» ~ - “ rs, a . ” rls ¢ ote 191 €& un . y =s +2 ~ Nts z F =~ : es “ : . ‘ x x 3 . ~ s x : = S - * — S - : . ~ . 2 Gy a To . - Veal 4 ie “2 iit ates ‘sy a a re yey ahi ‘ ’ fi 4 a 1 oO é Le THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. * an “a | * U © bs A = . Sone < . : z s E 4 a 5 . ‘ q . ’ - a si sf J = Py « . aA 1 F t ' : . : a — cr 7 . * ( sh - . ’ y 4 J = as 1 . - *. dn, , + . a \ ~ — ; = ‘ n \ - C - a = 7 ‘ . i \ , £ “ 4 " a a . pe = oy 4 — | “ ‘ : zy . 7. q + . . « mm, ‘ AS ‘ - : ay \* 4 ‘ | a in . " 5 ~ 3 a f c Ly . f fr | cae | ae = » . ri ’ ’ ' ‘ ’ . \ mys [- 2 be bat \ ‘ ~ " ; | i , ' ' ¥ § \ - ° e ‘ ~ ; « < } od nai ; ; seit = ony } { ‘ 9 oe te + r . . 5 — .. 4 3 rd A ’ = * Pr b 8 a nd j ‘ . } rn > ee as * oy ‘> : 7 4 i oes if ‘ \ : ‘7 z : f eat + F y é =| . Sra ieee P Pee. 1 i i h y va e Ly - et 6 ee i Ae { ii 0 i { \ Be < a] A bo FQ A . “ UTAN ATTACKE al a uy) THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO: THE LAND OF THE ORANG-UTAN AND THE BIRD OF PARADISE A NARRATIVE OF TRAVEL, WITH STUDIES OF MAN AND NATURE. Py, ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE, AUTHOR OF “ TRAVELS ON THE AMAZON AND RIO NEGRO,”’ ‘‘PALM TREES OF THE AMAZON,” ETC, Wondon : MACMILLAN AND CO. AND NEW YORK, 1886. The Right of Translativn and Reproduction is Reserved. ae a Sep © BREAD STREET HILL, LONI Bungay, 8 , . oO . 14 41 abies he 4 Aa & ry Me Pera 34 4 cal 7A fa; ara TO CHARLES DARWIN, AUTHOR OF “THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES,” {i Dedicate this IBook, NOT ONLY AS A TOKEN OF PERSONAL ESTEEM AND FRIENDSHIP, BUT ALSO TO EXPRESS MY. DEEP ADMIRATION FOR Wis Genius anv his Corks, A a yr ff AK e. 4 PREFACE. Y readers will naturally ask why I have delayed writing this book for six years alter my return ; and I feel bound to give them full satisfaction on this point. When I reached England in the spring of 1862, I found myself surrounded by a room full of packing-cases, con- taining the collections that I had from time to time sent home for my private use.| These comprised nearly three thousand bird-skins, of about a thousand species ; and at least twenty thousand beetles and butterflies, of about seven thousand species; besides some quadrupeds and land-shells. A large proportion of these I had not seen for years; and in my then weak state of health, the unpacking, sorting, and arranging of such a mass of specimens occupied a long time. ») I very soon decided, that until I had done something towards naming and describing the most important groups in my collection, and had worked out some of the more interesting problems of variation and geographical distri- bution, of which I had had elimpses while collecting them, I would not attempt to publish my travels. I could, indeed, at once have printed my notes and journals, leaving all reference to questions of natural history for a future work; but I felt that this would be as unsatis- factory to myself, as it would be disappointing to my friends, and uninstructive to the public. Since my return, up to this date, I have published eighteen papers, in the Transactions or Proceedings of the Vili PREFACE. Linnean Zoologicai and Entomological Societies, describing or cataloguing portions of my collections ; besides twelve others in various scientific periodicals, on more -_ subjects connected with them. Nearly two thousand of my Coleoptera, and many hundreds of my butterflies, have been already described by various eminent chbuvalictay aaaoe and foreign ; but a much larger number remains undescribed. Among those to whom science is most indebted for this laborious work, I must name Mr. F. P. Pascoe, late President of the Ento- mological Society of London, who has almost completed - the classification and description of my large collection of Longicorn beetles (now in his possession), comprising more than a thousand species, of which at least nine hundred were previously undescribed, and new to European cabinets. The remaining orders of insects, comprising probably more than two thousand species, are in the collection of Mr. William Wilson Saunders, who has caused the larger portion of them to be described by good entomologists. The Hymenoptera alone amounted to more than nine hundred species, among which were two hundred and eighty different kinds of ants, of which two hundred were new. The six years’ delay in publishing my travels thus enables me to give, what I hope may be an interesting and instructive sketch of the main results yet arrived at by the study of my collections; and as the countries I have to describe are not much visited or written about, and their social and physical conditions are not liable to rapid change, I believe and hope that my readers will gain much more than they will lose, by not having read my book six years ago, and by this time “M6. 0 forgotten all about it. I must now say a few words on the ties of my work. = PREFACE. ix My journeys to the various islands were regulated by the seasons and the means of conveyance. I visited some islands two or three times at distant intervals, and in some cases had to make the same voyage four times over. A chronological arrangement would have puzzled my readers. They would never have known where they were ; and my frequent references to the groups of islands, classed in accordance with the peculiarities of their animal productions and of their human inhabitants, would have been hardly intelligible. I have adopted, therefore, a geographical, zoological, and ethnological arrangement, passing from island to island in what seems the most natural succession, while I transgress the order in which I myself visited them as little as possible. — I divide the Archipelago into five groups of islands, as follow :— I Tue Inpo-Matay Isnanps: comprising the Malay Peninsula and Singapore, Borneo, Java, and Sumatra. — IL Taz Timor Group: comprising the islands of Timor, Flores, Sumbawa, and Lombkock, with several smaller ones. | IIL. CeLepes: comprising also the Sula Islands an Bouton. IV. Tue Monvuccan Grove: comprising Bouru, Ceram, Batchian, Gilolo, and Morty; with the smaller islands of Ternate, Tidore, Makian, Kaioa, Am- boyna, Banda, Goram, and Matabello. V. Tue Papuan Group: comprising the great island of New Guinea, with the Aru Islands, Mysol, Salwatty, Waigiou, and several others. The Ke Islands are described with this group on account of their ethnology, though zoologically and geo- graphically they belong to the Moluccas. x PREFACE. ‘The chapters relating to the separate islands of each of these groups are followed by one on the Natural His- tory of that group; and the work may thus be divided into five parts, each treating of one of the natural divisions of the Archipelago.) ' The first chapter is an introductory one, on the Physical Geography of the whole region; and the last is a general sketch of the Races of Man in the Archipelago and the surrounding countries. / With this explanation, and a reference to the Maps which illustrate the work, I trust that my readers will always know where they are, and in what direction they are going. I am well aware that my book is far too small for the extent of the subjects it touches upon. It is a mere sketch; but so far as it goes I have endeavoured to make it an accurate one. Almost the whole of the narrative and descriptive portions were written on the spot, and hayp had little more than verbal alterations. The chapters on Natural History, as well as many passages in other parts of the work. have been written in the hope of exciting an interest in the various questions connected with the origin of species and their geographical distribution. In some cases I have been able to explain my views in detail; while in others, owing to the greater complexity of the subject, I have thought it better to confine myself to a statement of the more interesting facts of the problem, whose solution is to be found in the principles developed by Mr, Darwin in his various works. The numerous Tllus- trations will, it is believed, add much to the interest and value of the book. They have been made from my own sketches, from photographs, or from specimens ; and such subjects only have been chosen as would really illustrate the narrative or the descriptions. : I have to thank Messrs. Walter and Henry Woodbury, PREFACE. xi whose acquaintance I had the pleasure of making in Java, for a number of photographs of scenery and of natives, which have been of the greatest assistance to me. Mr. William Wilson Saunders has kindly allowed me to figure the curious horned flies; and to Mr. Pascoe I am indebted for a loan of two of the very rare Longicorns which appear in the plate of Bornean beetles. All the other specimens figured are in my own collection. se - |As the main object of all my journeys was to obtain specimens of natural history, both for my private collec- tion and to supply duplicates to museums and amateurs) I will give a general statement of the number of specimens I collected, and which reached home in good condition. | I. must premise that I generally employed one or two, and sometimes three Malay servants to assist me; and for three years had the services of a young Englishman, Mr. Charles Allen. pyres just eight years away from England, but as I travelled about fourteen thousand miles within the Archipelago, and made sixty or seventy separate journeys, each involving some preparation and loss of time, I do not think that more than six years were really occupied in collecting. I find that my Eastern collections amounted to: 310 specimens of Mammalia. 100 — Reptiles. 8,050 a Birds. i 7,500 oan Shells. N 13,100 —- Lepidoptera. &3,200 — Coleoptera. 13,400 —_ other Insects. 125,660 specimens of natural history. It now only remains for me to thank all those friends _to whom I am indebted for assistance or information. My thanks are more especially due to the Council of the Royal xil PREFACE. Geographical Society, through whose valuable recommen- dations I obtained important aid from our own Govern- ment and from that of Holland; and to Mr. William Wilson Saunders, whose kind and liberal encouragement in the early portion of my journey was of great service to me. Iam also greatly indebted to Mr. Samuel Stevens (who acted as my agent), both for the care he took of my collections, and for the untiring assiduity with which he kept me supplied, both with useful information, and with whatever necessaries I required. | I trust that these, and all other friends who have been in any way interested in my travels aud collections, may derive from the perusal of my book, some faint reflexion of the pleasures I myself enjoyed amid the scenes and objects it describes. , Con TE N Ts: CHAP, ‘ : PAGE Deeeewteatr (sWOCHAPHY . « « « « «@ 2» © © © + 1 INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. I 8 ke tive ed Se ee aie y 20 Pee Oommen MOUNT OPHIR... 9) «fece) ene of & «625 Pee epoes eo fae OBANG-UTAN .. eg ecies se) @ oe a ery 84 V. BornEO—JOURNEY IN THE INTERIOR . ..... 64 Re am DVAKS og neces 'e fete ernst’ ol tv 2 88 er eee end cred or net «lie Ot Villy SUMATRA... , a ae ae ee | 1X. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. . 1388 THE TIMOR GROUP. MME BUCK 5 (4 «6 se tye es ow LOO ‘ XJ. LompocK—MANNERS AND CusTOMS. ..... .- 163 XII. Lompock—How THE RAJAH TOOK THE CENSUS .. 177 ESM cn gS lg et tw ge aw LBS XIV. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE TIMOR GROUP .... 202 THE CELEBES GROUP. EE es 7 i | Pope = MAOASSAR, 1 5 kt 8 tlw ot tw lk lw ARS op bOeRere=—PIeWADO, 2. kk lk wt wl ltl wl lw! BAL XVilI. Naturat History oF CELEBES . . . « « « « « 290 THE MOLUCCAS. aes 4. gy 4 ee ee 8 ee XX. AMBOYNA SE ee Biel og Mea eS eg) ig. SOE CHAP, XT. KX; XXIII. Ly. XXV. XXVI. XXVIL. XXXII. SX AAI: XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVI. RA VALI, XXXIX. XL. CONTENTS. © THE MOLUCCAS. TRENATE. « .. 0 8 © © 8 8 6 GILOLO ; bids VOYAGE TO THE KAtoa hacen AND Basen BATCHIAN Lk IU”, t) aa CERAM, GORAM, AND THE ee ISLANDS Bouru ‘ ee oo. =e Tag NATURAL History oF THE MOLUCCAS . THE PAPUAN GROUP. _ Macassar To THE Aru IsLANDS IN A NATIVE PRAU . THe K&é ISLANDS . Sa ieee : . Tue Aru IsLANDS—RESIDENCE IN iden _ Tur Aru IsLANDS—JOURNEY AND shine IN THE INTERIOR fA ane — ; THz Aru ISLANDS—SECOND phaetbantk IN Dopso Tre Aru ISLANDS—PHYSICAL GEOGRAPITY AND ASPECTS or NATURE New GuineEA—DOREY : VoYAGE FROM CERAM TO Wasators WAIGIOU. 2 ) teriat y VOYAGE FROM Wace TO ee ATE. THE BirpDS OF PARADISE . aes : NATURAL History OF THE PAFUAN ISLANDS Tue Races oF MAN IN THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO APPENDIX on CRANIA AND LANGUAGFS . + INDEX . 635 tpt —_ © bet pk had Hm Co bo pk famed frm ped pel DO CONT MD OX bo i) bo b Doe mnvowby bs “IO? Ore CO wes. owo oo pears . Portrait of a Dyak Youth. . Vanda Lowii. . Remarkable Forest-trees. OC STD NRW . Ancient Bas-relief. . Portrait of a Javanese Chief. . Gun-boring in Lombock. . Timor Men. . Native Plough and Yoke, Macassar. . Sugar Palms. ‘ Skull of the Babirusa . . . Peculiar form of Wings of Celebes Butterflies . Ejecting an Intruder. , : Racquet- tailed Kingfisher . 28. ; Sago Oven. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. DRAWN ON WOOD BY Orang-Utan attacked by Dyaks. : Rare Ferns on Mount Ophir. (From specimens) . Remarkable Bornean Beetles. . . Flying Frog. (From a drawing by the Author) ils emmale Orang-utan. (From a photograph by Woodbury) . etna Segoe Me te (From sketch and photographs). . . Dyak Suspension-bridge. the Author) . (From specimens) pike a sketch by (From a sketch by the Author) . . (From. a “specimen in possession of the Author) ee ee (From a photo- graph) . The Calliper Butterfly ( Characes Kadenii) . Primula imperialis. . Chief’s House and Rice-shed in a Sumatran . ROBINSON . (From specvmens) Village. (From a pistograph) . Females ci Papilio memnon . > kapilio Coon’. °. , . Leaf-butterfly in flight and repose . Female Hornbill and young bird - Grammatophyllum, a gigantic Orchid. ‘(From a sketch by the Author) . . (From a sketch bby the Author). : (From a photograph) . (From a sketch by the A uthor) . : (From a sketch by the A uthor) ** Wallace’s Standard iaameds a new I Bird of Mamadise. . . . ° . Sago Club. E Saco- washing in Cian (From a sketch by the Author) . (From a sketch by the Author) . WoLF . FiTron*: ROBINSON . KEULEMAKS . WoLF BAINES. Firen FITcu FITcH BAINES. BAINES. T. W. Woop . PLTCH . ROBINSON . ROBINSON . T. W. Woop . T. W. Woon. FitcH . BAINES BAINES BAINES , FircH . ROBINSON . WALLACE , BAINES ROBINSON . KEULEMANS BAINES . BAINES. BAINES . Tags Prountisprece 3 37 38 4] 66 78 82 83 xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. DRAWN ON WOOD BY 39. (uscus Ornatus, a Moluccan Marsupial . . ROBINSON . 89 Moluccan Beetles . . + +) 5 + © 1s ® ROBINSON . 84. Natives shooting the Great Bird of Paradise. T. W. Woop. 85. Great Black Cockatoo. . - + © + «+ + T. W. Woop . 36. Dobbo in the Trading Season (From a sketch by the Author)...» ,20enes #1. VEX BAINES. « « 87. Male Brenthide fighting . . - + + + > ROBINSON. .« 38. Papuan, New Guinea. . - + - +e BAINES, 5 >» 39, Papuan Pipe. (Hrom a sketch by the Author) BAINES. 40, Horned Flies . rr 41, Clay-beater, used in New Guinea . . . . ROBINSON. 42. The Red Bird of Paradise. . - + + + + T. W. Woop. 43, My house at Bessir, Waigiou. (From a sketch — by the AUROT) « o4ioee 20 eis BAINES. 44, Malay Anchor. (from a sketch by the Author) BAINES. 45, The “'Twelve-wired” and the “ King” Birds of Paradise. 9.) «40s 40 eo? nn 46, The Magnificent Bird of Paradise . . . . KEULEMANS . 47, The Superb Bird of Paradise. . + + - . KSULEMANS . 48. The Six-shafted Bird of Paradise . . + + KEULEMANS . 49. The Long-tailed Bird of Paradise . . + - KEULEMANS . 50. The Great Shielded Grasshopper . + «+ + RoBINSON .« bi, Papuan, Charm..<; - + +, 2) > 2am ROBINSON . MAPS. Map showing Mr. Wallace’s Route (tinted) . . « © ~« + Preface ote) Tne British Isles and Borneo on the same SCaIC..

» 2: 9 aes ; Amboyna, with parts of Bouru and Ceram . The Islands between Ceram and Ké Map of the Aru Islands Voyage from Ceram to Waigiou. Voyage from Waigiou to Ternate INSTRUCTIONS TO THE BINDER. 9 . 246 . 292 . 350 . 364 . 442 . 514 . 538 Route Map (tinted blue) . . - - + + «© = at beginning of Preface. Physical Map quskiys ~« « = + pe ee at page 9. Orang-Utan attacked by Dyaks. . - +. + + Frontispiece. Remarkable Beetles, Borneo. . . -.~- - «+ bo face page 37. Bjecting an Intruder... . - - © + 5 9 = @ DOLALOT, Wallace's Standard Wing, male and female . . to face page 329. Molucean Beetles: en «, +s +s oe 0s 2) 08 » 401. Natives shooting the Great Bird of Paradise. . — ,, » 443. Dobbo in the Trading Season . .« | » NOG T kp ote fot aren, The “'Twelve-wired” and the “King” Birds of to face first page of Chap. Paradise. «vx«ihet «. Groote, 38 oe XXXVI1LL THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. CHAPTER 1. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ‘id we look at a globe or a map of the Eastern hemi- sphere, we shall perceive between Asia and Australia a number of large and small islands, forming a connected eroup distinct from those great masses of land, and having little connexion with either of them. Situated upon the Equator, and bathed by the tepid water of the great tropical oceans, this region enjoys a climate more uniformly hot and moist than almost any other part of the globe, and teems with natural productions which are elsewhere unknown. The richest of fruits and the most precious of spices are here indigenous. It produces the giant flowers of the Rafflesia, the great green-winged Ornithoptera (princes among the butterfly tribes), the man-like Orang-Utan, and the gorgeous Birds of Paradise. It is inhabited by a peculiar and interesting race of mankind—the Malay, found nowhere beyond the limits of this insular tract, which has hence been named the Malay Archipelago. To the ordinary Englishman this is perhaps the least — known part of the globe. Our possessions in it are few-\/ and scanty ; scarcely any of our travellers go to explore it; and in many collections of maps it is almost ignored, being divided between Asia and the Pacific Islands. It thus happens that few persons realize that, as a whole, it is comparable with the primary divisions of the globe, and ‘ ) B x 2 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [conmap. L that some of its separate islands are larger than France or the Austrian empire. The traveller, however, soon acquires different ideas. He sails for days, or even for weeks, along the shores of one of these great islands, often so great that its inhabitants believe it to be a vast con- tinent. He finds that voyages among these islands are commonly reckoned by weeks and months, and that their several inhabitants are often as little known to each other as are the native races of the northern to those of the southern continent of America. He soon comes to look upon this region as one apart from the rest of the world with its own races of men and its own aspects of nature ; with its own ideas, feelings, customs, and modes of speech. and with a climate, vegetation, and animated life altogether peculiar to itself. From many points of view these islands form one compact geographical whole, and as such they have always been treated by travellers and men of science ; but a more careful and detailed study of them under various aspects, — reveals the unexpected fact that they are divisible into two portions nearly equal in extent, which widely differ in their natural products, and really form parts of two of the primary divisions of the earth. I have been able to prove this in considerable detail by my observations on the natural history of the various parts of the Archipelago ; \ and as in the description of my travels and residence 1n the several islands I shall have to refer continually to this view, and adduce facts in support of 2, I have thought it advisable to commence with a general sketch of such of the main features of the Malayan region as will render the facts hereafter brought forward more interesting, and their bearing on the general question more easily under- ~ stood. | I proceed, therefore, to sketch the limits and extent of the Archipelago, and to point out the more striking features of its geology, physical geography, vegetation, and animal life. Definition and Boundarves. For reasons which depend “mainly on the distribution of animal life, I consider the Malay Archipelago to include the Malay Peninsula as far as Tenasserim, and the Nicobar Islands on the west, the Philippines on the north, and the Sélomon Islands beyond CHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 3 New Guinea, on the east. All the great islands included within these limits are connected together by innumerable smaller ones, so that no one of them seems to be dis- tinctly separated from the rest. With but few exceptions, all enjoy an uniform and very similar climate, and are covered with a luxuriant forest vegetation. Whether we study their form and distribution on maps, or actually travel from island to island, our first impression will be Atlantic oceans. It includes three islands larger than Great Britain; and in one of them, Borneo, the whole of the British Isles might be set down, and would be sur- rounded by a sea of forests. New Guinea, though less compact in shape, is probably larger than Borneo. Sumatra is about equal in extent to Great Britain; Java, Luzon, and Celebes are each about the size of Ireland. Eighteen more islands are, on the average, as large as Jamaica; more than a hundred are as large as the Isle of Wight; while the isles and islets of smaller size are innumerable. The absolute extent of land in the Archipelago is not greater than that contained by Western Europe from Hungary to Spain; but, owing to the manner in which the land is broken up and divided, the variety of its produc- tions is rather in proportion to the immense surface over which the islands are spread, than to the quantity of land which they contain. Geological Contrasts—One of the chief volcanic belts upon the globe passes through the Archipelago, and pro- duces a striking contrast in the scenery of the volcanic and non-volcanic islands. A curving line, marked out by scores of active and hundreds of extinct volcanoes, may be traced through the whole length of Sumatra and Java, and thence by the islands of Bali, Lombock, Sum- B2 A. THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. _ [CHAP. 1. bawa, Flores, the Serwatty Islands, Banda, Amboyna, Batchian, Makian, Tidore, Ternate, and Gilolo, to Morty Island. Here there is a slight but well-marked break, or shift, of about 200 miles to the westward, where the volcanic belt again begins, in North Celebes, and passes 5 HE TLAND aa _ 4s, THE BRITISH ISLES AND BORNEO ON THE SAME SCALE. by Siau and Sanguir to the Philippine Islands, along the eastern side of which it continues, In a curving line, to their northern extremity. From the extreme eastern bend of this belt at Banda, we pass onwards for 1,000 miles over a non-voleanic district to the voleanoes observed by Dampier, in 1699, on the north-eastern coast of New CHAP. 1] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 5 Guinea, and can there trace another volcanic belt, through New Britain, New Ireland, and the Solomon Islands, to the eastern limits of the Archipelago. In the whole region occupied by this vast line of volca- noes, and for a considerable breadth on each side of it, earthquakes are of continual recurrence, slight shocks being felt at intervals of every few weeks or months, while more severe ones, shaking down whole villages, and doing more or less injury to life and property, are sure to happen, in one part or another of this district, almost every year. In many of the islands the years of the great earthquakes form the chronological epochs of the native inhabitants, by the aid of which the ages of their children are remembered, _and the dates of many important events are determined. <> I can only briefly allude to the many fearful eruptions that have taken place in this region. In the amount of injury to life and property, and in the magnitude of their effects, they have not been surpassed by any upon record. Forty villages were destroyed by the eruption of Papanda- yang in Java, in 1772, when the whole mountain was blown up by repeated explosions, and a large lake left in its place. By the great eruption of Tomboro in Sumbawa, in 1815, 12,000 people were destroyed, and the ashes darkened the air and fell thickly upon the earth and sea for 300 miles round. Even quite recently, since I quitted the country, a mountain which had been quiescent for more than 200 years suddenly burst into activity. The island of Makian, one of the Moluccas, was rent open in 1646 by a violent eruption, which left a huge chasm on one side, extending into the heart of the mountain. It was, when I last visited it, in 1860, clothed with vegetation to the summit, and contained twelve populous Malay villages. On the 29th of December, 1862, after 215 years of perfect in- action, it again suddenly burst forth, blowing up and com- pletely altering the appearance of the mountain, destroying the greater part of the inhabitants, and sending forth such volumes of ashes as to darken the air at Ternate, forty miles off, and to almost entirely destroy the growing crops on that and the surrounding islands. The island of Java contains more volcanoes, active and extinct, than any other known district of equal extent. 6 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. | CHAP. 1. They are about forty-five in number, and many of them exhibit most beautiful examples of the volcanic cone on a large scale, single or double, with entire or truncated | summits, and averaging 10,000 feet high. It is now well ascertained that almost all volcanoes have been slowly built up by the accumulation of matter —mud, ashes, and lava—ejected by themselves. The openings or craters, however, frequently shift their posi- tion; so that a country may be covered with a more or less irregular series of hills in chains and masses, only here and there rising into lofty cones, and yet the whole may be produced by true volcanic action. In this manner the greater part of Java has been formed. There has been some elevation, especially on the south coast, where ex- tensive cliffs of coral limestone are found; and there may be a substratum of older stratified rocks; but still essentially Java is volcanic; and that noble and fertile island—the very garden of the East, and perhaps upon the whole the richest, the best cultivated, and the best governed tropical island in the world —owes its very existence to the same intense volcanic activity which still occasionally devastates its surface. The great island of Sumatra exhibits in proportion to its extent a much smaller number of volcanoes, and a considerable portion of it has probably a non-volcanic origin. To the eastward, the long string of islands from Java, passing by the north of Timor and away to Banda, are probably all due to volcanic action. Timor itself consists of ancient stratified rocks, but is said to have one volcano near its centre. Going northward, Amboyna, a part of Bouru, and the west end of Ueram, the north part of Gilolo, and all the small islands around it, the northern extremity of Celebes, and the islands of Siau and Sanguir, are wholly volcanic. The Philippine Archipelago contains many active and extinct volcanoes, and has probably been reduced to its present fragmentary condition by subsidences attending © on volcanic action. All along this great line of volcanoes are to be found more or less palpable signs of upheaval and depres- CHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. vi sion of land. The range of islands south of Sumatra, a part of the south coast of Java and of the islands east of it, the west and east end of Timor, portions of all the Moluccas, the Ké and Aru Islands, Waigiou, and the whole south and east of Gilolo, consist in a great measure of upraised coral-rock, exactly corresponding to that now forming in the adjacent seas. \In many places I have observed the unaltered surfaces of the elevated reefs, with - great masses of coral standing up in their natural position, and hundreds of shells so fresh-looking that it was hard to believe that they had been more than a few years out of the water; and, in fact, it 1s very probable that such _ changes have ‘occurred within a few centuries. — Ss The united lengths of these volcanic belts is about ninety degrees, or one-fourth of the entire circumference of the globe. Their width is about fifty miles; but, for a space of two hundred on each side of them, evidences of subterranean action are to be found in recently elevated coral-rock, or in barrier coral-reefs, indicating recent sub- mergence. In the very centre or focus of the great curve of volcanoes is placed the large island of Borneo, in which no sign of recent volcanic action has yet been observed, and where earthquakes, so characteristic of the surround- ing regions, are entirely unknown. The equally large island of New Guinea occupies another quiescent area, on which no sign of volcanic action has yet been discovered. With the exception of the eastern end of its northern peninsula, the large and curiously-shaped island of Celebes is also entirely free from volcanoes; and there is some reason to believe that the volcanic portion has once formed a separate island. The Malay Peninsula is also non- volcanic. The first and most obvious division of the Archipelago would therefore be into quiescent and volcanic regions, and it might, perhaps, be expected that such a division would correspond to some differences in the character of the vegetation and the forms of life. This is the case, however, to a very limited extent; and we shall presently see that, althuugh this development of subterranean fires is on so vast a ‘scale, —has piled up chains of mountains ten or twelve thousand feet high—has broken up conti- — 8 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. nents and raised up islands from the ocean,—yet it has all the character of a recent action, which has not yet succeeded in obliterating the traces of a more ancient distribution of land and water. Contrasts of Vegetation—Placed immediately upon the Equator and surrounded by extensive oceans, it is not surprising that the various islands of the Archipelago should be almost always clothed with a forest vegetation from the level of the sea to the summits of the loftiest mountains. This is the general rule. Sumatra, New Guinea, Borneo, the Philippines and the Moluccas, and the uncultivated parts of Java and Celebes, are all forest countries, except a few small and unimportant tracts, due perhaps, in some cases, to ancient cultivation or accidental tires. To this, however, there is one important exception in the island of Timor and all the smaller islands around it, in which there is absolutely no forest such as exists in the other islands, and this character extends in a lesser degree to Flores, Sumbawa, Lombock, and Balie In Timor the most common trees are Eucalypti of several species, so characteristic of Australia, with sandal- wood, acacia, and other sorts in less abundance. ‘These are scattered over the country more or less thickly, but never so as to deserve the name of a forest. Coarse and scanty grasses grow beneath them on the more barren hills, and a luxuriant herbage in the moister localities. In the islands between Timor and Java there is often a more thickly wooded country, abounding in thorny and prickly trees. These seldom reach any great height, and during the force of the dry season they almost completely lose their leaves, allowing the ground beneath them to be parched up, and contrasting strongly with the damp, gloomy, ever-verdant forests of the other islands. This peculiar character, which extends in a less degree to the southern peninsula of Celebes and the east end of Java, is most probably owing to the proximity of Australia. The south-east monsoon, which lasts for about two-thirds of the year (from March to November), blowing over the northern parts of that country, produces a degree of heat and dryness which assimilates the vegetation and physical aspect of the adjacent islands to its own. A little further S Bruitt (Barneo} ram PHYSICAL MAP of the MALAY ARCHIPELAGO bv Alfred Russel Wallace. 1868. | mn 100 E. Gr. Starterds Geog” Estab? 56, Charing Cross London The Shallow Sea is lightly tinted The active Woleanoes are shewn thus ° The Yante belts are colored Red Z| yO London. Macmillan & C° cua. 1.] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 9 eastward in Timor-laut and the Ké Islands, a moister ciumate prevails, the south-east winds blowing from the Pacific through Torres Straits and over the damp forests ef New Guinea, and as a consequence every rocky islet is clothed with verdure to its very summit. Further west again, as the same dry winds blow over a wider and wider extent of ocean, they have time to absorb fresh moisture, and we accordingly find the island of Java possessing a less and less arid climate, till in the extreme west near Batavia rain occurs more or less all the year nected the great islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo with the Asiatic continent, with which their natural pro- ductions generally agreed; while a similar shallow sea connected New Guinea and some of the adjacent islands to Australia, all being characterised bv the presence of marsupials. Pg ~ We have here a clue to the most radical contrast in the | Archipelago, and by following it out in detail I have | arrived at the conclusion that we can draw a line among ————————— ——— the islands, which shall so divide them that one-half shali truly belong to Asia, while the other shall no less certainly be allied to Australia. I term these respectively the © Indo-Malayan, and the Austro-Malayan divisions of the | Archipelago. (See Physical Map.) si: On referring to pages 12, 13, and 36 of Mr. Earl’s pamphlet, it will be seen that he maintains the former connexion of Asia and Australia as an important part of his view, whereas I dwell mainly on their long continued separation. Notwithstanding this and other important differences between us, to him undoubtedly belongs the merit of first indicating the division of the Archipelago into an Australian and an Asiatic region, which it has been my good fortune to establish by more detailed observations. : SS ~world. me? | 10 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. | CHAP. 1. ~ Contrasts in Natural Productions—To understand the importance of this class of facts, and its bearing upon the former distribution of land and sea, it 1s necessary to consider the results arrived at by geologists and naturalists in other parts of the world. (It is now generally admitted that the present distribu- tion of living things on the surface of the earth is mainly the result of the last series of changes that it has under- gone. Geology teaches us that the surface of the land and the distribution of land and water is everywhere slowly changing. It further teaches us that the forms of life which inhabit that surface have, during every period of which we possess any record, been also slowly changing. It is not now necessary to say anything about how either of those changes took place jas to that, opinions may differ; but as to the fact that the-changes themselves have occurred, from the earliest geological ages down to \the present day, and are still going on, there is no dif- ference of opinion. | Every successive stratum of sedi-+ - mentary rock, sand,-or gravel, is a proof that changes of | level have taken place ; and the different species of animals, and plants, whose remains are found in these deposits, prove that corresponding changes did occur in the organi J iy 14 Taking, therefore, these two series of changes for granted, most of the present peculiarities and anomalies in the distribution of species may be directly traced to them. In our own islands, with a very few trifling exceptions, every quadruped, bird, reptile, insect, and plant, is found also on the adjacent continent. In the small islands of Sar- dinia and Corsica, there are some quadrupeds and insects, and many plants, quite peculiar. In Ceylon, more closely connected to India than Britain is to Europe, many animals and plants are different from those found in India, and peculiar to the island. In the Galapagos Islands, almost every indigenous living thing is peculiar to them, though closely resembling other kinds found in the nearest parts of the American continent. Most naturalists now admit that these facts can only be explained by the greater or less lapse of time since cHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ll the islands were upraised from beneath the ocean, or were separated from the nearest land; and this will be generally (though not always) indicated by the depth of the inter- vening sea. The enormous thickness of many marine deposits through wide areas shows that subsidence has often continued (with intermitting periods of repose) during epochs of immense duration. | The depth of sea produced by such subsidence will therefore generally be a measure of time; and in like manner the change beat organic forms have undergone is a measure of time. | When we make proper allowance for the continued in-~ troduction of new animals and plants from surrounding countries, by those natural means of dispersal which have been so well explained by Sir Charles Lyell and Mr. Darwin, it is remarkable how closely these two measures correspond. Britain is separated from the continent by a very shallow sea, and only in a very few cases have our animals or plants begun to show a difference from the corresponding continental species. Corsica and Sardinia, divided from Italy by a much deeper sea, present a much greater difference in their organic forms. Cuba, separated from Yucatan by a wider and deeper strait, differs more markedly, so that most of its productions are of distinct and peculiar species; while Madagascar, divided from Africa by a deep channel three hundred miles wide, pos- sesses so many peculiar features as to indicate separation at a very remote antiquity, or even to render it doubtful whether the two countries have ever been pipe ce united. >> Returning now to the Malay Archipelago, we find that: all the wide expanse of sea which divides Java, Sumatra, and Borneo from each other, and from Malacca and Siam, is so Shallow that ships can anchor in any part of it, since it rarely exceeds forty fathoms in depth; and if we go as far as the line of a hundred fathoms, we shall include the Philippine Islands and Bali, east of Java. | If, therefore, these islands have been separated from each other and the continent by subsidence of the intervening tracts of land, we should conclude that the separation has been comparatively recent, since the depth to which the land has subsided is so small. | It is also to be remarked, that 12 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [CHAP. fT.) | the great chain of active volcanoes in Sumatra and Java furnishes us with a sufficient cause for such subsidence, since the enormous masses of matter they have thrown out would take away the foundations of the surrounding district; and this may be the true explanation of the often-noticed fact, that volcanoes and volcanic chains are always near the sea. The subsidence they produce around them will, in time, make a sea, if one does not already exist. But it is when we examine the zoology of these countries that we find what we most require—evidence of a very striking character that these great islands must have once formed a part of the continent, and could only have been separated at a very recent geological epoch. \The elephant - and tapir of Sumatra and Borneo, the rhinoceros of Sumatra and the allied species of Java, the wild cattle of Borneo and the kind long supposed to be peculiar to Java, are now all known to inhabit some part or other of Southern Asia. None of these large animals could possibly have passed over the arms of the sea which now separate these countries, and their presence plainly indi- cates that a land communication must have existed since the origin of the species. Among the smaller mammals a considerable portion are common to each island and the continent; but the vast physical changes that must have occurred during the breaking up and subsidence of such extensive regions have led to the extinction of some in one or more of the islands, and in some cases there seems also to have been time for a change of species to have taken place. ( Birds and insects illustrate the same view, for every family, and almost every genus of these groups found in any of the islands, occurs also on the Asiatic continent, and in a great number of cases the species are exactly identical. Birds offer us one of the best means of determining the law of distribution ; for though at first sight it would appear that the watery boundaries which keep out the land quadrupeds could be ~ easily passed over by birds, yet practically it 1s not so; for if we leave out the aquatic tribes which are pre- eminently wanderers, it is found that the others (and especially the Passeres, or true perching-birds, which form _ CHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 13° the vast majority) are generally as strictly limited by straits and arms of the sea as are quadrupeds themselves. As an instance, among the islands of which I am now speaking, \it is a remarkable fact that Jaya possesses numerous birds which never pass over to Sumatra, though they are separated by a strait only fifteen miles wide, and with islands in mid-channel. Java, in fact, possesses more birds and insects peculiar to itself than either Sumatra or Borneo, and this would indicate that it was earliest separated from the continent; next in organic indivi duality is Borneo, while Sumatra is so nearly identical in all its animal forms with the peninsula of Malacca, that<~we may safely conclude it to have been the most recently dismembered island. on — The general result therefore at which we arrive is, that | the great islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo resemble in their natural productions the adjacent parts of the continent, almost as much as such widely-separated districts could_be expected to do even if they still formed a part of Asia; jand this close resemblance, joined with - the fact of the wide extent of sea which separates them being so uniformly and remarkably shallow, and lastly, the existence of the extensive range of volcanoes in Sumatra and Java, which have poured out vast quantities of subterranean matter and have built up extensive plateaux and lofty mountain ranges, thus furnishing a vera causa for a parallel line of subsidence—all lead irre- sistibly to the conclusion that at a very recent geological epoch the continent of Asia extended far beyond. its present limits in a south-easterly direction, including the islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, and probably reach- ing as far as the present 100-fathom line of soundings. The Philippine Islands agree in many respects with Asia and the other islands, but present some—anomatlies, which seem to indicate that they were separated at an earlier period, and have since been subject to many revolutions in their physical geography. ~> Tn order to illustrate more clearly the means by which I suppose this great contrast has been brought about, let us consider what would occur if two strongly contrasted divisions of the earth were, by natural means, brought — into proximity. No two parts of the world differ so radically in their productions as Asia and Australia, but the difference between Africa and South America is also very great, and these two regions will well serve to illus- trate the question we are considering. On the one side we have baboons, lions, elephants, buffaloes, and giraffes ; on the other spider-monkeys, pumas, tapirs, ant-eaters, and sloths; while among birds, the hornbills, turacos, orioles, and honeysuckers of Africa contrast strongly with CHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GHOGRAPHY. +7 the toucans, macaws, chatterers, and humming-birds of America. Now let us endeavour to imagine (what it is very probable may occur in future ages) that a slow upheaval of the bed of the Atlantic should take place, while at the same time earthquake-shocks and volcanic action on the land should cause increased volumes of sediment to be poured down by the rivers, so that the two continents should gradually spread out by the addition of newly- formed lands, and thus reduce the Atlantic which now separates them to an arm of the sea a few hundred miles wide. At the same time we may suppose islands to be upheaved in mid-channel; and, as the subterranean forces varied in intensity, and shifted their points of greatest _ action, these islands would sometimes become connected with the land on one side or other of the strait, and at other times again be separated from itx Several islands would at one time be joined together, at another would be broken up again, till at last, after many long ages of such intermittent action, we might have an irregular archipelago of islands filling up the ocean channel of the Atlantic, in whose appearance and arrangement we could discover nothing to tell us which had been connected with Africa and which with America. The animals and plants in- habiting these islands would, however, certainly reveal this portion of their former history. On those islands which had ever formed a part of the South American continent we should be sure to find such common birds as chatterers and toucans and humming-birds, and some of the peculiar American quadrupeds; while on those which had been separated from Africa, hornbills, orioles, and honeysuckers would as certainly be found. Some portion of the upraised land might at different times have had a temporary connexion with both continents, and would then contain a certain amount of mixture in its living inhabitants. [Such seems to have been the case with the islands of Celebes and the Philippines. Other islands, again, though in such close proximity as Bali and Lombock, might each exhibit an almost unmixed sample of the productions of the continents of which they haa directly or indirectly once formed a part. v 18 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [ CHAP. I. In the Malay Archipelago we have, I believe, a case exactly parallel to that which I have here supposed. We have indications of a vast continent, with a peculiar fauna and flora, having been eradually and irregularly broken up; the island of Celebes probably marking its furthest westwaid extension, beyond which was a wide ocean. At the same time Asia appears to have been extending its ‘limits in a south-east direction, first in an unbroken mass, then separated into islands as we now See it, and almost coming into actual contact with the scattered fragments of the great southern land. From this outline of the subject, it will be evident how important an adjunct Natural History is to Geology ; not only in interpreting the fragments of extinct animals found in the earth’s crust, but in determining past changes in the surface which have left no geological record. It is” certainly a wonderful and unexpected fact, that an accurate knowledge of the distribution of birds and insects should enable us to map out lands and continents which dis- appeared beneath the ocean long before the earliest tra- ditions of the human race. \ Wherever the geologist can explore the earth's surface, he can read much of its past history, and can determine approximately its latest move- ments above and below the sea-level; but wherever oceans and seas now extend, he can do nothing but speculate or the very limited data afforded by the depth of the waters Here the naturalist steps in, and enables him to fill up this great gap in the past history of the earth.) | One of the- chief objects of my tonsa was to obtain ~ evidence of this nature ; and my search after such evidence has been rewarded by great SUCCESS, SO that I have been enabled to trace out with some probability the past | changes which one of the most interesting parts of the | earth has undergone. It may be thought that the facts and | generalizations here given, would have been more appro- | priately placed at the end rather than at the beginning of a narrative of the travels which supplied the facts. In some cases this might be so, but I have found it impos- ‘sible to give such an account as I desire of the natural history of the numerous islands and groups of islands im “the Archipelago, without constant reference to these gene rd CHAP. 1.] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 19 animals which inhabit them both more interesting and more instructive than if treated as mere isolated facts. ~) Contrasts of Races.—Before I had arrived at the conviction that the eastern and western halves of the Archipelago belonged to distinct primary regions of the earth, I had been led to group the natives of the Archipelago under _ two radically distinct races. In this I differed from most ethnologists who had before written on the subject ; for it had been the almost universal custom to follow William \/ von Humboldt and Pritchard, in classing all the Oceanic Taces as modifications of one type. Observation soon showed me, however, that Malays and Papuans differed radically in every physical, mental, and moral character ; and more detailed research, continued for eight years, satisfied me that under these two forms, as types, the whole of the peoples of the Malay Archipelago and Polynesia could be classified. | On drawing the line which separates these races, it is found to come near to that which divides the zoological regions, but somewhat eastward of lte*@ circumstance which appears to me very significant of the same causes having influenced the distribution of mankind that have determined the range of other animal _forms. The reason why exactly the same line does not limit both is sufficiently intelligible. Man has means of tra- versing the sea which animals do not possess; and a superior race has power to press out or assimilate an inferior one. The maritime enterprise and higher civili- zation of the Malay races have enabled them to overrun a portion of the adjacent region, in which they have entirely supplanted the indigenous inhabitants if ‘it ever possessed any; and to spread much of their language, their domestic animals, and their customs far-over the Pacific, into islands where they have but slightly, or not at all, modified the physical or moral characteristics of the people. C2 20 SINGAPORE. (cHAP. II. 2 | I believe, therefore, that all the peoples of the various -JJands can be grouped either with -the Malays or the Papuans; and that these two have no traceable affinity to each other. I believe, further, that all the races east of the line I have drawn have more affinity for each other than they have for any of the races west of that line ;— that, in fact, the Asiatic races include the Malays, and all have a continental origin, while the Pacific races, including all to the east of the former (except perhaps some in the Northern Pacific), are derived, not from any existing con- tinent, but from lands which now exist or have recently existed in the Pacific Ocean. These preliminary obser- vations will enable the reader better to apprehend the importance I attach to the details of physical form or moral character, which I shall give in describing the inhabitants of many of the islands. CHAPTER IL SINGAPORE. (A SKETCH OF THE TOWN AND ISLAND AS SEEN DURING SEVERAL VISITS FROM 1854 To 1862.) ar places are more interesting to a traveller from Europe than the town and island of Singapore, fur-_ nishing, as it does, examples of a variety of Eastern races, and of many different religions and modes of life. The government, the garrison, and the chief merchants are English; but the great mass of the population is Chinese, including some of the wealthiest merchants, the agricul- turists of the interior, and most of the mechanics and labourers. The native Malays are usually fishermen and poatmen, and they form the main body of the police. The Portuguese of Malacca supply a large number of the clerks and smaller merchants. The Klings of Western India are a numerous body of Mahometans, and, with many Arabs, are petty merchants and shopkeepers. The grooms and washermen are all Bengaieces, and there is a small but CHAP, 1i.] THE CHINA BAZAAR. Y1 highly respectable class of Parsee merchants. Besides these, there are numbers of Javanese sailors and domestic servants, as well as traders from Celebes, Bali, and many other islands of the Archipelago. The harbour is crowded with men-of-war and trading vessels of many European nations, and hundreds of Malay praus and Chinese junks, from vessels of several hundred tons burthen down to little fishing boats and passenger sampans; and the town com- prises handsome’ public buildings and churches, Mahome- tan mosques, Hindoo temples, Chinese joss-houses, good European houses, massive warehouses, queer old Kling and China-bazaars, and long suburbs of Chinese and Malay cottages. By far the most conspicuous of the various kinds of people in Singapore, and those which most attract the stranger’s attention, are the Chinese, whose numbers and incessant activity give the place very much the appearance of a town in China. The Chinese merchant is generally a fat round-faced man with an important and business-like look. He wears the same style of clothing (loose white smock, and blue or black trousers) as the meanest coolie, but of finer materials, and is always clean and neat; and his long tail tipped with red silk hangs down to his heels. He has a handsome warehouse or shop in town and a good house in the country. He keeps a fine horse and gig, and every evening may be seen taking a drive bareheaded to enjoy the cool breeze. He is rich, he owns several retail shops and trading schooners, he lends money at high interest and on good security, he makes hard bargains and gets fatter and richer every year. | In the Chinese bazaar are hundreds of small shops in which a miscellaneous collection of hardware and dry goods are to be found, and where many things are sold wonderfully cheap. You may buy gimlets at a penny each, white cotton thread at four balls for a halfpenny, and penknives, corkscrews, gunpowder, writing-paper, and many other articles as cheap or cheaper than. you can purchase them in England. The shopkeeper is very good- natured ; he will show you everything he has, and does not seem to mind if you buy nothing. He bates a little, but not so much as the Klings, who almost always ask yp SINGAPORE. [CHAP. IL. twice what they are willing to take. If you buy a few things of him, he will speak to you afterwards every time you pass his shop, asking you to walk in and sit down, or take a cup of tea, and you wonder how he can get a living where so many sell the same trifling articles. The tailors sit at a table, not on one; and both they and the shoe- makers work well and cheaply. The barbers have plenty to do, shaving heads and cleaning ears; for which latter operation they have a great array of little tweezers, picks, and brushes. In the outskirts of the town are scores of carpenters and blacksmiths. The former seem chiefly to make coffins and highly painted and decorated clothes- boxes. The latter are mostly gun-makers, and bore the barrels of guns by hand, out of solid bars of iron. At this tedious operation they may be seen every day, and they manage to finish off a gun with a flint lock very handsomely. All about the streets are sellers of water, vegetables, fruit, soup, and agar-agar (a jelly made of sea- weed), who have many cries as unintelligible as those of London. Others carry a portable cooking-apparatus on a pole balanced by a table at the other end, and serve up a meal of shell-fish, rice, and vegetables for two or three halfpence ; while coolies and boatmen waiting to be hired are everywhere to be met with. = In the interior of the island the Chinese cut down forest trees in the jungle, and saw them up into planks; they cultivate vegetables, which they bring to market; and they grow pepper and gambir, which form important — articles of export. The French Jesuits have established missions among these inland Chinese, which seem very successful. I lived for several weeks at a time with the missionary at Bukit-tima, about the centre of the island, where a pretty church has been built and there are about 300 converts. While there, I met a missionary who had just arrived from Tonquin, where he had been living for many years. The Jesuits still do their work thoroughly as of old. In Cochin China, Tonquin, and China, where all Christian teachers are obliged to live in secret, and are liable to persecution, expulsion, and sometimes death, every pro- vince, even those farthest in the interior, has a permanent Jesuit mission establishment, constantly kept up by fresh CHAP. 11.] JESUIT MISSIONARIES. 23 aspirants, who are taught the languages of the countries they are going to at Penang or Singapore. In China there are said to be near a million converts ; in Tonquin and Cochin China, more than half a million. One secret of the success of these missions is the rigid economy practised in the expenditure of the funds. A missionary is allowed about 30/. a year, on which he lives in whatever country he may be. This renders it possible to support a large number of missionaries with very limited means ; and the natives, seeing their teachers living in poverty and with none of the luxuries of life, are convinced that they are sincere in what they teach, and have really given up home and friends and ease and safety, for the good of others. No wonder they make converts, for it must be a great blessing to the poor people among whom they labour to have a man among them to whom they can go in any trouble or distress, who will comfort and advise them, who visits them in sickness, who relieves them in want, and who they see living from day to day in danger of persecution and death entirely for their sakes. My friend at Bukit-tima was truly a father to his flock. He preached to them in Chinese every Sunday, and had evenings for discussion and conversation on religion during the week. He hada school to teach their children. His house was open to them day and night. Ifa man came to him and said, “I have no rice for my family to eat to- day,” he would give him half of what he had in the house, however little that might be. If another said, “I have no money to pay my debt,” he would give him half the contents of his purse, were it his Jast dollar. So, when he was himself in want, he would send to some of the wealthiest among his flock, and say, “I have no rice in the house,” or “ I have given away my money, and am in want of such and such articles.” The result was that his flock trusted and loved him, for they felt sure that he was their true friend, and had no ulterior designs in living among them. The isiand of Singapore consists of a multitude of small hills, three or four hundred feet high, the summits of many of which are still covered with virgin forest. The mission- 24 SINGAPORE. (CHAP. IL. house at Bukit-tima was surrounded by several of these wood-topped hills, which were much frequented by wood- cutters and sawyers, and offered me an excellent collecting eround for insects. Here and there, too, were tiger pits, carefully covered over with sticks and leaves, and so well concealed, that in several cases I had a narrow escape from falling into them. They are shaped like an iron furnace, wider at the bottom than the top, and are perhaps fifteen or twenty feet deep, so that it would be almost impossible for a person unassisted to get out of one. Formerly a sharp stake was stuck erect in the bottom; but after an unfortunate traveller had been killed by falling on one, its use was forbidden. There are always a few tigers roaming about Singapore, and they kill on an average a Chinaman every day, principally those who work in the gvambir plantations, which are always made in newly- cleared jungle. We heard a tiger roar once or twice in the evening, and it was rather nervous work hunting for insects among the fallen trunks and old sawpits, when one of these savage animals might be lurking close by, waiting an opportunity to spring upon us. Several hours in the middle of every fine day were spent in these patches of forest, which were delightfully cool and shady by contrast with the bare open country we had to walk over to reach them. \ The vegetation was most luxuriant, comprising enormous forest trees, as well as a variety of ferns, caladiums, and other undergrowth, and abundance of climbing rattan palms. Insects were | exceedingly abundant and very interesting, and every day furnished scores of new and curious forms. In about two months I obtained no less than 700 species of beetles, a large proportion of which were quite new, and among them were 130 distinct kinds of the elegant Longicorns (Cerambycidee), so much esteemed by collectors. Almost all these were coilected in one patch of jungle, not more than a square mile in extent, and in all my subsequent | travels in the East I rarely if ever met with so productive a spot. | This exceeding productiveness was due in part-no doubt to some favourable conditions in the soil, climate, and vegetation, and to the season being very bright and sunny, with sufficient showers to keep everything fresh. CHAP. I.) INSECT HARVEST. 25 But it was also in a great measure dependent, I feel sure, on the labours of the Chinese wood-cutters. They had been at work here for several years, and during all that time had furnished a continual supply of dry and dead and decaying leaves and bark, together with abundance of wood and sawdust, for the nourishment of insects and their larvee. This had led to the assemblage of a great variety of species in a limited space, and I was the first naturalist who had come to reap the harvest they had prepared. In the same place, and during my walks in other directions, I obtained a fair collection of butter- flies and of other orders of insects, so that on the whole I was quite satisfied with these my first attempts ‘to gain a knowledge of the Natural History of the Malay Archipelago. CHAPTER IIL. MALACCA AND MOUNT OPHIR. (JULY TO SEPTEMBER, 1854.) IRDS and most other kinds of animals being scarce at Singapore, I left it in July for Malacca, where I spent more than two months in the interior, and made an ex- cursion to Mount Ophir. The old and picturesque town of Malacca is crowded along the banks of the small river, and consists of narrow streets of shops and dwelling- houses, occupied by the descendants of the Portuguese, and by Chinamen. In the suburbs are the houses of the English officials and of a few Portuguese merchants, embedded in groves of palms and fruit-trees, whose varied and beautiful foliage furnishes a pleasing relief to the eye, as well as most grateful shade. The old fort, the large Government House, and the ruins of a cathedral, attest the former wealth and importance of this place, which was once as much the centre of Eastern trade as Singapore is now. The following de- 26 MALACCA. _ | CHAP, 111. scription of it by Linschott, who wrote two hundred and seventy years ago, strikingly exhibits the change it has — undergone :— — Malacca is inhabited by the Portuguese and by natives of the country, called Malays. The Portuguese have here a fortress, as at Mozambique, and there is no fortress in all the Indies, after those of Mozambique and Ormuz, where the captains perform their duty better than in this one. This place is the market of all India, of China, of the Moluccas, and of other islands round about, from all which places, as well as from Banda, Java, Sumatra, Siam, Pegu, Bengal, Coromandel, and India, arrive ships, which come and go incessantly, charged with an infinity of merchandises. There would be in this place a much oreater number of Portuguese if it were not for the in- convenience, and unhealthiness of the air, which is hurtful not only to strangers, but also to natives of the country. Thence it is that all who live in the country pay tribute of their health, suffering from a certain disease, which makes them lose either their skin or their hair. And those who escape consider it a miracle, which occasions. many to leave the country, while the ardent desire of gain induces others to risk their health, and endeavour to endure such an atmosphere. The origin of this town, as the natives say, was very small, only having at the be- ginning, by reason of the unhealthiness of the air, but six or seven fishermen who inhabited it. But the number was increased by the meeting of fishermen from Siam, Pegu, and Bengal, who came and built a city, and esta- blished a peculiar language, drawn from the most elegant modes of speaking of other nations, so that in fact the language ot the Malays is at present the most refined, exact, and celebrated of all the East. The name of Malacca was given to this town, which, by the conve- nience of its situation, in a short time grew to such wealth, that it does not yield to the most powerful tewns and regions round about. The natives, both men and women, are very courteous, and are reckoned the most skilful in the world in compliments, and study much to compose and repeat verses and love-songs. Their language is in vogue through the Indies, as the French is here.” cHaP. ul] THE TOWN AND ITS INHABITANTS. DF: At present, a vessel over a hundred tons hardly ever enters its port, and the trade is entirely confined to a few petty products of the forests, and to the fruit, which the trees planted by the old Portuguese now produce for the enjoyment of the inhabitants of Singapore. Although rather subject to fevers, it is not at present considered very unhealthy. et The population of Malacca consists of several races. — The ubiquitous Chinese are perhaps the most numerous, keeping up their manners, customs, and language; the indigenous Malays are next in point of numbers, and their language.is the Lingua-franca of the place. Next come the descendants of the Portuguese—a mixed, de- eraded, and degenerate race, but who still keep up the use of their mother tongue, though ruefully mutilated in grammar; and then there are the English rulers, and the descendants of the Dutch, who all speak English? \ The Portuguese spoken at Malacca is a useful philological phenomenon. The verbs have mostly lost their inflections, and one form does for all moods, tenses, numbers, and persons. Huw vai, serves for “I go,’ “I went,” or, “I will go.” Adjectives, too, have been deprived of their feminine and plural terminations, so that the language is reduced to a marvellous simplicity, and, with the admixture of a few Malay words, becomes rather puzzling to one who has heard only the pure Lusitanian. In costume these several peoples are as varied as in their speech. The English preserve the tight-fitting coat, waistcoat, and trousers, and the abominable hat and cravat ; the Portuguese patronise a light jacket, or, more frequently, shirt and trousers only; the Malays wear their national jacket and sarong (a kind of kilt), with loose drawers; while the Chinese never depart in the least from their national dress, which, indeed, it is im- possible to improve for a tropical climate, whether as regards comfort or appearance. The loosely-hanging trousers, and neat white half-shirt half-jacket, are exactly what a dress should be in this low latitude. I engaged two Portuguese to accompany me into the interior ; one as a cook, the other to shoot and skin birds, which is quite a trade in Malacca. I first stayed a fort- | 28 MALACCG4. (CHAP, III. night at a village called Gading, where I was accom- modated in the house of some Chinese converts, to whom I was recommended by the Jesuit missionaries. The house was a mere shed, but it was kept clean, and I made myself sufficiently comfortable. My hosts were forming a pepper and gambir plantation, and in the immediate neighbourhood were extensive tin-washings, employing over a thousand Chinese. The tin 1s obtained in the form of black grains from beds of quartzose sand, and is melted into ingots in rude clay furnaces. The soil seemed poor, and the forest was very dense with undergrowth, and not at all productive of insects; but, on the other hand, birds were abundant, and I was at once introduced to the rich ornithological treasures of the Malayan region. _ The very first time I fired my gun I brought down one of the most curious and beautiful of the Malacca birds, the blue-billed gaper (Cymbirhynchus macrorhynchus), called by the Malays the “ Rain-bird.” It is about the size of a starling, black and rich claret colour with white shoulder stripes, and a very large and broad bill of the most pure cobalt blue above and orange below, while the iris is emerald green. As the skins dry the bill turns dull black, but even then the bird is handsome. When fresh killed, the contrast of the vivid blue with the rich colours of the plumage is remarkably striking and beau- tiful, The lovely Eastern trogons, with their rich brown backs, beautifully pencilled wings, and crimson breasts, were also soon obtained, as well as the large green barbets (Megaleema versicolor) —fruit-eating birds, something like © small toucans, with a short, straight bristly bill, and whose head and neck are variegated with patches of the most vivid blue and crimson. A day or two after, my hunter brought me a specimen of the green gaper (Calyptomena viridis), which is like a small cock-of-the-rock, but entirely of the most vivid green, delicately marked on the wings with black bars. Handsome woodpeckers and gay kinefishers, green and brown cuckoos with velvety red faces and green beaks, red-breasted doves and metallic honeysuckers, were brought in day after day, and kept me in a continual state of pleasurable excitement. After a fortnight one of my servants was seized with fever, and on returning to a CHAP. III. | NEW BUTTERFLY. 99 Malacca, the same disease attacked the other as well as myself. By a liberal use of quinine, I soon recovered, and obtaining other men, went to stay at the Government bun- galow of Ayer-panas, accompanied by a young gentleman, a native of the place, who had a taste for natural history. At Ayer-panas we had a comfortable house to stay in, and plenty of room to dry and preserve our specimens ; but, owing to there being no industrious Chinese to cut down timber, insects were comparatively scarce, with the exception of butterflies, of which I formed a very fine collection. The manner in which I obtained one fine insect was curious, and indicates how fragmentary and imperfect a traveller's coilection must necessarily be. I was one afternoon walking along a favourite road through the forest, with my gun, when I saw a butterfly on the oround, It was large, handsome, and quite new to me, and I got close to it before it flew away. I then ob- served that it had been settling on the dung of some carnivorous animal. Thinking it might return to the same spot, I next day after breakfast took my net, and as I approached the place was delighted to see the same butterfly sitting on the same piece of dung, and succeeded in capturing it. It was an entirely new species of great beauty, and has been named by Mr. Hewitson Nymphalis calydonia. I never saw another specimen of it, and it was only after twelve years had elapsed that a second individual reached this country from the north- western part of Borneo. ---Having determined to visit Mount Ophir, which is situated in the middle of the peninsula about fifty miles east of Malacca, we engaged six Malays to accompany us and carry our baggage. As we meant to stay at least a week at the mountain, we took with us a good supply of rice, a little biscuit butter and coffee, some dried fish and a little brandy, with blankets, a change of clothes, insect and bird boxes, nets guns and ammunition.