to their particular shape.

The Metacarpus, or Hand, is composed of four long and
thick bones, the two middle ones bearing a resemblance, but
not in magnitude, to the thigh-bones of an ox ; and, with the
exception of the index, the three others are united to one and
the same bone. They are slightly curved, and are of an equal
thickness throughout.

The Fingers, — The fingers are four in number, and the
two smallest are the longest and strongest. The first, or the
index, has four phalanges ; the second, seven ; the third, six ;
and the fourth, five ; each having a space for a nail.

These bones or phalanges are independent of those form-
ing the metacarpus. All of them are separated from each
other by long tendinous ligaments, which are very flexible.
Thus we find great strength within a small space in this limb,
because it was there required : thus illustrating the beauty of
Providence, in accommodating every part to the office it is
designed to perform.

^"Q/" the Construction of the Tail, — The manner in which
Ihis tremendous and only weapon of defence belonging to
this animal is constructed is as beautiful in its mechanism
as any other part of the animal. It is wholly composed
of three layers of tendinous fibres, covered by the common
cutis and cuticle ; two of these layers are external, and the
other internal. The direction of the fibres of the two exter-
nal layers is the same as in the tail, forming a stratum about
One third of an inch thick ; but varying, in this respect, as the
tail is thicker or thinner. The middle layer is composed en-
tirely of tendinous fibres, passing directly across, between the
t"wo external ones above described, their length being in pro-
portion to the thickness of the tail : a structure which gives an
amazing degree of strength to this part. The substance of
the tail is so firm and compact that the blood-vessels retain
their dilated state even when cut across ; and this section con-
sists of a large vessel surrounded by as many small ones as
Can come into contact with its external surface: but which of
these are arteries, and which veins, has not been ascertained.

'Faculty of Scent in the Vulture, 233

General Remark. — The whale is of those animals that (no
tnatter which species) was once considered worthy to grace
the royal table, some portions having been prepared in the
most savoury manner for the royal banquets : and historical
records inform us, that, in ancient times, when a whale was
thrown on any of the British coasts, the spoil was divided
between the king and queen ; the king asserting his claim to
the head, and Her Majesty to the tail. Several statutes vest
the property of a whale caught on the coasts or seas of Great
Britain and Ireland in the person of His Majesty, who is,
however, to give a proper remuneration to all persons who
may be concerned in the capture of such a valuable prize.

8. Gower Place, London University.

A SHORT notice of the irtdividual whale, which forms the theme of the
preceding paper, will be found in our Number for September, 1828, Vol. I.
p. 283. A notice of a male spermaceti whale, captured on the coast of
Kent on the 16th of February, 1829, occurs in Vol. II. p. 197—202.
The capture of a beak-nosed whale, on the coast near Liverpool, noticed
in the end of April, 1829, is recorded Vol. II. p. 391. A useful re*-
mark on the structure of the hands of the whale is given Vol. II. p. 457.,
where it is observed that their flatness, pliancy, great size, and strength,
enable the whale to sustain the young closely compressed to its body,
as was remarked by Aristotle. An engraving of the species of whale
denominated Physeter catodon, is given in Vol. II. p» 477. fig. 1 14. Short
descriptive notices of two whales captured on the coast of Norfolk, one in
March, 1822, the other on Nov. 23. 1829, and also a notice of a third seen
spouting oflP Cromer, Norfolk, in the autumn of 1822, will be found in
Vol. III. p. 157. In Vol. IV. p. 163. a short description of one found
dead in the Channel, near Brighton, on Dec. 29. 1830, also occurs : this
measured 63 ft. in length. And a figure, and a general as well as technical
description, of a grampus (i)elphinus O'rca), a species of cetaceous animal,
captured in Lynn Harbour on the 19th of November, 1830, will be found
in our Vol. IV. p. 339.—/. D,

Art. III. On the Faculty of Scent in the Vulture.
By Charles Waterton, Esq.

" Et truncas inhonesto vulnere nares." JEneid. lib. vi.

" And nose demolish'd by a shameful blow."

I NEVER thought that I should have lived to see this bird
deprived of its nose. But in the third number oi Jameson^ s
Journal, a modern writer has actually given " An account of
the habits of the Turkey-Buzzard ( Fiiltur Aura), with a view
of exploding the opinion generally entertained of its extra-
ordinary power of smelling ; " and I see that a gentleman in
your Magazine (Vol. III. p. 449.) gives to this writer the

234. Facility of Scent in the Vulture',

honour of being the first man who, by his " interesting
treatise," caused the explosion to take place.

I grieve from my heart that the vulture's nose has received
such a tremendous blow ; because the world at large will
sustain a great loss by this sudden and unexpected attack
upon it. Moreover, I have a kind of fellow-feeling, if I
may say so, for this noble bird. We have been for years
together in the same country ; we have passed many nights
amongst the same trees; and though we did not frequent
the same mess, (for " de gustibus non est disputandum,"
[" there is no disputing about tastes,"] — and I could not eat
rotten venison, as our English epicures do,) still we saw a
great deal of each other's company.

Sancho Panza remarks that there is a remedy for every
thing but death. Now, as the vulture has not been killed
by the artillery of this modern writer in Jameson's Journal,
but has only had its nose carried away by an explosion, I
will carefully gather up the shattered olfactory parts, and do
my best to restore them to their original shape and beautiful
proportions. In repairing the vulture's nose, I shall not
imitate old Tahacotius, who, in times long past and gone, did

from

The brawny part of porter's bum
Cut supplemental noses, which
Would last as long as parent breech ;"

but I will set to work upon my own resources, and then the
reader shall decide whether the vulture is to have a nose, or
to remain without one.

We all know what innumerable instances there are, in
every country, of the astonishing powers of scent in qua-
drupeds. Thus, the bloodhound will follow the line of the
deer-stealer hours after he has left the park ; and a common
dog will ferret out his master in a room, be it ever so
crowded. He is enabled to do this by means of the well-
known effluvium which, proceeding from his master's person,
comes in contact with his olfactory nerves. A man even,
whose powers of scent are by no means remarkable, will
sometimes smell you a putrid carcass at a great distance.
Now, as the air produced by putrefaction is lighter than
common air, it will ascend in the atmosphere, and be carried
to and fro through the expanse of heaven by every gust of
wind. The vulture, soaring above, and coming in contact
with this tainted current, will instinctively follow it down to
its source, and there find that which is destined by an all-
wise Providence to be its support and nourishment.

I will here bring forward the common vulture of the West

"Pamlty of Scent in the Vulture, 2S5

Indies, the Fultur Aura of Guiana, the king of the vultures
of Terra Firma, and the vulture which is found in European
Andalusia. I am intimately acquainted with all these useful
scavengers ; and I have never known any of them to kill the
food upon which they feed ; or when they are in a complete
state of nature, free from the restraint or allurements of man,
ever feed upon that which was not putrid. Having slain the
large serpent mentioned in the Wanderings, though I wished
to preserve the skeleton, still I preferred to forego the
opportunity, rather than not get the king of the vultures.
I called Daddy Quasshi, and another negro, and we carried
the body into the forest. The foliage of the trees where we
laid it was impervious to the sun's rays ; and had any vultures
passed over that part of the forest, I think I may say, with
safety, that they could not have seen the remains of the
serpent through the shade. For the first two days, not a
vulture made its appearance at the spot, though I could see
here and there, as usual, a Fultur Aura gliding, on apparently
immovable pinion, at a moderate height, over the tops of
the forest trees. But, during the afternoon of the third day,
when the carcass of the serpent had got into a state of
putrefaction, more than twenty of the common vultures came
and perched upon the neighbouring trees, and the next
morning, a little after six o'clock, I saw a magnificent king
of the vultures. There was a stupendous mora tree * close
by, whose topmost branch had either been dried by time or
blasted by the thunder-storm. Upon this branch I killed
the king of the vultures, before it had descended to partake
of the savoury food which had attracted it to the place. Soon
after this, another king of the vultures came, and after he
had stufied himself almost to suffocation, the rest pounced
down upon the remains of the serpent, and stayed there till
they had devoured the last morsel.

1 think I mentioned, in the Wanderings, that I do not con-
sider the Fultur Aura gregarious, properly so speaking ; and

* Among various interesting extracts from the Wanderings lying by us,
we have one on the mora tree, which we beg here to append as a note.
— J.D.

The Moray in Guiana, is a lofty timber tree, the topmost branch bf
which, when naked with age, or dried by accident, is the favourite resort
of the toucan. It also frequently happens that a wild fig tree, as large
as a common English apple tree, rears itself from one of the thick branches
"of the top of the mora, and that numerous cHmbing epiphytes grow upon
the fig tree. The fig tree, in time, kills the mora, and the epiphytes the
fig tree. The birds are the agents that convey the seeds to the rotten
hollow stump, or decaying bark of the mora and fig. ( Watci^ton's Wander-
ings in South Americay Sfc.)

$S# Faculty of Scent in the Vulture*

that I could never see it feeding upon that which was not
putrid. Often, when I had thrown aside the useless remains
of birds and quadrupeds after dissection, though the Fultur
Aura would be soaring up and down all day long, still it
would never descend to feed upon them, or to carry them
oft^ till they were in a state of putrefaction.

Let us here examine the actions of this vulture a little
more minutely. If the Fultur Aura, which, as I have said
above, I have never seen to prey upon living animals, be
directed by its eye alone to the object of its food, by what
means can it distinguish a dead animal from an animal
asleep ? or, how is it to know a newly dead lizard or a snake,
from a lizard or a snake basking quite motionless in the
sun ? If its eye be the director to its food, what blunders
must it not make in the negro-yards in Demerara, where
broods of ducks and fowls are always to be found, the day
through, either sleeping or basking in the open air. Still,
the negro, whom habit has taught to know the ^ultur Aura
from a hawk, does not consider him an enemy. But let a
hawk approach the negro-yard, all will be in commotion, and
the yells of the old women will be tremendous. Were you
to kill a fowl, and place it in the yard with the live ones, it
would remain there unnoticed by the vulture as long as it
was sweet ; but, as soon as it became offensive, you would
see the Fultur Aura approach it, and begin to feed upon it,
or carry it away, without showing any inclination to molest
the other fowls which might be basking in the neighbour-
hood. When I carried Lord Collingwood's despatches up
the Orinoco, to the city of Angustura, I there saw the com-
mon vultures of Guiana nearly as tame as turkeys. The
Spaniards protected them, and considered them in the light
of useful scavengers. Though they were flying about the
city in all directions, and at times perching upon the tops of
the houses, still many of the people, young and old, took
their siesta [afternoon's nap] in the open air, " their custom
always of the afternoon," and had no fear of being ripped
up and devoured by the surrounding vultures., If the
vulture has no extraordinary powers of smelling, which
faculty, I am told, is now supposed to be exploded since the
appearance of the article in Jameson's Journal^ I marvel to
learn how these birds in Angustura got their information,
that the seemingly lifeless bodies of the Spaniards were
merely asleep, —

" Dulcis et alta qiiies, placidaeque simillima morti,"
" Sweet sleep, and deep, and like to placid death," —
and were by no means proper food for them.

Faculty of Scent in the Vulture, 237

Some years after this, being alongside of a wood, I saw
a negro on the ground ; and, as I looked at him from a
distance, it struck me that all was not right with him. On
going up to him, I found him apparently dead. Life was
barely within him, and that was all. He was a total stranger
to me ; and I conjectured that he had probably been seized
with sickness as he was journeying on, and that he had
fallen down there to rise no more. He must have lain in
that forlorn, and I hope insensible, state for many hours;
because, upon a nearer inspection, I saw swarms of red ants *
upon him, and they had eaten deeply into his flesh. I could
see no marks that the vultures had been upon him. Indeed,
their not being here caused me no surprise, as I had long
been satisfied, from the innumerable observations which I had
made, that the vulture is attracted to its food by the putrid
exhalations which arise from it, when it has arrived at that
state of decomposition which renders it fit, and no doubt
delicious, food for this interesting tribe of birds. While I
was standing near the negro, I could see here and there a
Fultur Aura sweeping majestically through the ethereal ex-
panse, in alternate rises and falls, as they are wont to do
when in search of carrion ; but they showed no inclination
to come and perch on the trees, near the prostrate body of
this poor unknown sable son of Africa. '

The terrible pestilence which visited Malaga at the be-
ginning of the present century, swept off thousands upon
thousands in the short space of four months. The victims
were buried by the convicts. So great was the daily havoc
of death, that no private burials could be allowed ; and
many a corpse lay exposed in the open air, till the dead-carts
made their rounds at nightfall, to take them away to their
last resting place, which was a large pit, prepared for them
by the convicts in the daytime. During this long-continued
scene of woe and sorrow, which I saw and felt, I could
never learn that the vultures preyed upon the dead bodies
which had not had time enough to putrefy. But when the
wind blew in from the Mediterranean, and washed ashore

* We have the happiness to find another of our extracts applicable as
an appropriate note. — .7. D.

The Red Ant of Guiana marches in millions through the country, in
compact order, like a regiment of soldiers. They eat up every insect in
their march ; and, if a house obstruct their route, they do not turn out of
the way, but go quite through it. Though they sting cruelly when molested,
the planter is not sorry to see them in his house ; for it is but a passing
visit, and they destroy every kind of insect vermin that had taken shelter
under his roof. (Waterton's Wanderings in South Americay Sfc.)

f S$ Faculty of Scent in the Vulture.

die corrupted bodies of those who had died of the pestilence,
and had been thrown overboard from the shipping ; then,
indeed, " de montibus adsunt Harpyiae ; " then it was that
the vultures came from the neighbouring hills to satisfy their
hunger; then, one might have said of these unfortunate
victims of the pestilence, —

" Their limbs, unburied on the naked shore.
Devouring dogs and hungry vultures tore."

In Andalusia, one day in particular, I stood to watch the
vultures feeding on the putrid remains of a mule, some ten
miles from the pleasant village of Alhaurin. Both kids and
lambs were reposing and browsing up and down in the neigh-
bourhood, still the vultures touched them not ; neither did
the goatherds seem to consider their flocks as being in bad
or dangerous company, otherwise they might have despatched
the vultures with very little trouble ; for they were so gorged
with carrion that they appeared unwilling to move from the
place. Now, seeing some of the kids and lambs lying on the
ground quite motionless, and observing that the vultures
paid no attention to them, I came to the following conclusion,
viz, that the vulture is directed to its food by means of its
olfactory nerves coming in contact with tainted effluvium
floating in the atmosphere ; and this being the case, we may
safely infer that the vulture cannot possibly mistake a
sleeping animal for one in which life is extinct, and which
has begun to putrefy.

If the vulture were directed to its food solely by its eye,
there would be a necessity for it to soar to an immense
height in the sky ; and even then it would be often at a loss
to perceive its food, on account of intervening objects. But
I could never see the vulture rise to any vei'y astonishing
height in the heavens, as is the custom with the eagle, the
glede, and some other birds of prey ; and I am even fully of
opinion, that, when these last-mentioned birds soar so high,
they are not upon the look-out for food. When looking at
.the vultures aloft, I could always distinguish the king of the
vultures from the common vulture, and the common vulture
from the Fultur Aura. Sometimes, an inexperienced observer,
in Guiana, may mistake for vultures a flock of birds soaring
to a prodigious height in the sky : but, upon a steady
examination, he will find that they are Nandapoas.

I conceive that we are in error when we suppose that
birds of prey rise to such an astonishing height as we see them
do, in order to have a better opportunity of observing their
food on the ground below them. I have watched gledes and

Faculty of Scefit in the Vulture, 239

hawks intensely, when they have been so high that they
appeared a mere speck in the azure vault ; still, when at such
a great height, I have never been able in one single instance
to see them descend upon their prey, during the many years
in which I have observed them. But, on the other hand,
when birds of prey are in quest of food, I have always seen
them fly at a very moderate height over the woods and meads,
and strike their victim with the rapidity of lightning. Thus,
the kestrel hovers at so comparatively short a distance from
the earth, that he is enabled to drop down upon a mouse,
and secure it as quick as thought. Thus the merlin and
sparrowhawk, a little before dark, shoot past you when you
are watching behind a tree, with inconceivable velocity, and
snatch away the unsuspecting bunting from the hedge. But
when food seems not to be the object, especially about the
breeding season, you may observe the windhovers rising in
majestic evolutions to a vast altitude ; but, if you watch till
your eyes ache, you will never see them descend upon their
prey from this immense height : indeed, the great distance to
which they rise would operate much against them in their
descent to seize their food. For example, suppose a mouse
to be on the ground, exactly under a hawk, which hawk is so
high up that its appearance to the observer's eye is not larger
than that of a lark, how is the hawk to take the mouse ? If it
descend slowly, the wary mouse would have time to get into
its hole ; if the hawk come down rapidly, the noise it causes
in darting through the expanse would be a sufficient warning
to the mouse to get out of the way. In order to have a pro-
per idea of the noise which the descent of the bird would
cause, we have only to listen to a rook in the act of what the
peasants call shooting, and which, by the by, they always
consider as a sign of coming wind; though, in fact, it can
easily be accounted for without any aid from conjecture. It
might here be asked, for what object, then, do many birds of
prey rise to such an amazing height in the sky ? I answer,
I know not. Why does the lark mount so high, and sing
all the time ? Flis female and other listeners on the ground
would hear him more distinctly and clearly, were he to pour
forth his sweet and vernal notes nearer to them.*

But to return to the vulture. After the repeated observ-
ations I have made in the country where it abounds, I am

* " Is it for thee the lark ascends and sings ?
Joy tunes his voice, joy elevates his wings.
Is it for thee the linnet pours his throat ?
Loves of his own and raptures swell the note."

Pope's Essay on Jllan, epistle iii. — J. D.

240 Faculty of Scent in the Vulture^

quite satisfied that it is directed to its food by means of its
olfactory nerves coming in contact with putrid effluvium,
which rises from corrupted substances through the heavier
air. Those are deceived who imagine that this effluvium
would always be driven to one quarter in the tropics, where
the trade-winds prevail. [Vol. II. p. 473.] Often, at the
very time that the clouds are driving from the north-east up
above, there is a lower current of air coming from the quarter
directly opposite. This takes place most frequently during
the night-time, in or near the woods ; and it often occurs
early in the morning, from sunrise till near ten o'clock, when
the regular trade-wind begins to blow. Sometimes it is noticed
in the evening, after sunset ; and, now and then, during the
best part of the day, in the rainy season. In Guiana there is
a tree called hayawa : it produces a deliciously smelling resin,
fit for incense. When the Indians stop on the banks of a
river for the night, they are much in thehabit of burning this
resin for its fine and wholesome scent. It is found in a hard-
ened lumpy state, all down the side of the tree out of which
it has oozed. It is also seen on the ground, at the foot of the
tree, incorporated with the sand. When we had taken up
our nightly quarters on the bank of the Essequibo, many a
time we perceived this delightful fragrance of the hayawa,
which came down the bed of the river to the place where
we were, in a direction quite opposite to the trade-wind. My
Indians knew by this that other Indians were encamped for
the night on the river-side above us.

When the eruption took place in the Island of St. Vincent,
in the Caribbean Sea, in 1812, cinders and other minor par-
ticles of matter were carried nearly, if not fully, 200 miles
to windward, and were said to have fallen at or near Barba-
does. Had there been a carcass, in a state of decomposition,
at the place during the time of the eruption, no doubt the
effluvium arising from it would have been taken to windward
by a temporary counter-aerial current; and a vulture in
Barbadoes might probably have had pretty certain inform-
ation, through his olfactory nerves, that there was something
good for him in the Island of St. Vincent.

Vultures, as far as I have been able to observe, do not
keep together in a large flock, when they are soaring up and
down apparently in quest of a tainted current. Now, suppose
a mule has just expired behind a high wall, under the dense
foliage of evergreen tropical trees ; fifty vultures, we will say,
roost on a tree a mile from this dead mule ; when morning
comes, off they go in quest of food. Ten fly by mere chance
to the wood where the mule lies, and manage to spy it out

RemarJcs on the Rook {Corvusfnigilegus L.). 24!

through the trees ; the rest go quite in a different direction;
How are the last-raentioned birds to find the mule ? Every
minute carries them farther from it. Now, reverse the state-
ment ; and, instead of a mule newly dead, let us suppose a
mule in an offensive state of decomposition. I would stake
my life upon it, that not only the fifty vultures would be at
the carcass next morning, but also that every vulture in the
adjacent forest would manage to get there in time to partake
of the repast.

Here I will stop, fearing that I have already drawn too
largely on the reader's patience ; but really I could not bear
to see the vulture deprived of the most interesting feature in
its physiognomy with impunity. These are notable times for
ornithology : one author gravely tells us that the water ousel
walks on the bottom of streams ; another describes an eagle
as lubricating its plumage from an oil-gland ; a third renews
in print the absurdity that the rook loses the feathers at the
base of the bill by seeking in the earth for its food ; while a
fourth, lamenting that the old name, Caprimulgus, serves to
propagate an absurd vulgar error, gives to the bird the new
name of m^t- stioallow. [See Vol. IV, p. 424.]

" In nova fert animus."

" The mind is disposed for novelties."

I am. Sir, yours, &c.
Walton Hall, Dec. 21. 1831. Charles Waterton.

Art. IV. RemarJcs on the Nudity on the Forehead and at the Base
of the Bill of the Rook [Corvus frugilegus L.). By Charles
Waterton, Esq.

" Quae causa indigna serenos

Fcedavit vultus, aut cur hasc nuda patescunt ? "

" What has unworthily disfigured your sedate countenancej
or why do these naked spots appear ? "

I HAVE more than once nearly made up my mind to sit me
down, some dismal winter's evening, and put together a few
remarks on the habits of the rook. His regular flight, in
congreoated numbers, over my house, in the morning to the
west, and his return at eve to the east, without the intermis-
sion of one single day, from the autumnal to the vernal
equinox, would be a novel anecdote in the page of his bio-
graphy. Tt) this might be added an explanation of the cause
of his sudden descent from a vast altitude in the heavens,
which takes place with such amazing rapidity that it creates

Vol. v.— No. 25. r

24f2 BemarJcs on the Booh

a noise similar to that of a rushing wind [see p. 239.]. His
mischief and his usefulness to mankind might be narrowly
looked into, and placed in so clear a light, that nobody could
afterwards have a doubt whether this bird ought to be pro-
tected as a friend to a cultivated country, or banished from it
as a depredating enemy.

I remember, some fifteen years ago, when I was very anxi-
ous to divert a footpath which had become an intolerable
nuisance, the farmers in the district said that 1 should freely
have their good-will to do so, provided I would only destroy
a large rookery in a neighbouring wood. On the other hand,
the villagers deplored this proposed destruction, as it would
deprive them of their annual supply of about two thousand
young rooks. Now the gardener abominated them. He
called them a devouring set ; said that they spoiled all the
tops of the trees ; and that, for his part, he hoped they would
all of them get their necks broken. I myself, for divers
reasons, was extremely averse to sign their death-warrant.
Were I not fearful of being rebuked by grave and solemn
critics, I would here hazard a small quotation : —

" Mulciber in Trojam, pro Troja stabat Apollo;
iEqua Venus Teucris, Pallas iniqua fuit."

" Vulcan *gainst Troy, for Troy Apollo stood ;
Venus was friendly, Pallas was adverse."

However, at present, it is not my intention to write the life
of the rook, or even to enquire incidentally into its vices or
its virtues. I merely take up the pen to-day, to show that
the nudity on the forehead of the rook, and at the base of
both mandibles, cannot be caused by the bird's thrusting its
bill into the ground.

Bewick is the only one in Professor Rennie's long and fan-
ciful list of "rudimental naturalists," "literary naturalists,'* and
" philosophic naturalists, and original observers," who gives
us any thing satisfactory concerning this nudity. He, sensible
natm-alist, cuts the knot through at one stroke, by telling us
that it is an " original peculiarity." Montagu says that it is
acquired by the bird's " habit of thrusting its bill into the
ground after worms and various insects." From the study of
Professor Rennie, this error is renewed to the public, in the
second edition of the Ornithological Dictionary, Let us look
into this error.

Every observer of birds must know that when the young
rook leaves its nest for good and all, there is no part of its
head deficient in feathers. Before winter, this young bird
loses the feathers on the forehead, under the bill, and at the

{CSrvztsJrugilegus), 24d

base of both mandibles. The skin where these feathers grew
puts on a white scurfy appearance. Now, if these feathers
have been worn down to the stumps by means of the bird
thrusting its bill into the ground, these stumps would fall out
at the regular moulting time, and new feathers would soon
make their appearance. If, again, these feathers have been
loosened at their roots by the process of thrusting the bill
into the ground (which I consider next to impossible), and
in consequence of this have fallen out from their places, new
feathers would be observed in a few weeks ; for when once a
feather is eradicated, nature instantly sets to work to repair
the loss by another ; nor do we know of any process that
can be applied with success, to counteract this admirable
provision of nature. Again, these new feathers being full of
blood at the roots, any application tending to grind them
down, or to eradicate them, would be so painful to the rook,
that it would not be able to thrust its bill deep into the
ground.

I request the reader to bear in mind, that these arguments
are brought forward only under the accepted supposition of
naturalists, that the feathers are removed by the process of
the bird thrusting its bill into the ground. But he who ex-
amines the subject with attention will at once see that the
process itself could not destroy the feathers on the head of
the rook; because, if they were destroyed by this process,
the carrion crow, the jackdaw, the jay, the magpie, and the
starling would all exhibit a similar nudity on the forehead,
and at the base of the bill ; for they all thrust their bills into
the ground proportionably as deep as the rooks do theirs,
when in quest of worms and grubs. Moreover, if the fea-
thers are eradicated by the act of thrusting the bill into the
ground, they would be succeeded by new ones, during the
time in which that act could not be put in execution; for
example, during a very dry summer, or during a very hard
winter ; and at these periods, as no action on the part of the
rook would operate to destroy the coming feathers, an evi-
dent change would soon be observed about the head of the
bird. In 1814, the ground was so very hard frozen, and
covered with snow for some months, that the rooks could not
by any means have an opportunity of thrusting their bills
into it. Still, during this protracted period of frost, I could
not see a solitary instance of renewal of the feathers on the
forehead, or at the base of the bill, in the many birds which
I examined.

I deny that the rook does, in general, thrust his bill deep
into the ground. Look at this bird in the pasture, through

R 2

244f Remarks on the Rook {Cormsfrugilegus),

a good glass (this puts me in mind of the Professor's sugges-
tion of a thermometer and a stop-watch, p. 102.), and you will
see that he merely pulls up the tuft of grass with the point of
his bill. When on arable land, he will be observed to thrust
his bill comparatively deeper into the mould, to get at the
corn, which having just put up its narrow greenish white leaf,
the searcher is directed by it to the sprouted grain. But he
cannot be at this work above a fortnight: the progress of
vegetation then interferes to stop the petty plunderer.

The quao of South America, a bird of the order of Pies,
has a still greater portion of the forehead bare ; and it must
have put on this uncouth and naked appearance in early
youth, for, on inspecting the head, you will see that feathers
have once been there.

I could never, by any chance, find this bird in the cultivated
parts of the country. It inhabits the thick and gloomy
forests, and feeds chiefly upon the fruits and seeds which
grow upon the stately trees in those never-ending solitudes.
In fine, I consider the accepted notion, that the rook loses
the feathers of its forehead, and those at the base of each
mandible, together with the bristles, by the act of thrusting
its bill into the ground, as a pretty little bit of specious
theory, fit for the closet ; but which, in the field, " shows
much amiss."

For my own part, I cannot account for the nudity in
question. He who is clever enough to assign the true cause
why the feathers and bristles fall oiF, will, no doubt, be able
to tell us why there is a bare warty spot on each leg of the;
horse; and why some cows have horns, and some have
none.* He will possibly show us how it came to happen
that the woman mentioned by Dr. Charles Leigh' had horns
on her head ; which horns she shed, and new ones came
in their place. Perhaps he will account for the turkey's put-
ting out a long tuft of hair, amid the surrounding feathers
of the breast. Peradventure he may demonstrate to us
why the bird camichi, of Guiana, has a long slender horn
on its head, and two spurs in each wing, in lieu of having
them on its legs. By the way, who knows but that some
scientific closet-naturalist may account for these alar spurs

* Why have pigs six or more small circular pits, about a quarter of an
inch apart, and ranged in a longitudinal, not transverse, row, on the inner
face of one fore leg ? Occasionally, the inner face of each fore leg is
marked with a row of these ; and, rarely, the pits or punctures are more
or less perfectly absent from both. They are, I believe, never observable
on either of the hind legs. On the fore leg, or, as it may be, legs, they
may be readily observed, just after death, when the butcher is depilating
these parts. — J. D.

Entomolofrical Notes, 245

of the camichi, through the medium of that very useful and
important discovery, the quinary system. Thus, for ex-
ample's sake, suppose these said spurs were once normal
or typical on the legs ; but, by some rather obscure process
having become aberrant, they made an approach or passage
to the wings; while the bird itself was progressing in the
circle, or leading round, in order to inosculate with the
posteriors of its antecedent. He who clearly comprehends
the quinary system will readily understand this.

If I had time just now, I would call in question the pro-
priety of the assertion that the rook " is furnished with a
small pouch at the root of the tongue ; " and I would finish
by showing the reader that the author of the second edition
of Montagu was dozing when he deprived the rook (Corvus)
of the good old sensible epithet frugilegus, and put that of
prsedatorius in its place. [See Vol. IV. p. 424.]

Walton Hally Feb, 10. 1832. Charles W^aterton.

Art. V. Entomological Notes on a Journey through several
English Counties, and in Wales and Ireland, during July and
August, 1831. By A. H. Davis, F.L.S.

On the 18th of July I left London, and proceeded, byway
of Birmingham and Shrewsbury, to Capel Cerig, in North
Wales, where I designed staying a day, and then Ascending
Snowdon. The weather, which had been unsettled for seve-
ral days, became, as I proceeded, excessively cold and vvet ;
and, on my arrival at Capel Cerig, the rain fell in torrents,
and continued the whole evening, detaining me within doors
The windows of the inn were constantly visited by many tri-
chopterous insects, so that I was not without sport ; and in^this
way I took a fine series of Phryganea varia, and several species
of Limnephilus. The two succeeding days continued very wet,
with much wind ; during the intervals of the heavy showers I
collected a little in a plantation, and on the mountain opposite
the inn. Among other captures may be named, of Coleoptera,
Cychrus rostratus, Carabus glabratus ; pitchy varieties of Cara-
bus catenulatus, Malthhius nigricoUis, Colymbetes affinis ; of
Lepidoptera, Eupith^cia nova species ?, Ypsolophus costellus,
Anchylopera retusana ; of Neuroptera, Perla minor ; of
Trichoptera, Leptocerus azureus and bifasciatus, Phryganea
minor ; of Hymenoptera, Nematus varipes ; of Diptera,
Sphegina nigra, Loxocera echneumonea, and a beautiful spe*
cies of Macrocera.

R 3

246 Entomological Notes on a Journey through Part

The afternoon of Friday proved fine ; and I resolved on
ascending Snowdon the next day. Accordingly, about 7 o'clock
on the ensuing morning, accompanied by a guide, I started,
the summit of the mountain being ten miles distant. There
was every appearance of a fine day, in which I was not
disappointed. The pretty moth Aplocera caesiata, much
faded, frequently flew out from the stone walls which lined
the road. I availed myself of such opportunities as pre-
sented themselves for collecting ; my guide, who knew the
locality, directed me to the spot for Carabus glabratus, of
which we took many. Higher up the ascent, and indeed al-
most to the summit, I took both the red and black-legged
varieties of Helobia Gyllenhal?'/ in considerable abundance,
and some few specimens of Helobia Marshalla/wr. Patrobus
rufipes was very common ; and I took one within 6 ft. of the
extreme summit, i. e. 3500 ft. above the level of the sea. I
should not have named this common beetle, but from its hav-
ing been described as a littoral [coast] insect. I reached the
highest peak of the mountain, called Ywyddra, about mid-
day : and, while admiring the magnificent prospect which an
almost unclouded sky afforded, I saw a P6nti« flit by ; and,
shortly after, a small Geometra, either Harpalyc^ fulvata or
Acidali«? bilineata. I was rather too late for Chrysomela
cerealis, which, together with Leistus montanus, were taken
on this and neighbouring mountains in June. I descended on
the Llanberris side of Snowdon, and proceeded, by way of
Caernarvon and Bangor, to Holyhead, and on the ensuing
morning reached Dublin.

On the 25th and 27th of July I availed myself of a little
leisure, to collect on the sand hills at Port Marnoch, about
eight miles from Dublin. Several of the Papilionidae were in
abundance; among others, Argynnis Aglaia and Hipparchia
Semek were very fine. I scarcely observed a single coleop-
terous insect, except Serica brunnea ; both days were dull,
with occasional gleams of sunshine. On the flowers of the
ragwort (iSenecio Jacobae^«), and close to the sea, I took
several species of the genus A'grotis, in excellent condition,
viz. valligera, tritici L. and hortorum Steph,^ which, I think,
is a variety of the former, and lineolata Haw. Among a
dwarf »Salix,a small but beautiful Tortrix, Lozotae^nia cruciana,
was in the utmost profusion, but very difficult to secure.
Many species of Bombus were also alighting on the various
flowers. Pompilus nigra, and Colletes succincta were also
frequent. These sand hills are fertile in good insects; and
Mr. Tardy, the most active of the few entomologists in Dub-
lin, informs me that the larvae of Actebia prae^cox, Miana-
literosa, and Phragmatobia fuliginosa are abundant. On the

of England.^ Wales, and Ireland, 247

same spot I also took Chrysopa viridis Dale^s MSS,, and
Thereva annulata.

On the 28th of July I returned to England by way of
Liverpool, and crossed the Mersey to the Cheshire coast, on
the sand hills of which I took Cicindela hybrida L., the ripa-
ria and apnea Steph. They flew well in the sunshine, and
were very abundant. The low herbage was crowded with the
various genera of Orthoptera, amongst which were some
beautiful species of the genus Gomphocerus. The ragwort
(jSenecio Jacobae^^) was equally abundant as on the opposite
side of the Channel ; but I did not observe a single specimen
of A'grotis. The delicate little moth, Phibal^pteryx lineolata,
was in fine condition, and I captured a good series.

Liverpool, although its neighbourhood affords great facili-
ties for collecting, has no entomologists ; and the collection
at the Museum is very indifferent. Thence I proceeded
to Manchester, in which spirited town the study of natural
history in every branch has many enthusiastic followers.
The late Edward Hobson, though moving in an inferior sta-
tion, contributed greatly by his ardour and talent towards
the extension of botanical and entomological knowledge. The
collection of the Natural History Society is rather extensive ;
and there are several very valuable private collections, both
of exotic and British insects, in the town and neighbourhood.

Many rare insects have been captured near Manchester,
and I had myself the pleasure of securing, on the banks of
the Irwell, Epaphius secalis, Blemus discus, Peryphus ustus,
&c. From various sources I also obtained specimens of Ble-
mus micros, ASaperda scalaris, and Bembidium paludosum. I
reached Halifax on the 2d of August, where there are several
active collectors. It is well known to most entomologists that
some of our latest novelties have been discovered on the moors
and in the streams of this district, such as Leiochiton arctica
and Read??, Tarns basalis, Helobia jE^thiops, Enicocerus
viridi-se^ieus and GibsonzV. In addition may now be enu-
merated a species of Agonum new to this country.* Here

* As this beautiful insect is undescribed, I will avail myself of a note to
present it to your numerous readers : —

Agonum fulgens Davis's MSS.; length 3 to 3| lines. Nearly allied to
A. austriacum. Of a brilliant fiery copper, mingled with a purplish tint ;
the sides of the thorax and the elytra reflecting a golden green, and the
suture on each side occasionally tinged with a grassy green. Head rugose ;
anteriorly, with a transverse impression ; posteriorly, smooth. Labrum,
mandibles, palpi, and three basal joints of the antennae, shining black, re-
flecting green. Thorax anteriorly with a curved impression extending to
the angles ; the sides considerably dilated, rugose, and elevated towards
the posterior angles, an abbreviated dorsal channel; the base rugosely
punctate, and the whole disk beautifully strigose. Elytra ovate, a little

R 4

248 Enlomolos^ical Notes

t>'

also I obtained several valuable insects, Lyda cingulata, Se-
landria dorsalis, Peltastes dentatus in Hymenoptera ; and of
Lepidoptera, Xylina combusta, Rusina ferruginea, Orthosia
gracilis and pusilla, Electro populata, Adela viridella, and
Cheimatophila castanea. Several spirited individuals have
lately established a museum at this place, and have lent their
own collections as a commencement.

At Leeds there is a good public collection at the Museum,
and one or two private ones. O'smylus maculatus is taken
at Kirkstall Abbey ; and 1 am indebted for a fine series to
Mr. Denny, author of an admirable monograph on the Pse-
laphidae and Scydmge^nidae.

York has several active collectors, from whom I procured
some valuable species taken during the preceding season,
Agonum sexpunctatum, Timandr« vespertaria, Hipparchu^/'a-
pilionarius, Macaria liturata, and Sirex juvencus ; the males
of this last insect are most commonly taken on the Minster,
and an acute observer there informed me, that it was his
opinion they merely made it a resting-point in their flight
from a distance, as he has frequently seen them alight on the
roof apparently exhausted, and shortly afterwards depart in
an opposite direction.

At Nottingham, Anthophora HaworthaW, of which the male
had been |:ireviously recognised, has been discovered, and both
sexes obtained. »Saperda ferrea, Serrocerus striatus, and On-
thophilus sulcatus have also been taken ; and 1 was successful
in procuring specimens of all but the last-mentioned*

Before I close these brief notes, I may state that I cap-
tured numerous rare insects in the neighbourhood of Black-
heath, Kent, during June, July, and August, among which may
be enumerated ; in Coleoptera, Donacia fusca, Pachyta laeVis,
iioplia argentea, Magdalis asphaltina, Ophonus puncticoUis
and foraminul5sus, Tillus elongatus; in Hymenoptera, Paen
equestris c? and ?, Saropodafurcata, subglobosa, and t^ulpina,
Panurgus wrsinus, Selandria ovata, Dosytheus abletis; and
in Lepidoptera, JEgev'm mutillseformis, Semasia WGeherdita,
&c., besides numerous other insects of moderate rarity.

I am. Sir, yours, &c. A. H. Davis.

London Dec, 5. 1833.

depressed, delicately punctate-striate, and the interstices minutely strigose.
Between the second and third striae are five impressed dots ; and in some
specimens, another nearly at the termination of" the seventh stria, and an
irregular series of impressions on the margin : deeper towards the apex, and
of a triangular form. Beneath, shining dark green, with a brassy tinge ;
femora and tibiae shining black, reflecting a rosy tint; tarsi totally black.

Observations. The elytra, in some cases, suffused so as to resemble tar-
nished copper. — Habitat. The high moors near Halifax, during the win-
ter ; discovered by Mr. Booth, but exceedingly rare.

Captures of Insects in 1830 and 1831. 249

Art. VI. Captures of Insects during Part of 1830 and Part of
1831. By J. C. Dale, Esq. A.M. F.L.S. F.C.P.S. and Z.C.

{Continued from Vol. IV. p. 267.)

Sir,
I SEND you a list of my captures, in continuation of those
published in Vol. IV. p. 265. To those there recorded I also
supply some corrections and amendments. All my insects
are named according to Mr. Curtis's Guide to an Arrange^
ment of British Insects.

I am, Sir, yours, &c.

J. C. Bale.

Errata and Emendations. — Page 265. line 33. For " Cornwall," read
" Somerset." 1. 36. for " Milesia, n. s." read " Spilomyia femorata ? "
Curtis' s Guide, 1231, 1. 1. 37. for « ^latta Panzer/," read " .Blatta lap-
ponica," C. G. 445, 6. 1. 40* insert " June 17th " before " Fiimea niti-
della," C. G. 827, 6. 1. 41. for Pterophorus tridactylus," read " ochrodac-
tylus," C. G. 1040, 13. 1. 42. for « Pyrausta angulalis," read « cingulalis,"
C. G. 972, 2. 1. 53. after « Heraerobius " add " fusciis ? " C. G. 741, 3.
1. 50. after " Cleora cinctoria J," add « $ ," C. G. 89 1, 12. 1. 53. for « Cuiex
concinnus," read " 5-cinctiis," C. G, 1137, 17.— Page 266. line 11. for
" j^^mpis pennipes," read " vitripennis," C. G. 1207, 12. 1. 21. for " Liasa
sea," read " on blue lias near the sea." 1. 23. for " Geom. ambatata," read
" rubidata," C. G. 930, 3c 1. 25. for " tolerable plumage," read " plenty."
1. 28. for "piniaria," read " prunaria," C. G. 897, 1. 1. 29. after " ^om-
bylius " add " minor," C. G. 1194, 5. 1. 29. for " Cistus perfolius," read
" Helianthemum />olif61ium (in plenty )." 1. 32. after " Helophilus " add
" ae'neus (variesated eyes)," C.G. 1246,2. 1.36. for " Islington," read
" Ilsington." L 38. after "Medeterus" add " balticus," C.G. 1256,9.
1. 39. after « Bee " add " Hyloe'us annularis," C. G. 698, 2. 1. 40. The
rare rush on Appledore sand hills grows high, and the points sharp and
dangerous. 1. 44. after " Pterophorus " add " simjliclactylus," C. G.
1040, 17. 1. 45. after " Tortrix " add " Cnephasia littoralis," C. G. 959, 11.
1. 46. for " barbatella?" read " Lepidocera littoralis ? " C. G. 1034 ? 1. 51.
" ikfusca pyrastri bred, larva found at Appledore," C. G. 1240, 7. 1. 57. " The
Tipula is Limnobia xanthoptera," C. G. 1157, 25. — Page 267. line 2.
" The Acanthia elegantula ? " C. G. 1094, 8.

The jBpipactis palustris, p. 266. 1. 20., was rather scarce, only two or three
plants; but this year I found several in a moist copse at Glanvilles Wootton.
The Campanula /(ederacea, p. 266» 1. 35. (figured in Curtis's Brit. Ent.,
pi. 257.), was scarce, in a swampy place near West Spitchweek Park. The
Evi\i\\6vhia Paralias (pi. 3.) was in plenty, and also at Dawlish Warren.
This year I have raised, from the seed, A'uphorb/a portlandica (pi. 322.),
Helianthemum jpolifoiium, and Dianthus cae'sius, from Cheddar Cliff'.

Captures continued.
1830.— Sept. 16th. Lewell : A'grotis crassa ? — 23d. Glanvilles
Wootton: Ilaliplus elevatus, Hydroporus 12-pustulatus, O^cys rubens. —
28th. Portland : Aphodius joorcus, A'crida grisea in plenty; Halictus ^
xanthopus ? A^phis ? Tephritis marginata. — 29th. Lyndhurst in New
Forest : jBlatta perspicillaris ? $ on holly ; Peronea Desiontamidna, white-
thorns ; P. litterana and squamana, Gracillaria hemidactylella, Pterophorus
calodactylus, Tssus coleoptratus, holly. — 30th, Near Brockenhurst i Co-

250 Captures of Insects

lymbetes agilis, E'later sanguineus, Gerris apicalis, iocusta rubicunda and
lineata ?

Oct. 1st. Near Lyndhurst : ^cheta sylvestris, in plenty; Gomphocerus
rufus, Ochthera Mantis, on rushes in pools of water in gravel pits. —
2d. At Barton Cliff, saw Borborus hirtipes ? — 4th. Mudeford Beach:
^ and $ Reduvius subapterus, Heleomyzae sp. ? At Hume Beach,
Christchurch : Gomphocerus biguttatus ? Pompilus sp, ? Proctotrupes cam-
panulata ^ and $ , Simaethis Myllera«ff, on a species of mint ; Nemoura
piiicornis, Pentatoma bidens, Corixa fossarum and lacustris ? — 5th. Near
Wareham, Dorset : Saw Collar Edusa. — 6th. Maiden Castle, near Dor-
chester : Adimonia nigricornis, Micropeplus jporcatus and ^taphylinoides,
Ceutorhynchus horridus, Thylacites geminatus, iocusta sp. ? green, with
very short under-wings ; Timarcha coriaria, P6nti« napi $ , large. Near
Dorchester, by the river : Tanypus monilis. — 13th. At Glanvilles Woot-
ton : Corixa affinis, stagnalis and n. s. ? — 15th. At West Camel, Somer-
set : Noterus sparsus. — 17th. Vanessa Atalant«, bred (pupised Sept. 20th).

— 19th. Electra testata, n. g. dilutata and Pontia napi. — 20th. Gracil-
laria rufipenella. — 22d. Near Glanvilles Wootton : Colymbetes pulverosus,
oblongus, and Stiirmw, Hjgrotus^ reticulatus ? Hydroporus dorsalis and
ovalis, Noterus sparsus, Naucoris cimicoides, in plenty; Z)y ticus punctulatus
^ and $ , Corixa lateralis, &c. — 23d. Hydroporus lineatus and rufifrons ?

— 31st. N. G. Phryganella and Pontic napi.

Nov. 7th. Miselia aprilina and Hybernia brumata. — 17th. N. G. dila-
tata and Hybernia brumata.

Dec. 7th. Two or three Tortrices and Tineae, much worn.

1831. March 17th. Weston on the Green, near Oxford: Saw speci-
mens which had just been taken here of Nyssia hispidaria and Lobophora
polycommata. — 21st. At Weston : Helophorus fennicus, under stones. —
28th. Glanvilles Wootton : Orthosis pusilla and G. badiata.

April 4th. At Glanvilles Wootton : Andrena nitida ^ and $ and Clerk-
elltty Pter6phorus tesseradactylus. — 14th. Pontia cardamines, Geom. suf-
fumata. — 15th. Yponomeuta lutaria?— ^ 17th. Hadena lithorhyza, G.
dilatata.— - 18th. G. fluctuata, Epigraphia Steinhelnerawa, CEcophora sul-
phurella. — 28th. Bred, P6ntia rapae.

May 1st. Lampronia rubrifasciella. — 7th. Lampronia auropurpurella
and subpurpurella, -Bibio n. s. ^ and $ , in plenty ; Pipunculus sp. ? small.

— 10th. Geom. suberaria. — 11th. ^ibio venosus $ and vernalis ? Pi-
punculus sp. ? larger than the other ; Oomorphus concolor Curtis' s Brit.
JEnt., pi. 347. ? $ A^bia sericea, Tortrix DaldorfaV^a and maculosana.

— 13th. -Sombyx menthrastri, bred; M. Euphrosyn/?, Hesperia malvae ?
and tages, Libellula 4-maculata, Hylotoma J" ustulata, the antennae much'
thinner; Banchus pictus ? Botys purpuralis. — 17th. At Christchurch,
Hants : Several Phryganeae, Potomaria fusco-cuprea, &c. ; Silo pallipes ?
Leptocerus autumnalis, Goera subnubila, &c. — 19th. Near Lyndhurst,
New Forest : jSuprestis nitidula n. s., E'later ustulatus and 2-pustulatus,
Callidium mysticum and Leptura praeusta, pupa of Pieris crata2^gi,and larva
of ^ombyx cratae'gi, Geometra orbicularia and Botys terminalis ? — 20th.
OEdemera sanguinicollis (Curtis's Brit. Enf., pi. 390.) and viridissinia,
E'later praeustus ? and sanguineus, Leptura sex-guttata, O'smylus maculatus,
Hemerobius fuscus ? Ctenophora flaveolata and Milesia speciosa, Xylo-
phagus scutellaris? $, Clcora cinctaria ^ and ^, much worn. — 21st.
Melitae'a A'rtemi^ and Hamearis Lucina, Peltastcs (Mr. Rudd), with blue-
black wings $ T. R. ; A'radus depressus, by Mr. Rudd. — 23d. /'ps
4-guttata and 4-punctata ? Raphidia and larva, by Mr. Matthews ; A^radus
corticalis, A'nax imperator. — 25th. Melandrya caraboides, Mycetocharis
scapularis, Callidium testaceum, Pachyta collaris, by Mr. Matthews ; Mal-
thinus, all black; Criorhina floccosa (Mr, Rudd took Tinea Steinkell-

during Part of 18S0 and 1831. 251

neri and tessellata? — 26th. Simaethis punctosa? G. linearia, Leptura
scutellata, by Mr. Matthews, and Spilomjia cimosa by Mr. Rudd. — 27th.
Ctenophora nigricornis and sp. ? Melandrya canaliculata, by Mr. Mat-
thews j Cicada anglica, by Mr. Matthews; Microdon apiformis. — 28th.
Cicada anglica ; larvae of" J56mbyx monacha ; larvae of iV. sponsa, pro-
missa, &c. — 30th. Lithosia rubricollis, Geometra chaerophyllata, E''nipis
pennipes ^ , Scaphidium 4-maculatum, Leptura nigra, lae' vis, and abdo-
minalis ; Dasytes nigra ? (^ and $ ; Thymalus limbatus, Tortrix arenaria,
and permixtana, Criorhina berberine, by Mr. Curtis. — 31st. Malachius
bituberculiitus.

June 1st. Near Decoy Pond : Phryganea Dklei, Curtis* s MSS. ; Donacia
fusca, Corixan.s. ? Ctenophora pectinicornis §, Melitae^« Selene, A^'phis
quercus ? Bupalu* favillacearius, Phytonietra ae^nea, Donacia typhae, &c. ;
Platynus angusticollis, &c. — 2d. Argynni*, larva pupised j Pieris cra-
tae^gi, H. Lucina, Cordiilia ae'nea, Buprestis nitidula, Cryptocephalus bi-
pustulatus. Lamia nubila, taken ; Loxocera hantoniensis Dale's MSS. ;
Ctenophora nigricornis, Xylophagus compeditus? by Mr. Curtis. — 4th.
Uleiota flavipes, Melasis buprestoides, Lyctus fuscus and Bitoma crenata.

— 8th. Ramsdown, Hants : Cicindela sylvatica, Cordulia compressa, by
Mr. Curtis. — 9th. Bourne Mouth, Hants : Tephritis syngenesiae, Cicin-
dela maritima, by Mr. Curtis. — 10th. Wareham Harbour, Dorset : Cara-
bus nitens, E'laphrus uliginosus, and Gyrinus villosus by Mr. Curtis;
Ochthebius maritimus, Acanthia zostera, marginalis, &c. \ Dolichopus pen«
nipes, Xylota bifasciata, Donacia fasciata, simplex, &c. — 13th. Glanvilles
Wootton : Curculio abietis. — Hth. Polyommatus A^ci^. — 20th. Rha-
phium, white ; Oxycera analis, Pachygaster Leachw, Throscus rfermestd-
ides, Phryganea dorsettensis. — 21st. Anobium ptinoides, on aider;
Laphria nigra, Middlemarsh Wood ; Microdon «pif6rmis, Mr. Curtis ; Gec-
metra syringaria, prunaria, and flexula. — 22d. 7^abanus vittatus ^ and ^ .

— 24th. Portland : Harpalus melampus, and thoracicus and vernalis ;
Otiorhynchus rugifrons ? Mazoreus by Mr. Curtis ; and a pug, Acidalia de-
generaria Curt. Br.Ent., pi. 384. ; Carabus n. s. ? Proctotrupes campanulator,
Ocyptera brassicaria by Mr. Curtis; Phycita cryptella ? and another;.
Andrena sp. ? n. g. strigosa, Colia* Edus«, Hipparchia Galathae'«, GEd^-
mera lurida, Macroglossa steilatarum. — 26th. Bred, Argynnis Paphia. —
27th. Bred, ^ombyx ziczac. — 2Sth. ^Sargus nitidus, Tortrix hastiana,
Peronea sp, ? — 29th. Thecla quercus, bred ; Oxycera pulchella.

July 1st. (^ and $ Bombus Burrella?zz<5, Chermes ? striped body;
Oxycera formosa. — 2d. Cloeon bioculata ? Gracillaria (A mark) sp. ?,
Cryptocephalus pusillus var. N. B. They never vary in Portland, but
they do here. A plant, j^pipactis palustris. *— 3d. i?6mbyx monacha bred
(the last ditto, bred Aug. 3d.). — 4th. Papilio Machaow bred; larva of
^ombyx coryli, bred 28th; Cimex albo-raarginata. — 6th. Phytometra
lusoria, jBombyx dominula. — 9th. Saw A^nax imperator in our pond ! ! !
saw Tinea punctaurella ? Geometra thymiaria and Tinea sequella ? —
10th. Geometra volutaria and procellata, N. trapetzina bred. — 11th.
Portland : Banchus monilineatus ^ and $ , ichneumon, allied to Banchus ;
A'octua conigera, Cleodobia angustalis $ , Phycita carnea and sanguinea,
n. g. silacella, Tephritis pallida, on thistles. — 12th. Portland: Ocyptera
brassicaria, Pterophorus lunccdactylus $ , Hipparchi« Galathae^«, Tortrix
Zoega/ia and Orthotae'nia n. s. — 13th. Isthmus ot'Portland : Harpalus n.s.?
allied to stygius, but much larger and Hatter; Cistela sulphurea, Thereva
sp. ? Helophilus se^neus ^ . — 14th. At Charmouth : Cicindela and Pan-
orpa germanica, Tinea cinctella and Damophila trifolii Curtis's Brit. Ent.,
pi. 391.; Pterophorus similidactylus, /Isiraca pulchella and Platycephala
umbraculata, and O'rtalis omissa. — 15th. Pinny Devon, near Lyme Regis>
Dorset : Eudorea lineola, Phycita sanguinea, Tinea praeangusta, Pacby'-^
gaster 2 sorts, Oxycera ^ardalina ? ? and 2 n. s, — 21st. Appledore, Devon :

252 Peter.Smali parasitic on "Musca larvdrum^

Oxybelus uniglumis (insects remarkably scarce there). — 22d. Near Oak-
hampton, Dartmoor, &c.: Argynni,? Paphw, in great plenty. — 26th. At
Torquay: Cistela sulphiirea, in plenty; Ophonus angustatiis, Lycae^nrt
Argioliw, seen j Medeterus n. s. ? on rocks nearly covered at high water. —
27th. At Dawlish : Musca meridiana. — 28thr At Glanvilles Wootton :
iVoctua promissa, bred. — 29i;h. At Glanvilles Wootton : iVoctua sponsa,
bred ; and B. coryli.

Aug. 1 1th. Acilius, in our pond ; the first I have taken for thirteen or
fourteen years ; A'octua punicea. — 14th. At B. Caundle : Saw L. Argi-
oXxxs. — 16th. Lophyrus rufus § , bred ', they all pupised on the 2d of June,
and they continued to breed till the 16th of Septe)nber. — 17th. Vanessa
cardui, Tortrix populana. — .31st. Cassida anglica.

Sept. 2d. Vanessa Atalanta ; saw two of Colias Edusa. — 6th. Two
larvae in a case (Penthophera ?). At Stafford, Dorset : Saw some Mymars
(Bombus Burrellanz^^). — 8th. At Dorchester : Hemerodromia monostig-
ina. — 12th. Cassida anglica and Chrysomela quinquejugis, Galeruca vi-
burni, Phryganea echinata, Simaethis lutosa, Tortrix trapetzana, Curculio
sp. V Dromius 4-guttatus, ^ombyx cceruleocephalus, bred. — 16th. Bred,
iVoctua lambda. — 17th. Plutella asperella and dentella ? Peronea stri-
ana, Tinea sp. ? — 19th. *S'argus flavipes, Corixa dorsalis ? — 23d, Ache-
rontia A'tropo,y, brought here by Mrs. Williams's gardener. — 25th. The
Penthophera larva appears to be spun up. — 30th. /chneiimon, bred from
-B. caeruleocephalus ; larva of Geometra lichenaria ? spun up.

Oct. 12th. Geometra pennaria ^ and $ , bred.

Nov. 4th and 14th. Tortrix caudana, worn ; Z^ampjris noctiluca $
brought by John Bolt. — 24th. Tinea like anastomosis, in our window. —
30th. Saw Scatophaga sp. ?
. Dec. 1st. Sarrothripus punc, window. — 2d. $ J56mbyx populi, bred.

Art. VII. An Account of the parasitk Musca larvhrum preyed on
by parasitic Pteromali, ivhile both were in the Body of Fhalcena
Bombyx Caja, By Edward Newman, Esq.

Sir)
During last June, I collected a number of the pupae of
that splendid moth commonly known as the garden tiger
(Phalae^ia J56mbyx Caja Linn.) ; my object being to obtain
varieties for my cabinet. I preserved them in damp moss,
in a common breeding-cage covered with gauze, after the
customary plan. On opening the cage-door one morning,
three or four flies [MCiscse] made their escape ; and, flying to
the window, soon became so mingled with other flies (pre-
viously there), that securing them would have been useless,
as I had no means of ascertaining their identity. I con-
cluded they were parasites ; and on examining the pupae of
P. ^ombyx Caja, found two of them perforated, from which
the flies had evidently made their escape. This circum-
stance was too ordinary to attract notice ; but a few mornings
after, I found the whole of the gauze in the interior of the
cage covered with minute hymenopterous insects, which were

in the Body ofVlialdna BSmbi/x Cdja, 253

running and jumping about in all directions, but were col-
lected in the greatest number on that side of the cage nearest
to the light. Not having leisure to attend at the moment to the
securing, killing, and setting them, I closed the door of the
cage, and left the house for some hours : judge of my astonish-
ment and mortification, on returning, at not being able to dis-
cover a single individual. I shook out the whole of the moss,
fragment by fragment, but in vain, nor have I since been able
to guess what became of them. 1 however observed that
many of the pupae had very small and perfectly circular holes,
through which the little hymenopterous insects must have
made their egress ; the holes made in the pupae by the flies
being much larger, and jagged at the edges. The following
morning I was gratified by finding a new, but much less
abundant, supply of the Hymenoptera ; I instantly secured
some of them, and they appear to belong to the genus
Pteromalus Dal. 627. Curfis's Guide, I now proceeded to
open with the point of a penknife the remaining pupae of the
^ombyx; the perforated ones contained nothing but the
exuviae or pupa cases of the Pteromali ; but among the others,
which were hard and stiff, and apparently dead, 1 found one
quite filled with the coarctate pupae of a Miusca. On apply-
ing the point of my knife to these, I found some contained
flies [Muscae], which, thus prematurely liberated, never came
to perfection ; but by far the majority of these flies or ikfuscae
were filled with Pteromali in the various stages of larva,
pupa, and imago. The Muscas, although imperfect, I ascer-
tained on comparison to be the ikfusca larvarum of Linne ;
a specific name, however, to which I suspect more than one
true species is referable.

Here then was a parasite on a parasite, the Musca being
evidently the original parasite of the ^ombyx, and the Pte-
romalus as evidently parasitical on the ikfusca. A very inter-
esting question arises from this discovery. How could the
parent Pteromalus introduce its eggs into the larva of the
Musca; that larva being completely immersed in the interior
of one of our most hairy caterpillars, a situation apparently
so secure ? I fear we shall long want a practical solution of
the problem ; in the mean time, we must content ourselves
with a theoretical one.

It is well known to all those who have paid much atten-
tion to the rearing of lepidopterous insects from the larva,
that they are subject to two distinct tribes of parasites, /ch-
neumones and ik/uscae. The females of the /chneumones are
furnished with a long sharply pointed oviduct, for the express
purpose of piercing the skin of the destined victim of their

254? Pteromali parasitic on M.uscce "within Vhalcena,

larvae, and of depositing their eggs beneath the surface : the
females of the iliuscae, on the contrary, have no such appara-
tus, but merely place their Q^g on the surface of the skin, to
which it adheres by means of a glutinous matter exuded with
it. I must here, however, mention that the learned authors
of the Introduction to Entomology have (vol. i. p. 345.) the fol-
lowing sentence : — " Some ichneumons, instead of burying
their eggs in the body of the larvae that are to serve their
young for food, content themselves with glueing them to the
skin of their prey, which the young grubs pierce as soon as
hatched." Now, I by no means imagine that such a sentence
would have found its way into so correct a work without the
best authority ; yet, as in no instance in which I have found
the egg thus attached has the larva produced any other than
a dipterous parasite, I think we may fairly conclude that
piercing and glueing are the general and distinctive rule
or habit of each particular tribe ; and the fact asserted by
Messrs. Kirby and Spence an exception to the rule.

The egg of the ikfusca, which, I may remark, I have always
observed to be placed on the neck of the larva, the only part
from which the annoyed insect could not remove it, is very
conspicuous to an observer ; and experienced collectors of
Lepidoptera, when they find the larva of a rare species with
this egg attached, make a practice of removing it, and the larva
will then thrive and come to perfection. With the egg in
this situation, thus easily visible to the human eye, we can-
not wonder that the active and instinct-guided Pteromalus
should discover it; nor does it appear an improbable suppo-
sition that the little creature seizes this opportunity of piercing
the shell with her oviduct, and depositing her egg amidst its
contents. So that the larva of the Musca, as soon as hatched,
in burying itself in the fleshy larva of the i?6mbyx, is com-
pelled to carry with it a horde of insidious parasites, which,
although they interfere not with the due performance of its
appointed work of destruction, yet in the end so weaken it
that it never arrives at perfection. Thus the ^ombyx and
ikfusca, both excessively voracious tribes, perform the task
allotted them by Providence ; yet are by this minute creature
prevented from reproducing their species, whose increase,
unchecked, would speedily depopulate the earth. The ques-
tion as to the difficulty which so small an insect would
experience in piercing a substance so hard as the egg-shell
of the Musca, may be at once answered by the fact that
many species of the same tribe [Platygaster ovul5rum is one
instance, see Vol. III. p. 452.] are known to be parasitical on
the eggs of butterflies, in which they have been deposited by a

Sandal Wood Tree (Santalum), 255"

similar operation. In the case of the pupae of the 56mbyx Caja,
which contained nothing but the exuviae of Pteromali, it may be
fairly concluded that the larvae of these (the Pteromali) were
too numerous, or became too powerful, to permit the larvae
of the iV/usca undergoing their usual metamorphosis : a cir-
cumstance much less to be wondered at, than that they should
ever accomplish the change when in so debilitated a state.

I am, Sir, yours, &c.
Deptford, Nov. 26. 1831. Edward Newman.

Art. VIII. An Account of the Sandal Wood Tree (Santalum),
xjoith Observations on some of the Botanical Productions of the
Sandwich Islands. By George Bennett, F.L.S., Member of
the Royal College of Surgeons in London, &c.

The sandal wood tree {Santalum) is placed in the natural
order Santalacece, class Tetrandria, order Monogynia. There
are several species, but all have not wood possessed of fra-
grance. Of those from which the scented wood is procured
I am acquainted with three species : two have been described,
one the Santalum wxyrtifolium, found on the coast of Coro-
mandel ; and S. Freycinet/a/zw?w, found at the Sandwich
Islands ; the other, an undescribed species, at the New He-
brides group ; the latter appearing to have an affinity to that
found on the Coromandel shores.

The native names of the sandal wood, among some of the
countries where it is found indigenous, are as follows : —

Among the Malays, Jeendana. New Hebrides : Island of
Erromanga, Nassau ; Island of Tanna, Nebissi ; Island of
Annatom, Narti niat. The Marquesa group, Bua ahi. The
Island of Oparo, Turi turi. At the Island of Tahiti (where
it has been found on the mountains, but is very scarce) and
Eimeo, Ahi. On the Malabar coast, Chandana cotte. In the
Island of Timor, Aikamenil. In the Island of Amboyna,
Ayasru. At the Fidji group, larse. At the Sandwich
Islands, Iliahi.

This fragrant wood, valuable as an article of commerce to
China, is found in India, Eastern Archipelago (more par-
ticularly in the islands to the eastward), the Marquesas, Fidji
and New Hebrides groups, &c. ; the Island of Juan Fernandez,
and has been occasionally found on the high mountains of
Tahiti, Eimeo, and Raivavae, or High Island. Mr. Crawford
observes {Indian Archipelago^ vol. i. p. 419, 420.), respecting
sandal wood, that it is " a native of the Indian islands, and is
found of three varieties, white, yellow, and red ; the first two

256 Sandal Wood Tree (Santalum).

being most esteemed. From Java and Madura, eastward, it
is scattered in small quantities throughout the different islands,
improving in quantity and quality as we move to the east,
until we reach Timor, where the best and largest supply
occurs." And again he observes : — "In the western coun-
tries, where it either does not exist at all, or exists in small
quantity and of bad quality ; it is universally known by the
Sanscrit name of Chandana, whence it may be fair to infer
that its use was taught by the Hindus when they propagated
their religion, in the ceremonies of vdiich it is frequently
employed."

The sandal wood tree is most usually found growing on
hilly rocky situations ; and, when growing on low land, is
usually found degenerated. This latter circumstance is known
to the Chinese ; for, at Singapore, a Chinese merchant ob-
served that the sandal wood found growing on the rocky
mountains contains the greatest quantity of oil, and is of more
value than that found growing in low situations and rich
soil, as the latter is found to have degenerated. On asking
him whence he derived his information, he stated, " from
Chinese books." At the Friendly Islands they use the wood
for scenting their cocoa nut oil, and a piece of the wood is
considered a valuable present by the chiefs ; they procure it
occasionally from the Fidji Islands, and call it hai-fidji. The
tree will not thrive at Tongatabu. The species found at the
Island of Erromanga (New Hebrides) has ovate, entire,
smooth, petioled leaves, of a light green colour above, whitish
and distinctly veined underneath ; some of the leaves varied
in being pointed. It is a tree of irregular and slow growth,
attaining the height of about 8 ft. without, and 30 ft. with,
branches, and about 2 ft. in diameter. I always remarked,
however, that after attaining a moderate size it was invariably
found rotten in the heart. Sandal wood is very heavy, sinks
in water, and the part of the tree which contains the esseritial
oil (according to Cartheuser, 1 lb. of the wood will yield
2 drachms of the oil) on which the agreeable odour depends,
is the heart, the other portions of the tree being destitute of
any fragrance. This portion is surrounded by a lighter wood
of some thickness, denominated the sap, which is carefully
removed from the heart wood. Sandal wood is sold by
weight, and varies in price, according to the size and quality,
from 3 to 20 dollars and upwards the picul (133 lbs.). When
young, the wood has a whitish colour, and possesses but little
fragrance ; as it increases in age it becomes of a yellowish
colour ; and, when old, of a brownish red colour, and, at that
period is most valued, from contkining the greatest quantity of

and Botany of the Sandwich Islands. 257

that essential oil on which its fragrance depends. It is con-
sidered the wood is never attacked by insects : this assertion
is erroneous, as I have seen the nidus of some species formed
in it.

At the Sandwich Islands, the tree is named ilialii or lau-
hala, signifying sweet wood {tau, wood, hata, sweet) ; and,
when young, it is of very elegant growth. At Wouhala
(Island of Oahu), I observed numbers of the young trees,
some of which were covered by a profusion of beautiful
flowers of a dark red colour; the flowers, however, are often
observed to differ in colour on the same tree, and even on the
same stalk ; they grow in clusters, some having the corolla
externally of a dark red colour, and internally of a dull yel-
low ; others having it entirely of a dark red, and others again
have the corolla partly red and white externally ; the young
leaves are of a dark red colour, and give an elegant appear-
ance to the tree. Thfs was not observed in the species found
at the Island of Erromanga ; indeed, the species found at the
Sandwich Islands had a more handsome appearance in its
growth than that at Erromanga. At the Sandwich Islands,
two varieties of the wood are observed by the natives, depend-
ing, however, only on the age of the tree ; the young or white
wood is called lau, keo keo [lau, wood, keo keo, white) ; and
the red wood, lau, hula hula {lau, wood, hula hula, red).
As before stated, the wood, when taken from a young tree, is
white, containing but a small quantity of oil; as the tree in-
creases in growth, the wood becomes of a yellowish colour,
and the oldest and best is of a brownish red colour.* The
different varieties of the wood depend, therefore, on the age
of the tree ; and are of three kinds, white, yellow, and red ; of
which the yellow and red, from containing the largest quan-
tity of oil, are most esteemed in the Chinese market, where
the wood is principally used, the expressed oil being mixed
with pastiles, and burned before their idols in the temples.
The Chinese are said to procure the oil by rasping the wood,
and then expressing it through strong canvass bags.

Indigenous to the Sandwich Islands is a speceis of Myopo-
rum (M. tenuifoiium), the heart of which is fragrant; and, from
having been mistaken for sandal wood, it has received the name
of spurious sandal wood from Europeans, and is called naiho
or naihio by the natives. The heart contains a (|uantity of
essential oil ; but the fragrance is not so agreeable as that
derived from the sandal wood, and for that reason it is not

* The wood is frequently buried, and the sap allowed to rot off: and this
is considered to improve its quality.
Vol. V. -— No. 25. s

258 Sandal Wood Tree (Santalum),

esteemed in the Chinese market : the heart is also surrounded
by a lighter wood, termed the sap, as in the sandal wood tree.
An instance of the resemblance this bears to the sandal wood,
so as to deceive a common observer, occurred during my visit
to the Island of Oahu (Sandwich Islands), in December, 1829.
Two large pieces of the naiho, deprived of the sap, were col-
lected for me, and had been placed in the yard of a mercan-
tile gentleman previously to my taking them on board. At
this time there was some sandal wood, of small size, weigh-
ing in the yard, to be sent on board an American ship about
to sail for Canton. The supercargo, who was superintending
the weighing, seeing these pieces, mistook them for sandal
wood ; and, anxious to secure two such large pieces among
the small kind which he had purchased, placed them in the
scales ; and they were sent on board with the rest, the person
engaged in weighing being also ignorant of the difference.
This circumstance was not discovered until some time after
the ship had sailed : engaged in other pursuits, I had for
some time forgotten my wood ; but on enquiring for it, its
disappearance was accounted for, after some time, by the
cause just related. I was informed that a cargo of the wood
was taken by an American ship to Canton ; and, on its arrival
there, it was only considered fit for fire-wood.

The name of a " spurious sandal wood " is a source of
alarm to those who, engaged in purchasing sandal wood, are
not able to judge of the difference, or had only known the
" spurious kind " by name. An instance of this occurred
under my own observation. A vessel arrived from the New
Hebrides group at the Bay of Islands (New Zealand) in
July, 1829, having on board some sandal wood. This was
purchased by the commander of a ship lying at that place ;
he had only heard of the existence of a spurious kind when
at the Sandwich Islands, but, never having seen it, was unable
to judge of the difference. When the sandal wood came on
board, it was found to consist of the white, yellow, and red
varieties, having been procured from trees of different ages ;
that which was of a whitish colour, and had less fragrance
than the other wood, was considered immediately as what he
had heard of as spurious wood, and was rejected, much to the
annoyance of the owner, who declared it was all sandal wood.
This supposed spurious kind was laid aside, and was finally
delivered to the cook for fire-wood ; and, when burning, a
delightful fragrance was diffused over the ship. Some of it
was landed amongst the fire-wood from the same ship at the
Sandwich Islands, much to the surprise of some of the mer-

and Botani/ of the Sandwich Islands, 259

chants, who thought that sandal wood must be very common
on board when it was used as fire-wood.

The naiho (Myoporum tenuifolium) attains the height of 1 5
to 20 ft., and a circumference of 3 or 4 ft. ; the scented wood
differs, according to the age of the tree, from a light yellow to
a reddish colour ; the tree is branchy ; the leaves are lance-
olate, entire, pointed, smooth, and of a light green colour ;
the flowers are small, solitary, of a white colour, with a pink
spot on the internal part of each petal, the corolla five-cleft,
stamina five, attached to the corolla. This tree is found grow-
ing on elevated situations, the wood is considered of excel-
lent quality for planes, and is used by the carpenters at the
Sandwich Islands for that purpose.

The vegetable productions are very numerous among the
Sandwich group ; among them I observed the ylckcisi falcata,
orkoaofthe natives, growing abundantly on the hills; the
wood is very hard, is used in the manufacture of canoes, and
was formerly tabued exclusively for that purpose. On this
tree I observed a species of Fiscum growing abundantly.

On the declivities of the hills, as also in the valleys, grow
two species of Eugen/fl'. One is called by the'natives ohia reua
{reua signifying a flower), the flowers of which were used for
necklaces, and the tree was formerly held sacred : it attains a
great elevation ; is branchy, and small in circumference ; and
when covered with a profusion of its red blossoms has an ele-
gant appearance. The other species is the ohia ha, the wood
of which is used for building and other purposes, and the
bark is used by the natives for dyeing their cloth of a dark
brown or reddish colour. The Jambo (Eugenia malaccensis)
is also indigenous, and is named ohia ai (ai signifying to
eat).

The native females use a variety of flowers in the formation
of their leis, or head wreaths, of which those of yellow or orange
colours are preferred ; as of a species of /Sida, the rima of the
natives, which is cultivated, and produces double flowers. A
species of Tribulus, called nohu by the natives, is very abun-
dant on the plains, the leaves of which are pinnate, and covered,
as well as the stalks, with a light silvery pubescence ; the
flowers are yellow, five-petaled, calyx five-cleft, stamina ten ;
the fruit is small, armed with five or six short spines, and con-
tains several seeds ; the natives dread them, and avoid walk-
mg on the plains with their bare feet during the season it is
m fruit. A species of Argemone abounds wild, bearing large
beautiful white flowers (probably grandiflora) ; it is indigenous
to the Sandwich Islands, and was remarked by Captain Cook
when he discovered the group. In the valleys the fern, called

s 2

^60 Sandal Wood Tree (Santalum),

apu by the natives, was frequently seen ; it is the Cibotium
Chamisso/; it is arboreous, with three pinnated fronds, and the
stipes are covered by a fine silky down, of a yellowish brown
colour, which is now used for stuffing pillows, &c. This down
is called pulu apu by the natives [pula signifies anything soft).
The fronds emerge direct from the tubers, and attain the
height of 8 or 10 ft. ; it grows abundantly in shady places and
on the borders of rivulets, over which the long fronds droop ;
the leaflets are from 1 to 2 ft. in length. The Sadler/^ cya-
theoides Kaulf.^ called mau by the natives, is also abundant
in the valleys, and has an elegant appearance when the young
fronds are emerging, which are then of a beautiful scarlet
colour, changing, as the leaf attains maturity, to a dark green.

On the 10th of December, 1829, I visited the district of
Wouhala (Island of Oahu) ; on ascending a high hill, the
plains on the summit were found covered with dry grass, and
various plants and shrubs, and at some parts deep wooded
glens formed most picturesque and beautiful scenery. Among
the specimens of plants, &c., I collected were the following : —

A species of Cyathodes, called pokeawi by the natives, bear-
ing small red berries ; the same native name is given to red
beads, from their resemblance to the berries of this shrub. A
species of Phytolacca, called poporo-tumai by the natives ;
the berries (which grow erect in long bunches) yield a red-
dish brown juice, used for dyeing the native cloth ; the berries
externally are of a purplish red colour ; the leaves of the shrub
are cooked and eaten.

On the plains was found a species of Dian^/Zfl^, named uki
by the natives, bearing small berries of a mazarine blue,
which are used by the natives in making a permanent blue dye.
The Pyrus «nthyllidif61ia of Smith (in Rees^s Q/clopcedia), and
more recently the Osteomelis anthyllidifolia of Lindley (in
the IJnnean Transactions), called ure by the natives, was very
abundant; it is a small shrub, bearing berries of a white
colour, containing a reddish juice of sweet and astringent
taste ; the flowers are white and fragrant

The mamati or cloth plant, also named oreyna, the t/rtica
argentea; the bark is used in the manufacture of the native
cloth, and also produces a flax which might form a useful
article of commerce. A species of Scae'vola, named nouputa
by the natives, was also abundant on the hills, bearing yellow
flowers.

A shrub, attaining the elevation of 9 or 10 ft., called karia
or taria by the natives, was abundant, but the only specimens
gathered had abortive flowers.

A small tree, called lumma by the natives, had the leaves

and Botany of the Sandwich Islands. 261"

when young of a beautiful red colour, and the foliage has a
peculiar appearance, apparently from minute glands situated
on the upper and under surfaces. There is also a shrub (pro-
bably a BasszVz), called ohava, the seeds of which yield a red
dye, used by the natives to stain their cheeks and fingers. A
species of Gnaphalium, called poina by the natives, was also
abundant.

Of the uwara, or sweet potatoes (Convolvulus Batatas et
var.), which are much cultivated at the Sandwich Islands,
there are seventeen varieties.

On the declivities of the hills, and in the ravines, the tui
tui, or candle nut tree (Aleurites triloba) is seen abundant ;
the whiteness of its foliage rendering it a conspicuous object.
This whiteness is occasioned by a fine white powder on the
upper surface of the leaf, which is readily removed by the
finger. Under it the leaf is found of a dark green colour.
The young foliage is thickly covered with this white powder ;
the older leaves have little, or are entirely destitute of it. The
foliage of this tree varies much in form, depending on the
age of the tree or leaves. The flowers grow in erect clusters,
are small, white, and possessed of very little fragrance ; the
fruit is of small size, globular, rough externally, and contains
oily nuts, which, when baked and strung on a reed, are used by
the natives of most of the Polynesian Islands as a substitute
for candles or lamps, and burn with a clear and brilliant flame.
The tree is branchy, attains an elevation of 30 ft. in height,
and a circumference of 3 or 4 ft., the timber being of soft
quality is useless, except as firewood. A gum is yielded by
this tree, both spontaneously, and on incisions being made in
the trunk. It is of a yellowish colour, inodorous and taste-
less ; the natives chew it, but the suspicious family [£uphorbi-
dcece'] to which the tree belongs would render caution requisite
in its use. I tried it, however, as a mucilage for the suspen-
sion of some balsams, without any ill effects arising from it.

The turmeric plant [Curcuma longa), called oreina by the
natives, is abundant wild ; the root, as well as that of the
noni (Morinda dtrifolia), is used for dyeing their native cloth
of a bright yellow colour. At Tauai or Atoi (which I visited
on the 28th of January, 1830) I collected a delicate and beau-
tiful species of Ipomoe\i covered with a fine pubescence (Ipo-
mce'a pubescens ?) ; it is called mohihi by the natives ; it grows
in rocky soil, and bears white flowers. There is also a small
species of Convolvulus, bearing small light blue flowers, and
called koro koro by the natives.
• London, Ja?i. 20, I S32,

- s 3

262 Volcanoes,

Art. IX. Volcanoes, By W. M. Higgins, Esq. F.G.S., and
J. W. Draper, Esq.

(Continued from p. 172.)

The Phenomena which attend Eruption, — Volcanic erup-
tions are not periodical, as some persons have supposed; the
period and intensity of their action are decidedly irregular.
This is proved by the history of almost every volcano with
which we are acquainted. Some general classification, how-
ever, may be formed, dependent on a certain similarity in the
method and periods of eruption in different volcanoes : some
are in a state of incessant moderate action ; in some we find
short intervals of repose alternating with lengthened periods
of eruption ; while others are characterised by lengthened
quiescence and paroxysms of excessive violence. Here, then,
we have three classes of volcanic action, which have been
thus arranged by geologists : — 1 . Phase of permanent erup- '
tion ; 2. Phase of moderate activity ; 3. Phase of prolonged
intermittences.

Volcanoes of permanent Eruption are very few in number:
we are not perfectly acquainted with more than three, that of
Stromboli, one of the Lipari Isles ; the Devil's Mouth, in the
Lake of Nicaragua ; and one in the Isle of Bourbon.

Stromboli has been in a state of constant activity for more
than two thousand years, and is a good type of this class :
lava seldom overflows its crater, but large masses of burning
rocks and scoriae are incessantly ejected in a perpendicular
direction. This phenomenon, accompanied by a loud explo-
sion, occurs every seven or eight minutes ; of which fact we
are informed by Pliny, as well as by modern travellers.

Dolomieu examined this interesting mountain, and has
given us the following description of its eruptions : — " The
inflamed crater is on the north-western part of the isle, on the
side of the mountain. I saw it dart, during the night, at
regular intervals of seven or eight minutes, ignited stones^
which rose to the height of more than a hundred feet, form-
ing rays a little divergent, but of which the greater quantity
fell back into the crater, while others rolled even to the sea.'*

On the following day he ascended an eminence of the
mountain, from which he obtained a still more interesting view
of the volcano. " The crater," he says, " is very small ; I
do not think it exceeds fifty paces in diameter, having the
form of a funnel terminating in a point. During all the time
I observed it, the eruptions succeeded with the same regu-
larity as during the preceding night. The approach of the

Volcanoes.

263

eruption is not announced by any noise or dull murmur in the
interior of the mountain ; and it is always with surprise that
one sees the stones darted into the air. There are times when
the eruption is more precipitate and violent ; and stones de-
scribing more divergent rays are thrown into the sea at a
considerable distance/*

It has been stated by Dolomieu, Hamilton, and Scrope, on
the authority of the islanders, that during the winter seasons
the eruptions are far more violent than in summer ; and that
from its appearance they can generally predict the changes in
the atmosphere. Sometimes during the storms of winter the
cone is split, and large currents of lava are discharged.
(A- 61.)

Volcanoes are in the Phase of moderate Activity when they
are in a state of frequent and prolonged, but inconsiderable,
excitement. Under this class we may place the volcano of
Popocatepetl in Mexico, which was found in this phase by
the discoverers of the country. Such, also, was the condition
of Vesuvius from the commencement of this century to the
year 1822.

The Phase of prolonged Intermittences is characterised by
lengthened periods of repose, and eruptions of the most vio-
lent description. It has been maintained by Baron Humboldt
that lofty volcanoes are always in this condition. The vol-
canic mountains of the Andes, for instance Cotopaxi and
other elevated craters, have not an eruption, generally speak-
ing, more than once in a century. The Peak of TenerifFe,
which was active in 1 798, had not at that time been disturbed
for ninety-two years. It must not, however, be supposed that
the phase of prolonged intermittences is confined to elevated
craters, for history gives abundant instances to the contrary.

s 4)

264- Volcanoes.

The phenomena which accompany eruption are the same
in the phase of moderate activity and of prolonged intermit-
tences. But in the former they are much less violent ; all the
terrible effects of eruption being felt in the immediate neigh-
bourhood, but none of its phenomena w^itnessed beyond the
narrovvr sphere of its activity. On the other hand, when a
volcano is in the phase of prolonged intermittences, the erup-
tions are of great violence, and extensive in their effects. The
explosions of Cotopaxi are sometimes heard at a distance of
600 miles ; and those of Jumbawa, a Molucca island, were
heard 900 miles off during the eruption in April, 1815.

The eruption of a volcano generally commences with a tre-
mendous explosion, which is succeeded by others less loud,
and the escape of aeriform fluids. Large fragments of rock
and masses of lava are projected by these discharges, some of
which fall into the crater to be again discharged ; until they
are so reduced as to be mingled with the surrounding atmo-
sphere of heated vapour. The atomic particles produce the
appearance of dense clouds of smoke, which are almost inva-
riably seen to surround the summit of the crater.

The lava then rises to the vent of the mountain ; and soon
finds egress, whether it be from the crater or a lateral open-
ing. In some cases, however, scoriae alone are projected, or
even mud. During the day, the lava is generally hidden by
the aqueous vapours that arise from it, and, when observed,
does not present the appearance of a heated mass ; but during
the night it appears of a glowing heat. While the lava con-
tinues to flow, the detonations are frequently less violent ; but
it is not until it is entirely stayed that there is any proof of
the diminution of the paroxysm : and even the cessation of
the lava does not indicate an immediate restoration of peace ;
for the ejection of scoriae and masses of rock often recom-
mences after the eruption of lava, and continues for some time
after the dreadful crisis is past.

When the detonations become less frequent, rumbling
sounds are heard, as of the retreat of many waters ; and the
mountain seems gradually to yield to exhaustion, or sinks into
a state of partial rest, occasionally disturbed by explosions,
the ejection of scoriae and small masses of rock.

Towards the conclusion of an eruption, or after the lava
has ceased to flow, the surrounding country is frequently
enveloped in dark clouds of black-coloured sand, which, at
the very close of the convulsion, is changed into a white
comminuted pumice.

The lofty mountains seldom eject lava from their summits,
but from lateral openings ; for it requires far less power to

Volcanoes. 265

open a passage in the side of the mountain than to elevate the
mtumescent mass to the summit. In the last eruption of Te-
neriffe, a lateral opening was formed ; and, according to a cal-
culation by M. Daubuisson, it would have required a force
equivalent to a thousand atmospheres to have raised the mass
of lava to its elevated crater.

Of volcanoes in the phase of moderate activity, the best
example to which we can refer is that of Etna, between the
years 1804 and 1818. Segnio Maria Gemmellario {Jour.
Science, vol. xiv. p. 322.) has given us a very interesting view
of the successive changes which were observed, through a
meteorological journal kept at Catania.

On the 9th of February, 1804, there was a sensible earth-
quake : Etna smoked 97 days, but there was no eruption nor
any thunder.

On the 3d of July, 1805, there was an earthquake: Etna
smoked 47 days, and emitted flame 28 days. There was an
eruption in June, but no thunder.

There were earthquakes on the 27th of May, and 10th of
October, 1806. The mountain smoked 47 days, flamed 7,
and detonated 28 : little thunder.

On the 24th of February, and 25th of November, 1807,
there was an earthquake. Etna smoked 59 days. Little
thunder.

In August, September, and December, 1808, earthquakes
were frequent. Etna smoked 12 days, flamed 102, and often
detonated. Thunder storms were frequent.

From January to May, and during September and Decem-
ber, 1809, there were 37 earthquakes. The most sensible
shock was on the 27th of March, when the mountain ejected
lava on the western side. This eruption lasted 13 days; and
part of the Bosco de Castiglione was injured. The mountain
smoked 152 days, flamed 3, and detonated 11. Little thunder.

On the 16th and 17th of February, 1810, there were four
earthquakes. On the 27th of October, Etna suffered an
eruption on the east side, and the lava flowed into the Valley
del Bue. There were about 20 thunder storms.

1818, no earthquakes. The mountain continued to eject
lava from the east until the 24th of April. At this time the
mount S. Simon was formed. No thunder.

3d and 13th of March, 1813, earthquake. The mountain
smoked 28 days. On the 30th of June and 5th of August,
S. Simon smoked. There were 21 thunder storms.

On the 3d of November, 1814, there was an earthquake,
preceded by a discharge of sand from that part of the moun-
tain called Zoccolaro. There were 12 thunder storms.

266 Volcanoes.

6th of September 1815, there was an earthquake. The
mountain smoked forty-two days, and there were eleven
thunder storms. On the Gth, 7th, and 11th of January the
effects of the lightning were tremendous.

1816, no earthquakes. On the 1 3th of August there was
a great noise, from the fall of part of the interior side of the
crater. Ten thunder storms.

18th of October 1817, an earthquake. The mountain
smoked twenty-two days. There were eight thunder storms.

During 1818 we had twenty-five earthquakes. The most
violent was in the neighbourhood of Catania, on the 20th of
February. The mountain smoked twenty-four days. No
thunder.

Such are the phenomena which characterise an aerial vol-
cano in the phase of moderate activity. The details them-
selves will have little interest to the general reader ; but no
description would give so adequate a conception of its ever-
changing phenomena. In the minds of those who are unac-
customed to witness volcanic disturbances, these effects of
volcanic causes in moderate activity would make an indelible
impression ; but those who had ever witnessed an eruption
from an elevated volcano, after a period of long quiescence,
would scarcely stay to regard these comparatively puny efforts.
We now pass on to detail a few examples of activity in the
phase of prolonged intermittences. The difficulty now is, not
to find a characteristic type, but to choose from the variety
of authenticated and interesting details we find in the page
of history.

Vesuvius was in this phase previously to the violent eruption
of 1794. A brief notice of the phenomena which attended
this period of activity may give some notion of the violence
of volcanic agency after a lengthened period of repose.

The first proof of the approach of this dreadful eruption
was during the night of the 12th of June, when a severe
shock of earthquake was felt in Naples and the surrounding
country. Nothing more occurred to rouse the fears of the
inhabitants till the evening of the 15th, when the earth was
again violently agitated. Shortly after this an opening was
formed in the western base of the mountain cone, which, on
after examination, was found to be 2375 ft. in length, and
237 ft. in breadth, and a stream of lava was ejected. Not
long after the volcanic action had commenced, four distinct
hills were formed, composed of lava, from each of which
stones and other ignited substances were thrown in such quick
succession, that it appeared as though they were each eject-
ing a vast flame of fire. At this time the lava flowed in great

Volcanoes. 267

abundance, taking its course towards Portici and Resina.
The inhabitants of Torre del Greco, rejoiced to find a pros-
pect of their escape from the destroying fluid, were assembled
together to return thanks for their deliverance, and to sup-
plicate for their unfortunate neighbours, when they received
the melancholy tidings that the lava had changed its direc-
tion, and was approaching their city. In flowing down a
declivity, it had divided itself into three streams ; one directing
its course towards S. Maria del Pagliano, another towards
Resina, and a third towards La Torre.

During the whole of this time the mountain was greatly
convulsed, and deep hollow sounds were heard, which, toge-
ther with the impetuous ejection of the lava, shook the moun-
tain itself to its very base. When the oscillatory motion of
the mountain ceased, the sounds became less frequent, but
more distinct; the lava flowed more abundantly, and the
action itself seemed as though it were suffering under the last
paroxysm of its dying energies. This was about four o'clock
in the morning of the 16th, and at that time the intumescent
mass had spread itself through all the streets of Torre del
Greco, and thence had flowed into the sea, forming a cur-
rent at that place 1127 ft. broad ; nor was it stayed by its
contact with the waters, but covered the bed of the sea
362 ft. beyond its margin. The whole distance from the
point of ejection to the place where its progress was arrested
was 12,961 ft.

During the progress of the eruption the summit of Vesu-
vius was perfectly quiescent, and nothing remarkable was
observed round its crater. But towards the dawn of day the
heights of the mountain were hidden by a dense cloud of
comminuted sand, which, by degrees spreading itself, in a
short time covered the whole scene ; the sun was darkened,
and the heavens were covered by a mantle of impenetrable
clouds.

That imagination must be unusually strong which can
bring before it the horrors of that night. The fiery ejections
of Vesuvius, the flames of the burning Torre, the inexpres-
sible groans of the mountain, the deathlike stillness of the
atmosphere, and the cries of the thousands who had been
driven from their homes and all the pleasures of life, must,
together, have presented a picture to the observer which no
imagination can realise.

But it was not on the western side only that the lava spread
its destructive effects. There was also a current on the east,
which was ejected from a less elevated crater. This stream
flowed into and filled the valley of Torienta, which was 65 ft.

t^S Volcanoes.

wide, 120 ft. deep, and 1627 ft. long. From this valley It
took its way into the plain of Forte, when, like the western
stream, it divided itself into three branches, which severally
took their courses towards Bosco, Mauro, and the plains of
Mulara. The dimensions of this current were not above half
that on the western side.

On the morning of the 16th the lava ceased to flow, and
the crater was covered by a dense cloud of comminuted
pumice, which enveloped it the four following days, during
which time the summit of the mountain fell into the internal
cavity. The surrounding country, to the distance of ten or
twelve miles, was wrapped in palpable darkness, and thunder
storms were awfully frequent. The average depth of the
sand that fell during this period, for a distance of three miles
round Vesuvius, is said to have been 1 4 J in.

On the 20th the mountain again appeared, but in a state
of partial eruption : for it was not till after the violent rains
which followed had fallen that it ceased to eject ignited
masses, and that surrounding nature resumed its wonted ap-
pearance. But how awful soever the effects of this eruption
may appear, they are not to be compared with those pheno-
mena which attended the activity of Tomboro, in the Island of
Sumbawa, in the year 1815. For the knowledge we have of
the eruption of this mountain we are indebted to our late
excellent and learned countryman, Sir Stamford Raffles.

The convulsions of Tomboro commenced on the 5th of
April with loud rumbling sounds, which continued till the
7th of that month, when three columns of flame burst forth
from near the top of the mountain. A short time after the
lava began to flow, the mountain appeared as though it were
a solid body of fire; but, notwithstanding its vivid glare, it
was entirely obscured at eight o'clock, about an hour after
the ejection of lava, by a thick cloud of sand. Between nine
and ten o'clock ashes fell, and a whirlwind arose which struck
to the ground almost every house in the village of Sangar,
and carried away with tremendous force the lighter parts, up-
rooted the trees, and swept away both men and cattle in its
fury. About midnight the explosions commenced, and con-
tinued with intense violence till the evening of the 11th inst.,
without intermission. After this they moderated, but did
not entirely cease till the 25th of July. Of all the villages
round Tomboro, only one. Tempo, escaped the destruction,
and, out of 12,000 inhabitants, only twenty-six were saved.

The extreme violence of this eruption will be most evident
from the knowledge which the inhabitants of distant islands
had of its action. The fall of the ashes fortv miles distant

Volcanoes. 269

was so heavy, that the houses were considerably damaged,
and in many instances rendered uninhabitable. In Java, 300
miles distant, the detonations were so distinct, and so much
resembled the discharge of artillery, that a detachment of
soldiers were marched from Djocjocarta, under a supposition
that there was an attack upon a neighbouring military post ;
and on the sea shore they were mistaken for the guns of a
vessel in distress, and boats were in two instances sent to give
relief.

On the 6th the sun was obscured, the atmosphere became
close and sultry, and every phenomenon, even at this distance,
seemed to foretell an approaching earthquake. On the 10th
the noises were louder ; and at Sumanap and Banynwangi the
earth was shaken violently by them. Gresie and other dis-
tricts more eastward were enveloped, during the greater part
of the t2th of April, in indescribable darkness; but as the
clouds of ashes passed over, discharging themselves on their
way, light returned ; but it was not till the 1 7th, when a heavy
shower of rain fell, that the atmosphere was cleared of its
clouds of heated vapour and sand. The ashes were 9 in. deep
at Banynwangi.

This eruption of Tomboro was heard at Sumatra, 970 miles
distant, and indeed in the whole of the Molucca Islands. But
so dreadful were its effects along the north and west of the
peninsula, that but one solitary vestige of vegetable life was
preserved, and the famine which followed at Sangar was
hardly less dreadful in its effects than the burning lava.

These two instances of eruption from aerial volcanoes in
the phase of prolonged intermittences would perhaps be
sufficient to give a general notion of the phenomena which
attend their activity ; but as a far more definite opinion of
their extensive effects may be obtained from the detail of
particular instances than a mere enumeration of general
results, we may, perhaps, be allowed if we introduce one
other example.

The volcano of Jorullo is situated between Colima and
the city of Mexico, Previously to the year 1 759, the space
which is now occupied by the mountain was a cultivated
plain, though composed of ancient volcanic rocks, and con-
sequently subject to igneous action. But in the traditions
of the inhabitants we gain no information concerning the
time of its formation.

In June, 1759, loud rumbling sounds were heard, and
frequent earthquakes succeeded, which continued nearly two
months, but in the early part of September had entirely
<lied away, and tranquillity seemed to have been restored.

270 Volcanoes,

But on the 28th of that month the noises were agam heard;
and, during that and the following day, a space of ground
from three to four miles in extent was elevated in the form
of a bladder. At the same time, flames issued from a space
about half a square league in superficies, and large fragments
of rocks were ejected. The rivers of Cuitimba and San
Pedro were precipitated into the chasm, and seemed to in-
crease the violence of the eruption. From the plain thou-
sands of little cones, called hornitos (ovens) by the natives,
were formed, and columns of smoke were projected. In
the midst of this, in the line of the chasm, bearing N.N.E.
to S.S.W., six larger cones were thrown up, the least being
three hundred feet above the level of the plain : JoruUo,
the largest, is sixteen hundred feet. From this elevation
immense quantities of basalt, lava, and fragments of primitive
rocks were ejected, almost without intermission, till the fol-
lowing February, when the action became less violent.

Humboldt visited this mountain twenty years after the
eruption, and the lava was then in a heated state. Since
that time it has been again active ; but, although it was so
long ago as 1819, no authentic information concerning its
phenomena has reached us.

Before we pass on to the consideration of subaqueous
volcanoes, it will not be unnecessary to remark that there
are two classes of phenomena usually attending aerial erup-
tion, which are generally either partially described, or
altogether overlooked, by those who detail volcanic pheno-
mena. We refer to the electrical state of the atmosphere,
and the alteration in the level of the surrounding waters.
But as these effects of volcanic activity may perhaps lead to
the establishment of some rational explanation of its cause,
we hope that future observers will carefully examine them,
and endeavour to overcome those difficulties which necessarily
oppose their experiments.

The number of subaqueous volcanoes with which we are
acquainted is very small. When we consider how much the
greater portion of the surface of our globe is covered by
water, we may at first be surprised at this fact ; but we must
remember that it does not arise from the inactivity of the
volcanic agent beneath our seas, but from the elevation of
cones above its level. An eruption of any considerable vio-
lence must of necessity form an elevation that will come
under the class of aerial volcanoes, and hence it is that the
majority of these are in islands.

There is much difficulty in obtaining specific information
of the phenomena which attend the activity of subaqueous

Volcanoes, 271

volcanoes. That the eruptions are as numerous as from sub-
aerial craters there can be no doubt, but they are much less
liable to be observed. It is a singular fact, that we are ac-
quainted with scarcely an instance of subaqueous eruption
that has not produced an island, and yet it may be reasonably
supposed that many do occur which have not sufficient energy
to elevate the mineral masses above the level of the sea.
This circumstance may be accounted for in two ways. It is
probable that the volcanic vent is sometimes superposed by
so great a depth of water that no effect is produced on the
surface by the eruption ; at other times the energy which is
exerted is sufficient to occasion many phenomena on the
surface of the water ; but no observer is present, and there-
fore, in this instance, as well as the other, we gain no inform-
ation concerning the activity.

The most remarkable subaqueous eruptions of which we
have any account are those which have troubled the Sea of
Azof, the Azores*, and the Island of Santorino in the
Grecian Archipelago : we shall only dwell upon the pheno-
mena which attended the latter.

The Island of Santorino, in the Grecian Archipelago, was
formerly known by the name of Thera. Pliny, speaking of
it, says, " There is a tradition that it rose out of the sea ;" and
supposes it to have occurred in the 135th Olympiad, or
about 237 years b. c.

By the agency of a subaqueous volcano in the neighbour-
hood of Santorino, several islands have at various times been
formed, and perhaps Santorino itself had its origin from the
same cause.

Hiera rose from the sea in the year 197 B.C.

Thia - ^ - - - 40 A.D.

Thia and Hiera were united - 726 A.D.

Little Kamenoi was formed - 1573 A.D.

On the 22d of May, 1707, the volcano again burst into
action, and the islands around were violently agitated by an
earthquake. On the following morning a new island, Isola
Nuova, was discovered. A few days after, several persons
ventured to land, the agitation having apparently subsided ;
but during their stay the island began to tremble exceed-
ingly, and they hastily left the treacherous ground on which
they had trespassed.

In July there arose, at a distance of about sixty paces
from the new island, a ridge of black rocks, from which
torrents of smoke issued. The inhabitants of Santorino were

* See an account of the formation of the Island of Sabrina, PhiL
Trans., vol. cii. p. 152.

272

Volcanoes.

greatly alarmed at this new phenomenon ; and so prejudicial
was the vapour, that many of the inhabitants were killed by
inhaUng it, and all, more or less, felt its effects. On the 31st
the sea seemed as though ready to boil, and in two places
near the island revolved in circular eddies. During the
whole of this time the volcanic agent was in a state of great
activity, but varied in its manner of operation.

On the 23d of May, the phenomena assumed a less terrific
aspect, and from that time gradually decreased in violence ; but
during the following ten years the volcanic agent continued in
a state of partial excitement, the surrounding islands were
occasionally troubled with earthquakes, and the inhabitants
alarmed by subterranean noises.

The following sketch [Jig. 62.) may bring to mind the rela-
tive positions of the island group.

The Island of St. Mi-
chael's, which is the largest
of the Azores, is described
by Dr. Webster as en-
tirely formed of volcanic
rocks. It is famous for
the number of its hot
springs, which are greatly
impregnated with sul-
phuric acid, and sulphur-
etted hydrogen. Several
subaqueous eruptions oc-
curred in its neighbour-
hood between the years
1638 and 1720. From
the latter date to the year
1811, the volcanic agent
remained in a state of re-
pose; but during that year
it again burst into action,
and a new volcano was formed. This product of its throes stood
about 300 ft. above the level of the sea, and was about a mile
in circumference, but after a short time sunk again into its
watery bed. This is frequently the case with islands formed
by submarine action. During the time of eruption, columns
of smoke rise from the sea ; the waters are much agitated, and
rendered very impure ; scoriae and lava are ejected ; and at
last an island is formed, which is fated to sink into its watery
bed a few hours after it has been raised.
(^To be continued.)

A, Santorino. B, Therasia. c, Hiera.

D, tittle Kamenoi. e, Black Island, formed in 1707.

273

COLLECTANEA.

Art. I. Zoology.

The Domestic Cat catching Swallows on the Wing. — Sir, In
p. 84. an allusion is made to the capture of swallows by cats.
The following instance, which I witnessed, is not only an indis-
putable confirmation of the fact, but exhibits in a still stronger
degree the calculating instinct, if I may so express myself, of
certain animals in the pursuit of prey. A few years ago,
when walking up a narrowish street in the town of St. Helier,
in the Island of Jersey, during the month of August, I observed,
far ahead, a swift (^irundo Jf pus) darting towards me, about a
foot or two above the ground, uttering, as usual, its well-known
screaming note. I had scarcely observed it on the wing, be-
fore its rapid flight brought it close to the pavement where I
stood, when, at the instant of its passing, I was surprised by
a sudden and somewhat smartish blow on my feet. On look-
ing down, to ascertain the cause, I was not a little astonished
to find it proceeded from a cat, which I had previously noticed
sitting, apparently dosing, at a gateway on the opposite side of
the street. She, however, had seen the descending bird, and
so nicely calculated her pounce, as to impinge upon her vic-
tim with unerring certainty ; for the unfortunate bird, after a
momentary struggle, was secured in her mouth, and carried
off in triumph into a house. Struck with the singular incident,
I also entered, and mentioned to a woman who was within
the active feat of her cat. In reply, she assured me that such
captures were by no means new to her, scarcely a day pass-
ing without similar attempts on the part of her favourite, and
frequently with the success I had just witnessed. — E. S.

I once saw two martins (^irundo urbica) buffeting each
other on the wing, near the ground, opposite the paling of a
cottage garden, from under which an observant cat rushed
out upon them, captured one of them, and bore it back to the
garden in triumph. The birds were buffeting each other at the
distance of six yards from the paling whence the cat emerged ;
but so rancorous was their conflict, that they could perceive
only each other. Myself and a companion were within a few
yards of them. — J. D.

The Domestic Cat springing at Swallows, and other Feats
liy it. — Sir, At p. 84., J. D. describes with great truth and
Vol. v. — No. 23. t

274 Zoology.

fidelity the mode in which swallows attack the cat, and the
cunning and agility which the cat in her turn evinces, in en-
deavouring to catch the swallows on the wing, as they dash
by her. I have often witnessed these encounters, and have
been much amused in watching a cat of my own, which would
lie flat on her belly with her paws extended, and in that posi-
tion would, with an agility equal to that of any harlequin in
a pantomime, suddenly leap up from the ground into the air
full 3 ft. high at the passing swallow. J. D. says that on these
occasions he " never knew the cat catch a swallow :" neither
did I ever see her do so; but I have no doubt of her oc-
casional success, independently of the testimony borne to
the fact in the passage quoted in the same page from the
Verulam ; for the same cat I have above alluded to once
brought to me a swallow alive in her mouth. She leaped up
with it to the outside of my sitting-room window (at which
she was accustomed to be let in, to display, as it were, the
trophies of her victory. Observing that the swallow was
alive, I took hold of the cat, and with my thumb and finger
opened her jaws, when, to my no small satisfaction, the bird
instantly flew away unhurt, and as brisk as ever, twittering
its shrill note in celebration of its escape from so perilous a
situation.

The interesting extract from the Verulam, above alluded
to, is, in the main, just and true ; but I cannot help thinking
the writer is in error, when he states, " the simple swallows,
dreaming of no harm, and thinking they can here make a good
meal, dip down from the barren air, dart with open bill upon
the flies," &c. On the contrary, 1 apprehend the swallows
are fully aware of the danger, and do not approach the cat
for the sake of feeding upon the flies which may have collected
about her, but rather with a view to banter her, and express
their jealousy and hatred of a well-known enemy, upon the same
principle as they also, as well as other small birds, mob and
attack hawks and birds of prey. I think, too, that the writer
in the Verulam is hardly borne out by facts, when he speaks
of the cat's " unerring success whenever a swallow ventures
within her reach."*^ I believe that it is a thing of rare occur-
rence for the cat on these occasions to succeed in capturing a
swallow ; though, as already stated, I do not doubt the fact in
particular cases. I can only say, that, repeatedly as I have
witnessed these encounters, I never yet saw the cat actually
succeed, not even when the swallows have approached so near
as to touch her, as they sometimes will do.

It is a prevailing opinion, and one which, a priori, sounds
plausible enough, that cats which are regularly fed and much
petted [parlour boarders, as it were), are thereby spoiled as

Zoology, 275

mousers (see this opinion stated Vol. IV. p. 5 13.), and rendered
as useless in their trade as ladies* lapdogs. This, however,
though it may be true in particular instances, is very far from
being invariably the case. I have known many instances of
favourite cats, petted and well fed, which yet have proved
most expert and diligent in their proper calling, and, I may
say, at the head of their profession, destroying all kinds of
vermin, as well as birds, reptiles, and insects ; and among the
latter the common white butterflies, moths, and cockchafers,
which puss would catch with great adroitness, and somewhat
grotesque agility, while on the wing. Yours, &c. — W, T,
Bree, Alledey Rectory^ Jan. 11. 1832.

CatSi like many, if not all, domestic animals, are the best
servants when well fed. The half-starved cat is a cunning,
thievish, cowardly creature, more likely to fly from than at a
rat ; but when in heart is bold and active, appearing to delight
in the pursuit of vermin, and to enjoy it as an agreeable
amusement, as he kills more than he eats. Some cats have
even been trained to assist in killing vermin on the removal
of corn-ricks, and they kill them with far greater quickness
and certainty than the terrier. — J. C. Farmer, Nov, 29. 1 831.

Feline SjporUman, — I saw a cat at Dorking, last summer,
who pursued mice with true sportsmanlike feeling. He never
eat his game, but uniformly laid it at the feet of the first per-
son he found of the family, and, having drawn attention to
his trophy, walked away with an air of proud satisfaction to
the performance of fresh exploits. — J, W, L,

The article by Cattus, Vol. IV. p. 51 1., and the remarks by
A. R. y., Vol. V. p. 51, 52., and the note, are farther ampli-
fications of feline history. — J, D.

A Kitten resembling a Rabbit in its hinder Half. — Sir, As
you admit physiological subjects, perhaps the following may
not be unacceptable to some of your readers. The subject is
the production of a domestic cat; and amongst the five kittens
she produced is one which, from its singularity of appearance,
excites general observation. Its head, teeth, fore legs, and
claws, arid its body to the termination of the short ribs, are
those of a perfectly formed cat ; the hind quarters, with the
short turned up tail, legs, and claws, bear every resemblance
to a rabbit, and these parts have the action peculiar to that
animal. The singularity of the contrast is particularly re-
markable ; the animal having the playful tricks of a kitten,
while its hind quarters are too clumsy and slow-motioned to
correspond with the quick and lively movements of its fore
half. In running, it has the action of a kitten with its fore
legs, and the hop of a rabbit with its hind. I do not mean to
say the separation is as distinctly marked as in the fabled

T 2

276 . Zoologi/.

mermaid ; but still it is sufficiently obvious for the most
casual observer to remark it. In a physiological point it is
remarkable that two animals of such opposite natures as the
cat and rabbit should unite, and the produce partake in so
distinct a manner of both species. I cannot think it possible
to have been produced without the intervention of both, nor
that the remainder was the produce of the same male, as they
are all perfectly formed kittens. I much regret I cannot give
the anatomical description of this singular animal, being
neither a medical nor a scientific man. It was about seven
weeks old when I last saw it at a farm called Meering, about
eight miles from Newark. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — Rusticus,
Oct., 1831.

In the garden sheds of Lord Calthorpe, Ampton Hall, and
of Nathaniel Lee Acton, Esq., Livermere Hall, (two splendid
residences in Suffolk, about five miles from Bury St. Ed-
munds,) there were, in 1828, and I have learned still are, cats
kept, each of which was kittened with an abruptly terminated
or retuse tail, not exceeding 2 in. in length. I was informed
by the persons who showed them to me, that the short-tailed
property had continued through more than two generations ;
and that in the litters of kittens produced by these cats, about
half were short-tailed ones, the others long-tailed, as usual.
On writing to and asking a friend, a patron of cats, which I
did at the time, if he would accept one of these short tails, I
remember he replied, " No ; I thank you. When I behold
my Jupiter (the name of his cat) seated on the hearth, form^-
ing one of the family circle, and observe his fine long tail dis-
posed in a graceful curve about his person, with its extremity
reposing on and covering his fore-paws, I cannot but prefer
him to all the short-tailed cats in the kingdom." — J. D.

A Gigantic Female Hare. — A female hare (Z^epus timidus),
of unusually large size, was recently sent to London from Nor-
folk, which weighed 13 lbs. IJ oz. The mammary glands
W£re large, but she was not with young. The specimen was
sent to Mr. Leadbeater, to whom I am indebted for the
information. — A. B. Feb. 1 6. 1832.

Ormithological Reasoniiigs. — Sir, The following singular
occurrence is related in the United Kingdom newspaper of
this day (Feb. 19.). It originally appeared in a provincial
Journal, the Westmoreland Gazette. If it be really a fact, it
is deserving of more permanent record than that afforded by
the columns of a newspaper.

" Last week, as Mr. A. Metcalf, keeper to Lord Lowther,
in Raven stoned ale, was ranging the fields with his gun, he
observed a hawk hovering near him ; and while preparing to
give it a shot, a fieldfare flew in terror against his breast, and

Zoology. 277

then perched upon his shoulder. He fired at the hawk with
the first barrel (while the fieldfare sat still), but missed ; the
hawk, intent upon his prey, disregarded the shot; with the
second barrel he brought the bird down. The fieldfare left
his shoulder, and fluttered for a short time around its fallen
and dead enemy, uttering a chirp of joy, and then winged
away from its friend and unexpected protector."

Were the illustrious author of Zoonomia [Dr. Darwin]
alive, what inference would he deduce from a fact such as
this ? Must we not allow something more than instinct to
account for such a circumstance? — J. J. Feb. 19. 1832.

Cimel Love, — Being in the country, near Woking, Surrey,
last week, 1 was witness to the curious fact of a female sparrow
killing her husband, not from either hatred or jealousy, but
from love. The pair were in search of a place for building
their nest ; and the male bird finding a tempting hole among
the tiles of the roof, got into it: unfortunately, he became
entangled in the broken mortar, and could not force his way
back. The female saw his situation, and after flying back-
wards and forwards several times, twittering, and apparently
in great distress, she attempted to pull him out. Several
birds were attracted by the accident, and came fluttering
round, but were beaten off" by the female sparrow. She then
redoubled her own efforts to extricate the male, and, getting
hold of his beak above the nostrils in her own beak, she
pulled it so hard that she killed him. She did not, however,
appear aware of the mischief she had done, but continued
pulling at the dead body of her unfortunate mate, with as much
perseverance as she had done while he continued alive. My
man, who saw the whole transaction, at last drove her away,
and with some difficulty extricated the dead bird. Its head
was dreadfully mangled ; and the beak of its mate had evi-
dently penetrated the brain. About an hour afterwards I
again passed the place, and saw a bird, which I supposed the
female, sitting on the very spot where the accident had hap
pened, crouched together, with her feathers all standing up,
so as to give her the appearance of a ball, and certainly look-
ing the very image of a disconsolate widow. — J, W, L.
April 11. 1831.

The Cuclcoo [Qilcidus canbrus) prefers to lay in the WagtaiVs
Nest. — A Pair of Pied Wagtails (Motacilla alba) fixed their
nest early in April among the ivy which covers one side of my
house, and reared and took off" their young. A few days after
the young birds had left the nest, I observed the old birds
apparently collecting materials for building, and was much
amused at seeing the young running after the parent birds,

T 3 ■:

278 Zoology,

and, with imploring looks and gestures, demanding food ; but
the old birds, witn roots or pieces of grass in their bills,
seemed quite regardless of them, and intent on their new
habitation. Their motions were narrowly watched by a female
cuckoo, which I saw constantly near the place, but the wag-
tails had placed their second nest within a yard of a door, and
so well concealed among some luxuriant ivy, that the cuckoo
being often frightened away, was not able to discover the nest.
The intruder being thus thwarted in its design, the birds
hatched their second brood, which was accidentally destroyed
a few days after. In about ten days they actually commenced
their third nest, within a few feet of the situation of the second,
and brought off their brood in safety. I have repeatedly
taken the cuckoo's egg from the wagtail's nest ; in this locality
it has a decided preference to it. I do not recollect, except-
ing in two instances, jfinding it in any other, once in the
hedge-warbler's, and another time in the redstart's nest. In
this vicinity whether the wagtail selects the hole of a pollard
tree, a cleft in the wall, or a projecting ledge under a bridge,
it does not often escape the prying eye of the cuckoo, as in all
these situations I have frequently found either egg or young.
The cuckoo appears to possess the power of retaining its egg
for some some time after it is ready for exclusion. On one
occasion I had observed a cuckoo during several days
anxiously watching a pair of wagtails building; I saw the
cuckoo fly from the nest two or three times before it was half
completed; and at last, the labour of the wagtails not going on,
I imagine, so rapidly as might be wished, the cuckoo depo-
sited its egg before the lining of the nest was finished. The
egg, contrary to my expectation, was not thrown out ; and
on the following day the wagtail commenced laying, and, as
usual, the intruder was hatched at the same time as the rest,
and soon had the whole nest to itself. I once observed a cuckoo
enter a wagtail's nest, which I had noticed a short time before
to contain one egg ; in a few minutes the cuckoo crept from
the hole, and was flying away with something in its beak,
which proved to be the egg of the wagtail, which it dropped
on my firing a gun at it. On examining the nest, the cuckoo
had only made an exchange, leaving its own egg for the one
taken. In May, 1829, I found two cuckoo's eggs in the same
nest, and depended on witnessing a desperate struggle between
the parties, but my hopes were frustrated by some person
destroying it. — J. D. Hoy. Stoke Nayland, Nov. 28. 1831.
The White-tailed Eagle breeds in Captivity. — I believe it is
an unusual occurrence for any of the predaceous birds to pro-
duce eggs in a state of captivity. I have a white-tailed eagle
(Falco albicilla), which was brought from Norway about nine

Zoology, 279

years ago, and was at that time in its adult plumage, so that
its age cannot be ascertained, which has during this last sum-
mer produced three eggs. The eagle is confined under shel-
ter of some fir trees, with a strap and cord about 20 yards in
length. The bird appeared unwell during several days previous
to laying the first egg, squatting close to the ground under
the low branches of a fir tree during the greater part of the
day, and taking but little food : it also formed a sort of nest
on the ground with grass which it plucked up with its beak.
It showed great symptoms of anger on any person's approach ;
spreading the wings, erecting the feathers, and at the same
time uttering a low whining note. I had yet no suspicion of
what was going on; but on the third or fourth day, still
thinking the bird unwell, as it continued on the ground the
greater part of the day, I determined on seizing hold of it to
examine its condition; on lifting it, which the bird suffered
me very passively to do, I perceived, to my great surprise, an
egg. An eagle's ^gg not being very easily obtained, I took
immediate possession of it. In the course of four days being
during that time almost constantly on its nesting-place, it laid
two other eggs, one day intervening between each egg. The
eggs are the size of a goose egg, much rounded at both ends,
of a bluish white colour, with a few faint-coloured rusty
streaks, the shell thick and strong. A few days after laying
the third egg, the eagle recovered its usual appetite and
vigour. — J. D, Hoy, Stoke Nayland, Suffblky Nov, 28. 1831.
A young Eagle (the species I am unacquainted with), which
was wounded in the wing, has been kept for some time at
Thrumpton Hall, the seat of J. E. Westcombe, Esq. It
was obtained by a gentleman of this neighbourhood, whilst
shooting over the moors in Scotland. It was kept in front
of the mansion, under some large trees, chained by the leg
to a tub ; and was fed on rabbits, and birds of all descrip-
tions. When I saw it, it was in full feather, and very fierce.
I understand it has since been destroyed, and in the follow-
ing manner. Having obtained its liberty, it flew to a gate,
some distance from its place of confinement, where a public
footpath came through. A foot passenger (a stranger to
the place, and consequently not knowing the bird,) wishing
to pass through, the bird seemed determined to dispute
the passage, and offered battle; the man, in self-defence,
struck the royal bird over the crown, and caused almost
immediate death, by fracturing the skull. Its domicile is
now occupied by another ; which, it is hoped, will not meet
with so tragical a fate as did its predecessor. — Scolopax nis-
ticola, Chilwellj Notts, Oct, 21, 1831,

T 4

280 Zoology,

Honey Buzzard. — Sir, On the 12th of October this season,
a honey buzzard (Falco «pivorus) was shot in Tendring Hall
Park, in this parish ; the person who killed it saw it first on
the ground ; there were several wasps' nests near the spot. On
dissecting it, I found a quantity of wasps and nymphae from
the comb both in its craw and stomach, with a few small beetles.
It was a male, and very fat: the plumage of a deep brown colour,
the feather of the back and wings margined with a paler brown,
the breast feathers marked with a darker streak of brown in the
centre of each feather ; tail long, crossed with three broad
bars of a deep brown, between which were three other nar-
row bars, tip white ; the legs shorter than those of the wood
buzzard, and very thick and strong. The colour of the irides
a fine dark hazel ; cere orange yellow. The beak is more
lengthened than in the common buzzard, and the claws
straighter, and not so sharp. It would be highly interesting,
could we be made acquainted with the manner in which this
bird conducts the attack on a wasp's nest. That the wasp,
with its larva, is its favourite food, seems pretty evident from
the accounts of most naturalists who have described it ; the
close set, thick, and rather stiff feathers, which surround the
head and throat, are probably intended for protection. From
the description of Willoughby, and White of Selborne, it
should seem that wasps and their grubs formed a considerable
part of its food even in the breeding season, at which time
those insects are in full vigour, otherwise we might have sup-
posed that the bird only attacked those nests in autumn which
had been partially destroyed. The hawk, in order to get at the
comb, must in some way enlarge the entrance : the legs and
claws of the bird I have described were very dirty, even to
the knee, most likely from searching much on the ground for
food, and using them in making an entrance into the wasps'
nests. At many periods of the year, if the hawk is really
indigenous, it would be necessitated to resort to other insect
food and reptiles ; but I think it very doubtful whether it
winters with us. I am strongly of opinion that it is found
and breeds here more frequently than is imagined. Mr.
White mentions a nest in this neighbourhood ; and according
to Willoughby, who gives a good description of it, it was not
at all uncommon in his time : its appearance, except on a
close examination, is like that of the wood buzzard ; so much
so, that I am confident most gamekeepers, who are the persons
that destroy the greatest number of the hawk species, would
pronounce it such, and nail it up on their vermin pole.
Again, from its habits it would not be taken in their traps,
but only obtained by the gun. I recollect a specimen shot
about ten years ago, at Gipping Hall in this county, during the

Zoology, 281

summer months ; and I have not the least doubt that there are
many woods in this kingdom, where the honey buzzard might
breed undisturbed and unknow'n.

The ash-coloured harrier was long supposed to be confined
to the south-western parts of England. We have lately dis-
covered that it breeds annually in the fens in the north-
western part of this county, and most likely throughout the
whole extensive level of fen from that, through the Isle of
Ely, to Whittlesea Mere. A fine young osprey in its nestling
feathers, evident from the down on the wing coverts and
scapulars, was shot in this parish on the 17th of August this
year ; the plumage is handsome, and more mottled than in
the older birds. — J, D. Hoy, Stoke Nayland^ Suffolk^
Nov. 30. 1831.

Fdlco Tinnunculus l^m, (Kestrel), its Mode of killing Prey. —
I observed that a male kestrel, which I kept for some time,
invariably crushed the head of the animal I gave him for
food with his beak, previously to devouring it. I am not
aware whether or not others of the carnivorous tribe adopt
the same mode of killing their prey ; from the bird being
young when I first had him, I presumed that it is either an
instinctive habit of the race, or that he learnt it from the
parent birds. This bird frequently breeds in the cliffs on
the sea shore, among the gulls and other waterfowl. In the
summer of 1830, I shot a female as she flew from her nest,
which was situated within a few yards of a nest containing
the young of the common gull (iarus canus Lin.), —
W, it. Jordan, Lugehay, Teignmouth, Devon, Dec, 4. 1831.

The Butcher Bird{Ldnius Collurio), — Sir, Whilst walking,
in the month of July last, along a narrow lane, my attention
was directed to the shrill cries of two or three small birds
surrounding the branch of a tree lying by the roadside, and
on approaching the spot, to discover the cause of their
seeming anger as well as alarm, a species of the butcher
bird (the red-backed shrike, or Lanius Collurio of Linnaeus)
rose up, with a young, though full-grown, bird of the finch
tribe in its beak, which it with difficulty conveyed to a
neighbouring tree. On my disturbing the bird, it flew
onward, nowise intimidated, with its prey, and, turning a
corner of the road, for a time eluded my close pursuit.
However, whilst watching, for a minute, at a gateway, I saw
the butcher bird flying across an angle of the field at a short
distance, and, on my arriving at that part of the hedge whence
it flew, I directly discovered its little victim suspended on a
dead branch ; its neck being ingeniously transfixed by a thorn.
I searched for the nest, but without success ; yet I have no
doubt there was one near at hand, as the male butcher

282 Zoology,

bird (the one in question being a female) remained in a
neighbouring tree watching my motions, and when scared
kept hovering near the place. It was, of course, in conse-
quence of my interruption that the female left her prey,
which she would return to on my departure.

I am induced to write these particulars, because, although
it is a well known fact that some of the species prey on
smaller birds, yet I do not imagine that such a clear example,
by one of the lesser butcher birds, often comes under the
personal observation of persons interested in the subject. I
am. Sir, yours, &c. — Somersetensis. Dec, 6. 1831.

Notes on the Gray Phalarope [Tringa lobdta Lin.). — This
elegant little aquatic is a most expert swimmer. I have rarely
met with it in this neighbourhood, until within the last two
years, in the autumns of which several have visited our
shores. Captain Sabine notices it as abundant in the
North Georgian Islands. — W. R, Jordan, Lugehay, Teign-
mouth^ Devonshire^ Dec, 4. 1831.

The Forked-tail Petrel and Gray Phalarope taken near
Chipping Norton, Oxon. — On the 16th of December, 1831, a
species of petrel was found dead, in a turnip field, near
Chipping Norton. It nearly accords with the description of
the forked-tail petrel (Procellaria Leach z7 Temminck) in
Bewick's British Birds, Its weight is 1 oz., length 7i in.,
breadth 18 in. ; bill black and hooked, nearly three quarters
of an inch long ; nostrils enclosed in a prominent tube ; head,
neck, and back, slate black ; forehead more dusky ; under
parts sooty black ; upper tail coverts white, the under ones
black ; outer margin of the scapulars edged with white at
their tips ; primaries and secondaries black ; wing coverts
light brown; tail black and forked, of twelve feathers, the
six middle ones equal in length ; legs and feet black. It
possessed a peculiar kind of smell, not unlike that of the
common bat (Fespertilio ^wurinus L.), When found, it was
quite fresh, the eyes scarcely altered, and the feathers per-
fectly clean and undisturbed. The person who brought it
to me thought it was a kind of swallow, and would have
thrown it away, had he not observed its webbed feet. The
late storms probably drove this bird so far from its favourite
element; and want of proper food, combined with fatigue,
most likely caused its death : it is quite a rarity in this mid-
land county. Dr. Latham, in his General Synopsis of Birds^
describes the forked-tail petrel as being 10 in. long ; and says
it is found amongst the ice between Asia and America. No
mention is made of it in Rennie's edition of Montagu's Orni-
thological Dictionary. Is the above properly a distinct species,
or only a variety, of the stormy petrel (Procellaria pelagica) ?

Zoology, 3^

The Gray Phalarope (Phalaropus platyrh;^nchus Tern.)
was shot within six miles of this town, in October last. Both
these birds are in my possession. -— T. G. Chipping Norton y
Oa:on., Dec, 31. 1831.

In om- Vol. III. p. 325. will be found an interesting descrip-
tion, both of the almost inaccessible situations in Shetland
and Orkney in which the stormy petrel (Procellaria pelagica)
breeds, and of the ingenious yet hazardous means used by
the inhabitants to capture the young birds ; the description^
immediately suggests the recollection of Shakspeare's Kirig
Lear, and " samphire-picking, dreadful trade."

The superstitions which have hitherto been, and, it is too
probable, long will be, associated with the stormy petrel, are
met by some rational and philosophic remarks, in Rennie's
Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary, under the article Pe-
trel, p. 361.— j; D.

The Forked-tail Petrel {Procellaria Leachn), and a Species
of Tern fomid dead inland. — " Several stormy petrels ap-
peared last week in this and the adjoining counties. One
was found dead in this vicinity on Saturday, doubtless killed
in the severe hail storm on Friday night. The stormy
petrel is not larger than a swallow, and its colour is black ;
except the coverts of the tail, the tail itself, and the vent
feathers, which are white. Its legs are long and slender, and
it is web-footed." {Hereford Journal, Dec. 21. 1831.) I
was fortunate enough to obtain two of these wanderers,
which were, most probably, driven from the coast by a violent
gale of wind ; but neither of my specimens is the stormy
petrel. The one is the forked-tail petrel (Procellaria
Leach ?V) ; the other a tern, which I cannot identify with either
of Bewick^s descriptions of the species. I imagine it to be a
last year's bird, of the gull-billed tern (Sterna anglica), the
under mandible of the bill being angulated. Both specimens
were found dead. I am, Sir, &c. — J. A. H* Rington,
Herefordshire, Dec. 24. 1831.

Two Stormy Petrels taken at Birmingham. — On the 13 th
of December, 1831, owing, it is supposed, to a continued gale
of wind, which blew from the south-west during the day and
night previous, accompanied with violent storms of rain, two
stormy petrels were taken near this town, both nearly dead
from exhaustion. One was found in Bradford Street, and is
now placed in Weaver's Museum ; and the other was found
on Washwood Heath, which is situated about three or four
miles to the north-east of the town, and the bird is now in
the possession of the gentleman who picked it up. — C, Bir»
mingham, December 15. 1831.

284 Zoology.

The Imher {Colymhus I'mmer Lin,). — A fine specimen of
this bird was shot in the river Teign, in the autumn of 1830,
and is now in the collection of H. H. Hele, Esq., of Ash-
burton. This bird is, without doubt, the young of the C. gla-
cialis (in the above specimen the rings on the neck are very
apparent), common on the coast of Newfoundland and La-
brador.— W. R. Jordan, Lugehay^ Teignmouth, Dec, 4. 1831.

Notes on the Starling {Sturnus vulgaris), — Large flocks of
this bird resort to the fir plantations in this neighbourhood,
to roost during the winter and latter months of summer;
they also take up their quarters for the night in the reed beds
in the immediate vicinity of the river Trent. These birds
are often seen in company with the rooks (Corvus frugilegus),
and are in the habit of frequenting pastures with their larger
companions. Their food, possibly, consists of the same
species of worms, slugs, grubs, &c. They fly round their
roosting places many times, performing numberless curious
evolutions, before they finally settle for the night, and in
such compact bodies, that immense numbers of them have
been brought to the ground by a single discharge of a fowl-
ing-piece. On June 23. 1831, I saw a large flock, probably
four or five families, flying towards their roosting place, which
I considered rather early. White ones are sometimes seen ;
I observed a rara avis of this description amongst his darker
companions last winter. They will often build under the
rooks' nests in the rookery, and thus appear something like
dependants. — Scolopax rustkola, Chilwell, Oct. 21. 1831.

The following Remarks on the Starling are incidentally pre-
sented in the Gramina Britannica of J. L. Knapp, Esq.
F.L.S., author of the Journal of a Naturalist, They will be
found under the description of the common reed (^rundo
Phragmites), plate 95. : —

" v/rundo Phragmites is a plant that the agriculturist pays
no attention to, but to eradicate ; yet in rural economy it
justly holds a distinguished rank : in many of the lowlands
in the counties of Huntingdon, Cambridge, and Lincoln it
constitutes the crop of the soil, and is harvested with con-
siderable care, and from thence is exported and spread
through the neighbouring counties, being made use of as
a thatch for barns, cottages, and outhouses ; which proves to
be less expensive, and moi-e durable, than other vegetable
materials. The injury that is done, towards the end of
autumn [reed is not cut until after Christmas], to this valuable
crop, by birds, is so great, that the farmer of the watery dis-
trict is necessitated nightly to despatch boats with [men and]
fire-arms to scare them away. As the evening begins to
close, one sees clouds of starlings {»St<irnus vulgaris) approach-

Zoology. 285

ing from various quarters, in numbers that exceed all belief, to
pass the night in the reeds; and, lighting in myriads, like the
locusts of the East, upon this flexible plant, they crush it to
the water ; and one sees large patches lodged and beat down,
like grain after a storm. Though the guns of the boatmen
sweep them away by hundreds, the survivors are so drowsy
that they remain stationary, or move only a few yards from
the bodies of their slaughtered companions, and return on the
ensuing evening in numbers not apparently diminished, and
with a total oblivion of the carnage of the preceding night."

To the above remarks the author appends, as a note at
the foot of his page, these : — " There is reason to think that
the starling migrates from other countries into England
towards the commencement of winter: this kingdom never
breeds the myriads that collect to roost on ^rundo Phrag-
mites. The farmers of the districts have assured us that
they commonly destroy bushels of a night. Foxes and other
vermin assemble in the reeds, to fatten upon the poor starling,
which they either find asleep or disabled by the fire of the
nightmen."

See also incidental mention of the habits of the starling by
Mr. Waterton, in his remarks on the rook, p. 243. The
starling, besides consuming the earth-worm, will pillage cherry
trees of their ripe fruit. — J. D.

The domestic Pigeon eats raw Potatoes. — After the potatoes
are peeled, the eyes or buds are, as it were, scooped out with
the knife's point, and these parts, not the peelings, are thrown
into the street. A neighbour's pigeons instantly eat them,
and have acquired the habit of looking out for them at the
usual time ; and the other day three of them had the audacity
to attack and drive away a dunghill cock that was making
rather free with their fragments of potato. — Henry Turner.
Bury St. Edmunds, February 28. 1832.

Note on the House Pigeon [Columba CEi^nas Lin. var.). — I
kept a female of the blue rock variety nearly ten years.
About twelve months before it died, it ceased to breed, and,
I have every reason to believe, died of old age, after a few
days' illness. — W.R.Jordan. Lugehay, Teignmouth, 1831.

Remarks on Swallows. — Sir, I send you some remarks,
which I have made during the last summer, on that very
interesting class of birds, the swallow ; showing, I think, in-
dependently of that animal instinct which enables them to do
so many curious things, that they reason and act, according
to circumstances into which they are thrown, with as much
sagacity and forethought as the most expert of human beings.
The following three cases I witnessed myself during the last
year : —

2S6 Zoology,

A pair of martins had built their nest in the corner of
my window; I did not remark any thing particular during
the time they were so employed, excepting that I per-
ceived one of them was the same which had visited the same
place the previous year. I knew it again, from a remark-
able white feather in one of its wings. As soon, however,
as all seemed finished, my attention was arrested one day
by a great noise and bustle at the nest, caused by a stranger
of the same family of birds trying to force its way into the
nest at the time the two rightful tenants were within ; and,
notwithstanding their united efforts, he succeeded in entering,
and driving them out. This same warfare, and similar ex-
pulsions, took place daily, for a week or more. One day,
I remarked that the two rightful owners of the nest were very
busy outside, and I soon perceived that they were engaged
in lessening the entrance into the same ; in fact, they soon
reduced it so much, that they could scarcely force them-
selves into it singly. As soon as done, one or other con-
stantly placed itself at the hole, with its bill protruding
visibly without; and though the intruder made regular
attacks upon them for a week or more, he never afterwards
made any impression on them, and finally left them to
enjoy the reward of so much sagacity and forethought. Surely
no human being could have thought or done better to over-
come the attack of an enemy on his house, than these birds
did in barring up the entrance to their nest from their adver-
sary.

The second observation will show great thought and rea-
soning in a pair of these birds, which took a fancy to build
their nest in a corner, under an open staircase, in the yard
of the house I inhabit. As the stairs sheltered them from
wind and weather above, they gave up the additional trouble
of putting on a top to the nest, as they usually do, and made
the nest like that of most other birds, the boards above being
shelter enough for them.

The third and last observation which I shall make, refers
to the very strong attachment which these birds (swallows)
must have to places where once they have found security ;
for this, I conceive, is the main principle which attracts
them. On this same house is an old moving iron chimney,
placed there to prevent it from smoking : the fireplace be-
neath, however, having been bricked up, it became a safe
place for building in ; and, no doubt, the birds remarked that
it was such. In the very hood or top of this machine, moved
about by every wind, and making withal a most hideous
noise, from its being out of repair, I have seen these birds,
for two succeeding years, build their nest ; and often, for five

Zoology . . 287

minutes or more, when the wind has been high, I have seen
them in vain trying to get into it; the constant motion of
the chimney preventing them from entering their airy dwell-
ing. The force of habit must be very strong to induce
birds to choose so inconvenient a situation. No doubt, how- -
ever, the feeling of security overcomes many other consider-
ations. I am, &c. — H, B. Blois, France, Jan. 7. 1832.

The Pipit Lark distinct from the Meadow Pipit, or Tit-
lark. — Sir, I shall feel obliged by your insertion of a few
remarks upon the identity of the pipit lark; a species the
nature and habits of which do not seem sufficiently under-
stood. 1 have frequently observed a bird on Wandsworth
Common, which the bird-catchers call the pipit lark, and of
which, in the spring and autumn, they capture considerable
numbers. The upper parts of the plumage of this bird are
of a dark olive brown; the breast a dirty yellow, marked
with brown spots ; belly and vent yellowish white ; the tail
is olive brown, the exterior feathers white on the outer
margin. The female and young may be described in nearly
the same words, except that the plumage is not quite so
dark as in the male bird. I have consulted several authors,
but find no mention of this species being common in the
neighbourhood of London. Bewick mentions 'a bird very
similar to the present, but describes it as frequenting rocky
promontories and isles near the sea shore ; and all authors
agree that this species, the field lark (^lauda campestris
Linn.), is found only in the neighbourhood of the sea coast.
In Rennie's Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary, under the
article Tree Pipit, I find (p. 517.) th* following remark:
— '' Mr. Pennant says the birdcatchers about London take
a bird in the autumn they call pipit, but does not describe
it. We have great reason to believe that the bird so called
is the meadow pipit of this work, certainly not the grass-
hopper warbler, which, we believe, has been called pipit ; nor
is it likely to be the tree pipit, which leaves us at that season
in the same solitary manner it comes to us, and is never
known to be gregarious in this country." Now, it would
seem hardly possible that the lark which I have observed in
our neighbourhood, from its dark plumage and slight make,
could be confounded with the meadow pipit or titlark
(^lauda pratensis), and yet, in this case, I am inclined to think
such a mistake has been made. Montagu has evidently con-
sidered the two species one and the same : in this opinion,
however, I cannot concur, having shot male and female birds
of each species at the same time, both of which had nests
and eggs. It is surprising to me that when the fact of the
pipit lark's being a distinct species is known to every bird-

688 Zoology^

catcher and every bird-nesting boy, ornithologists should
have been so long undecided on the subject. I shall only
mention, in conclusion, that the pipit, like the titlark, has a
very agreeable warble, and sings hovering over its nest. I
am, &c. — Ornis. Wandsworth, Surrey, Dec, 1. 18S1.

The Alpine Warbler [Accentor alpinus) met *with in Eng-
land, — Sir, A few years since, I shot a small bird in a
garden on the borders of Epping Forest, which I did not
know, nor could any one tell me what it was, till within a
fortnight a gentleman requested me to allow him to take it
to London. He accordingly went to Mr. Gould, Naturalist,
20. Broad Street, Golden Square ; who sends me an account
of its being the Accentor alpinus, or Alpine warbler, the
only one known to have been killed in England, with the
exception of one, in Dr. Thackeray'ss garden, at Cambridge.
If you think this worth inserting in your Magazine, you
are at liberty to use it ; or if any of your correspondents
would like to see it, they can, by calling at my nursery,
Wood Street, Walthamstow. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — James
Pamplin. Whip* s Cross Nursery, Walthamstow, Jan. 27, 1832.

yiotacilla Sylvia Lin. [Qurruca cinerea Brisson], White-
throat. — This little warbler made it appearance in the neigh-
bourhood of Teignmouth, this year (1831), as early as the
SOth of March. It generally arrives about the middle of
April. — W, R, Jordan, Lugehay, Teignmouth, Dec. 4<. 183L

The Spring, or Yellow, Wagtail (M.otacilla Jldva). — This
active and graceful little bird has often afforded me much
amusement, whilst watching its sedulous attendance on cows,
when they are feeding ; keeping within a foot or less of the
heads of the animals. I have seen as many as seven, which
I concluded were the parents and their offspring, running
and dodging just before the cows' eyes, apparently catching
some small insects. T suppose that the cows, in biting off
the grass, disturbed certain small flies (which are the favour-
ite food of this bird) lodged in the grass, and which, as soon
as they arose, were entrapped by the watchful wagtail before
they could secure their retreat into the grass. We thus see it
demonstrated how one animal is subservient to the well-being
of another ; as it is evident that the bird could not secure
its prey, which is far down in the herbage, until aroused by
its friend the cow, which in this instance may not inaptly be
termed the " wagtail's provider."

The Pied Wagtail [MotaciUa Ibtor Rennie, M. alba Linn.)
may, I think, as far as some of its habits go, be classed
amongst the waders ; for a pair of these birds build regularly
in an old hovel, very near a shallow rivulet which runs across
the turnpike road, and are in the habit of running in it up

Zoology, . 289

to the belly in pursuit of flies or water spiders, which sport
in hundreds over its surface : they will remain in the water
for ten minutes at a time. A few years ago, a cuckoo
(Cuculus canorus) deposited its ^g^^ in the nest of these birds ;
and, in the course of time, the young foundling made its ap-
pearance, and took its station on the top of the thatch of the
building, where it was carefully fed by its foster-parents. It
was amusing to see the antipathy demonstrated by the swal-
lows of the neighbourhood (who are ever ready to buffet an
intruder), swoop at it with great vengeance in passing to and
fro. The cuckoo made no defence, except throwing its head
back, and opening its capacious mouth ; but whether in fear
or to intimidate them I cannot say. — Scolopax rusticola.
\Jiil-doell, Notts, Oct. 21. 1832.

Tomtit, or Blue Titmouse (Pdrus c<sriileus). — I am aware
that this little bird will choose curious places for bringing up
its young, but the following surpasses all I ever before heard of.
Some years ago, a man of the name of Tom Otter murdered
his sweetheart at a place called Drinsey Nook, in Lincoln-
shire. The assassin suffered the extreme penalty of the law,
and was gibbeted near the place where he committed the fatal
deed. It appears, that whilst the carnivorous tomtit was feed-
ing on the flesh of the malefactor, he had an eye to a com-
fortable habitation in the vicinity of so much good cheer ;
and as there was no hole in the gibbet post to suit his purpose,
he actually took possession of the dead man's mouth, and he
and his mate brought forth a brood of young cannibals ; and
more than that, they built there the next year, and were
equally successful in rearing their young. I think I hear
some of your readers say, " Come, come, Mr. Woodcock
{^colopax rusticola); you are now dealing in the marvellous, and
are rather stretching it :" but I can assure you. Sir, it is correct,
as I have had it corroborated by several eye-witnesses. — Id,

Pdrus major {Large Tomtit), — I have found the nests of
these birds more than once beneath an inverted flower-pot.
As before noticed in your Magazine, the old bird invariably
covers its eggs with feathers, before leaving the nest. — Id.

Fishes feed and discer7i in sunny Weather, — By A. R. Y.'s
extract (p. 58.) from the British Naturalist, it appears the
author of that work says, " that fish do not feed, and there-
fore we may conclude that they do not so well discern, small
bodies upon the surface, when the sun is bright." If the
author had ever been a May-fly fisher, he would have known
that bright weather and clear water were essentially necessary
to insure his success. This fly (? Sialis lutaria) which is one
of the best baits I know for large trouts, is much used by
YoL. V. — No. 25. u

290 Zoology,

the anglers in some of the rivers in Yorkshire (perhaps in
other counties also), where two different methods of fishing it
are practised. The one is bobbing, which, with one sort of
bait or other, is universal, and therefore needs no description;
however, it is always practised in bright weather, I believe.
In the other method the May-fly is fished in rapid streams
with a long line, in the same way as the artificial fly, except
that it is fished up the stream ; that is, the angler throws his
line into the stream above where he stands, and allows it to
float down opposite to him, when he makes another throw :
by this means he always keeps the line slack, and the May-fly
floats on the surface, which is essential to his success.

I mention these two methods of fishing, because both are
practised in bright w^eather, and therefore prove that fish
both " feed and discern" on such days. I believe the fact
is, that at such times they frequently see too well for the
angler, and are consequently aware that his artificial flies are
not what they seem to be. Fishes, particularly graylings, may
be seen rising by dozens at the small midges ( ? Culicbides
punctata Latreille) which abound so much in sunny weather,
without the angler being able to hook a single fish. The
first-rate anglers are well aware of these things, and abandon
their larger flies as the summer advances, use smaller hooks,
dress their flies much finer, and substitute horsehair for the
fishing-gut when they can procure it of good quality.

Lampreys [Petromyzon jlwoiatilis) abound in the Ribble,
some of them of the large species P. marmus, which are
caught of 3, 4, and sometimes 7 lbs. weight ; but, owing to
a prejudice which exists against them (I suppose on account
of their ugliness), they are seldom eaten. I will illustrate this
prejudice by giving you the remark of a keen fisherman to
myself, on my saying that I should eat a large one I had just
caught. " Well ! " said he ; " if you can manage to eat such
a thing as that, you would not stick at devouring a child in the
small-pox." This, if not an elegant, was at least a forcible,
expression of his opinion on the subject ; and this dislike to
them is almost universal in this neighbourhood. — T, G.
Clitheroe, Lancashire, Jan. 17. 1832.

Queries relative to the lampreys, their sex, and other par-
ticulars, will be found in Vol. IIL p. 478. : they are by "An
Old Angler," to whom scarcely any one seems yet to have
given answer. — J. D,

Cyprinus Vhoxinus Linnaeus. — Mrs. Unwin and I, cross-
ing a brook, saw, from the foot-bridge, somewhat at the
bottom of the water which had the appearance of a flower.
Observing it attentively, we found that it consisted of a cir-

%oology, 291

cular assemblage of minnows ; their heads all met in a centre,
and their tails diverging at equal distances, and being ele-
vated above their heads, gave them the appearance of a flower
half blown. One was longer than the rest ; and as often as
a straggler came in sight, he quitted his place to pursue him,
and, having driven him away, he returned to it again ; no
other minnow offering to take it in his absence. This we
saw him do several times. The object that had attached them
all was a dead minnow, which they seemed to be devouring.
(Letter to the Rev. Mr, Hurdis by Cowper, dated Weston,
Feb. 23. 1793. See Hayley's Life qfCowper, 4to, p. 110.)

Dead Frogs and live ones consumed hy Leeches, — Strolling
once in April, 1830, in company with several others, over a
part of the Chiltern Hills, for the purpose of collecting plants
for my herbarium, I came to a marshy spot of ground, the
stench from which almost poisoned the atmosphere. Looking
round, I beheld innumerable heaps of frogs and leeches in a
state of decomposition ; and others half dead, with leeches
attached to them, apparently in the act of preying on their
bodies. — J. G. Great Mar-low, Sept., 1831.

In the Linnet, at Bury St. Edmund's, I once saw a dead frog
lying on the mud under water, and horse-leeches (Hirudo
fSanguisuga) were within its skin, apparently feasting with due
zest on its decaying flesh ; and thus animating, in a fresh form,
the matter so lately endowed with life. — J. D.

Butterjiy (Vari^ssa Ataldnta), — I enclose a specimen of
the species to which the following anecdotes apply : —
Sept. 15th. It fixed on a sunflower; and being engaged in
extracting honey, it was so tame that at first I believed it to
be blind. It flew to a considerable distance, and often re-
turned ; but whether on the sunflower or on a wall, it was so
tame as to allow me to touch repeatedly its wings, antennae,
and head ; stretching the antennae, and erecting its head as
my finger waved over it. It perceived a sudden threatening
movement at the distance of three inches ; but except dis-
covering the flowers, it manifested no vision beyond that dis-
tance ; although nearer, it showed intelligent notice of my
actions. At another time, when I had thrown some decayed
pears into my garden, about a dozen of these butterflies
alighted on them, and began to eat. They were so tame
that I took up some with my fingers ; and, when my hand
was placed on the pears, some alighted on it and crawled
over it. I thrust them away, but they refused to fly. I do
not recollect to have noticed any observation of habits such
as these in any publication that I have met with. I am. Sir,
yours, &c. — Jonathan Couch. Polperro, Dec. 21. 1830.

u 2

292

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

Art. I. Retrospective Criticism.

T. W.^s Letters descriptive of a Natural History Tour in North America,
(Vol. III. p. 489., Vol. IV. p. 108. 289.)— Such vast and rapid changes
take place in the New World, that it requires considerable allowance
to topographical descriptions written in 1823. I do not think the writer
is fortunate in his first sketch from the Hudson (Vol. III. p. 49k) I cer-
tainly took it for a view of St. Helena, to which place it bears a greater re-
semblance. It must be remembered that one peculiar feature in American
scenery, which seldom fails to strike the observer on his first acquaintance
with this country, is, that its mountains, high or low, are always com-
pletely covered with forest. It is extremely interesting to read and com-
pare the first impressions of travellers in America; and whatever may be
said to the contrary, and about hasty observations, &c., I cannot but think
the earliest notes give the most lively, true, and natural picture when the
impressions are fresh and new and vivid. A thousand little characteristit!
circumstances, which we notice at first for their novelty, are soon forgotten,
or wholly unnoticed, if they are not recorded at the moment of observ-
ation ; and the traveller who waits a year before he puts his notes and sen-
timents on paper may be somewhat more strictly authentic, as relates to
the dry aifair of statistics, but he is not half so entertaining as those who
write on the instant. — R. C. Taylor. Pkilipsburgy Centre Cou?itj/y Penn-
si/lvania, W. States ^ August 7. 1831.

The Journal of a Naturalist ; an extraordinary Statement in it confirmed,
— Sir, A few days since I was amusing myself by the perusal of the Maga-
zine of Natural History (Vol. II. for the year 1829.), and at page 180. 1 met
with a critique upon the above work, under the signature of K. After
reviewing a few pages, the critic says (p. 180.), " At last, however, having
settled the merits of the limestone rock, and the shells and flints, and
happily consigned the fate and fame of strontian to the justice of time, we
flatter ourselves that we have passed all obstacles to our progress towards
a more pleasing part of the country, when suddenly we are requested to
pause by the side of a limekiln, to give ear to a tale which requires all our
powers of belief" That tale. Sir, runs thus {Journal of a Naturalist^
new edition, 1830, p. 12.): — " Perhaps I may here mention an incident that
occurred a few years past at one of our limekilns, because it manifests
how perfectly insensible the human frame may be to pains and afflictions,
in peculiar circumstances ; and that which would be torture, if endured in
general, may be experienced at other times without any sense of suffering.
A travelling man, one winter's evening, laid himself down upon the plat-
form of a limekiln, placing his foot, probably benumbed with cold, upon
the heap of stones, newly put on to burn through the night. Sleep over-
came him in this situation ; the fire gradually rising and increasing, until it
ignited the stones upon which his feet were placed. Lulled by the warmth,
the man slept on. The fire increased until it burned one foot (which pro-
bably was extended over a vent-hole), and part of the leg, above the ankle,
entirely off"; consuming that part so effectually, that a cinder-like fragment
was alone remaining ; and still the wretch slept on, and in this state was
found by the kilnman in the morning, insensible to any pain, and ignorant

Retrospective Criticism. 293

of his misfortune. He attempted to rise and pursue his journey, but
missing his shoe, requested to have it found, and when he was raised,
putting his burnt limb to the ground to support his body, the extremity of
his leg bone (the tibia) crumbled into fragments, having been calcined into
lime. Still he expressed no sense of pain, and probably experienced none,
from the gradual operation of the fire, and his own torpidity, during the
hours his foot was consuming. This poor drover survived his misfortunes
in the hospital about a fortnight; but the fire having extended to other
parts of his body, recovery was hopeless." After being somewhat facetious,
K. ends by saying, " We will venture upon no further comment on this
story: some things are possible that are passing strange." Now, Sir, as
truth is always valuable, and the veracity of all who write upon natural
history particularly so, I presume that you will, when your space serves
you, feel no difficulty in the admission of this to the same channel as that
wherein the incredulity appeared. The author of The Journal of a Na-
turalist is here well understood to be J. L. Knapp, Esq. F.L.S., and an
honorary member of the Bristol Philosophical and Literary Institution. I
have not the pleasure of his acquaintance, and am probably entirely
unknown to him ; but I cannot forego this opportunity of thanking him
for the amusement and instruction I have received by the perusal of his
interesting book. But now for his justification. By a reference to my
memoranda, I learn that on the 18th of April, 1817, Thomas Martin, aged
fifty, was brought to our hospital, having been burned at a limekiln. The
outline of the preceding story is the same as the one related to me by the
kilnman and the people who brought him to us. As Mr. Knapp's residence
at Alvestone is pretty close to Tockington, on the Thornbury road, where
the affair happened, it is exceedingly probable that the same persons were
his informants as well as mine. As the man did not appear to be in a
state of much suffering, as he did not complain of being otherwise injured,
and as his clothes had no appearance of having suffered by the fire, it was
not suspected that there was any thing to contend with but the leg. The
parts just above the ankle being absolutely burnt to a mere cinder, exhibit-
ing a most ghastly appearance, the limb was amputated by Mr. Lowe, the
surgeon of the week ; Mr. Nathaniel Smith and myself assisting at the
operation. Martin died in fourteen days. I prepared the limb, and depo-
sited it in the museum which T lately gave to the charity, considering its
history to be very curious. Should you, or any friend, come to this part
of the country, I shall be happy to show it, as confirmatory, so far, of my
part of this "passing strange" narrative. I have only to add, that should
this meet the eye of Mr. Knapp, in the pages of your journal, it will be the
first intimation that my pen has been taken up in his vindication. I am.
Sir, yours, &c. — Richard Smithy senior Surgeon to the Biistol Infirmary.
38. Park Street, Oct. 18. 1831.

Wilson, the celebrated Ornithologist. — Wilson died of the dysentery on
the 23d of August, 1813, as stated by me, p. 103. This fact is attested by
Wilson's friend, George Ord, in a Memoir of Wilson, from the pen of
Mr. Ord, prefixed to vol. ix. of Wilson's American Ornithology ; and in Sir
William Jardine's edition of Wilson's work may be found numerous proofs
that Wilson was living in the early part of 1813, and, consequently, that
he did not die in 1809, as remarked by your other correspondent in p. 103.
Wilson was born in 1766, not " 1776," as misprinted on p. 103. — John
Parry. Manchester, January 30. 1832.-

Hares taking the Water. — So much has been said on this subject, that it
becomes tiresome ; or I could confirm it by the testimony of an old man
here that sees it by day, and by moonlight as he lies in bed. He keeps the
locks on the Ellesmere Canal, and constantly sees them voluntarily swim
across and back into Aston Park. — J. F. M. Dovaston. January 8. 1832.
. The Stoat ; variation in the Colour of its Fur, according to Season. — Sir^

u 3

29% Retrospective Criticism.

J. M., at p. 77., says, " The stoat (Mustek erminea) does not change it»
colour here, as in the northern parts of the world." Unless J. M. means
to include Yorkshire in the " northern parts of the world," which I pre-
sume he does not, allow me to say, that I possess a specimen of the stoat,
which, with the exception of the black tip at the end of the tail, and a
streak of brown on each cheek, is entirely white ; such a change of colour
in the winter is by no means uncommon in the north of Yorkshire, all the
specimens I have seen in that season being more or less white. — M. P.
January 10. 1832.

The Stoat (Miistela erminea). — J. M. says, on p. 77., " that the stoat is
more timid than the weasel, and that it does not change its colour, as in
the more northern parts of the world." I know not why he calls it
timid, even relatively, as I think it the most fearless wild animal we have
in the kingdom ; in proof of which, I will mention an incident that 1 wit-
nessed myself. I one day saw a stoat carrying oiF a large rat it had killed,
and I immediately pursued it ; but it stuck so tenaciously to its prey (al-
though it was so encumbered with its load as to be scarcely able to run at
all) that I was close upon it before it would abandon it ; however, it then
took refuge in a wall that happened to be close by. I took up the rat, and
the stoat put its head out of the wall, spitting and chattering, with every
appearance of the most lively indignation against me for having so unjustly
robbed it of a lawful prize. I amused myself with watching it for some
time ; and then, beuig desirous of seeing how far its evident desire to
recapture its booty would overcome its fear of me, I held the rat just
before the hole in which it was ; when, after several attempts, in which its
discretion got the better of its valour, it at length screwed up its courage
to the sticking place, came boldly out of the wall, and dragged it out of my
hand into its hole. I know not in what county J. M. lives, nor do I know
whether he means to inckide any part of England in the more northern
parts of the world, but I do know that it is white in the winter in York-
shire, as I have caught, and still more frequently seen, specimens of this
colour. — T. G. Clitheroe, La7icashire, January 17. 1832.

The Stoat (p. 77.). — In this county, Cambridgeshire, the stoat does
sometimes change its coat, and assume the perfect dress of the ermine, as
two fine specimens in the museum of our Philosophical Society will testify*
— J. S. Henslow. Cambridge y February 14. 1832.

The Stoat. — Sir, If the stoat or white weasel of J. M. is not of a distinct
species, his remarks on it (p. 77.) do not apply to every part of the king-
dom. He says, that " it is more abundant than the weasel, probably
because it is unable to enter the holes of the reptiles by which it is killed."
Now, although I know many insects that dig holes for themselves, yet I
know of no reptiles that do so, nor do I know of any reptile in Scotland
that is in the habit of killing the white weasel or stoat (iy^ustela erminea).
In fact, the best of them would find him not a simple customer. The
viper, doubtless, may have it in his power to bring death at the long run
upon him, although this must occur very rarely. For the viper hunts for
frogs and mice when they lose the power of smell, and come in his way,
by day only; and indeed is rarely seen abroad but in sunshine. The
stoat may sometimes be seen during the day ; but from habit he is a
prowler, " a minion of the moon." Here he is so much rarer than the
weasel, that there are three of the latter for one of the former, especially
in the cultivated districts. The stoat, or white weasel as he is called in
Selkirkshire, is rather partial to a wild and mountainous country. His
habitations are the holes of the mole, into which I have often tracked him
during snow, and persevered to dig for him for some hours. I came at
last, however, to his lodging, and I was almost sorry for it, as he had
escaped by a back door, and I only dug up and uselessly destroyed his
winter abode, in the furnishing of which he had shown much good sense.

Retrospective Criticism, 295

The snugness and comfort of this retreat was indeed truly enviable, while
the wind was sharp from the north-east, being lined with a large quantity
of the down of mice and moles, and some feathers. In a side apartment
there were some two or three dead mice, and a bird, lying in store. It is
an extremely bold and intrepid little creature, but it is likewise very swift,
and trusts more to its speed than the weasel does. I have more than
once known him afford capital sport with a greyhound ; for whenever the
dog stoops to mouth, he jinks as quick as lightning between the dog's fore-
legs, and throws him wonderfully out ; and, as he is almost indefatigable,
generally succeeds at last in gaining time to find a mole-hole. I shall be
much gratified to hear, from any of your numerous readers, some facts
showing how it was discovered that he gets killed by the adder. In the
high lands around the sources of the Tweed he turns to a pure white
during winter, all save the tips of his ears and the black brush upon his
tail, the colours of which are always permanent. — W. L. Selkirkshire^
January 30. 1832.

The Stoat (p. 77.). — J. M. is mistaken, in some degree, when he says,
the stoat (ilfustela erminea) does not change its colour here as in the
northern parts of the world. I have frequently seen them quite white in
winter ; and a brother of mine shot one several years ago, which we got
stuffed, and its colour was, I think, as pure as any foreign ermine. In sum-
mer they are frequently so dark in the coat as to be taken for a light-
coloured weasel ; more of a dusky yellow than white. — Thomas Thompson,
Hull, February 16. 1832.

The Stoat and Weasel, — J. M.'s interesting account of the stoat and
weasel (p. 77.) induces me to offer the following remarks : — To many the
study of zoology would become more attractive, and be greatly facilitated,
were the common and provincial names of animals acquired and attended
to, with the same care as the Linnaean nomenclature. " In the north,"
says J. M., " this animal (the weasel, ikfustela vulgaris) is called the fou-
mart, and often the whitret." * If he write of the north of England he
may be perfectly correct ; but in the north of Scotland the polecat (ikf.
Putorius) has the term foumart invariably applied to it. With all, except
with such as have compared them with systematic descriptions, M. vul-
garis and M. erminea pass as individuals of the same species. Conse-
quently, in this part of the country, the name is indiscriminately applied to
each. The stoat is more frequently seen than the weasel ; but J. M.'s
remark is to be taken with some exceptions when he states that the former,
M. erminea, " does not change its colour here (in Britain does he mean ?)
as in the northern parts of the world." In this district it has occasionally
been seen quite white, excepting the tip of the tail, which remained
unchanged ; and the belly, which had a yellowish tinge. It has been met
with in this condition (only ?) in very severe winters, and when the snow
lay deep on the ground. Now, as it is frequently met with, in the winter
months, with no alteration of its fur beyond what J. M. states, it would be
well worth the attention of all who have the opportunity, to ascertain whe-
ther the degree of change in its fur be regulated by the severity of the winter

* " Qiihittret has been derived from Teut. wittern, odorare, odorem
spargere [to give out an odour] ; Gl. Sibb. This indeed expresses one
quality of the animal, as, when pursued, it emits an offensive smell. But I
would rather deduce its name from another, which would be more readily
fixed on, as being peculiarly characteristic, and more generally obvious :
this is the swiftness of its motion; Isl. Invatiir, Su. G, hwat, quick, clever,
fleet. Thus we say, as clevei-'s a quhittrety — Jameson's Scottish Dictionary,
This is a very different etymology from that suggested by J. M., p. 78.

u 4

2&6 Retrospective Criticism,

generally, or by the severity of particular parts of this season. Does it
change for the season, or with the season ?

In December, 1831, I observed an instance illustrative of the habits of
the stoat (M. erminea). While standing near a canal, about 14 ft. wide at
the surface of the water, and at the place where it joins a river, I saw one
of these creatures coming along the side of the river towards the canal.
It then ran up the side of the canal, repeatedly approaching the brink, as if
looking for a plank which usually lay across the canal, and which it most
likely had made use of on former occasions. When it came to the spot
where the plank had been, it without hesitation went into the water, and
swam straight across the canal, its head and tail only appearing at the sur-
face. After landing, and in making for a bank where some brown rats
(ilf us decumanus) lodged, it passed quite near to me, so that I saw that
its fur was perfectly dry. There was nothing at the time on the opposite
side of the canal to frighten this little active quadruped, or to force it into
the water for safety or retreat. On the contrary, its immersion and swim-
ming were voluntary and natural, and what it probably had often had
recourse to during its excursions. — r. Moray ^ February^ 1832.

The fact of the stoat's crossing the water spontaneously, increases the
probability of the mole's doing it also, as conjectured (p. 78.) by J.D.

The Stoat. — Your correspondent, J. M., appears (p. 77.) not to be
familiar with the natural habits of the stoat ; and if its " not changing
colour ^ere," means Great Britain, the statement is quite erroneous. They
abound in the neighbourhood where I now write, and it is equally impos-
sible to find a brown one here at Christmas, or a white one at midsummer.
The winter fur is perfectly white, excepting the lower half of the tail,
which is alwavs black. I have shot them in spring piebald with brown
and white. Their powers and habits are widely different from those of
the weasel, being infinitely more active in running, leaping, springing up
trees and stone walls, and nightly travelling over many miles of distance
beyond that of the weasel. It is, perhaps, of all other vermin, the most
destructive of game, more especially in the breeding season, when it inces-
santly preys on young hares and broods of pheasants. I have seen in a
chase of a half-grown hare by a stoat, as if the former had not the power
of exerting its best speed, but continued hopping forwards very moderately,
and the stoat, with an equally apparent moderation, chasing behind. Many
would be induced to attribute such an occurrence to what is mistakingly
called fascination in serpents, and which is nothing more than the parent
birds hovering over the reptile, and, like other parent animals, endeavouring
to decoy it away from their young. In the case of the hare and stoat, the
natural explanation seems to be that the latter was chasing the former
until it was sufficiently blown to be mastered by an animal so much less
than itself, and on the part of the hare, a consciousness that it could not
escape by flight, and was reserving itself for the struggle. This, however,
is offered merely as a conjecture. — J. Carr. Alnwick y Jan. 8. 1832.

The Weasel (p. 77.). — The same correspondent's account of the weasel
is, in many particulars, correct; but he commits a strange blunder in asserting
that it is called a foumart in the north. F'oufnart is a corruption of foul-
mart, in opposition to sweetmart, a tree animal, ver}'^ similar in form and
colour, but longer ; and the three animals, weasel, stoat, and foumart, are
as well and as distinctly known here as sheep, cattle, and horses. I also
very miich doubt its " depredations on the chickens in the poultry yard."
In every such case the stoat, I believe, is the real and most destructive
depredator, and, indeed, is very generally amongst country people called a
■yveasel. [In Cambridgeshire the true weasel is deemed destructive to poultry,
and destroyed, when practicable, accordingly. — J. Z).] The latter (the
weasel), in truth, is a most inoffensive creature; and if it ever does injury
to any one, it weighs as dust in the balance against its benefits. In «\

Retrospective Criticism, 297

stack yard abounding with mice, the loss sustained is often enormous, and,
indeed, incredible to all who have not witnessed it; and there a couple
of weasels will do more good than twenty cats. [This is admitted in
Cambridgeshire, although it is there accused of destroying the poultry as
well. — J. D.] A mouse can enter nowhere into a corn stack, but where
a weasel can pursue and destroy it, and I have seen the whole interior of
such a stack strewed with the fragments of destroyed mice. All the bad
character of the weasel arises from confounding it with the stoat, which
well merits destruction wherever it can be met with ; but as to the innocent
and most useful weasel, the brood ought to be protected, and its residence
in the farm yard encouraged by every means. The black tail of the stoat
is a certain and constant distinction from the weasel. The white rat, men-
tioned by J. M. (p. 78.), is evidently nothing more than the winter
stoat, which, in that garb, is frequently seen about buildings and drains.
Natural history has long been overlaid with obscurity, by misapplied names
and false references ; and much remains to correct in that way, and much
of instructive information to be drawn from enquiries into the natural
habitudes and varied modes of existence of the several species, instead, as
at present, making it a meagre detail of personal descriptions. — J. Carr,
Alnwick, Jan. 8. 1832.

The Weasel (\). 77.). — Sir, J. M. says of the'weasel, " In the north this
animal is called the foumart, and sometimes whitret, as if white rat." The
name whitret is entirely a new name to me ; but the foumart of the north of
England most decidedly is not the weasel, or the iliiistela vulgaris, but the
polecat, or ikfustela Putorius of Linnaeus ; which, from the strong smell it
emits, when frightened, is called the foumart, quasi foul marten, whilst the
pine marten (ilfustela abietina), which is a very scarce animal, at least in
the north of Yorkshire, is called the sweet marten, in contradistinction to
the foumart. This, Sir, is one of those instances which shows the neces-
sity of familiarising ourselves with the scientific names of animals ; for
otherwise you perceive it might be possible for two persons talking of the
foumart to be mutually misunderstanding the animal meant by the other.
The foumart of Yorkshire is the same animal which yields the fur, which,
when imported from abroad, is called fitch. — Thomas Thompson. Hully
February \Q.\^2>2.

Of the Weasel (Mustela vulgaris). — J. M. says (p. 77.) that the weasel is
called foumart in the north. This is not the case in this neighbour-
hood certainly ; here the polecat (ikfustela Putorius) is called foumart (as if
foul-mart); in contradistinction to the marten * ( iy^./oiw«), which is called
sweet-mart. — T. G. Clitheroe, Lancashire, January 17. 1832.

Weasel (Mustela vulgaris). — J. M. remarks (p. 77.) that in the north
the weasel is called foumart ; in Yorkshire, I believe, this name is ex-
clusively applied to the polecat (AI. Putorius). I know not whether the
fulimart of old Izaak Walton be the foumart or not; it is, however,
evidently not the polecat. See Sir J. Hawkins's note on p. 88. of Walton's
Angler. Yours, &c. — J\J. P. January 10.

The Polecat (M. Putorius L.) is several times alluded to above. Re-
marks descriptive of its manners and habits, and a figure of its skull, occur
in Vol. IV. p. 10.; all adduced by Dr. Farrar, in relevance of his specula-
tions on the consonance of the anatomical structure of the car of the pole-
cat with the animal's habits of life. — J. D.

Auditory Organs of the Hedgehog, Mole, and Water Shrew. — Sir, Dr. Farrar
(Vol. IV. p. 13.) was undoubtedly wrong jn supposing that our common
hedgehog (jErinaceus europae^us) has no external auditory tube ; but the
cause of his error is easily explained. C. S. E. (VoL IV. p. 382.) brings
forward a much more unaccountable conclusion, when he contradicts Dr.

* Marten, a species of weasel; martin, a species of swallow. (Walker'' s
Dictionary.) A transposed application has hitherto occurred. — J. D.

298t Retrospective Criticism*

Farrar, and says that he found the external ear of the hedgehog " termin-
ating inferiorly in an open external auditory aperture." I believe that such is
never the case, but that, owing to a peculiarity in the relations of the tragus
and antitragus cartilages, and a singular structure of the helix, it is always
apparently closed, although it is not so in reality. On being accurately
examined, those cartilages will be found approaching very nearly to each
other, so that the interval between them is but a small cleft scarcely ob-
servable; and they are surmounted by a kind of valve, which is a very
extraordinary developement of the internal point of the helix, and which
closes that cleft completely, causing the ear to appear as if it really had no
opening leading to the membrane of the tympanum. How C. S. E. could
overlook this circumstance I cannot conceive. It is very probable that
the animal can voluntarily raise or depress its valvular-like helix, so there
is no doubt but that it possesses the sense of hearing ; for, with the excep-
tion of the above peculiarity, its auditory structure, internal and external,
resembles that of mammiferous animals generally : it contains every organ
essential to the perfection of that faculty. If, as Dr. Farrar supposed,
it had no external auditory passage, that would not, as he concluded, war-
rant us in supposing that its ear was of no use to it ; for there is

The Common Mole (Tklpa europae^a), and others might be mentioned,
whose external ear is wanting, yet its internal ear is remarkably deve-
loped, and it is certain that its hearing is very acute. This is a beautiful
provision of nature, which I cannot avoid noticing. The mole always
leading a subterraneous life; if it had external ears, they would be a con-
tinual source of annoyance to it, by their becoming filled with dirt, stones,
&c. How sounds are conveyed to this animal's tympanum, is a query not
at all satisfactorily explained. But in applying the principle of the adapt-
ation of means to ends, so admirably exemplified throughout all nature,
particularly in the organisation of animals, we come to an enigma which we
cannot solve, when we enquire for what purpose the forementioned singu-
lar provision should be conferred upon our common hedeghog. It must,
however, probably effect some important design hitherto undiscovered.
No other species of hedgehog has any provision of the kind, although one,
the jB^rinaceus auritus, which inhabits the eastern regions of Asiatic Rus-
sia, very closely resembles its European congener in all other respects, in
manners, habits, and general conformation, excepting the great length of its
external ears ; whence is derived the specific appellation auritus. Nor am
I aware of but one other animal, in the whole of the extensive order Car-
nassiers [carnivorous animals] of Cuvier, having its ear closed in a similar
manner, and that is

The Water Shrew {Sorex fodiens of Linncsus). When this animal plunges
into the water, where it is said to spend a great part of its time, its ear
is almost hermetically sealed ; not however quite in the same way as the
hedgehog's ear is closed, but by means of three small valves, corresponding
with the helix, the tragus, and antitragus. The design in this instance
is obvious, to prevent the water from permeating into the external auditory
tube; by which it would not only be very painful to the animal's feelings,
but must eventually destroy its power of hearing. The similar provision
with which the hedgehog is endowed fulfils probably some equally import-
ant end, if it be true, as I firmly believe it is, that " the parts of animals
have all of them a real, and, with very few exceptions, all of them a known
and intelligible subserviency to the use of the animal." The hedgehog,
however, presents us with one of those " exceptions." I am, Sir, yours,
&c. — .7. J. Gelly, Montgomeryshire^ August ^ 1831.

Those desirous of tracing the history of the water shrew farther are
referred to p. 79., and to the preceding notices there indicated. — J. i>.

The Rallus Crex, or Corna-ake. — This bird has a strong muscular giz-
zard, notwithstanding the doubt expressed by A. K. Y. (p. 68.) in his

Retrospective Criticism, 299-

excellent review of the British Naturalist. By means of its gizzard this
bird can triturate shells, and elytra of beetles and their hard bodies. I once
saw a cook-maid take out of the gizzard of one a shell-snail whole (i/elix
nemoralis), and its gut was full of the bodies of T'ipula pectinicornis
(Harry long-legs). — ./. F. M. Dovastoji. January 8. 1832.

The Water Rail (Edllus aqudticus^ p. 68.). — In reference to its food, I
must say I have found its crop filled with the seeds of bog plants. — T. K,
Dublin, Feb. 7. 1832.

Turtle Doves. — J. M.'s remarks on turtle doves (p. 82, 83.) are genuine
and judicious. We have turtle doves here in abundance, in their season,
and the people call them Wrekin doves, ignorantly imagining that they
come from, and retire to, that mountain. — J. F. M. Dovaston. IVestfelton,
near Shrewsburi/, January 8. 1832.

Food of the Chaffinch (Vringilla Spiza Ren.). — There must be some
mistake in the statement (Vol. IV. p. 417.) that the chaffinch is, " during
summer, entirely insectivorous ; " for though I believe it feeds its young
almost wholly on insects, the old birds uniformly prefer vegetable food. In
the early summer they accordingly look out for the more early seeds, such
as those of Draba verna, groundsel, chickweed, and the speedwells, and
even eat the leaves and young shoots when they cannot procure seeds.
Their being prolific breeders, and requu'ing, of course, an extensive supply
of insects for their young, may have led to the mistake. I once reared a
young chaffinch from the nest, and previous to its first moult it eagerly
devoured flies and other insects ; but afterwards, though it retained the
habit of snapping at every fly that came near it, and even of killing
them, it always dropped them in the cage. I never ot3served it, indeed, after
this period to swallow any insect. — J. Rennie. Lee, Kent, Jan. 7. 1832.

The chaffinch is execrated by most gardeners, and not without cause.
In early spring it does ruinous injury to his hopeful crops of sprouting
seeds of radishes, of hawthorn, and of other plants. This does not invali-
date Mr. Main's remark above cited, that the chaffinch is " entirely insecti-
vorous in summer;" it is not, however, entirely so in autumn ; then it
vindicates most diligently, and pertinaciously too, and to an expensive
extent, its claim to a share of the crops of ripening seeds of radish, cab-
bage, and other plants; especially those in the natural order Cruciferae. —
J.D.

Since these remarks were written, A. R. Y. has presented the reader
(p. 65.) with a confirmation of this accusation, and also exhibited several
instances of benefit conferred on man by the chaffinch. — J. D.

The Term Midge as applied to a Species of Fish. — Sir, In Couch's
very excellent and interesting paper on the Fishes of Cornwall (p. 13.) I
would decidedly object to the term Midge ; for, as this term has been
previously applied to an insect, the Culicoides punctata of Latreille, its
application also to a fish tends to confusion. Yours, &c. — J, Rennie*
Lee, Kent, January 7. 1832.

Mr. Couch seems to have anticipated, but still has not met, this objec-
tion. He remarks (see p. 16.), " I find also the word midge used for a gnat
in Hawkins's edition of Walton^ s Angler, partii. p. 104." See also p. 290.

Use formerly made of the common Viper. — Sir, From the remarks made by
your valuable correspondent W.T. Bree (Vol. IV. p. 472.), on the use made
of the common viper, I am induced to send you the following, copied verbatim
from an old London Dispensatory, by William Salmon, Professor of Physick.
1702: — " Yipera (echis, Greek; shephijjhon, Heb.), the Viper. — It is a
serpent that brings forth alive, exceeding other serpents in venom ; sleeping
all winter under the earth, or in rocks. Schroder saith, he opened a great
serpent in Finland, which had living young within it ; but I rather believe
him to be mistaken, and that it might be an overgrown viper of a strange
colour ; for, to our knowledge, serpents lay eggs, and we opened two which

300 Retrospective Criticism,

had more than a dozen eggs apiece within them : so that it stands ajrainst
reason that one and the same kind should bring forth both ways. ~ The
young females are the best, being taken in the spring after they have been
awhile out of their dens. Vipers have all the same virtues with serpents,
save only vipers are stronger, and they have also the same preparations.
In the viper there is nothing venomous but the head and gall ; the flesh,
liver, and bones have no poyson in them. 1. The head of the viper is used
as an amulet, to be hung about the neck, to cure a quinsie. 2. The flesh
is hot and dry, and purges the whole body by sweat ; and, being eaten or
drunk, it cures the French disease and the leprosie. 3. The broth of them
performs the same things ; eating half a viper at once, and fasting five or
six hours after it ; so also they cure old ulcers and fistulas, clear the eye-
sight, help the palsie, and strengthen the nerves. 4. The ashes of their
heads, mixt with a thick decoction of bitter lupins, and used as an oint-
ment to the temples, stops rheums falling into the eyes, and helps their
dimness ; and is an excellent thing against St. Anthonie's fire. 5. The fat or
grease mixed with honey is an excellent thing to clear the sight. 6. The
whole viper, in pouder (the head and gall excepted), cures perfectly the
gout, king's evil, taken twice a day to 5ij- or more. 7. Oleum viperarum.
^ Black vipers, Ibiij. ; oil of jessamine, ibij. ; boil them in a close glass till
the flesh falls from the bones ; or you may make an oil of them by dessen-
sion. It cures the gout, palsie, and leprosies ; cleanses the skin, and helps
all the defects thereof. 8. Viper wine. It is made by drowning live vipers
in the wine : it cures leprosies and the French disease. 9. Powder of vipers
compound. It is made as that of serpents, and has all the same virtues.
10. Quintessence of vipers. It is made as we have taught in our Dor. Med.,
lib. ii. cap. 8. sect. 2., and is very powerful against leprosies, the French
disease, and all impurities of the flesh and blood. 11. Essentia viperarum.
^ Of the livers and hearts of vipers, ana ; dry and bruise them, and extract
a tincture in seven days with s. v. rectified: To fti. of this tincture add of
the fixed salt ^ ss. mixed with the flegm and spirit of vipers ; draw off' by
distillation ; of the volatile salt ^i- ; digest till they are united ; so that you
have a most ennobled essence of vipers, powerful to all the aforesaid inten-
tions. Dose ad 3ij. It is a most excellent medicine, dissolves all excre-
ments and coagulations of tumours; dissolving, purifying, and cleansing like
soap ; carrying out every ill by urine, sweat, or intense transpiration ; curing
all sorts of gouts, the stone in both reins, and black leprosie, French disease,
scurvy, melancholy, all obstructions and putrefaction, loss of strength,
decays of nature, and consumptions : so that, as it were, it even renovates a
man, by taking away what is contrary to nature, and adding what is requisite.
12. Spirit of oil volatile and fixed salt of vipers. ^ Dryed vipers with
the liver and heart ; cut and gently bruise them ; put them into a retort,
from which distil gradatim into a large receiver : so have you a flegm and
spirit, and then a volatile salt, sticking to the neck of the retort and sides
of the receiver; and at the last a thick stinking oil, which separate.
Purify the volatile salt in a long glass, and sublime it by an alembick in
sand, with a gentle fire, lest any humidity should follow, as is usual if the
fire be increased. This salt is wonderful piercing and volatile, and there-
fore ought to be kept close in a glass, with a glass stopper : from the caput
mortuum you may make a fixed salt the common way. The volatile salt
and spirit are wonderful medicines : they resist putrefaction, open all ob-
structions, cure quartans and all sorts of fevers; given an hour before the
fit, in a convenient vehicle, to allay the sharpness, as in the emulsion of
almonds, with a little rose and cinnamon water and white sugar. Dose of
the volatile salt is, a gr. vi. ad x. or xii. ; of the fixed, a 3ss. ad3j. or ^<is.
The biting of the vipers is mortal, and kills within three days at farthest if
not speedily cured : the poyson is universal, as if the body was set on fire,
with convulsions, cold sweats, vomiting, and then death. At first, the poy-

jRetrospective Criticism* 301

son may be sucked out by applying the anus of a hen to the part after scari-
fication ; or else a plaster of garlick, onions, and Venice treacle ; drinking
French wine, garlick broth, and taking mithridate, bezoar mineral, and
myrrh, &c."

It will be hence seen the high estimation our forefathers had of the use of
the viper, and the mode of making some of its various preparations ; and
the great confidence they placed in its virtues in eradicating those now
unknown diseases (or, perhaps, better known by more intelligible names).
But thanks to the march of intellect, and the persevering researches of our
modern physicians, for the erasement of this and numerous other noisome
remedies from their present mode of practice. I am, Sir, yours, &c. —
D. N. Worksop, Sept., 1831.

Parasites (Microgdster glomerdtus) upon the Cabbage Caterpillars. — The
calculation of Mr. Bree (p. 107.) upon the wonderful destruction of the
caterpillars effected by these little creatures (what between the sparrows
and the microgasters, the caterpillars seem to have a sad hfe of it), the
announcement of J. D., p. 109. (I have observed some curious facts con-
firming J. D.'s statement), that the perfect flies have not a determinate
time for appearing, and the statement of my friend Newman (p. 109.),
respecting the structure of the larva, are very interesting. I cannot, how-
ever, bring myself to concur in the supposition of the latter gentleman, that
the parasitic larvae derive their nourishment through the long, transparent,
hair-like appendage to the end of the abdomen, first observed by him ; and
for this simple reason, namely, that the larvae of the /chneumonidae are
furnished with the same organs of nutrition as are possessed by all the
other hymenopterous worm-like larvae. It is true that these organs are
very minute; they have not, however, escaped the delineator of your
figure 40 6, p. 108., although he has mistaken them for the tail instead of
the mouth of the grub. May not the appendage mentioned by Mr. New-
man have been one of the skins of the larva not entirely cast off? His
observation, that they entirely divested themselves of it before forming
their cocoons, confirms my supposition. In answer to Mr.Bree's questions,
at the foot of p. 106., I should imagine, from what I have seen of these
parasites, that each species is attached to its peculiar caterpillar ; hence I
do not agree with Mr. Newman in thinking that the Microgaster which
attacks the garden tiger moth (A'rctia Caja) is the same species as that
which preys upon caterpillars of the cabbage butterfly (Pontia brassicae) :
the question, however, requires close investigation. I will say nothing
at present upon the " relation of affinity, as the cant term expresses it,"
which Mr. Newman considers may be established by this discovery between
Stylops and Microgaster. — t/. O. West wood. January 28. 1832.

Humming in the Air. (p. 110.) — I would refer O. to Mr. Rennie's Insect
MiscellanicSy p. 89., and if he has not that work, I recommend him to pro-
cure it as soon as possible ; in the mean time I extract the following,
which 1 think will explain the " humming " to him. After quoting the
passage in White's Miscellaneous OhservationSy referred to by O., Mr.
Rennie proceeds : — " We have frequently observed this humming in the
neighbourhood of London, and for some time were as much puzzled to
explain it as White, till we, on several occasions, remarked a troop of
swallows hawking high overhead, where the humming was heard; there
could be no doubt, therefore, that it was occasioned by insects invisible
to us, on account of their distance." Mr. Knapp says thus, " that this sound
proceeds from a collection of winged insects, or bees, there can be no
doubt." Kirby and Spence (Introd. to Ent. ii. 377.) seem inclined to
refer it to insects of the order Coleoptera. — M. P. Jan. 12. 1832.

Humming in the Air (p. 110.). — As corroborating O.'s conjecture, I
would refer you to an account transmitted to you last year by Mr. Jenyns,
of an extraordinary swarm of minute flies, which settled in the Lodge of

302 Retrospective Criticism,

King's College. Although they were exceedingly minute, yet, upon our
listening with very moderate attention, their aggregate humming was very
distinctly audible. The explanation of this phenomenon, mentioned by
White, seems to me to be satisfactorily given by O. (p. 110.). — J.S.
Henslow. CambridgCy Feb. 14. 1832.

We here insert the account supplied by the Rev. L. Jenyns, adverted to
above by Professor Henslow.

All exti'aordinar^^ivarm of Flies. — During the month of September
last, a small dipterous insect, belonging to Meigen's genus Chlorops, and
nearly allied to, if not identical with, his C. lae'ta, appeared suddenly, in
such immense quantities, in one of the upper rooms of the Provost's Lodge,
in King's College, Cambridge, as to render the fact worthy of being
recorded. The same species of fly, or one closely approaching to it, is not
uncommon in most houses, at least in Cambridgeshire, towards the decline
of the summer ; but in this instance their numbers were so great, and
their appearance so sudden, as to surpass anything of the kind I had ever
before witnessed. It was not till after a fortnight had elapsed from the
time in which these insects were first noticed that I had an opportunity
of seeing them myself, during which interval their numbers had been
greatly thinned by fumigations of tobacco and other substances employed
as a means of destroying them ; nevertheless, they were still in immense
profusion, and my informant told me that in the first instance the greater
part of the ceiling, towards the window of the room, was so thickly covered
as not to be visible. The exact day of the month on which these insects
first showed themselves was not noticed, but, as far as could be remembered,
it was about the 17th of September. They appear to have entered the
room very early in the morning, by a window looking due north, which had
been open during a part of the night, being first observed between eight
and nine A.M. A few were noticed in the adjacent rooms facing the same
way, although, comparatively speaking, in no great quantity; perhaps in
consequence of the windows of those rooms not being opened at quite so
earl}' an hour. None at all, however, had been seen in the house previously
to that day. We are, at present, so ignorant of the habits and economy
of the minuter tribes of insects, that it is not easy to speculate upon the
origin of those under consideration. The enquiry which seems most
naturally to suggest itself is, whether in the present instance they were
all bred in the immediate neighbourhood, and at the same time, or
whether they were swarms that had collected from different quarters for
the purpose of migration. Many facts are on record which seem to con-
firm the idea that insects do occasionally change their quarters in immense
bodies ; and some have occurred to myself, which, I have no doubt, were
connected with such a circumstance, not only from the large numbers of
the insects observed, but from the steadiness of their flight, and their con-
tinually persevering in one given direction. It is worth noticing, with
respect to the case before us, that King's Lodge is situate close to the
river Cam, which at that place runs nearly due north and south, and it is
just possible that this circumstance may have had some influence in direct-
ing the movements of these insects. I find also, by referring to a journal
of the weather, kept in the neighbourhood of Cambridge, that about the
time when they were first observed, the wind was N.N.W. and that it had
continued fixed in that quarter for four successive days. — L. Jenyns.
Nov. 28. 1831.

Lwninousness of the Sea. — The failure of Mr. Sharpe in detecting these
luminous animalcula, as noticed in Vol. IV. p. 506., arises, I conceive,
from that gentleman's not being aware of the fact of their being found, when
quiescent, only on the marginal surface of the water. I am, in some
measure, confirmed in this opinion, by a similar failure on the part of an
intelligent naturalist of my acquaintance. The truth is, that being simply

Retrospective Criticism, 303

vesicles, or air-bags, like bubbles they rise to the highest part of the
surface, which we uniformly find the latter do in a glass of ale or other
liquor. I find that the animalcula first figured (fig. 52. a) in my notice
respecting the luminousness of the sea, in your Vol. IV. p. 285., is en-
graved in the tab. v. of Oken's Zoology from Slabber's Medusa marina,
tab. viii., fig. 4. and 5. It is named by Oken, Slabben'«, and the habitat
given is the North Sea. — Samuel Woodward. Norwich, Jan. 19. 1832.

Anchor Frosts. — Sir, J. M., in his remarks on this subject (p. 91.),
appears to me to have fallen into several errors in his endeavour to account
for anchor frosts (they are called bottom frosts in Yorkshire). For, ad-
mitting that main springs are of the temperature stated (40*^), I am by
no means prepared to believe that they keep that temperature long, or
that the water issuing from them does not mingle intimately and imme-
diately with the water of the river into which it flows ; especially in the
situations where anchor frosts are most common, and which are rough
and rapid streams. From J. M.'s statement, it would appear that globules
of water of different temperatures mix together without the one impart-
ing its excess of caloric to the other, which is contrary to the expe-
rience of every one j it is true that in still places there will be different
temperatures in the same body of water, but it is not owing to the main
springs of which J. M. speaks, but to the peculiar way in which it is
affected by cold. It is well known that water increases in density down
to 40", at which temperature in begins to expand, and this increase of
volume continues to take place until it reaches the freezing point, so that
in severe frosts there will be strata of different temperatures from 32^ to 40°.
Again, he says that " the crystals of ice are intercepted by the interstices
of the stones, and then become heaped together in thick beds j " but, if
my observations are correct, these depositions always begin first round the
large stones, which are not likely to stop small spicula any more than are
the water-gates of mills, where, he says, the accumulations also take
place.

Anchor frosts are most common in the rapid streams occurring below
deeps in rivers ; and T have seen a wear on the river Wharfe (Yorkshire),
which had a wall of ice 4 ft. high, formed upon it in a single night, by a
sharp north wind. In my opinion a sufficient reason for these frosts is to be
found in the fact, that water, when kept from agitation, may be cooled
down below the freezing point without being congealed ; but if the vessel
in which it is kept be shaken, a portion of it is converted into a porous
spongy ice, like that formed by anchor frosts, and the temperature imme-
diately rises to 32°, In the deeps of rivers the same cooling below the
freezing point takes place without congelation, but as soon as this water
reaches the stream below, the agitation immediately converts a portion of
it into ice, which collects round the large stones at the bottom, in the
same way that crystallisation connnences in a solution of salt or sugar,
around a piece of thread, or other substance, which may be suspended in
it. If a severe frost is followed by a bright day, thousands of these detached
pieces of spongy ice may be seen rising from stones which have served as
nuclei for them ; which proves that the detention of them at the bottom
is not merely mechanical, but that precipitation (if I may be allowed to
call it so) takes place in the first instance, the stone serving as a nucleus,
and that this adhesion is destroyed by the action of the sun's rays.

I have never seen any attempt to explain the phenomenon of bottom
frosts before this of J. M.'s, and I am not philosopher enough to speak
positively on the subject ; but the above is the way in which I have
always endeavoured to account for it. Perhaps some of your scientific
readers may be able to give much better reasons for it than have been
offered either by J. M. or myself. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — T. G. Clitheroe,
Lancashire, Jan. 17. 1832.

304? Betrospedive Criticisnu

London Fogs. — Fogs happen^every where, caused by the upper region
of the atmosphere being colder than the lower, by which the ascent of
aqueous vapour is checked, and kept arrested near the surface of the
earth. But fogs are more dense about London, and probably all other
great cities, than elsewhere : the reason is, because the vast quantity of
fidiginous matter floating over such places mingles with the vapour, and
renders the whole so thick that a noonday darkness is sometimes produced,
rendering candles and gas-lights necessary for the transaction of the ordi-
nary business of the shops and public offices. Such circumstances happen
frequently during winter; but on some occasions (as about 2 P.M. on
the 27th Dec, 1831) this foggy darkness was truly awful. This extra-
ordinary appearance is, however, caused by a very ordinary accident, viz.
a change of wind ; and which may be accounted for as follows : — The
west wind carries the smoke of the city to the eastward in a long train,
extending to the distance of twenty or thirty miles ; as may be seen in a
clear day, by any person on an eminence five or six miles from the city,
and looking across the direction of the wind ; say from Harrow on the
Hill, for instance. In this case, suppose the wind to change suddenly to
the east, the great body of smoke will be brought back in an accumulated
mass, and as this repasses the city, augmented by the clouds of smoke from
every fire therein, it causes the murky darkness alluded to. This effect
of the smoke's being thrown back on its source may be easily conceived ;
indeed, it may be seen under favourable circumstances, first reverted, and
gradually accumulating, till it is dispersed on the opposite side; but
wherever the accumulation is, in its progress backward, there will be an
unusual degree of darkness. It is to be observed, that the cause of fogs is
also the cause of the smoke floating near the earth; of course, where there
is much of the latter the former is doubly dense. Besides fogs, we have
also mists or haze, usually accompanying east winds, especially in the
spring months. In the counties to the westward of the metropolis this
mist is called London smoke ; but, as it is seen to the eastward as well as
westward of the city at the same time, the appellation is improper. It is
observed mostly under a cloudless sun, in consequence of its reflecting the
blue rays of light, or perhaps the azure tinge of the sky ; hence it is also
called a blue mist. So imposing is this in real landscape, that the painter
embodies it on the canvass. Aerial perspective cannot well be given
without an imitation of this haze, and which constitutes one of the greatest
excellencies of pictorial execution. Very differently is this appearance
estimated by many orchardists : they call it a blight, and consequently
deprecate the east wind. It is perfectly true that tender vegetation suffers
under the withering effect of easterly winds, and the hot sun at that season
brings forth myriads of aphides and other insects, from ova previously laid
on the trees ; but that they are brought by the east wind is as ridiculous
as untrue. The most rational idea we can form of this hazy appearance
is, its being caused by the constitutional coldness of the east wind, which,
checking the ascent of vapour raised by the sun, carries it horizontally
along the lowest stratum of the air, hence its visibility. A lurid gloom
is sometimes produced by clouds of snow; when the water floating in the
air becomes frozen into spicula, and, congregating into flakes, contrary
currents of wind wheel them into irregular masses, which obstruct the
light from the sky, so as to wrap every object immediately below in deep
yellow light. This circumstance almost always precedes, and is a certain
sign Of, a fall of snow. — /. M. Jan. 14. 1832.

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY,

MAY, 1832.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I. The Habits and Manners of the female Borneo Orang-
utan {Simia Sati/rus)^ and the male Chimpanzee {Simia Tro-
glodt/tes), as observed during their Exhibition at the Egyptian
Hall, in 1831. By Mr. J. E. Warwick.

Sir,
The great interest and curiosity excited by the recent eX'
hibition of the Chimpanzee and the Borneo orang-utan ;
and a suggestion which has been made to me, that the oppor-
tunity I possessed of being constantly with them should be
made productive of some result, have induced me to mark
and note down the manners and dispositions of these inter-
esting specimens of the animal kingdom ; and I now submit
the following, in the hope that it may be acceptable to
many of your readers, very few of whom probably have ever
seen the animals whose singular habits I am here attempting
to describe.

On the first sight of the two specimens, the difference was
so remarkable as almost to excite a doubt whether they be-
longed to the same genus. The most striking points of dis-
tinction were the length of the facial angle in the female, or
Borneo orang (»Simia 5'atyrus) ; the singular smallness of
the ear, and its close resemblance to that of the human
species ; the pear-shaped head ; the nose but in a slight degree
elevated ; the nostrils narrow and oblique ; the extreme
length of the arms, the use made of them in walking, the
animal resting the hands on the ground, and swinging as if
on crutches ; the hair of a reddish brown, very short, and but
slightly scattered over the body ; the abdomen exceedingly

Vol. v. — No. 26. x

306 Habits and Manners of the

protuberant; the feet long, with the largest toe peculiarly
short, but exhibiting a perfect nail : these were the striking
peculiarities on the first sight of the female ; while the Chim-
panzee (Simla Troglodytes) exhibited a marked contrast in
the general character of its form, presenting a much nearer
approach to that of the human race. Its conformation com-
prises all those points of resemblance which characterise the
orang-utan, besides other instances of approximation which
in that animal are not observable. The form of the head,
the intellectual superiority that distinguishes the cast of the
features ; the proportionate length of arm to that of the body ;
the larger and perfect thumb ; the roundness of the thigh ;
the perfect feet, and the consequent upright mode of walking;
the complete formation of the last joint of the great toe; the
quality of the sounds which it occasionally utters ; — all these
are points which at once strike the observer, denoting the
superiority of the Chimpanzee over the Borneo orang-utan,
as well as the widely different characters that distinguish
them.

I must here confess myself unable to give you a scientific
description of the animal : it is simply my intention to detail
some of those peculiarities and habits, which few but myself
have had an opportunity of observing.

On the occasion of their introduction to each other, it was
curious to notice in what way they would act; not having
seen any of their class for many months, and being so distinct
in character, and natives of different quarters of the globe.
On their being placed on the floor together in a private
apartment, they stood at some distance from each other,
resting on their knuckles, in evident contemplation of the new
form they now saw for the first time. They then approached
nearer, smelling each other very sensibly; the female pro-
truded her prominent lower lip, touching the lip of the male,
but without any smack or noise. This was done apparently
without any expression of joy or mutual attachment, but
merely as an act of recognition of two of the same tribe
meeting in a foreign land ; nor was I ever afterwards able to
discover the least sign of tenderness or attachment to each
other; but, on the contrary, a decided inclination to keep
aloof, especially on the part of the female, whose timidity
allowed the male to take from her hands any dainty that
might have been given to her, with great reluctance on her
part, but with evident fear of repelling the insult. On the
experiment being tried of forciniv them to sleep in the same
cage, a battle took place, of which it was not afterwards
deemed advisable to risk a repetition.

female Orang-lJian and male Chimpanzee. S07

The companionable and sociable habits of the Chimpanzee
far exceeded those of the female, as did his knowledge of
persons whom he was in the habit of seeing. On first ap-
proaching him on a morning, or after being absent from him
a short time, he would utter a loud cry of recognition ; and,
running towards you, would stand perfectly erect, spreading
his arms to be taken up, when he would put them round
your neck in the manner of the fondest embrace ; nor was it
an easy task, for those to whom he was attached, to leave the
room, except by stealth. Food, on the other hand, was the
only object that would cause any attachment, or even locomo-
tion, in the female; of whom it might be said, that her appe-
tite was the mainspring of all her actions, to which a protube-
rance and rotundity bore ample testimony. In feeding, the
greediness of the female was evinced by her laying her body
over the dish, securing the choicest morsels both with hands
and feet, and then feeding with her mouth in the dish, using
her lips in the manner of the horse, and evincing the greatest
fear lest any portion should be taken from her ; while the
Chimpanzee sat perfectly upright, taking small portions grace-
fully between his thumb and forefinger, in the most placid
and gentle manner ; nor was his rage ever excited except by
refusing him a part of an orange, of which he might have
caught a glimpse, or that he knew (which he evidently did,
by the smell) was contained in your pocket. Neither of these
animals ever secured portions of food in the cheek or pouch;
nor did they appear to smell their food before eating, as most
of the monkeys do, except it was some uncommon substance
which they had not been accustomed to eat. Both were
in the habit of using a glass in drinking, but they were
never known to throw it down ; they invariably either gave it
back, or set it down in the most careful manner. The Chim-
panzee, in particular, was attracted by the brilliancy of colours,
always getting up on the approach of any female whose dress
was distinguished by the gaiety of its hues.

He likewise evinced great joy in being placed at a window,
and would utter a scream of delight at the passing of horses
and carriages ; but nothing could exceed his rage when
placed in a confined cage. He would then stand erect, cry-
ing, and shaking the bars with all his strength, until he
obtained his release, when he would immediately fly to the
arms of his liberator ; and, such was his love of the society of
those he knew, that the temptation of the choicest fruits would
not entice him to remain in the room alone ; for, if at liberty,
he would run towards the door, and try to get out first, or
would embrace your knees, and cry in the most piteous man-

X 2

308 Female Orang-Uta7i and male Chimpanzee,

ner to be taken with you. During the whole time they were
together, I never knew them attempt the least gambol or
amusement of any kind, either together or individually; nor
did they take any notice of other animals, as cats, monkeys,
squirrels, &c., that were placed with them ; but would sit
for hours with the utmost gravity, as if absorbed in the most
intense thought. At other times the male would examine
your person, pockets, and hands, with the most minute atten-
tion. Confinement seemed to be the most dreaded punish-
ment; and, when thrt\alened with that, he would cling to any
one present for protection; and, at night, actual force was
required to confine him to his bed, the female generally
retiring of her own accord many hours before him. When
called to by name (Buck), he generally answered with a short
cry, putting out his hands to be taken up.

The instinct of providing and placing warm materials for
her bed was the most marked in the female, who would be
engaged for two hours at a time in dragging blankets from
various parts of the room, smoothing and changing their posi-
tion, and beating any raised part down with her knuckles ;
assuming at the same time a look of gravity and an appear-
ance of wisdom. This capacity of providing and preparing a
nightly lodging seemed to be almost extinct in the Chimpanzee,
possibly from his sociality and confidence in man, as he took
no care in this particular ; but if no place were provided for
him, and, even when provided, if he did not like it, he would
climb into the bed of his keeper. The timidity of both animals
was remarkable, they being exceedingly alarmed even at in-
animate objects ; a toy-dog, or a cast of one of their own
species, that was in the room, if removed the least towards
them, was sufficient to drive them to the farthest extremity of
the apartment, in their most nimble, though not very quick,
pace ; and the fear exhibited by the female, at the sight of
her deadly enemy, a boa constrictor, was most acutely evinced.
It would appear as if they had not the power of distinguishing
between the real and artificial, as a toy-snake shown to her
produced the same results.

The hearing of both animals was remarkably acute, catch-
ing the most indistinct noise at a considerable distance ; and
their knowledge of sounds was accurately shown; as, on hearing
the footsteps, on the stairs, of persons with whom they were
acquainted, they ran towards the door before it was opened.

They were in the daily habit of riding in a coach, and
on being seated, before the vehicle moved, they would secure
themselves by getting a firm grasp of the hold-straps attached
to the side of the coach.

Notice of the Reed Warbler. 309

It would seem that they had some knowledge of time ;
for, as the hour approached at which they were removed to
their nightly residence, they would of their own accord get
the blankets, and enfold themselves, in readiness to depart ;
and if their removal were protracted beyond the usual time, it
required force to prevent tl>em from going to the door. The
Chimpanzee having caught a cold, which ultimately caused
his death, he had a violent cough, that in sound was remark-
ably human ; and as, when a fit of coughing came on, he was
usually given some sweetmeat or cordial to stop it, he soon
adopted the cough as a mode of obtaining those additional
luxuries.

Nothing more evinced the impression which the appearance
of the two animals made upon the persons who saw them, than
the exclamation that usually followed the first sight of them.
The universal cry, on seeing the Chimpanzee, was, " What
a nice litde fellow 1" or, " What a little darling !" while his
less-favoured partner, although of the softer sex, was gene-
rally saluted with, " What a disgusting beast ! " &c. During
his illness, his pitiable looks and evident sufferings, with his
placidity and gentle habits, endeared him to all who saw him ;
and when he could no longer swallow food, the quiet manner
of putting the hand that offered it on one side, and uttering a
peculiarly mournful cry, was painfully touching. When bled,
he evinced not the least alarm or uneasiness, but put out his
forefinger to touch the blood that was trickling from his arm;
he even allowed a blister on the chest to remain, after having
been scolded once or twice for attempting to remove it.

Without placing entire credence, then, in the many wonder-
ful tales related of these animals, enough has surely been said
to excite our curiosity and interest, and even to awaken our
admiration. I am, Sir, yours, &c.

J. Warwick.
Surrey Zoological Gardens^ March 23. 1832.

Art. II. A Notice of the Reed Warbler ICurruca arundinacea
Brisson). By J. G. Stoke Newington.

Sir,
This bird, although rather local, is yet very abundant in
some districts. Bewick seems to have quite overlooked it, and
on this ground I am anxious that the accompanying specimens
and their nests {Jig. 63.) may be figured in your Magazine.
They were procured this summer [1831] at -Sudbury, Suffolk,

z 3

310 Notice of the Reed Warhler.

where 1 had frequent opportunities of observing the habits of
the bird ; for it abounds in the reeds [y4r{indo Phragmites]
on the banks of the Stour, and in the ditches communicating
with the river.

Its congener, the sedge warbler (Curruca salicaria), seems
to live with it in great harmony ; but the reed bird confines
itself rather closely to the reeds, while the sedge bird is as
frequently to be seen and heard in the low hawthorn bushes
and pollard willows which skirt the river : however, one of
the specimens now sent was shot in a poplar tree, having left
the reeds for this unusual locality but an instant before.

I discovered two nests : from one of them the young birds
had just made their escape, and were clinging with their long
claws to the reeds ; in which situation the old ones appeared
to be feeding them. The little creatures leave the nest long
before their wings are of any use, and support themselves with
great dexterity on their frail perches, the sport of every pass-
ing breeze, and, to all appearance, in imminent danger of
being precipitated into the water. In the mouths of nearly all
the old birds which I shot was a number of flies, generally
small dragon flies ; and these, I observed, were much moist-
ened, and in some instances almost half-digested, either by
the saliva of the bird, or by its ability to hold water for this
purpose.* I was unable to make much observation upon the
song of the bird, for the joyous days of sylvan melody had
passed before my arrival in the country ; all that I heard was
a chirping note, very similar to that of the sedge warbler,
although, perhaps, somewhat more hoarse and guttural.

* This remark applies equally to the sedge warbler.

Fishes of Cornwall. 3 1 1

In one of tlie nests was an addled egg^ which was thickly
covered with very minute brownish green spots. Wool is the
staple material of the nest ; much exceeding in quantity the
fine dried grass with which it is interwoven and with which
the interior is lined: three reeds usually support the curious
fabric, but in the present instance, a sucker from a poplar
tree takes the place of one of them.

An attempt to rear the young birds in confinement entirely
failed ; one of them surviving only a day, and another about
double that time. 1 am, Sir, yours, &c.

Stoke Neivmgton, Sept 30. 1831. J. G.

Art. III. Further Observations on some of the Fishes of Cornwall.
By Jonathan Couch, Esq. F.L.S. &c.

(Continued fro77i p. 24}.)

The sounds and seas, each creek and bay,

With fry innumerable swarm, and shoals

Of fish that with their fins, and shining scales,

Glide under the green wave, in sculls that oft

Bank the mid sea : part single, or with mate.

Graze the sea-weed their pasture, and through groves

Of coral stray ; or, sporting with quick glance.

Show to the Sun their waved coats dropt with gold."

Milton,

Remarks on the Species of the Genus Tri'gla.

TRfoLA Hirundo{ Tuh-Jish). — This is oneof our commonest
fishes. Its usual residence is at the bottom, in sandy or stony
ground ; but it sometimes rises to the surface, by the aid of
its large pectoral fins, and strong and capacious air-bladder ;
an organ which in this <]jenus is firm, and furnished with
powerful muscles, interwoven with its tendinous structure.
This fish, and perhaps most of its congeners, has the faculty
of uttering distinct sounds, bearing a near resemblance to the
grunting of a young pig ; and this it will continue to do from
the moment it is taken to near the time of its death.

The use of the pectoral processes is doubtful. They have
numerous joints along their course, and are inserted on the
clavicle by a joint that allows of extensive motion. A pro-
cess or trochanter passes off, into which is inserted a muscle
of great power. When either of these jointed organs is
directed forwards, it naturally bends into an arch. The tub-
fish sheds its spawn about Christmas, at no great distance
from land. All the fishes of this genus are distinguished bv

X 4

312 Further Observations on some

their hard heads, formed of a crustaceous substance, enclosing
and protecting the muscles ; by their thick skin, stout bones,
particularly the sternum or breastbone, and by the air-bladder,
which may be taken from the body without discharging its
contents.

Trigla lyra L. {the Piper), — Though the name of this
species has a more direct reference to the sounds it is capable
of uttering, it is not more distinguished for them than the tub-
fish, and some others. The piper wanders about more than
the others, at least, of the Cornish species ; consequently it
is sometimes common, and at others, somewhat rare.

The Streaked Gurnard (T. linedta Turt. Linn.) was found
in Cornwall, by Mr. Jago ; but I have never had the good
fortune to meet with a specimen.

T. Cuculus {the Elleck). {fg. 64^.) — The elleck, red gur-
g^ nard, or soldier, is called Cii-

cuius, the cuckoo, from a sup-
posed resemblance of its sounds
to the note of that bird ; or,
as Aristotle says, because it
utters the word Jcoo. It abounds
at all seasons, and in its habits
it resembles the tub-fish.
T. Gurnardus L. {Grey Gurnard). — Ray observes that the
word gurnard, which may be regarded as the English term,
is derived a grunnitu^ from grunting like a hog. In this,
however, I venture to think this eminent naturalist mistaken.
Pengurn is the ancient Cornu-British name for these fishes,
and signifies hard head; and its English translation is now
sometimes given to the grey gurnard. From the Cornish
word gum (hard), I therefore derive the name, as descriptive
of the head of these species.

This is a common fish at all seasons ; but in December and
January it sometimes abounds to such a degree, that, as they
are not much esteemed, I have known them sold at thirty for
a penny. It keeps near the bottom commonly, at no great
distance from land ; but sometimes multitudes will mount
together to the surface, and move along with the first dorsal
^w above the water : they will even quit their native element,
and spring to the distance of a yard ; thus imitating the flying
gurnard, though not to the same extent. In summer they
are found basking in the sun, perhaps asleep, as they will at
times display no signs of animation, until an attempt is made
to seize them.

of the Fishes of Cornwall. 3 1 3

Pellucid Ophidium (Ophi'dium pellu^cidum Couch).
This fish (j%. 65.), of which I have seen four specimens, is
g^ 5iin. long, by half

an inch deep; and

^^^^^^^^>^»^»»^>/»^ » ^ ^^^*;^LP so transparent, when

living, that the co-
lours of the vessel in which it was swimming, could be seen
through the thickest part of its substance. Head small,
sloping towards the mouth, compressed, under jaw shortest,
gill membrane attached, the opening near the pectoreil
fin. Eye large and bright; vent l|in. from the head;
at this point the body is deeper than along the abdomen,
it then gradually grows narrower to the tail. Pectoral fins
small, the dorsal fin beginning at about one third of the
length of the body from the head, the anal at the vent;
both joining to form the tail, as in the eel. Breast folded
from the thorax to the vent. Lateral line straight, having
along its course a row of black points ; along each side of the
abdominal plait, also, a row of points to the tail. The course
of the ribs is distinctly marked ; number of vertebrae counted,
150. The only opaque parts of this fish are the eyes; the iris
resembling a plate of silver, the black pigment surrounding
the posterior chamber also conspicuous ; convolutions of the
brain visible; no scales. One specimen differed from the
others, in having two bifid teeth projecting forward from the
under jaw; in proportion to the size of the fish they might be
termed tusks : in this specimen, also, the body was raised a
little immediately behind the head.

Miscellaneous Notes.
Mode of Propagation in Eels. — The generation of eels has
been involved in extraordinary obscurity, notwithstanding the
attention which eminent naturalists have paid to the subject.
I have no doubt that the pearly white substance which lies
along the course of the spine of this fish (the situation of the
roe in most fishes) is the roe. Contrary to what is found in
most species of fish, this roe contains a large quantity of fine
oil ; so free from fishy flavour, as to be commonly employed
(at least, that found in the conger) in crusts and other culinary
uses in Cornwall. In the fish its use seems to be to protect
the delicate sexual organs from cold ; for these organs are
most developed in the coldest season of the year; and the
whole constitution of the eel is remarkably susceptible of cold :
it feels every change of temperature. There are no eels in
the Danube, nor in any of its tributary streams. The rivers
of Siberia, also, though large and numerous, are destitute of

314 Further Observations on some

them * ; but B^lon found them of very large size in the Island
of Lemnos.

The eels which were the subjects of my observations and
experiments were procured from the outer pier at Polperro,
in the month of February ; and, though the season was so
cold that a sheet of ice was left on the beach when the tide
receded, they seemed to have lost nothing of their activity.
Placing a portion of this roe in the field of a powerful micro-
scope, I find it consisting of globular grains, some far ex-
ceeding others in size ; from which I conclude that some are
just approaching to maturity ; and that they are excluded in
succession, considerable time elapsing between the expulsion
of the first and last. It is impossible to imagine that these
could ever have been hatched within the body ; and still less,
without that circumstance having long since been ascertained.
The small size of the external orifice is a further proof of the
same thing. To remove all doubt of this pearly substance being
the roe, 1 burnt a portion of it in the flame of a candle, subject-
ing it at the same time to the judgment of one well acquainted
with the smell of burnt roe of fish, which is sufficiently dis-
tinguished from every other smell. The individual was not
acquainted with the intention of my enquiry, but the decision
that it was the roe of fish was without hesitation. It is pro-
bable that the roe of the eel is rendered prolific previously to
its exclusion ; for Rondeletius says that he has seen eels cling
together like dew-worms ; it seems likely, also, that the grains
are not deposited or covered, but rather left to float at ran-
dom, as is certainly the case with many fishes. It seems diffi-
cult, on any other supposition, to account for the young eels
coming to life at the distance of two or three leagues from
land. Notwithstanding this distance, they soon find their way
to the mouths of rivers. Young eels begin to appear in
March, the earliest I have noted being on the 3d of that
month, in 1828 ; and in 1830, after minute search, the first I
could find was on the 24th. At this season, some are usually
found so transparent that every internal action and organ may
be examined. In making observations on eels, I have found
mucli difficulty in keeping the fish in confinement ; they made
their escape from a large vessel, when the water was four inches
below the brim. One was taken in the street on its way to
the stream, others I never recovered ; very small ones escaped
with no greater difficulty than the larger. In all cases the
escape was by night, I believe by placing the tail over the

* See a historico-geographical description of the north and eastern
parts of Europe and Asia, but more particularly of Russia, Siberia, and
Great Tartary; by Philip John von Strahlenberg j 4to, 1738,- p. 361.

of the Fishes of Cornwall. 315

edge of the vessel. I hope to be able to pursue this enquiry
during the winter and following spring.

The true Sprat very rare in Cornwall. — In reference to some
observations by Mr. Yarrell, in the Zoological Journal^ vol. iv.
p. 466., relative to the distinction between the sprat and the
young of the pilchard and herring, I can state that Cornish
fishermen term the young of both the latter fishes sprats ; but,
how far this should go in determining the judgment of a natu-
ralist will appear, when I add that I have never seen above
one specimen of the genuine sprat in Cornwall, and that was
brought me by a fisherman, to be informed what fish it was.
In taking fish out of his net by night, he felt it to be neither
a pilchard nor a herring, and supposed it something rare.

The BlacJc Fish of Jago, and its Synonymes. — I have only
further to add that I can now clear up a doubt in British
ichthyology that has existed for a hundred years. I have at
last ascertained what is the black fish of Jago, the Perca nigra
of Turton and other authors. 1 believe it to be the Pom-
pilus of Gesner and Ray. Two specimens were taken here in
1830 and 1831 : one of which I minutely examined, and pre-
served a drawing of; of the other I received a figure and
description. An error in Borlase's original description, of three
fourths of an inch instead of three or four inches, has chiefly
led to the continued mistake respecting this fish.

J. Couch.

Some critical remarks on the want of proportion in some of our figures
illustrative of Mr. Couch's first paper (p. 15 — 24.), will be found under
Retrospective Criticism, in the present Number (p. 393.).

The Short Sunfish {Orthagoriscus Mala Fleming). — The present will not
be an unfit place to notice a somewhat recent capture, in the neighbour-.,
hood of Plymouth, of a species of fish of comparative rarity on our shores :
the Tetrodon Mola of the older authors, the Orthagoriscus Mola of Dr.
Fleming's British Atiimals. The following is a descriptive paragraph respect-
ing it, which appeared in the Mirror of Sept. 10. 1831 : —

" Curious Fish. — A most singular fish was brought to Plymouth, a
short time since, by some fishermen, who secured it while driving for pil-»
chards off the Mewstone. It was of an unknown species, not unlike a
huge bream in shape, weighing 60 lbs.; and was 2 ft. 9 in. in length, 22 in,
in depth, and about 8 in. in thickness. The dorsal and ventral fins were
placed near the tail, stood off from the body, and measured each of them
1 ft. 3 in. long, both of them tapering to a point. The tail itself was 5 in,
long and 16 in. in breadth, crescent-like in shape, and seemingly attached
to the body by a kind of hinge. The fish had no nostrils ; and its mouth
was barely 1^ in. wide. Instead of teeth, it was supplied with two solid
sharp bones, in the form of gums. Behind the pectoral fins, which were
very small, were the oval openings to the gills, and they had something
of the figure of the human ear. Its skin was perfectly invulnerable,
of a silvery hue, inclining to blackness towards the ridge of the back.
The total absence of gills gave the head a most awkward appearance. — ■
W.G.C."

316 Descriptive Notice of the Char^

On mentioning the occurrence of this fish to Mr. Yarrell, he, besides
communicating the name as above, furnished the following list of references
to most of the British authors by whom it has either been described or
figured : —

The sunfish (Mola Salvian?, Orthagoriscus Rondeletw), Willughby's
Historia Pischnn^ p. 151. fig. I. 26. The short sunfish (Tetrodon Mola
Linn.), Pennant's British Zoologi/, edit. 1812, vol. iii. p. 172. Cephalus
brevis of Turton's British Fauna, p. 116. sp. 160. Tetrodon Mola, Dono-
van's Natural History of British Fishes, plate 25. Orthagoriscus Mola,
Fleming's British Animals, p. 175. sp.32.

This copious supply of references, so obligingly furnished by Mr. Yarrell,
will enable the possessor of any one of these works to farther trace the
history of this remarkable fish. — J. D.

Art. IV. Descriptive Notice o^ the Char {Salmo alpinus L.), and
mention of another Species of Fish. By O.

Sir,
The habits of fish are, for the most part, so imperfectly
known, that any additional information on their history is
acceptable. I, therefore, shall not apologise for troubling you
with a few remarks on the char ; the habits of which are, pro-
bably, as little understood as any. The char (iSalmo alpinus
L.) is found in several of the deep and rocky lakes of Eng-
land : viz. Coniston in Lancashire, Windermere in West-
moreland, Buttermere and Cromackwater in Cumberland,
and, I believe, in Uls water. My observations are confined
to Windermere. Windermere is fed by two streams, which
unite at the head of the lake, named the Brathy and the
Rothay : the bottom of the former is rocky, and that of the
latter sandy. On the first sharp weather that occurs in Novem-
ber, the char makes up the Brathy, in large shoals, for the
purpose of spawning, preferring that river to the Rothay,
probably owing to the bottom being rocky, and resembling
more the bottom of the lake ; and it is singular that those fish
which ascend the Rothay invariably return and spawn in the
Brathay ; they remain in this stream, and in the shallow parts of
the lake, until the end of March. While spawning, their colour
and spots are much darker than when in season ; the mouth
and fins being of a deep yellow colour; and they are covered
with a thick slime at this time. In the water before Brathy
Hall, at Clappersgate, hundreds may be seen rubbing and
rooting at the bottom, endeavouring to free themselves from
the slime, and probably msects that annoy them.* Great

* On the analogy of the habits of the salmon, as described in Jameson's
PhilosophicalJournal for April, 1828, this collision with the soil may be for
depositing spawn or eggs therein. That work thus states: — " The salmon
having left the ocean, and found in the fresh-water streams suitable places

and mention of another Fish, S\l

quantities are caught during the spawning time, by the netters,
for potting, and some are sent up fresh for the London mar-
ket; but those only who have eaten char in summer, on
the spot, when they are in season, can tell how superior they
are to those eaten in London in the winter. About the be-
ginning of April, when the warm weather comes in, they retire
into the deep parts of the lake ; where their principal food
is the minnow (Cyprinus Phoxinus Z.), of which they are
very fond. At this time, they are angled for by spinning a
minnow ; but, in a general way, the sport is indifferent, and
the persevering angler is well rewarded if he succeed in kill-
ing two brace a day. A more successful mode of taking them
is by fastening a long and heavily leaded line, and hook baited
with a minnow, to the stern of a boat, which is slowly and
silently rowed along : in this way they are taken during the
early summer months ; but when the hot weather comes in,
they are seldom seen. They feed, probably, at night ; and
although they never leave the lake, except during the period
of spawning, nothing is more uncommon than taking a char
in July and August. When in season, they are strong and
vigorous fish, and afford the angler excellent sport. They differ
little in size, three fish generally weighing about 2 lbs. : occa-
sionally, one is caught larger, but they seldom vary more than
an ounce. The char, as it is well known, is a singularly beauti-
ful fish, and is accurately described by Pennant. The fisher-
men about the lakes speak of two sorts, the case char and the
gilt char ; the latter being a fish that has not s[)awned in the
preceding season, and on that account said to be of a more
delicate flavour, but in other respects there is no difference.

Whilst speaking of the char, 1 cannot forbear adding a few
words about another fish, which is found both in Windermere
and Uls water, and called, by those residing on the spot, the
gray trout. Its habits, as to the time of spawning, and living
only in the deep rocky lakes, resemble those of the char ; but
it grows to a very large size, and is sometimes caught in Uls-
water weighing 15 or 20 lbs. I have endeavoured in vain to
find some account of this fish : it bears some resemblance to
the gwiniad, the schelly of Ulswater ; but this fish. Pennant
says, never weighs more than 3 or 4 lbs. It is most like the

for spawning, the sexes, in November, December, and January, unite in
making furrows in the gravelly shallows of the rivers to receive their spawn.
From eight to twelve days are required before this process is completed.
The spawn is afterwards covered with loose gravel, and remains till the
suitable warmth of spring brings forth the fry."

Contributions towards a farther history of the salmon will be found in
this Magazine, Vol. I. p. 170., and Vol. III. p. 94. 196. 480. —J". Z>.

318 Some remarkable Forms m Entomology^

fish referred to by Pennant, in his British Zoology^ vol. iii.
p. 423., in a note from Lacep^de's Sup, to Histoire des
Poisso?is, V. 696., and called Le salmone Cumberland.
" Head small ; eyes large ; mouth large, with two rows of
teeth on the tongue ; scales small ; general colour white ;
back gray ; flesh pale and tasteless." In Ray's Letters there
is a letter to him from Captain Hatton, in which this fish is
obviously alluded to : the following is the passage : — " Whilst
I am now writing, a Westmoreland acquaintance of mine,
coming to see me, in discourse did accidentally mind me of
the surprise I was in some years ago, at Lowther Hall, Cum-
berland, Sir J. Lowther's. Seeing at Sir John's table a fresh-
water trout, which was 38 in. in length, and 27 in. in girth ;
taken in Hulswater, a large lake in Westmoreland, in which
I was assured by Sir John and others, trouts of that size (nay
larger) are frequently taken." Some of your correspondents
may be able to give a fuller account of this fish.

I am. Sir, yours, &c.
Clapton, March, 1832. O.

The strictures of A. R. Y., at p. 58., on the char, are a
farther contribution to its history. — J. D,

Art. V. On some remarl-able Forms in 'Entomology^ including a
Notice of Mr. Stephens's Description of Chiasognathus Grantu.
By J. O. West WOOD, Esq. F.L.S. &c.

Amongst the almost (may I not rather say, absolutely?)
endless variety of forms impressed by an all-wise Creator
upon the animated works of the creation, it is a remarkable
fact, that very few so entirely recede from the general struc-
ture of the great groups evidently existing in nature, as to
require the establishment of fresh orders, or other primary
sections for their reception in a systematic distribution. It
more frequently happens that the attention of the naturalist is
directed to objects which, although possessing the essential
characters of the group to which they belong, exhibit the
most remarkable appearances from the extraordinary develope-
ment of some one or more of their organs, and lead him, at
first sight, to doubt the propriety of the location assigned to
them. These objects are consequently regarded in the most
interesting light, not only by the professed naturalist, on
account of the peculiarity of their structure, but also by the
amateur, from the grotesqueness or singularity of their appear-

mth a Notice of Chiasogndthus Grantn. 319

ance. Indeed, from the remarkable circumstance, that these
creatures are generally of very rare occurrence, being seldom
found in any great quantity, it is not surprising that authors
should have seized every opportunity of minutely describing
and illustrating their entire structure.

From the last labour of Linnaeus, until the publication of
the memoir noticed at the head of this article, the science of
entomology has been enriched by the publication of several
papers upon insects of the nature above alluded to, and which
I propose briefly to lay before the readers of this Magazine ;
trusting that the singularity of the insects referred to will be
a sufficient excuse for the details into which I shall subse-
quently enter, with a view of making known the entire structure
of one of such remarkable creatures. And here I may note,
that it is gratifying to our national pride, to observe that
our own countrymen have not been backward in thus re-
cording the existence of these almost anomalous objects.

The first memoir to which I refer, is that which closed the
labours of the great Linnaeus. The objects which terminated
his scientific career were not unworthy of him, since in this
memoir the genera Paussus and Diopsis were first described.
Of the genus Paussus, one species only was known to Lin-
naeus; namely, the P. microcephalus, or small-headed paussus,
a outline of which I have given atj%. 66, This genus, which

belongs to the beetles (Coleoptera),
is at once distinguished by the ex-
traordinary form of the antennae,
which, instead of being 11 -jointed,
possess only two apparent joints, the
second of which is very variable in
form, but constantly of very large
size, and singular shape. Since the
time of Linnaeus, several species
have been discovered, the genus has
been formed into a family of several
distinct genera ; and in a memoir
upon this family, which is intended
Paussus microcephalus: ^^^ publication in the ncxt part of

o, magnified ; 6, natural size. the LinticBan Transactions, I have
described nearly thirty species, illustrated with about seventy
figures of the insects and their details.

The genus Diopsis belongs to the order of two-winged
flies (Diptera), and is remarkable for the spines upon the
thorax, and for the extraordinary developement of the sides
of the head, which are produced as long footstalks to the eyes,
which are placed at the tip. One species only of this genus

320

Some remarkable Forms i?i E?iiomolog2/,

was known to Linnaeus. Four or five others have, however,
recently been described by Continental entomologists. My

own cabinet contains three
other new and undescribed
species, and I am acquaint-
ed with two or three others.
The outline (Jig. 67.) re-
presents the large- eyed
Diopsis macrophthalma of
Dalman.'^

The second memoir to
which I shall refer, was
published by Francillon
in 1795, containing a de-
scription of his splendid
kangaroo beetle, .Scarabae^us macropus (makros, long, pons, a
foot), which was supposed to be a native of Potosi, in South
America. The grotesque appearance of the insect, produced
by the size of the hind legs, will be observed in my sketch.
{Jig, 68. natural size.)

* DiopsiSy assisted inspection : makroSy long, opthalmoSy eye ; peduncu-
lated eye. As these ocular footstalks may be supposed to be flexible, and
the eyes thereby applicable to a variety of directions, it may be remarked
that this is not the case. Mr. Parsons, in his excellent " Account of the
^Discoveries of Mliller and others, in the Organs of Vision in Insects and
Crustacea," states (Vol. IV. p. 220.): — " In insects, the eyes are almost
always immovable ; and, althdugh in the genera A^chias and Diopsis,
dipterous insects of hot climates, the eyes are fixed upon filaments, yet,
even here, they invariably maintain the same position in relation to each
other." — J. D.

mth a Notice of Chiasogndthus Grdntii,

321

We next proceed to the discovery and description of that
perplexing insect, the Stylops melittae, and the establishment
of the order Strepsiptera, the credit of which ought, in justice,
to be given to Mr. Kirby ; Rossi's meagre notice being almost
worthless. These creatures, in their preparatory state, in-
habit the interior of the abdomen of certain bees and wasps,
from which they extricate themselves on arriving at their
perfect state. Fig, 69. represents Dr. Leach's species, Stylops

KirbzV, in the per-
fect state, and ex-
hibits the forked
antennae, the re-
markable fan-like
wings, and the
short lateral ap-
pendages of the
thorax, which ana-
logically represent
the true elytra, as
Latreille, in fact,
proved in the Ann.
Gen. des Scienc.
Phi/s., vol. vi., by
discovering their attachment to the mesothorax (see Kirby
and Spence, iii. 592. note), long before Mr. Curtis published
his illustration of the genus, in which he claimed this discovery.
It has long been known that the genus Xenos (having the
antennae not articulated beyond the fork) is found both in the
old and new world, but no species of Stylops (which has one
of the branches of the antennae jointed after the furcation)
has hitherto been recorded as found in America. Mr. G. B.
Sowerby has, however, had the good fortune to extract two
specimens of a species of this genus (Stylops Children? G. R.
Gray), out of the abdomen of a North American bee, and I have
figured it, with numerous details, in Griffith's translation of
Le Regne Animal^ Ins. pi. 59.

Mr. Curtis has recently established a third genus, in this
singular order, under the name of Elenchus [a clearing up,
a demonstration]. It is to be regretted, that, in illustrating
the genus, Mr. Curtis did not introduce a figure of the front
of the head. This would have cleared up the doubts which
now exist respecting the structure of the only parts of the
mouth which he has mentioned. In his description, these
parts are described as " maxillae, long, slender, lanceolate,
and horny," and the fig. w 3. corresponds with this descrip-
tion, whilst in his fig. D 3., the organ which is figured is repre-
VoL. V. — No. 26. T

52^

Some remarJcaUe Forms in Entomology^

sented as three-jointed. Mr. Haliday calls them " palpi ?*'
and, from analogy, 1 should certainly be inclined to adopfi
this denomination. In his observations upon the genus, Mr.
Curtis speaks of th^ sexes, but in his description he is silent
as to any sexual variation in the antenna?, abdomen, &c. The
Stylops tenuicornis of Kirby is evidently, as the specific name
at once suggests, the type of this genus, if, indeed, it be not
tlie same species as the Elenchus Walker?. When it is re-
membered that Mr. Kirby's specimen w^as found in a cobv^^eb,
aTlow^ance must be made for his insufficient description, but
he expressly notices its small size, slender antennae, and sub-
sessile eyes.

The next memoir to which I purpose directing the attention
©ff the student, is Hagenbach's Description of the Marmolyce
phyllbdes [^marmolyce, a hideous spectre, phyllbdes, resembling
or abounding in leaves] {Jig, 70^, natural size), a Javanese

species of Coleoptera belonging to, but totally unlike every
known form comprised in, the Linnaean genus Carabus ; and
remarkable for its flatness, and the great dilatation and poste-
rior production of the sides of the elytra. The insect, indeed,
at first sight looks more like a bit of thinly rolled ginger-
bread [Italian jumbles], such as we now see in the London
biscuit bakers' windows, than an animal. Upwards of thirty

mth a Notice of Chiasogndthus Grd?itii.

323

specimens of this extraordinary insect have recently been
brought to England from Java.

The remaining memoir to which I shall refer is entitled
" A Description of Chiasogndthus [chiaso, to run down,
gnathos, a jaw ; decurrent processes of the jaw] Grdnt\i
[George Grant, M.D., who imported the insect] ; an insect
forming the type of an undescribed genus, nsoith some brief re-
marks upon its structure and affinities ; by J. F. Stephens,
F.L.S. ;" a quarto tract, extracted from the Cambridge Phi-
losophical Transactions for 1831, illustrated with two plates,
containing coloured representations of the upper and under
sides of this magnificent insect, with outlines of it in various
positions, and of its essential organs, executed by myself.

This genus, as interesting from its structure, as it is re-
markable for its splendour and colouring, belongs to the family
of stag beetles, iucanidse ; and, in order to render the following
observations more intelligible, I here insert an outline of the
insect ijig. 71.)j of the natural size, omitting a portion of

two of the limbs, rather than, by diminishing the size of the
figure, lessen the effect of the object. Mr. Stephens has

Y 2

SSi Some remarkable Forms in Entomology/,

given a very full generic and specific description of the insect,
and has stated that it was brought to Dr. Grant, surgeon on
board his Majesty's ship Forte, on the South American station,
by a native, who informed him that he found it on a resinous
shrubby plant, in the Island of Chiloe, which is separated from
the main land at Valparaiso by a very narrow channel. M.
Dupont informs me that two specimens of the insect have
lately been received in Paris. The following extracts from
a letter addressed by myself to Mr. Stephens, dated 12th
of January, 1831, comprise some of the observations made
during the progress of my examination and delineation of the
insect : — "^

" The golden bronze upon the elytra, the burnished golden
green of the raised centre of the thorax, and the varying
colours of its sides and of the lateral spines, together form an
assemblage of tints exceeding in intensity every thing which I
have hitherto met with in entomology. In the structure of
many of its organs, equally striking peculiarities present them-
selves. The spines which arm the hinder margins of the
thorax, and the whorl of hairs at the tip of the long basal
joint of the antennae, are characters which we look for in vain
amongst the known genera of Zyuc^nidae, and which to my-
self are of great interest, as tending to prove the correctness
of the opinion which I have advanced in the last number of
the Zoological Journal, of the intimate affinity between the
stag and Capricorn beetles, iucanidae and Cerambycidae.
The furcate anterior produced part of the head (clypeus), the
distinct existence of four eyes, the grfeat strength of the fore
legs, the extraordinary elongation of the basal joint of the
antennae, and the whorl of hairs above mentioned which or-
nament its tip (for I cannot imagine of what service it can be
to the animal), are all characters of a very interesting kind.
But it is in the structure of the mouth that the entomologist
will derive the greatest interest. The upper jaws, or mandibles,
(which, in our common powerful stag beetle, are scarcely
longer than the head and thorax,) here acquire the length of
the whole body; but although they are very strong, and
evidently capable of biting very sharply at their base, towards
the middle they become flattened, and at the tip they are
deflexed and incurved, crossing over each other, so that this
portion of the jaws can scarcely be of much service to the
insect, when employed in the ordinary use of mandibles.
Their very tips are also bent backwards ; and here again we
are at a loss to imagine for what purpose this last peculiarity
has been bestowed upon the animal, since we can scarcely
imagine (as a celebrated French entomologist has done re-

mth a Notice of Chiasogndthus Gfdntii 325

specting the hooks of the antennae of the Paussidae) that they
are for the purpose of enabling this insect to suspend itself
from the twigs of trees when asleep. On examining the jaws
of the stag beetle, we externally perceive a tubercle at its base,
which, in this new insect, is greatly developed into an ad-
ditional pair of lower horns similarly crossing each other, and
furnished along their inner edge with short spines.

" The upper lip, or labrum, is very distinct, being composed
of a pocket-shaped leathery plate, with a strong rib down the
centre. The terminal portion of the lower jaws, or maxillae,
is very long, delicate, and fringed with very slender hairs.
The food of the stag beetles consists of the flowing sap of
decaying trees, which is lapped up in the typical genera by the
terminal plates of these lower jaws, and of the lower lip ; but
in this insect a difficulty appears to exist, from the very arched
form of the upper jaws ; since it is impossible for it, when
standing upon the trunk of a tree, to apply these fine terminal
plates to the tree, so as to collect the sap, without opening the
jaws very wide. A similar difficulty exists in a mammalious
animal, the giraffe ; the singularly awkward position of which,
when feeding from the ground, is well known. The case is
not, however, exactly parallel, since the situation of the natural
food of the giraffe does not require such an extraordinary
exertion; whereas, in this insect, there appears no other man-
ner of avoiding the difficulty, from the natural situation of its
food.

" The lower lip (labium) and its appendages (instrumenta
labial ia mihi), although the least remarkable in appearance,
are of equal interest with any other of the organs ; since the
investigation of their real structure involves the solution of the
analogies of the various parts of the mouth, in the whole of
the annulose sub-kingdom so elaborately treated by Savigny,*
Hence, in consequence of the true analogies of the various
organs not having been, as it appears to me, accurately traced
by the learned authors of the Introduction to Entomology, an
anomaly has been stated by them to exist in the stag beetles,
the internal palpi being regarded by them as belonging to the
tongue, and not to the lower lip. On examining the under
surface of the base of the head of this new insect, we perceive
a large, nearly square, sub-convex plate (jugulum), from the

* Professor Rennie has attempted to ridicule, but has not disproved,
Savigny's views. He will not be able to do the latter, until he can prove
that the arm of a man, the fore leg of a quadruped, and the wing of a bird,
are not the representatives of the same organ ; often agreeing almost to
the number of digiti, but varying in the mode of developement of the
joints, so as to adapt them to their intended uses. Savigny's theory is
but an application of this principle to groups but little understood.

Y 3

326 Notice of Chiasogndthia Grdntiu

front of which arises a narrow transverse immovable plate,
with the sides rounded (which, from the analogies existing
between the structure of this insect, Z/Ucanus, ik/elolontha,
<jeotrupes, Carabus, &c., I consider as the stirpes of the
mentum, and which, in iucanus, is much more developed, and
broader in front). The true chin, or mentum, I consider to
be represented by the semicircular plate, notched in front,
which here, nevertheless, performs the true office of a lower
lip, by closing the mouth. In addition to the three-jointed
palpi, and their broad internal scapes, there only remain
to be discovered the true lower lip (labium) and tongue
(lingua). Now, in the English stag beetle, as in this insect, the
bases of the scapes of the palpi are united by a fleshy tubercle,
which, in the former insect, is adapted to a small notch or
incision at the base of the mentum within ; we can, however,
scarcely consider this tubercle as the lower lip : whilst the
only other part of the instrumenta labialia remaining unnoticed,
are the two long and delicate central plates, employed, in con-
junction with the maxillary plates, in lapping up sap, as above
stated, which must consequently be considered as representing
of themselves both the lower lip and tongue; and, from the
analogies above pointed out, I cannot but consider that we are
warranted in regarding the outer surface of these plates as
representing the labium, and their inner surface the tongue.
Hence, we shall be enabled to consider the palpi as truly
belonging to the lower lip ; or, perhaps, rather as arising
between the chin and lower lip ; which I apprehend to be the
typical structure of the Coleoptera. The membranaceous
plates of the lower lip are of a much more delicate structure
in this insect than in Z>ucanus, as well as much more elongated,
so as admirably to perform the office of a tongue : it also
appears to me that, when alive, they are flat, and not curled
at the sides, as they now appear in their dried state.*

Respecting the affinities of this insect, which is evidently of
the male sex, the nearest approach to it is evidently made by
the South American genus Pholidotus. Indeed, in the structure
of the lower jaws and instrumenta labialia of the two genera
(if we except the coat of down with which the mentum in that
genus is clothed) there is very little difference. The latter
genus is evidently allied to Lamprima, and these three genera

* Any one who will take the trouble to cut off the large plate which
closes the under side of the mouth of a stag beetle will be able to verify
some of the preceding details, and will thereby be enabled much more
readily to underytand the subject.

Additional British Insects, 327

{with the exception of Platycerus) are exclusively * adorned
with metallic colours.

" The three apical joints of the club of the antennas in the
male Pholidotus are alone enlarged ; the mandibles are clothed
with down on their inner surface; and the mesosternum is
slightly produced in front, as in Lamprima. In varying,
therefore, from Pholidotus in these particulars, we find a near
approach made to iucanus, which is the only other genus of
Zucanidas that contains species which may vie, in general
appearance, size, and strength of mandibles, with the present.
Hence, we may consider Chiasognathus Grant// as forming
an interesting link between these two genera.

" The female, when discovered, will doubtless be found to
possess short jaws, and the club of the antennae not so much
developed."

The Grove, Hammersmith, March 7. 1832.

In addition to the above valuable exhibition and description of insects
remarkable for their forms, six very extraordinary instances, in as many
species of the genus Centrotus, will be found in Vol. II. p. 20 — 22., in a
cojnmunication from the Rev. W. Kirby, — J.D.

Art. VI. Additions to the List of British Insects, By Charles
C. Babington, B.A. F.L.S. &c., St. John's College, Cambridge.

Sir,
The following insects, discovered to be British by myself
or my friends, being excluded from the excellent works of
Messrs. Stephens and Curtis by their respective plans, I
have thought it would be advantageous to entomological stu-
dents if they were published in this Magazine ; and I cannot
help expressing my hope that others will follow my example.
The descriptions are taken from my own specimens.
I am, Sir, yours, &c.

Charles C. Babington.

1. Dro'mius lo'ngiceps ? DeJ. Coleop, ii. 450. ? D. moxosti''gma
miki MSS.
Elongato-linearis, pallide fusco-ferrugineus, thorace subquadrato, elytris
striatis, obsoletissime punctatis, sutura et macula communi subapicali
cuneata nigris, antennis pedibusque pallidis. (Longitudo corporis
3 lineae.)
Much elongated, nearly linear, pale ferruginous ; head darker, with a trans-

* I have lately seen, in the rich cabinet of the Rev. F. W. Hope, a
metallic-coloured Z/ucanus, which more satisfactorily confirms the affinity
subsequently stated above.

Y 4

328 Additions to the List

verse elevated line between the antennae, and two oblique longitudinal
punctate foveae between the eyes ,• thorax quadrate, narrowed posteriorly,
with all the angles rounded, lateral and posterior margins elevated,
transversely wrinkled, with an abbreviated dorsal channel ; elytra stri-
ated, striae obsoletely punctate, suture dark, the colour widening toward
the apex into a posteriorly rounded dark spot ; under side pale ferru-
ginous, abdomen darker ; legs and antennae pale.

Probably D. longiceps of Dejean, but certainly distinct
from D. linearis ; differing in the space between the eyes not
being longitudinally wrinkled, as in that insect, the more
quadrate thorax, and the wedge-shaped posteriorly rounded
sutural spot on the elytra ; the form, also, is much more elon-
gate and linear.

Taken in Madingley Wood, Cambridgeshire, from moss,
in the spring of 1831 ; and in the boats which bring the
sedge *, from the fens, to Cambridge, in March, 1832.

2. D. QUADRisiGNA^TUS Dej. Coleop. i. 236.

Pallidus, capite nigro, thorace quadrato, rufo, elytris basi, sutura, angulis
humeralibus, fasciaque postica fuscis, subtus piceus. (Long, corporis
2 lin.)

The same form as D. 4-maculatus, but much smaller. Head black '; tho-
rax quadrate, rufo-ferruginous, with the margins paler ; elytra pale yellow,
with, a little behind the middle, a broad transverse brown fascia, dilated
posteriorly on the outer margin, and connected by the suture with a tri-
angular spot of the same colour at the base, the exterior angles of which
are a little produced, so as to form an elongated patch on each side of
the elytra j apex of the suture pale ; abdomen piceous beneath, with the
thorax paler ; legs and antennae pale.

Differs from D. sigraa, under which name it has stood in
my collection, by having the triangular spot, &c., at the base
of the less faintly striate elytra, the fascia not dentate ante-
riorly, and the under side piceous. Taken in Madingley
Wood, in March, 1831.

3. Hydro'porus jugula'ris mihi.

Oblongo-ovatus, niger, glaber, jugulo f, antennis pedibusque ferrugineis.
(Long. Corp. [?] lin.)

Oblong-ovate, black, glabrous j head with the hinder margin of the vertex
and the throat ferruginous j thorax with the lateral margins very ob-
scurely ferruginous ,• elytra black, thickly but finely punctate through-

* It is worth stating, that the sedge so extensively used in Cam-
bridgeshire for thatching, heating ovens, and lighting fires, is mainly com-
posed of the herbage of Cladium ilfariscus Eng. Bot.y t. 950. ; that of Carex
riparia, paludosa, and, doubtless, other species, being blended with it in
small proportions. Smith's English Flora (vol.i. p. 36.) represents Cladium
ilfariscus as " not common : " it is, notwithstanding, no rarity in the fens
of Cambridgeshire. The dried herbage, doubled into cylindrical wisps of
6 in. or 8 in. long, and 3 in. in diameter, is generally used in the town of
Cambridge for lighting fires, in the manner the bundles of split fir-wood are
used in London. '—J. D.

■ f Jugulum, the throat ; " that part of the surface which lies between the
temples." (Kirby and Spence's Int. to Entom.j iii. 366.)

of British Insects. 329

out; body beneath shining black, punctate ; legs ferruginous; antennae

the same, with the apex of the terminal joints fuscous.

Var. j(3, with the upper surface less thickly but deeply punctate, and very
shining.

Distinguished by its oblong form, glabrous body ; and having the throat,
legs, and antennee ferruginous.

Taken by my friend T. C. Thompson, Esq., " in a pond
at Kirby Hall, near Borougbbridge, Yorkshire, towards the
end of August, 1831."

4. COLYMBE^TES BRANCHIA^TUS miM.

Oblongo-ovatus, convexus, niger, subtilissime punctato-strigosus, antennis
ferrugineis, pedibus fuscis, elytrisque lineola obsoleta fenestrata. (Long,
corp. 3 lin.)

Small, oblong-ovate, convex, black, very finely punctate-strigose; head
black, with two obsolete testaceous spots on the crown ; antennae ferru-
ginous ; thorax as in C. aff inis ; elytra oblong-ovate, nearly linear, con-
vex, with, a little behind the middle, a very obsolete pale line near the
outer margin ; each elytron has on its disk three irregular rows of punc-
tures becoming scattered towards the apex, where near the suture is an
irregular stria of impressions ; body black beneath, irregularly strigose ;
two anterior legs dusky ferruginous, four posterior pitchy black.

Differs from C. afFinis in having the four posterior legs
pitchy black, apparently only one very obsolete fenestrated
spot on each of the elytra, the anterior margin of the head
black, and the shape much more linear.

Taken in " North Wales," by my friend C. Darwin, Esq.,
in the summer of 1830.

5. J5^'lmis rugo^sus mihi.

Lineari-elongatus, niger, antennis pedibusque rufis, thorace bilineato, elytris
punctato-striatis, interstitiis rugosis, striaque elevata unica. (Long,
corp. f lin.)

Linear-elongate, depressed, black ; thorax quadrate, with a curved line on
each side scarcely approximating in front, the intermediate space slightly,
and the exterior margins thickly, punctate ; the anterior margin slightly
rufous ; elytra elongate, depressed, punctate-striated, the striae vanishing
towards the apex ; the third from the margin elevated, and the inter-
stices rugose ; antennae and legs rufescent.

Near to E, parallelipipedus, but may be known from that
species by the rugose interstices of the elytra, the absence of
the central impressed dot on the thorax, and in having the
striae not continued to the apex of the elytra, as in that insect.

Taken at Bath, in August, 1831.

6. Mala^chius bipuncta^tus mihi.

Nigro-virescens, thorace toto elytrorumque apice pallid^ rufis, in ipso
apice punctis duobus impressis nigris, tibiis tarsisque pallidis. (Long.
Corp. li lin.)

Blackish green, glabrous ; mouth pale ; thorax entirely pale rufous ; elytra
blackish green, with the extremity pale rufous, and an impressed slightly
lunate black spot very near the apex of each ; abdomen blackish ; tibia
and tarsi rufous, with the It^st joint of the latter black ; antennae with

330 List of Papilionidcs

the three basal joints red, the first being dark above, the fourth and to
the end dark.

This insect is most nearly allied to M. ruficollis, from
which it differs in the small extent of the red part of the
elytra : in this not occupying more than a fourth of the elytra ;
but in that, above half. M. ruficollis, also, has not the two
black spots at the apex ; and the antennae have one additional
red joint, viz. the fourth : the form also is different.

One specimen taken at Monkswood, near Sawtry, Hunts,
and two in the fens of Cambridgeshire, in May, 1831.

We beg to express our admiration of our obliging correspondent's act of
translating his own descriptions. This is respectfully desired of all cor-
respondents who may wish to describe in Latin ; for as, conformably with
the object of this Magazine, which is to familiarise and popularise natural
science, the Latin descriptions must be translated, no one is so likely, from
some degree of amphibology which attaches to Latin, to apprehend pre-
cisely the describer's meaning as the describer himself. — J.JD,

Art. VIL List of Vapilionidce occurring iii the Vicinity of
Dover, By the Rev. W. T. Bree, M.A.

Sir,
The following list of Papilionidae found in the vicinity of
Dover may not, perhaps, prove unacceptable to some of your
entomological readers ; to such, at least, as may in future visit
this now fashionable watering-place. As my residence here
did not commence till the second week in August, of course
the season for many of our papilios was gone by. Some spe-
cies, therefore, which, owing either to the late period of the
year, or to their own intrinsic rarity, I had not myself an
opportunity of observing alive and at large, I have inserted
on the authority of Mr. Le Plastrier *, of Snargate Street,
Dover, who has long paid attention to the insects of this dis-
trict ; and to such articles I have affixed the letter L. The
list, too, may not prove quite without interest, as well by
showing what is to be found in this neighbourhood, as like-
wise what is not, or at least not commonly : and in this re-

* Mr. Le Plastrier collects insects for sale, and is, I believe, well known
to many eminent entomologists. All collectors who visit Dover I would
strongly recommend to apply to Mr. Le Plastrier, whom, I wUl venture to
say, they will find ready, in the most obliging manner, to communicate any
information he may possess respecting the localities, habits, and periods of
the insects to be met with in the neighbourhood. Mr. Curtis has named
the Dover Tortrix moth, Carpocapsia Leplastriaw«, after this assiduous
collector.

in the Viciniti/ of Dover, 331

spect the district, it strikes me, has its peculiarities. For
example, Argynnis Aglai« occurs, but not its near ally
Adlpp^; the rare Melitae^a Cinxi« is taken, but not Dic-
tynn« or A^rtemi^; Euphrosyng-, but not Selena; and (I speak
on the authority of Mr. Le Plastrier) scarcely Argynnis Pa-
phi«. * From the comparative want of oak trees, Thecl^
quercus is very seldom met with ; and the same circumstance
will at once be sufficient to account for the absence of Apa-
tur« lVi5. Vanessa polychl()ros and c. album are both very
rare in this district; the latter we might have expected to
meet with, as the hop (Hiimulus Lupulus Z/.)j one of the
plants on which the caterpillar feeds, as well as on nettles
(Urtica dioica L,) which are common every where, abounds
both in a wild and a cultivated state. Mr. Le Plastrier in-
forms me that he has not seen V. c. ^Ibum for these last
twelve or thirteen years. I could not help remarking, also,
the comparative rarity of an insect exceedingly common in
most places, P6nti« napi. In the course of many mornings'
rambles, I scarcely met with more than two examples. Its
congeners, P. brassicae and rapse, are unusually abundant ;
owing, no doubt, to the vast quantity of sea cabbage (^rassica
oleracea L,) which grows spontaneously on the cliffs, and
affords, in addition to the ordinary supply of the gardens,
an ample and never-failing store of food for the caterpillars.
One very scarce insect ( Polyommatus AriOTx) I have not ven-
tured to enumerate in the list; though it is stated by Mr.
Stephens, and, I believe, by others, to have been taken near
Dover, and also near Deal. His authority I do not mean to
impugn ; but, upon enquiry, I learn that Mr. Le Plastrier, in
all his practice, never took the insect ; though he has heard
some vague accounts, from non-entomological reporters, of a
large blue having occasionally been seen in the vicinity of
Dover, which might possibly have been this rare species.

As the insects of any country depend in good measure on
its vegetable productions, it may not be unimportant to enu-
merate here some of the plants common in this neighbour-
hood. The soil of Dover, it is almost unnecessary to state, is
chalk ; and, accordingly, the district abounds with such chalk-
loving species as the following, viz. : — Scabiosa [Asteroce-
phalus Vaillanf] columbaria, Pastinaca sativa, jE^chium vul-
gare, Erythraea Centaurium, Geniidna Amarella, Chlora
perfoliata, i^eseda lutea, jRubus cae^sius, Clstus Helianthemum
[Helianthemum vulgare Gcertner~\^ Galeopsis iadanum, Ori-

* I have lately been informed, by a young entomologist, that he took
Argjnnw Paphia this year, near Folkstone. Mr. Le Plastrier, too, has
occasionally met with it, though very rarely, near Dover.

3$9 List qfVajpilionidcs

ganum vulg^re, ^nthyllis Viilneraria, Hippocr^pis comosa,
i/edysarum Onobrychis [Onobrychis saliva Lam.'], (Sisym-
brium tenuifolium [Diplotaxis tenuifolia Decandolle], Picris
^ieracioides, Cicb5rium /"ntybus, Cnicus acaulis, Carlm« vul-
garis, Conyza squarrosa, J5^rigeron acris, Solidago Virgaurea,
Centaurea Scabiosa, Poterium Sanguisorba, ikfercuri^7/5 annua,
&c. &c. ; and among the less common species may be men-
tioned, Asperula cynanchica, Linaria minor, iathyrus sylves-
tris, Ficia sylv^tica, i^actuca virosa, Neottia spiralis (in greater
abundance than I have elsewhere observed it), Carpinus J5e-
tulus, t/uniperus communis, //ippophae rhamnoides. On the
cliffs and sea-beach, some of the usual maritime plants are
found, such as Crithmum maritimum, Glaucium flavum, ^Sta-
tice binervosa (see Eng. Bot, Supp,, pi. 2663.), Beta, maritima,
&c. But the coast immediately about Dover, it strikes me, is
not very rich in what are termed maritime plants.

I am, Sir, yours, &c.
Dover, Sept, 30. 1831. W. T. Bree.

ListofVapilionidxB found near Dover.

Those articles to which an asterisk (*) is affixed after the letter L, are

in the cabinet of Mr. Le Plastrier of Ramsgate.
Colia* Edusa, clouded yellow, f C. var., white clouded yellow ; Papilio
Helice of Haworth % {fig- '^^d- ^- ^ar., with the margins of the wings

-|- Of this species, which, it is well known, occurs plentifully in particular

-seasons, while in others it is hardly to be met with, there was a consider-
able flight in the neighbourhood of Dover during the months of August
and September. If I mistake not, it occurs principally in maritime coun-
ties : I do not mean that it is confined to such situations, but that it is met
with far more copiously nenr the sea-coast than elsewhere. The only places
in which I have ever seen it in any thing like abundance are the Isle of

.Wight, and the opposite coast of Hampshire, in the year 1804; and this
season, in the neighbourhood of Dover, viz. near the signal-station to the
east ; St. Margaret's Bay ; near Folkstone, and between that town and
Sandgate ; some specimens also near Hythe and Canterbury. In Warwick-

' shire, and the midland counties, I never saw more than two, or at the
most three, specimens on the wing ; and those in different seasons, 1808
and 1811.

( % This rare variety of the female Colia* Edus« was at one time supposed
to be a distinct species, and, as such, published in Haworth's Lepidoptera

in the Vicinity of Dover. S38

brown, not black, L * C. Chrys6them<? ? L * f C. Hyale, pale clouded
yellow, L. C. var., white, L.* :]:

Gonepteryx rhamni, brimstone.

Pontiff brassicEe, large garden white. P. rapse, small garden white. P.
napi, green-veined white. P. Daplidic^, Bath white, L.* § P. cardamines,
orange tip, L.

Leucophasia sinapis, wood-white.

Britdnnica, under the name of Papilio Helice; a name, I believe, ori-
ginally given by Hiibner. It differs from the ordinary female examples of
Edusain no respect save in colour; being, instead of bright orange yellow,
of a greenish white, suffused, at the same time, on the abdomen and adjoin-
ing parts of the inferior wings, with a very slight tinge of sulphur colour.
A corresponding example of the male has never, I believe, been met with.
That it is to be considered a variety merely of Edusa, not a distinct spe-
cies, I feel satisfied from what 1 observed in the instance of the specimen
here figured, the only one I ever saw alive. I took it close to the town of
Folkstone, to all appearance but recently emerged from the chrysalis, on
the 3d of September. It would probably have escaped my notice, as it
sat with expanded wings on a flower at some distance from me, had not
my attention been drawn to it by a male Edusa which was flying about,
and, attracted by its mate, at length settled on the same spot. From the
bearing of the two insects towards each other, no reasonable doubt could
remain that they were male and female of the same species. Two very fine
specimens of the white clouded yellow are in the cabinet of Mr. Le Plas-
trier of Ramsgate. The variety is figured in Stephens's Illustrations, Haus-
tellata, vol. i. pi. 2. fig. 3.

f I insert this insect with a mark of doubt, being by no means certain
whether the specimens I have seen (a male and female, taken near Dover,
and in the cabinet of Mr. Le Plastrier, Ramsgate) are any other than strong
varieties of Collar Edusa. They are much smaller, however, and have the
black marginal band broader than in that insect. Collar Chrysotheme of
Stephens's Illustrations, I am informed, is not the true Chrysotheme of the
Continental writers j which, however nearly it may approach Edusa, is said
by them to differ from that insect in the larva state. As the discovery of
truth should be the aim of all naturalists, Mr. Stephens, I trust, will excuse
me when I state that I hear the greatest doubts entertained on the subject
of Colia* Europomc, figured by him, being a British species. The speci-
mens to which he refers in his Illustrations as having been taken between
Brighton and Lewes, I am informed, were undoubtedly no other than C6-
lia^ Hyale. I do not mean to insinuate that so acute and experienced an
entomologist as Mr. Stephens could mistake the one species for the other ;
but, possibly, foreign examples of the true Europome may have been put
off upon him (as I know they have upon others), either by mistake or
design, as native ones captured in the above-mentioned situation. Colia*
Europome, I am assured, is not even a European species.

X This pale variety, which is nearly white (see Lewin's Papilios, tab. 33.
fig. 3. and 4.), bears about the same relation to Hyak that Helice (white-
clouded yellow) does to Edusa : but, in the case of the white variety of
Hyale, examples of both sexes occur. Mr. Le Plastrier of Ramsgate pos-
sesses a beautiful series of specimens of this rare insect, taken chiefly, if
not entirely, near Dover. Colias Hyale appears to be a maritime fly,
occurring almost exclusively near the sea-coast.

■ § A beautiful specimen of the male, in the most perfect state of preserv-
ation, in Mr. Le Plastrier's cabinet, Ramsgate ; taken in the meadow under
Dover Castle, in the month of August. Mr. Stephens also mentions his
having taken a specimen in the sanpie place.

S34 List of Fap'iliomdce

Piem cratae'gi, black-veined white, L.

Melitae'a Cinxia, Glanville fritillary, L. M. Euphr(5syne, pearl-bordered
fritillary, L.

Argjnni* Paphiat, silver-washed fritillary, L. A. Lathonia, Queen of
Spain fritillary, L.* f A. Aglaia, dark green fritillary, L. A. var., very
pale, L.* %

Vanessa c. album, comma, L. V. polychloros, large tortoise-shell, L.
V. urticae, small tortoise-shell. V. To, peacock. V. Atalanta, red admiral.

Cynthia cardui, painted lady. §

f A pair of specimens, male and female, in Mr. Le Plastrier's cabinet,
Ramsgate ; taken near Dover Castle, I believe, in the month of August or
September.

J A singular variety, pale buff-coloured, and with the black spots and
markings very faint. It was taken, as I am informed, in a remarkably wet
season. The specimen reminds one almost of some plant, which, having
grown in the dark, has, in consequence, produced its flowers nearly co-
lourless.

§ May I here venture to question the propriety of separating, so far
apart as to place in different genera, two insects so closely allied to each
other in their general appearance, markings, and habits, both in the larva
and winged state, as Atalanta and cardui ? Nature seems to have made
them congeners. If cardui be removed from the modern genus Vanessa,
so ought Atalanta; and still more, perhaps, c. dlbum, on account of the
singular conformation of its wings : the removal of which last species, how-
ever, from urticae and polychldros, would yet be extremely unnatural.
That the old Linnaean genera admit, nay require, manifold subdivisions,
more especially now that there has been such a vast accession of newly
discovered species since the days of the great Swede, no one at all
acquainted with the subject will dispute : but it is very possible, and very
common, to run from one extreme into its opposite; and, in avoiding
Scylla, to fall into Charybdis. Is not the modern rage for multiplying
genera carried beyond all reasonable bounds ? and does not the practice
tend rather to encumber than to advance what is called the science of natu-
ral history, as well as to deter many from the pursuit of it ? Perhaps I
shall be told that I have not sufficiently studied generic characters ; and
that, if I had done so, I should be at once reconciled to all the innovations
that have been introduced. It does appear to me, however, that the
systematists of the present day are occasionally guilty of what may be
proverbially called " splitting hairs," or " spinning too fine : " and the
unavoidable consequence is, that each department of natural history is
now so clogged with a multiplicity of additional hard names, that many a
systematic work becomes no better than a sealed book to all but the pro-
foundly scientific, who can devote not their leisure merely, but their
entire undivided attention, to the subject. " The professional students,"
says a pleasing modern writer, " ought to be to society what pioneers are
to an army on its march, — they should go before it and clear the way, so
that it may advance the faster. But if the pioneers were to block up the
way behind them, just in order to make their own progress the more rapid,
it would be difficult to point out the advantage that they would be to the
army." (British Naturalist^ vol. i., introduction, p. 10.) I have been led
into these remarks, so far as they apply to the case of the two insects above
mentioned, more particularly by having lately observed, in the rich cabinet
of my friend Mr. Haworth, a species (of Vanessa, must I say, or of Cyn-
thia ?) precisely intermediate as to colour, and markings, and general appear-
ance : an exact "connecting link" between Atalanta and cardui. Of
this interesting species Mr, Haworth possesses two examples; one from

in the Viciniti) of Dover, 535

Hipparchk iEgeri«, speckled wood. H. MegaeVar, wall. II. Semele,
grayling. H. Janira, meadow brown. H. var., of a uniform pale buff
colour, L.* H. pilosellae, large heath, L. H. Galathe^a, marbled white, f
H. var., black and but slightly marbled, L.* % (See Jig. 73.) H. Hy-
peranthus, ringlet. H. var., with the ocelli nearly obliterated, L. H. var.,
with the ocelli very large and distinct, L.* H. Pamphilu*, small heath.
H. var., very pale buff, with dark margins to the wings, L.*

Theck quercus, purple hair streak, L. T. rubi, green hair streak, L.

Lycae'na Phlae^as, common copper.

Polyommatus Argiolm, azure blue, L. P. A^'lsu*, small blue. P. var.,
without the ocellated dots beneath, L.* P. Corydow, chalk-hill blue.
P. var., with the ocellated dots beneath nearly obliterated, and the marginal
marks very strong, L.* P. Adonic, Clifden blue. P. var., both sexes with
the ocellated dots beneath nearly obliterated, L.* P. I'caru^, common
blue. § P« Fda*, brown blue. P. A'rgu*, silver-studded blue, L. P. var..

India, and the other, more recently received, from China ; and these, he
informs me, are the only specimens which, in all his practice, he has ever
seen.

f Hipparchia Galathe^«, which, in Warwickshire, I am accustomed to
find only in bogs, and in the moist, open, grassy parts of woods, is very
abundant at Dover, on the dry banks about the castle, on the higher parts
of the downs, and the tops and sides of the cliffs. Haworth (in Lep. Brit.)
says, " Habitat in sylvaticis humidis." I am informed that the German
naturalists enumerate several very closely allied species. It may be worth
while to submit to a minute comparison specimens occurring in such widely
different situations as the-dry chalk banks of Dover and the bogs of War-
wickshire, in order to ascertain whether two distinct species may not have
been confounded together.

J A very singular and strongly marked variety, taken near Dover, and
now in the cabinet of Mr. Le Plastrier of Ramsgate, who has kindly lent
the specimen for the purpose of being figured. The upper wings are nearly
black above, except a large white spot near the base, and another tripartite
at the lower edge; and, beneath, both pairs are clouded with black, and
almost destitute of the usual angular tessellated markings. This is, so far
as I know, a unique specimen. I have no hesitation in calling it a variety
only of Galathe''«, though it possesses amply sufficient characters, should
other like examples occur, to constitute a distinct species.

$ Some entomologists entertain an opinion that more than one distinct
species may, perhaps, be included under this name. Individuals of the male

336 A Species of k^ cams (?)

without the spots beneath, and the red marks on the margin of the posterior
wings, L.*

Thymele malvse, grizzled skipper, L. T. Tage^, dingy skipper, L.

Pamphila sylvanm, large skipper. P. comma, silver-spotted skipper.
P. llnea, small skipper.

P. S. — Since the above list was prepared, I have been
favoured with an inspection of Miss Harvey's cabinet, who
resides at Upper Deal ; and observed therein the following
species, in addition to those already enumerated, viz. : — Me-
litae^« Selena, Dictynn«, and A'rtemis ; all of which, I was
informed, had been taken in the neighbourhood of Deal or
Canterbury. The same lady also showed me a fine specimen
of Colias Hyak, taken in June last, in a field of clover or
saintfoin, near Deal ; and likewise a specimen of Papilio Ma-
chaow, which she had reared from the caterpillar : the only
instance that had come to her knowledge of the insect occur-
ring in that vicinity. Vanessa Antiopa had been seen settling
on a wall in Admiral Harvey's garden, in the month of Au-
gust ; but my intelligent informer was unable to capture it.
A single specimen also of V. c. album had been observed in
the same situation last summer, which is considered a very
rare insect in that part of the country. W. T. B.

Allesley Rectory, Nov. 10. 3 831 .

Art. VIII. Some Account of a Species of Kfcarus (?) 'which infests
Butterflies, By the Rev. W. T. Bree, M.A.

Sir,
Having, in the preceding article, given a list of Papilionidae
found near Dover ; as an appropriate sequel to that list, and
intimately connected with the subject of it, I now take occa-
sion to notice a small parasitical insect {Jig, 74., and magnified
Jig, 75.), which I suppose to belong to the genus ^'carus f : I

sex vary considerably in size, and the females exceedingly so in colour;
some having the wings brown above, and others more or less of a fine
purplish blue. Of the latter sex, I observed some remarkably blue speci-
mens, in a perfectly fresh staie, in the Castle meadow, the last week in Sep-
tember.

f Since writing the above, I have met with the following account, in
Professor Rennie's Insect Miscellanies (p. 27.), of what I have no doubt
is the same insect: — "A species," he says, "of this family (Ocarina,)
probably the red tick (Pediculus cocclneus Scopoli), or a mite (Leptus
Phalangii) described by De Geer, appears to be much more indiscriminate
[than the harvest bug, Leptus autumnalis,] in its tastes ; for, during the
summer of 1830, we found it at Havre de Grace, infesting insects of the
most different families. It particularly abounded on the marbled butterfly

*iSohic7i infests Butterjlies. 337

speak doubtfully, however, not having at the present moment
an opportunity of referring to any works on natural history.
Were the insect I allude to known to Linnaeus*, I would almost
venture an opinion that he would have named it ^^carus lepi-
dopterorum : but whether or not he describes the species in
question, or any other under that name, my memory does not
serve me. I think I have formerly observed this v^'carus (?)
adhering to IIipparchi« Galathe«, but never in the same
abundance in which it is to be met with in this neighbourhood :
here the butterflies are, if I may be allowed the expression,
absolutely lousy with it. I have no microscope at hand, save an
ordinary pocket lens, to enable me to give an accurate and
minute description of the little parasite ; its general appear-
ance is bright red, about the colour of sealing-wax ; in shape
oblong, cylindrical, but somewhat flattened beneath ; and
about the size, or nearly so, of one of the small seeds of the
prince's feather (^maranthus hypochondriacus) ; legs (six in
number?) and antennae so minute as not to be visible to the
naked eye ; when crushed, it gives out a fine orange colour.
It adheres in clusters under the eyes of lepidopterous insects,

(Hipparchia Galathe« Leach), so that many of them were scarcely able to
fly from the exhaustion caused by these little bloodsuckers ; and so per-
tinaciously did they retain their hold, that several of them now adhere to
the specirnens of the butterfly in our cabinet. What was most remarkable,
although the ringlet butterly (H. Hyperanthu^) was plentiful at the same
time, and is similar in food and habits, not one of the parasites was found
on some hundreds which we caught expressly to ascertain the fact. This
appears the more strange, as several dragon flies (Libellulina MacLeay)
were found as much infested with them as the marbled butterfly. We
also, more than once, found them on field crickets, ants, and beetles,
and once on a harvest spider (Phalangium Opilio)." This account cor-
responds in the main with the Dover ^'carus, save that I could observe
the parasite on no other than on lepidopterous insects ; nor did the butter-
flies infested with it appear to me to be in the least incommoded in their
flight by such encumbrance, not even the small blues (Polyommatus Fcaru*
and Adonic), though they had frequently five or six or more^^'cari adhering
to them : on the contrary, they sported about as briskly as usual, and to
appearance seemed quite unconcerned. I may remark, too, that, with
respect to Hipparchia; Galathea, that insect at the best of times evinces no
great power of wing ; but usually flies about heavily and slowly, frequently
settling on some stalk of grass, &c., and on such occasions keeping its wings
expanded. Unless Professor Rennie bore this circumstance in mind, it is
possible that he may have very naturally attributed the ordinary heavy
flight of Galathea to the encumbrance caused by the ^'cari.

* On subsequently referring to Linnaeus, I think it not improbable that
our insect may be the same which he describes by the name of ^'carus
gymnopterorum {Fauna Suecica, edit, altera, p. 483.) ; and of which he
says " habitat in culicibus, apibus, aliisque, uti sequens acarus [A. coleop-
tratorum] in coleoptratis." It infests gnats, bees, and other insects, as the
following species, A. coleoptratorum, does coleopterous.

Vol. V. — No. 26. z

338 A!cari infestiiig Buttejjlies,

between the legs, at the base of the wings, and at the junctures
of the thorax with the head and with the abdomen, both above
and beneath. The insects on which I have chiefly observed
it are, Hippdrchia Galathea {Jig, 74. h) and Jamr«, Polyom-
matus rcaru5 (a), and Adonis, Anthrocera filipendulae, and.

in one instance, C^nthifl' cardui, but particularly Hipparchia
Galathea. The common white butterflies (P6nti« brassicae
and rapae) appear to be free from this pest ; at least, I have not
been able to detect a single ^'carus on any one of the number-
less individuals of those species which I have examined for that
express purpose. It is no uncommon occurrence, to see the
small blue butterflies (Polyommatus Tcarus and Adonis) flying
about, as it should seem, with perfect ease and indifference,
and apparently in full enjoyment of life, while some half
dozen of these ^'cari are adhering to them, and deriving
sustenance from the juices of their slender bodies. If %ioe were
to be encumbered with vermin of a proportional magnitude,
it would be like having a number of creatures as large, per-
haps, as moderately sized lobsters sticking to our flesh, and
preying upon our vitals. Perhaps some of your correspond-
ents may be able to throw more light on the history of this
little insect. It would form, I may suggest, a fit subject for
the exercise of our friend Mr. Westwood's microscopic acu-
men. How, for example, does the ^'carus first gain a lodge-
ment on the Lepidoptera it infests ? And how is the race
continued after the butterflies die in the autumn ? Is the
insect most generally found to abound in chalk districts ? &c.
&c. I may observe, that, in the autumn, the v4'cari had nearly
disappeared from the butterflies, long before the latter had
ceased to fly abroad.

It may be proper to add, that, of the specimens of ^'cari
which I send herewith, some have been gummed on paper, in
order the better to exhibit them, and others have been fixed
by the same means in their natural position, just as they
adhered to the butterflies on which they were found : in the

Remarks on a Species ofl^ejpas. 339

latter case, many of the A'csivi had made then* escape before
the gum could be applied ; and in both, it should be remem-
bered that the specimens have, of course, shrunk in size since
they were alive. I am. Sir, yours, &c.

Dover, Sept. SO. 1831. W. T. Bree.

Some of the insects were in a paper, others inside a
dry phial, and the remainder adhering to the bodies of
Polyommatus I'caru5 [fig. 74. «), Hipp^rchi« Galathea
ijig' 74. b\ and Hipparchi« Janira, which has been deemed
too common to figure. Mr. Sowerby, in making the draw-
ings, observed that the ^'cari out of either the phial or the
paper had long bristly legs, while those taken off
the bodies of the butterflies had smaller, and
smoother, and less obvious legs. Fig. 75. repre-
sents a magnified figure of one of the latter,
which Mr. Sowerby regrets is less accurate than
it should be ; as, from the insects coming to him
in a dried and shrivelled state, the parts were
discernible far less perfectly than they would
have been had the insects been preserved in spirits. — J. D.

Art. IX. Remarks on a Species of L^pas cast ashore near Liver-
pool on Nov. 7. 1831. By Thomas Weatherill, Esq. M.D.

Sir,

I HAVE been a subscriber to your Magazine from its com-
mencement, but have not observed in it any notice of the
genus Zepas, or acorn-shell. Perhaps the following rough
sketch of a species of this family of curious creatures may be
acceptable to your readers. Fig, 76. c is intended to repre-
sent a piece of wood, with a number of them attached to it,
which was taken from a large log of pine found upon the
shore, near Liverpool, on the 7th of November last, during a
heavy gale, and a tremendous sea from the north and west.

The log, which was about 12 ft. long, and of a propor-
tionate thickness, and apparently the remains of a wrecked
vessel, was completely covered in every part with them. It
excited a great deal of curiosity, and was publicly exhibited
in Liverpool as a rare and wonderful marine production.

The books which I have consulted for information contain
but very indefinite and unsatisfactory descriptions of the
genus Lhpas, and what they do contain is so little and so

z 2

S4.()

Remarks on a Species

imperfect, that I have not been able to assign the present
specimen to any of the species they mention. The goose-
bernacle (Zepas «natifera, ,y%-. 77. p. 343.) approaches the
nearest, and it may be a variety of it. I am almost, however,
inclined to consider it a new species. The genus iepas be-
longs to the order Fermes testacea [w^orms in shells] ; shell
multivalvular, or of many valves, unequal, sometimes fixed
by a pedicle or stem, and sometimes not. Animal, a triton,
with tentacula. The species fl'natifera consists of five-valved
shells, irregular, somewhat depressed, affixed to a pedicle,
and in clusters ; colour, a reddish purple, which runs into a
dark brown purple near the base of the shell. The one
under consideration has a shell of five valves, irregular, de-
pressed, attached to a stem, but not in clusters ; every shell
having its own pedicle, which is perfectly transparent, and
nearly colourless, inclining slightly to a reddish purple as it
approaches the shell, and then assuming a darker purple
colour, which gradually grows deeper until it reaches the base.
Hence it differs from the <2natifera in two very marked par-
ticulars : — 1st, By having undivided and much longer stems ;
and, 2dly, by having a much less dense colour.

Fig.76. a is about the ordinary length and size of those cast
on shore in November last. The stem is represented to be

of the Genus Lej)as, 34?1

composed of two envelopes : this, on a cursory view, does not
appear to be the case. To detect the inner coat, a minute
examination is necessary ; but if macerated a few days, the
two become very apparent. There is a space between the
two coats which gradually decreases in volume towards the
caudal extremity, where it is entirely lost. This space was
occupied by a fluid of a different nature from that found
within the inner envelope ; it consisted of a jelly, or mucus-
like substance, a rete mucosum [a mucous membrane of a net-
like structure], in which was contained the colouring matter
of the animal. The outer envelope, or epidermis, was finely
attenuated, and most beautifully transparent; externally, it
was plentifully bedewed with a watery moisture ; the inner, or
cutis, was much thicker, less transparent, and appeared of
quite another texture ; by the assistance of a common magni-
fying glass 1 discovered it to be fibrous, the fibres running in
all directions, but the strongest in parallels towards the ex-
tremities; hence I believe this coat to be muscular. This
fcict seems also to be borne out, from the animal having the
power of extending, shrinking, and writhing itself at pleasure.
Nearer the shell these fibres are obvious to the naked eye,
the coats become rugose or corrugated, the rete mucosum of
a much darker hue, and the contractile power of the animal
is greater here than in any other part.

Fig, 76. b shows the shell opened, with the tentacula ex-
posed. The animal moves these appendages with great
fecility and quickness; and they serve, no doubt, the purpose
of seizing its food ; but I think it very likely that they are
also its principal respiratory organs. Each tentaculum consists
of many joints, which are supplied with papil lee [pimples], or
elevated pores, arranged transversely ; every joint has three
papillae, two lateral and one in the centre ; from each springs
a hairlike appendage, which the animal has the power of
rotating in all directions, in a manner nearly imperceptible to
the bystander.

The inner coat likewise of some of these creatures, as seen
in J^g. 76. b, contained numerous very small round bodies,
attached to one another by cellular tissue of the finest texture
imaginable, and the whole was defended by an envelope of a
similar delicate structure, extending to nearly one third of the
animal's length. Each of these minute bodies, or ova (for
they are probably the rudiments of future offspring), was
surrounded by a bag containing rete mucosum, of a bluish
purple, in a quantity sufficient apparently to suspend the
ovum.

The habits and economy of the Lepas family appear to

z 3

342. Remarks on a Species

have been but very imperfectly studied ; they are spoken of, .
and variously represented, by Gerarde and others of olden
times ; their descriptions, however, are clothed with little else
than folly and superstition, and therefore it necessarily fol-
lows, that what is drawn from them is wrapped up in doubt
and uncertainty,

I should be glad to obtain further information concerning
this genus from some of your correspondents, in an early
Number of this Magazine.

I am. Sir, yours, &c.
Liverpool, Dec. 1. 1831. Thomas Weatherill, M.D.

Notwithstanding the perfect justice of Dr. Weatherill's objection to
the older histories, on account of the absurdities blended with them,
some of these are too amusing to be at once and wholly repudiated. On
this plea, and as indicative of the historical progress of the knowledge of
natural objects, we hope to stand excused for presenting the following
remarks on the barnacle shell. Our first quotation is from Hall's Amulet
for 1830, and occurs in a historical essay therein, entitled " The First
Invasion of Ireland; by the Rev. Robert Walsh, L.L.D."

" The Bay of Bannow abounds with sea fowls, and amongst them is one
[the bernacle goose, ^'nser Bernicla Willughby] which has been the occa-
sion of very extraordinary opinions. It is a bird resembling a wild goose,
and is found in abundance in this bay, and also in that of Wexford. It
feeds on the tuberous roots of an aquatic grass, which is full of saccharine
juice; and, instead of the rank taste of other sea fowl, which feed partly
on fish, this bird acquires from its aliment a delicate flavour, which
renders it highly prized. But the circumstance which long made it an
object of the highest curiosity was an idea that it was not produced,
in the usual way, from the egg of a similar parent; but that it was the
preternatural production of a species of shell-fish called a barnacle.
This singular absurdity is not to be charged to the Irish : it was first pub-
lished to the world by Giraldus Cambrensis, who accompanied the early
invaders, and saw the bird in this place. It was received with avidity in
England, and set down among other attractive wonders of the new and
barbarous country, where every thing was wild and monstrous. The shell
supposed to produce it, is found on this coast, adhering to logs of wood,
and other substances, which had remained long in the sea water : it is
attached by a fleshy membrane at one end, and from the other issues a
fibrous beard, which curls round the shell, and has a distant resemblance
to the feathers of a fowl ; and on this circumstance the story was founded.
So late as the time of Gerarde, this was firmly believed by the naturalists
in England. In a folio edition of Gerarde's works [Johnson's edition of
Gerarde's Herbal, 1636, p. 1587, 1588.] there is a long account of this
prodigious birth, which he prefaces by saying — * What mine eyes have
seen, and mine hands have touched, that I will declare ; ' and he accom-
panies his description with a plate, representing one of these birds hanging
by its head to a barnacle shell, as just excluded from it, and dropping
into the sea. The fishy origin of the bird rendered it also an object of
ecclesiastical controversy. It was disputed with much warmth in England,
before the Reformation, that this Irish bird, having a fish for its parent, was
not properly flesh, and that it might be eaten with perfect propriety on fast-
days; and hence this delicious meat was an allowed luxury, in which
many worthy ecclesiastics concientiously indulged in Lent. One learned
man made a syllogism to defend his practice : — ' Whatever is born of flesh

of the Genus hepas.

343

t

is flesh ; but this bird has no such origin, therefore it is not flesh.' *
Another retorted on him by the following ingenious position : — * If a
man,' said he, * were disposed to eat part of Adam's thigh, he would not
be justified, I imagine ; because Adam was not born from a parent of
flesh.' f So universal, however, was this belief in the extraordinary origin
of this bird, that its supposed parent, the shell-fish, is called, by con-
chologists, at this day, iepas «nsifera, the goose-bearing lepas."

A word may here be offered on the two specific epithets «nslfera and
flnatlfera. As the 7/epas was supposed to produce a goose, anslfera
(goose-bearing) would seem the fittest epithet j but anatifera (duck-bearing)
seems the one most frequently and almost invariably applied. Turton,
accordingly, in his translation of Linnaeus' s St/stema Natures y affixes to
the Z/epas «natifera, as its English name, " Duck bernacle." See
vol. iv. p. 169. of the translation mentioned. Professor Rennie, in his
recent edition of Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary y gives, under the head
" Bernacle goose," p. 31., a somewhat detailed account of the anserine
associations appertaining to the iepas anatifera j and notices most or all
of the old writers who have written on, reported on, or credited, so

marvellous a matter. From
Gerarde's account, as
quoted by Professor Rennie,
we learn, that, in Gerarde's
time, Z/epas anatifera, or, at
least, some one species, was
not rare on the coast of
Lancashire; and also that the
bernacle, brant, or tree goose,
was there also so abundant,
" that one of the best is
bought for threepence." Dr.
Drummond, too, introduces
the Lepas anatifera, with the
appended, apparently well-
executed, figure ifig- "77.),
but essentially distinct in
its branched pedicel from
the figure given above,
into his excellent Letters to
a Young Naturalisty p. 162
— 165. From his account we
learn, what perhaps is not
stated with sufficient clear-
ness above, that the pedicel
is fleshy and contractile.
From Dr. Drummond's quo-
tation from Gerarde it appears that the Z/cpas anatifera, or some one
species, was, at the commencement of the seventeenth century, not rare on
the coast of the north of Scotland and of the Orcades.

Of the Z>epas anatifera, a figure has been previously given (Vol. L
p. 29.), but grouped with genera and species of molluscous animals inhabiting

* " Quicquid est caro ex carne communi naturae cursu gignitur;
Ast talem ortum Bernaculae non habent :
Non sunt igitur Bernaculae carnes." — Stanihurst.
f " Si quis enim ex primo parentis, carnei quidera licet de carne non
nati, femore coraedisset, eum a carnium esu non immunem arbitrarer." —
Cambrensis.

z 4

344

Illustrations in British Zoology

shells : nevertheless, for the sake of making our history and illustration of
the pedunculated Zycpas as complete as our means will enable us, the cut
is here repeated, {fig. 78.) It will be right to quote here, also, a remark
expressed by G. J. (Vol. III. p. 335.), in his fifth letter on Molluscous
Animals ; it is this : — " We do not include the Cirripedes (Lepas Lin.)
amongst the MoUusca." — J. D.

a, L^pas anatifera.

78
b

bed. Veiled Shells. ef. Cockles. g, Pinna Mgilis.

i, V^nus Chion^. k, .Nerita canrfena.

h, Carinkria vftrea.
/, TVbchus.

Art. X. Illustrations in British Zoology, By George John-
ston, M.D., Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edin-
burgh.

3. Plana^'ria cornu^ta. (fig. 79.)
CI. Fermes, Ord. Molles, Fam. Planulariae, Gen. Planaria.
PI. — Ovalis, plana, foliacea, venosa-rubescens, linea saturatiore in medio
notata, atomisque albis irrorata ; tentaculis duabus ; oculis plurimis
in macula dorsali acervatis.

PI. — Oval, flat, thin, reddish-brown, the colour disposed in veins, marked
with a blood-red line down the middle, and sprinkled over with white
dots J tentacula two ; eyes very numerous, forming a black spot on
the anterior part of the back.

Habitat. The sea-coast of Berwickshire.

a. Animal of the natural size, and in different attitudes. b. Animal magnified.
c, Ventral surface, to show situation and form of proboscis, and of posterior aperture.

Plandria cmmuta. S45

Desc. — Body oval, flat, thin, soft, the margin plane ;
length about three fourths of an inch ; the breadth about one
half the length. Dorsal surface reddish brown, freckled
with white dots ; the brown colour disposed in vein-like rami-
fications, very distinct towards the sides. In front there are
two conical tentacula, about one eighth of an inch long, fur-
rowed on the ventral aspect ; altogether marginal, darker-
coloured at the bases, from numerous very minute black dots.
About a line behind the tentacula there is an oblong black spot,
divided into two equal halves by the mesial [middle] line : this
spot is pointed in front, truncate posteriorly, and is formed
by a multitude of dot-like eyes clustered together. The me-
sial line itself is of a red or blood colour, but does not reach
to either extremity. Ventral surface also reddish-brown, but
lighter ; marked in the middle with an oblong white space,
produced by the retracted proboscis, which is short, white,
thick, exsertile, with a terminal wide and unarmed aper-
ture. Behind the spot produced by it there is another small
pore, but whether an anus or sexual orifice is uncertain.

The red line which runs along the centre of the back is
evidently an alimentary canal ; and the vessels which ramify
through the body, and on which the colour of the worm
depends, appear to arise from it, and are probably intended
to convey the nutritive fluid directly to the different parts.
There is no appearance of any sanguineous system, but the
vessels just mentioned are branched in a somewhat dichoto-
mous manner, particularly towards the sides ; for they do not
reach tlie margin, neither do they seem to anastomose freely.
Their form and disposition are well expressed in the magni-
fied figure.

Planaria cornuta is a new acquisition to the British fauna.
It inhabits the sea on the coast of Berwickshire ; where it
resides in deep water, and is, consequently, only to be found
occasionally creeping on corallines and shells brought up by
the lines of the fishermen. It progresses by a sliding con-
tinuous motion ; and, for a worm, its progress is not slow.
When in motion, the tentacula are generally erect or reflected
backwards ; it often moves on the side, with the ventral sur-
face half everted ; and sometimes both sides are turned up,
so as almost to meet. It dies soon in a vessel, although filled
with sea-water ; and, towards its close, will frequently project
the proboscis, or even detach it entirely in the struggle. But,
though separated, this part retains its irritability for an
amazing length of time. On the evening of the day on which
a fine specimen was brought me, I left it, lively and healthy,
in a saucer of sea-water ; but next morning it was found

346 Variations in the Cotyledons and

dead, and the proboscis lying at some distance. Fully twenty-
four hours elapsed before I could examine it farther, when,
to my astonishment, the proboscis was seen to contract and
dilate its aperture with energy ; yet the body itself had soft-
ened, and could not be lifted even on a hair pencil.

Planaria cornuta was discovered by Miiller ; but I know
his animal only through the short and imperfect description
given in Dr. Turton's translation of the Systema Naturce^
vol. iv. p. 65. There are some discrepancies between it and
mine ; but I think the characters in common are sufficient to
show the identity of the species. Still I shall feel indebted to
any one of your readers who may have access to the Zoologia
Danica^ if, by a comparison of the figures, he shall confirm
my synonyme, or prove that it is erroneous.
1 am, Sir, yours, &c.

George Johnston, M.D.
Bermichupon Tweedy Jan, 28. 1832.

Art. XI. On Variations in the Cotyledons and Primordial Leaves
of the Sycamore (AVer Pseicdo-Flatanus L.). By the Rev. J. S.
Henslow, A.m., King's Professor of Botany in the University
of Cambridge.

Sir,
The number of cotyledons in coniferous plants is well
known to be very variable, and the seeds of some other
dicotyledons have likewise been observed occasionally to
possess more than two. The sycamore ( A^cer Pseiido-Pla-
tanus X.) is a good example of this fact; and a careful search
among the numerous young plants which every where spring
up in the neighbourhood of this tree, has afforded me many
specimens in which the cotyledons were either three or four
in number. In some instances, where there were only two
as usual, one of them was more or less cloven down the
middle {^g. 80. a); and these served to illustrate, in a marked

manner, the way in which
others had become pos-
sessed of more than their
ordinary number. For in
these cases either two of
the cotyledons were not
at first so large as the
^0 third, when there were

three only {b) ; or else, when four were present, they were all
proportionably smaller than in those plants which bore two

Primordial Leaves of the Sycamore, W

81

(fg, 81. c). This shows that the multiplication of the coty-
ledons in some plants may be the result merely of a subdi-
vision in the two which belong to them in their normal
condition, and that it may not have originated in any supernu-
merary developement of these organs themselves. Their
comparative inequality, however, soon ceases as the plant
developes itself. In one instance I have remarked a cohesion
taking place between the two cotyledons nearly throughout
their whole length ( fig. 80. d), and then the young plant had
strangely assumed the form of a monocotyledon. Sometimes
the superfluous division was continued to the primordial
leaves, of which there was one large, and two that were
smaller {fig. 81. ^): but I have never observed this anomaly
extend beyond them; the next in succession, and all after
them, being developed in pairs in the usual way. The above
figures are selected from among several varieties which I pos-
sess of this anomalous germination of the sycamore.

I remain. Sir, yours, &c.
Cambridge, Feb, 2. 1832. J. S. Henslow.

Very interesting, even under ordinary circumstances, are the seed-
vessels, seeds, and germination of the seeds, of that free-growing, broad-
leaved, umbrageous tree, the sycamore. The samaras (winged capsules)
are usually produced in pairs, rarely in threes ; in every three which I have
met with, the seed (for every capsule usually includes but a single seed)
within the third samara has been imperfect. The funiculi, or umbilical
cords, are to be traced with easy obviousness in their passage through the
base of the samaras, and to their union with the seed's own proper envelopes.
Admirable, too, is the neat and copious lining of soft and glossy down,
with which the interior of the cell of the samara is coated, to lodge the
seed commodiously, till winds have acted on the wings of the capsules,
and disseminated them, and the moisture of the earth whereon they
fall has, by its stimulus, excited the seeds they contain to germinate.
" Cotyledons folded" is, in English Flora (vol. ii. p. 230.), a generic
character of J'cer; in J'cer Pseudo-Pldtanus, the sycamore, they are
circinately so, and incumbent on the radicle * : the chewed cotyledons and
primordial leaves are bitter to the taste. — J. D.

* The earlier an error is noticed the better. Of CVambe nuu'itima it is
remarked in English Flora, vol. iii. p. 184., " Cotyledons aecumbent, not

848 Friictifkatlon of the Genus Char a.

Art. XII. On the Fructification of the Genus Chara, By the
Rev. J. S. Henslow, A.M., King's Professor of Botany in the
University of Cambridge.

Sir,
Allow me, through the medium of this Magazine, to state
a curious fact, which I once observed in the fructification
of the genus Chara. In the Dictionnaire Classique d'Histoire
Naturelle, M. A. Brongniart has noticed the difficulty of
accounting for the manner in which the red matter contained
in the " globule " (anther of Linnaeus) becomes dispersed.
At a certain season of the year this part of the fructification
is found empty, but its outer surface does not appear to have
been ruptured. It is quite contrary (as he remarks) to all
analogy, for us to suppose the included matter to have passed
into the "nucule" (germen of Linnaeus), through the internal
substance of the plant. The fact, however, to which I am
about to allude, seems to show that this is nevertheless the
case. At all events, I think it is well worthy of being recorded,
in order that others may direct their enquiries by the addi-
tional light which it appears to me likely to throw upon this
subject.

A variety of the Chara vulgaris, which grows in a running
stream at Coton near Cambridge, is more highly incrusted
with carbonate of lime than any specimens which I have else-
where met with. Considerable masses of it may be dug out
in the form of a loose porous stone. It was in some speci-
mens of this variety, gathered on Nov. 3. 1830, that I met
with many globules which had become white from having
parted with their red matter, whilst the nucules had assumed a
reddish tinge, doubtless from their having
imbibed the same. Among these nucules
I noticed a few in which the outer sur-
face appeared to be spirally banded with
alternate lines of red and white, {fg. 82.)
The outer coat of the nucule consists of
five tubes spirally twisted together, and
the ends terminating in a sort of crown upon
its apex. The banded appearance here
described arose from some of these tubes
being charged with the red matter, whilst the
others were empty. Unfortunately, I could
not at the time command sufficient leisure

as in De CandoUe's general table \Systema Regni Vegetabilis, vol.ii. p. 146.]
incumbent." Examination will prove them incumbent and conduplicate,
and De Candolle correct. — J. D.

Fructification of the Genus Chdra, 349

to examine this singular phenomenon with the minute attention
which it deserved ; but I made a rough sketch of the appear-
ance, intending on some future occasion to renew my observ-
ations. I have, however, since sought in vain for fresh ex-
amples ; and, as I think it possible that the appearance may
have originated in some accidental obstruction in the tubes of
these specimens, preventing the passage of the red matter
through some of them, I wish the fact to be made known at
once, in order that others may have their attention called to
the subject, and not neglect an opportunity, should they
chance to meet with one, of examining a phenomenon, which
seems so likely to afford us further insight into the real cha-
racter of the fructification of these plants.

The fact which this appearance seems to me to establish
is, the internal passage of the red matter from the globule to
the nucule, affording us a strong point of analogy between
this genus and the Confervae conjugatae ; an analogy, however,
which has not been overlooked in the general structure of the
plants themselves. How the red matter passes from the outer
coat to the inner chamber of the nucule is not so apparent;
unless we may suppose it to be effected through certain minute
connecting processes, detected in the fossil species of this
genus, figured by Mr. Lyell in the Geological Transactions
(new series, vol. ii. pi. 13. fig. 2.). I have found, upon opening
some nucules which had fallen from the plant, that they were
filled with perfectly smooth spherical grains of considerable
size, and of a reddish tinge ; and that these grains were com-
posed of a congeries of minute granules. These grains are,
probably, what some observers have imagined to be seeds, and
who have in consequence described the nucule as a polysper-
mous capsule ; whilst others, who have seen that each nucule
produces only one plant, have considered these grains to be
of an alimentary nature, prepared for the purpose of nourish-
ing the young plant during the early stages of its germination.
If we were to allow that any analogy exists between the Charas
and phaenogamous plants, the globule would rather seem to
represent a single naked grain of pollen than an entire anther,
as it has been usual to consider it : but in our present igno-
rance of what are the actual functions of this organ, it is per-
haps safer to class this genus with the Cryptogamia.

I am. Sir, yours, &c.
Cambridge, Feb, 2. 1832. J. S. Henslow.

To the charas another very interesting consideration appertains: for
within their pellucid stems, when inspected through a powerful microscope,
the motion of the sap, in its course of circulation, is as obvious as the cur-
rent of a river. I had the pleasure to witness this, as had several others,

350 Weather of the last eight Years,

4t the Linnaean Society's meeting on the 6th of March, 1832. Richard
Horsman Solly, Esq. F.L.S., whose intimate knowledge of vegetable phy-
siology and anatomy Professor Lindley has recently taken occasion to
attest, when ascribing to a new genus in Pittosporeae the name of Sollya,
was the gentleman who had provided this exquisite spectacle for the grati-
fication of all who chose to inspect it ; and delightful it was to see the sap,
in the shape of a thousand air bubbles, dancing briskly up on one side of
the chara's stem, and descending in the same lively manner on the other.
The specimen inspected appeared to be an internode of a stem of Chara,
bounded by a joint at top and another at bottom : it was erect ; and, I believe,
in a vial filled with water, on the back of which the light of a wax candle,
deprived of its glare by the interposition of Varley's dark chamber, was
thrown, while the inspector viewed it from the front. Mr. Solly obligingly
changed the object into various points of view, by each and all of which one
remarkable fact was clearly apparent ; namely, that the process of circula-
tion was not taking place about the whole periphery of the stem or internode,
but in two broad opposite lateral longitudinal bands, which effect left two
also opposite lateral longitudinal bands unoccupied by any process of cir-
culation. I find, by a communication subsequently published in the Gar-
dener^ s Magazine ^YoX.vm.. p. 143., that Mr. Burnett, of King's College, had,
as early as the 17th of January, 1832, exhibited the same interesting spec-
tacle, and apparently before the members of the Medico-Botanical Society ;
and from the communication cited I quote as follows : — " The course of the
sap in Chara is so far ascertained, that Mr. Burnett thinks himself justified
in declaring that each joint or limb has an individual circulation ,• and
although it may have a communication with other joints, yet that its
motion is complete in itself. A section of a rootlet, or of a joint, shows it
to consist of two lateral, simple, semilunar ducts, each being the channel of
a current that traverses the root or joint in an opposite direction to the
other'; the course of the one being up, the other down. These ducts,
although not spiral in their structure, that is, not spiral vessels, are spiral in
their disposition, being twisted as it were round a central axis, and forming
two separate scalae, much in the same way as the * wild worm ' is often
scored [by gardeners, who give to their scorings the term of wild worm]
round the stems or branches of unfruitful trees." I may add, that, in the
specimen exhibited by Mr. Solly, the spiral direction of the opposite scalae
or ducts was so progressive, that, although perceptible, it was not very ob-
vious. If the spiral bands so striking on the outer coat of the nucule
{fig. 82.) are but a modified continuation of the stmcture which obtains
in the stem, the strong spiral curvature exhibited in the nucule may perhaps
be accounted for by remembering the concentration of structure which
plants, in their organs of fructification and reproduction, very frequently
manifest. — J. D.

Art. XIII. Observations made in the Neighbourhood of High
Wycombe, Bucks, on the Temperature of the Atmosphere, on the
Rain and the Winds, of the Months of June and July, during
the last eight Years, and on the Influence of these Meteorological
Phenomena on human Health. By James G. Tatem, Esq.,
Member of the London Meteorological Society.

Sir,
After a summer like the past, when sickness so generally
and so alarmingly prevailed, it may be neither uninteresting
nor unprofitable to examine into the state of the weather, as

and its Influence on human Health.

BSl

indicated by the usual instruments; and to compare the re-
sults with those of similar observations, made in the same
period in former summers.

To effect this, I have prepared the following tables, show-
ing the greatest elevation and depression, together with the
means of the thermometer and barometer ; the quantities of
rain ; and the number of days on which the wind blew from
the cardinal and semi-cardinal points of the compass, in the
months of June and July, for the last eight years. Under the
mea?is I have placed the observations for the present year, by
which the deviations are immediately perceived.

Table of the Thermometer and Barometer.

Year.

Thermometer.

Barometer.

Highest.

Lowest.

Mean.

Highest.

Lowest.

Mean.

1823

72-50°

34-50°

55-17°

30-07

29-06

29-60

1824

78-

35-50

55-555

30-24

28-96

29-68

1825

89-

32-50

57-01

30-10

29-09

29-80

1826

86-

39-25

6001

30-20

29-41

29-835

1827

79-75

34-

56-85935

30-16

29-33

29-75421

1828

76-

39-

57-5098

30-07

29-07

29-57875

1829

74-50

34-50

55-41703

30-14

29-02

29-65962

1830
Mean

82-50

35-

55-98931

30-08

29-14.

29-62375

79-78°

35-53°

56-69006°

30-13

2913

29-69141

1831

78-50

39-

57-18598

3009

29-32

29-71216

Table of the Rain and "Winds.

Year.

Rain in Inches.

Winds.

N.E.

E.

S.E.

S.

s.w.

W.

N.W.

N.

1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830

7-45125
4-27000
1-93125
1.46250
3-39370
7-23750
8-36250
6-57350

2

7

11

6

2
6
7
4

8
3
5
3
3
3
2

3
4
2
2
5
6
6

13
5

2
7
3
9
5
5

22
9
14
12
23
17
20
22

22
17
10

6
13
11

4
11

2

3

5

13

8
•9
11

9

1

9

12

10

7
1
5

2

Mean
1831

5-08527
5-21875

2

f

H

H

17f
19

111
12

1?

5|
10

Thus it appears that the range of temperature, for the time,
was less than the average ; while the mean w^as higher by half
a degree. The same observation applies to the range of the

852 Weather of the last eight Years,

barometer ; but the mean of that instrument, as it will be seen,
was very near the one calculated. In the quantity of rain
only a very trifling difference is observable ; and the greatest
deviation from the table is in the number of days on which
the wind blew from the north and north-west ; which, this
year, was nearly double the average numbers. Another and
more distinguishing feature of the period in question was the
high state of electricity of the atmosphere : thunder was heard
seven times, and, in three or four instances, was extremely
loud, and the lightning very vivid ; which is unusual in this
neighbourhood, where severe storms are rarely experienced.

That atmospheric changes have great effect on the human
frame, there are few, in those days of general information,
who will venture to deny. One of the symptoms attending
the epidemic in this neighbourhood, which claimed attention,
was inflammation of the lungs. Might not this have been
partly occasioned by the excess of the electricity floating in
the air acting as aKStimulant? But the meteorologist must
confine himself to making observations, and affording data
for the speculations of those whose habits and studies enable
them to theorise with more effect, and with better prospects
of success ; while the physiologist may form opinions as to
the effects peculiar states of the air may have on the people
living beneath its influence.

It was under these impressions that I applied to a respected
friend, of long experience and extensive medical practice in
this neighbourhood, through whose kindness 1 am enabled to
add the following remarks : — " That the influenza which
appeared in this vicinity had in a great measure resembled in
its symptoms those of former periods, viz. 1762, 1775, 1782,
and 1803, when prevailing as an epidemic. At the com-
mencement, catarrhal and peripneumonic symptoms were
most observable, during which time north-westerly winds
prevailed ; afterwards, inflammatory affections of the brain
and its membranes became the more prominent character of
the disease, in some instances complicated with peripneu-
monic symptoms ; but these were confined to low situations,
while, in those more elevated, the peripneumonic complaints
were unattended by affections of the sensorium. The fatal
cases were those in which the brain was affected, and the
greater proportion of them persons advanced in life. Any
speculation upon the cause of such extensively prevailing dis-
ease as has been witnessed would be at present but hypothe-
tical ; and whether it was occasioned by atmospheric influ-
ence, or some specific malaria, it must be candidly confessed,
is at present, « hidden from our eyes.' "

Weather in Switzerland and at Rome, 3.53

From the above judicious remarks of my medical friend, it
would appear that there might probably be two causes for
the epidemic: the one having effect in the lower places,
which, perhaps, was malaria ; and the other, acting with
greatest effect on persons living in higher situations, and
more exposed to atmospheric influence. On the supposition
that the cases of inflammation of the lungs were occasioned
by the quantity of electricity which prevailed, its effects would
be wddely extended, as we find to have been the fact ; and,
when combined with the malaria, is it too much to conjecture
that it produced the affections of the brain ?

It is with the view of rendering meteorology subservient to
the most important science that can occupy the mind, that I
liave presumed to call the attention of your scientific readers
to the subject : — " Homines enim ad*" deos nulla re propius
accedunt, quam salutem hominibus dando." [Men resemble
the Deity in nothing so much as in doing good to mankind.]

I am, Sir, yours, &c.
Wycomhe, Bticks, Nov. 30. 1831. James G. Tatem.

Art. XIV. Notes on the Weather ^ in Stvitzerland, during May^
June, July, and August, 1831 ; and at Rome, during Nov. and
Dec. 183i, and Jan. and Feb. 1832. By W. Spence, Esq.

Weather in Switzerland.

Sir, I now send you the results of some rough notes which
I have kept of the weather during a four months' residence,
this present summer, in Switzerland ; conceiving that, like my
similar imperfect accounts of the last two winters at Florence
and Pisa, they may possibly be acceptable to some of your
meteorological readers who have not access to more exact
details. From May 1. to July 11. were spent at Geneva ; from
July 12. to 17. at Lausanne; and from July 19. to Aug. 31.
at Berne. I am, &c.

Berne, Sept. 5. IS31. W. Spence.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Mean height of the thermometer at 8 a.m.

Days of sunshine throughout

partially sunny and fair

cloudy and fair _ - -

rainy - - - -

55°

8

7

1
15

14
5

11

63°
16

2

3
10

59^
8
9

14

Heat. — The highest point to which the thermometer was
observed to ascend in May was 74° on the 26th ; commonly
Vol. v.— No. 26. a a

354 Weather in Switzerland

it ranged from 63° to 67° on days more or less sunny. On
the 15th, 20th, and 21st of June it reached 80° and 81°; and
on six days it exceeded 75° ; but in general, when the sun
was out, did not rise higher than fiom 70° to 75°, during
June, July, and August, and, in these months, was often
below 70° at 1 and 2 p. m.

Main, — The quantity of rain has been excessive. With
the exception of three weeks, at distant periods, of continued
sunny weather, viz. from the 15th to the 20th of May, from
the 1st to the 7th of July, and from the 21st to the 27th of
August, there have never been, during the whole period,
more than three or four fine days in succession. The rain
was often heavy, and long-continued ; but by far the greatest
quantity fell on Monday and Tuesday, the 8th and 9th of
August, when it poured in torrents, for upwards of 48 hours,
over the greater part of the middle and east of Switzerland,
causing dreadful inundations, and sweeping away bridges,
houses, and cattle.* The lakes of Thun and Brientz, which
together are about 20 miles long and from 1 to 2 broad, were
raised 2 ft. in height by the torrents which poured into them
from the' mountains, and flooded the intermediate valley of
Interlaken ; and a similar increase took plape in the Lake of
Lucerne : while, on the same day, water-spouts fell on various
parts of the Cantons of Zurich, Argau, SchafFhausen, &c.,
doing greater and more general mischief than for many years.
The rain was accompanied by lightning and thunder, on three
days in May, on one in June, on three in July, and on four
in August. The heavy and continued rains, lasting for a day
or longer, were almost always ushered in by a thunder-storm :
this was the case with the deluges which fell on the 8th and
9th of August.

Hail. — At Lausanne, on the 14th of July, about 8 p.m.,
we witnessed one of those hail-storms which, every summer,
cause such ravages in the south of Europe. A great propor-
tion of the hailstones were as big as hen's eggs, and some
even bigger ; seven nearly filled a common dinner plate.
They were mostly oval or globular ; but one piece, brought
to us after the storm, was flat and square, full 2 in. long, as
many broad, and three quarters of an inch thick, with several
projecting knobs of ice as big as large hazel nuts. This mass
•exactly resembled a piece of uniformly transparent ice, but
the oval and globular masses had the same conformation as
has often been described in these hailstones, and on which

* It appears from the journals that the rains of the 8th extended into the
neighbouring departments of France, and in the district of Epinal destroyed
the whole harvest, causing a loss estimated at 400,000 francs.

during Pari o/" 1 83 1 . ^55

Volta founded his ingenious but untenable theory of their
formation. In the centre of each was a small white opaque
nucleus, the size of a pea, and evidently one of the hail-
stones usually seen in England, to which the French give the
name of gresil, confining the term grele to the larger masses
of ice now under our observation. This nucleus of gresil
was enclosed in a coat about half an inch thick of ice con-
siderably more transparent than it, but still somewhat opaque,
as though of snow melted and then frozen again, and exter-
nally the rest of the mass was of ice perfectly transparent, and
as compact and hard as possible, resounding like a pebble, and
not breaking when thrown on the floor. The inhabitants of
Lausanne, aware that the cinereous and puffed up appearance
of the clouds charged with this tremendous aerial artillery
portended more than a mere thunder-storm, had adopted
the precaution of closing their Venetian shutters ; but such
windows as were deprived of this protection had almost every
pane broken : and much damage was done to the tiles of all
the houses, and to the gardens and vineyards * ; but less than
might have been expected, owing to the short duration of the
storm, which did not last longer than seven or eight minutes,
and to the circumstance of the hailstones not being very
numerous.

Moisture. — It might be expected that, in so wet a summer,
the air would be saturated with moisture ; and, from compa-
rative observations on those natural hygrometers which every
where present themselves, I am persuaded that more moisture
existed in the air at Geneva during the month of May, than
at Pisa in the month of December, which was even more
rainy. I am ignorant how far the summers generally may
deserve the same character as the present one ; but that, in
winter, the air in Switzerland is considerably drier than in
England at that season seems proved by the fact, that one
of my friends at Berne keeps, during winter, his orange and
myrtle trees, laurustinuses, pomegranates, fig trees, and various
other plants, in a cellar lighted only by three small windows,
which are opened occasionally in fine weather, but are en-
tirely covered with straw during all the hard frost ; so that
the plants must be in total darkness great part of the long
winter, during which, from the beginning of November to the
end of April, they are placed in this subterranean green-
house. Under similar treatment, I apprehend that, in most
winters in England, orange trees and other evergreens would
have their leaves destroyed by mould ; and would be so ma-

* The remarks well elucidate Dr. Mitchell's article (Vol. IV. p. 551.) on
" Hail in the South of France, and Insurance against loss by it," — J. D.

356 Weafhe, hi Switzerland during Part of 1831.

terially .injured as to display, in summer, a very different
appearance from that of my Berne friend's plants, which
attracted my attention, in his garden, by their remarkably
vigorous and healthy aspect. Both during the present and
last summer, which was much drier, I have seen nothing in
Switzerland of that clearness of the atmosphere, of which
some tourists speak ; the same haziness being in a greater or
less degree observable, which is usually complained of in
England. The distinctness with which the Alps may be often
seen at the distance of 40 or 50 miles proves little, as they
may be sometimes plainly seen 6ven when the atmospheric
haze is aO* great that the sun can scarcely pierce it. This
I have more than once observed, and I have no doubt that
mountains of as great height, and similarly covered with snow,
would be as distinctly seen, at the same distance, through an
English atmosphere. Whether the Alps can be seen or not,
from distant points of view which command them, depends
wholly v'U their being themselves free from clouds, or enve-
loped in them ; which last so often happens, that a traveller
may remain at Geneva for a week, or longer, without ever
obtaining a glimpse of Mont Blanc, or at Berne of the
Jungfrau : and they are often thus invisible in bright clear
weather, and become disclosed when a dull hazy atmosphere
prevails.

Progress of Vegetation, — On the 1st of May, vegetation
at Geneva was about as far advanced as we had left it at
Pisa in the beginning of April, the leaves of oaks and ashes
being but half^expanded, and only here and there hawthorn
and apple blossoms out. Cherries, in small quantities, ap-
peared in the markets about the 20th of May, and goose-
berries the 25th. Most of the species of rose in the Botanic
Garden in flower, June 9. Wheat in bloom, Junp 11., and
haymaking general. Some wheat cut, July 11., in the neigh-
bourhood of Geneva; but at Berne (which is 1708 Paris ft.
above the level of the sea, while Geneva is but 1135 ft.) the
wheat was not generally got in till the beginning of August,
and the second crop of hay not till the middle and end of
the month.

General Character of the Summer. — This has been un-
usually wet, cool, and variable. The Jura chain of mountains
did not wholly lose their snow till the end of June. Early in
August, at Berne, the evenings began to have a cool autumnal
feel; and, from the 17th to the 25th of the month the ther-
mometer was never higher than from 53° to 57° at 8 a.m.,
and on the 19th, after heavy rain, was as low as 51°, with
very thick fogs, in the mornings, till 7 o'clock. What, for-

Weather at Borne during Part o/' 1831 and 1832. 357

tunately, counterbalances, in Switzerland, the effects of both
wet days and cold nights, as autumn approaches, is the great
power of the sun when it does shine; so that, notwithstanding
these drawbacks, and that the elevation of Berne above the
sea is full one half that of Snowdon in Wales, fine crops of
wheat, even in this peculiarly wet summer, have been here
housed as early as the 5th of August.

Weather at Rome.

Sir, I now enclose you a summary of my notes on the wea-
ther at Rome for the past four months, which, with the similar
one that I have before sent you from Florence and Pisa, miiy
enable your meteorological readers to compare, as far ps can
be done from such imperfect notices, the last three Italian and
English winters. I am, Sir, Yours, &c.

Naples^ March 10. 1832. W. Spence.

1831.
Nov. Dec.

1832.
Jan. Feb.

Mean height of thermometer at 8 a. m.

Highest point

Lowest

Days of bright sunshine
partially sunny
ctoudy, but fair
rainy . .

Wind, north

uorth-east
east .
south-east
south ,
south-west
west .
no>^th-west

ivimber of days

48°
(4th) 580
(29.) 330

12
9
1

430
(20.) 540
(29.) 2io

9
12

8

4
1
1

410
(12.) 530
(25.) 330

14

6

2
9

440
(3.) 5
(18.) 3

14
2
3

10

General Bema'lcs — The winter, even for Rome, has been
remarkably mild, without snow, except a slight fall, of an inch,
on the morning of February 16., which was all dissolved before
noon; or frost, other than hoar-frosts on the 4th and 19th
of December, from the 21st to the 25th of January, and from
the 1 3th to the 24th of February ; and with little of violent
and continued rains, which, too, when occurring, almost con-
stantly took place in the night, so that there were not above
three or four days when it was necessary to keep house, on
account of the weather, the whole winter ; by far its larger
portion resembling the finest parts of an English April ; the
thermometer being seldom below 40° at 8 in the morning,
and up to 5lj° and 60° in the middle of the day. The most
wintry days were from the 13th to the 18th of February,
which were cold an^» rainy, with one slight shower of snow,

A A 3

358 Weai/ie?- at Rome

and a good deal resembled the raw days of an English
November. A very high wind from the south, on the 2d and
Sd of February. Lightning and thunder on the 18th of
November, and 15th and 27th of January. A slight shock
of the earthquake which totally destroyed the city of Fuhgno,
&c., on the 1 3th of January, was felt at Rome, the same day,
by some individuals, but not generally.

Though the season has been thus mild, it has not been
proportionally healthy : nearly one fourth of the population
having been attacked in December with the influenza, which
was often severe, and not seldom fatal. It may deserve re-
marking, that the regular progress of this disease (known in
France under the name of la grippe), during the summer and
autumn, through great part of Europe, from the month of
June, when it was prevalent in England, to January, when it
had reached Palermo in Sicily (having passed step by step
through France, Savoy, Switzerland, and the west side of
Italy, to Rome and Naples), does not seem easily explained on
any theory of atmospheric influence, which could scarcely
have migrated so regularly from place to place during so long
a period ; and rather confirms the opinions of those Italian
physicians who refer it to contagion, and assert that the same
disease ran a similar course through several parts of Europe
and Italy in 1782.

Moisture. — Some travellers have spoken of the climate of
Rome as very damp, from having observed the stone staircases
and passages sometimes dripping with wet ; but this is only an
accidental occurrence, such as happens elsewhere, owing to
the change of the wind to the south from a quarter previously
colder, and the consequent condensation of the atmospheric
moisture on the stonework of the interior of buildings, before
they have had time to acquire the warmer temperature of the
recent wind. Generally speaking, to judge from ordinary
appearances, there has been no ground to complain of the
moisture of the climate at Rome during the winter. It should
be mentioned, however, that I never recollect to have before
noticed so copious a deposition of dew as was often to be seen,
in the mornings, upon the surface of the pavement of some of
the open squares and roads outside of the town ; while the
pavement of the streets in the interior of the city, owing, I
suppose, to the adjoining houses counteracting the effect of
terrestrial radiation, was perfectly dry. It may also deserve
notice, in reference to that mysterious pest Malaria, but for
which Rome and its vicinity would be a paradise, that all the
Romans agree in regarding the hour just after sunset as that
when it is most essential to guard against exposure to the

duriiig Part of 1S31 and 1832. 359

sudden change of temperature and copious deposition of
moisture, which then seem to give effect to the miasmata,
whatever they are, that cause the Roman fever; which,
both from its intensity and so much more violently affecting
the head, differs considerably from the intermittent fevers of
more northern climates. They say, that after the lapse of
this hour, or hour and a half, the air has no longer that chill
feel which is experienced even in hot weather ; and that there
is little or no danger from subsequent exposure to the night
air, at least in Rome.

Fogs. — Fogs occurred only on six days during the whole
winter ; namely, on five days in December, and on one in
January; and then only in the night and morning; being
always occasioned by a north or north-west wind succeeding
one from the south or south-west, and being always dispelled
by the sun before noon. The atmosphere, however, though
not foggy, was occasionally, even when the sun shone, as
hazy as in England ; and, from what I have observed during
upwards of two years* residence in Italy (except in the hot
summer months), the accounts in books of the extraordinary
general clearness of the Italian sky must be taken with many
grains of allowance; the same haziness and consequent in-
distinctness of distant objects, which are so usual in England,
prevailing on a considerable proportion of days in the year.

Progress of Vegetation. — Many elms, acacias, poplars, &c.,
retained their leaves still green till the latter end of Novem-
ber, when a cold night stripped nearly all except weeping wil-
lows, which still kept theirs till the middle of December ; and
as these lauSt had their leaves one third expanded on Feb. 14.,
they were without leaves only two months. Daisies, shep-
herd's purse, wild marigold (Calendula arvensis), and other
common wild plants, were in flower the whole winter. Violets
in flower in great profusion, the last week of January ; and
almond trees in blossom about the same time. Butterflies
and other insects on the wing on fine days, the whole winter.
Hive bees busy in flowers, January 28.

It may make this account of the vegetation more complete,
to state that we did not find, on our arrival at Naples,
that it was at all more advanced there than at Rome, though
so much farther south ; and that, on the road, we observed
in flower. Euphorbia dendrbides, JS'chium italicum, Vibur-
num Tinus and iaurus nobilis (in the hedges in great
abundance), Erica arborea, blackthorn, ^sphodelus ramosus ?
&c. &c. Hawthorn, and some distant willows (not the weep-
ing) with leaves one third expanded.

A A 4

360

REVIEWS.

Art. I. Fauna Boreali- Americana, or the Zoology of the Northern
Parts of British America, Part II., containing the Birds. By
W. Swainson, Esq. F.R.S., and John Richardson, Esq. M.D.
F.R.S. &c. 4to, 523 pages, with fifty coloured plates, and forty
illustrative woodcuts. London, Murray, 1832.

The appearance of the first zoological work ever published
under the sanction and by the assistance of the British Go-
vernment, is more particularly a matter of congratulation to
our numerous readers ; and the volume before us will justify
our warmest and most sincere recommendation.

The objects of natural history collected during the last
over-land expedition to the Polar Sea, under the command
of Captain Sir John Franklin, to which Dr. Richardson was
attached as surgeon and naturalist, being too numerous for a
detailed account of them to be comprised within the ordinary
limits of an Appendix to the narrative of the proceedings of
the journey, as had been the case on previous expeditions of
discovery, it was considered desirable, from their great num-
ber and value, that they should be made known to the world
in a separate form. As it was necessary, however, in order
to render such a publication useful, that many of the subjects,
particularly in the ornithological and botanical parts, should
be illustrated by figures, the expense would have been an in-
surmountable difficulty, had not His Majesty's government,
actuated by a laudable desire to encourage science, most
liberally assisted the undertaking. At the recommendation
of the Secretary of State for Colonial Affairs, the Treasury
granted one thousand pounds to be applied solely towards
defraying the expense of the engravings. The first part of
this national work has appeared, with 28 spirited represent-
ations of Mammalia, from drawings by Landseer. Part II.,
the Birds, with 50 illustrations, admirably drawn by Mr.
Swainson, and as beautifully coloured, with 40 woodcuts in
addition, is now before the public. The entomological part,
by the Rev. Mr. Kirby ; and the botany, by Dr. Hooker, both
equally embellished with numerous plates, also by first-rate
artists, are in a forward state. The whole work may be con-

Fauna Boreali- Americana. S61

sidered a fauna of the British American fur countries worthy
the high patronage it has received.

The exertions of the officers, during the lengthened track
pursued by the body of the expedition itself, the extent of
country traversed by various diverging parties, and the very
liberal assistance afforded by the Hudson's Bay Company at
their numerous stations in the fur countries, produced ma-
terials of no common extent and value. Dr. Richardson
passed seven summers and five winters surrounded by the
objects he has so faithfully described. His volume, on the
Mammalia, is a valuable contribution : and of the present
volume, the habits of the birds and much of the minute detail
of species are also by Dr. Richardson. The plates, as we
have before observed, and the systematic arrangement, are by
Mr. Swainson.

These scientific zoologists, eminently qualified for the un-
dertaking, have carefully examined the accounts of all the
various travellers, from the earliest influence of the Hudson's
Bay Company to the present time. Their descriptions include
all the birds hitherto found over an immense expanse of
country north of the 49th parallel of latitude, and east of the
Rocky Mountains, which lie much nearer to the Pacific
coast than to the eastern shore of America. Many of these
birds are now, for the first time, made known to ornitholo-
gists. About 80 of the birds common to North America
inhabit also the northern parts of the European continent;
and the whole number produced by each of these continents,
north of the same parallel of latitude, is very nearly equal,
about 320 species.

The French Canadians appear to have been the first who
penetrated into the regions beyond the Great Lakes; but their
journals, rich in personal adventure, contribute little or no-
thing to natural history. The early English navigators,
who explored Hudson's Bay and the Arctic Seas, limited
their notes in zoology to brief remarks on the animals used
for food ; but seldom gave descriptions sufficiently character-
istic to identify the species. The first collections of Hudson's
Bay birds of which there appears to be any record, are those
formed by Mr. Alexander Light, who was sent out, ninety
years ago, by the Hudson's Bay Company, on account of his
knowledge of natural history ; and by Mr. Isham, who,
during a long residence as governor of various forts or trading
posts, employed his leisure hours in preparing the skins of
Mammalia, birds, and fishes. These two gentlemen, returning
to England about the year 1745, entrusted their specimens to
Mr. George Edwards, and 40 of them were figured and

362 Swainsoti and Richardson^s

described in his Natural History of Rare Animalsy which
reached 7 volumes in quarto. Edwards presented a copy of
this work, coloured by his own hand, to Linnaeus. This copy
is now in the library of the Linnaean Society of London, with
the Linnaean specific names added to it in manuscript.

Climate and soil, affecting habits as well as migration,
divide the birds of North America into migratory and re-
sident; though comparatively few in the fur countries are
strictly entitled to be called resident. The raven and Cana-
dian and short-billed jays were the only species recognised as
being equally numerous at their breeding-places in winter
and summer, and they pair and begin to lay eggs in the
month of March, nearly three months earlier than any other
bird in those parts. Many of the species which raise two or
more broods within the United States rear only one in the
fur countries, the shortness of the summer not admitting of
their doing more. The passenger pigeons do not visit the
fur countries, where they breed, until after they have reared
a brood, and quitted the breeding-places in Kentucky. The
hawks and owls are numerous and beautiful. The white-
headed eagle (^'quila leucocephala) inhabits the fur coun-
tries as well as the United States. Although celebrated
beyond all other eagles, by Wilson's admirable description
of his mode of pursuing and robbing the fish-hawk, the
upright and independent mind of Dr. Franklin induced him
to wish that this eagle had not been chosen as the represent-
ative of America, because he was a bird of a bad moral cha-
racter, and did not get his living honestly.

The shrikes, and other insect feeders, varying greatly in
size, may be said to swarm particularly in tropical America ;
so much so, that several individuals of three or four different
species may be seen on the surrounding trees at the same
moment, on the watch for passing insects; each, however,
looks out for its own particular prey, and does not interfere
with such as seem destined by nature for its stronger or more
feeble associates.

The song-birds are numerous, and vie with each other in
pouring forth their melodious notes to welcome each return-
ing summer. The trees spread their foliage with magical
rapidity, and every succeeding morning opens with agreeable
accessions of feathered songsters to swell the chorus. The
most verdant lawns and cultivated glades of Europe fail in
producing that exhilaration and joyous buoyancy of mind
which was experienced in treading the arctic wilds of Ame-
rica, when their snowy covering has been just replaced by an
infant but vigorous vegetation. It is impossible (the authors

Fauna Boreali- Americana, 363

observe) for the traveller to refrain, at such moments, from
joining his aspirations to the song which every creatm'e
around is pouring forth to the Great Creator.

Many of the habits of birds are rendered singularly ser-
viceable to man. No sooner has a hunter in the fur countries
slaughtered an animal, than the ravens are seen coming from
various quarters to feast on the offal. The experienced
native, when he sees from afar a flock of ravens wheeling in
small circles, knows that a party of his countrymen, well
provided with venison, are encamped on the spot ; or that a
band of wolves are preying upon the carcass of some of the
larger quadrupeds ; and pushes on briskl}^, in the certain
prospect of having his wants supplied. In Lapland, and
other countries where musquitoes abound, the natives highly
value the swallow and martin, and place small pots about
their houses for these birds to build in, as a return for the
destruction they cause among their most annoying and venom-
ous insects. In America the purple martin (Hirundo pur-
purea) is also encouraged, by hundreds, to rear its young
about the various buildings of agriculturists ; but for a dif-
ferent purpose. No sooner does a hawk make his appearance
in the vicinity of a farm, to the danger of straggling poultry,
than the purple martins, ever on the watch, give notice of the
intruder by vociferous notes of alarm. The whole party of
martins are instantly assembled ; and the common enemy,
assailed on all sides, is actually exposed and mobbed, till
driven from the spot.

Ten beautiful species of grouse are described by the
authors as inhabiting the fur countries. Flocks of ptarmigans,
when pursued by the jerfalcon, endeavour to save themselves
by plunging instantly into the loose snow, and making their
way beneath it to a considerable distance.

But the -^4natidae (duck family) are the birds of the greatest
importance, as they furnish, at certain seasons of the year, in
many extensive districts, almost the only article of food that
can be procured. The arrival of the waterfowl, it is said,
marks the commencement of spring, and diffuses as much joy
among the wandering hunters of the arctic regions, as the
harvest or vintage in more genial climes. The period of
their migration southwards again, in large flocks, at the close
of summer, is another season of plenty bountifully granted to
the natives, and enabling them to encounter the rigour and
privations of a northern winter. The -^natidae have, there-
fore, very naturally been observed more attentively than any
other family of birds, both by the Indians and white residents ;
and, as they make up the bulk of the specimens that have

Se* Insect Miscellanies.

been transmitted to England, they are also better known to
ornithologists. We must, however, conclude our long ex-
tracts and notice of this interesting volume, rich in food for
the philosophic naturalist, sincerely hoping, that, with such
valuable materials at hand, the aid of the British government
will never be wanting to encourage perseverance and the pro-
motion of natural science.

Art. II. Insect Miscellanies. [Understood to be by Professor
Rennie.] 12mo. London, Charles Knight, 1831.

Sir,

There are a few remarks which I wish to offer on Professor
Rennie's last volume, entitled Insect Miscellanies^ which com-
pletes the entomological series in the hih^^'^v of Entertaining
Knowledge. If, in one or two instances, I venture to differ in
opinion from the author, I trust I shall be excused for the
liberty I am taking in so doing. The volume in question is,
like its predecessors, highly interesting and valuable : but
still, nothing human can be expected to be perfect, or entirely
free from errors ; and these, when they do occur, it is more
especially of importance to point out, in a work like the
above, which is so widely circulated, and intended for the use
rather of beginners than of professed and learned naturalists.
I offer my remarks in the same order in which the passages
occur to which they relate, without aiming at a more con-
nected and methodical arrangement.

At p. 1 2. Professor Rennie states ; —

" We remarked, for several weeks, near St. Adresse, in Normandy, a
very limited spot, close by the sea, to be daily frequented by about half a
dozen of the clouded yellow butterflies (Coliaj? Edusa Stephens), which
seemed to make a regular circuit, and return again; altogether inde-
pendent of the direction of the wind, against which they often made way.
Now, as they often rose to so considerable a height that they must have
lost sight of the ground, we conclude that they guided their flight more
by the weight of the superincumbent air than by the direction of the
wind ; an inference rendered more probable, by their never being seen
on the heights which there rise steeply from the shore."

Without offering any opinion on the particular theory here
advanced, I merely wish to mention a circumstance corrobo-
rative, in part, at least, of the above statement. I have always
considered Colias Edus« as one of the most rambling and
restless of our British papilios. One instance, however, has
lately occurred to me, in which this species seemed to evince
a marked and decided attachment to a particular spot. Last
autumn I observed five or six specimens of the clouded yellow

Insect Miscellanies, SQ5

butterfly flying about, and settling in a very small potato

Sirden, close to the public-house at St. Margaret's Bay, near
over. They were soon all scared away from the spot by
ineffectual attempts to capture them ; but on returning to the
place, within the space of about half an hour, I found the same
number of clouded yellows (doubtless, the individual examples
seen before), all collected again in the same potato garden,
where they were eventually all captured. On a subsequent
visit to St. Margaret's Bay, many specimens of the insect
were to be seen, within a short space of the same spot. The
specimens here alluded to were all males, which appear to
be far more numerous than the other sex. I may remark,
for the benefit of the less experienced entomologist, that the
lower figure represented at p. 13., and inscribed " pale
clouded butterfly (Colia* Hyak), female," is unquestionably
no other than the female of Colias Edus<z, the male of which
is figured in the same page. The two species have heretofore
been occasionally confounded, I think, by more than one
writer ; but both sexes of each are now so well known, that I
should hardly have expected such a blunder to have been
made in the present day, and hope to see it corrected in the
next edition.

It is stated at p. 29. that —

" Fleas and other parasitic insects never infest a person who is near
death ; and so frequently has this been observed, that it has become one
of the popular signs of approaching dissolution."

I thought the fact had rather been the reverse of this.
Unless my memory greatly deceives me, I have more than
once seen it stated, in accounts of shipwrecks and disasters at
sea, e. g. when the crews have been cast upon some desolate
island, and exposed to extreme privations and distress, that
the sufferers in such cases have become infested with vermin.
Be this as it may, however, the appearance of vermin (lice)
upon a sick person is, at least in some parts of the country,
considered as a sign of approaching dissolution. Some years
ago, I recollect attending an aged and infirm woman, in hum-
ble life, during her last illness : on my going to the house one
day, the daughter, who had all along been in attendance, told
me that she felt convinced her mother would not survive long,
assigning, at the same time, as her reason for this opinion,
that she had lately discovered a louse upon her, a kind of
vermin to which she had not previously been subject. The
patient died shortly afterwards.

Speaking of the acute scent of insects, Professor Rennie
remarks, p. 44;. : —
" We have observed that butterflies of all species, though far from

$66 Insect Miscellanies.

being voracious feeders, will often dart down from a considerable height
upon a flower beneath their track, even when their leading object seemed
to be very different from searching for food. This struck us more par-
ticularly, in a narrow garden at Havre de Grace, enclosed with stone
walls 15 ft. high ; for no butterfly, in passing over it, omitted to descend,
for the purpose of visiting the blossoms of an alpine bluebottle ( Centaur ea
monlana), whose smell, however, to our organs, is far from being powerful
enough to be perceived at the distance of 1 ft., much less at 15 or 20 ft.,
as it must have been by the butterflies ; for we often saw the painted lady
(Cynthia cardui) and other high-flying species alight there."

This reminds me of a fact which I recollect to have re-
peatedly witnessed, and to have been much struck with, when
a boy at school. Our playground, in shape a parallelogram,
or oblong square, was enclosed with stone walls 15 or 16 ft.
high ; adjoining the playground, on one side was a garden,
on the other the schoolhouse and premises, beyond which
lay another garden. The boys were frequently in the habit,
after they had finished their breakfast, of throwing down the
basins in which it had been served, and heedlessly leaving them
on the ground ; so that it was no uncommon thing to see the
playground studded in various parts with some half score or
more of such conspicuous articles of white crockery. These
basins, I used to observe, invariably attracted the attention
of the common white butterflies (Pontic brassicae, rapse, and
napi), which, in passing over the wall from the adjoining
garden, towards the opposite one, seldom omitted to dart
down upon them, mistaking them, probably, for so many
magnificent and full-blown flowers. In this instance, the
butterflies, I conceive, must undoubtedly have been attracted
to the object by the sight, and not, as Professor Rennie sup-
poses they were, by the scent, in the case of the alpine blue-
bottle, in the garden at Havre de Grace.

Many insects have the power of emitting, both in the larva
and perfect state, a strong and disagreeable scent ; for the
purpose, as it is supposed, of self-defence. The efiluvia of
the wood ants, when their hillocks are disturbed, affects the
olfactory organs almost as powerfully as hartshorn. Several
species of Phryganea, and, still more, several Hemerobii, have
an excessively offensive odour.* Professor Rennie observes
(p. 53.), from Kirby and Spence, that " some bees (Andrenidse)
have a strong smell of garlic, which may probably be dis-
agreeable to their various enemies." Is it generally known
that one species of the bee family, ikfelitta fulva Kirby,
which visits our gardens in the spring, when the gooseberries
and currants are in bloom, has a powerful and agreeable

* Hence Petiver designates one species " Perla minima, merdam olens."
[The smallest Perla, smelling of dung.]

Insect Miscellanies. 367

smell, resembling that of Terbena triph^lla L. (Aloysia
citriodora Ortega), but more delicate ?
Page 213. :-«-

" In another interesting bee (Anthophora retusa), one of the masons,
the distinction of the sexes is so great, that some naturalists of high name
have described them as different species. The male is all black, except
the hind thighs, which have an orange stripe j while the female is grey, and
has the middle pair of feet fringed with long hairs."

Has not the author here just transposed the sexes ? I ask
the question rather for information's sake, than in the spirit of
correction. But I have always been accustomed to consider
the black bee as the female, and the grey one, with the pair
of beautifully feathered legs, as the male. And, in this
opinion I am borne out by the authority of Kirby (see
Monographia Apum Anglice, vol. ii. p. 296. 304.), where this
great hymenopterist remarks, " The male of this ysf'pis is so
totally unlike the female, that it has been regarded by all
authors, not excepting even Linnaeus himself, as a distinct
species." He then informs us, that " in an interleaved edition
of the Systema Naturce, containing the MS. notes of that great
naturalist, he finds it described under the name of A, pen-
nipes." It is not surprising that the two sexes of this bee
should have been mistaken for distinct species ; it requires,
indeed, more than a slight knowledge of its natural history
to be persuaded of the contrary.

At p. 215. the professor says : —

" In the instance of the orange-tip butterfly, while every meadow is
swarming with males, we seldom see more than one or two females in a
whole season, and those which are observed are seldom on the wing."

The males of very many (perhaps most) insects are far
more abundant than the females ; and this, no doubt, is the
case with Pontia cardamines. But did the professor bear in
mind, when he made the above remark, how very readily the
female of this species, which has no gaudy colouring to dis-
tinguish it, and catch the eye, may be mistaken, on the mng^
for other white butterflies, P. napi, e. g., and rapae ? Admit-
ting that the males are (as already said) by far the most abun-
dant, I may state, that I am in the frequent habit of seeing the
females every spring in my own garden, as well as in other
places, and on the mng too.

Speaking of the luminous appearance of the glowworm, the
author remarks, p. 226., on the authority of Mr. Knapp, that

" Observation had taught him that the light is not emitted after the
middle of July, at least so clearly and steadily (we found them at Rudes-
heim, on the Rhine, in full light, at the end of August) ; but he repeatedly
noticed, deep in the herbage, a faint evanescent light proceeding from these
creatures, even as late as August and September," &c. &c.

S68 Insect Miscellanies,

I observed glowworms in full light on the 1st of October,
as I passed between Deal and Dover ; and I recollect to have
once seen one in this county (Warwickshire) shining bright,
in a very stormy night, either in November or the end of
October. I had no opportunity, in either of these cases, of
examining the insects ; but would ask whether these late-
shining examples may not possibly be a distinct species. Of
iampyris splendidula, a British species with which I am
not acquainted, I see it stated, in the Elements of Natural
Histon/y that " it disperses its light chiefly in rainy weather."

Page 229. : —

" We are not aware that any native insect is luminous besides the glow-
worm, and the electric centipede (^colopendra electrica), which is by no
means uncommon, though its light is seldom seen, in consequence of its
living in holes, or under ground, from which it is seldom roused during
the night. We have, however, more than once seep it in out-houses, or
crawling along a pathway, upon which it sometimes leaves a track of phos-
phoric matter that may be lifted. On two different occasions we collected
some of this, but it disappeared, probably by evaporation, before we could
subject it to chemical analysis."

Though I must have frequently seen the insect, I never but
once witnessed its luminous appearance. It was in the autumn :
I was sitting at table after dusk, and having opened an apri-
cot, was just on the point of lifting it to my mouth, when I
was exceedingly surprised at perceiving an annular rim of
fire encircling my thumb : it proceeded from a AScolopendra
electrica, which had secreted itself, as is no uncommon case,
between the flesh and the stone of the apricot, and was dis-
lodged b}' my opening the fruit. The insect was of a bright
yellow brown colour, longer and much more slender than
represented in the figure at p. 230. May not more than one
British species be possessed of this luminous property ?

The figure of Anthrocera filipendulae (six spot burnet moth),
at p. 264., I cannot help saying, is a wretched performance :
those portions of the wings which ought to have been repre-
sented of the darkest, are made of the lightest, shade, and vice
versgl. On the whole, it is scarcely sufficiently like the ori-
ginal to enable one to distinguish the insect intended to be
represented, except that it can be meant for no other.

Professor Rennie recommends (p. 378.) the cedar ^ among
other woods, for the purpose of constructing drawers for
cabinets of insects. Let the inexperienced collector be
warned that this is, perhaps, the very *morst wood that can
be employed for the purpose ; a strong effluvia, or sometimes
a resinous gum, exudes from the wood of the cedar, which is
apt to settle in blotches on the wings of the specimens, espe-
cially of the more delicate Lepidoptera, and entirely dis-

The Botanic Annual. 369

charges the colour. I once had a whole collection of lepi-
dopterous insects utterly spoiled from having been deposited
in cedar drawers ; and I have understood, also, that the insects
in the British Museum, collected, I believe, chiefly by Dr.
Leach, have been greatly injured from the same cause. Pos-
sibly, however, cedar wood, after it has been thoroughly well
seasoned, may be less liable to produce these injurious effects.
Apologising to Professor Rennie for the freedom of the
above hasty remarks (which, however, have been dictated
solely by a love of truth), and to yourself and your readers for
the length to which they have extended,

I remain, yours, &c.
Alledey Rectory, February 22. 1832. W. T. Bree.

I

Art. III. The Botanic Annual ; or. Familiar Illustrations of the
Structure^ Habits^ Economy, Geography, Classification, and Prin-
cipal Uses of Plants, ivith Notices of the Way in tvhich they are
affected by Climate and Seasons, and a short Sketch of Confferce.
By Robert Mudie, Author of " The British Naturalist," &c.

' 8vo, 446 pages. London, Cochrane and Co., 1832.

Mr. Mudie, the author, as it now appears, of 77?^ British
Naturalist, has tried his hand at an " Annual." We regret
this circumstance, not only because we cordially dislike all
Annuals, ay, the whole generation, esteeming them as but
petty flimsy wares, mere book-making jobs of a very tawdry
description ; but also because we think Mr. Mudie a naturalist
of sufficient research and ability to have produced a work of a
more solid cast, and (as we say) of a larger calibre. Annuals,
it strikes us, are, among books, very much what dandies are
among men. Their gay and glittering exterior, with all the
meretricious trickery of embossed or figured binding, super-
fine wove paper, and gilt edges, we never can help suspecting
may be intended to serve by way of compensation for the
absence of more sterling worth within. And when the shine
(which is as evanescent as the morning dew, or the bloom
upon a ripe plum) is once gone out of these exquisites, their
chief attraction is at an end, and they look no better than
worn-out finery, or shabby genteel.

On receiving our copy of the Botanic Annual, we had,
at first, serious thoughts of enshrining it within a glass case,
and appropriating it solely and exclusively to the use of the
very fairest of the fair sex. But on more mature deliberation,
after having taken the precaution to overlay our table with a

Vol. v. — No. 26. b b

370 The Bolanic Annual.

bran-new covering of the softest satin velvet, and to draw on
oar own rude hands a spick and span pair of white kid gloves,
we did venture, thus equipped, ourselves to open and peruse
this delicate and dainty volume ; which, in truth, conies be-
hind few, if any, of its congeners, in all the arts and embellish-
ments of modern book-millinery. But, to be serious, for we
must be very brief on the present occasion, we really should
have liked the volume much better, and should have read it
far more comfortably and at our ease, had it appeared in the
neat, modest, unassuming garb of homely drab or green
calico, and had we been allowed the satisfaction of opening
the leaves for ourselves with our own ivory knife, instead of
finding them ready cut to our hand, and glittering away like
so much gilt gingerbread in a fair. Once for all, we must
protest against such attempts at ultra-elegance of outward
decoration, which, coupled with the (to us) odious name of
Annual, constitute just the sort of thing we do not like, and
would have been enough almost to have damned the book in
our eyes at the first glance, and at the distance of all across
the shop of Messrs. Cochrane and Co. It becomes us not,
however, to quarrel with the jewel on account of the brilliancy
of the casket in which it is contained. The Botanic Annual,
we are bold to say, stands in no need either of its fashionable
and affected title (to which, indeed, the author himself ac-
knowledges it has no legitimate claim) ; or of its tinsel decora-
tions, to puff it into notice, possessing as it does quite enough
of intrinsic merit, as a popular treatise, to insure it a favour-
able reception from the public. Though we are not prepared
to coincide, through thick and thin, wdth every sentence to
which our author gives utterance, and could readily, were we
so disposed, point out many instances of the same kind of
verbal inaccuracies, awkward expressions, and obscurities of
style, which we noticed on a former occasion, when review-
ing the British Naturalist^ yet we scruple not decidedly ta
recommend his present performance to our readers ; who, we
have no doubt, will derive ample amusement and instruction
from its perusal. Our limits absolutely forbid us from enter-
ing into minute particulars. We shall content ourselves,
therefore, with doing little more than making one or two
short extracts, and transcribing the heads of the chapters,
from which, alone, no inconsiderable insight may be gained
into the nature of the work itself. Chap. i. Introduction (on
the pleasure and advantages of the study of nature, &c.);
Chap. ii. Inducements to study Plants; Chap. iii. Science
and Study of Plants ; Chap. iv. Anatomy of Plants ; Chap, v.
Physiology of Plants ; Chap. vi. Classification of Plants ;

The Botanic Annual, 371

Chap. vii. Sketch of the Coniferse. We extract the follow-
ing passage from the conckision of the 5th chapter, because
it serves to ekicidate certain phenomena in the decay of aged
trees, which we have frequently witnessed, but, we confess,
without having been able to assign an adequate cause: —

" In the boles of large trees of very advanced age, there are often singu-
lar struggles for life. In some of these, yews for instance, the very vigour
of the growth seems to hasten the decay of part of the stem. Those
branches which are nearest the earth are the least exposed to atmospheric
action ; and the efforts which they make occasion those gnarls and clumps
that are so abundant in those trees. But they push inwards at the same
time, and by that means compress the vessels in the central parts, and
destroy their action. If the upper branches be feeble, as compared with
the under ones, an entire excavation is the result ; but if these branches
be strong, each of them is able to maintain its state of growth ; and in those
cases, the lower part of the trunk appears like a bundle of rods in a case.
In a churchyard at the picturesque village of Loose, in Kent, there is a
fine old yew, with a trunk nearly 40 ft. in circumference, and a vigorous
head more than 64 ft. in extent, which affords a good specimen of this
resistance of decay along certain lines diffused through the trunk. Some
of the other Coniferae have the same habit ; among others, the Norfolk
Island pine ; but the durable parts in it are chiefly knots, which are found
dark and resinous in the decayed trunks." (p. 217*, 218.)