{ The dis- tance from Ayer-panas was supposed to be about thirty miles. Our first day’s march lay through patches of forest, clearings, and Malay villages, and was pleasant enough. At night we slept at the house of a Malay chief, who lent us a verandah, and gave us a fowl] and come 30 MALACCA. [CHAP. IIL. eggs, The next day the country got wilder and more hilly. We passed through extensive forests, along paths often up to our knees in mud, and were much annoyed by the leeches for which this district is famous. These ~ little creatures infest the leaves and herbage by the side of — the paths, and when a passenger comes along they stretch — themselves out at full length, and if they touch any part of © his dress or body, quit their leaf and adhere to it. They then creep on to his feet, legs, or other part of his body and suck their fill, the first puncture being rarely felt during the excitement of walking. On bathing in the evening we generally found half.a dozen or a dozen on each of us, most-frequently on our legs, but sometimes on our bodies, and I had one who sucked his fill from the side of my neck, but who luckily missed the jugular vein. There are many species of these forest leeches. All are small, but some are beautifully marked with stripes of bright yellow. They probably attach themselves to deer or other animals which frequent the forest paths, and have thus acquired the singular habit of stretching themselves out at the sound of a footstep or of rustling foliage. arly in the afternoon we reached the foot of the mountain, and encamped by the side of a fine stream, whose rocky banks were overgrown with ferns. Our oldest Malay had been accustomed to shoot birds in this neighbourhood for the Malacca dealers, and had been to the top of the mountain, and while we amused ourselves shooting and insect hunt- ing, he went with two others to clear the path for our . ascent the next day. Early next morning we started after breakfast, carrylng blankets and provisions, as we intended to sleep upon the mountain. After passing a little tangled jungle and swampy thickets through which our men had cleared a path, we emerged into a fine lofty forest pretty clear of undergrowth, and in which we could walk freely. We ascended steadily up a moderate slope for several miles, having a deep ravine on our left. We then had a level plateau or shoulder to cross, after which the ascent was steeper and the forest denser till we came out upon the “ Padang-batu,” or stone field, a place of which we had heard much, but could never get any one to describe intel- | CHAP. Ti1.] RARE FERNS. a1 ligibly. We found it to be a steep slope of even rock, ex- tending along the mountain side farther than we could see. Parts of it were quite bare, kut where it was -eracked and fissured there grew a most luxuriant ve- getation, a- mong which the pitcher plants were the most remarkable. L These wonderful plants never seem to succeed well in our hot- houses, and are there seen to little advantage. Here they grew up into half climbing shrubs, their curious pitchers of various sizes and forms hanging abundantly from their leaves, and continually excit- ing our admiration by their size and beauty. 9.000 and 5,000 feet that the forests and ravines exhibit the utmost development of tropical luxuriance and beauty. The abundance of noble Tree-ferns, sometimes fifty feet high, contributes greatly to the general effect, since of all the forms of tropical vegetation they are certainly the most striking and beautiful, Some of the deep ravines which have been cleared of large timber are full of them from top to bottom ; and where the road crosses one of these valleys, the view of their feathery crowns, in varied positions above and below the eye, offers a spectacle of picturesque beauty never to be forgotten. The splendid foliage of the broad-leaved Musacee and Zingiberacee, with their curious and brilliant flowers ; and the elegant and CHAP. VII. ] MOUNTAIN PLANTS. 117 varied forms of plants allied to Begonia and Melastoma, continually attract the attention in this region. Filling up the spaces between the trees and larger plants, on every trunk and stump and branch, are hosts of Orchids, Ferns and Lycopods, which wave and hang and inter- twine in ever-varying complexity. At about 5,000 feet 1 first saw horsetails (Equisetum), very like our own species. At 6,000 feet, Raspberries abound, and thence to the summit of the mountain there are three species of eat- able Rubus. At 7,000 feet Cypresses ap- pear, and the forest trees become reduced in size, and more covered with mosses and lichens. From this point upward these rapidly in- crease, so that the blocks of rock and «< scoria that form the mountain slope are completely hidden in a& mossy vegetation. At about 8,000 feet European forms of & plants become abun- dant. Several species of Honey-suckle, St. John’s-wort, and Guelder-rose abound, and at about 9,000 | feet we first meet PRIMULA IMPERIALIS, with the rare and beautiful Royal Cowslip (Primula imperialis), which is said to be found nowhere else in the world but on this solitary mountain summit. It has a tall, stout stem, some- 118 JAVA. [cHAP. VL. times more than three feet high, the root leaves are eighteen inches long, and it bears several whorls of cowslip-like flowers, instead of a terminal cluster only. The forest trees, gnarled and dwarfed to the dimensions of bushes, reach up to the very rim of the old crater, but do not extend over the hollow on its summit. Here we find.a good deal of open ground, with thickets of shrubby Artemisias and Gnaphaliums, like our southernwood and cudweed, but six or eight feet high ; while Buttercups, Violets, Whortle- berries, Sow-thistles, Chickweed, white and yellow Cru- ciferee, Plantain, and annual grasses everywhere abound. Where there are bushes and shrubs, the St. John’s-wort and Honeysuckle grow abundantly, while the Imperial Cowslip only exhibits its elegant blossoms under the damp shade of the thickets. Mr. Motley, who visited the mountain in the dry season, and paid much attention to botany, gives the following list of genera characteristic of distant and more temperate regions :—Iwo species of Violet, three of Ranunculus, three of Impatiens, eight or ten of Rubus, and species of Primula, Hypericum, Swertia, Convallaria (Lily of the Valley), Vaccinium (Cranberry), Rhododendron, Gnapha- lium, Polygonum, Digitalis (Foxglove), Lonicera (Honey- suckle), Plantago (Rib-grass), Artemisia (Wormwood), Lobelia, Oxalis (Wood-sorrel), Quercus (Oak), and Taxus (Yew). A few of the smaller plants (Plantago major and lanceolata, Sonchus oleraceus, and Artemisia vulgaris) are identical with European species. The fact of a vegetation so closely allied to that of Europe occurring on isolated mountain peaks, in an island south of the Equator, while all the lowlands for thousands of miles around are occupied by a flora of a totally different character, is very extraordinary ; and has only recently received an intelligible explanation. The Peak of Teneriffe, which rises to a greater height and is much nearer to Europe, contains no such Alpine flora; neither do the mountains of Bourbon and Mauritius. The case of the volcanic peaks of Java 1s therefore somewhat exceptional, but there are several analogous, if not exactly parallel cases, that will enable us better to understand : : in what way the phenomena may possibly have been CHAP. VIL. | THE GLACIAL EPOCH. 119 brought about. The higher peaks of the Alps and even of the Pyrenees, contain a number of plants absolutely identical with those of Lapland, but nowhere found in the intervening plains. On the summit of the White Mountains, in the United States, every plant is identical with species growing in Labrador. In these cases all ordinary means of transport fail. Most of the plants have heavy seeds, which could not possibly be carried such immense distances by the wind; and the agency of birds in so effectually stocking these Alpine heights is equally out of the question, The difficulty was so great, that some naturalists were driven to believe that these species were all separately created twice over on these , distant peaks. The determination of a recent glacial epoch, < however, soon offered a much more satisfactory solution, and one that is now universally accepted by men of science. At this period, when the mountains of Wales were full of glaciers, and the mountainous parts of Central Europe, and much of America north of the great lakes, were covered with snow and ice, and had a climate resembling that of Labrador and Greenland at the present day, an Arctic flora covered all these regions. As this epoch of cold passed away, and the snowy mantle of the country, with the glaciers that descended from every mountain summit, receded up their slopes and towards the north pole, the plants receded also, always clinging as now to the margins of the perpetual snow line. Thus it is that the same species are now found on the summits of the mountains of temperate Europe and America, and in the barren north-polar regions. 7 But there is another set of facts, which help us on another step towards the case of the Javanese mountain flora. On the higher slopes of the Himalaya, on the tops of the mountains of Central India and of Abyssinia, a number of plants occur which, though not identical with those of European mountains, belong to the same genera, and are said by botanists to represent them; and most of these could not exist in the warm intervening plains. Mr. Darwin believes that this class of facts can be explained in the same way; for, during the greatest severity of the glacial epoch, temperate forms of plants will have 120 JAVA. (CHAP. VII. extended to the confines of the tropics, and on its de- parture, will have retreated up these southern mountains, as well as northward to the plains and hills of Europe. But in this case, the time elapsed, and the great change of conditions, have allowed many of these plants to become so modified that we now consider them to be distinct species. A variety of other facts of a similar nature, have led him to believe that the depression of temperature was at one time sufficient to allow a few north-temperate plants to cross the Equator (by the most elevated routes) and to reach the Antarctic regions, where they are now found. The evidence on which this belief rests, will be found in the latter part of Chapter II. of the “ Origin of Species;” and, accepting it for the present aS an hypothesis, it enables us to account for the presence ot a flora of European type on the volcanoes of Java. It will, however, naturally be objected that there 1s a wide expanse of sea between Java and the continent, which would have effectually prevented the immigration of temperate forms of plants during the glacial epoch. This would undoubtedly be a fatal objection, were there not abundant evidence to show that Java has been formerly connected with Asia, and that the union must have occurred at about the epoch required. The most striking proof of such a junction 1s, that the great Mam- malia of Java, the rhinoceros, the tiger, and the Banteng or wild ox, occur also in Siam and Burmah, and these would certainly not have been introduced by man. The — Javanese peacock and several other birds are also common to these two countries; but, in the majority of cases, the species are distinct, though closely allied, indicating that a considerable time (required for such modification) has elapsed since the separation, while it has not been so long as to cause an entire change. Now this exactly cor- responds with the time we should require since the temperate forms of plants entered Java. These are almost all now distinct species ; but the changed conditions under which they are now forced to exist, and the proba- bility of some of them having since died out on the con- tinent of India, sufficiently accounts for the Javanese species being different. | CHAP. VIII. ] MOUNTAIN BIRDS. 121 In my more special pursuits, I had very little success upon the mountain; owing, perhaps, to the excessively unpropitious weather and the shortness of my stay. At from 7,000 to 8,000 feet elevation, I obtained one of the most lovely of the small fruit pigeons (Ptilonopus rosei- collis), whose entire head and neck are of an exquisite rosy pink colour, contrasting finely with its otherwise green plumage; and on the very summit, feeding on the ground among the strawberries that have been planted there, I obtained a dull-coloured thrush, with the form and habits of.a starling (Turdus fumidus). Insects were almost entirely absent, owing no doubt to the extreme dampness, and I did not get a single butterfly the whole | trip ; yet I feel sure that, during the dry season, a week’s residence on this mountain would well repay the collector in every department of natural history. After my return to Toego, I endeavoured to find another locality to collect in, and removed to a coffee-plantation some miles to the north, and tried in succession higher and lower stations on the mountain; but I never suc- ceeded in obtaining insects’ in any abundance, and birds were far less plentiful than on the Megamendong Moun- tain. The weather now became more rainy than ever, and as the wet season seemed to have set in in earnest, I returned to Batavia, packed up and sent off my col- lections, and left by steamer on November 1st for Banca and Sumatra. CHAPTER VIII. SUMATRA. (NOVEMBER 1861 TO JANUARY 1862.) HE mail steamer from Batavia to Singapore took me to Muntok (or as on English maps, “ Minto”), the chief town and port of Banca. Here I stayed a day or two, till I could obtain a boat to take me across the straits, and up the river to Palembang. A few walks into the country 122 SUMATRA. [CHAP. VIII. showed me that it was very hilly, and full of granitic and laterite rocks, with a dry and stunted forest vegetation ; and I could find very few insects. A good-sized open sailing-boat took me across to the mouth of the Palembang river, where at a fishing village, a rowing-boat was hired to take me up to Palembang, a distance of nearly a hundred miles by water. Except when the wind was strong and favouruble we could only proceed with the tide, and the banks of the river were generally flooded Nipa-swamps, so that the hours we were obliged to lay at anchor passed very heavily. Reaching Palembang on the 8th of Novem- ber, I was lodged by the Dector, to whom I had brought a letter of introduction, and endeavoured to ascertain where I could find a good locality for collecting. Every one assured me that I should have to go a very long way further to find any dry forest, for at this season the whole country for many miles inland was flooded. I therefore — had to stay a week at Palembang before I could determine on my future movements. The city is a large one, extending for three or four miles along a fine curve of the river, which is as wide as the Thames at Greenwich. The stream is, however, much narrowed by the houses which project into it upon piles, and within these, again, there is a row of houses built upon great bamboo rafts, which are moored by rattan cables. to the shore or to piles, and rise and fall with the tide. The whole river-front on both sides is chiefly formed of such houses, and they are mostly shops open to the water, and only raised a foot above it, so that by taking a small boat it is easy to go to market and purchase anything that is to be had in Palembang. The natives are true Malays, never building a house on dry land if they can find water to set it in, and never going anywhere on foot if they can reach the place in a boat. A considerable portion of the population are Chinese and Arabs, who carry on all the — trade ; while the only Europeans are the civil and military officials of the Dutch Government. The town is situated at the head of the delta of the river, and between it and the sea there is very little ground elevated above high- water mark; while for many miles further inland, the banks of the main stream and its numerous tributaries are CHAP. VIII] TAME SQUIRRELS. 123 swampy, and in the wet season flooded for a considerable distance. Palembang is built on a patch of elevated ground, a few miles in extent, on the north bank of the river. At a spot about three miles from the town this rises into a little hill, the top of which is held sacred by the natives, and is shaded by some fine trees, inhabited by a colony of squirrels, which have become half tame. On holding out a few crumbs of bread or any fruit, they come running down the trunk, take the morsel out of your fingers, and dart away instantly. Their tails are carried erect, and the hair, which is ringed with grey, yellow, and brown, radiates uniformly around them, and looks exceed- ingly pretty. They have somewhat of the motions of mice, coming on with little starts, and gazing intently with their large black eyes, before venturing to advance further. The manner in which Malays often obtain the confidence of wild animals is a very pleasing trait in their character, and is due in some degree to the quiet delibera- tion of their manners, and their love of repose rather than of action. The young are obedient to the wishes of their elders, and seem to feel none of that propensity to mischief which European boys exhibit. How long would tame squirrels continue to inhabit trees in the Vicinity of an English village, even if close to the church? They would soon be pelted and driven away, or snared and confined in a whirling cage. I have never heard of these pretty animals being tamed in this way in England, but I should think it might be easily done in any gentleman’s park, and they would certainly be as pleasing and attractive as they would be uncommon. After many inquiries, I found that a day’s journey a water above Palembang there commenced a military road, which extended up to the mountains and even across to Bencoolen, and I determined to take this route and travel on till I found some tolerable collecting ground. By this means I should secure dry land and a good road, and avoid the rivers, which at this season are very tedious to ascend owing to the powerful currents, and very unproductive to the collector owing to most of the lands in their vicinity being under water. Leaving early in the morning we did not reach Lorok, the village where the road begins, till 124 SUMATRA. (CHAP. VII: late at night. I stayed there a few days, but found that almost all the ground in the vicinity not under water was cultivated, and that the only forest was in swamps which were now inaccessible. The only bird new to me which I obtained at Lorok was the fine long-tailed parroquet (Paleornis longicauda). The people here assured me that the country was just the same as this for a very long way -—more than a week’s journey, and they seemed hardly to have any conception of an elevated forest-clad country, so that I began to think it would be useless going on, as the time at my disposal was too short to make it worth my while to spend much more of it in moving about. At length, however, 1 found a man who knew the country, and was more intelligent; and he at once told me that if I wanted forest I must go to the district of Rembang, which I found on inquiry was about twenty-five or thirty miles off. : The road is divided into regular stages, of ten or twelve miles each, and, without sending on in advance to have coolies ready, only this distance can be travelled in a day. At each station there are houses for the accommodation of passengers, with cooking-house and stables, and six or eight men always on guard. There is an established system for coolies at fixed rates, the inhabitants of the surrounding villages all taking their turn to be subject to coolie service, as well as that of guards at the station for five days at a time. This arrangement makes travel- ling very easy, and was a great convenience forme. I had a pleasant walk of ten or twelve miles in the morning, and the rest of the day could stroll about and explore the village and neighbourhood, having a house ready to occupy without any formalities whatever. In three days I reached Moera-dua, the first village in Rembang, and finding the country dry and undulating, with a good sprinkling of forest, I determined to remain a short time and try the neighbourhood. Just opposite the station’ was a small but deep river, and a good bathing-place ; and beyond the village was a fine patch of forest, through which the road passed, overshadowed by magnificent trees, which partly tempted me to stay; but after a fortnight I could find no good place for insects, and very few birds CHAP, VIII.) MALAY HOUSES. 125 different from the common species of Malacca. I there- fore moved on another stage to Lobo Raman, where the guard-house is situated quite by itself in the forest, nearly a mile from each of three villages. This was very agree- able to me, as I could move about without having every motion watched by crowds of men women and children, and I had also a much greater variety of walks to each of the villages and the plantations around them. The villages of the Sumatran Malays are somewhat peculiar and very picturesque. A space of some acres is surrounded with a high fence, and over this area the houses are thickly strewn without the least attempt at regularity. Tall cocoa-nut trees grow abundantly between them, and STAINS y ‘ LNs CHIEF’S HOUSE AND RICK SHZD IN A SUMATRAN VILLAGE. the ground is bare and smooth with the trampling of many feet. he houses are raised about six feet on posts, the best being entirely built of planks, others of bamboo. The former are always more or less ornamented with carving, and have high-pitched roofs and overhanging eaves. The gable ends and all the chief posts and beams are some- times covered with exceedingly tasteful carved work, and this is still more the case in the district of Menangkabo, further west. The floor is made of split bamboo, and is 126 SUMATRA. | (CHAP. VIII. | rather shaky, and there is no sign of anything we should call furniture. There are no benches or chairs or stools, but merely the level floor covered with mats, on which the inmates sit or lie. ‘The aspect of the village itself is very neat, the ground being often swept before the chief houses ; but very bad odours abound, owing to there being under every house a stinking mud-hole, formed by all waste liquids and refuse matter, poured down through the floor above. In most other things Malays are tolerably clean— in some scrupulously so; and this peculiar and nasty custom, which is almost universal, arises, I have little doubt, from their having been originally a maritime and water-loving people, who built their houses on posts in the water, and only migrated gradually inland, first up the rivers and streams, and then into the dry interior. Habits which were at once so convenient and so cleanly, and which had been so long practised as to become a portion of the domestic life of the nation, were of course continued when the first settlers built their houses inland; and with- out a regular system of drainage, the arrangement of the villages is such, that any other system would be very inconvenient. In all these Sumatran villages I found considerable difficulty in getting anything to eat. It was not the season for vegetables, and when, after much trouble, | managed to procure some yams ‘of a curious variety, I found them hard and scarcely eatable. Fowls were very scarce ; and fruit was reduced to one of the poorest kinds of banana. The natives (during the wet season at least) live exclusively on rice, as the poorer Irish do on potatoes. A pot of rice cooked very dry and eaten with salt and red peppers, twice a day, forms their entire food during a large part of the year. This is no sign of poverty, but is simply custom; for their wives and children are loaded with silver armlets from wrist to elbow, and carry dozens of silver coins strung round their necks or suspended from their ears. As I had moved away from Palembang, I had found the Malay spoken by the common people less and less pure, till at length it became quite unintelligible, although the continual recurrence of many well-known words assured CHAP. VIII. ] THE INTERIOR. 127 me it was a form of Malay, and enabled me to guess at the main subject of conversation. This district had a very bad reputation a few years ago, and travellers were frequently robbed and murdered. Fights between village and village were also of frequent occurrence, and many lives were lost, owing to disputes about boundaries or intrigues with women. Now, however, since the country has been divided into districts under “Controlleurs,” who visit every village in turn to hear complaints and settle disputes, such things are no more heard of. This is one of the numerous examples I have met with of the good effects of the Dutch Government. It exercises a strict surveil- lance over its most distant possessions, establishes a form of government well adapted to the character of the people, reforms abuses, punishes crimes, and makes itself every- where respected by the native population. Lobo Raman is a central point of the east end of Sumatra, being about a hundred and twenty miles from the sea to the east, north, and west. The surface is undulating, with no mountains or even hills, and there is no rock, the soil being generally a red friable clay. Numbers of small streams and rivers intersect the country, and it is pretty equally divided between open clearings and patches of forest, both virgin and second growth, with abundance of fruit trees; and there is no lack of paths to get about in any direction. Altogether it is the very country that would promise most for a naturalist, and [ feel sure that at a more favourable time of year it would prove exceedingly rich; but it was now the rainy season, when, in the very best of localities, insects are always scarce, and there being no fruit on the trees there was also a scarcity of birds. During a month’s collecting, I added only three or four new species to my list of birds, although I obtained very fine specimens of many which were rare and interesting. In butterflies I was rather more successful, obtaining several fine species quite new to me, and a considerable number of very rare and beautiful insects. I will give here some account of two species of butterflies, which, though very common in collections, present us with peculiarities of the highest interest, 128 SUMATRA. [cHAP. Vill. The first is the handsome Papilio memnon, a splendid butterfly of a deep black colour, dotted over with lines and croups of scales. of a clear ashy blue. Its wings are five inches in expanse, and the hind wings are rounded, with scalloped edges. This applies to the males ; but the females are very different, and vary so much that they were once supposed to form several distinct species. | They may be divided into two groups—those which resemble the male in shape, and those which differ entirely from him in the DIFFERENS FEMALES OF PAPILIO MEMNON. outline of the wings. The first vary much in colour, being often nearly white with dusky yellow and red markings, but such differences often occur in butterflies. The second group are much more extraordinary, and would never be supposed to be the same insect, since the hind wings are lengthened out into large spoon-shaped tails, no CHAP. Vill. | CURIOUS BUTTERFLIES. 129 rudiment of which is ever to be perceived in the males or in the ordinary form of females. These tailed females are never of the dark and blue-glossed tints which prevail in the male and often occur in the females of the same form, but are invariably ornamented with stripes and patches of white or buff, occupying the larger part of the surface of the hind wings. This peculiarity of colouring led me to discover that this extraordinary female closely resembles (when flying) another butterfly of the same genus but of a different group (Papilio codn); and that we have here a PAPILIO COGN. case of mimicry similar to those so well illustrated and explained by Mr. Bates.1 That the resemblance is not accidental is sufficiently proved by the fact, that in the North of India, where Papilio coon is replaced by an allied form (Papilio Doubledayi) having red spots in place of yellow, a closely-allied species or variety of Papilio memnon (P. androgeus), has the tailed female alsu red spotted, The use and reason of this resemblance appears to be, that the butterflies imitated belong to a section of the genus Papilio which from some cause or other are not attacked by birds, and by so closely resembling these in form and colour the female of Memnon and its ally, also 1 Trans. Linn. Soc. vol. xviii. p. 495; “Naturalist on the Amazous,” vol. i. p. 290 K 130 SUMATRA, [CHAP. VITL escape persecution. Two other species of this same section (Papilio antiphus and Papilio polyphontes) are so closely imitated by two female forms of Papilio theseus (which comes in the same section with Memnon), that they com- pletely deceived the Dutch entomologist De Haan, and he accordingly classed them as the same species ! But the most curious fact connected with these distinct forms is, that they are both the offspring of either form. A single brood of larvee were bred in Java by a Dutch entomologist, and produced males as well as tailed and tailless females, and there is every reason to believe that this is always the case, and that forms intermediate in character never occur. To illustrate these phenomena, let us suppose a roaming Englishman in some remote island to have two wives—one a bDlack-haired red-skinned Indian, the other a woolly-headed sooty-skinned negress ; and that instead of the children being mulattoes of brown or dusky tints, mingling the characteristics of each parent in varying degrees, all the boys should be as fair-skinned and blue-eyed as their father, while the girls should altogether resemble their mothers. This would be thought strange enough, but the case of these butterflies 1s yet more extraordinary, for each mother is capable not only of — producing male offspring like the father, and female like herself, but also other females like her fellow wife, and altogether differing from herself! The other species to which I have to direct attention is the Kallima paralekta, a butterfly of the same family group as our Purple Emperor, and of about the same size or larger. Its upper surface is of a rich purple, variously tinged with ash colour, and across the fore wings there is a broad bar of deep orange, so that when on the wing it 1s very conspicuous. This species was not uncommon in dry» woods and thickets, and I often endeavoured to capture it without success, for after flying a short distance it would enter a bush among dry or dead leaves, and however care- fully I crept up to the spot I could never discover it till it would suddenly start out again and then disappear in a similar place. At length I was fortunate enough to see the exact spot where the butterfly settled, and though I lost sight of it for some time, I at length discovered that it CHAP. VIII. ] LEAF-LIKE BUTTERILY. ra) was close before my eyes, but that in its position of repose it so closely resembled a dead leaf attached to a twig as almost certainly to deceive the eye even when gazing full tye f YW}; ny} ty Bh 1 ie i) ae Bo ie os ff aL is wf MN EZ ze ( EF 2 Z Z Z 3 3 a Z Z, La Lo SEF; a ——————— eg er, = eS ee ee = SS Sa = s a — : = — —s = ——— ——s iB = SS = ————— ar = —— = Wiis i i A H th i i Mi ( | Mi oe a si Hi y " x! - ‘ NY r ih j ) } }) ) \ 1 R Va 4)lh iy} )) iN \ M fi , } Mi Wh) Hh : WW LEAF BUTTERFLY IN FLIGHT AND REPOSE, upon it. I captured several specimens on the wing, and was able fully to understand the way in which this wonderful resemblance is produced. K 2 132 SUMATRA. (CHAP. VIIL The end of the upper wings terminates in a fine point, just as the leaves of many tropical shrubs and trees are pointed, while the lower wings are some- what more obtuse, and are lengthened out into a short thick tail. Between these two points there runs a dark curved line exactly representing the midrib of a leaf, and from this radiate on each side a few oblique marks which well imitate the lateral veins. These marks are more clearly seen on the outer portion of the base of the wings, | and on the inner side towards the middle and apex, and they are produced by strie and markings which are very common in allied species, but which are here modified and strengthened so as to imitate more exactly the venation of a leaf. The tint of the under surface varies much, but it is always some ashy brown or reddish colour, which matches with those of dead leaves. The habit of the species is always to rest on a twig and among dead or dry leaves, and in this position with the wings closely pressed together, their outline is exactly that of a mode- rately-sized leaf, slightly curved or shrivelled. The tail of the hind wings forms a perfect stalk, and touches the stick while the insect is supported by the middle pair of legs, which are not noticed among the twigs and fibres that surround it. The head and antenne are drawn back between the wings so as to be quite concealed, and there ‘3 a little notch hollowed out at the very base of the wings, which allows the head to be retracted sufficiently. 4 All these varied details combine to produce a disguise — that is so complete and marvellous as to astonish every one who observes it; and the habits of the imsects are such as to utilize all these peculiarities, and render them available in such a manner as to remove all doubt of the purpose of this singular case of mimicry, which is undoubtedly a protection to the insect. Its strong and swift flight is sufficient to save it from its enemies when on the wing, but if it were equally conspicuous when at rest it could not long escape extinction, owing to the’ attacks of the insectivorous birds and reptiles that abound in the tropical forests. A very closely allied species, Kallima inachis, inhabits India, where it 1s very common, and specimens are sent in every collection from the CHAP, VIIL.] PROTECTIVE RFSEMBLANCES. 133 Himalayas. On examining a number of these, it will be seen that no two are alike, but all the variations correspond to those of dead leaves. livery tint of yellow, ash, brown, and red is found here, and in many specimens there occur patches and spots formed of small black dots, so ciosely resembling the way in which minute fungi grow on ‘leaves that. it is almost impossible at first not to believe that fungi have grown on the butterflies themselves! If such an extraordinary adaptation as this stood alone, it would be very difficult to offer any explanation of it ; but although it is perhaps the most perfect case of protective imitation known, there are hundreds of similar ‘ezem- blances in nature, and from these it 1s possible to deakee a general theory of the manner in which they have ben slowly brought about. The principle of variation and that of “natural selection,” or survival of the fittest, as elabo- rated by Mr. Darwin in his celebrated “ Origin of Species,” offers the foundation for such a theory; and I have myself endeavoured to apply it to all the chief cases of imitatior ‘in an article published in the Westminster Review for 1867, entitled “ Mimicry, and other Protective Resemblances among Animals,’ to which auy reader is referred who wishes to know more about this subject. In Sumatra, monkeys are very abundant, and at Lobo Raman they used to frequent the trees which overhang the guard-house, and give me a fine opportunity of observing their gambols. Two species of Semnopithecus were most plentiful—monkeys of a slender form, with very long tails. Not being much shot at they are rather bold, and remain quite unconcerned when natives alone are present; but when I came out to look at them, they would stare for a minute or two and then make off. They take tremendous leaps from the branches of one tree to those of another a little lower, and it is very amusing when one strong leader takes a bold jump, to see the others following with more or less trepidation; and it often happens that one or two of the last seem quite unable to make up their minds to leap till the rest are disappearing, when, as if in desperation at being lett alone, they throw themselves frantically into the air, and often go crashing through the slender branches and fall to the ground. 134 SUMATRA. [CHAP. VIIL A very curious ape, the Siamang, was also rather abundant, but it is much less bold than the monkeys, keeping to the virgin forests and avoiding villages. This species is allied to the little long-armed apes of the genus Hylobates, but 1S — considerably larger, and differs from them by having the two — first fingers of the feet united together, nearly to the end, whence its Latin name, Siamanga syndactyla. It moves much more slowly than the active Hylobates, keeping lower down in trees, and not indulging in such tremendous | leaps ; but it is still very active, and by means of its im- mense long arms, five feet six inches across In an adult abo'it“three feet high, can swing itself along among the tre at a great rate. I purchased a small one, which had been caught by the natives and tied up so tightly as to hurt it. It was rather savage at first, and tried to bite; but when we had released it and given it two poles under the verandah to hang upon, securing it by a short cord, running along the pole with a ring, so that it could move easily, it became more contented, and would swing itself about with great rapidity. It ate almost any kind of fruit and rice, and I was in hopes to have brought it to England, but it died just before I started. It took a dislike to me at first, which I tried to get over by feeding it constantly myself. One day, however, it bit me so sharply while giving it food, that I lost patience and gave it rather a severe beating, which I regretted afterwards, as from that time it disliked me more than ever. It would allow my Malay boys to play with it, and for hours together would swing by its arms from pole to pole and on to the rafters of the | verandah, with so much ease and rapidity, that it was a constant source of amusement to us. When I returned to Singapore it attracted great attention, as no one had seen a Siamang alive before, although it is not uncommon in some parts of the Malay peninsula. As the Orang-utan is known to inhabit Sumatra, and was in fact first discovered there, I made many inquiries about it; but none of the natives had ever heard of such an animal, nor could I find any of the Dutch officials who knew anything about it. We may conclude, therefore, that it does not inhabit the great forest plains in the east of Sumatra where one would naturally expect to find it, but CHAP. VIil. | THR FLYING LEMUR. 135 is probably confined to a limited region in the north-west— a part of the island entirely in the hands of native rulers. The other great Mammalia of Sumatra, the elephant and the rhinoceros, are more widely distributed ; but the former is much more scarce than it was a few years ago, and seems to retire rapidly before the spread of cultivation. About Lobo Raman tusks and bones are occasionally found in the forest, but the living animal is now never seen. The rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sumatranus) still abounds, and I continually saw its tracks and its dung, and once dis- turbed one feeding, which went crashing away through the jungle, only permitting me a momentary glimpse of, it through the dense underwood. I obtained a tolerably perfect cranium, and a number of teeth, which were picked up by the natives. / Another curious animal, which I had met with in Singa- pore and in Borneo, but which was more abundant here, is the Galeopithecus, or flying lemur. \This creature has a broad membrane extending all round its body to the extremities of the toes, and to the point of the rather long tail, This enables it to pass obliquely through the air from one tree to another. It is sluggish in its motions, at least by day, going up a tree by short runs of a few feet, and then stopping a moment as if the action was difficult. It rests during the day clinging to the trunks of trees, where its olive or brown fur, mottled with irregular whitish spots and blotches, resembles closely the colour of mottled bark, and no doubt helps to protect it. Once, in a bright twilight, I saw one of these animals run up a trunk in a rather open place, and then glide obliquely through the air to another tree, on which it alighted near its base, and immediately began to ascend. I paced the distance from the one tree to the other, and found it to be seventy yards ; and the amount of descent I estimated at not more than thirty-five or forty feet, or less than one in five. This I think proves that the animal must have some power of cuiding itself through the air, otherwise in so long a dis- tance it would have little chance of alighting exactly upon the trunk. Eek the Cuscus of the Moluccas, the Galeo- pithecus feeds chiefly on leaves, and possesses a very voluminous stomach and long convoluted intestines. The —S « 156 SUMATRA. (CHAP. VIiL brain is very small, and the animal possesses such remark- able tenacity of life, that it is exceedingly difficult to kill it by any ordinary means. The tail is prehensile, and 1s FEMALE HURNBILL, AND YOUNG BIRD. probably made use of as an additional support while feed- ing. / It is said to have only a single young one at a time, and my own observation confirms this statement, for ] CHAP, VIII] HORNBILLS. 137 once shot a female, with a very small blind and naked little creature clinging closely to its breast, which was quite bare and much wrinkled, reminding me of the young of Marsupials, to which it seemed to form a transition. On the back, and extending over the limbs and membrane, the fur of these animals is short, but exquisitely soft, resembling in its texture that of: the Chinchilla. _, I returned to Palembang by water, and while Staying a day at a village while a boat was being made watertight, I had the good fortune to obtain a male, female, and young bird of one of the large hornbills. I had sent my hunters to shoot, and while “I was at breakfast they returned, bringing me a fine large male, of the Buceros bicornis, which one of them assured me he had shot while feeding the female, which was shut up ina hole ina tree. I had often read of this curious habit, and immediately returned to the place, accompanied by several of the natives. After crossing a stream and a bog, we found a large tree lean- ing over some water, and on its lower side, at a height of about twenty feet, appeared a small hole, and what looked like a quantity of mud, which I was assured had been used in stopping up the large hole. After a while we heard the harsh cry of a bird inside, and could see the white extremity of its beak put out. I offered a rupee to any one who would go up and get out the bird, with the ege or young one; but they all declared it was too difficult, and they were afraid to try. I therefore very reluctantly came away. In about an hour afterwards, much to my surprise, a tremendous loud hoarse screaming was heard, and the bird was brought me, together with a young one which had been found in the hole. This was a most curious object, as large as a pigeon, but without a particle of plumage on any part of it. It was exceedingly plump and soft, and with a semi-transparent skin, so that it looked more like a bag of jelly, with head and feet stuck on, than like a real bird. The extraordinary habit of the male, in plastering up the female with her egg, and feeding her during the whole time of incubation, and till the young one is fledged, is common to several of the large hornbills, and is one of those strange facts in natural history which are “ stranger than fiction.” 138 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE [CBAP. LE CHAPTER IX. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. » {2 the first chapter of this work I have stated generally the reasons which lead us to conclude that the large ;slands in the western portion of the Archipelago—Java, — Sumatra, and Borneo—as well as the Malay peninsula and the Philippine islands, have been recently separated from the continent of Asia. ) I now propose to give a sketch ol the Natural History of these, which I term the Indo-Malay islands, and to show how far it supports this view, and how mucb. information it is able to give us of the antiquity and origin of the separate islands. The flora of the Archipelago is at present so imperfectly known, and I have myself paid so little attention to it, that I cannot draw from it many facts of importance. The Malayan type of vegetation is however a very important one; and Dr. Hooker informs us, in his “ Flora Indica,” that it spreads over all the moister and more equable parts of India, and that many plants found in Ceylon, the Hima- layas, the Nilghiri, and Khasia mountains are identical with those of Java and the Malay peninsula. Among the more characteristic forms of this flora are the rattans—climbing palms of the genus Calamus, and a great variety of tall, as well as stemless palms. Orchids, Aracez, Zingiberacee, and ferns are especially abundant, and the genus Gramma- tophyllum—a gigantic epiphytal orchid, whose clusters of leaves and flower-stems are ten or twelve feet long—is — peculiar to it. Here, too, is the domain of the wonderful pitcher plants (Nepenthacee), which are only represented elsewhere by solitary species in Ceylon, Madagascar, the Seychelles, Celebes, and the Moluccas. Those celebrated fruits, the Mangosteen and the Durian, are natives of this region, and will hardly grow out of the Archipelago. The mountain plants of Java have already been alluded to as showing a former connexicn with the continent of Asia ; and a still more extraordinary and more ancient connexion } CHAP. 1X.] INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. 139 with Australia has been indicated by Mr. Low’s collections from the summit of Kini-balou, the loftiest mountain in Borneo Plants have much greater facilities for passing across arms of the sea than animals. The lighter seeds are easily earried by the winds, and many of them are specially adapted to be so carried. Others can float a long time SS ————_ _* = =| Po Ani EES = din ——— orl =i GRAMMATOPHYLLUM, A GIGANTIC ORCHID. unhurt in the water, and are drifted by winds and. currents to distant shores. Pigeons, and other fruit-eating birds, are also the means of distributing plants, since the seeds readily germinate after passing through their bodies. It thus happens that plants which grow on shores and low- lands have a wide distribution, and it requires an extensive knowledge of the species of each island to determine the relations of their floras with any approach to accuracy. At present we have no such complete knowledge of the botany 140 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE ([CULAP. 1X of the several islands of the Archipelago ; and it is only by such striking phenomena as the occurrence of northern and even European genera on the summits of the Javanese mountains that we can prove the former connexion of that island with the Asiatic continent. With land animals, how- ever, the case is very different. Their means of passing a wide expanse of sea are far more restricted. Their distri- ‘bution has been more accurately studied, and we possess a much more complete knowledge of such groups as mammals and birds in most of the islands, than we do of the plants. It is these two classes which will supply us with most of our facts as to the geographical distribution of organized beings in this region. The number of Mammalia known to inhabit the Indo- Malay region is very considerable, exceeding 170 species. With the exception of the bats, none of these have any regular means of passing arms of the sea many miles in extent, and a consideration of their distribution must therefore greatly assist us in determining, whether these islands have ever been connected with each other or with the continent since the epoch of existing species. The Quadrumana or monkey tribe form one of the most characteristic features of this region. Twenty-four dis- tinct species are known to inhabit it, and these are distri- buted with tolerable uniformity over the islands, nine being found in Java, ten in the Malay peninsula, eleven in Sumatra, and thirteen in Borneo. The great man-like Orang-utans are found only in Sumatra and Borneo; the curious Siamang (next tu them in size) in Sumatra and Malacca; the long-nosed monkey only in Borneo; while every island has representatives of the Gibbons or long- armed apes, and of munkeys. ‘The lemur-like animals, Nycticebus, Tarsius, and Galeopithecus, are found in all the islands. Seven species found on the Malay peninsula extend also into Sumatra, four into Borneo, and three into Java; while two range into Siam and Burmah, and one into North India. With the exception of the Orang-utan, the Siamang, the Tarsius spectrum, and the Galeopi- thecus, all the Malayan genera of Quadrumana are re- presented in India by closely allied species, although, . CHAP. 15.] INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. 14] owing to the limited ‘range of most of these animals, so few are absolutely identical. Of Carnivora, thirty-three species are known from the Indo-Malay region, of which about eight are found also in Burmah and India. Among these are the tiger, leopard, a tiger-cat, civet, and otter; while out of the twenty genera of Malayan Carnivora, thirteen are represented in India by more or less closely allied species. As an ex- ample, the curious Malayan glutton (Helictis orientalis) is represented in Northern India by a closely allied species Helictis nipalensis. The hoofed animals are twenty-two in number, of which abcut seven extend into Burmah and India. All the deer are of peculiar species, except two, which range from Malacca into India. Of the cattle, one Indian species reaches Malacca, while the Bos sondaicus of Java and Borneo is also found in Siam and Burmah. A goat-like animal is found in Sumatra which has its representative in India; while the two-horned rhinoceros of Sumatra and the single-horned species of Java, long supposed to be peculiar to these islands, are now both ascertained to exist in Burmah, Pegu, and Moulmein. The elephant of Sumatra, Borneo, and Malacca is now considered to be identical with that of Ceylon and India. In all other groups of Mammalia the same general phenomena recur. it could be cheaply transported to the coast. Under such a system the natives would soon perceive that European government was advantageous to them. They would begin to save money, and property being rendered secure they would rapidly acquire new wants and new tastes, and 198 TIMOR. (CHAP. XIII. become large consumers of European goods. This would be a far surer source of profit to their rulers than im- posts and extortion, and would be at the same time more likely to produce peace and obedience, than the mock- military rule which has hitherto proved most ineffective. To inaugurate such a system would however require an ‘immediate outlay of capital, which neither Dutch nor Portuguese seem inclined to make-—and a number of honest and energetic officials, which the latter nation at least seems unable to produce; so that it is much to be feared that Timor will for many years to come remain in its present state of chronic insurrection and mis-~ government, Morality at Delli is at as low an ebb as in the far interior of Brazil, and crimes are connived at which would entail infamy and criminal prosecution in Europe. While I was there it was generally asserted and believed in the place, that two officers had poisoned the husbands of women with whom they were carrying on intrigues, and with whom they immediately cohabited on the death of their rivals. Yet no one ever thought for a moment of showing disapprobation of the crime, or even of considering it a crime at all, the husbands in question being low half- castes, who of course ought to make way for the pleasures of their superiors. Judging from what I saw myself and by the descriptions of Mr. Geach, the indigenous vegetation of Timor is poor — and monotonous. The lower ranges of the hills are every- where covered with scrubby Eucalypti, which only occa- sionally grow into lofty forest trees. Mingled with these in smaller quantities are acacias and the fragrant sandal- wood, while the higher mountains, which rise to about six or seven thousand feet, are either covered ‘with coarse grass or are altogether barren. In the lower grounds are a variety of weedy bushes, and open waste places are covered everywhere with a nettle-like wild mint. Here is found the beautiful crown lily, Gloriosa superba, winding among the bushes, and displaying its magnificent blossoms in ereat profusion. A wild vine also occurs, bearing great irregular bunches of hairy grapes of a coarse but very luscious flavour. In some of the valleys where the CHAP, XIII. | SOIL AND VEGETATION. 199 vegetation is richer, thorny shrubs and climbers are so abundant as to make the thickets quite impenetrable. The soil seems very poor, consisting chiefly of decom- posing clayey shales; and the bare earth and rock is almost everywhere visible. The drought. of the hot season is so severe that most of the streams dry up in the plains before they reach the sea; everything becomes burnt up, and the leaves of the larger trees fall as completely as in our winter. On the mountains from two to four thousand feet elevation there is a much moister atmosphere, so that potatoes and other European products can be grown all the year round. Besides ponies, almost the only exports of Timor are sandal-wood and bees-wax. The sandal-wood (Santalum sp.) is the produce of a small tree, which grows sparingly in the mountains of Timor and many of the other islands in the far East. The wood is of a fine yellow colour, and possesses a well-known delightful fragrance which is won- derfully permanent. It is brought down to Delli in small logs, and is chiefly exported to China, where it is largely used to burn in the temples, and in the houses of the wealthy. — The bees’-wax is a still more important and valuable product, formed by the wild bees (Apis dorsata), which build huge honeycombs, suspended in the open air from the under-side of the lofty branches of the highest trees. These are of a semicircular form, and often three or four feet in diameter. I once saw the natives take a bees’ nest, and a very interesting sight it was. In the valley where I used to collect insects, I one day saw three or four Timorese men and boys under a high tree, and, looking up, saw on a very lofty horizontal branch three large bees’ combs. The tree was straight and smooth- barked and without a branch, till at seventy or eighty feet from the ground it gave out the limb which the bees had chosen for their home. As the men were evidently looking after the bees, I waited to watch their operations. One of them first produced along piece of wood apparently the stem of a small tree or creeper, which he had brought with him, and began splitting it through in several direc- tions, which showed that it was very tough and stringy. He then wrapped it in palm-leaves, which were secured 200 TIMOR. (CHAP. XI11. by twisting a slender creeper round them. He then fastened his cloth tightly round his loins, and producing another cloth wrapped it round his head, neck, and body, and tied it firmly round his neck, leaving his face, arms, and legs completely bare. Slung to his girdle he carried a long thin coil of cord; and while he had been making these preparations one of his companions had cut a strong creeper or bush-rope eight or ten yards long, to one end of which the wood-torch was fastened, and lighted at the bottom, emitting a steady stream of smoke. Just above the torch a chopping-knife was fastened by a short cord. The bee-hunter now took hold of the bush-rope just above the torch and passed the other end round the trunk of the tree, holding one end in each hand. Jerking it up the tree a little above his head he set his foot against the trunk, and leaning back began walking up it. It was wonderful to see the skill with which he took advantage of the slightest irregularities of the bark or obliquity of the stem to aid his ascent, jerking the stiff creeper a few feet higher when he had found a firm hold for his bare foot. It almost made me giddy to look at him as he rapidly got up—thirty, forty, fifty feet above the ground; and I kept wondering how he could possibly mount the next few feet of straight smooth trunk. Still, however, he kept on with as much coolness and apparent certainty as if he were going up a ladder, till he got within ten or fifteen feet of the bees. Then he stopped a moment, and took care to swing the torch (which hung just at his feet) a little — towards these dangerous insects, so as to send up the stream of smoke between him and them. Still going on, in a minute more he brought himself under the limb, and, in a manner quite unintelligible to me, seeing that both hands were occupied in supporting himself by the creeper, managed to get upon it. By this time the bees began to be alarmed, and formed a dense buzzing swarm just over him, but he brought the torch up closer to him, and coolly brushed away those that settled on his arms or legs. Then stretching himself along the limb, he crept towards the nearest comb and swung the torch just under it. The moment the smoke touched it, its colour changed in a most curious | CHAP, XIII. ] BEE-HUNTERS. 201 manner from black to white, the myriads of bees that had covered it flying off and forming a dense cloud above and around, The man then lay at full length along the limb, and brushed off the remaining bees with his hand, and then drawing his knife cut off the comb at one slice close to the tree, and attaching the thin cord to it, let it down to his companions below. He was all this time enveloped in a crowd of angry bees, and how he bore their stings so coolly, and went on with his work at that giddy height so de- liberately, was more than I could understand. The bees were evidently not stupified by the smoke or driven away far by it, and it was impossible that the small stream from the torch could protect his whole body when at work. There were three other combs on the same tree, and all were successively taken, and furnished the whole party with a luscious feast of honey and young bees, as well as a valuable lot of wax. After two of the combs had been let down, the bees became rather numerous below, flying about wildly and stinging viciously. Several got about me, and I was soon stung, and had to run away, beating them off with my net and capturing them for specimens. Several of them followed me for at least half a mile, getting into my hair and persecuting me most pertinaciously, so that I was more astonished than ever at the immunity of the natives. J am inclined to think that slow and deliberate motion, and no attempt at escape, are perhaps the best safeguards. A bee settling on a passive native probably behaves as it would on a tree or other inanimate substance, which it does not attempt to sting. Still they must often suffer, but they are used to the pain and learn to bear it impassively, as without doing so no man could be a bee- hunter. 202 NATURAL HISTORY [cuap. x1Vv. CHAPTER XIV. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE TIMOR GROUP. F we look at a map of the Archipelago, nothing seems more unlikely than that the closely connected chain of islands from Java to Timor should differ materially in their natural productions. ‘There are, it is true, certain differ- ences of climate and of physical geography, but these do not correspond with the division the naturalist is obliged to make. Between the two ends of the chain there is a great contrast of climate, the west being exceedingly moist and having only a short and irregular dry season, the east being as dry and parched up, and having but a short wet season. This change, however, occurs about the middle of Java, the eastern portion of that island having as strongly marked seasons as Lombock and Timor. There is also a difference in physical geography ; but this occurs at the eastern ter- mination of the chain, where the volcanoes which are the marked feature of Java, Bali, Lombock, Sumbawa, and Flores, turn northwards through Gunong Api to Banda, leaving Timor with only one volcanic peak near its centre ; while the main portion of the island consists of old sedi- mentary rocks. Neither of these physical differences cor- responds with the remarkable change in natural produc- tions which occurs at the Straits of Lombock, separating the island of that name from Bali; and which is at once so large in amount and of so fundamental a character, as to form an important feature in the zoological geography — of our globe. The Dutch naturalist Zollinger, who resided a long time in the island of Bal, informs us that its productions com- pletely assimilate with those of Java, and that he is not » aware of a single animal found in it which does not in- habit the larger island. During the few days which I stayed on the north coast of Bali oun my way to Lombock, [ saw several birds highly characteristic of Javan orni- thology. Among these were the yellow-headed weaver OHAP. XIV. ] OF THE TIMOR GROUP. 203 (Ploceus hypoxanthus), the black grasshopper thrush (Copsychus amcenus), the rosy barbet (Megalema rosea), the Malay oriole (Oriolus horsfieldi), the Java ground starling (Sturnopastor jalla), and the Javanese three-toed woodpecker (Chrysonotus tiga). On crossing over to Lombock, separated from Bali by a strait less than twenty miles wide, I naturally expected to meet with some of these birds again ; but during a stay there of three months I never saw one of them, but found a totally different set of species, most of which were utterly unknown not only in Java, but also in Borneo, Sumatra, and Malacca. For ex- ample, among the commonest birds in Lombock were white cockatoos and three species of Meliphagidse or honey- suckers, belonging to family groups which are entirely absent from the western or Indo-Malayan region of the Archipelago. On passing to Flores and Timor the dis- tinctness from the Javanese productions increases, and we find that these islands form a natural group, whose birds are related to those of Java and Australia, but are quite distinct from either. Besides my own collections in Lom- bock and Timor, my assistant Mr. Allen made a good collection in Flores; and these, with a few species obtained by the Dutch naturalists, enable us to form a very good idea of the natural history of this group of islands, and to derive therefrom some very interesting results. The number of birds known from these islands up to this date, is,—63 from Lombock, 86 from Flores, and 118 from Timor; and from the whole group 188 species. With the exception of two or three species which appear to have been derived from the Moluccas, all these birds can be traced, either directly or by close allies, to Java on the one side or to Australia on the other ; although no less than 82 of them are found nowhere out of this small group of islands. There is not, however, a single genus peculiar to the group, or even one which is largely represented in it by peculiar species ; and this is a fact which indicates that the fauna is strictly derivative, and that its origin does not go a beyond one of the most recent geological epochs. Of urse there are a large number of species (such as most of the waders, many of the raptorial birds, some of the king- fishers, swallows, and a few others), which range so widely 204 NATURAL HISTORY. (CHAP. XIV. over a large part of the Archipelago, that it is impossible to trace them as having come from any one part rather than from another. There are fifty-seven such species in my list, and besides these there are thirty-five more which, though peculiar to the Timor group, are yet allied to wide- ranging forms. Deducting these ninety-two species, we have nearly a hundred birds left whose relations with those of other countries we will now consider. If we first take those species which, as far as we yet know, are absolutely confined to each island, we find, in— Lombock 4, belonging to 2 genera, of which 1is Australian, 1 Indian. Flores .12 ae . 5 are ,, 2 Timor 5 42 9 20 ” 16 ” 4 ” The actual number of peculiar species in each island I do not suppose to be at all accurately determined, since the rapidly increasing numbers evidently depend upon the more extensive collections made in Timor than in Flores, and in Flores than in Lombock; but what we can depend more upon, and what is of more especial interest, is the greatly increased proportion of Australian forms and de- creased proportion of Indian forms, as we go from west to east. We shall show this in a yet more striking manner by counting the number of species identical with those of Java and Australia respectively in each island, thus: In Lombock. In Flores. In Timor. Javan birds 3 23 11 Australian birds . . 4 5 10 Here we see plainly the course of the migration which has been going on for hundreds or thousands of years, and is still going on at the present day. Birds entering from Java are most numerous in the island nearest Java ; each strait of the sea to be crossed to reach another island offers an obstacle, and thus a smaller number get over to the next island! It will be observed that the number of birds that appear to have entered from Australia is much less than those which have come from Java; and we may at first sight suppose that this is due to the wide sea that 1 The names of all the birds inhabiting these islands are to be oan in the “Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London” for the year 1863, ~ ~ CHAP. XIV.] OF THE TIMOR GROUP. 205 separates Australia from Timor. But this would be a hasty and, as we shall soon see, an unwarranted supposition. Besides these birds identical with species inhabiting Java and Australia, there are a considerable number of others very closely allied to species peculiar to those countries, and we must take these also into account before we form any conclusion on the matter. It will be as well to com- bine these with the former table thus: In Lombock. In Flores. In Timor. Wavanepae gy eT gg 23 11 Closely allied to Javan birds 1 5 6 Total 34 28 17 MUsteare eras Og 5 10 Closely allied to Australian birds . 38 9 26 Total ij 14 36 We now see that the total number of birds which seem to have been derived from Java and Australia is very nearly equal, but there is this remarkable difference be- tween the two series: that whereas the larger proportion by far of the Java set are identical with those still inhabit- ing that country, an almost equally large proportion of the Australian set are distinct, though often very closely allied species. It is to be observed also, that these representative or allied species diminish in number as they recede from Australia, while they increase in number as they recede from Java. There are two reasons for this, one being that the islands decrease rapidly in size from Timor to Lom- bock, and can therefore support a decreasing number of species ; the other and the more important is, that the dis- tance of Australia from Timor cuts off the supply of fresh immigrants, and has thus allowed variation to have full play; while the vicinity of Lombock to Bali and Java has allowed a continual influx of fresh individuals which, by crossing with the earlier immigrants, has checked variation. To simplify our view of the derivative origin of the birds of these islands let us treat them as a whole, and thus perhaps render more intelligible their respective rela- tions to Java and Australia. 206 NATURAL HISTORY (CHAP, XIV. The Timor group of islands contains :— Javan birds . - - - + 9386 | Australian birds Uo, 9 Sele Closely allied species _ . 11 | Closely allied species . . 36 Derived from Java . . 47 Derived from Australia . 48 —— ——_ We have here a wonderful agreement in the number of birds belonging to Australian and Javanése groups, but they are divided in exactly a reverse manner, three-fourths of the Javan birds being identical species and one-fourth representatives, while only one-fourth of the Australian forms are identical and three-fourths representatives. This is the most important fact which we can elicit from a study of the birds of these islands, since it gives us a very complete clue to much of their past history. Change of species is a slow process. On that we are all agreed, though we may differ about how it has taken place. The fact that the Australian species im these islands have mostly changed, while the Javan species have almost all remained unchanged, would therefore indicate that the district was first peopled from Australia. But, for this to have been the case, the physical conditions must have been very different from what they are now. Nearly three hundred miles of open sea now separate Australia from Timor, which island 1s connected with Java by a chain of broken land divided by straits which are nowhere more than about twenty miles wide. Evidently there are now great facilities for the natural productions of Java to spread over and occupy the whole of these islands, while those of Australia would find very great difficulty in getting across. To account for the present state of things, we should naturally suppose that Australia was once much more closely connected with Timor than it is at present; — and that this was the case is rendered highly probable by the fact of a submarine bank extending along all the north and west coast of Australia, and at one place approaching within twenty miles of the coast of Timor. ‘This indicates a recent subsidence of North Australia, which probably once extended as far as the edge of this bank, between which and Timor there is an unfathomed depth of ocean. I do not think that Timor was ever actually connected CHAP. XIV. | OF THE TIMOR GROVE. DOF with Australia, because such a large number of very abun- ‘dant and characteristic groups of Australian birds are quite absent, and not a single Australian mammal has entered Timor ; which would certainly not have been the case had the lands been actually united. Such groups as the bower birds (Ptilonorhyuchus), the black and red cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus), the blue wrens (Malurus), the crowshrikes (Cracticus), the Australian shrikes (Falcun- culus and Colluricincla), and many others, which abound all over Australia, would certainly have spread into Timor if it had been united to that country, or even if for any long time it had approached nearer to it than twenty miles. Neither do any of the most characteristic groups of Australian insects occur in Timor; so that everything combines to indicate that a strait of the sea has always separated it from Australia, but that at one period this strait was reduced to a width of about twenty miles. But at the time when this narrowing of the sea took place in one direction, there must have been a greater separation at the other end of the chain, or we should find more equality in the numbers of identical and representa- tive species derived from each extremity. It is true that the widening of the strait at the Australian end by sub- sidence, would, by putting a stop to immigration and inter- crossing of individuals from the mother country, have allowed full scope to the causes which have led to the ’ modification of the species; while the continued stream of immigrants from Java, would, by continual intercrossing, check such modification. This view will not, however, explain all the facts; for the character of the fauna of the Timorese group is indicated as well by the forms which are absent from it as by those which it contains, and is by this kind of evidence shown to be much more Australian than Indian. No less than twenty-nine genera, all more or less abundant in Java, and most of which range over a wide area, are altogether absent; while of the equally diffused Australian genera only about fourteen are want-_ ing. This would clearly indicate that there has been, till recently, a wide separation from Java; and the fact that the islands of Bali and Lombock are small, and are almost wholly volcanic, and contain a smaller number of modified 208 NATURAL HISTORY | CHAP, X1V. forms than the other islands, would point them out as of comparatively recent origin. A wide arm of the sea pro- bably occupied their place at the time when Timor was in the closest proximity to Australia ; and as the subterranean fires were slowly piling up the now fertile islands of Bali and Lombock, the northern shores of Australia would be sinking beneath the ocean. Some such changes as have been here indicated, enable us to understand how it happens, that though the birds of this group are on the whole almost as much Indian as Australian, yet the species which are peculiar to the group are mostly Australian in character; and also why such a large number of common Indian forms which extend through Java to Bali, should not have transmitted a single representative to the islands further east. The Mammalia of Timor as well as those of the other islands of the group are exceedingly scanty, with the exception of bats. These last are tolerably abundant, and no doubt many more remain to be discovered. Out of fifteen species known from ‘Timor, nine are found also in Java, or the islands west of it; three are Moluccan spe- cies, most of which are also found in Australia, and the rest are peculiar to Timor. The land mammals are only seven in number, as follows: 1. The common monkey, Macacus cynomolgus, which is found in all the Indo-Malayan islands, and has spread from Java through Bali and Lombock to Timor. This’ species is very frequent on the banks of rivers, and may have been conveyed from island to island on trees carried down by floods. 2. Paradoxurus fasciatus; @ civet cat, very common over a large part of the Archipelago. 3. Felis megalotis; a tiger cat, said to be peculiar to Timor, where it exists only in the interior, and is very rare. Its nearest allies are in Java. +4. Cervus timoriensis; a deer, closely allied to the Javan and Moluccan species, if dis- tinct. 5. A wild pig, Sus timoriensis; perhaps the. same as some of the Moluccan species. 6. A shrew mouse, Sorex tenuis ; supposed to be peculiar to Timor. 