Our author, at p. 438., appears to cast some doubt on the
generally received opinion, " that the leaves and twigs of
the yew are poisonous to cattle." We have been taught, and
are rather inclined to believe, that though the yew may be
eaten, perhaps with impunity, in a living or fresh state, yet
that, when withered, it often proves fatal to cattle which
devour it. There are many passages throughout the work,
which we feel a strong temptation, did space permit, to
transfer to our own pages. But we must forbear ; and shall
make but one other extract, and that relating to a subject
which appears to us to be deserving of further observation
and experiment : —

" The old adage, * soon ripe, soon rotten,' certainly applies to the indi-
vidual structures of vegetables ; and it is a popular, and, we rather think,
a well-founded opinion, that in trees of the same species, and on the same
soil, those which expand their leaves last in the spring, and shed them last
in the autumn, afford the best timber. We knou} that that is the case with
the ash and the beech, and we are inclined to believe that it is general, and
that it extends to evergreens as well as to deciduous trees j and it is just what
might, in reason, be expected. The early spring, from its frequent alter-
nations of heat and cold, is the trying season for vegetation ,• and the struc-
tures, by which the timber is ultimately elaborated, being repeatedly checked
in their formation, cannot, in the nature of things, perform their functions
so well as when they meet with no check during the period of their
growth." (p. 364, 365.)

* In the same page, only a few lines above the foregoing extract, men-
tion is made of " the great chestnut tree of Tamworth: " we presume this
is a mere misprint for " the great chestnut tree of TortworthP

B B ^

372 The Botanic Annual,

The woodcuts which illustrate the Botanic Annual^ are
of two classes : viz., full-length portraits of particular trees,
and more detailed botanical specimens of several species of
the Coniferae. With the latter we feel no inclination to find
fault; they are for the most part neat, expressive, and well
executed ; the former, we think, are but poor performances.
We certainly should not have guessed what species were
intended to be represented by the figure of the cedar of
Lebanon; and the artist, as it appears to us, has almost
equally failed in portraying the close and sable foliage of the
yew. if Mr. Mudie is disposed, at any future time, to present
us (as we hope he will) with portraits of British trees, w^e re-
commend him to apply for that purpose to the same ad-
mirable artists, to whom we have ourselves heretofore had
recourse on like occasions : we mean Messrs. Strutt and
Williams, whose combined efforts in the graphic art, we
happen to know, from specimens of the kind which we have
seen, are fully competent to delineate both the cedar and the
yew, as well as other trees, to the very life.

Enough, we trust, has already been said, to induce our
readers to peruse the Botanic Annual for themselves. We
have only a few words more of complaint to add before we
conclude, and these shall now be very few indeed. Our au-
thor seems to have a most rooted aversion to every thing in
the shape of an index : a deficiency of this kind we hope to
see supplied, should a second edition of the work be called
for. Ere that time arrives, he would do well to revise and
correct his pages, carefully purging them of those not unfre-
quent blemishes of style and expression, at which we have
already hinted. We would entreat him, also, to send forth
his offspring into the world decked in a somewhat more
chaste and suitable, that is, a less gaudy, attire. This done,
there would remain little, save the title of the book, to give
us offence, and we might say, with Juliet : —

** 'T is but thy name, that is my enemy j —

. Oh, be some other name \
What 's in a name ? that which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet j

Annual, doff thy name.

A. R. Y.

Works on Natural History, 373^

Art. IV. Catalogue of Works on Natural History, lately published ,
tvith some Notice of those considered the most interesting to British
Naturalists*

Anon.: First Report of the Proceedings, Recommendations,
and Transactions of the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science. 8vo, pp. 112. York, 1832.
This pamphlet recounts the results of the scientific meet-
ing at York, in September, 1831, where and when, as is now
well known, numerous distinguished promoters and pursuers
of science assembled, and occupied themselves for several
days in reading essays, delivering lectures, and taking part in
scientific conversation. The pamphlet shows that these results
were most highly gratifying. A similar meeting, and, as the
Association matures, a more perfectly organised one, is to take
place annually, in some town, to be determined on some
months previous to the time of meeting. The meeting for
1832 is to take place at Oxford, and on the 18th of June.

The objects of the British Association are : — " To give a
stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific
enquiry ; to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate
science in different parts of the British empire, with one
another, and with foreign philosophers; to obtain a more
general attention to the objects of science, and a removal
of any disadvantages, of a public kind, which impede its
progress."

Anon.: Arcana of Science and Art; or, an Annual Register
of useful Inventions and Improvements; abridged from
the Transactions of Public Societies, and from Scientific
Journals, British and Foreign, of the past Year. Small
8vo, with several engravings. Fifth year. London, Lim-
bird, 1832.

Out of above 300 pages of which this book consists, 120
are devoted to natural history, and in this part the cuts are
rather numerous : one of them is a creditable representation
of the whale's skeleton now under exhibition at Gharing
Cross, the scientific details of which were published in our
last Number, p. 214 — 233.; another exhibits a map of the
mole's mining operations, as deduced from the experiments,
and their published results, of Le -Court. The Arcana of
Science and Art constitute a book exceedingly eligible as a
manual for lads.

L

Jesse, Edward, Deputy Surveyor of His Majesty's Parks :
Gleanings in Natural History; with local Recollections.

B B 3

374 Jesse's Gleanings in Natural History,

To which are added, Maxims and Hints for an Angler.
8vo, pp. 320. London, Murray, 1832.

A volume of very pleasing remarks, many quoted, more
original, on various individuals of the respective kingdoms
of beasts, birds, fishes, reptiles, insects, and plants. It seems
a transcript of the natural history note-book of the author,
who shows himself very observant of Nature, and especially
of her more readily observable creatures, and delightfully
susceptible of amiable impressions from them : he has,
too, the faculty of expressing easily all his sights and senti-
ments. The volume produced is an entertaining and po-
pularly readable one for those who are already disposed to
derive delight from natural objects. The author disclaims all
pretensions to having made his book a scientific one. In
this he is right; for it will be found at fault, here and there,
on points of science : the author is, perhaps, also prone to
proceed to inference on too slender a stock of facts. The
remarks on eels will excite research. The " Maxims and
Hints for an Angler, by a Bungler," are humorously pre-
scribed, and are doubtless by an expert practician : the author
refers them to a friend of his. The chapter on " Roman
Antiquities" found by the Thames at Kingston, which includes
an engraving exhibiting them, and also several pages to prove
that it was here, rather than at Wey bridge, that Caesar forded
the Thames, on quitting his encampment on Wimbledon
Common, will be interesting to the antiquary, but belongs,
perhaps, rather to history than to natural history.

Jenyns^ Leonard, Rev., M.A. FLS., and Fellow of the Cam-
bridge Philosophical Society : A Monograph on the
British Species of Cyclas and Pisidium. From the Trans-
actions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 4to,
pp. 24, and 3 plates of highly magnified figures. Cam-
bridge, 1832.

The object of this monograph is to digest afresh and add
to the number " of certain species of ' bivalve mollusca ' in-
habiting fresh water, which were associated by the older
.Linna?an authors either with Cardium or Tellina." The
author remarks that he has deviated from the arrangement of
Lamarck, and most authors, in referring them to two genera,
Cyclas and Pisidium ; but that he has done this in conformity
with the views of Pseiffer, as exhibited in his excellent Sys-
tematische Anordnung und Beschreibung Deutscher Land- und
Wasser-Sckneckefi, &c., published at Cassel in 1821. He re-
marks, however, that " although Pseiffer has the merit of
having first separated the above genera, his characters are

Jenyns's Monograph on C^clas and Pisidium, 375

not clearly defined," &c. The author has endeavoured, and
successfully it may be said, to amend PseifFer's errors and
supply his defects ; and states, that, in so doing, he has, as to
the relation of the parts of the anhnals and their shells, and
the terms used to designate them, adopted the views of
Blainville, as presented in his Manuel de Malacologie.

Of Cyclas, three species are described, viz. x rivicola Leach,
cornea Lamarck, and calyculata of Draparnaud ; as well as
varieties of tliese. Of Pisidium, the species presented are,
obtusale Pseiffer, with varieties; pusillum Jenyns, with va-
rieties; nitidum Jenyns ; pulchellum Jenyns, with varieties;
Henslowm?zw?7? Jenyns ; and amnicum Jenyns, with varieties.

Synonymy is ever a matter of much importance to sys-
tematic naturalists ; and this monograph will to such be really
valuable, for the diligence with which synonymes have been
collected from Continental as well as from British writers,
and for the cautious, judicious, and therefore instructive, ad-
justment of them. The following quotation will evince the
caution exercised : — "In my attempt to determine the species,
i have not merely considered the general characters of the
shell, but have derived much assistance from attending to
the animal inhabitant. Indeed, it is absolutely requisite to
caution conchologists against drawing any conclusions, with
respect to the specific distinction of these animals, from a
mere inspection of the shell alone. This is so liabl6 to vary,
from age, peculiarity of situation, and probably from other
causes, that it becomes necessary, in some cases, to compare
Si large number of specimens, collected from diffb'ent sources,
in order to determine the characters of a single species with
^ny degree of precision. Occasionally the shell becomes
exceedingly ventricose, at the expense of its height, which is
thereby considerably diminished; and the valves, which
perhaps naturally meet at an acute angle, under such cir-
cumstances meet at an obtuse one. Neither can sculpture
be relied upon, the striae (furrows) varying exceedingly in
number and distinctness, according to the nature of the water
in which the shell is found : a circumstance of which Dr.
Leach was not sufficiently aware when he formed three
species out of Pisidium amnicum. Age, likewise, produces
great changes : not only are young shells much more com-
pressed than adult ones, but in many instances the relative
proportion of their parts is different. Indeed, in the case
•of the minute species, so great and general a similarity pre-
vails amongst their young, that it is hardly possible to identify
them in this state without the closest examination." From
.the above remarks and quotation it will be apparent that the

B B 4

376 Bone's Memoires Geologiqucs et Paleontologiques.

monograph is mainly on the systematic relations of these
creatures, but the flesh-and-blood naturalists are not wholly
forgotten, as incidental notices of habits and manners are
mingled with the systematic remarks.

So minute are the objects described, that Cyclas rivicola,
the largest of the three species of Cyclas, is only lOj lines
long, 8^ lines high, and 6i lines thick; and, in the genus
Pisidium, four of the species do not exceed 2 lines in length,
1^ in height, and 1^ in thickness. These facts are noticed
for the sake of quoting the following remark : — " The dis-
covery of Pisidium pulchellum, and some other minute spe-
cies, which, though of frequent occurrence, remained for a
long time unnoticed by conchologists, may be attributed to
the use of a peculiar net, invented by Professor Henslow,
about the year 1815. This instrument, being constructed of
the finest wire gauze, enables the collector to strain the water
more thoroughly than by any other method previously at-
tempted, and thereby to separate the very smallest shells
from the mud in which they are immersed." It is hoped
Professor Henslow will early oblige the readers of this
Magazine with a drawing and description of so useful an
invention.

Scmerhy, J"., jun.: The Mushroom and Champignon illustrated,
compared with and distinguished from the Poisonous
Fungi that resemble them. Small 4to, 6 pages of letter-
press, and 5 plates of coloured figures. London, Sowerby,
1832.

Concise, clear, useful, and cheap ; but only four species are
contradistinguished: — Agkricns campestris, the true edible
mushroom, from A, Georgii, St. George's mushroom, or
white caps ; and A. pratensis, the true champignon, from A.
virosus, the poisonous agaric, which considerably resembles
it. A. Gear (rii is stated to be called " St. George's mush-
room, because it is said 'to grow up about St. George's
day,' and that it is by no means so wholesome as the true
mushroom, because of its dry and tough texture ; but it is
not poisonous, as it has sometimes been thought to be."
^garicus virosus and its varieties, one of which, being found
covered with a sort of gluten in wet weather, is sometimes
called A. glutinosus, are all deemed fatally poisonous.

Boue, A., Foreign Secretary of the Geological Society of
France : Memoires Geologiques et Paleontologiques.
Treuttel and WUrtz.

Of this work, it appears, one volume, consisting of 369

Ijite.rary Notices. 377

pages, and accompanied by a geological chart of Europe,
has been already published; and, by the table of contents, it
would appear to contain articles of interest. M. Boue con-
siders that, independently of seven excellent French publica-
tions devoted to geology, there is an eligible opening for this
work, which is published at irregular intervals, as the accu-
mulation of matter may require, and appears in 8vo volumes
of from 20 to 25 sheets, or in half volumes of from 10 to 12
sheets, with an indefinite supply of plates of charts and of
sections and figures of fossils. The price is stated to be the
lowest possible, to remove an objection which many have felt,
viz. that hitherto the most important of geological memoirs
have appeared in various publications, whose aggregate expense
was such that but few individuals could have access to them
all. M. Boue, therefore, besides presenting all the original
memoirs he can procure, and with which he solicits his nu-
merous friends, residing in all parts of Europe, to favour
him, designs also to present translations of all memoirs or
works, in whatever European language they may have been
written or published, which treat of the general points of the
science, and also to add such local descriptions and useful
indications as may be but little known : the whole of the
memoirs and the translations are, it appears, to be accom-
panied by notes explanatory or critical, as the subjects may
require, M. Boue takes on himself the translation of
memoirs written in every language of Europe, except, per-
haps, the Hungarian ; and remarks, that, as the promotion of
the progress of the sciences of geology and paleontology are his
only object, and not the establishment of this or that system,
he shall be happy to admit all views, however much opposed
to his own they may be, provided they are characterised by
consideration, and are not too paradoxical. M. Boue advises
those who are disposed to send manuscripts, not to omit such
as are voluminous and accompanied by a great number of
designs, provided the facts they contain are important, and
have been well observed ; because, if the publication of the
communications so characterised should, on examination, not
fall within the scope of his work, they will be received with
welcome by the Geological Society of France.

Art. V. Literary Notices.

Swainson's Oimithological Drawings illustrating the System
of Nature. — Mr. Swainson, in a work of this title, is about to
give to the world the result of many years' study and prepa-

378 Literary Notices,

ratory accumulation of material, in a series of coloured draw-
ings, to be published in monthly numbers, each containing
five quarto plates ; and the first number is to appear on the
1st of October, 1832. " These drawings will be published
in series, each of which may be considered as a distinct work,
although they will all bear the same title. For reasons not
necessary to explain, there will be no letterpress accompany-
ing the drawings ; but at the termination of each of the series,
except the first, they will be more especially illustrated in a

printed volume The series wdll be geographic. The first

will comprise the birds of British America, described, but not
figured, in the Fauna Boreali- Americana of Dr. Richardson
and Mr. Swainson. The second series will be a selection of
the birds ot Great Britain, many of which will, from neces-
sity, be comprised in the first series, but will not, of course,
be repeated in the second. The whole undertaking will be
completed in 1000 plates, which, if life and health are per-
mitted to the author, he feels confident in being able to exe-
cute (humanly speaking) in a few years.'*

Selbys Illustr^ations of British Ornithology. — The second
and concluding volume of letterpress to this truly national
work is now in the press, and will very soon be issued to the
public. The descriptive portion of Selby's British Ornithology
forms a separate work, and can, therefore, be purchased with-
out the atlas plates. The first volume, in octavo, containing
a full and admirable account of all our native land birds, has
long been deservedly prized; and the second volume, which
contains the water birds, will, it is hoped, be equally valuable.

The Lepidopterous Insects of Java, — Dr. Horsfield is busily
occupied in preparing the third part of his elaborate work on
this subject.

The following works, by Mr. Rennie, are in the press, and
will shortly appear : — White's Selborne, with new notes ;
A Dictionary of Zoology; A Conspectus of Butterflies ; and a
work on the Habits of Birds : he has also a work in prepar-
ation, on the Facilities of Birds.

In a few days will appear a work of popular zoology, in one
small volume, containing the Natural History of the Quadru-
peds and Birds in the Zoological Gardens, with numerous
authentic anecdotes ; intended as a manual for schools and
families, and a complete guide for visitors. The book will
contain upwards of 100 embellishments, including figures of
the principal animals, drawn from life.

379

COLLECTANEA.

Art. I. Zoology.

Barer Birds taken near Worcester, — Sir, Seeing in your
Magazine frequent notices of rare birds, or uncommon varie-
ties, killed in Great Britain, I make no apology for sending
you some account of one which has lately come into my pos-
session. It is

A Bird of the Hawk kind, corresponding mth the Honey
Buzzard in size, and in having the space between the bill and
the eye thickly covered with feathers, and without hairs ; but
differing materially in colour, the plumage being of a uni-
form dark brown, glossed with purple, appearing nearly black
at a little distance ; and, upon a close inspection, the tail is
seen to be indistinctly blotched or barred with a lighter
colour, approaching to ash-colour, and each feather of it
being rather pointed makes the tail, when closed, slightly
forked. The bill, which is somewhat elongated like that of
the eagle, seems to have been of a dark bluish colour ; the
base of the under mandible, sides of the mouth, and cere, yel-
low ; legs feathered a little below the knee, very strong, and
yellow ; claws black ; the thigh feathers so long as nearly to
touch the ground as the bird stands. It was shot in the early
part of the last autumn, at Spetchley, near this place, the seat
of R. Berkeley, Esq. ; and I first met with it at a bird-stuffer's,
stuffed, but most miserably deformed, appearing to have the
wings dislocated, neck broken, &c. ; but the skin has since
been relaxed and restuffed by Mr. Thomas Robinson, of this
city, a bird-stuffer of considerable merit. As I did not pro-
cure the bird in a fresh state, I could not ascertain its sex or
the colour of the irides ; but I am assured, by the man who
first stuffed it, that the eyes were quite dark. I shall be
obliged, if you, or any of your correspondents, can inform me
if I am correct in supposing the bird I have thus endeavoured
to describe to be a variety of the honey buzzard (Falco «pivorus
Lin,, Pernis «pivorus Cuv»\ and if such a variety has before
been met with ; or is it a distinct species ?

Of the Grey Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus) I have pro-
cured this winter a beautiful specimen, killed a few miles hence;
and a fine specimen of that very rare bird the Fork-tailed

380 Zoology.

Petrel (Procellaria Leach// Tern., P. Bullock// Flem.), four
of which were this winter brought to Worcester to be stuffed.
One of them was shot swimming on a flooded meadow by the
Severn side, near the boundaries of the counties of Gloucester
and Worcester; another was taken near the same place; a
third in Herefordshire ; and the fourth (my specimen) was
picked up dead, near Hanbury, in this county. The four
were taken at or very near the same time, and were probably
stragglers from a flock driven over land by the high winds
which prevailed at that period. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — J, TV.
Worcester, March 15. 1832.

Mo7'e last Words on the Woodpecker, — The Book of Nature,
like that of some great and copious Poet or Philosopher,
though repeatedly read and perused, is, at every page we
casually open, always presenting something new. 1 could not
have supposed myself ignorant of, what I was not aware of
till early in this month, that the " middle spotted woodpecker"
churrs on trees, just like his little congener the barred, but
not one fourth so long, loud, or rapid ; and he goes crawling
about the boles knocking and jobbing irregularly. It is not
mentioned in any of the books ; and had I known this, I should
certainly have mentioned it in my article, p. 147., as I do now,
to warn young and (like myself) ignorant wood-wanderers not
to mistake one for the other : and that future book-makers
might be apprised ; as I see they continually select from our
Magazine : and you will surely allow me, Master Loudon, to
say, that they cannot copy from a better publication. Many
experienced observers are of opinion that the middle species is
only the young of the great spotted ; and, indeed, it has many
habits, and much the appearance, of a young bird : tame,
clumsy, feeble, and familiar ; and I fancy it much less bril-
liant in smoothness and colour of plumage. It will perch
sideways for a great length of time on the topmost spike of a
very tall larch or spruce, and continually repeat its check,
check, check : or upon the summit of a lofty cedar of Lebanon,
a capital station from my dining-room window, of observing its
dress and manners with my ornithoscope. (A foolish phrase
invented by me for a small bird-telescope — tell him of the
learned query, p. 205. D. S. — like ornithotrophe, for a bird-
feeding trencher ; but obvious to the least schoolboy on the
lowest form, who has thumb'd his Lexicon only a week. What
would he think of exsuberator for a corkscrew ? This is an
age of the necessity for creating new nicknames and titles —
so, " a fico for the phrase " — " Reform it altogether.")
This bird differs totally from its little, loud-roaring relative,
in being spotted on the black back with white, instead of bar-
red : and in having high beneath, and partly over its vent and

Zoology. ^ 38 1

uropygium, a large portion of conspicuously splendid scarlet ;
giving it very much the appearance of an old w^oman's red
petticoat, or the hood of an Oxford A.M. (" take which you
will, you will not get much by the bargain"). It is well
known that many birds are even three years before they fully
assume their plumage. The young swan, or cygnet, would
puzzle an early ornithologist, as many of the gulls hoNe gulled
even the experienced. If, however, this churring he a " note
of love," — as is asserted by those I am neither capable nor
inclined to contradict, — the middle spotted woodpecker is
established a species ; unless, indeed, he is " anticipating his
pairing-time," and rehearsing his amatory serenades, previous
to his approaching courtships ; for love-signs will often appear
long before those of puberty. 'T is certainly an odd, and
somewhat unpoetical " love-note : " but if the gods have not
made these poor birds mjisical, they must do as our modern
fine ladies of fashion do with what they call (and perhaps
believe to be) music — make as much noise as they can. —
John F, M, Dovaston. Westfelton, near Shrewsbury^ " the ten
of April morn by the chime^^ 1832.

A technical notice of the middle spotted woodpecker occurs
in p. 82. of the present volume. — J. T>.

The GaUimde (Gallinula chloropus l^atham), a Percher, and
excellent for Food, — Sir, The closeted compiler from the
labours of other naturalists, has an easy task to perform, when
compared with the out-of-door observer of nature ; and the at-
tainment of any new fact in ornithology or natural history is fre-
quently tardy and difficult : but I probably may advance a new
fact respecting the common water-hen, which seems to have
escaped the observation of naturalists, or is unnoticed in any
of the histories of the feathered tribe w^hich I have been able
to consult. What I allude to is the circumstance of this
bird's perching or roosting upon trees and shrubs, &c. One
of these birds, which I kept in an aviary with some pheasants,
although the tip of the wing was cut off, yet at evening it
scrambled up into some currant bushes to roost ; and in two
instances I have shot them : once from the top branch of a
tall alder tree (^Inus glutinosa), and at another time off
some shrubs growing on the margin of a brook ; but I did
not then suspect them to be perchers. Upon mentioning the
circumstance, however, to a sporting friend, he immediately
corroborated my suspicions ; and well remembers these birds
roosting in some Scotch pines (Pinus sylvestris), on an island
in a pool before his house. I believe this to be a new fact in
the history of this bird ; but, perhaps, to the epicure I can
advance a more palatable one, when I inform him, that, when

382 Zoology.

skinned, and properly cooked, it is as fine eating as any wood-
cock (.Scolopax rusticola) which ever crossed the German
Ocean from Scandinavia : and although the hon vivant may
turn up his nose at such fare, let the unprejudiced judge
through the medium of their own senses, and they will be led
to think as highly of this bird as the poor cottager on Can-
nock Chase did of moles : who used to observe of moles, that,
if the gentlefolk knew how good moles were to eat, very few,
indeed, would fall to his share. 1 have observed water-hens,
in one or two places, in a state of half domestication, where
they have been kept quiet and undisturbed.

Domesticating and promoti7ig the Propagation of various
Birds, and of Hares. — It is much to be regretted that some
fine specimens of the gallinaceous tribe are suffered yet to fly
wild in this country, and in danger of annihilation, without
any attempt to domesticate them. The bustard (O'tis tarda
X.), and the capercalzie (Urogallus vulgaris Fleming) may be
considered nearly extinct, except a few of the latter in Scot-
land ; and, if the waste lands were enclosed, the black cock or
grouse (Tetrao Jetrix L.) would (except, also, in Scotland)
soon become extinct. I have a fine living specimen of this
last bird ; but have always been unfortunate in my attempts
at domestication, as I have frequently had healthy specimens
of both sexes, but never a cock and hen at one time. In the
spring, the male struts and gobbles, much like a turkey-cock,
with fluttering wing and spreading tail, and with the scarlet
patches over the eyes flaming with desire ; and, doubtless, at
this season he will pair with a hen bird when one can be ob-
tained. I have had but little opportunity of observing the
red grouse or moorfowl [Z>ag5pus scoticus Latham'], as I
never possessed but one living specimen, which was a wild
bird, slightly tipped on one wing, and which fed principally
on the seeds and small leaves of heath or ling (Calluna vul-
garis) ; or, practically speaking, I purchased new-made be-
soms for his food. He, however, died ; but from what cause
I could not ascertain, as he was in good condition. Pro-
vidence seems to have placed certain barriers to the domesti-
cation of some animals, or rather to their propagation in a state
of domestication. I have never heard an instance of the hare
(Z/epus timidus) breeding in a domestic state, although I
have seen them very tame and familiar. Query : How small
a space of enclosed ground would the hare breed in, suppose
it to be walled or paled round, and kept secure from vermin,
&c. ? Would she breed in the space of half an acre, or an
acre ; or what moderately small space would be sufficient ?

The Ring Dove, or wood pigeon (Columba Palumbus L.\

Zoology. 383

has been tried over and over again to be rendered domestic,
but without success ; and Mr. White of Selborne mentions
the eggs being placed under the domestic pigeon (C domes-
tica Zy.), and hatched ; but, somehow, the young ones always
died: yet its congeners, the turtle (C Turtur) and the stock
pigeon (C. CE\ias L.), breed in confinement abundantly.

Although the Eggs of the Common Partridge (Perdix cinerea
L.) may be hatched under the domestic hen, and the young
ones will become tame and familiar, yet I have never heard
of their breeding in captivity.

77ie Guinea Fowl [Numidia Meleagris h.), although re-
claimed from its native wilds, retains much of its original in-
dependence, and seldom succeeds in rearing its own offspring,
which generally falls to the care of good stepmother hen.

The Pea-hen {Vdvo cristdtus) is a slovenly mother, and not
to be depended upon for the safety of its brood ; but I have
known a tame common hen pheasant (Phasianus colchicus ^
L.) very careful and assiduous in rearing its young.

Poultry hatched by the Common Buzzard in Captivity, —
Now I am upon the subject of hatching, I recollect a sin-
gular instance occurring at a farmer's house at Wittington,
near Lichfield. A female common buzzard (Falco Buieo ^
i., jSiiteo vulgaris Fleming)^ domesticated and kept in the
garden, was every year set with some eggs of the common
poultry, which she sat upon with great assiduity, and hatched
at the usual time. When the chickens were liberated from
the shell, this furious stepmother would scarcely allow any
person to approach the wooden box in which the chickens
were hatched, and to which they retired whenever they
chose ; and no dog or cat could approach them without being
furiously assailed by the indignant inhabitant. This bird had
another singular faculty : it used to roll up a round ball of
dirt, on which it usually stood, instead of standing with its
feet flat on the ground : and there is a portrait painted of it
standing in its favourite position on the ball of dirt. Its fury
surpassed that of the common hen whilst the chickens were
young, but gradually abated as they grew older ; and I have
seen some full-grown fowl of its own hatching with it in the
garden, feeding and living together. It was at length killed,
in the lane adjoining the garden, by some malicious person.

Safe Mode of transporting Eggs to be hatched. — Again,
whilst on the subject of eggs and hatching, I can state an
excellent mode of carrying eggs which may have been sat
upon, so as to preserve them unspoiled until a hen can be
found to put them under. A few years ago, whilst crossing
a heathy country, my horse trod up a widgeon (Mareca fis-

384- Zoology.

tularis Stephens); and on getting off, to examine the spot, I
found a nest with about eight eggs. I took off my hat, and
put some dry herbage into it, upon which I placed the lining
of the nest with the eggs, dividing one from the other by a
little of the lining ; upon which I put more of the herbage, and
thrust my head carefully into my hat, and rode quietly home
about the distance of six miles : and from the time I found
the eggs until I could procure a hen was about* the space of
two hours and a half; and in about one week the birds were
hatched. I have since tried this experiment on eggs mowed
or reaped over in the harvest time, and found it to answ^er :
the warmth of the head in the hat being of sufficient tempera-
ture to prevent the eggs from spoiling, taking care to walk or
ride quietly until a hen can be found. I am, Sir, yours, &c.
— -J. a Dec, 12. 1831.

Another Instance of Poultry hatched by the common Buz^
zard [Fdlco Biiteo L., Buteo vulgaris Fleming). — There is,
in the garden of the Chequers Inn, at Uxbridge, a buzzard
that has been known in the neighbourhood for twenty years,
and has occupied her present quarters for half that time.
About eight years ago she first showed an inclination to sit,
by collecting and bending all the loose sticks she could obtain
possession of. Her owner, noticing her actions, supplied her
with materials : she completed her nest, and sat on two hen's
eggs, which she hatched, and afterwards reared the young.
Since then, she has hatched and brought up a brood of
chickens every year. She indicates a desire to sit by scratch-
ing holes in the ground, and breaking and tearing every
thing within her reach. This last summer, in order to save
her the fatigue of sitting, some young chickens, just hatched,
were put down to her ; but in this case she did not forget her
natural appetite, but destroyed the whole. Her family at
present (June, 1831) consists of nine; the original number
was ten, but one has been lost. There is another brood of
chickens in the same garden, but they never venture within
her reach. When flesh is given to her, she is very assiduous
in tearing and offering her food to her nurslings ; and appears
very uneasy if, after taking small portions from her, they turn
away to pick up grain. — W, Yarrell. Ryder Street, St. James's^
Nov. 7. 1831.

A white Water-Hail. — Recently a specimen of the water-
rail (Rail us aquaticus) was received from Berkshire, every
feather of which was of a pure white. The rich coral colour
of the beak formed a singular and beautiful contrast to the
delicate hue of the plumage. The specimen was sent for
preservation to Mr. Leadbeater, to whom I am indebted, for
the information. — -4. B. Feb. 16. 1S32.

Zoology. 585

ITie Habits of the Common Snake {Cdluher '^^htrix)^ as evmced
in Captivity; and a Notice of the prevailing Avei^sion to Sijakes,
— Sir, This has been a remarkably good season, both for
vegetables and animals. It has been a singular time for ad-
ders, snakes, and lizards : I never saw so many as I have seen
this year in all my life. I have been trying, a great part of
this summer, to domesticate a common snake, and make it
familiar with me and my children; but all to no purpose, not-
withstanding I favoured it with my most particular attention.
It was a most beautiful creature, only 2 ft. 7 in. long. I did
not know how long it had been without food when I caught
it ; but I presented it with frogs, toads, worms, beetles, spi-
ders, mice, and every other delicacy of the season. I also
tried to charm it with music, and my children stroked and
caressed it ; but all in vain : it would be no more familiar
with any of us than if we had been the greatest strangers to
it, or even its greatest enemies. I kept it in an old barrel,
out of doors, for the first three weeks : during that time, I
can aver, it eat nothing ; but, after a very wet night, it seemed
to suffer from the cold. I then put it into a glass vessel, and
set it on the parlour chimney-piece, covering the vessel with
a piece of silk gauze. I caught two live mice, and put them
in to it ; but they would sooner have died of hunger than the
snake would have eaten them : they sat shivering on its back,
while it lay coiled up as round as a ball of worsted. I gave
the mice some boiled potatoes, which they eat : but the snake
would eat neither the mice nor the potatoes. My children fre-
quently took it out in their hands, to show it to their school-
fellows ; but my wife, and some others, could not bear the
sight of it. I one day took it in my hand, and opened its
mouth with a penknife, to show a gentleman how different it
was from that of the adder, which I had dead by me: its
teeth being no more formidable or terrific than the teeth of a
trout or eel ; while the mouth of the adder had two fangs, like
the claws of a cat, attached to the roof of the mouth, no way
connected with its jaw-teeth. While examining the snake in
this manner, it began to smell most horridly, and filled the
room with an abominable odour ; I also felt, or thought I
felt, a kind of prickly numbness in the hand I held it in, and
did so for some weeks afterwards. In struggling for its liberty,
it twisted itself round my arm, and discharged its excrements
on my coat-sleeve, which seemed nothing more than milk, or
like the chalkings of a woodcock. It made its escape from
me several times by boring a hole through the gauze ; I had
lost it for some days at one time, when at length it was ob-
served peeping out of a mouse-hole behind one of the cellar

Vol. V. — No. 26. c c

386 %oology,

steps. Whether it had caught any beetles or spiders in the
cellar, I cannot say ; but it looked as fierce as a hawk, and
hissed and shook its tongue, as in open defiance. I could
not think of hurting it by smoking it out with tobacco or
brimstone ; but called it my fiery dragon which guarded my
ale cellar. At length I caught it, coiled up on one of the
steps. I put it again into an American flour barrel ; but it
happened not to be the same as he had been in, and I ob-
served a nail protruding through the staves about half way
up. This, I suppose, he had made use of to help his escape;
for he was missing one morning about ten o^clock : I had seen
him at nine o'clock ; so I thought he could not be far off. I
looked about for him for half an hour, when I gave up the
hunt in despair. However, at one o'clock, as the men were
going from dinner, one of them observed the rogue hiding
himself under a stone, fifty yards from the house. " " Dang
my buttons," said he, " if here is not master's snake." He
came back and told my wife, w^ho told him to go and kill it.
It happened to be washing-day : the washerwoman gave him
a pailful of scalding soapsuds to throw on it; but whether he
was most afraid of me or of the snake is still a question :
however, the washerwoman brought it home with the tongs,
and dropped it into the dolly-tub. It dashed round the tub
with the velocity of lightning ; my daughter, seeing its agony,
snatched it out of the scalding liquid, but too late : it died in
a few minutes. I was not at all angry with my wife : I had
had my whim, and she had had hers. 1 had got all the
knowledge I wanted to get ; I had learned that it was of no
use for a human being, who requires food three times a day,
to domesticate an animal which can live weeks and months
without food : for, as the saying is, " Hunger will tame
any thing ; " and without hunger you can tame nothing. I
have also learned that the serpent, instead of being the em-
blem of wisdom, should have been the emblem of stupidity.
Sir, yours, &c. — John Howden, Near Cheadle^ Staffordshire,
The stench emitted by the common snake, when molested,
is superlatively noisome ; and is given off so powerfully and
copiously, that it infects the air around to a diameter of
several yards. This I witnessed on observing a bitch dog kill
a rather large snake ; in which act two points beside the odour
effused were notable. The coils of the snake formed, as it
were, a circular wall ; and in the circular space between it,
the snake sunk its head, as if for protection. The dog's efforts
were to catch and crush the head ; and, shrivelling up her
fleshy lips, "which all the while ran froth," she kept thrusting
the points of her jaws into the circular pit aforesaid, and

Zoology, 387

catching at and fracturing the head. During the progress of
these acts, she, every few seconds, snorted, and shook off the
froth, of which she seemed sedulously careful to free herself,
and barked at the conquered shake. The dog was a most
determined vermin-killer, and in rats, &c., quite an accom-
plished one ; but snakes did not often come in her way. —
J,D,

Snakes taking the Water. • — I once saw a snake in a broad
ditch which had been shortly previous " scoured out," as the
phrase is, and which was, therefore, devoid of the usual aquatic
plants, save the Z/cmnae, which floated on the water's surface.
As Coluber iVatrix waddled along in the water, his golden
head and arched neck looked prettily, and were none the less.
obvious for the green surface supplied by the above named
mantling Lemnae, Does the snake always bolt its food, that
is, swallow it whole ? I think, not always : for I remember
once, in company with a party of haymakers, coming to a
sloping ditch side, where a snake lay stretched out, with its
head lowest, and near the water in the bottom of the ditch,
where it was eating a water newt. One of the haymakers
seized the snake by its tail, and held it so that it hung per-
pendicularly from his hand. Hereupon the newt fell upon
the grass ; and when the man had held the snake as long as
he pleased, he let it down ; when it dashed through the w^ater
in the ditch to the opposite side, and slid off among the grass
and bushes. Attention was now directed to the newt, whose
hinder portion had been eaten off; and the part where erosion
had ceased displayed thickish blood, of an almost vermilion
colour : appearing, doubtless, more striking from its contrast
with the dark skin of the newt. — J. D.

Zoophytes at Bury St, Edmunds, — The description of a
beautiful aquatic animal by Mr. G. Johnston, in the January
Number of this Magazine (p. 43.), brings to my recollection a
singular phenomenon that 1 observed, in the summer of 1825,
in a small canal which passes across the botanic garden at Bury
St. Edmunds, Suffolk. Walking with Mr. Hodson, the pro-
prietor, round the garden, he directed my attention to the
dark blood-red colour of the bottom of the canal, occurring-
in patches about the size of a large cabbage leaf. At first I
supposed it was occasioned by some species of minute aquatic
moss that grew at the bottom of the water. Mr. Hodson de-
sired I would strike the earth with my feet : this did not sen-
sibly agitate the water, but the red colour at the bottom of
the canal gradually though quickly disappeared, without in
the least disturbing the mud, or affecting the transparency of*
the water. In a few minutes, while we remained quiet, the

c c 2

388 Zoology.

red colour began to appear again, and spread over the spaces
it had before occupied. On striking the earth again, it dis-
appeared in a similar manner, and then reappeared a second
time. The experiment was several times repeated, with the
same results. The proprietor said that no one had given
any satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon. I was,
however, immediately convinced that the substance which
produced the colour was of an animal, and not of a vegetable,
nature; and I had no doubt that it was some species of
minute radiated animal, that sent forth its red tentacula like
the sea anemone. If the botanic garden at Bury be still in
existence, perhaps some of your correspondents may have an
opportunity of examining, with more attention, an appearance
so unfrequent in fresh water. — R. B.

With sincerest deference to R. B., the occurrence of this
animal is far less " unfrequent " than the above remarks sup-
pose ; as it may be found in most drains where mud has accu-
mulated, and over which a slowly flowing stream of partially
impure water passes. This is the character of the canal or brook
in the above botanic garden ; and although a new site for the
garden has recently been chosen, there is next to no doubt of
the permanence of this brook (the river Linnet is its histo-
rical name, it being a tributary of the river Lark, into which
it falls at the northern extremity of the old botanic garden) ;
because it is a prescriptive watercourse, or sewer, connected
with the drainage of a part of the town to the south. Speci-
mens of the animal, therefore, can, as suggested by R. B., be
procured from this particular habitat ; but, in truth, there is
no need to apply there for specimens, as they will be found
in all places of the above character. In the end of February,
1832, 1 had the pleasure to observe numerous clusters of them
in a small ditch or drain in which was some almost stagnant
water ; not quite half a mile from the end of Oxford Street,
on the Bayswater Road. They would still have been there,
as the animal scarcely possesses (so I believe) locomotion,
although highly capable of exserting and withdrawing its ten-
tacula, but for the rage for perfect drainage which the appre-
hensions of cholera have recently occasioned. The writer of
these remarks has the honour of Mr. Hodson's personal ac-
quaintance, and remembers that Mr. Hodson, jun., who was,
in 1828, residing at Cambridge, sent thence to his father the
following extract from a London newspaper, asking, at the
time, if the animal described was not, without question, iden-
tical with that occurring in the Linnet, in the Bury Botanic
Oarden. — J. D,

Fresh-water Polypus. In the shallow ditches in the vici-

Zoology, 3S9

nity of Blackheath, Kent, a species of J/ydra is very abun-
dant; and may be observed, when the water is clear, spreading
its reddish tentacula over the mud beneath which its body is.
concealed. The tentacula are very sensitive ; for, the instant
that the water is agitated, or even touched, they are with^
drawn rapidly within the mud. When taken up, and placed
in a glass with water, these zoophytes afford an interesting
subject of observation for the young naturalist. {News-
paper, 1828.)

Ififusory Animalcules, — The German naturalist, Professor
Ehrenberg has been for years prosecuting researches on these
beings, and has discovered wonders on wonders. Meredith
Gairdner, M.D., in a late visit to Berlin, cultivated the ac-
quaintance of Ehrenberg, who explained to him fully, by pre-
lections and the exhibition of the animals (in particular, the
anatomy of the Vorticella citrina Miill., Rotifer vulgaris of
Schrank, and Hydatina senta), his important discoveries and
views. Of all these Dr. Gairdner gives, in a masterly style,
an " Analysis," in Jameson's ^Edinburgh New Philosophical
Journal for October, 1831, and January, 1832. Dr. Gaird?
ner considers Professor Ehrenberg's discoveries " on the
structure and functions of the animals, commonly classed
under the denomination of Infusoria," as forming an epoch
in the science of phytozoology. He remarks, " I fancy my
reader to pause at the mention of structure and functions in
animals, the discovery of whose existence merely has been
hitherto deemed the ultimatum of zoological research, and
regarding which the sum total of our knowledge has been
hitherto confined to a few details on their external forms and
active motions ; yet, in the midst of their transparent tissues,
Dr. Ehrenberg has, by a peculiarly ingenious method of
observation, developed a highly complicated oj'ganisation,
which, with those who arrange the animal kingdom in a
linear series, will remove them far from the extremity of the
scale. The existence of a digestive, muscular, and generative
apparatus is established beyond a doubt : and organs have
been also discovered which bear great analogy with the
vascular and nervous systems. The great changes which
these facts must make in the systematic distribution of these
animals are obvious. Nay, from some circumstances, we
are inclined to believe that future observations may place
these microscopic creations in a parallel order with their
more apparent prototypes, and with not less varied and
interesting gradations of structure." Dr. Gairdner, in pro-
ceeding to exhibit the achievements of Dr. Ehrenberg,
divides his subject into these heads: — 1st, The History of

c c 3

$^0 Zoologif.

Phytozoology : 2d, The Organisation of Infusory Animal-
cules : 3d, Their Classification : 4th, Their Geographical
-Distribution.

In the historical part, appraisements of the respective
labours of Mliller, Nitsch, Schrank, Treviranus, Dutrochet,
Oken, Lamarck, Cuvier, Corti, Savigny, Schweigger, Losano,
Bory de St. Vincent, Baer, and Goldfuss occur.

The remarks on organisation are introduced by a notice
of Dr. Ehrenberg's method of observation. He supplied
the Infusoria with organic colouring matter for nutriment.
Although this had been done by Trembley and Gleichen
before him, it was not till after ten years' observations that
Dr. Ehrenberg succeeded in selecting the fittest substances,
and in applying them in the best manner. The repeated
failure of so many attempts arose from the employment of
metallic and earthy colouring substances, or such as had been
submitted to boiling in the preparation. These were found
either to kill the animals, or be unfit as articles of nutriment.
Equally unsuccessful were some attempts made with the indigo
and lac of commerce, which were found always to contain
a greater or less proportion of white lead. It was not till he
used pure indigo, that his experiments succeeded in a desir-
able manner. It is requisite in these experiments to employ
colouring matter which does not chemically combine with
water, but is only diffused in a state of very minute division.
Indigo, carmine, and sap green, are three substances which
answer very well the necessary conditions, and are easily
recognised by the microscope. But, whatever substance is
used, we must be very particular that it contains no lead ; an
impurity which very frequently enters into the colours of
commerce. It is well, before applying any coloured solution
to the drop of fluid under the field of the microscope, to take
a general survey of the species which we may expect to find
in the drop under examination. Immediately on a minute
particle of highly attenuated solution of indigo being applied
to a drop of water containing some of the pedunculated Vor-
ticellse (which are fittest for the first observation), the most
beautiful phenomena present themselves to the eye. Currents
are excited in all directions by the rapid motion of the cilia&,
which form a crown round the anterior part of the animal-
cule's body, and indicated by the movements of the particles
of indigo in a state of very minute division in different direc-
tions, and generally all converging towards the orifice or
mouth of the animal, situated, not in the centre of the crown
of ciliae, but between the two rows of these organs which
exist concentric to one another. The attention is no sooner

Zoology, S91

excited by this most singular and beautiful phenomenon,
than presently the body of the animal, which had been quite
transparent, and bearing much resemblance, in aspect, to
some of the marine Rhizostomae, becomes dotted with a num-
ber of distinctly circumscribed circular spots, of a dark blue
colour, exactly corresponding to that of the moving particles
of indigo. In some species, particularly those which are pro-
vided with an annular contraction or neck (such as the Ro-
tifer vulgaris), separating the head from the body, the
particles of indigo can be traced in a continuous line in their
progress from the mouth to these internal cavities. Dr. Eh-
renberg used a microscope possessing a power of 800, made
by Chevalier of Paris ; but a power of from 300 to 400 he
found sufficient in most cases. For the purposes of measure-
ment he used a glass micrometer, constructed by Dollond,
which gives directly the ten thousandth part of an inch, and
permits of a much smaller quantity being correctly estimated,
as it contains the astonishing number of 400 equal parts dis-
tinctly cut in glass within the space of half a line. By means
of a micrometer screw, which has since been constructed by
Pistor of Berlin, he has been enabled to measure one forty-
eight thousandth of an inch, or one four thousandth of a line ;
a degree of minuteness which is never necessary in actual
practice.

By the above infusory mode of rendering the animalcules
obvious, and by such a microscope and micrometer to explore
their structure and functions, Ehrenberg has demonstrated -
the existence of a digestive system in all Mliller's genera
of the Infusoria. The ciliae, which vary in number in differ-
ent species, seem to be the principal agents by which they
excite those currents which are so beautiful under the micro-
scope, and which have the effect of bringing the nutritive
particles infused into the water into contact with their mouths.
The mouth merits the notice of the systematologist ; from the
very precise characters which he can draw from thence for
his subordinate divisions. An oesophagus belongs only to
those animalcules which possess a notable contraction between
the mouth and the stomach. Of the last-named organ (sto-
mach) some species have several ; the Monas termo has four,
and other species more ; the stomach varies in form also, in
different species. The alimentary canal presents, as in other
classes of the animal kingdom, the utmost variety, in respect
to form, situation, and degree of complication : the anus, also,
in its figure and situation, exhibits much variety.

In the muscular system of these beings, Ehrenberg has

c c 4

592 Zoology,

distinguished eight muscles by name, and disclosed numerous
additional facts of great value.

In their generative system, he has proved the existence of
all three modes of generation ; the viviparous, the oviparous,
and the gemmiparous. Some species of the animals are
hermaphrodite. Besides clearly demonstrating these three
systems (the digestive, the muscular, and the generative,) to
exist in these minute beings, Ehrenberg conceives that he
also discovers in them a vascular and a nervous system : but
the two latter are not considered as yet clearly demonstrated.

Professor Ehrenberg, in his travels in Siberia, found several
new genera and species of infusory animalcules, which have
already been alluded to in our Vol. IV. p. 255.

In consequence of these most remarkable and important dis-
coveries in the anatomy of these animated atoms, a totally new
classification of them has been elicited. Previously, the appa-
rently homogeneous tissues of these minute beings furnished
no distinctive characters except the varieties of external form,
the presence or absence of ciliae and other appendages ; which
are so uncertain, and so changeable, that they have been long
ago rejected from other departments of zoology as the funda-
mental bases of division. Dr. Ehrenberg now forms a classi-
fication of them according to their organisation. To follow
him through his classes, orders, families, sections, and genera,
would lead us too far. For the examination of these, we refer
the reader to the January number of the journal quoted ;
venturing to remark that the scheme of classification there
exhibited (p. 82 — 86.) seems characterised by the deepest
and most patient investigation, by clearness of contradistinc-
tion, and by ability of expression. Dr. Gairdner remarks
that Ehrenberg has " included under his categories those
genera or species oz/Zj/, whose digestive organs he has demon-
strated himself by his new method of observation." A plate
(pi. iv.) exhibits magnified figures and dissections of Monas
termo and atomus Miiller, Leiicophrys patula E/ir., and Hy-
datina senta Ekr. ; and displays the wonders of their intestinal
structure and general organisation.

The geographical distribution of these beings, invisible to
our unaided sight, is the next and last part of the subject dis-
cussed. It occupies twelve pages, and is replete with interest.
Dr. Ehrenberg has prosecuted his researches on this subject
(as well as on others) in extensive journeys in Africa and
Arabia, and in Russia, Siberia, and the Altai' mountains;
and he has discovered species in the subterranean waters of
the silver mines of these mountains, at the depth of 56 fathoms.

393

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

Art. I. Retrospective Criticism,

Corrections to the last two Nuvibers. — In p. 128., last line, for " Am-
bleside," read " Keswick." P. [206.], line 8. from the bottom, for " Ne-
mains," read " remains." The work entitled " Popular Lectures on the
Vertebrated Animals of the British Islands " is wrongly arranged, p. 76.,
among the natural history works of North America.

Sloat. (p. 77.) — J. M. remarks, " the stoat does not change its colour
[in winter] here, as in the northern parts." This remark reminded me of a
very fine specimen of the stoat in its white state, caught near this place in
January, 1830; and which was much finer than many specimens brought
from abroad, being all over of a beautiful snowy white colour, forming a
striking contrast with the black tip to its tail. This was the first perfectly
white British specimen I had ever seen ; but I have seen many partially
white. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — E. H. Greenhow. North Shields^ Jan. 28.
1832.

Crows covering their Eggs on leaving the Kest. (p. 144.) — The crows in
the vicinity of Lee uniformly cover their eggs, after they have begun to
hatch, with the materials of the lining of the nest; and if they comport
themselves differently at Walton Hall Park, I should infer the latter to be
eccentric crows. I speak positively to the fact as to our crows in Kent ;
and I doubt not some hundreds of testimonies may be got to prove the fact.
— James Rennie. Lee y Kent ^ March 2. 1831.

Couch's Fishes of Cornwall new to the British Fauna, (p. 15.) — Sir, In
this article, I have serious fault to find with the disregard of proportion
exhibited in two of your figures. The wrass (jLabrus luscus Z/.), p. 18., is
described as being 22 in. long by 2Jin. deep; your figure (fig. 5.) repre-
sents its depth as at least equal to one third of its length, and so 7 in.
deep instead of 2iin. In p. 21., the dusky perch is described as 3 ft. in
length and 7 in. in depth; the figure (fig. 7.) represents it as 12 in. deep.
I am. Sir, yours, &c.— G. A. Goswell Roady Feb. 6. 1832.

G. A. is thanked for his useful and judicious corrections. That he offers
on the iScomber maculatus, spotted or Spanish mackarel (fig. 8. p. 22.),
arises from his own misapprehension of the term " compass." It is described
as 6i in. in compass ; that is, in circumference, and not in depth, as G. A.
has understood it. — J.D.

The Opinions of the Reviewer of Newman's Essay on Sphinx fespifdrmis
(p. 187.). — Sir, Without prejudice to the merits or novelty of Mr. Newman's
ingenious arrangement of insects, reviewed in p. 187., which I have not at
present leisure to investigate, allow me to point out how completely the
magical circles employed in the construction of his diagrams appear, from
their symmetry, to have blinded the reviewer, so far as the binary division
of insects into the subclasses of Mandibulata and Haustellata is concerned ;
and to show how slightly Mr. Newman's general arrangement really differs
from that adopted in my Systematic Catalogue with reference to such sub-
division.

My arrangement, divested of the symbolic circles, stands thus : —

394 Retrospective Criticism,

MandibulaVa. HaustellaVa.

6. Hymenoptcra. III. Homaloptera.

7. Sti^eps-qitera* II. Diptera. IV. Aphaniptera.

1. Coleoptera. 5. Trichoptera. I. Lepidoptera. V. A'ptera.

2. Dermdptera. 4. Neuroptera. VII. Homoptera. VI. Hemiptera.

3. Orthoptera.

Mr. Newman's thus : —

Orthoptera. (VII.) Hemiptera.

Coleoptera. Neuroptera. (5.) Lepidoptera.

Hymenoptera. (^0 Diptera.

In this last arrangement, if we place the genus T^hrips in its proper loca-
tion, at No. VII., and the A'ptera of my Catalogue at No. V., their situ-
ations between the typical mandibulated and haustellated groups clearly
point out, according to the general fact that the characters of any conter-
minous group assimilate with those of the adjoining, their tendency to
become mandibulate ; while, on the other hand, if the Trichoptera be placed
at No. 5., the cause of their being mandibulate, or approaching thereto, is
equally manifest. It is, therefore, evident, that, by considering insects as
divisible into two great groups, in accordance with Clairville's views, his
followers are not guilty of such " glaring inconsistencies " as a mere
prima facie appearance indicates-}-; and I may add that his arrangement
was not " unhesitatingly adopted " by me. It may also be observed, that
the location of the A'ptera in my arrangement corresponds with the tend-
ency of opposite points of the circle to resemble each other, as discovered
by MacLeay. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — J. F. Stephens. March 2. 1832.

St^gia not a New Holland Gemcs, as stated in Mr. Newman's Essay on
/Sphinx vespiformis. — Sir, In my friend Newman's excellent little essay,
Stygia is said to be a New Holland genus : I feel myself bound, in justice
to my friend, to state that this error arose from my inadvertence, and his
too great confidence in my accuracy. One species of this genus is a native
of France, and one, I believe, of North America; but none have been
found in New Holland. Allow me to request from your readers an atten-
tive perusal of this ingenious work, and a careful comparison of the system
therein propounded and the quinarian, the only other system which can be
said to be an approximation to nature. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — E, Double-
day. March 12. 1832.

British White Butterflies. — Sir, In Mr. Rennie's excellent paper on this
interesting subject (Vol. II. p. 224.), no mention is made of Hipparchia
Galathea, which surely as legitimately deserves a place among the " white
butterflies " as Gonepteryx rhamni ; and this is admitted. I am, Sir,
yours, &c. — C. Nov. 25. 1831.

A figure of the Hipparchia Galathe« will be found in p. 338. of our
present Number (fig. 74. b) ; and also one of a most remarkable variety
of the same species, in p. 335. ; with valuable remarks on each, in their
respective places, by Mr. Bree. The valuable strictures of this gentleman,
in Vol. III. p. 242., on the probability that Pontia Charicle« is merely a

* Like all systematists v/hose schemes are shackled by numbers, Mr.
Newman finds it convenient to omit such orders as Strepsiptera, &c.
(printed above in Italics), as they militate against the harmony of the
cabalistic seven ; though they are palpably of greater importance than any
septenary division of either of his larger circles.

-|- The position of Oiketicus amongst the Lepidoptera, while Psyche is
distantly removed into the Neuroptera, is unquestionably inconsistent with
a natural arrangement; yet those genera are so placed by Mr. Newman:
thus showing, when detail is attempted, how fiitile all our systems become.

'Retrospective Criticism, 395

variety of Pontk brdssicoe, and P. Metm but a variety of P. rapae, should
ever be read collaterally with Mr. Rennie's article (Vol. II. p. 224.), which
excited them. No figure of P. Napae'ae occurs in that article (Vol. II.
p. 227.), which Mr. Bree regrets (Vol. III. p. 245.). — J^. D.

Insect Monstrosities. — In recording (Vol. IV. p. 476.) the case of an
E'later murinus found with one of its antennae three-branched, the fact of
a Chlanius vestitus having been found with a supernumerary appendage
to the fourth joint of one of its tarsi, as figured and described in Vol. II.
p. 302., is cited as a somewhat parallel instance. Two still more remarkable
cases of insect monstrosity, as mentioned by Mr. Dale (Vol. IV. p. 21.),
should have been added to this citation. — J,D.

London Fogs. (p. 304.) — To J. M.'s useful remarks on this subject, it
may be well to register the following supplementary ones : they are
transcribed from an ably written, and very recently published, pamphlet,
entitled, " Z)r. Weatherhead's Account of the Beulah Saline Spa^at Norwoody
Surrey. ^^ The site of the Beulah Saline Spa is the village of Norwood,
seven miles south of London, which stands on one of those elevations
known as the Norwood Hills. Dr. Weatherhead remarks : — " From trigo-
nometrical observation, it has been computed that the height of these hills
is about 390 ft. above the level of the sea at low water. By accurate ob-
servation of the height of the fog, relatively with the higher edifices whose
elevation is known, it has been ascertained that the fogs of London never
rise more than from 200 to 240 ft. above the same level." [The level of
the sea, not that of Norwood, as appears by the second sentence following.]
" In some instances, the line of demarcation between the pure air and the
fog is distinctly defined ; on other occasions, the latter dissipates itself so
gradually into the superincumbent atmosphere as to show no line of
separation. Thus placed above the fogs of the plain, and removed from
the smoky and contaminated atmosphere of the metropolis, the air [of
Norwood, and the neighbourhood of the Beulah Saline Spa, is meant] has
long been celebrated for its pure and invigorating qualities." — J. D.

Anchor Frosts. — Since reading the articles by J. M., p. 91., and T. G.,
p. 303., on this phenomenon, I have met with the following, which I beg
to hand to you : — " It is a curious particular in the natural history of the
Thames, that it always freezes just at the bottom : this habit is often found
to prevail among rivers in Germany, particularly in the northern parts ;
but is asserted by the writer of the article Ice, in the Encyclojjcsdia
BritannicUy never to be met with in the more temperate of the European
climates. The fact is assuredly otherwise : the congelation of the river
Thames uniformly commences in the lowest places. The mass then formed
rises, on a rude calculation, to about the middle of the water, where it pre-
sents, as on the streams of Germany, a resemblance to the partial consoli-
dation of nuclei or small hail. A second mass then forms at the bottom j
the central mass rises to the surface, and the new bottom, or ground ice,
takes its place, and gradually mounts to the superior fabric, with which it
speedily assimilates. Dr. Plott accounts for this circumstance, by suppos-
ing that the water of the Thames is more abundantly impregnated with salt
than that of other English rivers ; and that, as salt naturally sinks to the
bottom, and as naturally inclines to a state of congelation, the formation
of ice consequently takes place first at the greatest depth." {Faulkner's
Chelsea, p. 19, 20.^

Anchor Frosts, (p. 91.) — On the subject of anchor frosts, it is merely a
long and severe one, wherein large masses of ice are frozen to the stones
and gravel at the bottom of rapid streams ; not, as your intelligent corre-
spondent J. M. states, by crystals of ice floating down the streams, and accu-
mulating amongst the stones ; but simply by the stones acquiring a degree
of cold far below the freezing point, and the water in contact with them

396 Quer-ies a?id Answers.

freezing, and spreading into large sheets, which, from ice being lighter than
an equal bulk of water, are frequently torn up in large bodies, and floated
away with stones and gravel adhering to the under surfaces. Why ground
ice is not frozen in the same way at the bottoms of deep and still pools,
well merits a special notice. Water, on decreasing its temperature, in-
creases in density down to about 40°, which is its maximum density ; and
from that point it continues expanding up to freezing. The cooling pro-
cess always proceeds over the surface, and as the water there acquires
gravity, it descends, and is replaced by some warmer, and, of course,
lighter water, which, being at length cooled, sinks in its turn, and in like
manner the cooling process goes on, until the whole body of the water
attains the temperature of 40°. The cooling process still going on, the
surface water expands, and becomes specifically lighter than that below,
and is detained there until it freezes ; while the great body below, being
all at its maximum density, remains quiescent, and preserves its fluidity
through the longest and severest frosts, even in very high latitudes. This
simple and admirable provision in the constitution of water operates the
most important consequences in the wise economj' of nature : without it,
all ponds, lakes, and other deep and still bodies of water, would be frozen
into solid masses, and, of course, all their living productions destroyed. —
J. Carr. Alnwick, Jan. 8. 1832.

Dew, — The annual average quantity deposited in this country is esti-
mated at a depth of about 5 in., being about one seventh of the mean
quantity of moisture supposed to be received from the atmosphere, over all
Great Britain, in the year ; or about 22,161,337,355 tons, taking the ton at
252 imperial gallons. (Literary Gazettey Jan. 29. 1831.)

Spot on the Sun. — A dense smoke fog prevailed on the morning of the
25th of the tenth month (October), in the vicinity of the metropolis ; and
about 9 o'clock the sun became sufficiently visible for the naked eye
steadily to survey its disc, when a large spot was distinctly seen near its
centre. The mist must have possessed considerable magnifying power, as
the observer endeavoured in vain to discover the same spot some hours
after with the naked eye, protected by a single darkened glass. With one
of Dollond's 3 ft. telescopes, however, it vi^as perfectly visible, together
with another spot near the western limb. — B. Laytonstoney Aprily 1830.

Art. II. Queries and Answers,

List ofy and short critical Remarks on, the current Periodicals on Natural
History. — Sir, A. R. Y. would oblige me, and perhaps some of your other
correspondents, if he would give a list of the numerous periodicals now
published on the subject of natural history, stating which deserve encourage-
ment, &c. Perhaps his time would not be thrown away, as he must know
the wide circulation your Magazine has. — M. F. Jan. 12. 1832.

Mr. Dovaston's Ornithoscope. (p. 83. and 205.) — Mr. Dovaston explains
(p. 380.) that this is but a small pocket telescope, so denominated when
applied to ornithic objects. — J.D.

In twin-born Calves, is one of the two invariably sterile ? andy if the two be
Male and Female y is the sterile one invariably the Female ? — Sir, When on
a visit, some years ago, at a farm-house, the occupier of which had had
considerable experience in breeding cattle, I was told by him that when a
cow produced twin calves, of different sexes, the female was always sterile,
and that therefore he reared it only for the butcher. Whether the male had
the power of generating, I do not recollect if he stated. Can any of your
correspondents contradict or confirm this statement j or say whether this
curious law obtains with any other animal ?

Queries a?id Answers. 397

Since writing the above, it occurred to me to consult Bewick, the only
authority I have at hand, where I find the following : — " It is a curious
fact, that when a cow happens to bring forth two calves, one of them a
male, the other a female, the former is a perfect animal, but the latter is
incapable of propagation, and is well known to farmers under the denomin-
ation of a * free martin.' It resembles the ox, or spayed heifer, in figure ;
and is considerably larger than the cow." The criticisms and confirmations
of your correspondents on this subject, will, Sir, oblige, yours, &c. — U.
Cambridge y Jan. 25. 1832.

Information and Queries on the Trachea^ or Windpipe^ of the Dun Diver
(Mergus Castor). — Sir, Mr. Rennie, in his edition of Montagu's Ornitho-
logical Dictionary (see p. 218. of that work), has left it still undecided
whether the trachea of the dun diver has two enlargements, as that of the
goosander (ilfergus Merganser L.) has ; or only one. As an instance has
recently occurred here of the trachea of the dun diver differing from that
of the goosander, I beg, through your Magazine, to inform him of it. The
bird was in the exact plumage of the dun diver, and was brought to me on
December 17. 1831. It weighed lib. 13 oz.; its length was 2 ft.; its
breadth 2 ft. 4 in. ; and the length of its bill 2\ in. The trachea of this
bird had only one enlargement; the labyrinth was large and bony; as the
bird was shot in the body, its sex could not be discovered by dissection.
The trachea has been preserved. Is this bird to be considered an imma-
ture male of the goosander ? and is the trachea ever found to alter with
age? — T. K. Dublin, Feb. 7. 1832.

A Crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax cristatus Cuvier) was brought to
me on Jan. 24. 1832. -It was a female, and contained a large bunch of
eggs, about the size of dust shot, three or four of them about the size of
No. 4. shot, and a little detached from the bunch. It can scarcely be con-
sidered as having attained its breeding plumage at this season. Is it to be
considered a variety or not ? — Id.

Is the Water Rail (Rdllus aqudticus') migratory or not ? — Bewick states
it to be so ; Latham that it is so only on the Continent ; on which point
Temminck is silent. Now, on the 24th inst., I had two brought to me,
which were caught on the top of our cliff, among the fortifications, at least
two miles removed from any spot congenial to their habits : the impression
on my mind is, that they had just arrived from the opposite coast, and had
dropped from exhaustion, as I have noticed with woodcocks at the time of
their migrating into this country. From notes I have by me I find that rails
have been caught in a similar manner in two or three other instances; but
from my having met with them at all times in this neighbourhood, I cannot
believe that they are migratory, but merely change their locality. Perhaps
some of your more informed readers can dispel my doubts. I am. Sir,
yours, &c. — E. P. T. Dover, March 25.

The Senegal Sparrow, a Species of 'Fringilla. — A little more than three
years ago, a relative brought home with him from Charleston, South Caro-
lina, several birds, under the name of cut-throat sparrows, or Senegal
sparrows, which, I believe, he purchased from an African vessel. He had
several males, though but one female ; and she, with one male, was, soon
after her arrival at Liverpool, transferred to Lord Stanley's aviary at
Knowsley : two of the males he gave to me. One of them I now unfor-
tunately have it in my power to pack up and forward to you ; my cat, not
having been educated by your correspondent Cattus [Vol. IV. p. 511.],
believing that when out of its cage it was fair game. This one, you per-
ceive, is of one uniform dark brown colour, with the exception of the
crimson gorget. Two winters ago it assumed this colour, instead of its
former coat, which was similar to that still retained by his survivor, namely,
a light brown, prettily speckled or spotted by a still lighter, approaching, to
fawn colour. So light is the prevalent brown, that the crimson is shown

398 Queries attd Answers,

as a dark circle ; whereas in the one I send it appears lighter than the rest
of the bird. What could have produced this change ? — age ? They were
fed with the same seed, though in different cages, each having a female
canary for a companion, of which companion, by the by, they neither of
them took any notice. — Can you refer me to any work that will give me
any account of these birds, or can you ascertain their generic and specific
names ? I am, Sir, yours, &c. — Thomas Edgworth. Wrexham, Dec. 27.
1831.

The bird our correspondent has sent us is a specimen of the Loxia
fasciata [doubtless expressive of the crimson band or fascia across its
throat] of Brown's Illustrations of Zoology, p. 64. pi. 27., upper figure, and
is described by Dr. Latham, in his Index OrnithologicuSy in the Synopsis, and
in his General History : it is also figured in the Naturalist^ s Miscellany,
vol.ii. pi. 56., under the name of Loxia jugularis [still in allusion to the
marking of its jugulum or throat]. It is a native of Africa. From the
blood-red colour of the band on the throat of the male, this bird has been
called by some the cut-throat sparrow. The female is without the crimson
band, and the lower figure on Brown's plate represents the female of this
species, although the author has called that bird by a different name. Nor
does it belong to the genus Loxia, as that genus is at present restricted : it
is in truth a i^ringllla. Dr. Latham has recorded that a male in the collec-
tion of Lord Stanley [probably one of the birds transferred there as above
stated] had the band on the throat of an orange colour. The females have
produced eggs in confinement in this country, but we have not been able
to ascertain that any one has succeeded in breeding young birds. The
uniform dark brown colour of the specimen sent us by our correspondent
is one of those changes occasionally produced by confinement, and parti-
cular food. We have known it occur in the goldfinch [Carduelis com-
munis Cuvierl, and still more frequently in the bullfinch [Pyrrhula vulgaris
Temminck'], when these are fed on hemp-seed. — S. T. P.

In Insect Transformations, it is the Tail of the Caterpillar which becomes the
Head of the Butterfly, (p. 206.) — Sir, A young lady of my acquaintance
was once exceedingly surprised, and kept on the very tiptoe of anxious ex-
pectation, by being told, that, if she would go to her friend's stable the follow-
ing morning, at a certain hour, she might see a horse with his head where his
tail should be. Accordingly, she repaired to the stable, at the appointed
time, fully prepared to see some strange monster, with a head growing out
of the rump j or an animal, perhaps, almost as outre as the one supposed
by Horace in the opening of his Art of Poetry. To her no small disap-
pointment, however, when the stable-door opened, there was her own
favourite pony, standing with his rump to the manger, and his head, of
course, towards the lower part of the stall. This trifling incident was,
somehow or other, brought to my recollection on reading the notice of
T. C. in your last Number (p. 206.), who states that " it is the tail of the
caterpillar which becomes the head of the butterfly." I apprehend that
either some hoax or quibble (as in the case of the horse alluded to) must
be intended in this statement, or else that not a little confusion has been
undesignedly caused by transposing, or otherwise improperly employing,
such terms as " head," " tail," " top," " bottom," or the like. At all
events, T. C.'s statement, as it now stands, must surely be erroneous. The
caterpillar of the common tortoise-shell butterfly ( Vanessa urticae), for ex-
ample, suspends itself by the tail, and hangs with its head downwards ; and
it is this head, or (as it now hangs) lower part of the caterpillar, which
becomes the head of the chrysalis ; bearing on one side a resemblance to a
face or mask, beneath which are incased also the head and thorax of the
butterfly. The butterfly bursts the chrysalis towards its head or lower end
(lower, I mean, relatively to the position in which it hangs), and comes out

Queries and Answers, S99

thereat ; not, as T. C. states, at the top or tail end * Such, I believe I
am justified in saying, is the real fact, after having repeatedly watched the
operation of the butterfly bursting from the chrysalis ; unless, indeed, I have
viewed nature with a sort of inverted vision, and utterly misconstrued her
experimental lessons. If wrong, however, I shall be happy to stand cor-
rected : and I have no doubt we shall hear, ere long, what other observers
will have to say to the theory of T. C, which, for the present at least, I
find harder to believe in than even he appears to have done himself. I am.
Sir, yours, &c.— W. T. Bree. Allesley Rectory, March 8. 1832.

In Insect Transformations y it is the Tail of the Caterpillar which becomes the
Head of the Butterfly, (p. 206.) — Now, Sir, if we believe this assertion,
we must disbelieve Reaumur, Swammerdam, Lyonnet, and other authors,
who have so thoroughly investigated, and so beautifully illustrated, this
subject ; and we must disbelieve, also, the evidence of our own eyes, and
the result of our own observations. But, of course, no entomologist, not
even the merest tyro in the study, will believe such an assertion : yet, for
the sake of children, or any marvel-loving persons into whose hands your
Magazine may fall, I beg to state my positive knowledge that this miracu-
lous change does not take place. I am, Sir, yours, &c, — Edward New-
man. Deptford, March 20. 1832.

Lamellate Petals , and the Calyx of Daphne Mezereum, and Laureola. —
L. D.'s query. Vol. IV. p. 188., partly answered Vol. IV. p. 558., will
receive a farther solution from the following remarks. Professor Lindley,
in publishing Sollya heterophylla (a lovely blue-flowered climber, from
New Holland) in the Botanical Register for January 1. 1832. t. 1466.,
thus remarks, in describing that species : — " The petals readily separate
into two lamellae, as if they were composed of two plates grown face to
face. This may serve to show how unimportant is a similar circumstance
in Z)aphne, where it has been thought to be a proof of a calyx and corolla
having in that genus grown together into a single floral envelope. We
allude to this circumstance now, because we lately saw the idea revived
somewhere [doubtless in this Magazine, Vol. IV. p. 558.] ; otherwise we
should have supposed it to have been long since consigned to the list of
exploded errors." Since the remarks in Vol. IV. p. 558., were published,
the mezereon, Z)aphne Mezereum L., has blossomed, being now (April 1.)

" though leafless, well attired.

With blushing wreaths, investing every spray :"

and the coloured calyx exhibits in the tubular part the lamellate formation
above described, as do the calyxes of Daphne Laureola, now also in bloom ;
but this formation is most obvious in -Daphne Mezereum, on account of
the rosy colour which resides mainly in the outer lamella or skin, the
inner fabric not having this rosy hue ; and because the solution between
the outer and inner lamella is more perfect in the calyxes of I>. Mezereum,
than in those of Z). Laureola, which are, moreover, of a yellowish green
hue throughout, as well externally as internally. Some mezereum blos-
soms will, it is hoped, in northern aspects, be left for L. D.'s examination,
even so late as the 1st of May, when this may meet his eye. — J. D.

* If figures be needed in illustration of my meaning, I might refer to the
cut of the caterpillar of Vanessa Antiopa {Insect Transformations, p. 276.),
compared with that of the chrysalis of Vanessa To (p. 295. of the same
work); remarking, however, that in the latter of the two cuts the natural
position of the chrysahs is exactly inverted, the chrysalis being represented
head uppermost. See plate 1. (Papilio Antiopa of Lewin's Papilios.)
But a reference far more satisfactory and conclusive than any book, of
whatever authority, can supply, will be to Nature herself.

4-00 Qiieries and Answers.

Luminous Appearance on the Ears of a Horse, (p. HI.) — When we
cannot find a satisfactory solution for any puzzling occurrence which we
are desirous of investigating, perhaps; the best? way is to endeavour to
accumulate a series of facts of the same kind. Having met with one or
two nearly similar to those of your correspondent, S. T. of Stoke-Ferry
(p. 111.), and, like him, having hitherto been unable to light upon a satis-
factory reason for them, I propose to join stocks with him for the purpose
of drawing more attention.

Some years, ago, I was riding from Edinburgh : it was (as I happen to
recollect) on the 12th of November, and in the evening. There had been,
since past midday, a succession of those stormy clouds, driven by a
westerly wind, which are common at that season. Perhaps the wind was
a point or two to the north of west, if it makes arty difference, and during
the intervals there was always a comparative calm or slackening of the
wind. I was once taken byjone of J;hef?e storm-clouds about Nether
Libberton, on the Dalkeith roaid. Like S. T., I used the spur a little; and,
having been a yeoman for many years, I was unconsciously holding a small
rattan cane somewhat after the mode of" carry swords." Roused by the
velocity of the wind, and the darkness of the passing cloud, ] naturally
turned my eyes to the right, and was not a little surprised to observe a pale
clear flame, in form like that of a small candle^ playing upon the point of
the cane. Taking it for granted, forthwith, that a stream of electricity,
attracted by the cane, was passing from the cloud through my body, and
through the horse, into the ground, I instantly turned it downwards. At
the time I did not wait to consider that I was in the hollow of the valley
between one of the highest of the Pentlands and Arthur's Seat, and that
there were higher objects than myself, and scattered trees in the neigh-
bourhood far more likely to act upon the cloud, or be expos^dj to ,|t^ vfr
fluence. r ^ .

' A short time after this liappened, I mentioned the circumstance 6i t1\e
flame to a friend. He told me, in return, that once, when riding betweei|
jPavvick and Jedburgh, during a dark and stormy night, he was greatly
.annoyed, for most part of the way, by two flames, like candles, that appeared
to issue from his horse's ears. He certainly is'as little likely to be affected
Jby superstition as most men ; but never before having heard of such a cir-
cumstance, and the idea of electricity not then occurring to his mind, he
jcould not help thinking that Will o' the wisp and he, hoping it was nothing
worse, had got into rather too close intimacy. < • ii m

" I beg to join my request to that of S. T. for a satisfactory explanation,
pr more facts. — M^. Z/. Selkirkshire, Jan. 30. 1832. • -hO -

The Luminous Appearance on the Ears of a Horse (p. 11 1. y^bn^ the
Imiinous Track of the Scolopendra electrica. — Your correspondent S. T«
has very accurately described a phenomenon, which may be often seen oa
k gravel walk upon a moist autumnal evening. It arises from something
of a slimy nature emitted by the Scolopendra electrica" [see a not very'
pharacteristic figure, Vol. II. p. 406.], (one of the animals vulgarly called
centipedes), which is luminous. As the animal crawls, it leaves a long train
of phosphoric light behind it on the ground, which is often mistaken for the
presence of a glow-worm. In all probability, one of these animals had
recently crawled over the head of the horse, or rather, might be still
crawling there, and ypur correspondent unconsciously watching its pro4
gress. — J^. 5. if. Cambridge, Feb. 1^.1832. .?^

A farther notice of the habits of the ^Scolopendra electrica <)Cicm"S inv
the present^ Number, pi 36^. ^J. D. ' — ! ^ «

q: '. r"»i'hr<r, ■ i'.. - «S b:I/.. i^ ^11 ; t y '

->^bdW .}rf-fti70pi \i,t', jug lill^ris scf^^^ tub

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY,

JUNE, 1832.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I. A Visit to the Surrey Zoological Gardens.
By Observator.

Previously to the establishment of the Zoological Gardens
in the Regent's Park, it had been matter of deep regret
to the cultivators of natural history, that we possessed no
great scientific establishment for facilitating and encouraging
the study of zoology, and no menageries where the natural
forms, and in some degree the natural instincts and habits, of
the animals of the globe might conveniently be observed and
examined. In no other part of Europe were these deficiencies
complained of; notwithstanding, we, as a nation, were richer
than any other country in the extent of our foreign posses-
sions, and had at our command peculiar facilities for collecting
and introducing exotic animals. Under these, circumstances,
no other resource was left to the student of zoology and the
philosopher of nature, but that of visiting the magnificent
institutions of other countries, where the requisite aids to
their studies might be found. Such, however, have been
the progress of, and the increasing taste for, the delightful
study of zoology among us, that, in the short space of five
years, not only have the Zoological Gardens in the Regent's
Park been founded and established, but we have even now
a second establishment of the same kind, the Surrey Zoo-
logical Gardens : these being similar to the Regent's Park
ones in all essential requisites, and equally conducive to
the same useful purposes and rational enjoyment. Where
the genuine love of science prevails, and where there is an
Vol. v. — No. 27. d d

402 ,iv :, A Visit ta the

earnest desire to direct the public taste to healthful sources of
recreation, there can be no jealous rivalry ; and in the present
case, too, the Surrey Zoological Gardens and those in the
Regent's Park are so distant from each other, that, while thi^
distance will prevent each from trenching on the interests of
the other, it will enable the public, according to the point froi;^
which they visit, to partake of the recreation eitlier may afford
without inconvenience or fatigue. : ; ;

In a late visit [February] to the Surrey Zoological Gai;-|-
dens, I observed that the most strenuous exertions wer^
being made to render them attractive and useful, as well to the
lovers of botany and to the public generally, as to the lovers
of zoology. The sides of the principal walks and avenues
were being planted with a rich variety of trees and shrubs, of
species both native and exotic. These, independently of the
attraction of the animals, must, as they become established^
and develope their varied and characteristic outlines, and the
diversified forms and many-coloured hues of their foliage,
constitute a rich source of gratification to the observant visiter,
and render the gardens an available resource to the artist, the
botanist, and, in short, to all who take pleasure in observing
or exploring the charms of vegetable nature. It is, I was
informed, to be one of the characteristics of this establishment,
that every possible facility will be rendered to every artist,
student, or other enquirer, towards the accomplishment of the
object he has in view ; and, should this enlightened policy con-
tinue to be practically observed, it is easy to anticipate that
very important benefits to science must daily result from \\^
facilities at the disposal of such an establishment. .^..j

The site selected for these gardens was formerly that of tl|^
manor house and grounds of Walworth, and comprises an
extent of 15 acres, including a beautiful sheet of water of
nearly 3 acres. \ j\(\p^

On entering the gardens by the Camber well Road entrahoe^
the first objects are a neat Gothic corridor, with two entrance
lodges, forming a covered piazza of about 60 ft. long, calculated
for company waiting for their carriages. From the mode of
colouring adopted [technically called splashing], this building
has the appearance of having been erected a century ago ; its
battlements are also already covered with ivy and other climbs-
ing plants. On passing this, you enter a spacious lawn
studded with many rare and ornamental trees of most luxu-
riant growth. Here are situated aviaries containing various
species of curassows, jungle fowl, foreign partridges, &c. ; with
a circular pond, in which are the beautiful summer duck,
teal, widgeon, pochard, and many other varieties of aquatic

Surrey Zoological Gardens. 4 0*3

biilfei^' 'On leaving this part of the garden, you gain an nmm-
terrupited view of the lake, studded with little islands, while
on both sides are shrubberies, and the various buildings con-
taining the splendid collection of animals.

Of the buildings, the chief is the dome-shaped circular con-
servatory, devoted to the large carnivorous animals. This is
a grand and unique building, of which I transcribe you the
dimensions, as I learned them at the gardens. The conserva-
tory is 300 ft. in circumference, and consists of a dwarf wall
which is about 3 ft. high, and covered with an iron coping from
which spring iron ribs, 400 in number, converging towards an
inner circle : these ribs form a curve and are about 20 ft. in
length. The whole of this space is glazed, and is entered by
four doors placed at equal distances in the circumference of
the building. The plan and design of the building have been
furnished, and carried into effect, under the superintendence
of Mr. H. Phillips of Brighton. It contains upwards of
30,000 squares of glass. Against the inner circle of this
building are the dens; containing the finest collection of the
large carnivorous animals I have ever witnessed.

The specimens of the Barbary lion and Bengal tigers here
exhibited are most magnificent ones. The male lion of
Africa is by far the most noble and perfect specimen I ever
remember to have seen: and here, for the first time, I b#
held full-grown individuals of the true Asiatic lion; an aninj^
of the greatest rarity, and which may be considered the pri4e
of the collection. Mr. Swainson is convinced it is a totally
different species to that of North Africa, and has accordingly
named it ieo asiaticus. There are, of course, numerous
specimens of leopards, jaguars, puma, and other kindred spe-
cies. From this building you pass to one of an octagonal
form, with paddocks radiating from it, in which are a remark-
ably fine elk or moose deer, various specimens of the lam%
alpaca, vicuna, a pair of fine gnus, the small bush kangaroos,
a fine ostrich, with two unique specimens of the cassowai^J^
both of which are particularly beautiful birds. Of the eagl^
tribe there are several rare species : the young of the whiter
headed eagle, the harpy (Falco destructor), and that doubtfi4
species named Rappel's vulture. A mass of rockwork 9f
ruins has been erected for the rapacious birds, with chamb§rjp
underneath, communicating with a run of water for beaver^
one of which has been presented by N. Garry, Esq., of t^
Hudson's Bay Company.

Two very tasteful lodges have been erected for the entrance
from the Kennington Road.

On the whole, I think, a more suitable and delightful

D D 2

404

Surrey Zoological Gardens,

spot could not have been selected within the same distance of
the metropolis. Observatou.

London, February, 1832.

Of the conservatory so justly admired by Observator, we have in pur
Gardener^s Magazine^ vol. vii. p. 692, 693., given a figure and short 'de-
scriptior^: these we will here also introduce, in illustration of Observator's
remarks, not doubting that the recollection of the clearness of conception
which tbie cut will promote to those who only peruse our Magazine of
Natural Hktorijy will sufficiently apologise for the repetition, to those who
are in the habit of reading this Magazine and the Gardener's Magazine also.
Our description will be found as follows : —
u5*4ln the plan, from memory, of this building {fig, 83.), the animals

IB

anofjDnii

jioqqiJg'hiir,
1o ^ojoit'fia,

(tiobfjrigefii leopards, &c.) ^re kept in separate cages or compartments (a)
towards the centre ; exterior to them is a colonnade (A), supporting the
glazed roof, and also for cages of birds ; within this colonnade will be
placed hot-water pipes for heating the whole, and beyond it is an open
paVed area for spectators (c) ; next, there is a channel for a stream of
water, intended for gold, silver, and other exotic fishes (d)-, and, beyond,
a border, under the front wall, for climbing plants {e\ to be trained on
wires under the roof. It is singular that the elevation of this building
(j'fg. 84.) is almost a/ac simile of the elevation which we made in May last
for the hot-housCs of the Birmingham Horticultural Society's garden; the
only difference being the addition, in our plan, of exterior pits, and of pedi-
ments over the entrance porches. The curvilinear sash-bars in Mr. Cross's
building are of iron, by Brown of Clerkenwell, and the glazing is beauti-
fully executed by Driake of the Edgeware Road.''— Cl^^t/., ,,,.-,.

-aiij/ii 9iB'>iiijb lo izmioj <^^b6d yrft lo tinr yiova Uomln m hi\i

#()J^

Analogy between Vegetables and Animals,. 405

Art. ll. ^w Essay on the Analogy bettveen the Structure and
Functions of Vegetables and Animals. By William Gordon,
Esq., Surgeon, Welton, near Hull. Read before the Hull Lite-
rary and Philosophical Society, Nov. 19. 1830. Communicated
by Mr. Gordon.

' '■ ^' (^Continued from p. 128.)

Hay|]^g now given a very brief outline of the ans^iy that
exists b^^een the organisation of vegetables and tliai^of ani-
mals, I shMl proceed to point out to what extent tHe .functions
of these two classes of beings resemble each other : and, first
with regard to absorption. It is well ascertained that, after
the food has been duly elaborated in the stomach, it is con-
veyed into the bl6od, to se^ve for the growth and support
of the body. It is likewise ascertained that the particles of
which the animal fabric is composed are constantly under-
going a state of renewal. The decayed molecules are removed,
and new ones are deposited in their places. Moreover, it i||
known that, if mercury be rubbed upon the skin, it is cafq
ried into the system, and exercises upon it the same influ-
ence as when it is introduced into the stomach ; and, if the
body be immersed in water or damp air, that the surface will
imbibe a great quantity of the watery particles that come m
contact with it, and will convey them into the blood. Th©
process by which all these effects are accomplished is called;
absorption; and it is performed by d, peculiar set of organs,
termed the absorbent system. These organs, which are situ-
ated in almost every part of the body, consist of delicate trans-

D D 3

t04- :>'.,>j\,,v\^ .

406 Analogy between Vegetables and Animals,

^dj mor

payi^fyessels, and of small oblong bodies called glands. The

yessels are plentifully furnished with valves, which gives them

a knotted appearance. The}^ arise from all the internal cavi-

i;ies, from every part of the surface, and from every organ of

the body. In their course, they invariably pass through one

pr more of the absorbent glands ; and, uniting into larger and

larger branches, they at length form one common trunk called

,the thoracic duct; which pours its contents into a large vein,

near the heart, and there mingles them with the general mass

of blood. The absorbent glands consist of a number of small

xells enveloped in a membranous covering, in which is de-

^posited a somewhat viscid fluid. They are found to be most

numerous in the higher classes of animals ; but in many of

the lower classes they are totally wanting. The orifices of

jail the absorbent vessels, both those which suck up the chyle

jfrom the alimentary cavity, and are termed lacteals^ and those

iwhich imbibe substances applied to the skin, and are called

lymphatics, commence in what are denominated ampullulce,

j^yhich are small oval vesicles, composed internally, like the

cj^bsorbent glands, of minute cells, and containing within them

^a fluid of a viscid nature. The function of absorption is not

tjggnfined to the lacteals and to the lymphatic vessels. Ma-

jendie has shown that it is likewise performed by the veins.

(Th^t the lymphatics and the veins should exercise the same

^f^inction is not remarkable; for they both possess the same

^^tructure ; both arise in the same manner ; both are furnished

^^ith valves ; both carry their fluids from branches to trunks ;

„both absorb their contents on the same principle ; and both

l^irculate them by the agency of the same power. The lym-

gphatics, in fact, are nothing more than a subordinate system

2^yeins.

.uf^The process of absorption is carried on in plants as exten-
sively as it is in animals : it is performed, too, by similar
organs, and on a similar principle. The roots take in the
jaiutritive fluid of the soil in which they are placed, and
^imoisture is plentifully absorbed by the stem and branches.
I ; When we examine a root, we find that all the delicate fibrils
. J {growing out of it are terminated by small oval-shaped bodies
j called spongioles. These spongioles resemble, in their structure
*..and their form, the ampuUulee and the glands attached to
-jthe absorbent system of the animal body. Like them, they
♦..are composed of small cells, enclosed within a membrane,
Iwcontaining a viscid fluid. They likewise receive the open
if extremities of the capillary tubes, of which the radical fibrils
y principally consist, precisely in the same manner as the am-
puUulae receive the orifices of the lacteal ^nd the lymphatic
vessels.

in their Structure and Functions. 407

The vegetable lymphatics, or veins, which arise from the
. '^pongioles, are extremely fine tubes. They ascend through
the stem, and convey the nutritious materials from the roots
to the leaves, where they terminate. In many instances they
pass through glands ; as, for example, in the gramineous
plants, the stems of which have placed upon them, at certain
spaces, knots or joints ; which, in their structure, are very
analogous to the absorbent glands of the animal system. It
has long been a subject of enquiry among physiologists, to
ascertain upon what principle the contents of the absorbents
effect their entrance into these vessels. Some have sup-
posed that they enter on the principle of capillary attrac-
tion ; others, that they enter by the operation of the vital
power: some, by filtration, or imbibition through the coats of
the vessels ; and others, again, by the pressure of the atmo-
spheric air. Dutrochet, however, ascribes absorption to a
new principle, which he calls endosmose. It is difficult to
decide which of these theories is the most correct. That of
Dutrochet appears to me to be the least objectionable. I may
remark, however, that, upon whatever principle we explain
the entrance of substances into the mouths of the lacteals, the
lymphatics, and the veins, belonging to the animal body ; on
the same we can account for the ingress of substances into
the orifices of the absorbents and veins of plants. '^i.

'^^' From absorption, we pass on to the function o^ circulation,
jiA.s soon as the chyle, the decayed corpuscles of the system^
and the various substances brought in contact with the surface,
have entered within the orifices of the absorbents and veins,
they are carried along the minute ramifications of these ves-
sels into their larger branches. At length they are all poured,
by one or two large trunks, into a vein situate at the left side
of the neck. In this vein they are mixed with the whole mass
of blood, and conveyed along with it, to the right side of the
heart. The venous blood, now replenished with new materials,
is propelled from the right cavity of the heart, into the puW
*&onary artery. By the branches of this vessel it is conveyed
' tlirough the lungs, where it is exposed to the vivifying influ-
ence of the atmospheric air. After it has been duly elaborated
in the lungs, it is returned, by appropriate vessels, to the left
side of the heart, the contractile power of which forces it
'into a hirge artery called the aorta; whose numerous ramifi-
''cations convey it to every part of the body, furnishing ma-
' tei'ials for growth, for nutrition, and for the supply of all the
"."^'aHous secretions. After serving these purposes, the blood
*^^s deprived of its nutritive properties, and, being mixed with

B'Wdra clpt'bartic4es, it becomes def^ifio4^ate<iyHBrjtf Enable to

^0$ Analogy between Vegetables and Animals^

afford support or nourishment ; it is, therefore, received by
the extremities of the veins, and brought back by them to
the heart, to acquire the addition of fresh materials from
the food, to be again ventilated in the lungs, and again to
be distributed all over the body. Such is the circulation of
the blood, as it is exhibited in man and other animals of the*
Mammalia class, in which the heart is of the most complex cha-
racter, and consists ol four distinct cavities. In Fishes, the
Construction of the heart is much more simple, and possesses
only two cavities. As we descend in the scale of animal life,
we find the heart presenting a progressively greater simplicity
of organisation ; for, in the more perfect order of Fermes, the
only appearance of a heart that can be seen is one or two
small dilatation& appearing on the branches which unite the
abdominal and dorsal bloodvessels together. As we descend
another step, we discover that there are some animals, desti-
tute of a heart altogether. This is the case with some of the
genera of the Mollusca, and the higher order of Zoophytes.
In these animals, the circulation is carried on by only Pwo
distinct sets of vessels. By one set, the blood is distributed,
all over the body ; by the other, it is brought back to the point,
whence it first set out. In animals still less perfect than
Zoophytes, as the Infusoria, and the inhabitants of sponges,
there is no circulating apparatus whatever to be found.
f-Jn the higher order of plants, the sap, like the blood
of animals, to which it may be considered analogous,, is
perpetually flowing in a complete circle. We perceive it
carried up by the vegetable lymphatics or veins, irpxa,
the roots, along the stem and branches, to the leaves*' ^r' Iff
the. upper surface of each leaf, it is circulated through thoo^
Sands of minute vessels ; where it is acted on by the air
and light. As soon as it has undergone its proper changes^
it is received by the capillary branches of another set of
yessels, which are ramified upon the lower surface of the
Jeaf. These reconduct it along the branches and stem, to-
wards the root. In its progress downwards, it supplies abun-
dant matter for the nourishment and increase of the plant, and
the expenditure of all the different secretions. What remains
after all these purposes have been answered returns to, and
oozes through, the spongioles ; to be again absorbed along
!^ith the other substances from the soil, to be again circulated
through the stem and branches, and again subjected to a
repetition of all the same processes. This description will be
sufficient to show the features of resemblance between the course
of the sap in vegetables, and that of the blood in animals.

In the vegetable system, we see the crude sap, or lymph,
conveyed from the root to the leaves, in the same manner as

we see the imperfect blood, or chyle, carried from the stomach
to the lungs ; we see the sap elaborated in the leaves by the
air, as the blood is elaborated by the same agent in the lungs ;
and we observe the sap, after being rendered, during its pro-
gression through the leaves, fit for the support of the vegetable
functions, distributed all over the plant, just as the blood,
after its ventilation in the lungs, is conveyed to every part of
the body. I do not mean to say that vegetables possess a cir-
culating apparatus as complete as that of the higher orders of
animals. They have no heart, or central organ of circulation ;
and the vessels which return the elaborated sap from the
leaves are, according to Dutrochet, not continuous tubes, like
arteries, but consist of small cells or sacs, called clostresi
which are joined together in such a manner as to reiSemble a
chain of beads. We have seen, however, that, if the heart
r!^> wanting in plants, it is likewise wanting in many of the
lower classes of animal beings ; and it is perhaps to the circu-
lation of blood in these, that the circulation of the sap ought
Co be compared, although, in many respects, the latter is more
perfect and exact than the former. I have already observed
that there are some animals which possess no organs of circu-
lation whatever ; the same deficiency occurs in some plants,
as the mosses and ferns. In these, the sap passes from one
cell to another, in the same manner as the nutritive fluid per-
li^at^s the gelatinous substance of the polj-^i and other
animals, in which there exists no vascular system. V[«,i.itiif; '\o
Ever since the discovery of the circulation of the bl-oodl
physiologists have endeavoured to ascertain the efficient'catrses
by which this function is carried on. The mechanical physiold-
gists imagine that the heart is the sole agent in the circulation
of the blood ; that the bloodvessels are in no way concerned
in the operation ; that they are mere tubes, and that the blood
'\§ propelled from the arteries into the veins, and from the
latter into the right auricle, by the contractile power of the
heai't alone. Another set of physiologists consider this opinion
as not correct ; and affirm that the circulation of the blo6d' is
not effected by the action of the heart alone, but likewise^ ih
some degree, by that of the arteries, all of which they suppose
to be more or less contractile. They allow that the larger
arteries have but little contractility, and the blood which is
transmitted through them receives its chief impulse from the
heart. The capillary or small arteries, however, they regard
as pd^essing a considerable share of contractile power, by the
agency of which the blood is projected along their ramifica-
tions itlto the extremities of the veins. They consider that
the v«ins are little more than elastic tubes; that their action is
'"MY^nn&m jfiu.:- :.■_. ... . ..=-,.: ,.^. ,.ao"

{410 Analogy between Vegetables and Animals^

entirely mechanical, and that the progression of the blood

through them is promoted by the m a tergo, [propulsion from
J^ehind], and by the pressure of the muscles during their con-
(traction. Among the individuals who hold that the arteries
,?exhibit no manifestations of contractility, are Haller, Bichat,
liCraigie, Nysten, Pang, and Dollinger; while Hunter, Whytt,
jiSenac, Thompson, Philip, Bikker, and Rossi are among those
'jwho entertain a contrary opinion. Wilson supposes that the
^force of the heart projects the blood through the arteries, and
jeven into the veins, but that it is impelled along the venous
itrunks into the heart by what he terms derivation, Wilson's,
-^theory has, with considerable modifications, been adopted by
oCarson.
s. Dutrochet, a physiologist of great eminence, conceives that

every hypothesis hitherto offered to explain the circulation

.of the blood is inadequate to the purpose. He has therefore
^proposed a new one. He seems, indeed, to allow that the
i4)Ower of the heart transmits the blood through the large arterial
«, trunks ; and, when there are no capillary branches between the

arteries and veins, that this power extends from the former

into the latter, and alone propels their contents forwards. He
^maintains, however, that the progression of the fluids through
jjihe capillaries is perfectly independent of the impulse of the
-Ij^eart ; at the same time, he denies that these vessels circulate
stheir fluids by the agency of contractility, because this is a
^/acuity, he asserts, which they have never yet been proved to
ipossess. Neither does he admit that the pressure of the contract-
lifeig muscles is the chief cause of the motion of the blood through
i4;he veins and lymphatics. Dutrochet is of opinion that the
qfiirculation of the blood is conducted by the operation of
^^endosmose [impulse inward]. I shall first endeavour to explain
-^hovf this principle carries on the circulation of fluid through
.the lacteais. The extremities of these vessels, as I have before
, observed, commence in what are called ampuUulae, which are

composed of small cells, filled with a dense organic fluid ;
ha condition peculiarly adapted for the exercise of endosmose.

Jn consequence of their endosmosmic power, the ampuUulae
,. of the lacteais cause the chyle, by which they are surrounded,
\ to flow towards them, and to enter their cells. This ingress
^jproduces an accumulation of chyle within these organs, which
Jrenders them very turgid. In consequence of this turgidity,
htheir natural elastic power is called into play, which, reacting

upon the accumulating chyle, forces it into the lacteal tubes..
bBythe introduction of fresh chyle into the cells of the ampul-
alulae, the current is unceasingly kept up. The lacteal tubes

are furnished with glands, which possess the same structure,

- i7i their Structure and Functions. 411

and exert the same power, as the ampullulse. When, there-
fore the ascending column is too heavy for the endosmosmic
force of the ampuUuloe to urge it forwards, the power of the
glands comes in to their assistance, and the current suffers no
ifiterruption in its progress. The structure of the lymphatics
Imprecisely the same as that of the lacteals, and the circulation
^f their contents is conducted on the same principle as that
of the chyle. I have now to explain in what manner the
capillary circulation proceeds under the influence of endos-
mose. In the commencement of my essay, I remarked that
the organic solids of the body consist of minute vesicles filled
with a dense organic fluid, a structure resembling that of the
ampullulae and the glands, and therefore as favourable to
endosmose as theirs is. The blood which is brought to these
vesicles by the capillary arteries, being less dense than the
fluid which these vesicles contain, enters into them. As soon
as they are rendered turgid by this afllux, they expel their
contents into the capillary veins ; and these, again, convey them
into the larger veins, and these latter carry them forward into
'^fhe heart.

^* There has been the same contrariety of opinion, respecting
the circulation of the sap, as has existed with regard to the
causes of the circulation of the blood in animals. Malpighi
imagined that the sap ascended, by being alternately con-
' tfacted and dilated. Darwin and Willdenow ascribed the
'^Circulation of the sap to the contractility of the sap-vesselis,
"^^^d Perrault ascribed it to fermentation. Knight referred it
"lb the contraction and expansion of the silver grain, caused
"^By the change of temperature in the air ; and Hales attributed
Ht to capillary attraction. Dutrochet considers that the sap
"6f vegetables, like the blood of animals, is circulated by the
"J^ency of endosmose. The spongioles of the roots, which are
Reconstituted like the ampullulse, absorb the water which sur-
^'l^Dunds them, not by capillary attraction, but by endosmosmic
pbwer. The spongioles being rendered turgid, by this influx
^ Into them, act on the enclosed fluid, and urge it forward
" 'ittto the ascendinoj vessels of the stem. The leaves are com-
»^bsed, like the spongioles, of vesicular bodies and vessels. As
^Isoon, therefore, as the lymph approaches these organs, they
'•draw it up towards them by endosmose. The indigested sap,
*" being now converted into a nutrient juice, is made to descend,
-by the impulsive power of the leaves, through the bark and
•Alburnum, by certain elongated cells called clostres.
"^''' It therefore seems clear that the movements of the sap and
"^'the circulation of the blood resemble each other in many par-
ticulars; and the theory which will explain the efiicient causes

412 On Birds tisiiig Oil from Glands,

of the'bne, will go far to explain those of the other. The blood of
animals, although it appears, as it flows along the arteries and
veins, a perfectly homogeneous fluid, is, in reality, a very com-
pound one. It consists chiefly of water, in which is suspended'
a number of minute globules, and which holds in solution
several earthy and metallic salts. By analysis, chemists have
obtained from it muriate and subcarbonate of soda ; muriate
and sulphate of potassa, phosphates of magnesia, lime, and iron,
and a small proportion of sulphur. In some animals the
blood is red, in others it is colourless. The blood has been*
shown not only to possess life itself, but to be the material
by which the life of all the other parts of the body is sup^^
ported. The sap, or circulating fluid, of plants, is not homo-^ *
geneous in its nature ; but, like the blood, is a very complicated -^
substance. It is composed of a thin aqueous fluid, in which
numbers of exceedingly small globular bodies are observed
to float. It contains dissolved in it many saline ingredients ;
and there can be little doubt that future researches will
demonstrate that the sap, like the blood, is endued with life.

(To be continued,) -^^^' ^^ ^^*

nm 90 oJ

Art. in. Ofi Birds using Oil from Glands-, ^^ for the Purpose (f
Huoricating the, Surface of their Plurnage,'' (See Voh lofpi W»)«'*.
B^ Charles Waterton, Esq. > . ,, s^^^l t^^jj

' /,'i^^, , r,}* J , " Nardo perunctus." Hor. Epod. n^>fi\ ^l^U'j^ovAi

Birds, in general, are much troubled with vermin. ■ 'AiVe?'^''
applying the solution of corrosive sublimate in alcohol to th6^
fresh skin of a bird, you will see an amazing quantity of in^-
sects coming out from all parts of the plumage, but especially * '
from the head. They linger for a few hours on the extremi-^-
ties of the feathers, and then fall off* and die : they are of all '^
sizes, from the full-grown insect down to the minutest little '^
creature which has just entered into life and motion. No part
of the body of the bird is exempt from their annoyance; and^'
we may judge how much the birds suffer from it, by their ^f'
perpetual attempts to free themselves from the tormenting^*
attacks of the insects.

People are apt to suppose that a bird is preening, or recti-
fying, its feathers, when they see it applying its bill to the'^*^^
plumage, and running it down a feather, from the root to the '^
extremity : but a man well versed in the habits of birdsf-*^^
knows, when he sees the bird do this (except after it has got

to luhncate their Plumage* 413

wet), that it is trying to dislodge the vermin, which cling with
an astonishing pertinacity to the feathers. Now, while the
bird is thus employed on that part of its body just above
the tail, where there is a gland, some people imagine that the
bird is procuring a liquor from the gland, by means of its
beak, in order to apply it to the feathers. But, at best, this
can be only mere conjecture on the part of the observer, be-
cause the feathers on the rump completely preclude the po^'
s^bility of his having a distinct view of what the bird is doin^l
J. Will any naturalist declare that he has actually seen a bird
procure liquor, or oil, or whatever else you choose to call it,
from the gland with its bill, and then apply that liquor or oil
to the plumage? The gland has somewhat the appearance
of a nipple upon its upper extremity : an oily liquor may be
obtained from this nipple by applying our fingers to it ; but I
marvel how it can be procured by the sharp-edged bill of a
bird. When the nature of the gland and the form of the bill
are duly considered, it is rational to conclude that the appli-
cation of the hard bill to the soft gland would be very painful
to the bird. Let us here suppose that the bird has succeeded
in getting some of the liquor into its bill : how is the liquor
to be applied to the feathers ? It cannot be rubbed upon
them, because it is within the bill ; and if the bird should
apply its bill to the feathers, they would merely come in con- .
taet with the edges of the bill, while the liquor would h^v^p
Slink into the cavity of the lower mandible. Granting th^t
the liquor were removed to the feathers by means of the
tongue, then the under part of the feathers would receive
more than the upper part. Here let us keep in mind what
a large body of feathers there is to be lubricated, and how
small the supply of liquor for the purpose of lubricatidn.
Moreover, the nipple, in general, is crowned with a circle of
feathers ; and in all waterfowl which I have examined in the
duck tribe, from the swan downwards, the whole of the gland
itself is covered with a very thick downy plumage, which
would totally prevent the bird; from procuring any liquor
from that quarter. ^rmd) 1>'»riU f'^oiv l^ ^M v^■^^^ ,t*^^^

I will now show that this oily liquor would injure th^' fea-
thers. The feathers of birds, when in a perfectly dry state,
have a beautiful and downy appearance; in a wet state, the
downy appearance is lost, but returns when all the moisture
is gone : if, however, any greasy substance or oily liquor has
come in contact with them, I do not know what could be
employed to restore the downy appearance to its pristine /«
beauty. Let any body apply the oil from the gland in quek- '*!
tioiLte .a &ather,. and he will produce a fixed stai^. '^ ^ ^ ^^^

to^ ri^ii ii 1^ jq^oxo) idi ob biu ^ilJ ^^^ ^ti n*^dv/ ,'^oai

4>i4f Birds oilmg their Plumage,

bt)Suppose, for sake of argument, that the bird does actually
toploy oil from the gland to lubricate the plumage (which,
by the by, I flatly deny), how is the head and part of the neck
to be supplied with oil ? Why, the truth is, they never can
be supplied ; and if you examine, with the nicest scrutiny,
the feathers of the body which come "withifi the range of the
bill, and the feathers of the head, which are out of the range
of the bill, and then compare them, you will not observe the
smallest difference in their downy appearance : proof positive
that the plumage of the body has not been lubricated with oil
from the gland. jz/tc

In this Magazine (Vol. I. p. 119.) there is the following
account of the lubricating of feathers : —

" The glands containing the oil used for the purpose of lubricating the
surface of the plumage were, in the specimen here represented (speaking of
the eagle) [" sea-eagle of America, or Bird of Washington "], extremely
large. The contents had the appearance of hog's fat which had been
melted and become rancid. This bird makes more copious use of that
substance than the white-headed eagle, or any of the Falco genus, except
the fish-hawk : the whole plumage looking, upon close examination, as if
it had received a general coating of a thin clear solution of gum arable, and
presenting less of the downy gloss exhibited on the upper part of the bald-
headed eagle's plumage."

Here we have had an abundant flow of oil. If the surface
got so much, the under parts of the plumage must have got
still more ; notwithstanding which, we are told that the glands
were extremely large : they ought to have been empty after
such a discharge. Again, if the ijchole plumage looked " as if
it had received a general coating of a thin clear solution of gum
arable," by what process was that general coating applied to
the head of the eagle, and to part of the neck, which, we
know, cannot possibly be touched by the bill ? If it had not
been applied to the head and part of the neck, then the bird
would have afforded a singular appearance : just as far as the
beak could reach, there would have been a distinct coat of
what the writer of the article took for oil from the gland;
beyond the reach of the beak (that is, on the head, and down
part of the neck) there would have been no coating at all.

If that which appeared like a general coating of a thin so-
lution of gum arable had really been oil from the gland, the
feathers would have appeared as if they were in a sweat, the
oil would have penetrated down their shafts, the fingers of the
dissector would have come in contact with grease or oil at
every touch, and the whole plumage would have been com-
pletely spoiled.

Much safer would it have been for the writer to have had
recourse to conjecture, in this affair of a general coating on the

Eggs and Birds of the Orkneys. 4 1 5

whole plumage of the eagle. The bird might have received
on its plumage a coat of slime from a fish, struggling and
flouncing at its capture, or in the pangs of death ; the eagle,
after bringing his prey ashore, might have rolled upon it, as
w^e know dogs do upon carrion. In either of these cases there
would have been a coating on the plumage, somewhat resem-
bling a solution of gum arable, while wet; and, when dry,
it Would have fallen into dust at the touch of the hand ; and the
feathers would have recovered their downy appearance. In
fine, oil or grease on the plumage ought never to have been
mixed up in the strange account of the eagle ; which would
come but poorly off if handled by a severe critic. I would
earnestly recommend more practice in ornithology to the
writer of the " Notes " [Notes on the Bird of Washington,
Vol. I. p. 115 — 120.]; and 1 wish that there had been more
sagacity shown by those who equipped the " Notes "in., fk
suitable dress to meet the public eye. ^-'^^

I am, Sir, yours, &c. ^^^

Walton Hall, April 11. 1832. Charles Watertoj^j

============================= .->'*n

Art. IV. Observations on the Eggs and Birds ivhich tjoere met tuith
in a Three Weeks' Sojourn {from May 30. to June 21. 1831)

in the Orkney Islands. By J. D. Salmon, Esq. ' ^^'^%

!^Hi ^'^' . . ^ >^^nmi8

As I and my brother visited the Orkney Islahds l^^t
summer, and principally for the purpose of collecting the ^g^s
of the different birds that are in the habit of resorting th6ir6
annually to incubate, I forward you the results of our joiirne^j
as far as they relate to ornithology. '-■

'■ .^; . I am, Sir, yours, &c. ''^ ''-^"^

jSmrnl Lincolnshire, March 19. 1832. J. 'D. 'JSA|.Mir.

^ mjow
WATER BIRDS. 7^^^^

The Whimbrel [^colopax Phcseopus L., Numenius Phceopus
Latham) we found sparingly in the marshy places between
the hills in the Island of Hoy, where it goes by the name of
the whaap ; but we were too late to obtain any of their eggs,
as they had already (June 3.) hatched. We had no doubt
that their young were concealed among the long grass (al-
though every endeavour on our part to find them proved
ineffectual), from the continued noise that the old birds kept
making over our heads ; and their immediately attacking every
species of gull, and more particularly the arctic gull (Lestris
parasiticus Boie,) whenever they approached very neaj^-pt^nd
eompeUing them to alter their course. ^■■■■\^v:::-^.i

416 ^ggs and Birds foimd

The Curlew {ScMopax arqudta L., Numenms arquata La-
tham) we did not see in any of the islands.

The Snipe {Scolopax Gallindgo L.), we found in abundance
in every island, wherever there was the least moisture : and
their nests, in general, were placed among the long grass by
the side of the small lochs, and amid the long heather that
grows upon the sides of the hills. It is there called by the
name of the hoarse gowk.

In no single instance did we see the judcock or jack snipe
[S. Gallinula Z.).

The Redshank (Scolopax Calidris L., Totanus Calidris
Bechstein) we found but thinly scattered through the dif-
ferent islands here and there : a few pairs occurred wherever
the ground was boggy; and they are very noisy should you
approach their nest too near.

The Lapwing ( Tringa Vanellus L., Vanellus cristdtus Meyer)
is very numerous, and known by the name of the tee-whaap.
It is suffered to breed unmolested; which, in fact, is the
case with all the other birds, as the eggs of the domestic hen
and tame duck are very plentiful ; and any number might
have been purchased, during the time that we were there, at
the rate of threepence per dozen ; and we were credibly in-
formed that 300/. worth, at this rate, were annually shipped
for Leith, from the islands of Westra and Papa Westra alone.

The Dunlin {Tringa alpina L., T, variabilis Meyer). —
This little bird we found in abundance in almost every island,
associating with the snipe ; and, like the snipe's, their nests
were placed upon the ground, among the long grass and
heather, and invariably contained four eggs, which were much
smaller than snipe's eggs, although similar as to colour. In
some we found the ground colour of a light blue, inclining to
a dirty white : the blotches were principally at the larger end.
The birds appeared to sit very close, and suffered us to ap-
proach very near to their nests before they attempted to fly ;
in two instances I took them off their eggs. After they
have been disturbed, they make every effort to decoy you
away from their nests, by pretending to be lame, &c. Both
the male and female have a black patch upon their breasts ;
in the former rather darker than in the latter, otherwise we
could not perceive any difference between the sexes.

The Oyster- Catcher [Hcematopus ostralegus 1^.) we found
but thinly scattered along the sea-coast, and making their
nests on the sand, among the small shingle and shells that
are thrown up by the sea.

The Landrail {Gallitmla Crex Latham, Ortygometra Qrex
Fleming) is abundantly dispersed through every island, and
conceals itself amidst the young corn and rushes. This

in the Orkney Islands. 417

l)ird lays very late. Several nests , that we fbiind (June 13»^|
which were placed among the long rushes (a species of /Vis
[/. Pseud-^'corus L,'] that grows in abundance in the low
swampy places), contained only from one to five eggs ; and
but in a single nest did we find this number exceeded, in
this there were eleven, which is the usual number. Their
nests were very slight; composed chiefly of dried grass and
moss merely scraped together. Their incessant cry, which I
can only compare to the words crake crake, repeated a huip-)
dred times together, betrays where they are to be found ; ^nd
we frequently heard from twenty to thirty at the same timei
uttering this cry, which is not very pleasing to the ear.

The Coot (Fiilica dtra L.). — We saw a few pairs of thesq .
birds in one of the small lochs in the Island of Sanda^ whej^^
they are called by the name of the snyth.

Of the Water Hen {Gallmula chloropus Latham) we Ui4i
not see a single individual. . - , jj

' The Red Phalarope [Phaldropus hyperhbreus Latham, U>hip€$^
hyperbbreus Cuvier). — I find that in Rennie's edition of Mon^^
tagu's Ornithological Dictionary it is stated, p. 366.,^ t}^^
"Mr. Bullock informed Colonel Montagu, he found it^tp ||f|j
common in the marshes of Sanda and Westra." The ovA^
phalarope that we found in the small lochs in the Island 9^^
Sanda is very accurately figured in the ^sixth , edition ^^of
Bew'iclCs B7'itish Birds, under the name of^jj;!^ ,f]e(}tf]ec^ie|J'
phalarope (Phalaropus fuscus) ; and Bewiclc|jS^,i?j;^-^"j]y5,^J^^
fers in plumage from the red phalarope. Its nead,,ana a nar^
row stripe on the front, and another on the hinder part of the
neck, which last spread over the shoulder, were dark asli^g
throat white ; sides of the neck and breast brilliant bay colou,r^g
upper parts of the plumage deep brown, nearly black ; und^^.
parts white." This beautiful little bird appeared to be ve^i^jri;
tame; although we shot two pairs, those that were swimming^
about did not take the least notice of the report of the gun jjj
and they seemed to be much attached to each other, fo£^|
when one of them flew to a short distance, the other directl^^
followed ; and while I held a female, that was wounded, in my^
hand, its mate came and fluttered before my face. We were
much gratified in watching the motions of these elegant littl^^
creatures, as they kept swimming about, and were for ever
dipping their bills into the water ; and so intent were they
upon their occupation, that they did not take the least notice ^
of us, although within a few yards of them. The female ha^^
not that brilliant bay colour upon the sides of the neck and
breast, which is so conspicuous in the male. After some little
difficulty, we were fortunate in finding their nests j which wej:^r>

Vol.. v. — No. 27. Ep /

418 Eggs and Birds found

placed in small tufts of grass growing close to the edge of
the loch ; they were formed of dried grass, and were about
the size of a titlark's, but much deeper. The eggs are con-
siderably smaller than those of the dunlin, and beautifully
spotted all over with brown. They had but just commenced
laying (June 13.), as we found only from one to two eggs in each
nest ; but we were informed (by a boy whom we had engaged
in our service) that they always lay four, and are called by
the name of the halfwel. It evidently appears to me that this is
a distinct species from either the red phalarope (P. hyper-
boreus Latham^ Lobipes hyperboreus Cuvier), or grey pha-
larope (P. lobatus Latham, P. platyrhynchus Temminck), I
have a specimen of the latter by me, shot January 11. 1828,
which is considerably larger than the red-necked phalarope.

The Foolish Guillemot (UV/'a Troile Latham), — This we
found in abundance upon all the headlands, more particularly
on the face of the Island of Copinshay, where they are very
numerous ; resorting to the projecting ledges of the rocks
that face the sea, for the purpose of depositing their single
egg upon the bare rock. Although we saw a great many,
there were not two alike as to colour ; in size and shape there
is no material difference.

The Razor-hill [K'lca Torda i.). — This we found equally
numerous as the last, and occupying the same rocks, and, like
the individuals of that species, depositing their single egg
upon the bare rock, without any nest whatever; but their
eggs do not materially differ one from another, except that in
some the blotches are rather darker than in others : they gene-
rally are of a dirty white, blotched with a pale rust colour,
and both ends nearly of the same size, not near so much
pointed as those of the foolish guillemot.

The Black Guillemot (\J\ia Grylle Latham, IJ^ria mhior
Stephens.). — This beautiful bird differs from the two pre-
ceding species in not resorting to the same spots for the pur-
pose of incubation ; and, with a few exceptions, its principal
place of breeding is upon a small holm (an island without
any habitation) lying to the eastward of Papa Westra, where
it is very numerous, and would scarcely move from off the
rocks on our approach. I cannot find that any naturalist has
given a faithful description of the eggs of this bird : in Ren-
nie*s edition of Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary, it is stated
(p. 233.) "that it lays one egg, of a dirty white, blotched with
pale rust colour, which is deposited under ground, or in some
hole in the rocks." This is evidently an error, that being the
egg of the razor-bill (Jlca Torda), In several dozens of
eggs that came under our observation, we invariably found
two together, and they were deposited upon the bare ground,

in the Orkney Islands. 419

principally under the large fragments of rocks that lie scat-
tered about upon the island, without any appearance of a nest.
The eggs are considerably smaller than those of the razor-
bill, and about the size of those of a bantam fowl ; they are of
a grey colour, inclining to a light blue, marked with black and
brown spots, and all of them very much alike. This bird is
known by the name of the tyste.

The Red-throated Diver (Qolymbus septentriondlis 1^,) goes
here by the name of the rain-goose, and a few pairs of them
annually breed on the margins of the small lochs that are to
be found amid the hills in the Island of Hoy. Although we
visited every loch in the island, we were not fortunate enough
to meet with its egg ; and are indebted to the son of the
Rev. Mr. Hamilton, who very kindly presented us with a
specimen that he had taken from a nest the preceding sum-
mer. He informed us, at the same time, that they were
becoming very scarce ; and although he had, at different
times, found their eggs, he never saw two in one nest, which
is always placed close to the water's edge, and composed
merely of a few loose rushes and dried grass that may happen
to be near, without any down or feathers whatever.

The Common Tern (Sterna Hirundo L.) is very plentiful, par-
ticularly in the Island of Sanda ; and the birds of this species
deposit their eggs principally upon the bare sand, with little
or no nest, along the seaside. Those that we found had only
two eggs in each ; and I suspect that they very rarely exceed
that number, as we met with a boy who had always been in
the habit of gathering their eggs, and he said that he never
found more than two in one nest.

The Herring Gull (Ldrus Juscus L.) and the Lesser black-
backed Gull or Sihery Gull (Ldrus argentdtus Brunnich), I am
inclined to think, are one and the same; for on the small
holm lying to the eastward of Papa Westra we found both in
abundance, and in some hundred nests that we examined, we
could not perceive any very great difference between the eggs
of either, as to size or colour. Every nest contained three
eggs, and not /wo, as stated in Rennie's Montagu's Ornitho-
logical Dictionary (p. 254?.). This statement, I suspect, relates
rather to the nest and eggs of the common gull (Z^arus canus)
which only lays two ; at least, I never saw more. In one nest
we found all three of the eggs of a light blue colour with
black blotches ; but, with a few other exceptions, all the eggs
were invariably of a dark olive brown, spotted and marked
with black and brown blotches. The young are called scauries,
and there were already (June 11.) a great number of them
hatched. We found several hundreds of these gulls, in

E E 2

'4250 ^gg^ ^nd Birds found

an immature plumage, assembled together upon the north
part of the Island of Sanda; and, from this circumstance, I
am led to believe that they do not breed until they obtain their
full plumage, as we did not observe a single instance of a bird
out of plumage, among several thousands that were upon the
holm near the Island of Papa Westra.

T/ie Common Gull (hdrus cdnus L.). — We found this only
in the Island of Hoy, breeding upon the tops of the highest
hills ; not very numerous. Their nests were made of sea-
weed and tang, and had only two eggs in each, much smaller,
but longer in proportion, than those of the herring gull ; but
very similar as to colour.

The Black-headed Gull (Ltdrus ridibundus Leisler). — These
are not very numerous : we found a few of their nests in the
Island of Hoy. They invariably lay four eggs, the ground
colour of which is a dirty blue, or an olive brown, and co-
vered with dark brown or rusty red blotches.

The Kittiwalce (Ldrus triddctylus Latham, L. Rissa Lin.)
we found very numerous, and observed them busily employed
in building their nests (May 31.) upon the lower shelves or
ledges of the rocks on the face of the Island of Copenshay,
carrying sea-weed and tang, which they collected as it was
swimming about. Their nests were placed close alongside
of each other : they had just commenced laying, and we were
only able to get three specimens. The eggs are very beau-
tiful ; the ground colour is of a reddish white, very faintly
spotted with rust ; they are much rounder than those of any
other gulls, and about the size of the e^gg of the black-headed
gull. It was with very great difficulty that we obtained these
and some other eggs, by a man's going along the edge of the
rocks, which are almost perpendicular, and 600 ft. in height
from the sea: he appeared to traverse it with perfect ease;
having previously taken off his shoes. He took a long pole
with him, with a sort of spoon fastened at one end ; and by
this means he obtained some eggs that otherwise would have
been out of his reach.

The Arctic Gull [Lestris parasiticus Boie). — This we ob-
served in every island ; but the principal breeding-places
of this species are in the Islands of Hoy and Eday, upon the
tops of the highest hills. We were too early (June 14.), as
they had scarcely begun to lay. We found only one nest,
which was very slight, composed of a few loose straws neg-
ligently put together, and containing but one egg (their usual
number is two), which was of an olive brown colour, with here
and there a streak of black : quite different from the eggs of all
other gulls. When the female left her nest, we observed her

■ • >^^'
In the Orkney Islands, 5|fSl

'.tiSfiftfni im-
endeavouring to decoy us away, by pretending to be lam«,
and tumbling about as if her wing were broken ; and it was
this circumstance that led us to look more attentively. It is
very amusing to see this bird chasing the kittiwake, which it
compels to disgorge its food, and before this food reaches the
water or land, the arctic gull catches it. This appears to be
the only means of subsistence with the arctic gulls, as we
never observed them fishing, like the rest of the gulls. The
provincial name is scouticurlin.

T/ie Shearwater [Procelldria Puffin us Zy., Puffin us Anglbrum
Ray). — This is not near so numerous as most of the other
aquatic birds ; and it was with very great difficulty that we
obtained its Qgg^ as it generally selects the most inaccessible
part of the rock, and burrows a hole between the fissures
wherever there is any soft earth, and there deposits its single
^ggi which is of a glossy white, about the size of that of the
domestic hen, but more pointed at the smaller end. It is
there called by the name of the syre.

The Pyffin (A7c« drctica). — We found this beautiful bird
very numerous, and associating with all the different rock
birds ; it is known by the name of the Tammy Norie. Like
the shearwater, it makes a hole in the soft stratum between
the fissures of the rocks that overhang the sea, and, like that
bird, deposits its single egg upon the bare ground, without
any nest. The ground colour of the egg is white, and invaw
riably speckled with light reddish spots. ^?

- The Red-breasted Merganser [M.ergus serrdtor L.). — "We saw
several male birds in the Loch of Stennis ; but could not dis^
tover a single female, and suppose that they must have taken
their young away, as we were assured that they annually breed
upon the small holms in the loch, and upon the shore. I
have since seen some eggs that were taken hence by your
correspondent Mr. Drosier [see his Ornithological Fisit to
Shetland and the Orkneys^ in Vol. III. p. 321 — 326., and Vol.
IV. p. 193 — 199.]; and they are of a fawn colour, about the
size of those of

The Wild Duck [K^nas Boschas L.), which is also very?,
plentiful. ' ;

The Smew {Mergus alhellus L.). — We found a nest which,
we are inclined to think, belongs to this species, in the Island
of Sanda, close alongside a small loch in the parish of Bin-
ness. We put the female off her nest. After flying round
two or three times, she alighted in the loch ; and although we
could not get near enough to shoot her, yet we could dis-l^^^
tinctly perceive, by the formation of her bill, that she cofi
responded with that figured by Bewick, under the name of

E E 3

4j22 ^ggs atid Birds found

the Lough Diver, The nest contained eleven eggs, rather
larger than those of the teal, but very similar as to shape and
colour. The nest was made of moss, and lined with feathers
and down, and placed amid the long grass. I wish we had
been fortunate enough to secure her, which would have
cleared up all doubts.

The Eider Duck { A^nas molUssima L., Somateria inolUssima
Fleming). — We found specimens of this species breeding upon
a small holm, near Papa Westra, among the loose rocks :
they made no effort to get away, suffering us to approach
within a few yards before they offered to leave their nests ;
and in one instance I took one from off her eggs. They lay
from four to five eggs, which are very smooth, of a pale olive
colour, and very pointed at the smaller end. The nest is
lined with down, but not in such abundance as we were led
to expect. The individuals of this species are not very nu-
merous ; and are known by the name of the dunte goose.

The Sheldrake {A>nas Tadorna Gmelin, Tadorna Vulpdnser
Ray) is tolerably numerous ; and breeds in the rabbit holes
in the Island of Sanda. The provincial name is the sly goose.

The Cormorant ( Felecdnus Cdrbo L., Cdrbo Cormordnus Meyer)
and Shag (P. Grdadus L., Vhalacrocorax Grdculus Cuvier) we
found very numerous, building their nests, which are princi-
pally composed of withered sea-weed and sticks, upon the pro-
jecting shelves of the rocks that overhang the sea. These
contain from three to four eggs, of a bluish white, irregularly
coated with a thick chalky substance. The eggs of the cor-
morant are a trifle larger than those of the shag; with this
exception we could not perceive any difference. Both of them
are much smaller than those of the domestic hen in circum-
ference, but of the same length, or rather longer.

LAND BIRDS.
We did not notice any great variety of land birds. The
f following are those that came under our immediate observ-
ation: —
,; The Golden Eagle (Fdlco Chrysdetos L., K!qnila Chrysdetos
f Vigors) and Sea Eagle {Fdlco Ossifragus L., Halide^elus Albi-
ctlla Savigny) are the only eagles that we saw. Both of them
have their eyries in the Islands of Hoy and Eday. We were
too late to obtain their eggs. Both of them lay from two to
three ; and these scarcely exhibit any difference as to size :
they being not quite so large as those of the goose, but much
rounder. This information we had from a man who has
taken their nests for several years ; and he said that he never
knew them to lay a second time, should their eggs be taken

in the Orkney Islands, 423

away. This spring (1831) he took three eaglets from the
nest of the golden eagle, and one of them was living at Strom-
ness when we were there.

The Peregrine Falcon {Falco peregrmus Aldrov.). — These
are very sparingly dispersed through the different islands, and
resort to the most inaccessible rocks for the purpose of incuba-
tion ; and, wherever there is any considerable number of rock
birds, there you are sure to see a pair of these birds. We noticed
a pair at the Island of Copenshay, and another pair in the
Island of Hoy. We were not fortunate enough to procure
any of their eggs. A boy brought us three eggs, which were
perfectly round, marked with large red blotches, and rather
longer than those of the kestrel (Falco Zinnunculus Z/.). The
nest was taken from the crags, and was built of heather. We
at present do not know to what species to attribute them, never
having seen any like them before.

The Raven {Qoi^mis Cor ax L.) is very plentiful through the
different islands. On the 9th of June, as we were leaving the
Bay of Kirkwall, for one of the other islands, we counted
twenty four of these birds, as they passed over our heads,
flying toward the North Isles ; they were very near to each
other, and followed in the same way as we should expect to
see rooks do in leaving their rookery. We again observed
them (supposed to be the same) on the 1 5th, in the evening,
flying towards the Island of Hoy, or the South Isles, and we
counted twenty-six. I believe this is rather an unusual occur-
rence, never before having seen more than a pair or two
together. We could not be mistaken, as the rook (Corvus
frugilegus L,) and crow (Corvus Corone L,) are never seen
upon those islands.

The Hooded Crow {Corvus Cornix L.) we found in tolerable
plenty; not associating together in communities, but, like
the crow (Corvus Corone L,\ preferring to build their nests
separately. These are placed among the rocks, and upon
the sides of the deep chasms that are to be found upon the
sides of the hills; generally upon the ledge of a rock, among
the overhanging heather. The outside of the nest is com-
posed of withered heather, and large roots or stalks, and it is
lined with wool and hair. In one nest that we looked into,
we found three young ones, and they were almost in full
plumage, which had precisely the same colours as that of their
parents. The usual number of eggs that this species lays is
from four to five, and these are much lighter, and a trifle
larger, than those of the crow.

The Starling {Sturnus vulgaris L.). — We observed this
perched upon every slight eminence, building its nest in the

E E 4)

424 Eggs and Birds of the Orkneys,

Crevices of the stone walls raised to partition the differ-
ent fields ; and, in a few instances, we found them breeding
among the loose rocks or stones that lay scattered upon the
sea shore.

The Mountain Linnet (Fringilla montium Gmelin, Linhria
montdna Ray). — This was the only species of linnet that we
saw ; and, in two nests that came under our observation, one
was placed upon the ground, among the young corn, the
other amidst some whins [(7'lex]. They were both alike:
their outsides were composed of small roots, and dried grass ;
and their insides lined with a small quantity of hair and a
few feathers ; and each contained six eggs, similar in appear-
ance to those of the grey linnet (Fringilla Linota Gmelin,
Linaria Linota Cuvier\ but rather smaller.

The Skylark ( AJauda arvensis L. ), Rocklark ( Afnthus rupestris
Nilsson), and Titlark {Afnthus pratensis Bechstein). — We
found all three of these equally numerous. The latter is
known by the name of the grey teeting.

The Wheatear {Saxicola CEinanthe Bechstein). — This is very
numerous, and called by the name of the chack. Like the
starling, it builds its nests in the crevices of the stone walls,
and very often in the rabbit burrows ; and lays from five to
six light blue eggs, similar to those of the redstart (Sylvia
Phoenicurus Latham).

The Sand Martin {Hirundo ripdria L.). — This was the only
species that we saw ; and a few pairs of them were skimming
over a small loch, in the Island of Sanda.
- The Wild Pigeon {Columba W^nas L.). — This we found
very numerous, breeding in the crevices of the rocks. The
nests are placed at such a depth that it is impossible to reach
them.

The Red Grouse, or Moorfowl (Lagopus scoticus Latham).
— This is the only species of grouse to be found in any
of the islands, and it is tolerably plentiful. The birds of this
species make little or no nest (which is placed under the long
heather), and lay from ten to eleven eggs, beautifully spotted
with black or brown, the ground colour being of a light
reddish colour. The birds appear to sit very close, as we
took a female off her eggs.

The Golden Plover {Charddrius pluvidlis L.). — This
bird we found abundantly distributed over the different islands,
preferring the high hills that are covered with heather. They
make little or no nest, selecting a tuft of heather, where they
deposit their four eggs, the ground colour of which is of a
light reddish colour, spotted with black. Both male and
female have a black patch upon the breast. It is much.

The Nightingale and the Blackcap, 425

brighter in the male; and at the same time it is extended
quite up the throat, which is not the case with the female. '^
The Ring Dottrel [Charadrius hiaticula L.) is very numerotfl
in most of the islands; more particularly in the Island of
Sanda. They had all hatched their young when we were
there, which was from the 30th of May to the 21stof JuneJ^

wija

Art. V. A Jew Remarks on the Nightingale and the BlacJccap.
By John F. M. Dovaston, Esq. A.M. Oxon., of Westfelton,
near Shrewsbury.

" Which of two maidens hath the merrier eye."

Shakspeare,

Sir,

Fully concurring with the sapient wag who says that
" comparisons is odorous," I premise that 1 intend " no offence
i' th' world " to either of these two delicate birds and most
delicious melodists ; nor presume to put them into competition
of taste or talent, by introducing them together ; for, like
honest Petruchio, though a gentleman, they " go but mean-
appareird ; " well aware they have other claims than their
clothes give, to gentility and genius. Though the night-
ingale visits, to some extent, the southern parts of this county,
he very rarely honours this north-western corner where I
reside, here, on the borders of Wales ; nor have I ever heard
him beyond the first range of our hills, though very near to
their southern sides. My enthusiastic friend, John Clavering
Wood, Esq., some twenty years ago, annually turned out two
or three pair, with the hopes they would breed, and their
young return, in the vast w^oody dingles about the Breidden
mountains ; but with no success. Among my copious, but
desultory and undigested, notes, I find the following, dated
June 14. 1812: —

" I am told that the nightingale has not unfrequently been
heard in my neighbourhood ; but though, from earliest infancy,
I have ever been fondly and closely attentive to these matters,
I have but twice had this gratification here. The first, in
some meadows called the Links, just below my house, many
years ago ; but I was too young duly to appreciate the transient
strains, to which my ear was directed by my excellent father :
and last night, on my return from Oswestry, in some low-
ground, called the Rod Meadows. Many mistake the wood-
lark for this enchanting bird ; j[probably from the sole circum-

4'26 The Nightingale and the Blackcaps

stance of his nocturnal song; for surely there is not the
smallest resemblance in the melody, though very sweet.

* The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark,
When neither is attended ; and, I think,
The nightingale, when he doth sing by day,
While every goose is cackling, would be thought
No better a musician than the wren.
How many things by season season'd are.
To their right praise and true perfection ! *

Nay, I have even known the ignorant and inorganised
aver the hurried and huddled notes of the eternally restless
sedgebird [Curr^ca salicaria Fleming].^ to be those of the
nightingale ! I cannot be mistaken, having so constantly
heard the nightingales in Bagley Wood, near Oxford ; and,
once heard by a duller ear than mine, they and their notes
are not likely to be forgotten. They seem to love low meadows
and bushy grounds. I stopped a full half hour last night in
the road, during which he scarcely ceased singing; from the
low and quickly repeated gurgling note, to his full flow and
rich gushes of lofty melody ; with short but lovely pauses,
doubling the effect of the resumed and reiterated strains. It
was a moonless night, but refreshingly mild, and fragrant with
the odours of woodbines and hedge-flowers, while the glow-
worm shone sweetly on the bank."

Much, however, as I lament that the visits of this bird are
so few and far between, I would not give up the blackcap for
him ; of all our English warblers, to my taste, the most
ravishingly sweet, wild, and wonderful. As the Scotch say to
the Irish, when the latter pretend a claim to Ossian, " Well,
take him if ye can : we have Robert Burns for our own ! "
So I say of my beloved blackcap : he is the Burns of birds.
And really often. Sir, when musing alone (though I may be
laughed at for telling it, and I care not), delightfully startled
at his sudden burst of ecstatic song, I exclaim aloud, " God
bless thy merry heart ! " and I find I have long ago written
opposite him, on the margin of my Ray, " Avium poeta, et
omni modulamine amplissimus." *

The finely tuned ear of our darling White duly felt the
music of this bird, when he gives it 'the numerous and just
epithets of " a full, sweet, deep, loud, and wild pipe." He
has not only, too, a perfectly original style of his own, though,
like a poet of all-genius, he sometimes hardly knows what he
is about, and has (regardless of Aristotle and the unities)
neither beginning, middle, nor end ; but is an eminent and
most successful imitator of many other birds, particularly of

* " Poet of birds, and fullest of all song."

The Nigfitingcde and the Blackcap, 4-27

the thrush and swallow, even to deception, if not seen ; and,
like the mightiest of bards, will, from his highest flights, sud-
denly break off* into his chat^ chat, chat^ of homeliest prose.

I find, in my notes of 1819, that very early, one April
morning, in bed, with the sash open (for I frequently, on fine
nights, place an ^olian harp in my chamber window), I
imagined I heard a nightingale in full song. I rushed out
half-dressed and slipshod to the thicket, where the fine
strains still flowed by fits, and distinctly saw it was my friend
the blackcap ; which, had I not seen, I should have believed
to have been a nightingale, so full, thick, rich, and loud were
the many modulated notes. They were not repeated the next
morning. Might not this blackcap, in his passage through
the south of England, resting in the night, have heard a
nightingale, and retained in his memory parts of the song ?

The good and honest old Izaak Walton, with the finest
spirit of that faith he sincerely believed and felt, thus honours
the nightingale : — " But the nightingale, another of my airy
creatures, breathes such sweet loud music out of her little
instrumental throat, that it might make mankind to think
miracles are not ceased. He that at midnight, when the
very labourer sleeps securely, should hear, as I have very
often, the clear airs, the sweet descants, the natural rising and
falling, the doubling and redoubling of her voice, might well
be lifted above earth, and say, ' Lord, what music hast thou
provided for thy saints in heaven, when thou affbrdest bad
men such music on earth ? ' " The Latin scholar of taste may
be highly gratified with a masterly description of the night-
ingale's song, on referring to the Natural History of Pliny,
book X. chap. 29,, which I will not expose my pedantry by
quoting, nor my clumsiness by attempting to translate. It
begins about the middle of the chapter, *' Lusciniis diebus ac

noctibus continuis densante se frondium germine," &c.

&c., and is a rich masterpiece of brilliant composition.

Mind, I am not writing a history of these birds, or I
should never know where to end ; but merely a chit chat
sketchy scrap, for the lighter readers of the Magazine, who
prefer the poetry of natural history to the dry and draffy
multiplication-table nomenclature of technicalities, and the
concatenated articulations of inductiveness. I leave these to
the learned. I never loved to deal in the nugce difficiles,
[puzzling trifles], though, I fear me, like poor Dogberry, I
am sometimes guilty of " letting my reading and writing
appear, when there is no need of such vanity." I had lately
an inkling to have offered you some remarks on many of our
warblers' melodies, and the language of birds, both their

428 Illustrations in British Oology.

poetry and prose: but it has been so ably and admirably
commenced by a gentleman [Mr. Main] so very far more
competent (Vol. IV. p. 118. and 412.), that I will not even
presume to play a second ; but leave him with a Tasto solo,
ad libitum ; praying him to proceed as he has begun ; most
honestly confessing my far greater pleasure in enjoying his
acute and well-defined notes, than seeing in print my own
inferior accompaniments.

Mai/ 1. 1832. John F. M. Dovaston.

Westfelton, near Shrewsbury.

Art. VI. Illustrations in British Zoology, By George John-
ston, M.D., Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edin-
burgh.

4. E^OLIS RUFIBRANCHIA^LIS. (fig. 85.)

CI. Gasteropoda, Ord. Nudibranchia, Fam. Glaucidae, Gen. E'olis.

, The genus E'olis, Eolida, or Eolidia, (for thus variously is
it written,) was established by Cuvier, when this great master
in natural science first undertook to give to molluscous animals
an arrangement, in which the various families should stand
according to their relations, as indicated by their structure and
habits, and which, in its practical application, has as much
facility as the most incongruous methods of any of his pre-
decessors. The genus embraces such naked sea-snails as
have two or three pairs of conical non-retractile tentacula at
the head ; and external branchiae, in the form of tapered
slightly compressed filaments or papillae, disposed in one or
more rows along the back. The skin covers the body closely,
and nowhere assumes the form of a cloak ; and the little
creatures move along solely by the undulations of the foot,
which, like that of the slug, forms the entire under surface.

In illustration of the genus, I select a species which, it
appears to me, has not hitherto been described, and which
may be distinguished by the following character : —

Vdriaiions of Paris quadrifolia, 429

E. rufibranchialis. — Corpore limaciformi, albido ; filamentis branchialibus
numerosis, longis, coccineis, apice albis ; tentaculis quatuor.

E. rufibranchialis. — Body snail-like, whitish ; branchial filaments nu-
merous, long, scarlet, tipped with white ; tentacula four.

This new E^olis was found creeping on some corallines
dredged up in Berwick Bay. The body, when fully extended,
is half an inch long, whitish, somewhat transparent, soft,
oblong, tapered behind ; branchial filaments slightly tapered,
disposed in two interrupted rows along the margins of the
back ; sides white, smooth ; foot narrow, white ; tentacula
white, conical, the superior rather shorter and wrinkled, the
inferior more slender and smooth ; eyes two, extremely
minute, placed at the base of the superior tentacula. The
branchial filaments are unequal in length ; they are carried
erect when the animal creeps in the water, but fall down on
its sides when removed from it. Each filament consists of a
red central part, which is enveloped in a transparent soft
skin or coat; and the white tips appear as if they were per-
forated.

Our figure exhibits the animal considerably magnified ; for
in such minute creatures as these are, figures of the natural
size are of no utility.

Bermck upon Tweed, March 18. 1832.

Correction to the Name of the Species of Plandria de-
scribed p. 344 — 346. — The recovery of a long lost note-
book has enabled me to ascertain that the subject of my last
illustration is the Planaria vittata of Mr. Montagu (JLin,
Trans., vol. xi. p. 25. tab. 5. fig. 3.). The differences which
may be remarked in our descriptions proceed evidently from
their being taken from the animals when in different states of
repletion. Montagu, therefore, is the discoverer of this
species in Britain. His specimens were found on the coast
of Devonshire; and Dr. Fleming has also seen it in the
north of Scotland.

Art. VII. On the Varieties of Paris quadrifolia, considered ivith
respect to the ordinary/ Characteristics of Monocotyledonous Plants,
By the Rev. J. S. Henslow, A.M., King's Professor of Botany
in the University of Cambridge.

The flowering stems of Paris quadrifolia {fg, 86. «) bear
one whorl of leaves, and four whorls in the floral organs ; and
in the most common state of the plant these whorls are
respectively composed of four leaves, four sepals, four petals,

430

Variations of Paris quadrifblia.

eight stamens, and a four-celled pistil, crowned by four
stigmas. In this state, therefore, it offers a marked excep-
tion to the law which is so prevalent among monocotyledons,
" that the number 3, or a multiple of it, should prevail
in the developement of some part or other of their structure/*
The frequency, however, with which this plant deviates
from its more common condition, seems to indicate a great
degree of instability in the operation of whatever be the law
which regulates the developement of its subordinate parts;
which should make us cautious in pronouncing upon the
normal condition of its several foliaceous whorls. It seems
to me that some light may be thrown upon this question
by examining a great number of specimens from different
localities, and recording the limits within which the number
of parts in each organ is found to vary. With this view,
I have, for the last three or four years, noted the different
varieties gathered by myself and two friends, Messrs. Babing-
ton and Downes, in a habitat near Cambridge. The result
of our examinations, made upon 1500 specimens, I have
arranged in the following tables, upon which I shall offer a
iew remarks.

Variations of Paris quadrifolia.

431

Table I. — The condition and number of each, of 38 distinct varieties
observed among 1500 specimens.

^

%

g

t

Number of

^

n

»'

Number of

^*

_»

OJ

instances

t;

z

i2

4.

g

1

instances

'u

I

a

5

1

of each

'E

s

Si

s

1

of each

>

^

^

111

w

variety.

>

A

(«

(^

M

rariety.

1

3

5

3

8*

4

1

21

5

5

4

8

4

1

2

4

3

3

6

3

1

22 1

5

5

4

9

4

10

3

4

3

3

7

3

2

5

5

4

9

4#

1

H

4

4

3

7

4

3

23

5

5

4

9

5

1

4

4

3

7*

4

1

24

5

5

4

9

6

1

5

4

4

3

8

3

2

25

5

5

4

10

4

1

6

4

4

3

8

4

2

26

5

5

4

10

5

1

7

4

4

3

9

4

1

27

5

5

4

11

5

1

8

4

4

4

8

3

4

28

5

5

5

10

5

6

r

4

4

4

8

4

1160

29 1

6

3

3

7

4

1

A

4

4

4

8*

4

3

6

3

3

7*

4

1

1

4

4

4

8

4*

1

30

6

3

3

8*

4

1

10

4

4

4

8

5

12

31

6

4

3

8

4

1

11

4

4

4

9

4

19

32

6

4

4

8

3

1

12

5

3

3

7

3

1

33

6

4

4

8

4

1

13

5

3

3

7

4

1

r

6

4

4

8

4

12

14

5

4

3

7

4

2

34 J

6

4

4

8*

4

2

15

5

4

3

8

4

2

1

6

4

4

8

4*

1

:a{

5

4

4

8

4

192

35

6

4

4

9

4

4

5

4

4

8*

4

2

36

6

4

4

10

4

1

17

5

4

4

9

4

31

37 1

6

4

4

9

4

1

18

5

4

4

9

5

1

6

5

4

9

4#

1

19

5

4

4

10

4

3

38

6

5

4

10

4

1

20

5

5

3

8

5

1

"-S w

Table II. — Exhibiting the number of times that the several variations in
each whorl occur throughout the whole number of specimens.

Num. of parts.

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Leaves

1

1211

259

29

Sepals - -

8

1464

28

0

Petals - -

24

1470

6

0

Stamens

—

—

1

12

1402

71

13

1

0

Stigmas

11

1465

23

1

Table III. — The numerical proportion between the most common con-
dition of the several whorls ^as in No. 9.) and the other cases, in which
their several parts are either mcreased or diminished.

Leaves,

Sepals.

Petals.

stamens.

Stigmas.

Parts diminished
Ordinary state -
Parts increased

1
1211

288

8
1465

28

24

1470

6

13
1402

85

11

1465
24

In Table I. an asterisk (*) is placed against the number of

4?32 Variations qfP^iris quadrifbtia,

the stamens and stigmas in some subvarieties, in which one
of these organs exhibited a tendency to subdivide, or become
double : by a filament bearing two anthers (j%. 86. c, d^ e) -
or by a stigma becoming branched (^and g). By this table it^^
appears that the most common variety (No. 9) exceeds threie^^
fourths of the whole number of the specimens examined ;^*
and that No. 16, next in abundance, which differs from it only*^
in having one leaf more, comprises more than half of the ^
remainder. Together, these two varieties exceed nine tenths-^
of the whole. '

By Table II. we are shown the liinits, within which the
number of parts developed in the separate whorls may lie:
and it is very remarkable that these limits are so nearly 3 and ^
6 for the four whorls of leaves, sepals, petals, and stigmas ;'*
and that they are nearly 6 and 1 2 for the whorl of stamend.-^'-*
There are, in fact, only three varieties wanting out of thef^
twenty-three which such conditions would render possible,'^
and these deficiencies are confined to the non-occurrence of the 'I
highest limits assumed for the sepals, petals, and stamens. It
should be remarked, also, that although a single instance only
has occurred, in any of the flowering stems, in which the first^l
whorl was composed of three leaves, this number, however, is
very general in the foliaceous whorl that crowns the barren
stalks {b). *^

Table III. is only a slight modification of Table 11., b«t^
shows us a little more clearly what is the tendency of eack'"
whorl to deviate, by excess or default, from its most common
condition.

Supposing, now, by way of hypothesis, we assume the
normal character of the plant to be, that it have its several
whorls composed of the minimum values which have been
observed in the numbering of their separate parts, we should
reduce it to the state of a Trillium {h\ an allied genus,
which affords as excellent an example of the law of subdivi-
sion prevalent among monocotyledons*, as the usual state of
Paris quadrifolia is a remarkable exception to it. If we;
would now attempt to account for the reason of such an ano-^'*

* " That the number 3, or a multiple of it, should prevail in the deve-
lopement of some part or other of their structure." In the genus Trillium,
as the term trillium implies, the parts are all triple ; the leaves are 3; theib
sepals (leaflets of the calyx) 3 ; the petals 3 ; the stamens 6, that isy^
twice 3; the stigmas 3; and the cells of the berry 3. (See/g-. 86. h above.)
The primordial veins, too, of the leaves, sepals, and petals, both of the
species of Trillium and of Paris quadrifolia, are usually three. The species
of Trillium are all natives of America, where more than thirty species, it
is said, have been discovered; out of this number thirteen species have^a
been introduced into British gardens. The figure above (86. h) represents^'
Trillium erectum L.^ and is copied from t. 470. of Curtis's Botanical Ma-
gazitie, — J. D.

Variations of Paris quadrifolia, 433

maly, we may suppose that this plant is ever struggling, as it
were, to become double in all its parts ; but that it seldom
succeeds, except in the case of the leaves, in subdividing and
developing any more than one of the subordinate parts of each
separate whorl. If each part were split up into two, by the
sort of process exhibited in y%-. 86. c to g, the plant would
then acquire the maximum of developement indicated by the
law suggested from Table II. But if, on the other hand, we
assume that these maximum values belong to the normal con-
dition of this Paris, we have still a monocotyledon regularly
subdivided into multiples of S ; only now we must ascribe its
ordinary character to a constant tendency to abortion in the
separate parts of each whorl. Which of these two hypotheses,
or whether either of them, may be correct, it would be prema-
ture to decide. I shall, however, be very happy in finding
any of your correspondents inclined to assist me in the in-
vestigation, by constructing similar tables from specimens
procured in different habitats. I would, however, suggest an
improvement in the mode of making these observations, which
did not occur to me before, viz. to estimate the number of
parts in the innermost whorl (or pistil of the flower), from
the number of cells in the ovarium, and not from the number
of the stigmas. Whenever there are more stigmas than cells,
an asterisk may then be placed against the subvariety, as in
Table I., indicating a tendency in some part of this whorl to
become double. I am, Sir, yours, &c.

Cambridge, Feb. 4. 1832. J. S. HENSLowi^^

In Vol. IV. p. 446-7. is a list of the rarer plants of Essex ; and J. G.,
its author, remarks : — "In the Thrift Wood, near Chelmsford, Paris
quadrifolia thickly covers the sloping sides of a pond (which is filled with
tlottonia palustris), and grows to an unusual size: many of the specimens
have five leaves." This remark suggests some connection between a
vigorous condition of the plant, and the production of a fifth leaf.

Gerard Edwards Smith (of St. John's College, Oxford), in his Catalogue
of the PhcBnogamous Plants of South Kenty states that he met with several
specimens of Paris quadrifolia, precisely in the condition of Professor
Henslow's twenty-eighth variety above, in a wood at Stowting; and adds
that he found such specimens to be severally furnished with a 5-celled seed-
vessel. Of one of these specimens he figures, in plate i. of his Catalogue,
a flower, to exhibit the quinary division of its parts, and gives beside it a
detached figure of the 5-angled 5-stigmaed germen, and another of a
transverse section of it, for the sake of displaying the 5 cells of which it
consists, and that one of these cells is larger than the remaining 4, as it is
remarked to have been in the explanatory description.

Sir J. E. Smith, in Rees's Cyclopcediay describes two species of Paris ;
one, our English P. quadrifolia ; the other, a species from Nepal, which
he denominates P. polyphjUa. His entire description of it is here present--
ed : — " P. polyphylla, Many-leaved herb Paris. Leaves lanceolate, 8 or 10,

Vol. V.~No. 27. f f -• wi^ii^sia mUXtTx^

jf^^f Becent Disccwery of Gold Mines

Discovered by Dr. F. Buchanan, growing in woods near rivulets, in tJppcr
Nepal, where it is known by the name of Dai Swa. The root is creeping,
but much thicker and more tuberous than in P. quadrifolia. Stem a foot
or more in height, brownish, thrice the thickness of that of P. quadrifolia,
crowned like that with a whorl of leaves, in a similar spreading position,
but about twice as numerous, and much narrower, being elliptic-lanceolate,
taper-pointed, triple-ribbed j each supported on a short purplish stalk.
Flower-stalk much shorter than that of P. quadrifolia, but the flower i^
larger, of the same green colour. Its calyx leaves and petals are usually
5, with ten stamens ; but sometimes only 4 with 8 stamens ; or even 3
with 6. The styles, as well as the cells of the germen, always agree in
number with the petals ; but the former are combined by a thick columnar
base, which character, added to his not having seen the ripe fruit, caused
Dr. Buchanan to doubt of the genus. The habit and rest of the charac-
ters, however, leave no scruple in our mind ; but it is very possible tl^a^
what Linnajus, in the European species, calls styles, may be almost wholly
stigmas, for they are downy all along their upper side, and the Nepal
plant will then be found to differ merely in having the style more elon-
gated."

Sprengel, in his Sy sterna Vegetabilium (vol. ii. p. 261.), registers the
following species of Paris : —

** 1. P. quadrif61ia Linn. Leaves 4, in a whorl, sepals linear, exceeding
the petals in length. Inhabits the shady woods of Europe.

" 2. P. verticillata Bieberstein, Leaves 8, in a whorl, sepals lanceolate^
thrice as long as the petals. Inhabits the east of Siberia and Nepal,
[Synonyme:] P. polyphylla of ^Sm^/z.

" 3. P. incompleta Bieberstein. Leaves about 10, in a whorl, sepals
lanceolate, nerved; petals none; anthers not lengthened out at their tips.
Inhabits Armenia and Iberia. [Synonymes :] P. apetala and Deraiddvia
poly phylla [both of ] ^o^maww." • • tr

This quotation from Sprengel informs us of the existence of at le^ft
two species of Paris, which individually produce a whorl of about 9 leaved;
ibad' should Sprengel, in his haste, have wrongly identified Bieberstein's P.
verticillata from the east of Siberia, with Smith's P. polyphylla from Nepal,
then three species will be known which severally produce a whorl of
about nine leaves.

Has any one, by night or by day,' o!)^e^ed the flower of Paris qua<]h^
fdlia to be fragrant ? Its green colour suggests the likelihood of its bei^
fragrant, as does the fact that the flower of Trillium discolor Wray^ a
species native to Georgia in America, and figured in Curtis's Botanical
Magazine^ t. 3097., is described to exhale an odour resembling that of the
blossoms of the American allspice (Calycanthus floridus). These are fra-
grant, indeed ; for when numerously expanded, in the sunny days of July,
their usual time of flowering, they diffuse a copious volume of delicious and
aromatic odour, capable of perfuming the surrounding air for many yards,

32fiv B T370 ^^nq o) .ifj.i ^ ?.sonBrhR bnn ^^'S*

^fib bn£ Aooi 3aoo[ lo gaaeiiin lii w Jtjviiip, bnr. hnB^'\o laoixo

hafnisj States of America. By Robert Bakewell, Esq. ^^

fo Sir, '

^^'The discovery of native gold in some of the southern provinces
of the United States in North America lias not hitherto excited
much attention in Europe, though the quantity obtained has

\Ued States of America. *^

W^ Severn y¥are¥uppieit^^^^^ greater part of the gold com^
at the mint of the United States' government. The principal
part of the gold has been procured from the states of North
and South Carolina and Georgia. It was first discovered in
considerable masses in the sands of rivers ; one mass was found
weighing 28 lbs. : it has more recently been found occurring
in regular veins intermixed with the minerals which are usually
associated with gold ores in other localities. Dr. Macaul]^
an American gentleman who is connected with several extei^
sive proprietors of land in which gold occurs, visited England
this spring, and obligingly invited me to examine the specf^
mens he had brought with him, and subsequently presented
ine with various specimens of the ore and the rocks in which
the gold veins occur; among which is one highly interesting
specimen of a vein, rich in ore, with a portion of the rock at4.
tached to each cheek or side of the vein. The occurrence of
gold in considerable quantities, in the midst of the oldest settle-
tnents of the United States, is a fact not only interesting in thte
natural history of those States, but is one which cannot fail to
produce important effects on their commercial relations. TJh^
following brief description of the North American repositories
of gold ore, communicated to me verbally by Dr. Macauly, will^
I trust, be acceptable to many of your readers ; I shall add td
it an account of the specimens he has given me, illustrative bf
the geology of the gold districts. -dowJ

To make the account more generally intelligible, Idsh^
first take a summary view of the geology and physical strtte-
ture of a portion of the United States extending from the sea
coast to the ranges of the long chain of the Alleghany Mqiin-
tains, which separate the rivers that flow westward into t^d
Atlantic, from those which flow southward into the Gulf of
Mexico. The range of sea coast from the south of Georgia
toXong Island takes a north-easterly direction ; and the ranges
of the Alleghany Mountains, in the interior, run nearly in the
same direction, which is also that of the different beds of rock
that occur between the sea arid these mountain ranges. The
traveller who lands upon the coast between latitude 30° and
42°, and advances westward, will have to pass over a vast
extent of sand and gravel, with masses of loose rock and clay
beds, composing what may be called the alluvial and diluvM
deposition ; or, what are by the French more properly termed
ter-rains de transport ; viz., lands formed of the debris or
ruins of the more solid parts of the earth's surface, and
carried into their present position by inundations from tli^
breaking down of lakes, or the irruptions of the oceaiji^
These diluvial depositions for the most part cover the solid

F F 2

436 Becent Discovery of Gold Mines

rock for the breadth of 100 miles, or more, inland from
tlie coast. When the traveller has passed over the diluvial
districts, and arrives at regular beds of rock ranging north-
east and south-west, he will not find them composed, as on
the eastern side of England, of the upper secondary or ter-
tiary formations; but he arrives at what geologists call a primi-
tive and transition country, like that on the western side of
England, Wales, and Scotland. In this part of the United
States, the primitive and transition rocks are not elevated
into lofty mountains, but form ranges of hills of very moderate
elevation ; and the granite, wherever it appears, is a low ridge,
destitute of those grand features which characterise granitic
mountains in many parts of Europe.

In Dr. Maclure's account of the geology of the United
States, he describes the granitic ridge as immediately border-
ing the alluvial and diluvial land ; but according to Dr. Mac-
auly, the granitic ridge that runs through Georgia and the
Carolinas is situated several miles west of the border of the
alluvial depositions, and the gold veins occur in the low hills
that rise between this ridge and the diluvial land extending
north and south through these states. The gold districts
which have been hitherto examined occupy a surface of above
200 miles in length from north to south, and a breadth vary-
ing from 20 to 30 miles or more. From the specimens given
me by Dr. Macauly, the rocks are evidently what are deno-
minated transition rocks, and rocks allied to the older trap
formations. As we proceed beyond the gold districts, the
beds generally dip westward ; and are at length covered with
secondary rocks of sandstone and limestone, and include a
part of the great coal formation, extending to the north-west
beyond Pittsburg. It is the older secondary strata, that, rising
in various ridges in a north-east and south-west direction,
have received various names in the different states ; but which,
for conciseness, I have designated by the common name of the
Alleghany Mountains : their course may be seen traced in all
the best maps of the United States. This outline of the
country may suffice to convey a tolerably correct notion of the
geological position of the gold districts.

It is now more than twenty years since native gold was
first discovered in the sands of some of the rivers in North
Carolina. One mass was found weighing 28 lbs. So early as
the year 1810, nearly 1400 oz. of this gold were received at
the mint of the United States. On a more extended search,
gold was found afterwards in grains and small pieces, in the
dry sands of many rivulets in both the Carolinas, and also in
Georgia. Indeed, it is rather extraordinary, that, in countries

i7i the United States of America, 4-37

-which had been so long settled, native gold should occur in
considerable quantities, without exciting the attention of the
inhabitants ; particularly as it preserves its colour and splen-
dour, being for the most part nearly pure. For some years
after gold had been discovered in these states, the inhabitants
were contented with searching the beds of brooks and rivulets,
after heavy rains had subsided. But one proprietor of land
in which gold was obtained, having noticed that the sands of
a rivulet, on his estate, never yielded gold above a certain
point, where a small brook entered into it, was induced to
believe that the gold had been brought down by that brook.
On tracing it upwards to its source, he observed in the ad-
jacent rocks several veins of quartz; and recollecting that
some of the grains of native gold found in the sand were
attached to pieces of the same mineral, he very naturally in-
ferred that the gold might be contained in these veins. After
three or four days' labour, in sinking upon the vein, he was
rewarded by the discovery of several bunches, or united pieces,
of native gold. This successful experiment was soon followed
by others of a similar kind, carried on in a rude manner by
the American farmers, with little knowledge of mining opera-
tions, and without any acquaintance with geology or minera-
logy. By these means, and by searching the sands of rivulets
in the districts before described, a large quantity of gold has been
annually obtained; but the veins have been nowhere worked
deeper than about 40 or 50 ft., when the workings have in
many situations been impeded by water; to remove whiqh
required more skill and capital than most of the proprietors
possess. One farmer, who had obtained by his own labour
gold to the value of 25,000 dollars, immediately relinquished
the pursuit when the w^ater came into the mine ; being un-
willing, as he said, " to throw away certain gains in the search
of uncertain profits." Some American gentlemen, resident in
-and near the gold districts, have formed a company for the
purpose of working the mines on a more extensive scale, and
in a scientific manner : they have purchased 22,000 acres of
land, containing auriferous veins, and have obtained a charter
from the government of the state of North Carolina. It was
for the purpose of inducing some English capitalists to unite
with them, that Dr. Macauly visited this country; and, the
amount of capital required being comparatively small, he
found no difficulty in meeting with persons willing to unite
with the company, on the condition o,f previously ^H^mining
their estates.

As these mines have now been worked some time, and are
situated in a well inhabited country, provided with good roads,

F r 3

40^ Recent Discoxiet-y of Gold Mines

navigable rivers, and wood, they offer a fairer promise Ifor
'British enterprise and capital, than any of the mining specula*-
tions in South America, many of which are situated in almost
inaccessible positions, far removed from supplies of food or fuel,
where the working must be attended with enormous expense,,
and where, from the instability of the government, the pro-
prietor can have little security for the permanent possession of
the mines, should they prove productive. Whether the Caro*.,
lina Gold Mine Company have selected for their operations
the lands which will ultimately be the most productive in
valuable gold mines may be fairly doubted, as the gold dis-
tricts cover so large a portion of the country, and have not
jet been diligently and scientifically explored. The selection
has, most probably, been as well made as the present state
<)f information would admit of. The specimens of native
•gold which Dr. Macauly brought to England were very
numerpus : those from the sands of rivers consisted chiefly o|^
gold nearly pure, and were generally unmixed with other
minerals; the pieces were somewhat flattened, and rounded,
varying in size from that of a pea to a large walnut. The
specimens of gold from veins were of various sizes, and more
err less intermixed with quartz, steatite, calcareous spar, iron
pyrites, and a reddish brown iron ochre, probably derived,
from the decomposition of pyrites. One was indeed a rich
specimen, weighing about 7 lbs., of which about 5 lbs. were,
nearly pure gold. The specimen was much flattened, as if
it came from the sid"© or cheek of the vein. In a country like
England, „ where gold, the representative of wealth, is most
:^ehtly^^ad6ihed^^s' the supreme deity, " with all the heart, ana
with all the mind, and with all the strength" of its votaries,
such a specimen was indeed a tempting object. In imitation
(^ffhe'^ fisherman at Athens, mentioned by Lucian, who with
a rod and line angles for different philosophers from the
tower of the temple of Minerva, baiting his hook with the ob-
jects best suited to the cupidity of each sect ; — I say, in imi-
tation of the Athenian fisherman, I recommend Dr. Macauly
to bore a hole through his specimen, and with a rod and line
suspend it from the gallery of the House of Commons, when
he would soon have numbers flocking round, and catching at
it ; crying out, " Ay, that is the right stuff for us ; that is the
true bait for John Bull !" Dr. Johnson, esteemed our great
moralist, says, of the influence of gold in England : — <* Wealth
commands the ear of greatness and the eye of beauty; gives
spirit to the dull, and authority to the timorous ; and leaves
him, from whom it departs, without virtue, and without under-
standing." V V.^'l

in the United States of America, 439

To return from this slight digression to the drier subject
of the rock specimens from the Carolina gold district: thejf
are not numerous, but they suffice to show clearly the g^o^^
logical character of the country. ^^*

1. Clay slate, exactly similar to the varieties of Cornish slate,
provincially called killas ; having somewhat of a whitisfc
silvery lustre. ^

2. A quadrangular prism, of what Dr. Macauly called basalt:
it occurred in a bed over the gold veins, and, according to

^ Dr. Macauly, some parts of the bed contained garnets.*

" 'jf'he prism more nearly resembles phonolite, passing into

/dlay stone; it is of a greenish brown colour, very compact,

but yielding without difficulty to the knife: each side of

the prism has a steatitic incrustation, which gives, it the

"^ ^aspect of serpentine, and the same 3C^py ^t^el; but this

-^ is merely superficial.

3.^ <A. darker rock, more nearly resembling serpentine ; it con-
' j^tains some embedded particles of quartz, and minute grains
* .of pyrites, which are probably auriferous, as a vein of com-
pact grey quartz runs through the rock, in which native
^'^old is plentifully dis;^emipate|J in p^j;tici<^s^lid ,lapQig£i?, qf^
, 'various forms. J.,^^;^,,^.;,^,| .yj^ h^^^^vim

4. A magnificent specimen of splendent carbonate or iroi^ fflTO
white quartz, from near Salisbury, North Carolina^ j.jboqg

5. A specimen of a vein containing quartz, iron ochre, U'ojl,
pyrites, and particles of native gold, with portions of
greenish slate and mica. g^.. ~ .. .j,

% and 7. Iride^c^jit«o^iJf#^^et.,C§4i9^

sylvania. ^^--^n^u grft ![r^ riii-^ \mr. hmm -dt Mn diiw

*^l Tne American coal formation ejctends from east tO:^;iji^^
several hundred miles, and contains numerous beds of valu^
able coal and ironstone : it will doubtless prove a far greater
acquisition to the wealth and power of the United States than
the discovery of gold. The coal is chiefly dry coal, yielding
little bitumen : the Americans call it anthracite, but it is very
different from the anthracite of European mineralogists, and is
far more valuable for domestic use or for manufactures.

The discovery of the three important minerals, gold, iron
ore, and coal, in a country possessing free institutions, with a
cheap but effective government and an enterprising and en-
lightened people, presents to the reflecting mind objects for

* 1 think that these cr3'stals were most probably analeime, a mineral
(jommonly foun4 in basaltic rocks, and frequently crystallised like the

garnet. ^^'i:!:>iEhJ

F F 4)

44d Gold Mines in the United States,

future anticipation of the most consoling kind. Persons who
appear to hate the very name of republican freedom, pander
to the feelings of a corrupt oligarchy, and visit America for
the purpose of ridiculing the people, and vilifying their in-
stitutions ; — they do not find, indeed, all the polish of man-
ners which may be possessed by the metropolitan citizens of
old established states : but, if such travellers were to visit our
agricultural population in the provinces of England, I am sure
they would meet with all the rudeness of the Americans, with-
out even a slight degree of their general intelligence and good
sense.

The relative benefits of a cheap and a dear government may
be learned by the following fact, immediately connected with
the subject of the present communication. About the very
time when native gold was discovered in Carolina, a similar
discovery was made in the county of Wicklow in Ireland, and
considerable quantities of gold were found in the mountain
streams : among these was one specimen of pure gold weigh-
ing 22 oz., and another of 5 oz. On enquiring from my
friend. General Cockburn, when on a visit at his house in the
neighbourhood of the gold streams, what progress had been
made in the farther discovery of gold, he informed me that
the gold streams had been taken under the fostering care of
government, and a guard of soldiers placed over them ; since

^ which time not one particle of gold had been heard of in the

^country.

3^' ^ I am, Sir, yours, &c.

,, , Robert Bakewell.

Hampsteady May 12. 1832.

At p. 454<. of the present Number will be found some notices, sent us
a considerable time ago, of several instances of the discovery of gold in the
United States. Some short notices of diluvian deposits in the state of
New York, and of the fossils found in those deposits, as well as a notice
of the anthracite of Rhode Island, will be found in Vol. XL p. 253. — J. D.

441

REVIEWS.

Art. I. Catalogue of Works on Natural History, lately published^
with some Notice of those considered the most interesting to British
Naturalists,

Anon : Popular Lectures on the Vertebrated Animals of the
British Islands. Part I. On the British Mammifera; with
a tabular View of them, arranged according to Blumen-
bach's System ; a Synopsis of all the Genera and Species ;
and an Appendix containing a Sketch of Extinct Animals.
8vo, pp. 96. Birmingham, 1831. Wrightson, Birming-
ham ; Baldwin, and Longman, London.

The writer of these Lectures plays with his subject, that is,
he discusses it in an ofF-hand manner ; and although in his
successive treating of the various animals, one by one, he gives,
in English, the technical characteristics of each species, and
those of the genus, order, &c., to which it belongs, he gives
also, in relation to each, either some sentimental reflection,
something interesting that has to his knowledge occurred in
association with it, or anecdotes and notices descriptive of the
habits of the animal. This untechnical part of the book we
regard more than the technical part, because the British
animals are to Britons empirically known or distinguishable ;
but it is, we fear, far from being the fact, that each is to every
Briton a centre of amiable, intellectual, and therefore highly
interesting, associations. This is what it is most desirable
they, and every object in creation, should be ; and we admire
the present manual, as being a cheap means of promoting so
desirable an end, and heartily wish that the successful sale
of this " Part I." may encourage the author to proceed
with the remainder, which he proposes should consist of
six parts : " Parts IL, III., and IV., to be respectively de-
voted to the description of the land birds, the Grallae or
waders, and the water birds ; Part V. to the amphibious
animals and cartilaginous fishes ; and Part VI. to the osseous
or bony fishes." We cannot state the price of this richly
stored pamphlet, or " Part I. ;" but it cannot be high, as it
has been got up in a plain, unornamented, but nevertheless
clear and neat, manner.

442 Minstrelsy of the Woods.

Anon I The Minstrelsy of the Woods; or Sketches and
Songs connected with the Natural History of some of thes)
most interesting British and Foreign Birds. By the Authors
of "The Wild Garland," &c. 8vo, pp. 230, with 19 plates^
of as many species of birds. London, 1832, Harvey and
Darton. I

'^_ This is a charming little volume, and well adapted to the'
purpose for which it is said to have been written; namely,
the amusement and instruction of the youthful. The author
does not pretend to be a scientific ornithologist; but he is a
lover of the feathered race, and has studied their habits and
economy with attention. Birds may be considered as the poet^^
of the inferior creation ; hence has arisen a kind of fellowshipf'
between our author and the choristers of the woods. He haS^
described and sung of their characters, powers, instincts, and"
their affections, returning song for song, in a very pleasing
strain. Although the execution of the plates and portraits
of the birds are not every thing we could wish, yet they are
sufficiently exact for identifying the species intended, mord:
especially if they were coloured; and this we would advisd
every young lady who has a copy to do for herself, as a very";
pleasant task. But surpassing all he has said or sung are the
amiable feelings and pious train of sentiment which pervade
every page of the book. — J, M.