7. An Eastern opossum, Cuscus orientalis; found also in the Moluccas, if not a distinct species. The fact that not one of these species is Australian, or CHAP, XIV.] OF THE TIMOR GROUP. 209 _ nearly allied to any Australian form, is strongly corrobora- tive of the opinion that Timor has never formed a part of that country; as in that case some kangaroo or other marsupial animal would almost certainly be found there. Tt is no doubt very difficult to account for the presence of some of the few mammals that do exist in Timor, especially the tiger cat and the deer. We must consider, however, that during thousands, and perhaps hundreds of thou- sands of years, these islands and the seas between them have been subjected to volcanic action. The land has been raised and has sunk again; the straits have been narrowed or widened ; many of the islands may have been joined and dissevered again; violent floods have again and again devastated the mountains and plains, carrying out to sea hundreds of forest trees, as has often happened during volcanic eruptions in Java; and it does not seem improbable that once in a thousand, or ten thousand years, there should have occurred such a favourable combination of circumstances as would lead to the migration of two or three land animals from one island to another. This is all that we need ask to account for the very scanty and frag- mentary group of Mammalia which now inhabit the large island of Timor. The deer may very probably have been introduced by man, for the Malays often keep tame fawns ; and it may not require a thousand, or even five hundred years, to establish new characters in an animal removed to a country so different in climate and vegetation as is Timor from the Moluccas. I have not mentioned horses, which are often thought to be wild in Timor, because there are no grounds whatever for such a belief. The Timor ponies have every one an owner, and are quite as much domesticated animals as the cattle on a South American hacienda. I have dwelt at some length on the origin of the Timorese fauna, because it appears to me a most interest- ing and instructive problem. It is very seldom that we can trace the animals of a district so clearly as we can in this case, to two definite sources; and still more rarely that they furnish such decisive evidence, of the time, and the manner, and the proportions of their introduction. We have here a group of Oceanic Islands in miniature— P 210 NATURAL HISTORY [CHAP. XIV islands which have never formed part of the adjacent lands, although so closely approaching them; and their productions have the characteristics of true Oceanic Islands slightly modified. These characteristics are, the absence of all Mammalia except bats, and the occurrence of peculiar species of birds, insects, and land shells, which, though found nowhere else, are plainly related to those of the nearest land. Thus, we have an entire absence of Australian mammals, and the presence of only a few strag- glers from the west, which can be accounted for in the manner already indicated. Bats are tolerably abundant. Birds have many peculiar species, with a decided relation- ship to those of the two nearest masses of land. The insects have similar relations with the birds. As an ex- ample, four species of the Papilionide are peculiar to Timor, three others are also found in Java, and one in Australia. Of the four peculiar species two are decided modifications of Javanese forms, while the others seem allied to those of the Moluccas and Celebes. The very few jand shells known are all, curiously enough, allied to or identical with Moluccan or Celebes forms. The Pieridee (white and yellow butterflies) which wander more, and from frequenting open grounds are more liable to be blown. out to sea, seem about equally related to those of Java, Australia, and the Moluccas. It has been objected to Mr. Darwin's theory,—of Oceanic Islands having never been connected with the mainland,— that this would imply that their animal population was a matter of chance; it has been termed the “ flotsam an jetsam theory,” and it has been maintained that nature does not work by the “chapter of accidents.” But in the case which I have here described, we have the most posi- sive evidence that such has been the mode of peopling the islands. Their productions are of that miscellaneous cha- racter which we should expect from such an origin ; and to suppose that they have been portions of Australia or of Java will introduce perfectly gratuitous difficulties, and render it quite impossible to explaim those curious rela- tions which the best known group of animals (the birds) — have been shown to exhibit. On the other hand, the depth of the surrounding seas, the form of the submerged | ‘CHAP. XiV.| OF THE TIMOR GROUP. ag Be banks, and the volcanic character of most of the islands, all point tc an independent origin. Before concluding, I must make one remark to avoid misapprehension. When I say that Timor has never formed part of Australia, I refer only to recent geological epochs. In Secondary or even Eocene or Miocene times, Timor and Australia may have been connected; but if so, all record of such a union has been lost by subsequent submergence; and in accounting for the present Jand- inhabitants of any country we have only to consider these changes which have occurred since its last elevation above the waters. Since such last elevation, I feel confident that Timor has not formed part of. Australia. CHAPTER XV. CELEBES. (MACASSAR. SEPTEMBER TO NOVEMBER, 1856.) | LEFT Lombock on the 30th of August, and reached Macassar in three days. It was with great satisfaction that I stepped on a shore which I had been vainly trying to reach since February, and where I expected to meet with so much that was new and interesting. The coast of this part of Celebes is low and flat, lined with trees and villages so as to conceal the interior, except at occasional openings which show a wide extent of bare and marshy rice-fields. A few hills, of no great height, were visible in the background; but owing to the per- petual haze over the land at this time of: the year, I could nowhere discern the high central range of the peninsula, or the celebrated peak of Bontyne at its southern ex- tremity. In the roadstead of Macassar there was a fine 42-cun frigate, the guardship of the place, as well as a small war steamer and three or four little cutters used for cruising after the pirates which infest these seas. There 7 Pa 212 . CELEBES. [cHAP. Xv. were also a few square-rigged trading-vessels, and twenty or thirty native praus of various sizes. I brought letters of introduction to a Dutch gentleman, Mr. Mesman, and also to a Danish shopkeeper, who could both speak English, and who promised to assist me in finding a place to stay at, suitable for my pursuits. In the meantime, I went to a kind of club-house, in default of any hotel in the place. : Macassar was the first Dutch town I had visited, and L found it prettier and cleaner than any I had yet seen in the East. The Dutch have some admirable local regula- tions. All European houses must be kept well white- washed, and every person must, at four in the afternoon, water the road in front of his house. The streets are kept clear of refuse, and covered drains carry away all impurities into large open sewers, into which the tide is admitted at high-water and allowed to flow out when it has ebbed, — carrying all the sewage with it, into the sea. The town consists chiefly of one long narrow street, along the sea- side, devoted to business, and principally occupied by the Dutch and Chinese merchants’ offices and warehouses, and the native shops or bazaars. This extends northwards for more than a mile, gradually merging into native houses, often of a most miserable description, but made to have a neat appearance by being all built up exactly to the straight ine of the street, and being generally backed by fruit trees. This street is usually thronged with a native popu- lation of Bugis and Macassar men, who wear cotton trousers about.twelve inches long, covering only from the hip to half-way down the thigh, and the universal Malay sarong, of gay checked colours, worn round the waist or across the shoulders in a variety of ways. Parallel to this — street run two short ones, which form the old Dutch town, and are enclosed by gates. These consist of private houses, and at their southern end is the fort, the church, and a road at right angles to the beach, containing the houses of the Governor and of the principal officials. Beyond the fort again, along the beach, is another long street of native huts and many country houses of the tradesmen and merchants. All around extend the flat rice-fields, now bare and dry and forbidding, covered with dusty CHAP. XV.] TOWN OF MACASSAR. 213 stubble and weeds. A few months back these were a mass of verdure, and their barren appearance at this season offered a striking contrast to the perpetual crops on the same kind of country in Lombock and Bali, where the seasons are exactly similar, but where an elaborate system of irrigation produces the effect of a perpetual spring. The day after my arrival I paid a visit of ceremony to the Governor, accompanied by my friend the Danish merchant, who spoke excellent English. His Excellency was very polite, and offered me every facility for travelling about the country and prosecuting my researches in natural history. We conversed in French, which all Dutch officials speak very well. Finding it very inconvenient and expensive to stay in the town, I removed at the end of a week to a little bamboo house, kindly offered me by Mr. Mesman. It was situated about two miles away, on a small coffee plantation and farm, and about a mile beyond Mr. M.’s own country- house. It consisted of two rooms raised about seven feet above the ground, the lower part being partly open (and serving excellently to skin birds in) and partly used as a granary for rice. There was a kitchen and other out- houses, and several cottages near were occupied by men in Mr. M.’s employ. After being settled a few days in my new house, I found that no collections could be made without going much further into the country. The rice-fields for some miles round resembled English stubbles late in autumn, and were almost as unproductive of bird or insect life. . There were several native villages scattered about, so embosomed in fruit trees that at a distance they looked like clumps or patches of forest. These were my only collecting places, but they produced a very limited number of species, and were soon exhausted. Before I could move to any more promising district it was necessary to obtain permission from the Rajah of Goa, whose territories approach to within two miles of the town of Macassar. I therefore presented myself at the Governor’s office and requested a letter to the Rajah, to claim his protection, and permission to travel in his territories whenever I might wish to do so This 214 CELEBES. |CHAP. XV. was immediately granted, and a special messenger was sent with me to carry the letter. My friend Mr. Mesman kindly lent me a horse, and accompanied me on my visit to the Rajah, with whom he was great friends. We found his Majesty seated out of doors, watching the erection of a new house. He was naked from the waist up, wearing only the usual short trousers and sarong. Two chairs were brought out for us, but all the chiefs and other natives were seated on the ground. The messenger, squatting down at the Rajah’s feet, pro- duced the letter, which was sewn up in .a covering of yellow silk. It was handed to one of the chief officers, who ripped it open and returned it to the Rajah, who read it, and then showed it to Mr. M., who both speaks and reads the Macassar language fluently, and who explained fully what I required. Permission was immediately oranted me to go where I liked in the territories of Goa, but the Rajah desired, that should I wish to stay any time at a place | would first give him notice, in order that he might send some one to see that no injury was done me. Some wine was then brought us, and afterwards some detestable coffee and wretched sweetmeats, for it 1s a fact that I have never tasted good coffee where people grow it themselves. Although this was the height of the dry season, and there was a fine wind all day, it was by no means a healthy time of year. My boy Ali had hardly been a day on shore when he was attacked by fever, which put me to great inconvenience, as at the house where I was staying nothing could be obtained but at meal-times. After having cured Ali, and with much difficulty got another servant to cook for me, I was no sooner settled at my country abode than the latter was attacked with the same disease; and, having a wife in the town, left me. Hardly was he gone than I fell ill myself, with strong intermittent fever every other day. In about a week I got over it, by a liberal use of quinine, when scarcely was I on my legs than Ali again became worse than ever. His fover attacked him daily, but early im the morning he was pretty well, and then managed to cook me enough for the day. In a week I cured him and also succeeded in ' i ? OHAP. X¥.] BIRDS NEAR MACASSAR. 215 getting another boy who could cook and shoot, and had no objection to go into the interior. His name was Baderoon, and as he was unmarried and had been used to a roving life, having been several voyages to North Australia to catch trepang or “béche de mer,” I was in hopes of being able to keep him. I also got hold of a little impudent rascal of twelve or fourteen, who could speak some Malay, to carry my gun or insect-net and make himself generally useful. Ali had by this time become a pretty good bird- skinner, so that I was fairly supplied with servants. I made many excursions into the country, in search of a good station for collecting birds and insects. Some of the villages a few miles inland are scattered about in woody ground which has once been virgin forest, but of which the constituent trees have been for the most part replaced by fruit trees, and particularly by the large palm, Arenga saccharifera, from which wine and sugar are made, and which also produces a coarse black fibre used. for cordage. That necessary of life, the bamboo, has also been abun- dantly planted. In such places I found a good many birds, among which were the fine cream-coloured pigeon, Carpophaga luctuosa, and the rare blue-headed roller, Coracias temmincki, which has a most discordant voice, and generally goes in pairs, flying from tree to tree, and exhibiting while at rest that all-in-a-heap appearance and jerking motion of the head and tail which are so charac- teristic of the great Fissirostral group to which it belongs. From this habit alone, the kinefishers, bee-eaters, rollers, trogons, and South American puff-birds, might be grouped together by a person who had observed them in a state of aature, but who had never had an opportunity of examin- ing their form and structure in detail. Thousands of crows, rather smaller than our rook, keep up a constant cawing in these plantations; the curious wood-swallows (Artami), which closely resemble swallows in their habits and flight but differ much in form and structure, twitter from the tree-tops; while a lyre-tailed drongo-shrike, with briliant black plumage and milk-white eyes, continually deceives the naturalist by the variety of its unmelodious notes. In the more shady parts butterflies were tolerably 216 CELEBES. [oHar. xv. abundant; the most common being species of Eupleea and Danais, which frequent gardens and shrubberies, and owing to their weak flight are easily captured. A beautiful pale blue and black butterfly, which flutters along near ‘the ground among the thickets, and settles occasionally upon flowers, was one of the most striking; and scarcely less so, was one with a rich orange band on a blackish eround: these both belong to the Pieride, the group that contains our common white butterflies, although differing so much from them in appearance. Both were quite new to European naturalists. Now and then I extended. my walks some miles further, to the only patch of true forest I could find, accompanied by my two boys with guns and insect-net. We used to start early, taking our breakfast with us, and eating it wherever we could find shade and water. At such times my Macassar boys would put a minute fragment of rice and meat or fish on a leaf, and lay ‘t on a stone or stump as an offering to the deity of the spot; for though nominal Mahometans the Macassar people retain many pagan superstitions, and are but lax in their religious observances. Pork,. it is true, they hold in abhorrence, but will not refuse wine when offered them, and consume immense quantities of “sagueir,” or palm- wine, which is about as intoxicating as ordinary beer or cider. When well made it is a very refreshing drink, and we often took a draught at some of the little sheds digni- fied by the name of bazaars, which are scattered about the country wherever there 1s any traffic. One day Mr. Mesman told me of a larger piece of forest where he sometimes went to shoct deer, but he assured me it was much further off, and that there were no birds. However, I resolved to explore it, and the next morning at five o’clock we started, carrying our breakfast and some other provisions with us, and intending to stay the night at a house on the borders of the wood. To my surprise two hours’ hard walking brought us to this house, where we obtained permission to pass the night. We then walked on, Ali and Baderoon with a gun each, Baso carrying our provisions and my insect-box, while I took only my net and collecting-bottle and determined to devote myself 1 The former has been named Eronia tritea ; the latter Tachyris ithome. on OS cuar. xv.} PH@NICOPHAUS CALIIRHY NCHUS. 217 wholly to the insects. Scarcely had I entered the forest when I found some beautiful little green and gold speckled weevils allied to the genus Pachyrhynchus, a group which is almost confined to the Philippine Islands, and is quite unknown in Borneo, Java, or Malacca. The road was shady and apparently much trodden by horses and cattle, and I quickly obtained some butterflies I had not before met with. Soon a couple of reports were heard, and coming up to my boys I found they had shot two speci- mens of one of the finest of known cuckoos, Phcenicophaus callirhynchus. This bird derives its name from its large bill being coloured of a brilliant yellow, red, and black, in about equal proportions. The tail is exceedingly long, and of a fine metallic purple, while the plumage of the body is light coffee brown. It is one of the characteristic birds of the island of Celebes, to which it is confined. After sauntering along for a couple of hours we reached a small river, so deep that horses could only cross it by swimming, so we had to turn tack ; but as we were getting hungry, and the water of the almost stagnant river was too muddy to drink, we went towards a house a few hundred yards off. In the plantation we saw a small raised hut, which we thought would do well for us to breakfast in, so I entered, and found inside a young woman with an infant. She handed me a jug of water, but looked very much frightened. However, I sat down on the door- step, and asked for the provisions. In handing them up, Baderoon saw the infant, and started back as if he had seen a serpent. It then immediately struck me that this was a hut in which, as among the Dyaks of Borneo and many other savage tribes, the women are secluded for some time after the birth of their child, and that we did very wrong to enter it; so we walked off and asked permission to eat our breakfast in the family mansion close at hand, which was of coursegranted. While I ate, three men, two women, and four children watched every motion, and never took eyes off me till I had finished. On our way back in the heat of the day I had the good fortune to capture three specimens of a fine Ornithoptera, the largest, the most perfect, and the most beautiful of butterflies. I trembled with excitement as I took the first 218 CLELEBES. | CHAP. XV. out of my net and found it to be in perfect condition, The ground colour of this superb insect was a rich shining bronzy black, the lower wings delicately grained with white, and bordered by a row of large spots of the most brilliant satiny yellow. The body was marked with shaded spots of white, yellow, and fiery orange, while the head and thorax were intense black. On the under-side the lower wings were satiny white, with the marginal spots half black and half yellow. I gazed upon my prize with extreme interest, as I at first thought it was quite a new species. It proved however to be a variety of Ornithoptera remus, one of the rarest and most remarkable species of this highly esteemed group. I also obtained several other new and pretty butterflies. When we arrived at our lodging- house, being particularly anxious about my insect treasures, I suspended the box from a bamboo on which I could detect no sign of ants, and then began skinning some ot my birds. During my work I often glanced at my precious box to see that no intruders had arrived, till after a longer spell of work than usual I looked again, and saw to my horror that a column of small red ants were descending the string and entering the box. They were already busy at work at the bodies of my treasures, and another half-hour would have seen my whole day’s collection destroyed. As it was, I had to take every insect out, clean them thoroughly as well as the box, and then seek for a place of safety for them. As the only effectual one I begged a plate and a basin from my host, filled the former with water, and standing the latter in 1 placed my box on the top, and then felt secure for the night; a few inches ot clean water or oil being the only barrier these terrible pests are not able to pass. On returning home to Mamdjam (as my house was called) I had a slight return of intermittent fever, which kept me some days indoors. As soon as I was well, I again went to Goa, accompanied by Mr. Mesman, to beg the Rajah’s assistance in getting a small house built for me near the forest. We found him at a cock-fight in a shed near his palace, which however he immediately left to receive us, and walked with us up an inclined plane of boards which serves for stairs to his house. This was large, ¢HAP. Xv.! THE RaJAH’S DAUGHTERS. O1y well built, and lofty, with bamboo floor and glass windows. The greater part of it seemed to be one large hall divided by the supporting posts. Near a window sat the Queen squatting on a rough wooden arm-chair, chewing th everlasting sirih and betel-nut, while a brass spittoon by her side and a sirih-box in front were ready to administe: to her wants. The Rajah seated himself opposite to hex in a similar chair, and a similar spittoon and sirih-box were held by a little boy squatting at his side. Two other chairs were brought for us. Several young women, some the Rajah’s daughters, others slaves, were standing about; a few were working at frames making sarongs, but most of them were idle. And here I might (if I followed the example of most travellers) launch out into a glowing description of the charms of these damsels, the elegant costumes they wore, and the gold and silver ornaments with which they were adorned. The jacket or body of purple gauze would figure well in such a description, allowing the heaving bosom to be seen beneath it, while “sparkling eyes,” and “jetty tresses,” and “tiny feet” might be thrown in pro- fusely. But, alas! regard for truth will not permit me to expatiate too admiringly on such topics, determined as I am to give as far as I can a true picture of the people and places I visit. The princesses were, it is true, suffi- ciently good-looking, yet neither their persons nor their garments had that appearance of freshness and cleanli- ness without which no other charms can be contemplated with pleasure. Everything had a dingy and faded ap- pearance, very disagreeable and unroyal to a European eye. The only thing that excited some degree of admi- ration was the quiet and dignified manner of the Rajah, and the great respect always paid to him. None can stand erect in his presence, and when he sits on a chair, all present (Europeans of course excepted) squat upon the ground. The highest seat is literally, with these people, the place of honour and the sign of rank. So unbending are the rules in this respect, that when an English carriage which the Rajah of Lombock had sent for arrived, it was found impossible to use it because the driver’s seat was the highest, and it had to be kept as a show in its coach- 22.0 CELEBES. [CHAP. XV. house. On being told the object of my visit, the Rajah at once said that he would order a house to be emptied for me, which would be much better than building one, as that would take a good deal of time. Bad coffee and sweetmeats were given us as before. Two days afterwards I called on the Rajah, to ask him to send a guide with me to show me the house I was to occupy. He immediately ordered a man to be sent for, cave him instructions, and in a few minutes we were on our way. My conductor could speak no Malay, so we walked on in silence for an hour, when we turned into a pretty good house and I was asked to sit down. The head man of the district lived here, and in about half an hour we started again, and another hour's walk brought us to the village where I was to be lodged. We went to the residence of the village chief, who conversed with my cop- ductor for some time. Getting tired, I asked to be shown the house that was prepared for me, but the only reply I could get was, “ Wait a little,” and the parties went on talking as before. So I told them I could not wait, as I wanted to see the house and then to go shooting in the forest. This seemed to puzzle them, and at length, in answer to questions, very poorly explained by one or two bystanders who knew a little Malay, it came out that no house was ready, and no one seemed to have the least idea where to get one. As I did not want to trouble the Rajah any more, [ thought it best to try to frighten them a little ; so I told them that if they did not immediately find me a house as the Rajah had ordered, I should go back and complain to him, but that if a house was found me I would pay for the use of it. This had the desired effect, and one of the head men of the village asked me to go — with him and look for a house. He showed me one or two of the most miserable and ruinous description, which I at once rejected, saying, “I must have a good one, and near to the forest.” The next he showed me suited very well, so I told him to see that it was emptied the next day, for that the day after I should come and occupy it. On the day mentioned, as I was not quite ready to go, I sent my two Macassar boys with brooms to sweep out the house thoroughly. They returned in the evening and told v CHAP. XV. | A “ BITCHAKA.” 421 me, that when they got there the house was inhabited, and not a single article removed. However, on hearing they had come to clean and take possession, the occupants made a move, but with a good deal of grumbling, which made me feel rather uneasy as to how the people generally might take my intrusion into their village. The next morning we took our baggage on three pack-horses, and, after a few break-downs, arrived about noon at our des- tination. After getting all my things set straight, and having made a hasty meal, I determined if possible to make friends with the people. I therefore sent for the owner of the house and as many of his acquaintances as liked to come, to have a “bitchara,” or talk. When they were all seated, I gave them a little tobacco all round, and having my boy Baderoon for interpreter, tried to explain to them why I came there ; that I was very sorry to turn them out ofthe house, but that the Rajah had ordered it rather than build a new one, which was what I had asked for, and then placed five silver rupees in the owner’s hand as one month’s rent. I then assured them that my being there would be a benefit to them, as I should buy their eggs and fowls and fruit : and if their children would bring me shells and insects, of which I showed them specimens, they also might earn a good many coppers. After all this had been fully ex- plained to them, with a long talk and discussion between every sentence, I could see that I had made a favourable impression; and that very afternoon, as if to test my promise to buy even miserable little snaili-shells, a dozen children came one after another, bringing me‘a few speci- mens each of a small Helix,-for which they duly received “ coppers,’ and went away amazed but rejoicing. A few days’ exploration made me well acquainted with the surrounding country. I was a long way from the road in the forest which I had first visited, and for some distance round my house were old clearings and cottages. I found a few good butterflies, but beetles were very scarce, and even rotten timber and newly-felled trees (generally so productive) here produced scarcely anything. This con- vinced me that there was not a sufficient extent of forest in the neighbourhood to make the place worth staying at 222 CELEBES. |CHAP. Xv. long, but it was too late now to think of going further, as in about a ionth the wet season would begin; so I resolved to stay here and get what was to be had. Unfortunately, after a few days I became ill with a low fever which pro- duced excessive lassitude and disinclination to all exertion. Tn vain I endeavoured to shake it off; all I could do was to stroll quietly each day for an hour about the gardens near, and to the well, where some good insects were occa- sionally to be found; and the rest of the day to wait quietly at home, and receive what beetles and shells my little corps of collectors brought me daily. I imputed my illness chiefly to the water, which was procured from shallow wells, around which there was almost always a stagnant puddle in which the bufialoes wallowed. Close to my house was an inclosed mudhole where three buf- faloes were shut up every night, and the effluvia from which freely entered through the open bamboo floor. My Malay boy Ali was affected with the same illness, and as he was my chief bird-skinner I got on but slowly with my collections. The occupations and mode of life of the villagers differed but little from those of all other Malay races. The time of the women was almost wholly occupied in pounding and cleaning rice for daily use, in bringing home firewood and water, and in cleaning, dyeing, spinning, and weaving the native cotton into sarongs. The weaving is done in the simplest kind of frame stretched on the floor, and is a very slow and tedious process. To form the checked attern in common use, each patch of coloured threads has to be pulled up separately by hand and the shuttle passed between them; so that about an inch a day is the usual progress in stuff a yard and a half wide. The men culti- vate a little sirih (the pungent pepper leaf used for chewing with betel-nut) and a few vegetables; and once a year rudely plough a small patch of ground with their buffaloes and plant rice, which then requires little attention till harvest time. Now and then they have to see to the repairs of their houses, and make mats, baskets, or other domestic utensils, but a large part of their time is passed in idleness. Not a single person in the village could speak more | cIAP. Xv.! FEAR OF MYSELF. 223 than a few words of Malay, and hardly any of the people appeared to have seen a European before. One most disagreeable result of this was, that I excited terror alike in man and beast. Wherever I went, dogs barked, children screamed, women ran away, and men stared as though I were some strange and terrible cannibal monster. Even the pack-horses on the roads and paths would start aside when I appeared and rush into the jungle; and as to those horrid, ugly brutes, the buffaloes, they could never be approached by me; not for fear of my own but of others’ safety. They would first stick out their necks and stare at me, and then on a nearer view break loose from their halters or tethers, and rush away helter-skelter as if a demon were after them, without any regard for what might be in their way. Whenever I met buffaloes carrying packs along a pathway, or being driven home to the village, { had to turn aside into the jungle and hide myself till they had passed, to avoid a catastrophe which would increase the dislike with which I was already regarded. Every day about noon the buffaloes were brought into the village and were tethered in the shade around the houses; and then I had to creep about like a thief by back ways, for no one could tell what mischief they might do to children and houses were I to walk among them. If I came sud- denly upon a well where women were drawing water or children bathing, a sudden flight was the certain result: which things occurring day after day, were very unpleasant to a person who does not like to be disliked, and who had never been accustomed to be treated as an ogre. | About the middle of November, finding my health no better, and insects, birds, and shells all very scarce, I deter- mined to return to Mamajam, and pack up my collections ‘before the heavy rains commenced. The wind had already begun to blow from the west, and many signs indicated that the rainy season might set in earlier than usual; and then everything becomes very damp, and it is almost impossible to dry collections properly. My kind friend Mr. Mesman again lent me his pack-horses, and with the assistance of a few men to carry my birds and insects, which I did not like to trust on horses’ backs, we got everything home safe. Few can imagine the luxury it was 274 CELEBES. [ CHAP. Xv. to stretch myself on a sofa, and to take my supper com- fortably at table seated in my easy bamboo chair, after having for five weeks taken all my meals uncomfortably on the floor. Such things are trifles in health, but when the body is weakened by disease the habits of a lifetime cannot be so easily set aside. My house, like all bamboo structures in this country, was a leaning one, the strong westerly winds of the wet season having set all its posts out of the perpendicular to such a degree, as to make me think it might some day possibly go over altogether. It is a remarkable thing that the natives of Celebes have not discovered the use of diagonal struts in strengthening buildings. I doubt if there is a native house in the country two years old and at all exposed to the wind, which stands upright; and no wonder, as they merely consist of posts and joists all placed upright or horizontal, and fastened rudely together with rattans. They may be seen in every stage of the process of tumbling down, from the first slight inclination, to such a dangerous slope that it becomes a notice to quit to the occupiers. The mechanical geniuses of the country have only dis- covered two ways of remedying the evil. One is, after it has commenced, to tie the house to a post in the ground on the windward side by a rattan or bamboo cable. The other is a preventive, but how they ever found it out and did not discover the true way is a mystery. This plan is, to build the house in the usual way, but instead of having all the principal supports of straight posts, to have two or three of them chosen as crooked as possible. I had often noticed these crooked posts in houses, but imputed it to the scarcity of good straight timber, till one day I met some men carrying home a post shaped something like a dog’s hind leg, and inquired of my native boy what they were going to do with such a piece of wood. “To make a post for a house,” said he. “But why don’t they get a straight one, there are plenty here?” said 1. “Oh,” re- plied he, “they prefer some like that in a house, because then it won't fall,” evidently imputing the effect to some occult property of crooked timber. A little consideration and a diagram will, however, show, that the effect imputed. CHAP. Xv.] PLOUGHING. 225 to the crooked post may be really produced by it. A true square changes its figure readily into a rhomboid or oblique figure, but when one or two of the uprights are bent or sloping, and placed so as to oppose each other, the effect of a strut is produced, though in a rude and clumsy manner. Just before I had left Mamdjam the people had sown a considerable quantity of maize, which appears above ground in two or three days, and in favourable seasons ripens in less than two months. Owing to a week’s pre- mature rains the ground was all flooded when I returned, and the plants just coming into ear were yellow and dead. Not a grain would be obtained by the whole village, but luckily it is only a luxury, not a necessary of life. The NATIVE WOODEN PLOUGH. rain was the signal for ploughing to begin, in order to sow rice on all the flat lands between us and the town. The plough used is a rude wooden instrument with a very short single handle, a tolerably well-shaped coulter, and the point formed of a piece of hard palm-wood fastened in with wedges. One or two buffaloes draw it at a very slow pace. The seed is sown broadcast, and a rude wooden harrow is used to smooth the surface. By the beginning of December the regular wet season had set in. Westerly winds and driving rains sometimes continued for days together; the fields for miles around were under water, and the ducks and buffaloes enjoyed themselves amazingly, All along the road to Macassar, Q 226 CELEBES. [CHAP. XV. ploughing was daily going on in the mud and water, through which the wooden plough easily makes its way, the ploughman holding the plough-handle with one hand while a long bamboo in the other serves to guide the buffaloes. These animals require an immense deal of driving to get them on at all; a continual shower of exclamations is kept up at them, and “Oh! ah! gee! ugh!” are to be heard in various keys and in an uninter- rupted succession all day long. At night we were favoured with a different kind of concert. The dry ground around my house had become a marsh tenanted by frogs, who kept up a most incredible noise from dusk to dawn. They were somewhat musical too, having a deep vibrating note which at times closely resembles the tuning of two or three bass-viols in an orchestra. In Malacca and Borneo I had heard no such sounds as these, which indicates that the frogs, like most of the animals of Celebes, are of species peculiar to it. My kind friend and landlord, Mr. Mesman, was a good specimen of the Macassar-born Dutchman. He was about thirty-five years of age, had a large family, and lived in a spacious house near the town, situated in the midst of a erove of fruit trees, and surrounded by a perfect labyrinth of offices, stables, and native cottages occupied by his numerous servants, slaves, or dependants. He usually rose before the sun, and after a cup of coffee looked after his servants, horses, and dogs, till seven, when a sub- stantial breakfast of rice and meat was ready in a cool verandah. Putting on a cleam white linen suit, he then drove to town in his buggy, where he had an office, with two or three Chinese clerks who looked after his affairs. His business was that of a coffee and opium merchant. — He had a coffee estate at Bontyne, and a small prau which traded to the Eastern islands near New Guinea, for mother- of-pearl and tortoiseshell, About one he would return home, have coffee and cake or fried plantain, first changing his dress for a coloured cotton shirt and trousers and bare feet, and then take a siesta with a book. About four, after a cup of tea, he would walk round his premises, and senerally stroll down to Mamajam, to pay me a visit and look after his farm. CHAP. XV.] MR. MESMAN’S FARM. J27 This consisted of a coffee plantation and an orchard of fruit trees, a dozen horses and a score of cattle, with a small village of Timorese slaves and Macassar servants. One family looked after the cattle and supplied the house with milk, bringing me also a large glassful every morn- ing, one of my greatest luxuries. Others had charge of the horses, which were brought in every afternoon and fed with cut grass. Others had to cut grass for their master’s horses at Macassar—not a very easy task in the dry season, when all the country looks like baked mud; or in the rainy season, when miles in every direction are flooded. How they managed it was a mystery to me, . but they know grass must be had, and they get it. One lame woman had charge of a flock of ducks. Twice a day she took them out to feed in the marshy places, let them waddle and gobble for an hour or two, and then drove them back and shut them up in a small dark shed to digest their meal, whence they gave forth occasionally a melancholy quack. Every night a watch was set, principally for the sake of the horses, the people of Goa, only two miles off, being notorious thieves, and horses offering the easiest and most valuable spoil. This enabled me to sleep in security, although many people in Macassar thought I was running a great risk, living alone in such a solitary place and with such bad neighbours. My house was surrounded by a kind of straggling hedge of roses, jessamines, and other flowers, and every morning one of the women gathered a basketful of the blossoms for Mr. Mesman’s family. I generally took a couple for my _ own breakfast table, and the supply never failed during my stay, and I suppose never does. Almost every Sunday Mr. M. made a shooting excursion with his eldest son, a lad of fifteen, and I generally accompanied him; for though the Dutch are Protestants, they do not observe Sunday in the rigid manner practised in England and English colonies. The Governor of the place has his. public reception every Sunday evening, when card-playing is the regular amusement. Ou December 13th I went on board a prau bound for the Aru Islands, a journey which will be described in the latter part of this work. Q2 q 228 CELEBES. [OHAP. XVI On my return, after a seven months’ absence, I visited another district to the north of Macassar, which will form the subject of the next chapter. CHAPTER XVL. CELEBES. (MACASSAR. JULY TO NOVEMBER, 1857.) iT REACHED Macassar again on the 11th of July, and established myself in my old quarters at Mamajam, to sort, arrange, clean, and pack up my Aru collections. This occupied me a month ; and having shipped them off for Singapore, had my guns repaired, and received a new one from England, together with a stock of pins, arsenic, and other collecting requisites, 1 began to feel eager for work again, and had to consider where I should spend my time till the end of the year. I had left Macassar, seven months before, a flooded marsh being ploughed up for the rice-sowing. The rains had continued for five months, yet now all the rice was cut, and dry and dusty stubbles covered the country just as when I had first arrived there. After much inquiry I determined to visit the district of — Maros, about thirty miles north of Macassar, where Mr. Jacob Mesman, a brother of my friend, resided, who had kindly offered to find me house-room and give me assist- ance should I feel inclined to visit him. I accordingly obtained a pass from the Resident, and having hired a boat set off one evening for Maros. My boy Ali was so 1 with fever that I was obliged to leave him in the hospital, under the care of my friend the German doctor, ‘and I had to make shift with two new servants utterly ignorant of everything. We coasted along during the night, and at daybreak entered the Maros river, and by three in the afternoon reached the village. I immediately visited the Assistant Resident, and applied for ten men to CHAP. XVI.] MAROS. 999 carry my baggage, and a horse for myself. These were promised to be ready that night, so that I could start as soon as I liked in the morning. After having taken a cup of tea I took my leave, and slept in the boat. Some of the men came at night as promised, but others did not arrive till the next morning. It took some time to divide my baggage fairly among them, as they all wanted to shirk the heavy boxes, and would seize hold of some light article and march off with it, till made to come back and wait till the whole had been fairly apportioned. At length about eight o’clock all was arranged, and we started for our walk to Mr. M.’s farm. The country was at first a uniform plain of burnt-up rice-grounds, but at a few miles’ distance precipitous hills appeared, backed by the lofty central range of the penin- sula. Towards these our path lay, and after having gone six or eight miles the hills began to advance into the plain right and left of us, and the ground became pierced here and there with blocks and pillars of lime- stone rock, while a few abrupt conical hills and peaks rose like islands. Passing over an elevated tract forming the shoulder of one of the hills, a picturesque scene lay before us. We looked down into a little valley almost entirely surrounded by mountains, rising abruptly in huge preci- pices, and forming a succession of knolls and peaks and domes of the most varied and fantastic shapes. In the very centre of the valley was a large bamboo house, while scattered around were a dozen cottages of the same material. | I was kindly received by Mr. Jacob Mesman in an airy saloon detached from the house, and entirely built of bamboo and thatched with grass. After breakfast he took me to his foreman’s house, about a hundred yards off, half of which was given up to me till I should decide where to have a cottage built for my own use. I soon found that this spot was too much exposed to the wind and dust, which rendered it very difficult to work with papers or insects. It was also dreadfully hot in the after- noon, and after a few days I got a sharp attack of fever, which determined me to move. I accordingly fixed on a vlace about a mile off, at the foot of a forest-covered hill, 230 CELEBES. (CHAP. XVL where in a few days Mr. M. built for me a nice little house, consisting of a good-sized enclosed verandah o1 open room, and a small inner sleeping-room, with a little cook- house outside. As soon as it was finished I moved into it. and found the change most agreeable. (Otek SS —S Uy iN , = ¥, 5 \\ . You Yr Wil bp Yj. NUE. i 4 , U = j % : ( ‘J if a a— ——— =a SUGAR PALM. (Arenga saccharifera. ) The forest which surrounded me was open and free from underwood, consisting of large trees, widely scattered with a great quantity of palm-trees (Arenga saccharifera), from which palm wine and sugar are made. ‘There were also great numbers of a wild Jack-fruit tree (Artocarpus), ea CHAP. XVI. ] COUNTRY LIFE. 231 which bore abundance of large reticulated fruit, serving as an excellent vegetable. The ground was as thickly covered with dry leaves as it is in an English wood in November; the little rocky streams were all dry, and scarcely a drop of water or even a damp place was any- where to be seen. About fifty yards below my house, at the foot of the hill, was a deep hole in a watercourse where good water was to be had, and where I went daily to bathe, by having buckets of water taken out and pour- ing it over my body. My host Mr. M. enjoyed a thoroughly country life, de- pending almost entirely on his gun and dogs to supply his table. Wild pigs of large size were very plentiful and he generally got one or two a week, besides deer occasionally, and abundance of jungle-fowl, hornbills, and great fruit pigeons. His buffaloes supplied plenty of milk, trom which he made his own butter; he grew his own rice and coffee, and had ducks, fowls, and their eggs in pro- fusion. His palm-trees supplied him all the year round with “sagueir,” which takes the place of beer; and the sugar made from them is an excellent sweetmeat. All the fine tropical vegetables and fruits were abundant in their season, and his cigars were made from tobacco of his own raising. He kindly sent me a bamboo of butffalo- milk every morning; it was as thick as cream, and re- quired diluting with water to keep it fluid during tie day. It mixes very well with tea and cofiee, although it has a slight peculiar flavour, which after a time is not dis- agreeable. I also got as much sweet “sagueir” as I liked to drink, and Mr. M. always sent me a piece of each pig he killed, which with fowls, eggs, and the birds we shot ourselves, and buffalo beef about once a fortnight, kept my larder sufficiently well supplied. Every bit of flat land was cleared and used as rice- fields, and on the lower slopes of many of the hills tobacco and vegetables were grown. Most of the slopes are covered with huge blocks of rock, very fatiguing to scramble over, while a number of the hills are so pre- cipitous as to be quite inaccessible. ‘These circumstances, combined with the excessive drought, were very unfavour- able for my pursuits. Birds were scarce, and I got but 239 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVI. . few new to me. Insects were tolerably plentiful, but unequal. Beetles, usually so numerous and interesting, were exceedingly scarce, some of the families being quite absent and others only represented by very minute species. The Flies and Bees, on the other hand, were abundant, and of these I daily obtained new and interesting species. The rare and beautiful Butterflies of Celebes were the chief object of my search, and I found many species altogether new to me, but they were generally so active and shy as to render their capture a matter of great difficulty. Almost the only good place for them was in the dry beds of the streams in the forest, where, at damp places, muddy pools, or even on the dry rocks, all sorts of insects could be found. In these rocky forests dwell some of the finest butterflies in the world. Three species of Ornithoptera, measuring seven or eight inches across the wings, and beautifully marked with spots or masses of satiny yellow on a black ground, wheel through the thickets with a strong sailing flight. About the damp places are swarms of the beautiful blue-banded Papilios, miletus and telephus, the superb golden green P. macedon, and the rare little swallow-tail Papilio rhesus, of all of which, though very active, I succeeded in capturing fine series of specimens. I have rarely enjoyed myself more than during my residence here. As I sat taking my coffee at six in the morning, rare birds would often be seen on some tree close by, when I would hastily sally out in my slippers, and perhaps secure a prize I had been seeking after for weeks. The great hornbills of Celebes (Buceros cassidix) would often come with loud-flapping wings, and perch upon a lofty tree just in front of me; and the black baboon- monkeys, Cynopithecus nigrescens, often stared down in astonishment at such an intrusion into their domains ; while at night herds of wild pigs roamed about the house, devouring refuse, and obliging us to put away everything eatab.e or breakable from our little cooking-house. A few minutes’ search on the fallen trees around my house at sunrise and sunset, would often produce me more beetles than I would meet with in a day’s collecting, and odd moments could be made valuable which when living in omar. xvt.] ABUNDANCE OF INSECTS. 933 villages or at a distance from the forest are inevitably wasted. Where the sugar-palms were dripping with sap, flies congregated in immense numbers, and it was by spending half an hour at these when*I had the time to Spare, that I obtained the finest and most remarkable collection of this group of insects that I have ever made. Then what delightful hours I passed wandering up and down the dry river-courses, full of water-holes and rocks and fallen trees, and overshadowed by magnificent vege- tation! I soon got to know every hole and rock and stump, and came up to each with cautious step and bated breath to see what treasures it would produce. At one place I would find a little crowd of the rare butterfly Tachyris zarinda, which would rise up at my approach, and display their vivid orange and cinnabar-red wings, while among them would flutter a few of the fine bluc- banded Papilios. Where leafy branches hung over the gully, I might expect to find a grand Ornithoptera at rest and an easy prey. At certain rotten trunks I was sure to get the curious little tiger beetle, Therates flavilabris. In the denser thickets I would capture the small metal- lic blue butterflies (Amblypodia) sitting on the leaves, as well as some rare and beautiful leaf-beetles of the families Hispidee and Chrysomelide. I found that the rotten jack-fruits were very attractive to many beetles, and used to split them partly open and lay them about in the forest near my house to rot, A morn- ing’s search at these often produced me a score of species, —Staphylinide, Nitidulids, Onthophagi, and minute Cara- bide being the most abundant. Now and then the “sagueir ” makers brought me a fine rosechafer (Sternoplus schaumii) which they found licking up the sweet sap. Almost the only new birds I met with for some time were a handsome ground thrush (Pitta celebensis), and a beautiful violet-crowned dove (Ptilonopus celebensis), both very similar to birds I had recently obtained at Aru, but of distinct species. About the latter part of September a heavy shower of rain fell, admonishing us that we might soon expect wet weather, much to the advantage of the baked-up country. I therefore determined to pay a visit to the falls of the 234 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVL Maros river, situated at the point where it issues from the mountains—a spot often visited by travellers and con- sidered very beautiful. Mr. M. lent me a horse, and I obtained a guide ftom a neighbouring village ; and taking one of my men with me, we started at six in the morning, and after a ride of two hours over the flat rice-fields skirting the mountains which rose in grand precipices on our left, we reached the river about half-way between Maros and the falls, and thence had a good bridle-road_ to our destination, which we reached in another hour. The hills had closed in round us as we advanced ; and when we reached a ruinous shed which had been erected for the accommodation of visitors, we found ourselves in a flat- bottomed valley about a quarter of a mile wide, bounded by precipitous and often overhanging limestone rocks. So far the ground had been cultivated, but it now became covered with bushes and large scattered trees. | As soon as my scanty baggage had arrived and was duly deposited in the shed, I started off alone for the fall, which was about a quarter of a mile further on. The river is here about twenty yards wide, and issues from a chasm between two vertical walls of limestone, over a rounded mass of basaltic rock about forty feet high, form- ing two curves separated by a slight ledge. ‘The water spreads beautifully over this surface in a thin sheet of foam, which curls and eddies in a succession of concen- trie cones till it falls into a fine deep pool below. Close to the very edge. of the fall a narrow and very rugged — path leads to the river above, and thence continues close under the precipice along the water's edge, or sometimes in the water, for a few hundred yards, aiter which the rocks recede a little, and leave a wooded bank on one side, along which the path is continued, till in about half a mile a second and smaller fall is reached. Here the river seems to issue from a cavern, the rocks having fallen from above so as to block up the channel and bar further progress. The fall itself can only be reached by a path which ascends behind a huge slice of rock which has partly fallen away from the mountain, leaving a space two or three feet wide, but disclosing a dark chasm de- scending into the bowels of the mountain, and which, ‘CHAP. XVI.] MOUNTAIN PATHS. 235 having visited several such, I had no great curiosity to explore. Crossing the stream a little below the upper fall, the path ascends a steep slope for about five hundred feet, and passing through a gap enters a narrow valley, shut in by walls of rock absolutely perpendicular and of great height. Half a mile further this valley turns abruptly to the right, and becomes a mere rift in the mountain. This extends another half mile, the walls gradually approaching till they are only two feet apart, and the bottom rising steeply to a pass which leads probably into another valley, but which I had no time to explore. Returning to where this rift had begun, the main path turns up to the left in a sort of gully, and reaches a summit over which a fine natural arch of rock passes at a height of about fifty feet. Thence was a steep descent through thick jungle with glimpses of precipices and distant rocky mountains, probably leading into the main river valley again. This was a most tempting region to explore, but there were several reasons why I could go no further. I had no guide, and no permission to enter the Bugis territories, and as the.rains might at any time set in, I might be prevented from returning by the flooding of the river. I therefore devoted myself during the short time of my visit to obtaining what knowledge I could of the natural productions of the place. The narrow chasms produced several fine insects quite new to me, and one new bird, the curious Phleegenas tristigmata, a large ground pigeon with vellow breast and ‘crown, and purple neck. This rugged path is the highway from Maros to the Bugis country beyond the mountains. During the rainy season it is quite impassable, the river filling its bed and rushing between perpendicular cliffs many hundred feet high. Even at the time of my visit it was most precipitous and fatiguing yet women and children came over it daily, and men carrying heavy loads of palm sugar of very little value. If was along the path between the lower and the upper falls, and about the margin of the upper pool, that I found most insects. The large Semi-transparent butterfly, Idea tondana, flew lazily along by dozens, and it was here that I at length 236 CELEB ES. _CHAP, XVI. obtained an insect which I had hoped but hardly ex- pected to meet with—the magnificent Papilio androcles, one of the largest and rarest known swallow-tailed butterflies. During my four days’ stay at the falls I was so fortunate as to obtain six good specimens. As this beautiful creature flies, the long white tails flicker like streamers, and when settled on the beach it carries them raised upwards, as if to preserve them from injury. Itis scarce even here, as I did not see more than a dozen specimens in all, and had to follow many of them up and down the river’s bank repeatedly before I succeeded in their capture. When the sun shone hottest about noon, the moist beach of the pool below the upper fall presented a beautiful sight, being dotted with groups of gay butter- flies—orange, yellow, white, blue, and green,—which on being disturbed rose into the air by hundreds, forming clouds of variegated colours. Such gorges, chasms, and precipices as here abound, I have nowhere seen in the Archipelago. A sloping surface is scarcely anywhere to be found, huge walls and rugged masses of rock terminating all the mountains and inclosing the valleys. In many parts there are vertical or even overhanging precipices five or six hundred feet high, yet completely clothed with a tapestry of vegetation. Ferns, Pandanacee, shrubs, creepers, and even forest trees, are mingled in an evergreen network, through the interstices of which appears the white limestone rock or the dark holes and chasms with which it abounds. These precipices are enabled to sustain such an amount of vegetation by their peculiar structure. Their surfaces are very irregular, broken into holes and fissures, with ledges overhanging the mouths of gloomy caverns; but from each projecting part have descended stalactites, often forming a wild gothic tracery over the caves and receding hollows, and affording an admirable support to the roots of the shrubs, trees, and creepers, which luxuriate in the warm pure atmosphere and the gentle moisture which constantly exudes from the rocks. In places where the precipice offers smooth sur- faces of solid rock, it remains quite bare, or only stained with lichens and dotted with clumps of ferns that grow on the small ledges and in the minutest crevices. : CHAP, XVI.] RARENESS OF FLOWERS. 237 The reader who is familiar with tropical nature only through the medium of books and botanical gardens, will picture to himself in such a spot many other natural beauties. He will think that I have unaccountably for- gotten to mention the brilliant flowers, which, in gorgeous masses of crimson gold or azure, must spangle these verdant precipices, hang over the cascade, and adorn the margin of the mountain stream. But what is the reality ? _ In vain did I gaze over these vast walls of verdure, among the pendant creepers and bushy shrubs, all around the cascade, on the river’s bank, or in the deep caverns and gloomy fissures,—not one single spot of bright colour could be seen, not one single tree or bush or creeper bore a flower sufficiently conspicuous to form an object in the landscape. In every direction the eye rested on green foliage and mottled rock. There was infinite variety in the colour and aspect of the foliage, there was erandeur in the rocky masses and in the exuberant luxuriance of the vegetation, but there was no brilliancy of colour, none of those bright flowers and gorgeous masses of blossom, so generally considered to be everywhere present in the tropics. I have here given an accurate sketch of a luxu- riant tropical scene as noted down on the spot, and its general characteristics as regards colour have been so often repeated, both in South America and over many thousand miles in the Eastern tropics, that I am driven to conclude that it represents the general aspect of nature in the equatorial (that is, the most-tropical) parts of the tropical regions. How is it then, that the descriptions of travellers generally give a very different idea? and where, it may be asked, are the glorious flowers that we know do exist in the tropics? These questions can be easily answered. The fine tropical flowering-plants cultivated in our hot- houses, have been culled from the most varied regions, and therefore give a most erroneous idea of their abun- dance in any one region. Many of them are very rare, others extremely local, while a considerable number inhabit the more arid regions of Africa and India, in which tropical vegetation does not exhibit itself in its usual luxuriahce. Fine and varied foliage, rather than gay flowers, is more characteristic of those parts where tropical 238 /ELEB ES. (CHAP. XVI. vegetation attains its highest development, and in such districts each kind of flower seldom lasts in perfection more than a few weeks, or sometimes a few days. In every locality a lengthened residence will show an abun- dance of magnificent and gaily-blossomed plants, but they have to be sought for, and are rarely at any one time or place so abundant as to form a perceptible feature in the landscape. But it has been the custom of travellers to describe and group together all the fine plants they have met with during a long journey, and thus produce the effect of a gay and flower-painted landscape. They have rarely studied and described individual scenes where vege- tation was most luxuriant and beautiful, and fairly stated what effect was produced in them by flowers. I have done so frequently, and the result of these examinations has convinced me, that the bright colours of flowers have a much greater influence on the general aspect of nature in temperate than in tropical climates. During twelve years spent amid the grandest tropical vegetation, I have seen nothing comparabie to the effect produced on our landscapes by gorse, broom, heather, wild hyacinths, hawthorn, purple orchises, and buttercups. The geological structure of this part of Celebes is interesting. The limestone mountains, though of great extent, seem to be entirely superficial, resting on a basis of basalt which in some places forms low rounded hills between the more precipitous mountains. In the rocky beds of the streams basalt is almost always found, and it isa step in this rock which forms the cascade already described. From it the limestone precipices rise abruptly ; and in as- cending the little stairway along the side of the fall, you step two or three times from the one rock on to the other, the limestone dry and rough, being worn by the water and rains into sharp ridges and honeycombed holes,—the basalt moist, even, and worn smooth and slippery by the passage of bare-footed pedestrians. The solubility of the limestone by rain-water is well seen in the little blocks and peaks which rise thickly through the soil of the alluvial plains as you approach the mountains. They are all skittle-shaped, larger in the middle than ab the base, the greatest diameter occurring at the height to which the CHAP. XVI. | EXCESSIVE DROUGHT, 239 country is flooded in the wet season, and thence decreasing regularly to the ground. Many of them overhang consider- ably, and some of the slenderer pillars appear to stand upon a pout. When the rock is less solid it becomes curiously honeycombed by the rains of successive winters, and [ noticed some masses reduced to a complete network of stone, through which light could be seen in every direction. From these mountains to the sea extends a perfectly flat alluvial plain, with no indication that water would accu- mulate at a great depth beneath it, yet the authorities at Macassar have spent much money in boring a well a thousand feet deep in hope of getting a supply of water like that obtained by the Artesian wells in the London and Paris basins. It is not to be wondered at that the attempt was unsuccessful. Returning to my forest hut, I continued my daily search after birds and insects, The weather however became dreadfully hot and dry, every drop of water disappearing from the pools and rock-holes, and with it the insects which frequented them. Only one group remained un- affected by the intense drought ; the Diptera, or two-winged flies, continued as plentiful as ever, and on these I was almost compelled to concentrate my attention for a week or two, by which means I increased my collection of that Order to about two hundred species. I also continued to obtain a few new birds, among which were two or three kinds of small hawks and falcons, a beautiful brush- tongued paroquet, Trichoglossus ornatus, and a rare black and white crow, Corvus advena. At length about the middle of October, after several gloomy days, down came a deluge of rain, which continued to fall almost every afternoon, showing that the early part of the wet season had commenced. I hoped now to get a good harvest of insects, and in some respects I was not disappointed. Beetles became much more numerous, and under a thick bed of leaves that had accumulated on some rocks by the side of a forest stream, I found abundance of Carabide, a family generally scarce in the tropics. The butterflies however disappeared. Two of my servants were attacked with fever, dysentery, and swelled feet, just at the time that the third had left me, and for some days 240 CELEBES, [CHAP. XVI. they both lay groaning in the house. When they got a little better I was attacked myself, and as my stores were nearly finished and everything was getting very damp, I was obliged to prepare for my return to Macassar, especi- ally as the strong westerly winds would render the passage in a small open boat disagreeable if not dangerous. Since the rains began, numbers of huge millipedes, as thick as one’s finger and eight or ten inches long, crawled about everywhere, in the paths, on trees, about the house, _and one morning when I got up I even found one in my bed! They were generally of a dull lead colour or of a deep brick red, and were very nasty-looking things to be coming everywhere in one’s way, although quite harmless. Snakes too began to show themselves. I killed two of a very abundant species, big-headed and of a bright green colour, which lie coiled up on leaves and shrubs and can scarcely be seen till one is close upon them. ‘Brown snakes got into my net while beating among dead leaves for insects, and made me rather cautious about inserting my hand till I knew what kind of game I had captured. The fields and meadows which had been parched and sterile, now became suddenly covered with fine long grass ; the river-bed where I had so many times walked over burning rocks, was now a deep and rapid stream; and numbers of herbaceous plants and shrubs were everywhere springing up and bursting into flower. I found plenty of new insects, and if I had had a good, roomy, water-and- wind-proof house, I should perhaps have stayed during the wet season, as I feel sure many things can then be obtained which are to be found at no other time. With my summer hut, however, this was impossible. During the heavy rains a fine drizzly mist penetrated into every part of it, and I began to have the greatest difficulty in keeping my specimens dry. Early in November I returned to Macassar, and having packed up my collections, started in the Dutch mail steamer for Amboyna and Ternate. Leaving this part of my journey for the present, I will in the next chapter conclude my account of Celebes, by describing the extreme northern part of the island which I visited two years » later. z t ui q CHAP, XV1I.] MENADD. 2Al CHAPTER XVII. CELEBES. (MENADO. JUNE TO SEPTEMBER, 1859.) ip was after my residence at Timor-Coupang that I visited the north-eastern extremity of Celebes, touching on my way at Banda, Amboyna, and Ternate. I reached Menado on the 10th of June, 1859, and was very kindly received by Mr. Tower, an Englishman, but a very old resident in Menado, where he carries on a general business. He introduced me to Mr. L. Duivenboden (whose father had been my friend at Ternate), who had much taste for natural history; and to Mr. Neys, a native of Menado, but who was educated at Calcutta, and to whom Dutch, English, and Malay were equally mother-tongues. Ail these gentlemen showed me the greatest kindness, accom- panied me in my earliest walks about the country, and assisted me by every means in their power. I spent a week in the town very pleasantly, making explorations and inquiries after a good collecting station, which I had much difficulty in finding, owing to the wide cultivation of coffee and cacao, which has led to the clearing away of the forests for many miles round the town, and over extensive districts far into the interior. The little town of Menado is one of the prettiest in the Hast. It has the appearance of a large garden containing rows of rustic villas, with broad paths between, forming streets generally at right angles with each other. Good roads branch off in several directions towards the interior, with a succession of pretty cottages, neat gardens, and thriving plantations, interspersed with wildernesses of fruit trees. To the west and south the country is mountainous, with groups of fine volcanic peaks 6,000 or 7,000 feet high, forming grand and picturesque back- grounds to the landscape. The inhabitants of Minahasa (as this part of Cclebes is called) differ much from those of all the rest of the island, ' R D492, CELEBES. [CHAP, xvhL. and in fact from any other people in the Archipelago. They are of a light-brown or yellow tint, often approach- ing the fairness of a European; of a rather short stature, stout and well-made; of an open and pleasing counte- nance, more or less disfigured as age increases by projecting cheek-bones ; and with the usual long, straight, jet-black hair of the Malayan races. In some of the inland villages where they may be supposed to be of the purest race, both men and women are remarkably handsome ; while nearer the coasts where the purity of their blood -has been de- ‘stroyed by the intermixture of other races, they approach to the ordinary types of the wild inhabitants of the sur- rounding countries. In mental and moral characteristics they are also highly peculiar. They are remarkably quiet and gentle in dispo- sition, submissive to the authority of those they consider their superiors, and easily induced to learn and adopt the habits of civilized people. They are clever mechanics, and seem capable of acquiring a considerable amount of intel- lectual education. | __- Up to a very recent period these people were thorough savages, and there are persons now living in Menado who vemember a state of things identical with that described by the writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The inhabitants of the several villages were distinct tribes, each under its own chief, speaking languages unintelli- gible to each other, and almost always at war. They built their houses elevated upon lofty posts to defend themselves from the attacks of theix enemies. They were head ~ hunters like the Dyaks of Borneo, and were said to be sometimes cannibals. When a chief died, his tomb was adorned with two fresh human heads; and if those of — enemies could not be obtained, slaves were killed for the occasion. Human skulls were the great ornaments of the chiefs’ houses. Strips of bark were their only dress. The country was a pathless wilderness, with small cultivated patches of rice and vegetables, or clumps of fruit-trees, diversifying the otherwise unbroken forest. Their religion was that naturally engendered in the undeveloped human mind by the contemplation of grand natural phenomena and the luxuriance of tropical nature. The burning CHAP. XviD. 1 NATIVES OF MINAHASA. 