Weatherhead, George Hume, M.D. &c. &c. : An Account of
the Beulah Saline Spa, at Norwood, Surrey; containing
a Description of its Medicinal Properties and Effects, of the
Diseases of which it is remedial, and Directions for its
Use. 8vo, pp. 38. London, Hatchard, 1832.
'* The water drawn fresh from the well is beautifully trans-
parent and sparkling. Innumerable bubbles of fixed air areis
seen rising to the surface, when allowed to stand. Its taste is
distinctly bitter, without being at all disagreeable, leaving on
the palate the peculiar flavour of its predominant saline inK
gredient, the sulphate of magnesia. Th-e temperature of the
water at the bottom of the well is 52^ of Fahrenheit; its.
specific gravity 1011 ; and, by an analysis of its compositioikj
by Faraday and Hume, the following are the solid contents,
in grains, of a quart of the water : — Sulphate of magnelsia, 123 ;
sulphate of soda and magnesia, 32; muriate of soda, 19;
muriate of magnesia, 18 J; carbonate of lime, 15; carbonate
of soda, 3 : in all, 210^ grains." As a means of comparison,
the saline contents of a quart of the Chehenham pure saline,
as analysed by Mr. Brande, are given : they are these : —
Sulphate of magnesia, 22; sulphate of soda, 30; muriate of

d Literary Notices^^^My 443

soda, 300; sulphate of lime, 9: in all, 161 grains, lihis
comparison, it is remarked, is exhibited, '* to enable the reader
to judge how much superior, as an aperient water, the Beulah
spring is to that of Cheltenham/^ ^*3rmlii;i^ ^}\IH

Dr. Weatherhead's pamphlet describes, in a clear and
popularly intelligible manner, the efficacy, and the reasons for
the efficacy, of the Beulah saline spring, and all mild aperient
saline waters, in mitigating or curing indigestion, liver anij,
bilious complaints, jaundice, chlorosis, hypochondriasis, chronij^i
and strumous ophthalmia, cutaneous diseases, unhealthy coojfj
iiition of the humours, constipation, and scrofula. Dr. Weatherrnj
head appends to his remarks on the above subjects, which he
discusses separately, very sensible " directions for drinking
the waters, with remarks on diet, exercise, change of ^%|
scene, and occupation." . .fj.

Twenty-five acres of pleasure ground are attached to tb^^
Beulah Spa, and spirited exertions have been, and are being,
made, to render these, in addition to the medicinal merits of
the spring itself, truly deserving of the patronage of the public.
Those who are already acquainted with the landscape and^
rural charms of the Norwood neighbourhood, will be gratified ^
by this information of the heightening^ aa4 embellish^l§At^l
now in progress, of a portion of them, q £^jy. _ ^Jmihe

til o\j — .iuud mh lo 3^iX{ yi970

. giiima)ii<« 7^ ii^TJ^&>*^'iMerdSiyMi^cBiU^rj^^ rffttoH aril
^ ANJ^troduction to the Knowledge of British, Birds, "^loimg

M^smk by R. A. sianey, Esd:%:&; t^^'m ^il^Ud

will soon be published. ^' "^ ^<^^^^ M m ^^^ ^fT'
An Introduction to Botany, by Professor Lindley, is in a
forward state of preparation, and will shortly be presentedi
to the public. '" ■■ ■ ^■';;^*^^ ^^'^^'^ ,fn.nlm* Qd^-oi.'^n^rvnom
A Zoological Description of tlie Oceanic Inhdlnlanfs of ifie'
Arctic Regions. — Professor Dewhurst, whose interesting paper
on the whale at Charing Cross we had the pleasure to insert
(pp. 214 — 233.), proposes to publish by subscription a volume
bearing the above title, consisting of a series of observations
made during his voyage in Greenland, in the year 1824, and
illustrated by upwards of seventy engravings. In this work,
the errors of Willughby, Ray, Pennant, Scoresby, Baron
"Cuvier, and Count Lacepede, are to be corrected. The
author informs us, that owing to a severe and almost fatal
illness, of five months' duration, from a dissection wound, he
is unable to publish it himself He will put it to press as soo#"
as he can procure 100 Subscribers. .bi^ jn^an. lo 'n&m>}Uf^

444

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

. ^M

to

■ Art. I. Natural History in foreign Countries,

FRANCE.

Fossil Riches of Touraine, — Sir, In that part of the ancient
French province of Touraine which nearly adjoins Poitou, there
exists a deposit of fossil remains ; which, though not unique,
4s perhaps unparalleled, in extent and circumstances of pecu-
liar interest, in natural history. This vast deposit the French
'call Les FaluniereSj which, according to M. Croi'e d'Argenson,
are spread over a district of country not less than twelve
leagues square, measured by the French league, which con-
sists of 2^ English miles. Certain it is, that it extends from
near St. Maure, and from below Bossee on the south, to
beyond Meutheme on the east; and from St. Maure, by
St. Catherine de Fierbois, in a northerly direction, to above
Louhans, several leagues farther north. This extraordinary
deposit consists entirely of fossil shells, in different states of
preservation, but mostly broken down into a fine shell sand.
The thickness of the bed (which, as far as it has been
examined, appears to be uniform) has not been yet ascer-
tained, though pits have been dug in it from 8 to 10 ft. deep;
at which depth the water has been invariably found too
abundant to admit of farther excavation without the aid of
expensive machinery, which has never yet been applied. The
shells and their debris [reduced fragments] are to be met with
at about 2 ft. below the surface of the ground, and seem to
lie in a horizontal position, nearly corresponding with that of
the surface. Intermixed with the broken shells many fossils
are to be found, some entire, and others in a more or less per-
fect state. Among those already met with are the O'strea (rock
oyster, in gi-eat variety of shapes and sizes, from half an inch
?to 6 in. long), Cardita crdssa, Turritella, Cerithium, Caryo-
phyllia, P^cten, Annulites, Pectunculus pulvinatus, Scutella
subrotunda, &c. &c., and, near St. Catherine de Fierbois, the
fossil remains of teeth and palates of fish, of all which speci.'
ifiaeiiarin a high state of preservation have been obtained.*

* Similar specimens of the latter of these singular fossil remains have
been sent me by M. de Chauchevrier, found in digging drains at his seat,
90 miles distant from St. Catherine de Fierbois. ,, . . ^ ^^

Natural Histot^y in foreign Countries. 445

No part of this extraordinary deposit of marine fossils apr
proaches the sea nearer than from 130 to 150 miles; and,
between, those primitive rocks intervene v^^hich geologists
consider to be the oldest and the base of all other strata.
The department of the Indre et Loire, which comprises
the whole of the ancient Touraine, and parts of Poitou and
the Orleannois, abounds with calcareous rocks, some of
them mainly composed of fossil remains, and of different
degrees of hardness : but in the fossils of the vast district of
the Fahmieres there exists no principle of agglutination ; so
that, when exposed on the surface of the ground, they look like
heaps of white sand, many of the particles of which are light
enough to be moved by the wind. So striking a difference
between the fossil deposit of Les Falunieres, and those whicl^
surround and probably support it, is difficult to be accounted
for ; the fact, however, seems well worthy of distinctive notice
in the geological map of France, as forming a most singular
feature amidst the newer members of the teirain secondaire of
Humboldt.

The value of these fossil remains as manure is better
understood in England than in France : they are, however,
beginning to be used in the immediate neighbourhood of
Les Falunieres^ on the side of St. Maure, where the application
of lime to the purposes of agriculture is nearly unknown: but
the soil or subsoil of nearly the whole of the department being
compounded, in some proportion or other, of chalk marl, lime-
stone, or fossil remains, there is at one and the same time less
occasion for it, and the less inducement to use it. Touraine
(for centuries known by the appellation of " the garden of
France") offers a rich subject for the study of natural history,
a subject not the less inviting for having been hitherto most
unaccountably neglected. In the cabinet of natural history,
over the gallery of paintings at Tours, there is a tolerable
collection of the fossils of this truly extraordinary calcareous
district ; for which the public is chiefly indebted to the liberal
donations of M. Louirette, and the recent additions made to it
by M. Dujardin, the talented professor of chemistry in that
city. To both those gentlemen, but most particularly to the
latter, as well as to Captain Ridgeway, then resident at
Tours, I am much indebted, not only for some fine specimens
which I probably should not otherwise have obtained, but for
assistance and encouragement in the pursuit of a science
of which I previously knew little or nothing, in which I am
still only a learner, but from the study of which I found an
invaluable source of amusement, wonder, and delight, during
a sojourn of six months in " the garden of France ;'*. in tbe

^^

Natural Histonf m foreign Countries : —

minded of the truth and beauty of the following passage, J^
Mr. Brande's Dissertation on the Progress of Chemical Phito-
sojphy : — " The phenomena of the universe present a series
of changes of which the regularity and harmonious succession
excite the surprise of superficial observers, and awaken the
admiration and attention of the philosophical mind. Thies§
changes are either accompanied by visible motion susceptible
of measurement, and relate to the exterior forms and mecha-
nical characters of bodies; or they depend upon the mutual
agencies of the elementary principles of matter, upon its com-
position, or upon its susceptibility of acquiring new properties^
by entering into new combinations."— Jb^;^ H, Moggrid^kl
Woodfield, Jan, 2. 1832. ^ ^'' b^ib oifw o^hh ^t><,<?U^

Singular Subsidence, mth a Fossil Stages T^orn, m the CHcM
Measures near Meredon, Prance. — Sir, Having become ac-
quainted with the singular instance of subsidence portrayedr

a. Rubbish of different kinds, supposed to have been wheeled there from a neighbouring (juany.
6, StraturiTpf vegetable earth. c. Calcareous marl, impure, but friable.

d. Chalk, compact, and in small fragments, wrapped in yellow clay.

e. Stratum of compact marl, approaching chalk, in large masses,
/, Chalk, with its ordinary accompaniment of flints.

g. Fossil stag's horn.

in the annexed sketch ( fig. 87.)> together with others, during
my l^te researches in France. I send it you, accompanied by

:; ^,y^,,.jx^ssia, Asia, a v^v^v^^ M^

explanations, in the hope that you may deem it worthy of
publication. I am, Sir, yours,. Sac^—John H, Moggridge.

^m^m^^?^^^^.sr. . .. .:....,..... --....■ ..:

891192 B "M^>e»f q f?fci'^vrrfn^^^gj.^nf4rfiof?orfrr orfT *» -^ t v^t^^?/

^^^fjongeoity in Ilussia, — It is in Russia, much more thati iQ
any other country, that instances of longevity are not ortljf
more numerous, but also the most remarkable. In effect, in-
the report of the Holy Synod, published in 1827, we find that
during the year 1825, and only among those of the inhabit-
ants of the empire who profess the Greek religion, 848 men
reached upwards of 100 years of age. Of this number 32 had
passed their 120th year; four from 130 to 135. Out of
606,818 men who died in 1826, 2785 were above 90 ; 1432
above 95 ; and 818 above 100 years of age. Among this last
number, 88 were more than 115 ; 24 more than 120 ; 7 were
^|?ovq J^g^ j,^j?jd:iha4 stained the age of 160. {French Paper,),

ASIA.

A Mode of Fishing in China. — Among the many amusing
scenes which strike the eye of a European, on his first visit
to China, is the ingenious mode of fishing which he sees prac-^
tised in the neighbourhood of Canton.

At the stern of their little punt-like boats, a small mast like
a flagstaff, about 8 ft. high, is fixed. To the top of this, a
block is made fast, having a sheave to carry a 11 in. rope.
One end of this rope is fixed to a bamboo pole 12 or 15 ft.
in length, and which is hoisted higher or lower according aS
it is wanted. The but end of the pole is kept inboard ; an4
at the other €nd a light net, about 8 ft. square, is slung ; being
kept distended by two slender rods, fixed diagonally to the
opposite corners, and bound together in the middle where
they cross each other ; and where, also, they are fixed to the
end of the swinging-pole before mentioned. (j%"/88.) A

stone is thrown into the middle of the net to assist it in sink-
ing, so that it may be, when down, spread out on the bottom

448^ Natural Histoi\y in foreign Countries : —

of the river. When the fisherman thinks any fish are passing
over the net, he suddenly hoists it above the water ; and if he
has made a capture, he swings the net inboard to take out the
fish ; if none are caught, the net is dropped again in the same
or some other place.

Success in this method of fishing depends on the know-
ledge of the fisherman as to the haunts of the fish : its special
advantage is its being managed by one person, like a casting-
netj but with much more personal comfort to the man. It is
also preferable to any other mode in that part of China ; be-
cause the fisherman can pursue his calling among the tiers of
junks (barges), which crowd the river opposite the city; or in
any creek or canal, where drawing-nets would be useless. It
is, moreover, favourable to the custom in that country of
exposing all their fresh fish alive in the markets.

This plan might be useful in this country for carp-fishing,
in ponds having steep and rugged banks. By taking advan-
tage of a tree, to which the pole and net may be slung, lower-
ing it in the daytime, and throwing thereon a handful of
brewers' grains or other bait, at night the fish would come to
feed ; and if then the net were cautiously approached, and
quickly hoisted, a fine haul might be taken. Eels might be
so taken in rivers, were the net sunk with a heavy piece of
garbage. — J. M,

The Divi Ladner is the Tabernaemontan^ alternifolia of
botanists (^Jig, 89.), and Eve's apple of the descendants of the
Portuguese in Ceylon. The name applied to this tree by the
latter people originates in the tradition which prevailed in
former days, among the Mahometans and the Portuguese,
that Ceylon was the paradise described in the Scripture ; that
the garden of Eden was situated in it; and that the fruit of
this tree was the forbidden fruit of which Eve eat a piece. In
confirmation of this tradition, they referred to the beauty of
the fruit, and the fine scent of its flowers, which are most
tempting ; and to the circumstance of the fruit having been
excellent before Eve tasted it. The shape gives it the appear-
ance of a fruit, a piece of which had been bitten off; and its
effects are so poisonous at present, that two European soldiers,
shortly after the capture of Colombo in 1795, being unaware
of the nature of the fruit, were tempted by its appearance to
taste it, and very soon after sickened and died. — Sir A. J,
Sept. 1827.

Our woodcut has been executed from a drawing sent us
by Sir Alexander Johnston ; and, although it in all proba-
bility accurately exhibits the general character and aspect of

Africa.

449

the tree, we are apprehensive, from what botanical references
we have been able to make, that the peduncles of the pendu-
lous clusters of fruit are represented of a length exceeding
their natural one. — J, D.

AFRICA.

Swallows in Africa, — "I cannot quit the subject of
ornithology without stating, that Adanson in 1783, and
M. Afzelius in 1793, informed me that they saw ii/irundo
riistica, the former near the colony on the river Senegal, and
the latter at Sierra Leone, in that time of the year when it is
absent from Europe : Adanson desiring me to let Barrington
know that I'hirondelle was the French name for HiYxmdo
rustica. Mr. Tudsbury of Chesterfield, who resided at Sierra
Leone and Rio Nunez from 1821 to 1828, as agent to a

Vol. v. — No. 27. gg

450 Nahiral History infor-eign Comitries : —

mercantile house in London, informs me, with English
specimens of H, rdstica, urbica, and v4^pus before him, that
it is seen all the year in the neighbourhood of Rio Nunez and
Sierra Leone; but that they are less numerous in the rainy
season, from June to September. They inhabit rocks from
80 to 90 miles from the coast, flying about rivers and lakes.
He never observed any on the sea shore. Neither did he see
any nests or eggs. The natives never shoot them ; but they
are pursued by hawks. Thunberg saw them in September
and October, building their nests, soon after their arrival in
Caffi'aria ; whence he says they migrate, but whither the peo-
ple of the country are unable to ascertain. From the above,
I conclude that it is an inhabitant of both extremities of the
old continent; breeding in the temperate regions from June
to August in Europe, and in September and October at the
southern extremity of Africa : both sets migrating to the
equator in the winters of the countries where they breed,
their migrations corresponding with those of the thrushes of
Scandinavia." {Stokes's Botanical Commentaries, vol. i. p. xxiii.)
Scarabcs'us Ateuchus sdcer, {Jig, 90.) — "During the first
night watch, Dr. Ehrenberg found
a Scarabse'us Ateuchus sacer ; and
his account is curious enough for
those who are unacquainted with
the mythological significance of this

animal. He heard a noise, and
soon afterwards discovered in the
dark a great rolling ball. He ex-
pected to find a hedgehog or tor-
toise, but it was only a ball formed
of the excrement of the horse. Behind it was a great black
/Scarabae'us, which was pushing on the ball with his hind legs.
The ball, from its rolling in the sand, became soon so large
that, from the juxtaposition, the S'carabae^us appeared most
insignificant in size. It is well known that the Egyptian
priests believed the A^carabae^us to come forth from the excre-
ment of a bull; which, being hidden twenty-eight days under
ground, was supposed to produce the kantkaros without
the interference of a female. Hence the iScarabae'us became
a symbol of various import. Descript. de VEgypte Ant., vol. ii.
•p. 413." {For, Rev. and Cont, Misc., Oct. 1828.)

T/ie Fezzan Ram. — The ram, of which an accurate repre-
sentation is subjoined {^g. 91.)? was imported by Mr. George
Davis into New York, in the year 1810, on his return from
Tripoli, where he had been consul for the United States. The
•ram was tall, and his long legs were covered with short hair ; he
had two spiral horns, which were small for a male of his size.

Africa. 451

^1 mh^-,^-^^^:^^

His front had a noble aquiline curve ; there was a consider-
able tuft of his coating below his throat, and near his breast,
with fawn-coloured and dark spots about his face and ears.
The tail was slender, reached several inches below the heel,
and was covered with short hair like the legs. The covering
of the body was white hair, beneath which appeared, as you
opened it, a fine portion of wool or fur. The ears were
pendulous ; there was a groove or furrow in an oblique direc-
tion down the nose, from the inner angle of the eye. But what
is more remarkable than all is, that he had a double scrotum,
and the testes, instead of being enclosed in one skinny purse,
were contained in two distinct pouches. These, except the
latter, are marks belonging to the adiman, or sheep of Africa
and India, which Buffon describes as being " a large race,
with coarse hair, short horns, hanging ears, and a sort of dew-
lap and pendants under the neck." (Dr. Mitchell, in the
Medical and Philosophical Register^ of New York, vol. i. p. 245.)
The late R. R. Livingston, to whom Dr. Mitchell addressed
the foregoing description, thought the animal was certainly
" the adiman, or ram of Angola, described by Valmont
Bomare." The newspaper account stated that around his
eyes, for about half an inch in breadth, the hair was black,
and about the half of his ears towards the ends was also
black ; and further, that "there is an annual present of these
rams made to the bashaw of Tripoli, by Fezzan ; no females
are ever permitted to be sent away, and from the length of
the journey across the desert, but few males of those that are
sent, survive the journey; no yolk [unctuous matter which
exudes through the skin, and renders the wool soft] was

G f ; 2

452 Natural History in foreign Countries : —

secreted from the body." I regret to add, that in the year
1813, I was informed in New York, that this singular animal
had then recently died. I believe it was never figured before.
His fleece is exactly like that of the Thibet goat. — J, M,
Philadelphia^ Sept. 7. 1829. I, <;:^ r.Mtrv-

NORTH AMERICA. "^ .. ... ^

" ''^r^at HarpT/ Eagle. — One was sent, in Sept., 1828, from
Mobile, in Florida, to the Zoological Society of London. It
was sixteen months old, and measured from the top of th6
head to the feet 2 ft. 6 in., and from the tip of each -vi^ih^'
8 ft. 6 in. It was brought from the river Magdalen^, itt
Soiith America. Its plumage was iron-grey, mixed witii'
white. It would eat nothing but meat warm from recerit*
slaughter. It answered to the name of Jack. — J. M, Phil-
adelphiay Oct. 10. 1829. ■■""'' - ' -^

Wild Ducks. ( White's Selborne, p. 16.) -- Am)i:^%^^'iic)tes
of a visit to the United States of America, in 1805-6, I find-
the following: — " Feb. 1. 1806. On my way up the Chesa-
peake Bay, in a sailing packet from Norfolk to Baltimore, I'
was surprised, one morning, to see from the deck the watef
covered at a little distance with what soon appeared to be
living creatures, and which the people on board told me were
wild ducks. As the vessel advanced, they opened a passage,
as it were for her to pass through ; receding, however, but a
very few yards from her sides. The surface of the water, as
far as I could see from the deck of the packet, was as thickly
studded as possible with these birds, covering at least many
hundred acres of superficies. I was perfectly astonished by what
appeared to be so marvellous a sight, and of which I scarcely
could have heard or read, and have believed to be a truth.
Those accustomed to eat this bird are very fond of it, but to
others, as was my case, its strong fishy flavour is objection-
able. They were sold in the market at Norfolk at six or
eight for the dollar. As we sailed through this prodigious
mass of vitality, the birds manifested no sign of alarm, and I
do not recollect that any of them took to the wing." — William
Sells, M. B. C. S, Jan. 1.3 832.

Mode of decoying Wild Pigeons in New England. — The
flight and stool pigeons as they are called, are prepared by
passing a thread through the edges of both their eyelids,
which are thus closed; their legs are booted, and the flights,
being fastened to long strings, are thrown into the air, and
fly as far as they are permitted ; while the stool pigeon is tied
to a narrow board, which, at the end where the bird is fixed,
rises and falls ; and both kinds of decoy, by the flapping of
their wings, draw the attention of the passing flocks of wild

North America. ^5S

pigeons, which are thus made to alight on prepared ground
within reach of the concealed spring-net, or on a long pole
rising a little from the horizontal line, so as to give the greatest
effect to the discharge of the gun from the bush-house which
conceals the sportsman. The net, concealed by cut grass, is
sprung by a rope, which is pulled at the moment after the
pigeons alight upon the prepared ground. {Stlliman's Journal.)

E'5c?.r osseuSf the Great Gar Fish. — This singular fish is
sometimes found in the western waters of the United States, of
a great size. Five years since, one was killed, near the town
of Jackson, in the Chicasaw country, the length of which was
6 ft., girth 3 ft., and weight 150 lbs. They rise to the sur-
face, and spout water to the height of 10 ft. Their blowing,
can be heard to the distance of 200 fl. — J. M. Philadelphia^
Oct. 10. 1829.

Food of Bees in North America, r-^ The American black wil-
low and the red maple are the first trees that are visited by,,
bees. They are fond of the crocus, which is the earliest qf,
our bulbous roots. The stercory and piggery are next re-
sorted to by these insects, and the extract absorbed from thenj^
must be used as a tonic. Blossoms of all kinds, except those,
of the red clover and of the honeysuckle, are excellent food ;
and the bees especially profit by the increased attention be-
stowed at present on the cultivation of the peach tree, in some
parts of America. They not only drink the nectar, and col-
lect the pollen of the flower, but they appropriate the peach
itself. We have seen twenty or thirty bees devour a peach
in half an hour ; that is, they carried away the juices of it to^
their cells. The scent of bees is so acute that every flower
which has a powerful odour can be discovered by them at a
great distance. Strawberry blossoms, mignonette, wild and
garden thyme, herbs of all kinds, apple, plum, cherry, and,
above all, raspberry blossoms, and white clover, are delicious,,
food for them; and a thriving orchard and apiary fitly go
together. {North American Review.)

A Botanic Garden at Baltimore, attached to the College of
St. Mary, has just been commenced; and I am very anxious
to procure from Europe plants, seeds, or roots. A corre-
spondence with the principal botanic gardens and nurseries of
Britain and France is much desired. — H. T.Dickehut, Curator
of the Botanic Garden, St. Mary's College, Baltimore. Au-
gust 10. 1831.

Nelumbium specibsum. — Is this plant an inhabitant of the
continent of America ? According to the writings of botanists,
it is confined to Asia, but, according to the following account,
may also inhabit America. " Among the flowering aquatic

G G 3

454 Natural History in foreign Countries : —

plants, there is one, that for magnificence and beauty stands
unrivalled and alone. We have seen it on the middle and
southern waters ; but of the greatest size and splendour on
the bayous and lakes of the Arkansas. It has different
popular names. The upper Indians call it panocco. We
have seen it designated by botanists by the name A^ymphae'a
Nelumbo, It rises from a root resembling the large stump of
a cabbage, and from depths in the v^^ater of 2 or 3 to 10 ft.
It has an elliptical, smooth, and verdant leaf, some of the
largest being of the size of a parasol. These muddy bayous
and stagnant waters are often so covered with these leaves,
that the sandpiper walks abroad on the surface of the leaves
without dipping her feet in the water. The flowers are en-
larged copies of the A^ymphae^a odorata, or New England
pond-lily. They have a cup of the same elegant conform-
ation, and all the brilliant white and yellow of that flower.
They want the ambrosial fragrance of the pond- lily, and re-
semble, in this respect, as they do in their size, the flowers of
the laurel magnolia. On the whole, they are the largest
and most beautiful flowers that we have seen. They have
their home in dead lakes, in the centre of cypress swamps.
Musquitoes swarm above; obscene fowls wheel their flight
over them ; alligators swim above their roots ; and moccasin
snakes bask on their leaves. In such lonely and repulsive
situations, under such circumstances, and for such spectators,
is arrayed the most gaudy and brilliant display of flowers in
the creation. In the capsule are embedded from four to six
acorn-shaped seeds, which the Indians roast and eat when
green ; or they are dried and eaten as nuts, or are pulverised
into meal and form a kind of bread. (Flint's Geog. and
History of the Western States, vol. i. p. 89, 90.)

Gold in the United States, — Several years since (1803),
gold was ploughed up in Cabarrus Count}', North Carolina, in
the bottom of a small stream which falls into Rocky River,
a principal branch of the Pedee. The masses were of different
sizes, from small grains to that of a mass weighing a quarter
of a hundred avoirdupois. This large piece, when melted
and refined, lost only 1 5 per cent of its weight. Up to the
year 1807} the value of gold from North Carolina, brought
to the United States' mint in Philadelphia, amounted to
14,310 dollars.* Since that, the precious metal has been
found in several counties of the state. Sometimes it is
ploughed up, but oftener embedded in rocks, from which it is
obtained by blowing them up. Hunting of gold is at length
become a serious business, and works are erected to refine it.

* Mease's Geological Account of the United States, p. 415.

North America, 4; 5 5

In Virginia, also, several parcels have been discovered ; as ap-
pears by the following paragraphs in the American news-
papers. — J. ikf. Philadelphia, Sept, 20. 1829.

A lump of gold, intermixed with a considerable portion of
quartz and particles of earth, and weighing altogether about
6 oz., was ploughed up a few days since, on the farm of Mr.
Haley, of this county. It was brought to town, and sold for 85
dollars. (Fredericksburg, Virginia, Aug. 29. 1828.)

At one mine (Thompson's) six hands gathered in one week
about 480 dollars' worth. At another, two hands, in one day,
with a common washing-tub, collected 27 dollars' worth. Our
informant understood that a rich mine had been discovered in
Orange, and another in Stafford. One of the pieces of gold
found in Thompson's mine weighed, it is said, upwards of
a pound. [Petersburg Old Domiuion.)

Gold has been discovered in four or five different places
in Habersham County, and it is stated that there are indica-
tions of its being as abundant in that region as in North
Carolina. Recent discoveries give reason to believe that the
gold region of Virginia is more extensive than at first supposed.
The region which seems to promise gold lies about fifteen
miles above the head of tidewater, extends to an unknown
distance westward, and ranges N. N. E. and S. S. W., or
neai'ly parallel with the sea-coast. It contains, for minerals,
principally gneiss, cellated quartz, micaceous schistus (upon
the gneiss) containing gold, martial pyrites, the quartz
and pebble also contain gold mechanically mixed, iron ore
abundant, tellurium, glance, specular iron, barytes, and
manganese in very abundant strata. In Orange (Virginia)
most of the above are found, also a small quantity of copper.
{Boston Patriot, Aug. 20. 1829.)

In April last we visited the gold region ; and we have ever
since been confident that, sooner or later, the precious metal
would be found in this country. The similarity of our soil, the
abundance of flint rock and soapstone, intermixed as it is with
copper and iron pyrites, together with other indications, in-
duced the opinion that there was gold in Wake. A few days
since, a gentleman who is concerned in a mine in Davidson
County, discovered gold in a piece of quartz, on the plantation
of Mrs. Catharine Rhodes, a few miles west of this city. A
very handsome specimen is said also to have been found in
the same neighbourhood, on the land of Mr. John Rex.
These discoveries will doubtless lead to more particular ex-
aminations, which, we feel certain, will develope deposits of
considerable extent. [Raleigh Register.)

Climate and Meteorology of the Neighbourhood of the Alle-

0 0 4-

456 Natural History in foreign Countries : —

ghany Mountains. — I am happy to be able to report that the
climate has agreed perfectly well with my whole family, and
we have run now nearly the entire circle of the seasons : not »•:
the slightest illness, not even a cold, has occurred, if Yv^t
remember rightly, to any one of us since our arrival. Our <«>^
position here, near the base of the western slope of the ^
Alleghany Mountain range, is one of the healthiest in the
United States. Tlie past season has been delightful in*-*
temperature, the thermometer averaging probably about '70?' ^i
in the day; and the nights have been cool and refreshing.
We possess here an advantage somewhat remarkable, but
which we prize highly. At about 9 or 10 o'clock everyr(jii
morning a refreshing breeze springs up, and <iontinues untit^q?^
S or 4 o'clock' in the afternoon; and it is this, perhaps, which* ir
makes our situation so healthy, and enables us, without in-?t»<^
convenience, to bear the warmest days of summer. Thesefsy^
delightful breezes appear to proceed from the north or north** tJfi
west, and remind us of the sea breezes aipon the. never; Itooii
be forgotten shores of dear Old England'. '< -voilt ')iLirnffO')nr> 1
I am situated about 1350 ft. above the sea, ' arid abobtdc
800 to 1000 ft. below the main ridge of the Alleghanymi
Mountains. There is one depression, or gap, as it is called, * t
ten miles hence, which I have found, by levelling, to be onlyt 1
600 ft. above us, and which 600 ft. is distributed pretty gra^;?^^
dually along the base of ten miles. Consequently, you will'^b
observe that it is possible to descend the Alleghanies west-'o
ward at a very small angle; not much more, indeed, than half at<^*
degree, which is not a very alarming inclination for a rail'^H**
road. The eastern descent is more rapid, perhaps 3° for\>
the first three miles, following the natural fall of the water-- d
courses. I cannot but consider that our climate is materially ft
influenced by our proximity to this vast mountain ridge^'w
which is 1200 miles in length. I find very little variation in /t
the barometer from 29 in. A fall always precedes wind from * a
the N. W. We never suffer much from the extreme heat of i
summer, nor are we materially colder in winter than is ob-
served in the cities on the Atlantic coast. One of my friends
here kept an accurate meteorological journal during many
years ; and I brought out with me two of Jones's best moun-
tain barometers, which I amuse myself by frequently referring
to. Our prevailing winds are from the north-west, which
winds certainly bring a vast quantity of rain. The present
summer has been more wet than has occurred in the memory
of man. Rain has fallen, on an average, every alternate day ;
yet the evaporation is so great that no great inconvenience
has arisen, except of late, when dry weather is needed for the

North Am&rica^»'>nM^ tt^^^il^ 457

hay and corn harvests, whicli occur dt^tW sami|S^«Wwwoli^?||^v«*
farmers iii the corn district are beginning to bonrplaki s<&f9tlllkil i>
damage done to their crops by the continued tains, "^Mffi 9
serious injury has been sustained from floods^ This unusuaferf
mokt State of the atmosphere has kept the air and the surface
of the earth unusually cool. We have not had but one week
of really hot weather, and then not more than I have felt inftA
England for much longer .periods, particularly for -neapJjii' J
three~months ifi 1826. mj/n T.;»,1:3r? *di ^onulR'isqmfy

My stock of illustrative wdrks 6n t^atural history^, in^othiV ''■
braliches besides geology, is very limited, and there are no
libraries in the Pennsylvania forests. But we have living
specimens to study in abundance. Of the birds I have collected
and stuffed only a few, at present. Of insects I have p^*eM> ^
served a considerable number, considering the unfavourable^"
season. The butterflies are beautiful, and, as I have not
attended to them heretofore, they have all the charms of
nov*^ltj'. My children, too, are all collectors m their way; and
I encourage those habits in them. The flowering trees,
shrubs, and plants come out in almost endless Succession. I
make one remark on these, en passant, that the prdvailingOB
colour of American flowers is white, at least, nine out of te»l*W
I think ; particularly in those which make the greatest dis-")f'»^i
play in this region, such as the dogwood, kalmias, rhododen- ^
drons, service, the thorn tribe, bird cherry, mountain cherry,
or cherry birch, and a host of others. Every week brings
forth some new beauty. The O'rchis tribe is here very" /
showy : our meadows are now gaudy with tiger lilies ant^'^b
ffinoth^rae, &c. In April and May arrive a vast variety of^o*^
birds from the south. The most numerous are the orioles rnii
the males are distinguished by their gaudy scarlet and yellow« oj
wings ; while the females, which appear in the proportion oflifJ.
twenty to one male, are wholly black. We have a grealriw^
number of woodpeckers, some kingfishers, various water-*)4
fowl, cat birds, king birds, robins, whip-poor-will, Ioonsp«^^
crossbills, jays, kites, bluebirds, yellowbirds, blackbirds, and
others with equally unscientific names; The cardinal bird
and the bald eagle are among the rarest.j'T/TtK oib « 'trpA q^

The first humming-birds appeared June ^. psiriicb^vhich
time they are commonly to be seen fluttering about the
flowers in my garden. Frogs commenced their concert,
March 26. ; whistling, rather than croaking, with a pro-
digious noise at night. Bullfrogs began to croak, June 1.
The first bats seen. May 15. The first butterfly caught,
May 16. May-flies, April 20.; a small species, Feb. 26;
Garter snakes appeared, April 25. Flocks of wood-pigeons

458 Natural Histoty in foreign Countries: —

began to pass to the N.W., March 7. Wild swans appeared,
March 27. First mosquito, Feb. 28. Orioles came in
flights, March 7. First swallow, and first toad, April 13.
Many snipes arrived, April 1. The hepatica, the trailing
arbutus, and the white, the yellow, and the blue violets, first
observed in blossom, April 22. Indications of the existence
of beavers in an adjoining stream, in the fresh cut stakes,
barked by those animals, and floating down the stream.
Traces of the musk rat in the Moshannon creek, at the foot
of my garden. Very large spiders and centipedes come out
of their hiding-places May 1., as do the beetles. Caught
twenty-four trout with the artificial fly. May 3. Many land
lizards in the woods, May 21. Two rattlesnakes killed
May 28. ; several other species of snake previously seen : a
rattlesnake, 3 ft. 7i in. long, and 6 in. round, killed here,
June 3. Fire flies appeared. May 28. A land tortoise in my
garden. Snapping turtles and terapins caught in July. The
tulip trees in flower, June 8. : these trees are 140 ft. high.
Took a young spotted fawn in the woods (Cervus virginianus)
July 20., now so tame as to run at large, and follow the
children. — R. C, Taylor. Philipshurg^ Pennsylvania, Aug.
7. 1831.

The Esqtiimaux Lake. — This lake is said to extend from
north to south more than 150 miles, and about the same
from east to west. It is reported to be full of islands, to be
every where brackish, and to receive two large rivers be-
sides the eastern branch of the Mackenzie. It may be
plausibly conjectured that the alluvial materials brought
down by the Mackenzie and other rivers have gradually
formed a barrier of islands and shoals, which, by preventing
the free access of the tide, enables the fresh water to maintain
the predominance behind it. The action of the waves of the
sea has a tendency to increase the height of the barrier, while
the currents of the rivers and the ebb tide preserve the depth
of the lake. A great formation of wood coal will, no doubt,
be ultimately formed by the immense quantities of drift
timber deposited on the borders of this lake. — J. R. Lee, Kent,
SOUTH AMERICA.

Second Species of South American Tapir, making the third
Species of the Genus. — M. Roulin, in the form of a memoir
professing to furnish an abstract of the history of the tapir
generally, and a description of a new species appertaining to
the high regions of the Cordilleras of the Andes, some time
ago presented to the scientific public a most interesting and
amusing dissertation ; in which he not only identifies the
newly discovered quadruped with the subject of a legendary

South America. 459

history, hitherto believed to relate to a merely fabulous ani-
mal, but appends to it a very ingenious speculation upon the
me of the Chinese and the griffin of the ancients ; the origin
of both which supposed imaginary monsters, the learned
author endeavours to trace to exaggerated portraitures of the
beast which forms the subject of his essay.

M. Roulin prefaces the account of his discovery with a
few observations upon the first published descriptions of the
common South American tapir. Although the tapir was im-
perfectly known in Europe at the commencement of the 16th
century, Marcgrave was the first writer who gave a complete
and concise history of the animal, erring only in attributing
to it ten (instead of six) incisive teeth in each jaw : and BuffiDn,
even after he had received a specimen from Cayenne, which
was dissected in the Jardin du Roi, relying too much upon
the faith of the Saxon naturalist, allowed the error to remain.
The credit of discovering the Indian or Malay species is
claimed by M. Roulin for MM. Diard and Duvaucel : but
the animal was noticed, according to Mr. Griffith, as early as
1772; and it appears that the first detailed account of a living
specimen at Barrackpore was given by the lamented Sir Stam-
ford Raffles. [See this question discussed in detail in Mr. Swain-
son's Defence of certain French Naturalists, in our Vol. IV.
p. 101.; and in the replies to that article, Vol. IV. p. 200.
205. and 316.]

During several months' journey along the course of the
Andes, the attention of M. Roulin appears to have been
drawn towards the probability of discovering a peculiar species
of tapir in the lofty regions of the mountains, by the vague
yet universal reports of the native Indians and Spanish settlers,
who appear to confound under the title o^ pinchaque (phantom
or spectre), at least two animals either real or imaginary ;. one
of which M. Roulin believes to be his new species of tapir;
and the other, it is surmised by Cuvier, may possibly prove
to be the Mastodon, if that gigantic link between the fossil
and the recent world be indeed still in existence. The Indians
of many villages near Popayan speak of an enormous animal,
which dwells in the mountains by which their valley is bor-
dered to the east. This animal is to them an object of fear,
and at the same time of respect ; for, prior to the introduction
of Christianity among their tribes, they believed in a kind of
metempsychosis [transmigration of souls from one body to
another], thinking that the souls of their ancient chiefs had
passed into the bodies of the pinchaques ; and when one of
these creatures appeared, they considered that it came to
avert some approaching calamity, with which their descend-

460 Natural Hhtory in foreign Coufilries ' —

ents were menaced. This apparition takes place only at night-
fall or daybreak, on the edges of the forest, which the spectral
quadruped enters with a great noise. It does not show itself
in all places ; but commonly on the Paramo de Polindara, a
high mountain, two leagues from the volcano of Purace, and!
eight from Popayan.

Upon this subject, the reports of the Indians are consistent
in all respects, except the size of the animal; for, whilst
the most moderate affirm that the pinchaque only equals the
horse in magnitude, others maintain that its height is ex-
ceissive. Some of the inhabitant of Popayan are persuaded
thdt there really exists in this mountain a very large qua-
druped ; and one learned mart pronounced it to be a carnivo-
roii's elephant,' by which n^ine is designated the Mlstodon
with narrow teeth, the osseous remains of which are found in
many places in New Granada. The hunters, guided by the
Indians, have long sought in vain for this mysterious quadru-
ped; but,' although they have hitherto been baffled in theii**
endeavours to obtain a sight of it, they obtained the niosi
unequivocal proofs of its existence, by discovering footsteps
in the loose earth 9 or 10 in. wide, and balls of dung of a very
large size. M. Roulin, however, upon examining one of the
latter, upon the Paramo near Bagota, pronounced it to be that
of the tapir, from its containing the undigested remains of the
usual food of that animal. One hunter met with a still more
apparently conclusive evidence, not only of the presence of
the pinchaque on the Paramo de Polindara, but of its gigantic
height; having observed a tuft of long brownish hair upon a
branch from 8 to 10 ft. above the ground, which it is sup-
posed to have rubbed off" in passing under the tree. It is stijl
far from impossible that this may have also belonged to a
tapir, or perhaps to a bear ( LTrsus ornatus F, Cuvier).

It was, however, in the province of Mariquita that our
author was led more especially to seek for the living repre-
sentative of the half" fabulous pinchaque; and he pursued his
enquiries with the greater hope of success, as many of the
ancient Spanish chroniclers, particularly Oviedo and P. de
Agueda, have mentioned the existence of a tapir of a brownish
black colour, and furnished with thick hair, which has been
considered as an erroneous description. The accounts of these
old writers was, however, confirmed by the modern natives,
particularly the Cargueros, who inhabit the valley of Cauca,
&c., at the foot of the Paramo de Quindiu : these people in-
forming the traveller that a large species of tapir, answering
to the description of Oviedo, inhabited the forests which skirt
the eastern declivities of the Cordilleras in the province of

South America. 4-61

Mariquita, 500 or 600 metres above the plains ; the ordinary
species being found only upon the latter, and in the valleys.

At length the unceasing researches of the zealous naturalist
were crowned with success. It is customary throughout New
Granada, at the octave of the Fete Dieu, to decorate the prin-
cipal churches with a kind of grove, in which are placed living
or dead birds and quadrupeds, remarkable either for the bril-
liancy of their colours, their magnitude, or their monstrosity ;
and during this festival, at the village of Bagota, M. Roulin had
the gratification of seeing two specimens of the long-sought
^nimal, which had been killed on the Paramo de, Suma Paz,
a mountain more elevated than that of Quindiu ; and he afterh
wards was fortunate enough to obtain a head, whicli, being coiir
veyed to Paris, has been subjected to the inspection of Baron
Cuvier. The examination of this great zootomist has revealed
a very anomalous and unexpected fact, namely, that the cra-
nium of the new species approaches much more nearly ir^
characters to that of the Indian, than of the previously knowp,
American, tapir, and still more closely to that of the Palaec^T
therium, an extinct genus, the remains of which are found i;j
the tertiary beds of the Paris basin. Attached to his memoir,
M. Roulin has presented figures of the crania, and thus
enumerates their similitudes and differences : — The prin-
cipal resemblances between the skulls of the new species and
of the Sumatran tapir consist in the general shape of the
forehead, the defect of the projection of the parietal crest, the
dimension of the nasal bones ; and, finally, the form of the
lower jaw, the inferior margin of which is straight (in the
Cayenne or South American species it is strongly curved).
The differences between the cranium of this animal and of the
Palaeotherium are principally remarked in the forehead and
nasal bones, which are more depressed in the former; and in
the lower jaw, the posterior angle of which is more obtuse:
the teeth are smaller, and the grinders do nqt 30,^cj9S^ly
approach the canines. .|f for/hi, rn-i

The principal external peculiarity which distmguishes the
new tapir from both its congeners is one that is strictly ac-
cordant with its locality in the temperate, or rather cold, alti-
tudes of the lofty mountain range which it inhabits. The
body is entirely covered with long hair of a blackish brown
colour, darker at the points than at the roots ; whereas the
other species, which fully share the high temperature of a
tropical climate, are almost bare of fur. Its size is inferior
to the others : the largest of the specimens seen at Bagota
measuring in length, from the muzzle to the point of the tail,
only 5 ft. 6J in. ; and in height, at the shoulders, 2 ft. 9 in.

yiGS Natural Histot-y in foreign Countries : —

The head differs from that of the common species of South
America, not only in its general outline, but in its details :
the muzzle varies a little in its form, and the proboscis does not
present upon its sides those ridges which indicate a habitual
contraction of that organ. On the chin is situated a white
patch, which is prolonged from the angle of the mouth, and
includes nearly half the upper lip. The ear is deficient of the
white margin ; and the remarkable erect crest, which in the
ordinary American species commences above the eyes, and is
continued, like a hogged mane, along the ridge of the neck to
the withers, is also wanting ; the neck being perfectly round,
and the hair with which it is covered of the same length as,
and lying in a direction similar to, that of the rest of the
animal. On each side of the crupper is situated a large naked,
but not callous, spot, about twice the size of the palm of the
hand. Above the division of the toes the fetlock is margined
with a narrow white band, as in the common American tapir.
On this species its describer has bestowed the name of Tapir
Pinchaque ; thus identifying it with the traditionary histories
of the natives of its habitat ; and, under that denomination,
Cuvier has given it a place in the new edition of the Regne
Animal : but neither that able systematist, nor its discoverer,
has furnished it with a Latin specific appellation. It appears
that the tapir of the mountains does not possess all the habits of
that of the plains, which is strictly a nocturnal animal, sleep-
ing during the entire day, and feeding only in the night ; as
those killed at Suma Paz were eating at six o'clock a. m.,
when approached by the hunters ; and, on the road to Quin-
diu, others have been observed employed in a similar manner,
even at nine o'clock. The hunters reported that they principally
subsisted upon chusque (a species of bamboo, which grows at a
great height), and that they also eat fraylajou (Espelet/<2), a
plant which common cattle, horses, mules, asses, and even the
deer which inhabit the mountain, refuse to touch, on account
of the quantity of resin which it contains. This tapir is
extremely greedy, and by no means delicate in its taste ; those
kept in the menageries will devour almost every thing : and
this is not from depravity of appetite, produced by captivity;
for, when killed in a wild state, their stomachs are found to
contain pieces of wood, clay, small pebbles, and occasionally
even bones. By the hunters the two species are confounded
under the general appellation of danta^ which, as it is observed
by M. Roulin, is somewhat singular, since persons of their
class are usually very accurate in their distinctions between
the species and varieties of such animals as they are in the
constant habit of pursuing; and in this instance it is particu-

Smith America. 463

larly remarkable, as the same men enumerate five distinct
species of peccary, of which two only have hitherto been
recognised by natm'alists, but to which our author intends
adding a third.

Me of the Chinese. M. Roulin commences his disquisi-
tion upon the me of the Chinese [Jig. 92.), which has hitherto

been considered as an ima-
ginative chimera invented by
that extraordinary people,
with the following observa-
tion : — It is not alone in the
new continent, that the his-
tory of the tapir has been
mingled with that of fabulous
animals. The marvellous me
of the Chinese authors, with
the trunk of the elephant, the
eyes of the rhinoceros, and
the feet of the tiger; which gnaws iron and copper, and eats
the largest serpents, is, as has been well judged by M. Abel
Remusat*, nothing more nor less than a tapir; but, says
our author in continuation, I do not believe, with that zoolo-
gist, that the tapir is an inhabitant of China. A small animal,
as a serpent, a lizard, or a mouse, might escape our researches ;
but it is unlikely that so large a quadruped should exist in
China unknown to Europeans. The history of the m^ is
undoubtedly founded upon an incomplete description, and a
rude representation, of the Malacca tapir.

Representations of the me may frequently be seen engraven
upon the utensils of the Chinese ; printed in their stuffs, and
sculptured upon their amulets, which are usually formed of
jade. One may easily conceive, continues M. Roulin, in
these rude representations, that the large feet of the tapir,
divided into toes, closely imitate the claws of a cat ; that the
spots (with which all young tapirs are variegated) appear to
resemble, and may be easily arranged to imitate, those of a
leopard ; that the trunk, exaggerated in the original outline, and
still more increased in length by copyists, may have been manu-
factured into that of an elephant ; and that the tail (which is

* The idea that the me was derived from a tapir is by no means original
either with M. Remusat or M. Roulin j for, even by the evidence of a
French author, M. Lesson, the credit of the discovery is due to a native
of our own country. That author says : — "In the figure of the me of the
Chinese, an Englishman thinks he recognises a tapir, which he has figured
in the Asiatic Journal, under the name of the Tapirus sinensis." {Manuel de
Mammalogie, p. 326.)

4 6 4- Natural History in foreign Cou7itries : —

extremely short, and almost invisible, in the tapir), being con-
sidered as an omission in the first drawing, has been subse-
quently supplied by borrowing that of the most common
quadruped of the same size. The alleged habits of the me,
like its shape, are not very inconsistent with those of the tapir.
It is affirmed to gnaw iron, copper, and wood : the American
species also swallows wood and clay. D'Azara has seen an
individual gnaw a silver snuff-box; and it would, doubtlessly,
with equal readiness have taken between its teeth a piece of
iron or of copper ; and the tapir of India most likely possesses
similar propensities. The me is likewise affirmed to eat ser-
pents : although it has not been recorded that the tapir pos-
sesses the same appetite, it is, from its carnivorous and greedy
disposition, far from improbable; particularly when we con-
sider that the hog, with which the tapir has so many affinities,
in France pursues and devours the viper ; and that, under the
tropics, those animals attack reptiles which are much more
dangerously venomous. Among the absurdities related by
the Chinese of their partly fabulous me, they affirm that its
bones resist fire and steel ; and amulets are accordingly sup-
posed to be manufactured of them. These are usually con-
structed of the bones of fishes' heads, those of the ear of some
quadruped, or of the lamantin ; and it is observable that the
priests of Buddha possess the same pretendedly indestructible
relics.

This portion of his subject the ingenious essayist concludes
thus: — Whether the knowledge of the mayba (American
tapir) has penetrated to China, or whether that of the Indian
species has reached that country through the centre of Asia,
the inhabitants have not disfigured it more by their relations
than by their representation ; so that the animal can be
equally recognised by its form and its alleged habits.

Griffin. In attributing to the griffin of the Greeks a
similar origin with the me of the Chinese, M. Roulin uses
the following arguments and illustrations : —

The Greeks, who trafficked across the Black Sea, came
in contact with the Scythians, and they, on their part, traded
with the Argipeans ; a Tartar people, with long chins, flat
noses, and shaved heads, who inhabited the valleys at the
foot of the Ural Mountains; the rich mines of which, no
doubt, formed a constant theme of intelligence from the
Scythians to the Greeks. In those early and superstitious
ages every treasure was supposed to possess its peculiar guar-
dian ; and, from obvious motives of policy, such warders were
chosen as would appear not less redoubtable in their power than
repulsively frightful in their appearance; and hence arose the

South America,

465

com j^ounB images of the winged serpent, the dragon, iatid the
griffin, with trie beak of an eagle and the claws of ^ lion.
This last figure, our author conceives, was originally the
guardian monster of the treasures of the Ural Mountains,
the Cordilleras of the Argipeans ; and that its represj^ntatlon
arid its fabulous history were conveyed tq the Grecians by
the intervention of the Scythians, mingled with tH^ traditions
respectinfij the richness of the gold mines, in a mariner con-
lormable with the spirit ot ^the times. ^ ..... ^ ,} ^.

This aniriial Lfi^i, 93.<2f)i as it' Is ej^ent by tft niiisirVtions

Jiooj'f I'jud j<93 r'cd Yi

I
f^^uoiijij; : r-jiio',

.noitPf)ff?!i>

l(h

.r* f.

rih

of M. Rb^Rn sj^n:i^n[iQir^ which we have copied, possesses in
its general outline a close resemblance to the tapir in a sit-
ting attitude (b.) ; and that learned naturalist thus accounts
for its possession of the various addenda of w^ngs, crest,
and tail : — It is evident, says he, that the original image of
the griffin, when introduced into Greece, was destitute of
wings ; as Herodotus, the oldest author who describes it, does
not mention them, and his very important silence upon that
point is a sufficient proof of the fact. But the more ancient
dragons pf the caverns of Greece, were nearly all furnished
with those; members ; and, therefore, upon the introduc-
tion of a new monster, it would naturally appear requisite,
according to the preconceived notions of the people, to add
themt to.its figure ; and it was no very great stretch of imagin-
atipri to accord the wings of an eagle to an animal which
seemed already to possess its head ; for the proboscis of the
tapir, when bent down in its usual position, bears no little
similitude to the beak of that bird.

The sculptors, who considered the griffin in a picturesque
point of view, employing it in their arabesque ornaments,
again contributed to alter its original form. To bestow addi-
tional gracefulness to its neck, they surmounted it with a mane
like that which decked their horses ; making the hairs short,
straight, and erect ; or it is not impossible that they might

Vol. v.— -No. 27. hh

466 Natural History in foreign Countries : —

in reality have retained the genuine mane of the tapir. After-
wards, to render still more fantastic a being which was already
intermediate between a quadruped and a bird, they converted
this crest into the likeness of the dorsal fin of a fish.

The division of the toes of the tapir caused, with the Greeks,
the same error as with the Chinese in the fabrication of their
me; and accordingly they substituted for them those of a lion.
As to the tail, it was almost certain that they would attempt
to supply that appendage : and, whilst some merely gave to
the animal one conformable with its feet; others, desiring to
make the figure wholly imaginary, bestowed upon it a spiral
scroll, and ornamented it with the leaves of the y^canthus.
{Annales des Sciences Naturelles.)

WEST INDIES.

Insects which infest the Sugar Cane {Saccharum qfficindrum L.).
— The Rev. Lansdown Guilding, B.A. F.L.S. F.G.S., &c.,
has been honoured by the Society of Arts with the gold Ceres
medal, for his memoir on this subject, of which the following
is the essence : —

The Calandra palmarum {Jig, 91<. the female creeping :
Jig, 95, a, the male ; b, the larva ; c, the pupa ; and d, the case

or follicle ; all of the natural size) " is principally injurious to
the plants lately stuck in the ground, to which the female is
allured by the juices which are exuded. These they some-
times attack so vigorously, that a fresh planting becomes
necessary. They do not seem to deposit their eggs in full-
grown canes, when palms are abundant in the neighbour-
hood."

Calandra sacchari (Jig. 96.) " confines itself principally to
^such canes as have been slightly injured; though it sometimes
attacks the more vigorous plants^ which it excavates to the

JVest Indies.

II n 2

468 Natural History in foreign Countries : —

96

! a, Caldndra sfecchari, b, a variety, c, pupa, d, follicle or case, e, larva,

very ground, voiding its excrements in scarcely discoloured
grains, which fill up the passage.

" But by far the most destructive and common enemy is the
smaller grub of the borer moth, Diatra^^a sacchari Guilding,
(from diatreo,) to bore [which belongs to that family of Lepi-
doptera called by Leach Pyralidse, and is elaborately described
and illustrated in the memoir from which this account is tran-
scribed.] The sugar-cane, so valuable to man in all its parts, is
never exempt from this dreadful pest. Fortunately, in the
seasonable climate of St. Vincent, from our improved culti-
vation, the animal is not very formidable ; but in some other
of our colonies, which, from the absence of mountains, or
other causes, are subject to dry seasons, they have been
known to blast the hopes of the year, to destroy whole acres
of canes, and ruin the unfortunate planter. The Society of
Arts has long offered rewards for the expulsion of the borers ;
but, I think, will do well in future to omit the premium offered
for their destruction, inasmuch as it is to be feared no remedy
can be applied on extensive tracts of land, which would not
at the same time destroy the plant we would protect, or which
would not prove too extensive for general adoption. The
object of the planter should be, to prevent the insects from
depositing eggs in the plants, rather than to kill those which
have already begun their operations.

" Those animals which the Creator has thought fit to form,
and preserve for ages, man will not be permitted to exter-
minate : we may, however, with propriety, strive, by all means
in our power, to lessen the numbers of those creatures which
injure or destroy our property. From long-continued expe-
riments, I have at last discovered that they may be almost
entirely expelled from any quarter in which the canes are
carefully stripped of the dry and useless leaves, under which,
as they become loose, the female borer deposits her eggs.

West Indies, 469

** These animals, when they assail us in moderate numbers,
act only as a stimulus, wisely sent to rouse the inattentive
planter to cleaner and more careful modes of husbandry.
When they swarm so as to deprive him of his crops, the loss
must in futui*e be attributed either to his obstinacy or his
negligence.

" It is well known that the sheathing leaves of the cane
hold for a long period the water which has been collected in
them during rains ; from which, in dry weather, the plant
may doubtless derive nourishment. In the drier islands, the
planter will probably object to the only plan which seems
capable of lessening the number of his foes, under the idea
that he will expose the plants too much to the merciless rays
of the sun. I do not by any means recommend that a single
living leaf should be taken off; and a very slight examination
will convince him that those which have begun to wither are
incapable of holding water for the refreshment of the cane.

" The borers are observed to be much more fatal to plant
than to ratoon canes, which should, of course, be oftener
visited by the parties of negroes whose business it is to col-
lect the trash. A single cane will sometimes nourish several
of the borer worms, which perforate every joint; when the
pithy centre, becoming discoloured and sour, not only yields
nothing at the mill, but communicates a dark colour and bad
quality to the sirop of the sounder plants.

" Of the other enemies of the sugar-cane, I can for the^
present speak but slightly. The large fire-fly (E^later nocti-
lucus) has been said, but perhaps only accidentally, to have
been bred in it. An undetermined aphis, and the ' jumper
fly,' probably one of the Chrysomelidae, have in some islands
proved injurious, but have never been noticed here. The
myriads of ants which once infested, but have now disap-
peared from, Grenada, committed, indeed, the most frightful
ravages ; but it was rather by excavating their little metro-
polis beneath the roots, than by attacking the body of the
cane. Were these little carnivorous agents less prolific than
they are, we might encourage them as useful helpmates in the
destruction of the borers, which they pursue and kill in their
cylindrical labyrinths." (Trans, Soc, Arts, vol. xlvi. p. ]53.)

Kirby and Spence, in enumerating the " benefits derived
from insects," in their Introduction to E7itomology, vol. i.
p. 298., thus remark : — " Many larvae that belong to the
order Coleoptera are eaten in different parts of the world.
The grub of the palm weevil [Calandra palmarum) [j%.95.^],
which is the size of the thumb, has been long in request in
both Indies, ^lian speaks iHist,, 1. xiv. c. 13.] of an Indian^

H H 3

470 Natural Histurij in foreign Countries : —

king, wlio, for a dessert, instead of fruit, set before bis Grecian
guests a roasted worm taken from a plant, probably the larva of
this insect, which he says the Indians esteem very delicious : a
character that was confirmed by some of the Greeks who tasted
it. Madam Merian, in her Lisects of Surinam^ has figured one
of these larvae, and says that the natives of Surinam roast and
eat them as something very exquisite. A friend of mine, who
has resided a good deal in the West Indies, where the palm
grub is called grugru, informs me that the late Sir John La
i'orey, who was somewhat of an epicure, was extremely fond
of it v/hen properly cooked."

In Kirby and Spence's tables of the comparative magni-
tudes of insects (in their vol. iii. p. 33. to 37.), mention is made
of a new species of Calandra^ preserved in MacLeay's mu-
seum, which is 3| in. in length and 1 in. in breadth. — J. D.

Facts and Observatiojzs in Natural History. — Sir, A gentle-
man having put into my hands a quarto copy of White's
Natural History of Selborne, with a request that 1 would, in
the course of my reading it, write on the margin of its leaves
any facts or observations which might have come in my way
relative to similar subjects, most of the following notes were
written accordingly. Those which relate to White's remarks
have the particular page of White's book in which they were
first written affixed to them. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — William
SellSi Surgeon, M.R.C.S. Ki?igsto72, Surrey, January 1. 1832.

[The principal part of these notes relate to animals of
Jamaica. A note on wild ducks will be found under North
America, p. 452, and the remainder under Collectanea,
in our next Number. — J. Z).]

Bats. {White's Selborne, p. 93.) Bats of the ordinary size
are very numerous in Jamaica ; they are found in mills and
old houses, especially such as are little occupied : they do great
mischief in gardens, where they eat the green peas, opening the
pod over each pea, and removing it very dexterously.

[The above mention of bats feeding on vegetables induces
here the introduction of two extracts, which seem to contest
that point, at least as far as the vampire bat of India and that
of South America are concerned. Bishop Heber says : —
" The vampire bat of India is a very harmless creature, of
habits entirely different from the formidable idea entertained
of it in England. It only eats fruit and vegetables, and indeed
its teeth are not indicative of carnivorous habits; and from
blood it turns away when offered to it. During the daytime
it is, of course, inert ; but at night it is lively, affectionate, and
playful, knows its keeper, but has no objection to the approach
and touch of others." {Bishop Heher .) These remarks, how-
ever, on the vampire of India do not correspond with Waterton's

J'Vest Indies, 471

observations on the vampire of South America, as expressed in
the Wanderings. According to the accomits there given, " the
vampire (FespertiUo spectrum) is a species of bat, which sucks
the blood of man and every unprotected animal. There are
two species in Demerara, both of which suck living animals :
one is rather larger than the common bat ; the other measures
above two feet from wing to wing extended. " So gently does
this nocturnal surgeon draw the blood, that, instead of being
roused, the patient is lulled into a still profounder sleep." The
larger vampire sucks men and other animals; the smaller
seems to confine itself chiefly to birds. " I learned from a
gentleman, high up in the river Demerara, that he was com-
pletely unsuccessful with his fowls, on account of the small
vampire. He shewed me some that had been sucked the
night before, and they were scarcely able to walk." ( Waterton.)
Whether the vampire of India and that of South America be
of one species, perhaps some systematist will please to advise
us. — J.D.]

Cats, their general Dislike to Water. [White's Selborne,
p. 82.) An instance of one which swam over two rivers to
return to her former abode. — In 1807, when living at Four
Paths, Clarendon, Jamaica, I wanted a cat, and had one given
to me, which was nearly full grown : it was brought from
Morgan's Valley Estate, where it was bred, and had never
been removed from that place before The distance was
five miles. It was put into a canvass bag, and carried by
a man on horseback. Between the two places there are
two rivers, one of them, named the Mino, is about 80 ft.
wide, and 2J ft. deep, running strong : the other is called
Thomas's River, which is wider and more rapid, but less
deep : on these rivers there are no bridges. The cat was
shut up at Four Paths for some days, and when considered to
be reconciled to her new dwelling, she was allowed to go
about the house. The day after obtaining her liberty, she was
missing; and, upon my next visiting the estate she was brought
from, I was quite amazed to learn that the cat had come back
again. Query, Did the cat swim over the rivers at the fords
where the horse came through with her, or did she ascend the
banks for a considerable distance, in search of a more shallow
place, and where the stream was less powerful ? [Instances
are recorded, Vol. IV. p. 430., of the domestic cat's sponta-
neously and habitually diving for fishes and rats. — J. Z).]

Caprice of Appetite in Goats. Among my notes, in the
journal of my voyage to England from Jamaica, in 1823, is
the following : — " We have a grey goat on board, with as
strange a depravity of appetite as was shown by my old fellow

H H 4

472 Natural History in foreign Coimtries : —

voyager on board the Westbrook, in 1821. It eats greedily
the rush bottoms of the chairs, and the Spanish mats. One
day I had my trunk on deck, in order to look over my
clothes, when she and her kid speedily stripped'oft' some of the
leather covering, and eat it. In case a birch broom was left
where the goats could get at it, they quickly demolished it.
The goat on board the Westbrook had an especial predilec-
tion for feathers; for, as sure as any unfortunate capon allowed
his fine tail to appear between the bars of the coop, the goat
seized upon, pulled out, and eat it, causing the poor bird to
cry piteously while under this rude operation : this would
happen particularly when the fowls were roosting with their
heads to the back of the coop ; and so persevering was the
goat in this favourite pursuit, that, after a while, we had not
a capon on board but had been deprived of its long tail
feathers. Were I to account for this seeming depravity of
appetite in goats, it would be in the following manner : —
All ruminating animals like a supply of dry hard fibrous
food, upon which to exercise the process of chewing the chud ;
and, in the absence of it, the animal may experience uneasiness,
from the want of the stimulus of distention, as well as a proper
employment of the gastric and salivary juices, and conse-
quently a suitable supply of food which has undergone
rumination. In this way may be explained the fact of goats
refusing to eat the maize (Indian corn) which was given to
them, and their eating, in preference, such strange substances
as wooden hoops, canvass, reeds, feathers, brooms, &c.

Turkeys eat Caterpillars which feed on Tobacco ; and Hogs
eat the poisonous Root of Cassava ( Janipha Manihot). I once
found the larva or caterpillar of a large ^Sphin.r- (the size of
that of the privet sphinx) feeding on a tobacco plant in
Jamaica. An American gentleman, who saw it also, imme-
diately observed that the tobacco plantations in Virginia were
occasionally much infested by caterpillars ; in which case,
the planter turned in flocks of turkeys, which soon cleared
the plants of their destroyers ; and the turkeys, in place of
being injured by such food, actually throve upon it. This
brings to my recollection the fact, that hogs, in Jamaica, eat
with perfect impunity the root of the Janipha Manihot, or
bitter cassava, which is a most deadly poison to man, unless
the water be completely expressed before cooking. [See, in
Gard. Mag., vol. vii. p. 470., numerous interesting particu-
lars respecting it] I once knew a fine youth die in a few
hours, from eating of the cassava from which the water had
been imperfectly squeezed. [The common large snail of the
gardens (iFfelix aspersa Miiller, H, hortensis oi Pennant, not

JVest Indies. 473

o'^ Mailer) freely feeds on the fiery-flavoured foliage of Clematis
Flammulai.— J.Z).]

Fondness of Poultry for Pepper, The Capsicum frutescens,
which, and which alone, affords, when dried and powdered, the
genuine Cayenne pepper, is commonly known in Jamaica by the
name of bird-pepper, or hen-pepper, on account of its being
so much eaten by birds, and especially by hens^and turkeys,
which will not leave a pod remaining on the bush that is
within their reach by jumping up to them. They are so fond
of these pods, as to eat a great number of them at a time*
These peppers are called chilies in England. Even the
Cayenne sold in Jamaica is prepared from several sorts of
red capsicums, mixed with the C. frutescens ; but they are all
much inferior in pungency and fine aromatic flavour; and
persons who would have it genuine are obliged to prepare it
in their own families.

Teal. {Whitens Selborne, p. 17.) During the months of
November, December, January, and February, the climate of
Jamaica is rendered delightfully cool, by the blowing of the
north-west wind, which passes over the continent of North
America, and, except an occasional light shower, the sky is
always bright, with constant sunshine : so that at an elevation
of about 1800 feet above the sea, where my residence was for
many years, the temperature was delightful, the thermometer,
in the morning, ranging from 56° to 60°, and, at noon from 70°
to 75°. Through the above-named period the island is visited
by vast flocks of teal, of the species, I apprehend, named by
Gmelin the carolinensis or American teal. They make their way
to ponds, and up the courses of rivers ; and are shot in great
numbers. I once saw a gentleman knock down several with
grains of Indian corn, used at the moment as a substitute for
shot, of which he had exhausted his little supply. This bird
is most dehcious eating, and so superior in flavour to all others
of its class, as to be worth preserving and sending to England
in the same way that we put up the game of this country for
ship use in long voyages. It is considered to come from the
Southern States of North America. I have been assured that
some few remain in Jamaica all the year round, breeding in
the swamps and lagoons near the sea.

Humming-birds. (Whites Selborne, p. 189.) White, in
h\s Natural History of Selborne ^ says: — "In the season of
nidification the wildest birds are comparatively tame." This
observation applies to the humming-bird. I remember a
pair of these beautiful little creatures busily building a nest in
the branch of an orange tree, which was close to the outer
side of the open piazza of a house in Spanish Town, Jamaica ;

474- Natural History in foreign Countries : —

in this apartment, situated on the north side of the house, the
family breakfasted and lunched. I spent three days there;
and, while taking my meals, had at least an equal treat, in
seeing these smallest of the feathered tribes gaily and actively
employed in then* building process. I have now in my pos-
session a nest of the bee humming-bird, which I removed
from the end of a branch of a mango tree [Mangifera indica]
which was not a foot above my head, and close to the door of
a dwelling-house. I cannot quit this article without speaking
of the delight that was aiForded me, in Jamaica, by seeing
humming-birds feeding on honey in the florets of the great
aloe [Agave americana LT^, On the side of a hill upon Sutton's
Estate (the property of Henry Dawkins, Esq.) were a con-
siderable number of aloe plants, of which about a dozen were
in full blossom. They were spread over a space of about
twenty yards square. The spikes, bearing bunches of flowers in
a thyrsus, were from 12 to 1 5 ft. high ; on each spike were
many hundred flowers of a bright yellow colour, each floret
of a tubular shape, and containing a good-sized drop of honey.
Such an assemblage of floral splendour was in itself most
magnificent and striking ; but it may be imagined how much
the interest caused by this beautiful exhibition was increased
by vast numbers of humming-birds, of various species, flutter-
ing at the opening of the flowers, and dipping their bills, first
into one floret and then into another, the sun, as usual, shin-
ing bright upon their varied and beautiful plumage. The long-
tailed or bird of Paradise humming-bird was particularly
striking, its long feathers waving as it darted from one flower
to another. I was so much delighted with this sight, that I
visited the spot again in the afternoon, after a very long and
fatiguing day's ride, accompanied by my wife, on horseback,
when we enjoyed the scene before us for more than half an
hour. In this Magazine (Vol. I. p. 371.) there is a note
furnished by Mr. Rennie, respecting the food of the humming-
bird. Mr. Rennie is of opinion that the Jrochilidae do not
feed on honey, but that their food is insects. I have related
what appeared to be a fact, in proof of the general opinion of
their eating honey being correct. I gathered a bunch of the
flowers of the aloe, but did not perceive any insects in them ;
and I have known several instances of humming-birds being
kept alive for some time by feeding them with sugar and
water : further, when birds make insects their prey, it is by
a sudden darting upon them ; whereas the humming-bird is
fluttering some seconds at each flower, as if employed in
sipping honey, rather than in catching insects.

[The paragraph above referred to (viz. Vol. I. p. 371.) de-

West Indies, 475

serves perusal. In amplification of humming-bird history, we
here present, from Waterton's Wanderings in South America,
an extract which has lain some time by us. — J, Z).]

" The humming-bird, though least in size, yet, from its
glittering mantle, is entitled to the first place in the list of the
birds of the New World. It may be truly called the bird
of paradise ; and, had it existed in the Old World, it would
have claimed the tide, instead of the bird which has now the
honour to bear it. See it darting through the air almost as
quick as thought ! now it is within a yard of your face ! in an
instant gone ! now it flutters from flower to flower, to sip the
silver dew : it is now a ruby, now a topaz, now an emerald,
now all burnished gold ! It would be arrogant to pretend to
describe this winged gem of nature, after BufFon's elegant
description of it. Cayenne and Demerara produce the same
hunnning-birds. Perhaps you would wish to know something
of their haunts. Chiefly in the months of July and August,
the tree called Bois Immortel, very common in Demerara,
bears abundance of red blossoms, which stay on the tree for
some weeks ; then it is that most of the different species of
humming-birds are very plentiful. The wild red sage [^Salvia
splendens Ker, perhaps. — J. DJ] is also their favourite shrub,
and they buzz like bees round the blossom of the wallaba tree.
Indeed, there iS scarce a flower in the interior or on the sea-
coast but what receives frequent visits from one or other of
the species. On entering the forests, on the rising land in
the interior, the blue and green, the smallest brown (no bigger
than the humble bee, with two long feathers in the tail), and
the little forked-tail purple-throated humming-birds glitter
before you in ever-changing attitudes. One species alone
never shows his beauty to the sun ; and were it not for his
lovely shining colours, you might almost be tempted to class
him with the goatsuckers, on account of his habits. He is
the largest of all the humming-birds, and is all red and chang-
ing gold green, except the head, which is black. He has two
long feathers in the tail, which cross each other ; and these
having gained him the name of Karabimiti, or Ara humming-
bird, from the Indians. You never find him on the sea-coast,
or where the river is salt, or in the heart of the forest, unless
fresh water be there. He keeps close by the side of wooded
fresh-water rivers, and dark and lonely creeks. He leaves his
retreat before sunrise, to feed on the insects over the water ;
he returns to it as soon as the sun's rays cause a glare of
light, is sedentary all day long, and comes out again, for a
short time, after sunset. He builds his nest on a twig over
the water, in some unfrequented creeks ; it looks like tanned

476 Natural History in foreign Countries : —

cow-leather. As you advance towards the mountains of
Demerara, other species of humming-birds present themselves
before you. It seems to be an erroneous opinion that the
humming-bird lives entirely on honey-dew. Almost every
flower of the tropical climate contains insects of one kind or
another: now, the humming-bird is most busy about the
flowers an hour or two after sunrise, and after a shower of
rain; and it is just at this time that the insects come out to
the edge of the flower, in order that the sun's rays may dry
the nocturnal dew and rain which they have received. On
opening the stomach of the humming-bird, dead insects are
almost always found there." [Waterton.)

The Green or Esculent Turtle. {White's Selborne, p. 148.)
Among my notes made on my voyage home, in 1823, I find
the following memorandum, dated the 3d of July : — " At
10 A.M. saw the Island of Grand Cayman; at 11, a canoe
came alongside with nine turtles, the largest weighing 1 50 lbs.,
the smallest about 1 5 lbs. The owner offered them for sale,
and wanted \0d, Jamaica currency (7^. sterling) per lb.: the
captain said it was too much, and the turtler went away,
but returned again in twenty minutes, when Mr. S. (a pas-
senger on board) bought six, at 9d. per lb. The turtles on
board ship are kept in puncheons of salt water, which is
changed every four or five days. A hole, about eight inches
square, is made in the bulge of the puncheon, to admit air and
food consisting of chopped plantain stalks and fowls' entrails ;
but many turtles never eat any thing during the whole voyage.
Turtles will sometimes weigh more at their being landed
here than when shipped in the West Indies ; others, again,
fall off considerably ; but much depends upon the weather,
and attention to changing the water frequently. The price of
turtle, in Jamaica, is the same as that of beef. Sailors on
board ships bound to Honduras, for mahogany, make an
agreement with the captain that they shall not be obliged to
eat turtle more than two or three times a week. The eggs of
the turtle are globular, the shell is soft like parchment, and
is readily indented by pressure: although not unpalatable,
many people do not like them, especially at first eating.

Lizards. [White's Selborne, p. 54.) Lizards abound in
Jamaica, and are of numerous species. Cats eat them very
commonly, but it is always noticed that they do not thrive on
such diet. There is one small sort, not much bigger than the
English eft [iacerta vulgaris L.], which creeps about the
walls, inside the houses : it is considered wrong to disturb it,
as the natives believe it to be ominous of a happy increase in
the family. I have specimens of three species, each of which

West Indies. 477

is somewhat interesting. One is about a foot long, and liad the
power of changing the colour of its skin from a greenish hue,
its ordinary tint, to all the shades of yellow, green, blue, and
brown. The second kind, about the same length, is called by
the negroes the galley wasp : they are much afraid of it, but,
I believe, without good reason. It is true that it is bolder
than other lizards, and will sometimes show fight when
attacked; but its bite (if it ever does bite) must be almost
harmless. The third is a small grey lizard, very uncommon;
this being the only one I saw during twenty years' residence :
it was on the high road, and was discovered by my servant,
who (according to my rule) was riding before me. I desired
him to catch it : he refused, saying, " he could not ; that it
was bad lizard ; and, if he touched it, his fingers would drop
off, joint by joint." As there was no reasoning against a pre-?
judice like that, I dismounted, and caught it myself.

Snakes eat lizards, and generally gorge the head of the
lizard and its fore legs first; in which case you see the tail and
hinder legs projecting out of the snake's mouth : but it some-*
times happens that the snake seizes the lizard by the tail,
when its head, with its bright eyes, will be seen peeping out
of the destroyer's mouth, quite alive, and struggling hard, but
in vain, to get away. [See Professor Henslow's description of
a parallel case with the common British snake and frog,
Vol. IV. p. 279.] It is well known how slowly the serpent
tribe swallow their food [The Boa. constrictor will, in Eng-
land, swallow a live rabbit with the speed of thought. — J". Z).] ;
and, as the lizard is very tenacious of life, its lower extremities
are pretty well digested before the head and upper parts are
dead or nearly swallowed.

Several species of lizard have a power of projecting and
contracting a fold of the skin, which covers the throat, in a
verjr curious manner : the creature is always standing still when
it does this; the projected portion of the skin is spotted of a
scarlet colour. Possibly this peculiarity may enable the lizard
to get its food more readily, by attracting the attention of flies
and other insects.

The guana, or esculent lizard, is no longer found in
Jamaica. I once saw a man hawking one about the streets
of Spanish Town, in search of an epicure who would be its
purchaser ; the man told me he brought it from St. Domingo.
It was of a light brown colour, and about two feet long.

Crabs, The land crabs in Jamaica* are of two very

* A species of land crab also abounds in India. Bishop Heber states
that " All the grass land through the Deccan generally swarms with a small
land crab, which burrows in the ground, and runs with considerable swift-

478 Natural History in foreign Cowiiries : —

distinct species, the white and the black, although described
by systematic writers as being only varieties of the Cancer
ruricola. The black crab is found abundantly in the eastern
and northern parishes of the island during particular periods
of the year : it is of the blackness of the lobster, and of a
very light and handsome shape, as compared with any other
species : it is very active upon its legs, and runs fast. Most
persons conversant with the delicacies of foreign regions have
heard of the deliciousness of this creature as an article of
food ; and, in proof of the truth of such opinion, I may mention
the circumstance of having dined in company with a gentle-
man, at his first meeting with the black crab, who had nothing
of the epicure or gourmand about him, but habitually gave
the preference to the plainest food, and avoided spices, wine,
and other luxuries in ordinary use with other people : but the
black crab proved too much even for this practical philoso-
pher in diet and regimen ; and so completely did it get the
better of him, that, after eating two or three mouthfuls, he
very deliberately put down his knife and fork, to express more
leisurely and emphatically his admiration of the exquisite food
then for the first time before him ; declaring that all he had
ever read, heard, or imagined, appertaining to that or other
delicious productions, fell short, infinitely short, of the reality
he then enjoyed. There is a very good general history of
this curious animal, under the article Cancer, in Rees's
Cyclopcedia,

The white land crab is very abundant in the lowland districts
of the south side of the island : it is rather larger than the
black, and not so handsomely shaped, or so active in its move-
ments. During my stay at Port Henderson, in June, 1823,
there were some heavy showers of rain after a long-continued
drought, when the crabs came out of their holes in vast
numbers : they entered and walked all about the house. The
weather being very sultry, I had my chamber door open at
night: the crabs came into my room, and made a rustling
noise, by laying hold of a dry goatskin (used as a covering
to my portmanteau), which awoke me. They came to the
bedposts, and, being awkward creatures to deal with in the
dark, I was satisfied with watching that they did not climb up
the bedposts, and get into the bed. The servants, and among

ness, even when encumbered with a bundle of food almost as big as
itself. This food is grass, or the green stalks of rice ; and it is amusing to
see the crabs, sitting, as it were, upright, to cut their hay witji their sharp
pincers, then waddling off with their sheaf to their holes, as quickly as
their sidelong pace will carry them " — .7. D.

iVest Indies, 479

them my own man James, caught a great many. James would
catch four dozen in two or three hours, and then take them
to Spanish Town (distant five miles) where he sold them at
four for fivepence, or five shilhngs currency (better than
three shillings sterling) for the lot. They are pretty active,
and move off briskly at the approach of danger, and hold up
their claws, which are large and strong, in a menacing manner,
ready to punish any invader. The hogs reared in the neigh-
bourhood are accustomed to them, and kill and eat them. It
is quite diverting to see the pig make the attack. He places
one of his feet very cautiously, but quickly, upon the crab, and
soon cracks the claw with his teeth : however, he sometimes
fails ; and the crab instantly seizes him by the nose, and makes
the hog run off, shaking his head, and squeaking most pi-
teously. These crabs are very fine eating, and very much
superior to the sea crab taken on the coast of Jamaica, al-
though inferior in exalted flavour to the black crab. The
white crab, like all its congeners, casts its shell periodically.
For some time after the old covering is thrown off, the new
coat is very soft, and hardens gradually as it becomes con-
verted into shell by the secretion of earthy matter : while soft,
they are called leather-jackets, and are esteemed particularly
fine, being very fat, and the whole eatable.

Insects in Jamaica 'which are either troublesome or injurious.
{Whitens Selborne, p. 89.) The insects which annoy residents
in the West Indies are the following : — the mosquito, the
sand fly, the bottler, and the chigo.

The mosquito is not distinguishable from the common gnat
by ordinary observers, and, as Kalm says, is a variety of the
Cillex pipiens. In Jamaica it abounds in all lowland situ-
ations almost through the whole year. Those who are for-
tunate enough to live at an elevation of 2500 feet are exempt
from the sharp attacks of this creature, which does not breed
at a height where the climate is cool : new comers are parti-
cularly obnoxious to its assaults. To show the power of
these little tormentors to alter the physiognomy of a person, I
may relate the following anecdote : — Captain Newbolt, of
the ship Sir Edward Hamilton, having spent the day with
me, and enjoyed his wine, which proved a mosquito dose, he
slept upon the sofa in the hall, without any mosquito net. He
must have lain so as to expose an exact half of his face to the
operations of the enemy, who attacked him in such numbers,
that, when I saw him next morning, his appearance was both
curious and ludicrous : the left side of his nose and face was
precisely as I had seen it the day before ; but I would defy
any of his oldest acquaintance to have recognised him, had

48fb 'Natural Histor^^mjU'^fgn Countries : —

was it swollen. '^^ "^^ ^^ iiviamfil sfij ni dd ^ifm sldBiBd lavs
. 'The sand fly T^S^^a^ft^ei^ %SMV^ ai{}t#6?il'^Ate^,^'H?m^
'abounds in the lowland districts of Jamaica. Like the mosquito,
5t is formidable by its numbers: it particularly attacks/ tlie
ankles and legs, seldom the face or hands. >)«oi

'' llie bottler, as it is commonly called, is also a dipterous
irisect. It appears very small when it settles on the skin, biU
Its very dilatable abdomen receives a goodly quantity of the
purple stream. It causes none of that intolerable itdiitig
^-v^v^hich follows the punctures of the mosquito and saria ^P^^
i" Thechigo, I apprehend, is a species of ^4'carus. Tne'p¥re'ht
insect penetrates the skin of the toes and feet, and deposits its
eggs there: after a while they hatch and grow, when' they
^Cause at first what is considered by some a very delightful
^Mi^i'dh, resembling titillation ; however, in time, swelling,
inflammation, and violent itching follow, when it is usqalto
^tall one of the female servants to pull the chigo, as the 'ope):-
^tion of extraction is called. The instrument employed is a fihfe
"heedle, with which the skin is opened and dissected carefully
off* and around a membranous bag, which contains the nest
of young chigoes ; and, at length, this is dexterously effected,
and the bag, in size of a small pea, is removed. The hollow h
'filled with tobacco ashes, or a drop or two of laudanum, and
lall is soon quite w^ell.

-' The above sources of annoyance are, in truth, after all, but

^fninor evils, and have been much exaggerated by many who have

^escribed them. I lived among them above twenty years, and

^ifexperienced very little inconvenience. It is true that I indulged

'hiyself, by wearing mosquito boots, made of brown holland,

when I visited the lowland districts, where mosquitoes and

sand flies are more numerous, and find ready entrance for

Hheir proboscis through a silk or a fine cotton stocking. At

hight, a good mosquito net, which has been well tucked in

early in the afternoon, effectually excludes them.

•' The insects which are hurtful in the house are the ant, and

^especially the cockroach.

T The ant is of several species. A small kind, called the

^^ugar ant, so named on account of its fondness for sugar and

^^ny fluid that may contain a portion of that substance^ is vastly

numerous. In a few minutes after spilling on the table a little

^lemonade, sweet wine, or tea, these little creatures are seen in

great numbers coming along the floor, ascending the legs of

the table, and crowding round the little pool of liquid as

closely as they can stow themselves, sipping their fill, to be

followed by others, until the whole is removed. -

West Indies, 481

A larger species of ant attacks the fruit, meat, and what-
ever eatable may be in the larder, if it can obtain access there.
To prevent this evil, the safe can only prove so to its contents,
by either being suspended from the ceiling by a rope that is
frequently tarred, or placed on a stand whose legs rest in
leaden boxes filled with water, which is changed frequently,
or a pellicle of dust would form, and soon give transit to these
light-footed creatures. The large red ant is seldom seen in the
house ; but I recollect, on one occasion, that a host of them
made it their thoroughfare. About four o'clock in the after-
noon, they entered the front piazza, in irregular but con-
tinuous lines of three or four files, passed through the hall,
and went out at the back door, and down the wall. This
procession lasted, without ceasing, for above two hours. Num-
bers were killed, but it was idle to continue the slaughter, as
it made no difference ill regard to those which were to follow
continuing their march.

The wood ants in Jamaica construct arched galleries. To
destroy them, you have but to make an opening in the gallery,
and drop in a little arsenic; the ants will eat it, and of course
die; being cannibals, they are eaten by the others, and the
whole are speedily destroyed. I have done this more than
once with perfect success.

The cockroach is of all insect annoyances the greatest, both
in size and circumstance. It eats the bindings of books after
they have been handled, and any perspiration has dried upon
them ; leather of all kinds that has been used, as gloves,
harness, boots, and shoes. They crawl over and eat fruit
and vegetables, leaving their faeces and an intolerable stench
wherever they go. They also eat the corks of bottled wine,
cider, or porter, so as to give exit to the liquor; and it be-
comes necessary to protect the corks by dipping them in quick-
lime and water ; and further, they go into empty bottles, and
render them difficult to clean, and almost impossible to sweeten.
Of all the plagues of Jamaica this was the object of my great-
est abhorrence. In that island, no parchment is used for
wills, deeds, conveyances, or any legal document; for, were it
used for such purposes, the cockroaches would have no mercy
upon it, if accessible to their destructive powers ; and a man's
title to land or other property would hold good but a very
short time, if it came in their way.

As some set-ofF to the foregoing annoyances from insects, I
may add, that, owing to feather-beds, coloured or woollen bed
furniture, or carpets, not being in use there, bugs and fleas
are seldom seen.

Vol. v. — No. 27. i I

482 Natural History in foreign Countries : —

Scorpions &re frequently met with, but are little feared ; as
people are generally on their guard when meddling with
things or places in which they are apt to conceal themselves.
On one occasion, I knew a lady stung when drawing on her
glove, in a finger of which a scorpion had concealed itself; at
another time, a child of mine cried out lustily, directly after
the nurse had put his boot on ; and on taking it off, a scorpion
was found, which had stung his toe. The greatest number of
scorpions I ever saw was on board the ship in which 1 came
to England in 1821. She had a large quantity of logwood on
freight, in the hollows and crevices of which scorpions were
concealed. One evening a young gentleman who came home
under our care was upon his knees, in the aCt of saving the
Lord's prayer, previously to going to bed, when he suddenly
screamed violently (to Mrs. Sells's great terror), exclaiming,
" corpion ! corpion ! " clapping his hand to the upper part of
his thigh : on taking off his trousers, a large scorpion was
found. The part was directly rubbed with rum in which
scorpions were immersed, which is a favourite remedy with
sailors. I should say the sting of a scorpion is commonly not
so severe as that of a wasp.

The centipede is not uncommon; but I rarely knew any one
bitten by it.

Flies. It is well known that flies will deposit their eggs on
any surface which affords a suitable nidus for them. I remem-
ber a gentleman's son who suffered severely from the larvae
(maggots) of a fly, which proceeded from eggs that had been
laid in the ear; but the most extraordinary case of this sort
which has come to my knowledge occurred in a negro man
at Kellitt's Estate, in Jamaica. He was a tradesman, and a
very intelligent fellow. When I first saw him, his nose and
cheeks were very much swollen, rendering his face hideous ;
and he suffered most severe pain. I immediately suspected the
cause, and soon succeeded in making the residence of the
maggots so uncomfortable to them, by application of turpen-
tine and olive oil, with green tobacco juice, up the nostrils,
that they came away gradually; but it occupied at least a
fortnight before the whole were removed, so deeply lodged
were they in the nasal passages. I desired the man to keep
a tally of the numbers of his tormentors; and he did so, I
have no doubt, faithfully, after which he handed it to me, and
it is still in my possession. It contains 23 crosses (X) for ten
each, and V for five, amounting to 235 larvae of, I believe,
the bluebotde fly. Almost all of them were full-grown,
and forming, perhaps, such a brood of maggots as never pro-
ceeded from any man's head before. Flies abound upon

Potynesia, 483

sugar estates ; and, when we recollect how often negroes go to
sleep in the open air, the wonder is that similar incidents djti
not occur more frequently. — TVilliain Sells, Surgeon, MMtCSL
Kingston, Surrey, January 1. 1832. * \.

An extract from Jameson's Journal, exhibiting cases parafl^
to the above two, may here be fitly introduced. — J. D. ""J

Various instances are on record of winged insects depositing
their eggs in the human body. Mr. Bracey Clark gives the
case of an ox gadfly which produced bots in the jaw of a
w^oman. Lempriere records the case of a lady in Jamaica
who died of the maggots of a large blue fly, common in the
West Indies. The 6B'strus /zominis, or human gadfly, is not
often met with; but in Jameson's Journal for April, 1830, an
authenticated case is given of one of the larvae having attained
the perfect state in the back part of the arm of a sailor.
This sailor, while at work, " usually wore his shirt-sleeves
rolled up above his elbows; and while in George Towii|
Demerara, he generally slept on deck. It is easy, then, to
suppose that the (E'sivus, or parent fly, had availed itself of ai
proper opportunity to deposit its egg upon his arm, probably
by a slight puncture of the skin, by means of the ovipositbi*
with which it is furnished. When the larva had attained its
full size, it dropped out, instinctively searching for a covermg
of natural earth, in which to undergo the intermediate state
of pupa, which it is destined to assume for a time before it
becomes a winged insect. The instinct of the parent, howeve^
admirable under ordinary circumstances, was, of course, insuf-»
ficient to provide against the accident of Killock's (the sailor's
name) being a seafaring man ; and the larva could not have
attained the perfect state, for want of the proper nidus in
which the pupa is accustomed to repose." {Jameson'k
Journal, April 1830, p. 287.) J-

POLYNESIA. f

Botany of the South Sea Islands. — The following esculent
plants and timber trees are found in the Island of Tahiti,
in the Southern Pacific Ocean : — ^.^

Esculent Plants. — Artocarpus incisa and its varieties (the bread-fruit
tree) are among the valuable indigenous productions of the fertile arid
beautiful Island of Tahiti, where, from some trees bearing at later periods at
some parts of the island, the fruit can be procured during the whole year.
This tree is also indigenous to the islands forming the Eastern Archipelago ;
but the fruit does not attain the perfection of the Polynesian : it is called
by the Malays, sukun. They have also a variety with seeds, which is
called by a distinct name, kalawi. This variety I have seen at Erromanga
(New Hebrides group), and it is also found at the Navigators' and Marquesas
Islands ;, I have seen, at the former place, varieties similar to those whiqlfc
at Tahiti are destitute of seeds ; although, at Navigators', the fruits were
full of them. There are no species at the Society Islands containing seeds :

I I 2

p&f Natural History, m. foreign Countries : —

it is thus ^ccomntcd for by Labillardiere : — " The abortion of the.^eds
doubtless arises from the custom which the natives have of propagating it
by suckers ; and in this respect it differs particularly from the wild species,
the fruits of which are much smaller, fewer in number, and filled with large
kernels which are rather difficult to digest."

The general name for the bread-fruit tree is maiore, of which there
^re twenty-four varieties ; and each has a distinct native' name, as
allows':— ' / ' -.,

1, Paea. This is a mbuiitein bread-fruit : the fruit is long, of a large size, and very rough or
tuberculated. f 2. Rare, The fruit is round, with a bright epidermis.

3. Maire. One of the best kinds : it is a large and round fruit, with rather a smooth skin, aiid
the leaves are more divided than in any of the other varieties.

4. Rauiia. 6. Buero. 6. Raumae. 7. Aravei. . A long fruit with smooth «kiM.

8. PehL 11. Piipiia. '^ ' 14. Opiha. ' ' '' 17. Oviri. '*'''^^ "

fisiisi tBTBHl 31»efr«it» of these laitJiuitned eleven varieties are of large Mate J bttfilai ?Mi
19. Pafara. 20. Afatp.*^ lo OiL'J JliJIUq

sUl'^i n : J^Ww^^>ivn-hnu 23- Anuanu. ,{ ., ,.j j, ,. f^^aiqr^, ^phj,, ,,j^
^i^^rbst^^ \0i{^&\ <toinihon bread-ifruit (maiote feignifyii&g bread-fruit, and
ijQt|i^j)ldQd)8fnon[)bi)<)vThe leaves, as wdl as the fruit, attain a very large

suter------ • • .._ ■ ^ ^ ^ ■

El,The leaves of the different varieties vary in their form as well as
size; but most of them are large, some measuring from 2ift. to 3ft*
in length, and from 20 in. to 2 ft. in breadth: they are villous, rugged,
more or less deeply cut, and, on being broken, are found to contain d
white visctid juice ; which is also collected (by incisions being made) in
abundance from the trunk of the tree, and is found, on trial, an excel*
J,0nt substitute for pitch. This tree attains the height of from 50 ft. to
§0 ft., and a circumference of 5 ft. or 6 ft.; the timber is excellent, and
(durable even when kept in water ; the colour of the heart is reddish, and
the sap-wood, which is not durable, of a light yellow; the wood is soft, and is
psed by the natives for building their vessels, as well as for a variety of
f ^er purposes. Some of the native cloth (named hobuu and aaone) is
manufactured from the bark of this tree, after undergoing the same prei-
p^tration as the bark of the ante or paper mulberry tree (Broussonet?a
^pyrifera).

Dracai^na termindlis (or ti of the natives). There are also several
yarieties of this plant. The root contains a quantity of saccharine liquor;
^ is long and fusiform, and is baked and eaten by the natives ; the leaves
fiimish an excellent provender for cattle, and form a good sea-stock for
that purpose; rum has also been distilled ^oittil^be roots. The varieties are
fieven in number : — ; oibi j . ., , 5

,K5. Tiura. 3. Rauroa. 5. Taratarata^*olilod y.8!Hpiia6K|.10ri3o lo

^if M^'^"^- *• Abuabu. 6. Oheohe. .Lo-Sjbiq ci Glild fiflj iu6

ji; Krum esculentum. The varieties of this plant {the tare ^f the natives)
iffe also very numerous, and are as follows : — ; . .. r ;r ^

^iPoitere. 7.'Uute. ^'^^-^ ^^\J ^3. lihi. ^'^^ '^^k^'^iiWiiyk?^^"^*^^

« Poti. 8. Anuanu. ,89qoi lOlii Bura-uutei (» n't fflOJjUB^jalfi ?A A1b6

& More. 9. Huararo.,^: /-t,;vAV\J5. Vainia. 21.^ Mauroa-.K- „a-t>

ef? Onoa. 10. Papeata. ^^ -^^^^^l"J6. Anatia. 22. Tara.^^*^ ^^^

-{A Veo-oa. 11, Hoahoa.mMlIvuqO]17. Pehu. ^r '!9fiiJ320l

j-^e. Veo-uru. 12. Fafa. ■-, ■ !l8. Maabuta. ,i,. juf.! ' ' " •

l-: The two following are both mountain and lowland jtxtoiii tkt thii'd is a
fijfountain taro : — ^,.,..1^ -u .- .; -fjiuu^is a.^ .u:>j8ix9 '^h^oiiui ;<-,y,.i,i.|

-^-1. Abura. y,(j i^^-j ri g. Abura «t©gof{3 'io IrIO'/O&Io 3'Jlt9A»«q Olii vd

'' The 7th and 14ttfW the varieties befor^^ittglitfo-W^tT; 'ilMffifefyrUlft^ ki} a
Bura-uute, yield a juice of a beautiful purplish colour.

'QfMmaLPMiMiAnT^^fOrMeidy thevaeieties are as follows c-^^-
ytl D92II ar ii ^i^atnh htiR bifid no a ai boo7? arii h^n jIjwois '^olz "to aai?

iS. vAvae. 9. Gvatavaia,. ■ 16. Taioura. This va- 21. Parafatu;^;?;9li(iuob

a.Huamano. 10. Marei. riety has foliage of a 22. Nei nei. -j^,,^ ,,j

"'4: Tavara, 11. Hai tea. dark purple colour. 23. Bute butfc^-^"^ X^

5. ApirL .^ D31IU ;j;lg. ^^jiIih^ ;,; - ; 17. Toro. n>;j(ifi ilf 2fe fHsbufc) iii^Jtinl 90^

7. PWai. \l pSSlati. " - ll ?Lpai. «^b T3fij81 y.£ rliriw sbnisi

The Fei, or Mountain Plantain^ has also several varieties, whicti are
found growing luxuriantly on the declivities of the mountains, as also in the
elevated valleys ; the native names of the varieties are as follows : —' "^^''^

^^■^ I-.-. ' . ..aj&li X

1. Aiori. 6. Aoha. 11. Aururu. 16. Mahiti. )d'r*

. £, Afara, ao.n. *! iv'i. Mahini. 12. Eve. iibrt'-S tr ■ 17. Apito. tbM .8

3. Faraureva. 8. Rutu. 13. Haa. ,i..d.ri)9bivii 18. Piatoto. .; a.li

4t Rutevarr;! rfJiv/ hull's.. Tipao. 14. FaraobtiriSB. 0:19. Fanautaatai: rK <#

6. Orea. ,.f\ 10. Poutia. 15. Tarimane.

Timber fWes. — There are sevei;al valuable timber trees indigeupus to
this island ; among them are the miro, apape, tamanu or atfj mara, faifai,
purau, aito or toa, tou, &c. &c.

The Miro (Thespesia populneUy formerly J^ibiscus joqpulneus) attains
the elevation of 45 ft. to 50 ft. and a circumference of iBft. : it is a ti%e
iiSiialty of crooked growth, but the timber is hard and durable, and vtery
suitable for the timbers of ships. When first cut, the wood is red ; but, by
exposure, becomes of a reddish brown or variegated colour, somewhat
resembling the rosewood. This tree is indigenous to the Philippine Islands
(as well as every other part of India), where it is called Banalo. On cut-
ting the immature fruit, it was found to contain a viscid yellow juice, resem-
bling gamboge in colour, which mixes readily with water, and is applicable
for water-colour drawing. The flower-buds and calyx also yield this colour-
ing matter, but the seeds do not possess it.

The Apape grows very straight, and towers to the elevation of 40 ft.
without a branch, and to 60 ft. or 70 ft. with its branches ; in circumference
it is from 8 ft. to 10 ft. The timber is of a pinkisfet^l^i-l and very dur-
able; a gum resin exudes from the tree. ^' ':*' 'i;^ '"

The Mara is an elegant tree, and attains the height of 40 ft. or 50 ft.j
and a circumference of 5 ft. or 8 ft. The wood is hard, and is used for the
keels of vessels, boats, &c.

The Faifai resembles the apape in its mode df growth, and attains the
height of 50 ft. or 60 ft., and a circumference of 6 ft. or 8 ft. The wood- jft
of a yellowish colour, durable, and valuable for plank or spar.

The Purau or Fau (Ylibiscus tilidceus) is usually a tree of crooked
growth, attaining the height of 30 ft. or 40 ft., and a circumference of 4 ft.
or 5 ft. There are several varieties of this tree, of which two are highly
esteemed by the natives, the white and blue. The wood is tough, light,
and durable, and is used for house or ship-building, as well as for a variety
of other purposes : both the white and blue are used for those purposes,
but the blue is preferred. The inner bark of this tree is used in theriianli-
facture of ropes, and also in the manufacture of a fine mat, named purau,
which is highly esteemed, and usually worn by the chiefs. This tree is
abundant among the islands forming the Eastern Archipelago, wiiere tjie
bark is also used in the manufacture of ropes. " *^

The Aito or Toa (Casuajina equisetifolia) is a very elegant tree, which,
together with the Tamanu or Ati (CalophjUum inophjllum) were formerly
regarded as sacred, and were planted in the morals. On visiting different
parts of this island, the situation where one of the morals [native burial
places] formerly existed was usually indicated (even where no ruins existed)
by the presence of several of these trees, which cast a gloomy shade over
those spots formerly the scene of so many human sacrifices. This tree is of
very handsome growth, and has a drooping melancholy appearance i it attains
the elevatipu of 60 ft. or 70 ft., and a cireumf^ren^^ of 6 ft. or Tit^ It is a
tree of slow growth, and the wood is very hard and durable. It is used by

I I 3

486 Natural History in foreign Countries,

the natives for a variety of purposes. It is not so abundant at Tahiti as at
the Leeward Islands and the Island of Rurutu. The bark of the tree is
used by the natives for dyeing a dark red colour; and the ashes of the
wood yield a quantity of alkaline, which has lately been used in the
manufacture of a kind of coarse soap.

The Toil Tree (Cordis, orientdlis) attains the elevation of 50 ft. to 60 ft.,
and a circumference of 6 ft. to 8 ft. ; and bears clusters of handsome orange-
coloured flowers. The wood is of a dark red colour, and is used for frame-
wood, &c. When it has attained a large size, it is usually found rotten
in the heart which prevents its being used for larger purposes. The leaves
of the tree are used by the natives as a dye, combined with the juice of the
mati (i^cus prollxa), which forms a fine scarlet colour used in dyeing
their native cloth. ♦«

The Fern Tribe is numerous at this island, and some of the species are
very elegant ; among others may be mentioned that beautiful umbellated
fern, the Schizae^a dichotoma, which is found growing in moist and shady-
situations : it is figured in Hooker's F cones Filicum; but a dried specimen,
from which the drawing seems to have been made, cannot convey the ele-
gant appearance of the plant when seen growing in its native woods. On
the high mound, built of coral stones, which still remains of the great
moral at Mahiatea, about two miles from Mairipehe (and which is about
20 ft. high, and of a great length), I gathered some specimens of a species
of Polypodium, which the natives call atua buaa, or pig's god : it was so
named, because they considered it, in their idolatrous days, the god of the

Eig ; and, on a sow littering, it was brought and placed before her, to help
er in time of trouble. I suppose that now, as the natives have abolished
their idols, the pigs have also lost their deity. There is a fern which grows
at the Society Islands, and also at the Island of Rurutu, called nahi by
the natives ; the fronds attain a very large size, with alternate pinnate leaf-
lets, bulbous at their origins. It is found growing in good soil and in moist
land ; it is the Angiopteris erecta, and is well figured in Hooker's F cones
Filicuni. It has a pleasant fragrant smell when just gathered, which it loses
in a dried state. The Davalh« solida was abundant on all trees ; and also
the Gleichenia Hermann^, which is correctly figured in Hooker's Fcones
Filicum. The Acrostichum aureum, or aoa of the natives, abounds by the
margins of the rivers, the fronds attaining theJieight of 5 ft. or 6 ft. ; and a
large species of Lycopodium grows very abundantly on a plain between
the isthmus (Taravao) and Vaitore.

vThe Atai (Erythrmd Corailodendron^y viri-viri of the Sandwich Islands,
with its bright red papilionaceous flowers, and the ahia or jambo (Eu-
genia malaccensis), also in flower, occasionally added gaiety and beauty to
the scenery of this picturesque island. The solitary tree which stood
on " One-tree Hill," near Matavai, and which caused that appellation to
be given to the hill, was an atai. The" wood of this tree is not used. The
cuttings are used for fences, and readily take root.

Among other Shrubs and Plants are the following : — The pumape, a
species of Metrosideros ; the atoto, a shrub bearing blue flowers, a species
of Desmodium ; and the motuu, the Melastoma malabathrica {Banks and
Solander). The berries of the last yield a juice of a bluish black colour, but
are not used by the natives. The oporo, a small species of «S'olanum, bear-
ing dark-coloured fruit. The mou (Cyperus) is abundant, and there are
several species among them. The mou raupo, mou taviriava, mou maohi,
the fibres from the stalks of which are used for straining kava, &c. The
Sophora tomentosa, named pofatuaoao by the natives ; a shrub named
apiri, a species of Dodon(^^a, fillets of which were formerly used for
binding around the heads and waists of the victors after a battle, and
when they went in pursuit of the vanquished. — George Bennett, F.L.S.
M.R.C.S., Sfc. London, Dec. 10. 1831.

Retrospective Criticism, 487

Art. II. Retrospective Criticism,

Corrections to the last Number. — For " Planaria corniita Johnston^*
p. 344— 346. read " Planaria vittata Montagu;''' and see p. 429. of the
present Number for the reasons. — J. D.

• Luminosity of the Ocean. — I am happy to perceive that the attempt
which I made (Vol. IV. p. 505.), to reconcile the conflicting opinions of
naturalists upon this remarkable phenomenon, has called forth the addi-
tional interesting remarlcs of that indefatigable observer of nature, Mr. Bow-
man (Vol.V. p. l.)> from which it is evident that he is disposed to coincide in
my opinions, which are simply as follows: — 1st, That the light in general
originates in some matter or other (the exact nature of which is to be
ascertained only by chemical analysis), with which the surface of the ocean
may be impregnated, so as to produce the effect of emitting its luminosity
when disturbed; and, 2dly, that Mollusca, Medust^, Crustacea, &c.,
may either, by mere contact with, or by feeding upon, or imbibing, such
matter, obtain the property of emitting, at second hand, this luminosity.

The only minor point on which Mr. Bowman and myself differ is, that
I had imagined that it is only upon the contact of this matter with the
atmosphere that light is given out ; whilst Mr. Bowman (p. 2.) thinks that
this cannot be the case, " since it must always be in contact, from its
lying on the surface j yet," adds he, " we have abundant proof that it is
only excited by disturbance." I fancy, however, that we may respectively
say, that " each is right, and each is wrong ;" since, although it is evident,
as he suggests, that, in all cases, the light is excited by disturbance or
motion ; it appears equally evident, as I imagined, (at least, when the
presence of animals is not observed,) that it is only the portion of the
water which comes in contact with the atmosphere that throws out light,
and that the water beneath the surface does not exhibit this property.

Upon the subject of the luminosity emitted by various animals in a
greater or less state of decomposition, the student may consult a paper in
the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1800, p. 161., pointed out to
me by my friend Sharpe, whose observations I noticed in my former com-
munication upon this subject. This gentleman tells us that the sailors say
that the light is caused by the sheathing of the hulk striking fire (steel
and flint fashion) with the water, in consequence of the rapid motion of
the vessel ! — J. O. Westwood. Jan. 21. 1832.

A iew remarks on this interesting subject are presented by Mr. Wood-
ward, in the last Number, p. 302-3. — .7. D.

On the Carrion Crow covering her Eggs with the Materials of the Lining of
the Nest. — " The carrion crow (Corvus Corone), for example, who lines
her nest with wool and rabbits' fur, always covers her eggs with a quan-
tity of this before leaving the nest." (See Rennie's plan of study in the
second edition of Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary.) In p. 144., 1 flatly
contradicted this extraordinary statement, on the strength of ray having
personally visited the nests of divers carrion crows, on the tops of trees
(" dreadful trade ! "), for the better part of forty years. The professor still
maintains (p. 393.) that " crows in the vicinity of Lee uniformly cover
their eggs, after they have begun to hatch, with the materials of the lining
of the nest ; " and he infers that the crows in the park at Walton Hall are
" eccentric crows " for not doing the same thing. ( See p. 393.) There
are just now seven carrion crows' nests in the trees in my park ; and
though I watch them with uncommon attention, and every now an'd then
mount up to them, I can find no traces whatever of their covering the eggs
with the lining of the nest. Now, will the professor have the goodness to
state to us, in the next Number of this Magazine, that he himself has
watched the carrion crows, in the vicinity of Lee, for hours and days
together, while hatching their eggs j and then, when the birds have left

I I 4

4^ Betrbspective Criticising

the nest, that he has actually mounted up to them in propria pcrsoyia (not!
by deputy), and found the eggs covered with the materials of the lining o£j
the nest. Nothing in the shape of hearsay, or of affidavits from others^-*
will satisfy me. I know by long experience of minute attention to this ^
subject, that no crow ever covers her eggs with the materials of the lining!
df the nest ; and the impression on my mind at present is, that the worthj;.
professor has b^eii misled by tliose who have taken advantage of his wantt
oP'knbsVledge of the true economy of the carrion crow. In p. 393. the
^<^fessor says : — " I speak positively to the fact, as to our crows in Kent;
^A, I doubt not, some hundreds of testimonies may be got to prove the
fiict." What ? — some hmifb-eds of testimonies ! How ? — when ? —
^hiere are Carrion crows* nests to be watched, and climbed up to, by the
paying ornithologist, day after day, in these mournful times of penal pro*
^iption to birds of the pie tribe ? No sooner is a nest found but it is'
tfTiindered : the poor owner is considered a rogue and a vaga,bond ; and he
#ho is fortunate enough to kill it is declared to have deserved well of his
pfarish.

• When this little snack of carrion is consumed, which, I fear, has been
too long already under the noses of your readers, I will tlien beg to
c^H Upon the professor to produce 6ne single well authenticated fact of
Ahy rook, in Kent or elsewhere, covering its eggs with the materials of the
Btiing of its nest, either beforie or after it has begun to hatch'. After thisj
l^will inform him I have never yet discovered that any bird, the ^oung of
4Mch is blihd at the time of" its burstin'g the shell, ever covers its eggs
with the materials of the lining of the nest, though I have been in the habit;
df inspecting birds' nests in banks, in bushes, in trees, in ruins, and on prei
cipices, for nearly forty years. I speak only of land birds ; but I am fully
satisfied in my own mind that the same thing may be said of sea fowl :
though I can bring forward no facts from personal observation, being a
ihtsl stranger to their mode of incubation. — Charles Wafertdm «'iWj[tftai|
Mall, Ma?/ II. 1832. - a^mri iia in ^i

^'* -The Nuthatch (SHta eiiropcB'a L.) is resident throughout the Yed}-, in tl*^
febunties of Dorset, Gloucester, Worcester, Hereford, Kent, Sussex, and
feurrey. I make this remark in relation to Mr. W. H. White's statement
(Vol. IV. p. 4^5.), that he has never been able to see this bird about Bedi
ford in the winter season, and that he, in consequence, believes the nuthatch
ip be migratory in that neighbourhood. I have resided in all the eounties
$have named above, in none of which is the nuthatch considered an un-*
Common bird. — Ediuard Newman. Deptford, Sept. 12. 1831.
f- Montagu, in his Ornithological Dictionari/, remarks that the nuthatch
" remains with us the whole year, but is a local bird, and not to be found
in several parts of the Icingdom. We have never observed it far north, nor
so far west as Cornwall." It does occur, however, in Cornwall, as a list
of Cornish birds, lying by us, supplied by Mr. Couch, testifies. Mr Couchi
however, observes of the nuthatch, " It is rare in Cornwall."

In recreative rambles round Ketisington Gardens, I have several times,
dirring the past winter, if winter it may be called, seen the lively, active,
Nuthatch (^g.97.) seeking its food among the numerous (not as to species,
^^r y*"^-^'^^'"-' 'f.''"'' '"■ but individuals) trees with which these

"Vw SX^ r • "^ '.d^^S^ gardens abound. My observation has
,.0 ,T Yd .^^"'""J^^^^Y been mainly confined to the south-

rfjrf'^ gniJfiior^^^^^^l^^^^^^^v western extremity of the gardenfe ; and

here yew trees prevail, on the minute
nuts of which, usually, 1 suspect, ob-
tained from among the decaying leaves
on the ground, the nuthatch appeared
to regale, as did also P^ros caeriii
leus and major ; both which, especially

Retrospective Criticism^\ 4^^

P- cc^mleusv hftve, b^Q, (Juring the winter, eitbeaj plj^l4fi}l^<^^ffiFe^^u^||j^
there. These two species, in feeding op the yew nuts> crack the shiallR vfi
t)[ie nuthatch's manner, and make so very audible a noise by their quickly
reiCerated and continuous tapping, as to cause one to think it is the nut-
hatch one hears. The Pari, or titmice, do not, I believe, in cracking the
shells, infix them into chinks in the trees, but secure them between tl^%
feet on the surface of the branch whereon they are standing. iQ-jq

in observing the nuthatch climbing tall trees, as the lime and the elni,fr
■\(vhen, of course, insects, not nuts, were the objects sought, I noticed that
the bird ascended in a very zigzag manner, as, at the end of every few
inches in its {)rogress upwards, it diverged either to the right hand or to
^*<^ left: this, it may be presumed, was less for the pur[)ose of rendering
asciept-easy, as draught horses, in ascending hills, take a flexuous course,
than for; the purpose of enlarging its field of search, and so increasing the
ehfeilices of amplifying its meal. During the winter the nuthatch was very
shy, and,. as far as my observation extended, quite silent. 33y the 10th oi'
April and before, it had become, I think, less shy, and rather frequ^j]^J^,
ijiajejifedixp&ipi ©lit tji^ pother of its two notes: these aa-e a shqct briokenntvit-
ting^-atid a short, unmodulated, yet mellow-toned whistle. r-J. -O. qqj
. Additional facts on the manners and habits of this interesting bird A^f^^
b© found, VoL I. p. 328—330., Vol. II. p. 243.; and in Vol IL p. 484, it
iai (Stated, to have, when dead, a peculiar odour, which, like that of the
|r«ater slu'ike, when also dead, resembles the scent thrown out by burnt
gunpowder. In Vol. IV. p. 171. 275. and 465. mention of the nuthatch
ali^o occurs. On this bird, also, some remarks, by our kind contributor,
J. M., have been long lying by us ; they will be found to confirm previously
published notices, and to supply additional information. They are these :^--

Jan. 4. 1828. The nuthatch calls. This is a beautiful and lively her^)4
of spring, but not a songster, having only a fcNV short notes, one of th^m
pecul^r, and so loud that it may be heard at a considerable distance. It
is at all times a busy and cheerful bird, and particularly before breeding
time. Its favourite food is nuts of any kind, and tree seeds; it builds and
roosts in hollow trees, and is seldom seen in the open fields, unless when
in quest of the stones of whitethorn : it may be, therefore, properly called
a forester. Its dexterity in opening nuts and the stones of fruit is curious :
it fixes the nut in a crack on the top of a post, or on the bark of a tree,
and, placing itself above it, head downwards, strikes with great force and
rapidity with its strong wedge-shaped bill on the edge of the shell, till it
splits it open. Where the food of these birds is plentiful, they have a
fevHaririte crack for unshelling the kernels, as sometimes a peck of broken
shells may be seen under this crack. — J, M. .j »«

21w Tree Creeper {Cei'thiafmnilidris I^.) a Winter Resident (p. 204.) — ^S^v
This bird is undoubtedly to be met with in winter as well as sunmier, in this
neighbourhood. I have often watched it at both seasons, while it has been (as
J. D. so well observes) "most diligently occupied in entomological research,?
©ceeping f^pendicularly, and, as it were, by jerks, up the stems and boughs
of trees, searching and scrutinising every chink, to the right and left^ for the
latent insect, which it extracts with its long and elegantly curved bill; a
tool, like all those of Nature's manufacture, most admirably adapted to the
puj'pose. But all this has been very accurately describedby J. D. (Vol.V.
p, 204, 205.) I was not aware of the circumstances mentioned by T. G.,
fviz., that the creeper, during the winter, is in the habit of associating with
ithe different species of titmice. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — W. T. Bree. AlleS"
ley Rectory^ March 8. 1832.

I do not recollect ever having seen the creeper in any society except
that of its own species, and never more than a pair o^ creepers togethei:
thesspecies seera5„tOj^mje to pref^j and, delight in, solitarines|*,^A^
yilBijaqao ^rfoiriw riiod ; "!o[Bm bnB 8U3l ' , ' * '

490 Retrospective Criticism.

hatch (see the preceding article) is also in its habits, though not in name,
a tree creeper, and, as sho^fn above, does in winter associate with the
titmice, these coincidences almost incline one to suspect that the creeper of
Lancashire must be the nuthatch ofpther counties. — J. D.

Cries of Frogs. — Mr. Blair (Vol. IV. p. 280.) mentions the cries of frogs
when pursued by snakes in America. I have heard them from our common
frog (/?ana temporaria), under similar circumstances ; but possibly the fact
may be better known than I am aware of. — J. S. Henslow. Cambridge ,
Aug. 4>. 1831.

To the residents in the fens of Cambridgeshire, where frogs and snakes
abound, the cries of frogs are very familiar. Half-grown cats, in the excess
of their playfulness, occasionally elicit the cries of the frog ; for, on encoun-
tering one, they follow after and pat it with the foot, to make it jump for-
ward J and when it stops, they will sometimes smell to it, as if curious to
know all about it. These processes of enquiry intimidate the frog, and
excite its cries. The cries of one once induced me to turn to the spot
whence they proceeded, when, -lo ! a rat, about one third grown, had
grasped a good-sized frog by the thigh, and was carrying it off. On step-
ping towards them, and stamping with my feet, the rat dropped the frog, and
retreated into some loose vegetable rubbish lying by, and the frog hopped
off; but as I stood still to look at it, the moment all was quiet again, out
started the rat, and recaptured his prize, and the cries of the frog were, of
course, resumed. I again interfered, and this time drove the rat effectually
away. The frog had reason to cry out ; for his death would as surely have
followed, as that of those bought in the frog-markets of France. I once saw
the mangled remains of a frog in a hole in the base of an old broad wall,
and the rat itself alive at the same time in this hole ; the tail of a land newt
(Z/acerta vulgaris), and fractured shells of Helix aspersa, also lay at the
edge and on the floor of the hole. The wall alluded to is in the old bo-
'tanic garden at Bury St. Edmunds ; and this and the other old walls there
had, in hard winters, all their cavities near the ground explored, and freed
from the snails (^elix aspersa, and probably hispida of Jeffreys in Linn.
Trans, also, as a species answering to the characteristics of this abounds
there, but is almost too small for the occupation of a rat's time and atten-
tion), and the shells more or less perfectly brought to the edge of the holes.
It was the land rat which attacked the frog above mentioned ; and this
happened late in autumn : the rat in the hole alluded to was also a
land rat, and the time at which it was seen there the early part of win-
ter : the clearing of snails took place in hard and long frosts, and was pro-
bably effected by land rats also. Water and water rats are both near, as
the rivers Lark and Linnet pass through the bottom of the garden ; yet I
rarely or never saw a water rat on the upper or drier land of the garden,
but land rats often. In the hole of a water rat, a large cluster of mangled
remains of earthworms was once found, and shown to me by the finder. —
J.D.

Caterpillar of Polyommafus Arghlus feeding on the Holly and Ivy.
(Vol. IV. p. 477. note, and Vol. V. p. 205.) — Sir, As I should be sorry
to be the means of propagating error, or of putting forth, as /«c^a' in natural
history, points which are but of doubtful authority, I beg here to state
that when I spoke of the caterpillar of Polyommatus Argiolu^- feeding on
the holly and ivy (Vol. IV. p. 477.), I did not mention the circumstance as
of my own knowledge, but merely on the authority, cither oral or written,
of others, I never saw the caterpillar myself, nor do I know, from expe-
rience, on what it feeds ; but I have either been informed by practical
entomologists, or have read in some entomologicfil work (or perhaps both),
that it does feed on the aforesaid shrubs * ; and I certainly have been the

* Stephens, in his Illustrations^ says, the caterpillar feeds on the buck-

Retrospective Criticism, 49 1

more ready to believe this statement, from having so repeatedly observed
the great partiality of the insect, in the fly state, for these two evergreens.*
I might add, too, as a corroborating circumstance, that the insect, as I have
remarked (Vol. IV. p. 477.) is more than usually plentiful in this neigh-
bourhood, where the holly and ivy naturally abound, and especially about
my own premises, on which there are many fine specimens of each tree,
particularly of the ivy. Your correspondent, Mr. Ventris (p. 205.), is
inclined to think the caterpillar of our little azure blue, like its congeners,
feeds on grass, as stated by many entomological writers. I wish some one
would institute such experiments as would enable one to ascertain the
point without doubt, and communicate the result through your Magazine.
The caterpillars, I believe, of most, if not all, of the blues, feed upon
grass, or upon the various herbage of which turf is composed in different
parts of the country : and though they must be, in some cases, exceed-
ingly abundant, they are yet very rarely met with, owing, probably, to their
feeding very near the surface of the ground; or, possibly, like some other
caterpillars, coming forth to feed only, or chiefly, by night. P. Argiolu^, in
the winged state, appears to differ widely in its habits and manners from all
its congeners (I speak only of such British species as I am acquainted
with) : they are mostly to be met with on commons, open pastures, downs,
chalk hills -j-, &c. They fly low, and frequently settle on the flowers, grass,
and other herbage, occurring in such situations. P. Argiolus, on the con-
trary, rather affects hedges, gardens, shrubberies, and plantations, and is a
more restless and high-flying insect, hovering and vapouring '\. about the
trees and bushes. Nor have I observed that it evinces the same partiality
for settling upon flowers and plants of humble growth, as it does for set-
tling on the leaves of the holly, &c. : I say the leaves^ for the blossoms are
not out till after the season for the sprhig brood, at least, of the butterfly, is
gone by, or nearly so. Since this insect, therefore, differs in the winged
state so widely in habit from its congeners, it is not improbable that it may
likewise do the same in the larva. But (as already stated) I hope some
one will, ere long, be able to settle the question beyond dispute. Yours,
&c. — W. T. Bree. Allesley Rectory, March 8. 1832.

Irritability of the Hairs of the Round-leaved Sundew (Drosera rotundifolia'),
— Has not J. E. L. imputed to the sundew a property of which it is
totally destitute? He remarks (Vol. IV. p. 135.): — " Drosera, an Eng-
lish genus, which inhabits our marshes, has its leaves clothed with beau-
tiful long scarlet hairs ; and if a fly happens to alight upon any of the
leaves, these hairs immediately curl over it, and squeeze it to death. Per-
haps these hairs may be provided by Providence, in order to catch flies and
other insects, from which the plant might obtain nourishment." The hairs
of the English Droserae, or sundews, have surely no such degree of irrita-
bility, and, I believe, none at all. The fringed laminae of the leaves of the
Dionae^fl! Muscipula, or Venus's flytrap, a native of Carolina, have this
power ; and, for aught I know, this plant alone. The fly-catching powers
of the Droserae, or sundews (and these are quite inconsiderable), consist, I
believe, solely in the viscosity of the leaves and hairs. The idea of the

thorn (^hamnus Frangula) and holly ( JTlex europae^a [^quifolium ?]. See
Haustelliita, vol. i. p. 85.

* The butterfly is also fond of settling on the Portugal laurel, rhodo-
dendron, and other evergreens.

f Hence, probably, it is, that such pastoral names as Corydow, Addni*,
Alsm, Alexia, have been elegantly appropriated, as specific appellations, to
several species of this family of Papilionidae.

X Were an appropriate English name required for this little buttei'fly, it
might well be called the " vapouring blue."

4^92 Reti'ospedtvve ^Gt'Uicism.

Droserafe ?being?Tioumhed by the -IdeconQposing remains of the flie^"*6Mfet
«!4)ture is possibly more plausible than true, but reminds me of a ndtabl*
paragraph which, about five years ago, appeared in the Examiner ne^s-
paper ; which stated that a gentleman, furthering this hint as supplied Tiini
by Nature, had succeeded in invigorating his plants of Droserae, or sundew,
4ty supplying them with Aec/".

91; A correspondent, signing C. P., presents (VoL V. p. 110;) some remarks
on Drosera rotundifolia, which shows C. P. to be very intimately ac-
(Jjiainted with this elegant and peculiar plant in its native habitats ; audit is
hoped that G. P. will forthwith communicate the result of his experience;
Bs to the absence or presence, and the degree if present, of a faculty of sen*
flibility in the plant in question. — J.D.

-il 'Nepenihes disttllatoria, Cepkalotus folliculdris,' and the Sarracenlse.—
ffi E. L., in the same interesting article (Vol. IV. p. 134 — 136.), makes men*
don (p. 135.) of the pitcher plant (JVepenthes distillatdria). It may be
useful to register here, in conjunction with that, as subservient to future
inferences^ the- existence of a plant in New Holland, botanically called
f2ephaldtus, follicularis, or New Holland pitcher leaf, which bears a striking
Tftnalogy to iV^ep^nthes, in having pitchers considerably similar in structure]
jWifaile, nevertlieless, the plants themselves are very dissimilar in habit. The|^
diky' be thus contrasted^ JVepenthes distillat^ia is an evergreeh climbing
planty attaining' the height of from 12 to 20 ft., and has its large ovatel
iknceolate ieiives disposed alternately along its stem, and each leaf sustairii
from its tip a long depending pitcher. In Cephalotus follicularis there i^
no stem, save the flower scape, which is leafless, and but from 1 to ^ fti
high ; and although the leaves and pitchers of the plant are producefi
tc^ether in a rosaceous radical tuft, the pitchers are distinct from the
leaves, and have footstalks of their own. The pitchers are stated to secrete
water, like those of iVepenthes, and to entrap many insects, especially ants ;
but this entrapping must arise from their mechanical position alone, or froiti
the enticement hdd out by their water, as not the slightest sensibility has*^
J believe, ever been imputed to any part of the pitcher of either the JV^epen^
thes or the Cephalotus. It is remarkable, that in the pitchers of both
these plants, and in the pitchers of the side-saddle flowers ( Sarracenfcs) as
well, the pitcher is never closed by its lid, except in the earliest stages of
the pitcher's growth; and that, as the pitcher increases irt size and age, the
lid becomes erect, and ceases to cover the mouth of the pitcher. Should
this notice of Cephalotus at all interest J. E. L., I would refer him to
,^urtis's Botanical Magazincy t. 3118, 3119., for excellent figures, and ai
detailed description of this wonderful little plant; and living specimens of
it, although it is exceedingly rare in England, are thriving thoroughly fil
one of the stoves at Knight's Exotic Nursery, Chelsea. Figures of the
Sarracenicp will also be found in Curtis's Botanical Magazine^in the earlief"
volumes, and of the Sarracenw; purpurea numerous fine plants have jusi
been imported into Dennis's Nursery, Chelsea, from the swamps of the
United States of America, in which the Sarracenf*^ spontaneously growl
it is scarcely in place here, to remark that Professor Lindley supposes the
terminal lobe, or lamina, of Dionae'a Musclpula, and the lid of the pitcher
in A^epenthes, Cephalotus, and Sarraceni<», to be analogous to the lamina,
or expanded portion, of ordinary leaves ; while the pitchers of the last-named
p^o, and the pitcher with its leaf-like footstalk in A^epenthes, are deemed
only dilated foliaceous footstalks, with coherent margins. This view, at
first sight, seems paradoxical ; but the remarkably dilated footstalks in the
-^caciae, which supply the place of real leaves, and other striking modifica-
tions of foliate structure which are known, prepare us to admit that the
above view is probably a close approximation to a correct one. — ./. JD.
The Flowers y or Heads of Flowers , of the Annual Sunfiower^ vary not their

|ilea«ure to add my testimony to that of J. E. L., expresBedto the above
effect, in his article in VoL IV. p. 136. Were the old fanciful theory, sq
prettily sung by Thomson, in his poem of The Seasons^ true, a plant
with seven or eight heads of flowers open at once, as is sometimes the
case, would necessarily have them oddly huddled together, in the efforts
of each to stare the sun in the face, from the rising to the setting of the
same. — J. D.

The Flowers of Campdmila rotundifolia are the " Blue Bells of Scotland ^^
and those of SciUu nutans are the Harebells. ■ — Sir, your contributor, oCj*,
}y\ reviewing, in your Vol. 11., the first volume of Dr. Johnston's Flora of
Berwick npon Tweedy asks, p. 236., if Dr. Johnston has not erred in iden*.
tifying the blue bells of Scotland with the flowers of Campanula rotundi-
folia i. ; the reviewer deeming 6'cilla nutans to be rather the blue bell, and
the Campanula rotundifolia to be the harebell . Dr. Johnston replies- to
this query in your Vol. III. p. 461., and there shows that the blue bells «f
Scotland are undoubtedly the flowers of the Campanula rotundifolia. On this
point Dr. Johnston is, without a doubt, perfectly correct ; as I shall prove by
consequence, when I adduce evidence to show, in answler to the remaining
\:^ of the question, that the harebells are the flowers of >S'cllla niitaiJB,
anfl not tliose of Campam^la rotundifolia, as suggested by (S^* (Vol. II.
p,,236.) Burns, in a letter to Mrs. Dunlop, dated New Year's day morn-
ing, 1789, says : — "I have some favourite flowers in spring ; among which
gre the mountain daisy, the harebell, the foxglove, the wild briar rose, the
budding birk [birch], and the hoary hawthorn, that 1 view and hang over
with particular delight." Now, as the Campanula rotundifolia does not
flower until two months later than any of these, Burns's harebell must
have been the 5cilla nutans. — J. C. Farmer. Nov. 1831. Ji^ bitu ^aa/^'ii

On the specific Identity of Anagdllis arven^is and cceruleiki ^j^qI^UJa,
p. 337.; Vol. IV. p. 79. 277, 278. 466. 557.) — Sir, As you were so
obliging as to insert an experiment of mine made with the view of ascer-
taining whether these plants were specifically the same or not; and as
one or two of your correspondents have subsequently alluded to my
communication ; I beg to offer you an extract from a letter which I have
received from the gentleman, the Rev. E. Wilson, who furnished me with
the seeds of Jnagallis caerulea: — "In the spring (1831) I sowed the
seed of A. CEcrulea in a flower border at Chapel AUerton. It had been
gathered in 1827, at the same time as that which was sent to you. Twenty-
eight plants made their appearance, of which twenty-five had blue flowers,
and three had red. Eight plants from seeds of the white variety retained
their white colour. Mr. William Richardson has also tried three experi-
ments this summer on the blue pimpernel at Owston, near Doncaster. In
each experiment two garden pots were filled with earth, and then some
seeds were placed in one pot, but none in the other. The results were as
follows: — No. 1. Sandy loam; seeds gathered in 1827. In the sown
pot there came up 14 blue and 2 red : in the unsown pot, 1 red. — No. 2.
Sandy loam, as before; seed of 1828 from plants raised from the seed of

1827. In the sown pot, 6 blue and 2 red: in the unsown pot, none. — >
No. 3. Strong loam; seed of 1830 from plants raised from the seed of

1828. In the sown pot, 31 blue : in the unsown, none. Besides the abovcj
a similar experiment was made upon the white variety from seeds of 1826,
sown in bog earth. None appeared in the unsown pot, and 9 with white
flowers came up in the other." By these experiments it appears how very
difficult it is to avoid the introduction of error. The appearance of the
single red-flowering plant in No. 1. in the unsown pot, at once nullifies
any conclusion that might have been drawn from that and the following
e5fperiiTaej)^,jan4"(?Y^^;^hrAW;S a shade of doubt over the results obtained

494 Queries and A7iswei's.

by Mr. Wilson and myself. One of your correspondents (Agronome,
Vol. IV. p. 557.), I observe, is disposed to ridicule the utility of these in-
vestigations; but he must be quite ignorant of their value in a physiological
point of view. There is, perhaps, no question in botany, which, at this
moment, it is more desirable to settle on the sure basis of experiment,
than the law which limits the variation of species. I trust, therefore, that
some other of your correspondents will lend their assistance in patiently
experimenting upon the specific identity of different plants, and record all
their failures as well as their successes, in each case ; for it will be only
after a multitude of such experiments shall have been carefully performed,
that we can expect to arrive scientifically and legitimately at the truth.
I am. Sir, yours, &c. — J. S. Henslow. Cambridgey Feb. 2. 1832.

Mountains seen through ' a Haze which Solar Rays can scarcely pierce.
(p. 356.) — The interesting article of Mr. Spence, on the meteorology of
Switzerland and Italy (p. 353^ — 359.), states that mountains can be seen
through a haze which the solar rays cannot penetrate. This is to me a
new phenomenon in optics. I have consulted several friends, who, as well
as myself, have been eye-witnesses of the phenomena of the mountains of
Switzerland, and this fact escaped us all. It is so curious, that it were to
be wished other travellers would verify and certify it. At Lyons, Mont
Blanc is considered as certain a barometer as that of Torricelli : whenever
it can be distinctly perceived at Lyons, rain is certain to fall within the
twenty-four hours. I have verified this fact many times, at an interval
of thirty years, and I have never found it fail. I am, Sir, yours, &c . —
J. Byerley. London, May 7. 1832.

Art. III. Queries and Answers.

Pheasants hatched under white domestic Hens have a greater or less Por^
Hon of white Feathers. ^— Sir, I have been informed by a gentleman, who
strongly exemplifies the English character, in being devotedly attached to
the sports of the field, that his curiosity has been repeatedly excited by a
very singular fact in natural history. If he places the eggs of a pheasant
under a white hen, he frequently finds several of the young brood showing
a tendency to white plumage ; but, in the case of a black hen, the same cir-
cumstance has seldom, indeed scarcely ever, occurred. Is it that the colour
white is less favourable to the communication of heat, which is the grand
agent in the hatching process, and so the young birds have a less vigorous
and healthy constitution, discovering itself by a white plumage, which is
certainly a sign of degeneracy ; or is it one of those many facts which we
regard with surprise, but cannot reach with our understanding ? An answer
will oblige — B. B. P.

Hatching of Eggs. (p. 102.) — C. P.'s valuable remarks (p. 102.) on the
feet of gallinaceous birds moistening their feathers during the process of
hatching deserves to be reconsidered; and this, in connection with the
remarks by Mr. Couch, on the hatching of the swallow tribe, expressed
Vol. IV. p. 522. As Mr. Couch deems the embryo chick liable to perish
from superfluous heat, is it not just possible that wetting the feathers is the
means adopted by the sitting bird to modify the temperature of the em-
bryos, as well as also, conformably with C. P.'s suggestion, to moisten the
shells ? — An Asher.

Reptiles in Ireland. — Sir, A query on this subject appears p. 104.; and,
as a contribution towards an answer to it, I have to say that I have just
received, from a lady who has been for some years a resident in Derry, a
fine specimen of the common eft (l/acerta vulgaris i.), which was taken
by herself, and which has travelled safely to London in a vial of spirits.

Queries and Answers. 495

From this lady I learn the following facts: — There are two species of
lizard of very frequent occurrence in the north of Ireland : one is very
active, and is completel}' covered with scales, which must be our common
scaly lizard (Lacerta agilis L.) ; and the other is the eft. A very singular
superstition is attached by the common people to the latter : they suppose
it has a propensity to jump down their throats, in order to make a lodging in
their stomachs ; and that, when there, it will increase and multiply to a most
frightful extent. For every disease there is a supposed cure ; and the Irish
have theirs for this most novel ailment : the remedy is to seek for a stream
running directly southwards, and, having found it, to lean over it with open
mouth, when, strange to say, after a due time has elapsed, the lizards come
forth from their warm habitation, one by one, and plunge into the water j
after which the patient recovers. The eft is commonly known in the north
of Ireland by the name of man-keeper, probably with some allusion to this
supposed propensity. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — Edward Newman. Dept-
ford, March 20. 1832.

Is the Anchovy {Clupea 'Rncrasicolus) found in any freshwater lakes or
rivers in Britain ? — O. February, 1832.

This query is here inserted for the sake of pointing attention to it ; the
question is incidentally asked, and the circumstances which excited it will
be found detailed ii;i the Number for next month. — J. D.

Preservation of Insects without eviscerating them. — Sir, I should feel
much obliged to any of your readers for a good receipt for the preservation
of insects ; Mr. Waterton's corrosive sublimate in spirits of wine, which I
have hitherto used, being infallible against the ravages of insects ; but it
does not preserve many specimens, especially those of the order Coleop-
tera, from decay, unless their inside be taken out : a tedious process, by
which many a rare insect is destroyed. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — M. P,
Jan. 12. 1832.

Mici'ogdster glomerdtus feeds on, and nidifies in, the Bodies of various
Species of Insects. — Sir, I am able to reply negatively to Mr. Bree's enquiry
(p. 106. note), whether " each species of /chneumon invariably keeps to one
and the same species of moth or butterfly." During last summer, I hap-
pened, among a variety of other caterpillars, to put about from twenty to
thirty individuals of the common cabbage butterfly caterpillar (P6nti«
brassicae), and about an equal number of the currant moth caterpillar
(Phalae'na grossulariata), into the same breeding-box. More than two thirds
of both, at the time when I expected them to be converted into chrysalides,
became covered with a number of little cocoons, about the size of cres&
seeds ; and each of these, in the course of three weeks or a month, gave
birth to the Microgaster-glomeratus in its imago state: thus proving that,
in this instance at least, the /chneumon does not " confine itself to one
individual species of moth or butterfly." I am. Sir, yours, &c. — E. H,
Greenhow. North Shields, Jan. 8. 1832.

A Ball containing Individuals of a Species of Ichneumon. (Vol. IV. p. 93.)
— In August, 1831, I found several balls, similar to that figured and
described in the communication from " H., Great Missenden." (Vol. IV.
p. 93.) I conveyed two of them home, and placed them in a box, expect-
mg to find the perfect insect in the spring ; but, happening to open the box
a few days since, I was surprised to find a great number of small black
flies, most of which were dead. Upon referring to Berkenhout's Synopsis
(the only book I possess on the subject), I made them out to be the ich-
neumon globatus. It is even stated that " it breeds in white silky balls, an
inch long, which are found frequently on different plants in meadows."
I now am anxious to learn, from some contributor, on what substance the
caterpillars feed and subsist, and why they congregate to form their family
cocoon. — J. C. Farmer. November, 1831.

496 Queries and Answers.

Polyoimnatus Argiolus, further Queines regarding. (Vol. IV. p. 477. 558.,
and Vol. V. p. 109.) — Sir, Two of your correspondents have kindly sup-
plied ready answers to my question, in Vol. IV. p. 477., whether Polyom-
matus Argiolu5 is to be considered a double-brooded insect. These answers
are, as I expected they would be, in the affirmative. That of Mr. Newman
(Vol. IV. p. 558.), relating to the above insect, as well as to Melitae'«
Euphrosyne, and Selene, appears to be the result of minute personal
observation, and carries with it such an air of truth, that there can be no
doubt of its accuracy. Mr. Jordan also states (Vol. V. p. 109.) that the
" species [P. Argiolu*] is, without doubt, double-brooded ; " that he has
" seen living individuals in April, and again in September this year"
(1831). September, I may remark, is rather a late period of the year for
these insects j and when Mr. Jordan describes them, as " spreading their
azure wings, and flitting from flower to flower," these latter remarks strike
me as more applicable to the habits and manners of the common blue (P.
Fcaru^), which is abundant in September, than to those of P. Argiolu^,
which generally disappears before that time, and is, moreover, a vapouring
restless fly, seldom settling except upon bushes (holly, ivy, and other ever-
greens), and then, for the most part, remaining with its wings closed. May
not, therefore, Mr. Jordan have mistaken specimens of the common blue,
seen in September, for those of P. Argiolu* ? I should not have presumed
to cast a doubt on the accuracy of this gentleman's statement (which, on
the whole, corresponds pretty nearly with the facts observed by others and
by myself), were it not that he candidly avows himself to be " not an ento-
mologist ; " and, to such a person, one blue butterfly may, very possibly,
be mistaken for another. I know, by experience, that when persons who
are " not entomologists " have been shown specimens of some of the rarer
blues, they have confidently affirmed that they have seen the same abun-
dantly in this or that neighbourhood ; and I have sometimes found it next
to impossible to convince them to the contrary. Mr. Jordan will, I trust,
excuse the freedom of these remarks, which have been called forth solely
by his own honest confession, that he is " not an entomologist." I feel
obliged to him, however, for his answer ; and not the less so, on account
of its coming from one who, if not an entomologist, must at all events be
(what is, perhaps, better) an observer of Nature herself. The remarks of
such a person cannot but be valuable, coming, as they do, fresh, as it were,
from the fields and wood ; smelling (if I may so speak) of the open air,
and consequently less likely to have been biassed on either side by mere
book-learning, or the influence of high authorities. I hope Mr. Jordan
will attend to the subject of the present notice next season, and communi-
cate his remarks through the medium of your pages. Let me not be here
understood to express any doubts as to the insect in question being double-
brooded ; it appears undoubtedly to be so, at least in some districts (I saw
it on the wing, myself, on the 4th of August last, between Dartford and
Gravesend). But, again, I would ask, whether anyone can assign a plau-
sible reason why the species proves only single-brooded in some parts of
England, as it unquestionably appears to be here (at Allesley), where, as
I have before said, it occurs in more than usual abundance in the early
spring ? Is it only in the more southern counties that it appears twice in
the season ? Kent, Hampshire, Somersetshire, and Devonshire, are, I
think, the principal counties in which I have yet either seen or heard of
the aestival [summer] specimens. I regret that, in figuring the species
(Vol. IV. p. 477.), a representation was not also given of the under side of
the insect, which would have precluded all possibility of confounding it
with the common blue (P. Fcarm). Yours, &c. — W. T. Bree. Allesky
Rectory y January 6. 1832. [See p. 490. of the present Number. — .7. Z>.}

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6i.Fb;2 O5. On what subject ? -'^^^>^^^ ^^^^ ^hu^Am^no^ hn^

np.\^ov. Any. Natural history in general. The Magazijot'^
extends very widely ; and he wishes somethiijgi]fe|»iliar, someio
thing popular. ?>?'>-iqx9 ' m

FoTz O5. Cognizable to all capacities? ''^.

Dov. Exactly so. He has plenty of contributors of articles^
of deep science, extensive infoi'mation, and effusions of beauty.

Von Os, Such as Bowman, Bree, Waterton, and others :
like as in casting the characters at an amateur play ; the
manager always finds plenty of candidates for the topping
parts, but none to discharge ye the underlings.

Dov. Myriads of little interesting incidents occur in con-
versation, too desultory for a regular article in the work, and
too small even for a note at the end : so many a pretty gem
is lost by its minuteness, and many a bright ray by its ev£^:-*<\
nescence.

Vol. V. — No. 28. ^■r.v— bt'-r: — : ^

498 Chit'ChaL

Vo?i Os, 'TIs so on all subjects : the essence of truth and
beauty is exhaled in conversation, while what is elaborately
written, seems merely the dregs. Try an interlocutory article,
where the spirit of the moment

" One little ray flings through the darkling mind.
And let it gild each flitting thought minute
That passes through it, sparkling as it dies.
As erst in childhood's frolic day I've seen.
When right against some barn's old-boarded side
The evening sun flung warm his yellow rays.
Piercing each inlet hole, the airy motes
Blaze fitfully, in many a level beam."

Dov. And the best of these is spoiled by writing. Who
can weave sunbeams ? — and what are gathered dew-drops ?

Von Os. Natural history is felicitously suitable to this style,
from its exhaustless variety, and adaptability to all minds ;
admitting, even more forcibly, what Cicero so eloquently says
of Polite Literature, in his oration for the poet Archias, —
" as calling upon us at all times, ages, and places ; employing
our youth, amusing our age ; embellishing prosperity, con-
soling adversity ; delightful at home, and of easy carriage
abroad; soothing our leisure, shortening our fatigue, and
enlivening our retirement."

Dov, True. And from the profuse efflux of works now
issued to illustrate it, of all sorts, sizes, and prices, it is like
to find its way more readily into the higher and lower ranks
of society, where it is about alike wanted.

Von Os, The middle, in all ages and countries, have always
been the best informed, and most benevolent ; the highest and
lowest, the most ignorant and callous.

Dov. Ray tells a humorous story, that, after the patiently
exploring commissioners, at the end of their long examin-
ations, deliberately confessed their utter ignorance to account
for the Goodwin Sands, an old man gravely asserted Ten-
terden steeple to be the cause.

Von Os. Tenterden steeple !

Dov. Ay; Tenterden steeple: for that those sands first
appeared the year it was erected.

Von Os. And the slightest interview with the mass of man-
kind, any hour, will prove the race of Tenterden philosophers
to be far from extinct.

Dov. Particularly with regard to facts relative to natural
history : and this is the more lamentable, and perhaps the
more surprising, when we consider its unlimited adaptability
to all capacities, ages, sexes, and ranks ; and, moreover, the
absolute necessity of many parts of it to their intellectual
existence.

Chit'ChaU 499

Von Os, There is in our village a slater, very fond of keep-
ing bees. These useful insects, he says, at breeding-time,
sweat prodigiously ; and each lays four eggs at the bottom of
each cell : soon after which, he has observed the combs to
become full of maggots, which must be carefully destroyed by
smoke ! When any one of his numerous family is buried,
as the corpse passes out of the house, he carefully loosens
every hive, and lifts it up : otherwise, he says, the bees would
all die !

Dov, The superstitions about bees are numberless.

Von Os. And yet this poor fellow believes himself inspired
with " grace abounding;" and readily undertakes to " spound"
as he calls it, any verse read to him, however remotely insu-
lated from the context.

Dov. But what would you think of a gentleman I have the
pleasure of visiting in the higher ranks, and whose convers-
ation is really a happiness to me, who talks of little young
bees ? — and really believes that they grow ! He smiled at
me compassionately when I told him that insects never grew
when in the perfect state ; but, like Minerva from the brain
of Jove, issue full-armed with sharpest weapons, and corslets
of burnished green, purple, and gold, in panoply complete :
yet is this gentleman a man of genius, wit, and very extensive
knowledge.

Von Os, Not in bees.

Dov. He was not aware of the numerous species of British
bees ; and that several, of a small intrepid sort, will enter the
hives, and prey on the treasures of their more industrious
congeners.

Von Os. Reasoning from analogy does not do in natural
history.

Dov. No ; for who, without observation, or the information
of others, ever by analogical reasoning could reconcile the
enormous difference of size, and colour, in the sexes of some
of the humble bees? — or ever discover that in some species
there are even females of two sizes ?

Von Os. But these never grow.

Dov. Certainly not. Bees, however, hatched in very old
cells, will be somewhat smaller : as each maggot leaves a skin
behind, which, though thinner than the finest silk, layer after
layer, contracts the cells, and somewhat compresses the future
bee.

Von Os. No ignorance is so contemptible as that of what is
hourly before our eyes. I do not so much wonder at the
fellow who enquired if America was a very large town, as at
him who, finding the froth of the Cicada spumaria L. on

K K 2

500 Chit-chat .

almost every blade in his garden, wondered where were all
the cuckoos that produced it.

Dov, They call it cuckoo-spit, from its plentiful appearance
about the arrival of that bird.

Vo7i Os. That is reasoning from analogy.

Dov. And yet I see not why the bird should be given to
spitting ,' unless, indeed, he came from America.

Fon Os. The vulgar, too, not only delight in wonders
inexplicable, but have a rabid propensity to pry into futurity.

Dov. I believe that propensity is far from being confined
to the vulgar.

Von Os. True ; but not in so ridiculous a way : as they
prophesy the future price of wheat from the number of lenti-
cular knobs (containing the sporules) in the bottom of a cup
of the fungus Nidularia.

Dov. The weather may be foretold with considerable cer-
tainty, for a short time, from many hygrometric plants, and
the atmospheric influence on animals.

Von Os. And from Cloudology, by the changing of primary
clouds into compound; and these resolving themselves into
nimbi, for rain ; or gathering into cumuli, for fair weather.
This is like to become a very useful and pleasing science.

Dov, It is wonders of this kind, and forewarnings of this
nature, that natural history offers to the contemplative mind :
in the place of superstitious follies, and unavailing predictions,
such as the foretelling of luck from the number or chattering
of magpies ; and the wonder how red clover changes itself
into grass, as many a farmer at this moment believes.

Von Os. Linnaeus himself was a bit of a prophet ; as, indeed,
thus well he might : for experience and observation amount
almost to the power of vaticination. In his Academic Amenities
he says, " Deus O. M. et Natura nihil frustra creaverit [Qu.
creaverint ?]. Posteros tamen tot inventuros fore utilitates
ex muscis arguor, quot ex reliquis vegetabilibus."

Dov. English it, Von Osdat; thou'rt a scholar.

Von Os. " God and Nature have made nothing in vain.
Posterity may discover as much in mosses, as of utiUty in
other herbs."

Dov. And, truly, so they may : one lichen is already used
as a blessed medicine in asthma ; and another to thicken milk,
as a nutritive posset. And who, enjoying the rich produc-
tions of our present state of horticulture, can recur without
wonder to the tables of our ancestors ? They knew abso-
lutely nothing of vegetables in a culinary sense ; and as for
their application in medicine, they had no power unless
gathered under planetary influence, " sliver'd in the moon's
eclipse."

Chit-chat, 501

Von Os, When Mercury was culminating, or Mars and
Venus had got into the ninth house.

Dot\ 'Tis curious to reflect, that at the vast baronial feasts,
in the days of the Plantagenets and Tudors, where we read
of such onslaught of beeves, muttons, hogs, fowl and fish, the
courtly knights and beauteous dames had no other vegetable
save bread — not even a potato !

Vo?l Os. " They carved at the meal with their gloves of steel.
And drank the red wine through the helmet barr'd."

Dov. And when the cloth was drawn —

VonOs. Cloth!-—

JDov, They had scarce an apple to give zest to their wine.

Von Os. We read of roasted crabs ; and mayhap they had
baked acorns and pignuts.

Dov. Ha ! ha ! ha ! — Caliban's dainties. Now we have
wholesome vegetables almost for nothing, and pine-apples for
a trifle. Thanks to Mr. Knight — push the bottle — here's
to his health in a bumper.

Vo?i Os. Who, walking on Chester walls in those days, and
seeing the jBrassica oleracea, where it grows in abundance,
would have supposed that from it would spring cabbages as
big as drums, and cauliflowers as florid as a bishop's wig ?

JJov. Or cautiously chaumhering an acrid sloe, imagine it to
be the parent of a green gage ?

Von Os. This is the Education of Vegetables.

Dov. The March of Increment !

Von Os. See, see, on the cool dark walk beneath these trees,
a silvery fly, wheeling in slow luminous curves, like streaks of
fire ! Now he alights — see, there are several of them ! What
do you call him ?

Dov. He is now called Porphyrops splendidus.

Von Os. And his face is purple, or rather of a maroon
colour. 'Tis pity but what we had English names for every
thing, were it but for the sake of the uneducated.

Dov, Education is not a recollection of words.

Von Os. Do not you think many are deterred from botany
by the Greek and Latin terms ?

Dov. A few feeble minds may : but every man, woman, and
child hourly uses words emerging from languages far more
abstruse and obscure than the classical. A common gardener,
with a little practice, from a bare catalogue, will shortly
remember the botanic terms and names as well as if they
were English, with the exception of scratching Priscian a
little : the quantity is now usually marked. A greater stum-
bling-block is that of scientific arrangers, so often, and so
capriciously, changing the names.

K K 3

502 Chit-chat,

Von Os, There is a capital remark to that effect in Loudon's
Encyclopcedia of Plants, under the word Linnae'^ : — "It is
to be wished such another man (as Linnaeus), with equal
talent, industry, and judgment, could be found at the present
day, to rescue the science of natural history from the con-
fusion to which it is fast approaching."

Dov. There is too great a fastidious nicety in splitting
genera. Nothing can be more felicitous than the Linnaean
method of giving each a generic and specific name, its infinite
combination, and vast power, contained in two words ; but,
when once affixed, they should be sacredly held permanently
immutable, unless involving some very glaring error.

Von Os. I see the Jbraminous birds take very freely to the
pots and boxes you put up to the walls and trees.

Dov. Yes ; and that in the tree opposite my book-room
window is now tenanted by a pair of nuthatches. They
reduced, as is their wont, the entrance-hole with clay, so
small, that when they go in or out, they are obliged to push
and wriggle very hard. I at first wondered at their reducing
it so small : but I had soon reason to approve their precaution,
for no sooner had they hatched their young, than the busy
starlings, with their strong bills, attempted a forcible entry,
and actually broke down part of the mud stoppage ; which the
intrepid and persevering occupants immediately proceeded to
repair, and victoriously fought, with might and main, pro arts
etfocis. The bottom of their sedile [roost] (for I can scarcely
call it a nest) is always strewn very thickly with the thin
lamince, or flaky bark, taken from the upper branches of old
Scotch pines : and this the impudent and prying tomtits will
throw out profusely. I think the nuthatch a most interesting
bird.

Von Os. I have observed that the hole of the little wood-
pecker is cylindrical, while that of the nuthatch is slightly
conical, pointing inwards.

Dov, Did you ever hear of suicidal woodcocks ?

Von, Os, Suicidal woodcocks ?

Dov. Ay. Being a few years ago at Holyhead, with our
friend Bowman and his pleasant family, we scrambled over
the rocks to see the fine light-house erected on a detached
crag called the South Stack ; to which we crossed on a flimsy
rickety bridge of ropes, suspended at a tremendous height
over the rolling waves that chafed and roared below. When
we had ascended the lofty tower into the lantern, the man
who conducted us struck with his fist, very hard, the large
panes of plate glass, and bade us do the same, to prove their
prodigious strength. He told us that, at migration time, the

Chit-chat. 503

woodcocks in the night dashed against the glass frame wherein
the lights revolved, and killed themselves ; and that, in the
morning, he frequently picked up several brace in the outer
gallery.

Von Os. So you have at last succeeded in getting the
toothwort (Lathrae'a Squamaria) to grow on the roots of the
hazel ?

Dov. Not until I had utterly despaired. It was four years,
and some five, before it came up visibly. I gathered the seeds
in Erddig woods, where, you may remember, we saw it in
profuse luxuriance. It will, however, turn pink or purple
when very much exposed to the light, notwithstanding the
remark of our learned friend, in his scientific and elaborate
essay ; for having cut away some of the hazel branches, to bring
it more in view of the walk, the sunbeams in a few days turned
it so very pinky and purple, that some ladies were very much
struck with the beauty and delicacy of its colours, though the
plant itself is rather of a repulsive and cadaverous aspect.

Fo?i Os. On how many sorts of trees did you get the missel-
toe to vegetate ?

Dov. Twenty-three : but on most of them it soon died,
particularly on the gummy and resinous; and only throve
well on its usual habitats, the apple and hawthorn.

Von Os. Did you ever see it grow well upon the oak ?

Dov. Never but once; and that, singular to say, in Anglesea,
in the park of (then) Lord Uxbridge : and, what is more sin-
gular, hanging almost over a very grand druidical cromlech.

Von Os. Orobanche ?

Dov. Major : freely raised on the broom roots ; but this was
also four years before it appeared.

Von Os. And the dodder?

Dov. Cuscuta P — never ; though repeatedly tried on the
nettle, hemp, and flax. I once saw it in such tangled pro-
fusion at Liphook, in Sussex, that it absolutely pulled down
and killed the nettles.

Von Os. Did you observe the transit of Mercury over the
sun on the fifth of this month ?

Dov. No ; though Bloxam, I, and others amply prepared
the telescopes and chronometers the day previous. We even
hoisted the great one. Old Galileo, and cleaned my long
Sidrophel : but, though on the very threshold of May, the
'" civil-suited Morn" appeared

" Not trick'd and flounced as she was woat
With the Attic boy to hunt ;
But kerchief d in a comely cloud.
While rocking winds were piping loud,
K K -l?

504 Chit-chat,

And usherM with a shower still.
When the gust had blown its fill j
Ending on the rustling leaves,
With minute drops from off the eaves.'*

In plain prose, it rained all day ; and, though the transit
lasted seven hours, we never saw the sun once. It was that
kind of rain that, I suppose, extended all over the realm ; for
my esteemed friend Parson Archer, in Buckinghamshire,
writes me of his like disappointment.

Von Os. 1 should like to know 'whe7r it was observed.

Dov. That shows the great utility of putting occasionally such
chit-chat as this into the Magazine : somebody may gratify
us with an answer and remarks, should they think astronomy
part of natural history.

Von Os, That Cornu Amm6ni5 in your hall is the largest
I ever saw ; why, it measures nearly 2 ft. in diameter. Where
did it come from ?

JDov. Keynsham, in Somersetshire.

VonOs. Ha ! « the Well of St. Keyne."

Dov, They are there so plentiful that the roads are repaired
with them ; and when one is found larger or more perfect
than usual, they work it into the wall of a house. As I passed
on the coach between Bath and Bristol, the good-natured
driver told me they were called snake-stones : for that, in thei/
dreadful papish times, the land was overcrawled by serpents ;
and one of them having bitten the foot of St. Keyna, with her
rod she turned them all into stone ! He smiled incredulously
when I told him they were snails — Mollusca — probably a
Nautilus ? Of course, they are all without heads ; and the
simple people carve a head on the large ones, which, from
necessity, is always proportionably too small ; and the attempt
at deception defeats itself.

Vo7i Os, What fine large Eastern poppies ! How showy
they appear among the shrubs ! Did you ever see those
coruscations or flashes issuing from orange-coloured flowers,
said to have been first observed by the daughter of Linnaeus ?

Dov. Yes ; once from the marigold, and once from the
nasturtium (Tropae^olum majus), at the close of a very hot
day. I have no doubt they are electrical.

Fon Os, There is another singular phenomenon attendant
on that pungently fragrant plant the Z)ictamnus Fraxinella.
If, after a very hot day, a flame be applied near the blossom,
its exhalation will blaze beautifully.

Dov, These are pleasant little notices.

Von Os, And so this is a specimen of your proposed chit-
chat.

Dov, Yes ; hastily and heedlessly thrown together, I must

Chit-chat. 505

confess, the moment the thought occurred : and I will send it
to the editors, with this unfeigned and earnest request, not to
print it unless fully approved by them, but to apply it to their
Fraxinella plants. And 1 shall take special care not to repeat
it, until I satisfactorily find it favourably received by a majority
of our readers. In that case, I may vary the interlocutors, or
shift the scene : either to the fields in summer ; or, in winter,
beside the book-room fire ; assured that natural history will
at all times and places spontaneously furnish multiplicity and
variety of desultory Chit-chat.

John F. M. Dovaston.
fVestfelton, near Shreuoshury, Mai/ 29. 1832.

The Greater Toothwort {LathrcB'a Squdmaria L.). — Mr. Bowman's match-
less essay on this plant, replete with proofs that it is wholly a parasite,
and with speculations and inferences of a high order in philosophical
science, on the singularities in structure discovered by him in this plant,
will be found in the Linncsan Transactions, vol.xvi., p. 399 — 420. : a faint
abstract of this essay is presented in our current volume (p. 43 — 48.).
In line 4th from the bottom of the latter page, " the leaves of the central
root or caudex, is misprinted for " the base of," &c. It will scarcely be
wide of the present remarks, to notice the distinctions observed in tech-
nical botany between epiphytes and parasites. Epiphytes are plants
growing upon other plants, deriving from the latter nothing but their local
habitation; parasites grow into, and absorb their nutriment from, the
the plants which bear them : epiphytes are numerous within the tropics ;
parasites are few every where, and, in Britain, limited to Fiscum album,
Cuscuta europae'a, Cuscuta ^pithymum, Lathrae^a Squaraaria, the species
of Orobanche, and many species of i^'ungus ; perhaps Monotropa Hypo-
pithys, and a few other plants. Mr. Bowman, in the paper above alluded
to, and in our abstract of it (p. 48.), doubts strongly if Llstera Nidus avis
Hooker (O'phrys Nidus avis Linn.) be parasitic.

Luminous Appearance on Flowers. — In amplification of this subject, see
the remarks by Mr. Green, p. 208.

The Misseltoe (Yiscum album L.). — Ray, in his Synopsis (edition 3d,
p. 464.), registers, as stocks for the misseltoe, " the oak, the hazel, the
apple most frequently, pear, hawthorn, common maple, ash, lime, willow,
elm, service tree, &c." What the " &c." intended is now not discoverable.
At Sutton Place, Ripley, Surrey, according to the Gardener's Magazine
(Vol. VII. p. 365.), " the poplars and lime trees are eaten up with missel-
toe ;" and the writer suggests, that as truncheons of poplar planted early
in the spring root readily, the misseltoe may easily be established on any
premises, by planting thereon truncheons of poplar on which the misseltoe
had previously become thoroughly established. The cherry laurel (Prunus
Laurocerasus im., Cerasus Laurocerasus Loiseleur) will nourish the
misseltoe. I saw a plant established on a laurel bush, some years ago, in
the garden of the Rev. E. Simons, Ovington, Norfolk. The misseltoe
does not, I believe, admit of multiplication by engrafting, but only by
seeds. These are borne one in a berry, and when ripe, at Christmas time,
may, by the very tenacious gum which envelopes them, or rupturing the
skin of the berry by pressure, be readily and most persistently fixed into
the chinks of the bark of congenial trees. The comparatively younger
parts of the bark are fitter than the older and drier. Usually, neither the

506 Chit'chaL

frosts nor rains of winter will be able to dislodge the seeds thus infixed ;
and in the following spring or summer they will germinate. Two mode-
rately sized misseltoe bushes are now growing, side by side, on a young
tree of the pink-flowered hawthorn, in the old botanic garden at Bury St.
Edmunds, both which emanated from a single seed, sown in the above
manner, on this tree, about seven years ago. It is known to botanists that
the seed of the misseltoe occasionally includes two embryoes, as does the
seed of the onion and of the orange ; but it would seem, that of these two
plants one is masculine and the other feminine ; for Mr. Turner, the curator
of the above garden, in the spring of this year, informed me, that one plant
was abounding in berries, while the other had not a single berry on it.
More accurate subsequent observation must determine whether they
actually are distinct in sex j and then, if this be usually the case with most
or all pairs of misseltoe plants which may spring from a single seed.
Should observation affirm these to be facts, another admirable instance c£
comprehensive provision in nature will be manifest.

The Greater Dodder (Cuscuta europce^a L.). — This parasite can be esta-
blished wherever the hop plant grows, by placing, in the autumn, a wreath
of the dodder vine, bearing ripe capsules, on the earth about the base of
the stems of the hop plant. The seeds of the dodder, escaping from their
capsules, will remain on the earth's face through the winter, and germi-
nate early in the ensuing spring, some days ere the stems of the hop shoot
forth. It will then be highly pleasing to observe the spiral convolutions of
the sprouting embryoes of the dodder, evincing that vegetable instincts are
innate; for even in the seed, if examined, the embryo may be found con-
volved about the central fleshy globose albumen. By the time the hop
stems have burst through the soil, many of the embryoes of the dodder
will have perished ; but where the survivors happen to touch the hop stem
they very soon adhere, and insert their sap-sucking glands into the bark of
the hop stem ; and, from the date of doing this, speedily change their pale
aspect and feeble condition to a ruddy healthy hue, and a state of gross
luxuriance ; and these latter effects are maintained through all the copious
ramifications of the plant, by the branches emitting a fresh cluster of absorb-
ing glands into the hop stem, at many of the points at which they clasp
it. Smith, in his English Flora (Vol. II. p. 25.), describes this species as
** rare:" this can scarcely be, as in Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, and
Suffolk, in which I have resided, I have known of its abounding. " Thistles,
nettles, flax, and other annual or biennial herbs," are, according to Smith,
in the place cited, its habitats : my Huntingdonshire and Suffolk plants
were on the hop : the Cambridgeshire ones were shown me when gathered;
I have forgotten off* what plants. Relhan's Flora Cantabrigiensis (edit. 2nd)
states that it grows on nettles, Torilus ^nthriscus, the hop, and beans, and
that the vernacular name for it is " hell-weed, or devil's guts," doubtless,
in expression of the pertinacious bonds formed by its interlacing wreaths
of countless branches. On the hop, in a garden, established as above
described, I had the greater dodder to satisfaction, for three successive
summers, when I left the place ; and, in one of these summers, it flourished
besides on an exotic species of teasel ( Acee^nops vulgaris Schrader\ nearly
allied to the British jDipsacus pilosus L.y which had grown up beside the
rubbish heap, merely from the dead seed-bearing stems of theteasel and of the
dodder, along with those of the hop, having met at the rubbish heap, during
the preceding winter, in the operation of clearing the garden of its annual
herbage. The reddened wreaths of dodder branches, knotted with heads
of flowers, were hung in elegant festoons about the arm-spread branches
of the teasel, and contrasted strikingly with its abundant verdant leaves.
I have known this species transplanted by cuttings, or rather by a branch
broken off", into a stove, and there successfully established on a growing

Analogy between Vegetables and Animals, 507

plant of the Basella rubra, and on some other plant whose name I have
forgotten. In the green-houses at Cambridge, a very vigorously growing
perennial species of dodder (of the twelve species grown in English collec-
tions, five are said to be perennial), if I rightly remember, from China,
luxuriates on plants of the common and broad-leaved ivy, and on the
succulent shoots of the kinds of pelargonium known by the name of the
horse-shoe-leaved.

Qornu Amvibnm in Somersetshire. — On this subject, see additional remarks
in p. 538. — J. D.

Art. II. An Essay on the Analog}/ bettueen the Structure and
Functions of Vegetables and Animals. By William Cjordon,
Esq., Surgeon, Welton, near Hull. Read before the Hull Lite-
rary and Philosophical Society, Nov. 19. 1830. Communicated
by Mr. Gordon.

{Continued from p. 412.)

The next function which we have to consider is respiration.
The blood which flows from the right cavity of the heart to
the lungs is of a dark hue. It possesses many deleterious pro-
perties, and is unfit for nutrition, or any of the other functions.
During its circulation through the lungs, it acquires a florid
red colour, it is deprived of its noxious ingredients, and be-
comes adapted for all the purposes of life. Now, it has been
ascertained that these changes, which take place in the nature
of the blood, are effected by the agency of the atmospheric
air, to which it is freely exposed as it proceeds through the
lungs. The air of the atmosphere is composed of oxygen
and azote. When an animal is confined in a certain quantity
of it, a part of the oxygen disappears, and nearly an equiva-
lent proportion of carbonic acid is produced in its stead. These
results are caused by all animals, whether they possess a
respiratory apparatus or not : oxygen is consumed, and car-
bonic acid is generated. Carbon, then, appears to be the
material which deteriorates the blood ; while oxygen is the
element which purifies it. The ultimate object of respiration,
then, is to bring a quantity of oxygen into contact with the
venous blood, in order that it may combine with and abs-
tract its carbon, and thus convert it into a pure and nutritious
fluid. Oxygen, then, appears to be perfectly essential to life.
There is no animal in the whole scale of created existence
but would, if deprived of it, languish and die. Besides the
evolution of carbonic acid, and the consumption of oxygen
during respiration, a quantity of vapour is exhaled from the
lungs, and a portion of azote is absorbed. The apparatus by
^hich the function of respiration is carried on, is diflferently

508 Analogy between Vegetables and Animals,

constructed in different animals. In man, and the higher
classes, it consists of the windpipe and its ramifications, of
the lungs, and of the diaphragm. The windpipe is an elastic
tube, which runs down the fore-part of the neck. It divides
first into two, and then into smaller branches ; which at last
terminate in small cells, that form the minute structure of the
lungs. The lungs are organs of a light spongy texture ; and
composed of bloodvessels, air-cells, and cellular substance.
In fishes, the organs of respiration consist of branchiae or
gills. In many of the invertebrated animals, they consist of
a number of tubes called tracheae, into which the air is con-
stantly entering. There are numerous tribes in which no
distinct respiratory apparatus can be found : in this case, the
air acts on the blood through the medium of the skin.

The sap of plants, in the crude and indigested state in which
it is absorbed from the soil, contains a large proportion of
water; and before it is fit for the purposes of nutrition, it
undergoes in its nature and properties a general change,
which bears a striking resemblance to that which the blood
undergoes in the lungs. If plants be exposed to the light,
and particularly to the direct rays of the sun, they exhale an
abundance of vapour, and likewise of oxygen gas. This
watery exhalation is supplied from the sap, and the oxygen
from the decomposition of carbonic acid gas, which vegetables
imbibe from the atmosphere and from the earth. As soon as
they have absorbed it, it is decomposed by the light : the
oxygen is set free, and the carbon is retained. Hence it
appears that carbon is the proper food of plants ; and thus
vegetation destroys the deleterious effects arising from the
respiration of animals. In the dark, however, plants, instead
of exhaling, absorb oxygen. The reason of this I will explain.
The sap, besides containing a quantity of carbonic acid gas,
contains likewise, in solution, carbon combined with animal
and vegetable matter. Before this carbon can be assimilated,
it must be combined with oxygen, and converted into car-
bonic acid. For this purpose, then, oxygen is absorbed in
the night ; in the day, the carbonic acid thus formed is de-
composed, the carbon is deposited, and the oxygen flies off.
But, even during the day, when placed in the shade, vege-
tables absorb oxygen, and evaporate carbonic acid gas. Plants
not only exhale moisture, but they absorb it : they likewise
absorb a portion of nitrogen. All these processes are performed
in the leaves ; which may be considered the respiratory organs
of plants. Their structure resembles that of the lungs ; con-
sisting of bloodvessels, air-tubes, and cellular tissue. If the
leaves be plucked off, so that the sap cannot be properly

in their Structure and Functions, 509

elaborated, the growth of the plant is checked, and its fruit
falls off before it is fully ripened.

The respiration of plants, although resembling that of ani-
mals, is attended with chemical results somewhat different. In
the respiration of animals, oxygen disappears, and carbonic acid
is produced: in that of plants, carbon is consumed, and oxygen
is thrown off. If an animal be immersed in carbonic acid gas,
it soon dies ; but if a plant be immersed in it, it thrives vigor-
ously, at least for a short time. Carbon is the proper food
of vegetables ; but if this material be allowed to accumulate
in the animal system, it puts a period to its existence. It
may be remarked, however, that although common air is not
so favourable to the growth of vegetables as an atmosphere
containing one twelfth of carbonic acid, yet, if the proportion
of this gas be greater than this, it impedes the process of
vegetation remarkably ; and it is found that an atmosphere,
one half or two thirds of whose volume consists of carbonic
acid, proves destructive of vegetable life in the course of a
few days. With the exception of these discrepancies, which,
when closely examined, are very trifling, there is a wonderful
analogy between the respiratory functions of vegetables and
those of animals. In so far as regards their ultimate effect,
it is particularly striking. The process to which the sap is
subjected in the leaves renders this fluid fit for the continu-
ance of all the vegetable functions, in the same manner as the
process performed in the lungs changes the blood into a state
proper to carry on all the vital operations of the animal
system. But, beyond this, the analogy can be considerably
extended. For example, we observe that plants and animals
both thrive in an atmosphere composed of oxygen and nitro-
gen ; and they both perish when deprived of it for any length
of time ; both, too, die in an atmosphere of pure oxygen ; by
means of their respiratory organs they both exhale and they
both absorb moisture ; both, likewise, imbibe nitrogen. Under
certain circumstances all plants absorb oxygen, like animals,
instead of exhaling it, and emit carbonic acid gas ; and there
are some parts of plants, such as the stem and branches, and
also the flowers, which take in oxygen at all times, and under
all circumstances, both when in the dark, and when exposed
to the full rays of the sun. Oxygen, then, which is the prin-
cipal agent concerned in effecting the proper change in the
blood, is likewise the agent which chiefly operates upon the
sap, and prepares it for being assimilated to the plant. So
that it appears that oxygen is as indispensable to the exist-
ence of vegetables as to that of animals.