243 mountain, the torrent and the lake, were the abode of their deities; and certain trees and birds were supposed to have especial influence over men’s actions and destiny. They held wild and exciting festivals to propitiate these deities or demons; and believed that men could be changed by them into animals, either during life or after death. Here we have a picture of true savage life; of small isolated communities at war with all around them, subject to the wants and miseries of such a condition, drawing a precarious existence from the luxuriant soil, and living on from generation to generation, with no desire for physical amelioration, and no prospect of moral advancement. Such was their condition down to the year 1822, when the coffee-plant was first introduced, and experiments were made as to its cultivation. It was found to succeed ad- mirably at from fifteen hundred up to four thousand feet above the sea. The chiefs of villages were induced to undertake its cultivation. Seed and native instructors were sent from Java ; food was supplied to the labourers engaged in clearing and planting; a fixed price was esta- blished at which all coffee brought to the government col- lectors was to be paid for, and the village chiefs who now received the titles of “ Majors” were to receive five per cent. of the produce. After atime, roads were made from the port of Menado up to the plateau, and smaller paths were cleared from village to village; missionaries settled in the more populous districts and opened schools, and Chinese traders penetrated to the interior and supplied clothing and other luxuries in exchange for the money which the sale of the coffee had produced. At the same time, the country was divided into districts, and the system of “ Controlleurs,” which had worked so well in J ava, was introduced. The “ Controlleur” was a European, or a native of European blood, who was the general superintendent of the cultiva- tion of the district, the adviser of the chiefs, the protector of’ the people, and the means of communication between both and the European Government. His duties obliged him to visit every village in succession once a month, and to send in a report on their condition to the Resident. As disputes between adjacent villages were now settled by appeal to a superior authority, the old and inconvenient | R2 244 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVIT. semi-fortified houses were disused, and under the direction of the “Controlleurs” most of the houses were rebuilt onaneat and uniform plan. It was this interesting district which I was now about to visit. Having decided on my route, I started at 8 AM. on the 22d of June. Mr. Tower drove me the first three miles in his chaise, and Mr. Neys accompanied me on horseback three miles further to the village of Lotta. Here we met the Controlleur of the district of Tondano, who was return- ing home from one of his monthly tours, and who had agreed to act as my guide and companion on the journey. From Lotta we had an almost continual ascent for six miles, which brought us on to the plateau of Tondano at an elevation of about 2,400 feet. We passed through three villages whose neatness and beauty quite astonished me. The main road, along which all the coffee is brought down from the interior in carts drawn by buffaloes, is always turned aside at the entrance of a village, so as to pass behind it, and thus allow the village street itself to be kept neat and clean. This is bordered by neat hedges often formed entirely of rose-trees, which are perpetually in blossom. There is a broad central path and a border of fine turf, which is kept well swept and neatly cut. The houses ave all of wood, raised about six feet on substantial posts neatly painted blue, while the walis are whitewashed. They all have a verandah enclosed with a neat balustrade, and are cenerally surrounded by orange-trees and flowering shrubs. The surrounding scenery is verdant and picturesque. Coffee plantations of extreme luxuriance, noble palms and tree ferns, wooded hills and volcanic peaks, everywhere meet the eye. I had heard much of the beauty of this country, but the reality far surpassed my expectations. About one o’clock we reached Tomohdn, the chief place of a district, having a native chief now called the “ Major,” at whose house we were to dine. Here was a fresh surprise for me. The house was large, airy and very substantially — built of hard native timber, squared and put together in a most workmanlike manner. It was furnished in European style, with handsome chandelier lamps, and the chairs and tables all well made by native workmen. As soon as we- entered, madeira and bitters were offered us. Then two CHAP. xvi] |§ |§ 4 MALAY DINNER. PAS handsome boys neatly dressed in white and with smoothly brushed jet-black hair, handed us each a basin of water and a clean napkin on a salver. The dinner was excel- lent. Fowls cooked in various ways, wild pig roasted stewed and fried, a fricassee of bats, potatoes rice and other vegetables, all served on good china, with finger glasses and fine napkins, and abundance of good claret and beer, seemed to me rather curious at the table of a native chief on the mountains of Celebes. Our host was dressed in a suit of black with patent-leather shoes, and really looked comfortable and almost gentlemanly in them. He sat at the head of the table and did the honours well, though he did not talk much. Our conversation was en- tirely in Malay, as that is the official language here, and in fact the mother-tongue and only language of the control- leur, who is a native-born half-breed. The Major’s father, who was chief before him, wore, I was informed, a strip of bark as his sole costume, and lived in a rude hut raised on lofty poles, and abundantly decorated with human heads. Of course we were expected, and our dinner was prepared in the best style, but I was assured that the’ chiefs all take a pride in adopting European customs, and in being able to receive their visitors in a handsome manner. After dinner and coffee, the Controlleur went on to Tondano, and I strolled about the village waiting for my baggage, which was coming in a bullock-cart and did not arrive till after midnight. Supper was very similar to dinner, and on retiring I found an elegant little room with a comfortable bed, gauze curtains with blue and red hangings, and every convenience. Next morning at sun- rise the thermometer in the verandah stood at 69°, which I was told is about the usual lowest temperature at this place, 2,500 feet above the sea. I had a good breakfast of coffee, eggs, and fresh bread and butter, which I took in the spacious verandah, amid the odour of roses, jessamine, and other sweet-scented flowers, which filled the garden in front; and about eight o'clock left Tomohén with a dozen men carrying my baggage. Our road lay over a mountain ridge about 4,000 feet above the sea, and then descended about 500 feet to the litle village of Rurikan, the highest in the district of ( ‘ —oT Cicouraive™ SSS LEMPIAS iil ! CE Ws. arammg ll od es a an wen se es KLaBar Vote. h, | ly a RURUKAN ) QZ, Fo=-=s—)TQVOAWO LOKON VOLC. Arg ay : SS_ TOMOHON TANAWANKO LU ‘ ——F ~ =~ F = OKA KAS f HOT SPRINCS 3 di LANGOWEN MUD VOLG, a7 | gp / Eieire AR QPANGHU OS AMAHAY. O RATAHAN MAP or MINAHASA showing Mr Wallaces R oules SCALE OF ENGLISH MILES a oe! . 0 se CHAP. XVII.] COFFER PLANTATIONS. 247 Minahasa, and probably in all Celebes. Here .I had de- termined to stay for some time to see whether this eleva- tion would produce any change in the zoology. The village had only been formed about ten years, and was quite as neat as those I had passed through and much more picturesque. It is placed on a small level spot, from which there is an abrupt wooded descent down to the _ beautiful lake of Tondano, with volcanic mountains be- yond. On one side is a ravine, and beyond it a fine mountainous and wooded country. Near the village are the coffee plantations. The trees are planted in rows, and are kept topped to about seven feet high. This causes the lateral branches to grow very strong, so that some of the trees become perfect hemi- spheres, loaded with fruit from top to bottom, and pro- ducing from ten to twenty pounds each of cleaned coffee annually. These plantations were all formed by the Government, and are cultivated by the villagers under the direction of their chief. Certain days are appointed for weeding or gathering, and the whole working popu- lation are summoned by .sound of gong. An account is kept of the number of hours’ work done by each family, and at the year’s end the produce of the sale is divided among them proportionately. The coffee is taken to Government stores established at central places over the whole country, and is paid for at a low fixed price. Out of this a certain percentage goes to the chiefs and majors, and the remainder is divided among the inha- bitants. This system works very well, and I believe is at present far better for the people than free-trade would be. There are also large rice-fields, and in this little village of seventy houses I was informed that a hundred pounds’ worth of rice was sold annually. I had a smali house at the very end of the village, almost hanging over the precipitous slope down to the stream, and with a splendid view from the verandah. The thermo- meter in the morning often stood at 62° and never rose so high as 80°, so that with the thin clothing used in the tropical plains we were always cool and sometimes positively cold, while the spout of water where I went daily for my bath had quite an icy feel. Although I ¢ 248 CELEB &S. [CHAP. XVII. enjoyed myself very much among these fine mountains and forests, I was somewhat disappointed as to my collec- tions. There was hardly any perceptible difference between the animal life in this temperate region and in the torrid Fe plains below, and what difference did exist was in most respects disadvantageous to me. There seemed to be nothing absolutely peculiar to this elevation. Birds and. quadrupeds were less plentiful, but of the same species. In insects there seemed to be more difference. The curious beetles of the family Cleride, which are found chiefly on bark and rotten wood, were finer than I have seen them elsewhere. The beautiful Longicorns were scarcer than usual, and the few butterflies were all of tropical species. One of these, Papilio blumei, of which I obtained a few specimens only, is among the most magnificent I have ever seen. It is a green and gold swallow-taul, with azure-blue spoon-shaped tails, and was often seen tlying about the village when the sun shone, but in a very shattered condition. The great amount of wet and cloudy weather, was a great drawback all the time | was at Jiurukan. Even in the vegetation there is very little to indicate elevation. ‘The trees are more covered with lichens and mosses, and the ferns and tree-ferns are finer and more luxuriant than I had been accustomed to see them on the | low grounds, both probably attributable to the almost — perpetual moisture that here prevails. Abundance of a tasteless raspberry, with blue and yellow Composite, have somewhat of a temperate aspect; and minute ferns and Orchidex, with dwarf Begonias on the rocks, roake some approach to a sub-alpine vegetation. The forest however ~ is most luxuriant. Noble palms, Pandani, and tree-ferns — are abundant in it, while the forest trees are completely festooned with Orchidez, Bromeliz, Aracese, Lycopodiums, and mosses. The ordinary stemless ferns abound; some with gigantic fronds ten or twelve feet long, others barely an inch high; some with entire and massive leaves, others elegantly waving their finely-cut foliage, and adding eadless variety and interest to the forest paths. The cocoa-nut palm still produces fruit abundantly, but 1S said to be deficient in oil. Oranges thrive better than pall CHAP. XVII. | AN FARTHQUAKE. 9AY below, producing abundance of delicious fruit; but the shaddock or pumplemous (Citrus decumana) requires the full force of a tropical sun, for it will not thrive even at Tondano a thousand feet lower. On the hilly slopes rice is cultivated largely, and ripens well, although the temperature rarely or never rises to 80°, so that one would think it might be grown ever in England in fine summers, especially if the young plants were raised under glass. ~ The mountains have an unusual quantity of earth or vegetable mould spread over them. Even on the steepest slopes there is everywhere a covering of clays and sands, and generally a good thickness of vegetable soil. It is this which perhaps contributes to the uniform luxuriance of the forest, and delays the appearance of that sub-alpine vegetation which depends almost as much on the abun- dance of rocky and exposed surfaces as on difference of climate. Ata much lower elevation on Mount Ophir in Malacca, Dacrydiums and Rhododendrons with abundance of Nepenthes, ferns, and terrestrial orchids suddenly took the place of the lofty forest; but this was plainly due to the occurrence of an extensive slope of bare granitic rock at an elevation of less than 3,000 feet. The quantity of vegetable soil, and also of loose sands and clays, resting on steep slopes, hill-tops and the sides of ravines, is a curious and important phenomenon. It may be due in part to constant slight earthquake shocks, facilitating the disintegration of rock; but would also seem to indicate that the country has been long exposed to gentle atmo- spheric action, and that its elevation has been exceedingly slow and continuous. During my stay at Rurikan my curiosity was satisfied by experiencing a pretty sharp earthquake-shock. On the evening of June 29th, at a quarter after eight, as I was sitting reading, the house began shaking with a very gentle, but rapidly increasing motion. I sat still enjoying the novel sensation for some seconds; but in less than half a minute it became strong enough to shake me in my chair, and to make the house visibly rock about, and creak and erack as if it would fall to pieces. Then began a crv throughout the village of “Tana goyang! tana goyang !” 250 CELEBES. [cuap. KVL, (Earthquake! earthquake!) Everybody rushed out of their houses--women screamed and children cried—and I thought it prudent to go out too. On getting up, I found my head giddy and my steps unsteady, and could hardly walk without falling. The shock continued about a minute,. during which time I felt as if I had been turned round and round, and was almost sea-sick. Going into the house again, I found a lamp and a bottle of arrack upset. The tumbler which formed the lamp had been thrown out of the saucer in which it had stood. The shock appeared to be nearly vertical, rapid, vibratory, and jerking. It was. sufficient, I have no doubt, to have thrown down brick chimneys and walls and church towers ; but as the houses. here are all low, and strongly framed of timber, it is impos- sible for them to be much injured, except by a shock that would utterly destroy a European city. The people told me it was ten years since they had had a stronger shock than. this, at which time many houses were thrown down and. some people killed. At intervals cf ten minutes to half an hour, slight shocks and tremors were felt, sometimes strong enough to. send us all out again. There was a strange mixture of the terrible and the ludicrous in our situation. We might at any moment have a much stronger shock, which would. bring down the house over us, or—what I feared more— cause a landslip, and send us down into the deep ravine on the very edge of which the village is built; yet I could not help laughing each time we ran out at a slight shock, and then in a few moments ran in again. The sublime and the ridiculous were here literally but a step apart. On the one hand, the most terrible and destructive of natural phenomena was in action around us—the rocks, the mountains, the solid earth were trembling and con- vulsed, and we were utterly impotent to cuard against the danger that might at any moment overwhelm us. On the: other hand was the spectacle of a number of men, women, and children running in and out of their houses, on what: each time proved a very unnecessary alarm, as each shock. ceased just as it became strong enough to frighten us. It. seemed really very much like “ playing at earthquakes,” and made many of the people join me in a hearty laugh,. : CHAP. XVII. ] AN HARTHQUAKE. 251 even while reminding each other that it really might be ne laughing matter. At length the evening got very cold, and I became very sleepy, and determined to turn in; leaving orders to my boys, who slept nearer the door, to wake me in case the house was in danger of falling. But I miscalculated my apathy, for I could not sleep much. The ghocks continued at intervals of half an hour or an hour all night, just strong enough to wake me theroughly each time and keep me on the alert ready to jump up in case of danger. I was therefore very glad when morning came. Most of the inhabitants had not been to bed at all, and some had stayed out of doors all night. For the next two days and nights shocks still continued at short in- tervals, and several times a day for a week, showing that there. was some very extensive disturbance beneath our portion of the earth’s crust. How vast the forces at work really are can only be properly appreciated when, after feeling their effects, we look abroad over the wide expanse of hill and valley, plain and mountain, and thus realize in a slight degree the immense mass of matter heaved and shaken. The sensation produced by an earthquake is never to be forgotten. We feel ourselves in the grasp of a power to which the wildest fury of the winds and waves are as nothing; yet the effect is more a thrill of awe than the terror which the more boisterous war of the elements produces. There is a mystery and an uncertainty as to the amount of danger we incur, which gives greater play to the imagination, and to the influences of hope and fear. These remarks apply only to a moderate earth- quake. A severe one is the most destructive and the most horrible catastrophe to which human beings can be exposed. A few days after the earthquake I took a walk to Ton- dino, a large village of about 7,000 inhabitants, situated at the lower end of the lake of the same name. I dined with the Controlleur, Mr. Bensneider, who had been my guide to Tomohén. He had a fine large house, in which he often received visitors ; and his garden was the best for flowers which I had seen in the tropics, although there was no great variety. It was he who introduced the rose hedges 252 CELEBES. [cuaP. XVII. ; which give such a charming appearance to the villages ; and to him is chiefly due the general neatness and good order that everywhere prevail. I consulted him about a fresh locality, as I found Rurikan too much in the clouds, dreadfully damp and gloomy, and with a general stagnation of bird and insect life. He recommended me a village some distance beyond the lake, near which was a large forest, where he thought I should find plenty of birds. AS he was going himself in a few days I decided to accompany him. After dinner I asked him for a guide to the celebrated waterfall on the outlet stream of the lake. It is situated about a mile and half below the village, where a slight rising ground closes in the basin, and evidently once formed the shore of the lake. Here the river enters a gorge, very narrow and tortuous, along which it rushes furiously for a short distance and then plunges into a oreat chasm, forming the head of a large valley. Just above the fall the channel is not more than ten feet wide, and here a few planks are thrown across, whence, half hid by luxuriant vegetation, the mad waters may be seen rushing beneath, and a few feet farther plunge into the abyss. Both sight and sound are grand and impressive. It was here that, four years before my visit, the Governor- General of the Netherland Indies committed suicide, by leaping into the torrent. This at least is the general opinion, as he suffered from a painful disease which was supposed to have made him weary of his life. His body was found next day in the stream below. Unfortunately, no good view of the fall could now be obtained, owing to the quantity of wood and high grass that lined the margins of the precipices. There are two falls, the lower being the most lofty ; and it is possible, by a long circuit, to descend into the valley and see them from below. Were the best points of view searched for and rendered accessible, these falls would probably be found to be the finest in the Archipelago. The chasm seems to be of great depth, probably 500 or 600 feet. Unfortunately I had no time to explore this valley, as I was anxious to devote every fine day to increasing my hitherto scanty collections. —~ etn eres } CHAP. XVII.] MISSION ARIES. 253 Just opposite my abode in Rurtikan was the school- house. The schoolmaster was a native, educated by the Missionary at Tomohon. School was held every morning for about three hours, and twice a week in the evening there was catechising and preaching. There was also a service on Sunday morning. The children were all taught in Malay, and I often heard them repeating the multi- plication-table up to twenty times twenty very glibly. They always wound up with singing, and if' was very pleasing to hear many of our old psalm-tunes in these remote mountains, sung with Malay words. Singing is one of the real blessings which Missionaries introduce among savage nations, whose native chants are almost always monotonous and melancholy. On catechising evenings the schoolmaster was a great man, preaching and teaching for three hours at a stretch much in the style of an English ranter. This was pretty cold work for his auditors, however warming to himself; and I am inclined to think that these native teachers, having acquired facility of speaking and an endless supply of religious platitudes to talk about, ride their hobby rather hard, without much consideration for their flock. The Missionaries, however, have much to be proud of in this country. They have assisted the Government in changing a savage into a civilized community in a wonder- fully short space of time. Forty years ago the country was a wilderness, the people naked savages, garnishing their rude houses with human heads. Now it is a garden, worthy of its sweet native name of “Minahasa.” Good roads and paths traverse it in every direction; some of the finest coffee plantations in the world surround the villages, interspersed with extensive rice-fields more than sufficient for the support of the population. The people are now the most industrious, peaceable, and civilized in the whole Archipelago. They are the best clothed, the best housed, the best fed, and the best educated ; and they have made some progress towards a higher social state. I believe there is no example else- where of such striking results being produced in so short a time—results which are entirely due to the system of government now adopted by the Dutch in their Eastern 254 CELEBES. (cHap. XVII. possessions. The system is one which may be called a “yaternal despotism.” Now we Englishmen do not like despotism—we hate the name and the thing, and we would rather see people ignorant, lazy, and vicious, than use any but moral force to make them wise, industrious, and good. And we are right when we are dealing with men of our own race, and of similar ideas and equal capacities with our- selves. Example and precept, the force of public opinion, and the slow, but sure spread of education, will do every- thing in time; without engendering any of those bitter feelings, or producing any of that servility, hypocrisy, and dependence, which are the sure results of despotic govern- ment. But what should we think of a man who should advocate these principles of perfect freedom in a family or a school? We should say that he was applying a good general principle to a case in which the conditions ren- dered it inapplicable—the case in which the governed are in an admitted state of mental inferiority to those who govern them, and are unable to decide what is best for their permanent welfare. Children must be subjected to some degree of authority, and guidance ; and if properly managed they will cheerfully submit to it, because they know their own inferiority, and believe their elders are acting solely — for their good. They learn many things the use of which they cannot comprehend, and which they would never learn without some moral and social if not physical pressure. Habits of order, of industry, of cleanliness, cf. respect and obedience, are inculcated by similar means. Children would never grow up into well-behaved and well-educated men, if the same absolute freedom of action that is allowed to men were allowed to them. Under the best aspect of education, children are subjected to a mild — despotism for the good of themselves and of society ; and their confidence in the wisdom and goodness of those who ordain and apply this despotism, neutralizes the bad passions and degrading feelings, which under less favour- able conditions are its general results. Now, there is not merely an analogy,—there is in many respects an identity of relation, between master and pupil or parent and child on the one hand, and an uncivilized race and its civilized rulers on the other. We know (or CHAD, XVII] A PATERNAL DESPOTISM. 255 think we know) that the education and industry, and the common usages of civilized man, are superior to those of savage life; and, as he becomes acquainted with them, the savage himself admits this. He admires the superior acquirements of the civilized man, and it is with pride that he will adopt such usages as do not interfere too much with his sloth, his passions, or his prejudices. But as the wilful child or the idle schoolboy, who was never taught obedience, and never made to do anything which of his own free will he was not inclined to do, would in most cases obtain neither education nor manners ; so it is much. more unlikely that the savage, with all the confirmed habits of manhood and the traditional prejudices of race, should ever do more than copy a few of the least bene- ficial customs of civilization, without some stronger stimulus than precept, very imperfectly backed by example. If we are satisfied that we are right in assuming the government over a savage race, and occupying their country ; and if we further consider it our duty to do what we can to improve our rude subjects and raise them up towards our own level, we must not be too much afraid of the cry of “despotism” and “slavery,” but must use the authority we possess, to induce them to do work which they may not altogether like, but which we know to be an indispensable step in their moral and physical advancement. The Dutch _ have shown much good policy in the means by which they have done this. They have in most cases upheld and strengthened the authority of the native chiefs, to whom the people have been accustomed to render a voluntary obedience; and by acting on the intelligence and _ self- interest. of these chiefs, have brought about changes in the manners and customs of the people, which would have excited ill-feeling and perhaps revolt, had they been directly enforced by foreigners. Tn carrying out such a system, much depends upon the character of the people; and the system which succeeds admirably in one place could only be very partially worked out in another. In Minahasa the natural docility and intelligence of the race have made their progress rapid; and how important this is, is well illustrated by the fact, that in 256 CELEBLES. 'CHAP, XVII. the immediate vicinity of the town of Menado are a tribe called Banteks, of a much less tractable disposition, who have hitherto resisted all efforts of the Dutch Government to induce them to adopt any systematic cultivation. These remain in a ruder condition, but engage themselves will- ingly as occasional porters and labourers, for which their greater strength and activity well adapt them. No doubt the system here sketched, seems open to serious objection. It is to a certain extent despotic, and interferes with free trade, free labour, and free communication. A native cannot leave his village without a pass, and cannot engage himself to any merchant or captain without a Government permit. The coffee has all to be sold to Government, at less than half the price that the local merchant would give for it, and he consequently cries out loudly against “ monopoly” and “oppression.” He forgets, however, that the coffee plantations were established by the Government at great outlay of capital and skill; that it gives free education to the people, and that the monopoly is in lieu of taxation. He forgets that the product he wants to purchase and make a profit by, is the creation of _ the Government, without whom the people would still be savages. He knows very well that free trade would, as its first result, lead to the importation of whole cargoes of arrack, which would be carried over the country and exchanged for coffee. That drunkenness and poverty would spread over the land; that the public coffee plan- tations would not be kept up; that the quality and quan- tity of the coffee would soon deteriorate ; that traders and merchants would get rich, but that the people would re- lapse into poverty and barbarism. That such is invariably the result of free trade with any savage tribes who pos- — sess a valuable product, native or cultivated, is well known to those who have visited such people; but we might even anticipate from general principles that evil results weuld happen. If there is one thing rather than another to which the grand law of continuity or development will apply, it is to human progress. There are certain stages through which society must pass in its onward march from barbarism to civilization. Now one of these stages — has always been some form or other of despotism, such as ‘OMAP. XVII] FEMALK# LABOUR. Wa feudalism or servitude, or a despotic paternal government ; and we have every reason to believe that it is not possible for humanity to leap over this transition epoch, and pass at once from pure savagery to free civilization. The Dutch system attempts to supply this missing link, and to bring the people on by gradual steps to that higher civilization, which we (the English) try to force upon them at once. Our system has always failed. We demoralize and we extirpate, but we never really civilize. Whether the Dutch system can permanently succeed is but doubtful, since it may not be possible to compress the work of ten centuries into one; but at all events it takes nature as a cuide, and is therefore more deserving of success, and more likely to succeed, than ours. There is one point connected with this question which I think the Missionaries might take up with great physical and moral results. In this beautiful and healthy country, and with abundance of food and necessaries, the population does not increase as it ought to do. I can only impute this to one cause. Infant mortality, produced by neglect while the mothers are working in the plantations, and by general ignorance of the conditions of health in infants. Women all work, as they have always been accustomed to do. It is no hardship to them, but I believe is often a pleasure and relaxation. They either take their infants with them, in which case they leave them in some shady spot on the ground, going at intervals to give thei nourishment, or they leave them at home in the care of other children too young to work. Under neither of these circumstances can infants be properly attended to, and great mortality is the result, keeping down the increase of population far below the rate which the general prosperity of the country and the universality of marriage would lead us to expect. This is a matter in which the: Government Is directly interested, since it is by the increase of the population alone that there can be any large and per- manent increase in the produce of coffee. The Missionaries should take up the question, because, by inducing married women to confine themselves to domestic duties, they will decidedly promote a higher civilization, and directly in- crease the health and happiness of the whole community. | S 258 CELEBES. \CHAP, XVII. The people are so docile, and so willing to adopt the manners and customs of Europeans, that the change might be easily effected, by merely showing them that it was a question of morality and civilization, and an essential step in their progress towards au equality with their white rulers. : After a fortnight’s stay at Rurukan, I left that pretty and interesting village in search of a locality and climate more productive of birds and insects. I passed the evening with the Controlleur of Tonddno, and the next morning at nine, left in a small boat for the head of the lake, a dis- tance of about ten miles. The lower end of the lake is bordered by swamps and marshes of considerable extent, but a little further on the hills come down to the water's edge and give it very much the appearance of a great river, the width being about two miles. At the upper end is the village of Kakas, where | dined with the head man in a good house like those I have already described ; and then went on to Langéwan, four miles distant over a level plain. This was the place where I had been recommended to stay, and I accordingly unpacked my baggage and made myself comfortable in the large house devoted to visitors. I obtained a man to shoot for me, and another to accom- pany me the next day to the forest, where I was in hopes of finding a good collecting ground. In the morning after breakfast I started off, but found I had four miles to walk over a wearisome straight road through coffee plantations before I could get to the forest, © and as soon as I did so it came on to rain heavily, and did not cease till night. This distance to walk every day was too far for any profitable work, especially when the weather was so uncertain. I therefore decided at once that I must go further on, till I found some place close to or in a forest country. In the afternoon my friend Mr. Bensneider arrived, together with the Controlleur of the next district, called Belang, from whom I learnt that | six miles further on there was a village called Panghu, which had been recently formed and had a good deal of forest close to it; and he promised me the use of a small house if I liked to go there. | The next morning I went to see the hot-springs and CHAP. XVII. MUD VOLCANOES. 29 mud volcanoes, for which this place is celebrated. A picturesque path among plantations and ravines, brought us to a beautiful circular basin about forty feet diameter, bordered by a calcareous ledge, so uniform and truly curved that it looked like a work of art. It was filled with clear water very near the boiling point, and emitting clouds of steam with a strong sulphureous odour. It overflows at one point and forms a little stream of hot water, which at a hundred yards’ distance is still too hot to hold the hand in. A little further on, in a piece of rough wood, were two other springs not so regular in outline, but appearing to be much hotter, as they were in a continual state of active ebullition. At intervals of a few minutes a great escape of steam or gas took place, throwing up a column of water three or four feet high. We then went. to the mud-springs, which are about a mile off, and are still more curious. Ona sloping tract of ground in a slight hollow is a small lake of liquid mud, in patches of blue, red, or white, and in many places boiling and bubbling most furiously. All around on the indu. rated clay, are small wells and craters full of boiling mud. These seem to be forming continually, a small hole appear- ing first, which emits jets of steam and boiling mud, which on hardening, forms a little cone with a crater in the middle. The ground for some distance is very unsafe, as it is evidently liquid at a small depth, and bends with pres- sure like thin ice. At one of the smaller marginal jets which I managed to approach, I held my hand to see if it was really as hot as it looked, when a little drop of mud that spurted on to my finger scalded like boiling water. A short distance off there was a flat bare surface of rock, as smooth and hot as an oven floor, which was evidently an old mud-pool dried up and hardened. For hundreds of yards round where there were banks of reddish and white clay used for whitewash, it was still so hot close to the surface that the hand could hardly bear to be held in cracks a few inches deep, and from which arose a strong sulphureous vapour. I was informed that some years back a French gentleman who visited these springs ven- tured too near the liquid mud, when the crust gave way and he was engulfed in the horrible caldron. $2 260 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVII. This evidence of intense heat so near the surface over a large tract of country, was very impressive, and I could hardly divest myself of the notion that some terrible catastrophe might at any moment devastate the country. Yet it is probable that all these apertures are really safety-valves, and that the inequalities of the resistance of various parts of the earth’s crust, will always prevent such an accumulation of force as would be required to upheave and overwhelm any extensive area. About seven miles west of this is a voleano which was in eruption about thirty years before my visit, presenting a mag- nificent appearance and covering the surrounding country with showers of ashes. The plains around the lake formed by the intermingling and decomposition of volcanic pro- ducts are of amazing fertility, and with a little manage- ment in the rotation of crops might be kept in continual cultivation. Rice is now grown on them for three or four years in succession, when they are left fallow for the same period, after which rice or maize can be again grown. Good rice produces thirty-fold, and coffee trees continue bearing abundantly for ten or fifteen years, with- out any manure and with scarcely any cultivation. I was delayed a day by incessant rain, and then pro- ceeded to Panghu, which I reached just before the daily rain began at 11 a.m. After leaving’ the summit level of the lake basin, the road is carried along the slope of a fine forest ravine. The descent is a long one, so that 1 estimated the village to be not more than 1,500 feet above the sea, yet — I found the morning temperature often 69°, the same as” at Tondano at least 600 or 700 feet higher. I was pleased with the appearance of the place, which had a good deal of forest and wild country around it; and found prepared — for me a little house consisting only of a verandah and a back room. This was only intended for visitors to rest in, or to pass.a night, but it suited me very well. I was so unfortunate, however, as to lose both my hunters just at this time. One had been left at Tondano with fever and diarrhcea, and the other was attacked at Langowan with inflammation of the chest, and as his case looked rather bad I had him sent back to Menado. The people here were all so busy with their rice-harvest, which it was CHAF Xvl1.] BIRDS AND INSECTS. 261 important for them to finish owing to the early rains, that I could get no one to shoot for me, During the three weeks that I stayed at Panghu it rained nearly every day, either in the afternoon only, or all day long; but there were generally a few hours’ sun- shine in the morning, and I took advantage of these to explore the roads and paths, the rocks and ravines, in search of insects. These were not very abundant, yet I saw enough to convince me that the Locality was a good one, had I been there at the beginning instead of at the end of the dry season. The natives brought me daily a few insects obtained at the Sagueir palms, including some fine Cetonias and stag-beetles. Two little boys were very expert with the blowpipe, and brought me a good many small birds, which they shot with pellets of clay. Among these was a pretty little flower-pecker of a new species (Prionochilus aureolimbatus), and several of the loveliest honeysuckers I had yet seen. My general collection of birds was, however, almost at-a standstill ; for though I at length obtained a man to shoot for me, he was not good for much, and seldom brought me more than one bird a day. The best thing he shot was the large and rare fruit- pigeon peculiar to Northern Celebes (Carpophaga forsteni), which I had long been seeking after. I was myself very successful in one beautiful group of insects, the tiger-beetles, which seem more abundant and varied here than anywhere else in the Archipelago. I first met with them on a cutting in the road, where a hard clayey bank was partially overgrown with mosses and small ferns. Here, I found running about, a small olive-green species which never took flight; and more rarely a fine purplish black wingless insect, which was always found motionless in crevices, and was therefore probably nocturnal. It appeared to me to form a new genus. About the roads in the forest, I found the large and handsome Cicindela heros, which I had before obtained sparingly at Macassar; but it was in the mountain torrent of the ravine itself that I got my finest things. On dead trunks overhanging the water and on the banks and foliage, I obtained three very pretty species of Cicindela, quite distinct in size, form, and colour, but having an almost 262 CELEBES. [CHAP. XViL identical pattern of pale spots. I also found a single specimen of a most curious species with very long antenne. But my finest discovery here was the Cicindela gloriosa, which I found on mossy stones just rising above the water. After obtaining my first specimen of this elegant insect, I used to walk up the stream, watching carefully every moss-covered rock and stone. It was rather shy, and would often lead me a long chase from stone to stone, becoming invisible every time it settled on the damp moss, owing to its rich velvety green colour. On some days I could only catch a few glimpses of it, on others I got a single specimen, and on a few occasions two, but never without a more or less active pursuit.. This and several other species I never saw but in this one ravine. Among the people here I saw specimens of several types, which, with the peculiarities of the languages, gives me some notion of their probable origin. A striking illustra- tion of the low state of civilization of these people till quite recently, is to be found in the great diversity of their languages. Villages three or four miles apart have sepa- rate dialects, and each group of three or four such villages has a distinct language quite unintelligible to all the rest ; so that, till the recent introduction of Malay by the Mis- sionaries, there must have been a bar to all free communi- cation. These languages offer many peculiarities. They contain a Celebes-Malay element and a Papuan element, along with some radical peculiarities found also in the languages of the Siau and Sanguir islands further north, and therefore probably derived from the Philippine Islands. Physical characters correspond. There are some of the less civilized tribes which have semi-Papuan features and hair, while in some villages the true Celebes or Bugis phy- sioonomy prevails. The plateau of Tondano is chiefly inhabited by people nearly as white as the Chinese, ana with very pleasing semi-European features. The people of Siau and Sanguir much resemble these, and I believe them to be perhaps immigrants from some of the islands of North Polynesia. The Papuan type will represent the remnant of the aborigines, while those of the Bugis character show the extension northward of the superior — Malay races. CHAP. XVIt.] THE BABIRUSA. 263 As I was wasting valuable time at Panghu owing to the bad weather and the illness of my hunters, I returned to Menado after a stay of three weeks. Here I had a little touch of fever, and what with drying and packing away my collections and getting fresh servants, it was a fortnight before I was again ready to start. I now went eastward over an undulating country skirting the great volcano of Klabat, to a village called Lempfas, situated close to the extensive forest that covers the lower slopes of that mountain. My baggage was carried from village to village by relays of men, and as each change involved: some delay, I did not reach my destination (a distance of eighteen miles) till sunset. I was wet through, and had to wait for an hour in an uncomfortable state till the first instalment of my baggage arrived, which luckily contained my clothes, while the rest did not come in till midnight. This being the district inhabited by that singular animal the Babirusa (Hog-deer) I inquired about skulls, and soon obtained several in tolerable condition, as well as a fine one of the rare and curious “Sapi-utan” (Anoa depressicornis), Of this animal I had seen two living specimens at Menado, and was surprised at their great resemblance to small cattle, or still more to the Eland of South Africa. Their Malay name signifies “forest ox,” and they differ from very small high-bred oxen principally by the low-hanging dew- lap, and straight pointed horns which slope back over the neck. I did not find the forest here so rich in insects as I had expected, and my.hunters got me very few birds, but what they did obtain were very interesting. Among _ these were the rare forest Kingfisher (Cittura cyanotis), _ a small new species of Megapodius, and one specimen of the large and interesting Maleo (Megacephalon rubripes), to obtain which was one of my chief reasons for visiting this district. Getting no more, however, after ten days’ search I removed to Licoupang, at the extremity of the peninsula, a place celebrated for these birds, as well as for the Babirisa and Sapi-utan. I found here Mr. Goldmann, the eldest son of the Governor of the Moluccas, who was superintending the establishment of some Government salt- works. This was a better locality, and I obtained some 964 - CELEBES. [cHAP, XVII. fne butterflies and very good birds, among which was one more specimen of tie vere ground dove (Phlegeenas: tristigmata), which I had fits: ebtained near the Maros waterfall in South Celebes. | Hearing what I was particularly in search of, Mr. (‘oldmann kindly offered to make a hunting-party to the place where the “ Maleos » ore most abundant, a remote and uniphabited sea-beach about twenty miles distant. The climate here was quite different to that on the mountains, not a drop of rain having fallen for four months; so I made arrangements to stay on the beach a week, in order to secure a good number of specimens. We went partly by boat and partly through the forest, accompanied by the Major or head-man of Licoupang, with a dozen natives and about twenty dogs. On the way they caught a young Sapi-utan and five wild pigs. Of the former I preserved the head. This animal is entirely confined to the remote mountain forests of Celebes and one or two adjacent islands which form part of the same eroup. In the adults the head is black, with a white mark over each eye, one on each cheek and another on the throat. The horns are very smooth and sharp when young, but become thicker and ridged at the bottom with age. Most naturalists consider this curious animal to be a small ox, but from the character of the horns, the fine coat of hair and the descending dewlap, it seemed closely to approach the antelopes. Arrived at our destination we built a hut and prepared for a stay of some days, I to shoot and skin “ Maleos,” Mr. Goldmann and the Major to hunt wild pigs, Babirusa, and Sapi-utan. The place is situated in the large bay between the islands of Limbé and Banca, and consists of a steep beach more than a mile in length, of deep loose anc coarse black volcanic sand or rather oravel, very fatiguing to walk over. It is bounded at each extremity by a small river, with hilly ground beyond ; while the forest behind the beach itself:is tolerably level and its growth stunted. We have here probably an ancient lava stream from the Klabat volcano, which has flowed down a valley into the — sea, and the decomposition of which has formed the loose black sand. In confirmation of this view it may be mep CHAP. XVII.] MALEOS’ BREEDING PLACE. 965 tioned, that the beaches beyond the small rivers in both directions are of white sand. It is in this loose hot black sand, that those singular birds the “Maleos” deposit their eggs. In the months of August and September, when there is little or no rain, they come down in pairs from the interior to this or to one or two other favourite spots, and scratch holes three or four feet deep, just above high-water mark, where the female deposits a single large egg, which she covers over with about a foot of sand, and then returns to the forest. . At the end of ten or twelve days she comes again to the same spot to lay another egg, and each female bird is sup- posed to lay six or eight eggs during the season. The male assists the female in making the hole, coming down and returning with her. The appearance of the bird when walking on the beach is very handsome. The glossy black and rosy white of the plumage, the helmeted head and elevated tail, like that of the common fowl, give a striking character, which their stately and somewhat sedate walk renders still more remarkable. There is hardly any difference between the sexes, except that the casque or bonnet at the back of the head and the tubercles at the nostrils are a little larger, and the beautiful rosy salmon colour a little deeper in the male bird, but the difference is so slight that it is not always possible to tell a male from a female without dissection. They run quickly, but when shot at or suddenly disturbed take wing with a heavy noisy flight to some neighbouring tree, whexe they settle on a low branch; and they probably roost at night in a similar situation. Many birds lay in the same hole, for a dozen eggs are often found together; and these are so large that it is not possible for the body of the bird to contain more than one fully-developed egg at the same time. In all the female birds which I shot, none of the eggs besides the one large one exceeded the size of peas, and there were only eight or nine of these, which is pro- bably the extreme number a bird can lay in one season. Every year the natives come for fifty miles round to obtain these eggs, which are esteemed a great delicacy, and when quite fresh are indeed delicious. They are richer than hens’ eggs and of a finer flavour, and each one 266 Au CELEBES. (CHAP. XVile completely fills an ordinary teacup, and forms with bread or rice a very good meal. The colour of the shell is a pale brick red, or very rarely pure white. They are elongate and very slightly smaller at one end, from four to four and a half inches long by two and a quarter or two and a half wide. After the eggs are deposited in the sand they are no further cared for by the mother. The young birds on breaking the shell, work their way up through the sand and run off at once to the forest; and I was assured by Mr. Duivenboden of Ternate, that they can fly the very day they are hatched. He had taken some eggs on board his schooner which hatched during the night, and in the morning the little birds flew readily across the cabin. Considering the great distances the birds come to deposit the eggs in a proper situation (often ten or fifteen miles) it seems extraordinary that they should take no further care of them. It is, however, quite certain that they neither do- nor can watch them. The eggs being deposited by a number of hens in succession in the same hole, would render it impossible for each to distinguish its own; and the food necessary for such large birds (consisting entirely of fallen fruits) can only be obtained by roaming over an extensive district, so that if the numbers of birds which come down to this single beach in the breeding season, amounting to many hundreds, were obliged to remain in the vicinity, many would perish of hunger. In the structure of the feet of this bird, we may detect a cause for its departing from the habits of its nearest allies, the Megapodii and Talegalli, which heap up earth, leaves, stones, and sticks into a huge mound, in which they bury their eggs. The feet of the Maleo are not nearly so large or strong in proportion as in these birds, while its claws are short and straight instead of being long and much curved. The toes are, however, strongly webbed at the base, forming a broad powerful foot, which, with the rather long leg, is well adapted to scratch away the loose sand (which flies up in a perfect shower when the birds are at work), but which could not without much labour accumu- late the heaps of miscellaneous rubbish, which the large grasping feet of the Megapodius bring together with ease. ay CHAP. XVII.] HABITS AND INSTINCTS. 267 We may also, I think, see in the peculiar organization of the entire family of the Megapodide or Brush Turkeys, a reason why they depart so widely from the usual habits of the Class of birds. Each egg being so large as entirely to fill up the abdominal cavity and with difficulty pass the walls of the pelvis, a considerable interval is required before the successive eggs can be matured (the natives say about thirteen days). ach bird lays six or eight eges or even more each season, so that between the first and last there-may be an interval of two or three months, N ow, if these eggs were hatched in the ordinary way, either the parents must keep sitting continually for this long period, or if they only began to sit after the last egg was deposited, the first would be exposed to injury by the climate, or to destruction by the large lizards, snakes, or other animals which abound in the district; because such large birds must roam about.a good deal in search of food. Here then we seem to have a case, in which the habits of a bird may be directly traced to its exceptional organization ; for it will hardly be maintained that this abnormal structure and, peculiar food were given to the Megapodide, in order that they might not exhibit that parental affection, or possess those domestic instincts so general in the Class of birds, and which so much excite our admiration. It has generally been the custom of writers on Natural History, to take the habits and instincts of animals as fixed points, and to consider their structure and organization as specially adapted to be in accordance with these. This assumption is however an arbitrary one, and has the bad effect of stifling inquiry into the nature and causes of “Instincts and habits,” treating them as directly due to a “first cause,’ and therefore incomprehensible to us, I believe that a careful consideration of the structure of a species, and of the peculiar physical and organic conditions by which it is surrounded, or has been surrounded in past ages, will often, as in this case, throw much light on the origin of its- habits and instincts. These again, combined with changes in external conditions, react upon structure, and by means of “ variation” and “ natural selection” both are kept in harmony. My friends remained three days, and got plenty of wild 2968 CELEBES, [cuAP. XVIT. pigs and two Andas, but the latter were much injured by the dogs, and I could only preserve the heads. A grand hunt which we attempted on the third day failed, owing to bad management in driving in the game, and we waited for five hours perched on platforms in trees without getting a shot, although we had been assured that pigs, Babirusas, and Andas would rush past us in dozens. I myself, with two men, stayed three days longer to get more specimens of the Maleos, and succeeded in preserving twenty-six very fine ones; the flesh and eggs of which supplied us with abundance of good food. The Major sent a boat, as he had promised, to take home my baggage, while I walked through the forest with my two boys and a guide, about fourteen miles. For the first half of the distance there was no path, and we had often to cut our way through tangled rattans or thickets of bamboo. In some of our turnings to find the most prac- ticable route I expressed my fear that we were losing our way, as the sun being vertical I could see no possible clue to the right direction. My conductors, however, laughed at the idea, which they seemed to consider quite Judicrous ; and sure enough, about half way, we suddenly encountered a little hut where people from Licoupang came to hunt and smoke wild pigs. My guide told me he had never before traversed the forest between these two points; and this is what is considered by some travellers as one of the. savage “instincts,” whereas it 1s merely the result of wide general knowledge. ‘The man knew the topography of the whole district; the slope of the land, the direction of the streams, the belts of bamboo or rattan, and many other indications of locality and direction ; and he was thus enabled to hit straight upon the hut, in the vicinity of which he had often hunted. In a forest of which he knew nothing, he would be quite as much at a loss as a European. Thus it is, I am convinced, with all the wonderful accounts of Indians finding their way through trackless forests to definite points. They may never have passed straight between the two particular points before, but they are well acquainted with the vicinity of both, and have such a ceneral knowledge of the whole country, its water system, its soil and its vegetation, that as they approach the point an ee eee HAP Xv} RATTAN PALMS. 269 they are to reach, many easily-recognised indicaticns enable them to hit upon it with certainty. The chief feature of this forest was the abundance of rattan palms, hanging from the trees, and turning and twisting about on the ground, often in inextricable con- fusion. One wonders at first how they can get into such queer shapes; but it is evidently caused by the decay and fall of the trees up which they have first climbed, after which they grow along the ground till they meet with another trunk up which to ascend. A tangled mass of twisted living rattan, is therefore a sign that at some former period a large tree has fallen there, though there may be not the slightest vestige of it left. The rattan seems to have unlimited powers of growth, and a single plant may mount up several trees in succession, and thus reach the enormoug length they are said sometimes to attain. They much improve the appearance of a forest as seen from the coast; for they vary the otherwise monotonous tree-tops with feathery crowns of leaves rising clear above them, and each terminated by an erect leafy spike like a light- ning-conductor. The other most interesting object in the forest was a beautiful palm, whose perfectly smooth and cylindrical stem rises erect to more than a hundred feet high, with a thickness of only eight or ten inches; while the fan- shaped leaves which compose its crown, are almost com- plete circles of six or eight feet diameter, borne aloft on long and slender petioles, and beautifully toothed round the edge by the extremities of the leaflets, which are separated only for a few inches from the circumference. It is probably the Livistona rotundifolia of botanists, and is the most complete and beautiful fan-leaf I have ever seen, serving admirably for folding into water-buckets and impromptu baskets, as well as for thatching and other purposes. A few days afterwards I returned to Menado on horse- back, sending my baggage round by sea; and had just time to pack up all my collections to go by the next mail steamer to Amboyna. I will now devote a few pages to an account of the chief peculiarities of the Zoology of Celebes, and its relation to that of the surrounding countries. 270 NATURAL HISTORY. (CHAP, XVII. CHAPTER XVIII NATURAL HISTORY OF CELEBES. Aedes position of Celebes is the most central in the Archipelago. Immediately to the north are the Philip- pine islands; on the west is Borneo; on the east are the Molucca islands; and on the south is the Timor group: and it is on all sides so connected with these islands by its own satellites, by small islets, and by coral reefs, that neither by inspection on the map nor by actual observa- tion around its coast, is it possible to determine accurately which should be grouped with it, and which with the surrounding districts. Such being the case, we should. naturally expect to find, that the productions of this central island in some degree represented the richness and variety of the whole Archipelago, while we should not expect - much individuality in a country, so situated, that it would seem as if it were pre-eminently fitted to receive stragglers and immigrants from all around. As so often happens in nature, however, the fact turns out to be just the reverse of what we should have ex- pected; and an examination of its animal productions, shows Celebes to be at once the poorest in the number of its species, and the most isolated in the character of its productions, of all the great islands in the Archipelago. — With its attendant islets it spreads over an extent of sea hardly inferior in length and breadth to that occupied by Borneo, while its actual land area is nearly double that — of Java; yet its Mammalia and terrestrial birds number scarcely more than half the species found in the last- named island. Its position is such that it could receive immigrants from every side more readily than Java, yet in proportion to the species which inhabit it far fewer seem derived from other islands, while far more are altogether peculiar to it; and a considerable number of its animal forms are so remarkable, as to find no close allies in any other part of the world. 1 now propose to examine CHAP. XVIIL. | OF CELEBES, O79 the best known groups of Celebesian animals in some detail, to study their relations to those of other islands, and to call attention to the many points of interest which they suggest. We know far more of the birds of Celebes than we do of any other group of animals. No less than 191 species have been discovered, and though no doubt many more wading and swimming birds have to be added, yet the list of land birds, 144 in number, and which for our present purpose are much the most important, must be very nearly complete. I myself assiduously collected birds in Celebes for nearly ten months, and my assistant, Mr. Allen, spent two months in the Sula islands. The Dutch naturalist Forsten spent two years in Northern Celebes (twenty years before my visit), and collections of birds had also been sent to Holland from Macassar. The French ship of discovery, L’ Astrolabe, also touched at Menado and procured collections. Since my return home, the Dutch naturalists Rosenberg and Bernstein have made extensive collections both in North Celebes and in the Sula islands ; yet all their researches combined, have only added eight species of land birds to those forming part of my own collection—a fact which renders it almost certain that there are very few more to discover. Besides Salayer and Boutong on the south, with Peling and Bungay on the east, the three islands of the Sula (or Zula) Archipelago also belong zoologically to Celebes, although their position is such, that it would seem more natural to group them with the Moluccas. About 48 land birds are now known from the Sula group, and if we reject from these, five species which have a wide range over the Archipelago, the remainder are much more characteristic of Celebes than of the Moluccas. Thirty-one species are identical with those of the former island, and four are representatives of Celebes forms, while only eleven are Molucean species, and two more representatives. But although the Sula islands belong to Celebes, they are so close to Bouru and the southern islands of the Gilolo group, that several purely Moluccan forms have migrated there, which are quite unknown to the island of Celebes itself; the whole thirteen Moluccan species being in this 972 NATURAL HISTORY (CHAP. XVIIL, category, thus adding to the productions of Celebes a foreign element which does not really belong to it. In studying the peculiarities of the Celebesian fauna, it will therefore be well to consider only the productions of the main island. The number of land birds in the island of Celebes is 128, and from these we may, as before, strike out a small number of species which roam over the whole Archipelago (often from India to the Pacific), and which therefore only serve to disguise the peculiarities of individual islands. These are 20 in number, and leave 108 species which we may consider as more especially characteristic of the island. On accurately comparing these with the birds of all the surrounding countries, we find that enly nine extend into the islands westward, and nineteen into the islands eastward, while no less than 80 are entirely confined to the Celebesian fauna—a degree of individuality, which, considering the situation of the island, is hardly to be equalled in any other part of the world. If we still more closely examine these 80 species, we shall be struck by the many peculiarities of structure they present, and by the curious affinities with distant parts of the world which many of them seem to indicate. These points are of so much interest and importance that it will be necessary to pass in review all those species which are peculiar to the island, and to call attention to whatever is most worthy of remark. Six species of the Hawk tribe are peculiar to Celebes ; three of these are very distinct from allied birds which range over all India to Java and Borneo, and which thus seem to be suddenly changed on entering Celebes. Another, (Accipiter trinotatus) is a beautiful hawk, with elegant rows of large round white spots on the tail, rendering it very conspicuous and quite different from any other known bird of the family. Three owls are also peculiar ; and one, a barn owl (Strix rosenbergil), 1s very much larger and stronger than its ally Strix javanica, which ranges from India through all the islands as far as Lombock. Of the ten Parrots found in Celebes, eight are peculiar. Among them are two species of the singular raquet-tailed parrots forming the genus Prioniturua and which are +1 CHAP. XVIII. | OF CELEBES. 273 characterised by possessing two long spoon-shaped feathers in the tail. ‘T'wo allied species are found in the adjacent island of Mindanao, one of the Philippines, and this form of tail is found in no other parrots in the whole world. A small species of Lorikeet (Trichoglossus flavoviridis) seems to have its nearest ally in Australia, The three Woodpeckers which inhabit the island are all peculiar, and are allied to species found in Java and Borneo, although very different from them all. Among the three peculiar Cuckoos two are very re- -markable. Phcenicophaus callirhynchus is the largest and handsomest species of its genus, and is distinguished by the three colours of its beak, bright yellow, red, and black. Kudynamis melanorynckus differs from all its allies in having a jet-black bill, whereas the other species of the genus always have it green, yellow, or reddish. The Celebes Roller (Coracias temmincki) is an interest- ing example of one species of a genus being cut off from the ' rest. There are species of Coracias in Europe, Asia, and | Africa, but none in the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java, or Borneo, The present species seems therefore quite out of place ; and what is still more curious is the fact, that it is _ not at all like any of the Asiatic species, but seems more _ to resemble those of Africa. ' In the next family, the Bee-eaters, is another equally _ isolated bird, Meropogon forsteni, which combines the ' characters of African and Indian Bee-eaters, and whose | only near ally, Meropogon breweri, was discovered by |. M. Du Chaillu in West Africa! | The two Celebes Hornbills have no close allies in those ' which abound in the surrounding countries. The only _ Thrush, Geocichla erythronota, is most nearly allied to a species peculiar to Timor. Two of the Flycatchers are _ closely allied to Indian species which are not found in the _ Malay islands. Two genera somewhat allied to the Mag- ' pies (Streptocitta and Charitornis), but whose affinities are so doubtful that Professor Schlegel places them among the Starlings, are entirely confined to Celebes. They are _ beautiful long-tailed birds, with black and white plumage, and with the feathers of the head somewhat rigid and _ scale-like. T 274 NATURAL HISTORY (CHAP. XVIII. Doubtfully allied to the Starlings are two other very ‘solated and beautiful birds. One, Enodes erythrophrys, has ashy and yellow plumage, but is ornamented with broad stripes of orange-red above the eyes. The other, Basilornis celebensis, 1s a blue-black bird with a white patch on each side of the breast, and the head ornamented with a beautiful compressed scaly crest of feathers, resem- bling in form that of the well-known Cock-of-the-rock of South America. The only ally to this bird is found in Ceram, and has the feathers of the crest elongated uf- wards into quite a different form. A still more curious bird is the Scissirostrum pagel, which although it is at present classed. in the Starling family, differs from all other species in the form of the bill and nostrils, and seems most nearly allied in its general structure to the Ox-peckers (Buphaga) of tropical ‘Africa, next to which the celebrated ornithologist Prince Bonaparte finally placed it. It is almost entirely of a slaty colour, with yellow bill and feet, but the feathers of the rump and upper tail-coverts each terminate in a rigid glossy pencil or tuft of a vivid crimson. These pretty little birds take the place of the metallic-green starlings of the genus Calornis, which are found in most other islands of the Archipelago, but which are absent from. Celebes. They go in flocks, feeding upon erain and fruits, often frequenting dead trees, in holes of which they build their nests; and they cling to the trunks as easily as wood- peckers or creepers. | Out of eighteen Pigeons found in Celebes eleven are peculiar to it. Two of them, Ptilonopus gularis and Turacseena menadensis, have their nearest allies in Timor. Two others, Carpophaga forsteni and Phlegenas tristig- mata, most resemble Philippine island species ; and Car- pophaga radiata belongs to a New Guinea group. Lastly, | in the Gallinaceous tribe, the curious helmeted Maleo | (Megacephalon rubripes) is quite isolated, having its | nearest (but still distant) allies in the Brush-turkeys of Australia and New Guinea. | Judging, therefore, by the opinions of the eminent | naturalists who have described and classified its birds, we | find that many of the species have no near allies whatever | CHAP, XVIII. ] OF CELEBES. 