From what has been stated, it seems that the presence of

510 A?ialogi/ between Vegetables and Animals,

light, as well as air, is essential to the well-being of plants. It^
is light that decomposes the carbonic acid gas, and thus fur-
nishes the plant with carbon ; the substance whence it derives
all its colour, its solidity, and strength. If light be withdrawn,
the carbonic acid gas which has been absorbed remains un-
altered ; the oxygen is not set free ; and no deposition of
carbon takes place. Hence it is that plants growing in
valleys and dark situations are pale and delicate, while those
which grow on mountains, and in sunny regions, are extremely
hard, and of a deep green colour. For the same reason,
the stem of celery, which is buried in the ground, is white, or
etiolated, as it is called ; while the leaves, which appear above
the ground, and are exposed to the light, present a green
colour. It has been found that red rose trees, if deprived of
light, will produce roses almost white. All kinds of seed
become more nutritious and perfect in clear than in gloomy
weather ; because, in the former, there is a greater intensity
of light, and, consequently, a more copious deposition of car-
bon. Besides causing a greater assimilation of carbonaceous
matter, light promotes the exhalation of vapour from the
leaves : if there be a deficiency of it, the plant retains an
excess of liquid, and becomes dropsical.

Animals are as dependent on light, for their growth and
well-being, as vegetables are. If an animal be deprived of
its influence, it becomes debilitated, unhealthy, and dropsical.
The insects of southern regions, and those exposed to the
light of the sun, exhibit much more brilliant colours than
those which reside in northern regions, or which leave their
places of concealment only during the night. The plumage
of birds, and the covering of other animals, which inhabit
countries near the equator, are brighter and more variegated
than the vesture of those which belong to the arctic climates.
When a European migrates into some equatorial country, he
soon loses his fair complexion, and his skin assumes a dark
colour. This change depends upon the agency of light, and
the consequent deposition of carbon* The rete mucosum, or
second layer of the skin, consists of oxygen, carbon, and
hydrogen. The light combines with the oxygen of this sub-
stance, and sets it free ; the carbon and hydrogen, the other
constituents, are thus allowed to enter into new affinities, and
to unite in such proportions as to form a more or less per-
fect carbonaceous product, which, being of a bluish grey
colour, imparts to the surface its tawny complexion. An in-
genious experiment of Mr. Edwards has shown that the per-
fect growth of animals is very dependent upon the action of
light. This indefatigable and learned physiologist put some

in their Structure and Functions, 5f\^

tadpoles into water contained in a reservoir, from which the
light was excluded. The tadpoles grew, but did not become
froffs. He afterwards removed some of them into a situation
to which the light had free access. These soon lost their
tail and fins, and were converted into perfect frogs : but the
rest, which were kept in the dark, still continued in the state
of tadpoles.

I have now endeavoured to explain the functions of ab-
sorption, of circulation, and respiration ; the manner by which
the chyle is taken up, and carried into the system ; how it is
converted in the lungs into blood ; and how the blood is dis-
tributed to every part of the body. I have likewise pointed out
how nearly the functions by which all these effects are pro-
duced in the animal frame, resemble those functions in the
vegetable system by which the crude sap is absorbed from
the earth ; how it is changed in the leaves into cambium ; and
how the cambium is conveyed all over the plant. In the
early part of my essay I remarked that every organised
being is composed of solid and fluid parts. The solids consist
of muscular, membranous, and nervous substance ; the fluids
consist of aqueous and other matter. In the animal frame, all
the solid and fluid substances are produced from the blood ;
in plants, they are produced from the sap. Skin, fat, brain,
muscle, membrane, saliva, tears, bile, and urine, are all eli-
minated from the blood; bark, wood, pith, pollen, oil, sugar,
&c., are all eliminated from the sap. The process by which
muscle is extracted from the blood, and that by which wood
is extracted from the sap, are termed secretion. There are
many substances existing in the blood, which, in consequence
of their peculiar chemical qualities, are enabled to escape
from the system by transuding through the sides of certain
organs ; this is considered as a species of secretion : but
secretion is properly the separation of substances from the
blood, which did not previously exist in this fluid. The or-
gans by which it is performed, in the animal frame, consist of
vesicles or hollow sacs. The glands, such as the liver, the
pancreas, &c., are composed of a congeries of these vesicles ;
among which bloodvessels and excretory ducts abundantly
ramify. The secreting organs of vegetables are precisely
similar to those of animals. They consist of hollow bodies ;
and these, when collected into clusters, constitute glands, which
are as abundant in the vegetable as in the animal system.
Various speculations have been offered with regard to the
theory of secretion. Van Helmont and Willis ascribed the
process to fermentation; Hunter, Blumenbach, Bichat, and
Abernethy ascribed it to the agency of the vital principle ;

512 On the supposed Poiich

Descartes, Boerhaave, and Haller, to a mechanical process;
Keill and Prout to chemical action ; Home, Brodie, and
Philip, to nervous influence. Dutrochet ascribes secretion to
endosmose. Perhaps none of these hypotheses are free from
objections ; but that which is correct with regard to animal
secretion, will be correct with regard to the secretions of
vegetables.

{To be continued.')

Art. hi. On the supposed Pouch under the Bill of the Rook, By
Charles Waterton, Esq.

" Nee aliud quicquam . . . quaeritur,
Quam eorrigatur error ut mortalium,
Acuatque sese diligens industria." Phcedrus.

" Nothing further is sought than to correct the errors of
men, and to sharpen their penetration."

We read in that faulty work, Rennie's Montagues Ornitho-
logical Dictionary [p. 432.], that " the rook is furnished with
a small pouch at the root of the tongue." If the carrion crow
were as useful to man, as the rook is known to be ; if the jay
and the magpie had less to answer for, on the score of petty
plunder ; and if the jackdaw did not expose itself to persecu-
tion, by its prying and suspicious habits, they would all be
allowed by man to range at large without molestation ; and
then the naturalist would have that opportunity of examining
their economy, which at present is denied him.

Amongst many peculiarities in these birds, scarcely known,
or even noticed, he would observe that at a certain time of
the year, and only then, they all have, at intervals, an appear-
ance of a pouch under the bill, quite as well defined as that
which is seen in the rook. The idea would then occur to
him, that ornithologists have either said too much, in stating
that the rook is furnished with a small pouch at the root of
the tongue ; or too little, in not telling us that the carrion
crow, the jay, the magpie, and the jackdaw are supplied with
a similar convenience.

The real matter of fact is this, that naturalists err when
they ascribe a pouch to the rook. Though at times there is
an actual appearance of a pouch under the bill of the rook,
and also under the bills of the other birds just enumerated,
still, upon a close inspection, it will be seen that there is no
pouch at all in any of them. The young of all birds, from the
size of the thrush to that of the wren, are satisfied with a
single worm at one feeding, or with two, at the most. Thus,
in fields and gardens, we gee an old bird catch an insect, and

wider the Bill of the Book, 513

fly away immediately with it to the nest. But food of this
scanty measure would not be enough for the larger kind of
insectivorous birds. The progeny would undoubtedly require
more at each feeding; and, add to this, supposing the bird
only carried one insect at each turn, too much time would be
lost in passing to and from the nest. To obviate this, as birds
of the pie tribe have no power, in health, to eject food which
has descended into the stomach (saving the indigestible rem-
nants of aliment, which are thrown up in the form of pellets),
they collect a considerable quantity of insects into their mouth,
and they confine them there, without letting them go down
the throat.

By this process, a rook is enabled to pick up a sufficient
supply of food, some miles from the nest ; and when its mouth
will hold no more insects, the bird takes flight, and carries
them to its expecting brood. The carrion crow, the jay, the
magpie, and the jackdaw do the sam.e thing precisely. Now,
the gathered insects, being prevented from descending into
the stomach, and at the same time not being able to escape
at the bill, must necessarily form a lump under the lower
mandible, where the skin, in all birds, is admirably formed
for distention. This lump is what has given rise to the notion
amongst naturalists, that the rook is furnished with a pouch
at the root of the tongue. If this pouch be allowed in the
rook, then it must be admitted that all birds are furnished
with a pouch ; and it must also be admitted that our tars are
furnished with a pouch betwixt the mouth and the ear, because,
for convenience' sake, they stow away their quid in that quarter.
It may be easily accounted for, why ornithologists make no
mention of a pouch under the tongue of the jay, the jackdaw,
the magpie, and the carrion crow, while they describe, with
such plausibility a pouch at the root of the tongue of the
rook. The reason is this, the rook, in general, is the friend
of man, and, in the breeding season, he becomes so tame that
he may be approached within a few yards. This gives you a
fine opportunity of observing the lump under the bill, when
the skin in that part is distended with a supply of food. Indeed,
you can observe it at a considerable distance, either while the
bird is on the ground, or when it is flying across you, on
account of its white appearance, contrasted with the sable
plumage. On the other hand, the carrion crow, the magpie,
the jay, and even the jackdaw, are all birds of ruined cha-
racter. Their misfortunes make them shy ; and thus you are
prevented from having much intercourse with them. The
gardener and the henwife can never be brought to look upon
them with the least appearance of kind feeling; while the
Vol. V. — No. 28. L l

514 Supposed Pouch under the Bill of the Rook,

gamekeeper, that cholera morbus to the feathered race, fool-
ishly imagines that he proves his attention to his master's
interests, by producing a disgusting exhibition of impaled
birds on the kennel walls. Nay, show me, if you can, a young
squire, idling from college, who does not try to persuade the
keeper that it is his bounden duty to exterminate all manner
of owls, ravens, carrion crows, hawks, herons, magpies, jays,
daws, woodpeckers, ringdoves, and such like vermin, from his
father's estate. With this destroying force to contend with,
in the shape of keeper, squire, and henwife, it is not to be
wondered at that naturalists have so few opportunities of
watching individuals of the pie tribe through the entire course
of their incubation; which individuals, if persecution did not
exist, would be seen, in the breeding season, perpetually pass-
ing to and fro, with their mouths full of food for their young.

In my little peaceful valley, where the report of the keeper's
gun is never heard, and where the birds are safe from the
depredations of man, the ornithologist has free access to pur-
sue his favourite study. Towards the middle of May, he
can see here the carrion crow, the jay, the magpie, and the
jackdaw, filling their mouths with grubs and worms, the
weight of which forces the pliant skin under the bill into the
shape of a little round ball, just of the same appearance as
that which is observed in the rook, with this trifling diiFer-
ence, that the lump is feathered in the first, and bare of
feathers in the last.

While I am writing this, there may be seen here a wild
duck hatching her eggs in a nest upon a sloping wooded
bank ; while a carrion crow is hatching hers in a fir tree ten
yards from the spot, and a windhover hawk is performing
the same function in a fir tree about six yards on the other
side of the duck. Forty yards from where the carrion crow
is hatching, may be seen a barn owl sitting on her eggs in
the hollow of an oak tree ; and, at twenty yards' distance from
the windhover, another white or barn owl has formed her
nest in the decayed recesses of a tremendous oak. Though
all these families keep the peace, I do not wish it to be under-
stood that they are upon visiting terms. In another part, a
long-eared owl is rearing her young in the last year's nest of
a carrion crow. When the parent bird is asleep, you can see
very distinctly the erect feathers on the head : but the moment
she gets a sight of you, down go the erect feathers, and lie
close to the head; so that an inexperienced observer might
take the bird to be a tawny owl. This year, a wild duck has
chosen her place of incubation twelve feet from the ground,
in an oak tree, near the water; while, in the immediate
vicinity, several magpies are hatching in undisturbed repose.

Preservation of Egg- shells . 515

I am sometimes questioned by country gentlemen (who
have a keen eye for jugged hare and roasted partridges) on
the propriety of befriending, what they consider, feathered
vermin. I tell them that Professor Rennie has remarked, in
this Magazine (Vol. V. p. 102.), " that T have hitherto pub-
lished nothing, respecting the economy or faculties of animals,
of the least use to natural history." This being the case, I
am trying to make up my deficiency in pen and ink, by esta^
blishing a sylvan enclosure, which any ornithologist is allowed
to enter; and where he will have an opportunity of cor-
recting, by actual observation, some of those errors which
appear in the second edition of Montagu, by James Ilennie,
A.M. A.L.S. Moreover, sometimes, in a jocose kind of a
way, I tell them I like to have all kinds of Ijirds around me ;
and that I cannot find in my heart to kill a poor jay for suck-
ing an egg, when I know

" That I myself, carnivorous sinner,
Had pullets yesterday for dinner."

Walton Hall, May 9. 1832. Charles Waterton.

Art. IV. On the Preservation of Egg-shells for Cabinets of Na'-
tural History. By Charles Waterton, Esq.

" Si sumas ovum, moUe sit, atque novum." Schola Salermtana.

" If you take an egg, let it be soft and new."

I HAVE been blundering at this work for some years;
" seeking for something I could not find," and always dissa-
tisfied with myself on account of the failure. The object of
my search was, to try to find out how I could properly dispose
of the thin white membrane next the shell of the egg. When
left in, it is apt to corrupt ; in which case, the colour of the
shell will sometimes fade, and an offensive smell is produced,
which a lapse of years will not subdue. Last spring, I thought
I had succeeded ; but it turned out to be a very partial success.
I, first, by blowing, discharged the contents of five swans'
eggs, and then immersed the shells in a tub of water for a
month. This enabled me to pull out the thin membrane, by
means of a piece of wire bent at the end. But I found that
the colour of the shell had faded considerably. Moreover,
the process required too much time; and I saw that there
would be great difficulty in doing small eggs.

About three weeks ago, a bright thought (a rara avis with
me) struck me, just as I was in the act of climbing up to a

L L 2

516 Preservation of Eggshells,

hawk's nest. I felt certain that every difficulty had vanished,
and T began to blame myself on the score of former dulness.

In selecting eggs for your cabinet, always choose those
which are newly laid. Make a raoderately-sized hole at the
sharp end, with a pointed instrument proportioned to the egg.
Thus, for a swan's egg^ use the point of your penknife ; for a
robin's, take a small pin. Having made the hole at the sharp
end, make one at the blunt end ; and let this last hole be as
small as possible. This done, apply your mouth to the blunt
end, and blow the contents of the egg through the sharp end,
where the hole is larger. If the yolk will not come out freely,
run a pin or a wire up into the egg, and stir the yolk well
about. Now get a cupful of water, and, immersing the sharp
end of the shell into it, apply your mouth to the blunt end,
and suck up some of the water into the empty shell. Then
put your finger and thumb upon the two holes, shake the
water well within, and, after this, blow it out. The water will
clear your egg of any remains of yolk or of white which might
stay in after the blowing. If one sucking up of water will not
suffice, make a second or a third.

An egg, immediately after it is produced, is very clean and
pure ; but by staying in the nest, and by coming in contact
with the feet of the bird, it soon assumes a soiled appearance.
To remedy this, wash it well in soap and water ; and use a
nail-brush to get the dirt off. Your egg-shell is now as it
ought to be ; and nothing remains to be done but to prevent
tlie thin white membrane (which is still inside) from corrupting.

Take a wine-glass, and fill it with the solution of corrosive
sublimate in alcohol. Then immerse the sharp end of the
egg-shell into it, keeping your finger and thumb, as you hold
it, just clear of the solution. Apply your mouth to the little
hole at the blunt end, and suck up some of the solution into
the shell. You need not be fearful of getting the liquor into
your mouth ; for, as soon as it rises in the shell, the cold will
strike your finger and thumb, and then you cease sucking.
Shake the shell just as you did v^hen the water was in it,
and then blow the solution back into the glass. Your egg-
shell is now beyond the reach of corruption ; the membrane
retains for ever its pristine whiteness ; and no insect, for the
time to come, will ever venture to prey upon it. If you wish
your egg to appear extremely brilliant, give it a coat of mastic
varnish, put on very sparingly with a camel-hair pencil.
Green or blue eggs must be done with gum arable, because
the mastic varnish is apt to injure the colour.

This is all. How dull I have been, not to have found out
this simple process long ago! I have used the solution to

Transformations of the Dragon Fly. 517

preserve skins, furs, and feathers from putrefaction and the
moth, for nearly twenty years ; still the idea never struck me,
till three weeks ago, that it could be so serviceable in pre-
venting all tendency to putrefaction in the membrane of the
shell, w^hich had given me so much trouble, and caused so
many useless experiments. I trust that the kind-hearted
naturalist will not turn this little process of preparing eggs into
affliction to poor birds. One egg out of each nest (with a few
exceptions) will not be missed by the owner ; but to take them
all away would be hard indeed. Such an act would make the
parent bird as sad and sorrowful as Niobe. You know Niobe's
story: Apollo slew her every child. I beg to present this
new mode of preparing egg-shells to Mr. Loudon, for his
delightful Magazine of Natural History.

Charles Waterton.
Walton Hall, Mai/ 11. 1832.

P. S. — Since I sent you the instructions for preparing
eggs, my friend, George Walker of Killingbeck Lodge, has
been here ; and he thinks that copal varnish is better than
mastic varnish for eggs. I have made an improvement in
blowing larger kinds of eggs. I find that one hole is suffi-
cient. When that hole is made, introduce a straight wire,
with a little piece of dry cotton or thread well tied round the
end introduced. Then, holding the egg with the hole down-
wards, you use the wire, which acts as a piston, and forces a
sufficient quantity of the contents of the egg out, to enable
you to get out the rest by sudden jerks. This is a much
longer process than blowing; but you have the advantage of
having only one hole in your egg, instead of two. — Charles
Waterton, June 12. 1832.

The figure and description of a pipe for blowing eggs (given in Vol. IV.
p. 143.) have possibly not yet met the eye of Mr. Waterton. Will not that
instrument be found to increase the despatch and convenience with which
the yolk and white of an egg may be di'awn from the shell ? — J. D.

Art. V. Brief Notices of the Habits and Transformations of the
Dragon Fly ; compiled in explanation of the accompanying Cut.
By J. D.

Mr. Newman, in his essay entided Sphinx xespifdrmis, has
accorded to the dragon fly family a high degree in the relative
scale of insect importance. " Their imperial flight, their
enormous size, their richly variegated colours, their despotic

L L 3

518 Habits and Transformations

and cruel habits," he remarks, "justly entitle them to rank
" as emperors of the insect world." Interesting as they may
be on these accounts, they are likewise so on account of the
structure of their jaws when in the larva state, and from the
obvious example they supply of the interesting process of
transformation.

Fig, 98. represents this process ; and, although the same
may be duly familiar to experienced entomologists, the cut,

it is presumed, will be welcome to junior students in ento-
mology. Many who are familiar with dragon flies, as seen
in the end of summer ( « ), when vigorous in wing and
arrow-like in speed of flight (hence called, not ineptly,
" hobby-horses," by children in the fens of Cambridgeshire),
will, perhaps, scarcely credit the fact that these emperors of
the insect world emanate from a repulsive-looking voracious
grub ( h ), that, until it changes to the winged state, lives
wholly in the water, and subsists there on insects and
other small animals. This is, nevertheless, the fact; and on
the surface of still and slowly flowing waters, the empty pupa
cases ( c ) may be found floating in July and August : in
the ditches and drains of the fens of Cambridgeshire they are
at this time frequently visible. The first live larva of the
dragon fly I ever witnessed was while bathing, some years ago,
in the river Lark, near Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk. I then
knew not what it was ; but disliked its appearance, from the
strong similarity it bore to the land insect Goerius olens,
whose torturing and predaceous habits I knew. The simi-
larity in form, and greater size, instantly suggested the idea
that it was probably not less predaceous : subsequent research
and experience have proved this opinion accurate. The stu-
dent, by turning to Kirby and Spence's Introduction^ vol. i.
p. 272., and vol. iii. p. 126., will find superlative voracity

of the Dragon Fly, 519

ascribed to the dragon flies in their every state, larva, pupa,
and imago. In proof of this, in their larva or pupa state, I
have one instance to relate ; and this instance will also cor-
roborate the remark quoted by Kirby and Spence from De
Geer, viz. : — " De Geer says it is very difficult for other
insects to elude their attacks ; and that he has even seen
them devour very small fishes." While walking one day, in
the spring of 1829, round the aquarium in the Cambridge
Botanic Garden, examining the aquatic plants there, in com-
pany with Mr. Biggs, the curator of the garden, and a third
person, our attention was arrested by a circular movement in
the water. On looking to it, we instantly perceived that a
pretty strong larva of a dragon fly had captured a stickleback,
and that the mutual struggles of the two produced the gyratory
motion mentioned. This continued for some little time, and
within about 6 in. of the surface of the water. As the fish
became exhausted, both began to descend in a spiral manner ;
and the scene ended with us in the fish being laid on its side
on the mud at the bottom, and the larva of the dragon fly
still retaining its hold.

In the annexed cut (Jig. 98.), in the pupa (marked h\ a
peculiar appendage to the head will be perceived : this and
its uses will be best explained by a quotation from Kirby and
Spence's Introd.^ from the pages above indicated, whither the
reader is referred for a more detailed technical explanation
than space will allow to be given here. The larvae and pupae
of dragon flies " are furnished with two pair of strong jaws,
covered by a kind of mask, armed with a pair of forceps or
claws, which the animal has the power of pushing from it to
catch any thing at a distance. While the animal is at rest,
this mask applies to and covers the face ; but, when it would
make use of it, it unfolds the mask like an arm, catches the
prey at which it aims by means of the mandibuliform plates,
and then partly refolds the mask, so as to hold the prey to
the mouth in a convenient position for the operation of its
two pair of jaws. Reaumur once found one of them thus
holding and devouring a large tadpole."

In the same work, also, it is remarked (vol. iiL p. 1 J 7.) : —
" In the larvae of the dragon flies (Libellula Z/.), and other
Neuroptera, the eyes are composed of many facets [was " as
many facets " meant to be said ?J as in those of the perfect
insect, from which they differ chiefly in being smaller." The
remarks and diagrams by Mr. Parsons, on the eyes of the
common or grey dragon fly, given in Vol. IV. p. 221 — 224.
of this Magazine, may be profitably studied in connection
with the present article.

L L 4

520 Illustrations in British Zoology : —

A remark may be here ventured on the sexual differences in
the more common species of dragon fly in the imago state. In
Kirhy and Spence^ vol. iii. p. 300., it is remarked, on the autho-
rity of Reaumur : — "In the Neuroptera, the female Libellii-
lidae are sometimes sensibly smaller, and never larger, than
their males." This may be true; but the remarkable abdominal
difference in the sexes ought not to escape observation, the
figure of this part in the male being long and slender, as in
Jig. 98. a ; and in the female shorter, broader, and more gross,
bearing much resemblance to the figure of the abdomen in the
pupa (marked h). It may, besides, be asked (for I find it not
stated), what time is occupied by the dragon fly, in passing
through the larva and pupa states into the imago ? As the
Libellulse are deemed highly developed insects, is it irra-
tional to suppose they may occupy almost as long a time in
the larva and pupa states as ikfelolontha vulgaris and Cos-
sus ligniperda are stated to do ?

Samouelle's remarks [Compendium, p. 65,) on the dragon
fly family are so pertinent, succinct, and yet explicit, that I
must quote them also. The dragon flies " are remarkable
for a long slender body, and wings standing out at right
angles. The larvae have six feet, and move with great ac-
tivity in the water : . . . they are the crocodiles of aquatic
insects. The larvae and pupae are not very different; the
latter [be) have the rudiments of wings. In a fine day
in June, a person standing by a pond may observe them ap-
proach the bank, for tne purpose of changing their element.
Having crawled up a uiade of grass or bit of dry wood
[usually the withered stems and leaves* of last year's herbage],
the skin of the pupa grows parched, r.nd splits at the upper
part of the thorax ( c ). The insect issues forth gradually,
throws off' its slough, in a few minutes expands its wings,
flutters, and then fli'^s off. The sexual parts in the male are
placed under the thorax ; in the female, at the extremity of
the body. The tail of the male is furnished with a hooked
forceps."

Art. VI. Illustrations in British Zoology. By George John-
ston, M.D., Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edin-
burgh.

5. PrANI^ZA FUSCA^TA. ( 7?^. 99.)
CI. Crustacea, Ord. Heterobranchia, Fatn. lonellidae, Gen. Praniza.
This genus was proposed by Dr. Leach, a naturalist of
extraordinary zeal and acquirements, for a remarkable crus-

Pranizafuscdta, 521

taceous insect winch Montagu had discovered on the shores
of Devon, and described as a species of Oniscus. It is yet,
so far as I know, the only member of its genus recognised in
systematic works ; and, I think, there are among your readers
some who will be gratified by having another native one
brought under their notice.

The Pranizae are marine Crustacea of minute size. By
means of their legs, they can creep on the bottom, which
they do slowly; but they swim with greater rapidity, pro-
pelling themselves forwards by the quick motions of a series
of ciliated fins placed beneath the tail. Of their economy,
nothing is known. They are characterised by having four
unequal antennae ; two sessile eyes ; an elongated body
divided into three segments, of which the two anterior, or
thoracic, are very small, and the third, or abdominal, very
large. They have ten legs, a pair to each segment of the
thorax, and three pairs to the abdomen ; while the jointed
tail is armed beneath, and at its end, with foliaceous append-
ages, that appear to be both motive and respiratory organs.

The species may be distinguished thus : —

1. P. cseruleata. — Abdominal segment blue {Lamarck y Hist. Nat., vol. v.

p. 168.). Oniscus cxrulektus {Montagu, in Lin. Trans.^ \o\.xi. p. 15.
tab. iv. fig. 2.). — Hab. Shores of Devon.

2. P. fuscata — Abdominal segment reddish brown [Johnston, in Magazine

of Natural History, Vol. V. p. 521 .]. — Hab. Coast of Berwickshire.

The latter is two lines long, subcylindrical. The head,
thorax, tail, and legs colourless and transparent ; eyes black ;
the great segment of a reddish brown. Head pointed. An-
tennae lateral, four-jointed, the ultimate joint long, and divided
by many transverse lines. Eyes lateral, large, compound like
those of insects. Thoracic segments very small, with a pair
of legs to each: abdomen ovate, with a translucent edge, fur-
nished with three pairs of legs; one from the anterior margin,
one from the middle, and one from a projecting tubercle at
the base. Legs taper, five-jointed, armed with a simple nearly
straight claw. Tail straight, five-jointed ; joints equal, dis-
tinct, armed on the under side with four rows of compressed

522 On the Dispersion arid

fins ciliated on the margins ; and the ultimate joint terminated,
besides, with four similar appendages, and a triangular pro-
cess between them.

The large segment is, in some specimens, smooth and even ;
but in others, one of which was selected for our figure, it is
raised at the top into two oval bosses that greatly resemble
the elytra of a Meloe, and are beautifully punctured. The
same parts are visible on the ventral surface in both varieties,
but much smaller in that whose back is smooth. Jt may be a
sexual distinction.

George Johnston, M.D.
Berwick upon Tweed, April 18. 1832.

Art. VII. On the Dispersion and Distribution of Plants*
By J. E. L.

If we take a general view of the surface and covering of
the earth, we shall meet with a perpetual series of flowery
valleys, mountains rich in alpine verdure, and forests smiling
with the bright and luxuriant tints of the tropics ; or sternly
resisting, with their dark and sombre foliage, the frozen winds
that career over the desolate plains of the north. Wherever
we turn, we every where see the same mantle of green spread
over the earth ; and, even in the most distant lands, our eyes
are cheered by that enlivening verdure which adds such a
nameless charm to every rural scene. The same wild pro-
fusion reigns, and nature teems with never-failing abundance.

** Thus spring the living herbs, profusely wild,
O'er all the deep-green earth ;
With such a liberal hand has Nature flung
Their seeds abroad." Thomson,

But was the scene always so fair ? was there always the
same display of vegetable riches ? or was there a time when
the earth was a desolate and barren wilderness, a mass of
craggy precipices, rocks piled on rocks, without any trace of
organic life?

" Where eldest Night,

And Chaos, ancestors of Nature, held

Eternal anarchy, amidst the noise

Of endless waves, and by confusion stood.'*

This, doubtless, was the state of our globe, for ages before
the earth was sufficiently modified to admit of the existence
of vegetables. With their original creation we have not at
present to do : it is our object, in this paper, to discuss the

Distribution of Plants, ' 5!2S

manner in which vegetables were dispersed over the world ;
whether by progressive steps from one point, or by one con-
temporaneous dispersion, spread over the Hice of the earth.

The first of these suppositions will be hardly tenable, if it
be fully examined, and the arguments by which it is supported
be thoroughly canvassed. The supporters of this theory
assert, that, since we are expressly informed that the different
animals were dispersed from one original station at the time
of the expulsion of our first parents from paradise, that from
the same original locality vegetables in like manner emigrated.
Now, this appears not only incredible, but perfectly inconsist-
ent with divine beneficence and the Mosaic history. When
our first parents were doomed to wander exiles from the
happy scenes of their primeval residence, would the Almighty
have compelled them to wander over a barren and desolate
wilderness ? How were they to have obtained the necessary
subsistence, if the earth had been a naked rock? They
would, beyond a doubt, have perished miserably. There are
many theories and hypotheses respecting the land which was
then uncovered by the waters of the ocean ; some asserting
that but a very small portion was left bare. With these vision-
ary dreamings we have no concern : we must be understood
to assert that the creation of vegetables was antecedent to that
of animals ; and that, wherever the land was not covered by
the sea, there was to be found abundance of earth's vegetable
treasures. Even supposing that the grand dispersion was
coeval with the expulsion of our first progenitor, this theory
will gain no advantage. The earth, we are well aware, must
needs have suffered many important changes before it could
support vegetable life ; and daily experience proves this
change to have been gradual. It is much more reasonable
to suppose, that, long previous to the creation of mankind,
or even of the lower animals, the earth had, by the store of
food universally extended, become adapted to their support.
But how does the Mosaic history bear with reference to this ?
" And God said. Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb
yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind,
whose seed is in itself, upon the earth : and it was so." " And
the evening and the morning were the third day." (Genesis,
chap. i. ver. 11. and J 3.) Here we are told that the earth
became covered with grass and herbs of various kinds, with-
out any specification of time or place. Now, the word day,
in this passage, appears to signify a certain period or length
of time ; that is to say, the third period from the creation of
the earth : viz., first, the vicissitudes of day and night, since,
without light, nothing possessed of life can come to perfection ;

524 On the Dispersio7i and

secondly, the land was separated from the water ; then, when
it had acquired sufficient consistency, vegetables were scattered
over it, which afforded food for animals, the creation of which
followed ; and lastly came man, to take possession of the whole.
Now, what argument do we derive from this ? That the earth
went through progressive stages, the duration of which we
have no means of determining; and was adapted to the
existence of man before he himself appeared. Hitherto we
have considered the subject in a scriptural and rational point
of view : let us now apply botanical reasoning. Supposing it
possible that vegetables could have been dispersed originally
from one station, and thence become naturalised over the
whole world, how would this theory agree with the present
state of our knowledge ? Were we at this time to find that
plants flourished equally well in all countries, unaffected by the
changes of heat and cold, climate, and geological structure of
the earth ; or that the same plants were universally distri-
buted, peculiar to no part of the world, but equally common
in all ; then we might reasonably and naturally infer that they
are citizens of no country, but of the world in general. But
how stands the fact ? If we cast our eyes over a botanical
chart, we shall find that, far from this being the case, many
families of plants are peculiar to certain parts of the world,
and never extend naturally beyond these boundaries ; that
some are exclusively confined to one small tract, while others
are scattered equally over the face of the earth. Thus, for
instance, the Anondcece, 'DiWemdcet^, and the palms are almost
entirely confined to tropical countries. The JSricas are scarcely
to be met with out of the Cape of Good Hope : not a single
species is found in America or in Asia ; and few, compara-
tively speaking, are natives of Europe. Lastly, New Holland
presents a rich and inexhaustible field of discovery. The
botany of Australia is so dissimilar to that of every other
known country, that it deserves particular attention. Of the
plants already known in that country, 400 species are crypto-
gamic, 860 monocotyledonous, and 2900 dicotyledonous. Of
the 400 cryptogamic, more than 120 are also indigenous to
Europe ; of the 860 monocotyledonous, only 30 have been
found in Europe, and more than half of these are grasses
and Cyperdcecc ; but of the 2900 dicotyledonous species, only
15 are the same in Australia as in Europe. {Library of Useful
Knowledge^ Physical Geography, part ii.) They exhibit but
a very meagre acquaintance with the laws which influence the
situation and locality of plants, who conceive it possible (though
it is a well known fact that plants are very far from indifferent to
the changes of heat and cold, and the composition and nature of

Distribution of Plants, 525

the soil on which they are found) that they could be assembled
originally in one station ; or that one single part of the world
could afford varieties of climate, soil, and situation sufficient
for the support of plants which now are found in the most
opposite regions of the earth. It is physically impossible that
the same vegetable productions should be found on the sandy
downs of New Holland, or in the forests of North America,
and on the granitic peaks of the Himalayah chain. However
strange this theory may appear, nevertheless it is but just to
mention that it was the opinion of the founder of scientific
botany. Linn^us very ingeniously, though, in my opinion,
unconvincingly, endeavours to prove that plants were origin-
ally dispersed from one localit}^ In maintenance of this
theory, he supposes the primary seat of plants to have been
in a warm climate (Armenia or Thibet), comprehending a
lofty mountain range, on which the plants of different regions
were congregated, and from thence spread over the world.
(Oratzo de Telluris hahitabilis Licremento.) If such were the
case, we might expect, in the regions in the heart of Asia, to
find traces of the vegetable productions of America, New
Holland, or Southern Africa ; since from the mountain ridge,
and the circumjacent plains of Asia, according to this sup-
position, they originally migrated. It is much more rational
to suppose that the creation of them was universal, modified
and regulated to suit the character of the soil, composition of
the rocks, and temperature of the climate, in which they were
intended to multiply. To assist their dispersion, he calls in
the aid of winds, rivers, birds, &c. ; and makes mention of
many curious contrivances in the vegetable structure to enable
them to project their seeds to a distance : and supposes, since
the seeds of cryptogamous plants are so minute, that they
would be conveyed by the agency of the winds to an incal-
culable distance. To this theory some strong objections may
be offered: — 1st, That vegetables could not be dispersed,
without a soil calculated to receive and nourish the seeds ;
2d, Though the winds are undoubtedly able to convey the
seeds of many plants to a great distance, especially those of
the class Syngenesia and natural order Compositae, yet of
many others they cannot effect the dispersion for even a
single mile. I have myself seen, in this county (Yorkshire),
a bank covered with the Aquilegia vulgaris, which, though
exposed to the most violent action of the winds, never spread
over the neighbouring fields. This opinion we cannot, there-
fore, reasonably admit as the true one : the progressive steps
by which vegetation advances are extremely slow; and it

526 071 the Dispersion and

requires the lapse of ages to transform a barren rock into a
state fit to support man, and to supply his numerous wants.

The remains of vegetables belonging to an antediluvian
world are found in the slate formation, and consist principally
of ferns, palms, grasses, reeds, &c. ; but these forms, though
they cannot be referred to any known species of plants, yet
have so much the appearance of tropical productions, that we
must admit the existence of a much greater heat at the sur-
face of the earth than at the present day ; and this heat must
have been distributed over all the zones, since these forms are
found to exist in slate formations in all parts of the earth.
{Philosophy of Plants, p. 276., by Decandolle and Sprengel.)
Whether, as was the opinion of Linnaeus, only one species in
each genus was originally created, we cannot positively prove
or deny.

We will now proceed to a part of our subject well worthy
of the most earnest attention, as in no other branch of nature
is the Divine Providence more plainly seen ; namely, the pro^
gress of vegetation. Mosses and lichens (at least in the tem-
perate zones) first fix their insinuating fibres in the crevices of
the rocks ; and as these die, and are again reproduced, a light
vegetable soil is deposited, which in time becomes of sufficient
depth to support grasses and other herbaceous plants : and at
length, in the course of ages, the desert rock becomes a ver-
dant meadow. The fruit of some tree is cast up by the waves,
or dropped by birds : thus forests are gradually produced, till
the island becomes fitted for the residence of man, who along
with him introduces his domestic animals : and thus the once
naked rock becomes a thriving colony. In the northern part
of the temperate zones, as we have before observed, the cryp-
togamic plants are the first that cover the stony crust of the
globe; the lichens and mosses, that display their foliage
beneath the snows, are succeeded by grasses and other pha-
nerogamous plants. This is the order of vegetation in the
northern and temperate zones ; but when we advance to the
torrid zone, and between the tropics, the progressive stages
are different. (Humboldt's Personal Na?Tative, vol. i. p. 262.)
We there find, it is true, whatever some travellers may have
asserted to the contrary, not only in the mountains, but also
in the humid and shady places, almost on a level with the
ocean, Funaria, Dicranum, and i?ryum ; and these genera
among their numerous species exhibit several which are com-
mon to Lapland, the Peak of Teneriffe, and the Blue Moun-
tains of Jamaica. Nevertheless, in general, it is not by mosses
and lichens that vegetation in countries near the tropics begins.
In the Canary Islands, as well as in Guiana, and on the rocky

Distribution of Plants. 527.

c6asts of Peru, the first vegetables that prepare the mould for
others are the succulent plants; the leaves of which, provided
with an infinite number of orifices and cutaneous vessels,
deprive the ambient air of the water which it holds in solu-
tion [see Gard, Mag., vol. viii. p. 234-.] : fixed in the crevices
of volcanic rocks, they form, as it were, the first layer of
vegetable earth with which the currents of lithoid lava are
clothed. Wherever these lavas are scorified, and where they
have a shining surface, as in the basaltic mounds to the north
of Lanzerota, the unfolding of vegetation is extremely slow,
and many ages may roll away before shrubs can take root.
It is only when lavas are covered with tufa and ashes, the vol-
canic islands lose that appearance of nudity which marks their
origin, and deck themselves with a brilliant vegetation.

In the Southern Pacific, the unceasing labours of the minute
zoophytes are continually raising the banks of coral above the
level of the sea : and here we see displayed the progressive
increase of vegetation, and the surprising manner in which, as
soon as the coral ridge emerges beyond the washing of the
spring tides, it becomes clothed with vegetables, and at length
adapted to the residence of man. The coral worms, which,
by their astonishing labours, raise up islands from the waves,
are of various shapes; the common form is that of a star.
They are furnished with arms 4 in. or 6 in. long, which they
are continually moving up and down, probably in search of
food. They can only proceed with their labours while the tide
washes over them, and cannot raise the reef beyond low water
mark ; but the fragments of rock, sand, coral, &c., adhere to
the rock, and form a solid mass with it, as high as the common
tides reach. That elevation surpassed, the future remnants,
being rarely covered, lose their adhesive property, and, remain-
ing in a loose state, form what is usually called a key upon
the top of the reef. The new bank is not long in being visited
by sea-birds; salt-loving plants take root upon it; and a soil
begins to be formed : a cocoa nut, or the drupe of a Panddnus
[screw pine] is thrown on shore ; land birds visit it *, and de-

* Disscvimation of Plants by Birds. — In 1824, Robert Hurnard, a Quaker
gentleman, and two of his sons, visited England, from the State of Dela-
ware, in North America, and brought with them seeds of some of the
trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants native to, or cultivated in, that State.
Mr. Hurnard and sons visited some friends at Bury St. Edmunds ; and,
while there, inspected the botanic garden of that town ; and shortly after-
wards, through the hands of their friend, and, I believe, relative, Mr. Samuel
Fennell, a subscriber to the garden, they imparted to it a portion of these
seeds. Amongst them was a packet, inscribed " Wildgoose beans. The
seeds from which the enclosed were raised were found in the stomach of
a wildgoose which was shot about 300 miles from land, two years since.'*
The beans were kidneybeans ; and, on being sown, developed plants, to

528 On the Disjjersion and

posit the seeds of shrubs and trees; every high tide, and,
still more, every gale, adds something to the bank ; the form
of an island is gradually assumed ; and last of all comes man,
to take possession. These various steps are distinctly marked
in an island situated on the north coast of New Holland,
Half-way Island is well advanced in the above progressive
state ; having been many years, probably some ages, above
the reach of the highest tides, or the wash of the surf in the
heaviest gales. " I [Captain Flinders] distinguished, how-
ever, in the rock which forms its basis, the sand, coral, and
shells formerly thrown up, in more or less perfect state of
cohesion. Small pieces of wood, pumice-stone, and other
extraneous bodies which chance had mixed with the cal-
careous substances when the cohesion began, were enclosed
in the rock, and in some cases were still separable from it
without much force. The upper part of the island is a mix-
ture of the same substances in a loose state, with a little vege-
table soil ; and is covered with the Casuarina, and a variety
of other trees and shrubs, which give food to the parroquets,
pigeons, and some other birds, to whose ancestors, it is pro-
bable, the island was originally indebted for this vegetation."
(Flinders's Survey of the Coast of New Holland.) From the
progress which this island has made, from natural causes, in
its vegetation, it is beyond a doubt that the winds and waves
are very efficient agents in spreading abroad the seeds of
plants (though, at the same time that we allow this, we must
not pass by unnoticed the length of time which the slow
advance of vegetation, when thus aided, requires), as has
certainly been the case with some species now spread over
the whole of Europe, but once entire strangers to its inhabit-
ants. Thus, the jErigeron canadensis (an instance which Lin-
naeus cites in confirmation of his theory,) was first introduced
into the gardens near Paris, from Canada; and then, the
seeds being carried by the winds, soon spread over all France,
Italy, Sicily, Belgium, and Germany : but this is a solitary

the best of ray recollection, without twining stems, and much resembling
Phaseolus vulgaris in some one of its variations. This fact shows that birds
may become the agents of a very diffusive dispersion of plants ; for,
although it must be at once admitted, that, under natural circumstances,
these particular kidneybeans would have been consumed by the digestive
powers of the goose, it is not less true that seeds of an indigestible tex-
ture, and those encased in stony coverings, as in stone fruit, and very
minute seeds, which, in some cases, are numerously embedded in the
copious pulp of certain berries, can and do pass through the bodies of ani-
mals without any diminution of their powers of germination. Very nume-
rous facts may be collected to prove this position, were not its truth already
go familiar to many, as to render a collection of proofs unnecessary. — J. D.

Distribution of Plants, 529

instance. In like manner, borne along by the currents, fruits
and seeds belonging to the West Indian islands are cast upon
the Hebrides and the coast of Norway, during storms from
the south-west, as cocoa nuts, gourds, the fruit of y^cacia
scandens, Piscidia Erythrina, and Anacardium occidentale.
But these examples, though affording a slight argument, are
far from proving that the whole vegetable world was thus
dispersed.

By our commercial relations with distant countries, we
have received many foreign productions : thus the peach,
nectarine, cherry, vine, and almost all our fruits, are exotic,
the greater part being original natives of Armenia and the
most central parts of Asia. The cherry, we are told by Pliny,
was first brought into Italy by Lucullus, after his victory over
Mithridates, from Pontus ; and, 120 years after, was known
in Britain. (Pliny, Nat, Hist.^ b. iv. c. 21.) The same author
also relates that quinces were brought originally from Crete,
and walnuts from Asia Minor. Even the different species of
grain, which constitute one of the chief sources of our wealth,
are original natives of central Asia. Bruce supposed that
Abyssinia was the native country of the oat, from their luxu-
riance and size in that country ; being equal in height to a
man, and the stalks near an inch in diameter. (Head's Life
of Bruce.)

I will now mention a second hypothesis, which has been
thought sufficient to account for the universal dispersion of
plants : that they originated from primitive centres situated in
different parts of the world, and embracing different species,
which, by continued progression, became blended, and no
longer peculiar to their original locality. But neither is this
theory unexceptionable. The causes which influence the dis-
tribution of plants are so complicated, that it is difficult to
offer a probable opinion upon the subject. We often find in
most distant countries similar species, whilst the floras of
adjoining provinces are frequently altogether dissimilar. It
is obvious that their position depends upon the peculiar nature
of the soil : thus, wherever salt marshes are found, alkaline
plants, the chenopodiums, salsolas, atriplexes, salicornias, &c.,
are almost certain to occur. Mountains exercise great influ-
ence over the distribution of vegetables : we find the same, or
similar, productions upon mountains of the same geological
structure, though separated by half the globe. By this as-
sertion, I, of course, must be understood to mean at the
same (or nearly so) altitude above the level of the sea ; or,
perhaps, more correctly, below the snow line, combined with
climate and atmospheric temperature. Thus, upon the chain

Vol. v. — No. 28. mm

530 0?i the Dispersion and

of the Andes, in South America, we find, at a certain height,
vegetables corresponding to the natives of the temperate and
even the frigid zones. But there is a peculiar circumstance
respecting these plants which we must not overlook. It is a
remarkable fact, that though Humboldt found upon the above-
mentioned mountains individuals resembling others native to
the temperate zones, yet, though in general the same, they were
almost in every case specifically different. Thus they possess,
says Humboldt, certainly, plantains, valerians, arenarias, ranun-
culuses, medlars, oaks, and pines, which, from their physio-
logy, we might confound with those of Europe ; but they are
all perfectly distinct. The antarctic birch (^etula antarctica)
resembles, but is not identically the same with, the Betula,
nana of northern regions. Upon this subject we shall speak
more fully when v>^e come to treat of the geography of plants.
It has been asserted by Mr. Brown to be generally true, that
the native country of a genus is where the greatest number
of its species is found. This, though correct in some pecu-
liar cases, can hardly be allowed to hold universally. For
instance, by far the greatest number of our heaths (^ricae) are
met with near the Cape of Good Hope ; yet the ling ( Calluna
vulgaris), and the ^rica Tetralix and cinerea of our moors,
cannot surely be denied as indigenous to the north of Eu-
rope. We are ready to admit the migration of plants to a
certain extent, and from various causes : thus, the floras of
islands generally exemplify this fact. * The different groups
seated in the great Southern Ocean, which lies between Ame-
rica and Eastern Asia, serve as instances in point : the eastern-
most islands contain more plants of American families or
species ; and the western, of those tribes peculiar to the Indian
islands : placed in the neighbourhood of two continents, they
comprise the vegetation of both. Malta and Sicily have plants
which belong to Europe, and others of an African stock. The
vegetation of the Cape de Verd Islands is intermediate between
the floras of the Canary Islands and of the African coast.
{Phys, Geography, part ii. p. 49.) On the contrary to this,
there are some spots producing species quite peculiar: thus,

* " On the shores of the Marianne Islands, fruits and seeds of many
trees were observed ; the greater part not indigenous, but wafted from
remote stations by the sea. The greater number of these seeds belong to
the arborescent or the climbing leguminous plants, which grow plentifully
every where between the tropics. Those of the Guilandina Bonduc are
very common among them ; but we only saw the plant itself once, on one
of the Leeward Islands.'* (Translation, in part ii. of Hooker's Botanical
Mncellany^ of Chamisso's notices respecting the botany of certain coun-
tries visited by the Russian voyage of discovery under the command of
Captain Kotzebue.) — J. D.

Distribution of Plants. 531

in Kerguelen Island, which was visited by Captain Cook, the
number of species was found not to exceed sixteen or eighteen,
and these were all considered quite sui generis [of peculiar
kind]. On inland stations, we sometimes find plants confined
to a certain district, and not extending beyond its limits.
Such is the far-famed and ancient Cedar of Lebanon, the
glory of the forest,

" Towering unknown beyond its native rocks."
The idea that plants are, or were ever, confined to one
locality, has been by none more strongly opposed than by our
immortal naturalist, John Ray. He says, in his essay upon
the number of plants, which is well worthy of perusal, arguing
against the possibility of any species being lost (Ray's Letters^
p. 350.) : — " Though some species should be destroyed, yet
it is impossible, morally, that any man should be sure thereof.
First, I say that it is highly improbable ; because that I can
hardly persuade myself that there is any one local species of
plants in the world : I mean, so proper and peculiar to one
individual place as not to be found elsewhere. I am induced
so to think, because I have not observed in England any one
plant so proper to one place, but that I have found the same
either beyond sea, or, at least, in several places of this island :
and I doubt not but whatever grows naturally here may be
found in divers places, of the same latitude or temper, beyond
the seas. I am not ignorant that herbalists make sundry
proper and particular to some one place : as, for example, the
balsam to Judea, &c. ; but from these I must crave leave to
dissent, till they have more than any negative argument to
prove what they affirm. Yet, supposing there be such local
plants (unless you place them in islands that shall be wholly
overwhelmed and swallowed up by the sea), though they were
at present extirpated by the hand of man, or any accident,
yet the seed, or at least the seminal tinctures, remaining in
their original and native soil, w^hen the present obstruction is
removed the earth will be apt to put forth the same plant
again : so that, if balsam were at first a native of Judea, and
not imported from abroad ; and though it were not trans-
lated into Egypt, or elsewhere, I am persuaded the natural
earth would have again produced it, unless the temper of it
were much altered by some accidental or supernatural cause."
The arguments here used by Ray depend upon his own per-
sonal observation, and his disbelief in the existence of any
local plant ; but in the present extended state of our botanical
and geographical knowledge, we can no longer admit his
assertion to be true. However, as Ray justly observes, we
cannot be absolutely certain that any local plant does exist, until

M M 2

3 ^^'-

On the Formation of the Dead Sea,

we have travelled over and investigated the whole world, which,
even at the present day, is far from having been performed.
Yet, as far as our information extends, and arguing from what
we certainly know of the world of Flora, the existence of local
plants, far from being impossible, is, humanly speaking, almost
positively determined. Whether or not any plants formerly
known are now lost and destroyed, it is not my intention
either to confirm or refute. Yet many which are mentioned
in the writings of the Greek or Roman naturalists are not
identified with any at present described. But we can form no
positive opinion from this, since we are well aware of their
imperfect and superficial mode of examination, and how very
little reliance can be placed on their authority in doubtful cases.
And now, in conclusion, I shall be expected to state what
hypothesis appears to me the most rational, and to account
most satisfactorily for the universal distribution of plants.
I cannot, as I have before stated, agree with the opinion
of Linnaeus, who supposes them to have emigrated from one
original locality ; as this theory, however probable it might
appear at the time of its promulgation, is altogether repug-
nant to our knowledge of nature, and the present state of the
science. Nor, in the second place, can I embrace the opi-
nion of those who suppose that vegetation migrated from pri-
mitive centres situate in various parts of the world, and
containing plants exclusively belonging to them. It appears
to me that the dispersion of plants depends upon several
causes, influenced not only by temperature and climate, but
in a still greater degree by the composition of the soil, and
geological structure of the country ; in fine, that vegetation is
the joint produce of soil, temperature, and particular compo-
sition of the surface of the earth.

I am, Sir, yours, &c.
Jtichmond^ Yorkshire, Dec, 3. 1830. J. E. L.

Art. VIII. Remarks on the Formation of the Dead Sea, and the
surrounding District. By J. W. Draper, Esq., and W. M.
HiGGiNs, Esq. F.G.S.

From the authority of Scripture (Genesis, xiv. 3.)» and
traditional evidence, no one will deny that the present Dead
Sea was once the well-watered and fertile Plain of Jordan,
in which Lot resided when the five cities were overwhelmed ;
and that this lake had no existence previously to that cata-
strophe. We have also evidence from the ancient lavas,
pumice, and volcanic productions, that the eruption of a vol-

arid the smroundi?ig District. .53.3

cano, situated to the south-east of the lake, was the immediate
cause of this scourge ; but it is now either extinct, or in the
phase of prolonged intermittence.

The wells of naphtha, and the hills of sulphur, are spoken
of by every traveller ; and, in some places, the soil is so impreg-
nated with these inflammable substances, that it only requires
the application of a burning torch to set it on fire. In various
parts of the Holy Land, lava has been employed in the con-
struction of roads. Pumice, obsidian, and ashes are scattered
over the face of the country ; and craters have been discovered
in various parts, among rocks of porphyry and syenite ; and it
appears probable that the igneous nature of the district, the
native country of the fire-worshippers, had some effect in
forming the religious opinions of the idolaters who chose it
for their residence.

Dr. Daubeny has given a very interesting account of this
district, in his work on volcanoes; but in some particulars we
differ from him as to the origin of the Dead Sea.

" I should suppose," says the doctor, " that the same vol-
cano which destroyed the cities of the plain threw out, at the
same time, a current of lava sufficiently considerable to stop
the course of the Jordan ; the waters of which, unable to
overcome the barrier, accumulated in the plain Siddim, until
they converted it into the present lake." The natural ter-
mination of the river was thus altered ; its estuary, which he
supposes to have before opened into the Elanitic branch of
the Red Sea by Akaba, was entirely destroyed; and the waters
which it brought down from the mountains of Antilibanus
were dissipated by evaporation from the Dead Sea, which is
a mere accumulation of them : its extent being determined by
the temperature of the air, which induces evaporation from its
surface in a direct proportion to the quantity brought into
that sea by the Jordan and other streams.

Although we admit, in its general outline, the geological
picture which Dr. Daubeny has drawn of the Holy Land
before the catastrophe which destroyed the cities of the plain,
there is one feature in which he is, perhaps, misled ; and that
is, in assigning to the Jordan a southerly direction. He
speaks of a great longitudinal valley, discovered by Burck-
hardt, as the channel through which its waters were once
discharged. But the probability is, we think, that this river
was either lost before it reached Akaba, or it turned to the
west after passing through the Vale of Siddim, and fell into
the Mediterranean Sea. For we cannot imagine that so small
a river as the Jordan, fed by so few auxiliary streams, could
find its way through the broad gorges [outlets] of El Araba and

n iM 3

534 Formation of the Dead Sea,

El Ghor (where the temperature is often 100° in the shade),
without being evaporated before it could run a course of two
hundred miles.

But Dr. Daubeny, as we have already stated, imagines the
Dead Sea to be an accumulation of the waters brought into
the Vale of Siddim by the Jordan; yet it is not easy to imagine
how this can be its origin. The streamlet of Puy de la Vache
may produce the Lake of Aidat; but the sun which shines on
Auvergne is cold in comparison with that which shines on the
asphaltite lake. It is far more probable that the earth on
which the devoted cities stood sunk inwards at the time of
their destruction, and that the lake was then immediately
formed, as in the case of Euphemia.

" The Dead Sea," says Maundrell, " is clear, salt in the
highest degree, bitter and nauseous.'* Now, these properties
are entirely owing to the muriates of lime and magnesia which
exist in it. But these salts do not exist in the Jordan ; and,
therefore, they must have been added to the waters of Jordan
after they formed this lake (if, indeed, the lake were formed as
Dr. Daubeny supposes), as they do not exist in the Jordan.
Dr. Daubeny gives two analyses, but they both militate against
his opinion ; for the river contains more of the salts of potash
than the sea. These salts are derived from the decomposition
of the feldspathic rocks to the north of Jericho ; and although
it may be supposed that this source is unequal to the pro-
duction of a quantity that could be noticed in the Dead Sea,
this objection vanishes when we recollect that our own country
is dependent on a similar decomposition of the rocks in north-
ern India, for the production of nitrate of potash, or saltpetre,
so extensively used in the manufacture of gunpowder.

We may here remark that all the analyses of the waters of
the Dead Sea, which we have seen, are decidedly erroneous ;
and that by Hermstaedt, which Dr. Daubeny prefers, appears
to us the worst : for we cannot understand how sulphate of
soda and muriate of lime can exist together in the same
liquid. We have recently had an opportunity of analysing
some specimens of JPi^cus vesiculosus and Crithmum mariti-
mum which were gathered on the shores of the Dead Sea,
and found them to contain iodine in much the same quantity
as in similar plants growing on the coast of Kent : and this
leads us to suspect that an accurate analysis would discover
tUe presence of hydriodate of soda in that sea.

535

REVIEWS,

Art. I. Catalogue of Works on Natural History, lately publishedj
ivith some Notice of those considered the most interesting to British
Naturalists.

GouLl), John, A.L.S. : The Birds of Europe : dedicated, by
permission, to the President and Council of the Zoological
Society of London. Part I. 20 plates ; imperial folio.
21. 105. plain; 31, 3s. coloured.

Mr. Gould already ranks high, and most deservedly so,
with the public, as well as among ornithologists, for his splen-
did Illustratio7is of the Birds from the Himalaya Mountains,
which work was completed at the beginning of the present
year, in a manner equally creditable to himself and satisfac-
tory to his numerous patrons. Almost all the copies of this
beautiful work that were printed were subscribed for.

The first part of his new work, now before us, is, like the
former one, admirably executed, and well calculated to add
materially, and we hope also substantially, to his future repu-
tation. With a zeal and perseverance which few obstacles
can retard, the author unites within his own resources all the
advantages that indefatigable industry and a high order of
pictorial talent can supply.

Next to the birds of our own country, those of the Euro-
pean continent are most worthy the study and regard of every
British ornithologist; since, with the exception of occasional
visits, " few and far between," by stragglers from America,
most of the additions to our British catalogue are furnished
from the other countries of Europe, more than one third of
the birds of which have never yet been taken on our island.

But it has frequently been matter of remark, and even of
censure, that the productions of distant countries have received
a much larger share of attention than those objects by which
we are more immediately surrounded ; and it is certainly
true, that, while numerous and costly illustrations have made
us acquainted with the ornithology of all the other parts of
the world, the birds of Europe, in which we are, or ought to
be, most interested, have remained, by comparison at least,
neglected, unfigured, and in proportion unknown.

We are not aware of any work which includes figures of

M M 4

5S6 Birds of Europe.

all the birds of Europe, if we except Werner's Illustrations of
M. Temminck\ Manuel d'Ornithologie. This work, which is
published in 8vo, gives but one figure of each species. Mr.
Gould's work is imperial folio, uniform in size with the work
on the Himalayan birds, and represents, in various figures, the
peculiarities of plumage induced by age, sex, or season; and
a page of letterpress, of equal size, placed opposite each plate,
at once sufficiently scientific and popular, supplies in descrip-
tion the most interesting details of the history of each species.

The work is to be published quarterly. The first part
contains twenty plates, of which fifteen are devoted to the
birds of England, and five to those of the European continent ;
representing together thirty-five figures of birds, many of
them of their natural size, which, for accuracy of outline,
natural colouring, and appropriate landscape, are equal, if not
superior, to any other ornithological production in Europe.

The various subjects, selected with judgment, are drawn on
stone by Mrs. Gould, and rival the best of those in the Hima-
layan w^ork * ; while additional and most appropriate land-
scape, with all its varied accessories of rocks, water, trees, and
herbage, is delineated with the boldness, truth, and charac-
ter of highly finished chalk drawings. The whole of the
plates are printed by Hullmandel, and coloured by Bayfield.
No better cooperators in their departments could have been
secured or selected.

Among the various plates it is difficult to particularise,
where all are excellent. From the genus Falco two examples
have been chosen. Of the lesser kestrel (F. /innunculoides
Natter), so closely allied to our well known common kestrel
or windhover (F. Tinnunculus Linn.\ the attitude is natural,
and the resemblance exact ; and the fine dark slate-colour of
the adult male of Falco riafipes Dechstein, which forms the
subject of the second plate, is well contrasted with the bright
silvery bark of the beech tree, and the general rufous tinge of
the female, with which he is grouped. The brilliant plumage
of the kingfisher, the mazy zigzag markings of the more
sober-coloured wryneck, and the magpie peering out from his
leafy oak, are alike true to nature; nor are the various war-
blers, the red-legged partridges, the rail, the grebes, or the
golden eyes, less worthy of particular notice. The artist and
those associated in the undertaking appear equally qualified
to depict the various inhabitants of the air, the trees, the land,
the marsh, or the water ; and much of that which constitutes
real excellence will be found in this work, which we have
examined with pleasure, and recommend with sincerity.

* See p. 190. of the current volume of this Magazine. — J- ^^

Popidar Zoology, 537

Anon, : Popular Zoology ; comprising Memoirs and Anec-
dotes of the Quadrupeds, Birds, and Reptiles in the
Zoological Society's Menagerie ; with Figures of the more
important and interesting. 12mo, 400 pages. London,
1832. 75. 6d. in cloth.

In this conveniently sized manual, the woodcuts, we
believe, exceed 100; there being about 15 of the buildings
and views in the gardens, and about 92 figures of as many
animals : the total number of animals described in the volume
is still greater. The woodcuts of the animals, although not
faultlessly, are respectably, executed. The descriptions consist
of statements of the distinguishing points of difference between
one species of animal and another, and therefore of incidental
notices of structure ; but chiefly, and more abundantly, of
narratives, compiled from authors of credit, of the native
habits, manners, office in the plan of Providence, and
instincts of the respective animals. The book is an amusing
and instructive, and consequently a useful, one ; but the state
of science of this day might have produced a better. The
animals described are not made to succeed each other in suffi-
cient accordance to their resemblances in form and structure;
and as the index is alphabetic, no arrangement in the work'
itself could have been less convenient than the present one, an
alphabetic index being an extricating clue to every difficulty.
For a second edition, the compiler will do well to keep his
eye on system ; and we conceive the value of such a work
might be increased a thousand-fold, and not rendered at all
puzzling, repulsive, unpopular, and thereby unsaleable, were
woodcuts, illustrative of the structure of the organs most sub-
servient and ministrant to the necessities and habits of par-
ticular animals, and, indeed, of animals generally, introduced,
either in addition to, or in preference to, figures of their out-
line and contour. At this day, surely, a figure of an elephant
is less desirable than sectional figures of its trunk, and of the
lobulate divisions of its foot, &c. In the feline race, too,
pictures of the lion, tiger, &c., are needless, and almost use-
less : not so would be cuts exhibitive of their prehensive
capacity of talon, of jaw, and power of dental execution. In
the beaver, let the peculiarities of the incisor teeth, and the
extraordinary structure of the tail, be especially illustrated :
and so of some peculiarity of structure in every species of
animal whose habits of life are in the least peculiar. Among
the bills, talons, legs, wings, &c., of birds, much of this kind'
of illustration would prove delightfully assistant to the memory,
in preserving a recollection of the habits and manners of the
various species or genera to which these peculiarities of struc-'
^nre might beloniJC- — J- D.

538

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

Art. I. Natural History in the English Counties.
SOMERSETSHIRE.

The Qornu Arnmbnis occurs in the West of England, and was
once there the Stibject of a Jiagrant Sujpey'stition, — Sir, The fol-
lowing extract, which shows the opinion of our forefathers on
that beautiful fossil, the Cornu Ammonia, will perhaps interest
some of our readers, I am, Sir, yours, &c. — J, A. H, Ox-
ford, Jail. 21. 1832.

" Upon the same river Avon, which is the boundary here
between this county (Somerset) and Gloucestershire, on the
western bank of it, is Cainsham, so named from Keina, a de-
vout British virgin, whom many of the last age, through an
over-credulous temper, believed to have changed serpents
into stones, because they find sometimes in quarries some such
little miracles of sporting nature. And I have seen a stone
brought from thence, winded round like a serpent, the head
whereof, though but imperfect, jutted out in the circumference,
and the end of the tail was in the centre. But most of them
want the head." [Camden's Britannia, edited by Edmund
Gibson, 1695.

HAMPSHIRE.

Gigantic Specimen of Feziza coccinea Scopoli. — Sir, I send
you a sketch of a splendid specimen ofPeziza coccinea, gathered
a few days since [March 13. 1832] near Alton, in Hampshire.
It answers the description of Peziza coccinea in Withering*s
Botanical Arrangement more nearly than any other, and may
perhaps be a variety of it ; at least, as I know no better, I call
it Peziza coccinea ; but its dimensions are much beyond the
usual size, being 8J in. in circumference. The stem and root,
too, are of unwonted length. The smaller plant, of which a
part only is seen in the drawing, is of itself larger than we
generally find the JPeziza coccinea, although so far below its
companion in size. It grows from the same nervelike stem
or root ; for it is difficult to say where the stem ends and the
root begins. The colour of the cup is, without, whitish, tinged
with pink and buff; and, within, rich scarlet. It is a magni-
ficent-looking thing, and more like the luxuriant productions
of tropical countries than the offspring of our own " chill
clime and weeping skies."

As a general thing, these same scarlet pezizas have been
unusually fine this season, and most abundant from early in

Natural History in the English Counties, 539

January down to the present time. The wet mild winter has
doubtless been congenial to them ; and this specimen was
favourably situated in a sheltered bank, deeply covered with
leaves, and guarded by bushes; a rampart which effectually
concealed it from passers by, though growing by the side of
a public road, but could not screen it from the observation of
the botanist intent to discover the earliest gems of spring.
This plant has often been called a fairy goblet : our specimen
might rather be deemed a fairy bath. — S. W, fVyards, near
Alton, March 13. 1832.

We have judged it needless to engrave our correspondent's
sketch, as the Peziza coccinea, so strikingly beautiful in colour,
is very well known, and the above remarks sufficiently portray
the magnitude of the specimen : should that specimen have
been but a large one of Peziza coccinea ; and if of any other
species, we doubt if the sketch supplies better marks of specific
distinction than the above description does. It may be re-
marked, that all parts of the specimen seemed proportionately
large. — J. D,

KENT.

The Mnseiim of Natural History at Canterbury. — Sir,
Happening lately, in my travels, to be passing through Can-
terbury, 1 naturally felt a desire to pay a visit to the museum
of the Philosophical and Literary Institution of that city. The
day of the week was Thursday, which I was informed was not
a public day. (Ought not all days to be public, except, of
course, the Christian sabbath, and perhaps one other day of
the remaining six appropriated to the necessary cleaning of the
room, arranging of subjects, &c. &c. ?) I found, however, not
the slightest difficulty in gaining admittance, being at once
referred to the exhibitor, Mr. Davey, who most readily waited
on me, and from whom, I am bound to say, I received every
polite attention. As my time was short, I thought it prefer-
able, after walking round the room, and taking a very cursory
view of its general contents, to devote the short space I had to
spare, to one particular department. That department was
the British insects ; and it is to one order only of these that
my present remarks shall be almost exclusively confined. I
think you will agree with me, that provincial museums, like
the one in question, ought to be rich in the productions of
their own immediate neighbourhoods. Now, as the county of
Kent is perhaps, of all the English counties, the very paradise,
as it were, of entomology, affording very many rare species ;
and, moreover, from its vicinity to London, having been well
investigated by industrious and able collectors, one might

540 Natural History in the English Counties : —

have expected to find in the Canterbury museum, to say the
least, a good collection of British insects. In this respect,
however, I was much disappointed. In the first place, the
British and foreign insects are deposited in one and the same
case ; a practice highly objectionable. Next, the collection,
though it contains some rarities, is by no means extensive,
being deficient even in some of the local species of the county ;
nor are the specimens, in very many instances, well preserved.
But what I have most to complain of is, that the very worst
specimens in the whole collection are those of the commonest
insects ; specimens ill set, or rather not set at all, and such as
could not have been fair and good when first deposited in the
cabinet. It is perfectly allowable, I am aw^are, to admit worn
and mutilated specimens of rare insects; because no better,
perhaps, can be procured ; and a bad specimen is better than
none ; but to illustrate the commonest species by examples
miserably preserved in the first instance, is as intolerable as
indifferent poetry, which, we are told,

" Non homines, non Di, non concessere columnae."
" Neither gods, nor men, nor posts, can bear."

Perhaps the collection is yet in its infancy, and therefore
ought not to be too severely criticised ; and perhaps there may
be no gentleman connected with the institution, whose attention
is particularly turned to entomology. If this be so, I would
strongly recommend the directors at once to discard full half
of the British Lepidoptera ; and either to employ some com-
petent collector one day in each of the months of May, June,
July, and August, of the ensuing summer, for the purpose of
procuring fresh specimens in the room of those rejected ; or
else (which might be the readiest plan) to expend a few shil-
lings with Mr. Le Plastrier of Dover, who preserves his
insects in the most perfect condition, and disposes of them at
very moderate prices, and who, in a case like the present, from
his love for the study, I have no doubt would be ready to deal
on the most hberal terms. Perhaps I shall be told, in answer,
that many of the insects have been presented to the museum, and
therefore it would be ungracious to discard them. But could
any gentleman, I would ask, reasonably take offence at finding
far better specimens of particular insects substituted in the
room of his own less perfect contributions? If so, such
contributions must be considered only in the light of en-
cumbrances ; just like shabby articles of perishable furniture
injudiciously left as heir-looms in a family, which the possessor,
of course, wishes might belong to any one rather than himself.
I observed, also, that, in some instances, the insects were not
distinguished by their names ; and this, too, in cases where

Kent. 541

there could be no difficulty or doubt in correctly applying the
names ; for example, there were Nemeobius Lucina, and
Melitae'« Dictynn^', and Cinxi^, all placed (and properly
enough) in juxtaposition, but without any distinctive separation
to denote them as being three different species; so that a per-
son litde conversant with insects, on viewing the collection,
might naturally suppose them to be the different sexes, or
varieties, of one and the same species. Among other less
common Papilionidae, I observed Apatur« Tri^, Lycae'n<2 dis-
par, and Pamphik Paniscus ; and, adjoining to Papilio Ma-
chaow, one example of Podaliriu5 (scarce swallow-tailed)
which I was informed had been presented to the museum as a
native specimen. If such it be (which, however, I very much
doubt), the date and place of its capture ought to be parti-
cularly noted. I know that there are grave and reverend
authorities for inserting this fine insect in the list of British
species ; but, unfortunately, when these come to be sifted and
investigated, their authenticity always appears to be involved
in not a little doubt and uncertainty. I apprehend that there
is hardly to be found at present, in any cabinet, a single well-
authenticated native specimen of PapiIio Podalirius; and that
its existence as a British insect is generally disbelieved by the
most competent judges. The collection of Phalae'nidae in the
Canterbury museum is much less extensive than that of the
Papilionidae ; and many of the common species are in equally
bad preservation. I would entreat the directors to throw
aside, among others, their wretched specimens of magpie
moths and garden tigers, along with those of Vaneh>sa Atalantar,
and Cynthia cardui, &c. &c., which are a disgrace to any
cabinet. It strikes me as being bad policy to exhibit such
examples, because they have a tendency to deter people from
contributing to the collection ; while a display of specimens in
good condition, and well kept, would have the opposite effect
of inducing them to contribute. Nobody cares to add to a
bad heap ; but every one would feel a pride in adding to that
which is already good. Such, at least, are my own feelings,
and, if I mistake not, those of many others. Should these
remarks appear severe, I can assure those whom they may
concern, that they have not been offered in a bad spirit ; so far
from it, that, if I had not at heart the welfare of such institu-
tions, I should not have been at the trouble to point out the
evils, and their remedies, as I have now done.

Before I conclude, I have a word or two to offer on the
corresponding portion of the Synopsis of the Museum, p. 88.
to 91. This appears to be meagre, and sometimes incor-
rect, and the articles brought most prominently into notice not

542 Natural History in the English Counties : —

always judiciously selected. Thus, e. g., a single glance at the
British catalogue of Papilionidae will show the following pas-
sage to be incorrect: — "The species," says the writer of the
Synopsis, "of the other families" [i. e. all except the E'quites
Achivi and Trojiini of Linnaeus], "being many of them Eu-
ropean, and their history and manners better known, have
derived their names chiejiy from the 'plaiits upon "which the cater-
pillars feed." Fifteen or sixteen only, out of a list of about
sixty-four well ascertained British species, are so named.
Again, under the head of Pontia brassicae, we read, " It is
this, and the three species, rapae, napi, and sinapis, which, in
their larva state, commit such devastation in our gardens."
Leucophasia sinapis, which is far from being an abundant
species, is almost exclusively confined to woods, seldom stray-
ing far from the spot where it was bred : its caterpillar, I will
venture to say, commits no injury on our gardens. In the
same page (89.), Colias Edusa is stated to " occur in England
once in three years, in some seasons only locally, in others, in
the greatest profusion in every part of the country," Its plenti-
ful occurrence is not, as here stated, once in three years, but
at indeterminate periods, which, accordingly, we cannot calcu-
late ; as we are told immediately after : — " Entomologists are
at a loss to account for the periodical, but irregidar, appear-
ance of this and some other species," &c. Nor is it by any
means correct, to say that in other seasons it occurs in the
greatest profusion in every part of the country. As far as my
observation goes, it is chiefly in maritime counties that it
occurs in much abundance. In such only have I ever seen
it plentiful ; and I can vouch for it, that there are many mid-
land couaties, with which I am well acquainted, in which I
have scarcely ever seen a single specimen during more than
thirty years' experience. iSphin^ Alropo5, we are very truly
told, " is the largest ... of the British species of this genus,
although in Egypt and India it attaiiis double the size" This
must, at any rate, be a thumper, though I am not prepared to
deny the truth of the statement. Before a second edition of
the Synopsis is published, I hope this portion of it, at least, will
receive great alteration and improvement.

Though I promised to confine my remarks almost entirely
to the British Lepidoptera, I cannot conclude this notice with-
out expressing my unqualified admiration of the collection of
vegetable skeletons, exhibiting the nerves and veins of the
leaves and seed-vessels, &c,, of plants. These, we are in-
formed, were principally executed by Mr. Crow: they are
unquestionably the most beautiful and perfect things of their
kind I ever beheld ; so much so, indeed, that it would be worth

Essex. 54-3

while to employ the same ingenious operator to extend the
collection by the addition of other interesting specimens pre-
pared in the same exquisite style. Apologising for the length
of this notice, which has far exceeded my original intention,
I remain, yours, — Viator. From the King's Highway, Sept,
20. 1831.

Lathrcta Squamdria L., Dentdria hulbifera L., and other
Parities, are to be met with about Tunbridge Wells. The
Dentaria bulbifera is very abundant there. — Wm. Christy^
jim. May, 1832.

ESSEX.

Dagcnham Breach. — Sir, A great fondness for angling has
led me to many celebrated places for practising the art, round
the metropolis ; and there is none frequented by the " lovers
of the angle," as old Izaak quaintly calls the fraternity, of a
more interesting character, as respects its natural history, than
Dagenham Breach, near Barking, in Essex. It is well known
that this fine piece of water was occasioned by a disruption of
the banks of the Thames, in the year 1705 or 1708; an in-
teresting account of which is given by Derham, in the Philo-
sophical Transactions for one of those years. Although scarcely
sensible to the taste, the water contains a considerable quantity
of muriate of soda, or common salt ; in many places it is ex-
tremely deep, and abounds with fish. Among those most
commonly caught are pike (£^sox Zucius L.), perch (Perca
fluviatilis i.), bream (Cyprinus Brdma L.), roach (Cyprinus
rutilus L.), rud (Cyprinus OWfus L.), and not so frequently
carp (Cyprinus Carpio L,.). Eels (Murae'na^nguilla L.) are
also taken in considerable quantities. These fish, I am aware,
are all sufficiently common in most large pieces of water; but
there is one which, the keeper assured me, is caught there, in
small numbers, every year, in the nets, that pleased and sur-
prised me to hear of, the anchovy (Clupea Encrasicolus i>.).
He said they usually caught about a dozen every year. Never
having heard of this fish being found in fresh, or nearly fresh,
water before, although Pennant, in his British Zoology, says
they are taken in the estuary of the Dee, I am disposed to
think that the keeper has mistaken some other fish for the
anchovy ; but what other, it is difficult to guess. Being curious
to know if the anchovy is found in any freshwater lakes or
rivers, I beg an answer from some of your ichthyological
readers.

Sea. Fish in Dagenham Breach. Some years since, Mr.
Fry, the present proprietor of Dagenham Breach, made an
attempt to stock it with sea-fish, and some hundreds of small

54<4 Natural Histoty in the English Counties : —

cod (Gadus Meihita L.) and other fisli were put in. That
they should not live, was probable enough ; but, what is very
singular (I speak on the keeper's authority), from the time of
their bein^ put in, to the present, not one has been seen, either
alive or dead. It has been conjectured that they died, and
the eels, and other fish of prey, devoured them : but that the
eels, voracious as they are, should not havfe spared one, to tell
the tale of their destruction, is bevohd the bounds of proba-
bilitv * '-^ ^^- ^^^''''- ^ ''' '?2Cifi>nQl9a ismirmnK 'd ? : . -y^ ^.^

The Bearded Titmouse' \Pdrus%Wrmiaisf 'inhabits Ddgen^
ham Breach, Dagenham is also interesting from a rare and
beautiful bird which annually frequents it^ On the sides of
the lake grows, with a luxuriance not often seen, that elegant
plant, the common reed (^rundo Phragmites L.) ; and, about
November and December, may be seen feeding on the seeds
of this plant the beautiful bearded titmouse (Parus biarmicus),
or red pheasant, as they there call it. — O. Feb. 1832.

The bearded titmouse is not rare in the marshes oF Erith,
in Kent, as well; as appears by the following remark in Knapp's
Grdmi7ia Britannica, where it occurs incidentally, in the
description of the common reed (y^rundo Phragmites L.).
"The panicles of the ^rundo Phragmites continue through
the winter; and in the marshes of Erith, in Kent, are resorted
to in that season by that very rare bird, Parus barbatus
\_Brissoni Parus biarmicus Gmelin'], to seek for in them either
the minute seeds they may contain, or the insects that have
sought an asylum there." — J. D, i*^-!

NORFOLK.

Origin of the Crag Stratum of Not folk. — Sir, From the
attention I have paid to the subject, 1 have reason to believe
that the crag stratum of Norfork is the result of an ancient
estuary, the existence of which dates prior to the deluge
of the Scriptures. It has been traced northward of Norwich,
in the parishes of Wroxham, Belaugh, Horstead, Marsham,
Aylsham, &c., to Cromer ; and westward of Cromer at Wey-
bourne. I conceive, that if two parallel lines were described
southward of the two last-mentioned places, with a little
inclination to the east, a tolerably correct idea would be had
of the extent of this estuary. After an attentive enquiry, 1
have never been able to ascertain that regular beds of crag
exist beyond these limits : on the contrary, eastward of this
tract, ligneous and mammalian remains have been found in
abundance; indicating that it was once dry land. The vestiges
of this estuary are precisely the results we witness of the
action of the sea upon our present shores ; as, in addition to

Cambridgeshire, 545

the successive layers of sand, clay, shells, and other rejecta-
menta incident to a sea beach, we find, where its bed was
chalk, the surface covered with loose flints ; in some places,
the chalk is perforated, by the action of the water on small
pebbles, to the depth of several inches. The principal fact
to which I would particularly direct the attention of your zoolo-
gical readers is, that, in a pit near Postwick Church, the upper
surface of the chalk, in its whole extent (about thirty yards),
is perforated by an animal belonging to a genus of the family
Tubicolae {Jig. 100.); but which, as far as I have at present been
jQQ able to ascertain, is undescribed. That

an animal of the same nature still
exists in the present seas is certain,
as there is scarce a specimen of the
Septaria dredged up off Harwich, for
making Roman cement, but exhibits
traces of its boring powers. I have
also a specimen of oolite excavated
by Pholades, the exterior surface of
which is closely perforated in the same
way. If any of your intelligent cor-
respondents can point out the genus and species of the animal
to which these perforations can be referred, I shall feel greatly
obliged. The subject will be fully entered into in my forth-
coming sketch of the Geology of Norfolk ; and, without the
information here sought, it would necessarily be incomplete.
I am, Sir, yours, &c. — Samuel Woodward, NormcJi, Jan, 16.
1832.

CAMBRIDGESHIRE.

Collectors and Collections in Natural History in the University y Toivn^ and
County of Cambridge. — Sir, I send you a list of such collections of natural
history as I at present recollect in this neighbourhood, and will endeavour
to increase it for you by further enquiry. The four collections belonging
to the university are unfortunately little accessible even to the members of
the university, and still less so to the public at large. These are, in fact, of
no real utility, except to the professors themselves ; and, were it not for
the prospect of better days, in which the force of public opinion will at
length compel the university to provide some better establishment for her
museums, it would really be quite disheartening to go on labouring day by
day in the accumulation and arrangement of specimens which are destined
to remain concealed, and perhaps doomed to rot, without one particle of
benefit being derived from their existence. However, there is at length
some hope of our obtaining museums which will be placed on as liberal a
footing as our public library.

f Zoology and comparative anatomy. Rev. Professor Clark.
Four university J Geology, Rev. Professor Sedgwick,
collections 1 Mineralogy, Rev. Professor Whewell.
t Botany, Rev. Professor Henslow.

' Vol. v. — No. 28. n n

54-6 Natural History in the English Counties: —

General natural history (containing a good collection of British birds, &c.).

Philosophical Society.
British birds, Rev. Dr. Thackeray, Provost of King's.
British birds. Rev. F. Henson, Tutor of Sidney.
British insects and plants. Rev. L. P. Garnons, Fellow of Sidney.
British plants, Rev. H. Kirby, Fellow of Clare Hall.
British zoology and botany. Rev. L. Jenyns, Swaffham-Bulbeck.
British insects and plants. Rev. Dr. Jermyn, SwafFham-Prior.
Mineralogy, Rev. H. Coddington, Fellow of Trinity.
Geology (a curious and extensive collection, from the diluvium in the

neighbourhood), Rev. J. Plumptree, Great Gransden.
Shells and eggs, Rev. Dr. Lamb, Master of Corpus.
Mineralogy, Dr. Ingle, Fellow of Peterhouse.
British plants. Dr. F. Thackeray, Cambridge.
Mineralogy, Rev. T. Turnbull, Fellow of Caius.
Mineralogy and geology, Rev. W. Mandell, Fellow of Queen's.
British plants, Rev. W. Keeling, Fellow of St. John's.

. I have not mentioned other collectors among the under-graduates, whose
residence here being ended at the expiration of three years, they carry
their collections away with them. I may mention, however, that Mr. Deck,
chemist, in the town, yearly imports a considerable number of minerals
from the Continent, as well as other objects of natural history, for whicji
he finds a ready demand j and that his shop is a most useful magazine of
all sorts of collecting apparatus in entomology, botany, &c. Yours, very
truly,— J. S. Henslow. Cambridge, Sept. 6. 1831.

Mr. Thomas Denny, of the Hills' Road, near Cambridge, may also be
mentioned as an available channel through which to participate the animal
productions of Cambridgeshire. Mr. Denny captures and purchases for
sale the insects of the county ; as he does the skins of birds and other:
animals, which he also stuffs both for himself and for others ^-J.D.

WARWICKSHIRE.

Weaver's Museum of Natural History in Birmingham. — Sir,
It may be gratifying to your scientific readers, and to the
lovers of science generally, to learn that a museum has
sprung up in the heart of the kingdom, which may vie in
extent and splendour with any provincial collection in the
world. I shall, therefore, make no other apology for troubling
you with the present communication, than what may be
deemed necessary as a palliation of the inability with which I
shall describe its various and important contents.

About fourteen years since, Mr. Weaver of Birmingham
commenced the study of entomology (chiefly from an innate
love of science, and an admiration of the splendour and fitness
of natural forms), and began to make a collection of insects.
Without fortune, or any of the facilities generally considered
necessary for accomplishing great and arduous undertakings,
but by the aid of persevering industry alone, he contrived, at
various periods, to visit most parts of England and Wales, in
pursuit of his favourite object. Being possessed of a quick
observation, he was enabled, in a great number of instances,
to discover the localities of insects entirely new to science,

fVarjoichhhr, ' '"^ ^7

many of which are already familiar to the public, through the
medium of the vahiable Illustrations of Entomology now in
progress of publication by Mr. Stephens ; and eventually
succeeded in bringing together and preserving upwards of
five thousand species of British insects, which are now scienti-
fically arranged in cases, and which were thrown open to
public inspection, gratuitously, for the space of five years.
During this period, his collection of insects was inspected by
most of the ladies and gentlemen in the neighbourhood who
had formed an attachment to similar pursuits ; by great num-
bers of visiters from distant parts of the united kingdom; and
by noblemen and foreigners who had accidentally learned that
so very extensive a collection existed, in the possession of an
individual at that time living in the most complete seclusion^
and entirely out of the reach of public notice.

At this period of his career, Mr. Weaver had to obtain thei^
means of gratifying his thirst of knowledge, such as the
expenses of travelling, and the cost of his cases and glass, by
the most indefatigable and unwearied industry, at the occu-^
pation to which he, like many other men of genius, had first
of all been reared. This circumstance ought on no account
to be overlooked, in giving a description of the gradual pro-
gress of such an undertaking as the one at present under
consideration, because it shows that the mind will overcome
the greatest obstacles whenever they stand in the way of its
eflPorts to achieve a noble and praiseworthy purpose. Splendid
talents, indeed, more frequently emerge from humble dwell-
ings, and progress through the trammels of some opposite
sedentary employment, than they are found to discover
themselves in what might be deemed their true an4 legitimate
nursery. On this account, they have a demand upon the
fostering care of the more fortunate, and possess a peculiar
claim upon those who, having a love of the same pursuits,
have yet been spared the pains attending them, and left at
liberty to acquire the means of greater ease and comfort.

Having received many of these flattering marks of attention,
and promises of extensive patronage, if his efforts were ex-
tended to other branches of science, Mr. Weaver next
engaged premises in New Street, with a view of forming a
museum of natural history. During his residence here, his
attention was directed to ornithology, with so much success,
that he preserved about two hundred species of British birds
(nearly a complete collection), and afterwards made con-
siderable progress towards a perfect collection of foreign birds,
^s he had previously done of foreign insects.

Finding at length that his cases accumulated Upon him so

N N 2

548 Natural History in the English Counties : —

rapidly that these premises were inadequate to contain them
in a manner in which they could be inspected to advantage,
he resolved upon the arduous task of engaging the Institution
Rooms, in Temple Row. This elegant suite of rooms had
been erected by the Associated Artists, as exhibition rooms,
and had then become vacant by a union having taken place
between the former body and the members of the Society of
Arts. In this establishment, he has applied himself success-
fully to conchology and mineralogy, in both of which branches'
he possesses the most splendid specimens ; and these, in
addition to a great variety of rare miscellaneous objects, cer-
tainly constitute a subject upon which the eye may dwell, and
the mind contemplate, with a satisfaction at once pure, ra-
tional, and in the highest degree gratifying.

The large room in which the collection is now opened to
the public is 50 ft. long, by 25 ft. wide, lofty in proportion,
and lighted from above by five lights on each side, inclining
at such an angle as to exhibit pictures to the greatest advan-
tage, and therefore in the highest degree adapted for the
purposes of a museum of natural history. The cases of
British insects are ranged down the centre of the room,
forming the appearance of a desk, inclining each way \xi
such a manner as to meet the eye ; upwards of twenty large
cases of foreign insects are similarly placed across the end,
and on one of the sides ; and more than thirty similar cases
of minerals and shells fill the other side ; the cases of birds
occupying the walls.

I may now take the opportunity of mentioning that Mr.
Weaver's undertaking has received in its support the patron-
age of some branches of the royal family, many of the neigh-
bouring nobility and gentry, with a tolerably extensive list of
subscribers ; and that he is anxious to have it understood that
he will feel himself honoured by the presence of any scientific
gentlemen who may by chance pass through the town, to
inspect his collection, and make such a report of it in their
respective localities as they may deem it entitled to, according
to the time and the means which have been brought into
operation in forming it.

In addition to the above, Mr. Weaver has been honoured
by the distinguished patronage of the Zoological Society, in a
grant of twenty-four rare birds, presented through the medium
of Mr. Vigors, by a vote of the Council; and for which mark
of especial favour and encouragement of science, he is anxious
to make every public acknowledgment in his power to that
learned and liberal body. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — J, Wallace,
Birmingham^ Nov. 28. 1831.

Nottiiighamshtre,

549.

A fossilised Fish and Ichthyosaiirus found in a Stone Quarry
near Stratford upon Avon. — Sir, I enclose you a drawing
(copied in^. 101.) of an ichthyolite lately found in my stone

101

quarry at Wilmerts, near Stratford upon Avon. Upon splitting
the stone, which was 19 in. long, 11 in. broad, and about 4 in,
thick, almost the whole of the fish w^as found attached to one
side of it, as represented in the drawing; upon the other side
of the stone is an exact impression, with the fins and a few of
the scales only attached ; the colour of the fossil is dark brown,
and glossy; the scales are very perfect, and but slightly attached
to the body.

In the same quarry, and near the same spot, was found an
Ichthyosaurus, which my son gave to Mr, Sharpe, solicitor in
the Old Jewry : it is considered to be a very fine specimen.
I am. Sir, yours, &c. — John Greaves, Edgebaston, Nov, 12.
1830.

NOTTINGHAMSHIRE.

Menziesia poliifolia, Calluna vulgaris, Krlca cinerea, E.
^etralix, E. vdgans with white Jlowers, and E. vdgans with pifik
powers, inhabit Sherwood Forest, — Sir, Your valuable corre-
spondent, J. T. Mackay, in communicating some Irish habitats
of rare species of British plants (Vol. IV. p. 167.), in giving
a habitat of Menziesza joolifolia, describes it as " nowhere
else found in Britain or Ireland." I beg to state that this is
an error, as my brother found it growing on Sherwood Forest,
Notts, in 1825, along with the plants above named. This is
the only instance known to me of the Menzies/a j9oliif(Mia
being found in England. I had recent specimens of the;

N N 3

550 Natural History in the English Counties : —

plant, and now possess a good dried one. It is but lately,
and that by chance, that youi* Magazine has met my eye, or
I would earlier have communicated this fact. I am, Sir,
yours, &c. — Henry Creed, Chedhurgh Rectory, near ^ury
St. Edmunds, Feb, 9. 1832.

LANCASHIRE.

Observations on the Limestone district of Yealand, near
Lancaster, and on the Vegetable Phenomena displayed by the
Growth of Plants on one of its rocky Hills, — The mountain
limestone of this district, extending from the village of Warton
to Kendal on the north, and from the Bay of Morecambe
far eastward into Yorkshire, presents many fine features in
the landscape. The outline of the hills about Yealand is of
an abrupt character; the stratification of the rock being in
general much inclined, the strata frequently terminate " into
day" towards the summit of the mountain, presenting a bold
precipitous crest, beneath which lies the motionless stream
(if I may so express it) of the debris or fragments which have
rolled down from the crag above. Farlton Knot, Warton
Crag, Arnside Fell, Whitbarrow and Cringlebarrow Scars,
are the principal hills of this description insight of Yealand :'
they range in elevation above the sea (by estimation) from 200
to 800 or more feet.

Cringlebarrow Scar, the immediate object of my notice,
forms part of a ridge of hills, on the east side of which the
pretty village of Yealand is situated. Its eastern declivity
exhibits a few cultivated fields and verdant meadows, with
plantations of slow growth. The dip of the rock being towards
the west, the strata stand out on the eastern side (where not
covered with vegetation) somewhat in the form of stairs ;
between the steps of which appear sheepwalks or plantations
of fir tree. The summit of the *' scar " is formed by the
termination or " cropping out" of the upper stratum, which
dipping at an angle of about 16° towards the sea, to the west,
presents on that side an inclined plane or floor of rock, of
some acres in extent. The surface of this upper bed of rock
presents a very curious spectacle for the geologist; it is
cracked {cringled?) in all directions, representing on a grand
scale the appearance of an earthy precipitate, when undergoing,
in the hands of the chemist, a slow evaporation to dryness.
So striking is the similarity to that chemical result, that it is
scarcely possible to avoid the conclusion that the rock must
have once been in a soft moist state of consistency ; and that
by a loss of the moisture, in the process of drying, the whole
surface has shrunk or collapsed in all directions, and thus has

->*-'S.iai5^?'.v Lancashire* - SSI-

succeeded the cracked and fissured state in which the upper
bed of rock now appears.* The blocks, or gigantic tessera,
of this rocky pavement are sometimes of huge dimensions:
the thickness of the upper bed varies; the depth of the
crevices, I found, exceeded, in some places, six feet.

It was highly interesting to observe the efforts of nature to
clothe with vegetation this hard, arid, sloping floor of rock,
which, at a rough guess, I should think, extended north and
south about 300 yards, and east and west 200 yards. At its
base is a thriving coppice wood, composed chiefly of hazel
nut bushes, oak, and ash trees. The hazel (Corylus ^vellana
Lin.), the most prevailing tree of the wood below, is, I think,
the most abundant upon the rock above. On advancing up
the fissured rock, this species is to be seen firmly rooted
within the crevices; its stinted head is twisted down upon the
surface of the rock, being often unable to rear itself above a
few inches high, on account of exposure to the strong and
briny gales from the west. Its seeds, rolling down, are arrested
by the mosses, or lodge in the numerous furrows, wliich are
worn upon the surface of the rock by the showers of centuries.'
I measured the depth of one of these waterworn gutters,
which begin immediately after a cross crevice, and gradually
deepen in proportion to the length of their course ; I found the
depth, at six feet length of furrow, to be seven inches. These
appear to be the channels up which vegetation is advancing
most readily from below: being filled near the base with
mosses and decayed vegetable matter, many a flowering shrub
was to be seen flourishing therein; at a few paces, how-
ever, upwards, the shelter of the wood is lost to them ; they
then dwindle away, and leave the work of vegetation to the
hardy yew, the hazel, the ash, and the holly, &c. The yew
(Zaxus baccata/>/w.) is to be seen growing in a very curious
manner : rooted, like the hazel, in a crevice, with its stinted
boughs spreading out in a circular form, and closely folded
down upon the surface of the rock, the whole plant strongly
resembles a living vegetable mat firmly fitted upon the rocky
floor. Several of these plants (spreading out scarce three or
four feet in diameter, and rising no higher than a few inches)
are probably the growth of a large portion of a century. Not
unfrequently this closely matted bush, almost if not entirely
incapable of motion by the strongest blast, is to be seen

* The texture of this limestone is in general very close, and it is so hard
as sometimes to make a fine marble: it has indeed been used for chimney,
pieces : those made at Kendal are noted for their beauty.

Within a mile and a half of Cringlebarrow, to the N.N.E., is another,
but far more extensive, surface of the rock, cracked up in a similar manner.

N N 4

,552 Natural HisUny in the English Counties : —

surrounded by mosses and decayed vegetable matter, support-
ing around its edge the growth of grasses or other species ;
its own fine leaves, as they wither, assisting abundantly in the
formation of an incipient soil. The holly (/4ex ^quifolium
Lin.) is more hardy, and faces the western blasts with a
somewhat more elevated front; but shows, by its knotted
stump and zigzag branches, the hard fare it has to thrive
upon. The oak is also, like the holly, able to rear its head
but a very few feet above the rock.

Towards the upper part of this limestone declivity, bare
spaces are to be met with of many square yards in extent, as
yet imattacked by any but the cryptogamous tribe. The
variety of lichens, mosses, &c., is very great ; and to the lover
of this class of plants the whole ridge of hill would aflfbrd a rich
treat. Near the summit, the surface becomes more broken
up, perhaps by the action of frost on water lodging on a sur-
face but little inclined.

Over the summit to the eastward, where the cropping out:
of the strata produces, as before described, short abrupt pre-
cipices, the power of vegetation is again very remarkable, both
in breaking down the projecting rock and in covering the
fallen fragments beneath. In this work of detachment the
ash tree (i^raxinus excelsior IJn.) takes the lead. Many
dwarf stumps or bushes of this tree are to be seen adhering
to the crest or sides of the crag, their roots swelled out to an
astonishing size, when compared with the very scanty foliage
vegetating from them. This scanty foliage has, however,
been sufficient to nourish the formation of a vegetable wedge
powerful enough, in time, to detach very large fragments of
the rock. This is to be seen very favourably at one spot,
where an ash root is fixed in a recess of the precipice,
whence a mass of rock (5 ft. by 5, and 7 ft. deep, weight about
10 tons) has been detached; the shape of the mass at once
proving its coincidence with the recess above. The ash root
is partly embedded within the fissure, but a very large portion
of it is seen projecting outwards, in girth 4 ft. across : rough,
thick, and massive, it carries above a few stunted boughs,
which must also have had a struggle to obtain sufficient light
to supply its growth. Along the foot of the precipice (which
varies from 10 to 20 or 30 ft. in height) are to be found frag-
ments of the rock, of different sizes, strewed about; some
have long been clothed with soft moss and grass, others are
half concealed in their grassy bed, and others, more recently
detached, lie about uncovered : it would be interesting to
know how scon they would become wrapped over by the
covering on which they fall.

Ymkshire, 55S

Within a few feet of the edge of the precipice, on the
summit, is now to be seen a regular row of ash trees, rooted in
the nearest crevice, proceeding to work down the next series
of fragment ; Hke vegetable pioneers, preparing to demolish^
in the slow course of nature, this rocky barrier. The yew,
the holly, the ivy, and other bushes, are also taking a share
in this work ; but the ash tree is the most prominent in the
ranks.

I have seldom seen, either in England or on the Continent,
an example so striking as the present of the force of vege-
tation, in clothing and preparing the barren surface of rocks
for future soil and fertility. I have visited this spot several
times, at intervals of a year or two ; and I have little doubt
that, in process of time, the summit of this craggy ridge will
be rounded off by the grassy mantle being drawn over it
from the pasture surface on the east ; while the sloping side,
on the west, is receiving its covering from the wood at its
base.

The foregoing sketch may convey a useful hint to the
proprietor of the neighbouring barren rocky slopes ; viz., to
plant a wood of the above-named trees, and others, at their
western base, with the view of promoting the earlier formation
of soil upon them ; but how soon such effect would be pro-
duced, it would require long consultations, indeed, with nature
to be able to pronounce.

On the ruined site of an abbey, at the entrance of Dover,
is to be seen a group of ash trees growing in the midst of
the grassy mounds : I have no doubt they have been the final
demolishers of the ruin, the remains of which are now very
much covered with grass. — A, JR. B, Laytonstone, near London^
March, 1832.

Some plants are more saxifractory than others; and the
genus *Saxifraga, according to Martyn's Miller's Dictionary,
receives its name from the saxifractory capabilities of some of
the species: to this end, those which grow in large cushion-
like tufts (included in De Candolle's section Dactyloides) are
most subservient. The numerous plants which inhabit rocks,
mountains, and hills, are doubtless agents, each more or less
effective, in the process of saxifraction. — J". D,

^-^i • \j..^'^</t. XS i^j ji . . ^.

', ^.jf^^f. tj,^ ^ r, ; »^ YORKSHIRE.

Birds found in the Neighbourhood of Wensleydale, in the
North Ridi?ig of Yorkshire. — Sir, I am not aware whether I
have been anticipated by any of your correspondents in a
former volume of your Magazine, in a list of the birds found
in this neighbourhood, at the mouth (if I may be allowed the

554! Natural History in the English Counties : —

expression) of that romantic part of the North Riding of
Yorkshire, Wensleydale, where the river Ure, leaving the
valley, begins to enter the plain. The same list, with perhaps
a few exceptions and additions, will apply to the neighbour-
hood of Richmond, a sketch of the flora of which you have
already received from the pen of J. E. L. (Vol. IV. p. 24-. 467.) ;
so that this sketch of the fauna, should you think it worth
insertion, will complete the account of the natural history of
this district. Of about 130 species of land-fowl, which are
found in Great Britain, this list will exhibit nearly half; and,
had I extended it farther up either valley (of the Ure or the
Swale), I might have added many curious specimens to it.
I have endeavoured to render it as accurate as possible ; but
I shall be obliged to any of your readers, acquainted with this
part of the country, who will add to it. The classification
and specific names are those adopted by Mr. Selby in the
Illustrations of British Ornithology^ as far as regards the
land-birds; the names of the waterfowl are the Linnsean.
A star is prefixed to those birds, of which only one or two
individuals have come under my observation.

Order VI. Insecti'vori.
LAND BIRDS. ^irundo rustica, Chimney swallow.

urbica, Martin,
riparia, Bank martin.
Cjpselus murarius, Swift.

Order VII. Pa'sseres.
Lanius Collurio *Red-backed shrike.

Order I. Rapa^ces.
Falco -Buteo, Buzzard.
, iVisus, Sparrowhawk.
Subbuteo, *Hobby.
Tinnunculus, Kestrel.
iStrix O^tus, Long-eared owl.
flaramea, White owl.
stridula, Screech owl.

Order II. OmniVori.
Corvus Corax, Raven.
^- Corone, Crow.

frugilegus, Rook.

i^fonedula, Jackdaw.

Pica, Magpie.

glandarius, Jay.

garrula, *Bohemian waxwing.

j&ombycivora.
jSturnus vulgaris, Starling.

Order III. Zygoda'ctyli.
Cuculus canorus. Cuckoo.
Picus vlridis. Green woodpecker.

Order IV. Anisoda'ctyli.
**?itta europae'a. Nuthatch.
Certhia familiaris. Creeper.

Order V. ^lcy'ones.
Jlcedo I'spida, Kingfisher.

Muscicapa Grisola, Spotted fly-
catcher.
Turdus musicus, Thrush.

ilferula. Blackbird.

pilaris. Fieldfare,

torquatus, *Ring ouzel.
Cinclus aquaticus, Dipper.
Sylvia Atricapllla, Blackcap warbler.

cinerea, Whitethroat.

Sylviella, Lesser whitethroat.

i?ubecula. Redbreast.

Phoenicurus, Redstart,
^egulus auricapillus, Gold-crested

wren.
Troglodytes europae^us. Com. wren*
Saxicola Rubetra, Whinchat.
Accentor modularis. Hedge accentor,
ilfotacilla alba. Wagtail,
^lauda arvensis, Skylark.
J^nthus pratensis. Meadow pipit.
Parus major. Great titmouse.

caeruleus. Blue titmouse.
Emberiza ilfiliaria. Common bunting.

Citrinella, Yellow bunting.

5choeniculus, *Reed bunting.

Yorkshire,

\^vs^^A

555

L6xia curvirostra* Crossbill.
Pj'rrhiila vulgaris. Bullfinch Gros-
beak.
J^ringilla Chloris, Greenfinch. .

cannabina, Common linnet.

Carduelis, Goldfinch.

domestica, House sparrow.

cceMebs, Chaffinch.

Order VIII. Colu^mb^e.

Columba Palumbus, Ringdove.

Order IX. G^alli^n^.

Phasianus colchicus, Pheasant.
T'etrao scoticus Red grouse.
Perdix cinerea, Partridge.

WATER BIRDS.

Order I. J'nseres.
i4^nas Cjgnus, *Wild swan.
-4'nser, Wild goose.
Penelope, Wigeon.
Poschas, Wild duck.

Order II. Gra'll^.

-4'rdea cinerea. Heron.

stellaris, Bittern.f
^colopax arquata. Curlew.

rusticola, Woodcock.

Gallinago, Snipe.

Gall inula, Jack snipe.
Tringa Vanellus, Lapwing.
Gallinula ehloropus, Water hen.

The river Ure contains minnow (Cyprinus Phoxinus), dace
C. ieiiciscus), chub (C Jeses), bleak (C y^lburnus), trout
(5'almo Fhr'io), grayling (S. Thymallus), smelt (S* Eperidnus)^
pike (^'sox Z/Ucius). The Swale contains minnow, chub, trout,
and barbel (Cyprinus barbus). — M, R, Dec, 6

[We are obliged to our correspondent for this sketch of
the fauna of his neighbourhood ; but when he mentions that
this, in conjunction with the notices of the native plants by
J. E. L. (Vol. IV. p. 24'.), " will complete the account of the
natural history of this district,'* we must be allowed to
remark, that, to this end, notices of the Amphibia and the
insects are yet wanted. — J. Z).]

A List of Aquatic Coleoptera taken hy Mr. Samuel Gibson in
about One Jnmdred Yards' length in the Hebden Watercourse,— ^
Sir, The insertion of the accompanying list, and the remarks
which follow it, will give pleasure to yours, &c. — Samuel
Gibson,

Haliplus elevatus

Hy

. holosericeus

Dyticus marginalis

ruficollis

pubescens

punctulatus

melanocephalus

latus

Acllius sulcatus

Hjgrotus fluviatilis

Davisii

Gyrinus natator

ingequalis

Colymbetes fontinalis

substriatus

Hydroporus frater

fuliginosus
striatus

villosus

depressus

Parnus prolifericornis

12-punctatus

agilis

auriculatus

alpinus

nebulosus

E'\m\s Volckmari

6-pustulatus

Sturmii

variabilis

ScalesiawMS

maculatus

paralleliplpedus

geminus

chalconotus

ae^neus

ovalis

bipustulatus

cupreus

nigritus

new species

Helophorus aquaticus .

trivialis

new species

granulans

minutus

griseus

f Extremely rare till last winter (1829-30), when numbers were killed
in this part of Yorkshire. • .

556 Natural Histort/ in the English Counties : —

Hel6phorus nubilus Hydrae^na elongata Hydrdbius fuscipes

Ochthebius pygmae^us testacea orbicularis

Enicdcerusviridi-ae^neus pulchella bipunctatus

tristis melanocephala globulus

Gibsoni Limnebius ater minutus

obscurus MSS, truncatellus striatulus

Hydrae^na riparia nigricans new species,

pusllla

Hydroporus Davisz? has been so named by Mr. Curtis m
honour of Mr. A. H. Davis, a correspondent of yours, who,
at p. 86., of your present volume, has a communication which
I should not have noticed, if Mr. Davis had confined himself
to facts. The insect there mentioned never was in the pos-
session of that collector, whose honesty I believe no one has
any reason to doubt. The fact is, " the highly respectable
gentleman " in question purchased from that collector about
400 species of the several orders. These were given to Thomas
Gibson, a boy about twelve years of age, to name. At the
same time, Thomas Gibson had another box of insects, be-
longing to another collector, to name ; and, in referring the
insect to my specimens, he, by accident, took the Hydrophilus
[? Hydrobius, so in Curtis*s Guide, column 24-3., and in this
Magazine, p. 86.] lateralis from one box, and placed it in
the other, instead of a specimen of Colymbetes chalcon5tus.
A short time after, the Colymbetes was carefully returned to
me, when I went without delay to that " highly respectable

fentleman," and wished him to take his insect, and return the
lydrophilus [? Hydrobius] to the owner : the reply was,
" No : if I were to give up the insect, you would say you had
taken it, and so have the honour of taking a new one." —
Samuel Gibson. Hebdenbridge, Yorkshire, Feb. 23. 1832.

Rarer Plants in the Neighbourhood of Doncaster. — Sir, I
have not seen it noticed that the neighbourhood of Doncaster
is peculiarly favourable for the study of botany. That a great
variety of rare plants should be found within a few miles of
this place is not surprising, when the various kinds of soil and
situation are taken into account. In addition to above an
average proportion of common and second-rate plants, a great
variety of the more esteemed ones is found abundantly in
certain localities.

The varieties of soil in the immediate neighbourhood are
peat or car earth, limestone, heath and sand land, and the
alluvial soil formed on the banks of the river Don, called
warp.

Potteric Car has long been known as a locality of numerous
rare plants; but I am not aware that any even tolerably
perfect list of such plants has been made public. This car

Yorkshire. 55f

extends about six miles south of Doncaster, on the west of the
great north road ; and tlie following plants are found there,
and on the car land adjoining: — /Tippuris vulgaris, Pinguicula
vulgaris, Gentidtia Pneumonanthe, Drosera rotundifolia and
D. anglica, Parnassia palustris, Narth^cium ossifragum,
^'corus Calamus, Oxycoccus vulgaris, J5iitomus umbellatus,
Andromeda jpolif61ia, Comarum palustre, iSTymphae^a alba,
-^^iiphar Idtea, i^anunculus Lingua, ikfyrioph^'llum spicatum,
and M. verticillatum, Osmunds regalis, Aspldium Zlielypteris,
A. spinulosum, &c. — The limestone tract is considerable, and
extends many miles west of Doncaster. On each side of the
river Don, the following, among other plants, occur on this kind
of surface: — Campanula latifolia and C. patula, Gage« lutea,
A'tropa Belladdnna, Potentilla fruticbsa, /felleborus viridis
and H. foe^tidus, Leonurus Cardiaca, Scrophularia vernalis.
Geranium phae^um, O^phrys muscifera and O. apifera, Neottia
spiralis, J^^pipactis latifblia, Aspidium cristatum, A. spinulosum,
A. lobatum, ^splenium Trichomanes, J, Ruta muraria, A.
y^diantum nigrum, and three varieties of AScolopendrium
Vulgare, &c. — The heath and sand land extends east of Don-
caster, from the borders of Potteric Car to Hatfield Chase.
This kind of land seems most favourable for the growth of
annuals, and also of cryptogamic plants, as numerous species
are found there, as well as the following: — Scabiosa colum-
baria, ffinoth^ra biennis, Osmunda regalis, j&lechnum boreale,
Aspidium spinulc^sum, A. i^ilix foe'mina, &c. — The warp h
very extensive in those parts immediately adjoining the river
Don, which are low, and which are liable to be overflowed by
its waters. I have met with the following plants on this kind
of land: — Dipsacus pilosus, Tulipa sylvestris, Colchicum
autumnale, JN^uphar lutea. Geranium phae^um, Tnula i/ele-
uium, Ophioglossum vulgatum, &c. — In addition to the above
kinds of soil, there are small patches of a very strong clay
in certain parts, but the quantity is inconsiderable, except
at Clayton, about eight miles from the town of Doncaster : on
this soil several scarce plants grow, as Scutellaria minor,
i/elleborus viridis, Faccinium Myrtillus, /'nula Helhnium^
-Epipactis palustris, Botrychium Lunaria, &c. In the above
lists I have not inserted those plants which are of common
occurrence. , ,,^

I should gladly have extended my list to those oJTsecondar
esteem, but from an unwillingness to trespass on your pages,
to the exclusion of matter more generally important. You
will observe that the names of some of the plants are repeated,
being found in more than one of the above situations. You
may omit the repetition, or not, as you think fit. I have

558 Natural Histoiy in the English Counties : —

included them for the benefit of the young botanist, who,
seeing a plant mentioned as growing on a car, for instance,
might not think of finding it in a dissimilar situation. I am,
Sir, yours, &c. — S. Appleby, St. James's Gardens, Doncaster,
Atig, 6. 1831.

P.S. Thorne Moor, Roche Abbey, and Maltby Woods
abound with rare plants. These places are each about ten miles
from Doncaster. At the first-named place the very rare plant
Scheuchzer/« palustris is to be met with in great plenty. — S, A.

Plants found in Yorkshire. — Sir, I send you the names of
upwards of 120 species of plants, of which, except of the few
starred told me by a friend, I have in one year's study ascer-
tained the names, by the assistance of Berkenhout's Synopsis,
and Gray's Natural Arrangement. I name this, to encourage
those who may deem botany a difficult and cramp study. I
can assure them they will not find it so. I am learning a
profession, and consequently only gathered, and ascertained
the names of, my plants at my leisure hours, which are not
very numerous. — T. B. York, Dec. 9. 1831.

Of the plants enumerated, we publish what we deem the
rarer, although some of those selected are not strictly rarities.
The plants starred in all were 25, including those we have
starred below : and we much commend our correspondent's
devotion to the subject. — J. D.

Veronica spicata and officinalis, Pinguicula vulgaris, *Eri6phorura poly-
ptachyon, Valeriana officinalis, Sanguisorba officinalis, Galium erectum and
cruciatum, Plantago raaritima, Z/jsimachia nemorum, Erythrae^a Centau-
rium, ^araolus Valerandf, i)aucus maritimus, CKnanthe crocata, Sanicula
europae'a, Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Colchicum autumnale, i?umex maritiraus,^
^lisrna ranunculoides, Trientalis europae'^a; ^rica Tetralix, cinerea, and
vulgaris ; Faccinium Myrtlllus, ^utomus umbellatus. Polygonum Bistorta,
Saponaria officinalis flore pleno, O'xalis Acetosella, Panunculus arvensis,
Teucrium Scorodonia, Mentha viridis, *Pet6nica officinalis, *PedicuIaris
palustris and sylvatica, *Jnthyllis Vulneraria, iathyrus sylvestris, Ticia
sylvatica, JOotus diffusus and major, Hypericum pulchrum, ^ieracium pa-
ludosum and murdrum, Achillea Ptarmica, ♦^"rapetrum nigrum, Humulus
Lupulus, Pamus communis. - ,

CUMBERLAND.

Castle-Rigg. — The undergiven extract, descriptive of a
scene once witnessed near Castle-Rigg, has, although it may
not impart much information, enough of beauty in it to merit
being perused by our readers. For it we have long been
indebted to our invaluable correspondent G. J. To help its
intelligibleness, we may, introductorily, note from Mogg's Pater-
son's Roads, 1826, that " Castle-Rigg is contiguous to Keswick,
and Keswick is situated near the lower end of that beautiful
lake called Derwent Water, hence not unfrequently called

Cumberland, /-^^^t^ ki*%*W/i S59

Keswick Lake [about which incidental mentions have been
already made in this Magazine, Vol. IV. p. 279, and Vol. V*
p. 130, 131.] About two miles south of Keswick is situated
the eminence called Castle-Rigg, on the summit of which
there exists a curious druidical arrangement of rude stones,
some of them standing upright, others lying down, and some
in an oblique position. The seclusion and sublimity of this
situation are particularly well suited to the deep and wild mys-
teries of the druids ; and the surrounding scenery, when viewed
from this spot, is of an extremely grand and solemn character;
Castle-Rigg being the central point of three valleys that dart
immediately under it from the eye, and whose mountains form
part of an amphitheatre, which is completed by those of
Derwent Water on the west, and by the precipices of Skiddaw
and Saddleback, close on the north. The hue which pervades
all these mountains is that of dark heath or rock ; they are
thrown into every form and direction that fancy could suggest,
and are at that distance which allows all their grandeur to
prevail." The following is the extract first alluded to : —

" By this time we had nearly passed over the fell, and had
begun to descend upon Castle-Rigg. The children had
halted beside a rocky basin in the mountain stream, to remind
me of a sight which we had once enjoyed there, and to enjoy
it again in recollection. It was a flock of geese, which, in
the bright sunshine of a summer's day, were sporting in that
basin, and with such evident joyousness, that it was a pleasure
to behold their joy. Sometimes they thrust their long necks
under the water straight down, and turned up their broad
yellow feet; sometimes rose half up, shaking and clapping
their wings; sometimes, with retorted head, pruned themselves
as they floated. Their motion did not, in the slightest degree,
defile the water ; for there was no soil to disturb ; the stream,
flowing from its mountain springs, over a bed of rock, had
contracted no impurity in its course, and these birds were so
delicately clean, that they could not sully it ; the few feathers
which they plucked, or shook off*, were presently carried away
by the current. It was the most beautiful scene of animal
enjoyment that I ever beheld, or ever shall behold : the wild-
ness of the spot, the soft green turf upon the bank, the beauty
of that basin (and they only who have seen mountain streams
in a country of clear waters, can imagine how beautiful such
basins are), the colour of the stream, which acquired a chry-
solite tinge from the rock over which it ran, and the dazzling
whiteness of the birds, heightened by the sunshine, composed
a picture which, like that of Wordsworth's Daffodils, when
it has once been seen, the inward eye can re-create, but which

S60 Natural Histoyy in the English Counties : —

no painter could represent. Our dear N. felt this, atid re-
gretted the impossibility of preserving any adequate repre-
sentation of what he declared to be the most striking and
beautiful incident he had ever the good fortune to behold. I
thought of the story in Musaeus's Tales (a fiction known to
the Arabians as well as the Germans) ; and had they been
swans, instead of geese, could almost have fancied they were
fairies in that form, and have looked about for a veil."
{SoutJie7/s Sir Thomas More, vol. i. p. 146.)

Notes on Animals about Whitehaven, — It is several years ago,
since, as an amusement, I commenced butterfly-catching; but,
in respect of science, I am still a mere tyro, and probably
may always remain such, owing to the difficulties of arriving
at a knowledge of classification and nomenclature ; both of
which appear to me to have been so often modelled and
re-modelled, as to present to the incipient entomologist an
almost insurmountable obstacle to his progress at the very
outset of his career. These difficulties are artificial, and have
been much increased by the multiplying of systems, which are,
it seems, quite the rage with entomologists, who, instead of
smoothing the way, and in order to get a name, create a sys-
tem of their own, differing from all others, and consequently
leading to confusion. Thus the commonest insect has, per-
haps, a dozen names, and as many ways of ascertaining its
species and genus. When I see it, I know what it is ; but
when I would know what its scientific denomination is, I am
completely puzzled, and so, I dare say, are many besides
myself, and for the same reason.

If entomology is ever to be made a popular study, it must
be simplified, and one uniform system adopted ; for no one
will be at the trouble of acquiring the scientific knowledge of
it, when, from the difficulties surrounding it, the overcoming
of them turns recreation into toil, and toil, too, that, unless it
produces pleasure, is of no use.

As it is, I am desirous of improvement, and with that view
I keep what I call my entomological journal, in which I enter a
note of whatever I see and what I observe of the habits of insects
and animals, together with the scientific names when I can
make them out. Having derived great benefit from similar
kinds of notes in your excellent publication, my observations,
such as they are, may have th^ir use to others, and, if you
deem them of any, you will oblige me by giving insertion to
them in your Magazine. I commence with the first of last
month.

April 1. 1832. The day was cold, but with occasional
gleams of sunshine. For some days before, there had been

Cumberland. 561

hoar frost, and pretty sharp at night. Tlie tortoise shell
(Vanessa urticae) was observed flying about in a lively manneiE
ill the streets of Whitehaven. ^ '**•'♦ ^o ^h'\rMm\

5th. Took an excursion of some five arid twenty miles,
principally over the coal formation on the west coast of Cum-
berland. Observed several tadpoles [embryo frogs] in a pond,
which I fancy is early. In another pond, I observed eight or
ten frogs (i2ana temporaria) forming a ball, and tumbling about
in the water: one had something white protruding from its
mouth. They suffered me to draw them to land, when I found
the white substance was part of the intestines of a female,
which apparently had been squeezed out by the embraces of
the male, which is much smaller than the female, and holds
the latter so tightly as not to be separated without exercising
considerable force. Multitudes of Gyrinus natator were gyrat-
ing about. Great numbers of various kinds of dung beetle
were on the wing. ^ '■

9th. The weather, unusually warm for the season, seems
to have infused summer vigour into the spring swarm of
Vanessa urticae: they are flying about the lanes in numbei's^r
with much vivacity, and are remarkably shy of approach.
Near Papcastle, a solitary specimen of the peacock butterfly
(Vanessa Vo) was observed ; the secondary wings imperfect,
but not to be captured for all that. This is singular, as I do
not remember having seen one of this kind at this season of
the year ; certainly not for the last four or five years. On the
banks of the river Derwent, near Broughton, for the first time,
I observed a few of the small cabbage butterfly. Previously to
this, in the neighbourhood of Whitehaven, I had seen several
of the wall butterfly (Hipparchia MegseVa) ; but they were
sluggish, and easily caught. Last year, the caterpillars and
chrysalis of the Vanessa urticae were uncommonly numerous :<
the previous year they were as remarkably scarce. This
spring their colours are brilliant and rich. • : ' f'i

14th. The weather had been chill, and caused the retreat
of the insect tribe. This morning it was warmer. In the
meadows, near Whitehaven, on the stump of an old oak^I^
saw the small brown land lizard (Zacerta agilis) : I made an
attempt to take it, but it showed me the appropriateness of its
name, by darting into a whin bush as quick as lightning, f
captured a iStaphylinus erythropterus, so called by Leachilt;
Samouelle's Entomologisfs Compendium. lAi *1i*iy*j

1 5th. A friend being at Fleswick, a small bay on the se'a^
shore, captured one of those green beetles marked with gold
spots, the Cicindela campestris, I believe.

16th. Having the appearance of rain, and indications fa-*
Vol. v. — No. 28. oo

562 Natural Historij in the English Comities : —

vourable for fishing, I went to a small river called the Keekle,"
to procure some minnows for bait. Leach calls them Len-
ciscus Phoxinus. There were a great many of the fry very
small. I procured a few of the larger size, full of roe, with
little white nodules on the head, and the brightness of the
belly discoloured, which renders them nearly useless as bait.
I intend trying if stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) will
answer the same purpose: our old master, Walton, says they
will ; and I do not see why they should not : but a noted old
angler tells me they will not do in the rivers hereabouts ; he has
tried them, and failed to take a single fish. The minnows I
placed in a large jar of water.

17th. This morning, in a small rivulet called the Poe-
beck, and running into Whitehaven harbour, I took a good
many of the stickleback, several more than two inches long.
On opening one of these, I found it full of roe ; the pellets
small, and of a watery consistency and colour ; the brightness
of the fish discoloured. Of those I caught, the greater num-
ber were little more than an inch long, and much brighter
than the larger ones. I observed two of them fighting in the
water ; the upper one had got the under one on its side, and
apparently was attempting to pierce it : whether or not it
succeeded, I did not see. Your correspondent O., in his
entertaining account of them (Vol. III. p. 329 — 332.), says
they are very pugnacious. One was lying dead, probably
killed in a duel. I put them into the same jar with the min-
nows. Not long after they had been put into their new
habitation, they had eaten some worms, which their com-
panions, the minnows, would not touch : the minnows and
sticklebacks seemed to agree very well. In the same rivulet
•where I took them, there are no minnows; probably I may
try the experiment of breeding a colony of the latter in it.

18th. Found all the larger sticklebacks dead this morn-
ing : they were females, and full of roe : the change, I suppose,
has killed them ; for they exhibited no appearance of injury.
The smaller ones are very lively, and seem to take kindly to
the change. The weather is very cold, which has kept all the
insect race at home, except a few stragglers of a large kind of
humble bee.

19th. Rain having fallen, I went to fish in the Ehen, or
Gud, flowing from Ennerdale Lake to the sea, and was unsuc-
cessful: obtained an excellent specimen of Necrophagusspinipes
of Leach ; it was floating in a mill-dam, and probably had
been washed by the rain into the water, which had purified it
greatly. Several years ago, I remember picking one up at
St. Helen's, near Cockermouth, which gave out its smell so

Cumberland, 563

strongly, as to induce me to throw it away. The effluvium was
exceedingly nauseous, and seemed to me to be like that given
out by the weasel when irritated, but, perhaps, not quite so
strong. Its fine brownish yellow transverse bands give this
insect a handsome appearance, which gains for it in the case
many admirers, who, if acquainted with its skunklike * pro-
perties, would turn from it with disgust. I saw several trouts
which more fortunate or more skilful fishermen had caught.
They were ill fed, and discoloured : they were caught with an
artificial bait called roe, the roe of the salmon salted and pre-
served ; a pellet being about the size of a swan-shot, and two
or three stuck on the hook for a bait ; worm they would not
touch. Saw a swallow (jEfirundo rustica JL,) flying near
Cleator : a friend tells me he saw one on the eighth of this
month.

22d. Observed a great number of tadpoles in the meadows.

27th. Captured an excellent specimen of iStaphylinus ery-
thropterus. Saw Vaness« Vo in excellent preservation, and '
very lively; also several Vaness/^ urticse, although the day
was cold, with a dry harsh easterly wind. Heard the cuckoo
this evening, for the first time. In procuring some minnows
as bait for trout, I observed a small species of eel fastened to
a stone ; some kind of lamprey. I also caught several small
trout, which I put into an old limestone quarry filled with,
water. I intended to keep this a secret, that I might have
the advantage all to myself. Notwithstanding the reputed
pugnacity of the stickleback, they live very peaceably and har-
moniously with the minnows ; at least, I see no symptoms of
disagreement : they received, as additional company, several
of the lampreys.

28th. Early this morning, I was awakened by a tremendous

* The skunk is a species of weasel, and a native of America. It defends
itself by the emission of an intolerable odour. A short description of it is
given inTurton's translation (vol.i. p. 53.) of Linnaeus's Systema Natur(s,
under the name of Tiverra mephitis. On the margins of bogs in the
United States of North America, a plant occurs, with fetid blossoms,
which the Americans denominate " scunck-weed ; " a starved blossom of
which, as compared with those produced in the American swamps, will be
found figured in Curtis's Botanical Magazine, t. 836. ; and a copy of the
same in Loudon's Encyclopcedia of Plants, p. 88. No. 1504, This plant is
the Dracontium foe'tidum of Linnaeus; has been called Pothos fce'tida;
and more recently, by the American botanist Nuttall, Symplocarpus foe'ti-
dus : from symploJce, connection, and karpos, fruit, the individual berries
being almost confluent. The plant is in the natural order ^roideae ; and the
-^''rum maculatum L., the " cuckoo pint," or " lords and ladies," of our
hedge-banks, will give a near idea of it; and the ^^rum Z)racunculus and
^Vum Dracontium of our gardens, whose blossoms effuse the odour of
superlatively putrid carrion, will probably supply even an accurate sem-
blance of the odour of the blossoms of the scunck-weed. —• J. D,

o o 2

564' Natural History in the English Counties : —

clap of thunder, accompanied with a heavy shower of sleet.
The mountain tops and higher grounds were whitened, and
it was not till the middle of the day that the snow and hail
melted away. Notwithstanding, I went on a piscatory expe-
dition, but met with little or no success. About noon, some
half dozen of the Vanessa Vo were flying briskly about ;
their colours bright and perfect : several were on the banks
of the Ehen, the small river I mentioned as flowing from
Ennerdale Lake to the sea. On its banks I found a Meloe
violaceus, the first I recollect having seen in this county,
though I have been told they are not uncommon. Some of
the lampreys are dead. There was much lightning at night.
30th. In finding the lamprey, I thought I had, like more
pretending naturalists, made a grand discovery. On enquiry,
I learn they are not uncommon ; and, on recollection, I begin
to have an indistinct idea that we are old acquaintances ; a very
likely circumstance, as they are easily caught, and therefore
likely to become the prey of young anglers. I find they are
of the genus Petromyzon. Pennant, in his British Zoology,
calls them the lesser lamprey ; they are the Lampetrae medium
genus of Willoughby and Ray ; and the Petromyzon fluviatilis
of Linnaeus and Fleming. [See figures of a species of Petro-
myzon, viz., P. cae^cus May, p. 23.] Here is, one might think,
a number of names sufficient to give eclat to a much bigger
thing than a small eel-like fish, that seldom reaches the length
of ten inches, and is in general but six or seven. Those that
J caught were scarcely ^yo, inches. They are tender fishes,
several dying in consequence of being struck with the net;
and, since their confinement, those put in along with the
minnows and sticklebacks have all died. They have been
caught in the small river at the head of Ennerdale Lake. I am
inclined to think they are not uncommon, being to be found
in all rivers, though more plentiful in some than in others.
The weather is becoming very cold and unspringly, and I fear
there will be nothing for the entomologist till the latter end of
next month. — cC/* f-l-t Whitehaven, Cumberland,

DURHAM.

Some of the rarer Plants of Teesdale. — Sir, Having lately
returned from an excursion into Teesdale, I send you a list
of the rarer plants, gathered during a hurried day's journey
in tliat rich and interesting district, which will not, I think,
be unacceptable to some of your readers. 1 would strongly
recommend to every lover of Nature, who has leisure for the
investigation of her beauties, to devote a few days to this
romantic alpine country; where, though much has already

Durham^ Northumberland,

565

been clone by the diligence of two able resident botanists,
many further discoveries may still be expected to reward the
exertions of the botanical traveller. My acquisitions are
these : —

Eriophorum pubescens

-Festuca vivlpara

Galium boreale

Gentmia verna (April, 1831)

campestris

Amarella
Primula farinosa
Tofieldia palustris
Epilobium angustifolium

fflsinifolium
Polygonum vivlparum
-(4'rbutus UVa ursi
^axifraga iJirculus (Sept. 1830)

aizoides
jSedum Telephium
Arenaria verna
^ubus saxatilis
Potentilla alpestris .

fruticosa
Drjas octopetala

TIiaHctrum majus

Tilia grandifolia (Rokeby Park)

Bartsia alpina

ikfelampyrum sylvaticum

Hhinanthus major

^'rabis hirsuta

Draba incana

ifypericum dubium

Listera cordata

Kobresfa carlcina

Aspldium Z/onchitis

Oreopteris
^splenium viride
Wo6dsi« ilvensis
Lycopodium alpinum

selaginoides
JEquisetum variegatum
Gymnostomum 'Donidnum
Weissia nigrita
Bartramia ithyphylla, &c.

I have in my possession specimens of the greater part of
the above, which, as well as most of the rarities of Durham,
Sec, I would gladly exchange for the productions of Norfolk
and Kent, or for those of Somersetshire, Devonshire, and
Cornwall. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — B. B, B, 1 9. Sandhill,
Newcastle upon Tyne, Aug, 15. 1831.

NORTHUMBERLAND.

A Flock of Egyptian Geese seen beside the Tweed at Cay ham,
— In the course of last week, a flock of these rare birds
denominated gansers, or Egyptian geese (^^nas aegyptiaca
Lin,), were seen to visit the Tweed at Carham ; two of
which were shot, while nibbling grass on the margin of the
river, by Ralph Stephenson, gamekeeper. These two, upon
examination, were found to bear all the beautiful variegated
marks which distinguish the species, more especially the
broad deep chestnut-coloured spot on the middle of the breast.
This beautiful bird, which was first known in our island about
a century ago, is of nearly the size of the common wildgoose.
It is a native of Africa, where it is found in a wild state from
Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope. It is now found in seve-
ral European countries, and frequently kept as an ornament
on pieces of water contiguous to gentlemen's seats. One of
the birds shot at Carham has been sent to Edinburgh ; the
other is in the hands of an ingenious person of the name of

o o 3

566 Natural History in the Eriglish QmtUies ; —

Hood, in Coldstream, for the purpose of being stuffed. (New-
castle Courant, Feb. 11. 1832.)

The Dates of Appearance, Breedi?ig, and Disappearance of
some Birds and Insects, in the Parish of Tynemouth, during the
Year 1831. [The systematic names affixed by our corre-
spondent are those of Linnaeus.]

Feb. 17. Skylark (Jlauda arvensis) began to sing. 21. Thrush (T'urdus
miisicus) began to sing; Blackbird (T'urdus ikf erula) began to sing.

April 12. Thrush (7^urdus musicus) has callow young. 18. House swal-
low (i/irundo rustica) arrived. 25. Fauvette (Sylvia hortensis) arrived.
28. Sedge warbler (Sylvia salicaria) arrived; Whitethroat (Sylvia cinfe-
rea) arrived.

May 2. Corncrake (Ortygometra Crex) arrived; Green linnet (L(5xia
Chloris) has eggs. 5. Early cabbage butterfly (Pontia Charicle«) came
out. 6. Spotted flycatcher (Muscicapa Grisold) arrived ; Pied flycatcher
(Muscicapa Atricapilla) arrived. 16. Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) arrived ;
Green linnet (Loxia Chloris) has callow young ; Titlark (Jlauda pra-
tensis) has eggs ; Skylark (^lauda arvensis) has callow young. 17. Com-
mon tern (Sterna cantiaca) arrived.

June 12. Brown butterfly (Papilio Jurtina) appeared ; Blue Argus Butterfly
(Papilio A'rgu5) appeared.

Aug. 2. Small tortoiseshell butterfly (Vaness« urticae) appeared. 15.
Painted lady butterfly (Cjnthi« cardui) appeared. 18. Copper butter-
fly (Lycae^na Phlae^a*) appeared.

Sept. 10. Small summer birds (Muscicapas, Sylviae, &c.) preparing to de-
part. 12. House swallows (^irundo rustica) congregating previously to
departure. 1 3. Black-throated diver (Colymbus arcticus) arrives. 1 5.
Redbreast (Sylvia Nubecula) approaches the town ; Admu-able butterfly
(Vanessa Atalanta) appeared. 26. Sea swallows (Sterna cantiaca
&c.) departing.

Oct. 6. Black grouse (Tetrao Tetrix) arrived. 20. Speckled diver (Co-
lymbus stellatus) arrived. 22. Peewits (Trlnga Vanellus) congregat-
ing. 23, Redwing (T'urdus iliacus) arrived. 27. Fieldfare (T'urdus
pilaris) arrived; Royston crow (Corvus Comix) arrived.

. The above dates are as accurate as it is possible for them
to be ; since many of our birds of passage are so fatigued, on
their first coming, as to render it next to impossible to ascer-
tain the exact day on which they arrive. — p. H. Greenhow,
North Shields, Nov. 9. 1831.

Birds of Passage visiting the Parish of Tynemouth, iii North-
umberland, — Sir, I send you an account of the birds of pass-
age which visit the parish of Tynemouth, Northumberland,
annually, in the summer season, for the purpose of incubation.
I am. Sir, yours, &c. — E, H, Greenhow, North Shields^
Sept, 22, 1831.

JTirundo rustica, House swallow. Sylvia Atricapilla, Blackcap.

urbica, Martin. hortensis, Fauvette.

riparia. Sand martin. arundinacea. Lesser Fauvette.

^^pus. Swift. Locustella,Grasshopper warbler

Cuculus canorus, Cuckoo, Hippolais, Lesser pettichaps.

Yimx Torquilla, Wryneck. Rubicola, Stonechat.

Northumberland,

561

Sylvia salicaria, Sedge warbler. .

cinerea, Whitethroat warbler.

Rubetra, Whinchat.

7Y6chilus, Willow wren.

sylvicola, Yellow wren.
Coturnix major Brisson, Quail.
Lanius excubitor, Grey or ash-
loured shrike,
ikfotacllla flava, Yellow wagtail.
Muscicapa Grisolay Spotted fly-
: catcher.

Muscicapa luctuosa. Pied flycatcher.
Ortygometra CVex, Corncrake.
[Nyctichelidon europae^us Rennie],

Fern owl, or goatsucker.
Sterna cantiaca [S. Boysw Latham]
Greater tern.

minuta, Lesser tern.

Jifirundo, Common tern.

DougalhV, Roseate tern.
Cliaradrius Hiaticula, Ring dottrel.

- To this list I might have added the dottrel (Charadrius
Morinellus), and the redstart (Sylvia Phoenicurus); but not
having met with them myself, I have thought it better to omit
them.

T/ie House Swallow (i/irundo rustica) is common here, as it
appears to be every where. Many of the swallows in this
neighbourhood congregate on the sea-banks, in search of the
numerous insects with which they abound. I occasionally,
during the unusually hot weather with which we have been
visited this summer [1831], walked there early in the morn-
ing, that I might the more readily examine the habits of some
of our summer birds of passage which more particularly fre-
quented that place ; and, among the rest, was highly grati-
fied at seeing from fifty to a hundred swallows skimming about
in all directions; and, what is truly extraordinary, in all their
numerous evolutions, they never came in contact with each
other ; but, crossing and recrossing each other's path, they
coasted along the banks, beach, and little inlets of the sea, for
upwards of a mile : the beauty of which scene I cannot de-
scribe better than by the following quotation from an elegant
author (Sir Humphry Davy, in his Salmonia, p. 79.) : — "I
delight in this living landscape : the swallow is one of my
favourite birds, and a rival of the nightingale ; for he glads
my sense of seeing, as much as the other does my sense of
hearing : he is the joyous prophet of the year, the harbinger
of the best season ; he lives a life of enjoyment, amongst the
loveliest forms of nature ; winter is unknown to him, and he
leaves the green meadows of England, in autumn, for the
myrtle and orange groves of Italy, and for the paltns of
Africa: he has always objects of pursuit, and his success is
secure: even the beings selected for his prey are poetical,
beautiful, and transient."

2^he Martin (Hirundo urbica). Although this bird is ex:-
tensively diffused over Britain, yet I am acquainted with only
one of its haunts in this neighbourhood ; which being three
miles distant, I have fewer opportunities of examining its
habits than I would wish.

o o 4

568 Natural History in the English Counties.

. Sand Martin (ifirundo riparia). The localities which the
sand martin prefers are not commonly met with ; and although
it does occasionally settle near large towns, yet it seems to be
but a transient visiter, preferring solitary banks bordering
upon a lake or river, where it can bring up its young undis-
turbed by the presence of man. A few years ago, a colony
of these birds established themselves on the south side of
Tynemouth banks, and seemed to increase rapidly, their nests
being wholly out of reach ; but, unfortunately, some idle
fishermen, wishing to prove their skill upon the poor martins,
shot many of them : and from that time they have never
returned, but have probably emigrated to some neighbouring
station, of which there are two within a few miles. I might,
perhaps, with propriety, in this place, express my indignation
a^ the merciless and too general destruction of the poor swal-
lows ; but the celebrated author of the Journal of a Naturalist
has already (p. 221. of that work) done it in so feeling a man-
ner as to leave nothing fi-esh for me to say. [See an eloquent
and amiable essay " On the wanton Destruction of Swallows,"
in our Vol. III. p. 35., by Philochelidon.]

The Wryneck ( Yunx Torquilla) {Jig. 102.) is comparatively
rare here. I have seldom seen it; and never myself found its
nest, although I have heard that the latter is occasionally met
with. It arrives about the latter end of April.

[It is but just to remark, that, beautiful as is the accom-
panying woodcut, it, from some nameless fault or other, does

not portray the wryneck with
characteristic faithfulness. I
incline to say the neck and
tail are too long, and these
proportions represent the
bird larger than it really is.
The same faults, I think,
appertain to the cut in Be-
wick's British Birds, from
which, if I recollect rightly,
the present cut has been
copied. The beautiful markings are w^ell shown ; but Mon-
tagu says, " the pen or the pencil can only give a very in-
adequate idea of the elegant markings of this bird. Its name
of wryneck seems to have been given it from the singular
manner of turning its head over its shoulders alternately, at
which time the black list on the back of the neck gives it a
twisted appearance : it also erects all the feathers on the crown
of the head in a terrific manner." Mention is made of the
wryneck in this Magazine, Vol. IV. p. 450. — J. Z).]

The Whincliat (Sylvia Rubetra). I mention this among

Natural History in Scotland. ,569

our birds of passage, because it certainly emigrates from this
neighbourhood ; but is, I believe, found through the winter iii
Kent and some of the southern counties. '^

The Shrike (Lanius excubitor) is an uncommon bird. A
pair of them came this spring to a deserted and solitary
plantation bordering on the town ; but although I saw them
daily at a little distance, yet I could not approach near enough
to observe their habits, or trace them to their nest. There
was a great quantity of the elytra of beetles scattered on the
ground near the place which they seemed chiefly to haunt ;
from which I imagine these insects to have formed the prin-
cipal part of their food. On going to the plantation which
they frequented, on the 13th of September, I found they were
gone, nor have I been able to see them since ; and therefore
conclude they must have already taken their departure for
more genial climes.

The Pied Flycatcher (Muscicapa luctuosa). This bird is
very uncommon in Britain. A pair of them visited us this
spring, on the 6th of Ma}^, and remained all the summer,
until the 19th of August, when they disappeared from their
breeding place ; but had probably only migrated to the sea-
beach, which abounds in insects at that season. This morning
(Sept. 7.), while sauntering along the sea-banks, I perceived
either my old friends, or some others, in company with the
spotted flycatchers and other soft-billed summer birds, evi-
dently congregating previously to the general autumnal mi-
gration. — E. H. Greenhow, North Shields^ Sept. 22. 1831.

Several rare birds have been shot here lately, as follows ;*»*-

iarus parasiticus, Arctic gull. Coracias garrula. Roller.

t^^pupa ^pops, Hoopoe. Falcinellus pygmae'' us. Pygmy curlew.

Of the first three, only one individual of each was shot : of
the pygmy curlew, six were seen, all sitting together on a rock
by the seaside ; four of them were shot. — E. H. G.

Art. II. Natural History in Scotland.

VARIOUS COUNTIES.

Dumfriesshire. — An Adder {Coluber 'Berus) mth two
distinct Heads, which lived three days, and formed one of six
young ones taken from the body of an old adder, found in a
ditch at Drumlanrig, near Dumfries, is now in the museum
of Master Thomas Grierson, at his father's residence. Bait-
ford, near Thornhill, Dumfriesshire. — W. G. Baitford,
Oct, 8. 1831. AH .\v\

'570 Natural History in Scotlajid : ^-~

Fife. — A Firmer Whale taken at Largo, — On the morn-
ing of May 15. 1832, a finner whale, 14 ft. in length, was found
entangled in the stake-nets opposite the Hallhill estate, near
this place. The huge animal was dragged ashore, and excited
in no small degree the curiosity of the natives. {Edinburgh
Advertiser, May 22. 1832.)

Elgin. — The Woodcock ( Scolopax rusticola L.) resides through
the Year, and breeds in Scotland. — The following communica-
tion appeared in the Elgin Courier, to the editor of which
journal it was addressed : — " Sir, I am surprised to find that
so little information exists as to the fact of the woodcock not
only remaining in this part of the world, but of actually
breeding every season in the forest and woodlands which
surround the Earl of Moray's magnificent seat of Darnaway
Castle. That such is the fact is well known, not only to the
gamekeepers and woodmen, but to the forester, Mr. Cutler,
who is well qualified to give to the world a very interesting
account of the natural history of this northern emigrant. A
friend of my own lately mentioned to me. that, during the
barking season, the woodmen frequently found woodcocks'
nests. He also informed me, that, in the month of April last,
he accompanied the principal gamekeeper into the woods ; that
during their ramble they flushed a woodcock, which Jlew as if
wounded; that, on his remarking this, the gamekeeper laughed,
and told him it was a hen bird flying off" with a young chick
in her talons ; and, to convince my friend of a brood being
near at hand, the gamekeeper looked cautiously among the
underwood, where the nest was discovered, containing two
young woodcocks, which, on being disturbed, ran off, uttering
a piping note. The keeper, further, gave my friend the fol-
lowing most interesting account of this migratory bird, which
he had repeatedly witnessed. He stated, that it always builds
its nest in a dry situation; that it generally has three chicks ;
that immediately after they are hatched, and until the chicks
can fly, the cock and hen bird regularly, every morning
and evening, clutch the chicks in their talons, and fly
with them to the nearest springs, where they continue until
the chicks have fed ; when the old birds re-convey them in
the same manner to their nest. He also stated, that, when
the winter set in, the woodcock almost entirely deserted the
T)arnaway Forest ; and concluded that they flew southward.
I trust that some one will acquire from Mr. Macbean, the
keeper at Darnaway Castle, the necessary information, to
enable such person to give to the public a more perfect
account of the natural history of the woodcock, than it at
present possesses."

JEtenfrelsoshire. 571

RENFREWSHIRE.

The native Animals^ not Birds, of Renfrew and its Neigh-
bourhood. — Wild animals we have as follows : —

respertilio wurinus, Common bat. ilfus ilfusculus. House mouse.

-Erinaceus europae^us, Hedgehog. sylvaticus, Wood, field, or gar-

♦Sorex Jraneus, Common shrew. den mouse.

jTalpa europae^a, Mole or moudie- decumanus. Brown rat, ground

wort : sometimes a white one rat

occurs. iepus timidus, Hare.

Fulpes vulgaris, Fox. Cuniculus, Rabbit.

ikfustela vulgaris, Weasel, or whithret. Avicola agrestis. Short-tailed short-
putorius. Foumart, or polecat. eared field mouse.

The Birds of Renfrew and its Neighbourhood, — Sir, In
Vol. IV. p. 269. there is a list of the " Birds in the Neigh-
bourhood of Renfrew." The list contains the birds only that
are seen here from the 1st of November to the 1st of February;
and this period of time the Rev. W. T. Bree has taken for
the whole round of a year, and has misunderstood my mean-
ing. (See his remarks. Vol. IV. p. 464.) As to the Turdus
musicus (mavis or throstle), we have them in plenty nine
months of the year : in keen frosty weather they go down the
country nearer to the sea, where the frost is not so severe.
Parus caudatus (long-tailed titmouse) is seen only about the
end of November, in flocks of from seven to about twenty,
busily employed cleansing our hedges of larvae, and perhaps
of benumbed insects. They do not breed in this part of the
country. Turdus pilaris (fieldfares) remains with us about
five months : they depart in April ; some years not till May.
They do not breed here.

The following list contains the Linnaean names of the birds
that breed with us : —

Tri'nga Vanellus, Lapwing or peesweep. Nest on our poorest pastures,
t'orvus glandularius. Jay. Nest on a low tree in a thicket. — C. Coroner

Carrion crow. Nest on a tree near a river. — C. fi-ugllegus. Rook.

Nest on tall trees, generally near a mansion. — C. Pica, Magpie. Nest

on the top of a tree, or in a high hedge, and difficult of access.
J'rdea major, Heron. Nest on the top of a stout and tall pine tree.
Falco Tinnunculus, Kestrel. Nest in a crow's or in a magpie's old nest.
Loxia Chloris, Green linnet. Nest chiefly in a Portugal laurel, or other

evergreen.
Columba Palumbus, Cushat. Nest on trees in our thickest plantations.
Certhia familiaris. Tree creeper. Nest in a hole in a tree, on in a wall.
Turdus ilferula. Blackbird. Can accommodate its nest to a variety of

situations ; sometimes to the inside of an outhouse. — T. viscivorus.

Missel thrush. Nest in the cleft of a tree. — T. musicus, Mavis. Nest

in a hedge or in a bush.
Anorthura communis Eennie, Wren. Nest often under a hanging bank,

among tangling roots.
Accentor modularis, Hedge sparrow. Nest in a low hedge.
Afotacilla alba, Water wagtail. Nest in the thatch of a cottage.

572 Natural History in Scotland: —

Sylvia TJub^cula, Robin redbreast. Nest in ditch-banks, or a hole in a wall.

— S. Phoeniciirus, Redstart. Nest in a wall, or a hole in the side of a
tree.

Curruca salicaria, Sedge warbler. Nest among reeds on the margin of a
river. — C. cinerea, Whitethroat. Nest in a low shrub, or in a hedge.

Sylvia Trochilus, Yellow wren. Nest on the ground among long grass,
and often near a bush.

ikfotacilla y/credula, Willow wren. Nest on the ground, near a low bush ;
lined with feathers. [According to Rennie (Montagu's Dict.)^ the two
last names relate to one bird.] — M. flava. Yellow wagtail. Nest on the
ground. These birds follow the cattle at pasture.

Parus major. Greater titmouse. Nest in the hollow of a tree, or in a wall.

— P. cgeruleus, Blue titmouse. Nest in a hole in a wall. — P. ater,
Colemouse. Nest in holes of trees, or in a wall.

Frlngilla domestica. House sparrow. Can accommodate its nest to various

situations.
Perdix cinerea, Partridge. Nest at the bottom of a low hedge.
OHus aurita, Horned owl. Nest in the old nest of a magpie or of a crow.
-(41auda arvensis, Skylark. Nest in corn fields and pastures.
Pringilla iS'piza Rennicy Chaffinch. Nest on the branch of an apple or other

low tree.
Emberiza Citrinella, Yellowhammer. Nest in a ditch-bank. — E. ikfiliaria,

Common bunting. Nest on the ground, in open fields. — E. iS'chcenl-

culus. Reed bunting or colehood. Nest often in a rush bush in marshy

ground,
ifirundo urbica. House martin. Nest in the upper corner of windows. —

H. rustica, Swallow. Nest often on beams in out-houses. — H. yi^pus,

Swift. I have not seen the nest.

We do not need to go without the circuit of a mile for any
of the above-mentioned birds. Many others breed in this
part of the country; but I only report actual observation.
Had I leisure to go a few miles farther out, many more
species would be added ; such as the curlew, moorfowl, sand-
piper, water-crow, titling, stone and whin chat, landrail or
corncrake, and some others. I forgot to mention the nest of
the landrail: it is in hay fields. I have seen a dozen of young
ones together ; they are very like the young of the domestic
hen : they are entirely black. Saw a swallow on the 10th of
April : we considered its appearance early. Saw no more till
the 22d of that month. Redstart came about the same time:
a pair built their nest in a basket that w^as hanging in an out-
house, and brought out five young. A large flock of wild
geese passed over us by the middle of October, in a south-
easterly direction : w^e held their early appearance to prognos-
ticate a storm in the northern isles.

Meteorology and Vegetation of Rerifrew and its Neighbour-
hood, — The more prominent features of the past year have
been, an excellent seedtime, and a more than usual display
of aurora borealis in the spring months ; a warm summer,
seasonably supplied with gentle showers ; a plentiful and
early harvest ; a full swelling and ripening of buds, which

Forfarshire, 573

bid fair for the next year's fruit ; a general tenacity in the
leaves of trees to retain their hold longer than usual, perhaps
the effect of the first part of autumn being very dry, which
may justify the remarks made by you on the orange trees of
Paris, which, you say, although closely stowed into badly
lighted houses in winter, yet keep their leaves well, on account
of withholding water from them in September \_Gard. Mag,,
vol. vii. p. 133.]« I renounce X. Y. Z., and subscribe myself,
Sir, yours, &c. — George Duncan. Near Renfrew, Nov, 16.
1831.

FORFARSHIRE.

Remarks during a Walk on the Coast of Fo7 far shire, — One
beautiful morning in June, when the rising sun had tinged the
green hills with refulgent gold, and lit up the clear waters of
the Tay with sparkling brilliancy, I left Dundee, and pro-
ceeded along the margin of the river on the road leading to
Broughty. The morning was extremely pleasant, the flowers
breathed their sweetest incense, the trees were apparelled in
richest verdure, a thousand warbling minstrels mingled their
melodies in a matin hymn, and I went on my way rejoicing.
Before entering the village of Broughty, there is on the beach
a ridge of rocks denominated the Hare Craigs, which pre-
sents the botanical amateur with several interesting objects.
The beautiful Dianthus deltoides, the Erythrae^a Centaurium,
jSedum anglicum, »Spirae'a Filipendula, and the pretty little
Teesdal/« nudicaulis, are here in abundance; and in the cre-
vices of the rocks may be found ^splenium ^diantum nigrum
and Trichomanes. The descent from these rocks led me into
the populous village of Broughty, which exhibited a gay and
animated spectacle, from the crowds of emigrants that had
resorted hither from all parts of the country, to breathe the
salubrious air, and bathe their limbs in the invigorating waters
of Tay. Two miles farther onward, I came to Monifieth,
and culled specimens of ^Sisymbrium Sophia, y^nchusa semper-
virens, Malva rotundifolia, and Carduus Maria^m^, which
luxuriantly decorated the waysides. I now entered upon
that extensive tract of sandy downs called the Sands of Bar-
rie, which is a rich field for the lover of nature. A ramble
on these downs, though fraught with all the inconveniences
of desert-travelling, as heat, thirst, and fatigue, will yet amply
remunerate him for his toils. Here he will meet with that
singular plant JSryngium maritimum; and, in profusion, ^ri-
geron acris, Geniidna Amarella, Erodium cicutarium, Salsola
Kali, Cochlearia officinalis and anglica, 5alix repens and ar-
gentea, wuth many other willows ; and, in moist places, Sper-

5^# Natural History m Scotland : —

gula nodosa, Parnassia palustris, and ^lisma ranunculoides.
^quisetum variegatum, Sagina maritima, and Ophioglossum
vulgatum are said to be also found on these sands ; but they
have as yet escaped my research. Among the myriads of
splendid insects that embellish this desert scene, I might
enumerate the admirable butterfly (Vanessa Atalant«), the
tortoise-shell butterfly (Polychloros urticoe), the great silver-
spot fritillary (Argynnis Aglaia), the copper butterfly (Papilio
Phlae'as), many beautiful Coccinellae, >Scarabae^i, ilfuscae, ^ra-
neae, &c. I observed one large specimen of the ^ranea dia-
dema [Epeira diadema], which had entangled in its web a
full-sized Polychloros urticae. Leaving these downs, and
passing the villages of Carnoustie, West and East Haven, I
advanced towards the royal burgh of Aberbrothwick, at which
place I arrived before sunset. Next morning, when the glory
of Sol was gleaming from the calm breast of the ocean, and
the lark trilling his gladsome song in the sky, I resumed my
journey, accompanied by a friend, who volunteered to escort
me a mile or two to the eastward, and direct my attention to
the most remarkable features of the rugged coast. With
enthusiastic delight I contemplated the wild and romantic
scenery along the shore, which, for picturesque grandeur and
subhmity, far exceeded my warmest anticipations. The vast
towering cliffs, the dreadful ravines, gloomy caverns, and
subterranean passages, with the waves foaming, dashing, and
roaring in their bottoms, filled the mind with emotions of ter-
ror, blended with wonder and admiration. We called at a
cottage near the Masons' Cove, one of the most remarkable
of those excavations in the rocks called the coves ; and, after
partaking of some refreshment, visited this natural curiosity,
attended by a curly-haired girl bearing tinder and a lamp.
This grotto, which is of considerable extent, derives its name
from being occasionally used by the "free and accepted masons"
in lieu of a festive hall. With our light we explored its dark
recesses, and drank from a cool spring that issues from a
limestone rock near the inner extremity. Another of these
coves is called the Forbidden Cove (forbidden to us only from
its inaccessibility without a boat), of which Tradition has her
tale. A piper, says she, once had the hardihood to enter this
dreadful cavern, but paid dearly for his temerity ; for he was
never again permitted to breathe the pure air, nor enjoy the
cheering sunshine of heaven. He had taken his bagpipes
along with him, playing a " merry rant," to keep himself
from being " eerie " as he paced its midnight darkness ; and
his instrument was heard for the last time, about a mile up
the country, by some peasants convened around their fire-

Forfarshire, 515

side. From that day to this, the unfortunate piper's fate is a
mystery. There are also the Gypsies's Cove, Dinmonfs
Cove, the Devil's Blowpipe, the Lady's Cove, and many more
for vi^hich I heard no names. These rocks are covered with
various maritime grasses, intermingled with a profusion of
flowers ; chiefly jL5tus corniculatus, »Statice Armeria, Gera-
nium sanguineum, Ficia sylvatica, Heraclhum /Sphondylium,
Pimpinella A^axifraga, iSolanum Dulcamara, Parietaria offici-
naUs, A^colopendrium vulgare, and Silene maritima.

I separated from my friend at a spot called Seaton Den,
the decUvities of which were richly embroidered with the
blossoms of Lychnis diurna, Geum rivale, and Valeriana
officinalis. My attention was then directed to a singular
scene, called the Gaylet Pot of Auchmithie. This is a large
deep cavity in the middle of a field, into the bottom of which
the foaming waves of the ocean have found ingress by a grand
subterraneous passage, scooped out by the hand of nature
through a mass of rocks about 300 ft. in thickness. A field
in the vicinity of this curious place presented me with the
rare ZZypericum humifiisum, associated with Cerastium vis-
cosum, and y^nagtiUis arvensis ; the adjacent rocks were
lavishly adorned with Dianthus deltoides, Astragalus glycy-
phyllos and hypoglottis ; and, in the dens, there was abund-
ance of Campanula glomerata, Zinum catharticum, and A'juga
reptans. I passed through the fishing village of Auchmithie,
and, about noon, reached that stupendous promontory called
the Red Head. It is situated on the west side of Lunan Bay,
rises 250 ft. perpendicular to the sea, and forms part of a bed
of fine red sandstone which runs through the Valley of Strath-
more. I cautiously approached the brink of this frightful
precipice, and ventured to look over ; but a sensation of terror
thrilled through every nerve, and I exclaimed with Shak-
speare — *

" How fearful 'tis to cast one's eyes so low !

The crows, and choughs, that wing the midway air,
Show scarce so gross as beetles. . .

The murm'ring surge.
That on the unnumber'd idle pebbles chafes.
Cannot be heard so high : — I'll look no more ;
Lest my brain turn, and the deficient sight
Topple down headlong."

Innumerable flocks of gulls and other sea-birds have taken up
their abode here ; and by their variety of motions, and conti-
nued clamour, give animation to the rude scene. Around the
venerable ruins of Red Castle, the sandy shore of Lunan Bay
is covered with Psamma arenaria ; among the majestic culms
of which, long-tailed titmice (Parus caudatus) were sporting

576 Natural Hi storij in Ireland,

in considerable numbers. The rocks to the eastward of this
bay do not partake so largely of the wildness which charac-
terises those I had passed ; but they possess an aspect of bold-
ness and grandeur which commands admiration. They are
adorned with most of the plants already enumerated, besides
abundance of Agrimonia ^upatorm and Silene ni\tans. Fol-
lowing their windings with a joyous step and a delighted eye,
I reached Montrose just as the sun was smiling adieu to the
landscape, and the blackbird breathing his mellow effusions
into the ear of departing day. — William Gardiner^ jimim\
Dundee, Jan, IS, \SS2,

Art. III. Natural History in Ireland,

VARIOUS COUNTIES.

Rarer Birds taken in Ireland^ principally in the Vicinity of
Dublin, in the Winter of 1831-2. — Sir, In relation to the
title of this article, I may first mention the dun-diver ; my
description of the trachea and other characteristics of which
you have inserted under Queries (p. 397.) j for the purpose
of acquiring the specific name of my particular specimen
from some competent ornithologist. Besides this were the
following: — Two of the great northern diver (Colymbus
glacialis L.). The first is a female, and answers to the descrip-
tion in Montagu : it had been preserved before I saw it. The
other was brought to me (Jan. 10. 1832), and proved to be a
male: it weighed 10 lbs. 2 oz. : length, 2 ft. 8 in.; breadth,
4- ft. 6 in. : length of bill to the forehead, 3 J in. ; to the corner
of the mouth, 5 in. : the upper edge of the bill dusky, the under
light-coloured : there are no bands on the neck, as in the ma-
ture male, nor are the spots at all numerous ; they are scattered
over the wing coverts and scapulars very sparingly, and are
generally of an oval shape. I imagine that it is in its second
plumage; and, from its great weight, would probably have
attained its mature plumage in July : it is considerably
larger than the female: they were both shot, I believe, in
Lambay. A crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax cristatus
Cuvier) was brought to me on Jan. 24. 1832: for further
facts on it, see Queries (p. 397.). The grey phalarope
(Phalaropus platyrhynchus Tern,) was shot in Dublin Bay
last Nov. [1831]. Three of the fork-tailed petrels (Thalassi-
droma LeachzV) were lately taken ; two of them were sent
from the north of Ireland, the other was taken alive at sea,
but died for want of proper food ; it is now in the museum of
the Dublin Society. A white-fronted goose (v4^nas albifrons)

Various Comities. 577

was bought at a poulterer's in this city, during the present
month. — T. K. Dublin, Feb, 7. 1832.

Water-Jlight of Glencar, — At Glencar, in the vicinity of
Sligo, is a waterfall, which, when the wind blows from a
particular point, is beat back ; forms a kind of water-spout ;
and falls at a distance, like the drizzling shower of a summer's
eve. — J. R, Lee, Kent

List of Rare Birds killed 7iear Belfast. — Great Northern
Diver, A very fine specimen of this bird was killed in
Belfast harbour, April 26. 1831, a male, in full plumage,
weight upwards of 12 lbs. Two others were seen at the same
time. I watched two of these birds, one morning, when they
were only at the distance of 50 yards from the shore. I
could distinguish the spots on the back, and the rings round
the neck. They dived and sported about for a considerable
time, occasionally uttering a peculiar booming cry ; and, after
remaining for some time, swam out to sea. I procured two
of these birds on Larne Lough, on Dec. 25. 1830. The one,
apparently in first year's plumage, weighed only 6| lbs., and
agreed with Bewick's lesser imber : the other, in second
year's plumage, weighed 10 lbs., having only a few white spots
on the scapulars and tail, and the plumage very light. I have
seen one shot on Lough Neagh, Sept. 10. 1831, which had in
all probability been wounded during the past winter. — Black
Guillemot, I procured two: one shot Dec. 4. 1831, and the
other Jan. 8. 1831 ; also a young bird, Aug. 26. 1831. These
birds have been met with, both summer and winter, at the
entrance to Belfast Harbour, near the rocks, where the
common guillemot and others breed; and although I have
never seen the ^gg, I am confident they must breed here. —
Sanderling, Shot Sept. 1830. Very rare here. — Grey
Plover, Oct. 1830. — Lesser Redpole. — Tippet Grebe, Very
rare in the north of Ireland. — Dusky Grebe, Also rare. —
Black-headed Gull, in winter plumage, in which state it is the
red-legged gull of Bewick. — Speckled Diver, I procured
four specimens of this bird, all different in plumage : one of
them agreed, in the form of the beak, with the black-throated
diver (by Mr. Selby's plate), and was different in other
respects from the three others, which I conceive to be the
red-throated diver in young or immature plumage. The
first, I think, is, in all probability, the young black-throated
diver. — Red Godwit, Killed Aug. 1831. — Pygmy Curler,
Three, shot Sept. 6. 1831. — Least Sandpiper, or Stint,
This very rare little bird was shot here Sept. 1831. It
agreed with the description of one in Montagu's Dictionary*
— J, D. M, Belfast, Sept, 22. 1 83 1 .
Vol. v. — No. 28. pp

578 Natural History in Ireland : —

Belfast Museum. — A meeting of the Natural History
Society was held on March 28., when a paper was read, con-
taining notices of some rare birds lately killed in the vicinity
of Belfast, specimens of which were exhibited. The birds
were: — The Rough-legged falcon (Falco iagopus Linn,),
pygmy sandpiper (Tringa subarquata Temm.\ little sandpiper
(Tringa minuta Temm.\ ruff (Tringa pugnax Linn.\ spotted
redshank (Totanus fiiscus Leisler), grey phalarope (Phala-
ropus platyrhyncus Temm.), gan net (variety ofSula klba, Mei/er) ,
The reader stated that he believed three of these birds, the
rough-legged falcon, little sandpiper, and spotted redshank,
were new to the Irish fauna, not having occurred to the late
Mr. Templeton ; and that the pygmy sandpiper, which is
rare to English and Continental naturalists, is not so here.
Montagu, in the supplement to his Ornithological Dictionary,
published in the year 1813, mentioned that he had not heard
of the ruff being found so far west as Ireland ; and Mr.
Rennie, in his late edition of the same work, published last
year, has repeated the passage, without comment. That the
range of these birds is wider than either of these authors sup-
posed, is manifest from the fact, that several specimens of the
ruff have been taken in this neighbourhood during the last
twelve years. {Northern Whig, March 29. 1832.)

DONEGAL.

A List of, and Remarks on, some of the Mammalious Animals,
and the Birds, met *mith in the Three Years ^preceding December
4. 1828, on the Northern Coast of Donegal, By John V.
Stewart, Esq., of Ards House. — From the remarks prefixed
to the list, we learn that our correspondent's observation had
been confined almost entirely to the parish in which he
resides, and been extended only over a period of three years.
Had greater space and time been included, a richer catalogue
of species might have been presented, and other departments
of the animal kingdom included, which are here omitted.
He considers that the coast of Donegal has been but little
or not at all explored ; and that it is very likely indeed to
prove a fruitful field to the exploring naturalist. From its
northern situation, and the diversified nature of its coast and
soil, he deems it an especially eligible situation for investigat-
ing birds, and becoming acquainted with the migratory habits
and change of plumage of many species. Our author has
the following introductory remarks to his list : —

I have, in the following list, given Temminck's classes,
but adhered to the names of Linnaeus, and added to them the
English names of Bewick, as, from the exactness of his plates

Donegal, ^ 579

and descriptions (in his British Birds) the most inexperienced
can have little difficulty in recognising any bird. I have
included between brackets those which I think have been
improperly considered distinct, accompanying them, in many
instances, with notes ; and I have less hesitation in advancing
these opinions, as I find nearly all of them are in unison with
those of Temminck, Montagu, and Edmonstone, though
formed before I had the pleasure and advantage of perusing
their writings.

Explanation of Abbreviations.
re. resident. c. common.

s. p. spring bird of passage. ra. rare,

a. p. autumnal bird of passage. v. r. very rare,

a. V. accidental visiter.

Mamma^lia.

Tespertilio auritus, Long-eared bat. Mus Rattus, Rat.

wiurinus, Short-eared bat. ikfusculus, Mouse.

Phoca vitulina. Seal. sylvaticus, Long-tailed field m.

Canis Fulpes, Fox. araphibius, Water rat.

Fe\\s Cattus, Wild cat. Lepus timidus, Hare.
ikfustela iutra, Otter. Cuniculus, Rabbit.

ikfartes. Yellow-breasted marten. Black variety [Wild ?].

ermlnea, Stoat. Fox-coloured variety.

vulgaris, Weasel . J5alae'na ikfysticetus,Common whale.

r/'rsus ^eles, Badger. Physeter, Cachalot. *

56rex Jraneus, Shrew mouse. Delphinus Phocae'na, Porpoise.
JErinaceus europaj^us. Hedgehog.

AVes.
Rap dees.
Falco lanarius, Lanner, re, raf F. ^'salon. Merlin, a.p, c %

peregrinus. Peregrine falcon, re, ra Pinnunculus, Kestrel, re, c
Subbuteo, Hobby, a.v, v.r Chrysae'etos,Goldeneagle,re,ra$

* In following the arrangement of Linnaeus in the class Mammalia, I
have been forced to place this animal under Physeter, from its teeth being
confined to the lower jaw, though it does not agree in any other respect
with the varieties mentioned under that head : in its general character and
appearance it much more nearly approaches i)elphinus ; and 1 am disposed
to consider it a non-descript of that genus.

f Falco lanarius and peregrmus. Temminck adheres to the opinion,
that peregrinus and lanarius are distinct : they are both rare here, and I
have, therefore, had little opportunity of investigating as to their identity.
If they are the same, lanarius must be the mature bird, as I got three young
ones out of two different nests, full fledged, and very nearly in the perfect
plumage of peregrinus : they unfortunately died after a short time.

% Falco ^'salon generally visits us the first week in October ; I have,
however, met with it occasionally in summer : the males, improperly called
Lithofalco, are generally more numerous than the females ; a circumstance
I am at a loss to account for.

§ I have not yet been able to ascertain any of the ring-tailed eagles in
this county, though I have reason to think I have seen them : I can, there-
fore, as yet, give no opinion as to the identity of this and the golden
eagle.

p p 2

5to Natural History in Ireland : —

F. Albicilla, White-tailed eagle, re,c* 1 F. iVisus, Sparrowhawkj
Osslfragus, Sea eagle, re, c J ^uteo, Buzzard, re, c

* Eagles in the plumage of Albicilla and Osslfragus are very common
here ; and, from this circumstance, I have had many opportunities of
observing them in a wild state, and watching them in confinement : the
result of this has been, a conviction in my mind that they arc the same
bird at different ages. I have been fortunate enough, through the kindness
of my friends, to procure three for my museum ; and, as they ' show the
gradual change from Ossifragus to Albicilla, I will shortly allude to them
all. The first, a young female (I should suppose in its third year, from its
similarity to one I have in confinement), is in what is described as the per-
fect plumage of Ossifragus, having the blue bill, brown iris, dark-coloured
neck and back, and brownish black tail speckled with dirty white, of that
bird. The second, a large female, 14 lbs. weight, I suppose in its fourth or
fifth year, has the fine yellow bill and pale yellow iris of Albicilla, with the
plumage the same as Ossifragus, except the tail, which, from the predominant
distribution of white in it, though still mottled with brown, renders it
proper that it should be referred to Albicilla. I am sure, from the mode in
which the white is distributed, in large patches, on the tail, that it would,
at its next moult, have got the white tail of Albicilla, and probably, the year
after, the cinereous neck and back, which would then make it the perfect
white-tailed eagle. It thus forms the connecting link between the first and
third, which is an old male, with the yellow beak, pale yellow iris, cinereous
. neck, breast and back shaded with pale brown, pure white tail, and perfect
plumage of Albicilla. I have also procured five young ones from the nest,
and of these I have two in confinement. One of these, a male (now in
its third year), taken from a nest attended by two white-tailed eagles, still
preserves the plumage of Ossifragus, with the blue bill, brown iris, and
brownish tail of that bird, though I can, this year, perceive a slight approach,
in the two former particulars, to yellow, and, in the latter, to white. The
other, now in its second year, and which, from its much larger size, I
conclude is a female, was also taken from an eyry attended by two white-
tailed eagles, and is also in the plumage of Ossifragus, differing only from
the other, at its corresponding age, in having the feathers on the back
much lighter; arising, probably, from sexual difference, or from its having
been more exposed to the weather. I also saw, this year, one of two
young ones taken from a nest in the full plumage of Ossifragus ; and as the
male bird was caught in a trap, attending this nest, and is the one described
above in the perfect plumage of Albicilla (now in my collection), I think
the most sceptical can have little doubt of Ossifragus being the immature
offspring of Albicilla. I have been thus particular on this subject, as, from
the numbers here, I enjoy opportunities of investigation which fall to the
lot of but few ; and which I have, therefore, been anxious to take advan-
tage of, particularly so, as it is a question which has been so long discussed
-by many eminent and zealous naturalists, among whom I am happy to find
the illustrious names of Cuvier and Temminck according with my opinions.
The male bird is always much the smaller, and is the lesser white-tailed
eagle of Latham. In spring, I have seen the white-tailed eagle apparently
paired with Ossifragus; and I have reason to believe tliat they breed
together, a circumstance well calculated to prove their identity. The
males, at this season, are very assiduous in their attentions to the females,
and very pugnacious in their rivalry to enjoy their regards. Some time
ago, two of them, near this, fought so furiously for a female, who remained
soaring above them, that having, in the contest, fixed their talons firmly
into each other's breasts, they dropped to the ground, and there con-
tinued their struggle so fiercely, that a peasant passing by was enabled to

Donegal. 581

F. aerugindsus, Moor buzz ., a. v, v. r S. BhhOy Great-eared o\vl, a. v, v.r *

•Strix stridula, Tawny owl, re, ra OHus, Long-eared owl, re, ra
flaramea. White owl, re, c

Omnivores.

Corvus Corax, Raven, re, c C. Pica, Magpie, re, c

Cornix, Crow, re, c G^raculus, Red-legged crow, re, c

frugilegus. Rook, re, c *S'turnus vulgaris. Starling, c
ikfonedula, Jackdaw, re, c

Insectivores.

T'urdus viscivorus, Missel thrush, T. itferula, Black ouzel, re, c

re, c t Sterna Cinclus, Water ouzel, re, c

pilaris. Fieldfare, a.p, c ikfotacilla. Reed fauvette, s.p, c J

musicus, Throstle, re, c Sylvia, Whitethroat, s.p, c

iliacus. Redwing, a.p, c i^ubecula, Redbreast, re, c

torquatus, Ring ouzel, re, c yrochilus. Willow wren, s.p, c ^

despatch them both with his stick : thus valiantly rather yielding their
lives, than the prize for which they were contending j a bravery worthy of
a better fate.

* Four of these birds paid us a visit for two days, after a great storm
from the north, when the ground was covered with snow : they have not
since been seen here. As I am informed that a pair of them breed in Tory
Island, about nine miles to the north of this coast, it is probable that they
came from that island. I have heard of them nowhere else.

f These birds, on the approach of autumn, get into flocks of from 15
to 20 : till within the last few years they were entirely unknown in this
part of Ireland, where the misseltoe (Fiscum album L.) does not grow.
The young differ much in the plumage from the old.

% Bee-fin, phragmite of Temminck, and sedge-warbler of Latham, not
ikfotacilla salicaria of Linnaeus, to which, by Bewick and other authors,
it has been improperly referred, and to which, with Temminck, I think it
does not bear the least resemblance. 1 have searched in vain for it in Dr.
Turton's edition of Linnaeus's Systema NaturcBy the only one to which I
have had an opportunity of referring ; and I am therefore disposed to think
that it has been unnoticed by the great father of natural history. It is
common in this country ; one of the latest of our spring visitants, and
certainly one of the most interesting in its manners, though, from its shy
habits and constant restlessness, it is difficult of access ; and, from the
unceasing variety of its borrowed song, and its retirement, it is often passed
unnoticed. Often have I been so deceived by its imitative strain, that, on
its assuming the clear note of the thrush, the harsh twitter of the sparrow,
or the vocal power of some other songster, I have given up my pursuit of
it, supposing it must have stolen off in a different direction, and have only
been undeceived when it has had recourse to its natural harsh and chiding
oft repeated note. Frequently it rises above the brake in which, perhaps
concealed, his helpmate is assiduously attending to the duties of incubation,
and beguiles her of her weary hours, by imitating the lark, both in its
melodious strains and its gestures.

§ In vain I have searched in this country for the three varieties of this
bird described by White in his Natural History of Selborne; nor have I ever
met with it in England or Scotland. Its song, if deserving of that name,
has never been properly described in our works on natural history. It
consists of whistling notes, which it runs through the gamut of B; thus : —
Px N N

p p 3

582 Natural History in Ireland : —

M. i?^gulus. Golden-crested wren, M. modularis,Winter fauvette,|se,c
re, c alba, Pied wagtail, re, c

Troglodytes, wren, re, c Boarula, Grey wagtail, re, c

CEnanthe, White rump, s p, c* flava. Yellow wagtail, re, o

Rubetra, Whinchat, s.p, c ^lauda pratensis. Titlark, re, cj-
Rubicola, Stonechat, re, c campestris, Field lark, re, c

Granivores.

i^lauda arvensis. Skylark, re, c E. Jilliaria, Bunting, re, c

Parus major. Greater titmouse, s.p, c ^Schoeniculus, Black-headed

ater. Cole titmouse, re, ra Bunting, re, c

caeruleus. Blue titmouse, re, c nivalis. Snow bunting, a.v, ra

caudatus, Long- tailed titmouse, L6xia Pyrrhula, Bullfinch, re, ra

re, v.r Coccothraustes, Grosbeak, a.v,

Emberiza Citrinella, Yellow bunting, v.r, %

re, c Chloris, Green grosbeak, s.p, c

comprising ten notes : the latter ones are very soft, and run into each
other : and though it would thus appear anxious to be well grounded in the
principles of music, by thoroughly and constantly practising the gamut,
like a true musician, yet it never arrives at greater musical perfection ; and
its notes, though soft and melodious, are not sufficiently diversified to
merit the name of song.

* The old wheatears, which are among our first spring visitants, take their
departure from this place soon after the. young ones can provide for them-
selves : this may account for what White mentions, their being found about
this period, in great numbers, on the downs in Sussex, where, until then,
they are scarcely met with. The young ones which remain a month or
six weeks longer, are very different from the old ones, at this age, in their
- plumage.

f Temminck, under pipit, very properly separates pratensis and cam-

Eestris from the family ^lauda of Linnaeus, under which they should never
ave been ranked ; as, in their habits, food, and form of bill, they much
more nearly approach the wagtail. According to this arrangement, they
form a very natural link of connection between ikfotacilla and ^lauda, to
the latter of which, in some points, they bear a resemblance.

ij: I shot a pair of these birds a few days ago, in fine plumage ; the first
instance, I believe, of their occurring in Ireland. Their strength of beak
as compared with the size of the bird, is quite wonderful : it results from
very strong and large muscles, which, extending on either side from the
eye to the occiput [hind-head], reach from the lower mandible to the top
of the cranium, where they meet ; they are separated from the eyes by
deep bony ridges, to which they are firmly attached. By contracting these
muscles, which are thus so firmly attached to the skull, it exerts such a
force as enables it to crack, with its hard and strong bill, the thick stone of
the hawthorn berry, an operation requiring a strong exertion of the
human jaw. On dissection, I found one of these stones thus cracked in
one of their stomachs, with the fresh kernel still in one half of the shell.
A few hours after they were dead, I took a strong pair of scissors and
a knife, using them as levers to force open their bills, and found the
muscles had so firmly contracted, that, to effect my purpose, I had to use
a wedge ; a forcible proof, it will be allowed, of their strength. Their
bills alone, however, are formed as a pair of mit-crackers, as the muscles of
the neck, unlike those^f the woodpeckers, are not strong. Not so with the
wings, which are furnished with such strong muscles, that they could almost
vie with the pigeon in strength and rapidity of flight. They would, there-
fore, unlike many of our birds of passage, be well calculated for distant
migrations.

Donegal. 583

J^rlngilla domestica. House sparrow, F. Linota, Grey linnet, re, c

re, c * linaria, Lesser redpole, s.p, c

coeUebs, Chaffinch, re, c Carduelis, Goldfinch, re, c

Zi/goddctyli.

Cuculus canorus. Cuckoo, s.p, c

Anisoddctt/li.

Certhia familiaris. Creeper, re, v.r

Alcpones.
-<41cedo Tspida, Kingfisher, a.v, v.r.
CJielidones.
/firundo rustica, Chimney swallow, H. ^^us. Swift, s.p, ra

s.p, c Caprimulgus europae^us. Nightjar,

urbica, Martin, s.p, c s.p, c

riparia. Sand martin, s.p, c

QolumbcB.
Columba Palumbus, Ring dove, re, c C. Turtur, Turtle dove, a.v, v.r

GallincB.
Phasianus colchicus. Pheasant, a.v, r T. P^rdix, Partridge, re, c
Tletrao scoticus, Red grouse, re, c Coturnix, Com. quail, a.v, v.r

Grallatores.

Charadrius Calidris, Sanderling, v.r A. stellaris. Bittern, re, v.rf

Haematopus ostralegus, Oyster ^Scolopax arquata, Curlew, re, c

catcher, re, c Phse^opus, Whimbrel, s.p, c

Charadrius pluvialis. Golden plover, Trfnga alpina. Dunlin, s.p, c

re, c Cinclus, Purre, a.p, c J

Hiaticula, Ring dottrel, re, c maritima, Purple sandpiper of

Tringa Vandllus, Lapwing, s.p, c Montagu, re, c

interpres, Turnstone, re, c 1 cinerea, Ash-colrd. Sandp., v.r

Morinella, Turnstone, re, c J iScolopax Calidris, Redshank, re, c

-^'rdea major, Heron, re, c leucophae^a, Godwit, re, c §

* I have had a milk-white sparrow in confinement for two years : it was
taken from the nest, is very sprightly, and a female. At its moults there
has been no change in the colour of its plumage : it has got the eyes of all
albinoes.

-)- I am informed that bitterns were very common in this country thirty
years ago : from increased cultivation and population they are now, how-
ever, very rarely met with.

J Notwithstanding the opinion of Temminck and Montagu, I am still
inclined to consider the purre and dunlin distinct. I have always found
the former with a longer bill and larger body than the latter ; and though
this may arise from a difference of age, which, I have always found, has a
material effect in both these respects, yet, as I have never met with them
in a state of change from one to the other, although both are very nume-
rous here at different seasons, I hesitate to adopt their opinions, though
the former has done more than any of his predecessors, by judicious
distinction, to elucidate this family, which is involved in much confusion.

§ Of the god wits, or family of Limosa, Temminck mentions only two varie-
ties ; malinura having the bill straight ; and rufa, having it curved upwards.
There are, however, two varieties, both of them common in this country,
having the latter character of bill, leucophae^a of Linnaeus (improperly, by
Bewick, called ^gocephala of that author), and canescens of Linnaeus and
Montagu : of these, the latter is so much smaller, so much shorter in the
bill, and has so different a cry from the common godwit, that there can be no
doubt of the propriety of including these three varieties in the family Liradsa.

p p 4

584^ Natural History in Ireland : —

S. canescens, Cinereous godwit, re, c Rdllus aquaticus, Water rail, a.p>ra
rustlcola. Woodcock, a.p, c Crex, Landrail, s.p, c

Gallinago, Common snipe, a.p, c i^'ulica chloropus, Com. gallinule,re,c
Galllnula, Judcock, re, c

Pinnatipedes.
l^ulica atra. Coot, s.p, ra Colymbus minor, Little grebe, re, c

Palmipedes.
Sterna ^ir undo. Common tern, s.p, c Procellaria pelagica. Stormy petrel,

minuta, Lesser tern, s.p, c s.p, c \

iyarus glaucus. Burgomaster, re, ra ^^nas J'nser, ferus, Greylag goose,
marinus, Black-backedgull,re, c a.p, c

argentatus of Montagu, Lesser erjthropus, Bernacle, a.p, ra

black-backed gull, re, c Bernicla^ Brent goose, a.p, c

fuscus. Herring gull, re, c C'ygnus f^rus. Wild swan, a.p, c

canus. Common gull, re, c ' Tadorna^ Sheldrake, s.p, c

tridactylus, Kittiwake, s.p, c 1 ^oschas, Mallard, re, c

^m«. Tarrock gull, s.p, c J Penelope, Wigeon, a.p, c

~ frecca. Teal, re, c

glacialis, Long-tailed duck, a.p,

V J $
Manluy Scaup duck, a.p, ra
ferina. Pochard, a.p, ra
Clangula, Golden eye, a.p, c || "I
Glaucion, Morillion, a.p, c J

ridibundus,Black-h.guli, re, c*"

Brown-headed gull,
cinerarius. La petite mouette

cendree of Brisson, re, c
erjthropus. Brown gull, re, c
parasiticus, Arctic gull, re, raj-
crepidatus,Black-toed gull, re, ra

* This, and the three succeeding, are the four states of plumage of the
black-headed gull. The first is the mature bird in the plumage of summer j
the second is that state of it when the black on the head has, in autumn,
faded into brown ; the third, of which there is a particularly good repre-
sentation in Bewick's British Birds, is the bird in its winter plumage, when,
in great numbers, they follow the plough ; and the fourth is the plumage
of the young bird. I have killed them in all these stages, and in all the
intermediate ones, at periods when, from moult, the change from one to
the other was quite apparent. The soft tuft of white feathers on the lower
eyebrow may be safely taken as a distinguishing characteristic in all these.

■f The arctic gull seldom approaches the shore. I cannot, therefore,
ascertain whether it ever breeds here or not, where, indeed, it is a rare
bird. I lately got a specimen of iarus crepidatus, which, from having the
two middle tail feathers considerably longer than the others, induces me
to consider it identical with parasiticus, of which it has long been supposed
to be the young. Much remains yet to be discovered respecting the
gulls. I am certain, on further investigation, the number of species will
be diminished.

% These birds breed in great numbers in Tory Island, in the rabbits*
holes, like the puffins ; from which circumstance, I have been able to get
numbers of them alive : they scarcely ever approach the mainland.

§ I got a specimen of J'nas glacialis a few days since ; it is the first I
have met with in this country : though with nearly the perfect plumage of
the female, and without the long tail feathers, it proved, on dissection, to
be a male : it must, therefore, be a bird of this year.

II That -^''nas GlaCicion is the female and immature male of A'nas
Clangula cannot be doubted : I have killed them paired with the golden
eye, and have constantly seen them mixed with them in winter. The
mistake of supposing them distinct has arisen from some of them, on dis-
section, proving to be males; a circumstance which never ought to have
any weight in this species, or in those in which the males are known, in
their immature stages, to have the plumage of the fem.ales.

Donegal, 585

A. Fuligula, Tufted duck, a.p, ra P. JBassdnuSy Gannet, a.v, ra

iliergus serrator. Red-breasted mer- foljmbusglacialis,Northern diver/
ganser, a.p, c a.p, ra

*

Crested corvorant, re, c J septentrionalis. Red-throated"!

;ulus. Shag, re, c 1 diver, a.p, v.r f

cristatus. Crested shag, re, raj stellatus. Speckled diver,

Pelecanus Carbo, Corvorant, re, c 1 I'mmer^ Imber, a.p, c

J septentrionalis, Red-1

Oraculus, Shag, re, c 1 diver, aj3, v.r f V

,a.p,cj

* From Coljmbus glacialis and/0??mer being very common in this country,
where they arrive the first week in October, I have had good opportunities
of observing them ; and in doing so have found the telescope a valuable
assistant, as it has enabled me to watch them much more closely than I
could otherwise have done, from their quick sight and consequent shyness;
indeed, it will be found at all times a useful accompaniment by the orni-
thologist. [See other mentions of its application. Vol. IV. pp. 145. 450.
464.; Vol. V. pp. 83. 205. 380. 396.] But to return. The result of my
observations on glacialis and I'mmer has been a conviction in my mind
of their being the same bird in different states of plumage. I have every
season been able to procure a number of specimens of them both ; and
have thus been enabled, from them, to select for my museum an uninter-
rupted succession, proving, by almost imperceptible changes, the transition
from Vmmer to glacialis : the former of these, in the early part of their
residence here, is much the more coMmon ; but towards the end of spring,
when they leave this country, the number of the latter is greatly increased;
and though, even at that period, they have not attained the perfect plumage
of that bird, yet, the completion of the white spots on the back, and the
black bands on the neck though not yet quite perfect, are sufficient
to characterise the bird in such a manner that it cannot be mistaken.
These birds appear to vary much in size and weight : they generally
measure, from the tip of the beak to the end of the tail, about 2 ft. 9 in.,
and weigh about 9 lbs. ; but I lately got a specimen, in the plumage of
I'mmei'y measuring only 2 ft. 4 in., and weighing but 6 lbs.; and, as I can
perceive no difference in its bill from that of glacialis, I am forced, in fol-
lowing the indications of Temminck, to consider it as that bird, though its
diminutive size would have led me to consider it as the young of Coljmbus
arcticus, which I have not yet ascertained in this country. That these
birds are well able to fly, I have had frequent proofs ; but not so as to their
pedestrian capability. One which I got alive and uninjured, on being placed
within a few yards of the water, when I was setting it at liberty, remained
on its breast, looking wistfully at that element in which it was accustomed
and wished to move, but appeared quite incapable of transferring itself to
it ; and, though placed repeatedly upright, it always fell down again on its
breast : and it was only at length emancipated from this helpless state by
being placed close to the edge of the water, when pushing itself along with
its wings and feet, it got afloat, and, joyfully diving, bid us a long adieu.
The mode in which the toes are jointed with the tarsus prevents their
being bent forward out of its line ; and the great sharpness posteriorly of
that member renders it almost impossible for it to walk ; and this trial
of its powers would seem to indicate that it can only rise on its wing from
the water. I therefore think it must hatch on cliffs or low islets, from
which, without much exertion of its feet, it could launch itself.

f The speckled diver is also very common in this country, though the
red-throated diver occurs but rarely : I have, therefore, as yet, been unable
to trace the connection between them ; but, from analogy with I'mmer^ 1
am disposed to coincide with the views of Temminck and suppositions of
Edmonstone, and consider stellatus as the young of septentrionalis ; and I
think that the reason why the latter, relatively to the former, appears in

586 Natural Historic in Ireland,

C. Trolley Guillemot, s.p, c * "I ^'Ica arctica, Puffin, s.p, c.

minor. Lesser guillemot, a.p, c J Pica, Black-billed auk, <

Gryllcy Black guillemot, re, c 1 Torda^ Razor-bill, s.p, c

Spotted guillemot J

much smaller numbers than glacialis, compared with I'mmery is, that both
stellatus and septentrionalis leave this country much earlier than the
others, and consequently before the period when, like stellatus, Fmmer
would have assumed the plumage of maturity. Like I'mvier, they also vary
much in size, which has induced Bewick to mention three varieties of the
speckled diver. One which I sent to the Dublin Royal Society, corre-
sponding with his second variety, is several inches shorter than two in my
collection.

* The valuable testimony of Edmonstone, who has so thoroughly inves-
tigated the subject, renders it almost unnecessary for future ornithologists
to say much more to establish the identity of Colymbus Troile and minor,
and of ^'Ica Torda and Pica ; yet, as Montagu (whose opinion the British
naturalist ought so justly to respect) has so ingeniously supported the
opposite opinion, and as I have had particularly good opportunities of
observing these birds, I am unwilling to neglect adding my testimony to
that of Edmonstone and Temminck. By the unprejudiced enquirer, the
evidence of experience, in subjects of this nature, will always be preferred
to the most elaborate reasoning of the scientific ; for it is by this test alone
that the value and correctness of their conclusion can ultimately be esti-
mated, and it is to it they must ultimately themselves have recourse. The
principal ground on which Montagu forms his opinion of their being
distinct is, the inferior size of the body and bill of C. minor ; which cir-
cumstance universally prevailing, if he succeeded in proving the maturity
of the bird, would undoubtedly have warranted the conclusion he has
drawn. As he however fails, I think, in doing so ; and as we find, in almost
all instances, though often not very apparent, that young birds are inferior
in both these respects to the parent bird ; and as in spring (precisely at
that period when the young bird would in these respects have attained
nearly to the perfection of the old one) I have met with minor having the
bill as long though not quite so hard^ with the same indentures in it, and
the body as large as any foolish guillemot I ever saw, of which, soon
afterwards, there are immense numbers all along this coast; I think it will
be admitted as strong proof against the views of those who maintain the
opinions of Montagu, who would, I am sure, have, on more extended
examination, admitted the incorrectness of his first opinions on this sub-
ject.

f The same reasons have led me to a similar conclusion respecting
A'XcB. Torda and Pica. I have been enabled, by procuring many speci-
mens of the latter, at different periods during winter and the early part of
spring, to trace uninterruptedly the change from the immature plumage of
Pica to the perfect garb of Torda ; and in one specimen of the former,
killed late in spring, the bill was nearly as large as in the latter, and much
larger than in those killed previously to it in winter : the white stroke from
the eye to the bill, and the white line on the upper mandible, were also
pretty distinctly marked. These periodical distinctions I have always
found coincident with the advance of the season.

Hints for Improvements, 5S7

Art. IV. Hints for Improvements,

Conventional Signs, to express Objects in Geology and Phy-
sical Geography. — Sir, Physical geography and geology hav-
ing become popular sciences, the slightest hints which tend
to their progress will, I am persuaded, find ready admission
into your journal. Half a century since, such a thing as a
physical map of a country was almost unknown ; zigzag lines,
traced without any regard to accuracy, designated the course
of rivers, and a number of well-formed mole-hills were in-
tended to represent mountains ; " the big Hill of Howth "
proudly vying in importance with Chimborazo. Something
has been done towards the correction of such incongruities,
but much remains to be done; and in this respect we are
much behind our neighbours the French and Germans. This
principally arises from the want of conventional signs: but
if this be to be regretted in physical geography, it is still more
so in geology. It will be said, that we have excellent geolo-
gical maps. True : the greatest praise is due to Messrs. Smith
and Greenough ; but they are obliged to call in the aid of
colours to designate the different formations : however, here
the end is attained, and if not in the best manner, yet so as to
afford the requisite instruction. Our artists, like so many
Doctors Syntax, scour the "wide world" in search of the pic-
turesque. A fine mountain is a fortune to them ; it makes
such a pretty picture ! and, after it has passed through the
hands of a Heath or a Finden, becomes an elegant ornament
to a book : but I would ask, like the mathematician at the
theatre, what does that prove ? Why, that the scenery is
very beautiful, and very romantic : the eye is delighted, but
the mind is not instructed or improved ; and this, too, for the
want of conventional signs. Now, Sir, I submit whether this
be not a subject worthy the consideration of the Geological
Society. In heraldry we have lines and dots, which perfectly
designate the colours to be blazoned on a shield ; why should
we not employ a similar method to designate the different
formations? These signs, fixed and authorised by the Geo-
logical Society, would soon become generally adopted. Our
travellers would soon learn them by heart, and fix them in
their memories. Any of the popular treatises on geology
would enable them to ascribe to the landscape, especially
mountain scenery, its true character. They would embody
it in their sketches, and thus aid, without trouble or difficulty,
the progress of geological science. The artist, thus viewing
his landscape with the eye of science, will find new^ charms in
his pencil ; and, instead of contenting himself with a distant

588 Retrospective Criticism.

prospect, he will approach his object, study its geological
structure ; and, instead of bringing home a series of merely
pretty views, he will have to offer a valuable tribute to science.
Almost every science has its signs ; and I trust that
Messrs. Murchison, Buckland, De la Beche, Sedgwick, Lyell,
Greenough, Conybeare, &c., will feel that geology, which
ranks in importance with the highest, ought no longer to be
without them. — J, Byerley, London^ April 29. 1832.

Art. V. Retrospective Criticism,

Facts and Observations in Natural History y communicated by Mr. Sells,
the publication of which, in this Number, was promised in p. 470. of the
last, must stand over until the next Number. — J. D.

On Birds oiling their Plumage. — Sir, In answer to Mr. Waterton, " On
birds using oil from glands, for the purpose of lubricating the surface of
their plumage," and particularly with regard to the following paragraph
(p. 414.), I send you some remarks on a tame dove : — " Suppose, for sake
of argument, that the bird does actually employ oil from the gland to
lubricate the plumage (which, by the by, I flatly deny), how is the head
and part of the neck to be so supplied with oil ? Why, the truth is, they
never can be supplied ; and if you examine, with the nicest scrutiny, the
feathers of the body which come within the range of the bill, and the
feathers of the head, which are out of the range of the bill, and then com-
pare them, you will not observe the smallest difference in their downy
appearance : proof positive that the plumage of the body has not been
lubricated with oil from the gland." — No proof at all. Last summer, I
brought up, by hand, a turtle dove, which I accustomed to fly about my
room, till within this last month, at all times, except at night. InvariaJDly,
when I had it sitting on my hand, it would begin pluming itself (particu-
larly while in moult, which it was for about four months), and, at such
times, it was curious to see it apply its bill to the gland or nipple just
above its tail, and, by pinching it, procure something (though I could
never discover what) ; on withdrawing its bill, it always stretched out its
neck, and twisted its head about in the strangest manner, with its eyes
shut, and the bill opening and shutting, as if the act of chewing something
which put it in pain, but which, I always considered, was for the purpose of
spreading, or allowing the substance procured to circulate to all parts of the
bill : this operation lasted about twelve seconds, and then it immediately
applied it, very quickly, to only three or four different parts of its plumage
at a time, and, at its pleasure, easily enough, all over its head and neck, by
rubbing them on such parts as were within a convenient distance (for
who ever saw a bird, particularly a duck, wash itself, without observing it
rub its head and neck on its back, or the shoulders of its wings ?) : this I
have seen it do at least ten times in as many minutes, on my hand ; but
confess I could never detect what it was it procured from the gland for
the purpose of spreading over its plumage, though I could distinctly see it
pinch the nipple, as it would allow me to remove the feathers while in the
act. Yours, &c. — H, Henslow. St. Albans, June 14. 1832.

Stormy Petrels taken in the Interior of the Island. — Sir, I have before
now heard the remark made, that if one were to enumerate all the birds to
be met with in any district, or even parish, it would be quite surprising to
see how full and extensive a catalogue might by this means be supplied;
especially if the district selected for the purpose, in the first instance, be

Retrospective Criticism. 589

one favourable for ornithology, and all those species included in the num-
ber which are only occasional or merely accidental visiters. Who would
have looked to find the stormy petrel in Warwickshire, the most central
portion of the island ? Yet so it is : one of your correspondents records
the fact of two of these birds having been taken in or near the town of
Birmingham (see p. 283.). Nor are these the only instances of the kind
that have occurred. A friend of mine, who resides at Coventry, has in
his possession a specimen of the stormy petrel, which was caught in the
streets of that city on the 2d of November, 1820, after some very tem-
pestuous weather. The bird was first observed flying up Bishop Street,
about 7 ft. or 8 ft. from the ground, apparently much exhausted. It had
attracted the notice of several persons, and was eventually captured by
my friend's assistant clerk, who knocked it down in the street with his hat.
Another specimen of this bird, I am informed, was likewise taken in Co-
ventry, some time between the spring of 1825 and 1827 : the exact date I
have been unable to ascertain. This latter specimen was killed in Much
Park Street, by a waggoner, with his whip ; and is, I believe, now in the
collection in Sir Eardley Wilmot.

Mr. Warner j to whom I am indebted for the above particulars, has just
forwarded to me the following communication relative to other and more
recent captures of the species in this vicinity: — " May 21. 1832. I
have this morning seen two more specimens of the stormy petrel : one of
them was shot on the 20th or 21st of December last, while sitting by the
side of a pit at Stivichall (about a mile from Coventry) : it is a very fine
specimen. The other was found dead, by the side of the canal, some time
during last winter." From the above instances, it would appear that it is
by no means so unusual a circumstance as one might have supposed, for
the stormy petrel to be driven far in shore by violent gales j and to be met
with, in an exhausted state, in the interior parts of the country.

I may here mention, as an additional instance of superstitions connected
with natural history (see p. 209.), that it is, as I am informed, accounted
ill luck by the sailors to kill a stormy petrel, or (as they call the bird)
" Mother Carey's chicken." But on this subject of superstitions I may,
perhaps, add a remark or two on a future occasion. I am. Sir, yours, &c,
— W. T. Bree. Allesley Rectory^ May 23. 1832.

Wilson has some most sensible remarks on the ominousness and hatred
which sailors attach to the stormy petrel, as appears by the interesting
article which Professor Rennie presents of this bird, under the name of
" petrel," in his edition of Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary. — J. D.

Inland Specimens of the Forked-tail Petrel, (p. 282, 283. 380.) — It is
very remarkable that so rare a bird as the forked-tail petrel (Procellaria
Bullocks of Fleming, whose name I prefer to " Leachw," for the reason
stated by himself) should have been so extensively diiFused over the
country as it has been this year. In addition to those mentioned as being
found in Oxfordshire (p. 282.), in Worcestershire (p. 380.), in Hereford-
shire (p. 283.), and in Warwickshire (p. 283.), I have been informed that
a number have been obtained in the neighbourhood of the metropolis.
Besides these, four have been picked up dead in the vicinity of York, one
or two near Hull, one at Thirsk, and three or four near Halifax. —
Thomas A/lis. York, 8th of the 5th month (May), 1832.

Grey Phalarope. (p. 282, 283. 379.) — I have this year obtained a most
beautiful specimen of the grey phalarope, which was taken up dead in a
ditch near^his city [York]. —Id.

The British Species of Petrel, — Sir, At p. 282, 283., mention is made of
the forked-tail petrel, and the reader is referred to Dr. Latham's General
Synopsis of Birds ; thereby making it appear that the author was unac-
quainted with the discriminations which have taken place, within these few
years, on that subject, as well as on many others. I beg leave, therefore, to

590 Retrospective Criticism.

inform you, that, had the doctor's late work on ornithology been consulted,
it would have been found that the bird in question has been fully described
under the name of Leach's petrel ; and that the several birds formerly
known by the name of stormy petrels are now found to consist of three
distinct species, and are so described in the General History of Birds*, viz.
stormy petrel (vol. x. p. 289.), long-legged petrel (vol. x. p. 193.), and
Leach's petrel (vol. x. p. 194.) ; all of which are British. There is also a
fourth, which has been confounded with the others, and which is figured
in the American Ornithology, vol. vii. pi. 60. fig. 6. ; and this is probably the
frigate petrel of the General Synopsis and History of Birds. As to the other
forked-tail petrel, mentioned (p. 282.) as being 10 in. in length, this is pro-
bably the one so called both in the General Synopsis and History of Birds,
p. 188., and is a totally different and larger species. It is, therefore, to be
hoped that, before the inquisitive naturalist forms his opinion on any orni-
thological subject which may come under his observation, he will no longer
consult the General Synopsis of Birds, published between forty and fifty
years since, as he may meet with fuller information by looking into the
General History of Birds of the same author, and which made its appear-
ance little more than seven years ago. I am, Sir,yours> &c. — Amtopkilus.
April 9. 1832.

A Wigeon^s Nest in England, — Your correspondent J. C. tells us (p. 384.)
he found a wigeon's nest. This is the first time I have ever heard of a
wigeon breeding in England. I hope he reared the young, which, he
informs us, were hatched from the eggs he carried home. — Charles Water-
ton. Walton Hall, May 12. 1832.

Habits of Incubation of the Carrion Crow {Corvus Corone L.). — Sir, Ob-
serving (p. 142.) some remarks, by Mr. Waterton, on Professor Rennie's
new edition of Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary, I resolved, during the
present season, to ascertain, as far as practicable, the truth of the profes-
sor's assertion that the carrion crow does, on leaving its nest, cover the
eggs with wool, rabbit's fur, and such like soft materials. Now, though I
take Mr. Waterton to be a clever man in his way, yet I think that he treats
Mr. Rennie very roughly and unceremoniously ; and, instead of awarding
him the merit due to his laborious and successful investigations through
the mazes of natural history, he abuses him through thick and thin, and
calls his plan of study (the most of which is very excellent) " a mere ex-
halation of his own brain," " a kind of will-o'-the-wisp, which will lead his
pupils into the swamp of error." However, I will return to the crow.
Wishing, as I have before said, to examine their nests; and, by ocular
demonstration to convince myself either of the truth or incorrectness of
Mr. Rennie's statement, I have, during the past six weeks, ascended, by
means of " climbers," no less than four and twenty trees. Fifteen of these
nests had eggs; and, out of them all, only one was in anyway "covered."
This was built in an elm covered from top to bottom with ivy ; and the
eggs in the nest were strewed with a few fresh-picked ivy leaves, which
entirely concealed them : indeed, at first, I thought it had been constructed
the year before ; but, on removing the leaves, 1 discovered the eggs deeply
embedded in soft moss and wool. Now, to account for this seems diffi-
cult ; and, I must own, I know of no satisfactory explanation but that the
bird, while sitting, might have pecked them off, so closely was she sur-
rounded with the leaves, though, perhaps, with no intentional purpose.
But what, I think, deceived Mr. Rennie, at first a little deceived me : some
of the nests have such deep beds of wool, moss, and cows' hair, that the
eggs seemed quite lost ; and might have given the professor his erroneous
idea of their being covered with those substances, " to keep them warm."
It is well known that the long-tailed titmouse (Parus caudatus L.) lines

* A General History of Birds, by John Latham, M.D. &c. &c. ; in ten
volumes 4to; 1821—1824.

Reffvspective Criticism. 591,

its pretty mansion with such a profusion of feathers, that sometimes, to
obtain the eggs perfect, it is necessary to take it to pieces ; as does also
sometimes the golden crested wren (i^egulus cristatus Tiaj/)^ the eggs of
which are bedded in a similar manner.

But, before I conclude, I must again beg Mr. Waterton to alter his style
of diction with regard to the professor ; and, instead of picking out all his
little errors, and thus holding the work up to public odium, to say some-
thing about his great talents, and unwearied investigation in the pursuit of
natural history. — A. B. C. London, April 21. 1832.

The Nuthatch, ^itta europcB'a L. (p. 488. 502.) — Mr. Dovaston incident-
ally remarked, in a letter written to us on March 28. 1832, " I saw the
nuthatch, this morning, cleaning out his hole for matrimony." The same
gentleman favours us with additional remarks on the same bird, at p. 502.
of the present Number : all the facts are additional to those supplied in
p. 488, 489. Mr. W. H. White asks, and describes cases that suggest his
query (Vol. IV. p. 465.), if it be accurate to reckon the nuthatch truly a
mason bird ; as it appears to use masonry rather in the fortification of its
nest, than in the construction of the nest itself? Mr. White has seen an
instance, or instances, in which no masonry at all, even for fortification,
had been used. This question, which seems only one of degree, we beg
to commit to the responsibility of some kind correspondent, and pass on to
exhibit Professor Rennie's new view of the uses of the masonry which the
nuthatch does usually apply to her place of incubation. Montagu thus
says {Dictionary, 2d edit., p. 340.) : — " The nuthatch chiefly affects wooded
and enclosed situations, choosing the deserted habitation of a woodpecker,
in some tree, for the place of nidification. This hole is first contracted by
a plaster of clay, leaving only sufficient room for itself to pass in and out.
The nest is then made," &c. " If the barrier of plaster at the entrance is
destroyed when they have eggs, it is speedily replaced [the instance
described by Mr. W. H. White (Vol. IV. p. 465.) is a beautiful example of
this] ; a peculiar instinct to prevent their nest being destroyed by the
woodpecker and other birds of superior size, that build in the same
situation." Professor Rennie appends to this view, by Montagu, the
following, by himself: — " It appears to me no less probable that the wall
may be constructed to prevent the unfledged young from tumbling out of
the nest when they begin to stir about ; for all young birds of a certain
age become very restless ; and, in the instance in question, they might, if
there was no barricade, find their way out, and be precipitated to the
bottom of the tree." — J. D.

Supplementary Remarks on the Communication, " On some remarkable
Forms in Entomology."" (p. 318 — 327.) — I beg leave to correct a few trifling
errors which have crept into my paper upon some remarkable insects, and
to introduce an additional observation or two. And, first, with regard to
the derivations of the names employed, and which have been introduced
in editorial parentheses. Although I constantly adopt the very necessary
plan of giving the derivations of names proposed by myself, I did not intro-
duce them into my paper, because they were names imposed by others,
who, in some instances, have not given the derivation of their names.

Entomologists are at variance respecting the name Paussus; some con-
sidering that Linnaeus intended it to have reference to the circumstance of
the insect's being the last which he described ; and, consequently, that the
word was derived from pausa, a full stop : in which case the name ought
to have been written with only one s; alleging that such a fanciful method.
of" coining names" was not unusual with the great Swede : but whatever
may have been its intended derivation, it has appeared to me to be more
correct to adopt the name as proposed by himself, as he has given no clue
to his intention. The word Diopsis ought rather (as it has been suggested
to me) to be considered as derived from dia, through, and opsis, vision ;

592 Retrospective Criticism.

because the sight must be supposed to pass through the long ocular foot-
stalks; rather than from dis, twice, and opsisy or " assisted inspection," as
J. D. has rendered it. Respecting the derivation of Elenchus, there must
be some mistake ; for Curtis, speaking of the pseudelytra, or short lateral
appendages of the thorax, says, " viewed above, they look like pendants
for the ears; whence the generic name :" he has not, however, given the
Greek root. The word Mormolyce (not Marmolyce, as misspelt), it has
been suggested to me, has reference rather to the shape of a violin, of
which a'slight idea is given by the form of the insect ; but your editorial
supposition of its allusion to a hideous spectre appears equally probable.
The derivation given of Chiasognathus does not exactly express Mr.
Stephens's intention ; since he mforms me that he alluded to the peculiar
manner in which the jaws cross over each, the Greek word chiazb referrmg

to the letter X. ■ -, r,

The engraver, in introducing the antennee near the eyes, m the figure
of Diopsis, cut out the two fine spines which arm the centre of the
ocular footstalks (and which were represented in the proof which I saw),
probably supposing that the antennee had been misplaced in their former
situation. The more highly magnified figure, which I now enclose,
(fig. 103.), of one of these footstalks, exhibits this spine, as well as the
103 .,*''■'" peculiar situation and structure of the

antennae.

I omitted to mention that the first

notices and figure of Elenchus Walkeri

appeared in this Magazine (Vol. III.

p. 332.), where it is mentioned by Mr.
Dale as a " very minute Stjlops ? " Curtis mentions only one speci-
men, captured by Mr. Dale * ; but that gentleman (in Vol. IV. p. 266.
of this Magazine) makes further mention of a " Stylops ? or n. g. ?
Walkeri?" taken in the preceding June, without reference to his previous
notice : adding, " I cannot find any bee about likely to produce a Stylops
now ; it might come from some Fespa, and then would probably be a
Xenos ? " ; with the farther addition (p. 267.), " The Stylops is certainly
a new genus, and the only one in the order which I have taken this year."
I also omitted to mention, that the Paussidas, as well as the Diopses, are
inhabitants of the tropical climates of the Old World, being found in
India, Sierra Leone, Senegal, &c., and that several species of Stylops are
found in England.

For " stirpes," p. 326. line 4., read " stipes," the footstalks, or basal
portion, of the mentum or chin< — J. O. Westwood. The Grove^ Hammer .wtithy
May 24. 1832.

* I would here request permission very earnestly to suggest to this
most indefatigable gentleman, that the manner in which some of his most
valuable captures are announced is sadly tantalising to those who, like
myself, have no means of obtaining further information upon the subjects
which he mentions : for instance, in the passages quoted above, doubts
may be entertained whether both statements refer to the same insect. Is
it a Stylops, a Xenos, or an Elenchus ? surely the inspection of the
antennae would instantly have shown whether it belonged to Xenos, as
Mr. Dale appears at one time to have considered. In like manner, what
is the fact to be learned in the indecisive statement contained in No. 19.
[Vol. IV. p. 267.] : — "I once had a specimen of J96mbyx menthastri, and
six of Ophion vinulae, hatched from the pupae of JJombyx vinulus ; which
is certainly a curious fact." Again, many of the most interesting announce-
ments in his paper, in No. 25. [Vol. V.p. 249 — 252.], are very perplexing,
and marked with interrogations.

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY.

SEPTEMBER, 1832.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I. Remarks on the Spring of 18S2, as compared ivith that of
1831, together ivith a Calendar shotting the Difference of the Two
Seasons. By the Rev. W. T. Bree, M.A.

" ^statem increpitans seram, zephyrosque morantes." Virg. Georg. 4.
" Chiding the tardy summer, and the zephyrs long delay'd."

Notwithstanding the unusual mildness of the preceding
winter (the mildest, I think, I ever remember*), the spring of
the present year has been, contrary to what might have been
expected, any thing but an early one. The backwardness,
indeed, of the season has been a subject of conversation in the
mouth of almost everybody; and the justness of the remark
will appear more circumstantially, upon an inspection of the
following calendar, which records the dates of such natural oc-
currences as I happened to have noted equally in each of the
two seasons, viz., the spring of 1832 and that of 1831. Some
of the first spring flowers, indeed, such as the snowdrop and
several species of crocus, which usually expand their blossoms
in January or February, if only the weather be open, and
their progress be not retarded by frost, were earlier this season
than they were in the one preceding : but, with comparatively
few exceptions, the flowering of plants, the appearance of in-
sects and of our summer birds of passage, in a word, the signs
of spring, were this year later than usual. The fieldfares f

* The throstle was to be heard singing almost throughout the winter ;
and the titmouse commenced its spring note on the 27th of December.

-|- These birds were much less numerous, at least in this part of the
country, during the season of 1831-2, than usual. I scarcely saw a good

Vol. v. — No. 29. qq

594.

Remarks ofi the Sping of IS 32,

tarried with us till towards the middle of May; a pretty
sure criterion of a late spring. That admirable songster, the
blackcap (I quite agree with Mr. Dovaston in his praise of
this bird's vocal powers, see p. 425.), was unusually late in
coming, not presenting himself to our notice in this part of
the country till the 18th April. I almost began to fear that he
had missed his road, and would not find his way to us at all.
Ourlittlefavourite,Poly6mmatusArgiolu5 (azure blue butterfly),
which generally comes forth by the middle of April, or earlier,
was still more tardy, not making its appearance till the 1 8th
May; and Pontic cardamines not till the 1 7th of that month.
On the whole, the spring of the present year was unquestion-
ably a backward one ; and it appears, therefore, that an early
spring is not to be looked upon as a sure consequence of a
very mild and open winter.

1832.

1831.

January 13

Jan. 6

17

22

February 1

Feb. 10

3

16

4

16

-. ^., . - 7 ■■

12

5r flO
I 8

hq toji^ . 18

10

■iAn-;-<jf.i 20

14

March 8

March 9

9

{I

18

3

24

12

29

19

Winter aconite flowered - - -

Snowdrop flowered - . - -

Crocus biflorus flowered - - -

Phalse^na primaria* appeared
Common yellow crocus flowered
Crocus revolutus flowered - . ■ -

ili'usca tenax (drone fly) appeared >v-'odu 'ixft
Chafiinch sang J^i^'rvid ms

Hive bees appeared - -^ ^s^.Q'io^jy

ieuc6jum vernum flowered *•'' ! i <-

Rooks began to build - - -

Purple saxifrage (S. oppositifdlia) flowered
Apricot tree flowered
Pilewort flowered
Wood anemone flowered
^^pis terrestris appeared

i}in ■.■ ' :

flock of them throughout the winter. In the spring, however, a considerable
party, with their usual attendants, the redwings, frequented the trees near
my residence, for the purpose of feeding upon the ivy berries, which they
greedily devour at that season of the year. In the month of April I ob-
served them, for many days in succession, at the same hour of the morning,
pay their regular visit to the same trees, chattering and hopping from
branch to branch, and busily employed among the ivy ; and I may men-
tion, as rather an extraordinary feat at so late a period of the year, that my
man shot eight fieldfares on the premises, in a very short space of time, on
the 26th of April. On the 4th of May I observed a small flock of them
high in the air, pursuing a straight and steady course towards the north-
west. I conceived them to be on their departure, and that I should see
no more of them for the season. On the 7th of May, however, some were
again seen visiting their favourite ivy trees; and, finally, I saw a few in
another part of the parish on the 14th of May.

* One of the earliest and most constant intimations of approaching
spring is the appearance of this insect, and of one or two other moths,
floating with expanded wings on the surface of ponds and still water.

as compared with that of IS'ii,

595

C&ltha palustris* flowered
iSpartium ^coparium* flowered
^'pis retusa appeared
Vanessa urticae f appeared
Oonepteryx rhamni ^ appeared
Willow wren (Sylvia T'rochilus?)^ sang
Plum tree flowered
Pear tree flowered >
Cherry tree flowered 3
Dog violet flowered

1832.

1831.

March 30

April 10

April 2

15

3

4

■

March 28

4-

April 29:1:

March 21

6

April 6

7

[1

9

6

* A single plant, in a warm and sheltered situation. The general bloom-
ing of each species was not earlier than usual.

f This butterfly is commonly drawn forth from its winter quarters by one
of the first warm and sunny days that happen to occur in the month of
March : hence it has been termed " fallax veris indicium '* (the deceitful
token of spring). In the Isle of Wight I once saw it on the wing the 8th of
January, 1805. I may here remark, as a circumstance of unusual occur-
rence at so early a period of the year, that, on the 10th of March, 1826, I
saw on the wing, and at large, in the course of a morning's walk (not on
entomological research) in this parish, no less than five species of Papilio-
nidae, viz. Vanessa urticae, polychloros, c. &lbum, and To, and Gonepteryx
rhamni ; and, of the first and last, many examples. The 10th of March
may certainly be considered rather early for the appearance of any butter-
fly, at least in this part of the country. But what I think remarkable in
the present instance is, that the above-mentioned five constitute all the
species that are ever to be seen hereabouts so early in the spring ; and, of
these, neither Vanessa polychloros, c. ^Ibum, nor To, is common in this
neighbourhood. I therefore noted the occurence among my memorabilia
[memorable events], I need hardly add that this 10th of March, 1826, was
a most serene and lovely day, warm and free from wind, and with bright
sunshine. If newspaper authority may be trusted, a swarm of bees was
taken in a garden hedge of John Day, of Swarby, near Sleafbrd, the same
day. (See English Chronicle^ March 16. 1826.)

X I did not happen to see Gonepteryx rh&mni in 1831, till the above
date, which is late for its first appearance : by others, on whose inform-
ation I can depend, it was observed on the wing the 28th of March in that
year.

jj I am by no means certain that I have correctly assigned this name, as
well as that of the lesser petty chaps (Sylvia hippolai's) to their proper
owners. The bird I allude to by the name of Sylvia JVochilus must be, I
should think, the earliest of our summer birds of passage, if indeed it does
not remain with us through the winter. It may generally be heard about
the middle of March, sitting towards the top of a tree in the vicinity of
woods and plantations, and uttering its not unpleasing note, which, so far
as I am aware, consists only of chinck-chincky chinck-chincky frequently
repeated. The species here intended by the lesser pettychaps arrives about
the same time with the swallows, or a day or two before them ; it fre-
quents hedges and bushes, more particularly in low moist situations ; and
its warbling song, though short, is sweetly melodious. Both birds are
very common ; and, though they differ widely in their periods of arrival,
habits, and especially in their song, they closely resemble each other in the
colour and markings of the plumage. Like some other observers, I find
the willow wrens, pettychaps, and whitethroats, a most difficult tribe to
distinguish. Perhaps some contributor to the Magazine may be able to
throw more light on the subject.

QQ 2

596

Remarks on the Spring of 1832,

Redstart sang - - - -

Lesser pettychaps (Sjlvia hippolais?) sang -
Swallow (^irundo rustica) appeared!
Stellaria JZblostea flowered J-

Blackthorn flowered J

Pontia rapae appeared - - -

Blackcap sang - - -

Cardamine pratensis flowered
iStilla nutans flowered - - -

Martin (^irundo urbica) appeared
Cuckoo sang _ . - _

Swifts appeared - -

Hipparchia MegaeVa appeared

Mgeria appeared
Least dragon fly (Libellula vfrgo) appeared
Apple tree flowered
Veronica ChamaeMrys flowered
Nightingale sang - - -

Hawthorn flowered

Fieldfares last seen - - -

P6nti« cardamines appeared
Polyommatus Argiolus appeared
Pontia brassicae appeared
Panorpa communis appeared
Cockchafer appeared - - -

Ermine moth ( J56mbyx menthrastri) appeared
iScarabae'us auratus appeared
Libellula depressa appeared
iS'carabae'us hortlcola appeared

The last named insect is considered exceedingly destructive in gardens.
Being on a visit in Staffordshire, in themonth of June, I observed whole beds
of strawberries (not hautboys) likely to prove nearly barren, though they had
flowered copiously, and the season was favourable for a crop. I was in-
formed that the failure was owing to the fernshaws (the provincial name for
the beetle), which are accused of eating the anthers and interior parts of
the blossom. In the same garden my attention was also called to the
ravages committed by this depredator on the apples, by gnawing holes in
the young fruit ; which consequently dies and falls off", or at least becomes
much blemished. I was assured that the fernshaws had been detected in
the fact ; and I am rather disposed to think that the charge in both in-
stances is well founded. I had long been aware of the insect's partiality for
rosebuds and blossoms, which it greedily devours. In the north of JEng-
land, where it is much used as a killing bait for trout, the insect is commonly
known by the name of " bracken-clock,'* a name of the same import with
the Staffordshire term " femshaw," each signifying " fern-beetle."

}

1832.

1831.

April 14

April 1 1

15

8

fll

16

i^^

111

17

11

18

March 29

21

April 12

25

21

27

May 6

May 1

April 24

6

May 13

"

19

5

7-

6

April 26

May 5

10

April 24

12

May 10

14

April 21

17

23

r

19

18 4

May 12

I

18

22

15

26

20

29

April 14

31

May 18

June 2

23

■ The Fieldfare feeds on the Berries of Ivy, So does the blackbird, and so
do other species of the thrush family, and probably birds of other families
as well. The dryish and somewhat mealy pulp of the ivy berry seems to be
the only part of it which affords them nutriment, as the skins and seeds of
the berries may be found voided on the surface of the grass, soil, and wall
tops, which may chance to be in the neighbourhood of the berry-bearing
plants of ivy. The naked seeds of ivy, enlarged by the moisture of a bird's
body, considerably resemble swollen grains of wheat; and the accurate

as compared with thai of 1831, 597

Ray records the following tradition founded on this resemblance : — " Grana
baccis exempta, triticeis nonnihil similia, ciim a nonnullis in areis et tem-
plorum tectis a volucribus temere sparsa inventa fuerint, occasionem illis
dederunt imaginandi, rumoremque in vulgus prodigiorum credulum spar-
gendi, tritico pluisse." — Catalogus Plantarum AnglicB et Insularuni adja-
centiwHy ed. 1670, p. 160. Ray's meaning may be thus explained ; — The
seeds removed from the berries resemble grains of wheat ; and when found
in open spaces, and upon the roofs of buildings, where they had been scat-
tered by birds, have given occasion to the common people, credulous of
prodigies, to rumour that the heavens have rained down wheat.

The Blac/ccap honours the Bayswater gardens with its presence and
melody. It sang liberally, both last year and this, about the office of the
Magazine of Natural History. 1 have not heeded dates, but believe that
this year I did not hear it here till near the close of May, and then through
June, and to the 6th of July, when I left for a ramble into the country.
The blackcap, in Cambridgeshire, is the theme of an elegant and expressive
simile, viz., " as cheerful as a blackcap," applied both to grown up persons
of habitual cheerfulness ;

" And jovial youth, of lightsome vacant heart,
Whose every day is made of melody." -y

Nightingales were singing in Kensington Gardens in the middle of the day
(night I will not answer for,) of the 25th of April : all joy and soul they,
were ; and the day was slightly sunny, with a cool feeble wind, after rain
the day preceding: the expanding foliage of the leafing trees was all
around looking lovelily, but the nightingales preferred the denser covert
of the evergreen holly trees and yew trees.

The Rose Beetle^ 5'carabaeHis auratus, or Cetonia aurata as now called, j[s
not at all rare about Bayswater, where, if I rightly remember, I this spring saw
specimens on the wing by the middle of April. The larvae here inhabit the
soil of the gardens, although what I have somewhere read may be very true,
that their usual habitat is decayed wood. I think this species is far from
plentiful in Suffolk and Cambridgeshire. On the 29th of June, 1831, I saw
here a fine specimen revelling luxuriously among the very numerous stamens
of the ^rgemone grandiflora. Thesebeing yellow in hue, and the petals of the
large saucer-shaped flower snowy white, the Cetonia was, by virtue of his
rich, varied, and burnished hues, a conspicuous object.

Scarabce'us horticola, called "thechovy" in Norfolk, is there deemed
very injurious to apple trees, and other trees and plants, as it feeds both on
leaves and all the parts of the flower. Chovies were abundant at Thetford,
Norfolk, about ten years ago ; but, as far as my experience has reached,
always rare about Bury St. Edmunds. On the 9th of June, 1829, 1 saw
one in the botanic garden of the last-named town, flitting about a flowering
bush of the Provence rose.

Vernal Appearances at Waterbeach, near Cambridgey April 17. 1832. —
The following paragraph, extracted from a private letter, may be worth
introducing here. — J. D. .% .'^ \ "L

" We are getting on pretty well with our gardening work, afthoii^
vegetation is advancing rapidly. The plum trees will next week be in full
bloom. The birds sirig delightfully. A tomtit, as we call him [the com-
mon wren], who with his mate has been building a nest with us, sang
this day almost as loud as a lark. A pair of robins have built a nest in my
next-door neighbour's out-house, in an unoccupied birdcage. The gnats
form themselves into troops of an evening, and are dancing in the beams
of the setting sun. A gay species of butterfly has made its appearance,
but I have not yet seen the brimstone-coloured one." — J, D. sen.
April 17.

QQ 3

598 Additions to the British Mammalia.

Art. II. Additions to the British Fauna ; Class, MammMia.
By William Yarrell, Esq. F.L. and Z.S.

Having devoted a portion of my leisure, during the last
winter, to a close examination of all the recent specimens I
could obtain, from various localities, of the smaller-sized
British Mammalia, I have been amply repaid the trouble of
the investigation, by discovering two species, neither of which
have as yet been admitted in any British fauna.

The first of these is a ,Sorex well known to Continental
naturalists, whose remarks and descriptions I shall have
occasion to refer to. The second is a species of Arvicola,
probably hitherto confounded with the Mvts agrestis of Ray,
which appears to be identical with the Mas agrestis of Lin-
naeus, and also with the Mus arvalis of Pallas : but the little
animal to which I now solicit attention, I have no doubt I
shall be able to prove to be perfectly distinct, and deserving a
place, as a true species, in the catalogues of systematic authors.
The Oared Shrew (5'o^rex re'mifer).

This species is at once distinguished from our more com-
mon water shrew, S. fodiens, by its uniform colour. The
whole of the upper part of the head, the body, and sides, are
velvet black ; the situation of the ear is marked by a tuft of
white hairs, more conspicuous than in the water shrew, from
the greater contrast of colour ; under the lower jaw a small
patch of light brown ; under surface of the body rusty black;
tail black, but with a line of pendent greyish white hairs along
its under surface ; feet and toes ciliated.

This *S5rex is stated by Geoffroy in the Ann. Mus., and
by Desmarest in his Mammalogie, to be the largest of the
shrews found in France; and its measurements are stated
by Desmarest to be ; — length of head and body equal to
4 in. 3 lines English, the tail 2 in. 9 lines. My specimen of
this shrew, which was caught in a ditch in Battersea Fields,
measures in the extent of head and body but 3 in. 4 lines ;
the tail 1 in. 9 lines. This difference in relative size might
create doubt that my specimen was the real /Sorex remifer.
There is, however, in the collection at the British Museum,
an example of this shrew, obtained from Mon. Baillon, the
celebrated naturalist of Abbeville, and labelled by him as a
specimen of the S. remifer, the true Miisaraigne port-rame of
French authors. With this preserved specimen I have been
very kindly permitted to compare my own shrew, in hand,
side by side ; and they agree in every particular, of colour,
markings, and measurement, and are, in fact, perfectl}^ iden-
tical. 1 have as yet obtained but one specimen of this shrew;
but it is probable that the 5orex ciliatus of Sowerby's Brit.

Additions to the British Mammalia. 599

Mis,y p. 49., from a specimen taken in a ditch in Norfolk, may
be considered as representing an example of S, remifer ; but
the specific term ciliatus is not sufficiently definite, as it refers
to a character possessed by all the water shrews.

Bank Campagnol (Arvi'cola ripa^ria). ,vn

The authors of our various British faunas all agree iri In-
cluding but two species of true campagnol (genus Arvicola
Auct.), The first, A. amphibia, the water campagnol, or
water rat ; the second, the A. agrestis, ikfus agrestis of
Ray, our common short-tailed field campagnol. Both these
species are too well known to require description; but it will
be necessary that I should refer occasionally to the specific
distinctions of the latter, in order more clearly to point out
the differential characters between that and the Arvicola
riparia, or bank campagnol, which I believe to be new. ,; '"

ilfus agrestis Ray^ Arvicola agrestis Flemings Field Campagnol.— Length
of the head and body. Sin. 6 lines ; head only, 1 in. \\ line; tail, 1 in. 1 line;
ears, b\ lines. Head large, muzzle blunt ; ears rounded, nearly hid in
the fur; tail not quite one third the length of the body; fur. soft, all
the upper parts reddish yellow brown, ash-grey beneath.

Arvicola riparia. Bank Campagnol. — Length of head and body,3in/4 lines';
head only, 1 in. and half a line; tail, 1 in. 8 lines ; ears, 5 lines. Head
and muzzle stout ; ears rounded, more prominent than in the field
campagnol ; tail exactly half the length of the body ; colour of the f^r
deep chestnut brown above, ash-grey beneath, hairs on the tail long, ail-
pressed, extending beyond the end of the last vertebra. The exterif^l
differences are in the size and colour of the body, and relative length of
tail. Two skeletons of each species have been set up, aiid the following
are the comparative measurements : —

Field Campagnol. Bank Campagnol.
inches, lines, iiiches. lines.

Length of the head - - - - 0 \^\ ;.v«P ^O^id

From the first dorsal vertebra to the last 0 10 - -p ^

Length of the six lumbar vertebrae - 0 11^ -^uo^ ^/tcYji^J

First dorsal vertebra, to the tuberosity! „ g '^^^ >>>'nu->( I nj
of the ischium ^ ', ,.,/;. if; <.; .■;, a^i -jnil .*^ aW

Length of the OS innominata -: {'^ 7;|,'P . ^ • ^fihr/v *v^fiii;<: ^{j

Sacral vertebra, to the end of the tail "-"^ '1 "'
Scapula - - - - - 0

Humerus - - - - - 0

Olecranon to the carpus - - - 0

Femur - - - - - 0

Tibia 0

Os calcis to the end of the longest toe - 0

The number of cervical, dorsal, lumbar, and sacr^ vertebrae is the
same in both, viz. seven, thirteen, six, and one, respectively : but the tail
of the field campagnol has but nineteen vertebrae ; that of the bank cam-
pagnol contains four more, making twenty-three. It will also be seen, by
a reference to the measurement, that the relative dimensions of the body
and tail, in each, are nearly reversed. The field campagnol has the cavity
of the thorax of much larger size than that of the bank campagnol, the
ribs of greater expansion, and the sternum longer. The head of the bank

Q Q 4 . 'V -•> \\ \w\

6§# Additions to the British MammdUa,

carapagnol is shorter, and more square in its form, exhibiting a greater
appearance of strength; and although a smaller animal, with a shortier
back, as well as shorter limbs, it has actually longer feet.

I In the viscera of the thorax I observed no difference. The
stomachs in each appeared also of the same form, and both
presented an apparent contraction, at the distance of one third
from the cardiac orifice. The liver of the bank campagnol
was more extensively divided than that of the field campagnol,
and contained seven distinct lobes, while that of the latter
presented but five. Both species are equally devoid of gall
bladder. The difference in the comparative length of the
isiQali; and large intestines was, however, most decided : —

cliii. Viii: , Field CarapagnoL Bank Campagnol.

<-b^o•:^!^°'^^ll^"testines -. - HJ in. d^ in.

^ Caecum - s - 2f 4

Large, intestipes - - 8 W

These measurements, in which, it will be observed^ the proportions are
reversed, appear to indicate some variety in their choice of food, with
which I am not as yet acquainted, and the contents of the stomachs were
too far digested to assist me.

A fourth series of points of distinction may be drawn from
: their habits. The bank campagnol fi'equents hedge bottoms
and ditch banks; from which circumstances I was induced to
adopt the specific term riparia: it is also said to make its nest
of wool. The field campagnol, on the contrary, prefers living
; among the long herbage of water meadows and moist pastures,
and makes its nest of dried grass.

If I am correct in my opinion, that the evidence here pro-

<luced is conclusive as to the distinction of these two species,

. more precise systematic characters will be necessary ; and I

venture to propose their separation in the following terms: —

i; Field Campagnol, Arvicolaagrestis. — Supra rufescenti-fusca, subtus cinerea;
) auriculis vix prominulis j cauda tertiam partem corporis longitudine vix

Eequante.
' Bank Campagnol, Arvicola riparia. — Supra saturate castaneo-rufescens,

subtiis cinerea; auriculis paulo prominulis ; cauda dimidium corporis
I longitudine aequante, apice pilis subelongatis.

The first specimen I obtained of this new species was from
Birchanger, in Essex ; and, by the assistance of kind and
zealous friends, I have since obtained two other examples from
the same locality. I have also received specimens from three
■other counties, Hertfordshire, Middlesex, and Berkshire ; but
it is by no means so common as the short-tailed field campagnol.

P. S. Since sending you an account of the occurrence of the oared
shrew (^Sorex remifer) at Battersea, and probably also in Norfolk, I have
received a communication from my friend, the Rev. L. Jenyns, who is at
present engaged in preparing a Manual of the British Vertebrata^ that he has
himself taken an example of this species of shrew, in a corn field near the
fens in Cambridgeshire, since my notice was written.

. Birds a?id Birdnesthig, 601

Art. III. Something about Birds and Birdnesting, By RusTicus.

Sir,
' Unskilled in the abstruser departments, I have often been
^a^lighted with those particular parts of your work which smell
so freshly of woods and fields, and seem to me like a mirror
in which one may behold a true and faithful reflection of
Nature's face. Among your contributors in this way, none
speaks to the heart like the " wanderer " Waterton. A good
deal has been said in your pages of birds' nests, and different
opinions expressed as to the manner in which the process of
caretaking is managed by the old birds : in comparing what I
read, with my previous knowledge of the subject, I find Mr.
Waterton always right, and several of your other correspond-
ents always wrong.

The district to which my observations have been pretty
much restricted, is that of Godalming, in Surrey ; and though
they have little that is wonderful to recommend them, let their
truth plead their cause, and obtain for them a place among
your more scientific and valuable articles.

Hahlls of the Moorhen. — The piece of water called Old
,^Pond, about one mile from Godalming, on the London road,
is a most attractive spot to waterfowl; and an island in its
"centre is the resort of some of them in the breeding season,
^^and also of a variety of other birds, which find it a safe and
unmolested place for the same purpose. I have often delighted,
in years that are gone, to visit this island and its inmates ;
the owner, Robert Moline, Esq., used to allow us free in-
gress to all and every part of the estate; a liberty any one
with an incipient thirst for a knowledge of natural history
Would be sure to avail himself of. One day, having pushed
off from the shore, and moored the little shallop to some of
the osiers which surrounded the island, I began my accus-
tomed examination : the first object that attracted my atten-
tion was a lot of dry rushes, flags, reeds, &c., enough to fill a
couple of bushel baskets. This mass was lodged about 20 ft.
from the ground, in a spruce fir tree, and looked for all the
world as if it had been pitched there with a hayfork. I
mounted instantly, thinking of herons, eagles, and a variety of
other wonders : just, as my head reached the nest, flap-flap,
out came a moorhen, and, dropping to the water, made off in
a direct line along its surface, dip-dip- dip-dipping with its
.^oes (they do this just to cool their toes, 1 have often conjec-
tured), and was at last lost in the rushes of a distant bank,
leaving an evanescent track along the water, like that occa-
sioned by^\stone which has been skilfully thrown to n\ake

602 Birds and Birdnesting.

" ducks and drakes." The nest contained seven eggs warm as a
toast. The situation was a very odd one for a moorhen's
nest ; but there was a reason for it : the rising of the water in
the pond frequently flooded the banks of the island, and, as I
had before witnessed, had destroyed several broods by immer-
sion. [See p. 381.]

Nest of the Large black-headed Titmouse^ in a Magpie's Nest
of the preceding Year, — The next object of attention was a
titmouse, of the large black-headed kind, swinging himself
about like a ropedancer, and whistling out his sing-song just
like a fellow sharpening a saw. To my surprise, the gentleman
entered an old magpie's nest, to which I had paid frequent
friendly visits during the previous spring; he immediately
came out again, and jumped about, sharpening his saw as
before. One might almost as well handle a hedgehog as a
magpie's nest : in this instance some cuttings of gooseberry
bushes, skilfully interwoven into an arch above it, rendered it
rather more untempting than usual. I was meditating how
to commence the attack, when another tomtit flew out in great
choler, and rated at me, as though I had already robbed her :
after a good deal of trouble, during which the slender fir top
was swinging about with me in the breeze, I succeeded in
obtaining a peep into the nest : there was nest within nest ;
the cosiest, softest, warmest, little nest, with eight delicately
specked eggs at the bottom of the magpie's more spacious
habitation. I declined meddling with them, whether on
account of the awkwardness of my situation, or the interven-
ing gooseberry bushes, or the cruelty, I will not say.

Nest of the DabchicJc, — I have occasionally, though but
seldom, found the dabchick's nest in the reeds on the banks of
this island. Bewick's account of its size is not correct : it is
Jarge for the bird, but of very inconsiderable thickness, and
always wet, so that the eggs are for ever in a sort of puddle.
The eggs in those I saw were three only, dirty white, and
about as big as a blackbird's, but longer. I never found any
covering on the eggs, or observed any thing near that would
answer the purpose ; but this habit may exist in some in-
stances : so many naturalists have spoken of it, that it can
hardly be fabulous, like the same peculiarity as applied to
rooks and crows. On the subject of these, if it wanted con-
tradicting, I could, from personal inspection, hundreds of times
repeated, give it a flat denial.

Habits of the Fern Owl. — Beyond Godalmirig, on the
Liphook road, is a great tract of barren heathy land : it
stretches wide in every direction, and includes immense peat-
bogs, and several large ponds. One particular district, called

Birds and Birdnesting, 603

the Pudmores, is the favourite resort of the fern owl. In the
daytime, while walking across the moor, you will every now and
then put up one of these singular birds ; their flight is per-
fectly without noise, and seldom far at a time : but of an even-
ing it is far different; about twenty minutes after sunset, the
whole moor is ringing with their cry, and you see them wheel-
ing round you in all directions. They look like spectres ; and,
often coming close over you, assume an unnatural appearance
of size against a clear evening sky. I believe its very pecu-
liar note is uttered sitting, and never on the wing. 1 have
seen it on a stack of turf with its throat nearly touching the
turf, and its tail elevated, and have heard it in this situation
utter its call, which resembles the birr of the mole-cricket, an
insect [figured Vol. II. p. 290.] very abundant in this neigh-
bourhood. I have almost been induced to think this noise
serves as a decoy to the male molecricket, this being occa-
sionally found in the craw of these birds when shot. Those
who may not be acquainted with the cry of the bird or the
insect, may imagine the noise of an auger boring oak, or any
hard wood, continued, and not broken off, as is the noise of
the auger, from the constant changing of the hands. The eggs
of the fern owl have frequently been brought me by boys :
they are only two in number, greyish white, clouded and
blotched with deeper shades of the same colour ; the hen lays
them on the soil, which is either peat, or a fine soft blue sand,
in which she merely makes a slight concavity, but no nest
whatever.* The first cry of the fern owl is the signal for the
night-flying moths to appear on the wing, or rather the signal
for the entomologist's expecting them.

Habitat of the Blackcock and of the Lapwing,-^ From the
Pudmores, along the brows of the heath hills, towards Tilford,
and again fromTilford up to the Devil's Punchbowl onHindhead,
the black cock is found every year more or less abundantly ;
and the lapwing breeds throughout the district by thousands.

I am, Sir, yours, &c. ^K'

Godalming, July 28. 1832. RusTicuSi

* Does this bird remove its eggs to another place when they have been
discovered? Audubon, in his Ornithological Biography y states having
himself witnessed the C'aprimulgus carolinensis to do this, and that the
male and female took each an egg in i*^s large mouth, and then they flew
off together. Mr. Hewitson, in the 7ih Number of his interesting British
Oology y figures, t. 30., the egg of the Caprimulgus europae^us L.y and quotes
Audubon's account of the C. carolinensis, that observers may ascertain if
C. europae^us also ever transports its eggs ; and for the same object it is-
that the question is here noticed. Since the above was printed, a farther
contribution towards the history of this bird has been received j see p. 674.

60# Poisier of the Commofi Bee

Art. IV. On the Poxver of the Common Bee to generate a Queen*
By Robert Huish, Esq., Author of " A Treatise on Bees."

Sir,

In one of the earliest epochs of apiarian science, a con-
siderable degree of importance was attached to the formation
of artificial swarms ; and this plan originated in the well
known fact of several queens being bred in the same hive
during one season ; whilst, on the other hand, a hive seldom
throws off more than two swarms : consequently, this surplus of
queens must by some means be destroyed by the bees. And,
in order to obviate this necessary act of precaution on the
part of the bees, it was suggested to take the supernumerary
queens from a hive, and, by giving to each a proportionate
number of subjects, a corresponding number of artificial hives
jnight be formed, which, under auspicious circumstances,
would acquire sufficient strength and food to support them-
selves during the winter.

Another method was subsequently adopted, the chief prin-
ciple of which consisted in extracting from a prolific hive a
certain portion of comb filled with eggs and larvae; and,
having fastened it in another hive, then to introduce a num-
ber of common bees, who proceeded in the regular way to nou-i
rish the brood, and to create Jor themselves a queen. This plan,
however, soon fell into desuetude, from the extreme rarity of
its success, and the positively injurious effects which it pro-
duced on the parent hive, by the frequent drains upon its
population. It is, however, this extraordinary power of creat-
ing a queen, alleged to be possessed by the common bee, and
with which some writers of the present day even hesitate not
to invest that insect, which at this time excites the attention
of all persons who have made the natural economy of the bee
the particular object of their study : and, strongly impressed
as I am with the conviction of the utter fallacy of many of the
arguments adduced in favour of the above hypothesis, I now
submit the following refutatory remarks to the impartial and
dispassionate consideration of those, whose minds are not
swayed by antiquated prejudices, and who object to receive a
position as substantially correct, merely because it has been
advanced by an individual of acknowledged and deserved
celebrity. ::?

Schirach, to whom we are indebted for much valuable in*i
formation relative to the natural history of the bee, as well as
for many absurd and untenable theories, was a strenuous advo-
cate for this presumed power of the common bee ; and he says
that it is merely necessary that an e^g should be in the comb.

to generate a Queen* 605

as the bees themselves possess the astonishing power of con-
verting it, by a process known only to themselves, into a queen
bee. Schirach, however, adduces no facts grounded on expe-
rience to substantiate this statement ; on the contrary, it was,
on his part, merely a broad undemonstrated assertion, leaving
it open to all the doubts and objections which could be brought
against it : nevertheless, it was productive of this good effect,
that it drew the attention of- others to the subject, who, by
their skill and perseverance, were most able to confirm its
truth or fallacy. Bonner was originally one of the staunchest
adherents of Schirach ; but the result of his experiments by
no means established satisfactorily to himself the validity of
the hypothesis : on the contrary, the last time I visited the
worthy apiarian, at Roslin Castle, near Edinburgh, he can-
didly avowed, that, although he did actually succeed in one
instance, yet he could by no means lay it down as a general
rule that the common bee does actually possess th« power, j?^r
se [of itself], of generating a queen. 'i 'iiniib ^jyI^c;

It may not be the least interesting and valuable part of this
enquiry, to investigate the different systems relative to the pro-
pagation of the bee, as laid down both by the English and
foreign apiarians, as from an examination of their different
hypotheses a guide may be obtained to the actual truth, ^jd

The system, as advanced by Schirach, was as follows : — H*e
affirms that the hive consists of three kinds of bees: 1. the
queen ; 2. the drones, being the males ; and, 3. a middle sex,
the working bees, which possess a greater affinity to the female
than the male sex ; which, however, are destitute of any pro-
creating power, nor do they possess any influence in the mul-
tiplication of their species. It may be observed that Schirach
was here standing on the very threshold of truth : he, how-
ever, departed widely from it in the hypothesis which he
founded on the classification just given, as he affirmed that
from every egg that would produce a working bee, if it re-
mained in the small cell till its maturity and was nourished
in the usual manner, a queen would always arise, if the bees
gave to such egg an enlargement of the cell, in which the
worm and the nymph could properly extend themselves, pro-
vided that such worm or nymph was provided with richer
food, and in greater profusion. It was a part of his system,
that, in the liquid nature of an egg, the parts which belonged
to the queen bee lay concealed in imperceptible minuteness ;
but that, as soon as they received the necessary space for
their expansion, an increase took place in their size ; and the
developement of the parts gradually proceeded, until the queen
finally attained her full magnitude and beauty. Finally, he

606 Power of the Common Bee

declared the working bees to be all virgins, devoted to per-
petual chastity. The following, therefore, may be taken as
his system : —

1.

The Queen.

2. 3.

Drones. Working Bees.

{a) Fruitful. (6) Unfruitful.

4.

Drones.

This system, however, met with very great opposition; for
the very circumstance of the alleged existence of a fruitful com-
mon bee never procreating, nor producing any of its species,
threw the whole system into disrepute, and at once esta-
blished its falsity. Nevertheless, it excited considerable sen-
sation among the entomologists of the day ; and some of the
opponents of Schirach extended their dissent so far as to
assert that all the working bees possessed the power of pro-
creation ; and they made their appeal to the alleged fact, that
hives destitute of their queen will continue the process of
breeding, and even produce a brood of drones. It was, how-
ever, a part of the theory of Schirach, that the drones origi-
nated from some false and corrupted eggs; or, in other
words, that they were actual abortions.

Harold was one of the greatest opponents of Schirach ; and
he disseminated the following system : —

jfi. Working Bees. Mother Bee.

,: *. /sworf \\ Working Bees.

8*1.^ ,

(a) Male. {h) Female.

r
3.

yftT.nn' 'W)M "'tiljd ' inr ■■ Drones.

'According to this system, Harold maintained that the queen,
as the mother bee, copulated with the males, which she sought
for amongst the common bees ; and from the eggs which the
queen laid proceeded male and female bees. The males per-
formed their labours exteriorly to the hive ; that is, they col-
lected honey and wax, and copulated with the queen and the
female bees. The latter operated on the materials which the
males brought into the hive ; they built the cells, took care of
the brood, and closed the cells when full of honey : in fact.

to generate a Qiieen. 607

they were the housewives of the hive. If these female eggs
were deposited in the larger cells, then the issue was the large
mother bees or queens ; the female working bees copulated
with the males, and the produce then was nothing but drones :
these he considered as a kind of abortion, and of no sex what-
ever. The latter hypothesis was, however, proved to be false,
by anatomical examination of the insect ; and, therefore, the
republic of bees was changed by some individuals into a kind
of amazonian state, in which the drones, which had hitherto
been considered as devoid of sex, were admitted to the rank of
males or husbands. This thebry found many adherents ; but
it was soon exploded, to make room for another, by Heinmetz,
which, on account of its ingenuity, was adopted by many, as
it seemed to clear away several of those obscurities in which
the natural history of the bee had been hitherto enveloped.
He accordingly established a double genealogical tree of the
bee family.

1. The queen, or the great mother bee, who copulates
with the male working bees as her lawful husbands ; and then
she lays,

First, Male eggs, from which originate insects similar to
their sires. If these eggs be laid in large cells, the issue will
be great male bees, if the rudiments, the germ, and the capa**^ I
city to a great male bee be existing in the egg. But, however,
as only small male working bees are the issue, although they
may be bred in large cells, the conclusion must be drawn, that
in these male eggs the germ was only existing for small work-
ing bees of the male sex, and that from them no great m^le;
working bees were produced.

Secondly, Female eggs. The issue of these eggs resembles
the mothers : and if they be laid in cells agreeably to their
nature, and are there bred and brought forth, it then follows
that the issue are great mother bees or queens. If, however,
these eggs be laid in cells not according to their nature, then
the issue will be small female bees ; and these are the mothers
of the drones.

According to this genealogy, the working bees are partly
male and partly female, and are indebted to the queen for
their existence. On the other hand, the drones are begotten
by the mother drones according to the following genealogical ■
scale : —

The mother drones copulate with the male drones, and lay
no other eggs than the drone eggs. Those drone eggs remain,
fi^st, either from a want of a sufficient number of great cells,
or from a hidden natural instinct, or from a wise and esta-
blished view of the Creator, in small and contracted cells ; and

608 Power of the Common Bee

are, consequently, unable so fully to develope themselves as
their original disposition required. They must, however, as
the germ to a great drone bee is once inherent in the egg,
obtain in the progress of their growth some enlargement of
their contracted cells, and, consequently, must come forth as
natural drones, like their fathers : simply, however, that they
appear more diminutive than their fathers, who were bred in
the great regular cells of the drones. Or, secondly, they are
bred in the regular drone cells appropriate to their nature
and their original dispositions ; and therefrom issue the great
drone bees, which must be considered as genuine males, accord-
ing to the result of anatomical experience.

It may be easily supposed that a system of this kind should
meet with a number of opponents, and that it should be
attacked on all sides with the utmost severity, at the same
time that it met with many adherents. From this system, and
that of Harold, another theory was raised by Privy Counsellor
Voigt, in Schwarzbach, near Culmbach; and Precentor Lucas,
in Nischwitz, near Wiirzen. According to their system, the
queen is the real mother of all the bees ; laying, during eight
months of every year, an almost incredible number of fructi-
fied eggs ; from which, in twenty or twenty-four days, the
common working bees are bred, which, in their sexual cha-
racter, are both male and female. The males, by means of
their mouth, fructify not only the queen, but also their sisters,
the common female bees or mother drones; and from the
eggs laid by the latter, in the month of May or June, the
drones are actually bred. The fructification or vivification of
so many thousand eggs is wholly performed and executed by
the principle of life, or by the animating creative spiritual
power, the well-known aw^a seminalis contained in the spittle,
which may be considered as the vehicle of it, and the process
of which is so very visible in the frequent application of the
proboscis of the common male bees to that of the queen.

This system may, therefore, be considered as follows : —

Power of production and reproduction.

^y— "

(a) Working Bees. (6) Mother Bee.

Working Bees.

I.

Sphere of
production.

1. Absolute Nature, (a) Male power (b) Female power "j g

of reproduction. of reproduction. I c i * r

2. Relative Nature. ' DrZ'^. ' J reproduction.

For the truth of this system, an appeal is made to expe-
rience, which shows that common bees, with a queen, can
compose a perfect hive, without a single drone being con-

vrvii to generate a Queen. 609

sidered as a necessary adjunct : for, in the words of tfeabbte
theorists, whoever wishes to establish a hive, let him trouble
his head about the working bees and a queen, but he need
iiot pay any attention to the drones. Experience also colli
firms that working bees, in the sphere of reproduction, breed
drones ; and that the said sphere, and the process of pro-
creation, are performed by them, although under the influence
of an absolute nature. The first, however, does not take
place when, in the absence of a mother, the sphere of pro-
duction is stopped, and the relative nature of their sphere of
reproduction, which must then abate in its power, becomes
isolated. _ ^ '-^i i? u^ksh^ ■.:...: a- - o'-^'

This system/^fadwevefrj^dltf^rfet^^^dtg^ hold its grdiifld ;
although it is curious ta observe how gradually the ligh'l
which is now diffused over the natural history of the be€^
peeps through these various systems, in which truth and erro^
are so confounded, that it is a task of no small difficulty tB
separate them, or to arrive at any positive decision as to the
adoption or rejection of their leading principles. The ob-
scurities which distinguish the foregoing system induced'
Heumann, in his Physikalisch-OeJconomische Einleitimg zueiner
richtigen Ketintniss der Bieneii [^Phij si co- Economical Introduce
tion to a correct Knoidedge of Bees}, to suppose that he could^
remove those obscurities ; and, according to his system, the
queen is the only actual mother of her like: she is also the
mother of the bees and the drones ; laying, in the course of
the year, many thousand eggs. The bees are the nurses, who
are to cooperate in the breeding ; and without their assist-
ance the eggs prove abortive. They have it, however, in
their power to effect the developement of the female egg in
the following manner : — In the small cells, the sexual pro-
perty is lost, and it becomes a common bee ; in the royal cell,
it becomes a queen, or a most fruitful mother ; and, in the
drone cell, a spurious mother drone. The male egg in thd
cell of the common bee becomes a bee <3evoid of sex ; and,
in the drone cell, a drone, as the sole father of the whole
family. ^ 7^

This system will, therefore, stand as follows : —

Dronles. Queen, or mother bee.

i— , .-^

Working Bees. « „':;i^ ;■ v. -/..vi .ok J

v?»rt^^^ "llale. . .^^.-^.^.--.-^ Female.

Imperfect, Perfect. Imperfect false Perfect queen,

destitute of sex. j drone mother.

Drones. Ofinio'5

Vol. v.— No. 29. rr

610 Generation of the Queen Bee,

Although this theory found considerable support, and is, in
reality, verging nearer to the truth than any of the preceding ;
yet it was by no means considered sufficiently explicit. Pro-
fessor Hummel, in the Bihliothek der Wissenschqften [^Library
of Sciences]^ attacked it most violently, on the principle that it
was at variance with every analogy of nature, to invest an insect
with the power of altering the sexual character of an egg
after its deposition, and to impart to it a power which did
not belong to it in its original nature. The sequel will show
that on this argument of Professor Hummel's is founded one
of the chief objections to the hypothesis advanced by Huber,
advocated by his adherents, and echoed by the editor of the
volume of the Libraiy of Entertaini7ig Knowledge entitled In-
sect Architecture, that a common bee is possessed of the power
of generating a queen from a common egg. It is, however,
not the least interesting part of the study of the bee, that this
apparently insignificant insect has hitherto baffled all the re-
search and ingenuity of man to discover the manner of its
propagation : analogy presents no guide to the solution of
their secret ; and the result of every anatomical experiment
has tended rather to mystify the subject, than to conduct us
on the road to truth.

The system of Heumann fell to the ground, upon the attack
of Hummel and others ; but another theorist immediately
rose up, in the person of the celebrated Strube, who, taking
advantage of the light thrown upon the natural economy of
the bee by his predecessors, considered that by the following
system he had reconciled all their contrarieties, and removed
all their obscurities : —

Working Bees. Queen.

'^ ^ 1

Working Bees.

Male. Female.
, h

Imperfect mother drones. Perfect queens.
Drones.

According to this system, the queen, *with a douhle-hranched
cmarium, lays male and female eggs ; and we cannot, in this
place, refrain expressing our surprise that Dr. Bevan, in his
Honey Bee, a work emanating from the HUberian school,
and compiled with the most marked partiality, should have
committed the egregious error of speaking of the ovaria of
the queen. Strube very justly designates it as a double-
branched ovarium : and if Dr. Bevan, in default of personal
anatomical researches, had consulted Swammerdam, he would

Natural History of Molluscous Animals, 61 1

not so glaringly have exposed his ignorance of the internal
structure of the queen bee.

The male eggs, according to Strube, are placed in the
small cells, and in the first part are bred working bees : the
female eggs, however, as soon as the bees have brooded some
of them in acorn-formed cells, become queens, which can
breed both sexes, and from them spring the principal race of
all the chief mother bees. The majority, however, of these
female eggs are placed in small cells, and are bred as degraded
queens. The remaining part of the working bees are those
which, in the end, are only able to breed drones. The fruc-
tification of the queen is performed by the male working bees,
and not by the drones : the drones, which are bred in the
middle of the month of May, derive their existence from the
degraded queens. The ovarium of these female bees cannot
properly develope itself in the small cells ; independently of
which, they are in their nature considerably weakened. The
impulse to breeding becomes thereby greatly moderated ; and
it is only in the warm months, that the freshness of the honey
and the heat of the hive instigate these weak imperfect
mothers to propagation. They mingle with the few drones
which are at this time to be found in the hive, and contribute
to the population of the republic. The eggs from *w7iich the
first drones arise are laid towards the end of autumn; and, as
during the nsointer they lie beyond the central heat of the hive,
they do not develope themselves before the spring. It is only
when there is a deficiency of male working bees that the
queen is fructified by the drones.

(To be resumed.)

AuT. V. Afi Introduction to the Natural History of Molluscous
Animals. In a Series of Letters. By G. J.

Letter 10. On their Secretions,

(Continued from p. 43.)

This letter you may properly consider as a continuation of
the preceding (p. 8L); for the blood is the material out of
which not only the growth and repairs of animal bodies, but
likewise all the secretions, are directly derived ; the latter
obtaining their peculiar properties from differences in the
structure and action of the various glands or vessels through
which they percolate.

I, The most important and general secretion of molluscous
animals is shell ; but I have already had occasion to write so

R R 2

6 1 2 Natural History of Molluscous Animals : —

fully of its constitution and formation [Letter 5., in Vol. III.
p. SS5 — 348.], that at present I shall confine myself to some
additional remarks on internal shells, or such as are constantly
covered by the cutaneous envelopes. So far as I remember,
all of these are white, and generally thin ; but they do not
diifer from other shells in their composition, unless we include
among them the horny plates which strengthen the back of
some Cephalopodes (Loligo), or protect the viscera of a few
of the Gasteropodes (Limax) ; for these contain very little, if
any, cretaceous matter. The plate of the slugs, which lies
under the shield on the anterior part of the body, has been
called the snail's stone, and used to be esteemed a serviceable
medicine in the gravel and strangury. It varies in size and
consistency in the different species ; a fact of which Swammer-
dam does not seem to have been aware ; for, to account for
large slugs having " very small and membranous " plates,;
while smaller ones had them often much larger, and formed-
of " solid stone," he was inclined to think " that the snails
change this their little stone yearly, in the same manner as
crawfish change those two semiconvex and plain stones, which
are likewise placed in their thorax, and are improperly called
crab's eyes." {BooJc of Nature^ P« 71.) But the most interest-
ing of internal shells are, the Spirula PeronzV of Lamarck,
and what is commonly called cuttlefish bone. The former
(j^*-, 104. Z>) is a pretty multilocular species, rolled up in a

spiral form, which lies partially
embedded in the posterior part
of a Cephalopode {a) that inhabits
many warm seas ; the latter is a
calcareous production, of so sin-
gular a structure, that, according
to Cuvier, it is unexampled in
the animal kingdom, and may,
therefore, merit a detailed de-
scription. The bone is placed
in the back of the cuttlefish (*Se-
pia officinalis), within a mem-
branous capsule, from the inner surface of which it is secreted,
but with which it has no connection further than a slight
adhesion from contact ; for neither blood-vessels nor nerves
penetrate the interior, and it is truly as unorganised, and
as little within the influence of the living powers, as other
shells are. In the very young »Sepiae, the bone is horny; but
in the mature cuttle it is entirely calcareous, if we except ar
thin membranous border. It is very light, of an elliptical
figure, upwards of 6 in. in length, and not quite 3 in. in

their Secretions,

613

breadth; slightly convex on the back, and considerably pro-
tuberant on the anterior side, where it is so soft that the nail,
applied with a moderate force, cuts it easily. The figure a
(Jig, 105.) is a front view of this production, reduced to nearly

two ninths of the natural size : the convexity is greatesV in the
middle, whence it gradually declines towards both ends ; the
upper half being smooth and obtuse, while the lower is marked
with imbricated curved lines, and contracts rather suddenly
to a narrow point. But this point is surrounded with a broad
prominent concave border, consisting of two portions closely
united : the first opaque, and scored longitudinally with fine
lines; the other perlaceous, and faintly lined transversely.
The latter is continued not only along the margins, but ex-
tends over the whole opposite surface (b), which, from this
circumstance, is much harder than the anterior; and it is
also all over roughened with slightly raised knobs or granula-
tions, arranged in obscure curved lines. To complete the
view, I give two sections of the bone {c, a perpendicular,
and d, a transverse, section), which will likewise disclose
in part the internal structure. You perceive that the bellied
portion is composed of very thin parallel and convex plates,
which run slopingly from the anterior to the posterior sur-
face ; and that the intermediate spaces are filled with a much
less compact material, formed of fibres in a crystalline state,
placed perpendicularly, as is more clearly exhibited in the
following figures [e and^). The plates are of unequal lengths;
the lowermost, which are also the first formed, being the
shortest, while those of the latest formation are the longest ;
and yet, however, they cover only half of the whole sur-
face. The fibres of the intermediate substance are loosely
connected together by other fibres running in the direction of
the longitudinal plates, as is very obvious when a small
and thin section is viewed through a magnifier (f)v the

R R 3

'Sl^ Natural Histoyy of MolUiscous Animals : —

perpendicular fibres themselves are marked with many cross
lines, and they are thicliish, and of equal lengths (^), Cuvier
says, positively, that they are little hollow columns, placed
in a quincunx order {Mem,, vol. i. p. 47.) ; but, according to
Dr. Fleming, this is an erroneous account ; and he describes
them as " narrow laminae," which, when viewed laterally, ap-
pear like fine parallel threads ; but, when examined vertically,
are found to be waved, and fold upon themselves. Next the
plate they are thin, and not much flattened ; but towards their
other extremity they become thicker, striated across, and more
folded, with irregular margins,'* (PML qfZool., vol. ii. p. 436.) ;
and this description agrees pretty exactly with my own ob-
servations.

2. Pearl is another calcareous secretion of molluscous ani-
mals deserving notice. It is secreted only by the fish of
bivalves ; and principally by such as inhabit shells of foliated
structure, as sea and freshwater muscles, oysters, the Pinnae,
&c. A pearl consists of carbonate of lime, in the form of
nacre, and animal matter arranged in concentric layers
around a nucleus, as it is well shown in our figure {Jig. 106.),
2Qg copied from a beautiful engraving ap-

pended to a paper of Sir E. Home's in
the Philosophical Transactions, Each
layer is presumed, but I know not on
what grounds, to be annual ; so that a
pearl must be of slow growth, and those
of large size can only be found in full-
grown oysters. " It is the nacral lining
of the central cell that produces the
lustre peculiar to the pearl, which cannot be given to artificial

* In a previous letter [Letter 5., Vol. III. p. 346.] it is stated that Dr.
Brewster had proved the peculiar lustre of the pearl to be the effect of
light reflected from the surface ; an opinion first entertained, I believe,
by the celebrated Robert Hooke. " Which, by the way, may hint us the
reason of that so much admired appearance of those so highly esteemed
bodies (pearls), as also of the like in mother-of-pearl shells, and in multi-
tudes of other shelly sea-substances ; for they each of them, consisting of
an infinite number of very thin shells or laminated orbiculations, cause
such multitudes of reflections, that the compositions of them, together with
the reflections of others that are so thin as to afford colours (of which I
elsewhere give the reason), give a very pleasant reflection of light : and
that this is the true cause seems likely, first, because all those so appearing
bodies are compounded of multitudes of plated substances ; and, next, that,
by ordering any transparent substance after this manner, the like pheno-
mena may be produced. This will be made very obvious by the blowing
of glass into exceeding thin shells, and then breaking them into scales,
which any lamp worker will presently do ; for a good quantity of these
scales, laid in a heap together, have much the same resemblance of pearls."

their Secretions. 615

Pearls, as Mr. Gray justly observes, are merely the internal
nacred coat of the shell, which has been forced, by some ex-
traneous cause, to assume a spherical form. They are, there-
fore, not properly " a distemper in the creature that produces
them," and cannot, under any view, be compared with calculi
in the kidneys of man (Lister, Hist, An. A/ig., p. 150.) ; for,
though accidental formations, and, of course, not always to
be found in the shellfish which are known usually to contain
them, still they are the products of a regular secretion, ap-
plied, however, in an unusual way, either to avert harm or
allay irritation. That in many instances they are formed by
the oyster, to protect itself against aggression, is evident ; for,
with a plug of this nacred and solid material it shuts out
worms and other intruders which have perforated the softer
shell, and are intent on making prey of the hapless inmate :
and it was apparently the knowledge of this fact that sug-
gested to Linnaeus his method of producing pearls at pleasure,
by puncturing the shell with a pointed wire.* But this ex-
planation, it is obvious, accounts only for the origin of such
pearls as are attached to the shell ; while we know that the
best and the greatest number, and, indeed, the only ones
which can be strung, have no such attachment, and are formed
in the body of the animal itself. " The small and middling
pearls," says Sir Alexander Johnston, " are formed in the
thickest part of the flesh of the oyster, near the union of the
two shells ; the large pearls almost loose in that part called the
beard." (Home's Lect. Comp. Anat.,\o[. v. p. 308.) Now, these
may be the effect merely of an excess in the supply of calca-
reous matter, of which the oyster wishes to get rid ; or they
may be formed by an effusion of pearl, to cover some irritat-
ing and extraneous body. The reality of the latter theory is,
perhaps, proved by a practice of the modern Chinese, who
force the swan muscle (A'nodon cygneus) to make pearls, by

(Micrographiay p. 209., folio, 1667.) Sir E. Home disproves this explana-
tion of Hooke and Brewster, so far as the same is applied to pearls, by the
following experiment : — " Upon taking a split pearl, and putting a candle
behind the cell, the surface of the pearl became immediately illuminated ;
so that the fallacy of my philosophical friend's opinion was made self-evi-
dent. . . . The error my friends fell into was, taking for granted that the
pearl was a solid body ; and therefore, considering the subject mathemati-
cally, the brilliancy must be produced by the reflection from the nacral
surface ; but this reasoning was entirely inapplicable when applied to a
sphere that is hollow." {Lectures on Comp. Anatomy y vol. v. p. 306., and
Phil. Tram. 1826, part iii. p. 339.)

* Lin. Corresp. by Smith, vol. ii, p. 429. Pearls formed somewhat in this
manner, by the freshwater muscle, are preserved in the Hunterian Museum.
Home's Lect. Comp. Anat , vol. vi. p. 296,

R R 4

616 Natural History of Molluscous Ariimals : —

throwing into its shell, when open, five or six minute mother-
of-pearl beads strung on a thread : in the course of one year,
these are found covered with a crust which perfectly resembles
the real pearl.* The extraneous body which naturally serves
for the nucleus, appears to be very often, or, as Sir E. Home
says, always, a blighted ovum. Christophorus Sandius, in
1673, on the authority of Henricus Arnoldi, " an ingenious
and veracious person," asserted that the ova left unexpelled
from the shell became the nuclei on which pearls, in the
freshwater muscle, were formed. " Sometimes,'' he Says, " it
happens that one or two of these eggs stick fast to the sides
of the matrix, and are not voided with the rest. These are
fed by the oyster against her will ; and they do grow, accord-
ing to the length of time, into pearls of sufficient bigness,
and imprint a mark both on the fish and the shell, by the
situation, conform to its figure." This theory has been fully
adopted by Sir E. Home, from whose paper I have made the
above quotation. " If," says the enthusiastic baronet, " I
shall prove that this, the richest jewel in a monarch's crown,
which cannot be imitated by any art of man, either in the
beauty of its form or the brilliancy and lustre produced by a
central illuminated cell, is the abortive egg of an oyster enve-
loped in its own nacre, of which it receives annually a layer
of increase during the life of the animal, who will not be
struck with wonder and astonishment ?" (Comp, Anat,^ vol. v.
p. 302.) And, as proofs of this, he informs us that he has
always found the seed pearls in the ovarium, or connected

* The Chinese appear to have more ways than one of getting artificial
pearls. Sir E. Home says their method is this : — " They take the sub-
stance of the clamp-shell, turn it in a lathe into hemispheres of different
sizes, and introduce them through the shell of the oyster, with the convex
surface towards the animal ; the prominent part is, consequently, covered
with nacre, and annually receives an increase. By introducing hemispheres
instead of spheres, they avoid irregularities on the opposite surface. In
this manner half pearls are made, since they cannot make whole ones ; and
when these are set to represent pearls, they will pass off undiscovered by an
unexperienced eye, but not by those who understand pearls, being deficient
in lustre." {Comp. Anat.y vol. v. p. 296.) Mr. Gray, however, has proved
that this people introduce, for the same purpose, pieces of mother-of-pearl
" between the leaf of the mantle and the internal coat of the shell ; for
they could not have been put in through a hole in the shell, as there was
not the slightest appearance of any injury near the situation of the pearls
on the outer coat." Mr. Gray tried the experiment on our freshwater
muscles, by introducing pieces of mother-of-pearl between the mantle and
the shell ; but with the result I am not acquainted. He adds : — " If this
plan succeed, which I have scarcely any doubt it will, we shall be able to
produce any quantity of as fine pearls as can be procured from abroad.*'
(Ho)ne's Lectures, vol. v. p. 300,301.) The original paper is in the Annals
of Fhihso'phy , for, I believe, January, 1825.

their Secretions, 617

with that part of the shell on which the ovarium lay ; and he
has discovered that all Oriental pearls have a brilliant cell in
the centre, of a size exactly large enough to contain one of
the ova. " From these facts, I have been led to conclude
that a pearl is formed upon the external surface of an ovum ;
which, having been blighted, does not pass with the others
into the oviduct, but remains attached to its pedicle in the
ovarium, and, in the following season, receives a coat of
nacre at the same time that the internal surface of the shell
receives its annual supply. This conclusion," he adds, " is
verified by some pearls being spherical ; others having a py-
ramidal form, from the pedicle having received a coat of nacre
as well as the ovum." (Phil. Tra7is., 18^26, partiii. p. 839.)

I will conclude what I have to say concerning pearls, with
the following extract from the paper of Mr. Gray quoted in
the preceding page : — " The pearls are usually of the colour
of the part of the shell to which they are attached. I have
observed them white, rose-coloured, purple, and black; and
they are said to be sometimes of a green colour.* They have
also been found of two colours ; that is, white with a dark
nucleus, which is occasioned by their being first formed on
the dark margin of the shell before it is covered with the
white and pearly coat of the disk, which, when it becomes
extended over them and the margin, gives them that appear-
ance.

" Pearls vary greatly in their transparency. The pink are
the most transparent; and in this particular they agree with
the internal coat of the shell from which they are formed ; for
these pearls are only formed on the Pinnae, which internally
are pink and semitransparent, and the black and purple spe-
cimens are generally more or less opaque.

" Their lustre, which is derived from the reflection of the

* " There are, besides, (in Britain,) several sorts of shellfish, among
which are muscles, containing pearls often of the best kind, and of every
colour ; that is, red, purple, violet, green (prasini), but principally white,
as we find in the Venerable Bede's Ecclesiastical Histo?y." (Richard of
Cirencestei^ transl. p. 28.) Philosophy has destroyed many a fine hypo-
thesis, as witnesses the following, explanatory of the variations in colour
of these bodies : —

" With open shells in seas, on heavenly dew,
A shining oyster lusciously doth feed ;
And then the birth of that ethereal seed
Shows, when conceived, if skies look dark or blue ;
Pearls, then, are orient-framed, and fair in form,
If heavens in their conception do look clear ;
But if they thunder, or do threat a storm.

They sadly dark and cloudy do appear." Drummond.

(Note hy G. J.)

618 Natural History of Molluscous Animals: —

light from their peculiar surface produced by the curious dis-
position of their fibres, and from their semitransparency and
form, greatly depends^ on the uniformity of their texture and
the colour of the concentric coats of which they are formed^
That their lustre does depend on their radiating fibres, may
be distincdy proved by the inequality of the lustre of the
' Colombian pearls,' which are filed out of the thick part
near the hinge of the pearl oyster (Avicula margaritifera), so
that they are formed, like that shell, of transverse laminae, and
they consequently exhibit a plate of lustre on one side which
is usually flat, and are surrounded by brilliant concentric
zones, which show the places of the other plates, instead of
the even, beautiful, soft lustre of the true pearls."

3. I have, in a former letter [Letter 5., Vol. III. p. 345 —
347.1, said as much as seems necessary concerning the colour
of shells : but this may be not an improper place to introduce
such facts as I have collected relative to the colour of the
animals themselves ; for their colours depend on the secretion
and deposition of a colouring matter in the mucous coat of
the skin. Most shellfish are of a uniform white, a straw, or
a greyish colour ; and the dark spots with which they are
clouded are almost always occasioned by the opacity of the
internal viscera or their contents. There are, however, many
-exceptions to this remark ; and these would be still more
numerous, were our acquaintance with the inmates of shells
more extensive and accurate than it unfortunately is. The
animal of our native cowry (Cypr<^'« europee'a) is a most
elegant creature [Jig, 107. fl, viewed laterally ; b, from be-
107 neath), whose splendid colours are,

according to my friend Dr. Cold-
stream, unrivalled amongst the Gas-
teropoda. The proboscis is dark
vermilion; the tentacula yellowish
red, spotted with yellow ; the upper
part of the foot streaked longitudinally
with yellow and brown; and the
mantle greenish brown, edged with
brownish red : but, notwithstanding, the shell is a uni-
form dull white. Similar discrepancies between the colour
of the shell and its owner are often met with : thus, the
Cypr<^'« Voluta of Montagu (Marginella Voluta Fleming) has
its fins or lateral expansions elegantly speckled with bright
yellow, and the fleshy parts of its body with pink. (Mon-
tagu, Test, Brit..^ p. 204.) The long proboscis of the
Strombus pes Pelicani luin. is pink, dotted over with milk-
white spots ; and the animal of the white Scalaria clathrus is

their Secretions. 619

mottled black and white. Mr. Collier says, of some tropical
species, that the foot is " blackish red in the Murices gene-
rally ; green in AStrombus, and some species of Tr6chus ;
black in Bulla ovum ; deep red with faint designs, like those
of the shell, in Conus tiilipa, marmoreus, and its varieties ;
spotted, in B\xQC\n\\\xiHdrpa\ bright yellow, in ^uccinum Cas-
sis ; mottled, in Oliva ; and deep brown, from spots, in some
species of Voluta." (Edin.Phil Journ.^ Oct. 1829, p. 228. The
names used by Mr. Collier are those of Linnaeus.) The snail
of the beautifully marbled harp shell {Hdrpa ventricosa La-
marck) glories in a rich vermilion red skin. " In the Mauri-
tius, it is the amusement of the place, to watch over the trim
apparatus of lines hung over some sand-bank to tempt the
various brilliant species of Oliva, which there abound, or to
wait for the more rare approach of the harp shell, till the
rich hues of its inhabitant are seen glowing through the clear
blue water, in the rays of a tropical rising sun." (Broderip, in
Zool. Journ., vol. ii. p. 199.)

The colours of the naked Mollusca are very various : there
are black, white, grey, brown, yellow, red, and even green
species ; and the colours are sometimes uniform and single,
but more commonly mixed, and disposed in freckles or clouds.
To dwell, however, on such a subject would be useless ; and
I pass on to notice the very curious phenomena exhibited in
the coloured spots of the Cephalopoda.

The surface of these remarkable creatures, particularly the
back and sides, is speckled with numberless minute coloured
dots, which vary in size, tint, and arrangement, in the differ-
ent species ; and in the same species are liable to change, in
the same respects, according to their degree of developement.
These dots are properly follicles, or little bladders, seated in
the mucous web (rete mucosum), and, consequently, covered
by the epidermis, which is smooth and transparent. " During
life, when the animal is in a state of repose, the vesicles are
contracted, and are not visible. When it is excited, by being
touched with the hand, or otherwise irritated, the coloured
vesicles show themselves, and are instantly in motion, appear-
ing and disappearing with the velocity of lightning : sometimes
they are like spots on different parts of the body ; and some-
times like waves, which rapidly move across its surface."
These appearances are produced " by the rapid and simul-
taneous contraction which takes place in all the vesicles of
a particular part of the body, and from the sudden and
simultaneous expansion of all the vesicles on another part ; "
but the process may go on until the whole body is covered,
and its natural colour become changed for that of the vesicles.

620 Natural History of Molluscmis A7iimals : —

Even long after death, these vesicles may be made to exhibit
•the same alternate contractions and expansions, on the appli-
cation of slight irritations.

NaturalivSts have been long acquainted in some degree with
these singular phenomena. Pliny tells us that the cuttlefish
change their colour through fear (Hist. Nat., lib. ix. cap. 46.) ;
adapting it, cameleon-like, to that of the place they are in.
None of the older authors, however, attempted to investigate
their cause ; but, of late, several theories have been offered,
and two of these are founded on a minute enquiry into the
structure of the vesicles. Cuvier said, conjecturally, that the
appearances were dependent on the effusion of a coloured
jQuid in the areolar tissue of the skin ; and Professor Grant
refined upon this hypothesis, by supposing the fluid to pass
repeated 1}^ to and from the minute vesicles (Edin, New Phil,
Jouni., vol. xvi. p. 3 1 3.) : but this conjecture has been fully dis-
proved ; for the spots have no connection with any vascular
system, nor do the vesicles contain any encysted fluid. Dr.
G. San Giovanni of Naples, an intelligent comparative ana-
tomist, offered another explanation, founded on a connection
between the vesicles and the nervous system, which he ima-
gined he had traced. The colour is correctly stated to be
inherent in the tissue itself; and its changes are attributed to
the particular structure of the vesicles, each of which, he
says, has a circular aperture that opens and shuts, probably
by means of a circular muscle, the actions of which are regu-
Jated by the will of the animal, through the medium of the
nerves, with which the vesicles are connected by means of
delicate filaments, scarcely discernible even with the aid of a
microscope. But the observations of Dr. Coldstream, one of
the most promising among the rising race of naturalists, de-
stroy this ingenious and plausible theory. Dr. Coldstream
could not discover, by the most careful microscopic examin-
ation, the slightest trace of any nervous threads in connection
with the vesicles ; and he proved, which seems incompatible
with their dependence on the nerves, that the vesicles pos-
sessed motion in pieces of the mucous coat which had been
removed entirely from the body: nor could he succeed in
discovering any opening in them, such as San Giovanni asserts
they have, even during their greatest dilatation, and under the
most favourable circumstances. " That I might ascertain,"
to use Dr. Coldstream's own words, " whether or not the
motions of the spots were now (after apparent death had
taken place) carried on by the influence of external agents,
independently of any nervous power emanating from the
animal itself, I cut, from a part of the mantle where the

their Secretions, 621

contractions and dilatations were very strong, a piece of the
membrane or layer containing the spots, about two tenths of
an inch square ; this I separated completely from the animal,
and placed it in a watch-glass immersed in sea-water in an-
other vessel. To my astonishment, I saw that the spots in the
separated portion continued in as lively motion as when con-
nected with the animal. No change, either in the velocity
or extent of their motions, could be perceived. Some spots,
just on the edges of the separated piece, seemed to have been
half cut through by the scissors with which I removed it :
such did not contract; but all the others in the piece moved
in the very same manner as before.

" I now removed the watch-glass, containing the separated
portion, to the stage of a microscope, and examined the spots
with powers of 100 and 150. This, however, gave me no
advantage ; I saw nothing more than I had previously ob-
served with the naked eye. San Giovanni has compared the
appearance of the structure of the spots to that of felt; but I
could not satisfy myself that this was the case in those exa-
mined, although I passed through the membrane a very strong
light. I saw that the spots were very thin bodies, attached
to the mucous coat of the integument; that they had no con-
nection with the epidermis; that, in dilating, their edges
passed over or under each other indiscriminately ; that their
edges were extremely sharp and well defined ; that they never
were increased in thickness during dilatation ; and that no
vessels carrj^ing coloured fluids entered them. I could not
discover, indeed, any thing like either vessels or nervous fila-
ments connected with any part of the integument of the ani-
mal ; and I feel assured, that, from the great size of some of
the spots which I had under the microscope, I must have seen
at least a few vessels carrying dark-coloured fluids entering
the mucous coat, had it been from such a source that the in-
crease in size of the spots was derived.

" The separated piece of the mucous coat, with the palpi-
tating spots, remained under my microscope, exposed to a
strong reflected light, for three quarters of an hour, during
which time I could perceive no alteration in its appearance,
or the strange phenomena it presented. While the motions
of the spots were very brisk, I suddenly removed it to a dark
place, where it remained fifteen minutes. On bringing it again
to the light, I found that all motion had ceased ; most of the
spots were in a state of contraction ; but, on allowing it to
remain for three minutes exposed to a moderately strong
light, the dilatations again commenced, and were carried on
unceasingly for a very considerable time. I repeated these

622 Natural History of Molluscous Animals:—^

experiments with other pieces of the spotted membrane, and
always with similar results. At the end of nearly two hours
from the time when some of them were removed from the
animal, the spots were dilating; but, in the course of a few
minutes afterwards, motion finally ceased." *

4. It has been conjectured, that the peculiar property in
the skin of the Cephalopoda, just described, is given to
them as a means of defence : but the conjecture seems to
have been hazarded merely to satisfy the craving wish, which
we all entertain, to know the uses or final cause of things
that pass under our observation ; for I know no experiments
or facts that tend to give it stability: and, if the opinion is
just, then the cuttles would seem to be doubly armed; for,
when in danger, they are said to eject a copious black liquor
through their funnel or excrementary canal, as a means of
obscuring the circumfluent water, and concealing themselves
from all foes : —

" Long as the craftie cuttle lieth sure
In the blacke cloud of his thicke vomiture." "f*

This inky fluid is a very remarkable secretion, produced in
a bag that lies near the liver, and sometimes even embosomed
in it, and communicating with the funnel by means of its own
excretory duct. The interior of the bag is not a simple
cavity ; it is-filled with a soft cellular or spongy substance, in
which the ink is diffused. This has no relation or analogy
with bile, as Munro believed ; but it is a peculiar secretion,
somewhat glutinous, readily miscible with water, and variable
in point of shade, according to the species of cephalopode
from which it comes; so that, as Dr. Grant remarks, a
more intimate acquaintance with this character might be
useful in tracing relations among the different species. The
colour of the ink in jLoligo sagittata * is a deep brown,

* Edin. Journ. Nat. and Geogr. Science, vol. ii. p. 296. The paper from
which the above extract is taken contains the best account which has yet
been published of these coloured vesicles, or " chromophorous globules," as
they have been termed. The reader may also consult the Edin. Phil,
Journ.y vol. xi. p. 422.

\ " The ink secreted in this bag has been said to be thrown out to con-
ceal the animal from its pursuers ; but, in a future lecture, I shall endeavour
to show that this secretion is to answer a purpose in the animal economy-
connected with the functions of the intestines." (Home's Comp. Anat.y vol. i.
p. 376.) Dr. Coldstream, in a letter to the author, detailing the manners of
Octopus ventricosus in captivity, says, " I have never seen the ink ejected,
however much the animal may have been irritated." I have, however,
been told by our fishermen, that they have seen this species eject the black
liquid, with considerable force, on being just taken from the sea.

% Sir R. Sibbald says that the ioligo, or hose-fish, besides its ink, has
another purple juice. {Scot. lUust.y vol. ii. lib. 3. p. 26.) I find no men-
tion of this in any other author.

- 1 ' their Secretions. 623

approaching to yellowish brown when much diluted, and
corresponds remarkably with the coloured spots on the skin
of that species ; but in Octopus ventricosus the colour of the
ink is pure black, and it is blackish grey when diluted on
paper. " The ink (Edin, Phil, Journ,, vol. xvi. p. 3] 6.)
brought in a solid state from China has the same pure black
colour as in the Octopus ventric6sus, and differs entirely in
its shade, when diluted, from that of the jLoligo sagittata, as
may be seen from specimens of these three colours on draw-
ing paper. Swammerdam suspected the China ink to be
made from that of the iSepia ; Cuvier found it more like that
of the Octopus and Z/oligo ; but different kinds of that sub-
stance are brought from China, probably made from different
genera of these animals, where they abound of gigantic size."
At the present day, according to Cuvier, an ink is prepared
from the liquor of these animals in Italy, which differs from
the genuine China ink only in being a little less black. {Mem.,
vol. i. p. 4.) Davy found it to be " a carbonaceous substance
mixed with gelatine ; " but, on a more careful analysis,
Signor Bizio procured from it a substance sutgejteris [peculiar
in kind], which he calls melania. " The melania is a tasteless,
black powder, insoluble in alcohol, ether, and water, while
cold, but soluble in hot water : the solution is black. Caustic
alkalies form with it a solution even in the cold, from which
the mineral acids precipitate it unchanged. It contains much
azote: it dissolves in, and decomposes, sulphuric acid : it easily
kindles at the flame of a candle : it has been found to succeed,
as a pigment, in some respects better than China ink." {Edin,
Phil. Journ., vol. xiv. p. 376.)

5. Several of the Gasteropoda secrete a liquor analogous,
in some respects, to the ink of the cuttlefish. The Aplysiae
pour out at will, or when molested, an abundance of a beau-
tiful purple fluid; so that a single individual can colour the
water for some yards around it. This fluid is secreted in
a gland of a triangular figure, situated under the base of the
fleshy coverlid of the branchiae, and oozes out from all the
free surface of this coverlid. Cuvier says, that, in drying, the
secretion assumes the beautiful deep hue of the sweet scabious
(Scabiosa atro-purpiirea Lin.), and remains unaltered by long
exposure to the air. Nitric acid, in small quantity, height-
ened the tint, but a larger dose changed it to a dirty aurora;
and potash changed it to a dirty vinous grey colour : both the
acid and alkali precipitated many white flakes from the fluid.
The smell is faint: there is nothing peculiar in the taste; nor
has it any irritating quality, for it may be applied a long time
to the skin with perfect impunity." (Mm., vol, ix. p. 70

6^24- Natural History of Molluscous Animals : —

The excretion which approaches apparently nearest to this
in its character is that of the lanthinae ; but I am not aware
that any analysis has been made of it. Planorbis corneus
{Jrg. 108.), also, when irritated by any means, or, as Wallis
IQQ translates a passage from Lister, by " an

injection of a grain of salt, pepper, or ginger,
into its mouth," pours forth a purple fluid
from the sides, between the fork and margin
of the cloak ; but the colour is of so fugi-
tive a nature, that no acid or astringent has
hitherto been found sufficient to preserve the
elegancy of its tint, and from turning to an
unpleasant rusty hue.* In this respect it agrees with the liquor
discharged by Scalaria clathrus, of which Montagu has given
us an interesting history. " The purple juice," he tells us,
" may be collected either from the recent or dried animal, by
opening the part behind the head ; and as much can be pro-
cured from five individuals, as is sufficient, when mixed with
a few drops of spring water, to cover half a sheet of paper."
Neither volatile nor fixed alkali materially affects it ; mineral
acids turn it to a bluish green, or sea-green ; sulphuric acid
renders it a shade more inclining to blue; vegetable acids
probably do not affect it, since cream of tartar did not in the
least alter it. These colours, laid on paper, were very bright,
and appeared for some months unchanged by the action of
the air, or the sun ; but, being exposed, for a whole summer,
to the solar rays, in a south window, they almost vanished.
The application of alkali to the acidulated colour always re-
stored it to its primitive state, and it was as readily changed
again by mineral acid : in this particular it differs materially
from the succus of J5uccinum lapillus, which, as we have
before remarked, is unalterable." (Mont., Test. Brit. Sup.,
p. 122.)

It is from the difference pointed out, in the latter part of
the sentence just quoted, between the fluid of Scalaria (and,
I may add, of lanthina and Aplysia), and the ^uccinum or
Purpuriferae, and because it is from the first of a purple co-
lour, that I cannot agree with Colonel Montagu, and many
other naturalists of eminence, in their opinion, of its having
formed any part of the Tyrian dye; for unchangeableness was
one of the characters that enhanced the value of the latter;
and Aristotle and Pliny state expressly that the colour of that
fluid, on its first discharge from the animal, was white. Such
a coloured liquor can be procured, as these authors say it

* Wallis, Nat. Hist. Nori/i., vol. i. p. 371. Lister, in his Atmi. Ang.,
p. 144., gives a full and very good account of this liquor.

their- Secretions, 625

was procured, from several univalves belonging to the genera
ikf^rex and Purpura; and Colonel Montagu furnishes us
with a good account of it in the Purpura lapillus : — " The
part containing the colouring matter is a slender longitudinal
vein, just under the skin on the back, behind the head, ap-
pearing whiter than the rest of the animal. The fluid itself
is of the colour and consistence of thick cream. As soon as
it is exposed to the air, it becomes of a bright yellow, speedily
turns to a pale green, and continues to change imperceptibly,
until it assumes a bluish cast, and then a purplish red. With-
out the influence of the solar rays, it will go through all these
changes in the course of two or three hours ; but the process
is much accelerated by exposure to the sun. A portion of
the fluid, mixed with diluted vitriolic acid, did not at first
appear to have been sensibly affected ; but, by more intimately
mixing it in the sun, it became of a pale purple, or purplish
red, without any of the intermediate changes. Several marks
were now made on fine calico, in order to try if it was pos-
sible to discharge the colour by such chemical means as were
at hand ; and it was found that, after the colour was fixed at
its last natural change, nitrous no more than vitriolic acid had
any other effect than that of rather brightening it : aqua regia,
with or without solution of tin, and marine acid, produced
no change ; nor had fixed or volatile alkali any sensible effect.
It does not in the least give out its colour to alcohol, like
cochineal, and the succus of the animal of Turbo (Scalaria)
clathrus ; but it communicates its very disagreeable odour to
it most copiously, so that opening the bottle has been more
powerful in its effects on the olfactory nerves than the efflu-
via of assafcetida, to which it may be compared. All the
markings which had been alkalised and acidulated, together
with those to which nothing had been applied, became, after
washing in soap and water, of a uniform colour, rather
brighter than before, and were fixed at a fine unchangeable
crimson." (Ibid., p. 106.)

' 6. Blainville seems to be of opinion that the coloured
secretions now noticed are analogous to the urinary secretion
of vertebrated animals {Manuel, p. 160.); but, of the correct-
ness of this, doubts may be very reasonably entertained.
Besides their purple fluid, the Aplysiae occasionally discharge,
but in small quantities, a whitish acrid one, secreted by a
gland composed of little round hyaline grains, and emitted
by a circular hole that opens externally a little behind the
aperture of the oviduct. (Cuvier, Mem., vol. ix. p. 24.) The
D6ri5 ejects a similar fluid, which, however, comes from the
liver, or from a gland so intimately associated with it as not
Vol. V. — No. 29. s s

626 Natural History of Molluscous Animals : —

to be separated by any dissection {Ibid., vol. v. p. 16.) ; and
this excretion, which is common to many other naked mol-
lusca, will probably be found to be the urinary discharge. In
some univalved mollusca, the source of this discharge has
been ascertained. Swammerdam detected in the snail a little
oblong triangular part, placed near the heart, which he calls
the " sacculus calcareus." This organ has a pretty large
duct, which runs into the intestine; and Swammerdam be-
lieves it to be a gland whereby the calcareous matter of the
blood is drained from the body, and deposited in the intestine ;
" and accordingly we Bnd that such a matter is sometimes
mixed with the excrements." (Book of Nature, p. 49.) The
organ is found, in a modified shape, in many other mollusca;
and some naturalists * have imagined that the shell was
formed by it, misled apparently by the name given by Swam-
merdam ; for no opinion was ever more groundless or hastily
offered. Cuvier considers it as the source of the mucus which
snails excrete so profusely when forced to withdraw suddenly
into their shells, and with which they fix their shells to
smooth bodies {Mem., vol. xi. p. 26.) : but Mr. Jacobson has
proved that it performs the functions of a kidney. " Chemical
analysis of the matter secreted by this organ, has led him
to discover in it uric acid, ammonia or calcareous salt, and
water. His experiments were made on the great snail (Helix
pomatia). He was unable to discover any trace of uric acid
in any other part of the animal. And as, in the superior
animals, the kidneys are the only organs which, in a state of
health, secrete uric acid; and as the calcareous sac of the
snails has many other anatomical relations with the kidneys,
Mr. Jacobson concludes that this sac represents the kidneys,
and must be so considered in all the mollusca which are
provided with it." {Edin. Journ, Nat. and Geogr, Science,
vol. iii. p. 325.)

7. All molluscous animals excrete a mucous fluid to lubri-
cate the skin, furnished by the skin itself, or by some crypts
situated in it.f This mucus is, in general, possessed of no

* " The formation of the calcareous matter of their shells, which takes
place in a peculiar viscus lying near the heart (sacculus calcareus Swamm.
glandula testacea Poll).''* Blumenbach's Man. Comp. Anat., p. 251. transl.

f " In the gasteropodous mollusca of the genera Z/imax, Ariow, Helix,
and Bulimus, we find under the mouth, between the two inferior lips, and
the protuberance of the disk of the foot, the orifice of a canal, hitherto
unobserved, which runs along the whole of the foot. This anatomical
arrangement is not very distinct in the genus Succinea, which approaches
nearer to the Lymnae^se in internal structure. In the Arion empiricorum,
which is entirely black, we perceive a trace of this canal, which appears in
the form of a whitish band. The canal is not simple; it receives many
little ducts, which come from the muscular sac in which the viscera are

their Secretions, 627

remarkable properties, but in the Octopus moschatus it is
probably the source of the musky smell,

** An amber scent of odorous perfume," *

which that cuttle exhales so strongly as to fill quickly a whole
apartment, whether the animal be dead or alive, and whence it
derives its specific designation. A native species of Helix (H.
alliaria, smells at times strongly of garlic. " When fresh taken,"
says Dr. Turton, " it diffuses an odour exactly like the smell
of garlic, so powerful that two or three of them will scent a
room for some hours" {Land and freshwater Shells, p. 56.);
and, according to Mr. Sheppard, the collector may frequently
be guided to its retreat by this exhalation {Lin. Trans., vol.
xiv. p. 160.); so that what Nature doubtless intended as a
beneficial gift, will often prove its bane in these evil days.
I was once a collector, and have often taken this snail ; but
at no time have I perceived the smell, until I had plunged the
shell into boiling water ; and even then, according to the
experiments of Dr. Johnston, the smell is not always obvious.
" Four specimens of equal size," says that gentleman, "and
alike in colour, and in the number of their whorls, were
taken from beneath one stone. None of them had any smell
while alive : but, on immersing them, one by one, in hot
water, two emitted a very strong alliaceous smell, in one it
was faint, and in the other it was not perceptible. It would
appear, therefore, that the animal has the power of retaining
or emitting its peculiar odour at pleasure ; and that, in death,
its emission may be prevented by accidental circumstances.
I could not satisfactorily ascertain its source ; but it appeared
to arise from a yellowish fluid, pressed out from above the
head." (Edin, Phil. Journ., vol. xix. p. 77.)

8. A phosphoric fluid is secreted by several mollusca.
Linnaeus tells us, on the authority of Bartholinus, that, when
the Octopus vulgaris is opened in the dark, a light so strong
and splendid is emitted, as perfectly to illuminate the room.
{Si/st, Nat., p. 658.; edit, dec.) I am not aware that any
gasteropode is phosphorescent; but the Pholades, among

contained. In the Bulimus ovatus Brug. a little gland, which has not been
described, opens into this canal ; it is of the size of a bean, trilobate,
granulated, and situated under the oesophagus and the inferior ganglion
of the cerebral ring, so that it is surrounded by nervous filaments passing
from this ganglion. The distribution of all the ducts may be easily ob-
served when filled with mercury : M. Kleaberg names them mucous ducts,
but he has not been able to determine their use and importance." {Edin.
Journ. Nat. and Geogr. Science^ vol. ii. p. 63.)

* Bosc maintains that ambergris derives its scent from this cuttle, on
which the whale feeds. {Hist. Nat. des Vers, vol. i. p. 48.)

s s 2

628 Natural History of Molluscous Animals : —

the bivalves, are greatly so ; yet, for what purpose they light
up their gloomy ceils, unless it be to allure some minute in-
sect prey, it is hard to guess, for they themselves are " dark
in light." Pliny says, the phosphoric fluid is so abundant in
them, that it shines about the mouths of those who eat the
Dactyli, shines on their hands, and even on their clothes,
from drops falling thereon. (Hist. Nat., lib. ix. cap. 87.) The
Dactyli of Pliny have commonly been considered the same
as the Pholas Z)actylus of Linnaeus; but the description
given by the Roman naturalist will disturb no conjecture;
and his Z)actyli may very possibly be the ikfytilus lithophagus
(Lithodomus Cuvie?-), concerning which, Mr. Charles Ulysses
says, "that in the Bay of Naples the fishermen place the
animal in the sun, and with it besmear their hands and faces
at night, so as to illuminate them as with phosphorus." (Dill-
wyn's Cat. Rec. Shells, p. 303.)

It is, however, among the Mollusca tunicata that the most
considerable phosphorescent species are found. The nomade
[roaming] tribes of this order abound in tropical seas ; and
there are few of them that do not light up their lamps in the
dusk. The iSalpae (or Dagysae of Banks, Jig. 109.) linked

A portion of a chain of small Dagysae of the
natural size, and considerably magnified, to
show the course of the intestine : «, the mouth ,
i, the anus. (From Home's Lect. on Comp.
Anat., VOL iL t. 73.)

109

4—

together in living chains, and the Pyrosomae, are the most
remarkable examples. Both genera appear to emit the
phosphoric flame only when the water is agitated, or when
they come in contact with opposing bodies, or when they
rise above the surface of the water. In his observations on

their Secretions, 629

a species of /Salpa, Mr. Beaufort informs us it gave no light
unless the water was violently agitated. " On holding one
in my hand," he adds, " and gently pressing it, a faint flame
seemed to pervade the whole inside ; and on each projecting
point there seemed to stand a little globule of very vivid
light. On increasing the pressure, its brilliancy likewise in-»
creased for a few moments, then gradually declined for some
time, as if exhausted by the exertion. It may have been
fancy, but, at the time, I was convinced that it gave out
a sensible degree of warmth to the hand." (Home' ^Lectures,
vol. i. p. 367.) The latter observation is probably not fanciful,
but real ; for the great Humboldt has proved that the »Salpae
(Biphora of the French), as well as the Pyrosomae, when pre-
served in a bottle, make the temperature of the water rise
nearly one centigrade degree. The same naturalist, so re-
markable for the extent and universality of his knowledge,
tells us that the Pyrosoma atlanticum diffuses, " while swim-
ming beneath the surface of the sea, a light of a foot and a
half in diameter. Only imagine the superb spectacle which
we enjoyed some days ago, when, in the evening, from seven
to eleven o'clock, a continuous band of those living globes of
fire passed near our vessel. With the light which they dif-
fused, we could distinguish, at a depth of 15 ft., the individuals
of Thynnus Pelamys, and ASardon, which have followed us
these several weeks, notwithstanding the great celerity with
which we have sailed." {Edin, Phil. Journ.^ vol. xii. p. 1S5.)
Mr. Thompson has given an interesting account of the same
species. It presents itself to the astonished voyager, in the
calm latitudes near to the line, under the appearance of thick
bars of metal of about half a foot in length, ignited to white-
ness, scattered over the surface of the ocean. Some assume
the luminous state, and continue so as long as they remain in
view ; while, in others, the luminosity declines and disappears.
— " The greater number of these apparently incandescent
masses pass close to the sides of the vessel, or follow in her
wake ; their phosphorescence being called into activity by
coming in contact with her prow or bottom, as that of such
as are more distant appears to be, by the conflict of the
waves." The light appears to pervade the whole substance
of the animal, and, " when examined near at hand, varies in
intensity and in shade, often exhibiting a very beautiful
phosphorescence of a bluish or greenish tinge, like a pale
sapphire or aquamarine, as it gradually fades away. Agitation
or friction renews it, as in other luminous animals, as long as
it continues to exhibit signs of life ; but it is most vivid when
the animal is first drawn up, and at length can sgarcely be

s s 3

630 Natural History of Molluscous Animals : —

called forth by the rudest treatment. As we observed this
interesting animal, with Milbert's florid description at hand,
I can aver that the red, aurora, and orange colours did not
present themselves to the eyes of any of our numerous party,
who were, nevertheless, highly gratified at the sight of so
brilliant and singular a creature." [Zool.Illust., vol. i.p. 43, 44.)

I am, &c.

G. J.

P. S. — The compiler of these letters will feel particularly
indebted to any correspondent of this Magazine, who will
return him an answer to the following queries : —

1. Ci/prada Tigris, " Mr. Samuel Stutchbury, who had
an opportunity of examining many individuals of C. Tigris
at the Pearl Islands, informed me that those cowries lived
there in very shallow water, and always under rolled masses
of madrepore. They never were to be seen exposed to the
sun's rays. On lifting one of those masses, a tiger cowry
was generally observed with its shell entirely covered by the
large mantle, which was mottled with dark colours, the in-
tensity of which the animal seemed to have the power of
changing ; for the colours varied in the same light and in the
same medium, after the manner of the spots on the cephalo-
podous mollusca, or, to use a more familiar instance, some-
what in the same way that the hues of a turkey-cock's wattle
vary." (Broderip in 2oo/. Jbwrw., vol. iv. p. 163.) The ques-
tion is. Does this change in colour, in the mantle of the
Cypr<^^« Tigris, depend on a structure of the skin, like that
of the Cephalopoda?

2. The interior of the Fiisus antiquus is as yellow as the
yolk of an egg ; but the margin of the aperture, or, in other
words, the newly formed part of the shell, is white. Whence
is the yellow colour derived ?

3. The apertures of Hehx cingenda and H. virgata are
generally tinted with a beautiful pink gloss, which, says
Mr. Jeffreys, is " entirely owing to the action of, and their
exposure to, the sun." (Lin. Trans., vol. xvi. p. 334.) But as
it is only on these species that the sun*s rays produce this
effect, it seems necessary to admit that there must be some-
thing peculiar to the shells or animals, on which the sun
operates this chemical change. What is this peculiar sub-
stance, and whence is it derived ?

Illustrations of British Zoology,

631

Art. VI. Illustrations in British Zoology. By George John-
ston, M.D., Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edin-
burgh.

6. CORYNE GLANDULOSA. (^g. 110.)

CI. Polypi, Ord. Denudati, Gen. Coryne.
This pretty zoophyte occurs abundantly in Berwick Bay,
where it grows upon the sides of stones that are covered with
a thin coating of fine mud, and lie in shallow pools near high-

a. Natural size.

b. Magnified.

water mark. It is here invariably accompanied with another
member of the same class, the Campanularia gelatinosa of
Dr. Fleming; but both of them, although interesting, and
even beautiful, under the microscope, are naturally so diminu-
tive, and so unattractive in appearance, that, like the flower of
the desert, they might seem " born to blush unseen," were it
not that the curious naturalist loves to search out, and to
display to others, the designs in which Infinite Wisdom has
moulded his animate creation.

Coryne glandulosa is attached to its station by slender

tubular fibres, that creep along the stone, and bind the whole

little colony together. The upright shoots are something

less than an inch in height, and irregularly branched, each

s s 4

632 Volcanoes,

branch being terminated with a clubbed head, of a reddish
colour, set round with globular- tipped tentacula, irregularly
disposed. These tentacula can bend themselves at will, and
tliey adhere tenaciously to bodies that come within their reach,
probably by suction.

The stalk of C. glandulosa is horny, and filled with a softer
pith, or medullary matter, that runs in a continuous line through
all the branches, enlarges itself in the heads, and even seems
to run up the centre of the tentacula, where it is distinguished
by its greater opacity. There is, however, no opening on the
apices of the branchlets, for the sheath covers all in ; and
although Lamarck and others introduce a "terminal mouth"
into the generic character, and, moreover, tell us, that it
is very evident, and contracts and dilates itself in a remark-
able manner ; yet I feel assured that the species before us has
no such aperture. The food appears to be imbibed through
the tops of what are called the tentacula, but which, I think,
are more properly reduced polypes ; that is, polypes without
a circle of tentacula around the oral entrance. I have come
to this conclusion, because of the irregularity of their dis-
position ; because of their structure, which is not exactly
similar to that of the tentacula of other polypes ; and because
they cannot possibly be of the least service in conducting food
to a terminal mouth.

The relations of C6ryne are imperfectly known. Lamarck
and Cuvier place it amongst the naked polypes, or such as
have no sheath to cover the body. But Coryne has a cor-
neous investing sheath, altogether like that of the Sertulariadae.
Dr. Fleming considers it *' as one of the Tubulariadae, having
a reduced sheath, and agreeing in the tentacular origin of
the ovaria;" and in this opinion I feel so disposed to ac-
quiesce, that, in an arrangement of these productions, I would
not place these genera far asunder, and certainly not in
separate orders, as this last naturalist has done, in obedience
to the dicta of others, and in contrariety to his own judgment.

George Johnston.
Bei^ick upon Tweed, May 17. 1832.

Art. VII. Volcanoes. By W. M. Higgins, Esq. F.G.S., and
J. W. Draper, Esq.

{Continued from p. 272.)

^ The Geographical Position and History of Active Volcanoes:
Europe. — The number of active volcanoes with which we are

Volcanoes,

633

acquainted is comparatively small. We have not authenticated
accounts of more than two hundred. But, in forming our
estimate of the extent of volcanic action, we must keep in
mind that in the interior of the Americas, and other uninves-
tigated districts, very many volcanic mountains may hereafter
be discovered ; and that it is by no means improbable that
those which we now consider extinct, are in the phase of
prolonged intermittence, and may again break forth with
overpowering energy : and we are entirely ignorant of the
number of subaqueous volcanoes ; for not only may there be
many in the phase of prolonged intermittence, but those in
frequent activity are inadequately known.

In tracing the geographical position of the active volcanoes
with which we are acquainted, we shall commence with Vesu-
vius, in the kingdom of Naples. The first recorded eruption
of this mountain was in the year 79, when the celebrated
cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were destroyed. Dr. Dau-
beny is of opinion that the cone of Vesuvius did not exist till
this time, and that the eruption which buried those devoted
cities formed the cone of the present mountain. This
probability is strengthened by the fact, that the measure-
ment we have of the distance of the mountain from Pompeii
and Stabiae can only be reconciled with its present situation
by measuring from the foot of Monte Somma. Hence, then,
we may be permitted to suppose, that by the eruption of
79 Somma was destroyed, and Vesuvius is but the cone which
was formed within that mountain, increased by successive
eruptions ; and that, previously to this time, all eruptions were
from the crater of Somma. {Jig, 111.) An account of the phe-

nomena which attended this remarkable activity may be seen
in Pliny's Epistles^ lib. vi. ep. 20. After this it seems to have
fallen into the phase of prolonged intermittence, but was again
in action in the year 203. It was also violently agitated in
472, and covered all Europe with its ashes ; but it was not

6f34 Volcanoes.

until 1036 that it ejected lava, tliough it was in activity in the
years 512, 685, and 993. From the year 1109, till the year
1306, it remained in a state of inactivity, and during the lat-
ter part of this period was covered by vegetation. In 16 J 1
Braccini examined the crater, and it was again covered by
trees ; but it suffered eruption in 1631, and also in the years
1660, 1682, 1694, and 1698: from this time its periods of
quiescence have been comparatively short.*

In the Bay of Baiae we meet with another volcano, Monte
Nuovo, which was formed in September, ]538. Since that
time it has not shown any proof of activity, except the emis-
sion of a thin vapour from the base of its crater. But this
fact, connected with the heat of the waters of the Baths of
Nero, which are in the immediate neighbourhood, may be suf-
ficient to prove that the volcanic agent is still in a state of
activity. Between the Monte Nuovo and Puzzuoli there is a
hill called the Solfatara, which is supposed to have been active
as early as the twelfth century, and still gives off" gases and
aqueous vapours.

There are several other volcanoes in the district around
Naples, and in the neighbouring isles of Procida and Ischia.
The latter island was the seat of volcanic agency in the four-
teenth century; but its eruptions appear to have generally
issued from fissures. In the basin of the Mediterranean (says
Humboldt) not only does the volcanic fire escape from per-
manent craters of isolated mountains, which have a constant
communication with the interior of the earth, as Stromboli,
Vesuvius, and Etna; but at Ischia, in Mount Eponice, and,
according to the accounts of the ancients, in the plains of
Selantis, near Chalcis, lavas have flowed from fissures which
have suddenly opened at the surface of the ground. ( Tableaux
de la Nature, vol. ii.)

In the early ages of history, the volcano of Ischia was pecu-
liarly active and violent. Strabo says that the colony sent
over by Hiero were so alarmed by the frequency of the earth-
quakes, that thej^ could not be induced to remain on the island.
(Strabo, lib. v.; Daubeny, p. 182.) In the Lipari Isles, between
Naples and Sicily, there are two active volcanoes, Stromboli
and Volcano.

The Island of Stromboli consists of a large conical moun-
tain, having on one side several small craters ; one of which
is in the phase of permanent eruption. This small but inter-

* For an account of the violent eruption in 1822, see Mr. Scrope's
account, in the Journal of Science^ vol. xv. p. 175 ; see also Descnztone
deW Eruzione del Vesuvio avvenuta nei giorni 25 e 2Q Decembre, 1813, by
Signor Moncicelli.

Volcanoes, 6S5

esting volcano is frequently mentioned by the classical writers,
particularly by Diodorus Siculus, and the learned Strabo;
but as the phenomena which attend it have been already men-
tioned, no further notice is required.

The Island of Volcano, like all others of the Lipari group,
is entirely volcanic ; and, from the testimony of Strabo, seems
to have been the seat of much more violent eruptions than
Stromboli. Its crater is situated on the highest elevation in
the island, and still emits gaseous exhalations in so great an
abundance, that it has been described by travellers as in a
state of activity. It exhibits, says Dr. Daubeny, the nearest
approximation to a state of activity, during which a descent
into the crater would be practicable. " Nor can I imagine a
spectacle of more solemn grandeur than that presented in its
interior, or conceive a spot better calculated to excite, in a
superstitious age, that religious awe which caused the island
to be considered sacred to Vulcan, and the various caverns
below as the peculiar residences of the gods." (y%. 112.)

112

From the Lipari Isles we pass on to Sicily, the seat of the
celebrated Mount Etna* Those who have received their ear-
liest impressions of this district from the ancients, may per-
haps expect a detailed history of this volcano, as some of the
most interesting of the classic tales can only be understood by
reference to this mountain and the neighbouring Cyclopean
Islands ; but our remarks must necessarily be brief.

Etna is entirely composed of volcanic rocks, and rises in
imposing grandeur to the height of 10,000 ft. above the level
of the sea. It is about 180 miles in circumference, and is
surrounded on every hand by apparently small volcanic cones,
though of no inconsiderable size, which tend in a great degree
to increase the apparent dimensions of the central mountain.
Some of these cones are covered with vegetation, but others
are arid and bare. From this variety in the progress of vege-

636

Volcanoes,

tation, some persons have endeavoured to calculate the re-
lative ages of the cones ; but these opinions are exceedingly
vague, as it requires a longer period to form a soil on some
lavas than on others [see p. 527.]- The earliest historical notice
v^e have of this mountain is by Thucydides, who states that
there were three eruptions previous to the Peloponnesian war
{^Sl B. c.)j to one of which Pindar alludes in his first Pythian
Ode. In the year 396 b. c. the volcano was again active ;
and according to Diodorus Siculus, the Carthaginian army
was stopped in its march against Syracuse by the flowing
lava. But let it suffice, to say that ten eruptions previous to,
and forty-eight subsequent to, the Christian era, have been
recorded ; some when the mountain was in the phase of
moderate activity, and others when in the phase of prolonged
intermittence.

From the Island of Sicily we pass on to the Grecian Archi-
pelago, which has at various times been the seat of violent
volcanic action ; but we have already described the formation
of Santorino and its adjacent islands. The epoch of the
eruptions in Milo are unknown, but they are evidently recent ;
and we may therefore class it among the active volcanoes. It
abounds in hot springs, and other demonstrations of a present
activity.

Iceland is an island peculiarly subject to the devastating
effects of volcanoes : indeed, we may mention it as more re-
markable than all others, both for the number of its cones,
and their habitual activity. Hecla (Jig, 113.), the most cele-

brated volcano of this island, has suffered thirteen eruptions
since the year 1137 ; and during the last eight hundred years
there have been twenty- two. After the eruption of 1766, It

Geology of Benmclcshire, 637

came into the phase of prolonged interinittence, but was again
active in 1821.

The other volcanoes of Iceland are Krabla, Eyafealla Jokul,
Eyrefa Jokul, Skeptaa Jokul, Kattlagiaa, Wester Jokul,
and Gullunge Syssel. All these have been the sources of
violent eruptions, and have spread their lavas throughout this
interesting island, which seems to be a mere vent of some
vast reservoir of heated lava.

The only other situation in Europe in which we find an
active volcano is the Island of Jan Mayen, off the coast of
Greenland, which was active in the year 1818. When visited
by Captain Scoresby, the crater was about 500 ft. deep, and
2000 ft. in diameter.

The continent of Africa does not offer a single example of
an active volcano, but in the islands they are very numerous :
these shall be noticed in our next communication.

(To be continued,)

Art. VIII. Contributions to the Geology ofBermchshire. By Ro-
bert DuNDAs Thomson, CM. and M.D., of the Honourable
East India Company's Service. [Read before the Berwick-
shire Naturalists' Club, December 21. 1831.]

The parishes of Eccles, Greenlaw, Polwarth, and Long-
formacus include a narrow tract of country extending from
the Tweed to the Lammermoors ; and, small though this tract
may appear, it comprehends, as it were, a section of the
county of Berwick, includes all the fundamental rocks of the
county, and one or two which are peculiar to it.

The order of the rocks, beginning at the surface, is, —
amygdaloid, new red sandstone, claystone porphyry, mag-
nesian limestone, greywacke, and old red sandstone.

New Red Sandstone, — The banks of the Tweed, in the
greater part of its course through the Merse, appear to con-
sist of the rocks of this formation. The characteristic aspect
which it most generally assumes is that of a dark sandstone,
often highly indurated, but, when exposed, becoming soft and
slaty. An analysis of it shows that it contains about 25 per
cent of carbonate of lime : and from this circumstance, and
its external characters, it may be distinguished as a marly
sandstone. Its relative position with regard to other rocks
can be well seen at Lochton, where the north bank of the
Tweed is high and precipitous for about a quarter of a mile.
Here it alternates with a still more indurated variety, which,

638

Omtributions to the

\n

GEOLOGICAL SKETCH

OF

THE PARISHES OF

ECCLES, GREENLAW, POLWARTH,

AND

LONGFORMACUS.

Abbey St. Bathans Ph.

Lang ton Ph,

■7

N. --

'. ■^.■' '^ Dirriiigton

V

..'r

from its containing a greater proportion of calcareous matter,
may be denominated limestone. The soil, which is light, and
at the bottom gravelly or conglomerate, lies over the sandstone

114

Geology of Bermichhire,

639

Swinton Ph.

ft

X

Pohvarth

Fogo .Ph.

A

v/

%s. < Eduam Pb,

Old red sandstone

;Vaadet

BVacl

oWestrutner'Ph

New red sandst. |
Claystone poiph. fl
Amygdaloid - ij|

Magnes. Umest. {£

III

Greywacke - H

and limestone to the depth of 12 ft. The remainder of the
bank, which reaches about 12 ft. more, as far as the ravages
produced by the rapid current of the Tweed enable the eye

,64-0 Contrihutkms to the

to penetrate, consists of these strata; the marly sandstone
being most predominant, and the limestone only occurring in
thin beds. The northern half of the river is floored with the
same sandstone ; from which it is evident that the bank, to this
extent, has been worn away and destroyed by the force of the
stream and other auxiliary means. The gradual waste of the
sandstone seems to be accelerated by two agents. The rock
is naturally very hard ; but, by the constant action of water
upon it (for we find it generally moistened by numerous
springs which trickle down over its whole surface), it shivers
into slaty fragments ; and these again are converted into a
coarse powder, which is borne away by the stream.

The water which drops from these rocks has the property
of what is commonly termed petrifying, which is produced by
a solution of bicarbonate of lime, and shows that it has been
subjected to pressure.

But a still more powerful agent is the frost of winter. The
rock, when gently heated in the fire, is found to lose much of
its weight : this loss of weight is accompanied with decrepita-
tion ; which shows that the moisture is not chemically com-
bined, but mechanically deposited between its plates. During
winter, the water freezes, expands, and splits the rocks, which
crumble and decay.

About a foot above the level of the river there are two beds
of red massy gypsum containing crystals, and a thin bed of
white fibrous gypsum. The former is hydrous sulphate of
lime, containing one half per cent peroxide of iron.

The highest part of the bank, which is called Hindlaw
Top, exhibits, perhaps, the most characteristic section of the
strata, although the sulphate of lime beds are thicker higher
up. Hindlaw Top is about 50 ft. in perpendicular height, by
measurement.

This marly sandstone occurs in connection with a white
variety, which contains less carbonate of lime, and is more
compact in its structure : it occurs at Lochton, and on the
east of Birgham Haugh, having a slight dip to the south-west.
The same rocks can be distinctly traced along the Tweed to
Coldstream, and up the banks of the Leet to Swinton ; and,
near Belchester, contain thin beds of gypsum.

The sandstone at Eccles belongs to the same formation ;
and here it becomes an excellent building-stone, highly excel-
ling in durability, and seems to have been quarried for at least
700 years. The ancient convent of Eccles was founded a
second time in 1154«, according to Hoveden and the Melrose
Chronicle ; and it appears to have been built of this stone.
The ruins of this nunnery still exist ; and, if we may judge

Geology of Ber^soicJcshire, 641

from the uninjured state of the walls which now stand, we
have every reason to think that the building might have
remained to this day, a lasting memorial of times long gone
by, if the barbarous conduct of an English warrior had not
consigned it to destruction. It was destroyed, along with
many other convents in Merse and Teviotdale, by the Earl of
Hertford, in 1545.

The interesting monument at Crosshall, distant about a mile
from Eccles, which consists of an entire column of sandstone
covered with sculptures, above 1 5 ft. high, and appears to be
scarcely less ancient than the convent, has been also derived,
in all probability, from the quarry of Eccles.

In the north of the parish of Eccles, this sandstone contains
an unusual quantity of silica, and is so hard as to be almost
a quartz rock. The whole of the parishes of Eccles and
Swinton, and the southern parts of Greenlaw and Polwarth,
belong to this formation.

The marly sandstone, from its dark colour and slaty struc-
ture, is liable to be mistaken, and has been considered by some
as belonging to the coal measures. The characters* which
distinguish it as a member of the new red sandstone formation
are sufficiently strong and irresistible, and show that its de-
position must have been subsequent to that of the coal series :
for, first, it contains beds of sulphate of lime, a mineral which
characterises this formation ; and, secondly, it lies over the
magnesian limestone, a rock which we are immediately to
consider, and which is exposed in two different parts of the
parish of Eccles.

On the east side of Birgham Haugh, the north bank of the
Tweed, which hitherto we have described as consisting of
sandstone, is composed of amygdaloid. This rock assumes
two aspects: that portion of it which constitutes the round
irregular masses and rocky islets in the middle of the river,
and which are the means of forming several fine angling
streams, has a wacke basis approaching to clay. Through it
are interspersed crystals of calcareous spar, and its cavities
contain green steatite and stilbite. The rock which more
properly constitutes the bank of the river is nearly allied to
greenstone ; but the almond-shaped cavities are still present,
and they contain small round masses of quartz. This mineral
continues exposed for 100 yards, when the sandstone again
appears.

Magnesian Lirnestone. — This rock makes its appearance at

the west side of Birgham Haugh, and constitutes the bed cf

the river. Its exteinal aspect is lighter-coloured and more

compact than the English dolomite; it is very difficult to frac-

VoL. V.-— No. 29. TT

64? 2 Contributions to the

ture ; it is slowly soluble in acids, so that, for its speedy solu-
tion, it is necessary to pulverise it and apply heat. Specific
gravity, 2*723 ; colour grey ; lustre dull, occasionally pearly
from the calcareous spar embedded in it ; opaque ; hardness,
3*5. Before the blowpipe, per se, becomes yellowish; on
charcoal, is rendered caustic ; fuses, with phosphate of soda
and borax, into a transparent bead ; and, with carbonate of
soda, into an opaque one. Its constituents are : —

Carbonate of lime - - - 49.6

Carbonate of magnesia - . - 44<*

Silica - - _ _ - 4*

Peroxide of iron - - - 1*2

Alumina - - - - - !•

99-8

If we abstract the impurities, this corresponds very nearly with
Carbonate of lime - - - 6.25

Carbonate of magnesia - - - 5-25

11-5

Hadden Rigg, which constitutes a rising ground on the
south side of the river, and runs parallel with it, consists of
this mineral and claystone porphyry. It may be observed
two miles higher up the Tweed ; and the sandstone quarry
of Sprouston seems to repose on it. There is an excellent
section of the mineral and its alternating strata along the bank
of Carham Burn, a small streamlet which separates the two
kingdoms, and which makes a conspicuous figure in the bor-
der history under the name of Reddenburn. It rushes with
considerable impetuosity down a declivity, in order to dis-
charge its waters into the Tweed, tearing up the soil and
rocks, and has exposed the strata for the inspection of the
geologist. Immediately under the soil lies a stratum of clay-
stone porphyry of a purplish colour, in which the clay is most
predominant, containing some nodules of quartz, &c. Then
comes a stratum of magnesian limestone ; with red hornstone,
a mineral which is very abundant here, often of a fine flesh
red colour, but sometimes almost as pale as quartz : and thus
a succession of alternations proceed, till we arrive at the bed
of the rivulet. Fig. 115. is a section and measurement of
these strata.

The porphyry is sometimes very finely granular, having ra-
ther a beautiful appearance, and is so hard as to be used for
mending the roads. It seems to occupy the place of the brec-
cia, which occurs in connection with the magnesian limestone
on the coast of Durham ; and a similar rock is said to exist
along with the dolomite of the coal country of Upper Silesia.

The same limestone lies under sandstone at Eccles, but is

Geology of BenmcJcshire,

643

there darker-coloured. At Hadden Rigg it has been burned,
and employed as manure ; but the distance of coal is a great
drawback to its use.

115

Soil

ft. in.
- 6 0

-06

-

4

0

-

0

2

-

2

6

-

0

i

-

2

0

-

0

3

-

I

0

«

0

3

Magnesian limestone with hornstone

Claystone porphyry

Magnesian limestone and hornstone

Claystone porphyry

Magnesian limestone and hornstone
Claystone porphyry

Magnesian limestone and hornstone

Claystone porphyry

Magnesian limestone and hornstone
Claystone porphyry.

Old Red Sandstone, — In travelling northwards from the
Tweed, we first meet with this rock at Greenlaw; all the
intermediate country, as we have said, being situated in the
new red sandstone formation. The banks of the river Black-
adder, above Greenlaw, consist entirely of this rock. To
every one who inspects these banks, it must appear desirable
that more should be done to improve their appearance ; for
we have rarely seen a better situation for art to assist nature,
by planting trees in the ravine, and on the high and pre-
cipitous rocks, where they would tower aloft, and present an
admirable prospect. The rock is soft, and affords a good
material for building, although its nearly brick-red aspect does
not please the eye so well as the more delicate colour of the
new red sandstone. The fracture presents small interspersed
portions of white sandstone. The strata dip slightly in the
direction of the river. We have traced the rock for several
miles above Greenlaw, and the moor is strewed with small
masses of it. It may be observed in situ on the east side of
Great Dirrington Law, and at the bridge over the Dye, at
Longformacus, where it becomes coarser, granular, and runs
gradually into greywacke, which occurs a tew yards above it

T T 2

64'4 Contributions to the

with all the characters of a sandstone, but of a grey colour.
A coarse conglomerate, consisting of round masses of white
and red sandstone, appears at the church, and the red rock
forms the bed of the river for some hundred yards upwards.
When rubbed between the fingers, specimens of this rock
often leave a red impression, which is readily communicated
to water. The stream of the Dye, as well as that of the
Blackadder*, has a dark colour, which is characterised by
their names, and produced by their

tide

That chafes against the scaur's red side."

The red sandstone, as it occurs at Longformacus, is com-
posed of grains of quartz, felspar, and mica, and perhaps
Lydian stone, cemented together by a basis of red clay, and
seems to be disposed in vertical strata. After tracing out
this rock carefully, we cannot fail to be struck with the aspect
of the soil which overlies it. It constitutes valleys and low
grounds ; and the country which belongs to this formation is
characterised by a very bleak and barren appearance. The
whole of the wild moor between the Merse and the Lammer-
moors, seven miles in breadth, belongs to this formation. In
some spots agriculture has been commenced, and, where it has
been begun with vigour, great improvements have been made.
The shelter of wood, however, is a great deficiency, which it
is to be hoped may be supplied, and be the means of rescuing,
from its present waste and desolate situation, a tract of coun-
try which possesses many of the natural requisites of a highly
improvable district. The Merse, which is now surpassed for
richness and beauty by no part of the kingdom, must at no
very distant period have been equally in a state of nature.

Grey*wacke. — The red sandstone passes gradually into this
rock, and appears to lie under it; but perhaps this appearance
may be occasioned by the vertical position of the strata of the
two rocks, where they run into each other. It is certain,
however, that the sandstone and the greywacke are similarly
constituted ; with this difference, that the basis of the former is
red, and that of the latter grey. The greywacke, then, may
be considered as a sandstone in this locality.

The whole of the Lammermoors appear, as far as they have
been examined, to consist essentially of this rock, alternating
occasionally with greywacke slate. The rocks of which the
two Dirringtons consist are so effectually concealed by deep
soil, that it is impossible to form any accurate idea of their
constitution. At their bases, however, we find the red sand-

* Blackadder, or Black water. Whiteadder, or White water.

Geology of Bermckshire, 64-5

stone, which, as has ah'eady been stated, may be considered
as forming the low grounds, and the greywacke as reposing
upon it, or as forming processes or protuberances, and con-
stituting the hills and high lands. The greywacke, at Long-
formacus, is characterised by its resemblance to sandstone;
but, in other places, it approaches nearer to the true species of
that rock as it is described in geological treatises, consisting of
a basis of clay slate, with portions of the same rock inter-
spersed. But the aspects which greywacke assumes are very
various, and in number are equalled by no other rock, perhaps,
which has yet been discovered.

In the middle of the parish of Polwarth, a considerable
elevation rises, called Kyles Hill, covered principally with
oaks, upon which grows in profusion the lichen Alectoria
jubata, in long and pendent tufts resembling the hair of some
animal. The hill is constituted of a highly indurated species
of porphyry, having a red clay basis, containing felspar inter-
spersed through it. This rock assumes the same place which
the greywacke holds in the Lammermoors, as already de-
scribed, the red sandstone being quite conspicuous towards
the base of the hill, and exposed in the bed of the small
streams which run down its sides. It affords a good material
for mending the roads, and is accordingly employed for that
purpose. The red sandstone, as it occurs here, is much
coarser than usual, and is in some places a rough conglome-
rate, but is always easily decomposed after some exposure to
the influence of the atmosphere.

The minerals which have now been described constitute
the whole of the rock formations which we have met with in
the district to which we have confined ourselves : but there
are some alluvial deposits which are very remarkable, and
which must have attracted the attention of the most ignorant
in geology. I allude to the gravelly ridges, or kaims, as
they are locally denominated, of wliich there are two ex-
amples in the parishes of Greenlaw and Eccles. The former
is infinitely the more striking ; for, as the surrounding surface
is level, and in a state of nature, there are no intervening
objects to obstruct the prospect, and it is visible at a very
considerable distance.

The ridge extends from W. to N. E., exhibiting an irre-
gular and broken outline for above a mile, and in some
places is said to be 20 ft. high. The contents are a fine
gravel, or sand, consisting of fragments of greywacke.

In the parish of Eccles, a considerable elevation appears at
Hassington Mains, and can be traced by Loanknow and
Ploughland, and probably gives name to Kames, once the

T T 3

64!6 Geology of BermcJcsJiire,

seat of the late Lord Karnes. At Hassington Mains, where
is its western termination, the contents are composed of large
water-worn masses ofgreywacke; but towards the east they
consist of fine gravel or sand. Similar ridges, upon a smaller
scale, may be observed in various parts of the county ; espe-
cially upon Dod Water, where they constitute hillocks, and
assume a very artificial aspect. In cutting small eminences
on public roads, a section is often made of what the workmen
call a sandbank, which is a small ridge analogous to those
described, and derived, in all probability, from a similar origin.
The Merse derives its name from its former marshy and
boggy condition ; which shows, independently of the remains
which we now meet with, that it was subjected to the inun-
dations of water. We might suppose that the whole district
was one immense loch, or inland sea*; and the ridges which
are now so conspicuous, were produced by the alternate sub-
sidence and swelling of the waters, as we observe in shallow
seas. But the facts, that the contents of these ridges are
greywacke, and that the stones scattered over the fields for
many miles northwards from the Tweed, consist of the same
materials, prove most powerfully, or at least afford a very
strong presumption, that an aqueous current setting in from
the Lammermoors was the agent which produced these ap-
pearances. From whence this current was derived, and if it
afforded a supply for the loss occasioned by evaporation, are
different questions, upon which it is not necessary for us to
enter. It is obvious^ however, that, when the supply of the
current diminished, occasional violent torrents would wash
down the smaller particles which had been disrupted and
loosened by the action of the water ; and when the velocity of
the stream ceased, the matter borne along with it would be
deposited in the form of a ridge. The figure of the Greenlaw
Kaims, which presents a hollow towards the hills, favours this
idea ; and that the breadth of the current had not been great
is likewise probable, from the nature of the angle which ap-
pears to have been produced by the centre of the mass of
water.

* The quantity of common salt which exists in solution in the wells and
rivers of the Merse, would go to prove that this district had at no very
distant period been subjected to inundations from the sea. The imperial
gallon of the well water at Eccles Manse contains : —
Specific gravity, 1.000792

Sulphate of lime - - 57.75
Common salt - - 29.752

87.502

647

REVIEWS.

Art. I. Catalogue of Works on Natural History ^ lately published,
luith some Notice of those considered the most interesting to British
Naturalists.

PRITCHARD, Andrew : The Microscopic Cabinet of Select Ani-
mated Objects ; witli a Description of the Jewel and Doublet
Mici'oscope, Test Objects, &c. : to which are subjoined,
Memoirs on the Verification of Microscopic Phenomena,
and an exact Method of appreciating the Quality of Mi-
croscopes and Engiscopes ; by C. Goring, M.D. The
whole work illustrated, from original drawings, by thirteen
coloured plates, and numerous engravings on wood. 8vo,
pp.246. London, 1832. 185.

This Vr^ork may be termed a practical treatise on the pre-
sent state of microscopes; and supplies, collaterally with this
its primary object, 82 pages of description, and ten coloured
plates of figures of the aquatic larvae of insects, Crustacea,
and animalcules. Some of the subjects in the coloured en-
gravings and woodcuts, it is said, have not been previously
published in Britain ; and, in the descriptive portion, valuable
information is imparted on the structure and habits of these
most interesting creatures ; and for procuring, feeding, pre-
serving, and the best mode of examining them, useful directions
are given. We are warmly desirous of the accumulation of
a voluminous body of information, written in as popular, yet
able and technically definite, a manner, on all the objects of
nature which defy, by their minuteness, elucidation by the
application of unassisted vision. All the discoveries hitherto
made should be collected, and re-tested, and additional re-
searches unremittingly prosecuted ; and, for effecting an object
so useful, and importantly serviceable in promoting our know-
ledge of nature, perhaps no means will be found so conducive
as a Magazine on the Microscope, which should admit con-
tributions from all microscopists, and their mutual animadver-
sions on each other's researches. Thus would the public be
informed of numerous interesting discoveries, which probably
now totally escape registry ; and these, from being liable to
the close scrutiny and canvass of numerous students and con-
tributors, all emulous of excelling each other, would become
facts established by the concurrent testimony of competent

T T 4?

648 Zoological Journal.

judges, and subsequently available to the views of the gene-
ralising compiler and systematist. It surely can scarcely be
doubted that the public is now enough imbued with a regard
for natural science, to patronise a work of this scope suffi-
ciently to cause it to remunerate those who may embark in it.
During the latter portion of the life of Mr. Carpenter, Gill's
Technological Repository was frequently enriched with the
very interesting results of his microscopical investigations;
but a work appropriated solely to the reception and diffusion
of this kind of knowledge would, we apprehend, be received
by the scientific public with increased welcome.

To return to the Microscopic Cabinet, As above implied,
the remaining pages and plates discuss the more strictly
optical considerations which appertain to microscopes and
engiscopes ; this latter term being used to express those in-
struments " which exhibit an image of the object, whether
they be reflectors or refractors." Of this part of the work,
we declare ourselves incompetent to judge, but may say, it
seems abounding in highly scientific and practical knowledge,
which will probably considerably, perhaps vastly, avail the
users and studiers of microscopes. After remarks on the
requisite qualities of perfect instruments, and on the author's
mode and materials of structure to produce these qualities,
two plates and several pages of remarks are supplied on " test
objects ; " among which we are again treated, although inci-
dentally, with information on insects. Insects, however, are
not the only "tests" introduced; for, as "new test objects,"
there are presented " engravings of the appearances presented
by magnified artificial stars (globules of quicksilver on a black
ground), and white rings or annulets painted on a black
enamel plate, or dial, when viewed within and without the
focus of microscopes and engiscopes of different qualities."
The vegetable kingdom seems to have been so slighted, that
scarcely any " test objects " have been chosen from it ; but it
may be that they are inapplicable as " test objects," although
objects of very high interest for ordinary microscopical in-
spection.

Vigors, N. A., F.R.S., Editor: The Zoological Journal,
No. 19. Price IO5. ; or, with the Plates uncoloured,
7s. 6d. Part IV. of Supplementary Plates, price I8s.; or,
with all the Plates uncoloured, IO5. : the Coloured Copies
to Members of the Royal, Linnaean, Geological, and
Zoological Societies, 153.

Both the above were published in July last. The number,
on its cover, is stated to occupy the interval from July, 1830,

Zoological Journal. 649

to September, 1831. It contains some valuable contributions
to natural science. There is a majority of papers on Mol-
liisca. They are these: a paper, by the Rev. T. Lowe, on
the genera Melampus, Pedipes, and Truncatella; with Ex-
periments tending to demonstrate the real Nature of the
respiratory Organs in the Mollusca. This paper is il-
lustrated by figures, and occupies twenty-four pages. One
by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, on the internal Structure and
Affinities of the Helicolimax (Vitrina) LamarckzV, and of the
animal there are five figures in the supplementary plates.
This paper, of nine pages, is properly a supplement to that
by Mr. Lowe on this subject, in vol. iv. p. 343. of the
Journal. W. G. Broderip, Esq. F.R.S., has a paper de-
scriptive of a new cowry, and other Testacea, brought to
England by the Rev. Archdeacon Scott. M. Verany con-
tributes a paper, in the French language, on the Carinaria
mediterranea, of which there are two figures in the supple-
mentary plates : this seems a most interesting animal. An
article, entitled, " Description of the Cirrhipeda, Conchifera,
and Mollusca, in a Collection formed by the Officers of His
Majesty's ships Adventure and Beagle, employed between
the years 1826 and 1830 in surveying the Southern Coasts
of South America, including the Strait of Magelhaens and
the Coast of Tierra del Fuego;" by Captain King, assisted
by Mr. Broderip. A new species of herring has been dis-
covered among the finny visiters of our coasts, by Mr. Yarrell,
who describes it, and names it Clupea Leach?/; of this there
is a figure. In entomology, A. H. Haliday, Esq., supplies an
article termed " the Characters of two new Dipterous Genera;
with Indications of some Generic Sub-divisions and several
undescribed Species of Dolichopidae : " there are some figures
illustrative of this article. Our valued contributor, Mr. West-
wood, communicates some supplementary notices to some of
his previous papers. There are some articles additional to
these, named "Analytical Notices of Books;" and '* Scientific
Notices." Among the latter, Mr. Thomson presents some
corroborative remarks on the Metamorphoses of the decapo-
dous Crustacea. The supplementary plates exhibit Para-
doxurus leucopus (white-footed), Mustela flavigula (yellow-
throated), A^xms Rafflesn; Osphromenus olfax, or goramy ;
Helicolimax LamarckzV, Carinaria mediterranea, Myochama
anomioides, Cleidothae'rus <7hamoides, twelve species ot'Chhon;
coleopterous insects, Rhysodes exaratus, Catogenus rufus, Cu-
cujus piceus ? Cucujus unifasciatus ? with numerous figures,
exhibitive of the anatomical details of these insects.

^5 Fossil Flora of Great Britain,

Lindley, John, F.R.S. &c. Professor in the University of
London ; and Hutton, William, F.G.S. &c. The Fossil
Flora of Great Britain ; or Figures and Descriptions of
the Vegetable Remains found in a Fossil State in this
Country. Part I. of Vol. I. 8vo. London, 1831-2.
1/. 2s,

This work is an important contribution to the science of
British, and, indeed, of universal, geology; and, we trust, will
be so patronised by the scientific men of our country, as to cause
it to be proceeded in with spirit and satisfaction by its authors
and proprietors. A very high degree of botanical ability is
evinced throughout the book ; indeed, so much as to require,
on the part of the reader, a mind already well furnished with
botanical ideas. The preface is a rich and valuable essay
on Fossil Botany. This " Part I. of Vol. I." contains
39 plates, and about 150 pages of letter-press. The work
appears in quarterly numbers, eight of which are to form a
volume. The authors " hope, that a work appearing pe-
riodically may become the focus of all the knowledge that
will be gradually acquired in regard to this important subject :
that it will keep the enquiry in sight of those who, from their
local position, will be able most powerfully to aid it by the
examination of [fossil vegetable] remains within their reach ;
but who may be the least acquainted with the nature of the
information that is wanted, and with the progress that the
science is making elsewhere." In a subsequent part of the
preface, instructions are supplied as to the way in which " the
state of the fossil remains of plants renders it almost indis-
pensable that any investigation of their original structure
should be conducted ; " and as to " what the chief points are,
to which the attention of collectors should more especially be
directed."

Riley, JV. E. : Remarks on the Importation and Result of the
Introduction of the Cachemire and Angora Goats into
France, and the extraordinary Properties of the new Race,
Cachemire -Angora; with its Capability of also rendering
the Common Goat of Value to the Colonists of New South
Wales and Van Diemen's Land. Svo pamphlet, of 48
pages. London, 1832.

This pamphlet will be found noticed in the Gardener^s Ma-
gazine for Aug. 1., vol. viii. p. 452.

651

COLLECTANEA.

Art. I. Zoology,

Facts and Observations in Natural History, hy William
Sells, M.Ii.C.S. Kingston, Surrey, January I. 1832. — [The cir-
cumstances under which the following paragraphs were writ-
ten are explained p. 470. ; the present being the remainder of
all that were communicated. — J. Z).]

On the Ihocess of Lactation in Animals, {White's Selborne,
p. 215.) — It has been most wisely ordered that the process
of suckling the young should be as pleasurable to the parent
animal, as it is essential to the support of the infant progeny ;
the mammae (dugs) of animals become painful when over
distended with milk; and the drawing off of that fluid not only
removes positive uneasiness, but affords positive pleasure.
The nipple, previously soft and flaccid, upon the young
animal beginning to suck, becomes enlarged, firm, and erect,
and the flowing of the milk is accompanied by an exquisitely
pleasing sensation to the mother : the nipple is highly organ-
ised, and becomes erect on application of slight friction, and,
by a kind of spasmodic action, will sometimes throw out the
milk in jets. I once saw, at Exeter 'Change, a young panther
suckled by a bitch ; and, last year, a tom cat of mine, which
had been castrated in order to make him a better mouser, and
to keep him at home, was often to be seen sucking a spaniel
bitch.

Boars scarcely emasculated by the Loss of their Tusks, The
following note was annexed to a passage in White's Selborne,
(p. 212.), where he alluded to the fact reported by Mr. Lisle,
of a boar losing his sexual powers in consequence of being
deprived of his tusks. This is doubtless erroneous, as I have
known the tusks of many dangerous boars sawed off, to
prevent accidents, without any such consequence; but I have
seen them appear much cowed by the loss of their tusks, as
they were no longer able to command their previous monopoly
of the sows, the young boars ceasing to be afraid of them.

Retention of Vitality in Frozen Fish and the Ijcech, ( Whitens
Selborne, p. 294.) We have the best evidence to prove that
fish and some molluscous animals may be frozen without
destroying their vitality. A friend of mine, at Camberwell,
had an inflamed eye during the winter of 1829, and had a

652 Zoology,

leech which was applied to the temple several times ; it was
kept in water, in a vial, and placed on the carpet near the
fireplace of the parlour ; the cold at that time was very
severe, and every night the leech was frozen, and thawed the
following day. Mr. Knight was there at the time, witnessed
the fact, and expressed, I am told, no small interest at this
curious incident. It was observed by Captain Franklin, during
the severe winter they experienced near the Coppermine
River, that the fish froze as they were taken out of the nets ;
in a short time they became a solid mass of ice, and by a
blow or two of the hatchet were easily split open ; if in the
completely frozen state they were thawed before the fire, they
recovered their animation. This is a very remarkable instance
how completely animation can be suspended in cold-blooded
animals.

Silkworm. It has occurred to me, and I have not seen
it remarked elsewhere, as a striking and interesting peculiarity
of this insect, that it does not wander about as all other cater-
pillars do, but that it is nearly stationary in the open box or
tray where it is placed and fed : after consuming the imme-
diate supply of mulberry leaves, it waits patiently for more
being provided. I apprehend this cannot be said of any other
insect whatever. This docile quality of the worm harmonises
beautifully with its vast importance to mankind, in furnishing
a material which affords our most elegant and beautiful, if not
most useful, of garments. The same remark applies to the
insect in the fly or moth state, the female being quite incapable
of flight, and the male, although of a much lighter make, and
more active, can fly but very imperfectly ; the latter circum-
stance ensures to us the eggs for the following season, and
thus completes the adaptation of the insect, in its different
stages, to the useful purpose it is destined to fulfil for our
advantage.

A curious Fact concerning Bees. As a small vessel was
proceeding up Channel from the coast of Cornwall, and
running near the land, some of the sailors observed a swarm
of bees on an island : they steered for it, landed, and took
the bees on board ; succeeded in hiving them immediately, antl
proceeded on their voyage : as they sailed along shore, the bees
constantly flew from the vessel to the land, to collect honey,
and returned again to their moving hive ; and this was con-
tinued all the way up the Channel. {Times, 1830.)

Turtles. White mentions that it is reported of the land
tortoise, that it is occupied one month in completing one fete
d^ amour ; and this remark leads me to mention that I was
more than once informed, in Jamaica, that the male and female

Zoology. 653

turtle remain coupled during the period of nine days. The
turtler, mentioned in p. 476., whom I asked on this matter,
assured me, that I had been correctly informed.

Lizards. I have frequently seen these animals procreate ;
they lie on their sides, belly to belly, and remain united for a
considerable time. — W. Sells.