275 in the countries which surround Celehes, but are either quite isolated, or indicate relations with such distant regions as New Guinea, Australia, India, or Africa. Other cases of similar remote affinities between the productions of distant countries no doubt exist, but in no spot upon the globe that I am yet acquainted with, do so many of them occur together, or do they form so decided a feature in the natural history of the country. The Mammalia of Celebes are very few in number, con- sisting of fourteen terrestrial species and seven bats. Of the former no less than eleven are peculiar, including two which there is reason to believe may have been recently carried into other islands by man. Three species which have a tolerably wide range in the Archipelago, are— 1, The curious Lemur, Tarsius spectrum, which is found in all the islands as far westward as Malacca; 2, the common Malay Civet, Viverra tangalunga, which has a still wider range; and 3, a Deer, which seems to be the same as the Rusa hippelaphus of Java, and was probably introduced by man at an early period. The more characteristic species are as follow :— Cynopithecus nigrescens, a curious baboon-like monkey if not a true baboon, which abounds all over Celebes, and is found nowhere else but in the one small island of Batchian, into which it has probably been introduced accidentally. An allied species is found in the Philippines, but in no other island of the Archipelago is there anything resem- bling them. These creatures are about the size of a spaniel, of a jet-black colour, and have the projecting dog-like muzzle and overhanging brows of the baboons. They have large red callosities and a short fleshy tail, scarcely an inch long and hardly visible. They go in large bands, living chiefly in the trees, but often descend- ing on the ground and robbing gardens and orchards. Anoa depressicornis, the Sapi-utan, or wild cow of the Malays, is an animal which has been the cause of much controversy, as to whether it should be classed as ox, buffalo, or antelope. It is smaller than any other wild vattle, and in many respects seems to approach some of the ox-like antelopes of Africa. It is found only in the ‘mountains, and is said never to inhabit places where there T2 976 NATURAL HISTORY | CHAP. XVUI, are deer. It is somewhat smaller than a small Highland cow, and has long straight horns, which are ringed at the base and slope backwards over the neck. The wild pig seems to be of a species peculiar to the island; but a much more curious animal of this family is the Babirusa or Pig-deer, so named by the Malays from its long and slender legs, aud curved tusks resembling horns. This extraordinary creature resembles a pig in eeneral appearance, but it does not dig with its snout, as SKULL OF BABIRUSA. +t feeds on fallen fruits. The tusks of the lower jaw are very long and sharp, but the upper ones instead of grow- ing downwards in the usual way are completely reversed, crowing upwards out of bony sockets through the skin on each side of the snout, curving backwards to near the eyes, and in old animals often reaching eight or ten inches in length. It is difficult to understand what can be the CHAP. xvIIt.] OF CELEBES. OFF use of these extraordinary horn-like teeth. Some of the old writers supposed that they served as hooks, by which the creature could rest its head on a branch. But the way in which they usually diverge just over and in front of the eye has suggested the more probable idea, that they serve to guard these organs from thorns and spines, while hunting for fallen fruits among the tangled thickets of rattans and other spiny plants. Even this, however, is not satisfactory, for the female, who must seek her food in the same way, does not possess them. I should be inclined tc believe rather, that these tusks were once useful, and were then worn down as fast as they grew; but that changed conditions of life have rendered them unnecessary, and they now develop into a monstrous form, just as the incisors of the Beaver or Rabbit will go on growing, if the opposite teeth do not wear them away. In old animals they reach an enormous size, and are generally broken off as if by fighting. Here again we have a resemblance to the Wart-hogs of Africa, whose upper canines grow outwards and curve up so as to form a transition trom the usual mode of growth to that of the Babirusa. In other respects there seems no affinity between these animals, and the Babirusa stands completely isolated, having no: resemblance to the pigs of any other part of the world. ‘It is found all over Celebes and in the Sula islands, and also in Bouru, the only spot beyond the Celebes group to which it extends ; and which island also shows some affinity to the Sula islands in its birds, indicating perhaps, a closer connexion between them at some former period than now exists. The other terrestrial mammals of Celebes are, five species of squirrels, which are all distinct from those of Java and Borneo, and mark the furthest eastward range of the genus in the tropics; and two of Eastern opossums (Cuscus), which are different from those of the Moluccas, and mark the furthest westward extension of this genus and of the Marsupial order. Thus we see that the Mammalia of Celebes are no less individual and remarkable than the birds, since three of the largest and most interesting species have no near allies in surrounding countries, but seem vaguely to indicate a relation to the African continent, 978 NATURAL HISTORY [CHaP, XVII, Many groups of insects appear to be especially subject to local influences, their forms and colours changing with each change of conditions, or even with a change of locality where the conditions seem almost identical. We should therefore anticipate that the individuality manifested in the higher animals would be still more prominent in these creatures with less stable organisms. On the other hand, however, we have to consider that the dispersion and migration of insects 1s much more easily effected than that of mammals or even of birds. They are much more likely to be carried away by violent winds; their eggs may be carried on leaves either by storms of wind or by floating trees, and their larve and pup, often buried in trunks of trees or enclosed in waterproof cocoons, may be floated for days or weeks uninjured over the ocean. ‘These facilities of distribution tend to assimilate the productions of adjacent lands in two ways: first, by direct mutual interchange of species; and secondly by repeated imm1- erations of fresh individuals of a species common to other islands, which by intercrossing, tend to obliterate the changes of form and colour, which differences of condi- tions might otherwise produce. Bearing these facts in mind, we shall find that the individuality of the insects of Celebes is even greater than we have any reason to expect. For the purpose of insuring accuracy in comparisons with other islands, I shall confine myself to those groups which are best known, or which I have myself carefully studied. Beginning with the Papilionide or Swallow- tailed butterflies, Celebes possesses 24 species, of which the large number of 18 are not found in any other island. If we compare this with Borneo, which out of 29 species has only two not found elsewhere, the difference is as striking as anything can be. In the family of the Pieride, or white butterflies, the difference is not quite so great, owing perhaps to the more wandering habits of the group ; but. it is still very remarkable. Out of 30 species inhabiting Celebes, 19 are peculiar, while Java (from which more species are known than from Sumatra or Borneo), out of 37 species has only 13 peculiar. The Panaide are large, but weak-flying butterflies, which frequent forests and gardens, and are plainly but often very richly coloured. CHAP. XVIII. | OF CELEBES. 279 Of these my own collection contains 16 species from Celebes and 15 from Borneo; but whereas no less than 14 are confined to the former island, only two are peculiar to the latter. The Nymphalide are a very extensive group, of generally strong-winged and very bright-coloured butterflies, very abundant in the tropics, and represented in our own country by our Fritillaries, our Vanessas, and our Purple-emperor. Some months ago I drew up a list of the Eastern species of this group, including all the new ones discovered by myself, and arrived at the following comparative results :— Species of Nymphalidae, eee end of poet ies Waee- VilGPILS 7 Po, ‘ os one '3S8 Bomeemiananiog Glia «vii isoTlSs.65! £5 oro 29 Ce a, OR pel a The Coleoptera are so extensive that few of the groups have yet been carefully worked out. I will therefore refer to one only, which I have myself recently studied—the Cetoniade or Rose-chafers—a group of beetles which, owing to their extreme beauty, have been much sought after. From Java 37 species of these insects are known, and from Celebes only 30; yet only 13, or 35 per cent., are peculiar to the former island, and 19, or 63 per cent., to the latter. The result of these comparisons is, that although Ce- lebes is a single large island with only a few smaller ones closely grouped around it, we must really consider it as forming one of the great divisions of the Archipelago, equal in rank and importance to the whole of the Moluccan or Philippine groups, to the Papuan islands, or to the Indo- Malay islands (Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay peninsula). Taking those families of insects and birds which are best known, the following table shows the com- parison of Celebes with the other groups of islands :— PAPILIONIDZ AND HAWKS, PARROTS, AND PIERIDA, PIGEONS. Per cent. of peculiar Per cent. of peculiar | Species. Species. Searememerern: . OO Se a wt 4 byt ae |: Sea cb Celebes . Meier iOGD POCUD 2G BQ. ep IEE os gh ern >. Ue wrest aicrreice) 6/1 OF A li IB I ia 8) al ra f eeumeper eel Ge Yel eee ag 280 NATURAL HISTORY [cHAP. XVIII These large and well-known families well represent the general character of the zoology of Celebes; and they show that this island is really one of the most isolated portions of the Archipelago, although situated in its very centre. But the insects of Celebes present us with other pheno- mena more curious and more difficult to explain than their striking individuality. The butterflies of that island are in many cases characterised by a peculiarity of outline, which distinguishes them at a glance from those of any other part. of the world. It is most strongly manifested in the Papilios and the Pieride, and consists in the fore- wings being either strongly curved or abruptly bent near the base, or in the extremity being elongated and often somewhat hooked. Out of the 14 species of Papilio in Celebes, 13 exhibit this peculiarity in a greater or less degree, when compared with the most nearly allied species of the surrounding islands. Ten species of Pieride have the same character, and in four or five of the Nymphalide it is also very distinctly marked. In almost every case the species found in Celebes are much larger than those of the islands westward, and at least equal to those of the Moluccas, or even larger. The difference of form is how- ever the most remarkable feature, as it is altogether a new thing for a whole set of species in one country, to differ in exactly the same way from the corresponding sets in all the surrounding countries ; and it is so well marked, that without looking at the details of colouring, most Celebes Papilios and many Pieride, can be at once distinguished from those of other islands by their form alone. The outside figure of each pair here given, shows the exact size and form of the fore-wing in a butterfly of Yelebes, while the inner one represents the most closely allied species from one of the adjacent islands. Figure 1 shows the strongly curved margin of the Celebes species, Papilio gigon, compared with the much straighter margin of Papilio demolion from Singapore and Java. Figure 2 shows the abrupt bend over the base of the wing in Papilio miletus of Celebes compared with the slight curva- ture in the common Papilio sarpedon, which has almost exactly the same form from India to New Guinea and CHAP. XVIII.] OF CELEBES. 281 Australia. Figure 3 shows the elongated wing of Tachyris zarinda, a native of Celebes, compared with the much shorter wing of Tachyris nero, a very closely allied species found in all the western islands. The difference of form is in each case sufficiently obvious, but when the insccts eee sS ] themselves are compared it is much more striking than in these partial outlines. From the analogy of birds, we should suppose that the pointed wing gave increased rapidity of flight, since it is a character of terns, swallows, falcons, and of the swift- flying pigeons, A short and rounded wing, on the other hand. alwavs accompanies a more feeble or more laborious 282 NATURAL HISTORY [cHAP. XVIII. flight, and one much less under command. We might suppose, therefore, that the butterflies which possess this peculiar form were better able to escape pursuit. But there seems no unusual abundance of insectivorous birds to render this necessary ; and as we cannot believe that such a curious peculiarity is without meaning, it seems probable that it is the result of a former condition of things, when the island possessed a much richer fauna, the relics of which we see in the isolated birds and Mammalia now inhabiting it; and when the abundance of insectivorous creatures, rendered some unusual means of escape a necessity for the large-winged and showy butterflies. It ig some confirmation of this view, that neither the very small nor the very obscurely coloured groups of butterflies have elongated wings, nor is any modification perceptible in those strong-winged groups which already possess great strength and rapidity of flight. ‘These were already suffi- ciently protected from their enemies, and did not require increased power of escaping from them. It is not at all clear, what effect the peculiar curvature of the wings has, in modifying flight. Another curious feature in the zoology of Celebes is also worthy of attention. I allude to the absence of several groups which are found on both sides of it, in the Indo-Malay islands as well as in the Moluccas ; and which thus seem to be unable, from some unknown cause, to obtain a footing in the intervening island. In Birds we have the two families of Podargide and Laniade, which range over the whole Archipelago and into Australia, and which yet have no representative in Celebes. The genera Ceyx among Kingfishers, Criniger among Thrushes, Rhipi- dura among Flycatchers, Calornis among Starlings, and — Erythrura among Finches, are all found in the Moluccas as well as in Borneo and Java,—but not a single species belonging to any one of them is found in Celebes. Among insects, the large genus of Rose-chafers, Lomaptera, is found in every country and island between India and New Guinea, except Celebes. This unexpected absence of many groups, from one limited district in the very centre of their area of distribution, is a phenomenon not altogether unique, but, I believe, nowhere so well marked as im this case; and it CHAP. XVIII. ] OF CELEBBS. 283 certainly adds considerably to the strange character of this remarkable island. The anomalies and eccentricities in the natural history of Celebes which I have endeavoured to sketch in this chapter, all point to an origin in a remote antiquity. The history of extinct animals teaches us, that their distribu- tion in time and in space are strikingly similar. The rule is, that just as the productions of adjacent areas usually resemble each other closely, so do the productions of successive periods in the same area; and as the produc- tions of remote areas generally differ widely, so do the productions of the same area at remote epochs. We are therefore led irresistibly to the conclusion, that change of species, still more of generic and of family form, is a matter of time. But time may have led to a change of species in one country, while in another the forms have been more permanent, or the change may have gone on at an equal rate but in a different manner in both. In either case the amount of individuality in the productions of a district, will be to some extent a measure of the time that district has been isolated from those that surround it. Judged by this standard, Celebes must be one of the oldest parts of the Archipelago. It probably dates from a period not only anterior to that when Borneo, Java, and Sumatra were separated from the continent, but from that still more remote epoch when the land that now constitutes these islands had not risen above the ocean. Such an antiquity is necessary, to account for the number of animal forms it possesses, which show no relation to those of India or Australia, but rather with those of Africa; and we are led to speculate on the possibility of there having once existed a continent in the Indian Ocean which might serve as a bridge to connect these distant countries. Now it is a curious fact, that the existence of such a land has been already thought necessary, to account for the distri- bution of the curious Quadrumana forming the family of the Lemurs. These have their metropolis in Madagascar, but are found also in Africa, in Ceylon, in the penin- sula of India, and in the Malay Archipelago as far as Celebes, which is its furthest eastern limit. Dr. Sclater -has proposed for the hypothetical continent connecting ‘these distant points, and whose former existence is 284 NATURAL HISTORY. [CHAP XVIII, indicated by the Mascarene islands and the Maldive coral group, the name of Lemuria. Whether or no we believe in its existence in the exact form here indicated, the student of geographical distribution must see in the extraordinary and isolated productions of Celebes, proofs of the former existence of some continent from whence the ancestors of these creatures, and of many other intermediate forms, could have been derived. | In this short sketch of the most striking peculiarities of the Natural History of Celebes, I have been obliged to enter much into details that I fear will have been uninteresting to the general reader, but unless I had done so my exposition would have lost much of its force and value. It 1s by these details alone, that I have been able to prove the unusual features that Celebes presents to us. Situated in the very midst of an Archipelago, and closely hemmed in on every side by islands teeming with varied forms of life, its productions have yet a surprising amount of indi- viduality. While it is poor in the actual number of its species, it is yet wonderfully rich in peculiar forms ; many of which are singular or beautiful, and are in some cases absolutely unique upon the globe. We behold here the curious phenomenon, of groups of insects changing their outline in a similar manner when compared with those of surrounding islands, suggesting some common cause which never seems to have acted elsewhere in exactly the same way. Celebes, therefore, presents us with a most striking example of the interest that attaches to the study of the geographical distribution of animals. We can see that their present distribution upon the globe is the result of all the more recent changes the earth’s surface has under- gone; and by a careful study of the phenomena we are sometimes able to deduce approximately what those past changes must have been, in order to produce the distri- bution we find to exist. In the comparatively simple case of the Timor group, we were able to deduce these changes with some approach to certainty. In the much more complicated case of Celebes we can only indicate their general nature, since we now see the result, not of any single or recent change only, but of a whole series of the later revolutions which have resulted in the present distribution of land in the Eastern Hemisphere. | i> CHAP. XIX.) 4 DUTCH MAIL STEAMER, 28 CHAPTER XIX. BANDA. (DECEMBER 1857, MAY 1859, APRIL 1861.) | ers Dutch mail steamer in which I travelled from Macassar to Banda and Amboyna was a roomy and com- fortable vessel, although it would only go six miles an hour in the finest weather. As there were but three passengers besides myself, we had abundance of room, and I was able to enjoy a voyage more than I had ever done before. The arrangements are somewhat different from those on board English or Indian steamers. There are no cabin servants, as every cabin passenger invariably brings his own, and the ship’s stewards attend only to the saloon and the eating department. At six A.M. a cup of tea or coffee is provided for those who like it. At seven to eight there is a light breakfast of tea, eggs, sardines, &c. At ten, Madeira gin and bitters are brought on deck as a whet for the substantial eleven o’clock breakfast, which differs from a dinner only in the absence of soup. Cups of tea and coffee are brought round at three p.m. ; bitters, &c. again at five, a good dinner with beer and claret at half-past six, concluded by tea and coffee at eight. Between whiles beer and sodawater are supplied when called for, so there is no lack of little gastronomical excitements to while away the tedium of a sea voyage. | Our first stopping place was Coupang, at the west end of the large island of Timor. “We then coasted along that island for several hundred miles, having always a view of hilly ranges covered with scanty vegetation, rising ridge behind ridge to the height of six or seven thousand feet, Turning off towards Banda we passed Pulo-Cambing, Wetter, and Roma, all of which are desolate and barren volcanic islands, almost as uninviting as Aden, and offer- ing a strange contrast to the usual verdure and luxuriance of the Archipelago. In two days more we reached the volcanic group of Banda, covered with an unusually dense 286 BANDA. (CHAP. XIX. and brilliant green vegetation, indicating that we had passed beyond the range of the hot dry winds from the plains of Central Australia. Banda is a lovely little spot, ‘ts three islands enclosing a secure harbour from whence no outlet is visible, and with water so transparent, that living corals and even the minutest objects are plainly seen on the volcanic sand at a depth of seven or elght fathoms. The ever smoking volcano rears its bare cone on one side, while the two larger islands are clothed with vegetation to the summit of the hills. Going on shore, I walked up a pretty path which leads to the highest point of the island on which the town is | situated, where there is a telegraph station and a magni- ficent view. Below lies the little town, with its neat red- tiled white houses and the thatched cottages of the natives, bounded on one side by the old Portuguese fort. Beyond, about half a mile distant, lies the larger island in the shape of .a horseshoe, formed of a range of abrupt hills covered with fine forest and nutmeg gardens; while close opposite the town is the volcano, forming a nearly perfect cone, the lower part only covered with a light green bushy vegetation. On its north side the outline is more uneven, and there is a slight hollow or chasm about one-fifth of the way down, from which constantly issue two columns of smoke, as well as a good deal from the rugged surface around and from some spots nearer the summit. A white efflorescence, probably sulphur, is thickly spread over the upper part of the mountain, marked by the narrow black vertical lines of water gullies. The smoke unites as it rises, and forms a dense cloud, which in calm damp weather spreads out into a wide canopy hiding the top of the mountain. At night and early morning it often rises up straight and leaves the whole outline clear. | It is only when actually gazing on an active volcano that one can fully realize its awfulness and grandeur. Whence comes that inexhaustible fire whose dense and sulphureous smoke for ever issues from this bare and deso- late peak? Whence the mighty forces that produced that peak, and still from time to time exhibit themselves in the earthquakes that always occur in the vicinity of volcanic vents? The knowledge from childhood, of the fact that CHAP. XIX.| THE VOLCANO. 287 voleanoes and earthquakes exist, has taken away somewhat of the strange and exceptional character that really belongs to them. The inhabitant of most parts of northern Europe, sees in the earth the emblem of stability and repose. His whole life-experience, and that of all his age and genera- tion, teaches him that the earth is solid and firm, that its massive rocks may contain water in abundance but never fire; and these essential characteristics of the earth are manifest in every mountain his country contains. “> o ‘4 4 i : “; ret A es ) ‘ 2 ‘ 4 “a ¢ - e 4 woe, ‘ i 4 ,, a LY, n “ f * 7‘ 4 ” . . ‘ + l - . . ar . ” j ‘ ' y = , y —? “ 7 a ‘’ - f ’ - & ¥ = i th Sapity 4 a = ' " ‘ i x i i * ; ; lee as = ! ; ry oar eee i oF, Pa —— Me yy Ye Y UM, s S&S Z Tey ) lly = =U Z WALLACE’S STANDARD WING, MALE AND FEMALE, cHaP. XxIV.} 4 NEW BIRD OF PARADISE. 329 bring down a sufficient quantity for a fair trial on the Dutch steamers. The quality, however, was not thought sufficiently good, and the mines were abandoned. Quite recently, works had been commenced in another spot, in hopes of finding a better yein. There were about eighty men employed, chiefly convicts; but this was far too small a number for mining operations in such a country, where the mere keeping a few miles of road in repair requires the constant work of several men. If coal of sufficiently good quality should be found, a tramroad would be made, and would be very easily worked, owing to the regular descent of the valley. Just as I got home I overtook Ali returning from shooting with some birds hanging from his belt. He seemed much pleased, and said, “ Look here, sir, what a curious bird,” holding out what at first completely puzzled me. I saw a bird with a mass of splendid green feathers on its breast, elongated into two glittering tufts ; but, what I could not understand was a pair of long white feathers, which stuck straight out from each shoulder. Ali assured me that the bird stuck them out this way itself, when fluttering its wings, and that they had remained so without his touching them. I now saw that I had got a great prize, no less than a completely new form of the Bird of Para- dise, differing most remarkably from every other known bird. The general plumage is very sober, being a pure ashy olive, with a purplish tinge on the back; the crown of the head is beautifully glossed with pale metallic violet, and the feathers of the front extend as much over the beak as in most of the family. The neck and breast are scaled with fine metallic green, and the feathers on the lower part are elongated on each side, so as to form a two-pointed gorget, which can be folded beneath the wings, or partially erected and spread out in the same way as the side plumes of most of the birds of paradise. The four long white plumes which give the bird its altogether unique character, spring from little tubercles close to the upper edge of the Shoulder or bend of the wing; they are narrow, gently curved, and equally webbed on both sides, of a pure creamy white colour. They are about six inches long, equalling the wing, and can be raised at right angles to it, \ 2 300 BATCHIAN. (CHAP. XXIV. or laid along the body at the pleasure of the bird. The pill is horn colour, the legs yellow, and the iris pale olive. This striking novelty has been named by Mr. G. R. Gray of the British Museum, Semioptera Wallacei, or “ Wallace’s Standard wing.” A few days later I obtained an exceedingly beautiful new butterfly, allied to the fine blue Papilio Ulysses, but differing from it in the colour being of a more intense tint, and in having a row of blue stripes around the margin of the lower wings. This good beginning was, however, rather deceptive, and I soon found that imsects, and especially butterflies, were somewhat scarce, and birds in far less variety than I had anticipated. Several of the fine Moluccan species were however obtained. The hand- some red lory with green wings and a yellow spot in the back (Lorius garrulus), was not uncommon. When the Jambu, or rose apple (Eugenia sp.), was in flower in the village, flocks of the little lorikeet (Charmosyna placentis), already met with in Gilolo, came to feed upon the nectar, and I obtained as many specimens as I desired. Another beautiful bird of the parrot tribe was the Geoffroyus cyanicollis, a green parrot with a red bill and head, which colour shaded on the crown into azure blue, and thence into verditer blue and the green of the back. Two large : and handsome fruit pigeons, with metallic green, ashy, and rufous plumage, were not uncommon; and | was rewarded by finding a splendid deep blue roller (Hurystomus aZUTeUS), a lovely golden-capped sunbird (Nectarinea auriceps), and a fine racquet-tailed kingfisher (Tamysiptera isis), all of which were entirely new to ornithologists. Of insects I obtained a considerable number of interesting beetles, including many fine longicorns, among which was the — largest and handsomest species of the genus Glenea yet discovered. Among butterflies the beautiful little Danis sebee was abundant, making the forests gay with its deli- cate wings of white and the richest metallic blue; while showy Papilios, and pretty Pieridee, and dark, rich Eupleas, many of them new, furnished a constant source of interest and pleasing occupation. : The island of Batchian possesses no really indigenous” inhabitants, the interior being altogether unmhabited, and ; CHAP, XXIvi] DISTINCT RACES. dol there are only a few small villages on various parts of the coast; yet I found here four distinct races, which would wofully mislead an ethnological traveller unable to obtain ‘information as to their origin. First there are the Batchian Malays, probably the earliest colonists, differing very little from those of Ternate. Their language, however, seems to have more of the Papuan element, with a mixture of pure Malay, showing that the settlement is one of stragglers of various races, although now sufficiently homogeneous. Then there are the “Orang Sirani,’ as at Ternate and Amboyna. Many of these have the Portuguese physiog- nomy strikingly preserved, but combined with a skin gene- rally darker than the Malays. Some national customs, are retained, and the Malay, which is their only language, contains a large number of Portuguese words and idioms. The third race consists of the Galela men from the north of Gilolo, a singular people, whom I have already deseribed ; and the fourth is a colony from Tomoré, in the eastern peninsula of Celebes. These people were brought here at their own request a few years ago, to avoid extermination by another tribe. They have a very light complexion, open Tartar physiognomy, low stature, and a language of the Bugis type. They are an industrious agricultural people, and supply the town with vegetables. They make a good ‘deal of bark cloth, similar to the tapa of the Polynesians, by cutting down the proper trees and taking off large cylinders of bark, which is beaten with mallets till it separates from the wood. It is then soaked, and so con- tinuously and regularly beaten out that it becomes as thin and as tough as patchment. In this form it is much used for wrappers for clothes ; and they also make jackets of it, sewn neatly together-and stained with the juice of another kind of bark, which gives it a dark red colour and renders it nearly waterproof. Here are four very distinct kinds of people who may all be seen any day in and about the town of Batchian. Now. if we suppose a traveller ignorant of Malay, picking up a word or two here and there of the “ Batchian language,” and noting down the “physical and moral peculiarities, manners, and customs of the Batchian people’”-——(for there are travellers who do all this in four-and-twenty hours) — 332: BATCHIAN. (CHAP. XXIV. what an accurate and instructive chapter we should have! what transitions would be pointed out, what theories of the origin of races would be developed! while the next traveller might flatly contradict every statement and arrive at exactly opposite conclusions. Soon after I arrived here the Dutch Government intro- duced a new copper coinage of cents instead of dovts (the 100th instead of the 120th part of a guilder), and all the old coins were ordered to be sent to Ternate to be changed. I sent a bag containing 6,000 doits, and duly received the new money by return of the boat. When Ali went to bring it, however, the captain required a written order; so I waited to send- again the next day, and it was lucky I did so, for that night my house was entered, all my boxes carried out and ransacked, and the various articles left on the road about twenty yards off, where we found them at five in the morning, when, on getting up and finding the house empty, we rushed out to discover tracks of the thieves. Not being able to find the copper money which they thought I had just received, they decamped, taking nothing co) but a few yards of cotton cloth and a black coat and trousers, which latter were picked up a few days afterwards hidden in the grass. There was no doubt whatever who — were the thieves. Convicts are employed to guard the Government stores when the boat arrives from Ternate. Two of them watch all night, and often take the oppor- tunity to roam about and commit robberies. The next day I received my money, and secured it well in — a strong box fastened under my bed. 1 took out five or six hundred cents for daily expenses, and put them in a small japanned box, which always stood upon my table. In the © afternoon I went for a short. walk, and on my return — this box and my keys, which I had carelessly left on the table, were gone. Two of my boys were in the house, but had heard nothing.. I immediately gave information of the two robberies to the Director at the mines and to the Com- mandant at the fort, and got for answer, that if I caught the thief in the act I might shoot him. By inquiry in the village, we afterwards found that one of the convicts who was on duty at the Government rice-store in the village had quitted his guard, was seen to pass over the bridge CHAP. XXIV. ] REMOVE TO THE VILLAGE. 333 towards my house, was seen again within two hundred yards of my house, and on returning over the bridge into the village carried something under his arm, carefully covered with his sarong. My box was stolen between the hours he was seen going and returning, and it was so small as to be easily carried in the way described. This seemed pretty clear circumstantial evidence. I accused the man and brought the witnesses to the Commandant. The man was examined, and confessed having gone to the river close to my house to bathe; but said he had gone no further, having climbed up a cocoa-nut tree and brought home two nuts, which he had covered over, because he was ashamed to be seen carrying them! This explanation was thought satisfactory, and he was acquitted. I lost my cash and my box, a seal I much valued, with other small articles, and all my keys—the severest loss by far. Luckily my large cash-box was left locked, but so were others which I required to open immediately. There was, how- ever, a very clever blacksmith employed to do ironwork for the mines, and he picked my locks for me when I required them, and in a few days made me new keys, which I used all the time I was abroad. Towards the end of November the wet season set in, and we had daily and almost incessant rains, with only about one or two hours’ sunshine in the morning. ‘The flat parts of the forest became flooded, the roads filled with mud, and insects and birds were scarcer than ever. On December 13th, in the afternoon, we had a sharp earth- quake shock, which made the house and furniture shake and rattle for five minutes, and the trees and shrubs wave as if a gust of wind had passed over them. About the middle of December I removed to the village, in order more easily to explore the district to the west of it, and to be near the sea when I wished to return to Ternate. I obtained the use of a good-sized house in the Campong Sirani (or Christian village), and at Christmas and the New Year had to endure the incessant gun-firing, drum- beating, and fiddling of the inhabitants. These people are very fond of music and dancing, and it would astonish a,European to visit one of their assemblies. We enter a gloomy palm-leaf hut in which two or three 334 BATCHIAN., [CHAP. XXIV. very dim lamps barely render darkness visible. The floor is of black sandy earth, the roof hid in a smoky impene- trable blackness; two or three benches stand against the walls, and the orchestra consists of a fiddle, a fife, a drum, and a triangle. There is plenty of company, consisting of young menand women, all very neatly dressed in white and black —a true Portuguese habit. Quadrilles, waltzes, polkas, ‘and mazurkas are danced with great vigour and much skill. The refreshments are muddy coffee and a few sweet- meats. Dancing is kept up for hours, and all is conducted with much decorum and propriety. A party of this kind meets about once a week, the principal inhabitants taking it by turns, and -all who please come in without much ceremony. It is astonishing how little these people have altered in three hundred years, although in that time they have changed their language and lost all knowledge of their own nationality. They are still in manners and appearance almost pure Portuguese, very similar to those with whom I had become acquainted on the banks of the Amazon. They live very poorly as regards their house and furniture, but preserve a semi-European dress, and have almost all full suits of black for Sundays. They are nominally Protestants, but Sunday evening is their grand day for music and dancing. The men are often good hunters ; and two or three times a week, deer or wild pigs are brought to the village, which, with fish and fowls, enables them to live well. They are almost the only people in the Archipelago who eat the great fruit-eating pats called by us “ flying foxes.” These ugly creatures are considered a great delicacy, and are much sought after. At about the beginning of the year they come in large — flocks to eat fruit, and congregate during the day on some small islands in the bay, hanging by thousands on the trees, especially on dead ones. They can then be easily caught or knocked down with sticks, and are brought home. by baskets-full, They require to be carefully pre- pared, as the skin and fur has a rank and powerful foxy odour; but they are generally cooked with abundance of spices and condiments, and are really very good eating, | something like hare. The Orang Sirani are good cooks, cuar.xxiv.] | THE CRG@SUS BUTTERFLY. 335, having a much greater variety of savoury dishes than the Malays. Here, they live chiefly on sago as bread, with a little rice occasionally, and abundance of vegetables and fruit. It is a curious fact that everywhere in the East where the Portuguese have mixed with the native races they have become darker in colour than either of the parent stocks. This is the case almost always with these “ Orang Sirani” in the Moluccas, and with the Portuguese of Malacca. The reverse is the case in South America, where the mixture of the Portuguese or Brazilian with the Indian produces the “ Mameluco,” who is not unfrequently lighter than either parent, and always lighter than the Indian. The women at Batchian, although generally fairer than the men, are coarse in features, and very far inferior in beauty to the mixed Dutch-Malay girls, or even to many pure Malays. The part of the village in which I resided was a grove of cocoa-nut trees, and at night, when the dead leaves were sometimes collected together and burnt, the effect was most magnificent—the tall stems, the fine crowns of foliage, and the immense fruit-clusters, being brilliantly illuminated against a dark sky, and appearing like a fairy palace sup- ported on a hundred columns, and groined over with leafy arches. The cocoa-nut tree, when well grown, is certainly the prince of palms both for beauty and utility. During my very first walk into the forest at Batchian, I had seen sitting on a leaf out of reach, an immense butter- fly of a dark colour marked with white and yellow spots. I could not capture it as it flew away high up into the forest, but I at once saw that it was a female of a new species of Ornithoptera or “bird-winged butterfly,” the pride of the Eastern tropics. I was very anxious to get. it and to find the male, which in this genus is always of extreme beauty. During the two succeeding months I only saw it once again, and shortly afterwards I saw the male flying high in the air at the mining village. I had begun to despair of ever getting a specimen, as it seemed so rare and wild; till one day, about the beginning of January, I found a beautiful shrub with large white leafy bracts and yellow flowers, a species of Musszenda, and saw 336 BATCHIAN. (CHAP. XXIV. one of these noble insects hovering over it, but it was too quick for me, and flew away. The next day I went again to the same shrub and succeeded in catching a female, and the day after a fine male. I found it to be as I had expected, a perfectly new and most magnificent species, and one of the most gorgeously coloured butterflies in the world. Fine specimens of the male are more than seven inches ‘across the wings, which are velvety black and fiery orange, the latter colour replacing the green of the allied species. The beauty and brilliancy of this insect are indescribable, and none but a naturalist can understand the intense excitement I experienced when I at length captured it. On taking it out of my net and opening the glorious wings, my heart began to beat violently, the blood rushed to my head, and I felt much more like fainting than I have done when in apprehension of immediate death. I had a head- ache the rest of the day, so great was the excitement produced by what will appear to most people a very inadequate cause. I had decided to return to Ternate in a week or two more, but this grand capture determined me to stay on till I obtained a good series of the new butterfly, which I have since named Ornithoptera creesus. The Musseenda bush was an admirable place, which I could visit every. day on my way to the forest; and as it was situated in a dense thicket of shrubs and creepers, I set my man Lahi to clear a space all round it, so that I could easily get at any insect that might visit it. Afterwards, finding that it was often necessary to wait some time there, I had a little seat put up under a tree by the side of it, where I came every day to eat my lunch, and thus had half an hour’s watching about noon, besides a chance as I passed it in the morning. In this way I obtained on an average one specimen a day for a long time, but more than half of these were femules, and more than half the remainder worn or broken specimens, so that I should not have obtained many perfect males had I not found another station for them. As soon as I had seen them come to flowers, 1 sent my man Lahi with a net on purpose to search for them, as they had also been seen at some flowering trees on the. beach, and I promised him half a day's wages extra for CHAP. XXIv.] INSECT HUNTING. 337 every good specimen he could catch. After a day or two he brought me two very fair specimens, and told me he had caught them in the bed of a large rocky stream that clescends from the mountains to the sea about a mile below the village. They flew down this river, settling occasionally on stones and rocks in the water, and he was obliged to wade up it or jump from rock to rock to get at them. I went with him one day, but found that the stream was far too rapid and the stones too slippery for me to do anything, so I left it entirely to him, and all the rest of the time we stayed in Batchian he used to be out all day, generally bringing me one, and on good days two or three specimens. I was thus able to bring away with me more than a hundred of both sexes, including perhaps twenty very fine males, though not more than five or six that were absolutely perfect. My daily walk now led me, first about half a mile along the sandy beach, then through a Sago Swamp over a cause- way of very shaky poles to the village of the Tomoré people. Beyond this was the forest with patches of new clearing, shady paths, and a considerable quantity of felled timber. I found this a very fair collecting ground, especially for beetles. The fallen trunks in the clearings abounded with golden Buprestide and curious Brenthidse and longicorns, while in the forest I found abundance of _the smaller Curculionide, many longicorns, and some fine green Carabide. Butterflies were not abundant, but I obtained a few more of the fine blue Papilio, and a number of beautiful little Lyceenide, as well as a Single specimen of the very rare Papilio Wallacei, of which I had taken the hitherto unique specimen in the Aru Islands. The most interesting birds I obtained here, were the beautiful blue kingfisher, Todiramphus diops; the fine green and purple doves, Ptilonopus superbus and P. logaster, and several new birds of small size. My shooters still brought me in specimens of the Semioptera Wallacei, and I was greatly excited by the positive statements of several of the native hunters that another species of this bird existed, much handsomer and more remarkable. They declared that the plumage was glossy black, with metallic Z 338 BATCHIAN. (CHAP. XXIV. | green breast as In my species, but that the white shoulder plumes were twice as long, and hung down far below the body of the bird. They declared that when hunting pigs or deer far in the forest they occasionally saw this bird, but that it was rare. I immediately offered twelve guilders (a pound) for a specimen ; put allin vain, and I am to this day uncertain whether such a bird exists. Since I left, the German naturalist, Dr. Bernstein, stayed many months ‘n the island with a large staff of hunters collecting for the Leyden Museum ; and as he was not more successful than myself, we must consider either that the bird is very rare, or is altogether a myth. | Batchian is rentarkable as being the most eastern point on the globe inhabited by any of the Quadrumana. A large black baboon-monkey (Cynopithecus nigrescens) 1s abundant in some parts of the forest. This animal has bare red callosities, and a rudimentary tail about an inch long—a mere fleshy tubercle, which may be very easily overlooked. It is the same species that is found all over the forests of Celebes, and as none of the other Mammalia of that island extend into Batchian I am inclined to suppose that this species has been accidentally introduced by the roaming Malays, who often carry about with them tame monkeys and other animals. ‘This is rendered more probable by the fact that the animal is not found in Gilolo, which is only separated from Bat- chian by a very narrow strait. The introduction may have been very recent, as in a fertile and unoccupied island such an animal would multiply rapidly. The only other mammals obtained were an EHastern opossum, which Dr. Gray has described as Cuscus ornatus; the little flying opossum, Belideus ariel; a Civet cat, Viverra — zebetha: and nine species of bats, most of the smaller ones being caught in the dusk with my butterfly net as they flew about before the house. After much delay, owing to bad weather and the illness of one of my men, I determined to visit Kasserota (for- merly the chief village), situated up a small stream, on an island close to the north coast of Batchian ; where I was told that many rare birds were found. After my boat was loaded and everything ready, three days of CHAP. XX1V.] POOR COLLECTING GROUND. 909 heavy squalls prevented our starting, and it was not till the 21st of March that we got away. arly next morning we entered the little river, and in about an hour we reached the Sultan’s house, which I had obtained per- mission to use. It was situated on the bank of the river, and surrounded by a forest of fruit trees, among which were some of the very loftiest and most graceful cocoa-nut palms I have ever seen. It rained nearly all that day, and I could do little but unload and unpack. Towards the afternoon it cleared up, and I attempted to explore in various directions, but found to my disgust that the only path was a perfect mud Swamp, along which it was almost impossible to walk, and the surrounding forest so damp and dark as to promise little in the way of insects. [ found too on inquiry that the people here made no clear- ings, living entirely on sago, fruit, fish, and game ; and the path only led to a steep rocky mountain equally imprac- ticable and unproductive. The next day I sent my men to this hill, hoping it might produce some good birds; but they returned with only two common species, and I myself had been able to get nothing, every little track I had attempted to follow leading to.a dense Sago swamp. I saw that I should waste time by staying here, and deter- mined to leave the following day. This is one of those spots so hard for the European naturalist to conceive, where with all the riches of a tropical vegetation, and partly, perhaps from the very luxuriance of that vegetation, insects are as scarce as in the most barren parts of Europe, and hardly more con- spicuous. In temperate climates there is a tolerable uniformity in the distribution of insects over those parts of a country in which there ig a similarity in the vege- tation, any deficiency being easily accounted for by the absence of wood or uniformity of surface. The traveller hastily passing through such a country can at once pick out a collecting ground which will afford him a fair notion of its entomology. Here the case is different. There are certain requisites of a good collecting ground which can only be ascertained to exist by some days’ search in the vicinity of each village. In some places ‘there is no virgin forest, as at Djilolo and Sahoe; iz | Z 2 340 BATCHIAN. [CHAP. XXIV. others there are no open pathways or clearings, as here. At Batchian there are only two tolerable collecting places, _the road to the coal mines, and the new clearings made by the Tomoré people, the latter being by far the most productive. I believe the fact to be that insects are pretty uniformly distributed over these countries (where the forests have not been cleared away), and are so scarce in any one spot that searching for them is almost useless. If the forest is all cleared away, almost all the insects disappear with it ; but when small clearings and paths are made, the fallen trees in various stages of drying and decay, the rotting leaves, the loosening bark and the fun- goid growths upon it, together with the flowers that appear in much greater abundance where the light is admitted, are so many attractions to the insects for miles around, and cause a wonderful accumulation of species and individuals. When the entomologist can discover such a spot, he does more in a month than he could possibly do by a year's search in the depths of the undisturbed forest. The next morning we left early, and reached the mouth © of the little river in about an hour. It flows through a — perfectly flat alluvial plain, but there are hills which © approach it near the mouth. Towards the lower part, in | a swamp where the salt-water must enter at high tides, were a number of elegant tree-ferns from eight to fifteen feet high. These are generally considered to be mountain plants, and rarely to occur on the equater at an elevation of less than one or two thousand feet. In Borneo, in the © Aru Islands, and on the banks of the Amazon, I have observed them at the level of the sea, and think it pro- pable that the altitude supposed to be requisite for them may have been deduced trom facts observed in countries” where the plains and lowlands are largely cultivated, and most of the indigenous vegetation destroyed. Such is the case in most parts of J ava,-India, Jamaica, and Brazil, where the vegetation of the tropics has been most fully explored. — Soming out vo sea we turned northwards, and in about two hours’ sail reached a few huts, called Langundi, where some Galela men had established themselves as collectors of gum-dammar, with which they made torches for the supply of the Ternate market. About a hundred yards cHar. xxIv.] THE MAGINDANO PIRATES. 34] back rises a rather steep hill, and a short walk having shown me that there was a tolerable path up it, I deter- mined to stay here for a few days. Opposite us, and all along this coast of Batchian, stretches a row of fine islands completely uninhabited. Whenever I asked the reason why no one goes to live in them, the answer always was, “ For fear of the Magindano pirates.” Every year these scourges of the Archipelago wander in one direction or another, making their rendezvous on some uninhabited island, and carrying devastation to all the small settlements around ; robbing, destroying, killing, or taking captive all they meet with. Their long well-manned praus escape from the pursuit of any sailing vessel by pulling away right in the wind’s eye, and the warning smoke of a steamer generally enables them to hide in some shallow bay, or narrow river, or forest-covered inlet, till the danger is passed. The only effectual way to put a stop to their depredations would be to attack them in their strongholds and villages, and compel them to give up piracy, and submit to strict surveillance. Sir James Brooke did this with the pirates of the north-west coast of Borneo, and deserves the thanks of the whole population of the Archipelago for having rid them of half their enemies. All along the beach here, and in the adjacent strip of sandy lowland, is a remarkable display of Pandanacez or Screw-pines. Some are like huge branching candelabra, forty or fifty feet high, and bearing at the end of each branch a tuft of immense sword-shaped leaves, six or eight inches wide, and as many feet long. Others have a single unbranched stem, six or seven feet high, the upper part clothed with the spirally arranged leaves, and bearing a single terminal fruit as large as a swan’s egg. Others of intermediate size have irregular clusters of rough red fruits, and all have more or less spiny-edged leaves and ringed stems. The young plants of the larger species have smooth glossy thick leaves, sometimes ten feet long and eight inches wide, which are used all over the Moluccas and New Guinea, to make “cocoyas” or sleeping mats, which are often very prettily orna- mented with coloured patterns. Higher up on the hill is a forest of immense trees, among which those producing 42 BATCHIAN. (CHAP. XXIV. the resin called dammar (Dammara sp.) are abundant. The inhabitants of several small villages in Batchian are entirely engaged in searching for this product, and making it into torches by pounding it and filling it into tubes of palm leaves about a yard long, which are the only lights used. by many of the natives. Sometimes the dammar accumulates in large masses of ten or twenty pounds weight, either attached to the trunk, or found buried in the eround at the foot of the trees. The most extraordinary trees of the forest are, however, a kind of fig, the aérial roots of which form a pyramid near a hundred feet high, terminating just where the tree branches out above, so that. there is no real trunk. This pyramid or cone is formed of roots of every size, mostly descending in straight lines, but more or less obliquely—and so crossing each other, and connected by cross branches, which grow from one to another; as to form a dense and complicated network, to which nothing but a photograph could do justice (see illus- tration at page 83). The Kanary is also abundant in this forest, the nut of which has a very agreeable flavour, and produces an excellent oil. The fleshy outer covering of the nut is the favourite food of the great green pigeons: of these islands (Carpophaga perspicillata), and their hoarse cooings and heavy flutterings among the branches can be almost continually heard. After ten days at Langundi, finding it impossible to get the bird I was particularly in search of (the Nicobar pigeon, or a new species allied to it), and finding no new birds, and very few insects, I left early on the morning of April 1st, and in the evening entered a river on the main island of Batchian (Langundi, like Kasserota, beimg on a distinct island), where some Malays and Galela men have a. small village, and have made extensive rice-fields and plan- tain grounds. Here we found a good house near the river bank, where the water was fresh and clear, and the owner, a respectable Batchian Malay, offered me sleeping room. and the use of the verandah if I liked to stay. Seeing. forest all round within a short distance, I accepted his: offer, and the next morning before breakfast walked out to. explore, and on the skirts of the forest captured a few: — interesting insects. ) | cHAP. xx1v.} 4 GOOD BOTANICAL LOCALITY. 349 Afterwards, I found a path which led. for a mile or more through a very fine forest, richer in palms than any | had seen in the Moluccas. One of these especially attracted my attention from its elegance. The stem was not thicker than my wrist, yet it was very lofty, and bore clusters of bright red fruit. It was apparently a species of Areca. Another of immense height closely resembled in appearance the Euterpes of South America. Here also grew the fan-leafed palm, whose small, nearly entire leaves are used to make the dammar torches, and to form the water-buckets in universal use. During this walk I saw near a dozen species of palms, as well as two or three Pandani different from those of Langundi. There were also some very fine climbing ferns and true wild Plantains (Musa), bearing an edible fruit not so large as one’s thumb, and consisting of a mass of seeds just covered with pulp and skin. The people assured me they had tried the experiment of sowing and cultivating this species, but could not improve it. They probably did not grow it in sufficient quantity, and did not persevere suffi- ciently long. Batchian is an island that would perhaps repay the researches of a botanist better than any other in the whole Archipelago. It contains a great variety of sur- face and of soil, abundance of large and small streams, many of which are navigable for some distance, and there being no savage inhabitants, every part of it can be visited with perfect safety. It possesses gold, copper, and coal, hot springs and geysers, sedimentary and volcanic rocks and coralline limestone, alluvial plains, abrupt hills and lofty mountains, a moist climate, and a grand and luxuriant forest vegetation. The few days I stayed here produced me several new insects, but scarcely any birds. Butterflies and birds are in fact remarkably scarce in these forests. One may walk a whole day and not see more than two or three species of either. In everything but beetles, these eastern islands are very deficient compared with the .western (Java, Borneo, &c.), and much more so if compared with the forests of South America, where twenty or thirty species of butterflies may be caught every day, and on very good 344 BATCHIAN. [CHAP. XXIV. days a hundred, 2 number we can hardly reach here in months of unremitting search. In birds there is the same difference. In most parts of tropical America we may always find some species of woodpecker tanager, bush- shrike, chatterer, trogon, toucan, cuckoo, and tyrant-Sly- catcher ; and a few days’ active search will produce more variety than can be here met with in as many monshs. Yet, along with this poverty of individuals and of species, there are in almost every class and order, some one or two species of such extreme beauty or singularity, as to vie with, or even surpass, anything that even South America can produce. One afternoon when I was arranging my insects, and surrounded by a crowd of wondering spectators, I showed one of them bow to look at a small insect with a hand- lens, which caused such evident wonder that all the rest wanted to see it too. I therefore fixed the glass firmly to a piece of soft wood at the proper focus, and put under it a little spiny beetle of the genus Hispa, and then passed it round for examination. The excitement was immense. Some declared it was a yard long; others were frightened, and instantly dropped it, and all were as much astonished, and made as much shouting and gesticulation, as children at a pantomime, or at a Christmas exhibition of the oxy- hydrogen microscope. And all this excitement was pro- duced by a little pocket lens, an inch and a half focus, and therefore magnifying only four or five times, but which to their unaccustomed eyes appeared to enlarge a hundred- fold. On the last day of my stay here, one of my hunters succeeded in finding and shooting the beautiful Nicobar pigeon, of which I had been so long in search. None — of the residents had ever seen it, which shows that it is rare and shy. My specimen was a female in beautiful condition, and the glossy coppery and green of its plumage, the snow-white tail and beautiful pendent feathers of the neck, were greatly admired. I subsequently obtained a specimen in New Guinea, and once saw it in the Kaida islands. It is found also in some small islands near Macassar, in others near Borneo, and in the Nicobar islands, whence it receives its name. It is a ground \ r CILAP. XXIV. ] THE NICOBAR PIGEON. 8445 feeder, only going upon trees to roost, and is a very heavy fleshy bird. This may account for the fact of its being found chiefly on very small islands, while in the western half of the Archipelago, it seems entirely absent from the larger ones. Being a ground feeder it is subject to the attacks of carnivorous quadrupeds, which are not found in the very small islands. Its wide distribution over © the whole length of the Archipelago, from extreme west to east, is however very extraordinary, since, with the excep- tion of a few of the birds of prey, not a single land bird has so wide a range. Ground-feeding birds are generally deficient in power of extended flight, and this species is so bulky and heavy that it appears at first sight quite unable to fly a mile. A closer examination shows, however, that its wings are remarkably large, perhaps in proportion to its size larger than those of any other pigeon, and its pectoral muscles are immense. portions of the crews of many of the early discovery ships were murdered, and scarcely a year now passes but some lives are lost. The Goram and Ceram traders are themselves generally inoffensive ; they are well ac- quainted with the character of these natives, and are not likely to provoke an attack by any insults or open attempt at robbery or imposition. They are accustomed to visit the same places every year, and the natives can have no fear of them, as may be alleged in excuse for their attacks on Europeans. In other extensive districts - inhabited by the same Papuan races, such as Mysol, Salwatty, Waigiou, and some parts of the adjacent coast, the people have taken the first step in civilization, owing probably to the settlement of traders of mixed breed among them, and for many years no such attacks have taken place. On the south-west coast, and in the large island of Jobie, however, the natives are in a very bar- ; barous condition, and take every opportunity of robbery — and murder,—a habit which is confirmed by the impunity © CHAP. XXV.] KILWARU. 375 they experience, owing to the vast extent of wild mountain and forest country forbidding all pursuit or attempt at punishment. In the very same village, four years before, more than fifty Goram men were murdered ; and as these savages obtain an immense booty in the praus and all their appurtenances, it is to be feared that such attacks will continue to be made at intervals as long as traders visit the same spots and attempt no retaliation. Punishment could only be inflicted on these people by very arbitrary measures, such as by obtaining possession of some of the chiefs by stratagem, and rendering them responsible for the capture of the murderers at the peril of their own heads. But anything of this kind would be quite contrary to the system adopted by the Dutch Government in its dealings with natives. GORAM TO WAHAI IN CERAM. When my boat was at length launched and loaded, I got my men together, and actually set sail the next day (May 27th), much to the astonishment of the Goram people, to whom such punctuality was a novelty. I had a crew of three men and a boy, besides my two Amboyna lads; which was sufficient for sailing, though rather too few if obliged to row much. The next day was very wet, with squalls, calms, and contrary winds, and with some difficulty we reached Kilwaru, the metropolis of the Bugis traders in the far East. As I wanted to make some purchases, I stayed here two days, and sent two of my boxes of specimens by a Macassar prau to be forwarded to Ternate, thus relieving myself of a considerable incum- brance. I bought knives, basins, and handkerchiefs for barter, which with the choppers, cloth, and beads I had brought with me, made a pretty good assortment, TI also bought two tower muskets to satisfy my crew, who insisted on the necessity of being armed against attacks of pirates ; and with spices and a few articles of food for the voyage nearly my last doit was expended. The little island of Kilwaru is a mere sandbank, just large enough to contain a small village, and situated between the islands of Ceram-laut, and Kissa—straits about 376 CERAM. (CHAP. XXV. a third of a mile wide separating it from each of them. It is surrounded by coral reefs, and offers good anchorage in both monsoons. Though not more than fifty yards across, and not elevated more than three or four feet above the highest tides, it has wells of excellent drinking water— a singular phenomenon, which would seem to imply deep- seated subterranean channels connecting it with other islands. ‘These advantages, with its situation in the centre of the Papuan trading district, lead to its being so much frequented by the Bugis traders. Here the Goram men bring the produce of their little voyages, which they ex- change for cloth, sago cakes, and opium; and the in- habitants of all the surrounding islands visit it with the same object. It is the rendezvous of the praus trading to various parts of New Guinea, which here assort and dry their cargoes, and refit for the voyage home. Tripang and mussoi bark are the most bulky articles of produce brought here, with wild nutmegs, tortoise-shell, pearls, and birds of Paradise, in smaller quantities. The villagers of the mainland of Ceram bring their sago, which is thus distributed to the islands farther east, while rice from Bali and Macassar can also be purchased at a moderate price. The Goram men come here for their supplies of opium, both for their own consumption and for barter in Mysol and Waigiou, where they have introduced it, and where the chiefs and wealthy men are passionately fond of ‘+ Schooners from Bali come to buy Papuan slaves, while the sea-wandering Bugis arrive from distant Singapore in their lumbering praus, bringing thence the produce of the Chinamen’s workshops and Kling’s bazaar, as well as of the looms of Lancashire and Massachusetts. One of the Bugis traders who had arrived a few days before from Mysol, brought me news of my assistant Charles Allen, with whom he was well acquainted, and who, he assured me, was making large collections of birds and insects, although he had not obtained any birds of Paradise ; Silinta, where he was staying, not being a good place for them, This was on the whole satisfactory, and 1 was anxious to reach him as soon as possible. : Leaving Kilwaru early in the morning of June Ist, with | a strong east wind we doubled the point of Ceram about OHAP. XXv. | MY CREW RUN AWAY. Sia noon, the heavy sea causing my prau to roll about a gooil deal, to the damage of our crockery. As bad weather seemed coming on, we got inside the reefs and anchored opposite the village of Warus-warus to wait for a change. The night was very squally, and though in a good harbour we rolled and jerked uneasily ; but in the morning I had greater cause for uneasiness in the discovery that our entire Goram crew had decamped, taking with them all they possessed and a little more, and leaving us without any small boat in which to land. I immediately told my Amboyna men to load and fire the muskets as a signal of distress, which was soon answered by the village chief sending off a boat, which took me on shore. I requested that messengers should be immediately sent to the neigh- bouring villages in quest of the fugitives, which was promptly done. My prau was brought into a small creek, where it could securely rest in the mud at low water, and part of a house was given me in which I could stay for a while. I now found my progress again suddenly checked, just when I thought I had overcome my chief difficulties. As I had treated my men with the greatest kindness, and had given them almost everything they had asked for, I can impute their running away only to their being totally unaccustomed to the restraint of a European master, and to some undefined dread of my ultimate intentions regard- ing them. The oldest man was an opium smoker, and a reputed thief, but I had been obliged to take him at the last moment as a substitute for another. I feel sure it was he who induced the others to run away, and as they knew the country well, and had several hours’ start of us, there was little chance of catching them. We were here in the great sago district of East Ceram, which supplies most of the surrounding islands with their daily bread, and during our week’s delay I had an oppor- tunity of seeing the whole process of making it, and obtaining some interesting statistics. The sago tree is a palm, thicker and larger than the cocoa-nut tree, although rarely so tall, and having immense pinnate spiny leaves, which completely cover the trunk till it is many years old. It has a creeping root-stem like the Nipa palm, and when about ten or fifteen years of age sends up an immense 378 CERAM. [CHAP. XXv. terminal spike of flowers, after which the tree dies. It grows in swamps, OF in swampy hollows on the rocky slopes of hills, where it seems to thrive equally well as when exposed to the influx of salt or brackish water. The midribs of the immense leaves form one of the most useful articles in these lands, supplying the place of bamboo, to which for many purposes they are superior. They are twelve or fifteen feet long, and, when very fine, as thick in the lower part as a man’s leg. They are very light, consisting entirely of a firm pith covered with a hard thin rind or bark. Entire houses are built of these; they form admirable roofing-poles for thatch; split and well- supported, they do for flooring ; and when chosen of equal size, and pegged together side by side to fill up the panels of framed wooden houses, they have a very neat appear- ance, and make better walls and partitions than boards, as they do not shrink, require no paint or varnish, and are not a quarter the expense. When carefully split and shaved smooth they are formed into light boards with pegs of the bark itself, and are the foundation of the leaf- covered boxes of Goram. All the insect-boxes I used in the Moluccas were thus made at Amboyna, and when covered with stout paper inside and out, are strong, light, and secure the insect-pins remarkably well. The leaflets of the sago folded and tied side by side on the smaller midribs form the “atap” or thatch in universal use, while the product of the trunk is the staple food of some hundred thousands of men. SAGO CLUB. When sago is to be made, a full-grown tree is selected just before it is going to flower. It is cut down close*to the ground, the leaves and leaf-stalks cleared away, and a broad strip of the bark taken off the upper side of the trunk, This exposes the pithy matter, which is of a rusty colour near the bottom of the tree, but higher up pure CHAP. XXv.] MAKING SAGO. 379 white, about as hard as a dry apple, but with woody fibres running through it about a quarter of an inch apart. This pith is cut or broken down into a coarse powder by means of a tool constructed for the purpose—a club of hard and heavy wood, having a piece of sharp quartz rock firmly imbedded into its blunt end, and projecting about half an inch. By successive blows of this, narrow strips of the pith are cut away, and fall down into the cylinder formed by the bark. Proceeding steadily on, the whole trunk is cleared out, leaving a skin not more than half an inch in thickness. This material is carried away (in baskets made of the sheathing bases of the leaves) to the nearest water, where a washing-machine is put up, which is composed Win HA 8AGO WASHING. almost entirely of the sago tree itself. The large sheathing bases of the leaves form the troughs, and the fibrous cover- ing from the leaf-stalks of the young cocoa-nut the strainer. Water is poured on the mass of pith, which is kneaded and pressed against the strainer till the starch is all dissolved and has passed through, when the fibrous refuse is thrown away, and a fresh basketful put in its place. The water 380 CERAM. (cHAP. XXV charged with sago starch passes on to a trough, with a depression in the centre, where the sediment is deposited, the surplus water trickling off by a shallow outlet. When the trough is nearly full, the mass of starch, which has a slight reddish tinge, is made into cylinders of about thirty pounds’ weight, and neatly covered with sago leaves, and in this state is sold as raw Sago. Boiled with water this forms a thick glutinous mass, with a rather astringent taste, and is eaten with salt, limes, and chilies. Sago-bread is made in large quan- tities, by baking it into cakes in a small clay oven containing six or eight slits side by side, each about three-quarters of an inch wide, and six or eight inches square. The raw sago is broken up, dried in the sun, powdered, and finely sifted. The oven is heated over a clear fire of embers, and is lightly filled with the sago- powder. The openings are then covered with a flat piece of sago bark, and in about five minutes the cakes are turned out sufficiently baked. The hot cakes are very nice with butter, and when made with the addition of a little sugar and grated cocoa-nut are quite a delicacy. They BAGS OVEN. are soft, and something like corn-flour cakes, but have a slight characteristic flavour which is lost in the refined sago we use in this country. When not wanted for immediate use, they are dried for several days in the sun, and tied up in bundles of twenty. They wi then keep for years ; they are very hard, and very rough and dry, but the people are used to them from infancy, and little children may be seen enawing at them as contentedly as ours with their bread- and-butter. If dipped in water and then toasted, they become almost as good as when fresh baked; and thus treated they were my daily substitute for bread with my coffee. Soaked and boiled they make a very good pudding or vegetable, and served well to economize our rice, which is sometimes difficult to get so far east. It is truly an extraordinary sight to witness a whole 2 { x } ' CHAP. XXvV. | CHEAPNESS OF FOOD. 381 tree-trunk, perhaps twenty feet long and four or five in circumference, converted into food with so little labour and preparation. A good-sized tree will produce thirty tomans or bundles of thirty pounds each, and each toman will make sixty cakes of three to the pound. Two of these cakes are as much as a man can eat at one meal, and five are considered a full day’s allowance; so that, reckon- ing a tree to produce 1,800 cakes, weighing 600 pounds, it will supply a man with food for a whole year, The labour to produce this is very moderate. Two men will finish a tree in five days, and two women will bake the whole into cakes in five days more ; but the raw sago will keep very well, and can be baked as wanted, so that we may estimate that in ten days a man may produce food for the whole year. This is on the supposition that he possesses sago trees of his own, for they are now all private property. If he does not, he has to pay about seven and sixpence for one; and as labour here is five pence a day, the total cost of a year’s food for one man is about twelve shillings. The effect of this cheapness of food is decidedly prejudicial, for the inhabitants of the sago countries are never so well off as those where rice is cultivated. Many of the people here have neither vegetables nor fruit, but live almost entirely on sago and a little fish. Having few occupations at home, they wander about on petty trading or fishing expeditions to the neighbouring islands; and as far as the comforts of life are concerned, are much inferior to the wild hill-Dyaks of Borneo, or to many of the mare bar- barous tribes of the Archipelago. The country round Warus-warus is low and swampy, and owing to the absence of cultivation there were scarcely any paths leading into the forest. I was therefore unable to collect much during my enforced stay, and found no rare birds or insects to improve my opinion of Ceram as a collecting ground. Finding it quite impossible to get men here to accompany me on the whole voyage, I was obliged to be content with a crew to take me as far as Wahai, on the middle of the north coast of Ceram, and the chief Dutch station in the island. The journey took us five days, owing to calms and light winds, and no incident of any interest occurred on it, nor did I obtain at our 352 BOURU. : (CAP, XXL stopping places 1 single addition to my collections werth naming. At Wahai, which I reached on the 15th of June, I was hospitably received by the Commandant and my old friend Herr Rosenberg, who was now on an official visit here. He lent me some money to pay my men, and | was lucky enough to obtain three others willing to make the voyage with me to Ternate, and one more who was. to return from Mysol. One of my Amboyna lads, however, left me, so that I was still rather short of hands. I found here a letter from Charles Allen, who was at Silinta in Mysol, anxiously expecting me, as he was out of rice and other necessaries, and was short of insect-pins. He ‘was also ill, and if I did not soon come would return to Wahat. As my voyage from this place to Waigiou was among islands inhabited by the Papuan race, and was an event- ful and disastrous one, I will narrate its chief inci- dents in a separate chapter in that division of my work devoted to the Papuan Islands. I now have to pass over a year spent in Waigiou and Timor, in order to describe my visit to the island of Bouru, which concluded my explorations of the Moluccas. CHAPTER XXVI. BOURU. (MAY AND JUNE 1861. Map, p. 292.) i HAD long wished to visit the large island of Bouru, which lies due west of Ceram, and of which scarcely anything appeared to be known to naturalists, except that it contained a babirusa very like that of Celebes. I therefore made arrangements for staying there two months after leaving Timor Delli in 1861. This I could conveniently do by means of the Dutch mail-steamers, which make a monthly round of the Moluccas. We arrived at the harbour of Cajeli on the 4th of May; CHAP, XXVI.] THE TOWN OF CAJELL. 