Yj'ingilla Montifringilla [the Brambling) and Frmgilla
(2kldris [the GreenfincK) both possess imitative Powers of
Song ; and an Instance of the Brambling^ s being met mth in
Norfolk. — Sir, Mr. Acton (Vol. IV. p. 163.) speaks of i^rin-
gilla Montifringilla as a rare bird. Perhaps it may be inter-
esting to that gentleman, and to your other readers, to know-
that an individual of this species M^as caught, in the winter of
1825, at Downham, Norfolk ; which I kept for nearly a year,
and which is now preserved in my brother's collection. Its
natural note was harsh and monotonous ; but I found that it
had strong imitative powers, and easily caught any notes
which I whistled to it. It is not a scarce bird in Norfolk, but
a regular winter visitant. I had also an opportunity, in two
successive years {1827 and 1828), of witnessing a similar
power in the jPringilla Chloris, a congener of the former bird.
A pair of them resorted to some trees close to my house, and,
during the period of incubation, the male delighted me with
its powerful but imitative song : an instance of an acquired
song, whilst the bird was in its wild state, which I never heard
of before. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — Henry Creed. Ched-
hurgh Rectory y near Bury St. Edmunds, Feb. 9. 1832.

Mocking Powers of the Sedge Bird [Curruca salicdria Flem-
ing.)— In the article " Sedge bird," in Montagu's Dictionary,
p. 455. of Rennie's edition, the writer says, " It has a variety
of notes, which partake of that of the skylark and the swal-
low, as well as the chatter of the house sparrow. According
to my observations, it has a much greater variety than this:
I have heard it imitate, in succession (intermixed with its own
note o^ chur chiir), the swallow, the house martin, the green-
finch, the chaffinch, the lesser redpole, the house sparrow, the
redstart, the willow wren, the whin chat, the pied wagtail, and
the spring wagtail ; yet its imitations are confined to the notes
of alarm (the pelting notes, as they are called here) of these
birds, and so exactly does it imitate them, both in tone and
modulation, that if it were to confine itself to one (no matter
which), and not interlard the wailings of the little redpole
and the shrieks of the martin, with the curses of the house
sparrow, the twink fwink of the chaffinch, and its own care for
nought chatter, the most practised ear would not detect the
difference. After being silent for a while, it often begins

654f Zoology,

with the chur chur of the sparrow, so exactly imitated in every
respect, that, were it not for what follows, no one would sup-
pose it to be any other bird. It is called the mocking-bird
here, and it well deserves the name ; for it is a real scoffer at
the sorrows of other birds, which it laughs to scorn, and turns
into ridicule by parodying them so exactly. I never heard it
attempt to imitate any of the larks or thrushes, although I
have listened to it for hours. This bird was very plentifully
met with in Wharfdale, ten years ago, and is also found in
this neighbourhood ; but I am not aware that any body in
either of those districts ever attempted to keep one in confine-
ment ; although, from their powers of imitation, I think the
experiment well worth trying : probably the idea that they
could not provide them with proper food has prevented them.
— T. G. Clitkeroe, Lancashire, May 2. 1832.

Sedge Warbler {Qurruca salicdria Fleming). — Sir, A very
observant person in this neighbourhood, who is much out at
night by the river side, assures me» that he has observed this
bird during the whole winter, about the spot whence it was heard
pouring forth its varied notes every night during the summer,
from the middle of May to the latter end of July. It is
described by all naturalists as a migratory bird, as well as its
congener, the reed warbler (C arundinacea) : but may not an
individual occasionally winter with us, as is the case with
some of the migratory species ? I am anxious for a confirm-
ation of this point. — J. S. K. High Wycombe, July, 1832.

The Sedge Bird {Curj'uca salicdria Fleming), at Godalming
in Surrey, may commonly be heard repeating its harsh and
unpleasant notes through the night in summer. — Edward
Newma?i. Deptford, Sept. 19. 1831.

The Nightingale singing on the 1 ^.th of December, — At
Godalming in Surrey, on the 12th of December, either 1823
or 1824, I heard the nightingale singing clearly and dis-
tinctly, although not very loudly. I luckily had a companion
at the time, a close observer of birds, who has several times
since borne testimony to this remarkable fact. In the same
• neighbourhood, I have frequently seen the nightingale in the
month of October, and once in November. — Edward New-
man. Dept/ord, Sept. 19. 1831.

Habits of the Strix Scops L. in Italy. — Tliis owl, which
in summer is very common in Italy, is remarkable for the
constancy and regularity with which it utters its peculiar
note or cry. It does not merely " to the moon complain "
occasionally, but keeps repeating its plaintive and mono-
tonous cry of kew kew (whence its common Florentine
name of chiu, pronounced almost exactly like the English
letter Q), in the regular intervals of about two seconds,

Zoology, Q5S

the livelong night ; and until one is used to it, nothing can well
be more wearisome. Towards the end of April, last year, one
of these owls established itself in the large Jardin Anglais^
behind the house where we resided at Florence; and, until our
departure for Switzerland in the beginning of June, I recol-
lect but one or two instances in which it was not constantly to
be heard, as if in spite to the nightingales which abounded
there, from nightfall to midnight (and probably much later),
whenever I chanced to be in the back part of the house, or
took our friends to listen to it, and always with precisely the
same unwearied cry, and the intervals between each as regular
as the ticking of a pendulum. This species of owl, accord-
ing to Professor Savi's excellent Ornitologia Toscana (vol. i.
p. T^.), is the only Italian species which migrates; passing
the winter in Africa and Southern Asia, and the summer in
the south of Europe. It feeds wholly upon beetles, grasshop-
pers, and other insects. — W. Spence. Pisa^ March 4. 1831.

Habits of the Blue Titmouse or Tomtit {Panes cceruleus L.). —
Sir, (Scolopax rustlcola acquaints us (p. 289.) with the fact of
the blue titmouse's having, for two successive years, built its
nest, and reared its young, within the jaws of a gibbeted
human skeleton. Some years since, I knew a place which,
for many years, had been almost annually chosen as the habit-
ation of a pair of tomtits (Parus caer ulcus L.) : whether the
same couple had occupied it all the time, the reader must
guess. It was a hole in a wall that communicated with a
dark chamber ; and into it I could peep, without being observed
by the little architects. These favourable circumstances not
being of every day, nor every year, nor every village, nor
every county, occurrence, I resolved to watch the birds, if
the place should again be chosen as a habitation. As a first
step, I placed a small square box in the hole, with a view
not only to accommodate myself, but the birds also ; for the
hole came through the wall ; and against it, but not quite
close, was placed a shutter ; and, before I gave them the box,
many and many a bit of moss did Tom and Peg bring for
their nest, which fell down, one after another, between the
shutter and the wall. Indeed, I have seen more than a hat-
crownful of moss disposed of in this way, before the bird had
been able to commence the formation of the nest. Well, a
pair of birds soon took possession of the box, and great
delight that my scheme was likely to answer took possession
of me ; and many, and short between, were the visits that I
paid to my proteges. Very soon the nest was almost finished ;
and I watched impatiently for the first egg. Day after day I
inspected the box, but no egg did I find. I began to think

656 Zoology,

either a lad or a mouse must be the manufacturer, for there
was very little appearance of " architecture :" the brown moss
seemed to be just laid in the box. I therefore examined the
nest, and, carefully hidden, with apparent carelessness, I found
three beautiful eggs. The nest was thus covered after the
deposit of each egg (I believe one was laid every morning), till
the number was completed, when they began to sit ; and, of
course, the eggs were not afterwards covered. Fourteen days
(I believe fourteen) brought to light a fine family of little
ones. We three were all very happy with our fine prospect,
but in a few days one of the old ones, I suppose the mother,
was killed with a stone. The young ones soon died. Indeed,
I am not aware that the other bird ever visited the nest after
he lost his mate. Thus ended the first trial ; and a sore trial
it was to a lad, to lose so promising a family.

The following year, another nest was built, eggs ^vere laid,
and the bird began to sit. In order to discover whether birds
" sit so hard," as is represented, I repeatedly disturbed the
hen whilst on the nest ; and several times, with a small stick,
actually turned her " topsy-turvy," but never frightened her
from the nest. In due time I had a brood of tomtits. When
first hatched, the hen sat upon the young ones several hours
during the day. This time was gradually shortened, till they
were sufficiently fledged not to need such a means of warmth.
Nothing but small grubs and caterpillars were brought to the
nest, and I was induced to believe that the depredations of
these birds are not, at that time of the year, injurious to vege-
tation. Many insects did they bring, from some apple trees
that grew near, but no buds.

Now, as to the method by which the nest was kept clean
and wholesome. Some time after the young ones were hatched,
I noticed that the old bird, liaving fed the young one, did
not immediately fly away, but waited a few seconds ; and if
the young one which had just received the food had any alvo-
motive inclination, it instantly changed its position, by locating
the tail where its head had previously been, the excrement
was voided, and was immediately taken up in the beak of the
old bird. I observed this so frequently, that I am satisfied
the old bird always stayed a few seconds; and if the young
ones retained their position, which was often the case, the old
one flew away ; but if the young one had a call, it instantly
tumbled itself, " head over heels," and while tail was upper-
most, the old one seized the voided material, and flew away
with it, and the young urchin immediately resumed its natural
position. All this was transacted in a much shorter space of
time than is occupied in reading the account. In general the

Zoology. 657

reception of food into the stomach seemed to act as a stimulus
to the propulsion of the intestinal contents, though the contrary
was frequently the case. The young birds flourished, and, when
nearly fledged, the nest was discovered by some lads, who
took them from their " clean, warm, soft nestf and from the
parent birds," and one by one deliberately pelted them to
death. Such was the result of my second trial to rear a brood
of tomtits.

My next step was to hang up a small circular box, with a
hole just large enough to admit a small bird, against the wall
of an outbuilding, in hopes some friendly tomtit would adopt
it as a habitation. The first summer, tom did not come, at
least did not build ; the second summer I was one day walking
past, and heard a noise, as if some bird was confined in the
box, and beating the side with its wings. I found it was
tommy building his nest ; and the noise, which I often heard
afterwards, was made by the bird, as I suppose, adjusting
the moss. The nest was completed, the eggs were laid ; and
so " hard " did the old bird sit, that I several times carried
the box into the house, a distance of forty or fifty yards ; and
she never evinced any wish to escape. It is true I closed the
openings ; but she made no effort to stir from the nest. The
result of this experiment was just what I wished, the young
birds " flew," to the great discomfort of the old gardener,
who thought I must be either a " fool, or a soft," to train up
a brood of such mischievous little creatures. For myself, I
believe they do much more good than harm : though the
gooseberry trees do suffer a little from their depredations, yet
they are almost harmless, even among gooseberry trees, com-
pared with several other birds.

I hope this narrative may induce some others to avail them-
selves of similar favourable circumstances ; and to give the
birds a house to live in. I had but little hope that they would
take possession of my boxes ; and was much ridiculed for
thinking of such a thing ; they however show^ed more thank-
fulness than I gave them credit for. — Aliquis, Manchester,
21st of 3d month {March), 1832.

On the question of which exceed, the " benefits or injuries
resulting to man from Parus caeruleus," I may cite evidence
from Cambridgeshire. In the north part of this county, the
cultivation of fruits, especially of gooseberries and currants,
as well as that of vegetables, is extensively practised. Through
these gardens the titmice, in some numbers, but far fewer than
occur in districts more wooded, range in winter, and, with un-
welcome industry pick out, or mutilate in their attempt to pick
out, buds innumerable, principally, I believe, of the gooseberry

Vol. V. — No. 29. u u

658 Zoology.

bushes, but occasionally not omitting those of the plum, of
the cherry, and of other fruit trees. The gardeners vow, and
assiduously practise, vengeance against them for these depre-
dations, whenever, wherever, and by whatever means, they are
able. The g^'deners assume, not troubling themselves with
wide examination and tedious induction from it, that the tit-
mice subsist on the buds they extract ; and this assumption is
probably the truth ; for, in long and severe winter frosts, with
the ground covered with snow, it is not easy to conceive where
a due supply of carnivorous food, including insects in this,
can be procured to sustain them ; and surely it is too hypo-
thetical to urge that the disbudding achievements, which are
undeniable, of these birds, are but the incidental and uninten-
tional results of their diligent research for the eggs and larvae
of insects which may be contained in the buds they pick out.
The best of optimists would scarcely argue that enough of
these eggs and larvae would be acquirable, by the utmost dili-
gence of the titmice, to sustain their existence. iS'colopax rus-
ticola has (Vol. IV. p. 428.) shown that the bullfinch does,
during winter, actually feed and subsist on the buds of cherry
trees, and takes these buds alone for the sake of the food they
in themselves supply.

On this question of the merits or demerits of the blue
titmouse, I have, since the receipt of Aliquis's communication,
submitted a query to my father, a gardener and grower of
fruit at Waterbeach, near Cambridge ; in which village and
the neighbourmg ones, the blue titmouse is called " the blue-
cap," and the name of " tomtit" is there only applied to the
common brown wren, although this latter is there also fre-
quently called "jenny wren." My father replied —

" The little bluecaps are accused of picking off the buds
of the gooseberry bushes; perhaps justly: hence they are
destroyed as much as possible ; principally by traps baited
with animal fat ; a proof that, if they ever live on vegetable
food, they are driven to do so by hunger. Shepherds here-
abouts, when a sheep of their flock dies of disease, are in the
habit of flaying it, and hanging up the skin to become dry, on
which usually rather numerous minute fragments of flesh are
left remaining : all of these the bluecaps will pick off' with
diligent greed, and, in short, feast on any thing that contains
any animal matter. A kinsman, a shepherd, now with me,
remarks, that, in hanging up the joints of dead sheep, in re-
serve for the dogs, the bluecaps make claim of a share, and
are fond of it as cats are. I never destroy the bluecaps,
and I believe my crops are usually quite as good as those of
my neighbours. On April 8th, the bluecaps were very busy

Zoology. 659

amongst the blossom buds of my pear trees. I did not per-
ceive that they destroyed any of the buds : they appeared to
me to only strip off the outer investing scales, with a view to
find insects. I afterwards went and examinedj^he buds with
a microscope ; and the greater part of the blossom buds were
healthy, but some few were injured. I found in them a minute
transparent globule of fluid, of the texture of jelly, with its
centre darker than the outside. I made up my mind that
these minute particles of matter were the objects for which
the bluecaps had been seeking, and I have no doubt that
these globules of matter are the egg of some insect ; so that,
if I am right, the bluecaps had been usefully employed. A
pair of bluecaps, in 1829, built their nest in a hole of a wall
here ; when the young were hatched, I have seen them, when
I have w^atched them for a quarter of an hour at a time, bring
caterpillars in rapid succession to feed their young. Although
they may do harm when driven by hunger, I think them use-
ful birds to the gardener ; I prefer feeding them to destroying
them. Many persons are prejudiced against them, because
they will not allow themselves to think, and to examine blue-
caps. Bluecaps [the blue titmouse] are not very numerous in
this neighbourhood." — J. D. sen. April 16. 18S2.

Of the blue titmouse it is stated, in Rennie's Montagues
Ornithological Dictionary, p. 513. : — "In the summer, in-
sects are its chief food; in search of which, it plucks off a
number of young buds from fruit and other trees." This re-
mark is either erroneous or incomplete ; for the disbudding
operations of the titmouse, as it is shown above, are the more
formidable in winter, when insects are not obvious ; and in
summer, when insects abound, it is probable that the titmice
leave the buds of all trees wellnigh unmolested.

Bingley, in his excellent Animal Biography, has the follow-
ing sketch of the general habits of the titmouse family : his
remarks, it should be remembered, relate to exotic species as
well as to the British. The remarks are these : —

" This is a diminutive but sprightly race of birds, possessed
both of strength and courage. Their general food consists of
seeds, fruit, and insects, and a few of them eat flesh. Some
of them will venture to assault birds that are twice or thrice
their own bulk, and in this case they direct their aim chiefly
at the eyes. They often seize upon birds that are weaker
than themselves : these they kill, and, having picked a hole
in the skull, eat out the brain. They are very prolific, laying
eighteen or twenty eggs at a time. Their voice is in general
unpleasant."

Without undertaking to answer for its generic applicability,

u u 2

660 Zoology.

I may jocularly notice, that pertinacious prehe7isive7iess of
talon is a characteristic of Parus caeruleus ; a fact that was
fearfully familiarised to me in very early life. In an outhouse
of my father's some flesh was hanging, to which, on the door
being left open, a blue tit made access, and, being observed
there by me, and a senior relative, now no more, was detained
in the outhouse, and captured, and given to me. I was very
eager to receive Parus caeruleus, but more so to relinquish it ;
for, having escaped from my hand, the terror-stricken little
creature struck its talons so tenaciously into a part of my
dress, as to require some effort to displace it. — J. D.

The Greater Titmouse [Parus major L.) — This species, it is
stated in Rennie^s Montagues Ornithological Dictioriary, p. 350.,
" has all the habits of the blue tit." Some original remarks,
however, on the greater titmouse, from our practical and
valuable correspondent J. M., have long lain by us, which we
now present : —

"Jan. 20. (1828.) This bird calls. Although both sexes
of this species are most useful birds in gardens during sum-
mer, living entirely on the caterpillars which infest fruit trees ;
yet, in winter, if the weather be severe, they fall on and destroy
the flower-buds of plums, apricots, &c. In the same season
they frequently kill the tenants of the apiary. Placing them-
selves at the entrance of the hive, they rap smartly with their
bill against the edge of the door, which soon brings an unfor-
tunate sentinel within reach, who is instantly seized by the
middle, carried to a neighbouring tree, and beat to death.
They eat the head and thorax only, rejecting the abdomen !
The writer has often been obliged to shoot the birds which
took to this way of living, to preserve the bees. [See also
Vol. III. p. 476.] They have no regular song, but several
sharp and lively calls, expressive of love, joy, and fear : they
are among the first to give notice of the approach of the hawk,
cat, or fox ; and dart into the thickest bush for safety. They
breed and roost in holes of walls, and in hollow trees ; and
the same pair, or some of their progeny, will occupy the same
hole for many successive years." — J. M, Jan. 20. 1828.

Strange Choice of . Residence of the Greater Titmouse (Pdtms
major L.) — Sir, Some birds, like some other bipeds, select
strange and singular situations to build in, and seem desirous
to have their business in troubled places. From early youth
I recollect a greater titmouse (Parus major i.), or Tom
Noup (as we call him here), has annually, or nearly so, built
in my pump, where there is a nest and eggs at this moment.
It is placed just under the top of the handle, where that lever
bends, and is joined to the piston by a swivel. The only

Oology, QQ I

entrance the bird has is close over the handle, where the slit
runs a little higher, to allow it to rise above its fulcrum. This
pump is used every hour ; and is always accompanied with
much noise, and violent agitation ; and, frequently, for negli-
gent want of Tristram Shandy's " three drops of oil," will
*' on its hinges grate harsh thunder : " yet the bird sits on,
quiet and unmolested. If the handle be lifted up, and she be
peeped at longer than she like, she merely puffs, blows, and
snorts at the curious intruder. The quantity of moss carried
into this receptacle of little ease would thrice fill the crown of
a man's hat; and on one side, to prevent any of it falling into
the tube or bucket, she exerts an act of reason (an article not
confined to, nor over-abundant in, the genus //omo), by placing
small sticks as props ; a material this bird never uses in her
regular foraminous architecture. When the young are
hatched, the parents feed them constantly, entering through the
small aperture ; as the callow brood come to days of indiscre-
tion, one or more will sometimes crawl to the edge, and fall
on the surface of the water, and so get ejected through the
spout ; when it greatly pleases me to see my servants replace
them gently in the nest, with kind soothings or facetious
chidings; showing that natural humanity is innate in very
many of the labouring classes, till effete for lack of nurture, or
corrupted by evil communications ; and makes me the more
lament and execrate that cold, callous, and ignorant opposition,
the coarse, big, and burly rich throw on the proper education
of the people ; which I most ardently pray God may speedily
and effectually become unlimited and universal. — JoJin F, M.
Dovaston. Westfelton, near Shrewsbury, May 1. 1832.

Habits of the Marsh Titmouse (Pdrus palustris Lin.) — I
have been much surprised, this spring, at witnessing, in two
or three instances, the tenacity with which the marsh titmouse
attaches itself to its nest. Being in a wood near my own
house, I perceived a pair of these birds in one of the trees ;
and having seen them in the same place several times before,
and being desirous of finding the nest, I sat down to watch
their motions. After examining me on all sides, with much
chattering, and many gesticulations indicative of dislike and
suspicion, the female flew to the root of a tree three or four
yards off, and disappeared. As she had gone to the opposite
side of the tree to that on which I sat, and as there were seve-
ral holes about the root, I was at a loss to know in which the
nest was built, and began to strike the root with a stick, ex-
pecting her to fly out ; but nothing appeared. I then examined
the holes one by one ; and, whilst doing so, heard her hissing
and puffing from within, in such a way, that, if I had not

u u 3

662 Zoologi/.

known she was there, 1 should have thought it was a snake
rather than a bird. However, as she would not come out,
and the hole was so small that I could not get my hand in, I
was obliged to raise the siege until next morning, when I
returned, armed with a hammer and chisel, with which to
storm her citadel. As the wood was sound, the hole small,
and the nest 6 in. or 8 in. within the tree, I was five or ten
minutes before I could get to it ; during which time I gave
her repeated opportunities of escaping, if she chose ; but she
still sat on her nest, puffing and pecking at a stick that I
thrust in, in order to drive her off. She at last crept upon the
farther edge of the nest, which I then took out, as I wanted
it for one of my friends, who is a collector of eggs ; but, on
attempting to blow one, I found they were too far advanced :
and 1 then felt desirous of seeing whether the old bird would
hatch them, after having her nest torn from under her ; and I
turned back to the tree where I had got them, and found her
still sittinfT in the hole from which her nest had been taken.

o

I regret to add, that the humane part of my experiment did
not succeed, as she left the nest immediately after, and did not
return to it again.

Another instance which I witnessed was in a nest contain-
ing young. This was also at the root of a tree. But the situ-
ation did not appear to be so well chosen as is usually the case
with the titmouse tribe; for, in this instance, the hole went
quite through the tree, and, on one side, was large enough to
admit the hand. As the young ones were exposed to the wea-
ther, and were also liable to be seen by any one going along
the adjoining footpath, I attempted to remedy this defect by
covering the larger hole with a sod, which, to a casual ob-
server, would appear to have grown there. On taking the
sod off one day, to see how the nestlings were going on, I
perceived that a clod of earth had fallen from the sod upon
them ; and I took a stick and hooked it out, fearing it might
smother them. AVhilst I was doing this, I perceived the old
one sat on the farther side of the nest, so still and quiet, that,
until I perceived her eye, I fancied she was dead ; and she
also endured several pokings with the stick before she would
move, although the hole on the opposite side of the tree
enabled her to escape whenever she thought proper.

Perhaps Mr. Rennie, in his next edition of Montagu's
Dictionary^ will give us a new name for this bird, as the
one it has at present is no more applicable to this species
than it is to the Parus major or to Parus casruleus, and not half
so much so as it would be to the Parus biarmicus ; and he has
changed good names into bad ones with far less reason : wit-

Zoology, . 063

ness Corvus frugilegus into Corvus prsedat^rius. The former
name is strictly applicable to that species, and to that alone ;
and so useful a bird does not deserve the name of ihief. The
chaffinch (which received its name of cce^lebs from Linnaeus,
on account of the males alone remaining in Sweden during
the winter ; which fact is corroborated by White, who found
scarcely any but females in Hampshire during that season)
has had its name changed by Mr. Rennie into »Spiza, The
old name is characteristic of a remarkable fact in the economy
of this bird ; why the new one is more appropriate (neither
understanding Greek, nor having read Aristotle,) I cannot
say : will Mr. Rennie condescend to enlighten me ? Once for
all, if we are to have a new nomenclature, let a committee of
able naturalists decide upon it, or let us submit to the autho-
rity of a master (for instance, Linnaeus or Temminck) ; but
do not let every book-maker who publishes a work on natural
history, rejecting names well established and universally re-
ceived, give new ones, in such a way as serves only to show
his own presumption, and to confuse what it ought to be his
business to elucidate. — 7'. G. Clitheroe, Lancashire, June SO,
1832.

Siren \acertina L., S07ne Notice of the Habits of; ahridgedfrom
a jprinted Copy, sent by Mr, Neill, of his Communication on the
Subject, i?i the Edifiburgh Philosophicaljournaljbr April, 1832.
— The individual specimen here figured (fg.l 16.) was received

alive by Dr. Monro,
in 1825^ from Dr. Far-
mer of Charleston,
South Carolina, where
specimens of the ani-
mal occur sparingly
in the rice marshes ;
Mr. Neill believes that it also occurs in the creeks of the
Mississippi and Ohio rivers ; because, on showing it, in
the spring of 1830, to Mr. Audubon, this gentleman recog-
nised it as an old acquaintance ; he having witnessed speci-
mens being occasionally taken in those latter places, in the
trawl-nets, by the fishermen, who called the animal water-
dog or water- puppy. The live specimen came to Dr. Monro
in a small barrel, having a perforated lid, and the lower
part containing some of the mud native to the reptile's
place of capture, among which it nestled. Dr. Monro con-
fided it to the well-known care of Mr. Neill, Canonmills,
near Edinburgh, who received it of Dr. Monro in June,
1825, and kept it alive till October, 1831 ; that is, for the

u u 4

664 . Zoology,

space of six years and four months; and Mr. Neill con-
ceives that, as M. Bosc, when in America, failed to procure
a live'specimen for the collection of animals at the Jardin des
Plantes, his was the only living example which has been seen
in Europe. Mr. Neill thus describes the habits of the animal,
as observed in captivity, and his own mode of treating it : —
" At first I placed the animal in a water box, containing a
quantity of hypnum and sphagnum, and set the box on the
trellis of a green-house or conservatory. One evening in
May, 1826, the animal made its escape over the edge of the
box, and must have fallen nearly three feet. It had on that
occasion remained from ten to twelve hours out of the water ;
but it had burrowed in moist earth during most part of that
time. The branchiae were doubtless to a certain degree dried,
and thus obstructed ; and it evidently took some time before
they could freely perform their accustomed office. An ex-
cellent drawing of the siren, the best that has been published,
was made by Syme (now of Dollar Academy) for No. vi.
of Wilson's Illustrations qf Zoology. In the process of taking
the drawing, ' the siren was kept for several hours, on dif-
ferent days, in a shallow white assiette [plate or dish], with
merely a sufficiency of water to preserve the gills in a moist
state ; and the animal repeatedly got upon the table, and even
made its way to the floor, but did not at all sufter from this
degree of exposure to the atmosphere.'

" In April, 1827, I transferred the siren's reservoir to a
bark-stove or hot-house. Here it became more lively, and
ate earthworms, bansticles, and small minnows more greedily,

" During the years 1829 and 1830, and down to October^
1831, the animal continued to inhabit the same reservoir in
the hot-house : but we had discontinued the use of mosses ; as
these rendered the water turbid, particularly when the sphag-
num began to decay. I may here notice, however, that the
turbid state of the water had enabled us to make one slight
observation. The minute particles of decayed sphagnum
were so exactly of the same specific gravity as the water, that
they floated about in evey possible direction ; and during
sunshine, when the siren was lying perfectly quiescent at the
bottom, gentle currents were discernible, by means of these
particles, constantly flowing from the clefts in the branchial
apparatus, and occasionally exciting languid motions in the
delicate fimbriae at their extremities. We thought that we
observed in the animal a preference for pure water, as it
regularly became more lively as often as the water was
changed ; and we found by experience that any floating foliage,
that served to hide or cover it, was highly agreeable to its

Zoology. 665

disposition. We therefore at last adopted the plan of keeping
a large patch of frogbit (Hydrocharis morsus ranas L.) con-
stantly vegetating on the surface. This tended also to keep
the water from corrupting. When this floating patch was
slowly moved from side to side of the reservoir, the siren
kept most accurately beneath it, endeavouring to avoid ob-
servation ; and in this exercise it showed great alertness and
sagacity.

" On the morning of the 22d October, 1831, the siren was
found by the gardener lying dead on the paved footpath of
the hot-house, not far from the reservoir. It did not appear
to have met with any injury in its fall from the reservoir,
which was placed on a trellis about 3 ft. above the pathway.
The fall, indeed, must have been broken by intervening flower-
pots, and no external marks of lesion [hurt by bruising]
appeared on the body. The fine fimbriae of the branchial
apparatus, however, were completely dried and shrivelled
up ; and 1 have no doubt in my own mind that the death of
the animal arose from this cause. The older naturalists
supposed these fimbriae or fringes to be opercula or gill-
covers, and regarded the vertical clefts or perforations in
front of the fringes as the true gills; but Mr. Wilson is
certainly right in considering the fringes as the true gills.

" In the New York Medical and Physical Journal for June,
1824, Dr. Samuel L. Mitchell gives an account of the
examination of several specimens, dead and alive, which had
been transmitted to New York by the same Dr. Farmer of
Charleston who sent the living specimen to Edinburgh. Dr.
Mitchell seems to think it most probable that the air-sacs,
called lungs, do not perform any direct respiratory function,
but are mere receptacles of air, performing only an auxiliary
service, in occasionally furnishing the branchiae or gills with
the atmospheric air which the animal from time to time in-
hales, and which is detained in these receptacles till wanted.
I cannot help thinking that this view acquires additional
probability from the circumstance of the Canonmills siren
having died without any other apparent cause than the exsic-
cation of the extreme fimbriae or fringes, that is, the true gills."

During the six years and four months through which Mr.
Neill kept the *Siren Zacertina, he states that " no structural
change took place, nor was the slightest tendency to any such
change discernible. The animal had evidently increased in
size. When it arrived, it was nearly a foot and a half long.
When it died, it was fully twenty inches in length ; and it had
also perceptibly increased in grossness. It may, therefore, I
think, be pretty confidently concluded, that it is no larva,

666 %oology.

though Pallas and De Lac^pede considered it in that light ;
but a perfect animal, according to the view early adopted by
Linnaeus, and now sanctioned by Cuvier."

Mr. NeilPs late excellent gardener, Mr. Alexander Scott,
having now become a neighbour of ours, in the capacity of
foreman of the glasshouse department of Knight's exotic
nursery, Chelsea, we solicited him for any supplementary fact
which he might be able to supply ; and he has communicated
as follows : —

" When drops of water fell from the glass of the hot-house
into its box, it generally got upon its paws, on the sharp
look-out for food, and would suddenly suck in the water, as
if it had succeeded in catching something. The only hint
it had of its prey was from the impulses or motions given to the
water, and not by sight, as was evident from its manner. It
would rise upon its feet, push its nose out of the water, or
search along the bottom, making attempts to catch if the prey
was near it, but generally in every direction but the right
one. This was the case, in whichever way the object was
placed ; at top, bottom, or at any intermediate position in the
water. It would eat a small minnow at a time : if the minnow
were large, it would bite a piece out of it. Sometimes it
would eat as many as three at a meal ; but this would serve
him for a week. A large earthworm required some exertion
to get swallowed. The siren would at once suck it in, as if by
magic; the worm would be as quickly darted out again, the
siren still retaining hold of one end, when it would again draw
in the worm, masticating it as it proceeded ; it would then, in
an instant, be sucked in. I once heard it make an indistinct
noise, resembling the croaking of a frog, but less distinct : it
was a very sluggish animal, and, unless for its food, seldom
moved out of its retreat, not probably for days, if undisturbed."
— Alexander Scott. Chelsea^ May 25. 1832.

Flint, a writer on America, in his Geography and History
of the Western States, vol. i. p. 119., thus speaks of the iSiren
/acertina, under the name of ikfurse^na ^Siren : — ''It somewhat
resembles the lamprey, and is nearly 2 ft. in length. It seems
intermediate between the fish and the lizard class. It has two
short legs, placed near the head. It is amphibious, and pene-
trates the mud with the facility of a crawfish." The following
notice of the »Siren Zacerthia occurs in Turton's General Sys-
tem of Nature, vol. i. p. 671. : — " Body eel-shaped, tailed,
naked, compressed, sometimes l^ft. long; brown speckled
with whitish ; feet two, placed in the manner of arms, four-
toed, and furnished with claws; gill membranes three on each
side, toothed or feathered ; tail bonv. Inhabits muddv and

Zoology,

667

swampy places in South Carolina^ lives generally under
water, but sometimes appears on land; feeds on serpents,
which it holds firmly between its jaws ; is in structure between
the amphibious and fish tribe, being furnished with external
gills like fishes, and with feet like the amphibia; has a sort
of squeaking or singing noise ; when thrown on the ground,
breaks in pieces like some of the serpents." It should be
remembered that the latter information is slightly stale, and
was but received on trust by Linnaeus himself. — J". D.

Singular Variety of Limenltis Camilla, — Sir, The accom-
panying specimen of Limenitis Camilla was taken two or
three yetirs ago, by my friend the Rev. H. Maclean, in the
High Woods, near Colchester, in the month of July. It con-
stitutes so singular a variety, differing as it does so widely
from the usual appearance of that insect, that I have thought
a notice and figure of it might prove interesting to your entomo-
logical readers. The peculiarity of this variety consists in the
wings above being entirely of a sooty black {Jig. 117. a) ; and,

117

consequently, destitute of the white markings, and elegant white
fascia, or band, which form so striking a character in the ordi-
nary specimens (b) of L. Camilla. A few lighter spots, however,
are visible here and there, both on the anterior and posterior
wings; just serving to trace out, very faintly and obscurely,
the mere rudiments, as it were, of the usual white marks and
fascia. The cilia are white, as in other specimens. On the
under surface of the wings the white fascia is also wanting
{Jig. 118. c), and the spots and markings are far less numerous
and distinct than usual {d). The colouring, likewise, is less
brilliant, the tints being blended together, and softened into

668 Zoology,

each other, in a way which it is not very easy to describe
accurately in words. I have seldom seen a more strongly
marked variety of any lepidopterous insect ; and yet any ento-
mologist acquainted with Limenitis Camilla would, I conceive,
at once, without hesitation, pronounce it no more than a
variety of that species. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — W, T, Bree,
Allesley Ilectory, June 14. 1832.

Small Fishes are destroyed by other Insects, besides the
LarvcB of Dragon Flies as instanced p. 519. — In Vol. III.
p. 148., J. EUes describes the fact of a small fish being
killed by " the water beetle," to which it had been ex-
perimentally introduced in a basin of water. He remarks,
that, after the beetle had killed the fish, " it never left it till
it was a perfect skeleton, similar to numbers that he [Mr.El-
les's neighbour] had found." Another correspondent (B.,
Coventry) has subsequently (Vol. IV. p. 476.) asked, of what
genus and species was this " water beetle ? " but the query at
present seems not to have met the eye of Mr. Elles. — J. Z).

Five Specimens of Qicdda hcjematodes, captured in the New
Forest. — Sir, In July 1 826, while ranging in the New Forest,
Hants, between Lyndhurst and Brockenhurst, persevering
in my search after rare insects, I was delighted at length on
discovering a specimen of Cicada hasmatodes, resting on the
stem of the fern [Pteris aquilina]. The sun was shining at
the time, and the day was intensely hot. I had previously
been at a very great loss in what manner I should procure a
specimen of this scarce insect for my museum, — knowing that
it had been vigilantly sought after by the most diligent col-
lectors for many years, and that its history and manner of
secreting itself had never been recorded by naturalists. I
was, it is true, aware of the general" supposition, that it took
its flight by night, or in the dusk of the evening ; but this was
information more likely to mislead, than to guide me to the
discovery of what I so anxiously sought after. I have, never-

Zoology. 669

theless, spent numbers of dreary hours in that extensive
forest at these periods, without the desired success, and was
certainly fortunate in my discovery at last, by accident rather
than by intention. I may here observe, that the insect either
appears shiggish in its habits, or is altogether unconscious of
its danger, as it suffered me to approach and take it off the
stem of the fern without making the slightest effort to escape.
A few days after taking the first, I discovered a second, and
very fine specimen, in the same situation ; and, two days after
this, I caught another in my net. From the nature of the
flight of this, I had imagined it to be the 6E'strus Z?6vis, as it
exactly resembled the flight of this insect, except that the
duration of the flight of the Cicada haematodes is short.
The first insect had evidently flown some time, from the wasted
state in which I found it. I was strongly reminded at the
moment of an observation of that eminent entomologist, Mr.
Haworth, in describing a rare insect, — " It had rather over-
travelled." I have taken five specimens in the course of my
researches, by watching their passage, going immediately to
the spot, and taking them up with my finger and thumb.
The Cicada moves onl}^ when the sun shines, and in the di-
rection through the New Forest, from Lyndhurst towards
Brockenhurst, keeping on the left hand side of the turnpike
road, about the space of from half a mile to a mile within the
forest ; and this I believe to be the only locality in which it
has hitherto been taken. The reason why more have not
been captured, I should imagine to be this, that, from its
flight, it has been generally imagined to be a very common
insect. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — R. Weaver, Temple Row,
Bimiing/mfn, Nov. 28. 1831.

Extensive Ravages committed hy the Caterpillar of the Tortrix
viriddna on the heaves of Oak Trees, in Surrey, in the last
Three Years. — Sir, Of the power possessed by insects indivi-
dually small, and of little importance, when united together
in numbers, of defacing the beauty of a country, we have full
proof in the accounts we read of the wandering locust, that
ravages the East and Northern Africa ; leaving, in its passage,
what was smiling in verdure, a dreary and desolate waste. In
our own, in that respect, more fortunate land, we had almost
deemed ourselves free from such extreme devastation ; but
for the last three summers we have been visited by a plague
scarcely less unpleasant, though certainly less generally ter-
rible in its effects. It is now for three successive springs that
the fine oak woods filling the valleys in the neighbourhood of
Haslemere have been infested with the caterpillar of the Tortrix
viridana, to so considerable an extent as completely to destroy
the beauty of their appearance ; giving them worse than the

670 Zoology.

semblance of winter, when they should be clad in all the full
luxuriance of June. Three years since, I first noticed this
small and elegantly formed pale green moth, issuing in num-
bers from pupas that had filled many a curled oak leaf, and,
seeing it for the first time, was struck with its loveliness, al-
though I could not but be conscious, that, in a former state,
it had been carrying on a work that had done much detriment
to my favourite oaks. The mischief was then, however, not
so great, at least in the immediate vicinity, as it was the fol-
lowing spring, when this litde insect was regarded as a very
pest, so perceptible were its ravages in the blackened appear-
ance of the oaks, soon after they first put forth their delicate
leaves, and began to assume the hues of summer. Indeed, the
larvae then became a perfect nuisance : hanging suspended by
long silken filaments from each infested tree they had so
completely stripped of its leaves as not to leave a sufficient
number in which to enclose themselves, and therefore obliged
to descend to the undergrowths to seek a habitation, they
were ever dangling in the faces of those unfortunate enough
to walk unconsciously beneath the far-spreading branches.
Nor were they less unpleasant when they issued from the
chrysalis; coming forth in such numbers that they produced
a sense of suffocation in those that wandered amidst them,
as they covered the leaves of the underwoods, and fluttered
in countless multitudes around. It was then a subject of re-
joicing to see them preyed upon by their natural enemy, the
jE'mpis livida, an insect of less than their own size, that, fixing
on one something in the manner of the stoat upon a hare
or rabbit, would in this way fly about with it until it had
sucked its juices, and would then discard it for another. This
year the destruction is yet more terrible ; and those that have
not witnessed it will find it impossible to conceive the dismal
appearance that is thus given to the features of a really beau-
tiful country. To see whole woods of oak looking like the
blighted forest of the Eastern tale, stretching forth blackened
and dark, when all else is green and luxuriant, is at once
painful to the eye and to the feelings, at a season when we
expect nothing but loveliness; when the fair sun is shining
clearly and brilliantly on a scene that would, without this
cheerless blot, be almost perfection.

Examine an individual oak more closely, and the sight be-
comes yet more revolting. It is covered with the remains of
skeleton leaves, curled up, and surrounded with a filmy web ;
its trunk and branches have a misty appearance, as if enve-
loped in white gauze ; and here and there hangs suspended
a long web, or a caterpillar that has not yet found for itself
a habitation in which to undergo its final change.

Zoology. 671

I am not certain whether the same trees are infested this
year as on the preceding ones ; but I rather believe not. As
far as my observation extends, the moths seem passing on-
wards, taking the country, as it were, in streaks across from
north to south. If it should be so, I for one shall be most
happy when they have passed away from this part of the
country, and cannot wish them any better fortune than that
they would find a refuge in the sea; but from this I fear
instinct will be their preserver.

Perhaps I have already trespassed too long on your pa-
tience, with what may have little interest for any but those
subjected to the ravages of which I have endeavoured to
convey a faint idea ; but it is, Sir, in the hope that some of
your readers will acquaint me, through the medium of this
Magazine, whether any other parts of the country have suf-
fered in a similar manner, or whether they remember a like
circumstance in any former times ; as my own memory, ex-
tending to more than twenty years, does not afford me any
instance of effects produced by such a cause, at once so com-
plete and so mournful. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — C P. Surrey,
Jime 7^1832.

Oak trees are somewhat numerous in Kensington Gardens;
and, from their leaves and branches, in hot sunny days, in the
latter half of May, and in the earliest days of June, 1832,
almost millions of small caterpillars might be seen depending
on threads of every length. The day on which I first hap-
pened to see them was the 1 8th of May, a sunny day ; but
that they were visible previously is certain from the fact, that
the caterpillars, which are of a lead colour tinted with green,
and sparingly hirsute, were then, some of them, half an inch
long, and depended on threads seven or eight feet long. So
abundant were they on some oak trees, that the excrementitious
matter from them kept falling, and tinkling on the grass blades
below, so frequently, as to give the idea of a sprinkling of rain
being then falling. Now, June 10., the oak leaves look
seriously the worse for the ravages of these creatures, which,
owing possibly to the late rains, are scarcely to be seen de-
pending on their threads, and riding, as they were before, in
see-saw luxury, as the gentle breeze (and there is ever a
breeze under trees) might sink or swell. The margins ot
many of the gnawed oak leaves are rolled up, and in some of
the involutions are pupas, but in many of them the tenants are
still caterpillars, and I suspect that these have yet scarcely fed
their fill, but will, when sunny weather returns, sally forth,
to resume and complete their manducations. The pupas are
black. In some cases, a colony of some fifty or a hundred
individuals seem to start off, almost contemporaneously, from

G72 Zoology,

some point in a branch, and each makes the best of its way to
the earth. In one such instance, which I witnessed, the indi-
vidual threads (for every caterpillar provides a thread for
itself), from their emanating from an almost common point,
became blended into one, for the first two or three feet from
the point of suspension ; and owing to a difference in the
vigour of the respective caterpillars, or, perhaps, from dif-
ferences in their time of starting, they were to be observed in
every stage of progress in their downward journey to the
earth. I suppose that, without a question, these Kensington
Gardens caterpillars are identical as to species (Tortrix viri-
dana) with C. P.'s Surrey ones. In a look round Bury St.
Edmunds, in the middle of July, I saw a few oak trees ; but
they did not seem to have been obviously attacked, to any
injurious extent, by caterpillars.

August 18. In a densely planted part of Kensington Gar-
dens, there is a large proportion of lime trees, lofty from
having been drawn up in their youth, the spring-borne leaves
of which have been especially ravaged by the caterpillars of
some species of insect. The skeletons of the old leaves, con-
trasting with the perfect entire leaves produced since mid-
summer, have a conspicuous and miserable appearance when
looked up to from the ground. Similar skeletons of leaves
abound on the few hornbeam trees, and numerous elm trees,
which Kensington Gardens contain. — J, D.

The Possibility of introducmg and naturalising that heautifal
Insect the Tire Tly. — It abounds not only in Canada, where
the winters are so severe, but in the villages of the Vaudois in
Piedmont. These are a poor people much attached to the
English; and, at 105. a dozen, would, no doubt, deliver in
Paris, in boxes properly contrived, any number of these
creatures, in every stage of their existence, and even in the
e^g^ should that be desired : and if twenty dozen were turned
out in different parts of England, there cannot remain a doubt
but that, in a hw years, they would be common through the
country; and, in our summer evenings, be exquisitely beauti-
ful. — ^. X Teh.S. 1832.

Vigne, in his Six Months in America, says : — "At Balti-
more I first saw the fire fly. They begin to appear about
sunset, after which they are sparkling in all directions. In
some places ladies wear them in their hair, and the effect is
said to be very brilliant. Mischievous boys will sometimes
catch a bullfrog, and fasten them all over him. They show to
great advantage ; while the poor frog, who cannot understand
the " new lights " that are breaking upon him, affords amuse-
ment to his tormentors by hopping about in a state of desper-
ation. — J, D,

673

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

Art. I. Retrospective Criticism,

This Magazine monthly. — I hope the majority of your readers will
induce you to publish the Magazine monthly, as you propose to do : to me
it will give it an additional interest ; for, having experienced this interest now
for the last five months [in consequence of our having published the two
extra Numbers], I shall regret not receiving a Number for August. I am.
Sir, yours, &c. — J, D. Salmon. Bourne, July 9. 1832.

Sir, I am much pleased to learn, from the cover of your June Number,
that there is a prospect of the Magazine of Natural History being pub-
lished monthly, instead of, as it now is, every alternate month. The change
would be much for the better; for by this plan a current of natural history
news would be, as it were, uninterruptedly flowing forth to quench the
thirst of your readers. The wide circulation of the Magazine begets
readers, and readers beget contributors ; so that a press of matter, no
doubt, is accumulating upon you from sources out of number, and will
accumulate more and more every day —

" As if increase of appetite had grown
By what it fed on."

I may add, too, that the patience of your contributors would not be put to
so severe a test by those long delays which, under the present plan, some-
times unavoidably take place, before room can be found to insert their
various articles. As the proposed alteration (it is stated) will depend
on circumstances, and particularly on the wishes of your readers (which
you request may be made known to you), I lose no time in giving ray vote,
as an individual subscriber, decidedly in favour of the monthly publication
of the work. — fr. J'. -B?re. Allesley Rectory, June 2Q. \S32.

Several other correspondents have also obliged us with their opinions
on the proposed change ; and of these some approve it : others do not,
or propose doubling the number of sheets and price, and preserving the
two-monthly publication, &c. We shall be happy for a still wider ex-
pression of opinion. — .7. D.

Mr. Dovaston's " Chit-chat''^ has my entire approbation ; and I anticipate
much pleasure and information from a continuation of the series he has
commenced. — J. D. Salmon. Bourne, Lincolnshire.^ July 9. J 832.

Extracts from a private Letter from Mr. Waterton. — " Mr. Do-

vaston's mentioning me [p. 497.] far too meritoriously, puts it out of my
power to say much of his " Chit-chat," otherwise I would not have hesi-
tated to tell you that I consider it most excellent and instructive, and of

real worth to your Magazine." — Charles Waterton. Walton Hall,

July 24. 1832.

We trust to Mr. Waterton's friendship and liberality to pardon this
freedom ; and have to inform Mr. Dovaston, that other correspondents
have expressed their approbation of " Chit-chat, No. 1.," and, like our-
selves, are anxious for the favour of " Chit-chat, No. 2." — J. D.

Mr. Dovaston's Desaiptive Sketches of the British Singing Birds.
(p. 425—428.) — " I had lately an inkling to have offered you some remarks
on many of our warblers' melodies, and the language of birds, both their
poetry and prose; but it has been so ably," &c. — Mr. Dovaston. (p. 427.)

Vol. V, — No. 29. xx

674? Retrospective Criticism.

Sir, I regret, and I am sure many of your readers will feel disap*
pointment, that I have been unwittingly the cause of depriving them, as
well as myself, of a treat from the pen of your ingenious correspondent,
Mr. Dovaston. That gentleman, it appears (p. 428.), had intended to
have sent you some account of our feathered minstrels, which, as related
in his peculiar strain, would have been a treat indeed. This purpose has
been partly relinquished, merely because I have already written something
on the same subject. But why, I beg to ask, should my homely remarks
preclude those of Mr. Dovaston ? The latter can only be second in order
of time ; and, in this case, as in all others, the second would give not only
brilliancy of toncy but enhance the value of the^rst ; for, assuredly, what-
ever notes are drawn from Mr. Dovaston's score, will always be not only
on the most melodious kei/, but with infinitely more expression than any
execution of mine can possibly elicit. Besides, my notes may require cor-
rection ; at any rate, they are capable of variations and numerous graces.
An accompaniment, therefore, from a master hand, who can so well give
sentiment to sounds, would not only embellish the attempt of the first per-
former, but command attention to a source of unalloyed pleasure, which
many are unconscious of, merely from ignorance that there is at this season
of the year, a free concert, by the First Master, arranged for their entertain-
ment in every grove. — J. Main. Chelsea, June, 1832.

Cats kittened with short Tails, (p. 276.) — I have never seen a short-tailed
cat ; but I have heard that the Isle of Man boasts a breed of mousers
kittened without that decent and graceful ornament. — X. April 6. 1832.

The facts on the Suffolk short-tailed cats (p. 276.) were stated from
memory; and, in consequence, from fear of exceeding the truth, are, as my
memorandum since found shows me, scarcely the whole of the truth. By
this memorandum, I first observed the short-tailed cats, in the places men-
tioned, as early as Nov. 8. 1822 : there were then five living in the village
of Livermere ; and they were all reported as keen mousers : their tails, or
stumps of tails, were less, rather than more, than 2 in. in length. Could
this peculiar breed have arisen from progenitors whose tails had been am-
putated ? — J.D.

Habits of the Night Jar, or Fern Owl. (p. 603.) — [Since the information
supplied on this bird, p. 603., was printed, the following additional facts
have been communicated.] The migratory periods of this bird are not
well ascertained; but I have known one shot Nov. 27th, 1821, and they
had arrived April 28th, 1830. As there is scarcely a British bird of which
so little is known, the following notes may be interesting : — It has been
seen perched on the bar of a gate, not across, but according to its length,
with the tail elevated ; uttering its peculiar sounds ; but when perching, as
it often does, on the summit of a twig of oaken copse, it fixes upright,
with the feet grasping the twig, and not sitting ; just as the swift perches
against a wall. One was killed in broad daylight, perched on the upper
side of a sloping branch of considerable size; the head was uppermost, and
it rested on the feet and tarsi, the latter being bare on the under surface
for that purpose. Its attitude in this situation much resembled that of a
woodpecker. One that was kept alive with its wing broken sat across the
finger, like another bird. When about to take flight it makes a cracking
noise, as if the wings smote together, after the manner ^qf a pigeon. —
J. Couch. . Polperro, Cornwall, July 23. 1832 [but not received until August
the 8t/i. In Vol. Ill; p. 30. 188. 296. 449.; and Vol. IV. p. 275.425.,
notices of this bird also occur. — J. D.]

Parasitical Habits of the Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus L.). — By A. R. Y.'s
review of The British Naturalist, and an extriact presented at p. 62., it
appears that the author of that work doubts the fact that the cuckoo
(Cuculus canorus L.) deposits her eggs in the nests of other birds. 1

Retrospective Criticism. 675

subjoin the following fact, that came under my observation in the summer
of 1829. I had, for two or three days, observed a cuckoo flying about the
garden (rather an unusual circumstance), and at the same time a pair of
pied wagtails (ikfotacilla alba) constantly following her from one tree to
another ; and knowing that a pair of these birds had been in the habit of
building their nest, for several years past, in some ivy, I was led to suspect
that she had destroyed their eggs ; and, to satisfy myself upon this point, I
was induced to take a peep into their nest, and found it contained six
eggs, one of which was much superior in size to the rest, and considerably
darker, about the size of that of the skylark (Jlauda arvensis L.), but
more of an oval shape. I have five of them now in my possession,
including the latter, which, I have not the least doubt, is the egg of the
cuckoo. In blowing them, for the purpose of placing them in my cabinet,
I found that they had been sat upon for three or four days at least, by
the appearance of the yolks. I have another egg in my possession, which
was taken from the nest of a hedge sparrow (iliotacilla modularis) : with
the exception of its being a shade darker, it agrees with the other as
to shape and size. The difference is so great between the eggs of the
cuckoo and those of the pied wagtail, that I am quite certain that any
person with common observation would instantly detect it ; and I venture
to suggest to the author of The British Naturalist y to take a peep into all
the nests of the pied wagtails, hedge sparrows, titlarks (Jlauda pra-
tensis i.), &c. &c., that may happen to come under his observation during,
the months of June and July; and I feel quite satisfied that he will, sooner
or later, be convinced that all our authors that have written upon this
interesting subject, do not err when they state that the cuckoo always
deposits her eggs in the nests of other birds, so that their young may be
reared by a foster parent. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — J. D. Salmon. Bourne,
Lincolnshire, Feb. 16. 1832,

I have known of three young cuckoos that were reared by pied wagtails,
and these in the botanic garden at Bury St. Edmunds : at a future day I
will narrate the details. Additional facts on the cuckoo's parasitical habits
are presented by Mr. Hoy, in p. 277, 278. — J. D.

Errors in J. D. Sahnon^s " Fggs and Birds of the Orkney Islands^"* —
Sir, Please to correct four errors which appear in my article, p. 415 — 425.,
and which probably arose from my writing too illegibly. Page 421. line 9.
for " scouticurlin " read " scoutiaulin ;" p. 421. line 18. for " syre," read
« lyre;" p. 422. line 17. for " dunte," read " dunter;" and p. 423,
line 13. for " longer," read " larger." — X B. Salmon. July 9. 1832.

The Green Humming-bird. — " Rursus in arma feror." Virg. ^neid.
" Again I rush to battle." I see, in the last Number, p. 590., that I am
accused of abusing Professor Rennie, " through thick and thin," and of
treating him " very roughly and unceremoniously." I admit that I have
treated him very unceremoniously, to the fullest extent of the word ; but
I deny the rest of the accusation. I am surprised that any form of language
which I have made use of in the Magazine can be construed into abuse
of the Professor, for it never was my intention to abuse him. After this
declaration, I shall feel sorry, if the readers of the Magazine do not acquit
me of intentionally abusing the worthy Professor " through thick and
thin."

As to my picking out his " little errors," and thus holding up his Orni^
thological Dictionary to " public odium," I plead guilty : but, let me ask,
who threw the first stone ? The Professor having found in my Wanderings
proof sufficient to answer his purpose, that the humming-bird feeds on
insects, wrote a paper for Mr. Loudon's Magazine [Vol. I. p. 371.] on " the
food of humming-birds;" and he brought me in, under the character of the
" eccentric Waterton," as a witness to his home-spun manufacture.

X X 2

676 Retrospective Criticism,

_ His introducing this wanton epithet was the cause of my buying his edi-
tion of Montagu's Dictionary ; the only one of the Professor's works into
which I have ever dipped. The first " little error " which caught my eye,
■was his specious theory of the incubation of the grebe : and, as he had held
me up as the " eccentric Waterton " in one Number of the Magazine, I
made bold to hold him up, as the erroneous Rennie in another.

After this, the Professor of Natural History in King's College in the
City of London, solemnly informed the public, in Mr. Loudon's Maga-
zine [Vol. V. p. 102.], that / had hitherto published nothing respecting
the economy or faculties of animals ^ of the least use to natural history. This
was a fulmination of fearful import, from a high quarter. " Venit in hoc
ilia fulmen ab arce caput." My book sank under it. The departed spirit
of the Wanderings now haunts his faulty Dictionary ! ever and anon point-
ing to the numerous " little errors " it contains. But to the subject.

Professor Rennie says, in his " Plan of Study," that " in tropical climates,
where the heat is great, such domed nests are very common ; and are pro-
bably intended to protect the mother bird, while hatching, from the intense
heat of a perpendicular sun." ,How well this theory suits the study!
How ill it accords with facts in the field of nature ! Should the Professor
ever go to Guiana, he will see, in the vast wet savannas of that far-extend-
ing region, that the little green humming-bird, not much larger than an
humble bee, always makes its nest upon the dried twig of a small, strag-
gling, ill-thriving bush. There is not one solitary leaf near the dried twig,
to screen the bird from the rising, the noonday, or the setting sun. Never-
theless, this little delicate creature sits on its hemispherical nest, exposed
to the downward rays of the fiery luminary, without the least apparent in-
convenience. If, then, the tender little green humming-bird can sit all day
long exposed to such an intense heat, surely the larger birds, such as the
bunya or cassique, surpassing our magpie in size, cannot be supposed to
make a dome to their nests, in order to protect their tough and hardy
bodies from the rays of a tropical sun. I think this fact of the incubation
of the green humming-bird tends to place the Professor's theory of domed
nests amongst his " little errors." I beg to apologise to the readers of the
Magazine, for introducing matter foreign to natural history in the first part
of this paper. I am aware that it is quite uninteresting to the public. 1
dislike it myself; but I was called upon by the Professor's anonymous ally.
It will be my last. — Charles Waterton. Walton Hall, July 21. 1832.

Habits of the Carrion Crow (Corvus Corone L.) — Sir, Touching the carrion
crow controversy between Mr. Waterton and Professor Rennie, which has
of late occupied some portion of your pages, allow me to step in, and add
one word. I have been a birdsnester in the days of my youth, and verily
think that the crows, magpies, and hawks, of the present generation, must
still owe me a sort of hereditary grudge, on account of the depredations I
have heretofore committed on the domains of their ancestors. Like Mr.
Waterton, I have frequently mounted up, " in propria persona " to ihe nests
of the carrion crow; and I must say, that on these occasions I never did
find the eggs covered with the materials of the lining of the nest, though
the birds might be sitting, and away from the nest at the time of my visits.
I cannot speak to the habits of the Kentish crows ; but, judging from what
I have observed in those of their kindred in Warwickshire, I am much dis-
posed to think that the crows in the park at Walton Hall are not quite
such *' eccentric " beings as Professor Rennie seems to infer ; and that the
crows about Lee in Kent are rather the more eccentric of the two. Mr.
Waterton appears to be a downright matter-of-fact naturalist ; he seems
to hold most intimate and friendly converse with all the wild animals about
him, and to have made himself personally acquainted with their more secret
ways and doings. Iconfess I should feel loth to controvert what he states.

'Retrospective Criticism, 677

on his own authority, as facts in natural history ; even though, as in the pre-
sent instance, the point he contends for involves the necessity of proving
a negative. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — W. T. Bree. Allesley Rectory ^ June 26.
1832.

Effects of the Swallow Tick {Hippobosca Hirundinis L.) on the Swallow
Tribe (Hirundines), — Sir, Thefact related by your correspondent O. (p. 203.),
of a swift having been killed by flying against a wall at Hastings, and that
mentioned by J. D. (p. 204.), of the same bird, and other ifirundines, hav-
ing been sometimes found alive on the ground, do not appear to me to be
sufficiently accounted for on the supposition of the birds having been
reduced to extremities by the Hippobosca i/irundinis, with which they might
have been infested. In the first place, there is no evidence that the swift at
Hastings was so infested. O. speaks of " several small reddish insects " run-
ning about his hand at the time he held the bird. These could hardly have
been the Hippoboscai/irundinis, which is nearly, ifnot quite, as large asasheep
tick (which it somewhat resembles), and of a dirty greenish colour. But,
secondly, if the fact recorded by O. is to be attributed to the torture pro-
duced by the swallow tick, would not such catastrophes be of more fre-
quent occurrence ? Our British ^irundines are, I believe, very generally
infested with the Hippobosca. On the accidental fall of a martin's nest,
during the breeding season, I have seldom failed to find it swarming with
the parasites. When swifts have been wantonly and barbarously shot in
sport, I have more than once found, upon examination, five or six, or
more, Hippoboscae " playing at hide and seek very dexterously among the
feathers of the bird," as J. D. so descriptively expresses it ; and yet the
swifts, up to the moment of their meeting their untimely fate, were as
active and vigorous on the wing as usual, and apparently in full enjoyment
of all the pleasures of life. In truth, brute animals seem to be far less
incommoded by the vermin with which they are infested, than we should
at first suppose. And this fact, if fact it be, may be regarded as among
the wise provisions of a beneficent Creator ; seeing, as we do, how almost
universally animals of whatever kind are subject to their peculiar parasites,
of which they have not the power to rid themselves. Butterflies appear
to me, though Professor Rennie is of a contrary opinion (see Insect Mis^
cellanieSy p. 28.), to sport about as usual, totally disregarding the swarms
of ^^cari (?) which adhere to them in clusters (see p. 336.). Hippobosca
^irundinis is, indeed, an insect of moment and formidable size, as compared
with that of the swift or martin on which it preys ; and yet, as already
said, these birds, so far as we can judge, appear to enjoy themselves, with-
out being incommoded by the parasite. Some other solution, therefore, I
think, should be sought of O.'s problem, than the one proposed, though I
am not prepared to suggest any that may be more satisfactory.

Swifts, I am told (though 1 never witnessed the fact), will sometimes
fight with each other, and in such cases the contending parties are occa-
sionally brought to the ground, and have been found so circumstanced,
and with the claws of each mutually clasped into those of the other.
J. D.'s swift, discovered among the " longish grass in a village churchyard,'*
might possibly have been one of these pugnacious individuals. I once re-
collect to have caught a swallow {H. rustica) alive on the ground (and
have known the species caught by others) : on being released from the
hand, the bird flew away brisk and vigorous. Such captures, perhaps,
might be owing to some unusual fatigue or exertion which the birds had
undergone, or to accidental temporary injury. If I rightly remember, the
swallow in the instance above alluded to, appeared to be asleep at the time
it was caught, though the circumstance occurred in the daytime. Yours,
&c. — W. T. Bree. Allesley Rectory, March 8. 1832.

The Angler's Jlfuseiiviy so far as I am enabled to judge by your notice of its

X X 3

678 Queries and Answers.

pospectus, p. 191 . ; promises to be a most useful and enticing work. And, as
it is stated that, " in the mode of publishing, the form of a magazine has
been decided upon," I should be glad to be informed whether it is designed
to be a regular periodical, of long and indefinite continuance, or whether
the public may calculate on its completion in the course of a moderate
period, and within some reasonable limits as to extent. To myself, who,
though no very skilful practitioner in the art, am yet a dear " lover of the
angle," an ardent admirer of old honest Izaak Walton, and a bit of a naturalist
into the bargain, the work holds out many most attractive and bewitching
baits. But, like the " burnt child who dreads the fire," [piscator ictus
sapit,] I have learned, by experience, to entertain some formidable and justly
founded scruples about commencing to " take in" a periodical. Yours, &c.
— A. R. Y. March 10. 1832.

A. R. Y., along with this notice, remarked that the sentence quoted
(p. 192.) as " instancing the editor's style of treating his subject," is almost
precisely a re-quotation of the extract selected by A. R. Y., p. 57, 58., in his
review of the British Naturalist. We had overlooked this until it had become
too late to remedy it ,* and can only say, in the sheets submitted for notice,
it was not even acknowledged as a quotation, much less acknowledged as
derived from the British Naturalist. A. R. Y., in conclusion, remarks,
" The very nature of the intended Anglei^'^s Museuvi^ I am aware, not only
allows, but demands, the liberty of drawing copiously from the writings of
others ; but such a passage as I have noticed ought not to have been given
without some acknowledgement of the source from which it was derived.
This circumstance, however, may perhaps be duly attended to, when the
work actually appears before the public eye."

Plandna comuta^ described p. 344., is really the Planaria cornuta of
M'tlllery as I have been able to verify by reference to his figure copied into
the Encyclo2^edie Methodique. The Planaria vittata of Montagu is probably
the same species, as is stated at p. 429. ; but, in a manner too decided,
because I had not his figure before me. — G. Johnston. Berwick upon
Tweed, July 15. 1832.

Art. II. Queries and Ansiioers.

The Vampire Bat. — Bishop Heber's opinion (p. 470.) of the innocence
of this creature by no means agrees with what one has read of his blood-
thirsty habits ; and particularly the instances given by Captain Stedman, in
his Travels in Surinam, who, more than once, individually, experienced the
inconvenience of the Sangrado system of blood-letting, or, more properly,
blood-taking, pursued by this practitioner. — S. T. Stoke Ferry, June 8.
1832.

The Vampire. —

" Non missura cutem, nisi plena cruoris hirudo." Hor.

" This leech will suck the vein, until
From your heart's blood he gets his fill."

In answer to the query of J. D. (p. 471.), " whether the vampire of India
and that of South America be of one species," I beg to say that I consider
them distinct species. I have never yet seen a bat from India with a mem-
brane rising perpendicularly from the end of its nose ; nor have I ever been
able to learn that bats in India suck animals, though I have questioned
many people on this subject. I could only find two species of bats in
Guiana with a membrane rising from the nose. Both these kinds suck
animals and eat fruit ; while those bats without a membrane on the nose
seem to live entirely upon fruit and insects, but chiefly insects. A gentle-

Queries and Answers. ' 679

man, by name Walcott, from Barbadoes, lived high up the River Demerara.
While I was passing a day or two at his house, the vampires sucked his
son, a boy of about ten or eleven years old, some of his fowls, and his jack-
ass. The youth showed me his forehead at daybreak : the wound was still
bleeding apace, and I examined it with minute attention. The poor ass
was doomed to be a prey to these sanguinary imps of night ; he looked like
misery steeped in vinegar. 1 saw, by the numerous sores on his body, and
by his apparent debility, that he would soon sink under his afflictions. Mr.
Walcott told me that it was with the greatest difficulty he could keep a few
fowls, on account of the smaller vampire ; and that the larger kind were
killing his poor ass by inches. It was the only quadruped he had brought
up with him into the forest.

Although I was so long in Dutch Guiana, and visited the Orinoco and
Cayenne, and ranged through part of the interior of Portuguese Guiana,
still I could never find out how the vampires actually draw the blood ; and,
at this day, I am as ignorant of the real process as though I had never been
in the vampire's country. I should not feel so mortified at my total failure
in attempting the discovery, had I not made such diligent search after the
vampire, and examined its haunts. Europeans may consider as fabulous
the stories related of the vampire ; but, for my own part, I must believe in
its powers of sucking blood from living animals, as I have repeatedly seen
both men and beasts which had been sucked, and, moreover, I have ex-
amined very minutely their bleeding wounds.

Wishful of having it in my power to say that I had been sucked by the
vampire, and not caring for the loss of ten or twelve ounces of blood, I
frequently and designedly put myself in the way of trial. But the vampire
seemed to take a personal dislike to me ; and the provoking brute would
refuse to give my claret one solitary trial, though he would tap the more
favoured Indian's toe, in a hammock within a few yards of mine. For the
space of eleven months, I slept alone in the loft of a woodcutter's aban-
doned house in the forest ; and though the vampire came in and out every
night, and I had the finest opportunity of seeing him, as the moon shone
through apertures where windows had once been, I never could be certain
that I saw him make a positive attempt to quench his thirst from my veins,
though he often hovered over the hammock. — Charles Waterton. Walton
Hall, June U. 1^32.

The Wigeon^s Nest and Eggs found hy J. C. (p. 384.) — In addition to
the query by Mr. Waterton, p. 590., on this subject, I am desirous to learn
if J. C. recollects the colour and size of the eggs he found, and what their
size and colour were. — J. D. Salmon. Bourne, Lincolnshire, July 9. 1832.

Lampreys, their Sex, Mode of Spawning, 8fc. (Vol. III. p. 478., Vol. V.
23. 290.) — Sir, When I had the pleasure of writing to you before (Vol.V.
p. 290.), I had either overlooked or forgotten the queries of " An Old
Angler," respecting the lamprey (Vol. III. p. 478.), or I should have re-
plied to them at that time. However, your remarks in the April Number
(p. 290.) have induced me to pay a little more attention to the subject. I
can now confirm, in the strongest and most satisfactory manner, the sup-
position of An Old Angler, that the sexes are as distinct in the lamprey as
they are in the cod or the herring. How so distinguished an anatomist as
Sir E. Home fell into such a mistake it is not for me to say : but I am as
certain that the sexes are distinct in the lamprey, as that they are so in any
other animal ; and I will now give my reason for making this positive
assertion. On the 8th of May, happening to cross a small stream, I saw a
number of lampreys in the act of spawning ; and, remembering the queries
of your correspondent, I stood to watch their motions. After observing
them for some time, I observed one twist its tail round another in such a
manner, and they both stirred up the sand and small gravel from the bot-

X X 4

680 Queries and Answers,

torn in such a way, as convinced me it was a conjunction of the sexes.
However, there were so many of them together, and they kept so con-
tinually moving about, that I could not single out the two individuals, and
thus ascertain whether they were male and female : but I felt so desirous
of being able to set this question at rest, that I went again next morning,
and was fortunate enough to find only two, a male and a female. I then
witnessed several sexual conjunctions, during which the sand and small
gravel was stirred up with them, and each of which was followed by the
ejection of a jet of eggs from the female. I then caught them both, and dis-
sected them : the sexual organ in the male was projected above a quarter
of an inch, and the body filled with milt ; the female, although she seemed
to have already shed a considerable quantity of her spawn, had still a
tolerable stock remaining. I frequently afterwards witnessed the same
thing, and always found the same difference of sexes ; in fact, there was
generally no difficulty in distinguishing this difference : without taking them
out of the water, the female might readily be known by the enlargement of
her body, and the male by still more incontestable tokens.

I have been induced to describe this more minutely than I otherwise
should have done, in consequence of the mystery in which the propagation
of fish has been hitherto wrapped; and I am not aware that what I have
here described has been witnessed by any one before ; at least, I do not
know that it has been recorded.

I caught half a dozen lampreys, four males and two females, and pre-
served them in spirits j and these I now forward to you.

Concerning the large lamprey, I am unable to give the same information,
having never seen it in the act of spawning ; but I have repeatedly caught
both milters and spawners of this species, with the milt and roe as dis-
tinctly visible in them as it is in the salmon or any other fish.

I am of opinion that the P. fiuviatilis and the P. marinus are distinct
species, for the following reasons : — 1st, Because the former stays with
us the whole year, whilst the latter only ascends the rivers to spawn, and
then immediately returns to the sea ; 2d, Because fish which are in the
habit of descending to the sea never (unless the small lamprey be an
exception to the general rule) arrive at maturity until they have visited
it; and, 3dly, Because there are no intermediate sizes (at least in the
Kibble) between the one which, although only 6 in. or 7 in. long, and half
an ounce in weight, is yet capable of propagation, and the one of a pound
weight. Not having one of the larger kind to refer to, I am unable to point
out any specific difference of form. — T. G. Clitheroe, Lancashire, May 2.
1832.

The specimens sent are, as described, four males and two females, of
the Petromyzon fiuviatilis of LinncBuSy called by the Thames fishermen
the lampern, to distinguish it from the P. marinus Lin.y which they call
the lamprey. It seems desirable here, to add what has been recorded else-
where, by late observers, on the subject of the distinction of the sexes in
the lamprey and lampern ; since Baron Cuvier, in the first volume of the
Histoire Naturelle des Foissons, 1828, p. 534., depending on the observations
of others, repeats the statement of the hermaphroditism of the eel and the
lamprey, and appears to consider the occurrence of a single male lamprey,
noticed by MM. Magendie and Desmoulins, as accidental.

In the 45th volume of Constable's Miscellany, devoted to a reprint of
White's History of Selborne, Sir Wm. Jardine, the editor, among other valu-
able additions appended as notes, has the following, at the foot of p. GQ. : —

"The manner in which the common lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), and
the lesser species commonly known as lamperns, form their spawning beds,
is curious. They ascend our rivers to breed about the end of June, and
remain until the beginning of August. They are not furnished with any

Queries and Answers, 681

elongation of jaw, afForded to most of our freshwater fish, to form the
receiving furrows in this important season ; but the want is supplied by
their sucker-like mouth, by which they individually remove each stone.
Their power is immense. Stones of a very large size are transported, and
a large furrow is soon formed. The P. marinus remain in pairs, two on
each spawning place ; and, while there employed, retain themselves affixed
by the mouths to a large stone. The P. fluviatilis, and another small
species which I have not determined, are gregarious, acting in concert, and
forming, in the same manner, a general spawning bed." — W. J.

Additional evidence on the same subject, and referring to both species,
occurs at p. 133. of the Reports of Proceedings of the Committee of Science
and Correspondence of the Zoological Society of London y Part I., 1830-1831.

Evening Meeting, Sept. 21. 1831. " Mr. Yarrell exhibited preparations
of the two sexes distinct both in the lamprey and lampern, at the time
they were about to deposit their ova and milt ; and gave the following
account of his investigation of this subject : —

'* The common river lampern (Petromyzon fluviatilis X.) was obtained
and examined every week from March to the middle of May. Up to the
19th of April, more females than males were taken; but after this period,
the females being nearly ready to deposit their roe, the males were most
numerous, in the proportion of two to one. All the females taken about
the 26th of April were in a state to deposit their roe ; and the milt of the
males, now become fluid, passed in a stream from the sheath behind the
anal aperture, on making slight pressure upon the abdomen. By the 10th
of May nearly the whole of those examined had deposited their spawn.
The males were entirely void of any appearance of milt, and the females at
this time might be mistaken for males that had not spawned. The gela-
tinous matrix of the ova appeared swollen, and of large size ; and close
examination showed the ruptured membrane, and extravasated blood pro-
duced by the separation of the ova, with here and there an occasional
ovum still adhering. The kidneys (which have been mistaken for the
male sexual organs) were not observed to undergo any alteration, either in
size or appearance, during a long series of examinations. The males could
be distinguished from the females, externally, by their larger respiratory
apparatus and lips.

" Seven examples of the lamprey (P. marinus L.') were received on
the 3d of May from the Severn, about which time they ascend that river
for the purpose of spawning. Of these seven, four were males and three
females : the appearance of milt and ova being most distinct. The kid-
neys, lying in the cavity of the abdomen, were of equal size in both sexes,
elongated and narrow in form, with the ureter running the whole length
of the outer edge. The anal opening is situated anterior to a small
sheath, which, when slit up, exposes four apertures, the two innermost of
which lead to the ureters ; the outer two open into the abdominal cavity."
— S. T. P. July 9. 1832.

Notes on the Spawning of the Miiinow (Cyprinus Vhoxinus L.). — As
I have been so successful in my observations of the lamprey, I felt de-
sirous of ascertaining whether the same thing could be seen in other fish
(as, in natural history, it is by no means safe to reason from analogy) ; and
as there was a large shoal of minnows spawning near the place where I had
seen the lampreys, I determined to watch their motions. They happened
to have chosen a very convenient situation for being observed, being
between two large stones in the river, which lay about 3 ft. from each
other ; so that, by cautiously approaching them from behind one of the
stones, I got close to them without disturbing them. But after watching
them carefully and repeatedly within the distance of 2 ft., I can only speak
doubtfully of their operations ; for they were so numerous, and incessant

682 Queries and Answers,

in their motions, and, when a female was about to shed her spawn, the
males (which were ten times as numerous as the females) crowded round
her in such a manner as to render it very difficult, if not impossible, to
speak with certainty on the subject. I will state what steps I took to satisfy
myself; and, perhaps, the history of my failure may be of use to future
observers.

It occurred to me, from what I observed, that it was probable the males
had the power of absorbing the eggs after exclusion, and impregnating them
within their own bodies : and 1 caught a dozen males at different times
when they were attending on the female, and opened them, but I could
discover nothing like an egg. I then caught a female, and scattered the
spawn (which was expelled by the slightest pressure) in a place frequented
by a number of males, but they took no notice of it whatever. I after this
caught a female when she was surrounded by a number of males, and appa-
rently in the act of shedding her spawn, and examined whether the spawn
which 1 pressed from her body was impregnated j but it appeared perfectly
homogeneous, and so delicate in its texture, that it burst with the slightest
touch ; whilst in that which I picked up from among the gravel, where it
was scattered abundantly, the impregnation was visible with the assistance
of the microscope ; and it was so much tougher in its covering, as to bear
rolling about in my hand without injury.

I then tried to impregnate the eggs mechanically ^ and applied a drop of
the spermatic fluid to the egg at the moment of exclusion ; and it certainly
appeared to me, in one instance, both to increase the size, and alter the
colour, of the eggs it was applied to : but I was not able to produce the
same effect so decidedly in any of my subsequent attempts to do so.

My observations, which were often repeated, induce me to believe that
the egg is impregnated at the moment of exclusion ; and that two males
have (almost invariably) access to the female at the same time ; for I fre-
quently remarked, that, when a female came among a number of males, they
immediately pursued her: if she was not ready for shedding her spawn,
she made a very precipitate retreat ', but, if she was, she came boldly in
among them, and was immediately pressed closely by a male on each side ;
and, when they had been in that situation a short time, were superseded
by other two, who wedged themselves in between them and the female,
who appeared to treat all her lovers with the same kindness.

One difficulty is, that the spermatic fluid mixes very readily with water ;
and I cannot imagine how its virtue is preserved*, if (as I suppose may be
the case) the egg is impregnated after exclusion : but I also think it pro-
bable that the ventral fins of the female serve to conduct this fluid to the
place where it is needed ; and the chemical affinity between it and the egg
may be sufficient to account for the impregnation.

{P.S. July 21th. I tried to hatch some of the eggs which I had en-
deavoured to fecundate. The attempt was unsuccessful. I placed the
eggs (which I had put into some clean washed gravel in a shallow vessel,
open at the top, and with holes drilled through the sides) in a small stream
of water; but 1 found, to my great mortification, on looking for them a day
or two after, that there was not one left, but that in their stead were many
aquatic insects, which had, no doubt, feasted on them as long as they

* It appears to be a beautiful provision of nature that mixture with
water should increase the sphere of its action. Spallanzani found by
actual experiment that three grains of the seed of a male frog might be
diluted with a pint of water, without destroying its stimulating power.

For an interesting series of experiments on this subject, see his Dissert-
ations ^ vol. ii. p. 142. chap. 3. — S. T. P. July 9. 1832.

Queries and Answers, 683

lasted ; and after this I was not able to meet with another shoal of min-
nows in the act of spawning. — T. G.)

The head of the minnow, in the spawning season, is spotted over with small
white knobs, apparently osseous in their structure, which make their
appearance immediately before they begin to spawn, and which disappear
again as shortly after ; and I think they are intended as a protection to the
head of the fish during the spawning, as I remarked that they generally
thrust their heads in between two pebbles, and had their tails sticking up
almost perpendicularly. Yet this was not always the case, as they some-
times ran nearly out of the water ; and it was in this situation that I
observed what I have before mentioned, as I found it impossible to dis-
cover any thing that was done by those in deeper water ; for, when a female
went into such a situation, there was such a crowd of males rushed to the
place, that I lost sight of her in a moment.

I was astonished to find how quickly the eggs were hatched. I dis-
covered a large shoal spawning on the 11th of May; on the 12th, they
were diminished to one tenth of the number; and on the 14th (the 13th
was Sunday), there was not one left. As I had by no means satisfied
myself on the subject, I felt disappointed that they had so soon finished
their operations ; and I took up a handful of the gravel where they had
been spawning, and examined it with the microscope, to see whether I
could discover any eggs, and how they were going on ; when, to my great
surprise, I found them hatching, and some of them already excluded from
the egg. One of them, which I took on the point of a knife, swam briskly
away ; and another was the means of pointing out an enemy to me that I
had never before suspected, and that I had always believed to be the prey
and not the devourer of fish. The poor minnow had somehow got fast to
the point of the knife ; and, in its struggles to free itself, it attracted the
attention of a creeper (the larva, I believe, of the fly called the green drake
by anglers), which pounced upon it as fiercely as the water staphylinus does
upon the luckless tadpole : but, fortunately for the minnow, either the glit-
tering of the knife-blade, or the motion of my hand, scared it away again
without its prey.

The young minnows in this state were quite transparent, except the
eyes, which appeared disproportionately large ; and they seemed to be per-
fectly aware that they owed their safety to concealment, as those that I saw
immediately buried themselves in the gravel when they were set at liberty.
— T. G. Clitheroe, Lancashire, May 2. 1832.

On preserving Insects selected for Cabinets, (p. 495.) — I only know of two
methods to guard prepared insects from the depredations of living ones.
The first is, by poisoning the atmosphere; the second is, by poisoning the pre-
served specimens themselves, so effectually, that they are no longer food for
the depredator. But there are some objections to both these modes. A poi-
soned atmosphere will evaporate in time, if not attended to, or if neglected
to be renewed; and there is great difficulty in poisoning some specimens,
on account of their delicacy and minuteness. If you keep spirits of tur-
pentine in the boxes which contain your preserved specimens, I am of opi-
nion that those specimens will be safe as long as the odour of turpentine
remains in the box ; for it is said to be the most pernicious of all scents
to insects. But it requires attention to keep up an atmosphere of spirit of
turpentine. If it be allowed to evaporate entirely, then there is a clear and
undisputed path open to the inroads of the enemy : he will take advantage
of your absence or neglect ; and, when you return to view your treasure
you will find it in ruins. Spirits of turpentine, poured into a common glass
inkstand in which there is a piece of sponge, and placed in a corner of
your box, will create a poisoned atmosphere, and kill every insect there.
The poisoning of your specimens by means of corrosive sublimate in alco-

68i Queries and Answers,

hoi is a most effectual method. As soon as the operation is properly per-
formed, the depredating insect perceives that the prepared specimen is ho
longer food for it, and will for ever cease to attack it. But, then, every
part must have received the poison ; otherwise those parts where the poison
has not reached will still be exposed to the enemy ; and he will pass unhurt
over the poisoned parts, till he arrive at that part of your specimen which
is still wholesome food for him. Now, the difficulty lies in applying the
solution to very minute specimens, without injuring their appearance ; and
all that can be said is, to recommend unwearied exertion, which is sure to
be attended with great skill ; and great skill will insure surprising success.
I myself have attended to the preservation of insects with the assiduity
which Horace recommends to poets : — " Nocturna versate manu, versate
diurna." The result has been astonishing success, and a perfect convic-
tion that there is no absolute and lasting safety for prepared specimens,
in zoology, from the depredations of insects, except by poisoning every part
of them with a solution of corrosive sublimate in alcohol. I put a good
large teaspoonful of well pounded corrosive sublimate into a wine bottle
full of alcohol. I let it stand overnight, and the next morning draw it
off into a clean bottle. When I apply it to black substances, and perceive
that it leaves little white particles on them, I then make it weaker by add-
ing alcohol. A black feather, dipped into the solution, and then dried, will
be a very good test of the state of the solution. If it be too strong, it will
leave a whiteness upon the feather.

A preparation of arsenic is frequently used ; but it is very dangerous,
and sometimes attended with lamentable consequences. I knew a natu-
ralist, by name Howe, in Cayenne, in French Guiana, who had lost sixteen
of his teeth. He kept them in a box, and showed them to me. On open-
ing the lid — " These fine teeth," said he, " once belonged to my jaws :
they all dropped out by my making use of the savo7i arsenetique for pre-
serving the skins of animals." I take this opportunity of remarking that it
is my firm conviction, that the arsenetical soap can never be used with any
success, if you wish to restore the true form and figure to a skin.

I fear that your cort-espondent may make use of tight boxes and aro-
matic atmospheres, and still, in the end, not be completely successful in
preserving his specimens from the depredation of insects. The tight box
and aromatic atmosphere will certainly do a great deal for him ; but they
are liable to fail, for this obvious reason, viz. that they do not render, for
ever, absolutely banefuland abhorrent to the depredator, that which in itself
is nutritious and grateful to him. In an evil hour, through neglect in keep-
ing up a poisoned atmosphere, the specimens collected by your correspond-
ent's industry, and prepared by his art, and which ought to live, as it were,
for the admiration of future ages, may fall a prey to an intruding and
almost invisible enemy : so that, unless he apply the solution of corrosive
sublimate in alcohol, he is never perfectly safe from a surprise. I have
tried a decoction of aloes, wormwood, and walnut leaves, thinking they
would be of service, on account of their bitterness : the trial completely
failed. Wherefore, in conclusion, I venture to recommend to your corre-
spondent not to put much trust in simples.

" Contra vim mortis, non est medicamen in hortis."
" Against the deadly moth, can I,
From herbs, no remedy supply."

— Charles Waterton. Walton Hall, June 9. 1832.

The Tail of the Caterpillar becomes the Head of the Butterfly (p. 206. 398.).

— Sir, The caterpillar of the genus Psyche, figured by Mr. Curtis, in his
British Entomology (pi. 332.), is enclosed in a case, and is frequently to be
seen on trunks of trees, and on rocks, where it changes to a pupa. The

Queries and Answers. 685

head part is fastened to the tree or rock, but the moth escapes at the
opposite or tail^part ; but whether it backs out, or acts the part of the
lady's pony, as facetiously adverted to in p. 398., I have not discovered,
and have therefore enclosed you a specimen {fig. 119. a) of the pupa, with

the exuviae at the opposite end to that by which the pupa is fastened. I
suspect that the circumstances are the same with the pupae of some
Tineae, of Oiketicos of Guilding, in Lin. Trans, (vol. xv. tab. 6.), and
with the Penthophera? mentioned at p. 252. of your current volume.
One of my larvae of Penthophera ? in the case, as spoken of in your
p. 232., lies motionless, and, I suspect, is in pupa (I send you a sketch
of its present appearance, b)-, the other began to move early in the
spring, and is now a larva on a sprig of birch : but I could not see that
it had eaten (since it ceased eating in the autumn) until lately, when it ate
a very little. Two or three specimens of the pupa (b) o'( this insect
were found, last autumn, near Heron Court, Hants, and given to Mr.
Curtis, by the Honourable C. A. Harris. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — J. C. Dale.
May, 1832.

Mr. Dale's favour was received through the hands of Mr. Curtis, who
obligingly stated that the pupa case sent by Mr. Dale, and represented in
our figure («), assimilates closely to that of -Psyche nitidella of Huhnery
which Mr. Curtis has copied, and incidentally exhibited on his plate 332. ;
and which we have again copied, from Mr. Curtis's plate, in our figure (c).
The professed subject of Mr. Curtis's plate 332. is Psyche radiella of
Curtis, and his figure of this insect we have copied in our figure {d) ; and
Mr. Curtis hints that it is possible that the pupa case sent us by Mr Dale,
and represented in our figure («), is the pupa case of this Psyche radiella
Curtis. The pupa case, of which Mr. Dale sent us a sketch (6),
Mr. Curtis suspects may be the pupa case of the Penthophera nigricans of
his British Entomology (pi. 213.): the case is fabricated mainly of small
portions of the branches of the common ling (Calluna vulgaris Sal., Erica
vulgaris L.) The pupa cases of these two insects (Psyche radiella Curtis,
and Penthophera nigricans) have never yet been figured, or to a certainty
met with : we hope, therefore, should the pupa cases represented in our
figures (a and 6) develope these insects, Mr. Dale will be so obliging as
to tell us so ; or, if they develope insects of other species, as to tell us all
he can about them. From the able description and notices supplied by
Mr. Curtis, to his figure of Psyche radiella Curtis, in his British Entomo-
logy (pi. 332.), the following remarks, very valuable in themselves, and
pertinent to the question at issue, are quoted. — J. D.

" Ochsenheimer [a most accurate observer of nature] makes some curious
observations respecting our insects : he says the male caterpillar turns
round in his case, or sack, before changing to a pupa, in order to be able

686 Queries and Atiswers,

to creep out at the hinder opening : this becomes necessary, I suppose,
from the case being firmly attached by the other end to a leaf or tree.
He also says, that virgin females sometimes lay fruitful eggs." " It is a
very extraordinary fact, that the group of moths to which Psyche belongs
makes, in more than one respect, a near approach to the Phryganidae ; and,
I think, they will be made eventually to connect the orders of Trichoptera
and Lepidoptera ; for, whether we consider the larvae and their remarkable
economy, or the form of the perfect insects and the substance with which
they are clothed, the resemblance is most striking. It will, however,
require considerable additions of the Trichoptera to our cabinets, as well
as a better knowledge of the structure of those we already possess, before
this change can be safely attempted."

The Tail of the Caterpillar becoming the Head of the Butterfly, (p. 206.
398, 399.) — Sir, Your correspondent T. C. (p. 206.) is most certainly in
an error when he states this to be a fact. I know not what species he
refers to ; but, whatever it may be, such a change is hardly possible. The
Vanessa genus, when full fed, spin a kind of silk button, as shown in Insect
Transformations (p. 274.), to which the caterpillar fixes itself by the tail, and
hangs with the head downwards, generally a day, and sometimes nearly
two days, before the change to the chrysalis takes place. The skin begins
to split at the lower end, or head of the caterpillar, where the head of the
chrysalis is first developed, and, by degrees, is worked upwards, till it is
entirely disengaged at the tail end. The chrysalis then fixes its tail to the
silk button, and hangs securely till the fly is bred, which is in about four-
teen or sixteen days, if the weather proves warm. The outline of the
wings and antennae may be easily distinguished in the chrysalis ; and, a day
or two before the butterfly appears, the colours of its wings may be seen
through the thin shell, showing that the head of the insect continues in the
same position. When the fly bursts from the chrysalis, it comes out at the
bottom, bends itself upwards, and clings by its feet to the chrysalis, draw-
ing out the rest of its body ; and now, for the first time, after tying itself
up, is the insect in a position with its head uppermost : here it rests till the
wings are expanded, which, I have observed in the Vanessa urticae, is in
about ten or twelve minutes after the fly comes out, though they do not
acquire sufficient strength, in that time, to enable the insect to fly, being at
first soft and flabby, like wet paper. I have bred numbers of the peacock
and small tortoiseshell butterflies, but in no instance could I discover the
tail of the caterpillar changing into the head of the butterfly. I would
recommend T. C. to procure some of these caterpillars, which he will
doubtless find plentiful on the great stinging nettle ( t/rtica dioica Lin.),
in July, and put them in a breeding-cage, with some of their favourite
food : he will then have an opportunity of observing correctly the manner
in which they change : and that it is not the tail of the caterpillar which
becomes the head of the butterfly. — T. G. Chipping Norton, Oafordshire,
May 15. 1832.

An English Work descriptive of the Species of British Insects ivanted. —
Sir, Is there any moderately priced book on British Entomology, by which
I may learn to affix to my specimens their proper scientific names ? I am
aware there are many such in Botany, and can hardly suppose there are
none such in Entomology. The publications of Curtis and of Stephens,
though affording the information I want, are too expensive to come within
my reach. — Tyro. March 24. 1832.

Humming in the Air. (p. 110. 301.) — To O.'s query and suggestions on
this subject, I beg to contribute some observations. No one who has re-
sided in the country, or has walked on an open field or common on a calm
summer day, but must have been struck with this truly rural sound. The
poet Thomson notices it, with his usual elegance and accuracy : —

Queries arid Answers, 687

" Resounds the living surface of the ground :
Nor undelightful is the ceaseless hum
To him who muses through the woods at noon ;
Or drowsy shepherd, as he lies reclined,

beneath the floating shade

Of willows grey," Surtvnier,

That the vibrations of innumerable wings of insects " resounds " from
the surface of the ground, is certainly true; but that the " ceaseless hum"
heard in the air proceeds from a numerous congregation of one sort of fly,
is equally a fact. Although I have lived by far the greater part of my life
in the country, it was a period of many years before I discovered the real
cause of this continuous hum in the air. I accustomed myself to attribute
it to the sound from the wings of bees, and all other insects passing and
repassing near the spot where I stood ; till, on one occasion, while I was
passing over an open eminence in a well wooded country, this hum was so
audible that I thought a swarm of bees was passing over-head : on looking
up, 1 saw no bees, but an innumerable swarm of flies disporting in the
sunbeams, at the height of 50 or 60 ft. from the ground. This I after-
wards found to be an assembly of the sexes ; not so closely thronged
together as to be collectively visible, but flying in very open order in all
directions, and in most rapid motion; requiring a keen sight to discern
them, either collectively or individually. Their height from the gi'ound,
and rapidity of flight, are the causes of their eluding the sight of those who
know not where to look for the source of this fairy-like sound, but a
strong and steady eye will readily detect the humming throng. I paid
attention, afterwards, to their movements, and discovered, that, after passing
the greater part of the day in the air, they descend to the woods, where
they may be both heard and seen, basking on the sunny side of the trunks
of trees, just before sunset. It is nearly twice the size of the common
house-fly, and exactly of the same form and colour. In autumn it enters
houses, and is often found laid up for the winter in the valance of bed and
window curtains. — J. M.

The Caterpillar of the Broom Moth eats the Petals of Flowers in preference
to Herbage. How is it defended from the Spines of Furze, as it is devoid of a
hairy Covering like A'rctia Caja, the Garden Tiger? And is not the Covering
of the 'Qombyx Caja subservient to its Defence? — Sir, The incidental men-
tion, at p. 68., of the broom moth (Chesias spartiata Stephens) leads me to
communicate the following notice and queries respecting it : —

In 1830, I captured a considerable number of caterpillars of this species
on the common furze ( t/^Mex europae^'a), when that plant was in full bloom.
I remarked nothing singular in their feeding at the time ; and took home
with me some young furze shoots, without blossoms, for them to eat. I
put them, with their food, into a breeding-box ; and, after some time, came
to see how they were going on, but not a bit had they touched. I thought
they might not be quite reconciled to their situation, as they seemed very
restless; so I left them to themselves. The next day it was the same. I
then sent for some fresh furze ; and they brought me some with blossoms,
which I placed in the box instead of the other : in a very short time they
had eaten every blossom, while the thorny part they had left untouched, as
before.

It is well known how wonderfully the larvae of the common tiger moth
( A'rctia Caja) are defended against the nettle's sting ; but those of the
broom moth are, to all outward appearance, entirely unprovided against
the dangerous thorns among which they feed. Their skin is like velvet to
the touch ; but, notwithstanding, I have seen them lean their whole weight
on the sharpest point without the least injury. Is it, then, from the elas-

688 Queries and Answers*

ticity and toughness of the skin that they are thus enabled to make their
way through such a " cheval de frise " of thorns ? — or have the long hairs
nothing to do with defending the body of the tiger moth ? If any one of
your readers would give me more information on these subjects, I should
be much obliged. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — T^6mbt/x. Feb. 3. 1832.

If the caterpillar of the garden tiger be molested when feeding at con-
siderable height from the ground, it makes no scruple, by a vigorous con-
tortion, to release itself from molestation, to throw itself to the earth ;
perhaps in the consciousness that its long elastic hairs will preserve it from
all injury by concussion. It will be scarcely possible to apply to the hairs
of this caterpillar the solution that has been, in the Library of Entertaining
Knowledge, so admirably offered of the utility to the cat of its whiskers. —
J.D.

A Meteorological Calendar ; the best Formidary and Instruments for. —
E. H. G. asks for information on these points, and further, asks the names
of the makers of, and, if agreeable, their prices for the instruments recom-
mended; cheapness being a consideration. The name and price of" any
good and cheap elementary work on the subject'* will also be valued.

We leave to our meteorological correspondents the majority of E. H. G.*s
queries ; but respecting a formulary, we may remark, that the best we have
seen is one sent us by our valued correspondent, Sigma, but to whom we
have been under the necessity of returning it, as its form was too expensive
for being printed, and because we are, for the present at least, scarcely
desirous of more meteorological journals. The calendar mentioned was
of this form : — A sheet of paper was divided into perpendicular columns, as
various in width as the following subjects, with which the columns were
respectively and successively headed, required: — 1st column, the month ;
2d, the day of the month ; 3d, height of the thermometer at night ; 4th,
height of the thermometer by day; 5th, indications of the barometer;
6th, lunation; 7th, state of wind in the forenoon; 8th, state of wind in the
afternoon, and the 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th were ascribed to atmospheric
variations ; the 9th column the state of the atmosphere at 8 o'clock in the
morning; the 10th, to its state at noon; the 11th, to its state at 8 o'clock
in the evening; the 12th, to its state at night; the 13th column, a broad
one, contains the prevailing form of clouds ; the 14th, a broad column, to
the appearance of birds, insects, &c., whether solitary, few, or numerous ;
15th, a broad column for first appearance of flowers, and notices of their
state, as to whether in bud, in full flower, &c. ; 16th and last, a broad
column also, for general remarks. By the help of a few abbreviations,
this calendar by Sigma was rendered admirably comprehensive, and what
excited our preference for it is, that by such a tabular and synoptical exhi-
bition of the details, all of them could be seen in one view, and, as you
might desire, either in connection or contrast. The influence of the at-
mosphere's condition on organised nature is by this mode very intelligibly,
and therefore instructively, shown. The only addition which it occurs to
us to suggest is, that, as far as ascertainable, the state of the health of the
human inhabitants of the neighbourhood should be from time to time
stated, as far as the successive states of health might be deemed consequent
!)n atmospheric action (see p. 350.). — The above had been written pre-
viously to the third of April (1832), at which date was exhibited, at a
meeting of the liOndon Horticultural Society, " a sentinel thermometer,
regulated by the expansion of air acting upon a delicate mercurial balance,
invented by Mr. John Lindley." This instrument we have not seen, but
the present mention of it will supply a clew to any one desirous to learn
more about it. — J. D.

THE MAGAZINE

OF

NATURAL HISTORY,

NOVEMBER, 1832.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I. On some Peculiarities in the Construction of the Nets of
the common Garden Spider [Epeira diadema). By William
Spence, Esq. F.L.S.

Sir,
So much yet remains to be learned relative to the habits and
economy of spiders, that I shall not apologise for occupying a
few pages of your Magazine with a short account of some pe-
culiarities in the construction of the nets of Epeira diadema*,
which have lately fallen under my observation, and which,
though of no great importance in themselves, may deserve
recording, with a view to render the history of this tribe more
complete.

It is well known that these spiders, as well as others of
their family, fix their concentric nets in a position more or
less vertical, in the middle of a framework of stronger lines,
forming an irregular square, or more generally a triangle, the
ends of which are fastened to trees or other objects. I have
observed, however, in the Giardino Publico at Milan, this
summer, several of these nets fixed in a triangular framework,
of which the lines were attached to trees in two points only,
the lower angle of the frame hanging perpendicularly down,
without any fixed point of attachment, but terminating in a
line often of several feet in length (in one case, full fifteen),
having either a dead leaf, a short twig, or piece of bark, or

* The only two of the spiders in question which, owing to the height of
most of the nets, I had an opportunity of examining, seemed to me to be
half- grown individuals of E. diadema ; but it is possible that they were a
distinct but closely allied species.

Vol. V. — No. 30. y y

690 Peculiarities in the Nets

a small bit of gravel, at its lower extremity ; and thus forming
a pendulum which, by its weight, kept the net in the requisite
degree of tension, and, in fact, more conveniently than if it
had been fixed, as allowing the net to vibrate more gently to
the impulse of any sudden gust of wind ; and at the same time
the pendulums, giving way to the slightest touch, were not
injured by coming into contact with any accidental pedes-
trian, as 1 frequently observed. That the due tension of the
nets depended on these pendulums, I ascertained by repeated
trials ; for, on gently detaching the twig, or leaf, or gravel, at
the end of the line, the net immediately collapsed, and blew
about in all directions, evidently unfitted for its purpose of a
snare. [See p. 74? 7.]

These pendulums, when I first observed them, puzzled me
a good deal. If the weights had been always simply dead
leaves or twigs, I should at once have considered them as
accidental, and arising from the spider having attached its
third point of support to a dead leaf or twig (on the neigh-
bouring tree) ; which, afterwards giving way from the force of
the wind, hung down ; and, from its weight and the length of
the attached line forming a sufficient counterpoise to keep the
net duly stretched, the spider was either not aware of the
change, or was satisfied with the performance of her net in its
new position.

It was not, however, so easy to account for the pendulums
ballasted by bits of gravel, varying in size from that of a
small pea to that of a horsebean, as the first eight or ten of
those which I noticed were attached to nets stretched between
the stems of lofty trees at the height of 10 ft. or 12 ft. from
the ground, the line of the pendulum being 6 ft. to 8 ft. long,
and the gravel vibrating backwards and forwards at the height
of 3 ft. or 4 ft. from the ground ; but, on careful examination
of many nets, I at length met with one which seemed to
throw light on the difficulty. In this the gravel of the pen-
dulum rested partly on the ground ; and hence it might be
inferred that the spider, wanting a point of support for the
lower end of the triangle enclosing its net, had let itself
drop to the ground, and there fixed its line to one of the
pieces of gravel, possibly without being aware of its being
a movable object ; and of which the elevation from the sur-
face seen in other instances, might be owing to the spider
having pulled up the main line of her net in the process of
strengthening it by new lines running from it to some more
elevated part of the tree, which operation would proportion-
ally lift up the pendulum.

These gravel pendulums, therefore, are most probably, as

of the common Garden Spider. 69 J

well as those of leaves, &c., to be considered as accidental :
but it must be confessed that it is difficult to explain, on this
supposition, the height at which the piece of gravel is some-
times suspended ; which, in one instance tliat 1 observed, was
full 6 ft. from the ground, so as to swing clear of my hat as I
walked under it; a height considerably more than that to
which it seemed to me that any probable tightening of the
main line, as supposed above, could have drawn up the
gravel ; and it therefore may deserve further investigation
(which is the main reason why I submit these imperfect notes
to the consideration of those of your readers who may have
an opportunity of instituting additional enquiries), whether the
spider, led by one of those singular variations of instinct of
which Huber has made known so many examples in bees,
does not purposely shorten the line to which the gravel is
attached. In one instance which came under my eyes, the
spider certainly seemed aware that the lower part of its net
was ballasted by the piece of gravel ; for, on my pulling at
it violently, the spider instantly darted from the centre of the
net down the line, and bit off the gravel, which fell to the
ground. We are very liable to mistake in attempting to
explain the motives of the actions of insects; but, if the
reflection had passed in the spider's mind that the gravel was
too heavy, and that it must, at all events, be got rid of, it
could not have taken a more sudden and effective step than
that which it adopted.

While on the subject of the nets of Epeh^a diadema, I
must beg to trespass a little longer on your pages, to notice
a criticism of Professor Rennie, in his useful Insect Archi-
tecture (which work I have but lately seen for the first time),
on the account which we have given, in our Introduction to
FjUtomology^ of their general construction.

In these geometric nets, we have said, flies are entrapped
on a principle quite difi^erent from that on which they are
caught in the webs of the common house spider (^ranea do-
mestica), being entangled in the thick-woven meshes of the
latter, but being, in fact, gummed to the concentric circles of.
the former, by their legs, wings, &c., adhering to the minute
and separate drops of a viscid gum, which may be distinctly
seen with a microscope to stud these circles like the beads of
a necklace ; while the straight rays of the net are entirely free
from these gummy globules, and quite unadhesive.

On this account Professor Rennie observes as follows: —
" The centre of the net is said also to be composed of more

Y Y 2

692 Nets of the commoji Garden Spider,

viscid materials than its suspensory lines ; a circumstance
alleged to be proved by the former appearing under the
microscope studded with globules of gum.* We have not
been able to verify this distinction, having seen the suspensory
lines as often studded in this manner as those in the centre."
[Insect Architecture, p. 360.)

This remark, I confess, I read with no small surprise.
Having, in writing an account of these nets for our book,
found nothing satisfactory respecting them in former works,
I resolved to describe them wholly from my own observations,
in which I spent great part of many days, repeatedly watch-
ing the whole process of the construction of the net, from the
stretching of the first main Hue to the completion of the last
spiral ; and it was in the course of these observations that
my attention was first directed to the remarkable difference
between the lines of the rays and of the circles, depending on
the presence of these globules of gum only on the latter, which
I examined again and again, that I might be sure of being
correct in an observation which seemed to have escaped for-
mer writers, and which struck me as being very singular in
itself, as the spider must either be furnished with two differ-
ent sets of silk vesicles, one for secreting the ungummed silk
of the rays of the net, and the other for the gummed silk of
the circles ; or, which would be equally curious, it must pos-
sess an apparatus destined for studding its ordinary line with
drops of gum solely when this line is employed in forming
the circles of its net.

With such grounds for inferring the accuracy of my ob-
servations, I had little doubt that, if Professor Rennie had
been unable to verify them, the fault lay with himself; but, to
be quite certain that some optical illusion had not deceived

" * Kirby and Spence* s Intr.^ vol. i. p. 4 19." Here Professor Rennie refers
to our work as a joint production ; but in various other instances he
adverts to it, for what reason I know not, as if written by Mr. Kirby alone.
I am ignorant on what process of divination Professor Rennie has founded
his competency to attribute to each individual author the facts recorded in
a joint production, but the result is what might have been expected from
such an attempt ; a large proportion of the facts and observations thus
ascribed by him to my excellent friend and associate having been made and
described by me : as, for example (to omit various other instances), the
experiment with Epeira diadema {Insect Architecture^ p. 340.) ; that with
the group of gnats' eggs {Insect Transformations, p. 74.); the observation
as to the destruction of aphides by the larvae of the Sjrphidae {Ibid.,
p. 270.) ; and the description of the transformation of Chironomus plu-
mosus {Ibid., p. 319.): which last I notice for the purpose of observing
that Professor Rennie would not have put the query in the note, as to the
power of the thorax to repel water, if he had considered for a moment
what takes place with a floating needle, which instantly sinks if a drop of
water be let fall on it.

Lma.r Scn^oerhyi of Ferussac, 6^3

me when making these observations twenty years ago, which
might possibly now be removed, I seized the first opportunity
of reexamining a net of Epeira diadema, which presented
precisely the appearances which I have described, namely,
the rays free from all gum, and not at all adhering to a splinter
of wood brought into contact with them ; but the concentric
circles thickly studded with drops of gum, and adhering so
closely to the splinter as to be pulled by it a full inch out of
the plane of the net.

Such being the facts, to what are we to attribute Professor
Rennie's inability to verify them ? I can only conjecture, to the
circumstance of his having examined an old net ; for in such
the gum is partly evaporated by the sun and air, and some of
the globules may possibly, in some cases, be transferred by
the struggles of the entrapped flies to the rays. But let Pro-
fessor Rennie examine (as surely he ought to have done) a
perfectly recent net, or, still better, one in the process of
making, before its rays have had all the circles attached to
them; and if he (or any of your readers who wishes to judge
between us) does not then see as I have seen, and as we have
described in our book, 1 shall, indeed, marvel.

I am, Sir, yours, &c.
Como, Sejpt. 3. 1832. W. Spence.

Art. 1 1. Some Account of the Umax So'voerhyi of Ferussac, By
John Denson, Jun. A.L.S.

Some of the Bays water gardens are rich enough in slugs ;
and among these are numerous individuals of a species very
distinct from any species that inhabits the limited portions
of Cambridgeshire and Suffolk with which I happen to be
acquainted. By submitting living individuals of this slug to
Mr. James de Carle Sowerby (5. Camden Terrace West,
Camden Town), I have learned the following facts respecting
it. Mr. G. B. Sowerby, being unable to identify it with any
species described, sent specimens of it to Paris, where it had
not been before seen, and was determined to be an undescribed
species. Subsequently, the Baron de Ferussac has published
a description of it, and named it Zyimax Sowerb// [Sowerby?]
in his Histoire Naturelle des Mollusques terrestres etjluviatiles.
Mr. Sowerby referred me to his copy of this work, and thence
(from the Supplement to the Genus Zunax, p. 96. ?) the follow-
ing description is copied : —

" Limas de Sowerby. iimax Sowerbw nobis. PI. VIII. D. figs. 7, 8.
Lutescens, fusco tesseratus ; capite et tentaculis nigris ; clypeo granuloso,

Y Y 3

694 Some Account of the

sulco marginali ; carina dorsali succinea, vakle notata : lateribus pallidis."
This description may be thus translated : — Sowerby's Skig. In colour
approaching to yellow, chequered with brown ; head and horns black ;
shield or mantle as if minutely warted, and with a furrow near its margin ;
the ridge or keel of the back very obvious, and of an amber colour j the
sides pale."

" Plate VIII. D," cited by Ferussac, appears not to have
been yet published ; but the accompanying figures {Jig, 120.

120

c, Z>), drawn by Mr, Sowerby from living individuals, well
exhibit the animal under two of its forms : b, when it has been
touched, and has contracted itself; and «, when again dilating
itself to resume its progress: ^ does not show, I think, so
much contraction as the animal presents when in a state of
settled repose ; and a is much too short and stout for the ani-
mal when at its greatest extension in the course of uninter-
rupted travelling.

Of the existence of this species at Bayswater, Mr. Sowerby
was not previously aware ; but mentioned, as additional locali-
ties in which it occurs, the neighbourhood of. Camden Town
and the neighbourhood of Lambeth, and suspects that it is
common all round London.

In two of the few Bayswater gardens with which I am ac-
quainted, Zyimax Sowerby/ is most troublesomely abundant ;
but I cannot state from my own observance that it abounds
about Bayswater generally : probably, however, it does. The
soil here is a stiffly clayey brown loam incumbent on gravel ;
and this stiffness of the soil renders it liable to crack during
dry and summer weather. The fissures thus formed are a
very great convenience to the slugs, which retire into them
to escape the annoyance of the drought and the heat; and
although they may usually descend not lower than about 3 in.,
they will sometimes go so deep as 6 in. ; they also retreat
under large clods ; and young ones will hide themselves
between the inner surface of flowerpots and the mould they
contain. When detected in these places, they exhibit greater
contractedness, I think, than shown in ^y^. 120. h; and the
younger and smaller specimens resemble so many rudely
formed dirty-hued boluses, which, as particles of soil and dust

Umax Sower In/i of Fhixssac, 6^5

are usually adhering, while they are in this state, to their glu-
tinous exterior, fancy may imagine to have been rolled in dust
instead of magnesia. The animal in this state is almost as
inert as if dead, and a very fit prototype of both sluggard and
sluggishness. When, however, the atmosphere chvsnges to a
cool or moist state, the species seems soon excited from its
hiding places to roam abroad ; but, for roaming, prefers the
night to the day. I think it is impatient of a superabundance
of wet; for, during the late copious rains (Oct. 2 — 8.), I have
found many large specimens adhering to the face of a very
dwarf brick wall, immediately in front of which grows an
edging of box, which touches and hides the face of the wall,
and grows to about the same height. The slugs were in the
upper half of this wall, which is about 1 ft. high ; and behind
the box, and, with swarms of woodlice, seemed to have re-
treated there to escape the drenchings that have lately been
falling.

The idea that snails and slugs are, although lovers of
moisture, impatient of much wet, was taught me, perhaps
erroneously, in very boyhood ; and the argument adduced in
support of this opinion was the indisputable fact, that snails,
during heavy rains, quit the drenched earth, and mount trees,
walls, &c. ; it is possible, however, to explain this act of theirs,
by assuming that, as all surfaces are then saturated with
moisture, which is a great facility to their travelling, they are
embracing such favourable opportunities for extending or
changing their range of pasture.

Adhering to the face of the wall already named, I found,
on Oct. 5., two pairs in tenacious sexual conjunction : their
bodies were contracted to about an inch and a half in length
(the half of their travelling length), and curved to one side.
These, with many additional specimens, I collected on that day,
and also then sent to the Rev. L. Jenyns, SwafFham Bulbeck,
Cambridgeshire, from whom, I trust, a more scientific account
of this species than I am able to give, will be communicated
to our readers. The bodies of the specimens then collected
felt softer than they usually do, perhaps the effect of the soak-
ing rains; for usually there is a comparative rigidity and
leatheriness about the skin of this species, and which, indeed,
is so especially tough, that, to crush it when on the ground,
unless you would torture the doomed wretch, a vigorous stamp
of the foot on a solid spot of earth, is requisite.

Zhnax Sowerbyf, when travelling, is really an agreeable
object, from its graceful lanceolate figure, neat brown hue,
and the straight amber line down its back formed by the

Y Y 4

696 Some Account of the

dorsal ridge or keel, which is then free from all corrugation.
The hinder portion of the body is considerably compressed,
and in the young ones so much so, that it is the most striking
of their features. A specimen, not of the very largest size, I
consider, which I measured a month or so ago, when it was
travelling, and at its greatest extension, was nearly three inches
long, and of this length the shield or mantle measured three
quarters of an inch. The dorsal ridge or keel was straight
and unwaved ; but when the animal, from being interrupted,
contracts itself, this keel or ridge is folded by the contraction
into transverse wrinkles. The lateral orifice in the travelling
slug was riot more than large enough to admit the head of an
ordinary pin, into and out of which parasitic mites were
nimbly passing. The upper tentacula, or horns, were about
four tenths of an inch long, and their tips not abruptly thick-
ened or set on.

To acquire food is, of course, the principal motive for tra-
velling in this species, as in every animal; but I regret my
inability to state on what substances it mainly subsists. The
imperfect attention my want of time has allowed me to
give to it has not discovered to me that it preys much on
the growing foliage of plants, although it seems not averse to
decaying vegetation. I have found it on partly skeletonised
leaves, that had been some time on the ground, of the apple
tree, and I thought it was eating away the fleshy part : it will
eat off the cuticle of the stems of the potato, when these are
beginning to decay in autumn. I think rather it is a foul
feeder, eating coarse fare, and not refusing even carrion ; for I
have known it to feed on potato tubers and thrown away rotten
ripe gooseberries, and I have found individuals devouring the
dead remains of each other, every part of which they seem to eat,
except the skin of the back, and I am not quite certain that
they always wait for the dead remains of each other. Gardeners
accuse them of greedily devouring growing mushrooms raised,
as about London they are abundantly, by artificial cultivation.
Sometimes a young one will eat its way into a potato, and,
having entered, eat away all the interior, and become there
much too large to make exit by the hole at which it entered.

Parasitic mites are plentiful on the full-sized individuals of
Z/imax Sowerby/, and I think more plentiful in autumn than
in summer, and even in wet weather in autumn ; whether of
the species Philodromus Z/imacum Jenyns^ vol. iv. p. 538., or of
a distinct species, I have not the means to determine. I had
years ago observed mites running about the bodies of slugs^
but was totally ignorant of that information on their person

Libnaa: So^werhyi of Ferussac. 697

and habits which Mr. Jenyns's figure and lucid description
communicate : see vol. iv. p. 538., where the following syno-
nymes seem addible to Philodromus i^imacum. ^'carus lA-
niacum of Linnaeus's Systema Naturce^ by Gmelin, who (torn. i.
pars V. p. 29S3., species 73.), under it, says nothing more than
this : " Schranck, Beytr. 2. Naturg.^ p. 13. Insect. Aust,, p. 521.
No. 1076. Reaum. Act. Paris. 1710. Habitat in Helice poma-
tia." Turton,also, vol.iii. p. 708., seems to render the reference
to Schranck of account, by giving this alone, and omits that to
Reaumur: his entire account is, " Acarus Limacum found on
the Helix pomatia, or snail. Schranck, Ins. Aust,, p. 52 1 . n. 1 076."
Mr. Sowerby also referred me to the following mention of
this mite by Ferussac: — "Les grosses especes des genres arions
et limas, particulierement a Paris et aux environs, le varie-
gatus de Draparnaud, qui se tient dans les caves, sont souvent
infestes de ce petit acarus que I'on observe sur le collier de
lima9ons, et dont Reaumur a donne la description et la figure
dans les Memoires deVAcademie des Sciences pour I'annee 1710.
C'est 1' Acarus Limacum de Linne. Nous en reparlerons en
traitant des lima^ons." [Histoirei p. 42.) " The large species
of the genera Arion and Limax (particularly in Paris and its
environs, the L. variegatus of Draparnaud, which confines
itself to vaults) are often infested with that small acarus which
may be observed on the collar of snails, and of which Reaumur
has given a figure and description in the Memoires de PAca-*
demie des Sciences for the year 1710. It is the ^^carus Lima.-
cum of Linnaeus. We shall speak of it again in treating of
snails." This second mention, however, we did not happen
to find.

Helix rufescens (Jeffreys in Linn. Trans, vol. xvi. p. 337.) at Bury St.
Edmunds. — At p. 490. I have stated that the common garden snail. Helix
aspersa Milll., is, in the old botanic garden at Bury St. Edmunds, in hard
winters, numerously destroyed by the common land rat, and have added,
" and probably H. hispida of Jeffreys in Lin7i. Traits., also, as a species
answering to the characteristics of this abounds." Since this remark was
published, I have visited the place and inspected specimens, and find the
small species so abounding there to be H. rufescens. H. hispida (or at
least a hispid-shelled species) does also^ occur at Bury St. Edmunds, but
I believe only sparingly : the few specimens I found were among nettles
that grew about some of the ruins of the once famous abbey. H. hispida
(at least a species with a hispid shell) seems more plentiful about Bays-
water. Of both H. rufescens and H. hispida figures are given in this
Magazine : H. rufescens. Vol. I. p. 427, 428. fig. 184. y; H. hispida. Vol. L
p. 427, 428. fig, 184. a a. — J. D.

698

REVIEWS.

Art. I. Catalogue of Works on Natural History, lately published,
luitli some Notice of those considered the most interesting to British
Naturalists.

Kearney, W. H. : Illustrations of the Surrey Zoological Gar-
dens; drawn from Nature on Stone, with Descriptive
Notices. 4to. London, 1832. Prints, 35. 6d,\ Proofs on
India paper, Qs.

Part I. contains three subjects: — 1. Alpaca, Camelus
Pdco L. ; 2. The Magot, or Barbary ape, iSimia I'nuus L., a
pair of animals ; 3. The Bengal variety of Tiger, T^elis Tigris
Li., a pair of these also. Besides the exhibition, in each print,
of its specific subject, the artist has assorted to it a copious
supply of harmonising associations, which do credit to his
powers of conception and his ability of execution. The
attitudes of the animals, too, we deem well chosen. The
text, though sketchily, is instructively, written, and reads
pleasingly. The book is very eligible for every drawing-
room and library.

Slaney, Robert A,, Esq. M.P. : An Outline of the Smaller
British Birds, intended for the use of Ladies and Young
Persons. Foolscap 8vo, 14-3 pages, and cuts of 12 birds*
London, 1832. In green cloth, 45. 6d.

A delighting little book, which, in its spirit and its manner,
emulates that of the beloved White. Its scope and character
will appear from two transcripts which we make. " The
author, having often derived pleasure from watching the
habits of birds, has thought that a familiar introduction to
this branch of natural history may prove useful to ladies and
young persons, who were not desirous to enter on scientific
descriptions, or to encounter works of greater length." This
remark forms a half of the preface, and welcomely evinces
that our author is not —

" A sedentary weaver of long tales.'*

Me is concise, and in a good degree original ; but has still a
copious sprinkling of select extracts. Our second transcript
is of the " Contents." " Winter Visiters, p. 1., Summer
Visiters, p. 9., Resident Birds, p. 68., Owls and Hawksj

Hewitson's British Oology, 699

p. 110., Water Birds, p. 125., Conclusion, p. 142." There
are woodcuts of 12 birds in the book, which, but for its price,
we would press every ornithologist to possess.

Hexmtso?!^ William C. : British Oology ; being Illustrations
of the Eggs of British Birds, with a Figure of the Egg, or
Eggs, of each Species, as far as practicable drawn and co-
loured from Nature : accompanied by Descriptions of the
Materials and Situation of the Nests of the Birds, the
Number of Eggs these lay, &c. In 8vo numbers, pub*
lished every two months, each containing 4 lithographic
prints. Newcastle upon Tyne and London. 35. 6d,

In September, 1831, we noticed this work in our Vol. IV.
p. 429., when the Second Number had just appeared : now,
nine Numbers are published, and the work has in no way
lessened in the interestingness we then ascribed to it. The
author is commendably cautious in advancing only facts
derived from the personal observation of himself and friends,
or in quoting only the assertions of the most reputable
authorities.

Would it not be an excellent means of acquiring a mass of au-
thentic facts on British oology, were the author now to announce
that he will publish, at the conclusion of the work, whatever*
facts, derived from personal observation, his subscribers may
please to communicate unexpensively to him, if supplementary,
or even controversial, to those already advanced in the work ?
The probability is, that, by this means, at the expense of only
a few sheets of letterpress, some valuable facts might be
accumulated and recorded. A correspondent, now at oui*
elbow, says, the author's remarks on the peewit, tab. 1., are
excellent : but when it is stated, as two isolated facts, that the
bird prefers some slight elevation for the place of its nest^
and that it is not to be surprised on the nest, but is ever on
the look-out; he says these two facts may be connected, by
stating that it prefers slight elevations, to facilitate, and increase
the range of, its vigilance ; and that, in ploughed land, its nest
is never to be found in the furrow, but always on or towards
the ridge, where its imperfect nest is not rarely but a hollow
within those wreaths of stubble which usually accumulate
before the coulter in ploughing, and which, when drawn off
by the plough's progress onward, are but very partially
covered by the turning furrow slice which follows.

Sharpless, John T,, M.D. (of Philadelphia) : A Description
of the American Wild Swan, proving it to be a New
Species, Cygnus americanus Sharpless. Read before the

700 Entomological Magazine,

Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia, on Feb. 7.
1832. Pamphlet, 8vo, of 8 pages, and 2 lithographic
prints.

Dr. Sharpless, in 1831, contributed to the Cabinet of Na-
tural History and Rural Sports, published by Messrs. Doughty
of Philadelphia, a most delightful article on the wild swan;
in which, in a manner almost poetical, he has very happily
described the habits of wild swans, and the numerous delight-
ing associations connected with them. In that paper (a sight
of which we owe to the kindness of Mr. Yarrell, to whom
Dr. Sharpless had sent it) the author intimates his belief that
the wild swan of America is in species distinct from the wild
swan of Europe. The pamphlet under notice includes the
results "of Dr. Sharpless's subsequent research on this point
of the subject ; and in it he presents an abstract of Mr. Yar-
rell's published descriptions of the Cygnus ferus L. (the
Hooper), and the Cygnus BewickzV Yarrell (Bewick's swan),
as well as a short notice of the Trumpeter swan (Cygnus
buccinator of Dr. Richardson in the Northern Zoology), and
describes in detail and in contrast the characteristics, both
external and internal, of the wild swan of America. The
author exhibits a sufficiency of differences, derived from the
examination of a series of specimens, to prove it, he con-
ceives, a distinct species, to which he applies the specific
epithet " americanus." The detailed differences we cannot
transcribe, but the diagnostic presented is this : — " Cygnus
americanus [Sharpless']. Beak black and semicylindrical, sides
of the base with a small orange or yellow spot ; body white,
tail of twenty feathers, feet black." We commit the matter
to the canvass of technical ornithologists.

Anon.'. The Entomological Magazine, No. I. Sept. 1832.
8vo, 104 pages. London. 3s. 6d. To be continued
quarterly.

Knowledge is derivable only from the accumulation of
observations ; and as, in every branch of knowledge, many
observers fail to make known their observations for want of a
congenial vehicle of publication, we wish there existed a
magazine devoted to every branch of knowledge. Possessing
this sentiment, we regard with good affection the Entomologi-
cal Magazine, the first number of which is now before us, and
which announces that " the plan of the projectors is, to pro-
duce a magazine which shall contain illustrations of the habits
and metamorphoses of insects, descriptive characters of new
genera and species, records of the capture of rarities, reviews

E7ilomological Magazific* 701

(with extracts) of all new entomological works, and inform-
ation of every kind connected with entomology." Contributions
from any authentic sources are solicited, " either in Latin,
French, or English ;" as, the projectors remark, " it is not our
intention to confine ourselves to British entomology, but to
embrace the whole circle of the science." Foreign entomo-
logists are requested to communicate their works as soon as
published, that British entomologists may as early as possible
be made acquahited with their existence, and the nature of
their contents. The work is to be published quarterly. No
plates are in the first number ; but, " should it appear necessary
for the elucidation of generic distinctions, plates will be occa-
sionally given, provided the sale of the work at all justify the
expense." " The projectors consider themselves as possess-
ing a strong claim on the support of all lovers of entomology,
as they have undertaken the work without the slightest ex-
pectation of pecuniary advantage, but with a disinterested
desire to promote the progress of a science to which they
confess themselves zealously attached."

We have looked through this first number with real plea-
sure ; for although not extensively acquainted with species of
insects, nor the various systematic combinations of them in
which entomologists delight, we are pleased to see provision
made for the gratification of those who are. This is done
in the following articles : — " Abstract of Straus-Durck-
heim's ' Considerations Generales sur I'Anatomie comparee
des Animaux articules,' by Edward Doubleday ; Mono-
graphia Chalcidum, by Francis Walker, Esq. F.L.S; a De-
scription of Two Species of the Genus Elaphrus, lately dis-
covered in Scotland by Charles Lyell, Esq., by John Curtis,
Esq. F.L.S. ; a Catalogue of a few Insects found in Castle
Eden Dean, &c., in 1832, with remarks on some of them, by
George Wailes, Esq. ; an Entomological Excursion, by Edw.
Doubleday and Edward Newman ; Monographia JEgf^ndmm
Angliae, by Edward Newman;" and a Chapter termed " Va-
rieties : " while, for the gratification of less technical lovers
of entomology, like ourselves, there are " Some observations
on Blight," by Rusticus, written with ability and humour;
and a still more delighting article, a conversational one, en-
titled Colloquia Entomologica, which discusses the question of
the relative sufferings of insects as impaled by the collector;
claims, for original thinking and acting, the dignified con-
sideration they deserve ; and, as a consequence, expatiates
with enthusiasm on the delight which would result from ex-
ploring the yet unexplored treasures in natural history which
transatlantic countries contain. Besides these articles, in the

70S Brown's Book of Butterfiics,

review department six English works are noticed, and three
French ones.

The second number of the Bntomolomcal Mamzine is to

O CD

be published on Jan. 1. 1833.

Brown, Thomas, Captain, F.R.S. L.S. &c. : The Book of But-
terflies, Moths, and Sphinxes ; with 96 Engravings coloured
after Nature. 18mo. 35. 6d. i on fine paper, 5s. \ and in
small Svo, 6s. : in cloth. Vol. I. (The work to be com-
pleted in two volumes.)

This first volume we have not seen, which forms the 75th
of Constable's Miscellany ; but it is said the engravings alone
are cheap at the price of the volume. A correspondent, how-
ever, sends us incidentally the following remarks upon it : — •
" The peacock butterfly is evidently inaccurate in form, the
superior and inferior wings bear no natural proportion to each
other. The orange tip is given from a foreign specimen : why
should this be? It evidently bears but a slight resemblance
to the British fly. The large copper butterfly is very inac-
curately coloured ; and I think it is totally impossible for any
one to recognise the caerulean butterfly by the figure given : it
is intended for the male, which I find it to resemble but very
remotely, on comparison with about fifty specimens now
before me ; and it has no resemblance whatever to the female.
The silver stripe butterfly has the markings of the female,
which are very different from those of the male; but its
colouring bears no resemblance to that of any of the fritil-
laries that I have ever seen."

Johnston, George, M.D., Fellow of the Royal College of
Surgeons, Edinburgh : A descriptive Catalogue of the re-
cent Zoophytes found on the Coast of North Durham.
Read at a Meeting of the Natural History Society of New-
castle upon Tyne, April 16. 1832, and published in their
Transactions. Newcastle, 1832. A quarto pamphlet of
38 pages, and 6 plates and 2 woodcuts.

The following extract from the preface will best explain the
character of this work, which appears to be not purchasable,
except, of course, in the Part of the Transactions in which it
is included. It " embraces an account of such zoophytes as
t^says the author], I have found in Berwick Bay, a portion of
our coast about 25 miles in extent, bounded by Holy Island
on the south, and on the north by the bold promontory of St.
Abb's Head. The town of Berwick is situated almost exactly
midway between these points, so that my position is very
favourable for the investigation of the natural productions of

Knowledge for the People, 703

the intermediate shores ; and I should not have presumed to
lay this Catalogue before the Natural History Society of
Northumberland, did I not feel assured that it will be found
to contain, not probably a complete, yet such a full list of
their zoophytes as will suffice to convey an accurate view
of their number and variety ; and may be of service to any
one who shall in future attempt to illustrate their distribution
on the shores of Britain."

" The descriptions of the species have been invariably made
from the specimens before me, and in almost every instance
without previous reference to the descriptions of others; a
circumstance which I have thought it proper to mention,
because it may enhance the value of a local catalogue to know
to what extent it may be relied on, as affording data to deter-
mine how far peculiar situations affect the appearances of
species. Several of the descriptions are accompanied by
figures, which, in general, illustrate zoophytes either hitherto
imperfectly known or not at all."

The descriptions are entirely in English, and are full and
clear : the author under some species admits several varieties,
and exhibits in some cases quite an array of synonymes ; his
practical intimacy with these creatures having doubtless led
him to guard against the very liable error, a too extensive
multiplication of species: 22 genera and 68 species, besides
varieties, are described ; and it is a pity this valuable contri-
bution to systematic zoology is not separately attainable by
all students of zoophytes, to whom it would afford very con-
siderable assistance.

Timhs^ John (Editor of " Laconics," " Arcana of Science
and Art," &c.) : Knowledge for the People, or the Plain
Why and Because, in Botany, Mineralogy, Geology, and
Meteorology ; familiarising subjects of useful Curiosity and
amusing Research. 12mo, 284- pages. London, 1832. 45.

There is in this little book, we dare say, the price's worth
of information, and so it may be bought for the pockets of
youth. We should describe the portion of the book devoted
to botany to be a higgledy-piggledy collection of scraps of
knowledge compiled from authors of repute, and allocated to
respond to questions purposely framed to ask for the inform-
ation which the extracts or scraps contain. The parts of the
book devoted to mineralogy, geology, and meteorology may
be better; but of these we are less able to judge. At all
events, " the Botany " has given us a prejudice, not soon to
be cured, against the " why and because " form of commu-
nicating knowledge ; it seems but a last means of stringing
together things incongruous.

704? Figures and Descriptions of Ferns.

Hooker i W. J"., LL.D., and Greville, H. K., LL.D. : Icones
Filicum .ad eas potissimum Species illustrandas desti-
natae quae hactenus vel in herbariis delituerunt prorsus
incognita?, vel saltern nondum per Icones botanicis inno-
tuerunt : or, Figures and Descriptions of Ferns, principally
of such as have been altogether unnoticed by Botanists, or
have as yet not been correctly figured. In two vols, folio.
London, 1831. With the plates coloured, 24 guineas;
with the plates uncoloured, 151,

All of our readers acquainted with ferns, in however few
species, are well aware that these plants are distinguished
from all others by an interesting peculiarity, beauty, and de-
licacy of structure, by great diversity and remarkableness in
form, and by the varied manner in which their jewel-like
masses of capsules are studded over the inferior face of the
fronds. These remarks apply, without any qualification,
even to the species native to Great Britain ; and very gratify-
ing, therefore, it is, to be able to witness in what degree the
same interestingness appertains to the species of other coun-
tries. To do this the work before us enables all who will
consult it, to the extent of 240 exotic species ; and these col-
lectively exhibiting, as they belong to many distinct genera,
and are natives of various countries, a copious variety of form,
of aspect, and of structure. The geographical range of the
species depicted will appear from the authors who have con-
tributed to the enrichment of this work by their presents
of native specimens, and by their very useful observations.
They are, chiefly. Dr. Wallich, of the Calcutta botanic gar-
den ; the Rev. Lansdowne Guilding, of St. Vincent ; Dr. Ban-
croft, Mr. Wiles, and Mr. Lunan, of Jamaica; Professor
William Jameson, of Quito ; Charles Telfair, Esq., and Pro-
fessor Bojer, of the Mauritius; and the late Mr. Charles Fraser,
of New Holland. Opposite the picture of each species is placed
the description of it, which is usually of a technical kind, and
in Latin, followed by a few general observations in English.
Of the superb Alsophila aspera, a fern attaining the magnitude
of a tree, being from 20 to 25 feet high, three plates and a
diffuse description are given. To Dr. Wallich the authors
declare their very great obligation " for continued supplies of
the ferns of the vast continents of India; and these," say they,
" have now arrived to so great an extent — and these not alone
from Dr. Wallich, but also from Dr. Wight, of Madras —
that the authors contemplate, under the sanction and patron-
age of the Hon. the Board of Directors of the East India
Company, to form for them a new and separate publication,

WalUcJCs Select East Indian Pla7iis. 705

under the title of Filices Asiaticce Rariores, to appear on the
same size and plan as the Plantcjc AsiaticcB Rariores.^*

Wallich, Nathaniel, M.D. F.R.S. &c. &c. : Plantae Ra-
riores Asiaticas ; or. Figures, coloured, and Descriptions, of
Two hundred and Ninety- five selected unpublished East
Indian Plants. In 3 vols, imperial folio. London, 1832.

This superb work is now complete, and exhibits 295
figures, in which are depicted specimens of as many species of
the more ornamental trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants of
India ; the specimens being drawn of the natural size, and
coloured to nature. This work is really an acquisition to the
libraries of Europe ; for, while its own magnificence, and the
great beauty of the plants selected for its plates, fit it in an
especial manner for the drawing-room tables of the wealthy,
and supply to the public a means of conceiving of the splendour
and loveliness of Indian vegetation, the original descriptions
of the plants themselves, and the views of botanical affinity
which are exhibited under many of the species, render the
work a text book of great value, and indeed indispensable to
all who are engaged in the prosecution of scientific botany.
This latter high cast of character has arisen from Dr. Wal-
lich having had, in describing the plants, the cooperation of
most of the distinguished botanists of Europe, each of whom
has described the plants belonging to that class with which he
is best acquainted. For so many plants, by researches in all
parts of the globe, have now become known, that no botanist
can attain to an intimate knowledge of ihem all ; and hence each
addicts himself more particularly to the plants of some few
classes or orders. We have not space for the names of the many
scientific individuals who have thus cooperated in producing
this work ; but must mention, as of especial value, the follow-
ing contributions : — A monograph in the second volume, on
the Z-aurinae of the East Indies, to which there is a supple-
ment in the third volume, both by Professor Nees von
Esenbeck : this occupies 22 pages, and developes the most
complete account of the order, any where extant; and gives a
digest and the characters of the genera and species which range
under it. Professor Esenbeck also elaborates, in like manner,
in the third volume, the ordinal, generic, and specific character-
istics of those lovely plants the Indian ^canthacese ; and this
valuable contribution to systematic botany occupies 48 pages.
Professor Meisner, also in the third volume, presents a syn-
opsis of those plants of the natural order Polygoneae, which
belong to British India, so far as specimens of them exist in
Vol. V. — No. 30. z z

706 Smith's English Botany,

the vast herbarium which has been collected under the direc-
tion of the East India Company, and by them recently, with
a munificence highly creditable to the Company, presented to
the Linnsean Society of London. In vol. iii. p. 27. Professor
Martins, too, elaborates the characters of the Indian Erio-
caulese and Xyridea^.

To notice, again, the plates, as these display the very picking
of the continent of India, they cannot but be choicely beau-
tiful, or possessed of striking features; as of the latter character
we might name, among others, the Pinus excelsa, the Quercus
lamell6sa, and the Chamae'rops M.Qx\\dna, At the close of
the third volume an engraved map of India, occupying two
pages, is deemed equivalent to plates of five plants : in this
map are marked the routes of the following travellers, by
whom the botany of India has been successively explored,
although yet but partially: — Mr. Finlayson, Dr. Hamilton,
General Hardwicke, M. Leschenault de Latour, Mr. Moor-
croft, Mr. Royle, Colonel Sykes, Dr. Wallich, and Dr.
Wight. This was a happy thought, and valuable in itself as
is a map of India, its value must by this means be much
increased to botanical readers. The letterpress part'of »eaJfcli
volume is given collectively, and precedes the plates. * '^^^-^

Lindley^ John, F. R. S. &c. &c., Professor of Botany in the
University of London : An Introduction to Botany. 8vo,

: 557 pages, with 6 copperplates and numerous engravings
on wood. London, 1832. 185.

This admirable Introduction will, in all probability, hence-
forth be the text book of all botanists, both incipient and
proficient, of Britain, and of very many out of Britain as welL
It supplies a greater mass of facts, arguments, inferences, laws,
rules, terms, and other technicalities appertaining to the
charming science of botany than was ever before procurable
in Britain in one volume, and for many times the price. The
high professional reputation of its author is a sufficient surety
that its pages are occupied by no insignificant and superfluous
matter. The only fear will naturally be, that it oversteps the
ready apprehension of those unfamiliarised to the use of the
technical terms of botany : this fear, we can undertake to say,
need not be entertained, for it is the office of an introductory
work to explain and exemplify the application of the technical
machinery of a science; and all who know Professor Lindley
know that no man is more competent, we should say no
Englishman is so competent, to perform this task, in relation
to botany, iiv a simple, yet eloquent, perspicuous, and faithful
manner. • * ;

Lindley's Introduction to Botany. 707

Smith, Sir J. E., M.D. &c., and Sowerhj, James, F.L.S. &c. :
'^'English Botany, or coloured Figures of British Plants,
with their essential Characters, Synonymes, and Places of
Growth. The Second Edition, arranged according to the
Linnaean Method, with the Descriptions shortened, and
occasional Remarks added. London. In 8vo numbers,
] s. each ; monthly, or oftcner if desired.

Of this work four numbers are before us. The first thre^
contain five coloured plates each; and the 4th number, thre^
plates and a sheet of letterpress, in which are described all tlie
plants figured in the four numbers : and thus there are prej-;
sented coloured pictures of 18 plants, and descriptions qf
them, for 45. Indeed, more than this is done : 27 plants are
described, because " the plates are omitted which represent
such nearly allied species of plants as may be readily distirir;
guished by the description from those figured." With t%
merits of the original English Botany we have long been ac-i
quainted ; and it gladdens us to see good impressions from
the same well-executed plates coming before the public in so
cheap, accessible, and welcome a form. The following are all
the particulars in which this second edition differs from the
first: — The plates (most of which will be those employed
foi^ the first edition) will be printed on smaller paper, and thfe
colouring less highly finished, ana such plates omitted' as
represent those nearly allied species of plants which may be
readily distinguished from those figured by the descriptions.
Still, that those who purchase this second edition may be sup-
plied with a figure of every species of plant described in it,
should they desire it, Mr. Sowerby proposes to sell separately,
at Sd. each, figures of those species which, although described
in this second edition, it does not form part of his plan to
include figures of also. The plates and descriptions aj?e
published according to the Liimaean system ; and, although
the descriptions are much condensed, the editor states, '^ he
will endeavour to give all the information contained in tl^e
large edition, without repeating in the descriptions those cha?
racters which are readily manifested in the plates." To each
genus, too, the editor adds the natural order to which it be-
longs, and a few general remarks on the habits and properti«|Sf
of the species of the genus. A few indispensable alterations
in nomenclature are to be made, and the names of the planets
are engraved on the plates. ,. ><t;4

We sincerely concur in the hope of the editor and prT<5F
prietor, Mr. Sowerby, " that the many intelligent persons
whose means are limited may be induced, by the low price at

z z 2

708 British Flouoering Plants.

which this edition of Eiiglish Botany is published, to avail
themselves of the opportunity of studying the beauties of
Flora disclosed around them." It is supposed that about
1200 plates will contain the flowering plants, which may
be bound in six volumes ; and, as most of them are ready, no
d^lay is likely to occur.

Since the sending of the above notice to press, the fifth
Dumber has reached us, which contains a figure of each of
the following species: — Veronica polita, arvensis, /zederifolia,
triphyllos, and verna.

Anon. : British Flowering Plants, drawn from Nature, and
\ engraved under the direction of William Baxter, A.L.S.
F.H.S. &c. Curator of the Oxford Botanic Garden. In
,^ 8vo Numbers, each containing 4 Plates and descriptive
letterpress. Oxford and London. With the Plates co-
loured, \s, ; uncoloured, Qd.

This work, added to the one of which we have just spoken,
cheeringly evinces that facilities for the extension of botanical
knowledge are increasing in number. The present work is to
*' be confined to a single specimen of each genus of British
flowering plants, which will be sufficient for all general pur-
poses." In the two numbers published the following are the
plants figured and described : - — 1. Fritillariameleagris; 2. Tii-
lipa sylvestris ; 3. Geum rivale ; 4. Fiola canina ; 5. Polygo-
num Bistorta ; 6. Paris quadrifolia ; 7. Adonis autumnalis; 8»
O^phrys apifera. The engravings, especially the first six,
are admirable likenesses of the plants ; but we think the colour-
ing of 4, 7, and 8, not apt to that of nature. In the descrip-
tive portion to each species are given the systematic and
English names, the Linnsean class and order, the natural
order, the generic and specific characters, " references to the
most popular botanical works," etymons of the generic and
specific names, a copious supply of local habitats, a technical
description in detail, and on the plate dissections of those
parts of the fructification which characterise the genus : these
last are explained in the text. Should the plant be applied
to any economical purpose, a notice of this fact is also added.

MacJcay, James Tcmnsend, M.R.I. A. A.L.S. &c. &c. : A
Catalogue of the Phaenogamous Plants and Ferns found in
Ireland, with Descriptions of some of the rarer Sorts.
4to, 98 pages. Dublin, 1825. .^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^

This book is a serviceable guide to* the collettor of Irish
plants, from the indications of habitats which it presents ; and
the original descriptions, although not numerous, are useful.

De la Beche's Geological Manual, 709

Since the publication of this book, Mr. Mackay has discoveretl
additional genera and species, some of which he names in ah
interesting communication, which he has contributed to the
Ga?'de7ier's Magazine, vol. vii. p. 230.

De la Beche, Henry, F.R.S. &c. : A Geological Manual,
London. Treuttel and Wiirtz.,?, Qff^ eojiiV^

Dr. Johnson defines a manual to be " a smaill bbokjkuoh
as may be carried by the hand." The French have more en-
larged ideas of a manual : the Manuel de Tournure, for the use
of amateur turners, consists of two volumes in folio, which
wdiild require the hand of a Cyclops to carry it. From th^
price of the Geological Manual, which is eighteen shilHrigs !
we fully expected to see a manual on the French scale, a
goodly octavo at least ; in this we were disappointed : the
book is a comely well printed duodecimo.

The first part of the work is devoted to subjects which
may be regarded as pertaining more strictly to physical geo-
graphy than to geology : but as these sciences are intimately
connected, we are not inclined to object to this division of the
work, except that it is rather out of proportion to the other
parts of the volume: it is chiefly compiled from the first
volume of Daubuisson's Geognosie. The principal heads are
on the temperature of the earth and of springs, the sea and
lakes, the temperature of the atmosphere, the action of the
sea on coasts, and on currents and tides. These, with some
minor articles, carry the reader to p. 103. Of the remaining
400 pages that are, strictly speaking, confined to geology,
nearly one third are filled with catalogues of fossil organic
remains, chiefly reprinted from catalogues which have appeared
in different numbers of the Philosophical Magazine. Th4
work is professedly written for the service of the geological
student; but he may justly complain that so large a part of it
consists of a dry catalogue of shells, which can be of little
value, unless he have some well arranged collection to con-
sult, and such collections are extremely rare in this country^
Indeed, a numerous catalogue of fossils, for the most part with-
out comment or illustration, is more likely to bewilder the
student, and disgust him with the science, than to lend hun
any aid in his enquiries. What is wanted by those who com-
mence the study of geology is, a selection of the most important
organic remains, whether in the animal or vegetable king-
doms, that have been well ascertained to characterise certain
formations or series of strata, viz., that do not appear in the
strata above or below the series : such characteristic shells in
each formation are not numerous, but well deserve the careful

z z 3

7J0 De la Beckers Geological ManuaL

attention of the young geologist. Those fossil organic remains
that mark a change in the condition of the surface of our
planet, as from sea to fresh water, or from fresh water to dry
land, are particularly deserving of notice, and ttlso the new
forms of organic life which indicate a great change in th^,
character of the ancient inhabitants of the globe ; but it cdn
be of little interest to the student to know the names of 800
species or varieties of marine shells, no way remarkable
for their structure, occurring in a formation universally ad-
tnitted to be marine. Correct lists' of the fossils in any one
formation, made by residents in different districts, like those
bf Mr. Mantell of the chalk fossils in Sussex, and Mr. Phillips
oi the chalk fossils in the eastern part of Yorkshire, are
exti'emely interesting to well instructed geologists, who can
appreciate their value, and the bearings of the evidence which
they furnish; but such lists are not suited for an introductory
work, much less so are lists collected from various authors,
ftiany of whdm have never themselves examined the beds
fi^dm which the fossils were' takeni^»^"^f. Wii'^nol ^guuiugiioD to
J^ 'Section the third contains an accbuilf Bf tvh'ati^ sdmev\^hitt
Quaintly styled the erratic block group; which comprises the
loose blocks of rock and beds of gravel, scattered over various
countries, the evident proofs of the transporting power of
water. In this section is comprised also some account of
bone caverns and osseous breccia. At section 4. comtnences
title account of the tertiary strata, or what the author is pleased
{o style " the supercretaceous group." We greatly object to
the introduction of new names, in a science already overbur-
dened with different nomenclatures. The term supercreta-
^jebus has no advantage over the received term tertiary^ which
fs "always understood to designate the deposits of strata riior^e
'decent than chalk; but these strata do not nniversally rest
,on chalk, as the term supercretaceous would imply. The
tertiary strata are in many respects highly interesting to the
geologist, but contain few substances of value to a nation.
tn the present work they cover 73 pages, while the coal
measures, of great geological interest, and possessing the great
sources of national wealth, coal and ironstone, are dismissed
in a few leaves, and these chiefly occupied with the mountain
limestone (the transition limestone of foreign geologists),
which the author associates with the coal measures. The
chalk and oolite formations, including the Weald clay and
sandstone, occupy 122 pages. The red sandstone group is
described in 22 pages : this we consider as the best digested
and arranged section in the book. The rocks denominated
by other geologists primary, are described in a very brief
and summary manner; and metallic veins and repositories,

De la Bech<^s Geological Ma?maL 1 1 1

so interesting to the geologist, and important to civilised
society from their products, occupy less than 4 pages. The
author has loitered so long among the shells in the upper
strata, that he appears panting to arrive at the end of his
journey, and hurries through some of the most valuable parts
of the science: like Shakspeare in Hamlet, he kills off his
principal characters in one short scene, to arrive at a conclusioov
Every reader acquainted with geology will agree with u^,
that there is an extreme disproportion between the relative
value of the different subjects, and the space they occupy in
this volume. The author has bestowed much diligence in
collecting facts from foreign journals respecting the secondary
and tertiary strata, but they are not arranged in such a manner
as to give the most essential parts of his subject a sufficiently
prominent place ; so that the geological student, for whose
use the work is professedly written, will frequently find himself
Jbewildered among the details of facts, fossils, and opinions.
^|v To the experienced geologist, who has not the opportunity
of consulting foreign journals, the Geological Manual may
serve as a useful book of reference, and save him much
trouble when wanting information respecting the progress pf
geology on the continent of Europe. From an objection to
Crowding a work like the present with catalogues of shells,
it may be believed that we are disposed to undervalue the
j^udy of fossil organic remains ; but this is not the case : we
fconsider that a cheap manual on fossil remains is at present
nauch wanted by the geological student. A work like this would
require great judgment in the selection, and should contain
a clear ^nd brief description, with a figure, of the most cha-
racteristic species in each formation ; and also of others which,
though not so characteristic, are the most abundant : it should
commence with the lowest beds, and describe the fossils in an
ascending series, that the student might mark when particular
forms of organic life first appear. The species figured and
described should not be too numerous, that the whole might
be contained in a cheap pocket volume. If Mr. Lonsdale, or
bome competent fossilist, would execute well a work of this,
kind, he would, to borrow the words of our author, " render
^gpod service to geology."

.. . In the Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France^ yol. i|.
p. 355., is the following notice of the second edition of Mr. De
la Beche's Manual of Geology, by M. Boue, foreign secretary,
.^delivered by him to the Society : — t f -r?^

i,;>'" He remarked, that the author is still too exclusively
|j?j0cupied with England. Thus, in his article on the tertiary
iJSi>cmations, he does ,i}^|^iye ey^p ^n idea, o| the geological

7 1 2 Mosaical and Mineral Geologies compared,

constitution of each European basin, but dwells on certain
deposits, such as the crag; or on certain localities, as those of
London or Paris ; while the great inferior Sub-Apennineform-»
ation is too briefly adverted to. His lists of fossils have been
amended ; but it is to be regretted that he has admitted too
readily the authority {Ics determinations) of Marcel de Serres
on the tertiary fossils, and of M. Zieten on the fossils of lias
and lower oolites. That part which treats of the ancient rocks
is, defective. In closing his article on elevations of the globe
such as M. E. de Beaumont has imagined, he adds this curious
remark, that in England there have been three directions of
elevation, at three different epochs ; but these directions are
parallel, and run from east to west. These are, 1st, the
elevation of the beds in the Isle of Wight after the deposition
of the London clay * ; 2dly, the elevation of a part of the
greywacke of Devonshire and of the carboniferous rocks of
Mendip, and also of part of South Wales, which took place
before the deposition of the new red sandstone ; and, 3dly,
the elevation of the greywacke of the south of Ireland, which
was more ancient than the p^rpl^,tr3^sitk)n. sandstone (griii
pqurpre intermediaii^e). prjfnoa is ol batovsh ^I e^jwqrni dlliJ

Various Individuals: Transactions of the Albany Listituie*
'^Tart I. Vol. I. 8vo. ,

* The Albany Institute is composed of twp societies, whiqh
are now united, " The Society for the Promotion of Useful
Arts in the State of New York, and the Albany Lyceum of
Natural History.'* The most important articles in the presenjt
volume are. Art. 2. On the Geographical Botany of the
Unhed States, by Lewis C. Beck, M.D. Art. 7. On the
Climate of the Valley of the Mississippi. Art. 11. A Topo-
graphical Sketch of the State of New York, designed chiefly
to show the general Elevations and Depressions of its Surface,
by Joseph Henry ; and Art. 1 4. Observations of the Coal
Formations in the State of New York, by Amos Eaton.

Higgins, W. M., F. G. S. &c. : The Mosaical and Mineral
Geologies illustrated and compared. Svo, bound in cloth,
168 pages. 1832. Scoble, 110. Chancery Larie'.i^ ,'nofhi<i

It is now 217 years since the doors of the inquisition closed
upon Galileo, and, if we may judge by the vials of theological

,^.^ We confess ourselves a little surprised that M. Boue should find any
thing curious in a fact which has been so long known to every tyro in En-
glish geology, namely, that the elevation of the beds in the Isle of Wight
took place long after the elevation of the rocks of Devonshire and
South Wales, on which the red sandstone rests unconformably. The grey-
wacke rocks and coal strata in England have been subjected to numer-
ous elevations, operating in different directions, and at different periods^.

Litet^ary Notices, ' 713

wrath from time to time poured out upon the heads of geologists,
the world has not grown much wiser since. The harmony of
physics and divinity would seem as important as before Super-
stition vailed to Truth. Astronomy has had her system-makers,
who constructed untenable hypotheses, to force her pheno-
mena to agree with holy writ ; and the sister science has not
been wanting in votaries, who would make the first chapters
of Genesis her Procrustean bed. Yet they to whose peculiar
province such enquiries belong are not all agreed upon the
authenticity of these chapters. Some divines, and learned
ones too, hold the inspired portion of the Old Testament to
commence with the call of Abraham. Into the merits of this
opinion we do not mean to enter ; we only notice it to show
that disagreement between science and scripture may t\6t
exercise so fatal an influence on the latter as many seeni to
imagine. In the mean time, the theologico-geological dis-
pute may do good. Medicine is indebted to alchemy for one
esteemed preparation ; and who can say what important facts
may be discovered by the keen eye of controversy, eVeti
should its object be as frivolous? The present work, as its
title imports, is devoted to a comparison of the sacred and
scientific systems of geology ; and its object is to prove the
compatibility of modern discoveries with the description of
the creation, as handed down by Moses. For this purpose,
short outlines of practical and theoretical geology are given,
and in a style sufficiently popular to enable the general reader
to judge of the accuracy of the author's conclusions. These
are given in the third part of the work ; and if he should rise
from its perusal unconvinced, he will at least have the satis-
faction of finding himself in possession of the leading^ facts an|d.
theories of one of the most interesting of sciences, r^ ^r '^"r' *

^9jiihjj8 c. ^aiqotJ iitifi gfu.fjH/aia k'lansg sdlwoda o1

AXioD Dili io .v.ui'. vTDcidO Jy -^^ ^-^f: rTinsH Acpzo\ \6

^ Part the First of Dr, Hooker's Continuation of Smithes
English Flora, is nearly ready. It contains the mosses, He-
paticse. Lichens, Characese, and y^'lgae, with plate&s^^fjq 801

Part the Second, which will contain the i^ungij ^4 coin-
plete the volume, will be speedily published. ; \

Mr, Bakewell has prepared for publication the ^ Fourth
Edition of his excellent Introduction to Geology, considerably
enlarged, with an additional chapter, containing a review of
the prevailing theories of geology, as suppacted by eisi^tlogi
phenomena. . ^ '^^'f*''^' ^"^ ^'^Y'"^^ ^^"^

1. 1 T sv^^iV^U•OtMs^'^o(^OiV.^S^

,9d or YJihoxninoo r alduulfiv oo:J ti 'oaims^b f^rikpsi^ laism
■^liolimeooi^ &i(\i ?I .Blcrninc (iamb 'luo tjriibaot m bf»mwHfi6o

ponBi^niMISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE. a.o
bij'nb ^idi ino ed bi'Q t tioJj cifoioviri'ina odt xrci

.,8-IDoY 'l^^i^-^^^AIit^^i^^^a^^^^^^ O. 5^

pA^B^ r|,Vi ,;m7; -^j.r ,!>,; ^,:>.-- (,v ^'(.._ .:--!' * ' '' - ■ ^^n<>

^rMr, Gordon^ Analogies bcimeen Plants and Animals. — Mr.
Gordon, in his ingenious communication (p. 405 — 412.), paral-
lelises on Dutrochet's theory of the agency of endosmose in the
circulation of the sap, and seems not to be aware of the fact
that Dutrochet has, some time since, abandoned this hypo-
thiesis as untenable. — J» M, - ■

0^ Tapirs in the Regent's Park Zoological Gardens, — To your
article on tapirs (p. 458 — 466.), it might have been added, that
two fine animals of the South American species (Tapirus
americanus) are exposed to pubhc inspection in the Zoological
Gardens. They are very interesting creatures, in the shape of
the head, extensibility of snout, and in the very remarkable
structure of the feet. One of them has, I v^as told, been but
very recently imported ; the other appeared sociable, and ate
lime and elm twigs out of my hand kindly enough. — D,^i
June, 18S2. . - > :^ ,- i !

o(£,cceniricity of Appetiiei.mid Worse and a Pointer' fD^
T^ Sir^ One of your correspondents records the case of sin*
g«tlar caprice of appetite in the goat (p. 471.). This brings
^.my recollection a somewhat similar instance, which fell
under my own observation, in other animals. Some years
Jigo, a quantity of peat soil was thrown down in a heap in the
coi'ner of a small field adjoining my house, for the purpose of
being used in the garden, as occasion required. A horse that
was turned out in the same field (which, I may observe,
afforded a good pasture) v/as in the frequent habit of going
tQ: this heap of peat soil, and feeding upon it with as much
apjiarenfc satisfaction as if it had been a rack of good hay. A
pointer dog, also, v/hich was usually kept tied up, on being
let loose, would almost invariably go to the heap of soil, and
devour lumps of it with avidity. The peat soil, I should ob-
serve, was of the dark brown kind, and evidently consisted
almost exclusively of vegetable matter ; and as it had been
br-ought from a great distance, and was difficult to procure in
this imimedvat© aieighbourhoody we removed it to a place of

Retrospective Criticism, 715

safer keeping, deeming it too valuable a commodity to be
consumed in feeding our dumb animals. Is this eccentricity
of appetite in the horse to be accounted for on the same prin-
ciple as that suggested by your correspondent in thb' instance
of the goat? But what shall we say to the preference shown
for peat soil by the carniv«rf)tts-dog ? Did he eat this dried
conserve of iSphagnum and Carex for the same purpose as he
is so often observed to eat the leaves of coarse grass? Yours,
&c. — W. T. Bree. Allesley Ttectory^ June 26. 1832.

The Rot in Sheep. (Vol. IV. p. 173. 284. 472. ; Vd.V. p. 98.
202.). — Sir, I thank your correspondents (Vol. IV. p. 284,
4TSf.) for calling the attention of your readers, &c. to this dis-
e^ise; but they both write too much as if it were a new com-
plaint, and that they were the discoverers ; whereas it appears'
t6 bave bfeen as well known, and to have committed as great
i-avages, in former times, as now, Johnson's Dictionary gives
it as one of the meanings of the word " rot," on the authority
of 'Ben Jonson. If either had taken the trouble to look into
i\\&- Encyclop(^dia of Agrnculttire, they would there have found
a'^mass of information on the subject, condensed into a single
page, and some of the questions asked fully answered before-
hand. The opinions of the older writers on agriculture, on'
the cause of the rot, may be various ; but they appear to have
blamed certain plants when taken as food by the sheep, such
as the white rot (Hydrocotyle vulgaris), the sundew (Drosera) ;
ahd' it was only last winter that I had the Ctirex caespitosa,
I believe, pointed out to me as the blue grass so fatal to stock.
Th'fe opinion, in the north of England, where the farmers too
frequently experience the pernicious effects of the rot, is, that
it is the peculiar quality of the food which causes the disease,
di!id the great increase of the flukes in the liver, as these are
sometimes found in the most healthy sheep. The most dan-
gerous period, if not the only one, is the autumn, if it is mild,
after considerable falls of rain. Pasture land which has
been overflowed by streams'; or upon cold moist clays, and even
stubbles where grain has been shed and sprouted, are then
CG«nsidered more than suspicious ; and even horned cattle are
sometimes lost by this disease after very unfavourable sea*,
s^ns, as well as deer and hares, which are also known to be
similarly affected. The reindeer (Cervus TarandusZ*.) brought
to England by Lord Ravensvvorth are said by Bewick to have
fallen victims to this complaint. As to medicines, where the
quantity composing the flock is numerous, the stock-master
would never think of handling his sheep for the purpose ; the
injury done would more than overbalance the chance of be-
nefit. Nothing remains, if once discovered to havb a taint liii

716 Retrospective Criticism.

the beginning of winter, but to take the aiFected animals to
market as soon as possible; or feed upon corn, as on turnips
alone augments the complaint ; though those that come
through the winter will fatten kindly upon grass during the
summer months. I have certainly heard of some that were
even poked having been recovered by having been depastured
upon the salt marshes ; and once a friend told me that he had
cured half a dozen by administering salt and flour, as he
found prescribed in the Encyclopcedia Britannica, I have,
however, understood from a veterinary surgeon, that some
very satisfactory experiments, as to results, were made at the
veterinary college a few years ago. These, I hope, Mr.Youatt
will take care to make public in his forthcoming volumes (in
The Farmer^ s Series of the Library of Useful Knowledge) on
cattle and sheep. The great care of the shepherd, as may be
supposed, is to prevent the disease making its appearance:
and this is done principally by removing the stock to the
driest and soundest fields in the most suspicious seasons ;
and they are generally very successful. There appears, also,
something in the constitution of the stock, as the hardier
breeds are not so subject to it as the long-wooled Leicester
breed, and are depastured with safety where the latter would
perish. It is not a little singular, and may, perhaps, assist
those who would Mash to investigate the cause of the disease,
that the stocks upon the syenitic hills of the Cheviot, and
adjacent and similar soils, are considered not liable to this
disease ; the herds tell you their sheep may pine, but cannot
rot. As this has been very accurately described by the Ettrick
Shepherd, in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, those who
feel an interest in the investigation of the pining may consult
that work ; though the reasoning as to its cause is too like
that which was to prove the cause of Goodwin Sands being
Tenterden steeple. — J. C. Farmer, Nov., 1831. ''^ ^^--^ ^^'^-^'/^
,^Cats catching Swallows, (p. 84-. 273. 471.) — I haVe hea;t(d
it before, and 1 agree with the writer (Vol. V. p. 275.), that
these poor animals do not deserve the character they have ac-
quired. It is only the half-starved creature, which is not regu-
larly fed, that is given to stealing : in fact, hunger alone is the
cause of their propensity: even human nature is tempted in such
cases. Not having a complete set of your amusing Magazine
to refer to, I know not if you have inserted before, that cats,
contrary to their nature, will stand in shallow water, and catch
fish, in fine weather. [See Vol. IV. p. 430., Vol. V. p. 471 .] I
heard lately of a singular instance of instinct in a cat, belong-
ing to a friend of mine, who lately removed from Streatham

Retrospective Criticism. 717

to Wandsworth ; and carried poor puss, tied up in a bag,
with him, to his new abode : he enquired after her, in the
course of a few days, and heard that she was nowhere to be
found. Having occasion to visit Streatham, at the end of the
week, he was welcomed by his old favourite at the door, who
had reinstated herself in her accustomed place, apparently as
happy as if she had never experienced the removal. Upon
enquiry, he found she had traced her way back on foot, as no
communication had taken place between the houses, and had
returned to her old haunts the day before he arrived: of
course, he left her, as a legacy, to the new residents. Yours,
&c. — Cattus. uv

Cats mthout Tails in the Isle of Man, (p. 674.) — A friend
of mine has twice brought cats without tails from the Isle of
Man, where there is a considerable number, and they may be
purchased for a trifle. They are the most plentiful, I be-
lieve, in that part of the Island called the Calf of Man.
They are rather taller (if I may be allowed the expression),
than the common cat, but not so broad and strong; their
colour is generally a lightish grey. They resemble more the
hare and rabbit, in their movements, than the domestic cat ;
which, perhaps, may be owing to their hind legs being so
much longer than those of the common cat. I cannot speak
to their qualities as mousers ; one of those which I have seen
had four kittens (by a common cat), two of which had very
short thick tails (about 2 in. long). I saw them almost every
day, and paid rather particular attention to them. The only
work in which I have found any account of this species [variety
rather] is Le Keux's Illustrations of Natural Histor^^ vol. i.
p. 356., in these words : — *' There is also a hereditary va^
riety of the cat in this country without any visible tail. It
is not uncommon in Cornwall ; and Dr. Leach received one
from the Isle of Wight, which, however, could not be recon-
ciled to its new habitation." The " Isle of Wight," I think,
ought to be the " Isle of Man." I have conversed with a native
of the former island on this subject ; and he says he never
saw or heard of one there. Le Keux gives also the following
anecdote from Dr. Anderson's Recreations in Agriculture,
" A cat belonging to Dr. Coventry, the ingenious professor
of agriculture in Edinburgh, which had no blemish at its
birth, but had lost its tail by accident when it was young, had
many litters of kittens, and in every litter there was one or
more that wanted a tail." I hope the above will prove
acceptable to some of your readers.. <.,i,LejCQaiiv Sir, yours,
&c. — Ma7icuniensis. Sept. f5. 1832., ^^liifli le hiijiii s; oJ ^n'

The last fact seems to answer my question (p. 674<.) affirm-
atively. — J. D.

718 Retrospective Criticism,

'ijThe Stoat, the Changes in the Colour of its Fur, and those
Changes rather refer^ahle to Atmospheric Temperature thaH tb
periodical Change of Season ; and the Stoat and its Congener^
trace their Prey by the Facidty of Scent. — Sir, I send you some
remarks on the JVfustela ermineaof Gmelin, called in Britain,
in its summer fur, stoat, black-tailed weasel, and large weasel ;
in its winter fur, ermine, and white weasel. J. M. states, at
-p, 77., that " the stoat does not change its colour here, as iu
the northern parts of the world, by which its fur becomes ^^b"
valuable an article of commerce, though it has been observed^
that its breast and throat are whiter in winter than in the
summer months." -' - - o^^-'^ ,,i ^fifUii im.^v ^.ii

I will, in the first place, 6bkeW^ftftW?pJ^.^#.'fi'aa'tedBff
into our best work on British ^Joo/cgT/, by that classical anc^
learned naturalist Pennant, he would have read that not only
the stoat, but also the common weasel (M. vulgaris GmeL),
sometimes becomes v^'hite in Great Britain. " In the most
northern parts of Europe," says he {Bfitish Zoology, vol. i.
p. 115. edit. 1812), " these animals (stoats) regularly change
their colour in winter, and become totally white, except the
end of the tail, which continues invariably black, and in that
state are called ermines. I am informed that the same is
observed in the highlands of Scotland. It is sometimes found
white in Great Britain, but not frequently, and then it is called
a white weasel. That animal is also found white, but may be
easily distinguished from the other in the ermine state, by
the tail, which, in the weasel, is of a light tawny brown." I
may here remark, incidentally, that, from the common weasel's
occurring of a white colour, Linnaeus named it, in his Fauna
Suecica (p. 7.)? -Mustela nivalis. I will now endeavour to show,
fi'om my own observations, that the white dress of the stoat
in England depends on the temperature of the atmosphere,
either according to situation, or according to the severity of
the winter; and not on the periodical change of the seasons,
as Pennant seems to imply in the following words (p. 116.): —
" With us it is observed to begin to change its colour from
brown to white in November, and to begin to resume the brown
itl the beginning of March." Within the last nine years I have
had the good fortune to meet with two ermines alive, and in
two of the most different winters that have occurred f6r a great
many years : the one was in the extremely severe winter of
January to March, 1823, and the other was in the almost as
extremely mild January last of this present year (1832).
The first ermine which I saw (in the month of February, I
believe) in the year 1823, was running in and out of a hedge
by the side of a turnpike road. The ground at the time being

Retrospective Criticism* 719

covered with deep snow, I should scarcely liavenotketl it, bad
it not been for the blackness on the extreme half of the tail. As
1 was on horseback, it allowed me to approach near to it,
when, standing for some minutes on the bank of the hedge,
and looking boldly at me, I found it a fine large animal. The
upper part of its body was of a beautiful clear white ; but its
belly, legs, and tail were of a yellowish tint, which was more
distinguishable, by being contrasted with the purer white of
the snow. The second I met with on the 2ad of January
last. While riding along a road, my attention was suddenly
attracted to a white animal bounding extremely quickly across
the road from one hedge to the other ; and on going to the
spot where it had entered the hedge, I soon caught sight of
it again, a little way off, when I was delighted to find it provi^
an ermine of the most beautiful white, having the bushy black
tip on the tail. I watched it some time running up a large
pasture, keeping near a thick hedge, in which it at last disr
appeared. The day was unusually mild for the season ; the
sun shone bright ; no snow was on the ground. The ermine
seemed as if out of its element, and even at a considerable
distance looked conspicuously white, and, I may add, for its
own safety, dangerously so. v • ; j; ^j,.];^

Providence, ever kind and protective of all the' >seyeir?(ls
animals of her creation, has so clothed most beasts and birds
of the forest and of the field, of the mountains and of the
plains, the reptiles also, and insects, with such furs, an.d.
feathers, and skins, of such colours, and of such shades, as-
shall be most conducive to their safety, and in harmony with
the colours of the places of their habitation. For if it were
not so (as in the present case), a pure white ermine, a white
hare, a white pheasant, or the like, living on the dark-coloured
ground, would immediately be seen by -theirj ,^JieRlfes>.i^sind.
would quickly be destroyed by them. 5,^]. oj tjnd>ioro/iedji9

In consequence of the months of December, 1831, ^a^dl
January, 1832, last, having been so unseasonably fine, withoijfe
any snow, but with occasional slight frosts, I was greatlj^
surprised to find this stoat clothed in his winter fur; and thj^
more so, because I had seen, about three weeks or a month
before, a stoat in its summer coat, or brown fur ; concerning
which I will hereafter add a remarkable fact. I was, there-
fore, naturally led to consider whether the respective situations,
which the brown and white stoats seen by me this warm
winter inhabited, could alone account for the difference of
the colours of their fur, in any clear and satisfactory manner.
The situation, then, where the brown stoat was seen, is in
N. lat. 54<° 32' nearly, and W. long. ,^l,°|5^|^'Tiieft«lys,(^pp|i^«k

720 Retrospective Criticism.

plain, elevated a very few feet above the level of the river
Tees, in the county of Durham. Again, the place where I
met with the ermine, or white stoat, on the 23d of January,
1832, is in the North Riding of Yorkshire, in N. lat. 54° 12'
nearly, and W. long. 1° 13' nearly: it is situated at a very
considerable elevation, and in the immediate neighbourhood
of the lofty moorlands called Hambledon Hills. These con-
stitute the south-western range of the Cleveland Hills, which
rise in height to 11 00 ft. or 1200 ft. above the sea. At the
time, the ermine was making towards the hills, where, no
doubt, he either lived, or frequently haunted; and, conse-
quently, the great coldness of the atmosphere, even in [a
mild winter like the last, upon such an elevated and bleak
spot as that moorland, would satisfactorily account for the
appearance of the animal in its white fur ; although the place
is in a direct line, more than twenty-three miles distant to the
south of the fields, near the Tees, inhabited by the brown
stoat. And it is somewhat worthy of remark, that the hedge
where I noticed the first ermine, or white stoat (in February,
1823), is on the same plain, and within a mile of the place
in which I saw the brown stoat in December, 1831, and at
much the same height above the river. But in that winter
the extrerne coldness of the air would cause the same vicissi-
tude of colours, even at so low an elevation.

I have already observed that a kind Providence has given
to most animals such colours of the fur, plumage, and skin,
as shall best conceal them from the sight of their enemies : I
may now remark that the same Providence has ordained
that many animals shall experience a change of colour, when
the colour itself of their natural abodes shall likewise change ;
and that both the colour of the animal and that of the ground
shall still harmonise and become the same. Such is the case
with many animals that inhabit the frozen regions and the
cold latitudes of the world ; the polar and the alpine countries.
The wolf, the fox, the hare, the ptarmigan, &c., undergo this
variation in the colder tracts ; and even in the temperate
climate of our island, among others, the ptarmigan and the
hare do so. Concerning the latter, the zoologist before
quoted (Pennant, Brit. ZooL, vol. i. p. 130.) relates : — "In
the winter it " (the varying or Alpine hare) " entirely changes
to a snowy whiteness, except the edges and tips of the ears,
which retain their blackness. The alteration of colour begins
in September, and first appears about the neck and rump : in
April it again resumes its grey coat. This is the case in
Styria (Kramer, Atistr.fp. 315.); but in the polar tracts, such
as Greenland, it never varies from white, the eternal colour

Hetrospective Criticism. 72 i

of the country. In the intermediate climates between teni^
perate and frigid, such as Scotland and Scandinavia, it regu-
larly experiences these vicissitudes of colour."