333 a gun was fired, the Commandant of the fort came along- side in a native boat to receive the post-packet, and took me and my baggage on shore, the steamer going off again without coming toan anchor. We went to the house of the Opzeiner, or overseer, a native of Amboyna—Bouru being too poor a place to deserve even an Assistant Resident; yet the appearance of the village was very far superior to that of Delli, which possesses “ His Excellency the Governor,” and the little fort, in perfect order, surrounded by neat grass-plots and straight walks, although manned by only a dozen Javanese soldiers with an Adjutant for commander, was a very Sebastopol in comparison with the miserable mud enclosure at Delli, with its numerous staff of Lieu- tenants, Captain, and Major. Yet this, as well as most of the forts in the Moluccas, was originally built by the Portuguese themselves. Oh! Lusitania, how art thou fallen ! While the Opzeiner was reading his letters, I took a walk round the village with a guide in search of a house. The whole place was dreadfully damp and muddy, being built in a swamp with not a spot of ground raised a foot above it, and surrounded by swamps on every side. The houses were mostly well built, of wooden framework filled in with gaba-gaba (leaf-stems of the sago-palm), but as they had no whitewash, and the floors were of bare black earth like the roads, and generally on the same level, they were extremely damp and gloomy. At length I found one with the floor raised about a foot, and succeeded in making a bargain with the owner to turn out immediately, so that by night I had installed myself comfortably. The chairs and tables were left for me; and as the whole of the remaining furniture in the house consisted of a little crockery and a few clothes-boxes, it was not much trouble for the owners to move into the house of some relatives, and thus obtain a few silver rupees very easily. Every foot of ground between the houses throughout the village is crammed with fruit trees, so that the sun and air have no chance of penetrating. This must be very cool and pleasant in the dry season, but makes it damp and un- healthy at other times of the year. Unfortunately I had come two months too soon, for the rains were not yet over, 384 BOURU. fc es ees: and mud and water were the prominent features of the country. About a mile behind and to the east of the village the hills commence, but they are very barren, being covered with scanty coarse grass and scattered trees of the Melaleuca cajuputi, from the leaves of which the cele- brated cajeput oil is made. Such districts are absolutely destitute of interest for the zoologist. A few miles further on rose higher mountains, apparently well covered with forest, but they were entirely uninhabited and trackless, and practically inaccessible to a traveller with limited time and means. It became evident, therefore, that I must leave Cajeli for some better collecting ground, and finding a man who was going a few miles eastward to a village on the coast where he said there were hills and forest, I sent my boy Ali with him to explore and report on the capabilities of the district. At the same time I. arranged to go myself on a little excursion up a river which flows into the bay about five miles north of the town, to a village of the Alfuros, or indigenes, where I thought I might perhaps find a good collecting ground. The Rajah of Cajeli, a good-tempered old man, offered to accompany me, as the village was under his government ; and we started one morning early, in a long narrow boat with eight rowers. In about two hours we entered the river, and commenced our inland journey against a very powerful current. The stream was about a hundred yards wide, and was generally bordered with high grass, and occasionally bushes and palm-trees. The country round was flat and more or less swampy, with scattered trees and shrubs. At every bend we crossed the river to avoid the strength of the current, and arrived at our landing- place about four o’clock, in a torrent of rain. Here we waited for an hour, crouching under a leaky mat till the Alfuros arrived who had been sent for from the village to carry my baggage, when we set off along a path of whose extreme muddiness I had been warned before starting. I turned up my trousers as high as possible, grasped a stout stick to prevent awkward falls, and then boldly plunged into the first mud-hole, which was immediately | ee eS ol ee eee ee | CHAP. XXVL.] = VILLAGE OF WAYAPO. 885 succeeded by another and another. The mud or mud and water was knee-deep, with little intervals of firmer ground between, making progression exceedingly difficult. The path was bordered with high rigid grass, growing in dense clumps separated by water, so that nothing was to be gained by leaving the beaten track, and we were obliged to go floundering on, never knowing where our feet would rest, as the mud was now a few inches, now two feet, deep, and the bottom very uneven, so that the foot slid down tu the lowest part, and made it difficult to keep one’s balance. One step would be upon a concealed stick or log, almost dislocating the ankle, while the next would plunge into soft mud above the knee. It rained all the way, and the long grass, six feet high, met over the path ; so that we could not seea step of the way ahead, and received a double drenching. Before we got to the village it was dark, and we had to cross over a small but deep and swollen stream by a narrow log of wood, which was more than a foot under water. There was a slender shaking stick for a handrail, and it was nervous work feeling in the dark in the rushing water for a safe place on which to place the advanced foot. After an hour of this most disagreeable and fatiguing walk we reached the village, followed by the men with our guns, ammunition, boxes, and bedding, all more or less soaked. We consoled ourselves with some hot tea and cold fowl, and went early to bed. The next morning was clear and fine, and I set out soon after sunrise to explore the neighbourhood. The village had evidently been newly formed, and consisted of a single straight street of very miserable huts totally deficient in every comfort, and as bare and cheerless inside as out. It was situated on a little elevated patch of coarse gravelly sou, covered with the usual high rigid grass, which came up close to the backs of the houses, Ata short distance in several directions were patches of forest, but all on low and swampy ground. I made one attempt along the only path I could find, but soon came upon a deep mud-hole, and found that I must walk barefoot if at all; so I returned and deferred further exploration till after breakfast. I then went on into the jungle and found patches of sago- palms and a low forest vegetation, but the paths were every- OC¢ » 886 BOURU. [CHAP. XXVL : where full of mud-holes, and intersected by muddy streams and tracts of swamp, so that walking was not pleasurable, and too much attention to one’s steps was not favourable to insect catching, which requires above everything freedom of motion. [shot a few birds, and caught a few butterflies, but all were the same as I had already obtained about Cajeli. — On my return to the village I was told that the same ‘kind of ground extended for many miles in every direction, and I at once decided that Wayapo was | not a suitable piace to stay at. The next morning © early we waded back again through the mud and long wet grass to our boat, and by mid-day reached Cajeli, — where I waited ~Ali’s return to decide on my future movements. He came the following day, and gave a very bad account of Pelah, where he had been. There was a little brush and trees along the beach, and hills inland covered with high grass and cajuputi trees—my dread and abhorrence. On inquiring who could give me trustworthy information, I was referred to the Lieutenant of the Burghers, who had travelled all round the island, and was a very intelligent fellow. I asked him to tell me if he knew of any part of Bouru where there was no “ kusu-kusu,” as — the coarse grass of the country is called. He assured me- that a good deal of the south coast was forest land, while along the north was almost entirely swamp and grassy hills. After minute inquiries, I found that the forest country com- menced at a place called Waypoti, only a few miles beyond Pelah, but thai, as the coast beyond that place was exposed — to the east monsoon and dangerous for praus, it was neces- sary to walk. I immediately went to the Opzeiner, and he called the Rajah. We hada consultation, and arranged for a boat to take me the next evening but one, to Pelah, whence I was to proceed on foot, the Orang-kaya going the day before to call the Alfuros to carry my baggage. The journey was made as arranged, and on May 19th we arrived at Waypoti, having walked about ten miles along the beach, and through stony forest bordering the sea, with occasional plunges of a mile or two into the interior. We found no village, but scattered houses and plantations, with hilly country pretty well covered with forest, and looking rather promisiug. A low hut with a CHAP, XXVI.| WAYPOTI. 387 _ very rotten roof, showing the sky through in several places, was the only one I could obtain. Luckily it did not rain that night, and the next day we pulled down some of the walls to repair the roof, which was of immediate importance, especially over our beds and table. About half a mile from the house was a fine mountain stream, running swiftly over a bed of rocks and pebbles, and beyond this was a hill covered with fine forest, By carefully picking my way I could wade across this river without getting much above my knees, although I would sometimes slip off a rock and go into a hole up to my waist, and about twice a week I went across it in order to explore the forest. Unfortunately there were no paths here of any extent, and it did not prove very productive either in insects or birds. To add to my difficulties I had stupidly left my only pair of strong boots on board the steamer, and my others were by this time all dropping to pieces, so that I was obliged to walk about barefooted, and in constant fear of hurting my feet, and causing a wound which might lay me up for weeks, as had happened in Borneo, Aru, and Dorey. Although there were numerous plantations of maize and plantains, there were no new clearings; and as without these it is almost impossible to find many of the best kinds of insects, I determined to make one myself, and with much difficulty engaged two men to clear a patch of forest, from which I hoped to obtain many fine beetles before I left. During the whole of my stay, however, insects never became plentiful. My clearing produced me a few fine longicorns and Buprestide, different from any I had before seen, together with several of the Amboyna species, but by no means so numerous or so beautiful as I had found in that small island. For example, I collected only 210 different kinds of beetles during my two months’ stay at Bouru, while in three weeks at Amboyna, in 1857, I found more than 300 species. One of the finest insects found at Bouru was a large Cerambyx, of a deep shining chestnut colour, and with very long antenne. It varied greatly in size, the largest specimens being three inches long, while the smallest were only an inch, the antennx varying from one and a half to five inches. cc 2 388 BOURU.. (CHAP. XXVI. One day my boy Ali came home with a story of a — big snake. He was walking through some high grass, — and stepped on something which he took for a small fallen tree, but it felt cold and yielding to his feet, and far to the right and left there was a waving and — rustling of the herbage.” He jumped back in affright — and prepared to shoot, but could not get a good view © of the creature, and it passed away, he said, hike a tree being dragged along through the grass. As he © had several times already shot large snakes, which he declared were all as nothing compared with this, I am inclined to believe it must really have been a monster. Such creatures are rather plentiful here, for a man living close by showed me on his thigh the marks where he had — been seized by one close to his house. It was big enough to take the man’s thigh in its mouth, and he would pro- — bably have been killed and devoured by it had not his — cries brought out his neighbours, who destroyed it with their choppers. As far as I could make out it was about twenty feet long, but Ali's was probably much larger. It sometimes amuses me to observe how, a few days after I have taken possession of it, a native hut seems quite a comfortable home. My house at Waypoti was a bare shed, with a large bamboo platform at one side. At one end of this platform, which was elevated about three feet, I fixed up my mosquito curtain, and partly enclosed it with a large Scotch plaid, making a comfortable little sleeping apartment. I put up a rude table on legs buried in the- earthen floor, and had my comfortable rattan-chair for a seat. A line across one corner carried my daily-— washed cotton clothing, and on a bamboo shelf was arranged my small stock of crockery and hardware. Boxes” ging shelves, were ranged against the thatch walls, and hang to preserve my collections from ants while drying, were suspended both without and within the house. On my table lay books, penknives, scissors, pliers, and pins, with -nsect and bird labels, all of which were unsolved mysteries to the native mind. : Most of the people here had never seen a pin, and the better informed took a pride in teaching their more ignorant companions the peculiarities and uses of that CHAP. XXVI. | THE NATIVES. 389 strange European production—a needle with a head, but no eye! Even paper, which we throw away hourly as rubbish, was to them a curiosity; and I often saw them picking up litle scraps which had been swept out of the house, and carefully putting them away in their betel- pouch. Then when IJ took my morning coffee and evening tea, how many were the strange things displayed to them! Teapot, teacups, teaspoons, were all more or less curious in their eyes ; tea, sugar, biscuit, and butter, were articles of human consumption seen by many of them for the first time. One asks if that whitish powder is “ gula passir” (sand-sugar), so called to distinguish it from the coarse lump palm-sugar or molasses of native manufacture; and the biscuit is considered a sort of European sago-cake, which the inhabitants of those remote regions are obliged to use in the absence of the genuine article. My pursuits were of course utterly beyond their comprehension. They continually asked me what white people did with the birds and insects I took so much care to preserve. If I only kept what was beautiful, they might perhaps comprehend it ; but to see ants and flies and small ugly insects put away so carefully was a great puzzle to them, and they were convinced that there must be some medical or magical use for them which I kept a profound secret, These people were in fact as completely unacquainted with civilized life as the Indians of the Rocky Mountains, or the savages of Central Africa—yet a steamship, that highest triumph of human ingenuity, with its little float- ing epitome of European civilization, touches monthly at Cajeli, twenty miles off; while at Amboyna, only sixty miles distant,a European population and government have been established for more than three hundred years. Having seen a good many of the natives of Bouru from different villages, and from distant parts of the island, I feel convineed that they consist of two distinct races now partially amalgamated. The larger portion are Malays of the Celebes type, often exactly similar to the Tomére people of East Celebes, whom | found settled in Batchian ; while others altogether resemble the Alfuros of Ceram. The influx of two races can easily be accounted for. The Sula Islands, which are closely connected with East 390 BOURU. (CHAP. XXVI Celebes, approach to within forty miles of the north coast — of Bouru, while the island of Manipa offers an easy point of departure for the people of Ceram. I was confirmed in this view by finding that the languages of Bouru possessed distinct resemblances to that of Sula, as well as to those — of Ceram. } a Soon after we had arrived at Waypoti, Ali had seen a beautiful little bird of the genus Pitta, which I was very anxious to obtain, as in almost every island the species are different, and none were yet known from Bouru. He and my other hunter continued to see it two or three times a week, and to hear its peculiar note much oftener, but could never get a specimen, owing to its always frequenting the most dense thorny thickets, where only hasty glimpses of it could be obtained, and at so short a distance that it would be difficult to avoid blowing the bird to pieces. Ali was very much annoyed that he could not get a specimen of this bird, in going after which he had already severely wounded his feet with thorns ; and when we had only two ~ days more to stay, he went of his own accord one evening to sleep at a little hut in the forest some miles off, in order to have a last try for it at daybreak, when many birds come out to feed, and are very intent on their morning meal, The next evening he brought me home two specl- ~ mens, one with the head blown completely off, and other- — wise too much injured to preserve, the other in very good — order, and which I at once saw to be a new species, very — like the Pitta celebensis, but ornamented with a square — patch of bright red on the nape of the neck. The next day after securing this prize we returned to " Cajeli, and packing up my collections left Bouru by the steamer. During our two days’ stay at Ternate, I took on — board what baggage I had left there, and bade adieu to — all my friends. We then crossed over to Menado, on our ~ way to Macassar and Java, and I finally quitted the i Moluccas, among whose luxuriant and beautiful islands 1 _ had wandered for more than three years. + My collections in Bouru, though not extensive, were of considerable interest; for out of sixty-six species of birds — which I collected there, no less than seventeen were new, — or had not been previously found in any island of the Peon ath uted CHAP, XXVII.] NATURAL HISTORY. 391 Moluccas. Among these were two kinefishers, Tanysip- tera acis and Ceyx Cajeli; a beautiful sunbird, Nectarinea proserpina; a handsome little black and white flycatcher, Monarcha loricata, whose swelling throat was beautifully scaled with metallic blue; and several of less interest. I also obtained a skull of the babirusa, one specimen of which was killed by native hunters during my residence at Cajeli. CHAPTER XXVILI. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MOLUCOAS. gees Moluccas consist of three large islands, Gilolo, Ceram, and Bouru, the two former being each about two hundred miles long; and a great number of smaller isles and islets, the most important of which are Batchian, Morty, Obi, Ké, Timor-laut, and Amboyna; and among the smaller ones, Ternate, Tidore, Kaida, and Banda. These eeccupy a space of ten degrees of latitude by eight of longitude, and they are connected by groups of small islets to New Guinea on the east, the Philippines on the north, Celebes on the west, and Timor on the south. It will be as well to bear in mind these main features of extent and geographical position, while we survey their animal pro- ductions and discuss their relations to the countries which surround them on every side in almost equal proximity. We will first consider the Mammalia, or warm-blooded quadrupeds, which present us with some singular anomalies, The land mammals are exceedingly few in number, only ten being yet known from the entire group. The bats or aérial mammals, on the other hand, are numerous—not less than twenty-five species being already known. But even this exceeding poverty of terrestrial mammals does not at all represent the real poverty of the Moluccas in this class of animals; for, as we shall soon see, there is good reason to believe that several of the species have been introduced by man, either purposely or by accident. The only quadrumanous: animal in the group is the 392 NATURAL HISTORY (CHAP. Xxvn curious baboon-monkey, Cynopithecus nigrescens, already described as being one of the characteristic animals of Celebes. This is found only in the island of Batchian ; and it seems so much out of place there—as it is difficult to imagine how it could have reached the island by any natural means of dispersal, and yet not have passed by the same means over the narrow strait to Gilolo—that it seems more likely to have originated from some indi- viduals which had escaped from confinement, these and similar animals being often kept as pets by the Malays, and carried about in their praus. Of all the carnivorous animals of the Archipelago the only one found in the Moluccas is the Viverra tangalunga, which inhabits both Batchian and Bouru, and probably some of the other islands. I am inclined to think that this also may have been introduced accidentally, for it is _ often made captive by the Malays, who procure civet from it, and it is an animal very restless and untameable, and therefore likely to escape. This view is rendered still more probable by what Antonio de Morga tells us was the custom in the Philippines in 1602. He says that “the natives of Mindanao carry about civet-cats in cages, and sell them in the islands; and they take the civet from them, and let them go again.” The same species 18 common in the Philippines and in all the large islands of the Indo-Malay region. The only Moluccan ruminant is a deer, which was once supposed to be a distinct species, but is now. generally considered to be a slight variety of the Rusa hippelaphus of Java. Deer are often tamed and petted, and their flesh -3 so much esteemed by all Malays, that it 1s very natural they should endeavour to introduce them into the remote islands in which they settled, and whose luxuriant forests seem so well adapted for their subsistence. The strange babirusa of Celebes 1s also found in Bourn, but in no other Moluccan island, and it is somewhat diffi- cult to imagine how it got there. It is true that there is some approximation between the birds of the Sula Islands (where the babirusa is also found) and those of Bouru, which seems to indicate that these islands have recently been closer together, or that some intervening land ha CHAP, XXVII,J OF THE MOLUCCAS. 393 disappeared. At this time the babirusa may have entered Bouru, since it probably swims as well as its allies the pigs. These are spread all over the Archipelago, even to several of the smaller islands, and in many cases the species are peculiar. It is evident, therefore, that they have some natural means of dispersal. There is a popular idea that pigs cannot swim, but Sir Charles Lyell has shown that this is a mistake. In his “Principles of Geology” (10th Edit. vol. ii. p. 355) he adduces evidence to show that pigs have swum many miles at sea, and are able to swim with great ease and swiftness. I have myself seen a wild pig swimming across the arm of the sea that separates Singa- pore from the Peninsula of Malacca, and we thus have explained the curious fact, that of all the large mammals of the Indian region, pigs alone extend beyond the Moluccas and as far as New Guinea, although it is somewhat curious that they have not found their way to Australia. The little shrew, Sorex myosurus, which is common in Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, is also found in the larger islands of the Moluccas, to which it may have been accidentally conveyed in native praus. This completes the list of the placental mammals which are so characteristic of the Indian region; and we see that, with the single exception of the pig, all may very probably have been introduced by man, since all except the pig are of species identical with those now abounding in the great Malay islands, or in Celebes. The four remaining mainmals are Marsupials, an order of the class Mammalia, which is very characteristic of the Australian fauna; and these are probably true natives of the Moluccas, since they are either of peculiar species, or if found elsewhere are natives only of New Guinea or North Australia. The first is the small flying opossum, Belideus ariel, a beautiful little animal, exactly like a small flying squirrel in appearance, but belonging to the marsupial order. The other three are species of the curlous genus Cuscus, which is peculiar to the Austro- Malayan region. These are opossum-like animals, with a tong prehensile tail, of which the terminal half is generally bare. They have small heads, large eyes, and a dense 8394 NATURAL HISTORY (cuAP, XXVII. covering of woolly fur, which is often pure white with irregular black spots or blotches, or sometimes ashy brown with or without white spots. They live in trees, feeding upon the leaves, of which they devour large quantities. They move about slowly, and are difficult to kill, owing to the thickness of their fur, and their tenacity of life. A heavy charge of shot will often lodge in the skin and do them no CUSCUS ORNATUS. harm, and even breaking the spine or piercing the brain will not kill them for some hours. The natives everywhere eat their flesh, and as their motions are SO slow, easily catch them by climbing ; so that it is wonderful they have not been exterminated. It may be, however, that their dense woolly fur protects. them from birds of prey, and the islands they live in are too thinly inhabited for man to be CHAP. XXVII.} OF THE MOLUCCAS. 395 able to exterminate them. The figure represents Cuscus ornatus, a new species discovered by me in Batchian, and which also inhabits Ternate. It is peculiar to the Moluccas, while the two other species which inhabit Ceram are found also in New Guinea and Waigiou. In place of the excessive poverty of mammals which characterises the Moluccas, we have a very rich display of the feathered tribes. The number of species of birds at present known from the various islands of the Moluccan group 1s 265, but of these only 70 belong to the usually abundant tribes of the waders and swimmers, indicating that these are very imperfectly known. As they are also pre-eminently wanderers, and are thus little fitted for illus- trating the geographical distribution of life in a limited area, we will here leave them out of consideration and confine our attention only to the 195 land birds. When we consider that all Europe, with its varied climate and vegetation, with every mile of its surface explored, and with the immense extent of temperate Asia and Africa, which serve as storehouses, from which jt is continually recruited, only supports 257 species of land birds as residents or regular immigrants, we must look upon the numbers already procured in the small and com- paratively unknown islands of the Moluccas as indicating a fauna of fully average richness in this department. But when we come to examine the family groups which go to make up this number, we find the most curious deficiencies in some, balanced by equally striking redundancy in others. Thus if we compare the birds of the Moluccas with those of India, as given in Mr. Jerdon’s work, we find that the three groups of the parrots, kingfishers, and pigeons, form nearly one-third of the whole land-birds in the former, while they amount to only one-twentieth in the latter country. On the other hand, such wide-spread groups as the thrushes, warblers, and finches, which in India form nearly one-third of all the land-birds, dwindle down in the Moluccas to one-fourteenth. The reason of these peculiarities appears to be, that the Moluccan fauna has been almost entirely derived from that of New Guinea, in which country the same deficiency and the same luxuriance is to be observed. Out of the 296 NATURAL HISTORY [CHAP. XXVIL. seventy-eight genera in which the Moluccan land-birds may be classed, no less than seventy are characteristic of New Guinea, while only six belong specially to the Indo- Malay islands. But this close resemblance to New Guinea genera does not extend to the species, for no less than 140 out of the 195 land-birds are peculiar to the Moluccan islands, while 32 are found also in New Guinea, and 15 *n the Indo-Malay islands. These facts teach us, that though the birds of this group have evidently been derived mainly from New Guinea, yet the immigration has not been a recent one, since there has been time for the greater portion of the species to have become changed. We find, also, that many very characteristic New Guinea forms have not entered the Moluccas at all, while others found =n Cerain and Gilolo do not extend so far west as Bouru. Considering, further, the absence of most of the New Guinea mammals from the Moluccas, we are led to the conclusion that these islands are not fragments which have been separated from New Guinea, but form a distinct insular region, which has been upheaved independently at a rather remote epoch, and during all the mutations it has undergone has been constantly receiving immigrants from that great and productive island. The considerable length of time the Moluccas have remained isolated is further indicated by the occurrence of two peculiar genera of birds, Semioptera and Lycocorax, which are found nowhere else. We are able to divide this small archipelago into two well-marked groups—that of Ceram, including also Bouru, Amboyna, Banda, and Ké; and that of Gilolo, including Morty, Batchian, Obi, Ternate, and other small islands. These divisions have each a considerable number of pecu- liar species, no less than fifty-five being found in the Ceram group only; and besides this, most of the separate islands have some species peculiar to themselves. Thus Morty island has a peculiar kingfisher, honeysucker, and starling; Ternate has a eround-thrush (Pitta) and a fly- catcher; Banda has a pigeon, a shrike, and a Pitta; Ke has two flycatchers, a Zosterops, a shrike, a king-crow, and a cuckoo; aud the remote Timor-laut, which should probably come into the Moluccan group, has a cockatoo CHAP. XXVII.] OF THE MOLUCCAS. 397 and lory as its only known birds, and both are of peculiar species. The Moluccas are especially rich in the parrot tribe, no less than twenty-two species, belonging to ten genera, inhabiting them. Among these is the large red-crested cockatoo, so commonly seen alive in Europe, two handsome red parrots of the genus Eclectus, and five of the beautiful crimson lories, which are almost exclusively confined to these islands and the New Guinea group. The pigeons are hardly less abundant or beautiful, twenty-one species being known, including twelve of the beautiful green fruit pigeons, the smaller kinds of which are ornamented with the most brilliant patches of colour on the head and the under-surface. Next to these come the kingfishers, in- cluding sixteen species, almost all of which are beautiful, and many are among the most brilliantly-coloured birds that exist. One of the most curious groups of birds, the Megapodii, or mound-makers, is very abundant in the Moluccas, They are gallinaceous birds, about the size of a small fowl, and generally of a dark ashy or sooty colour, and they have remarkably large and strong feet and long claws. They are allied to the ‘‘Maleo” of Celebes, of which an account has already been given, but they differ in habits, most of these birds frequenting the scrubby jungles along the sea-shore, where the soil is sandy, and there is a con- siderable quantity of débris, consisting of sticks, shells, seaweed, leaves, &c. Of this rubbish the Megapodius forms immense mounds, often six or eight feet high and twenty or thirty feet in diameter, which they are enabled to do with comparative ease by means of their large feet, with which they can grasp and throw backwards a quantity of material. In the centre of this mound, at a depth of two or three feet, the eggs are deposited, and are hatched by the gentle heat produced by the fermentation of the vegetable matter of the mound. When I first saw these mounds in the island of Lombock, I could hardly believe that they were made by such small birds, but I afterwards met with them frequently, and have once or twice come upon the birds engaged in making them. They run a few steps backwards, grasping a quantity of loose material 398 NATURAL HISTORY (cHAF. XXVIL sn one foot, and throw it a long way behind them. When once properly buried the eggs seem to be no more cared for, the young birds working their way up through the heap of rubbish, and running off at once into the forest. They come out of the egg covered with thick downy feathers, and have no tail, although the wings are fully developed. I was so fortunate as to discover a now species (Mega- podius wallacei), which inhabits Gilolo, Ternate, and Bouru. It is the handsomest bird of the genus, being richly banded with reddish brown on the back and wings ; and it differs from the other species in its habits. It fre- quents the forests of the interior, and comes down to the sea-beach to deposit its eggs, but instead of making a mound, or scratching a hole to receive them, it burrows into the sand to the depth of about three feet obliquely down- wards, and deposits its eggs at the bottom. It then loosely covers up the mouth of the hole, and is said by the natives to obliterate and disguise its own footmarks leading to and from the hole, by making many other tracks and scratches in the neighbourhood. It lays its eggs only at night, and at Bouru a bird was caught early one morning as it was coming out of its hele, ‘1 which several eggs were found. All these birds seem to be semi-nocturnal, for their loud wailing cries may be constarttly heard late into the night and long before daybreak in the morning. The eggs are all of a rusty red colour, and very large for the size of the bird, being generally three or three and a quarter inches long, by two or two and a quarter wide. They are very good eating, and are much sought after by the natives. Another large and extraordinary bird is the Cassowary, which inhabits the island of Ceram only. It is a stout and strong bird, standing five or six feet high, and covered with long coarse black hair-like feathers. The head is orna- mented with a large horny casque or helmet, and the bare skin of the neck is conspicuous with bright blue and red colours. The wings are quite absent, and are replaced by a group of horny black spines like blunt porcupine quills. These birds wander about the vast mountainous forests that cover the island of Ceram, feeding chiefly on fallen fruits, CHAP. XXVII.] OF THE MOLUCCAS. 399 and on insects or crustacea. The female lays from three to five large and beautifully shagreened green eges upon a bed of leaves, the male and female sitting upon them alternately for about a month. This bird is the helmeted cassowary (Casuarius galeatus) of naturalists, and was for a long time the only species known. Others have since been discovered in New Guinea, New Britain, and North Australia. It was in the Moluccas that I first discovered undoubted cases of “mimicry” among birds, and these are so curious that I must briefly describe them. It will be as well, however, first to explain what is meant by mimicry in natural history. At page 131, I have described a butterfly which, when at rest, so closely resembles a dead leaf, that it thereby escapes the attacks of its enemies, This is termed a “protective resemblance.” If however the butterfly, being itself a savoury morsel to birds, had closely resembled another butterfly which was disagreeable to birds, and therefore never eaten by them, it would be as well protected as if it resembled a leaf; and this is what has been happily termed “mimicry” by Mr. Bates, who first discovered the object of these curious external imita- tions of one insect by another belonging to a distinct genus or family, and sometimes even to a distinct order. The clear-winged moths which resemble wasps and hornets are the best examples of “mimicry” in our own country. For a long time all the known cases of exact resem- blance of one creature to quite a different one were con- fined to insects, and it was therefore with great pleasure that I discovered in the island of Bouru two birds which I constantly mistook for each other, and which yet belonged to two distinct and somewhat distant families. One of these is a honeysucker named Tropidorhynchus bouruensis, and the other a kind of oriole, which has been called Mimeta bouruensis. The oriole resembles the honeysucker in the following particulars: the upper and under surfaces of the two birds are exactly of the same tints of dark and hight brown ; the Tropidorhynchus has a large bare black patch round the eyes; this is copied in the Mimeta by a patch of black feathers. The top of the head of the Tropidorhyn- 400 NATURAL HISTORY [cCHAP. XXVIL chus has a scaly appearance from the narrow scale-formed feathers, which are imitated by the broader feathers of the Mimeta having a dusky line down each. ‘The Tropido- rhynchus has a_ pale ruff formed of curious recurved feathers on the nape (which has given the whole genus the’ name of Friar birds); this is represented in the Mimeta by a pale band in the same position. Lastly, the bill of the Tropidorhynchus is raised into a protuberant keel at the base, and the Mimeta has the same character, although it 1s not a common one in the genus. The result is, that on a superficial examination the birds are identical, although they have important structural differences, and cannot be placed near each other in any natural arrangement. In the adjacent island of Ceram we find very distinct species of both these genera, and, strange to say, these resemble each other quite as closely as do those of Bouru. The Tropidorhynchus subcornutus is of an earthy brown colour, washed with ochreish yellow, with bare orbits, dusky cheeks, and the usual recurved nape-ruff. The Mimeta forsteni which accompanies it, is absolutely identical in the tints of every part of the body, and the details are copied just as minutely as In the former species. We have two kinds of evidence to tell us which bird in this case is the model, and which the copy. The honey- suckers are coloured in a manner which is very general in the whole family to which they belong, while the orioles seem to have departed from the gay yellow tints so common among their allies. We should therefore con- clude that it is the latter who mimic the former. If so, however, they must derive some advantage from the imitation, and as they are certainly weak birds, with small feet and claws, they may require it. Now the Tropido- rhynchi are very strong and active birds, having powerful erasping claws, and long, curved, sharp beaks. They assemble together in groups and small flocks, and they have a very loud bawling note which can be heard at a great distance, and serves to collect a number together in time of danger. They are very plentiful and very pugnacious, fre- quently driving away crows and even hawks, which perch on a tree where a few of them are assembled. It is very probable, therefore, that the smaller birds of prey have 7 < * F i "9 Bul ‘(satvals mou) 8 ‘snuBvULLSULT STLAITYONG apoyduyf eR | ee nr SE /////8 iN =z, “(sefoads Moi) suqouyoRly ‘ajeul “(Suloeds Mou) SuIIDOTLOX ‘Wa “SNSONPUTLULES SitooOUdX ——————— MOLUCCAN BEETLES. CHAP. xxvit.] OF THE MOLUCCAS. 401 learnt to respect these birds and leave them alone, and it may thus be a great advantage for the weaker and less courageous Mimetas to be mistaken for them. This being the case, the laws of Variation and Survival of the Fittest, will suffice to explain how the resemblance has been brought about, without supposing any voluntary action on the part of the birds themselves; and those who have read Mr. Darwin’s “Origin of Species” will have no difficulty in comprehending the whole process. The insects of the Moluceas are pre-eminently beautiful, even when compared with the varied and beautiful pro- ductions of other parts of the Archipelago. The erand bird-winged butterflies (Ornithoptera) here reach their maximum of size and beauty, and many of the Papilios, . Pieride, Danaide, and Nymphalide are equally pre- eminent. ‘There is, perhaps, no island in the world so small as Amboyna where so many grand insects are to be found. Here are three of the very finest Ornithopteree— priamus, helena, and remus ; three of the handsomest and largest Papilios—ulysses, deiphobus, and gambrisius; one of the handsomest Pieride, Iphias leucippe; the largest of the Danaide, Hestia idea; and two unusually large and handsome Nymphalide—Diadema pandarus, and Charaxes euryalus. Among its beetles are the extraordinary Kuchirus longimanus, whose enormous legs spread over a space of eight inches, and an unusual number of large and handsome Longicorns, Anthribide, and Buprestide. The beetles figured on the plate as characteristic of the Moluccas are: 1. A small specimen of the Euchirus longi- manus, or Long-armed Chafer, which has been already mentioned in the account of my residence at Amboyna (Chapter XX.). The female has the fore legs of moderate length. 2. A fine weevil, (an undescribed species of Eu- -pholus,) of rich blue and emerald green colours, banded with black. It is a native of Ceram and Goram, and is found on foliage. 3. A female of KXenocerus semiluc- tuosus, one of the Anthribide of delicate silky white and black colours. It is abundant on fallen trunks and stumps in Ceram and Amboyna. 4, An unde- scribed species of Xenocerus ; a male, with very long and curious antenne, and elegant black and white markings. D D 402 NATURAL HISTORY. [OHAP. XXVIT. It is fuund on fallen trunks in Batchian. 9. An un-— described species of Arachnobas, a curious genus of weevils peculiar to the Moluccas and New Guinea, and yemarkable for their long legs, and. their habit of often sitting on leaves, and turning rapidly round the edge to the under-surface when disturbed. It was found in Gilolo. All these insects are represented of the natural s1Ze. | Like the birds, the insects of the Moluccas show a decided affinity with those of New Guinea rather than with the productions of the great western islands of the Archipelago, but the difference in form and structure be- tween the productions of the east and west is not nearly so marked here as in birds. This is probably due to the more immediate dependence of insects on climate and vegetation, and the greater facilities for their distribution in the varied stages of egg, pupa, and perfect insect. This has led to a general uniformity in the insect-life of the whole Archipelago, in accordance with the gene- ral uniformity of its climate and vegetation ; while on — the other hand the great susceptibility of the insect organization to the action of external conditions has led to © infinite detailed modifications of form and colour, which — have in many cases given a considerable diversity to the — productions of adjacent islands. Owing to the great preponderance among the birds, of © parrots, pigeons, kingfishers, and sunbirds, almost all of gay — or delicate colours, and many adorned with the most — gorgeous plumage, and to the numbers of very large and — showy butterflies which are almost everywhere to be met — with, the forests of the Moluccas offer to the naturalist a very striking example of the luxuriance and beauty of animal life in the tropics. Yet the almost entire absence of Mammalia, and of such wide-spread groups of birds as woodpeckers, thrushes, Jays, tits, and pheasants, must convince him that he is in a part of the world which has in reality but little im common with the great Asiatic continent, although an unbroken chain of islands seems to link them to it. | : euap. Xxvill.] MACASSAR TO THE ARU ISLANDS. 403 CHAPTER XXVIII. -MACASSAR TO THE ARU ISLANDS IN A NATIVE PRAU. (DECEMBER, 1856.) ia was the beginning of December, and the rainy season 4 at Macassar had just set in. For nearly three months I had beheld the sun rise daily above the palm-groves, mount to the zenith, and descend like a globe of fire into the ogean, unobscured for a single moment of his course: now dark leaden clouds had gathered over the whole heavens, and seemed to have rendered him permanently invisible. The strong east winds, warm and dry and dust- laden, which had hitherto blown as certainly as the sun had risen, were now replaced by variable gusty breezes and heavy rains, often continuous for three days and nights together; and the parched and fissured rice stubbles which during the dry weather had extended in every direction for miles around the town, were already so flooded as to be only passable by boats, or by means of a labyrinth of paths on the top of the narrow banks which divided the separate properties. Five months of this kind of weather might be expected in Southern Celebes, and I therefore determined to seek some more favourable climate for collecting in during that period, and to return in the next dry season to complete my exploration of the district. Fortunately for me I was in one of the great emporiums of the native trade of the Archipelago. Rattans from Borneo, sandal-wood and bees’- wax from Flores and Timor, tripang from the Gulf of Carpentaria, cajuputi-oil from Bouru, wild nutmegs and mussoi-bark from New Guinea, are all to be found in the stores of the Chinese and Bugis merchants of Macassar, along with the rice and coffee which are the chief products of the surrounding country. More important than all these however is the trade to Aru, a group of islands situated on the south-west coast of New Guinea, and of which almost the whole produce comes to Macassar in native vessels. DD 2 AQ4 MACASSAR TO THE ARU ISLANDS ([cwar. XXVI0. These islands are quite out of the track of all European trade, and are inhabited only by black mop-headed savages, — who yet contribute to the luxurious tastes of the most civilized races. Pearls, mother-of-pearl, and tortoiseshell, find their way to Europe, while edible birds’ nests and “tripang” or sea-slug are obtained by shiploads for the castronomic enjoyment of the Chinese. "The trade to these islands has existed from very early times, and it is from them that Birds of Paradise, of the two kinds known to Linneus, were first brought. The native vessels can only make the voyage once a year, owing to the monsoons. They leave Macassar in Decem- ber or January atthe beginning of the west monsoon, and return in July or August with the full strength of the east monsoon. Even by the Macassar people themselves, the voyage to the Aru Islands is looked upon as a rather wild and romantic expedition, full of novel sights and strange adventures. He who has made it is looked up to as an authority, and it remains with many the unachieved ambition of their lives. I myself had hoped rather than expected ever to reach this “ Ultima Thule” of the East ; and when 1 found that I really could do so now, had I but courage to trust myself for a thousand miles’ voyage in a Bugis prau, and for six or seven months among lawless traders and ferocious savages,—I felt somewhat as I did when, a schoolboy, I was for the first time allowed to © travel outside the stage-coach, to visit that scene of all that is strange and new and wonderful to young imaginations —London ! By the help of some kind friends I was introduced to- the owner of one of the large praus which was to sail in a few days.. He was a Javanese half-caste, intelligent, mild, — and gentlemanly in his manners, and had a young and pretty Dutch wife, whom he was going to leave bebind during his absence. When we talked about passage money he would fix no sum, but insisted on leaving it entirely to me to pay on my return exactly what I liked. “ And then,” said he, “whether you give me one dollar or a hundred, I shall be satisfied, and shall ask no more.” The remainder of my stay was fully occupied in laying in stores, engaging servants, and making every other pre- AAR, XXVIII. IN A NATIVE PRAU. 405 paration for an absence of seven months from even the outskirts of civilization. On the morning of December 15th, when we went on board at daybreak, it was raining hard. We set sail and it came on to blow. Our boat was lost astern, our sails damaged, and the evening found us back again in Macassar harbour. We remained there four days longer, owing to its raining all the time, thus render- ing it impossible to dry and repair the huge mat sails. All these dreary days I remained on board, and during the rare intervals when it didn’t rain, made myself acquainted with our outlandish craft, some of the peculiarities of which I will now endeavour to describe. It was a vessel of about seventy tons burthen, and shaped something like a Chinese junk. The deck sloped considerably downward to the bows, which are thus the lowest part of the ship. There were two large rudders, but instead of being placed astern they were hung on the quarters from strong cross beams, which projected out two or three feet on each side, and to which extent the deck overhung the sides of the vessel amidships. The rudders were not hinged but hung with slings of rattan, the friction of which keeps them in any position in which they are placed, and thus perhaps facilitates steering. The tillers were not on deck, but entered the vessel through two square openings into a lower or half deck about three feet high, in which sit the two steersmen. In the after part of the vessel was a low poop, about three and a half feet high, which forms the captain’s cabin, its furniture consisting of -hoxes, mats, and pillows. In front of the poop and main- mast was a little thatched house on deck, about four feet high to the ridge ; and one compartment of this, forming a cabin six and a half feet long by five and a half wide, I had all to myself, and it was the snuggest and most com- fortable little place 1 ever enjoyed at sea. It was entered by a low sliding door of thatch on one side, and had a very small window on the other. The floor was of split bamboo, pleasantly elastic, raised six inches above the deck, so as to be quite dry. It was covered with fine cane mats, for the manufacture of which Macassar is celebrated ; against the further wall were arranged my gun-case, insect-boxes, clothes, and books; my mattress occupied the middle, and A06 MACASSAR TO THE ARU ISLANDS (ouav. XXvIn- : next the door were my canteen, lamp, and little store of luxuries for the voyage; while guns, revolver, and hunting knife hung conveniently from the roof. During these four miserable days I was quite jolly in this little snuggery— more so than I should have been if confined the same time to the gilded and uncomfortable saloon of a first-class steamer. Then, how comparatively sweet was everything on board—no paint, no tar, no new rope, (vilest of smells to the qualmish!) no grease, or oil, or varnish ; but instead of these, bamboo and rattan, and coir rope and palm thatch; pure vegetable fibres, which smell pleasantly if they smell at all, and recall quiet scenes in the green and shady forest. Our ship had two masts, if masts they can be called, which were great moveable triangles. If in an ordinary ship you replace the shrouds and backstay by strong timbers, and take away the mast altogether, you have the arrangement adopted on board a prau. Above my cabin, and resting on cross-beams attached to the masts, was a wilderness of yards and spars, mostly formed of bamboo. The mainyard, an immense affair nearly a hundred feet long, was formed of many pieces of wood and bamboo bound together with rattans in an ingenious manner. The sail carried by this was of an oblong shape, and was hung — out of the centre, so that when the short end was hauled down on deck the long end mounted high in the air, making up for the lowness of the mast itself. The fore- sail was of the same shape, but smaller. Both these were of matting, and, with two jibs and a fore and aft sail astern of cotton canvas, completed our rig. The crew consisted of about thirty men, natives of — | Macassar and the adjacent coasts and islands. They were ~ mostly young, and were short, broad-faced, good-humoured ~ looking fellows. Their dress consisted generally of a pair of trousers only, when at work, and a handkerchief twisted round the head, to which in the evening they would add a ¥ f ry thin cotton jacket. Four of the elder men were “jurumudis,” — or steersmen, who had to squat (two ata time) in the little steerage before described, changing every six hours. Then ~ ‘ there was an old man, the “ ‘uragan.” or captain, but who — ) J fo) ? ? was really what we should call the first mate ; he occupied 4 i CHAP. XXVIII. ] IN A NATIVE PRAU. 407 the other half of the little house on deck. There were about ten respectable men, Chinese or Bugis, whom our owner used to call “his own people.” He treated them very well, shared his meals with them, and spoke to them always with perfect politeness; yet they were most of. them a kind of slave debtors, bound over by the police magistrate to work for him at mere nominal wages for a term of years till their debts were liquidated. This is a Dutch institution in this part of the world, and seems to work well. It is a great boon to traders, who can do nothing in these thinly-populated regions without trusting goods to agents and petty dealers, who frequently squander them away in gambling and debauchery. The lower classes are almost all in a chronic state of debt. The merchant trusts them again and again, till the amount is something serious, when he brings them to court and has their services allotted to him for its liquidation. The debtors seem to think this no disgrace, but rather enjoy their freedom from responsibility, and the dignity of their position under a wealthy and well-known merchant. They trade a little on their own account, and both parties seem to get on very well together. The plan seems a more sensible one than that which we adopt, of effectually pre- venting a man from earning anything towards paying his debts by shutting him up in a jail. My own servants were three in number. Ali, the Malay boy whom I had picked up in Borneo, was my head man. He had already been with me a year, could turn his hand to anything, and was quite attentive and trustworthy. He was a good shot, and fond of shooting, and I had taught him to skin birds very well. The second, named Baderoon, was a Macassar lad, also a pretty good boy, but a desperate gambler. Under pretence of buying a house for his mother, and clothes for himself, he had received four months’ wages about.a week before we sailed, and in a day or two gambled away every dollar of it. He had come on board with no clothes, no betel, or tobacco, or salt fish, all which necessary articles I was obliged to send Ali to buy for him. These two lads were about sixteen, I should suppose; the third was younger, a sharp little rascal named Baso, who had been with me a month or two, and had learnt to 408 MACASSAR TO THE ARU ISLANDS. {cuav. XXVUt- cook tolerably. He was to fulfil the important office of cook and housekeeper, for I could not get any regular servants to go to such a terribly remote country; one might as well ask a chef de cwisine to go to Patagonia. On the fifth day that I had spent on board (Dec. 15th) the rain ceased, and final preparations were made for starting. Sails were dried and furled, boats were constantly coming and going, and stores for the voyage, fruit, vege- tables, fish, and palm sugar, were taken on board. In the afternoon two women arrived with a large party of friends and relations, and at parting there was a general nose- rubbing (the Malay kiss), and some tears shed. These © were promising symptoms for our getting off the next day; and accordingly, at three in the morning, the owner came on board, the anchor was immediately weighed, and by four we set sail. Just as we were fairly off and clear of the other praus, the old juragan repeated some prayers, all around responding with “Allah il Allah,” and a few strokes on a gong as an accompaniment, concluding with all wishing each other “Salaamat jalan,” a safe and happy journey. We had a light breeze, a calm sea, and a fine morning, a prosperous commencement of our voyage of about a thousand miles to the far-famed Aru Islands. The wind continued light and variable all day, with a calm in the evening before the land breeze sprangup. We were then passing the island of “Tanakaki” (foot of the land), at the extreme south of this part of Celebes. There are some dangerous rocks here, and as I was standing by the bulwarks, I happened to spit over the side; one of the men begged I would not do so just now, but spit on deck, as they were much afraid of this place. Not quite com- prehending, I made him repeat his request, when, seeing he was in earnest, I said, “ Very well, 1 suppose there are ‘hantus’ (spirits) here.” “Yes,” said he, “ and they don’t like anything to be thrown overboard; many a prau has been lost by doing it.” Upon which | promised to be very careful. At sunset the good Mahometans on board all repeated a few words of prayer with a general chorus, reminding me of the pleasing and impressive “ Ave Maria” of Catholic countries. Dec. 20th—At sunrise we were opposite the Bontyne CILAP, XXVIII. ] IN A NATIVE PRAU. 409 mountain, said to be one of the highest in Celebes. In the afternoon we passed the Salayer Straits and had a little squall, which obliged us to lower our huge mast, sails, and heavy yards. The rest of the evening we had a fine west wind, which carried us on at near five knots an hour, as much as our lumbering old tub can possibly go. Dec. 21st.—A heavy swell from the south-west rolling us about most uncomfortably. A steady wind was blowing, however, and we got on very well. Dec. 22d.—The swell had gone down. We _ passed Boutong, a large island, high, woody, and populous, the native place of some of our crew. A small prau returning from Bali to the island of Goram overtook us. The nakoda (captain) was known to our owner. They had been two years away, but were full of people, with several black Papuans on board. At 6 P.M. we passed Wangi- wanei, low but not flat, inhabited and subject to Boutong. We had now fairly entered the Molucca Sea. After dark it was a beautiful sight to look down on our rudders, from which rushed eddying streams of phosphoric light gemmed with whirling sparks of fire. It resembled (more nearly than anything else to which I can compare it) one of the large irregular nebulous star-clusters seen through a good tele- scope, with the additional attraction of ever-changing form and dancing motion. Dec. 23d.—¥Fine red sunrise; the island we left last evening barely visible behind us. The Goram praw about a mile south of us. They have no compass, yet they have kept a very true course during the night. Our owner tells me they do it by the swell of the sea, the direction of which they notice at sunset, and sail by it during the night. In these seas they are never (in fine weather) more than two days without seeing land. Of course adverse winds or currents sometimes carry them away, but they soon fall in with some island, and there are always some old sailors on board who know it, and thence take a new course. Last night a shark about five feet long was caught, and this morning it was cut up and cooked. In the afternoon they got another, and I had a little fried, and found it firm and dry, but very palatable. In the evening the sun set in a heavy bank of clouds, which, as darkness came on, 410 MACASSAR TO THE ARU ISLANDS [owaP. XXV1UI. assumed a fearfully black appearance. According to custom, when strong wind or rain is expected, our large sails were furled, and with their yards let down on deck, and a small square foresail alone kept up. The great mat sails are most awkward things to manage in rough weather. The yards which support them are seventy feet long, and of course very heavy ; and the only way to furl them being to roll up the sail on the boom, it is a very dangerous thing to have them standing when overtaken by a squall. Our crew, though numerous enough for a vessel of 700 ‘nstead of one of 70 tons, have it very much their own way, and there seems to be seldom more than a dozen at work at atime. When anything important 1s to be done, however, all start up willingly enough, but then all think themselves at liberty to give their opinion, and half a dozen voices are heard giving orders, and there is such a shrieking and confusion that 1t seems wonderful anything gets done at all. | Considering we have fifty men of several tribes and tongues on board, wild, half-savage looking fellows, and few of them feeling any of the restraints of morality or educa- tion, we get on wonderfully well. There is no fighting or quarrelling, as there would certainly be among the same number of Europeans with as little restraint upon their actions, and there is scarcely any of that noise and excite- ment which might be expected. In fine weather the ereater part of them are quietly enjoying themselves— — some are sleeping under the shadow of the sails; others, in — little groups of three or four, are talking or chewing betel ; one is making a new handle to his chopping-knife, another — is stitching away at a new pair of trousers or a shirt, and all are as quiet and well-conducted as on board the best-— ordered English merchantman. ‘wo or three take it by ‘tums to watch in the bows and see after the braces and © halyards of the great sails ; the two steersmen are below in the steerage; our captain, or the juragan, gives the ~ course, guided partly by the compass and partly by the direction of the wind, and a watch of two or three on the — poop look after the trimming of the sails and call out the — hours by the water-clock. This 1s a very ingenious con- trivance, which measures time well in both rough weather CHAP. XXVIII. ] IN A NATIVE PRAU. 411 and fine. It is simply a bucket half filled with water, in which floats the half of a well-scraped cocoa-nut shell. In the bottom of this shell is a very small hole, so that when placed to float in the bucket a fine thread of water squirts up into it. This gradually fills the shell, and the size of the hole is so adjusted to the capacity of the vessel that, exactly at the end of an hour, plump it goes to the bottom. The watch then cries out the number of hours from sunrise, and sets the shell afloat again empty. This is a very good measurer of time. I tested it with my watch and found that it hardly varied a minute from one hour to another, nor did the motion of the vessel have any effect upon it, as the water in the bucket of course kept level. It has a great advantage for a rude people in being easily understood, in being rather bulky and easy to see, and in the final submergence being accompanied with a little bubbling and commotion of the water, which calls the attention to it. It is also quickly replaced if lost while in harbour. Our captain and owner I find to be a quiet, good- tempered man, who seems to get on very well with all about him. When at sea he drinks no wine or spirits, but indulges only in coffee and cakes, morning and atfter- noon, in company with his supercargo and assistants. He is a man of some little education, can read and write well both Dutch and Malay, uses a compass, and has a chart. He has been a trader to Aru for many years, and is well known to both Europeans and natives in this part of the world. Dee. 24th—Fine, and little wind. No land in sight for the first time since we left Macassar. At noon calm, with heavy showers, in which our crew wash their clothes, and in the afternoon the prau is covered with shirts, trousers, and sarongs of various gay colours. I made a discovery to-day which at first rather alarmed me. The two ports, or openings, through which the tillers enter from the lateral rudders are not more than three or four feet above the surface of the water, which thus has a free entrance into the vessel. I of. course had imagined that this open space from one side to the other was separated from the hold by a water-tight bulkhead, so that a sea entering 412 MACASSAR TO THE ARU ISLANDS [cHAP. XXVIUL might wash out at the further side, and do no mere harm than give the steersmen a drenching. To my surprise and dismay, however, I find that it is completely open to the hold, so that half-a-dozen seas rolling in on a stormy night would nearly, or quite, swamp us. Think of a vessel going to sea for a month with two holes, each a yard square, into the hold, at three feet above the water-line,— holes, too, which cannot possibly be closed! But our captain says all praus are so; and though he acknowledges the danger, “he does not know how to alter it—the people are used to it; he does not understand praus so well as they do, and if such a great alteration were made, he should be sure to have difficulty in getting a crew |” This proves at all events that praus must be good sea-boats, for the captain has been continually making voyages in them for the last ten years, and says he has never known water enough enter to do any harm. | Dec, 25th.—Christmas-day dawned upon us with gusts of wind, driving rain, thunder and lightning, added to which a short confused sea made our queer vessel pitch and roll very uncomfortably. About nine o'clock, however, it cleared up, and we then saw ahead of us the fine island of Bouru, perhaps forty or fifty miles distant, its): moun- tains wreathed with clouds, while its lower lands were still invisible. The afternoon was fine, and the wind got round again to the west; but although this is really the west monsoon, there is no regularity or steadiness about it, calms and breezes from every point of the compass continually occurring. The captain, though nominally a Protestant, seemed to have no idea of Christmas-day as a festival. Our dinner was of rice and curry as usual, and an extra glass of wine was all I could do to celebrate it. Dec, 26th. —Fine view of the mountains of Bouru, which we have now approached considerably. Our crew seem rather a clumsy lot. They do not walk the deck with the easy swing of English sailors, but hesitate and stagger like landsmen. In the night the lower boom of our mainsail broke, and they were all the morning re- pairing it. It consisted of two bamboos lashed together thick end to thin, and was about seventy feet long. The rigging and arrangement of these praus contrasts strangely CILAP. XXVIII] IN A NATIVE PRAU. 413 with that of European vessels, in which the various ropes and spars, though much more numerous, are placed so as not to interfere with each other’s action. Here the case is quite different; for though there are no shrouds or stays to complicate the matter, yet scarcely anything can be done without first clearing something else out of the way. The large sails cannot be shifted round to go on the other tack without first hauling down the jibs, and the booms of the fore and aft sails have to be lowered and completely detached to perform the same operation. Then there are always a lot of ropes foul of each other, and all the sails can never be set (though they are so few) without a good part of their surface having the wind kept out of them by others. Yet praus are much liked even by those who have had European vessels, because of their cheapness both in first cost and in keeping up; almost all repairs can be done by the crew, and very few European stores are required. Dec. 28th.—This day we saw the Banda group, the volcano first appearing,—a perfect cone, having very much the outline of the Egyptian pyramids, and looking almost as regular. In the evening the smoke rested: over its summit like a small stationary cloud. This was my first view of an active volcano, but pictures and pano- ramas have so impressed such things on one’s mind, that when we at length behold them they seem nothing extraordinary. Dec. 30th.