But here it must be remarked, that the stoat, the hare, the
ptarmigan, or any other beast or bird of varying fur or
plumage, cannot be supposed to commence the variation of
colour in September or November, and to rechange it in
March or April in every year, vy^ithout being under the direct
influence of a less or a greater degree of temperature of the
atmosphere. The increased coldness of the air, which gener*
ally takes place at the approach of winter in the northern
latitudes, in the Alps (as in Styria), and in the lower moun-
tains of the temperate climates (as in the highlands and moor-
lands of Great Britain), is, I conceive, the true cause of the
regular variation from brown to white, in those animals ; and,
again, as the coldness gradually diminishes, and as the warm-
ness of the atmosphere at such situations increases, their sum-
mer colours begin to reappear. Pale and light colours, as
white, &c., seem to belong naturally to the northern or cold
countries, and they are predominant in every part of the cre-
ation ; in animals, in plants, in minerals, as silver, &c. : but,
on the contrary, dark and bright colours, as black, &c., are
peculiar to the southern or warm climates, and are observ-
able in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. And,
indeed, in those polar tracts where the cold remains equally
intense throughout the year, and where " stat glacies iners
menses per omnes " [" fast-fixed ice prevails through every
month "], these same animals, whose colours are known to
vary in more hospitable and less severe climates, never undergo
any vicissitude, but continue to vie with the pure whiteness of
the snow, with which nature is there perpetually clad. Hence,
the transition from the summer to the winter colours of all
such animals depends principally upon atmospherical temper-
ature ; arising either from a high latitude, or from an alpine
or mountainous range, or from the casual severity of the win-
ter in a low and temperate region, and not merely from the
regular and annual succession of winter to autumn. . ,?

In conclusion, I will relate two curious facts respecting the
habits of the stoat, which, I believe, have not yet been de-
scribed in any of our works on British quadrupeds. One, to
which I have above alluded (p. 719.), is, that whilst walking
along a footpath in a field, one day in the last week of De-
cember, 1831, I observed a stoat, or a weasel, coming in the
same path towards me. I immediately stood still, and, as he
approached, I found that he carried his nose in the same rela-
tive bearing to the ground, and was in the act of running the

Vol. V. — No, 30, 3 a

"27^2 ^,^ff^qspe(i%^,,g}iik^

m.

8iT^n$i?fifomB^#^h^;b o%r ^mallamimal, exactly. afj^i#e
iijmaJ|Ber£ptfe§Qfiir ^ speDt," and in cluise after game.,, -pis
9fiyh5]^gia^entioiv.|3eiqgc;^o the grqa^d,^ .^^ith^^is lie^cl dowmj^e
£^4^t^^ee me until close to n^Cinwhiei}^ su^deqjjr <^tcAin
ii>fig|?;t of me, be turned a little aside, stopped ^j)<i>rt3||qokj^^.^uip,

g'JIft^ftlgff^Bh^ P'^th, he there concealed himself ^ ^hencgfjie
je^^l^ pvpbably go forth again,, when he perceived that all was
b/l8%9WA'^^^HW, perhaps, foU^ scent from whipm,]^ad

frife^diBlyiB-ntliiJj^lotfe^ri^ to the 'fa^^ a

e£^ft^Pg(^fe[tefgW^iP i^dR^y rni scent, tmd J.j^yj^|jUt,tle
\^@;^#^iP§friFftJi%%lgi¥^J?|tiie_^n^e,of smelling^^ji^ fP^S^ij^^^
b/^SflfiSnl^dfepejY^!^^^ 'Q'"^ polecat ; which will therefore readily
-£^fify0lfei{MflJ5#g so (lestructiye to,gaipe, aofl chiefly. for

I tfj^sd^fi^^rfiP §ffrfifigife^Mferfp5f<?A4^^<^A^s^s

bsiiigheji^^g^n^^jsjith^ifjj^a'^do^i^eiijffle^^
^JSV¥ifflralf^^'\sx^§i^^ing^Jp«^^^%gVeWBgV\ngi*
^3^ ag^J^h^s^^a|Tfe^.^lfotl^j^pa|5,5]^q|j^^^g^^
iage and Old Durh^^^ij^J uaticed an anknal swjtmming irjcjl

Briage ana wia Jjurn^^^ij^^ uaticea an anrmai swjtmmmgincj^e
-^(#^i^ajj4s^^ljgcji^s^^a^^he place, which was just Mow
^1^ ^aiD^.^J^)\^^^^3'{ wiis Avalking, I saw that it w,^s^i,a
9^lftM5)M)^SfliSHr^%ig^tly across the river, which is there
.ibot^/^eep,.4jj4[&fi%)WJ"^i<^^Table width, to the opposite bank,
Bwber^j[ftj5J5^t0 the- thick brushwood, I lost sight of it., ^, In
j^tiie af^^fj^^/ningj it hfted its head and neck, well out of.tje
gjva^^filiJ^ a dog.; aiid sp,difF^^ &W^ a water rat, wt^h
nSSft^y^tefP^ ,i^s head close along .the surface. It becomes
<^f>e(]^'!^IK?&/t^ remark, in this case, that the size alone of the
^jgilp^L jpaade me think it a stoat, and not a weasel ; fqr..J
<^i^^^ not .distinctly see the specific blackness on the tail. ,,^
^\f^^^^i tp^pM^^i^^^Fi ^he Jength of this commiyiicatiQii ;

but I hope it may tend, by the facts I have narrated, an(;l for
itf^^Mfuf^SJh^f ^hich I can vouch, towards a farther illustra-
-feftPftillp history of the genus Jfustela,^ ..^I^^^j §i^3ayi^^>
9§&6oig7^^^^^^^- March SO, U^2. ,: d ^y asn^bni nob

9(1 The above communication was received on March 31.
|Jj§32, too late to accompany those published April 2., in
f^4^93 — 297., on. thgj^af^e. subject. Still, the facts and vie^^Y^

exhibited by Zoophilus are sufficiently distinct from th(|^e
wPIM^^ted in p. 77. 2^3rfF297. 393. to merit the space they
'v^oq^gy,^ r will find in them almost a solution of the/que^Ky
]^g7i^\jhmte,p. 295,, 296. ; nqm^ly, ."Is the degree of, chap ge

^W th^'^WI8ter. Doe^ the fur change for the seasbti, or with
^^h^'s^lisbh?" As, too, Zoophilus feels no doubt that the
< '^iiimal he saw spontaneously crossing the river Wear was a
J^i^tOat, this fact arranges itself with testimony of a sirtiiJar
;'%d{sputablie one, adduced by T, p. 296. Zoophilus' icc6^-
^^j^afiiekJ his communication with a remark, that no goM'Brilfeh
^ feiire of the stoat has yet been published ; and advised iis; if
'^idisposed to figure the animal, to direct our draughtsmaii's
' dttention to ** the stuffed specimen, in snow-white fur, nearest
the w'indow, in the case which contains several ermines and
*Vsf6ats in different states of change of fur, in 'the animal room
ih the British Museum.*^ Zoophilus remarked on the figui'es
-^Irealdy extant as follows : — " Bewick's cut, in his History^)/
^ ' Qtiadimpeds, \s not accurate nor natural, and is too^mall; aM
^ the plate in Pennant's British Zoologt/ is abominable, endea-
^'N^Wfi^ihg' to represent the Cfeature half white and half brown !
In Shaw's ^oo/o^j/ the figures are somewhat better, but still
o^^ig'%l^'^fiyMii^ci>F(^^u%i^^ believe, has not figured
^^!m<^^eM[M^in'ii{s''I^ des Ma7nmiferes ; nor is

^ffifefy^y fekettih of ^lAhhe Gtir dens and Menagerie of the
^^mblogical Society delineated:' ^—XD. ^>^^>' ^'^

^^^^ 'Birds and Mammalia found in the Neighbourhood qf^ff^^
Hmtilh\ W the North Ridifig of Yorkshire, (p.553.)-^^ ^y
®l^w Mq Caprimulgus europae^us, found in the wobd M)^^e
«^fi6hrriond ; Lanius excubitor, one or two individuals^ ^M^iS^-
^japa luctuosa, one or two individuals; Sylvia 7r6chilusi-^dM
^Parus caudatus : the last two were omitted by over^fet* "^4a
"MktiintMiaJ besides the hiol-e Common specifete,^- w#'havd^e
^*dttfer^,f £&tra v%aris), white hare (Xepus variai^Ks), 'tot^
cat ( Virerrafoma), rare. Of the badger ( C/'i'sus Mele^), ' t^
specimens were t^ken two years ago on the banks of t4^
Swale. The stoat (Mustela erminea) is common here; its^^
"Becomes of a pure white in "wi^iH -i— MxP. C«iisprinted M.
mMmb."} Sept. 8. 1832. '^^^ • -^'' ^ 'J ^ ■ -;:^

"^"^W.^ 'P. proposes to comrii'iinid^te siij^lei^idniiii';f^'^isfts^^%f
«^|^fes aS they may come under his observatiofti^ This irtteri-
tion induces us to remark that local lists arenot^ety wd"ccfMe
'k% ifej'^ttfless they be restricted to the rar^r species, or be
"feffSereS Jntere^ting to all readers of the Magazine by original
notices of the habits and manners of the species included^
-the'aists.^j:D.'^^ ■• -.i^u^

'^^Admions'to M, P.'s '' List of BirSls land Fishek^fbfm^in
the Neighbourhood of Wensleydale, in the NoHk Riding of
Yorkshire" (p. 553.) — If M. P. includes the neighbourhood
<if Mlddleham in the district of whose fauha he has s^kybu

3 A 2

724 « Retrospective Criticism,

a catalogue, he has omitted some of the more common birds.
Thus, he gives Corvus [Bombicivora] garrukis, and Loxia cur-
virostra; and passes over the landrail (Ortygometra Crex
Flem.), and the willow wren (Sylvia Trochilus Latharri), al-
though there are at least a hundred of each of the latter two for
every one of the former two. I notice a few others omitted
by M. P. The henharrier (Falco cyaneus Zy., Circus Py-
gargus Flem.); the merlin (Falco ^'salon Temm.), rare;
the nightjar (Caprimulgus europas^us L.), very rare indeed ; the
wheatear (Saxicola GEJnanthe Bechstein), not very common ;
the winter wagtail (ikZbtacilla Boarula L.\ rarer than the pied
wagtail, but frequently met with ; the yellow wagtail (3f. flava
Z/.), seen occasionally.

Willow wren (Sylvia Trochilus Latham), No bird is here
more common. I see them every day sporting among the rose
bushes in search of aphides; and this week, the windows
having been accidentally left open, I have captured two on
two successive days, and allowed them to fly about the room
for some time, when one of them occasionally uttered a little
sharp note.

Landrail (Ortygometra Cr^x Mem.), This bird is very
abundant in the spring. It is common about East Witton,
and most probably at Wensley ; but is only heard while the
grass remains uncut. It is very shy ; and, although it will
allow you to approach within a few yards of it without its
ceasing its loud note, it is almost impossible to obtain a sight
of it, unaided by a dog. Notwithstanding this, the mowers
frequently capture them ; andj I have been assured that not
fewer than ten were taken by the mowers last summer on a
neighbouring farm : they are also occasionally run down by
means of small terriers. It is, in some measure, a nocturnal
bird, as its note is but seldom heard during the day, but com-
mences about seven or eight o'clock in the evening, and
continues with little intermission through the night.

The common sandpiper (Totanus hypoleucus Temm.). Very
common in some parts of the Yore (less properly spelt Ure) :
it also occurs in Cover Scarr, whence I have a specimen.

The dahchick (Podiceps minor Latham), About a mile
from East Witton, on the banks of the Yore, is a large fish-
pond, belonging to the Marquess of Aylesbury ; half of it is
very retired, and the whole of the west side is thickly wooded.
Amid the reeds and sedges with which it is surrounded,
dabchicks are very plentiful ; but I have seldom seen them in
the adjoining river, although the south bank (the same side
with the fishpond) is covered with a profusion of similar
reeds, &c. : but, as a public footpath winds along the river.

Retrospective Criticism, 725

this situation is, perhaps, too much exposed. I have never
met with the nest.

The coot (i^ulica atra L,) is also common in the above-
named fishpond, but I have never seen the nest.

Fishes in the Yore, M. P. to his list (p. 555.) might have
added the barbel (Cyprinus barbus), and the eel (Murge^na
v^nguilla L.). I have frequently seen these caught in the
river, and eels are abundant. The Cover, a little river
which gives name to a dale adjoining Wensleydale, con-
tains the minnow, grayling, smelt, trout, and eel. Very large
salmon come up it to spawn, and I have often seen them caught
by hand, and great numbers are taken by a poaching practice
called " blazing." — William G, Barker, East Witton, July
21. 1832.

The Woodcock, (p. 570.) — With every deference due to the.
writer, I beg to offer a few remarks on that strange exhibition
of parental dexterity in the woodcock, inserted p. 570.

" It was a hen bird flying off with a young chicken in her
talons," said the principal gamekeeper. Had I been present
when the keeper said this, I should have supposed that he was
speaking of a bii:d of prey. The woodcock has no talons.
To talk of the talons of a woodcock, is just about as apposite
as if we were to speak of the long and taper toes in the deli-
cate paw of a bear. Again, I am at a loss to comprehend
how the keeper could distinguish the female from the male
woodcock when on the wing.

The gamekeeper stated "that it always builds its nest in a
dry situation ; that it generally has three chicks ; that imme-
diately after they are hatched, and until the chicks can fly,
the cock and hen bird regularly, every morning and evening,
clutch the chickens in their talons, and fly with them to the
nearest springs, where they continue till the chicks have fed,
when the old birds reconvey them in the same manner to the
nest."

On examining the foot of the woodcock, we see at once
how impossible it is for this bird to carry off its young by the
instrumentality of its feet. Talons, which are of such essen-
tial service to birds of prey when grasping their victims, are
totally denied by nature to the woodcock. In lieu of a hind
toe of proportional length, and armed with a talon, which is
such a powerful and at the same time such a necessary counter-
support to the compressing action of the fore toes of a bird of
prey, there is only given to the woodcock a small delicate toe,
placed so high up the leg that its extremity barely touches the
ground when the bird is in a standing position.
. Now, granting, for sake of argument, that the woodcock

3a 3

7W Retrospective Criticism

C50uW-^asp and secure in its feet the newly hatched young,
surely the daily increasing size of that young would soon pret-
v^ni. the carrier parent from transporting it from place to pky^e.
aiStiU^ the gamekeeper positively said, that, until the chick«^j
ctolfly? the woodcocks, male and female, did actually dutch'
tjaixjhickens in their talons, and fly with them to the nearest
flings, and then reconvey them to the nest. - .'M uuh . ,ji
3<^Now, in fact, there was no need for the parent birdsr t^Hoads
themselves thus, because their young ones can run imme-
didlf ly tfaey are released from the shell. Moreover, th^s^txm
labcmi? cw'hich the parent birds took in returning to thfcaiieatit^
quite iOtsrt of the order of ornithological things, inasmuch ai
the wciodcock's nest scarcely deserves the name of nest, being,
little better than that of a partridge or of a pheasant. Thfe
young o( the woodcock, as well as the young of these just
mentioned birds, come out of the shell with their eyes open, ase^
of course they leave the identical spot of ground 3Athere they
were hatched, as soon as their down is dry, and toever return
to, it more. ' Add to this, that the woodcock is known) <JO/f^dij
by'night J wberefdre I am at a loss to account f0r>thatifmrli(c£
thj^fkeeper's narrative in which the woodcock isisai^ tOQfl)&Jaffl
every morning with its young in its talons to the nesireslgfpEioP^
and there continue till the chicks have fed. o j^mid

jil Own I like old Ovid's story of parental aM filiabft^jOTk
Mtionsr through the air, best of the two. het Mima, ^^di
Bteadaltis,* prevent our travelling both by laud linda*«i©q J&hb
qtiii9Befc'>*^jAtbcpte coelumpatet--ibJintf^ illaaff l5hBi^fffl(iflffil5&
the sky is open to us, and that's our road, my boy 4-^ ;Qttisaji«
i^g*thi$^:;he set to work and made wings,// Ha vinggfastffied
bhe^pair on his own shoulders, and 3«dlh«fo'(Olifthos^l>flli|iflwr
Icarus, off they went through the liquidinyeid? Ifiayiflg^di^
mltftterable amazement all who beheld th©inr>1 jlp.i f>nR ^dj^l
o'^iAhsmer to the Question at p. 608. on the Ni^tjar's trm^^m^t-^
m^iitsEggs, as suggested hy Audubon^ s declaration of^e^CfmiUt^
Qoatsucker's so doing:] While on the subject ofitpfjfef cpf^
vepiiig ithfiir progeny, I take the opportunity of • informing
J. D., who, in page 603. of the last Magazine, asks " if o\\t
ferkl bWl^ removes its eggs to another place when they have
b^effiDfiidiscovered," that I am firmly persuaded that no bin^
ever intentionally removes its own eggs from the place whetfe^
thdy ^ere first deposited. The testimony which JiJSisiniro-
dwjes iiito the marginal note, at p. 60S., ought to be (received?
with BO common degree of caution; because the eye which/x:ouid
faac^ that it saw a rattlesnake swallow a large squirrel, 1 13^
fbrombst^! might equally fancy that it could discern^ atiisisleei^
err «ighteto>. yards distant, the Carolina gofttaoek^r s'tdswag-

aiafd>yeart5ritHtoiksitol)MttB5'Vfte«i'^ ohi.'die

hktn owl, p. 9. ; and I hope your Magazine will 4mrfinfi8he(i>
with manyiTiore articles, written in the same fanoiBjbiJtyb^^
and from the sam^^inasterly pen. I hady^rcreiatAifelyKt^^cafC^
ib^)iha^ aitiicdfelnsfett^edr-to^- made a-iew^^bi^d^^lfe^^ojjwriMse
ili^matedubiudsc; ^li^vpnslQf ei&dHedao£b@fib, tavHicItdykzraalit

(^onbttd^Jthe ^^^oud inlet to theiiQolmstef5iQ[>&iStJ)£<)ln»iffitil)p
ig^aaplajt^jrfMisahfithe barn owl> biK)i©ngJsMice'iak8faooprbyj
djIoHe, .aottd'djttk'af nest of ybdJi^fpneioatBlftliffBtllmaJJafi alttsjl
doqnibtfoifkBether they destroyed so maby^keySarfl i9 i^pne^
sbirtQdyljy Jfe Waterton (p. 13.) ; I therefbr^bcaiyiadDtJrBm
owdfetseanigjfHnd* in tlie short space of twent^sahJ^iutesihtooBb
bWfccata^ed fo©d to their young twelve *im^ ^liJIiixtBrfioiaw
ib^l\c«ltov8onife alifette) iSxffieahsii 4feikrti,aibfcd)Jibfe^heiri«diaffl/fl
ftQ9ili^<^6Ul^<ia^oied@a;Qb $6 ibe&i^iiesttii At3tb1d%!iiJmnic;^gfrth(ttf
ffide^Satti ^insastei'^Billyj^^/saiMlmdDa^epi awdBfldjDk'-iOHD^mSl
^eiajiptoreibdioefefe ^radier disptegeda^ nfyrfeisitgsamiDswtkjBow*
himself into a postmte of defence^dbufidlllffittlaEtBlyirBtBesttedJifotCB
th£f^iidlfelrl Iibe l^^haikq le i^biaiBtadnffC^ahlbsq^Mr^ a»d» d[ft.
Iti^, c«wiI^^^liotto(ir(/Jw9ididi};rGteedl ^teJU£ratilinid^0S>i&prmitM

eglainrai^^d fbcmffi d»mkili»-€0fldla3pxskblet(^^

aijkaails): ^ vod ^ni ebBot luo 8*:rBrf:r briB ^80 oJ naqo ax ^/fg sdi

balHteiil^ a sHewjegmlwaaimall fbiBd^-fotfhlDk teava^t^^i %l;i

giio\^^e^ t^to^ferj)i4.tbfkid§lJgth{} ^craitr e^&; 'Bdi^aiadif
14th, and 15th, fbosDnbltice eadi9(Ml^m:)riEtnsaKiiarmBidfiQgiJ9[tli;r
aVtw^fti^, ti'\^i^f^ aMv^.^Bdq ^®l4Qs^tti^^ifa!36et^aaad)^3v'o
sfot^w»^ 1 3 t%a^ehres«t^^'hd'4^fi[50BfcvAu^ 5fi^l'<at^(aawtHgf^aii4^
ratqo li^ii^aiDatr'ffiidailisHfeiiicce^flfMh, [tgstkolnioe ^w^^as^ii^
^hio^ofebn^dhi? lengtiiqq& itedtoffirffitsf u|T^9 jotff liwserfitcgAi^aBS;'
llffk Ji^Oti^gfoi^araiia^Mdltafoarflr^wsgOB 9§Bq ni «odw ^.Q X
9vi4iaW:lrceedwoBie^eiaclijbialBtb4 oj^^awiK safcraoffrBaidMd tjhol
ifeifew, b itt fltotbeJiteifc^fidqit^ttKrikliose Isbeste "tJfi^ilyeatsbmaH^
©fithem. 4 6rfi moil-ag^d nwo aii a ^raai ^^lifinoiJnsJni isva
-oilfifriyidL*crfohline£fiMhdJiedpadpigecfe4iaaqiIh^ifi^
|»3at>:ifi][mlief>Jo^^lfic>ypd(ig cqids d^stKofifscdgiaid kitoothe ^ocnb

It^t , flight stationellhim'selfjguttHn-hithd, close tb tthdid^fl«1
liSai«,vibr the avowed- purpose of destroying thbr^* felkkheBadfi
C03C«b-t'<? 'iKfe)ihddja^tt.(al<^i lis^eftfation lihg, before' Jorif^fsied

3 A 4

728 Retrospective Criticism,

poor Billy Wix, flying from the locker, with a load in his
claws ; pop went the gun, down came the owl ; when, oh !
dire to relate, instead of the young pigeon, which my friend's
imagination had loaded him with, it was an old barn rat, nearly
dead : proof of the utility of these birds. — Henry Turner.
Botanic Garden, Bury St, Edmunds, July 17. 1832.

The Common Buzzard (Buteo vulgaris Fleming), in captivity
hatching the Eggs of the common Fowl. (p. 383, 384.) — I have
at the present moment [May 8. 1832] a female buzzard,
showing all the signs of wanting to sit described p. 384. by
my friend Mr. Yarrell ; but, as she has a male bird with her,
I shall not gratify her by giving her hen's eggs to sit upon, in
the hope that she will herself lay eggs for this purpose. —
Thomas Allis. Yorh,Uh of the Sth month {May), 1832.

In my last letter I mentioned having a female buzzard then
showing an inclination for laying. She did lay one Qgg. She
was confined in a place in which she had, as companions, another
female buzzard, a male buzzard, four kites, three kestrels, and
two owls. Five or six days after she had laid the e,gg, as I saw
no probability of her laying a second, and as I had never noticed
the male bird to pay her any attentions, and consequently appre-
hended (hat her one egg would prove barren, I added four
fowls' eggs to her own, that she might sit. She immediately
began sitting ; but in little more than a week I missed her own
egg, and could never discover any trace of it, or guess what had
become of it. She however continued sitting on the fowls' eggs;
and I was surprised to find that, although I had never observed
any previous attentions on the part of the ipale bird, during
her incubation he became very attentive to her, and mostly
took his stand close by the nest, and when she went off to
feed, he took her place on the eggs. At the end of three
w^feks, three out of the four eggs were hatched. And now came
the difficulty ; for although I could fully depend for the pro-
tection of her young charge on her affection, I could place no
such dependence on her predaceous companions, each of which
would have gladly made a meal off one of her chicks at the
first opportunity. I therefore removed them to another situ-'
atioh ; but her affection for her old residence overcame that she
flit for her foster-progeny, of whom she took not the slightest
ridtlfc;^. I removed them back to their old nest, when they
w6i*e all but dead with cold. She immediately resumed her
care over them : next day, as it was time for the chicks to be
running about, and there was no dependence to be placed on
their Tceeping longer in the nest, I removed her to a partition
of her own habitatidn ; but here the same scene was reenacted.
Thdbgh shfeha'd^a quarter ji^art of the whol^ enclosure- for ^tbe

Retrospective Criticism, 729

sale use of herself and family, she felt so indignant at even that
degree of extra-confinement, that she paid no regard to her
charge, but made incessant attempts to get into the other
parts of the enclosure : I therefore had no alternative but
removing the chicks to a mother of their own species. Another
year I am inclined to hope that, by secluding the male and
female before pairing time, I may succeed in rearing some of
their own young. — Thomas Allis, York, 27th of the Qth
month (June), 1832.

The Grey Phalarope. (p. 282, 283. 379. 589.)— When Be-
wick compiled his British Birds, this species was deemed so
rare, that no more than four specimens were on record as
having been caught in the British islands. The Magazine of
Natural History contains proof, however, that this bird is
not so very rare as had been supposed ; and that at times it
is even abundant will appear from the following notes, in-
serted under the proper dates, in my journal.

1829. — The grey phalarope is not uncommon in January :
but their manners make them seem rare. They never perch
on rocks or the sand ; but they alight on the water with faci-
lity, and stem a rapid tide with ease and rapidity. They may
be approached without difficulty, but carry off very much
shot.

1830. Nov. 4. — • The grey phalarope here. Mr. C. Jack-
son of East Looe (who is well acquainted with the birds of
Cornwall, and from whom I have received much information
of a general kind, and of this species in particular) shot four
specimens. In their stomachs were maggots, taken from
swimming sea-weeds, and in one a few bits of coal. They dart
after a maggot as a wagtail after a fly, and will venture among
heavy waves with greater boldness and agility than a gull.

1831. Oct. 21. — The grey phalarope now abounds all
along the coast, at least between Looe and Fowey. Out of
one flock of about fifty, nine were killed at two shots, and ten
in all. Mr. Jackson had at one time twenty-one specimens ;
and more might have been procured if the weather would
have allowed. It is probable that the stormy weather has
caused them to be accumulated on our coasts. The speci-
mens here noted varied in plumage very considerably ; and
even in the colour of the legs scarcely two wej'e alike.
In a few, the back scapular feathers and plumage beneath the
body so much resembled what is described as belonging to
the red phalarope, that Mr. Jackson was led to doubt whether
there be indeed any distinction between them. Marks suffi-
ciently distinctive have indeed been pointed out, in the differ-
ent »forms. of, the^ir bill and feet ; but as this has mostly been

spedtes^^ei^eilrer,- boife ^ftl^^T^ksoA and myself will fefel^^a>i^>
tifiedaiiffe©mefVe^<tet ^^hsSsMtgazme will take the trouble W
cPifltfpftre th^i^bif^citOgkbtei^Jio reference to their characters^
iil>Jltoilies|)ect9criiidnc@ffltotlic5ate the^ resuh't© tbeipnaibli^jiJ*^^
J^'^QfkC^i x3^/jf7^?^i4J^ji^fftpg^3=^ jsiupb^nmmai ban ,nwob

Oi^me technical rehiarks on 'tht5 i^ed-necked ^al^i9jp#iQ[rf8
Bewick (Bhah^iropuB fiiscus) are presented, p^4^W|-^W -@eio«

^^iWhgjQiiitirmle (Gallhmla chloropus LathaiMi'A ^ir'^»^pato
g»^^ Fo^'^^^^&S'l'.y^^'^* The factS'^^fAe^ipiiirtele {Wfo
wdl^^«a^fbfeifflobPh^ids^I|^9fefiiisiially cMiiS *tei*e)' Issifl^iarr
pWJ«4^aatcI^I«ti3(^Simsta&Uy ^o, and of its being excellent foru
feedr |feg« psteSl.]§^^«o new discoveries in natural history. *
IsfeiiMafel&ee^&efetlted'gfettle in hedges, and as often started ?
it>9ft<Mfa %^^^it«^(5Wi.^ ij^ligve ^Isa occasionally observed i
iOt^pel^ ^fl^Jftei^iii&^JbD&^l 4f^ bd^hes which overhang^

It*tt^^aiifgqp*lirtly {^aitak^ of theniii ^h^fl2€lle^k©<8e ijwb^eia
eic^litff ^swWte <^xj^h^9«lriifes^li4i«f^ilfoaw^ifchM ®tr<jfig^J
to«gfe,:^mfed8«l5&flil5^oand4lfegtetfee^J4i?ifiti^i*fe^^ bid

hff^4y0a#doo^f&i^^ (i^im^ffe^dtetftfffi3\^tfeo/jflv}fll«B0ti'm§

viSttttWs'x^<f6bi«ri'h©©id^0ris|^*«St^ ba*t^:^Migh*to

be dressed and served up at table, (M§rfviilig t^«M (^s^m^md.
htflQras- vfe^s^l>^ ^n^¥y aos^l^Hl»i^)6tei5^yi'^^M^(^1«iSt,

co«^^Hggity^t[mt/|d»^athed^ablt ^i^i^^-^Ibil^^iifbldn

il^^lb^iPSSStfi ^iiid sdT .ellsda ns^foid sraoa bne JevBiglo
-tl^ftce J.9^«tfi«bi«ftffuftt8daon,.fbfe831|ivrHs.ptiifisbed, mi^ini

habits of perching on a tree,.^SIfev4ii^blS|8J&i0gHh^, haS l6ien-

ofqfle.gMi^aifcferf^ifiMXI, h. 'afcftfttq^e^.(a)6<^^QbtoW?(109

dter^^i^exlti^^a^rfe :)^s ^s^fvidaofofHio^dtl^bm^esoy^lt
a8^eiit*l#Lbi^al^s^i«&^l%s^«>fw^mbri<3ge8hire call itiffeheo
nhftri'l^X^***^"*'* ifebferdpiWi^^z^wO--^" 'A'here are ^«»b
s«^te^bil»to V^fikh swint and dive 'well, whose toes are loi^*
alte Me8fifer,-end not tol^ished with webs or fins,vs«ch W^'
tfe^iw^ldi^fea^nft^-^ ^Jb^t, these live as nnicliroiitaad as on

on its Eggs, covers them before it leaves them. r?T{Jbv^S8$iio§qg
fishing on the banks of the Thames, and had sUKoHedliiifeiaiii
willow holt, overgrown with reeds and rushes, ivgfeftJ^ m^^kngo
gently onward) I heard, a slight rustling motioni- •! linejeleAi
down, and remained quiet for some little time, when the nois^
subsided. On rising and looking about, to see whence the
noise bad proceeded, I saw a waterhen bu^ly employed,%9fl
clofeqfciftg dt^ A'qshes and flags, and layi|>g them one by^We
oveV her ^ggs, ji'hich were in the nest^ close begsii^i "^1KQ6^
not long before they were completely hidden; jaP^dh^i^QSfew
ingi round J with a cautious glance, anda^JJ^^^I^JfispJ^sfioiq
\yitix her labour, she softly glided amc!si^Tihf(.f<^5q ^§^ *S«>i
Itettotmy^^ight. A few minutes^^ft^lf^i&nlabQS^^c^'d^ttfel
pbl^gf ^ fftfld^ soon ,ssWi<iiQyd6&iliPgiMay .iiwbtife&Ji|)pfeite gt«>ftB4i
>Plfiiiiet'approaeh^{$b€f ilfiSfe lil^foeR; €)^4»i3aBgp ^kgh^Qli
it^»l9^.tand no oi^j^Q^^ft iMfop"^t^fl^«fetlUdi|ite^a»tffe its'i
sfc^9tk>B could pl^sfiUrf)^ liffl^j&<»^MBi|.^ljTir^fBW»^,
t^n, to be drawoolfr^«lx|tlSsaJftil9eii^d|^i8^ dfl8*WBly^iiltoD]t9
hbd (JUtufb^^l hftri*^iJfiifi|:t^5§^drl*6nfiopfAft^8gbd»t4|»^ ^
g^r iKjasIMviiaftd^CQee^lft^^^iferiag^ fbto rlfc^oofe^feg^ti^ri
ofd^ilflt#fid efcdJivJ»fey43^j^j^iC^©ffilftidd|4®ergitft-H^i^^
S9m&^^ M(m^ |fciyl§iyfe ,9ldBJ Jb qn bsvisa \m& baaasib ad

^"i^fsSpltted'BSSm^^QaiUnMkk^o^^
n]!ftl«9^|ieflaMfj ^^.1 ta^qaaglbshtttd^ ifoi^aifgfig^cjj^iftwgd
tbfeuCwie^nShapwmiBsTHwa <aBr«eijj;fe "tef il&iJtogiiqjeW VB«l3P fte*w
ntohiiig^^l^d&^il^^i^ jf€r£lieddis1ttlgukb^k[iidEih^;gf9o9
z^^^^Kc^^^^^tros^aiJ^ mi«#Wio«ontgfe^c^gi)QflsSe^d
of gravel, and some broken shells. The bird noeg^ir^I^sWl
iii;lfein|5i^,,b©d;,I#(i^.gi»/l:irea4t^^

-tTj^. J^ii ^Mo€ySepU2}iA%^^^^ B no^nirfaisqloaiidfid
The Gizzard gf the Corficrake (j^^^filJ&dfc i^^S^^-f
G«^7Bl«|nJ¥^g (|>vi4*s8S^>iJr^jky^5ykft^'*^a^bjff^ Tbe

bieifhis ^(ife^m^^i^«ji;i^dfefega^8^feM*st^«ailig^W^«bH

VjiflbiaK^i^myself differ (as i%i^«Bk thfel^lfe i8ctfel*#ife^teWlr§rfJ
vfersles) ittlittle more than as td ^e 'tjermirlfi 1whiffeil»«ftffi*^
the same proposition should be best enoup^dixsMyiiB^gtfii^b
on this subject, in the review of The BritfS^iM»M^t,3^%R
drawn forth by reading in that W9rki thai lSen9l«®c)'Qi^-bftdn
" a strong muscular gizzard, M^ \^^pmlti(^i^'f^^othm (m^M^kd^^
that live upon seeds,'' Now, the.^ia:0an^ I^rfh^(firaj^§lift9ftt ^13
events, very unlike that of poultry, Uiiit ^ij^^njWilSflyiWslrfwtbff j
woodcock, &c. Since writing the article allii^(fc,t%.I'A#«*iv

732 Retrospective Criticism,

carefully examined the bag or gizzard of the last- mentioned
bird*, and admit that it may, perhaps, without impropriety, be
called " strong and muscular : " but still it is very unlike the
gizzard of poultry, the habits of the bird not requiring so
powerful an engine ; and by comparing the gizzard of either
bird to that of poultry, the author of The British Naturalist
is surely likely to mislead his readers. I cannot conclude this
notice without expressing my thanks to Mr. Dovaston for
the handsome manner in which he has spoken of the review
o^ the The British Naturalist, Yours. — A, R, Y. Aprils.
1832.

Does theLandrail or Corner alee {Ortygometr a CrSx Flem. ) breed
in the South of England P — It breeds here; but, contrary to what
one would suppose, its numbers are fewer afterwards ; and I
suppose from this that there is a migration farther south. The
last I heard call was towards the latter end of July. The
partial migration of birds is a subject insufficiently known ; and
our knowledge of it can be most, and perhaps only, promoted
by publishing the dates of arrival and departure, in various
places, of the birds which are known to remain in some one
or other part of the country the entire year. — T. K, Killaloe,
Sept, 21. 1832.

Food of the Water Rail {Uallus aquaticus Linn.), (p. 68. 299.)
— I have found only vegetable substances in the stomach of
this bird. I have a preserved stomach and oesophagus of one
of these little birds, containing nine large grey peas and small
horse beans. It appears that the bird swallowed them dry,
and that they afterwards swelled with the moisture of the sto-
mach, and so distended the stomach and the oesophagus as to
deprive the former of the power of digestion, and occasion
tlie death of the bird. — Thomas Allis, Yarh, Sth of the 5th
month {May), 1832.

A bad figure of the water rail is given Vol. I. p. 289.
fig. 154*., and the faults of the figure are pointed out, Vol. II.
p. 302. The instance of the white water rail captured in
Berkshire, and described in p. 384. of the present Volume,
are additional facts in the water rail's history. — J, D,
^<-'Is the Water Rail {Rdllus aquaticus Linn.) migratory, or not ?
—^In reply to the query of E. P. T. (p. 397.), I can inform him,
that, so far as relates to this neighbourhood, it is migratory.
The bird arrives here about the middle of November, and
juay be found in most of our small streams. I have never
s^ea it kter than the end of February or beginning of Mardi,

* An irregular piece of grit or stone, larger than the seed of the sweet
pea, now lies before me, which I took from the bag of a woodcock.

Retrospective Criticism. 733

nor have I ever known it to breed here; though we have
some very favourable and retired situations for that purpose,
were it inclined to stay. In Montagu's Ornithological Dic-
tionary it is stated that *' this bird continues with us all the
year." It may probably remove farther north to breed, with-
out leaving our island : but I think it must come from a colder
climate, as it spends only the winter months here. Perhaps
some observer of nature, who may reside near the summer
haunts of this bird, will oblige us with further information on
the subject, as it appears doubtful whether the bird leaves the
kingdom or not. — T, G. Chipping Norton^ Oxon, May 15.
1832.

Brief remarks on the water rail occur in a note, p. 68., and
inp. 299.— J. Z).

The Food of the Scoter Duck {A^nas nigra Linn., Oidemia
nigra Flem. ; and the Food of the Eider Duck {K^nas mollissima
Lin., Somateria mollissima Flem.). — I have this spring had an|
opportunity of examining the contents of the stomach of th^>
scoter and that of the eider duck. The stomach of the scoter]
was filled with a few whole middle-sized shells of the Tellina|
solidula, a number of fragments of the same, and broken Cavrt
dium edule Lin., or common cockle. The stomach of th^^
eider contained only fragments of small testacea. — Thomas
Allis. York, 8th of the Bth month{ May), 1832.

Additional remarks on the scoter duck occur in p^BS. ^fift
the current Volume. — J. D. '^?:ifb%i

The Food of the larger Grebes (species of Laiha/m^s germs
Podiceps). — In the stomach of the larger grebes I have
uniformly found a considerably sized ball, composed princi-c
pally of feathers. Are the feathers composing this ball pluck^<| ^
by each bird from its own body in pluming itself? or are thejti
the feathers of birds which the grebe may have eaten,? — Id* -

The Fork-tailed Petrel {ProcelldriaLedchil (p. 282,283* 380.
589.) — The present year seems to have been singularly proj^J
ductive in birds of this species. I have one which was foun%
dead in a field near this place. — Francis Qrj^^ MQtni^
Charmouth, Dorset, Sept. 1832. >., . blu j .ix

The Fork-tailed Petrel taken at Birmingham^* — In p. 2§3.
mention is made of two stormy petrels taken at Birmir^ghfti^;-
and it is stated that of these, " one was foundinj^Brgd^pdj
Street, and is now placed in Weaver's museunb^b SiopIC
the appearance of that notice I have seen Mr, W^lfPSi^^tei
informed me that the specimen now in liis museum* h m<
individual of the fork-tailed petrel. — W. T, Bree. Allesley
Rectory, June 25, 1832. -iji',,'ot^ hii "^ j.»^J'] ...liig^nf nA *

J < Ht rn'^'M^. V^rf I V «ir,( 'noi-ijf I rioil won ,ii9q

4^4 .^X(B!gttmpeGiim Cri^^m,

of the birds here mentioned may have been^iSf ari^ tlKj>u('gh
f>/tbfeMr>inaih^si«ir6-Engiish. o\Skylai"ks af e dfeiw^nt thei^e^Xand,
gbf hfeaj ftJBflighlvDatJe/greitly/ esteemed^ as excellent mock ing-bitds :
^4h«hi lifiiiidfiidnsiBife,: ia^^dj tetrimishitig. iWbat of the distemt
nov^iliagf ^rjDfurfirjfche^ikite? iio^ringl ihi^hoiiv.yfaarirbas ■ imore: )than
ieencBsoiiiiigifitbi^tdbeeh^dime^ BBdn-ivhte the t lark in its -^age
Idw^lsiiKi ^iaWe .ki/ttonwo^ #ityn»ai^few^ feet of »iiie. They
,fcHffiB9tpigfat^ by'i»jJigjeafl3'iyi/dailj^itdnthe>fijddseaMrgroveSj Uxi
bnte^b'XXKTOiicdooageslTfjjiiihaiiCknoirn A/ugOHKi forlii fineibird.
98inie§r3ala©rfed9ito9^Ea8shi)pj^j5,ijiwilADliB^^ sm|ill

9^^s9fiidv^nddlill^n]be»j{»rb^stimiilaA<^diit<t)fii^i^
^aiikr^gm'HMB, Tiikris) adraitHsteGed vm^dk^33Qitn^r^ifi)ckTfig
sias^fass^hiip^b ^hrfensexllsfptojfiqibtiofcfi^hich ha£bbe€^^fiIre-
difiooslwii^^ie^nvtithfd httlefofii<)beiia<si^/^cbpAi9d>givin^ it^Jto
-jibQlbiiEalA(Kieal.:}20!ft6 oagd^sed^ds iojF,kb](^ctlie:lbdtt«2m'isnkept
sitovflredai^k^ goawbi^fikc^^arf&w. '{¥aie{&fyJlf<?>idl^dSi^t^^*
b§ia[ft29*r ^ariJ ^ ^riob 2J5w eirfj riaiiW .wobniw adl "io 8i9nioD
,^3ia2gB2 2EtobGcw/^rf|i^«5^^0dE;firite^ .imtk&^a^x&wftJk S^-

gWr. JAwfflstottcdayBy '^jGifloliaKjis>dei^tdl(frcftn;tth^(G»€ekiforia
btha*«fliyGki;s(T^hxj^yE)hian5r dunitiwik^ists itit]th©»i$ti6iffaui'-)Gin-

8BIteei0CTkr^t^id%>lbetaified for' bo atiteoqeafiBaii AMifaikitteis
ItmUBt ti<bfeilo«etisigb<)djOgicks is surely cthGdi3icekiKi^;3ar$:f]a*n
-M4v»3^ |0im)qy^i£c^£6^. ; .maS^iiheatdio^ aiiptfiana^dilFsarti^l"
but an « excellent ^«)kl'\Ma^ie^i^ajDd v^Kw^lA^itii^.jdje
3Vjife(^faroiaa»tia^M'-^»thisriA^tJ:^nmifcl^^and H^lj^6' toc/urite
sdf ybttff^*j«KQidJ«ttbjg^od''rahd " livelyif* 6orrespbndeiit.«*^>il/.
snofe iftg^^2%fltfefiJic»fw fe? hve lo>w Mead(hm^7idlm^i^OmUnis>J*
oMvoidsrasliMK (^. 426.) — In just such a sitaationitheyibcdur
^IbasrisadSiMjnigBddiawledgje, there h^wve beeiii*elpeggse©f qight-
-ingflkrfi 3es4ru5fed ^aifyjsaBffout of the t^rhteiidotf' 4f .the - old
^iijiSaDisi^^^ftP^^'Ife^kwrt^ of whiph'fflaylbe>M^lfecohceived'£)f
ifemtita^ayiqgbJue MHneftG(a^J^0]Diod#iwdkt)on' ouets^isof
dbt,eb9«fli^l893lBri^it)iIiBj3teT)^8tteu«^therjtafi:doii Ubbunds with
zn^libvvJ^aidtospfflniijjasrftixiid coidectkm^jcif shpubs.-i^if^/irj/

^Bw^tiai dri^UdkisMi3^itks dfisAsfindki ^ GrosbeaJi: f^Otkud-
di^^q^io^?^£p[i&tedn) »sri^ isbiiihie) winter. df9^i^<},i<^i«>t
rihithfe^Kffldryl»cP?ij4$iiMdf Duyiiis^/B&h^^ttentidntrf this fact
dttia^di5)e8^wefc(aiafii9tb JbMBoc^^naikrf^iifivfebgei iteiiAai^^ ©n tliis
I i3^I }n989iq 9ff^ "to sniiqa 9ril nl , .loqiq 9vi8ia9b vne

-b,SLh^idci,^)myiii^tiiiki['^^mcmr^(^^ linen, and

?>fflp8c5ie6 ((.pOSa% ifct^clf ^resWftysintere&^iogjai^w'Znt^

^$^v.tbe>iwMldwJWib&{pkibIis6jsd ^^bST\^4ks&xtiDJ^\xi5iM\ow\tig

9^|)aiti of ^attmi! which nhad ^minencedbnQl^klgnlliBbrjnest
Y3irfthe,9deep> co»hej?9bfcoaBeijb€ niy)(sraiiJd\»H, ssfcfftatl^ jfaaiagwof

.banfl^fih thig^ case, iiiWardsiti^TiMsrfiiiartmi^ROobiiraGnced^f^nd
II^ES«8j>ed for many follo\vkg,dB»jrpq(td8Biaberthek'hesfc;sw^^
lotogdJoB icorner, that it became' attacked! to itben&fcHie^ofeil^e
§tinhi(ft0p^ and, of course, tlie nestwas! eanMdT a^dsjsse^erj^tdime
>9ldaieaB9dd0i«l itaMoppknddipliulrldo^^iyxsenreQriiigl^ d^(|hdjc»dj^eQre
oJtdi fiievspdt^jar^doa%%B>m-6d(li]ifneii<tH birild/m^opqiiy^lHiolhe
iqa^ming^;thdtsl^t;6uijd^'aoi: ziidkeutb)^ d<^t.fB9iig)tl£eiklfDdk-

corners of the window. When this was done, they refifi^fed
-*^ yi^'XaiQKifckWianSdaw, ^a^d^She^te, zwiths\i<ra9de«iaaT sagScity,
(.0<l^n)^nd£ .htfd cdr^d^^n\'$Oie^vb«shiDbs^^W')timjtclil^ thmr
BneSt^sai^SiteadjiMjikierafaotiomlofilQid* \j8^i^MofraTnffl)iI .iWe
-iiiiJistiflHi^ditmrbJhe isstfj^tMrnah i^nahdei^^ari^iRjnbi^fflsj'aiJd
:t£MiHii(|lsfi»Ipm-fpfa£Siidi'^vifoidebfoimn]^te
ziibi&diM^tfebDaaespeDlrihre oailio^i; bot3dcQJrdtty«cH«i^iM^

^V(h^iaHrih3t3naBaJi^.^cihieirIli^Aiite. ;. .d>%^:>i$ii9'i^p0aP9| 3c«vvm-.
edi,'^i\[iSldAsi^aihei^ApniiQM:'^^ 3fi9^30X9 ^' an Jud

.iJleen given to us of the extraordin^ify36^utoȣb92ift*ViM^ibe
"i^aU«>w)at times has been known>'M ^acBftk»'i^?^'s^^3^dt ^one
•lofiath^se inohiuderia ^itbaiaoiaiA^Mbhr |Mt -i^ aMii«fi^reiioiMo
-S[%ipdte,ai^^BatsiliTC0Miramifi fhvS whidbhasfbfeeraaunBbsciivedl,
blttcgjiiieiijeyc^sldie 3rdjige afijthe ordiHfl% haMLfXt^oh th^n^tu-

l^^l^ tiMoi»art[il3>Jbui]dsc»in[(eva^sii)ofi'>rook6 aMnpre^ijpiik^fW^r
iMm stopdrij^ hekonfines[iihes^sevya£anItaithkl£eddrftri]sd,clb
^^h^fci^lusctinii^' tibefswftlbkjo b£a:itheBadtumi^^i«3tY^<llWs

informed that swalii^^^S JldcisbieAibfiBiiitvl^iiS* ^jt^s&d 4»rfnal^
-esL^^th, forming": part of a stefe]D a'kd'Vet&e#^ejy3^1a iktJSLway
t west of the harbour of this plac©. (• I attsetopt^d^csbyiiK^etsfeh
jMitM^time, to satisfy myself as td this faiti|4)llCifitoffl^ddterih
gthe seasoxi, the birds had ^xiisappeared tbefeaf^clawasaafeb^rto

get any decisive proof. In the spring of the present vea|^, I

. aga In atten ded to my ob^er Ya,fij|ri|; f ! fa^j^^ -f Ojq^'^§cgj;^|i|^4l^§t
j,^^v^;al swallows were emp)jpyied..iia visiting itii® eia^<©r^ljrasc0ujd-

ing to the roof, passiiaglwpttliiough it'epeVice,^l«i<d^l^i»«lnmg

736 Retrospective Criticism,

there. This cave is not deep, nor higher from the floor than,
perhaps, about 30 ft. When the tide is high, the station of
the birds cannot be more than 10 ft. above the water; and in
a storm, when the waves roll into the place, their situation
must be dangerous. But neither when the tide was in nor out
could I succeed in possessing myself of a specimen of a nest :
which leaves, indeed, the actual proof of the matter still some-
what in question ; but for which, I hope, a sufficient excuse
will be found in the very evident danger of a broken limb that
Haight have resulted from the attempt.

^> That martins build their nests in caverns near the sea,
we have the authority of Forster ; but, though the fact may
require no further proof, it may admit of illustration from
recent observation. Mr. Clement Jackson of EastLooe informs
me, that he knew a cavern near Falmouth where numbers of
martins were accustomed to build their nests, the side of the
roof being studded with them. What renders the circum-
stance more remarkable is, that, whilst these martins colonised
the inner part of the cave, a pair of kestrels had taken up
their abode, and were rearing their brood, under a projecting
ledge at the entrance : neither party seemed to be incom-
moded by the neighbourhood of the other. High towards the
top of a kitchen chimney, near to my house, are two cavities
resembling pigeon-holes. For what purpose they were made
I cannot say ; they do not communicate with the interior of
the chimney : but I observe that this year a pair of swallows
are in the habit of flymg into one of these holes, and remain-
ing there. I think it, therefore, probable that they have formed
their nest in this singular situation. — J". Couch, Polperro,
July, 1832.

Habits of the Swift,— First seen, May 1st, 1824; April
30th, 1832; May 2d, 1820, 1823; 3d, 1827, 1828, 1829;
4th, 1830; 5th, 1819, 1825; 8th, 1817; 9th, 1826; 12th,
1331; 14.th, 1822; 16th, 1821; 18th, 1818; 2lst, 1830.—
Last seen, July 29th, 1831 ; August 12th, 1818, 1819; 3d,
1825; 9th, l^ie, 1821, 1822; 11th, 1830; 13th, 1824; 17thj
1823.

These dates refer to birds occupying the same nests. It is
not long that swifts have frequented stations convenient for
my observation. At first they were about two pairs, but
they have now increased to four or five ; and it is singular
that, according to my observation, there is always an odd
bird. All the colony come and go, usually, all together;
and, unlike the swallow and martin, I have not seen any
swifts on their passage, after our own birds have gone.
However, the individual which I saw on the 30th of April

Retrospective Criticism, ISl

was not one of our troop ; for it flew alone, took no notice of
the breeding places, passed up our valley, and disappeared.
Our own birds were first seen May 5th. The swift grasps
with its claws, in opposing pairs ; not bending the toes, but
straightening them, and bending the sharp nails very firmly
under, just in the manner, in the latter respect, I have observed
the buzzard to do ; and the grasp of the swift is even stronger,
in proportion to its size, than that of the bird of prey.
Placed in a cage, the swift roosted upright against the side,
holding by the wires. It ran along in all directions, and about
the top, with its back downward, with the wings partly* ex-
panded. Its progress was very materially aided by the chin,
which it fixed on the wires or bars, to lift itself forward ; and
without this, the feet alone were not adequate to climbingi
The mandibles were not employed for this purpose. The
individual here spoken of, flew through an open window into
a house, and pitched on a boy's head ; from whence it ^\¥A%
taken without injury. Mr. C. Jackson informs me, ^ha^t;
according to his observations, in proportion to its sizte, fehe
swift has a thicker skin than any other of our birds ; and th^t
land birds of cold climates have thinner skins, and more fat^
than those of warmer regions. — Jonathan Couch, Jufy^^^
1832. i «' *'^ ^^ i'* ti^i

The Creeper {Certhia familidris L.) it is, and not fh^Ni^t'
hatch (Sitta europce^a L.), which associates with the Titmice nk
Winter, in Lancashire, — J. D. gives me (p. ^SQ.) no ^te^l£
for accuracy of observation, in his supposing I could possibly
mistake the nuthatch for the creeper, two birds so very d\§-
tinct in size, shape, and colour. The nuthatch does not at 8*fl
occur in this part, and I doubt if in any part, of Lancashi^V
but the creeper is very common, and is a hrird with the ti^Sits
and peculiar call of which I have been acquainted fthm^ikf
childhood. Your valuable correspondent Mr. Bre#, ^ w!i*6
combines with accurate and extensive information itfn lamialrie
and pleasant manner of communicating it, has not, I perceiV€
by p. 489., witnessed the creeper's associating with ithe- tJti
mice in winter; at which I am rather surprised, and think^Mf
the creepers are numerous in his neighbourhood, he ^i'ill
hereafter not fail to perceive them among the small floiJkfs'QP
titmice which associate through the winter. There are'^* V^
Sever^al Birds which appear common enough in the South that
are not met with here {about Clitheroe, Lancashire^. — Amdil^*
these are the bunting (Emberiza Miliaria), the nightingale,
the woodlark, the nuthatch, the.wryneck, and seveM^of ihl?
warblers ; and I shall feel particularly obliged to'Jany coffe*^
spp^dent who will supply .any ppinioiiidr ,informitian'OifF!lM
Vol. V. — No. 30. 3 b

738 Retrospective Criticism,

causes which induce several species of birds to visit one dis-
trict in great numbers, whilst another district, apparently
quite as suitable to them, is entirely destitute of them. I am,
Sir, yours, &c. — T, G, Clitheroe^ Lancashire, June 30. 1 832.
The Creeper (Qerthia familidris L.), p. 489., is certainly
resident in this country all the year round ; but, according to
Temminck, it is migratory in some parts of Europe. — M, P.
/)^c. 8. 1831.

j; Materials composing the Nest of the common Brown Wren
(Anorthura communis Rennie). — Mr. Rennie, in his edition of
Montagu's Orfiithological Dictionary (p. 574.), and also in his
Architecture of Birds, after copying what I have said in your
Magazine (Vol. III. p. 568.), in reply to what Mr. Jennings
says [see our Vol. I. p. 344.] on the subject of wrens' nests
being lined with feathers, says, " There can be no doubt, I
apprehend, of those supposed cock-nests being nothing more
than the unfinished structures of paired birds ; otherwise the
story would require the support of very strong evidence to
render it credible." Mr. Rennie afterwards goes on to say,
that in two instances he had seen nests which had about half
a dozen feathers interwoven into the lining with hair ; and
Mr. Jennings, if I recollect aright, as I have not the work to
refer to at present, says that wrens do not line their nests with
any thing but moss ; and he thinks Montagu is in error when
he says that they are lined with feathers. Along with this, I
send you three or four wrens' nests, which, you will perceive,
have abundance of feathers in the inside ; and although the
wrens will occasionally use cows' hair along with the feathers,
yet I am persuaded, from the localities in which I have met
with them, that cows' hair has been used because feathers
were not to be found : but when the nests are in the vicinity
of a rookery, farm-yard, or any other locality where feathers
are abundant, the wrens will use them exclusively. What the
" strong evidence " must be, to convince Mr. Rennie about
cock-nests, I do not know ; but I know of a dozen of these nests
at the present moment, several of which have remained in
statu quo [in the state in which they were left] since the middle
of April. Other nests, found about the same time, have now
young ones in them. I do not doubt that these nests are
occasionally used for breeding in : for instance, if the first
nest of ihe wren be taken, or if it breed a second time, it will
occasionally take possession of a cock-nest ; as I have some-
times found, that, after remaining in the same unfinished state
for several weeks, they have been fitted up with a lining, and
bred in. Mr. Rennie asserts that Montagu is incorrect when
he asserts that the wren always adapts its materials to its

Retrospective CiHticisin, 739

locality. Although it certainly is not always the case, yet it
so very generally is so, that I think it is not surprising that
Montagu made this assertion. Thus, if a wren build in a
haystack, the front of the nest is generally composed of the
hay from the haystack ; if it be built on a bush by the side
of a river, and (which is frequently the case) below floodmark,
it is generally covered on the outside with the rubbish which
has been left there by the flood; and if it build in a mossy
stump, the front of the nest is composed of the dark-coloured
moss which grows there. — 1F. G, ' Ctithefro^, Lancashif^
Mai/ 2. 1832. ^nVnC\ ^\^>rn a.-.v,u.(:>

T. G., in a subsequent communication, dated June Sy.
1832, thus pursues this subject : —

■ ' Along with my last letter I sent some wrens' nests line^
with feathers; and I could easily have increased them to a
dozen of the same sort, only I did not wish to deprive so
many of my little favourites of their eggs and young. Every
day convinces me more decidedly that I am right, both with
regard to the lining of the wren's nest, and as to the cock-
nests also. The nests I send you will prove the former, and
I know of at least twenty instances of the latter, in nests
which I have known of all through the spring, from April to
the present time, which have remained in the same unfinished
state, although they are not forsaken, as I have found the
birds in them in several instances when I have examined. I
found one of these nests, on the 10th of April, under *^
bank on the side of the river ; and I examined it repeatedly
through April and May, and always found it in the same
state, although there was always a pair of wrens about, and
I could find no other nest ; yet I am sure there must have
been another; for, in the beginning of this month (June),
there were some young wrens which had evidently only just
come out of the nest, and there were only two or three bushes
grew thereabouts ; so that it is not probable they had come
from any other quarter. But the bushes were filled with
leaves and other rubbish brought down by the floods ; and I
suppose the nest had been built among this rubbish. How-
ever, when I heard them, I looked out for another nest, as I
believe (notwithstanding that Montagu says, " It is few birds,
if any, that would produce a second lot of eggs, in the same
season, if unmolested ") that most of the small birds, which
are early breeders, build a second time, even when they suc-
ceed in bringing out the first brood. I have had proof of
this (if any thing can be considered proof, except marking the
birds) in the throstle, the blackbird, the wren, the redbreast,
and the hedge sparrow, whose second nests may be found

3b 2

740 Retrospective Criticism.

contiguous to the first ; and, in point of time, this always
happens just when the young have left the nest. The cock
bird, too, who has been silent while his young were unfledged,
begins to sing again ; and, throwing off the anxious care-
beset manners of a parent, he again assumes that of a bride-
groom. But, to return to wrens' nests, I found one (within
ten yards of the one I had known of since the 10th of April)
lined and ready for an eg^g. As I was anxious to prove what
I had so long believed, I pulled out this nest, thinking tliat
the old one was ready for laying a second lot of eggs ; and
that, as she had no other nest ready, she would probably take
up with the cock-nest. As it was half a mile from my house,
I did not visit it again until the 16th of June, and was then
delighted to find the old bird sitting on six or seven eggs in
the cock-nest which had remained so long unoccupied. I
believe, in this instance, there is very little lining in the nestj
although I should be sorry to examine it closely until the
young have left it ; but I consider it an exception to the gene-
ral rule, inasmuch as I believe the bird to have been ready to
lay when I pulled out the other nest. As she would have to
find another with as little delay as possible, she would not
have time to embellish the inside in the same manner as she
probably would have done, if she had had more time.

On examining another wren's nest one evening, a few
weeks ago, I found the young ones had flown ; and, as there
was a cock-nest in some wrack left by the river in a bush a
few yards off*, I gave it a shake, to see if the old ones had
taken possession of it for another brood ; and I was surprised
to see one, and then a second, come flying out, and a third
putting out its head to reconnoitre. Whether the whole
brood was there I do not know, as I did not disturb them
further. As I had examined this nest only about ten days
before, and it had nothing in, I was at first at a loss to account
for it ; but have now no doubt that they were the young from
the adjoining nest, who had taken up their quarters for the
night in the new house. But how had they learnt the way ?
Young birds generally roost where night finds them; and, if I
had found only one, I should not have been surprised : but to
find at least three, probably six or seven, in a nest where, I am
certain, they were not bred, was something new to me. I went
several times in the evenings after this, but never found them.
I suppose the fright I gave them deterred them from lodging
there again. — 2\ G. Clitheroe, Lancashire, June SO. 1832.

We have examined the wrens' nests sent : their staple
materials are moss, feathers, and hair. Into the moss on the
exterior of the nest are woven a more or less perfect, but

' Retrospective Criticism, 741

feeble, frond or two, and separate pinnae as well, of Aspidium
i^llix mas, and leaves of elm, apple, and oak trees. Interiorly,
cows' hair is not scarce, and is partly inwoven with the moss
and laces it together, and partly mingled with the feathers. A
horsehair or two are also observable : the feathers, in each nest,
apparently those of domestic fowls, are numerous enough to
fill the hollow of the hand when the fingers are so folded over
them as not to much compress the feathers. — J. D.

Remarks on the Figures give?i in Illustration of Two Papers
071 ^^ Fishes 7iew to the British Fauna," by Jonathan Couch,
Esq. F.L.S. &c. (Vol. V. p. 15. 311. 393.) — In an editorship
of five years' duration, the Conductor of the Magazine of
Natural History has shown himself desirous of keeping to the
truth of nature ; and capable of bearing reproof with good
temper, when fault has been found with any of his proceed-
ings. In the confidence that the same good feeling will be
exerted on the present occasion, I venture to solicit permis-
sion to find fault with the engraved figures that have been
given to illustrate my " Rare fishes, new to the British
Fauna." Without the following observations, they must not
be quoted as likenesses of the individuals they profess to
represent : —

Vol.V. p. 16. fig. 2. Cilidta glauca. The eye is represented
too near the snout ; the ciliated membrane on the neck is also
too much like a fin : in fact, this organ, the use of which is
doubtful, is a membrane edged with loose threads, which
appear above the surface of the back. One of your corre-
spondents [Professor Rennie (p. 299.)] objects to the word
" midge " as a name for this species, on the plea of its being
previously engaged in entomology : I have, therefore, no
objection to substitute the term " mackarel midge," the name
by which it is known to our fishermen.

rnP. 17. fig. 3. Spdrus Y^rythrinus. This figure is not copied
from my drawing ; but it is, on the whole, a tolerable likeness.
It differs from nature in being too much elevated on the
back ; and in wanting the semilunar mark behind each eye,
common to this fish and the *Sparus auratus.

P. 18. fig. 5. ludbrus luscus. This figure is wholly unlike
the object sought to be represented ; and, by comparison with
fig. 7. p. 21. (Perca robusta), I do without hesitation express
my belief that the same original was copied to represent both
these fishes. Fig. 5. is, indeed, a good likeness of Perca ro-
busta ; but how unlike what, in my MS., I have designated
scale-rayed wrass, will appear from the figure of the latter
which f now send {Jg. 121.), and which accompanied my

3 B 3

742 Retrospective Criticism.

former communication, but which your draughtsman must
l^ve overlooked. [For the description see p. 18.]
1 P. 313. fig. 65. Pellucid Ophidium. A remarkable mistake
has been made in the fins : the anal fin should have begun at
about the middle of the length, and nearer the tail than the
commencement of the dorsal fin. The body is much wider
(deeper) at the vent than farther forward, and its termination
at the tail much sharper than represented in the figure. From
Wm. Yarrell, Esq., I learn that the fish here described and
figured is the Lepidopus peliuciduS of Risso {Ichth. of Nice) ;
but Lepidopus, or scale-foot, cannot be an appropriate name,
as it has no free scale in place of a ventral fin. I entertain
no doubt of its being the Leptocephalus MorriszVof Fleming
{Hist, of British Animals^ p. 200.); but it is sufficiently distin-
guished from the genus Leptocephalus by the presence of a
pectoral fin ; which Pennant expressly affirms (both in his text
and figure) to have been absent in his specimen. As a species
also (even admitting the genus), it is sufficiently distinguished
by the dorsal fin, which, in Pennant's fish, reached from close
on the head to the tail ; and failed at the latter part, not encom-
passing the extremity. I am the more desirous of preserving
the genus Leptocephalus distinct from all mistake or inter-
polation, as I possess a specimen (with a description and
figure) of a species of Pennant's genus Leptocephalus (dis-
tinguished particularly by the want of pectoral fins) that is
hitherto unknown to naturalists. The generic character of
this rare genus must be preserved for the reception of at
least two British species : — " Leptocephalus : Head small,
narrow ; body thin, compressed, no pectoral fins."

While on the subject of errors, I beg to show my respect
to Dr. Fleming by pointing out some mistakes into which he
has fallen in his account of the Linnaean genus Zabrus, now
divided into the genus Crenilabrus and iabrus.

C. Tinea Flem., common wrass, Labrus Tinea Lin.^ Ja-
go's fish ; the goldsinny is made the same with this ; whereas
they differ in size, shape, colours, and habits, as I have innu-

, Retrospective Criticism, 743

merable opportunities of knowing. If " old wife " be also a
name for the common wrass, the confusion will be doubled ;
for, with our fishermen, this name (old wife) is applied to the
fish described by myself in the Linnean Trans., vol. xiv.
p. 79.5 and which Dr. Fleming righdy supposes to be the
Pagrus lineatus of Montagu. I cannot agree with Mr. Yar-
rell in his confident assertion that the Pagrus lineatus of Mon-
tagu is the iSparus ^Sargus of Bloch ; at least, if the latter also
is the iSargus of Ray {Syn. Pise, p. 130. 136.) : in the latter,
" totum corpus annuli transversi fusci distinguant, Percae aut
Mormyri in modum." [" Brown transverse circles ornament
the whole body, in the manner of the perch or Mormyrus."] I
never saw any thing like this in the numerous specimens I
have examined, for hundreds of this species are taken in
Cornwall every summer. Again : — " Aurea ilia lunula inter
oculos Auratae propria caret : quod denique annulo nigro
prope caudam Spari aut Melanuri instar insigniatur." [" It is
wanting in the golden lunar mark between the eyes, which is
proper to the ^urata; and, lastly, may be distinguished
by a black circle near the tail, resembling that of a S^parus or
ikfelanurus."] Our old wife never has a black ring near the
tail ; and it does possess the semilunar mark behind the eye,
though not so nearly golden as in the 5parus auratus. The
only marks or lines I ever saw on its skin are short, narrow,
and longitudinal.

The British species of the genus Zabrus (of Linnaeus) that
are, beyond question, distinct, are the following : — Common
wrass [L. Jlnca), cook {L, c6quus), three-spotted wrass {L,
trimaculatus), corkwing {L. gibbus ?), goldsinny {L, cornu-
biensis), scale-rayed wrass (L. luscus). The comber {L,
Comber L.) I have seen, but it is rare. Of the bimaculated
wrass {L. bimaculatus), yellow wrass {L, /ulis), hog wrass
(L. 5uillus), ballan (Z>. jBalanus), I am uncertain; of the
greenfish (L. lineatus), almost more than doubtful.

Description of the Jaws of the common Siinfish, — [As we
have, at the end of Mr. Couch's second paper on fishes
(p. 315.), added an account of the short sunfish (Orthagoriscus
M61a Flem,, Tetrodon M51a of the older authors), we would
here introduce a few remarks by Mr. Couch, on the common
sunfish, which have long lain by us. The briefest remarks of
so original an observer as Mr. Couch are too valuable to be
lost. — J, Dr\

Common Sunjish, — This fish is arranged in the Linnaean
genus Tetrodon; but I have its jaws now before me, cleared
by putrefaction from all the soft parts, and they are undi-
vided, and end in an obtuse point. The jawbones are of a

3b 4

744 Retrospective Criticism.

loose striated texture, but, where exposed in the recent ani-
mal, covered with a kind of enamel ; and within this, in each
jaw, are three or four rows of flattish teeth, loosely and rather
irregularly placed. — J. Couch. Polperro^ June 28. 1830.

A Contribution to the History of the Propagation of the Eel
(Murcena Anguilla L.) (p. 313.), a?id Conger (Mt/rce^ria Conger
L.) — Sir, I have lately read that very pleasing book Jesse's
Gleanings in Natural History [briefly reviewed p. 374.], and I
noticed in it some opinions that I consider erroneous, parti-
cularly those on the propagation of eels ; and as you, p. 374.,
call attention to Jesse's opinions on this subject, I request a
place for the following remarks : —

The author endeavours to prove that eels are viviparous ;
that the young are contained within the intestines of the
parents ; and that they are sometimes bred in freshwater
ponds. I am convinced that all these notions are incorrect,
although they have existed for ages, and have been coun-
tenanced by many celebrated men. iThese opinions exploded
the more antiquated ones, that the creatures were bred from
putrefaction of dead eels, from particles scraped off from living
ones by their rubbing against rocks, from bits of horse hair
falling into water, from dew-drops, and from mud of ponds
and ditches animated by the sun's vivifying rays. The author
of Gleanirigs in Natural History certainly mistook parasitic
vermes [worms] for young eels ; and as he was aware that
similar creatures were found in other fish, I wonder that he
did not try whether they would wriggle and swim about in
water, as well as the little things did which he took from the
intestines of eels. If he had done so, I assure him that he
would have found them equally active and eel-like.

If any one will take the trouble to examine the fat-like
fringe on the sides of the air bladder and kidneys of the eel and
conger, he may, with a common pocket lens, and often without
the aid of a glass, see an abundance of ova [eggs] from the
beginning of the year to about September. I attended a good
deal to the natural history of these fishes a few years ago, and
I was then in communication with a very distinguished person
(now no more), whose philosophic mind was much engaged on
this subject, and whose information would have been highly
valued by naturalists, if he had lived to give it to the world.
The following extracts from a communication which I made
to him in Feb. 1829, will, I think, be acceptable to many of
your readers: they contain the result of much patient in-
vestigation : —

By examining every eel and conger that I could procure
between March and September, I traced the growth of the

Retrospective Criticism: 745

ova [eggs] to their full size, and ultimately their exclusion ;
that is, 1 found them within the power of a common lens,
becoming, by degrees, plain to the naked eye of common
observers, and at last the ovaria emptied. In none of these
could I find male organs ; but in others I found parts which
were like the ovaria in form and general appearance, but
differing in consistence, growing in different specimens, as the
season advanced, to a state of apparent ripeness^ and not showing
globular forms like the eggs at any time. I have no hesita-
tion in beUeving that these were male organs, and that these
fish are not hermaphrodite, but perfectly analogous to other
fish in their mode of generation. The ripe ovaria of most
fish are compact masses ; but those of the eel and conger are
two rows of transverse fringes fixed to, and nearly enveloped
by, mantles which are attached to the sides of the air-bladder
and kidneys ; and, although each contains millions of ova, it is
thoroughly flexible. This structure is admirably adapted to
the vermicular motion of these creatures. I procured the first
shotten congers early in September; they were then much
darker than usual : some were so dark as to have the blacki
margins of the fins obliterated. 'auiiJ^i.^afurldiJi. no/it \6 a^RO

The first common eel that I met with' containing oVA'Visifetie^
to the naked eye, was caught in July, in a stream which goes
into the river Parrot; I afterwards had them from that river,
and its estuary, in a more forward state. The shoals of elvers
which appear in tide rivers, early in spring, are the young of
the common eel. They make their appearance in the Parrot
early in March, advancing, tide after tide, until they are out
of the reach of salt water : fresh shoals go up in April and
May. Having passed gradually from the salt to fresh water,
they ascend the streams and drains, and spread themselves
through the inland waters, I procured the fry of the conger
on the 15th of March, from the rocky coast of Somerset. *P
believe that no eels breed in fresh water, that there ar^
regular migrations of pregnant ones from inland to the sea,
or to the mouths of salt-water rivers, at the end of summer,
and of elvers from those situations to the fresh waters in-
spring. jq '?80tr^ >\;«Dm oawofi)

It is not necessary to examine the largei^t eels arid cbttget^
to see the ova ; the former, of 1 or 2 lbs. weight, and the
latter of 7 or 8, will do very well. It is strange that Sir
Everard Home should have considered the eel and conger as
the same species : the latter has thirty more vertebrae than
the former. — W. B. B. fV. July 28. 1832.

The remarks by Mr. Couch, p. 313., on this interesting
subject, also merit studious attention. — J. D.

746 Retrospective Criticism,

The Preserving of Insects selected fur Cabinets, (p. 495. 683.)
— I am obliged to Mr. Waterton for his kind and early
attention (p. 683.) to my query (p. 495.) as to the best means
of preserving insects, but I am not yet quite satisfied ; for it
is against the decay of the specimens, as well as " the deadly
moth," that I am anxious to guard. Besides, I have found
that the solution cannot be applied to the outside of most
insects (especially Libellulae), without, in course of time, in-
juring their colours ; and to apply it to every part of their
inside is impossible. Mr. Waterton recommends to me
patience and perseverance : this and his further advice (and
no one can be more able or more willing to give it in this
matter) will, I hope, enable me to succeed. — i&. P. Sept, 8.
1832.

On the Preserving of Insects selectedfor Cabinets, (p. 683.) —
Sir, In Mr. Waterton's valuable communication on the sub-
ject of " preserving insects selected for cabinets " (p. 683.), one
of the methods he recommends is that of poisoning the atmo-
sphere by means of spirits of turpentine, which may be put
into a glass inkstand containing a piece of sponge, and placed
in a corner of the box or drawer in which the specimens are
kept. It does not appear quite certain whether Mr. Waterton
recommends the above method on his own authority, after
having made the experiment, and found it answer ; for he says,
*' I am of opinion that the specimens will be safe," &c. ; and,
spirit of turpentine " is said to be the most pernicious of all
scents to insects." I should feel obliged to this gentleman if
he would have the kindness to reply, through your Magazine,
to the two following questions : — First, Whether he has
himself tried the experiment, and found spirits of turpentine
effectual in keeping away living insects from dead ones,
especially in expelling that worst of all pests, the A^cslyvxs
destructor? — and, secondly, whether he does not find the
spirit of turpentine to be itself prejudicial to the preserved
specimens ? My reason for thinking that it probably may be
so is, that I have heretofore had a collection of lepidopterous
insects that was kept in cedar drawers, entirely ruined, owing,
as I conceive, to the strong effluvia arising from that wood
(see p. 368.) : still more, therefore, should I apprehend the
same bad result from the use of spirit of turpentine. Cor-
rosive sublimate, I have no doubt, would be of the greatest
advantage in cases where it can be employed ; it will have
the effect of entirely preventing mould. I never open a fresh
bottle of ink without putting into it a very small quantity of
this poison. Should it be thought that this is a dangerous
plan to adopt, as many are in the habit of sucking their pens.

Retrospective Criticism, 747

or applying them to the mouth, I answer, first, that this is
a very dirty needless habit, which ought to be avoided ; but,
secondly, if it be persisted in, I still apprehend that no ill
consequences can arise from the corrosive sublimate, of which
the portion required is so very small. As much as would be
taken up on the point of a fine penknife, or less than half the
quantity that would commodiously lie on a silver penny, is
amply sufficient for a pint bottle of ink ; which, after having
been so medicated, I have never known to become in the
least degree mouldy, either in the bottle, or after it had been
poured into the inkstand and exposed to the action of the air.
Possibly, a still less quantity than I have mentioned would
serve the purpose. A very minute portion of the poison I
find also to be equally effectual in preserving paste from
mould, when kept in a cup, &c. ; and I have little doubt that
it would equally preserve the same cement from the ravages
of insects too ; and thus render it a much better material than
gum or glue, for the purpose of fastening down dried plants
to the paper for a herbarium. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — ^'
W. T. Bree. Allesley Rectory, Sept. 12. 1832. t.^

A Wo7'k describing the Genera and Species of Insects,
(p. 686.) — Tyro is not singular in his desire (p. 686.) for
such a work. Is it not a pity that Mr. Griffith has not given
at least a list of all the known species of insects under each
genus described in his Animal Kingdom P Perhaps, however,
it is his intention to do so. — Sigma. Saffron Walden, Essex,
Sept. 25. 1832.

Epeira diadema. (p. 689.) — Professor Weber of Leipzig
states that he watched a little spider as it was constructing its
web between two trees. The three principal points to which
it was attached formed, as usual, an equilateral triangle. The
two upper threads were fixed to the trunks of the trees ; but,
not finding a point to fix the lower upon, the spider sus-
pended from its extremity a little pebble, by way of counter-
poise. The pebble^ being heavier than the animal, kept the
web perfectly extended.

Spiders. — A curious paper was lately read at the Paris
Academy of Sciences, on the construction of a spider's nest in
the earth. This spider is a native of Corsica. The nest is in
the form of a well, 2 in. deep and 6 lines in width. The in-
terior is lined with fine web, and the top is furnished with a
kind of lid, with hinges, which shuts when the insect is in.
This lid, which is composed of earth and web, consists of
upwards of forty layers.

The above paragraphs have lain a good while by us : they
were cut out of a newspaper (we believe, the Cambridge Chro-

74-8 Retrospective Criticism,

nicle)y and are inserted here because the first of the two para-
graphs describes a fact parallel to those described by Mr.
Spence. (p. 689.) — J. D,

A Species of Spider evincing remarkable Habits. — Sir,
Having lately observed in this place a curious kind of spider,
I herewith send you an account of it. It seems to inhabit a
particular part only of the building ; and very much resembles
the small long-legged species found in our woods, only that
the body of the one now alluded to is oblong, instead of
round, as in the former. It appears always stationary in the
day, is without any web, and is generally in company with a
dozen or more individuals. It remains attached by its long
legs always to the ceilings, near to the sides of the building.
Its great peculiarity consists, when touched, in not moving,
but immediately commencing a whirling motion, so quick,
that it is quite impossible to see its legs singly. During this
Oiotion it never changes the position of its legs ; their length
and elasticity enabling it to continue this rapid whirling motion
for two or three minutes without cessation, as I have noticed
by my watch. If touched twice or thrice, it recommences this
carious motion, but with reduced force, until at last it ceases
it altogether. It is no doubt intended as a kind of defence
against its more powerful enemies ; for they may well be fright-
ened by this very unusual appearance. They roam about at
nights, no doubt, as I can never see them for two days in the
same place. I am, Sir, yours, &c. — H, B. Blois, France,
April 14. 1832.

It is to be regretted that our valued correspondent did not
submit specimens of this interesting species to some naturalist
competent to make known its systematic name. — J, D.

Spider^ s Thread. — The thread of the silkworm is so small
that many folds are twisted together to form our finest sewing
thread ; but that of the spider is smaller still, for 2 drachms
of it by weight would reach from London to Edinburgh,
400 miles. [Bristol Mirror, April 28. 1832.)

Ichneumons from a Pupa of Lasiocdmpa quercus. — Mr.
Bree mentions (p. 106.) once obtaining more than 48 speci-
mens of a species of /chneumon from a pupa of the Lasiocampa
quercus, and there remarks, " I herewith send you spe-
cimens." These we have recently submitted to Mr. West-
wood's inspection, who (Oct. 13.) kindly replied: — " Mr.Bree's
ichneumon is a species of Pimpla, but I cannot now tell the
specific name. I have bred a species scarcely distinct, out of
Trichios5ma luc^rum." Was the species which Mr. Wood-
ward, in his communication on the Trichiosoma lucorum
(p. 85.), describes as destroying the pupas of that insect, iden-

Retrospective Criticism. 74-9

tical with that bred by Mr. Westwood ? A comparison of
specimens will best determine. Will Mr, Woodward com-
municate winged ones ? The cocoon of Trichiosoma luc6rum
which he sent us this spring (collected in December, 1831), as
being infested with ichneumons, is now full of larvae, each
enveloped in silky matter, but every one seems dead. — J. D,

Notice of some singular Varieties of Vapili6nid(^ in Mr,
Weaver's Museum^ Birmingham. — Sir, It is with pleasure
that I observe, p. 546., a notice and account of the museum
of natural historj^ at Birmingham, which has been amassed
by the indefatigable industry and perseverance of Mr.
Weaver. I lately visited the institution, for the first time
since its establishment, and was much gratified by what
I saw there. In particular, the collection of British in-
sects, which is beautifully arranged, appeared to me as one
of the best and most extensive of any to which the public
have ready access. It would be foreign to my purpose, if not
superfluous, to attempt to give any thing like a full account
even of this one department of the museum. The object of
my present notice is merely to call the attention of entomo-
logists to one or two singular varieties of Papilionidae with
which the collection is enriched : these Mr. Weaver has in-
trusted to my care, and kindly allowed me to forward to you,
for the purpose of being figured in your Magazine.

The first which I shall mention is an extraordinary variety
of Argynnis Adipp^? {fig. 122.), which was taken in Sutton

Park, about five years ago. The anterior wings above are
nearly black, " embrowned at the base," near which there is
a bright, lunar, fulvous mark, and beyond it, more towards
the apex a fainter dot of the same colour; a row of elongated
tawny spots parallel with the hinder margin, extends from
the apex, to the lower angle. The posterior wings approach
more nearly to those of the ordinary examples ; but are very
much darker, having the spots and chequered markings less

750 Retrospective Criticism.

determinate, and running into each other. Beneath, on the
anterior wings the black colour is predominant, except on the
outer margin, which is tawny ; the lunar fulvous mark is also
apparent. The posterior wings are of a brown green, with
numerous silver spots, of which four in " the second series
from the margin are tarnished with black." The metallic
spots are much smaller than in the ordinary specimens. I
believe this is the identical specimen alluded to by Mr. Ste-
phens in his Illustrations (see Addenda to Haustellata, vol. i.
p. 147.); and of his description I have in part availed myself.
I should have been in doubt, and indeed, still am so, whether
this insect ought, with more propriety, to be called a variety
of A. Adipp^ or of Aglaia. Owing to the prevailing green
lint of the posterior wings beneath, I should have referred it
to the latter ; as Mr. Stephens, however, has pronounced it to
be of the former species, I yield to his better judgment. H'^
Fig. 123. I conceive to be that variety of Argynnis AgRiaj

which has been published by various authors under the name
of Charlotta : it differs from Aglai« principally in having
" the six basal silver spots on the under side of the posterior
wings united into three larger " elongated "ones." (Stephens's
Illustrations.) In the present specimen, which was taken, Mr.
Weaver informs me, in the neighbourhood of York, five or six
years since, the black spots and markings on the upper side
of the posterior wings are less distinctly defined than the cor-
responding ones in the anterior pair ; being somewhat clouded
and confluent. I have not the means of comparing this with
other specimens of Charlotte : should the insects so named
be all of them varieties of Aglai«, probably no two examples
may exactly correspond with each other.

Fig. 124. is a very interesting insect, allied to Melitae^fl
Selena; of which, perhaps, it may be only a variety. Mr.
Weaver possesses two specimens, both of which were taken
in Sutton Park : one about ten years ago ; the other, not

Retrospective Criticism,
\ r 124

751

more than five or six. It differs from M. Selene in being
rather smaller, and having the black spots and characters on
the upper surface of both pair of wings larger and stronger,
so that the whole assumes a darker appearance than that
insect. But the principal difference consists in the under side
of the posterior wings, which are of a brownish purple, inter-
spersed with darker markings of the same colour, and nume-
rous irregular semi-metallic spots ; a row of which borders
the pdsterior margin. I would invite the attention of ento-
mologists to this insect, which deserves minute investigation.
As Mr. Weaver has taken two examples of it in the same
place, in different and distant seasons, it may possibly prove
a distinct species ; but, for the present, I would refer it to
M. Selene, of which it is at least a very strong variety.

Mg. 125. is a foreign insect, which Mr. Weaver received
in a collection from the Himalaya Mountains. It strongly
resembles Vanessa Atalanta; or, rather, is intermediate be-
tween that species and Cynthia cardui. I believe it to be the
same, or nearly so, with that to which I formerly alluded (see
p. 334-., note §), as in the cabinet of my friend, Mr. Ha-
worth : I speak doubtfully, as it is difficult to carry nice
distinctions in the mind's eye. Our present insect certainly ap-
proaches V. Atalanta much more closely than it does C. cardui.
From the former it differs in having the transverse band of
a less brilliant scarlet, and much more irregular and inter-
rupted, and in this respect resembling the corresponding band
in C. cardui ; the white spots, also, at the apex of the anterior
wings, are smaller than those of Atalanta. The posterior
wings are of a dark sooty brown (not black), with the scarlet
border narrower, and a double row of larger black spots,
besides those on the cilia. Beneath, the posterior wings are
paler than those of Atalanta ; and here again the insect
approaches C. cardui in the marbling towards the base, and
the ocelli (which, however, are more obscure) near the mar-
gin. The under side, indeed, of the posterior wings is exactly
intermediate between those of the two species with which I
have instituted a comparison. From both, however, this

752

Retrospective Criticism,

Himalayan admiral is undoubt-
edly distinct; and it is interesting,
as showing the nice and beautiful
gradations which nature makes
between one insect and another ;
borrowing (if I may so speak)
certain characters respectively
from each of two nearly allied
species, in order to make up a
third distinct from either; and
thus ringing the changes, as it
w^ere, with colour, markings, &c.
Linnaeus long ago said, " Natura
non facit saltus^' — Nature does not take leaps; — and the
aphorism is beautifully exemplified in the above instance.

Among the insects which I have said Mr. Weaver received
from the Himalayan Mountains were specimens of Papilio
Machaow, differing, so far as I can perceive, in no respect
from European examples. The specimen which he kindly
lent me for inspection is rather smaller, and has the colours
less brilliant, than some British specimens of Machaow in my
possession. I mention the occurrence of this insect in the
interior of India, to show how widely the species is distri-
buted through different parts of the world.

Besides the varieties of Papilionidae above noticed, I ob-
served in the Birmingham museum the white variety of
C61ia5 Edus« (see p. 332., fig. 72.), taken, as I was informed,
near York; also a copper allied to Lycae'nfl dispar, but smaller,
which may perhaps prove to be a distinct species ; but, not
having it in my possession, I cannot attempt to describe it
from mere recollection.

Ranged among Mr. Weaver's British insects are several
specimens of G61ia5 Europomr, which, no doubt, are of

Retrospective Criticism, 753

foreign origin, palmed upon him as indigenous; he has no
knowledge of the place or time of their capture.

In conclusion, 1 would strongly recommend such of your
entomological readers as may have the opportunity, to pay a
personal visit to the Birmingham museum, which, if I mistake
not, will afford them a considerable treat. Mr. Weaver de-
serves well of the scientific world and the public at large;
and I sincerely hope that his enterprising spirit will meet with
its due reward Yours, &c. — W, T. Bree, Allesley Rectory^
Julyll. 1832.

Names of Vanessa, urCiccE and polychlbros erroneously applied.
— At p. 574'. there is an error which should be corrected, viz.
" the tortoise-shell butterfly (Polychlorosurticas)," and again,
" a full-sized Polychloros urticae." I suppose the writer
means Vanessa urticae, which is the small tortoise-shell but-
terfly, as Vanessa polychloros is the large one. " Polychloros
urticae," therefore, is nonsense, unless (which \hope\s not the
case) these two insects are new christened by the generic name of
(Polychloros. — W. T, Bree. Allesley Rectory^ August 21. 1823.
f'^ Hermaphrodite Argyrmis Pdphio.. — Sir, The notices of
hermaphrodite insects, in Vol. IV. p. 150. 434., induce me
to mention that I last year took a specimen of Argynnis
Paphia, the right wing of which was marked like that of the
male, and its left wing like that of the female. Yours, &c. —
Thomas Allis. York, 27M oftheStk month {Ju?ie), 1832.
;vv. The Brimstone^oloured Butterfly {Gonepteryx rhamni\
jUates of its appearing, (p. 595.) — This was once seen by
Mr. Bree, on the wing, on the tenth day of March, 1826,
see p. 595. This year it was seen here on the 1 8th of
January, and again on March 8th. In 1831 I saw it with
the early white butterfly (Pontia Charicl^a, on Feb. 10. In
1800, my first notice of it was on March 24. — Sigma. Saf-
fron Walden, Sept. 25. 1832. lo iter c^i no ;

Tortrix viriddna (p. 670.) 'hi S^ron Walden. — We have
had here, this season,, great numbers of the Tortrix viridan^,
but they have not committed such extensive depredations as
mentioned by your correspondent, C. P., p. 670., so far as I
have noticed. — Id. [See Haworth's Lepidopt. Brit. — J. D.]

Corollas perforated by Bees. (p. 86.) — On the ^8th of June,
1832, I witnessed in the horn-shaped nectaries of the blos-
soms of heartsease, that most of them had a small circular
hole bitten out of them near the extremity where the nectar is
lodged ; and, early in June, I also noticed that the horn-shaped
nectariferous petals of the columbine had been very generally
perforated as Dr. Withering has observed them to be, as
stated p. 86. — J. D.

Vol. V. — No. 30. 3 c

754 Retrospective Criticism.

Chelifer cancroldes, a Lobster-like Insect^ parasitic on the
Common House-fly (Mwsca domestica L.). — As the gentlemen
who have so obUgingly answered (Vol. IV. p. 283, 284. 479.)
my query (Vol. IV. p. 94.), partly seem to think that the fact
of this insect's attaching itself to the fly's leg was accidental, I
have now to state that on the 17th of last month (July, 1832)
I saw a similar insect in a similar situation. I have erred, in
Vol. VI. p. 94., in calling the fly ilfusca carnaria ; it was the
M, domestica, or common house-fly. As I have in the course
of a few years thrice captured this insect when attached to the
leg of the house-fly, there can be but little doubt that it is a
parasitical insect, and exists by extracting the juices of the
fly. — O. Clapton^ August 30. 1832.

Kirby and Spence mention {Introd.^ vol.iv. p. 229.) that the
Chelifer cancrbides " occasionally is parasitic upon flies, espe-
cially the bluebottle fly (Musca vomitoria). They adhere to
it very pertinaciously under the wings ; and, if you attempt to
disturb them, they run backwards, forwards, or sideways, with
equal facility." — J". Z).

The Flying Leech (Vol.11, p. 368.) mentioned by Heber is
not peculiar to Ceylon, but is almost equally common and
noxious, during the rains, in the mountain jungles of the Ma-
labar coast on the continent of India. I never saw them
attempt to spring ; but they certainly (I speak from expe-
rience) contrive to fix themselves most dexterously on the legs
of men and horses, even when moving on at a smart pace ;
their bites often occasion very bad ulcers. For " Canely "
read " Candy." —A Subscriber. Vale of Alford, Sept. 28. 1832.
L'he Blood-red Zoophytes appear iiig in patches in the mud of
the canal at Bury St. Edmunds (see p. 387.) are no unusual
occurrences. I recollect having been taught^ when a very
little boy, to amuse myself by observing these creatures ; and
gently agitating the water, or shaking the earth, in order to
make them retire beneath the mud and disappear. The ani-
mal is very common, and may be met with, as J. D. observes,
in almost any situation suitable to its nature and habits. It
might be worth while to give a figure of it in your Magazine,
together with its name, and a more full description. — W. T.
Bree. Allesley Rectory^ May 10. 1832.

For these we shall feel grateful to any correspondent, and
will publish them with pleasure. This animal (for a creature
so sensitive should not be called a zoophyte) is profusely
abundant in the mud on the margins of the Thames, at least
I found it so beside Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, in the rainless
evening of the otherwise rainy day, August 5. 1832. Cheyne
Walk is elevated 6 ft., and in some places more, above the

Retrospective Criticism. "765

mud of the Thames, from which it is built up by a wall of
bricks, near to which wall the walk is skirted by a row of trees,
whose branches hang partly over the river. When I passed
by, the tide was down, and the mud left bare to the breadth
of five or ten yards, on which the animals in question so
abounded as to give the mud quite a reddened hue. Al-
though rain was not then falling, drops of water were dripping
from the arch-spread arms of the trees above, and, as these
drops struck the mud beneath, the red tentacula were with-
drawn from circular patches of from 12 to 18 in. wide, but as
soon as the jar had subsided, a minute or so afterwards, they
were again exserted. As the falling drops were not few, and
fell on the mud in various and ever-varying places, a very in-
teresting and pleasing changement in the degree of redness
was observable,

** The checker'd earth seem'd restless as a flood
Brush'd by the wind, "

as a poet, not curbing his imagination, might say. — J. D,

Pdj^is quadrifblia aiid its Variations, (p. 429.) — I have been
much pleased with Professor Henslow's ingenious remarks
on this favourite plant (p. 429.), and feel obliged to him for his
theory connecting the genera Paris and Trillium which have
so singular a numerical character in their leaves and fructifi-
cation. It gives me pleasure to be able to add one more to
his thirty-eight varieties, viz., one with eight leaves and four
sepals, petals, and stigmas. It was found in Cotterill Clough,
Cheshire, the only locality for Paris within twelve miles of
Manchester. I frequently meet with it with five leaves, less
frequently with three, and, in the latter case, almost invariably
without inflorescence. Some young friends of mine trans-
planted a few roots, but had the mortification to find that the
flowering stems degenerated into the barren trifoliate variety.
Indeed, I have remarked that the latter is always smaller than
the other varieties, and apparently the shoot of a younger
plant. — William Thomson. Manchester, June 14. 1832.

Paris quadrifblia, a Fault in the Figure of. (p. 430. fig. 86. a.)
— The stamens are represented exactly like the stigmas, while
in nature they are quite dissimilar : this was my fault, in not
sending you a drawing to copy from. — J.S.Henslow. June 14.
1832.

Do the Leaves of the Round-leaved Sundew {Drosera rotun-
difblia L.) possess Irritability ? (p. 491.) —Without any claim
to the degree of acquaintance with the habits of the round-
leaved sundew ascribed to me by J. D. (p. 492.), I may yet,
without too great presumption, so far accept his challenge as
to express it as my opinion, made with all deference to that

3 c 2

756 Retrospective Criticism.

of others, that the leaves of this little plant are not possessed
of the slightest claims to irritability. That they have the
power of retaining any small insect that may happen to touch
their upper surface is undoubted ; but this seems to arise
solely from the clammy nature of the liquid that exudes from
the glands at the extremities of the hairs with which the most
exposed sides of the leaves are covered. When touched with
the finger, this moisture is so viscid, that it will draw out into
threads of more than an inch in length ; and it is not likely that
an insect once touching a leaf, and becoming entangled, as it
were, amidst the globules, should ever be able to effect its
escape. In fact, as I have seen, by placing a minute fly on
the surface of a leaf, every struggle, by rendering the parts
of its body more clammy with the moisture, does but make
its extrication more impossible. In respect to the hairs
themselves, I did not observe any thing like movement, or a
spontaneous attempt to capture their prey. Were the leaves
possessed of any degree of irritability, would it not be made
manifest to us on our applying any thing to their surface, in the
same manner as we see the stamens close around the pistil of
the berberry, on the flowers being touched with the finger ; or
should we not at least observe it when an insect is struggling
amidst the hairs ? In such cases, however, no movement is
perceptible. An admirer of the little Drosera, I cannot help
regretting that its leaves should be so constantly disfigured
with the dead bodies of insects, which give so otherwise pretty
a plant a somewhat revolting appearance ; but most probably
their being so answers some purpose in the economy of nature,
or, rather, of the all-wise Director of nature, although I can
hardly think it is that of affording nourishment to the plant.
Perhaps it is but in accordance with the law that causes one
thing to prey upon another, that nothing may become too
abundant ; and the little Drosera is thus made an agent of a
destruction useless to itself, but subservient to the general
good.

Although I may have already said more than sufficient, I
cannot conclude without mentioning the extreme beauty of
the leaves of Drosera rotundifolia when placed beneath a mi-
croscope. The looseness of their cellular tissue, glistening
like gold, the crimson hair, each tipped with a knob of the
same rich colour, from which exudes a clear white liquid,
would render them objects well worth examination, without
the additional interest of some poor insect struggling in vain
to effect its release. — C. P. Surrey, June 5. 1832.

Drosera rotundifolia, its Leaves possess Irritability. — J. D.
(p. 491.) in reply to J. E. L. (Vol. IV. p. 135.) doubts the

Rttrospective Criticism, 757

irritability of the glandular hairs on the viscose leaf of this
plant, and justly ridicules the newspaper nonsense about feed-
ing its voraciousness with beef. I have observed this, as well
as Drosera anglica and D. longifcMia (which are plentiful in
our neighbourhood), and can safely affirm that it has as de-
cided an irritabihty as the far-famed Dionae^« Muscipula. It
is quite possible that the glutinous matter on the tips of these
hairs, which has gained the plant its classical appellation of
sundew, may be principally instrumental in detaining the ven-
turous insect ; and that this may be of a poisonous quality,
destructive especially of insect life; but such a supposition
will not, alone, account for the circumstance, that when an
unfortunate fly has got into the centre of a leaf of Drosera,
every hair turns inward, and remains curled in till the prisoner
is not only dead^ but entirely consumed, and then the disc,
which before was extremely contracted and cone-like, expands
to its fullest breadth, and the hairs again become erect. No
other hypothesis, I think, will account for these phenomena,
which I have witnessed many times, except the irritable power
of the plant. The leaf of Drosera anglica, when a fly settles
on it, becomes rolled up circinally, and remains in this form
till the animal is dead. — William Thomson. Manchester,
June 14. 1832.

Drosera rotundifblia, — In support of my ascribing (Vol. IV.
p. 135.) a faculty of irritability to the glandular hairs on the
leaves of Drosera rotundifcViia, I have the remarks of Mr.
Gordon (Vol. V. p. 26.) ; and Smith, in his English Flora,
vol. ii. p. 122., — " these hairs,'' says Smith, "have been
thought irritable, so as to contract when touched, imprisoning
insects, somewhat in the manner of the American Dionae^a
Muscipula L., a plant allied to Drosera." The Encyclopcedia
of Plants, p. 233., states, that the leaf hairs of Drosera rotun-
difolia are very irritable. I confess I have never been able,
except very slightly, to excite the contractility questioned, but
this might arise rather from an improper application of the
stimulus than from absence of the faculty ; but when I pressed
the centre of a leaf with any substance, there was, in certain
cases, a manifest inclination of the surrounding hairs to close
over it, although I met with no decisive instances. 1 must
mention, that in no case did I find any object upon the leaf;
but observed that the hairs were curved inwards, so as to form
with their globules a group over the centre of the leaf. On
old leaves the centre is generally bare of glandular hairs, and
the leaf perfectly flat, while the outer hairs alone remain, are
unbent, and without any liquid in the minute globules with
which they are tipped ; as if by some strong excitement their

3 c 3

758 Retrospective Criticism,

energy had become weakened. — J. E, L. Richmond, York-
shire, August 4. 1832.

The Flowers of Drosera rotundifblia L. expanded, (p. 110.)
— In reply to C. P. (p. 110.), I may quote the assertion of
Linnaeus, in his Flora Suecica, No. 273., which is thus ex-
pressed : — *' Flos mense Julio evigilat hora ix. ; clauditur
hora xii. ante meridiem :" " the flower appears in July, and
opens at nine in the morning, and shuts at noon." Linnaeus
is right, as I have proved in the following manner : — I had
gathered the plant many times for three successive years at
Lechley Car (the habitat of the rare Scheuchzerz« palustris
Z/.), as well as three times this year on a moor near Rich-
mond ; but, like C. P. (p. 1 10.), I had never seen an expanded
blossom, owing, in my own case, to my not having visited the
habitat of the plant at so early an hour as those mentioned
by Linnaeus, although, I believe, I have once observed ex-
panded flowers on Drosera longif61ia. To facilitate observ-
ation, I transferred from their native abode into pots, in my
garden, plants of the Drosera rotundifblia; and on July 26.,
at half-past ten o'clock in the morning I perceived a single
flower fully expanded, and at one o'clock the flower closed, as
did also four flowers which expanded on the following day,
July 27. The divisions of the calyx, when viewed through
the microscope, appear extremely cellular, like the leaves and
capsules of mosses ; the bracteas also taper into a fine thread-
like point, which is tipped with a gland. I suspect, but am
not certain, that each blossom expands but once, and that only
when the sun shines. In Lindley's Synopsis, the styles are
stated to be from three to five in number : they are, I believe,
always six. In the Fncyclopcedia of Plants (p. 233.), Drosera
rotundifolia ( fig. 3941.) is figured with flowers expanded ; all
the old herbalists figure it with flowers unexpanded. — J". F* L,
Richmond, Yorkshire, August 4. 1832.

The Scent of Anemone nemorosa L., and Peculiarities in the
Scent of some other Flox<oers. —

" Thickly strewn in woodland bowers,
Anemones their stars unfold."

Sir, That beautiful little plant, Anemone nemorosa, which
studs over the whole surface of the woods in this neighbour-
hood with its lively white blossoms, is now in full perfection.
I have been looking, with some degree of interest, for the
unfolding of its flowers this sprhig, in order to put to the test
a remark of Mr. Turner (Vol. IV. p. 442.), who states that
" the blossoms of v4nemone nemorosa are very fragrant, so
much so, that a wood in which it abounds is as fragrant as a

Retrospective Criticism. 759

bank of violets." * On trials however, I cannot perceive that
the blossoms possess any fragrance, though the leaves, when
slightly bruised, appear to me to emit a faint smell of cucum-
ber. In stating this, however, I am far from meaning to call
in question the accuracy of Mr. Turner's observation ; and
must remark that the circumstance of my not being able to
perceive any fragrance in the blossoms of the wood anemone
is no conclusive proof that they are destitute of scent. For
there are some plants whose flowers prove highly odoriferous
to particular individuals, while, to others, who yet are not
deficient in the ordinary sense of smell, they appear perfectly
scentless. Of this kind is the well known Persian iris (/Vis
persica L.\ which ornaments our borders in the spring. I
remember, as a boy, that a friend of mine was so partial to
the odour of this plant (which he said resembled that of
violets), that he was in the habit of growing the roots in pots,
and placing them in his study. To these specimens I have
repeatedly applied my nose, but never could perceive in them
the slightest scent, though my friend assured me they per-
fumed the whole room. The circumstance, too, has lately
been brought to my recollection, of a lady, who disliked the
odour of violets, ordering a pot of the Persian iris to be
removed out of the room, because she could not bear its
powerful scent. And, as a further corroborating instance, I
extract the following from a letter I have just received from a
lady, whose attention I had called to the subject, and who
resides near town, and takes great delight in her garden.
" I bought," says my correspondent, " a pot of Persian irises
at Colvill's, and perceived the scent of them as I brought

them home, on the floor of Mr. 's open carriage ; neither

he nor Lady could smell them. When I got home,

my little boy, who met us at the door, exclaimed, " How-
sweet ! they smell like a bunch of violets. " I think their
fragrance is strongest in the sunshine. Purposely, with a
view to try the experiment afresh, and with a new individual
specimen, I last autumn bought a root or two of the Persian
iris at Messrs. Noble's shop in Fleet-street, and planted them
in a pot. They produced flowers this spring, which, as usual,
appeared to me to be entirely scentless. Out of about ten

* There is a general and delightful fragrance (let it arise from what it
may) very perceptible in woods at most seasons of the year, and particu-
larly in spring, which can hardly fail to have attracted the notice of those
who are at all conversant with woodland districts. May not this sylvan
perfume, with which the whole atmosphere of the wood is charged, have
been too hastily attributed by Mr. Turner to the copious blossoms of the
wood anemone ?

3c 4

760 Retrospective Criticism.

noses, to whose decision I submitted the plant, six pro-
nounced the iris to be destitute of odour, and four that it was
fragrant; but, of these last, one admitted that the scent was
so faint as at first to be scarcely perceptible. This plant,
therefore, it should seem, would be differently styled, either
scentless, or slightly fragrant, or highly odoriferous, according
to some peculiar idiosyncrasy in the different persons to
whose olfactory organs it happens to be submitted. Possibly
the case may be the same with the wood anemone. The above
are singular facts, and will, I hope, be put to further test by
some of your correspondents, and the results of their experi-
ments recorded in your Magazine. I may add, that a near
relative of my own^ whose sense of smell in general was acute
enough, could never perceive any odour in the honied blossoms
of the lime tree. I think, too, that there are some other
plants in the same predicament, though, at this moment, I
cannot call them to my recollection, I am. Sir, yours, &c. — '
W. T, Bree, AlleslcT/ Rectory, April 9. 1832.

These instances of difference in the power of olfactory per-
ception, as possessed by different individuals, call instantly to
mind the familiar truth that the differences in visual perception
are even greater and more common. Two very interesting
cases of great eccentricity in visual perception are recorded in
The New Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, in an article en-
titled, " Account of two remarkable cases of insensibility in
the eye to particular colours." — J.D.

On Jiring the Fraxinella Plant (Dictdmnus Fraooinella L.).
(p. 503.) — The following remarks were intended to accom-
pany the annotations on Mr. Dovaston's Chit-chat (p. 504.),
but were delayed for the sake of inspecting some fraxinella
plants then in blossom, until too late for insertion at p. 507. : —

The flower-stems, bracteas, peduncles, pedicels, calyxes,
backs of the petals partly, the filaments in the upper third of
their length, and the germen over the whole of its surface, are
thickly clothed with dark-hued somewhat orbicular glands or
ducts, each containing aromatic oil or resin, and seated on a
short and stoutish stalk, and tipped by a short and slender
hair. On that interesting subject, the combustion supplied by
the spikes of flowers of this plant on applying the flame of a
candle to them, my experience has been limited ; but my
firings have left me impressed that it is not a gaseous exhala-
tion that surrounds the flowers, which is ignited, but particles
of oil or resin, which the heat of the day has caused to trans-
ude from the ducts or glands already mentioned. I have
been able to procure combustion only by direct contact of the
candle's flame with some of these glands ; and combustion

Hetrospective Criticism, 761

followed both when this contact was made at the bottom of
some spikes, as well as when made at the top of others.

This plant, so prized an ornament of the hardy garden, it is
to be regretted, after it has been transplanted rarely acquires its
former health and vigour till two or three years have passed.
This declension may be prevented by transplanting the plant
as soon as its leaves turn yellow (at the end of August, or early
in September), and by observing to not needlessly divide,
fracture, or mangle any of its thick, deep-striking, somewhat
woody roots. Fraxinella is meant to express that the leaves
of this plant resemble those of the ash (i^raxinus), and this
they do sufficiently to render the term fraxinella, little ash,
not inappropriate. — J, Z).

The Custard Apple (Anona) (Vol. I. p. 439.) is said to be " in-
digenous to the Caribbee Islands, to grow in Africa and Mala-
bar, and to have also succeeded in the Island of Madeira." It is,
however, a native of India, and is found wild, in vast abundance,
on the rocky granite hills and tracts of the southern parts. In
the Hydrabad territories, its fruit has, in seasons of famine,
afforded sustenance to the inhabitants ; and, therefore, the
government of that country prohibits its being cut down for
firewood. — A Subscriber, Vale of Alford, Sept, 28. 1832.

Sir John Byerley's Theory of verifying Dates hy Calculations
on the Precession of the Equinoxes. — Sir, It appears to me that
your correspondent. Sir John Byerley (p. 174.) entertains too
exalted an opinion of the accuracy of our early ecclesiastical
architects, by presuming that they laid out the longitudinal
line of the churches to be constructed due east and west with
astronomic precision. There is a paragraph in the Antiquarian
Repertory, vol. i. p. 72., said to have been penned by Captain
Silas Taylor, author of the History of Harwich and Dover
Court, passing under the name of Dale's Harwich, which
states that " in the days of yore, when a church was to be
built, they watched and prayed on the vigil of the dedication ;
and took that part of the horizon where the sun arose fro?n the
east, which makes that variation, so that few stand true, ex-
cept those built between the two equinoxes." In order to
prove this, I measured, with a magnetic needle enclosed in a
square box, twenty-four of the churches in Norwich, applying
the compass to different parts of the same building, and taking
the medium result; and I found, that, so far as regards Taylor's
theory, not one of those I measured agreed with the sun-
rising of the day of the saint to whom it was dedicated. I
can assure Sir John that those measured vary in their lines
of longitude 45 degrees ; the greatest deviation from the

762 Betrospective Criticism.

true east and west being, towards the north 24-°, and to the
south 21°. — (5. Woodward, Norwich, March 1. 1832.

Luminous Appearance on the Ears of a Horse, (p. ill. 400.)
— I feel thankful to your correspondents for the notice they
have taken of my communication on this head, though 1 be-
lieve I may say (without a pun prepense), that they have left
the subject as dark as they found it. J. S. H. indeed charges
the iScoIopendra electrica with the incendiarism ; but, with all
deference to an authority, which, if I can spell aright, is of first-
rate respectability, I fear he has missed his mark ; and for this
reason, I hardly think it possible for the insect to have crawled
on the parts where I observed the track of phosphoric fire
{noijiame, as stated by W. L.), namely, the outer edges and
tips of the horse's ears, even had the weather been fine and
calm ; but not Tam o' Shanter himself turned out in a worse
night —

* The wind blew as 'twad blawn its last ;
The rattling showers rose on the blast :" —

in short. Sir, no insect could have stood it. Besides, we learn
at p. 368. that " it is seldom roused during the night."
Strange, too, that if it were this insect, I should not have
noticed it till after I had ridden full eight miles in the wind
and rain. I remember more than once the occurrence of a
somewhat similar appearance in Lancashire. On the road-
side, between Liverpool and Allerton, I observed a consider-
able body, not a mere track, of this phosphorescent appearance.
If it had been a speck here and there, 1 should have supposed
them to be glowworms, and passed on ; but such a conglo-
meration of light could not, I knew, proceed from this cause.
What, then, could it be ? I dismounted from my horse, and,
after groping about for some time (it was very dark, and very
wet to boot), I succeeded in capturing all the light troops, in
the shape of — would you believe it? — two or three lumps of
old touchwood ! On I rode with my prize, and safely alighting
at my then domicile, the old hall, Allerton, (the recollection of
that hall how sacred to me, and to many a one besides me !)
I deposited it safely in a dark parlour, and instantly mustered
the family to see what they imagined were glowworms ; nor,
delighted as they were thus to behold them, could some of my
young friends refrain from hinting a gentle reproach at the
inhumanity of bearing the poor things away from their natural
habitat. The light of a candle, however, soon banished their
fears, though it added no little to their surprise, after the
closest examination, to discover nothing more than a bit or two
of old, wet, decayed wood. It was perfectly unaccountable to
them, and, I own, not less so to me ; nor did the similar phe-

Retrospective Criticism. 763

nomenon I witnessed several years after, on my horse's head,
when riding between Norwich and Bungay, throw any light
upon its cause and origin. One thing was common to both
cases, the weather was very wet, and had been so for some
time. I cannot help thinking that electricity had more to do
with it than an insect ; but all is vague conjecture, and one
would like a better foundation than this to build upon. — S, T.
Stokeferry, June 8. 1832.

The luminousness of touchwood is familiar to country folks,
as it was also to Sir Walter Raleigh. See his " Lie." —
J.Z).

Luminous Appearance on the Ears of a Horse, (p. 111. 400.)
— The explanation of this "puzzling occurrence" (p. 400.)
reminds me of the following circumstance, related by Pro-
fessor Silliman, in his Journal of Science, " The late Mr.
Whitney of Newhaven, when riding on horseback, near East
Rock, in the vicinity of that town, during a night thunder
storm of great severity, was astonished to find all at once his
horse's ears tipped with fire. He alighted, but now dis-
covered the same phenomenon at the end of his whip, stirrups,
and every prominent object. His own person, and that of an
attendant, were tipped in the same manner." In this case it
appears to me that a stream of electricity played around the
two horsemen, and became attracted by the most prominent
points of the group. In classic story we find an almost paral-
lel phenomenon, which, among the superstitious ancients,
invested the principal actors with divine agency. I allude to
Castor and Pollux, around whose heads, in a violent storm,
during the Argonautic expedition, two flames of fire were seen
to play, when the tempest ceased and the sea was becalmed.
From this occurrence their power to protect sailors was more
firmly credited, and the two before-mentioned flames (such
being not uncommon in storms) have since been known by
the names of Castor and Pollux : when they both appeared,
it was a sign of fair weather ; but, if only one was seen, it
prognosticated storms, and the aid of Castor and Pollux was
consequently invoked. The electric current would, doubtless,
flash with great intensity on the metal helmets of the heroes,
and, on this account, the Romans believed the twins to head
their armies, with a star glittering on their heads. Perhaps
your clever correspondent, Mr. John Murray, may be induced
to throw some light on this curious circumstance, in connection
with his ingenious theories of atmospheric electricity. — John
Timhs, 5. Lyon's Inn, London, May. 4. 1832.

Luminous Appearance on the Ears of a Horse (p. 111. 400.),
and Facts on the hampyris noctiliica. — May not this pheno-

764 Retrospective Criticism,

menon be solved by attributing it to the presence of the male
glowworm ? A friend of mine some years ago related to me
the astonishment he once felt, in riding across a moor in
Somersetshire, in seeing a light flitting about his horse's bridle,
and advancing as he advanced for a considerable distance.
About a month ago, one of my domestics observed a soft and
beautiful light (flame as he conceived) flitting in a field ad-
joining my residence. I have no doubt it proceeded from a
male glowworm, and I have this year traced the jLampyris
noctiluca, both male and female, through all its stages. In
the larva state, both male and female emit their light from
two points near the extremity of the end of the body ; in the
nymph state the light is also, although more feebly, displayed.
On emerging to its perfect state, the female emitted light from
eleven points, but most brilliantly from two, and the male from
two only. Within the last six weeks there has scarcely been
an evening when my study windows have been open, in which
a male glowworm (and sometimes three or four in the course
of the evening) has not flown in ; all of them exhibiting their
light, either voluntarily or on being excited by meddling with
them. I had two or three female glowworms on a turf under a
receiver in one corner of the room, and it is not improbable
that sexual instinct was the occasion of my being so nume-
rously visited. The male glowworm I have observed to live
from two to four days after introduction to the female ; and
the latter to survive ten days or a fortnight, having laid a vast
number of eggs. — Albert, July 12. 1832.

Of Winds, (Vol. II. p. 175.) — • Mr. Main, speaking of the
trade winds blowing constantly from east to west, says : —
" This is caused by the cooler air of evening pressing west-
ward upon the heated air of midday ; in other words, the
lower temperature of the air in the place to the eastward of
the sun causes it to press westward upon the rarefied air of
the place over which he is vertical." It may be sufiicient here
to observe, that, if this were granted, it might produce an
easterly wind in the evening ; but it would also produce one
from the west in the morning. In fact, however, the tempera-
ture of the surface of the sea, in the places Mr. Main mentions,
is not sufficiently affected by the midday sun to produce any
such consequences : it is, indeed, scarcely perceptibly raised.
The generally received and probably correct explanation is,
that the currents of cold air from the poles, spoken of by Mr.
Main in his concluding paragraph, reach the equatorial
regions without having entirely acquired the equatorial whirl-
ing motion. — A Subscriber, Vale of Alford, Sept, 28. 1832.

Queries and Answet'S. 765

Art. II. Queries and Anstoers,

In twin-born Calves, both areso7)ietimes fertile. — Sir, In answer
to the query of U. of Cambridge (p. 396, 397.), " In twin-born
calves, is one of the two invariably sterile ? And, if the two
be male and female, is the sterile one invariably the female?"
I beg to state that the female is not invariably sterile, although
such an idea is very prevalent. Joseph Holroyd, Esq., of
Withers, near Leeds, told me, in July, 1826, when we were
conversing upon this subject, that he had a cow which calved
twins, a bull calf and a cow calf. As popular opinion was
against the cow calf breeding, it being considered a free
martin, as described by John Hunter, Mr. Holroyd was
determined to make an experiment of them, and reared them
together. They copulated, and in due time the heifer brought
forth a bull calf, and she regularly had calves for six or seven
years afterwards.

I would refer your correspondent to John Hunter's Ob-
servations on certain Parts of the Animal (Economy, 4to, 2d
edition, p. ob., where he will find his paper on the free mar-
tin, originally published, I believe, in the Philosophical Trans-
actions ; and at p. 60. of the same paper, J. Hunter candidly
states : — " Although what I have advanced with respect to the
production of free martins be in general true, yet, by the
assistance of Benj. Wray, Esq., of Denham, near Uxbridge,
who knew my anxiety to ascertain this point, I was lately fur-
nished with an instance which proves that it does not invaj^i-
ably hold good,^^ He then goes on to state the case, and the
dissection of the animal: — " 1 have heard of other twin cows
breeding ; but as I cannot call to mind the names of the indi-
viduals who communicated the circumstances to me, I have
only mentioned one of undoubted authority. Yours, &c. —
Richard Moulson, M.D. Halifax, Yorkshire, May 30. 1832.

Moles do swim of choice, (p. 78. 296.) — J. D., at p. 78.
296., asks if moles swim of choice ? I answer, yes. Last
summer and autumn I visited a river at the bottom of the
Botanic Garden, several times very early in the morning and
late in the evening, for the purpose of procuring a specimen
to preserve of the kingfisher (^Icedo I'spida L.), which is fre-
quently to be met with here. One morning as I sat very
quietly, I observed a mole come out of an osier holt, and run
across a grass path and take to the water ; when it was about
half across the river, I ran to the edge of the water, and the
mole then made a perceptible attempt to dive, but merely
immersed his nose in the water for half a minute, and rapidly
gained the shore, and soon disappeared in a hole of the bank.

tee

Queries and Afiswers.

A few mornings after, I saw it again take to the water, as
before ; but as I remained perfectly still, I observed its un-
restrained actions. It was nearly four minutes in swimming
six yards, and appeared as if it rather enjoyed its morning's
bathing. I mentioned this to an old molecatcher, as I thought
it rather singular, who replied, " I Ve seen 'em swim across
rivers of a devil and all of a width." Yours, &c. — M. Tur-
ner, Bury St. Edmunds, May 9. 1832.

Beply to T, K/s Queries (p. 397.) on the Windpipe, Plu-
mage, and Weight of the Dun Diver, — Sir, In reply to the
queries of T. K., p. 397., I send the following remarks, ac-
companied by drawings of the tracheas of our three British
species of Mergus. Fig, 126. represents the trachea, with

its bronchial tubes, of ikfergus Merganser L, (the goosander),
the female and young of which is the common dun diver :
the sex may easily be distinguished, as, like the duck tribe,
it is the male only that has any enlargement of the trachea,
or any labyrinth at the end of it. The young male may
in general be distinguished at sight from the female by its
larger head and neck ; the female is also always of the

Queries and Answers. 767

same colour, with precisely the same markings ;. whereas the
young male, though sometimes exactly coloured and marked
like the female, has very frequently wandering white feathers,
clearly indicating an approach to a change of plumage. I
have had repeated opportunities of examining the tracheas of
the young males, and have always found them to correspond
exactly with the mature bird, and resembling ^y^. 126. The
weight of this bird, according to Montagu, is four pounds.
Fig. 128. represents the trachea of Mergus serrator L. (the
red-breasted goosander), the females and young males are
also dun divers, but of a smaller size, weighing only about
two pounds ; but though only about half the size of ikfergus
Merganser, its trachea is nearly as large, and has but one
enlargement, whilst the labyrinth has two enlargements,
instead of one, as in iWergus Merganser. The female and
young are of a duller and heavier colour than Mergus Mer-
ganser, the wing spot is divided by a band, and the neck and
head are proportionally much smaller. This, I have no
doubt, is the bird of T. K., which he describes, and requests
the name of, in p. 397. Fig. 127. represents the trachea of
Mergus albellus L. (the smew). Rennie, in his edition of
Montagu, says, " This is by far the most plentiful species
that frequents our coasts, and fresh waters, &c., in the winter."
I have myself obtained more of the ikTergus Merganser than
of this species. I have never seen a young male of this spe-
cies marked exactly like the female : but I have had them very
nearly alike, and so near as fully to convince me that the
young males of all the three species undergo the same change
of plumage, from that of the female to the adult male ; and
that we have, in fact, only three species. The figures are all
much reduced. — Thomas Allis. Yorky 11th of the 6th month
(June), 1832.

An English Work descriptive of the Ge?iera and Species of
British Insects, (p. 686.) — In answer to Tyro (p. 686.), I can
only say there is no such work at present published. There is
a slight chance (very slight, 1 hope) of such a work ; but no
man of honourable feehngs will think of buying it, should it
be allowed to appear. Professor Rennie has, as most of your
readers know, pirated the whole of Mr. Stephens's Haustellata,
as far as published, and appended thereto a bungling trans-
lation of the last parts of the Lepidoptera Britdnnica; but,
alas ! the sale of his Conspectus (a name chosen by the profes-
sor from his dislike of using Latin words) has been stopped by
an injunction from the Court of Chancery ; and the professor's
books will, I trust, rot on the bookseller's shelves.— jE. Double-
day. Epping, Sept. 29. 1832.

768 Queries mid Afiswers.

^^,^oly67nmatus Argiohi?> dovble-h'ooded, (p. 496.)!f-dbHi8^
'observed it to be double-brooded, and believe it to be gehd-
^rally deemed so. Without referring to my observations madfe
upon this species during seasons now past, perhaps those of
the present year may suffice. The first brood I observed was
at Kensington, and appeared about the 20th of April ; and the
second brood, which was more abundant, I saw at Old Oak
Common, near Wilsden, during the first week in July. It
\va.s remarkable that when the first brood was found at Ken-
sington there were none at Wilsden ; and that when they
had appeared at Wilsden there were none at Kensington.
Tliis circumstance may strengthen the conjecture of Mr. Bree
(Vol. IV. p. 478. )j " that in one place it appears only in the
spring, and in another only in the summer." As to this sin-
^gular occurrence, my idea , is, that perhaps the circumstance
of the first brood having, while in the larva, or the perfed;
'state, somewhat exhausted the necessary supply of food^
.actuates the butterfly to roam in search of some new and more
productive place where it lays its eggs, and where the insects
produced from them may range in the midst of abundance.
* As to the length .of time they are in season, I captured three
solitary specimens on the 2d of this month at the ^bove com-
mon, and since then, by the kindness of a friend, I have
received one captured at Brighton on the 9th of this month. —
James FennelL Sept. 1832.

' Polyommatus Argiolus double-hooded, (Vol. IV. p. 477. 558(.)
'^-—I took this insect in considerable numbers on the coast |)f
Dorset, in August, 1831, in all its freshness and beauty, and
have also taken it in April and May, 1832, in Somerset. On
July 12. 1832, also, on and near the lower part of a considei*-
able hill (Roundway), near Devizes, I took several specimens,
but rejected them from their worn out and imperfect condition,
The first brood of the year, I therefore :GO;njclw(^#j;,v^iU soon
dis^appear. — Albert. July 12. 1832.

\ Microgdster glomerdtus does not ^^ confine itself to one Species
10^ Moth or Butterjly^'' (p. 106. note, 495.), as several of these
ichneumons came out of the pupae of a brood of Abraxas
grossulariata, which I had kept in a breeding laQ^4hisi:^iBte
mer.— M. P. Sept. 11. 1832. £ ,L .v.ViDcn

s^The Cultivation of \icia sylvatica. — I was rather sur-
prised to find the query of W. T. Bree (Vol. V. p. 198.),
as to the difficulty of cultivating the Ficia sylvatica. It grows
in thousands, perhaps tens of thousands, on Hort's Plill, Hey's
Wood, just ten miles from Coventry, festooning the under-
wood with its beautiful chocolate-striped petals most delight-
fully, It is\|i sight well, worth walking miles to see. In a

Queries atid Ansivers.

769

129

garden in that village, this plant and the crimson grass vetch
(Zathyrus Nissoh'« L.), found wild in that neighbourhood,
have been cultivated for many years without any difficulty, and
there is always an abundance of self-sown plants. — Aliqiiis,
Manchester, March 21. 1832.

Instruments for facilitating E. H. G.'s Meteorological Studies.
(p. 688.) — He will want a night and day thermometer, with
a register or index. Each of these may be had separate (for
about 75. or 7^. 6d. each), or both may be procured on one
frame, with, I believe, in that case, steel indices ; but the best
instrument is Six's night and day register thermometer, price,
at Gary's (181. Strand), IL 16s, This requires a magnet, to
adjust, daily, each index, which will cost 2s. 6d. It is requisite,
also, to have a* pluviometer or rain gauge, which any tinman
could make him, of tin, or copper tinned : the form is not
material, provided the receiver be of precisely the same size,
throughout its whole depth, as the receiving surface. My
own consists of a funnel [Jig. 129. a). Sin. square, fixed
upon the reservoir (b\ by soldering.
Through the neck of this is inserted a
graduated stem (c), terminating in the
cork ball (d\ which floats upon the
surface of the water, the stem mark-
ing in fractions of inches the depth
of rain fallen ; and, lastly, a stopcock
[e\ to let off the water once a month,
or oftener, as required. A single
night register thermometer is useful
as a check upon the double (or Six's).
It would be desirable to add a hy-
grometric column to the calendar;
and, for this purpose, Mr. Daniell's would be the most
delicate, and probably most accurate, hygrometer: the price
I do not know ; but the instrument is described in Mr.
Ty?iX\iQ\Vs Meteorological Essays and Observations, price, I think,
\l. Is. The velocities of the wind, as well as its direction,
might also be added; but I do not know an anemometer
sufficiently simple to give an accurate idea by a hasty glance
merely. — Sigma. Saffron Walden, Sept. 25. 1832.

Two formularies for an anemometer are described in the
Gardener^ s Magazine, vol. vii. p. 231. 618. — J. JD.

The Transit of Mercury observed in London. — Mr. Dovas-
ton asks (p. 504.) where the transit of Mercury was observed.
I reside in the vicinity of the Tower of London, and have not
the means of " hoisting an old Galileo, or of using a long
Sidrophel ;" but, with a Gregorian reflector of 4 ft., I observed
Vol. V. — No. 30. 3 d

770 Queries and Answers.

the transit several times between the hours of ten and eleven
A.M., and I twice caught a glimpse of it between the hours of
one and two p.m. These were the only two periods in which
it was visible in this quarter, as I continued patiently watch-
ing the whole of the time. — R. J, M, Sept. 4. 1832.

The Transit of Mercury seen at Colchester. — At half past
nine, five minutes before ten, at eleven, and at twenty minutes
before twelve o'clock, forenoon, the planet was distinctly seen,
like a circular 4)lack spot crossing the sun's disc. — George
Scott. Observatory^ Colchester^ May 6. 1832.

The Transit of Mercury was observed in Ireland^ at the ob-
servatory of Trinity College, Dublin, by Professor Hamilton,
and also at that of Mr. Sharp, a watchmaker, in Dublin.
There was no observation taken at Armagh, owing to the
cloudiness of the day. — T. K. Killaloe, Sept. 21. 1832.

Anchor Frosts (Vol. V. p. 91. 303. 393.). — Sir, 1 perceive that others
besides myself have endeavoured to account for anchor frosts. Mr. Carr
(p. 395.) says that they never occur except in long and severe frosts ; and
that the adhesion of the ice to the stones at the bottom is owing to their
acquiring a degree of cold far below the freezing point. He is in error
when he says that they never occur except in long-continued frosts, as the
walls of ice, which are sometimes raised on the crowns of weirs, are inva-
riably (as far as my observations have extended) deposited there before the
water in the reservoir above is frozen over : which proves that the frost
has not been of long continuance, although it may have been severe. As
to what he says about the stones acquiring a degree of cold far below the
freezing point, and imparting that coldness to the water, I would just ask
how it is that a stone at the bottom of a river acquires this excess of cold,
and if it is not more probable that the stones impart warmth to the sur-
rounding water. 1 can easily conceive how the stones may, by the action
of the sun's rays upon them, warm the surrounding water ; but I do not
see how they can impart cold, or, in other words, how their temperature
can be reduced below that of the water by which the^ are surrounded.
Stones, certainly, impart warmth to the water they are in, in bright wea-
ther, as the rays of the sun do not impart much of their warmth in passing
through any transparent medium ; but, on coming in contact with any
opaque bodies, the heat is absorbed or reflected, as the case may be : and
in this way transparent media, such as air and water, acquire a warmth by
contact which they would not otherwise possess. Thus, if an anchor frost
is followed by a bright day, the rays of the sun impart so much warmth to
the stones at the bottom of the river as is sufficient to liberate the ice from
them ; and, on such days, thousands of pieces of the ice may be seen float-
ing down the streams. Since my former observations (p. 303.) were writ-
ten, I have had the satisfaction of finding my view of the subject confirmed
by a very eminent chemist ; and if the discussions in your Magazine were
to be settled by authority, and not by argument (which, I trust, will never
be the case), he is one to whom many would be inclined to appeal, and to
whom few would refuse to submit. I am. Sir, yours, &c. — 2\ G. Clitheroey
Lancashirey May 2. 1832.

In J. M.'s communication on this subject, p. 395. line 35., for (the
Thames always freezes) " just at the bottom," read " first at the bottom."
— J. Z>.

771

INDEX TO BOOKS REVIEWED AND NOTICED.

GENERAL SUBJECT.

American Monthly Journal of Geology and
Natural Science, announced, 75.

Arcana of Science and Art; Fifth Year; not
373.

The British Naturalist, vols. i. and ii., rev. 49.

First Report of the Proceedings of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science,
not., 373.

Harris's Natural History of the Bible, not, 76.

Jesse's Gleanings in Natural History, not. 373.

The Journal of a Naturalist, noticed, 292

Martin's and Spix's Reise en Brasilien, or Tra-
vels in Brazil, noticed, 181.

Kafinesque's Precis des Dcfcouvertes Somiolo-
giques et Botaniques, noticed, 76.

Kafinesque's Principes Fondamentaux de So-
^ : miologie, noticed, 76.

Rennie's Notes of a Naturalist, published in
/• Time's Telescope for 1832, noticed, 186.

Rennie's White's Selborne, with New Notes,
announced, 378.

Timbs's Knowledge for the People in Botany,
Geology, Mineralogy, and Meteorology, not.
703.

Transactions of the Albany Institute, not., 712.
t Transactions of the Natural History Society of
i^, Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle

." upon Tyne, reviewed, 71.
"^Transactions of the Literary and Historical So-
<7^^ciety of Quebec, noticed, 75.

fir. Weatherhead's Account of the Beulah Sa-
line Spa, at Norwood, Surrey, noticed, 442.

"^ ZOOLOGY.

^'*f'he Angler's Museum, announced, 191. 667.
Dewhurst's Zoological Description of the Ocean-
ic Inhabitants of the Arctic Regions, proposed,
443.
Dr. Johnston's Zoophytes of North Durham

noticed, 702.
Kearney's Illustrations of the Animals in the

Surrey Zoological Gardens, noticed, 698.
Popular Lectures on the Vertebrated Animals
of the British Islands, noticed, 76. 441.
KM Popular Zoology ; or, Memoirs and Anecdotes of
. , the Animals possessed by the Zoological So-

^' ciety, announced, 378 ; noticed, 537.
V'iPritchard's Microscopic Cabinet of Select Ani-
[ mated Objects, &c. &c., noticed, 647.
' * ' Rennie's Zoological Dictionary, announced,
<.'.-.. 378.

, .Riley's Remarks on Cachemire and Angora
■■^"' Goats, and on the Hybrid Cachemire- Angora,
and on the Common Goat, in reference to
New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land,
noticed, 650.
Swainson's Zoological Illustrations, not. [2071
yhe Zoological Journal, No. xix. of, not. 648.

..•♦ ORNITHOLOGY.

Gould's Illustrations of the Birds of Europe,

announced, 190 ; noticed, 535.
Hewitson's British Oology, noticed, 699.
Latham's General History of Birds, not. 590.
Latham's General Synopsis of Birds, not. 589.
The Minstrelsy of the Woods, noticed, 442.
Rennie's Natural History of the Birds of Africa

announced, 191.
Rennie's Translation of Le Vaillant's Birds of

Paradise and the Parrots, announced, 191.
Rennie's Work on the Habits of Birds, an.

nounced, 378.
Rennie's Work on the Faculties of Birds, an-
nounced, 378.
Rennie's Edition of Montagu's Ornithological

Dictionary, criticised, 676.
Richardson's and Swainson's Fauna Boreali-

Americana, Part II., containing the Birds,

noticed, 186 ; reviewed, 360.
Sclby's Illustrations of British Ornithology, the

Second Volume of Letterpress to, announced,
378.

Sharpless's Description of the American Wild
Swan, 699.

Slaney's Introduction to the Knowledge of Bri-
tish Birds, announced, 443 ; noticed. 698.

Swainson's Ornithological Drawings, illustrating
the System of Nature, announced, 377.

CONCHOLOGY. , .

F^russac's Histoire Generale et Particuli^re ^es
Mollusques, and Histoire Naturelle des Mol-
lusques Terrestres et Fluviatiles, announced
as resumed, 192. »

Jenyns's Monograph on Cj'^clas .and Pisfdium,
noticed, 374.

Dr. Turton's Manual of the Land and Fresh-
water Shells of the British Islands, with
coloured Plates of every Species, reviewed,
175.

ENTOMOLOGY.

Brown's Book of Butterflies, Moths, and Sphinx-
es, &c., 702. ■ ' ••

The Entomological Magazine, noticed,.700. .

Dr. Horsfield's Lepidopterous Insects of Java,
Third Part announced, 378.

Newman'^ Essay on 5phinx pespiformis, not.
187.393.

Rennie's Conspectus of Butterflies, announced,
378.

Rennie's Insect Miscellanies, noticed, 73; far-
ther noticed, 364.

Samouelle's Entomological Cabinet, announced,
76 ; noticed, 186.

Stephens's Description of Chiasogn^thusGr&ntii,
noticed, 189. 323.

BOTANY.

Baxter's cheap and accurate Figures of the
Flowering Plants of Oxfordshire, noticed,
708.

Don's General System of Gardening and Botany,
noticed, 74.

Edwards's Botanical Register, noticed, [207].

Henslow's Examination of a Hybrid Digitalis,
noticed, 189. ; and " Gardener's Magazine,"
Vol. VIII. p. 209.

Hooker's Continuation of Smith's English Flora,
announced, 713.

Hooker's and Greville's Figures and Descrip-
tions of Ferns, noticed, 704.

Dr. Johnston's Flora of Berwick upon Tweed,
vol. ii. noticed, 75. ; reviewed, 178.

Lindley's Introduction to Botany, announced,
443; noticed, 706.

Mackay's Catalogue of the Plants of Ireland,
noticed, 709.

Mudie's Botanic Annual, noticed, 189; review-
ed, 369.

Rafinesque'i Medical Flora, or Manual of the
Medical Botany of the United States of North
America, noticed, 76.

Smith's and Sowerbv's English Botany, the 2d
edit, noticed, 707.

Sowerby's Mushroom and Champignon Illus-
trated, noticed, 376.

Wallich's Select East Indian Plants, noticed,
705.

GEOLOGY.

Bakewell's Introduction to Geology, the fourth
edition announced, 713.

De la Beche's Manual of Geology, noticed, 709.

Bout's M^moires Geologiques et Paleontolo-
giques, noticed, 376.

Hack's Geological Sketches and Glimpses of the
Ancient Earth, noticed, 75.

Higgins's Comparison of the Mosaic and Mine-
ral Geologies, noticed, 712.

Lindley and Hutton's Fossil Flora of Great
Britain, noticed, 650.

772

GENERAL :INfifK;;

„8S* ,b9diT383: J0Bb91U8ft

,T*-V .eWi ,84idfiri 8Ji no

(xoniuitii

»n al-Mfle 9tlJ ; 'OS .2VI .Sl)t> flO(889r>9T(q 9f J

jitii'/ihyf tli

■^ CARUS? a species of, which infests butter-

. flies, 33&

Acc^nttit alp's riiis met with in England, 288.

ActinikTuifedije Johnston, described and illus-
trated, 163.

Adder with two distinct heads, 569.

Agonum fdlgens Davis, described, 247.

Alleghany Mountains, climate and meteorology
of, 456; animals and plants of, 457.

America, gold mines in the United States of,
434. 454 ; food of bees in America, 453 ; Ne^
lumbium specibsum ? a native of, 453 ; criti-
cism on T. W.'s letters descriptive of a natural
history tour in North America, 292.

Anchovy, the, occurs in Dagenham Breach,
495. 543.

ylnem6ne nemorbsa, the scent of its flowers
variously rated, 758.

Angler's Museian, noticed, 191. 678.

Animalciiles, infusory, Professor Ehrenberg's
discoveries in, 389.

Animals and vegetables, analogies between them
in structure and functions, 24. 118. 405. 507.
714; animals about Whitehaven, notes on,560 ;
animals and birds of Renfrew and its neigh-
bourhood, 571 ; molluscous animals, the cir-
culating system of, 31 ; the secretions of, 611 ;
process of lactation in animals, 651 ; animals
vary in all localities according to the different
plants introduced into those localities, 67;
mammalious animals found in the neighbour-
hood of "Wensleydale, Yorkshire, 723,

An'ona, the custard apple, countries in which
it grows, 761.

Ant, the red, in Guiana, 23.'>.

Ape, Ungka, of Sumatra, some account of, 131.

Appendix, printed at the expense of the re-
spective writers of it, [109]. [191].

A'rctia Cdja, what is the use of the hairs on
the caterpillar of ? 687.

Argynnis P^phia, a hermaphrodite'of, 753.

Arvicola agr^stis Fleming, and riparia Yarrell,
described and contrasted, 599.

Baltimore, a botanic garden at, 453.

Bats, 470 ; habits of the vampire bats, 678.

Bee, on the power of the common bee to gene-
rate a queen, 604.

Bees, superstitions respecting, 211 ; perforations
by bees in corollas, 74. 86. 753 ; the objects of
their food in North America, 453; a cu-
rious fact concerning bees, 651.

Beetle, the Scarabae^us Ateuchus s^er, 450;
the ehovy beetle (Scarabae^us hortfcola), 596,
597. See also Cetunia. A species of water
beetle devours small fishes, 668.

Belfast, birds taken near, 577, 578.

Berwickshire, contributions to the geology of,
637.

Birds using oil to dress their plumage from dor-
sal glands, 442. 588 ; birds and eggs met with
in the Orkney Islands, 415. 675 ; Mr. Water,
ton on the incubation of birds, 142 ; birds and
birdnesting, something about, 601 ; Mr. Do-
vaston's descriptive sketches of the British
singing birds eulogised, and a continuation of
them solicited, 673; habits of the green hum-
ming-bird, 675 ; birds destroyed by parasitical
worms in their trachea, 207; dates of the ap-
pearing, breeding, and disappearing of birds in
Tyncmouth, 566 ; rarer birds taken near Dub-

•.IJ

-sasTO oennoa: 31£OT91 5-
a«03 \o norniqo ariJ ;

.wr ,8ji«it

lin, 576 ; near Belfast, 577, 578 ; birds met with
on the northern coast of Donegal, 578 ; birds
found in the neighbourhood of Wensleydale,
in the North Riding of Yorkshire, b5^. 723 ;
birds and, animals of Renfrew audits neigh..
bourhood,571 ; rarer birds taken in Worcester,
379; on domesticating and promoting the
propagation of various species of birds, 382 ;
European singing birds in India, 734; birds
of>everal species frequent in the south of
England are not met with in Lancashire, 737.

Blackcap and nightingale contrasted, 425 ; no-
tice on the two, 597.

Blackcock ^Tetrao Tutrix L,.), habitat of, 603.

Blue bells of Scotland are the flowers of Cam-
panula rotundifblia L., 493.

Boars, their losing their tusks scarcely emas-
culates them, 651.

Brambling, the, possesses imitative powers of
song, 652.

Brazil, a further account of a Russian natural
history expedition in, during the seven years
preceding April, 1831, 4.

Broom moth (Chtsias sparti^ta) eats the petals,
not herbage,'of the common furze, 687.

Butcher bird, its habits, 281.

Butterflies at Dover, 330 ; a species of yl'carus
infesting butterflies, 336.

Butterfly, the tail of the caterpillar becomes the
head of the, 206. 398, 399. 684, 685 ; British
white butterflies, 394; Vanessa Atalantflf, ha-
bits of, 291 ; Vanessa urficse, polychlbros, c.
&lburo, Po, and Gonepteryx rhamni, noticed,
595; Limenitis Camilla, and a singular va-
riety of it, figured and described, 667 ; dates
of the brimstone-coloured butterfly's vernal
appearance, 753. See also Polyommatus.

Buzzard, the honey, contribution towards a
history of it, 280. 379 ; poultry hatched by the
common buzzard in captivity, 383, 384. 728.

Calendar of appearances in the spring of 1832
and that of 1831,593.

Calves, in twin-born ones, is one invariably
sterile ? 397 ; both are sometimes fertile, 765.

Cambridgeshire, collectors and collections in
natural history in, 545 ; vernal appearances
in, 597.

Campagnol, bank and field, described and con-
trasted, 599.

Canterbury, museum of natural history at, 539.

Castle Rigg, Cumberland, 559.

Cat, the domestic, catches swallows on the wing,
84.273.716; other feats by it, 274; kills ver-
min from a feeling of heroism and sport, 275 ;
a kitten resembling a rabbit in its hinder
half, 275; cats born with short tails, 276.
674. 717 ; the wood cat and domestic cat con-
trasted, 51 ; rivers crossed by a cat, 471.

Caterpillar's tail becomes the butterfly's head,
206. 398, 399. 684, 685.

Caterpillars found in a book, 109. 206 ; cater,
pillars on cabbages destroyed by Microgaster
glomerktus, 105. See Microg&ster.

Cephalbtus follicularis, a notice of, 492.

Cetijnia hirta of Scopoli and Fabricius, its ra-
vages, 87 ; aurkta, facts on, 597.

Chaffinch, the benefits and injuries it confers,
05 ; its food, 299.

Char, S&lmo alplnus L., and another species of
fish, Z\Q.

GENERAL INDEX.

773

Chkta, on the process of fructification in the
genus, 348.

CheUfer cancr5\des is parasitic on the common
housed y,*754.

Ch&sias spartiata, broom moth, eats the petals,
not herbage, of the common furze, 687.

Chiasogn&thus Grantw Stephens, figure and
description of, 323. 592.

Chimpanzee male, and female Borneo orang-
utan, habits and manners of, 305.

Chit-Chat, No. I., 497 j the opinion of corre-
spondentson, 673.

Chough of Cornwall, query on its habits, 104.

Cicclda hcematbdes, five specimens of, captured
in the New Forest, Hampshire, 686.

Cinclus, its etymon and application, 734-

Ciner Jiria integrifblia, and varieties of it, 88.

Conventional signs, to express objects in geo-
logy and physical geography, 587.

Corncrake, Rallus C'rex L., notes on its habits,
68. 298. 724; its gizzard, 731 ; does the bird
breed in the south of England? 732.

Curnu Ammbnis in Somersetshire, 504. 538.

Cornwall, rarer si)ecies of fish found in, 15 ;
queries on the chough of Cornwall, Pyrrh6.>
corax Graculus, 104; queries on the ore called
mundickin Cornwall, 110.

Corvorant, crested, eggs of, 397.

C6ryhe glandulbsa Johnston, figured and de-
scribed, (;31.

Crabs, land, species in Jamaica, 477.

Creeper, Ceithia familiaris L., its habits, 204.
489. 737, 738.

Crow, carrion, incubation of, 143. 395. 487. 590.
676.

Cuckoo, parasitical habits of, 62. 277. 278, 674 ;
queries and remarks on its habits, 62 ; prefers
to lay in the pied wagtail's nest, 277.

Custard apple, Anbna, countries in which it
grows, 761.

DabChick, a short notice on, 602. 724.

Dagenham Breach, Essex, notice on, 543.

Daphne Mexereum, and Laureola, structure of
the calyx of, 399.

Dead Sea, remarks on the formation of, 552.

Dew, annual quantity deposited in Britain, 396.

Dipterous insects, the generic characters of the
European, translated from Meigen's St/ste-
matische Beschreibung, and illustrated by
figures, 1.56—162.

Dodder, greater, directions for cultivating the,
506.

Dog, pointer, eccentricity of appetite in a, 714.

Donegal, a list of, and remarks on, mammalious
animals, and on birds, observed on the north-
ern coast of, 578.

Dove, the ring, or wood pigeon, cannot be do-
mesticated, 383 ; habits of the English turtle

~ dove, 82. 299.

-Dragon fly, some notice of the habits and trans-
formations of, 517.

Drosera. See Sundew.

Duck, notes ontheScoter duck, Oidbmianigra
Flern., 82 ; its food, 733 ; the long-legged
whistling ducks of the West Indies, and the
sheldrake, 203 ; prodigious abundance of wild
ducks in Chesapeake Bay, 452.

Dun diver, information and queries on the wind-
pipe of, 397. 766.

Eagle, the white-tailed, breeds in captivity, 278 ;
anecdote of a young eagle, 279 ; notice of a
great harpy eagle, sent from Mobile, in Flo-
rida, to the Zoological Society of London, 452.

Eels, facts and opinions on their mode of pro-
pagation, 313. 744.

Eggs and birds met with in the Orkney Islands,

; 415. 675 ; a safe mode of transporting eggs to
be hatched, 383 ; remarks on the hatching of
eggs, 102. 494 ; by Mr. Waterton, 142 ; eggs
containingchicks nottobe successfully hatched
if suffered to cool, 101 ; eggs, when covered
and moistened, more easily hatched, 102. 494.

Eggshells, Mr. Waterton on the preservation of,

for cabinets, 515.
Electricity, its pervasive agency in nature, 117 ;
it is the cause of fairy rings, 113.

English counties, natural history in, 538 : Cam-
bridgeshire,545; Cumberland, natural nistory
in, 128. 558; Durham, 71. 564; Essex, 543;
Hampshire, 538 ; Kent, 539 ; Lancashire, .550 j
Norfolk, 544; Northumberland, 71. 565; NoU
tinghamshire, 549 ; Somersetshire, 538; War,
wickshire,546; Westmoreland,128; Yorkshire,
553 ; captures of insects in certain English
counties, by Mr. Davis, 245 ; by Mr. Dale, 249.

Entomology. See Insects.

E'^olis rufibranchi&lis, figured and described, 428.

Epelra diad^ma, facts on its habits, 689. 747.

Equinoxes, the geological effects produced by
the precession of, 102. 172. 201 ; the effects of
the precession to be considered in verifying

EsqSaux; Lake, 4.^8. '^*ii^ *^ "^^^^fj^

European singing-birds in India, .734 .,,.'*^'„.;> \\,^
tairy rings, electricity the cause 6fxn6m, n3,„}V./
Fern owl, habits of the, 602. 674. 726. ' ,?"*
Fezzan ram, 450. joli'*^

Fieldfare, an instance of its reasoning, 2tq-i(^'/.
facts in its history, 593. 596. <v^At,

Fire fly, possibility of introducing to, and na.tu2:^„
ralising in, Britain, 672. iia„ ^

Fishes new to the British Fauna, contained; inj!^,
Couch's History of the Fishes of Cornwaff^[,
15. 311; corrective notices relative to tl\^^'
communication, 393. 741 ; habits of the c^^^a^l^
and mention of another species of fish, Sl^jj" ,
species of fish which inhabit the waters of .(
Wensleydale, 555 ; species which inhabyi.,
Dagenham Breach, Essex, 543 ; small fishes^'. .
are devoured by other insects besides tHfe
larvffi of dragon flies, 668 ; fishes feed and
discern in sunny weather, 289 ; fishes retain
their vitality after being frozen, 651 ; notice
on the great gar fish, 453 ; remarks on various
British fishes, 58; fossilised fish found in 9^^;
stone quarry, near Stratford upon Avon, 549;,/'
fishes in the Yore or Ure, 725 ; notices of th^„„i
short sunflsh, 315; ofthecommonsunfish,743. .

Fishing in China, 447. .„.,„,

Flies, an extraordinary swarm of, 302 ; the blu%.^, !
bottle fly deposits its eggs in the human facc^ ■
482 ; as does the ffi'strus Auminis, 483. .: ,/„:

Flowers, luminous appearance on, 208. 504. ' ,' .',

Flycatcher, the pied, its habits, habitat, and
period of appearance, 83; other facts on this
bird, 569, : ,

Fogs, remarks on' London, 89. 304. 395.

Forfarshire, remarks during a walk on the coast
of, 573.

Fossil riches of Touraine, 444; fossil stag's horn
found in the chalk measures near Meredon,
France, 446; fossil fish and ichthyosaurus
found in a stone quarry near Stratford upon
Avon, 649 ; fossil botany, 650.

Fraxinella plant, Dict&mnus Fraxindlla, what
is the property in it which ignites so readily?
760.

Frog, Rkna. temporkria L., notes on the struc-
ture of its tongue, and the probable end of
that structure, 84 ; cries of frogs, and other
facts on frogs, 490; dead and live frogs con-
sumed by leeches, 291 ; the iJana esculenta,
the eatable frog, has been found in Forfer-
shire: does it occur there now .=> 104.

Frost, remarks on anchor-frosts, 91. 303. 395.
770.

Fumilria Vaillant« proved a British plant, 88.

Gallinule, a percher and eatable, 381; other
facts on, 601. 750, 731 : the spotted, facts on,
73J.

Geology, contributions to that of Berwickshire,
637 ; conventional signs suggested, to express
objects in geology, 587 ; geological phenomew
na, as affected by the precession of the equi-
noxes, 102. 172. 201.

Goats, caprice of appetite in, 471.

Gold mines in the United States of America,
434. 454.

Goosander, a figure of its windpipe, 766; of the
red-breasted goosander, 766.

Goose family, a rare kind of the, 79 ; Egyptian
geese seen beside the Tweed at Carham, 565.

774

GENERAL INDEX.

Grebes, food of the larger, 733.

Greenfinch, the, possesses imitative powers of
song, 653.

Grosbeak. See Hawfinch,

Groundsel, a variety of the common, Senfecio
vulgaris, described and figured, 87.

Guinea fowl, a note on the, 383.

Habitats of wild plants, . changes in the, 196.
197.

Hare, a gigantic female, 276 ; on hares taking

. the water, 77. 99. 100. 293; on domesticating
and promoting the propagation of hares in a
domestic state, 382.

Harebells, the, of Scotland, are the flowers of
Sc'Ala niltans, 493.

Hatching. See Eggs and Incubation,

Hawfinch, interesting facts on, 582. 735.

Health, human, meteorologically influenced,
350.

Hedgehog, auditory organs of, 297.

Heron, common, its skill in fishing, 57. 192.

Herring and pilchard distinguished, 59.

Hogs eat, and thrive on, the poisonous roots
of cassava, Janipha Mdnihot, 472.

Horse, caprice of appetite in a, 714. See also
Luminous appearance.

Housefly, the, is subject to the parasitic Ch^lifer
cancroldes, 754.

Humming in the air, 110. 205, 301. 686.

Humming-birds, facts and opinions on, 473.
475 ; some habits of the green humming-bird,
675.

Hydrbbius lateralis, not a British insect, 86. 556.

Ichneumon, individuals of, probably of/. globJl-
tus i., contained in a ball, 495; of a species
of Pimpla hatched in the body of a pupa of
Lasiocampa qu^rcus, 748.

/chneum6nid£e, their effectiveness in checking
the superabundant increase of certain insects,
85. 105, 301. 495. See Microg^ster.

Ichthyosaurus found in a stone quarry near
Stratford upon Avon, 549.

Illustrations in British zoology. See Zoology,

Imber shot in the river Teign, 284.

Incubation, Mr. Waterton's remarks on, in re-
ference to those of Mr. Rennie, 142. See also
Crow,

Insects, additions to the list of British species,
327; figures and descriptions of remarkable
forms in entomology, 318. 327. 591 ; the gene-
ric characters of the European dipterous in-
sects, translated from Meigen's Sy'stematische
Beschreibung, and illustrated bv figures, 156.
162; a mode of preserving inlects without
eviscerating them enquired for, 495; Mr.
Waterton's modes and means of preserving
insects for cabinets, 683 ; criticisms on,it, 746 ;
insects captured in 1831 by Mr. Davis, 245 ;
by Mr. Dale in 1831, 249 ; Agbnum fiilgens
Davis described, 247 ; parasitic Pter6mali
prey on Musca larvarum, while both are in
the body of A'rctia Cdja, 252 i Agbnum ful-
gens Davis, described, 247 ; insects observed
about Whitehaven, in April, 1832, 561 ; aqua-
tic coleopterous insects taken in one hundred
yards' length in the Hebden watercourse,
Yorkshire, 555 ; on the claims of certain lepi-
dopterous species of insects to be deemed na-
tive to En gland, 149; in insect transformation,
the tail of the larva (caterpillar) does not be-
come the head of the imago (butterfly), 206.
398. 399. 684. 6^.6 ; insect monstrosities, 395 ;
transformation of the dragon fly, 517 ; Li-
menltis Camflla, and a singular variety of it,
figured and described, 667 ; a work on the
British species of insects wanted, 686. 747.
767 ; the dragon fly devours .small fishes, 519 ;
as does a species of water beetle, 668 ; the in-
sects in Jamaica which are either trouble-
some or injurious, 479.

Ireland, natural history in, 576; in various
counties, 576 ; in the county of Donegal, 578 ;
on reptiles in Ireland, 104. 494 ; Fris tuberi)sa
indigenous to Ireland, 197. 200.

i^ris p^rsica, remarks on the odour of its flowers,
759.

iVis tuberbsa L. indigenous to Ireland, 197.
200 ; and to England, 201.

Jamaica, insects in, which are either trouble-
some or injurious, 479; various notices of
objects in natural history appertaining to Ja-
maica, 470.

Journal of a Naturalist, an extraordinary state-
ment in it confirmed, 292.

Kestrel, its mode of killing its prey, 281,

Kingfisher at Bury St. Edmunds, 195.

Kitten resembling a rabbit in its hinder half,
275, See also Cat,

Lactation in animals, 651.

Lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland, rough
notes of a pedestrian tour to, 128 ; the use of
lakes, 56.

Lampreys, Petrom^zon cae^us Rat/, figured
and described, 23 ; contributions towards the
history of P. marinus and P. fluvi^tiiis, 290,
564. 679.

Lancashire, observations on the limestone dis-
trict, &c. of Yealand, near Lancaster, 550,

Landrail, See Corncrake.

Lapwing, a habitat in which it abounds, 603.

Lark, the pipit lark distinct from the meadow
pipit, or titlark, 287.

Lathrae^'a Squamkria, its parasitical organs and
nature, 45 ; further mention of, 505. 543.

Leeches, medicinal, remain alive after l)eing
frozen, 651 ; the horseleech consumes dead
and live frogs, 291 ; facts on the flying leech,
754.

Lhpas, a species of, cast ashore near Liverpool,
339 ; ifepas anatffera, figured, 343. 344,

Lepidopterous insects, the claims of certain
species to be considered native to England,
149; lepidopterous insects, close aflSnity of,
to the Phryg&nidffi, 686.

Llmax Sowerbyi of Ferussac, some account of,
693.

Limenitis Camilla, and a singular variety of,
figured and described, 667.

Linnjeus, as reflected on by Professor Rennie,
193.

Lizards, notices on various species in Jamaica,
476. 653 ; lizards in Ireland, 494.

Longevity in Russia, 447.

Lucernaria auricula, described and figured,
44.

Luminosity of the sea, remarks on, 1, 302. 487.

Luminous appearance on flowers, 208. 504 ; on
the ears of a horse, HI. 400. 762, 763.

Magazine of Natural History, The, opinions on
publishing it monthly, 673. 714,

Martin, facts on the, 204. 567, 677. 735 j sand
martin, facts on, 568.

Mercury, the transit of, places at which it was
observetl, 769, 770.

M^rgus Merganser, serrator, and alb^llus, a
figure of the windpipe of each, 766.

Meteorology, report for High Wycombe,
Berks, during June and July, in the last
eight years, 350; notes on the meteorology
of Switzerland, 353 ; and of Rome, 357 ; a
formulary for a meteorological calendar de-
scribed, 688 ; the spring of 1832 compared
with that of 1831, 593; instruments for facili-
tating the study of, 769.

Microgaster glomer^tus, a copious contribution
to its history, 105; a figure of it and of its
metamorphoses, 108 ; a hairlike appendage
to the abdomen of its larva, 109; Mr. West-
wood's remarks on, 301 ; this insect preys on
insects of various species, 495. 768.

Midge, the name of an insect, and should not
be applied to a fish as well, 15. 299. 741.

Minnow, notes on the spawning of, 681 ; habits
of the, 290. 562.

Misseltoe, remarks on the, 505.

Mites, parasitic on slugs and snails, facts on, 696.

Mole, Talpa europee^a, its habits and uses : it
shows changes of the weather, 78 ; auditory
organs of, described, 298 ; it swims of choice,
765.

Molluscous animals, their circulating system,
31 ; their secretions, 611.

GENERAL INDEX.

Moorhen, habits of, 381. 601. 730, 7S1.

Moths, remarks on, 60. 687.

Mountains seen through a haze which the rays
of the sun can scarcely pierce, 356. 494.

Mouse. See Campagnol.

Mundick, the ore so called, of Cornwall, query
on, 110.

Miisca larvkrum, while in the body of A'rctia
Cdja, preyed on by parasitic Pter6mali, 252.

Necr6phagus spinipes, notes on, 562.

A'iepenthes distillatbria, a notice of, 492.

Nightingale, Mr. Dovaston's remarks on the
nightingale and blackcap, 425 ; a notice on
the nightingale, P>91. 724 ; was heard singing
on the 12th Dec, in cither 1823 or 1824, 654.

Nightjar, or fern owl, some of the habits of, 602.
674. 726.

Nomenclature, changes in, deter from prose-
cuting natural history, 194. 502.

Norfolk, origin of the crag stratum of, 544.

Nottinghamshire, rare plants in, 549.

Nuthatch, some of the habits of, 488. 502. 591.
737.

Oak trees in Surrey, the leaves of, ravaged by
the caterpillars of the Tortrix viridkna, 669.

Obsequy by and for John F. M. Dovaston, Esq.,
A.M., 111.

Omens and superstitions connected with objects
in natural history, 209; with the barn owl,
Aldco flammeus Fleming, 9.

Orang-utan, Borneo, female, and the male
chimpanzee, habits and manners of, 305.

Ornithological reasonings, 276.

Ornithoscope described, 83. 205. 39&

Owl, habits of the barn, 9 ; its benefits to man,
13. 727; habits of the Strix Sc6ps in Italy,
654.

Papili6nidae occurring in the vicinity of Dover,
330; in Weaver's museum at Birmingham,
749. See also Butterfly and Insect.

Paraguay tea tree figured and described, 8.

Parasites upon the cabbage caterpillars, 107.
301. 495 ; parasitic Pteromali, 252.

Pkris quadrifblia, variations in, 429. 755.

Partridge, common, breeds not in captivity,
383.

Peahen, a slovenly mother, 383.

Petals, lamellate, instances of, 399.

Petrel, forked-tail, taken at Chipping Norton,
Oxon, 282 ; in Herefordshire, and the neigh-
bouring counties, 283 ; at Birmingham, 283.
733 ; in various places, 588. 733 ; remarks on
the British species of petrel, 589.

Peziza coccinea, a gigantic specimen of, 538.

Phalarope, grey, contributions to the history of,
and inland captures of, 282, 283. 379. 589. 729.

Pheasant, tame, assiduous in rearing its young,
383; young pheasants killed by parasitical
worms in their windpipe, 208; pheasants
hatched under white domestic hens have
more or fewer of white feathers, 494.

Pigeon, domestic habits of, 285 ; whirls of the
tumbler pigeon, 203 ; mode of decoying wild
pigeons in New England, 452.

Pilchard and herring distinguished, 59.

Pimpernel, red, ^nagallis arvensis, and blue,
A. caeriilea, not of one species, 493.

PlanJiria corn&ta, 344; correction respecting,
429. 678.

Plants native to the Polynesian Islands, notices
on the, 92 : on the dispersion and distribution
of plants, 522 ; their agency in breaking down
and clothing rocks, 552 ; changes in the habi-
tats of wild plants, 196, 197 ; relative scarcity
of certain British species of, 197 ; on establish-
ing exotic species in British localities, 197 ;
rare plants growing in the neighbourhood of
Doncaster, 556 ; in Yorkshire, 558 ; in Not-
tinghamshire, 549 ; inTeesdale,564; at Tun-
bridge Wells, 543.

Plover ; the Kentish plover argued to be not a
variety of the ring plover or dulwilly, but a
distinct species, 80.
Polecat, references respecting the, 297.
Polynesian Islands, notices on the native plants
of the. 92.

775

Poly6mmatus Arglolus, the azure blue butterfly,
is double-brooded, 109. 205 420. 496. 768. ; no-
tice on the caterpillar of, 490 j on the wings
of, 496.

Poultry hatched by the common buzzard in
captivity, 383, 384 ; poultry very fond of the
fruit of Capsicum, 473.

Praniza fusc^ta, figured and described, 521.

Pter6mali, parasitic, on M6scalarv^rum within
the body of A'rctia Cdja, 252.

Rail, the land. See Corncrake.

Rail, the water, 299 ; is the water rail migra.
tory, ornot? 397.732; a white water rail,
384 ; food of the water rail, 732.

Ram of Fezzan, 450.

Reed warbler, a notice of the, 309.

Renfrewshire, native animals of, 571.

Rennie, Professor, his remarks appertaining ta
the Swainsonian controversy, [110].

Rocks, their influence on native vegetables,
195.

Rook, the C6rvus frugilegus L., remarks on
the nakedness of the forehead and base of the
bill of, 241 ; on the supposed pouch or bag at
the base of the bill of, 512.

i^ubus Chamsembrus and drcticus, and their
fruit, remarks on, 54.

Russian patronage of natural history, 6; longe-
vity in Russia, 447.

Sandal-wood tree, and some of the botanical pro-
ductions of the Sandwich Islands, 255.

Sandpiper; identity of the green sandpiper and
the wood sandpiper, 81 ; facts on the com.
mon, 724.

Sap, ascent of the, 196.

Sarracenias, structure of the leaves in, 492.

5carabae"'us Ateuchus sacer, 450 ; aurktus and
horticola, 596, 597.

5colop^ndra el^ctrica, incidental notices of,
368. 400.

Scorpions, information regarding, 482.

Scoter duck (Oidfemia nigra Flem,), notes on
the, 82, 733.

Scotland, natural history in, 569 ; in various
counties, 569; in Forfarshire, 573; in Ren-
frewshire, 571 ; monthly calendar of weather
in Perthshire during October and Novem-
ber, 1831, 97 ; the blue bells of Scotland are
the flowers of Campanula rotundifblia, 493.

Sea, luminousness of, 302 ; the lashing of the
beach by the waves of, described, 5'i.

Sedge bird, its mocking powers, 053 ; other facts
on, 654.

Sheep, the rot in, 98. 202. 715.

Sheldrake, and lorig-legged whistling ducks, 203.

Shrew, the oared (Sbrex remifer Yarrell), de-
scribed, 598 ; notes on the water shrew, Sbrex
fudiens, 79 ; on the common shrew, S. ara-
neus, 79 ; structure of the ears of the water
shrew, 298.

Shrike (Lanius excubitor L.), notice on the
habits of, 569.

Silkworm, facts on the, 652.

5imia synd&ctyla, or ungka ape of Sumatra,
some account of, 131 — 142.

Siren ZacertlnaZ., figured and described, 663.

Skunk weasel, Fiv^rra mephitis, notes on, 503.

Skunk weed, notes on the, 563.

Slug, Sowerby's, some account of, 693.

Smew, the, a figure of its windpipe, 766.

Snails, mites parasitic on, 697 ; H^lix ruf^scens
and hispida noticed, 697.

Snake, common, its habits, 385. 387.

Snow, on the crystallisation of, 90.

South Sea Islands, sketch of the botany of the,
483.

Sparrow, Senegal, or cut-throat, a species of
i^ringilla, 397 ; cruel love of a female of the
house sparrow, 277.

Sphinx i>espif6rmis,an essay, criticised, 117; and
by Mr. Stephens, 393.

Spider, the common garden (Epelra diadfema),
facts on its habits, 689. 747 ; on other spiders,
747, 748 ; the thread of spiders, 748.

Spring of 1832 compared with that of 1831,

776

GENERAL INDEX.

Stag's horn, fossil, in chalk at Meredon,

France, 446.
StaphyPinus hfrtus, remarkable appendage to

the eye of, 105.
Starling (Stiirnus vulgaris i.), habits of, 284;

StCirnus Cfnclus, a notice on the, 734.
Sticklebacks, notes on, 562.
Stoat (A/ustela ermfnea), notices on the, 77.

293.295.393.718.
St^gia not a New Holland genus, 394. ]
Sugar cane, insects which infest, 466.
Sun, spot on, in 1829, 396.
Sundew, round-leaved (Drosera rotundifblia),

do the corollas of, ever expand ? 110. 758 ; the

irritability of the hairs on the leaves of,

questioned, 491. 755 > partly answered, 756.
Sunflower, annual, habits of, 493.
Superstitions and omens attached to objects in

natural history, 9. 209.
Surrey Zoological Gardens, a visit to, 401.
Swainson's Zoological Illustrations, controversy

respecting, between Mr-Swainson and A.R Y.,

CllO]. [207].
Swainsonian controversy, Mr.Vigors's analysis

of, [191]— [206] ; Professor Rennie's remarks

on, [110]; Mr. Swainson's reply to Professor

Rennie, [207].
Swallow, its powers of song, 67 ; its intrepidity,

84 ; remarks on swallows, 204. 285. 567. 677.

735 ; swallows in Africa, 449.
Swallow tick, its effects on the swallow tribe,

677.
Swift killed by its flying against a wall, 203 ; the

migration of swifts in 1831, 145 ; structure of

the nest of the swift, 59; pugnacity of the

swift, 677 ; habits of the swift, 736.
Sycamore (A^cer Psetido-Platanus L.), varia-

tions in the cotyledons and primordial leaves

of, 347.
Salvia hippol^is and rr6chilus noticed, 595.
Tabernaeraontkna alternif blia,the Divi Ladner,

or Eve's apple, 448.
Tapir, second species of, in South America, 458.

714.
Tea plants of Paraguay, 8 ; of other countries, 9.
Teal, in Jamaica, 473.
Tern, a species of, found dead inland, 283.
Throstle, 593.
Titmouse, blue, or tomtit, habits of, 66. 289 ; in

detail, 655 ; habits of the greater titmouse,

289. 602. 660 ; the great black-headed titmouse

has built its nest in the deserted nest of a

magpie, 605; the devotedness of the marsh

titmouse to its nest, 661; habitats of the

bearded titmouse, 544 ; the usefulness and in-

juriousness of titmice considered, 66, 657.
Tomtit. See Titmouse.
T6rtrix viriditna, its ravages on the leaves of

oak trees described, 669. 753,
Touraine, fossil riches of, 444.
Trees, superstitious belief in the power of, 211 ;

mora tree of Guiana, 235.
Trichiosbma lucbrum, its history, 85.
Turkeys eat, and thrive on, caterpillars which

have fed on growing leaves of tobacco, 472.
Turtle, the green or esculent, 476. 652.
Turtle dove (Col6mba Tiirtur), notes on the

habits of, 82. 299.
Faccfnium, remarks on the British species of

the, 52.

Vampire bat, 470, 471. G78.
Vanessa urticae and polychloros, an error in the
application of these names, 574 ; corrected.

Vegetables and animals, analogies between
them in structure and functions, 24. 118. 405.
507; irritability in vegetables, 26;, the influ-
ence of rocks upon vegetables, 195. See also
Plants.

ricia sylv&tica, its seeds sown by man rarely
grow, 768.

Vigors, Mr., his investigation of Mr. Swainson's
attack on him, [109]. [192].

Viper, common, tne uses formerly made of, 299.

Volcanoes, essays on, 164. 262. 632.

Vulture, the, traces its food by the faculty of
scent, 233.

Wagtail, habits of the spring or yellow, 288 ;
the pied wagtail a wader, 288 ; its nest is pre-
ferred by the cuckoo for receiving the egg of
the latter, 277. 675.

Warbler, alpine, occurs in England, 288 ; a no-
tice of the reed warbler, 309.

Weather, and its influence on human health,
at High Wycombe, Bucks, 350 ; weather in
Switzerland, 353. 357 ; criticisms on some po-
pular prognostics of the weather. 60; changes
in the weather indicated by the actions of the
mole, 78. See Meteorology.

Weasel (Afustt;la vulgaris), notices on the, 77.
295—297.

Weaver's museum of natural history in Bir-
mingham, 546. 749.

Whales, observations on the zoology and com.
parative anatomy of, more especially of those
of the Bal8en6ptera Rdrqual, now (1832) under
exhibition at Charing Cross, 214 ; a finner
whale captured at Largo, in Fifeshire, 570.

Whitethroat, early appearance of, 288.

Wigeon's nest and eggs found in England, and
the eggs hatched under a domestic hen, 384.
590. 679.

Wilson, the ornithologist, the date and some of
the circumstances of his death, 103. 293.

Wind, philosophical remarks on the east wind,
89 ; causes of the trade winds considered,
764.

Woodcock, the, resides through the year, and
breeds, in Scotland, 573; remarks on the,
725.

Woodlark of White, query on, 104.

Woodpecker, the middle spotted woodpecker of
Bewick described, 82 ; the habits of the little
spotted woodpecker (Pious minor /,.), 147;
notice of the middle spotted woodpecker, 380 ;
extraordinary noise made by the littje spotted
and middle spotted woodpeckers, described
and speculated on, 65. 147. 380.

Worms, intestinal, notes on, with a figure of,

2oa

Wren, common brown, materials of the nest

of, 738 ; willow wren, facts on, 724.
Wryneck, facts on, and a figure of, 568.
Zoology, British, illustrations in, by George

Johnston, M.D. : Lucernkria aurfcula, 43;

Actinia Tuedite, 163 ; Plankria corniita, 344 ;

E^olis rufibranchiktis, 428 ; Pranlza fuscata,

520 ; Coryne glandulbsa, 631.
Zoophytes at Bury St. Edmunds and elsewhere,

387. 389. 754.

END OF THE FIFTH VOLUM^>

London :

Printed by A. & R. Spottiswoode,

New-Street-Square.

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