—Passed the island of Teor, and a group near it, which are very incorrectly marked on the charts. Flying-fish were numerous to-day. It is a smaller species than that of the Atlantic, and more active and elegant in its motions. As they skim along the surface they turn on their sides, so as fully to display their beautiful fins, taking a flight of about a hundred yards, rising and falling in a most graceful manner. At a little distance they exactly resemble swallows, and no one who sees them can doubt that they really do fly, not merely descend in an oblique direction from the height they gain by their first spring. In the evening an aquatic bird, a species of booby (Sula fiber.) rested on our hen-coop, and was caught by the neck by one of my boys. 414 MACASSAR TO THE ARU ISLANDS [cHap. XXVIII. Dee. 31st-—At daybreak the Ké Islands (pronounced kay) were in sight, where we are to stay a few days. About noon we rounded the northern point, and endea- voured to coast along to the anchorage; but being now on the leeward side of the island, the wind came in violent irrecular gusts, and then leaving us altogether, we were carried back by a strong current. Just then two boats- load of natives appeared, and our owner having agreed with them to tow us into harbour, they tried to do so, assisted by our own boat, but could make no way. We were therefore obliged to anchor in a very dangerous place on a rocky bottom, and we were engaged till nearly dark getting hawsers secured to some rocks under water. The coast of Ké along which we had passed was very pic- turesque. Light coloured limestone rocks rose abruptly from the water to the height of several hundred feet, every- where broken into jutting peaks and pinnacles, weather- worn into sharp points and honeycombed surfaces, and clothed throughout with a most varied and luxuriant vegetation. The cliffs above the sea offered to our view screw-pines and arborescent Lihaces of strange forms, mingled with shrubs and creepers ; while the higher slopes supported a dense growth of forest trees. Here and there little bays and inlets presented beaches of dazzling whiteness. The water was transparent as crystal, and tinged the rock-strewn slope which plunged steeply into its unfathomable depths with colours varying from emerald to lapis-lazuli. The sea was calm as a lake, and the glorious sun of the tropics threw a flood of golden light over all. The scene was to.me inexpressibly delightful. I was in a new world, and could dream of the wonderful productions hid in those rocky forests, and in those azure abysses. But few European feet had ever trodden the shores I gazed upon; its plants, and animals, and men were alike almost unknown, and I could not help specu- lating on what my wanderings there for a few days might bring to light. CHAP. XXIX.] THE SAVAGES BOARD US. A415 CHAPTER +) SCX. THE KE ISLANDS. (JANUARY 1857.) HE native boats that had come to meet us were three or four in number, containing in all about fifty men. They were long canoes, with the bow and stern rising up into a beak six or eight feet high, decorated with shells and waving plumes of cassowaries hair. I now had my first view of Papuans in their own country, and in less than five minutes was convinced that the opinion already arrived at by the examination of a few Timor and New Guinea slaves was substantially correct, and that the people I now had an opportunity of comparing side by side belonged to two of the most distinct and strongly marked races that the earth contains. Had I been blind, I could have been certain that these islanders were not Malays. The loud, rapid, eager tones, the incessant motion, the intense vital activity manifested in speech and action, are the very antipodes of the quiet, unimpulsive, unanimated Malay. These Ké men came up singing and shouting, dipping their paddles deep in the water and throwing up clouds of spray ; as they approached nearer they stood up in their canoes and increased their noise and gesticulations; and on coming alongside, without asking leave, and without a moment's hesitation, the greater part of them scrambled up on our deck just as if they were come to take possession of a captured vessel. Then commenced a scene of indescribable confusion. ‘These forty black, naked, mop-headed savages seemed intoxicated with joy and excitement. Not one of them could remain still for a moment. Every individual of our crew was in turn surrounded and examined, asked for tobacco or arrack, grinned at and deserted for another. All talked at once, and our captain was regularly mobbed by the chief men, who wanted to be employed to tow us in, and who begged vociferously to be paid in advance. A few presents of tobacco’ made their eyes glisten; they 416 THE KE ISLANDS. (CHAP. XXIZ. would express their satisfaction by erins and shouts, by rolling on deck, or by a headlong leap overboard. School- boys on an unexpected holiday, Irishmen at a fair, or mid- shipmen on shore, would give but a faint idea of the exuberant animal enjoyment of these people. Under similar circumstances Malays could not behave as these Papuans did. If they came on board a vessel (after asking permission), not a word would be at first spoken, except a few compliments, and only after some time, and very cautiously, would any approach be made to business. One would speak at a time, with a low voice and great deliberation, and the mode of making a bargain would be by quietly refusing all your offers, or even going away without saying another word about the matter, unless you advanced your price to what they were willing to accept. Our crew, many of whom had not made the voyage before, seemed quite scandalized at such unprecedented bad manners, and only very gradually made any approach to fraternization with the black fellows. They reminded me of a party of demure and well-behaved children suddenly broken in upon by a lot of wild romping, riotous boys, whose conduct seems most extraordinary and very naughty ! “These moral features are more striking and more con- clusive of absolute diversity than even the physical contrast presented by the two races, though that is sufh- ciently remarkable. The sooty blackness of the skin, the mop-like head of frizzly hair, and, most important of all, the marked form of countenance of quite a different type from that of the Malay, are what we cannot believe to result from mere climatal or other modifying influences on one and the same race. The Malay face is of the Mon- golian type, broad and somewhat flat. The brows are depressed, the mouth wide, but not projecting, and the nose small and well formed but for the great dilatation of the nostrils, The face is smooth, and rarely develops the trace of a beard; the hair biack, coarse, and perfectly straight. The Papuan, on the other hand, has a face which we may say is compressed and projecting. The brows are pro- tuberant and overhanging, the mouth large and prominent, while the nose is very large, the apex elongated down- wards, the ridge thick, and the nostrils large. It is an omar. xxix.] CONTRAST OF PAPUANS AND MALAYS, ALY obtrusive and remarkable feature in the countenance, the very reverse of what obtains in the Malay face. The twisted beard and frizzly hair complete this remarkable contrast. Here then I had reached a new world, inhabited by a strange people. Between the Malayan tribes, among whom I had for some years been living, and the Papuan races, whose country I had now entered, we may fairly say that there is as much difference, both moral and physical, as between the red Indians of South America and the negroes of Guinea on the opposite side of the Atlantic. Jan. 1st, 1857.—This has been a day of thorough enjoy- ment. I have wandered in the forests of an island rarely seen by Europeans. Before daybreak we left our anchor- age, and in an hour reached the village of Har, where we were to stay three or four days. The range of hills here receded so as to form a small bay, and they were broken up into peaks and hummocks with intervening flats and hollows. A broad beach of the whitest sand lined the inner part of the bay, backed by a mass of cocoa-nut palms, among which the huts were concealed, and sur- mounted by a dense and varied erowth of timber. Canoes and boats of various sizes were drawn up on the beach, and one or two idlers, with a few children and a dog, gazed at our prau as we came to an anchor. When we went on shore the first thing that attracted us was a large and well-constructed shed, under which a long boat: was being built, while others in various stages of com- pletion were placed at intervals along the beach. Our captain, who wanted two of moderate size for the trade among the islands at Aru, immediately began bargaining for them, and in a short time had arranged the number of brass guns, gongs, sarongs, handkerchiefs, axes, white plates, tobacco, and arrack, which he was to give for a pair which, could be got ready in four days. We then went to the village, which consisted only of three or four huts, situated immediately above the beach on en irregular rocky piece of ground overshadowed with cocoa-nuts, palms, bananas, and other fruit trees. The houses were very rude, black and half rotten, raised a few feet on posts with low sides of bamboo or planks, and high thatched roofs. They had small doors and no windows, an opening EE 418 THE K# ISLANDS. (CHAP. XXIX under the projecting gables letting the smoke out and a little light in. The floors were of strips of bamboo, thin, slippery, and elastic, and so weak that my feet were in danger of plunging through at every step. Native boxes of pandanus-leaves and slabs of palm pith, very neatly constructed, mats of the same, jars and cooking pots of native pottery, and a few European plates and basins, were the whole furniture, and the interior was throughout dark and smoke-blackened, and dismal in the extreme. Accompanied by Ali and Baderoon, I now attempted to make some explorations, and we were followed by a train of boys eager to see what we were going to do. The most trodden path from the beach led us into a shady hollow, where the trees were of immense height and the under- erowth scanty. From the summits of these trees came at intervals a deep booming sound, which at first puzzled us, but which we soon found to proceed from some large pigeons. My boys shot at them, and after one or two misses, brought one down. It was a magnificent bird twenty inches long, of a bluish white colour, with the back wings and tail intense metallic green, with golden, blue, and violet reflexions, the feet coral red, and the eyes golden yellow. It is a rare species, which I have named Carpophaga concinna, and is found only in a few smail islands, where, however, it abounds. It is the same species which in the island of Banda is called the nutmeg-pigeon, from its habit of devouring the fruits, the seed or nutmeg being thrown up entire and uninjured. Though these pigeons have a narrow beak, yet their jaws and throat are so extensible that they can swallow fruits of very large size. I had before shot a species much smaller than this one, which had a number of hard globular palm-fruits in its crop, each more than an inch in diameter. A little further the path divided mto two, one leading along the beach, and across mangrove and sago swamps, the other rising to cultivated grounds. We therefore returned, and taking a fresh departure from the village, endeavoured to ascend the hills and penetrate into the interior. The path, however, was a most trying one. Where there was earth, it was a deposit of reddish clay CHAP, XXIX.] TRADE AND PRODUCTS. 419 overlying the rock, and was worn so smooth by the attrition of naked feet that my shoes could obtain no hold on the sloping surface. A little farther we came to the bare rock, and this was worse, for it was so rugged and broken, and so honeycombed and weatherworn into sharp points and angles, that my boys, who had gone barefooted all their lives, could not stand it. Their feet began to bleed, and I saw that if I did not want them completely lamed it would be wise to turn back. My own shoes, which were rather thin, were but a poor protection, and would soon have been cut to pieces; yet our little naked guides tripped along with the greatest ease and unconcern, and seemed much astonished at our effeminacy in not being able to take a walk which to them was a perfectly agreeable one. During the rest of our stay in the island we were obliged to confine ourselves to the vicinity of the shore and the cultivated grounds, and those more level portions of the forest where a little soil had accumulated and the rock had been less exposed to atmospheric action. The island of Ké (pronounced exactly as the letter K, but erroneously spelt in our maps K ey or Ki) is long and narrow, running in a north and south direction, and con- sists almost entirely of rock and mountain. It is every- where covered with luxuriant forests, and in its bays and inlets the sand is of dazzling whiteness, resulting from the decomposition of the coralline limestone of which it is entirely composed. In all the little Swampy inlets and valleys sago trees abound, and these supply the main sub- sistence of the natives, who grow no rice, and have scarcely any other cultivated products but cocoa-nuts, plantains, and yams. From the cocoa-nuts, which surround every hut, and which thrive exceedingly on the porous limestone soil and under the influence of salt breezes, oil is made which is sold at a good price to the Aru traders, who all touch here to lay in their stock of this article, as well as to purchase boats and native crockery. Wooden bowls, pans, and trays are also largely made here, hewn out of solid blocks of wood with knife and adze ; and these are carried to all parts of the Moluccas. But the art in which the natives of Ké pre-eminently excel is that of boat- building. Their forests supply abundance of fine timber EE 2 AZO THE KE ISLANDS. [CHAP. XXIX. though probably not more so than many other islands, and from some unknown causes these remote savages have come to excel in what seems a very difficult art. Their small canoes are beautifully formed, broad and low in the centre, but rising at each end, where they terminate in high-pointed beaks more or less carved, and ornamented with a plume of feathers. They are not hollowed out of a tree, but are regularly built of planks running from end to end, and so accurately fitted that it is often difficult to find a place where a knife-blade can be inserted between the joints. The larger ones are from 20 to 30 tons burthen, and are finished ready for sea without a nail or particle of iron being used, and with no other tools than axe, adze, and auger. ‘These vessels are handsome to look at, good sailers, and admirable sea-boats, and will make long voyages with perfect safety, traversing the whole Archipelago from New Guinea to Singapore in seas which, as every one who has sailed much in them can testify, are not so smooth and tempest free as word-painting travellers love to represent them. The forests of Ké produce magnificent timber, tall, straight, and durable, of various qualities, some of which are said to be superior to the best Indian teak. To make each pair of planks used in the construction of the larger boats an entire tree is consumed. It is felled, often miles away from the shore, cut across to the proper length, and then hewn longitudinally into two equal portions. Each of these forms a plank by cutting down with the axe to a uniform thickness of three or four inches, leaving at first a solid block at each end to prevent splitting. Along the centre of each plank a series of projecting pieces are left, standing up three or four inches, about the same width, and a foot long; these are of great importance in the construc- tion of the vessel. When a sufficient number of planks have been made, they are laboriously dragged through the forest by three or four men each to the beach, where the boat is to be built. A foundation piece, broad in the middle and rising considerably at each end, is first laid on blocks and properly shored up. The edges of this are worked true and smooth with the adze, and a plank, pro- perly curved and tapering at each end, is held firmly up CHAP. XXIX.] NATIVE BC AT-BUILDING. 431 against it, while a line is struck along it which allows it to be cut so as to fit exactly. A series of auger holes, about as large as one’s finger, are then bored along the opposite edges, and pins of very hard wood are fitted to these, so that the two planks are held firmly, and can be driven into the closest contact; and difficult as this seems to do without any other aid than rude practical skill in forming each edge to the true corresponding curves, and in boring the holes so as exactly to match both in position and direction, yet so well is it done that the best European shipwright cannot produce sounder or closer-fitting joints. Lhe boat is built up in this way by fitting plank to plank till the proper height and width are obtained. We have now a skin held together entirely by the hard- wood pins connecting the edges of the planks, very strong and elastic, but having nothing but the adhesion of these pins to prevent the planks gaping. In the smaller boats seats, in the larger ones cross-beams, are now fixed. They are sprung into slight notches cut to receive them, and are further secured to the projecting pieces of the plank below by a strong lashing of rattan. Ribs are now formed of single pieces of tough wood chosen and trimmed so as exactly to fit on to the projections from each plank, being slightly notched to receive them, and securely bound to them by rattans passed through a hole in each projecting piece close to the surface of the plank. The ends are closed against the vertical prow and stern posts, and further secured with pegs and rattans, and then the boat is complete; and when fitted with rudders, masts, and thatched covering, is ready to do battle with the waves. A careful consideration of the principle of this mode of construction, and allowing for the strength and binding qualities of rattan (which resembles in these respects wire rather than cordage), makes me believe that a vessel care- fully built in this manner is actually stronger and safer than one fastened in the ordinary way with nails. During our stay here we wee all very busy. Our captain was daily superintending the completion of his two small praus. All day long native boats were coming with fish, cocoa-nuts, parrots and lories, earthen pans, sirip leaf, wooden bowls, and trays, &c. &c., which every 422 THE KE ISLANDS. [CHAP, XXIX. one of the fifty inhabitants of our prau seemed to be buying on his own account, till all available and most unavailable space of our vessel was occupied with these miscellaneous articles: for every man on board a prau considers himself at liberty to trade, and to carry with him whatever he can afford to buy. Money is unknown and valueless here—knives, cloth, and arrack forming the only medium of exchange, with tobacco for small coin. Every transaction is the subject of a special bargain, and the cause of much talking. It is absolutely necessary to offer very little, as the natives are never satisfied till you add a little more. They are then far better pleased than if you had given them twice the amount at first and refused to increase it. I, too, was doing a little business, having persuaded some of the natives to collect insects for me; and when they really found that I gave them most fragrant tobacco for worthless black and green beetles, I soon had scores of -visitors, men, women, and children, bringing bamboos full -of creeping things, which, alas! too frequently had eaten each other into fragments during the tedium of a day’s confinement. Of one grand new beetle, glittering with ruby and emerald tints, I got a large quantity, having first ‘detected one of its wing-cases ornamenting the outside of a native’s tobacco pouch. It was quite a new species, and had not been found elsewhere than on this little island. It is one of the Buprestide, and has been named Cypho- gastra calepyga. Each morning after an early breakfast I wandered by -myself into the forest, where I found delightful occupation in capturing the large and handsome butterflies, which were tolerably abundant, and most of them new to me; for I was now upon the confines of the Moluccas and New Guinea,—a region the productions of which were then among the most precious and rare in the cabinets of Europe. Here my eyes were feasted for the first time with splendid scarlet lories on the wing, as well as by the sight of that most imperial butterfly, the “Priamus ” of col- lectors, or a closely allied species, but flying so high that I Aid not succeed in capturing a specimen. One of them vas breveht me in a bamboo, boxed up with a lot of 7 CHAP. XXIX.] VEGETATION. 492, beetles, and of course torn to pieces. The principal draw- back of the place for a collector is the want of good paths, and the dreadfully rugged character of the surface, re- quiring the attention to be so continually directed to securing a footing, as to make it very difficult to capture active winged things, who pass out of reach while one is glancing to see that the next step may not plunge one into a chasm or over a precipice. Another inconvenience is that there are no running streams, the rock being of so porous a nature that the surface-water everywhere pene- trates its fissures; at least such is the character of the neighbourhood we visited, the only water being small springs trickling out close to the sea-beach. In the forests of Ké, arboreal Liliaceze and Pandanaceze abound, and give a character to the vegetation in the more exposed rocky places. Flowers were scarce, and there were not many orchids, but I noticed the fine white butterfly-orchis, Phalenopsis grandiflora, or a_ species closely allied to it. The freshness and vigour of the vegetation was very pleasing, and on such an arid rocky surface was a sure indication of a perpetually humid climate. Tall clean trunks, many of them buttressed, and immense trees of the fig family, with aérial roots stretching out and interlacing and matted together for fifty or a hundred feet above the ground, were the characteristic features; and there was an absence of thorny shrubs and prickly rattans, which would have made these wilds very pleasant to roam in, had it not been for the sharp honey- combed rocks already alluded to. In damp places a fine undergrowth of broad-leaved herbaceous plants was found, about which swarmed little green lizards, with tails of the most “heavenly blue,’ twisting in and out among the stalks and foliage so actively that I often caught glimpses of their tails only, when they startled me by their resem- blance to small snakes. Almost the only sounds in these primeeval woods proceeded from two birds, the red lories, who utter shrill screams like most of the parrot tribe, and the large green nutmeg-pigeon, whose voice is either a loud and deep boom, like two notes struck upon a very large gong, or sometimes a harsh toad-like croak, altogether peculiar and remarkable. Only two quadrupeds are said AQ4 THE KE ISLANDS. [cHAP. XXIX. by the natives to inhabit the island—a wild pig and a Guscus, or Eastern opossum, of neither of which could I obtain specimens. The insects were more abundant, and very interesting. Of butterflies I caught thirty-five species, most of them new to me, and many quite unknown in European collec- tions. Among them was the fine yellow and black Papilio euchenor, of which but few specimens had been previously captured, and several other handsome butterflies of large size, as well as some beautiful little “blues,” and some brilliant day-flying moths. The beetle tribe were less abundant, yet 1 obtained some very fine and rare species. On the leaves of a slender shrub in an old clearing I found several fine blue and black beetles of the genus Eupholus, which almost rival in beauty the diamond beetles of South America. Some cocoa-nut palms in blossom on the beach were frequented by a fine green floral beetle (Lomaptera papua), which, when the flowers were shaken, flew off like a small swarm of bees. I got one of our crew to climb up the tree, and he brought me a good number in his hand ; ~ and seeing they were valuable, I sent him up again with my net to shake the flowers into, and thus secured a large quantity. My best capture, however, was the superb insect of the Buprestis family, already mentioned as having been obtained from the natives, who told me they found it in rotten trees in the mountains. In the forest itself the only common and conspicuous coleoptera were two tiger beetles. One, Therates labiata, was much larger than our green tiger beetle, of a purple black colour, with: green metallic glosses, and the broad upper lip of a bright yellow. It was always found upon foliage, generally of broad-leaved herbaceous plants, and in damp and gloomy situations, taking frequent short flights from ieat to leaf, and preserving an alert attitude, as if always looking out for its prey. Its vicinity could be im- mediately ascertained, often before it was seen, by a very pleasant odour, like otto of roses, which it seems to emit continually, and which may probably be attractive to the small insects on which it feeds. The other, Tricondyla aptera, is one of the most curious forms in the family of the Cicindelide, and is almost exclusively confined to the CHAP. XXIx.] PAPUAN CHARACTER. 435 Malay islands. In shape it resembles a very large ant, more than an inch long, and of a purple black colour. Like an ant also it is wingless, and is generally found ascending trees, passing around the trunks in a spiral direction when approached, to avoid capture, so that it requires a sudden run and active fingers to secure a specimen. This species emits the usual fetid odour of the ground beetles. My collections during our four days’ stay al Ké were as follow :—Birds, 13 species; insects, 194 species ; and 3 kinds of land-shells. There are two kinds of people inhabiting these islands —the indigenes, who have the Papuan characters strongly marked, and who are pagans; and a mixed race, who are nominally Mahometans, and wear cotton clothing, while the former use only a waist cloth of cotton or bark. These Mahometans are said to have been driven out of Banda by the early European settlers. They were probably a brown race, more allied to the Malays, and their mixed descend- ants here exhibit great variations of colour, hair, and features, graduating between the Malay and Papuan types. It is interesting to observe the influence of the early Portuguese trade with these countries in the words of their language, which still remain in use even among these remote and savage islanders. “Lenco” for handkerchief, and “faca” for knife, are here used to the exclusion of the proper Malay terms. The Portuguese and Spaniards were truly wonderful conquerors and colonizers. They effected more rapid changes in the countries they conquered than any other nations of modern times, resembling the Romans in their power of impressing their own language, religion, and manners on rude and barbarous tribes. The striking contrast of character between these people and the Malays is exemplified in many little traits. One day when I was rambling in the forest, an old man stopped to look at me catching an insect. He stood very quiet tull I had pinned and put it away in my collecting box, when he could contain himself no longer, but bent almost double, and enjoyed a hearty roar of laughter. Every one will recognise this as a true negro trait. A Malay would have stared, and asked with a tone of bewilderment what I was doing, for it is but little in his nature to laugh, 426 THE Ki; ISLANDS. (CHAP. XXIX. never heartily, and still less at or in the presence of a stranger, to whom, however, his disdainful glances or whispered remarks are less agreeable than the most boisterous open expression of merriment. The women here were not so much frightened at strangers, OF made to keep themselves 80 much secluded as among the Malay races; the children were more merry and had the “nigger grin,” while the noisy confusion of tongues among the men, and their excitement on very ordinary occasions, are altogether removed from the general taci- turnity and reserve of the Malay. The language of. the Ké people consists of words of one, two, or three syllables in about equal proportions, and has many aspirated and a few guttural sounds. The different villages have slight differences of dialect, but they are mutually intelligible, and, except in words that have evidently been introduced during a long-continued com- mercial intercourse, seem to have no affinity whatever with i the Malay languages. 4 Jan. 6th.—The small boats being finished, we sailed — for Aru at 4 P.M, and as we left the shores of Ké had a fne view of its rugged and mountainous character ; ranges of hills, three or four thousand feet high, stretching south- — wards as far as the eye could reach, everywhere covered with a lofty, dense, and unbroken forest. We had very light winds, and it therefore took us thirty hours to make the passage of sixty miles to the low, or flat, but equally forest-covered Aru Islands, where we anchored in the harbour of Dobbo at nine in the evening of the next day. My first voyage in a prau being thus satisfactorily terminated, I must, before taking leave of it for some months, bear testimony to the merits of the queer old- world vessel. Setting aside all ideas of danger, which is probably, after all, not more than Im any other craft, | must declare that I have never, either before or since, made a twenty days voyage so pleasantly, or perhaps, more correctly speaking, with so little aiscomfort. This I attribute chiefly to having my small cabin on deck, and entirely to myself, to having my own servants to walt upon me, and to the absence of all those marine-store ~ smels of paint, pitch, tallow, and new cordage, which are CHAP, XXX,] DOBBO. 43:7 to me insupportable. Something is also to be put down to freedom from all restraint of dress, hours of meals, &c., and to the civility and obliging disposition of the captain. I had agreed to have my meals with him, but whenever I wished it I had them in my own berth, and at what hours I felt inclined. The crew were all civil and good- tempered, and with very little discipline everything went on smoothly, and the vessel was kept very clean and in pretty good order, so that on the whole I was much delighted with the trip, and was inclined to rate the luxuries of the semi-barbarous prau as surpassing those of the most magnificent screw-steamer, that highest result of our civilization. CHAPTER XXX. THE ARU ISLANDS.—RESIDENCE IN DOBBO. (JANUARY TO MARCH 1857.) QO’ the 8th of January, 1857, I landed at Dobbo, the trading settlement of the Bugis and Chinese, who annually visit the Aru Islands. It is situated on the small island of Wamma, upon a spit of sand which projects out to the north, and is just wide enough to contain three rows of houses. Though at first sight a most strange and desolate-looking place to build a village on, it has many advantages. There is a clear entrance from the west among the coral reefs that border the land, and there is good anchorage for vessels, on one side of the village or the other, in both the east and west monsoons, Being fully exposed to the sea-breezes in three directions it is healthy, and the soft sandy beach offers great facilities for hauling up the praus, in order to secure them from sea-worms and prepare them for the homeward voyage. At its southern extremity the sand-bank merges in the beach of the island, and is backed by a luxuriant growth of lofty forest. The houses are of various sizes, but are all built after one pattern, being merely large thatched 428 THE ARU ISLANDS. [oHAP. XXX. sheds, a small portion of which, next the entrance, is used as a dwelling, while the rest is parted off, and often divided by one or two floors, in order better to stow away merchandise and native produce. As we had arrived early in the season, most of the houses were empty, and the place looked desolate in the extreme—the whole of the inhabitants who received us on our landing amounting to about half-a-dozen Bugis and Chinese. Our captain, Herr Warzbergen, had promised to obtain a house for me, but unforeseen difficulties pre- sented themselves. One which was to let had no rool, and the owner, who was building it on speculation, could not promise to finish it in less than a month. Another, of which the owner was dead, and which I might there- fore take undisputed possession of as the first comer, wanted considerable repairs, and no one could be found to do the work, although about four times its value was offered. The captain, therefore, recommended me to take possession of a pretty good house near his own, whose owner was not expected for some weeks ; and as I was anxious to be on shore, I immediately had it cleared out, and by evening had all my things housed, and was regularly installed as an inhabitant of Dobbo. I had brought with me a cane chair, and a few light boards, which were soon rigged up into a table and shelves. A - broad bamboo bench served as sofa and bedstead, my : boxes were conveniently arranged, my mats spread on the floor, a window cut in the palm-leaf wall to light my table, and though the place was as miserable and gloomy a shed as could be imagined, I felt as contented as if I had obtained a well-furnished mansion, and looked forward to a month’s residence in it with unmixed satisfaction. The next morning, after an early breakfast, I set off to explore the virgin forests of Aru, anxious to set my mind at rest as to the treasures they were likely to yield, and the probable success of my long-meditated expedition. little native imp was our guide, seduced by the gift of a German knife, value three-halfpence, and my Macassar boy Baderoon brought his chopper to clear the path if necessary. We had to walk about half a mile along the beach, the CHAP. XXX. | HANDSOME BUTTERFLIES. 42,9 ground behind the village being mostly swampy, and then turned. into the forest along a path which leads to the native village of Wamma, about three miles off on the other side of the island. The path was a narrow one, and very little used, often swampy and obstructed by fallen trees, so that after about a mile we lost it altogether, our guide having turned back, and we were obliged to follow his example. In the meantime, however, I had not been idle, and my day’s captures determined the success of my journey in an entomological point of view. I had taken - about thirty species of butterflies, more than I had ever captured in a day since leaving the prolific banks of the Amazon, and among them were many most rare and beautiful insects, hitherto only known by a few specimens from New Guinea. The large and handsome spectre- butterfly, Hestia durvillei; the pale-winged peacock butterfly, Drusilla catops; and the most brilliant and wonderful of the clear-winged moths, Cocytia d@ Urvillei, were especially interesting, as well as several little “blues,” equalling in brilliancy and beauty anything the butterfly world can produce. In the other groups of insects [ was not so successful, but this was not to be wondered at in a mere exploring ramble, when only what is most conspicuous and novel attracts the attention. Several pretty beetles, a superb “ bug,” and a few nice land-shells were obtained, and I returned in the afternoon well satisfied with my first trial of the promised land. The next two days were so wet and windy that there was no going out; but on the succeeding one the sun shone brightly, and I had the good fortune to capture one of the most magnificent insects the world contains, the great bird- winged butterfly, Ornithoptera poseidon. I trembled with excitement as I saw it coming majestically towards me, and could hardly believe I had really succeeded in my stroke till I had taken it out of the net and was gazing, lost in admiration, at the velvet black and brilliant green of its wings, seven inches across, its golden body, and crimson breast. It is true I had seen similar insects in cabinets at home, but it is quite another thing to capture such oneself—to feel it struggling between one’s fingers, and to gaze upon its fresh and living beauty, a bright gera 430 THE ARU ISLANDS. [cmar. KX. shining out amid the silent eloom of a dark and tangled forest. The village of Dobbo held that evening at least one contented man. | Jan. 26th.—Having now been here a fortnight, I began to understand a little of the place and its pecu- liarities. Praus continually arrived, and the merchant population increased almost daily. Every two or three days a fresh house was opened, and the necessary repairs made. In every direction men were bringing in poles, bamboos, rattans, and the leaves of the nipa palm. to construct or repair the walls, thatch, doors, and shutters of their houses, which they do with great celerity. Some of the arrivals were Macassar men or Bugis, but more from the small island of Goram, at the east end of Ceram, whose inhabitants are the petty traders of the far Hast. Then the natives of Aru come in from the other side of the islands (called here “ blakang tana,” or “back of the country”) with the produce they have collected during the preceding six months, and which they now sell to the traders, to some of whom they are most likely in debt. Almost all, or I may safely say all, the new arrivals pay me a visit, to see with their own eyes the unheard-of phe- nomenon of a person come to stay at Dobbo who does not trade! ‘They have their own ideas of the uses that may possibly be made of stuffed birds, beetles, and shells which - are not the right shells—that 1s, “ mother-of-pearl.” They every day bring me dead and broken shells, such as I can pick up by hundreds on the beach, and seem quite puzzled and distressed when I decline them. If, however, there are any snail shells among a lot, I take them, and ask for more—a principle of selection so utterly unintelligible to them, that they give it up 10 despair, or solve the problem by imputing hidden medical virtue to those which they see me preserve so carefully. These traders are all of the Malay race, ora mixture of which Malay is the chief ingredient, with the exception of a few Chinese. The natives of Aru, on the other hand, are Papuans, with black or sooty brown skins, woolly or frizzly hair, thick-ridged prominent noses, and rather slender limbs. Most of them wear nothing but a waist- cloth, and a few of them may be seen all day long wan- cHaP. xxx.]| PROGRESS OF MY COLLECTIONS. 43] _ dering about the half-deserted streets of Dobbo offering _ their little bit of merchandise for sale. Living in a trader’s house everything is brought to me as well as to the rest,—bundles of smoked tripang, or “ béche de mer,” looking like sausages which have been rolled in mud and then thrown up the chimney ; dried sharks’ fins, mother-of-pearl shells, as well as Birds of Paradise, which, however, are so dirty and so badly preserved that I have as yet found no specimens worth purchasing. When I hardly look at the articles, and make no offer for them, they seem incredulous, and, as if fearing they have misunderstood me, again offer them, and declare what they want in return —knives, or tobacco, or sago, or handkerchiefs. I then have to endeavour to explain, through any interpreter who may be at hand, that neither tripang nor pearl oyster shells have any charms for me, and that I even decline to specu- late in tortoiseshell, but that anything eatable I will buy— fish, or turtle, or vegetables of any sort. Almost the only food, however, that we can obtain with any regularity, are fish and cockles of very good quality, and to supply our daily wants it is absolutely necessary to be always pro- vided with four articles—tobacco, knives, sago-cakes, and Dutch copper doits—because when the particular thing asked for is not forthcoming, the fish pass on to the next house, and we may go that day without a dinner. It is curious to see the baskets and buckets used here. The cockles are brought in large volute shells, probably the Cymbium ducale, while gigantic helmet-shells, a species of Cassis, suspended by a rattan handle, form the vessels in which fresh water is daily carried past my door. It is painful to a naturalist to see these splendid shells with their inner whorls ruthlessly broken away to fit them for their ignoble use. My collections, however, got on but slowly, owing to the unexpectedly bad weather, violent winds with heavy showers having been so continuous as only to give me four good collecting days out of the first sixteen T spent here. Yet enough had been collected to show me that with time and fine weather I might expect to do something good. From the natives I obtained some very fine insects and a _ few pretty land-shells; and of the small number of birds 432 THE ARU ISLANDS. (CHAP, Xxx. yet shot more than half were known New Guinea species, and therefore certainly rare in European collections, while the remainder were probably new. In oue respect my hopes seemed doomed to be disappointed. I had antici- pated the pleasure of myself preparing fine specimens of the Birds of Paradise, but I now learnt that they are all at this season out of plumage, and that it is in September and October that they have the long plumes of yellow silky feathers in full perfection. As all the praus return in July, I should not be able to spend that season in Aru without remaining another whole year, which was out of the question. I was informed, however, that the smali rea species, the “King Bird of Paradise,” retains its plumage at all seasons, and this I might therefore hope to get. As I became familiar with the forest scenery cf the island, I perceived it to possess some characteristic features that distinguished it from that of Borneo aud Malacca, while, what is very singular and interesting, it recalled to my mind the halt-forgotten impressions of the forests of Equatorial America. For example, the palms were much more abundant than I had generally found them in the East, more generally mingled with the other vegetation, more varied in form and aspect, and presenting some of those lofty and majestic smooth-stemmed, pinnate-leaved species which recall the Uauasst (Attalea speciosa) of the Amazon, but which I had hitherto rarely met with in the Malayan islands. In animal life the immense number and variety of spiders and of lizards were circumstances that recalled the prolific regions of South America, more especially the abundance and varied colours of the little jumping spiders which abound on flowers and foliage, and are often perfect gems of beauty. The web-spinning species were also more numerous than I had ever seen them, and were a great annoyance, stretching their nets across the footpaths just about the height of my face; and the threads composing these are so strong and glutinous as to require much trouble to free oneself from them. Then their inhabitants, great yellow-spotted monsters with bodies two inches long, and legs in proportion, are not pleasant things to run one’s nose — against while pursuing some gorgeous butterfly, or gazing CHAP. XXx.] SPIDERS, LIZARDS, AND CRABS. 433 aloft in search of some strange-voiced bird. {£ soon found it necessary not only to brush away the web, but also to destroy the spinner; for at first, having cleared the path one day, I found the next morning that the industrious insects had spread their nets again in the very same places. The lizards were equally striking by their numbers, variety, and the situations in which they were found. The beautiful blue-tailed species so abundant in Ké, was not seen here. The Aru lizards are more varied but more sombre in their colours—shades of green, grey, brown, and even black, being very frequently seen. livery shrub and herbaceous plant was alive with them, every rotten trunk or dead branch served as a station for some of these active little insect-hunters, who, I fear, to satisfy their gross appetites, destroy many gems of the insect world, which would feast the eyes and delight the heart of our more discriminating entomologists. Another curious feature of the jungle here was the multitude of sea-shells everywhere met with on the ground and high up on the branches and foliage, all inhabited by hermit-crabs, who forsake the beach to wander in the forest. I have actually seen a spider carrying away a good-sized shell and devouring its (probably juvenile) tenant. On the beach, which I had to walk along every morning to reach the forest, these crea- tures swarmed by thousands. Every dead shell, from the largest to the most minute, was appropriated by them. They formed small social parties of ten or twenty around bits of stick or seaweed, but dispersed hurriedly at the sound of approaching footsteps. After a windy night, that nasty-looking Chinese delicacy the sea-slug was sometimes thrown up on the beach, which was at such times thickly strewn with some of the most beautiful shells that adorn our cabinets, along with fragments and masses of coral and strange sponges, of which I picked up more than twenty different sorts. In many cases sponge and coral are so much alike that it is only on touching them that they can be distinguished. Quantities of seaweed, too, are thrown up; but strange as it may seem, these are far Jess beautiful and less varied than may be found on any favourable part of our own coasts. The natives here, even those who seem to be of pure FF ASA THE ARU ISLANDS. [OHAP. XXX. Papuan race, were much more reserved and taciturn than those of Ké. This is probably because I only saw them as yet among strangers and in small parties. One must see the savage at home to know what he really is. Even here, however, the Papuan character sometimes breaks out. Little boys sing cheerfully as they walk along, or talk aloud to themselves (quite a negro characteristic) ; and, try all they can, the men cannot conceal their emotions im the true Malay fashion. A number of them were one day in my house, and having a fancy to try what sort of eating tripang would be, I bought a couple, paying for them with such an extravagant quantity of tobacco that the seller saw I was a green customer. He could not, however, conceal his delight, but as he smelt the fragrant weed, and exhibited the large handful to his companions, he erinned and twisted and gave silent chuckles in a most expressive pantomime. I had often before made the same mistake in paying a Malay for some trifle. In no case, however, was his pleasure visible on his countenance—a dull and stupid hesitation only showing his surprise, which would be exhibited exactly in the same way whether he was over or under paid. These little moral traits are of the greatest snterest when taken in connexion with physical features. They do not admit of the same ready explanation by external causes which 1s so frequently applied to the latter, Writers on the races of mankind have too often to trust to the information of travellers who pass rapidly from country to country, and thus have few opportunities — of becoming acquainted with peculiarities of national cha- racter, or even of ascertaining what is really the average physical conformation of the people. Such are exceed- ingly apt to be deceived in places where two races have long intermingled, by looking on intermediate forms and mixed habits as evidences of a natural transition from one race to the other, instead of an artificial mixture of two distinct peoples; and they will be the more readily led ‘nto this error if, as in the present case, writers on the subject should have been in the habit of classing these races as mere varieties of one stock, as closely related in physical conformation as from their geographical proximity one might suppose they ought to be. So far as I have yet CHAP. XXx.] NOBLE TREE FERNS. 435 seen, the Malay and Papuan appear to be as widely sepa- rated as any two human races that exist, being distin- guished by physical, mental, and moral characteristics, all of the most marked and striking kind. Feb. 5th.—I took advantage of a very fine calm day to pay a visit to the island of Wokan, which is about a mile from us, and forms part of the “tanna busar,” or main- land of Aru. This is a large island, extending from north to south about a hundred miles, but so low in many parts as to be intersected by. several creeks, which run completely through it, offering a passage for good-sized vessels. On the west side, where we are, there are only a few outlying islands, of which ours (Wamma) is the principal; but on the east coast are a great number of islands, extending some miles beyond the mainland, and forming the “blakang tana,” or “back country,” of the traders, being the principal seat of the pearl, tripang, and tortoiseshell fisheries. To the mainland many of the birds and animals of the country are altogether confined; the Birds of Paradise, the black cockatoo, the great brush- turkey, and the cassowary, are none of them found on Wamma or any of the detached islands. I did not, however, expect in this excursion to see any decided differ- ence in the forest or its productions, and was therefore agreeably surprised. The beach was overhung with the drooping branches of large trees, loaded with Orchidee, ferns, and other epiphytal plants. In the forest there was more variety, some parts being dry, and with trees of a lower growth, while in others there were some of the most beautiful palms I have ever seen, with a perfectly straight, smooth, slender stem, a hundred feet high, and a crown of handsome drooping leaves. But the greatest novelty and most striking feature to my eyes were the tree-ferns, which, _ after seven years spent in the tropics, I now saw in per- fection for the first time. All I had hitherto met with were slender species, not more than twelve feet high, and they gave not the least idea of the supreme beauty of trees bearing their elegant heads of fronds more than thirty feet in the air, like those which were plentifully scattered about this forest. There is nothing in tropical vegetation so perfectly beautiful. FF 2 A36 THE ARU ISLANDS. ~ [cHAP. XXX. My boys shot five sorts of birds, none of which we had obtained during a month's shooting in Warnma. Two were very pretty flycatchers, already known from New Guinea; one of them (Monarcha chrysomela), of brillant black and bright orange colours, is by some authors con- sidered to be the most beautiful of all flycatchers ; the other is pure white and velvety black, with a broad fleshy ring round the eye of an azure blue colour; it is named the “spectacled flycatcher ” (Monarcha telescopthalma), and was first found in New Guinea, along with the other, by the French naturalists during the voyage of the dis- covery-ship Coquille. Feb. 18t/..—Before leaving Macassar, I had written to the Governor of Amboyna requesting him to assist me with the native chiefs of Aru. I now received by a vessel which had arrived from Amboyna a very polite answer, informing me that orders had been sent to give me every assistance that I might require ; and I was just congratulating myself on being at length able to get a boat and men to go to the mainland and explore the interlor, when a sudden check came in the form of a piratical incursion. A small prau arrived which had been attacked by pirates and had a man wounded. They were said to have five boats, but more were expected to be — behind, and the traders were all in consternation, fearing that their small vessels sent trading to the “ blakang tana % would be plundered. The Aru natives were of course dreadfully alarmed, as these marauders attack their villages, burn and murder, and carry away women and children for slaves. Not a man will stir from his village for some time, and I must remain still a prisoner im Dobbo. The Governor of Amboyna, out of pure kind- — ness, has told the chiefs that they are to be respon- sible for my safety, so that they have an excellent excuse for refusing to stir. Several praus went out in search of the pirates, sentinels were appointed, and watch-fires lighted on the beach to euard against the possibility of a night attack, though it was hardly thought they would be bold enough to attempt to plunder Dobbo. ‘The next day the praus returned, and we had positive information that these scourges of the 729 CHAP. Xxx. ] THE PIRATES VISIT US, A437 Kastern seas were really among us. One of Herr Warz- bergen’s small praus also arrived in a sad plight. It had been attacked six days before, just as it was returning from the “blakang tana.” The crew escaped in their small boat and hid in the jungle, while the pirates came up and plundered the vessel. They took away everything but the cargo of mother-of-pearl shell, which was too bulky for them. All the clothes and boxes of the men, and the sails and cordage of the prau, were cleared off. They had four large war boats, and fired a volley of musketry as they came up, and sent off their small boats to the attack. After they had left, our men observed from their concealment that three had stayed behind with a small boat ; and being driven to desperation by the sight of the plundering, one brave fellow swam off armed only with his parang, or chopping-knife, and coming on them un- awares made a desperate attack, killing one and wounding the other two, receiving himself numbers of shght wounds, and then swimming off again when almost exhausted. Two other praus were also plundered, and the crew of one of them murdered toa man. They are said to be Sooloo pirates, but have Bugis among them. On their way here they have devastated one of the small islands east of Ceram. It is now eleven years since they have visited Aru, and by thus making their attacks at long and uncer- tain intervals the alarm dies away, and they find a population for the most part unarmed and unsuspicious of danger. None of the small trading vessels now carry arms, though they did so for a year or two after the last attack, which was just the time when there was the least occasion for it. A week later one of the smaller pirate boats was captured in the “blakang tana.” Scven men were killed and three taken prisoners. The larger vessels have been often seen but cannot be caught, as they have very strong crews, and can always escape by rowing out to sea in the eye of the wind, returning at night. They will thus remain among the innumerable islands and channels, till the change of the monsoon enables them to sail westward. Merch 9th.—Foyr four or five days we have had a con- tinual gale of wind, with occasional gusts of great fury, 43% THE ARU ISLANDS. (CHAP, XXX. which seem as if they would send Dobbo into the sea. Rain accompanies it almost every alternate hour, so that it is not a pleasant time. During such weather I can do little, but am busy getting ready a boat I have purchased, for an excursion into the interior. There is immense difficulty about men, but I believe the “ Orang-kaya,” 02 head man of Wamma, will accompany me to see that J don’t run into danger. 3 Having become quite an old inhabitant of Dobbo, I will endeavour to sketch the sights and sounds that pervade it, and the manners and customs of its inhabitants. The place is now pretty full, and the streets present a far more cheerful aspect than when we first arrived. Every house is a store, where the natives barter their produce for what they are most in need of. Knives, choppers, swords, guns, tobacco, gambier, plates, basins, handkerchiefs, sarongs, calicoes, and arrack, are the principal articles wanted by the natives; but some of the stores contain also tea, coffee, sugar, wine, biscuits, &c., for the supply of the traders; and others are full of fancy goods, china ornaments, looking- glasses, razors, umbrellas, pipes, and purses, which take the fancy of the wealthier natives. Every fine day mats are spread before the doors and the tripang is put out to dry, as well as sugar, salt, biscuit, tea, cloths, and other things that get injured by an excessively moist atmosphere. In the morning and evening, spruce Chinamen stroll about or chat at each other’s doors, in blue trousers, white jacket, and a queue into which red silk is plaited till it reaches almost to their heels. An old Bugis hadji regularly takes an evening stroll in all the dignity of flowing green silk robe and gay turban, followed by two small boys carrying his sirih and betel boxes. In every vacant space new houses are being built, and all sorts of odd little cooking-sheds are erected against the old ones, while in some out-of-the-way corners, massive log pigsties are tenanted by growing porkers; for how could the Chinamen exist six months without one feast of pig? Here and there are stalls where bananas are sold, and every morning two little boys go about with trays of sweet rice and grated cocoa-nut, fried fish, or fried plantains ; and whichever it may be, they have but one cry, and that is— CHAP. XXX.] LAW OR NO LAW. 439 “ Chocolat—t—t !” This must be a Spanish or Portuguese cry, handed down for centuries, while its meaning has been lost. The Bugis sailors, while hoisting the main- sail, cry out, “Véla a véla,—véla, véla, véla!” repeated in an everlasting chorus. As “vela” is Portuguese for a sail, I supposed I had discovered the origin of this, but I found afterwards they used the same cry when heaving anchor, and often changed it to “hela,” which is so much an universal expression of exertion and hard breathing that it is most probably a mere in- terjectional cry. I daresay there are now near five hundred people in Dobbo of various races, all met in this remote corner of the Kast, as they express it, “to look for their fortune ;” to get money any way they can. They are most of them people who have the very worst reputation for honesty as well as every other form of morality,—Chinese, Bugis, Ceramese, and half-caste Javanese, with a sprinkling of half-wild Papuans from Timor, Babber, and other islands,— yet all goes on as yet very quietly. This motley, ignorant, bloodthirsty, thievish population live here without the shadow of a government, with no police, no courts, and no. lawyers ; yet they do not cut each other’s throats, do not. plunder each other day and night, do not fall into the anarchy such a state of things might be supposed to lead to. It is very extraordinary! It puts strange thoughts. into one’s head about the mountain-load of government under which people exist in Europe, and suggests the idea. that we may be overgoverned. Think of the hundred Acts of Parliament annually enacted to prevent us, the people of England, from cutting each other’s throats, or from doing to our neighbour as we would not be done by. Think of the thousands of lawyers and bar- tisters whose whole lives are spent in telling us what the hundred Acts of Parliament mean, and one would be led to infer that if Dobbo has too little law England has too much. Here we may behold in its simplest form the genius of Commerce at the work of Civilization. Trade is the macic that keeps all at peace, and unites these discordant elements into a well-behaved community. Al! are traders, and all AAQ GHE ARU ISLANDS. |CHAP. XXX. know that peace and order are essential to successful trade, and thus a public opinion is created which puts down all lawlessness, Often in former years, when strolling along the Campong Glam in Singapore, I have thought how wild and ferocious the Bugis sailors looked, and how little I should like to trust myself among them. But now I find them to be very decent, well-behaved fellows; I walk daily unarmed in the jungle, where I meet them con- tinually; I sleep in a palm-leat hut, which any one may enter, with as little fear and as little danger of thieves or murder as if 1 were under the protection of the Metro- politan police. -It is true the Dutch influence is felt here. The islands are nominally under the government of the Moluccas, which the native chiefs acknowledge; and in most years a commissioner arrives from Amboyna, who makes the tour of the islands, hears complaints, settles disputes, and carries away prisoner any heinous offender. This year he is not expected to come, as No orders have yet — been received to prepare for him; so the people of Dobbo will probably be left to their own devices. One day a man was caught in the act of stealing a piece of iron from Herr Warzbergen’s house, which he had entered by making a hole through the thatch wall., In the evening the chiet traders of the place, Bugis and Chinese, assembled, the offender was tried and found guilty, and sentenced to receive twenty lashes on the spot. They were given with a small rattan in the middle of the street, not very severely, as the executioner appeared to sympathise a little with the culprit. The disgrace seemed to be thought as much of as the pain; for though any amount of clever cheating 1s thought rather meritorious than otherwise, open robbery and housebreaking meet with universal reprobation. SHAP, XXXL.) JOURNEY TO TEE MAINLAND. 44] CHAPTER XXXI. THE ARU ISLANDS.—JOURNEY AND RESIDENCE IN THE INTERIOR (MARCH TO MAY 1857.) Y boat was at length ready, and having obtained two men besides my own servants, after an enormous amount of talk and trouble, we left Dobbo on the morning of March 13th, for the mainland of Aru. By noon we reached the mouth of a small river or creek, which we ascended, winding among mangrove swamps, with here and there a glimpse of dry land. In two hours we reached a house, or rather small shed, of the most miserable de- scription, which our steersman, the “Orang-kaya” of Wamma, said was the place we were to stay at, and where he had assured me we could get every kind of bird and beast to be found in Aru. The shed was occupied by about a dozen men, women, and children; two cooking fires were burning in it, and there seemed little prospect of my obtaining any accommodation. I however deferred inquiry till I had seen the neighbouring forest, and imme- diately started off with two men, net, and guns, along a path at the back of the house. In an hours walk I saw enough to make me determine to give the place a trial, and on my return, finding the “Orang-kaya” was in a strong fever-fit and unable to do anything, I entered into nego- tiations with the owner of the house for the use of a slip at one end of it about five feet wide, for a week, and agreed to pay as rent one “parang,” or chopping-knife. I then immediately got my boxes and bedding out of the boat, hung up a shelf for my bird-skins and insects, and got all ready for work next morning. My own boys slept in the boat to guard the remainder of my property; a cooking place sheltered by a few mats was arrangec under a tree close by, and I felt that degree of satisfaction and enjoy- ment which I always experience when, after much trouble 442, THE ARU ISLANDS. [CHAP. XXX] and delay, I am on the point of beginning work in a new - locality. ; One of my first objects was to inquire for the people who are accustomed to shoot the Paradise birds. hey lived at some distance in the jungle, and a man was sent to call them. When they arrived, we had a talk by means of the “Orang-kaya” as interpreter, and they said they 135 134| ast Bongitude ettbeean,, ray pute eaatt = oe cg if se = iQ = f® = as = Letra. r a Ps \ MAP : OF THE Shallow sea ARU ISLANDS. M? Wallaces Rowles. ac-00-- ' 455 | aT i ea ~~, i re Biss Ah i. t Pe aoe — er ¥ = UM L222 Zig a “SS =<<——~ —S>— Wy XS SS ir PD HW Yip } le " ds. WY —— : we ZS AN «& ‘\ SS ~ j ; 4a Ty SN >, ~ Ss ~ P< TNE iH . zB iG a ; WA ZO 4s, ZL SEZ aE avy 9 A = ee // h ans 4 NY ce ) \X& | \i Ne ( y uy ° KE. NATIVES OF ARU SHOOTING THE GREAT BIRD OF PARADIS CHAP. XXXI.] THE KING-BIRD. 443 thought they could get some. They explained that they shoot the birds with a bow and arrow, the arrow having a conical wooden cap fitted to the end as large as a teacup, so as to kill the bird by the violence of the blow without making any wound or snedding any blood. The trees frequented by the birds are very lofty; it is therefore necessary to erect a small leafy covering or hut among the branches, to which the hunter mounts before daylight in the morning and remains the whole day, and whenever a bird alights they are almost sure of securing it. (See Iilustration.) They returned to their homes the same evening, and I never saw anything more of them, owing, as I afterwards found, to its being too early to obtain birds in good plumage. The first two or three days of our stay here were very wet, and I obtained but few insects or birds, but at length, when I was beginning to despair, my boy Baderoon returned one day with a specimen which repaid me for months of delay and expectation. It was a small bird, a little less than a thrush. The greater part of its plumage was of an intense cinnabar red, with a gloss as of spun glass. On the head the feathers became short and velvety, and shaded into rich orange. Beneath, from the breast down- wards, was pure white, with the softness and gloss of silk, and across the breast a band of deep metallic green sepa- rated this colour from the red of the throat. Above each eye was a round spot of the same metallic green; the bill was yellow, and the feet and legs were of a fine cobalt blue, strikingly contrasting with all the other parts of the body. Merely in arrangement of colours and texture of plumage this little bird was a gem of the first water, yet these comprised only half its strange beauty. Springing from each side of the breast, and ordinarily lying concealed under the wings, were little tufts of greyish feathers about two inches long, and each terminated by a broad band of intense emerald green. These plumes can be raised at the will of the bird, and spread out into a pair of elegant fans when the wings are elevated. But this is not the only ornament. The two middle feathers of the tail are in the - form of slender wires about five inches long, and which diverge in a beautiful double curve. About half an inch of —A44 THE ARU ISLANDS. (caaP. XXXL. the end of this wire is webbed on the outer side only, and coloured of a fine metallic green, and being curled spirally inwards form a pair of elegant glittering buttons, hanging Sve inches below the body, and the same distance apart. These two ornaments, the breast fans and the spiral tipped tail wires, are altogether unique, not occurring on any other species of the eight thousand different birds that are known to exist upon the earth; and, combined with the most exquisite beauty of plumage, render this one of the most perfectly lovely of the many lovely pro- ductions of nature. My transports of admiration and delight quite amused my Aru hosts, who saw nothing more in the “Burong raja” than we do im the robin or the goldfinch." Thus one of my objects in coming to the far Hast was accomplished. I had obtained a specimen of the King Bird of Paradise (Paradisea regia), which had been de- scribed by Linnzus from skins preserved in a mutilated state by the natives. I knew how few Europeans had ever beheld the perfect little organism I now gazed upon, and how very imperfectly it was still known in Europe. The emotions excited in the minds of a naturalist, who has long desired to see the actual thing which he has hitherto known only by description, drawing, or badly-preserved external covering—especially when that thing is of sur- passing rarity and beauty, require the poetic faculty fully to express them. The remote island in which I found inyself situated, in an almost unvisited sea, far from the tracks of merchant fleets and navies ; the wild luxuriant tropical forest, which stretched far away on every side ; the rude uncultured savages who gathered round me,—all lad their influence in determining the emotions with which I gazed upon this “thing of beauty.” I thought of the long ages of the past, during which the successive gene- rations of this little creature had run their course—year by year being born, and living and dying amid these dark and gloomy woods, with no intelligent eye to gaze upon their loveliness ; to all appearance such a wanton waste of beauty. Such ideas excite a feeling of melan- 1 See the upper figure on Plate at cominencement of Cliapter XXXVITII. CHAP. XXX1. | THE GREAT PARADISE BIRD. 448 choly. It seems sad, that on the one hand such exquisite creatures should live out their lives and exhibit their charms only in these wild inhospitable regions, doomed for ages yet to come to hopeless barbarism; while on the other hand, should civilized man ever reach these distant lands, and bring moral, intellectual, and physical light into the recesses of these virgin forests, we may be sure that he will so disturb the nicely-balanced relations of organic and inorganic nature as to cause the disappearance, and finally the extinction, of these very beings whose wonderful structure and beauty he alone is fitted to appre- ciate and enjoy. This consideration must surely tell us that all living things were not made for man. Many of them have no relation to him. The cycle of their exist- ence has gone on independently of his, and is disturbed or broken by every advance in man’s intellectual develop- ment; and their happiness and enjoyments, their loves and hates, their struggles for existence, their vigorous life and early death, would seem to be immediately related to their own well-being and perpetuation alone, limited only by the equal well-being and perpetuation of the number- less other organisms with which each is more or less inti- mately connected. After the first king-bird was obtained, I went with my men into the forest, and we were not only rewarded with another in equally perfect plumage, but I was enabled to see a little of the habits of both it and the larger species. It frequents the lower trees of the less dense forests, and is very active, flying strongly with a whirring sound, and continually hopping or flying from branch to branch. It eats hard stone-bearing fruits as large as a gooseberry, and often fiutters its wings after the manner of the South American manakins, at which time it elevates and expands the beautiful fans with which its breast is adorned. The natives of Aru call it “Goby-goby.” One day I got under a tree where a number of the Great Paradise birds were assembled, but they were high up in the thickest of the foliage, and flying and jumping about so continually that I could get no good view of them. At length I shot one, but it was a young specimen, and was entirely of a rich chocolate-brown colour, without either 446 THE ARU ISLANDS. (CHAP. XXX. the metallic green throat or yellow plumes of the full- crown bird. All that I had yet seen resembled this, and fhe natives told me that it would be about two months before any would be found in full plumage. I still hoped, therefore, to get some. Their voice is most extraordinary. At early morn, before the sun has risen, we hear a loud cry of “ Wawk—wawk—wawk, wok—wok—wok,” which resounds through the forest, changing its direction con- tinually. This is the Great Bird of Paradise going to seek his breakfast. Others soon follow his example ; lories and parroquets cry shrilly, cockatoos scream, king-hunters croak and bark, and the various smaller birds chirp and whistle their morning song. As I lie listening to these interesting sounds, I realize my position as the first European who has ever lived for months together in the Aru islands, a place which I had hoped rather than expected ever to visit. I think how many besides myself have longed to reach these almost fairy realms, and to see with their own eyes the many wonderful and beautiful things which I am daily encountering. But now Ali and Baderoon are up and getting ready their guns and ammunition, and little Baso has his fire lighted and is boiling my coffee, and I remember that I had a black cockatoo brought in late last night, which I must skin immediately, and so I jump up and begin my day’s work very happily. . This cockatoo is the first I have seen, and is a great prize. It has a rather small and weak body, long weak legs, large wings, and an enormously developed head, ornamented with a magnificent crest, and armed with a sharp-pointed hooked bill of immense size and strength. The plumage is entirely black, but has all over it the curious powdery white secretion characteristic of cockatoos. The cheeks are bare, and of an intense blood-red colour. Instead of the harsh scream of the white cockatoos, its voice is a somewhat plaintive whistle. The tongue is a curious organ, being a slender fleshy cylinder of a deep red colour, terminated by a horny black plate, furrowed across and somewhat prehensile. The whole tongue has a considerable extensile power. I will here relate some- thing of the habits of this bird, with which I have since CHAP. XXX1. | GREAT BLACK COCKATOO. 447 become acquainted. It frequents the lower parts of the forest, and is seen singly, or at most two or three together. It flies slowly and noiselessly, and may be killed by a HEAD OF BLACK COCKATOO, comparatively slight wound. It eats various fruits and seeds, but seems more particularly attached to the kerne! of the kanary-nut, which grows on a lofty forest tree 448 THE AKU ISLANDS. [cHaP. XXX fj (Canarium commune), abundant in the islands where this bird is found; and the manner in which it gets at these seeds shows a correlation of structure and habits, which would point out the “kanary” as its special food. The shell of this nut is so excessively hard that only a heavy hammer will crack it; it is somewhat triangular, and the outside is quite smooth. The manner in which the bird opens these nuts 1s very curious. Taking one endways in its bill and keeping it firm by a pressure of the tongue, it cuts a transverse notch by a lateral sawing motion of the sharp-edged lower mandible. This done, it takes hold of the nut with its foot, and biting off a piece of leaf retains it in the deep notch of the upper mandible, and again seizing the nut, which is prevented from slipping by the elastic tissue of the leaf, fixes the edge of the lower mandible in the notch, and by a powerful nip breaks off a piece of the shell. Again taking the nut in its claws, it inserts the very long and sharp point of the bill and picks out the kernel, which is seized hold of, morsel by morsel, by the extensible tongue. Thus every detail of form and structure in the extraordinary bill of this bird seems to have its use, and we may easily conceive that the black cockatoos have maintained themselves in com- petition with their more active and more numerous white allies, by their power of existing on a kind of food which no other bird is able to extract from its stony shell. The species is the Microglossum aterrimum of naturalists. During the two weeks which I spent in this little settle- ment, I had good opportunities of observing the natives at their own home, and living in their usual manner. There is a great monotony and uniformity in every-day savage life, and it seemed to me a more miserable existence than when it had the charm of novelty. To begin with the most important fact in the existence of uncivilized peoples—their food—the Aru men have no regular supply, no staff of life, such as bread, rice, mandiocca, maize, or sago, which are the daily food of a large proportion of mankind. They have, however, many sorts of vegetables, plantains, yams, sweet potatoes, and raw sago; and they chew up vast quantities of sugar-cane, as well as betel- nuts, gambir, and tobacco. Those who live on the coast (OHAP. XXx1.] NATIVE HOUSES AND HABITS. 'AAY have plenty of fish; but when inland, as we are here, they only go to the sea occasionally, and then bring home cockles and other shell-fish by the boatload. Now and then they get wild pig or kangaroo, but too rarely to form anything like a regular part of their dist, which is essentially vegetable ; and what is of more importance, as affecting their health, green, watery vegetables, imper- fectly cooked, and even these in varying and often in- sufficient quantities. To this diet may be attributed the prevalence of skin diseases, and ulcers on the legs and joints. |The scurfy skin disease so common among savages has a close connexion with the poorness and irregularity of their living. \The Malays, who are never without their daily rice, até generally free from it; the hill-Dyaks of Borneo, who grow rice and live well, are clean skinned, while the less industrious and less cleanly tribes, who live for a portion of the year on fruits and vegetables only, are very subject to this malady. It seems clear that in this, as in other respects, man is not able to make a beast of himself with impunity, feeding like the cattle on the herbs and fruits of the earth, and taking no thought of the morrow. To maintain his health and beauty he must labour to prepare some farinaceous product capable of being stored and accumulated, so as to give him a regular supply of wholesome food. When this is obtained, he may add vegetables, fruits, and meat with advantage. The chief luxury of the Aru people, besides betel and tobacco, is arrack (Java rum), which the traders bring in great quantities and sell very cheap. A day’s fishing or rattan cutting will purchase at least a half- gallon bottle; and when the tripang or birds’ nests collected during a season are sold, they get whole boxes, each containing fifteen such bottles, which the inmates of a house will sit round day and night till they have finished. They themselves tell me that at such bouts they often tear to pieces the house they are in, break and destroy everything they can lay their hands on, and make such an infernal riot as is alarming to behold. The houses and furniture are on a par with the food. A rude shed, supported on rough and slender sticks rather than posts, no walls, hut the tloor raised to within a toot GG a * + 450 THE ARU ISLANDS. (cHaP. XXXI 0 | of the eaves, is the style of architecture they usually - adopt. Inside there are partition walls of thatch, forming little boxes or sleeping places, to accommodate the two or three separate families that usually live together. A few mats, baskets, and cooking vessels, with plates and basins purchased from the Macassar traders, constitute their whole furniture; spears and bows are their weapons; a ‘garong or mat forms the clothing of the women, a waist- cloth of the men. For hours or even for days they sit idle in their houses, the women bringing in the vegetables or sago which form their food. Sometimes they hunt or — fsh a little, or work at their houses or canoes, but they seem to enjoy pure idleness, and work as little as they can. They have little to vary the monotony of life, little that can be called pleasure, except idleness and conver- sation. And they certainly do talk! Every evening there ‘sa, little Babel around me: but as I understand not a word of it, I go on with my book or work undisturbed. Now and then they scream and shout, or laugh frantically for variety ; and this goes on alternately with vociferous talking of men, women, and children, till long after 1 am in my mosquito curtain and sound asleep. At this place I obtained some light on the complicated mixture of races in Aru, which would utterly confound an ethnologist. Many of the natives, though equally dark with the others, have little of the Papuan physiognomy, but have more delicate features of the European. type, with more glossy, curling hair. These at first quite puzzled me, for they have no more resemblance to Malay than to Papuan, and the darkness of skin and hair would forbid the idea of Dutch intermixture. Listening to their con-— versation, however, I detected some words that were familiar to me. “Accab6” was one; and to be sure that | it was not an accidental resemblance, I asked the speaker | in Malay what “accabo” meant, and was told it meant “done or finished,’ a true Portuguese word, with its meaning retained. Again, I heard the word “jafui” often repeated, and could see, without inquiry, that its meaning was “he’s gone,” as in Portuguese. “ Porco,” too, seems common: name, though the people have no idea of its European mearing. | This cleared up the difficulty. T at CHAP. XXXI.] MIXTURE OF RACES. 45] once understood that some early Portuguese traders had penetrated to these islands, and mixed with the natives, influencing their language, and leaving in their descendants for many generations the visible characteristics of their race. If to this we add the occasional mixture of Malay, Dutch, and Chinese with the indigenous Papuans, we have no reason to wonder at the curious varieties of form and feature occasionally to be met with in Aru. In this very house there was a Macassar man, with an Aru wife and a family of mixed children. In Dobbo I saw a Javanese and an Amboyna man, each with an Aru wife and family ; and as this kind of mixture has been going on for at least three hundred years, and probably much longer, it has produced a decided effect on the physical characteristics of a considerable portion of the population of the islands, more especially in Dobbo and the parts nearest to it, March 28th.—The “Orang-kaya ” being very ill with fever had begged to go home, and had arranged with one of the men of the house to go on with me as his substitute. Now that I wanted to move, the bugbear of the pirates was brought up, and it was pronounced unsafe to go further than the next small river. This would not suit’ me, as I had determined to traverse the channel called Watelai to the “blakang-tana;” but my guide was firm in his dread of pirates, of which I knew there was now no danger, as several vessels had gone in search of them, as well as a Dutch gunboat which had arrived since I left Dobbo. I had, fortunately, by this time heard that the Dutch “Com- missie” had really arrived, and therefore threatened that if my guide did not go with me immediately, I would appeal to the authorities, and he would certainly be obliged to give back the cloth which the “Orang-kaya” had transferred to him in prepayment. This had the desired effect ; matters were soon arranged, and we started the next morning. The wind, however, was dead against us, and after rowing hard till midday we put in to a small river where there were a few huts, to cook our dinners. The place did not look very promising. but as we could not reach our destination, the Watelai river, owing to the contrary wind, I thought we might as well wait here a day or two. I therefore paid a chopper for the use of a small shed, and got my bed and GG 2 452 THE ARU ISLANDS. [cHAP. KXXXI. — some boxes on shore. In the evening, after dark, we were suddenly alarmed by the. cry of “ Bajak! bajak!” (Pirates !) The men all seized their bows and spears, and rushed down to the beach; we got hold of our guns and prepared for action, but in a few minutes all came back laughing and chattering, for it had proved to be only a small boat and some of their own comrades returned from fishing. When all was quiet again, one of the men, who could speak a little Malay, came to me and begged me not to sleep too hard. “Why?” said J. “Perhaps the pirates may really come,” said he very seriously, which made me laugh and assure him I should sleep as hard as I could. Two days were spent here, but the place was unpro- ductive of insects or birds of interest, so we made another attempt to get on. As soon as we got a little away from the land we had a fair wind, and in six hours’ sailing reached the entrance of the Watelai channel, which divides the most northerly from the middle portion of Aru. At its mouth this was about half a mile wide, but soon narrowed, and a mile or two on it assumed entirely the aspect of a river about the width of the Thames at London, winding among low but undulating and often hilly country. The scene was exactly such as might be expected in the — interior of a continent. The channel continued of a uniform average width, with reaches and sinuous bends, one bank being often precipitous, or even forming vertical clifis, while the other was flat and apparently alluvial ; and it was only the pure salt-water, and the absence of any stream but the slight flux and reflux of the tide, that would enable a person to tell that he was navigating a strait and not a river. The wind was fair, and carried us along, with occasional assistance from our oars, till about three in the afternoon, when we landed where a little brook formed two or three basins in the coral rock, and then fell in a, miniature cascade into the salt-water river. Here we — bathed and cooked our dinner, and enjoyed ourselves lazily till sunset, when we pursued our way for two hours more, and then moored our little vessel to an overhanging tree for the night. At five the next morning we started again, and in an hour overtook four large praus containing the “ Com- CHAP, XXX] TO WANUMBAI. 453 missie,’ who had come from Dobbo to make theit official tour round the islands, and had passed us in the night. I paid a visit to the Dutchmen, one of whom spoke a little English, but we found that we could get on much better with Malay. They told me that they had been delayed going after the pirates to one of the northern islands, and had seen three of their vessels but could not catch them, because on being pursued they rowed out in the wind’s eye, which they are enabled to do by having about fifty oars to each boat. Having had some tea with them, I bade them adieu, and turned up a narrow channel which our pilot said would take us to the village of Watelai, on the east side of Aru. After going some miles we found the channel nearly blocked up with coral, so that our boat grated along the bottom, crunching what may truly be called the living rock. Sometimes all hands had to get out and wade, to lighten the vessel and lift it over the shallowest places; but at length we overcame all obstacles and reached a wide bay or estuary studded with little rocks and islets, and opening to the eastern sea and the numerous islands of the “blakang-tana.” I now found that the village we were going to was miles away; that we should have to go out to sea, and round a rocky point. A squall seemed coming on, and as. I have a horror of small boats at sea, and from all I could learn Watelai village was not a place to stop at (no Birds of Paradise being found there), I determined to return and go to a village I had heard of up a tributary of the Watelai river, and situated nearly in the centre of the mainland cf Aru. The people there were said to be good, and to be accustomed to hunting and bird-catching, being too far inland to get any part of their food from the sea. While I was deciding this point the squall burst upon us, and soon raised a rolling sea in the shallow water, which upset an oil bottle and a lamp, broke some of my crockery, and threw us all into confusion. Rowing hard we managed to get back into the main river by dusk, and looked out for a place to cook our suppers. It happened to be high water, and a very high tide, so that every piece of sand or beach was covered, and it was with the greatest difficulty, and after much groping in the dark, that we discovered a little 454 THE ARU ISLANDS. [CHAP. XXXI. sloping piece of rock about two feet square on which to make a fire and cook some rice. The next day we con- tinued our way back, and on the following day entered a stream on the south side of the Watelai river, and ascend- ing to where navigation ceased found the little village of Wanumbai, consisting of two large houses surrounded by plantations, amid the virgin forests of Aru. As I liked the look of the place, and was desirous of staying some time, | sent my pilot to try and make a bargain for house accommodation. The owner and chief man of the place made many excuses. First, he was afraid I would not like his house, and then was doubtful whether his son, who was away, would like his admitting me. I had a long talk with him myself, and tried to explain what I was doing, and how many things I would buy of them, and showed him my stock of beads, and knives, and cloth, and tobacco, all of which I would spend with his family and friends if he would give me house- room. He seemed a little staggered at this, and said he would talk to his wife, and in the meantime I went for a little walk to see the neighbourhood. When I came back, I again sent my pilot, saying that I would go away if he would not give me part of his house. In about half an hour he returned with a demand for about half the cost of building a house, for the rent of a small portion of it for a few weeks. As the only difficulty now was a pecuniary one, I got out about ten yards of cloth, an axe, with a few beads and some tobacco, and sent them as my final offer for the part of the house which I had before pointed out. This was accepted after a little more talk, and I imme- diately proceeded to take possession. The house was a good large one, raised as usual about seven feet on posts, the walls about three or four feet — more, with a high-pitched roof. The floor was of bamboo laths, and in the sloping roof was an immense shutter, which could be lifted and propped up to admit light and air. At the end where this was situated the floor was raised about a foot, and this piece, about ten feet wide by twenty long, quite open to the rest of the house, was the portion I was to occupy. At one end of this piece. separated by a thatch partition, was a cooking place, with ns “ine ae 7 ; : CHAP. xxxI.] § LODGINGS AT’ WANUMBAL. 459 a Clay floor and shelves for crockery. At the opposite end I had my mosquito curtain hung, and round the walls we arranged my boxes and other stores, fitted up a table and seat, and with a little cleaning and dusting made the place look quite comfortable. My boat was then hauled up on shore, and covered with palm-leaves, the sails and oars brought indoors, a hanging-stage for drying my specimens erected outside the house and another inside, and my boys were set to clean their guns and get all ready for beginning work. | _ The next day I occupied myself in exploring the paths in the immediate neighbourhood. The small river up which we had ascended ceases to be navigable at this point, above which it is a little rocky brook, which quite dries up in the hot season. There was now, however, a fair stream of water in it; and a path which was partly in and partly by the side of the water, promised well for insects, as I here saw the magnificent blue but- terfly, Papilio ulysses, as well as several other fine species, flopping lazily along, sometimes resting high up on the foliage which drooped over the water, at others settling down on the damp rock or on the edges of muddy pools. A little way on several paths branched off through patches of second-growth forest to cane-fields, gardens, and scat- tered houses, beyond which again the dark wall of verdure striped with tree-trunks, marked out the limits of the primeval forests. The voices of many birds promised good shooting, and on my return I found that my boys had already obtained two or three kinds I had not seen before ; and in the evening a native brought me a rare and beautiful species of ground-thrush (Pitta nove-guinez) hitherto only known from New Guinea. As I improved my acquaintance with them I became much interested in these people, who are a fair sample of the true savage inhabitants of the Aru Islands, tolerably free from foreign admixture. The house I lived in con- tained four or five families, and there were generally from six to a dozen visitors besides. They kept up a continual row from morning till night—talking, laughing, shouting, without intermission—not very pleasant, but interesting as a study of national character. My boy Ali said to me, 456 THE ARU ISLANDS. (CHAP. XxXI. “Banyak quot bitchara Orang Aru” (The Aru people are very strong talkers), never having been accustomed to such eloquence either in his own or any other country he had hitherto visited. Of an evening the men, haying got over their first shyness, began to talk to me a little, asking about my country, &c., and in return I questioned them about any traditions they had of their own origin. I had, however, very little success, for I could not possibly make them understand the simple question of where the Aru people first came from. I put it in every possible way to them, but it was a subject quite beyond their speculations ; they had evidently never thought of anything of the kind, and were unable to conceive a thing so remote and so unnecessary to be thought about, as their own origin. Finding this hopeless, I asked if they knew when the trade with Aru first began, when the Bugis and Chinese and Macassar men first came in their praus to buy tripang and tortoise-shell, and birds’ nests, and Paradise birds? This they comprehended, but replied that there had always been the same trade as long as they or their fathers recol- lected, but that this was the first time a real white man had come among them, and, said they, “ You see how the people come every day from all the villages round to look at you.” This was very flattering, and accounted for the great concourse of visitors which I had at first imagined was accidental. A few years before I had been one of the cazers at the Zoolus and the Aztecs in London. Now the tables were turned upon me, for I was to these people a new and strange variety of man, and had the honour ot affording to them, in my own person, an attractive exhi- bition, gratis. All the men and boys of Aru are expert archers, neve) stirring without their bows and arrows. They: shoot al] sorts of birds, as well as pigs and kangaroos occasionally and thus have a tolerably good supply of meat to eat with their vegetables. The result of this better living is superior healthiness, well-made bodies, and generally clear skins, They brought me numbers of small birds. in exchange for beads or tobacco, but mauled them terribly, notwithstand- ing my repeated instructions. When they got a bird alive they would often tie a string to its leg, and keep it a day q CHAP, XXXL) FINE BIRDS. 457 or two, till its plumage was so draggled and dirtied as to be almost worthless. One of the first things I got from them was a living specimen of the curious and beautiful racquet-tailed kingfisher. Seeing how much I admired it, they afterwards brought me several more, which were all caught before daybreak, sleeping in cavities of the rocky banks of the stream. My hunters also shot a few speci- mens, and almost all of .them had the red bill more or less cloggedwith mud and earth. This indicates the habits of the bird, which, though popularly a king-fisher, never catches fish, but lives on insects and minute Shells, which it picks up in the forest, darting down upon them from its perch on some.low branch. “The genus ‘Tanysiptera, to which this bird belongs, is remarkable for the enormously lengthened tail, which in all other kingfishers is small and short. Linnzeus named the species known to him “tho goddess kingfisher” (Alcedo dea), from its extreme eTace and-beauty, the plumage being brilliant blue and white, with the bill red, like coral. Several species of these in- teresting birds are now known, all confined within the very limited area which comprises the Moluccas, New Guinea, and fhe extreme North of Australia. They resemble each other so closely that several of them can only be distinguished by careful comparison. One of the rarest, however, which inhabits New Guinea; is very distinct from the rest, being bright red beneath instead of white. That which I now obtained was a.new one, and has been named Tanysiptera hydrocharis, but in general form and coloration it is exactly similar to the larger species: found in Amboyna, and figured at page 298. New and interesting birds were continually brought in, either by.my own boys or by the natives, and at the end of a week Ali.arrived triumphant one afternoon with a fine specimen of the Great Bird of :Paradise. The ornamental _ plumes had not yet attained their full growth, but the richness of their glossy orange colouring, and the exquisite delicacy of the loosely waving feathers, were unsurpassable. At the:same time a great black cockatoo was brought in, as well as a fine fruit-pigeon and several small birds, so that we were all kept hard at work skinning till sunset. Just as we had cleared away and packed up for the night, a 458 THE ARU ISLANDS. |CHAP. XXXI. strange beast was brought, which had been shot by the natives. It resembled in size, and in its white woolly — covering, a small fat lamb, but had short legs, hand-like feet with large claws, and a long prehensile tail. It was_ a Cuscus (C. maculatus), one of the curious marsupial animals of the Papuan region, and I was very desirous to obtain the skin. The owners, however, said they wanted to eat it; and though I offered them a eood price, and promised to give them all the meat, there was great hesitation. Suspecting the reason, I offered, though it was night, to set to work immediately and get out the body for them, to which they agreed. The creature was much hacked about, and the two hind feet almost cut off, but it was the largest and finest specimen of the kind I had seen ; and after an hours hard work I handed over the body to the owners, who immediately cut it up and roasted it for supper. ‘As this was a very good place for birds, 1 determined to remain a month longer, and took the opportunity of a native boat going to Dobbo, to send Ali for a fresh supply of ammunition and provisions. They started on the 10th of April, and the house was crowded with about a hundred inen, boys, women, and girls, bringing their loads of sugar- cane, plantains, sirih-leaf, yams, &c.; one lad going from each house to sell the produce and make purchases. The noise was indescribable. At least fifty of the hundred were always talking at once, and that not in the low measured tones of the apathetically polite Malay, but with loud voices, shouts, and screaming laughter, in which the women and children. were even more conspicuous than the men. It was only while gazing at me that their tongues were moderately quiet, because their eyes were fully occu- pied. The black vegetable soil here overlying the coral rock | is very rich, and the sugar-cane was finer than any I had ever seen, The canes brought to the boat were often ten and even twelve feet long, and thick in proportion, with short joints throughout, swelling between the knots with the abundance of the rich juice. At Dobbo they get a high price for it, 1d. to 3d. a stick, and there is an insatiable demand among the crews of the praus and the Baba fisher- men. Here they eat it continually They half live en it, OHAP, XXXI.] SUGAR-CANE EATERS. 459 and sometimes feed their pigs with it. Near every house are great heaps of the refuse cane; and large wicker-baskets to contain this refuse as it is produced form a regular part of the furniture of a house. Whatever time of the day you enter, you are sure to find three or four people with a yard of cane in one hand, a knife in the other, and a basket between their legs, hacking, paring, chewing, and basket- filling, with a persevering assiduity which reminds one of a hungry cow grazing, or of a caterpillar eating up a leaf. After five days’ absence the boats returned from Dobbo, bringing Ali and all the things I had sent for quite safe. A large party had-assembled to be ready to carry home the goods brought, among which were a good many cocoa-nuts, which are a great luxury here. It seems strange that they should never plant them; but the reason simply is, that they cannot bring their hearts to bury a good nut for the prospective advantage of a crop twelve years hence. There is also the chance of the fruits being dug up and eaten unless watched night and day. Among the things I had sent for was a box of arrack, and I was now of course besieged with requests for a little drop. I gave them a flask (about two bottles), which was very soon finished, and I was assured that there were many present who had not had a taste. As I feared my box would very soon be emptied if I supplied all their demands, I told them I had given them one, but the second they must pay for, and that afterwards I must have a Paradise bird for each flask. They immediately sent round to all the neighbouring houses, and mustered up a rupee in Dutch copper money, got their second flask, and drunk it as quickly as the first, and were then very talkative, but less noisy and impor- tunate than I-had expected. Two or three of them got round me and begged me for the twentieth time to tell them the name of my country. Then, as they could not pronounce it satisfactorily, they insisted that I was de- ceiving them, and that it was a name of my own invention. One funny old man, who bore a ludicrous resemblance to a friend of mine at home, was almost indignant. “Ung- lung!” said he, “who ever heard of such a name ?—ang- lang—anger-lang—that can’t be the name of your country ; you are playing with us.” Then he tried to give a con- 460 THE ARU ISLANDS. [cHaP. XXXI, vincing illustration. “My country is Wanumbai—any- body can say Wanumbai. [Tm an * orang-Wanumbat ; put, N-glung! who ever heard of such a name? Do tell us the real name of your country, and then when you are gone we shall know how to talk about you.” To this luminous argument and remonstrance I could oppose nothing but assertion, and the whole party remained firmly convinced that I was for some reason or other deceiving them. They then attacked me on another point —_what all the animals and birds and insects and shells were preserved so carefully for. They had often asked me this before, and I had tried to explain to them that they would be stuffed, and made to look as if alive, and people in my country would go to look at them. But this was not satisfying; in my country there must be many better things to look at, and they could not believe 1 would take so much trouble with their birds and beasts just for people to look at. They did not want to look at them ; and we, who made calico and glass and knives, and all sorts of wonderful things, could not want things from ‘Aru to look at. They had evidently been thinking about it, and. had at length got what seemed a very satisfactory theory; for the same old man said to me, in a low mys- terious voice, “ What becomes of them when you go on to the sea?” “-Why, they are all packed up in boxes,” said IL “What did you think became of them?” “They all come’ to life again, don’t they?” said he; and though I tried to joke it off, and. said if they did we should have plenty to eat at sea, he stuck to his opinion, and kept repeating, with an air of deep conviction, “ Yes, they all come to life again, that’s what they do—they all come to life again.” } ‘After a little while, and a good deal of talking among themselves, he began again—‘ 1. know all about it—oh, yes! Before you came we had ‘rain every day—very wet indeed; now, ever since you have been here, it is fine hot weather. Oh, yes! I know all about it; you can’t deceive me.” And so I was set down ‘as a conjurer, and was unable to repel the charge. But the conjurer was com- pletely puzzled by the next question: ® What,” said the old man, “is the great ship, where the Bugis and q OHAP. XXXI.] NATIVE TALK. 461 Chinainen go to sell their things? It is always in the great sea—its name is Jong; tell us all about it.” In vain I inquired what they knew about it; they knew nothing but that it was called “Jong,” and was always in the sea, and was avery great ship, and concluded with, “ Perhaps that is your country?” Finding that I could not or would not tell them anything about “Jong,” there came more regrets that I would not tell them the real name of my country ; and then a long string of compliments, to the effect that I was a much better sort of a person than the Bugis and Chinese, who sometimes came to trade with them, for I gave them things for nothing, and did not try fo cheat them. How long would I stop? was the next earnest inquiry. Would I stay two or three months? They would get me plenty of birds and animals, and I might soon finish all the goods I had brought, and then, said the old spokesman, “ Don’t go away, but send for more things from Dobbo, and stay here a year or two.” And then again the old story, “Do tell us the name of your country. We know the Bugis men, and the Macassar men, and the Java men, and the China men; only you, we don’t know from what country you come. Ung-lung! it can't be; I know that is not the name of your country.” Seeing no end to this long talk, I said 1 was tired, and wanted to go to sleep; so after begging—one a little bit of dry fish for his supper, and another a little salt to eat with his sago—they went off very quietly, and I went outside and took a stroll round the house by moonlight, thinking of the simple people and the strange productions of Aru, and then turned in under my mosquito curtain, to sleep with a sense of perfect security in the midst of these good- natured savages. We now had seven or eight days of hot and dry weather, which reduced the little river to a succession of shallow pools connected by the smallest possible thread of trickling water. If there were a dry season like that of Macassar, the Aru Islands would be uninhabitable, as there is no part of them much above a hundred feet high ; and the whole being a mass of porous coralline rock, allows the surface water rapidly to escape. The only dry season they have is for a month or two about September or + 462 THE ARU ISLANDS. (cHAP. XXXI. October, and there is then an excessive scarcity of water, | so that sometimes hundreds of birds and other animals die of drought. The natives then remove to houses near the sources of the small streams, where, in the shady depths of the forest, a small quantity of water still remains. Even then many of them have to go miles for their water, which they keep in large bamboos and use very sparingly. They assure me that they catch and kill game of all kinds, by watching at the water holes or setting snares around them, That would be the time for me to make my collec- tions; but the want of water would be a terrible annoy- ance, and the impossibility of getting away before another whole year had passed made it out of the question. Ever since leaving Dobbo I had suffered terribly from insects, who seemed here bent upon revenging my long- continued persecution of their race. At our first stopping- place sand-flies were very abundant at night, penetrating to every part of the body, and producing a more lasting irri- tation than mosquitoes. My feet and ankles especially suffered, and were completely covered with little red swollen specks, which tormented me horribly. On arriving here we were delighted to find the house free from sand- flies or mosquitoes, but in the plantations where my daily walks led me, the day-biting mosquitoes swarmed, and seemed especially to delight in attacking my poor feet. After a month's incessant punishment, those useful members rebelled against such treatment and broke into open insurrection, throwing out numerous inflamed ulcers, which were very painful, and stopped me from walking. So I found myself confined to the house, and with no immediate prospect of leaving it. Wounds or sores in the feet are especially difficult to heal in hot climates, and I therefore dreaded them more than any other illness. The confinement was very annoying, as the fine hot weather was excellent for insects, of which I had every promise of obtaining a fine collection; and it is only by daily and unremitting search that the smaller kinds, and the rarer and more interesting specimens, can be obtained. When I crawled down to the river-side to bathe, 1 often saw the blue-winged Papilio ulysses, or some other equally rare and beautiful insect ; but there was nothing for it but patience, ¥ CHAP. XXXI.] GREAT BIRD OF PARADISE. AG63 and to return quietly to my bird-skinning, or whatever other work I had indoors. The stings and bites and ceaseless irritation caused by these pests of the tropical forests, would be borne uncomplainingly; but to be kept prisoner by them in so rich and unexplored a country, where rare and beautiful creatures are to be met with in every forest ramble—a country reached by such a long and tedious voyage, and which might not in the present cen- tury be again visited for the same purpose—is a punish- ment too severe for a naturalist to pass over in silence. I had, however, some consolation in the birds my boys brought home daily, more especially the Paradiseas, which they at length obtained in full plumage. It was quite a relief to my mind to get these, for I could hardly have torn myself away from Aru had I not obtained specimens. But what I valued almost as much as the birds themselves was the knowledge of their habits, which I was daily ob- taining both from the accounts of my hunters, and from the conversation of the natives. The birds had now com- menced what the people here call their “ sdcaleli,” or dancing-parties, in certain trees in the forest, which are not fruit trees as I at first imagined, but which have an im- mense head of spreading branches and large but scattered leaves, giving a clear space for the birds to play and exhibit their plumes. On one of these trees a dozen or twenty full-plumaged male birds assemble together, raise up their wings, stretch out their necks, and elevate their exquisite plumes, keeping them in a continual vibration. Between whiles they fly across from branch to branch in great ex- citement, so that the whole tree is filled with waving plumes in every variety of attitude and motion. (See Illustration facing p. 443.) The bird itself is nearly as large as a crow, and is of a rich coffee brown colour. The head and neck is of a pure straw yellow above, and rich metallic green beneath. The long plumy tufts of golden orange feathers spring from the sides beneath each wing, and when the bird is in repose are partly concealed by them. At the time of its excitement, however, the wings are raised vertically over the back, the head is bent down and stretched out, and the long plumes are raised up and expanded till they form two magnificent golden fans striped with deep red at the base, and fading 464 THE ARU ISLANDS. | CHAP. XXX.. off into the pale brown tint of the finely divided and softly waving points. The whole bird is then overshadowed by them, the crouching body, yellow head, and emerald green throat forming but the foundation and setting to the golden elory which waves above. When seen in this attitude, the Bird of Paradise really deserves its name, and must be ranked as one of the most beautiful and most wonderful of living things. I continued also to get specimens of the lovely little king-bird occasionally, as well as numbers of brilliant pigeons, sweet little parroquets, and many curious small birds, most nearly resembling those of Australia and New Guinea. Here, as among most savage people I have dwelt among, I was delighted with the beauty of the human form—a beauty of which stay-at-home civilized people can scarcely have any conception. What are the finest Grecian - statues to the living, moving, breathing men I saw daily around me? The unrestrained grace of the naked savage as he goes about his daily occupations, or lounges at his ease, must be seen to be understood; and a youth bending his bow is the perfection of manly beauty. The women, however, except in extreme youth, are by no means So pleasant to look at as the men. ~ Their strongly-marked features are very unfeminine, and hard work, privations, and very early marriages soon destroy whatever of beauty or grace they may for a short time possess. Their toilet is very simple, but also, I am sorry to say, very Coarse, and disgusting. It consists solely of a mat of plaited strips of palm leaves, worn tight round the body, and reaching from the hips to the knees. It seems not to be changed till worn out, is seldom. washed, and is generally very dirty. This is the universal dress, except in a few cases where Malay “sarongs” have come into use. Their frizzly hair is tied in a bunch at the back of the head. They delight in combing, or rather forking it, using for that purpose a large wooden fork with four diverging prongs, which answers the purpose of separating and arranging the long tangled, frizzly mass of cranial vegetation much better than any comb could do. The only ornaments of the women are earrings and necklaces, which they arrange cHaP. XxXI.] MALE AND FEMALE ORNAMENTS, 465 in various tasteful ways. The ends of a necklace are often attached to the earrings, and then looped on to the hair- knot behind. This has really an elegant appearance, the beads hanging gracefully on each side of the head, and by establishing a connexion with the earrings give an appear- ance of utility to those barbarous ornaments, We recom- mend this style to the consideration of those of the fair sex who still bore holes in their ears and hang rings thereto. Another style of necklace among these Papuan belles is to wear two, each hanging on one side of the neck and under the opposite arm, so as to cross each other. This has a very pretty appearance, in part due to the contrast of the white beads or kangaroo teeth of which they are composed with the dark glossy skin. The earrings themselves are formed of a bar of copper or silver, twisted so that the ends cross.) The men, as usual among savages, adorn themselves more than the women. They wear necklaces, earrings, and finger rings, and delight in a band of plaited grass tight round the arm just below the shoulder, tu which they attach a bunch of hair or bright coloured feathers by way of ornament The teeth of small animals, either alone, or alternately with black or white beads, form their necklaces, and sometimes bracelets also. For these latter, however, they prefer brass wire, or the black, horny, wing-spines of the cassowary, which they consider a charm. Anklets of brass or shell, and tight plaited garters below the knee, complete their ordinary decorations, Some natives of Kobror from further south, and who are reckoned the worst and least civilized of the Aru tribes, came one day to visit us. They have a rather more than usually savage appearance, owing to the creater amount of ornaments they use—the most conspicuous being a large horseshoe-shaped comb which they wear over the forehead, the ends resting on the temples. The back of the comb is fastened into a piece of wood, which is plated with tin in front, and above is attached a plume of feathers from a cock’s tail. In other respects they scarcely differed from the people I was living with. They brought me a couple of birds, some shells and insects, Showing that the report of the white man and his doings H 468 THE ARU ISLANDS. (cHAY. XXXL. had reached their country. There was probably hardly a man in Aru who had not by this time heard of me. ~ Besides the domestic utensils already mentioned, the moveable property of a native is very scanty. He has a good supply of spears and bows and arrows for hunting, a parang, or chopping-knife, and an axe—tfor the stone age has passed away here, owing to the com- mercial enterprise of the Bugis and other Malay races. Attached to a belt, or hung across his shoulder, he carries a little skin pouch and an ornamented bamboo, containing betel-nut, tobacco, and lime, and a small German wooden- handled knife is generally stuck between his waist-cloth of bark and his bare skin. Each man also possesses a “cadjan,’ or sleeping-mat, made of the broad leaves of a pandanus neatly sewn together in three layers. This mat is about four feet square, and when folded has one end sewn up, so that it forms a kind of sack open at one side, In the closed corner the head or feet can be placed, or by carrying it on the head in a shower it forms both coat and umbrella. It doubles up in a small compass for convenient carriage, and then forms a light and elastic cushion, so that on a journey it becomes clothing, house, bedding, and furniture, all in one. The only ornaments in an Aru house are trophies of the chase—jaws of wild pigs, the heads and backbones of cassowaries, and plumes made from the feathers of the Bird of Paradise, cassowary, and domestic fowl. The spears, shields, knife-handles, and other utensils are more or less carved in fanciful designs, and the mats and leat boxes are painted or plaited in neat patterns of red, black, and yellow colours. I must not forget these boxes, which are most ingeniously made of the pith of a palm leaf — pegged together, lined inside with pandanus leaves, and outside with the same, or with plaited grass. All the joints and angles are covered with strips of split rattan, sewn neatly on. The lid is covered with the brown — leathery spathe of the Areca palm, which is impervious to water, and the whole box is neat, strong, and well finished. They are made from a few inches to two or three feet long, and being much esteemed by the Malays as clothes-boxes, are a regular article of export from Aru. CHAP. XXX1.] RAVENOUS DOGS. 467 The natives use the smaller ones for tobacco or betel-nut, but seldom have clothes enough to require the larger ones, which are only made for sale. Among the domestic animals which may generally be seen in native houses, are gaudy parrots, green, red, and blue, a few domestic fowls, which have baskets hung for them to lay in under the eaves, and who sleep on the ridge, and several half-starved wolfish-looking dogs. In- stead of rats and mice there are curious little marsupial animals about the same size, which run about at night and ulbble anything eatable that may be left uncovered. Four or five different kinds of ants attack everything not isolated by water, and one kind even swims across that; great spiders lurk in baskets and boxes, or hide in the folds of my mosquito curtain ; centipedes and millepedes are found everywhere. I have caught them under my pillow and on my head; while in every box, and under ever board which has lain for some days undisturbed, little scorpions are sure to be found snugly ensconced, with their formidable tails quickly turned up ready for attack or defence. Such companions seem very alarming and dan- gerous, but all combined are not so bad as the irritation of mosquitoes, or of the insect pests often found at home. These latter are a constant and unceasing source of torment and disgust, whereas you may live a long time aiulong scorpions, spiders, and centipedes, ugly and veno- mous though they are, and get no harm from them. After living twelve years in the tropics, I have never yet been bitten or stung by either. The lean and hungry dogs before mentioned were my greatest enemies, and kept me constantly on the watch. lt my boys left the bird they were skinning for an instant, it was sure to be carried off. Everything eatable had to be hung up to the roof, to be out of their reach. Ali had just finished skinning a fine King Bird of Paradise one day, when he dropped the skin. Before he could stoop to pick it up, one of this famished race had seized upon it, and he only succeeded in rescuing it from its fangs after it was torn to tatters. Two skins of the large Paradisea, which were quite dry and ready to pack away, were incautiously left on my table for the night, wrapped HH Z 468 THE ARU ISLANDS. (CHAP. XXXI. up in paper. The next morning they were gone, and only a few scattered feathers indicated their fate. My hanging shelf was out of their reach; but having stupidly left a box which served as a step, a full-plumaged Paradise bird was next morning missing ; and a dog below the house was to be seen still mumbling over the fragments, with the fine golden plumes all trampled in the mud, Every night, as soon as-1 was in bed, I could hear them searching about for what they could devour, under my table, and all about my boxes and baskets, keeping me in a state of suspense till morning, lest something of value might incautiously have been left within their reach. They would drink the oil of my floating lamp and eat the wick, and upset or break my crockery if my lazy boys had neglected to wash away even the smell of anything eatable. Bad, however, as they are here, they were worse in a Dyak’s house in Borneo where I was once staying, for there they onawed off the tops of my waterproof boots, ate a large piece out of an old leather game-bag, besides devouring a portion of my inosquito curtain ! April 28th.—Last evening we had a grand consultation, which had evidently been arranged and discussed before- hand. A number of the natives gathered round me, and said they wanted to talk. Two of the best Malay scholars helped each other, the rest putting in hints and ideas in their own language. They told me a long rambling story ; but, partly owing to their imperfect knowledge of Malay, partly through my ignorance of local terms, and partly through the incoherence of their narrative, I could not make it out very clearly. It was, however, a tradition, and I was glad to find they had anything of the kind. A long time ago, they said, sorne strangers came to Aru, and eame here to Wanumbai, and the chief of the Wanumbal people did not like them, and wanted them to go away, but they would not go, and so it came to fighting, and | many Aru men were killed, and some, along with the chief, — were taken prisoners, and carried away by the strangers. — Some of the speakers, however, said that he was not carried — away, but went away in his own boat to escape from the foreigners, and went to the sea and never came back again. — But they all believe that the chief and the people chat CHAP, XXXI.] A LEGEND, 469 went with him still live in some foreign country ; and if they could but find out where, they would send for them to come back again. Now having some vague idea that white men must know every country beyond the sea, they wanted to know if I had met their people in my country or in the sea. They thought they must be there, for they could not imagine where else they could be. They had sought for them everywhere, they said—on the land and in the sea, in the forest and on the mountains, in the air and in the sky, and could not find them; therefore, they must be in my country, and they begged me to tell them, for I must surely know, as I came from across the great sea. I tried to explain to them that their friends could not have reached my country in small boats; and that there were plenty of islands like Aru all about the sea, which they would be sure to find. Besides, as it was so long ago, the chief and all the people must be dead. But they quite laughed at this idea, and said they were sure they were alive, for they had proof of it. And then they told me that a good many years ago, when the speakers were boys, some Wokan men who were out fishing met these lost people in the sea, and spoke to them; and the chief gave the Wokan men a hundred fathoms of cloth to bring to the men of Wanum- bai, to show that they were alive and would soon come back to them; but the Wokan men were thieves, and kept the cloth, and they only heard of it afterwards; and when they spoke about it, the Wokan men denied it, and pre- tended they had not received the cloth ;—so they were quite sure their friends were at that time alive and some- where in the sea. And again, not many years ago, a report came to them that some Bugis traders had brought some children of their lost people ; so they went to Dobbo to see about it, and the owner of the house, who was now speak- ing to me, was one who went; but the Bugis man would not let them see the children, and threatened to kill them if they came into his house. He kept the children shut up in a large box, and when he went away he took them with him. And at the end of each of these stories, they begged me in an imploring tone to tell them if I knew where their chief and their people now were. By dint of questioning, I got some account of the 470 THE ARU ISLANDS. [cHAP. XXX1. strangers who had taken away their people. They said they were wonderfully strong, and each one could kill a great many Aru men ; and when they were wounded, how- ever badly, they spit upon the place, and it immediately became well. And they made a great net of rattans, and entangled their prisoners in it, and sunk them in the water; and the next day, when they pulled the net up on shore, they made the drowned men come to life again, and carried them away. 3 Much more of the same kind was told me, but in so confused and rambling a manner that I could make no- thing out of it, till I inquired how long ago it was that all this happened, when they told me that after their people were taken away the Bugis came in their praus, to trade in Aru, and to buy tripang and birds’ nests. It is not impossible that something similar to what they related to me really happened when the early Portuguese dis- coverers first came to Aru, and has formed the founda- tion for a continually increasing accumulation of legend and fable. I have no doubt that to the next generation, or even before, I myself shall be transformed into a magi- cian or a demigod, a worker of miracles, and a being of supernatural knowledge. They already believe that all the animals I preserve will come to life again ; and to their children it will be related that they actually did so. An unusual spell of fine weather setting in just at my arrival has made them believe I can control the seasons ; and the simple circumstance of my always walking alone ‘n the forest is a wonder and a mystery to them, as well as my asking them about birds and animals I have not yet seen, and showing an acquaintance with their forms, colours, and habits. These facts are brought against me when I disclaim knowledge of what they wish me to tell them. “You must know,” say they; “you know every- thing: you make the fine weather for your men to shoot ; and you know all about our birds and our animals as well as we do; and you go alone into the forest and are not afraid.” Therefore every confession of ignorance on my part is thought to be a blind, a mere excuse to avoid tell- ing them too much. My very writing materials and books are to them weird things; and were I to choose to mystify = CHAP, XXXI.] WEAPONS OF WAR. AV] them by a few simple experiments with lens and magnet, miracles without end would in a few years cluster about me ; and future travellers, penetrating to Wanumbai, would hardly believe that a poor English naturalist, who had re- sided a few months among them, could have been the original of the supernatural being to whom so many marvels were attributed. For some days I had noticed a good deal of excitement, and many strangers came and went armed with spears and cutlasses, bows and shields. I now found there was war near us—two neighbouring villages having a quarrel about some matter of local politics that I could not understand. They. told me it was quite a common thing, and that they are rarely without fighting somewhere near. Individual quarrels are taken up by villages and tribes, and the non- payment of the stipulated price for a wife is one of the most frequent causes of bitterness and bloodshed. One of the war shields was brought me to look at. It was made of rattans and covered with cotton twist, so as to be both light, strong, and very tough. I should think it would resist any ordinary bullet. About the middle there was an arm-hole with a shutter or flap over it. This enables the arm to be put through and the bow drawn, while the body and face, up to the eyes, remain pretected, which cannot be done if the shield is carried on the arm by loops attached at the back in the ordinary way. A few of the young men from our house went to help their friends, but I could not hear that any of them were hurt, or that there was much hard fighting. May 8th—I had now been six weeks at Wanumbai, but for more than half the time was laid up in the house with ulcerated feet. My stores being nearly exhausted, and my bird and insect boxes full, and having no imme- diate prospect of getting the use of my legs again, I determined on returning to Dobbo. Birds had lately become rather scarce, and the Paradise birds had not yet become as plentiful as the natives assured me they would be in another month, The Wanumbai people seemed very sorry at my departure ; and well they might be, for the shells and insects they picked up on the way to and from their plantations, and the birds the little boys shot 472 THE ARU ISLANDS. [cHAP. XXXII. with their bows and arrows, kept them all well supplied with tobacco and gambir, besides enabling them to accu- mulate a stock of beads and coppers for future expenses. The owner of the house was supplied gratis with a little rice, fish, or salt, whenever he asked for it, which I must say was not very often. On parting, I distributed among them my remnant stock of salt and tobacco, and gave my host a flask of arrack, and believe that on the whole my stay with these simple and good-natured people was pro- ductive of pleasure and profit to both parties. I fully intended to come back; and had I known that circum- stances would have prevented my doing so, should have felt some sorrow in leaving a place where I had first. seen so many rare and beautiful living things, and had so fully enjoyed the pleasure which fills the heart of the naturalist when he is so fortunate as to discover a district hitherto unexplored, and where every day brings forth new and unexpected treasures. We loaded our boat in the after- noon, and, starting before daybreak, by the help of a fair wind reached Dobbo late the same evening. CHAPTER XXXII. THE ARU ISLANDS.—SECOND RESIDENCE AT DOBBO. (MAY AND JUNE 1857.) OBBO was full to overflowing, and I was obliged to occupy the court-house where the Commissioners hold their sittings. They had now left the island, and I found the situation agreeable, as it was at the end of the village, with a view down the principal street. It was a mere shed, but half of it had a roughly boarded floor, and by putting up a partition and opening a window I made it a very pleasant abode. In one of the boxes I had left | in charge of Herr Warzbergen, a colony of small ants had — settled and deposited millions of eggs. It was luckily a ~ fine hot day, and by carrving the box some distance from i ' i | | | HS Sly \\ S =a 43 iy Y . 1 \\ fF , Si il Yi it . | SH / } | f HAI | ' | | i H | AN SS ae re Lh eS NIK ~—— 1 SSS 3 ==} as yf); ai in ft “ai 5 7 oF ya ? J SA mee 4 zo EE a WS aS \A iN N cS GO ly i | yy l a ~t BS ga NS z ————— ——— = Va DOBbO, IN THE TRADING SEASON. ) | | | | CHAP, XXXII] DOBBO. 473 the house, and placing every article in the sunshine for an hour or two, I got rid of them withcut damage, as they were fortunately a harmless species. Dobbo now presented an animated appearance. Five or six new houses had been added to the street; the praus were all brought round to the western side of the point, where they were hauled up on the beach, and were being caulked and covered with a thick white lime-plaster for the homeward voyage, making them the brightest and cleanest looking things in the place. Most of the small boats had returned from the “ blakang-tana” (back country), as the side of the islands towards New Guinea is called. Piles of firewood were being heaped up behind the houses; sail-makers and carpenters were busy at work mother-of-pearl shell was being tied up in bundles, and the black and ugly smoked tripang was having a last exposure to the sun before loading. The spare portion of the crews were employed cutting and squaring tamber, and boats from Ceram and Goram were constantly unloading their cargoes of sago-cake for the traders’ home- ward voyage. The fowls, ducks, and goats all looked fat and thriving on the refuse food of a dense population, and the Chinamen’s pigs were in a state of obesity that fore- boded early death. Parrots and lories and cockatoos, of a dozen different kinds, were suspended on bamboo perches at the doors of the houses, with metallic green or white fruit-pigeons which cooed musically at noon and eventide. Young cassowaries, strangely striped with black and brown, wandered about the heuses or gambolled with the playfulness of kittens in the hot sunshine, with sometimes a pretty little kangaroo, caught in the Aru forests, but already tame and graceful as a petted fawn. Of an evening there were more signs of life than at the time of my former residence. Tom-toms, jews -harps, and even fiddles were to be heard, and the melancholy Malay songs sounded not unpleasantly far into the night. Almost every day there was a cock-fight in the street. The spectators make a ring, and after the long steel spurs are tied on, and the poor animals are set down to gash and kill each other, the excitement is immense. Those who have made bets scream and yell and jump frantically, if AT THE ARU ISLANDS. (CHAP. XXXI they think they are going to win or lose, but in a very few minutes it is all over; there is a hurrah from the winners, the owners seize their cocks, the winning bird is caressed and admired, the loser is generally dead or very badly wounded, and his master may often be seen pluck- ing out his feathers as he walks away, preparing him for the cooking pot while the poor bird is still alive. A game at foot-ball, which generally took place at sun- set, was, however, much more interesting to me. The ball used is a rather small one, and is made of rattan, hollow, light, and elastic. The player keeps it dancing a little while on his foot, then occasionally on his arm or thigh, till suddenly he gives it a good blow with the hollow of the foot, and sends it flying high in the air. Another player runs to meet it, and at its first bound catches it on his foot and plays in his turn. The ball must never be touched with the hand; but the arm, shculder, knee, or thigh are used at pleasure to rest. the foot. Two or three played very skilfully, keeping the: ball continually flying about, but the place. was too confined to show off the game to advantage. One evening a quarrel arose from some dispute in the game, and there was a creat row, and it was feared: there would be a fight about it—not two men only, but a party of a dozen or twenty on each side, a regular battle with knives and krisses; but after a large amount of talk it passed off quietly, and we heard nothing about it.afterwards. Most Europeans being gifted by nature with a luxuriant srowth of hair upon their faces, think it disfigures them, and keep up a continual struggle against her by mowing down every morning the crop which has sprouted up during the preceding twenty-four hours. Now the men of Mongolian race are, naturally, just as many of us want to be. They mostly pass their lives with faces as smooth and beardless as an infant’s. But shaving seems an instinct of the human race; for many of these people, having no hair | to take off their faces, shave their heads. Others, how- ever, set resolutely to work to force nature to give them a heard. One of the chief cock-fighters at Dobbo was 4 Javanese, a sort of master of the ceremonies of the ring, who tied on the spurs and acted as backer-up to one of CHAP. XXXII. | CULTIVATING A BEARD. 475 the combatants. This man had succeeded, by assiduous cultivation, in raising a pair of moustaches which were a triumph of art, for they each contained about a dozen hairs more than three inches long, and which, being well greased and twisted, were distinctly visible (when not too far off) as a black thread hanging down on each side of his mouth. But the beard to match was the difficulty, for nature had cruelly refused to give him a rudiment of hair on his chin, and the most talented gardener could not do much if he had nothing to cultivate. But true genius triumphs over difficulties. Although there was no hair proper on the chin, there happened to be, rather on one side of it, a.small mole or freckle which contained (as such things frequently do) a few stray hairs. These had been made the most of. They had reached four or five inches in length, and formed another black thread dangling from the left angle of the chin. The owner carried this as if it were. something..remarkable (as it certainly was) ; he often felt it affectionately, passed it between his fingers, and was evidently extremely proud of his:moustaches and beard ! One of the most surprising things connected with Aru was the excessive cheapness of all articles of European or native manufacture. ‘We were here two thousand miles beyond Singapore and Batavia, which are themselves emporiums of the “far east,” in a place unvisited by, and almost unknown to, European traders ; everything reached us through at least two or three hands, often many more; yet English calicoes and American cotton cloths could be bought for 8s. the piece, muskets for 15s., common scissors and. German knives at three-halfpence each, and other cutlery, cotton goods, and earthenware in the same proportion. The natives of this out-of-the-way country can, in fact, buy all these things at about the same money price as our workmen at home, but in reality very much cheaper, for the produce of a few hours’ labour enables the savage to purchase in abundance what are to him luxuries, while to the European they are necessaries of life. The barbarian is no happier and no better off for this cheapness. On the contrary, it has a most injurious effect on him. He wants the stimulus of necessity to 476 THE ARU ISLANDS. [cHAP. XXXIl. torce him to labour ; andif iron were as dear as silver, and ealico as costly as satin, the effect would be beneficial to him, As it is, he has more idle hours, gets a more constant supply of tobacco, and can intoxicate himself with arrack more frequently and more thoroughly ; for your Aru man scorns to get half drunk—a tumbler full of arrack is but a slight stimulus, and nothing less than half a gallon of spirit will make him tipsy to his own satisfaction. It is not agreeable to reflect on this state of things. At least half of the vast multitudes of uncivilized peoples, on whom our gigantic manufacturing system, enormous capital, and intense competition force the produce of our looms and workshops, would be not a whit worse off physically, and would certainly be improved morally, if all the articles with which we supply them were double or treble their present prices. If at the same time the difference of cost, or a large portion of it, could find its way into the pockets of the manufacturing workmen, thousands would be raised from want to comfort, from starvation to health, and would be removed frem one of the chief incentives to crime. It is difficult for an English- man to avoid contemplating with pride our gigantic and ever-increasing manufactures and commerce, and thinking everything good that renders their progress still more rapid, either by lowering the price at which the articles can be produced, or by discovering new markets to which they may be sent. If, however, the question that is so frequently asked of the votaries of: the less popular sciences were put here—* Cui bono ? ”__it, would be found more difficult to answer than had been imagined. The advantages, even to the few who reap them, would be seen to be mostly physical, while the wide-spread moral and intellectual evils resulting from unceasing labour, low | wages, crowded dwellings, and monotonous oceupations, to perhaps as large a number as those who gain any real advantage, might be held to show a balance of evil so great, as to lead the greatest admirers of our manufactures and commerce to doubt the advisability of their further development. It will be said: “We cannot stop it; capital must be employed; our population must be kept at work; if we hesitate a moment, other nations now hard cuaP. xxxu.] ILL EFFECTS OF COMPETITION. any pressing us will get ahead, and national ruin will follow.” Some of this is true, some fallacious. It is undoubtedly a difficult problem which we have to solve; and I am inclined to think it is this difficulty that makes men con: clude that what seems a necessary and unalterable state «uf things must be good—that its benefits must be greater than its evils. This was the feeling of the American advocates of slavery; they could not see an easy, comfort- able way out of it. In our own case, however, it is to be hoped, that if a fair consideration of the matter in all its bearings shows that a preponderance of evil arises from the immensity of our manufactures and commerce—ev1! which must go on increasing with their increase—there is enough both of political wisdom and true philanthropy in Englishmen, to induce them to turn their superabundant wealth into other channels. The fact that has led to these remarks is surely a striking one: that in one of the most remote corners of the earth savages can buy clothing cheaper than the people of the country where it is made ; that the weaver’s child should shiver in the wintry wind, unable to purchase articles attainable by the wild natives of a tropical climate, where clothing is mere ornament or luxury, should make us pause ere we regard with unmixed admiration the system which has led to such a result, and’ cause us to look with some suspicion on the further exten- sion. of that system. It must be remembered too thai our commerce is not a purely natural growth. It has been ever fostered by the legislature, and torced to an unnaturat luxuriance by the protection of our fleets and armies. The wisdom and the justice of this policy have been already doubted. So soon, therefore, as it is seen that the further extension of our manufactures and commerce would be ax. evil, the remedy is not far to seek. After six weeks’ confinement to the house I was at length well, and could resume my daily walks in the forest. 1 did not, however, find it so productive as wheu I had first arrived at Dobbo. There was a damp stagna- tion about the paths, and insects were very scarce. In some of my best collecting places I now found a mass uf rotting wood, mingled with young shoots, and overgrown 478 THE ARU ISLANDS. (CHAP. XXXIL. with climbers, yet I always managed to add something daily to my extensive collections. I one day met with a se So example of failure of instinct, which, by showing it to be fallible, renders it very doubtful whether it is anything more than hereditary habit, dependent on delicate modifications of sensation. Some sailors cut down a good-sized tree, aud, as is always my practice, I visited it daily for some time in search of insects. Among other beetles came swarms of the little cylindrical wood-borers (Platypus, Tesserocerus, &e.), and commenced making holes in the bark. After a day or two I was surprised to find hundreds of them sticking in the holes they had bored, and on examination discovered that the milky sap of the tree was of the nature of gutta-percha, hardening rapidly on exposure to the alr, and glueing the little animals in self-duy graves. The habit of boring holes in trees in which to deposit their eggs, was not accompanied by a sufficient instinctive knowledge of which trees were suitable, and which destructive to them. If, as is very probable, these trees have an attractive odour to certain species of borers, it might very likely lead to their becoming extinct; while other species, to whom the same odour was disagreeable, and who therefore avoided the dangerous trees, would sur- vive, and would be credited by us with an instinct, whereas they would really be guided by a simple sensation. Those curious little beetles, the Brenthidee, were very abundant in Aru. The females have a pointed rostrum, with which they bore deep holes in the bark of dead trees, often burying the rostrum up to the eyes, and in these holes deposit their eggs. The males are larger, and have the rostrum dilated at the end, and sometimes terminating in a good-sized pair of jaws. 1 once saw two males fight- ing together ; each had a fore-leg laid across the neck of the other, and the rostrum bent quite in an attitude of defiance, and looking most ridiculous. Another time, two were fighting for a female, who stood close by busy at her boring. They pushed at each other with their rostra, and clawed and thumped, apparently in the greatest rage, although their coats of mail must have saved both from injury. The small one, however, soon ran away, acknow- ledging himself vanquished. In most Coleoptera the CHAP. XXXII] BURYING IN DOBBO. 479 female is larger than the male, and it is therefore interest- ing, as bearing on the question of sexual selection, that in this case, as in the stag-beetles where the males fight together, they should be not only better armed, but also much larger than the females. ea = — —— — f = / Al VE Li. E ——— MALE BRENTHID (Leptorhynchus angusiatus) FIGHTING. Just as we were going away, a handsome tree, allied to Erythrina, was in blossom, showing its masses of large crimson flowers scattered here and there about the forest. Could it have been seen from an elevation, it would have had a fine effect ; from below I could only catch sight of masses of gorgeous colour in clusters and festoons over- head, about which flocks of blue and orange lories were fluttering and screaming. A good many people died at Dobbo this season; I believe about twenty. They were buried in a little grove of Casuarinas behind my house. Among the traders was a Mahometan priest, who superintended the funerals, which were very simple. The body was wrapped up in new white cotton cloth, and was carried on a bier to the grave. All the spectators sat down on the ground, and the priest chanted some verses from the Koran. The graves were fenced round with a slight bamboo railing, and a little carved wooden head-post was put to mark the spot. rhere was also in the village a small mosque, where every Yriday the faithful went to pray. This is probably more ABO THE ARU ISLANDS. (CHAP. XXXIL remote from Mecca than any other mosque in the world, and marks the farthest eastern extension of the Maho- métan religion. The Chinese here, as elsewhere, showed their superior wealth and civilization by tombstones of solid granite brought from Singapore, with deeply-cut inscriptions, the characters of which are painted in red, blue, and gold. No people have more respect for the craves of their relations and friends than tnis strange, ubiquitous, money-getting people. Soon after we had returned to Dobbo, my Macassar boy, Baderoon, took his wages and left me, because I scolded him for laziness. He then occupied himself in gambling, and at first had some luck, and bought ornaments, and had plenty of money. Then his luck turned; he lost every- thing, borrowed money and lost that, and was obliged to become the slave of his creditor till he had worked out the debt. He was a quick and active lad when he pleased, but was apt to be idle, and had such an incorrigible pro- pensity for gambling, that it will very likely lead to his becoming a slave for life. The end of June was now approaching, the east monsoon had set in steadily, and in another week or two Dobbo would be deserted. Preparations for departure were every- where visible, and every sunny day (rather rare now) the streets were as crowded and as busy as beehives. Heaps of tripang were finally dried and packed up in sacks ; mother-of-pearl shell, tied up with rattans into convenient bundles, was all day long being carried to the beach to be loaded ; water-casks were filled, and cloths and mat-sails mended and strengthened for the run home before the strong east wind. Almost every day groups of natives arrived from the most distant parts of the islands, with cargoes of bananas and sugar-cane to exchange for tobacco, sago, bread, and other luxuries, before the general de- parture. The Chinamen killed their fat pig and made their parting feast, and kindly sent me some pork, and a basin of birds’-nest stew, which had very little more taste than a dish of vermicelli, My boy Ali returned from Wanumbai, where I had sent him alone for a fortnight to buy Paradise birds and prepare the skins; he brought me sixteen glorious specimens, and had he not been very CHAP. XXX11. | AMOUNT OF TRADE. 48] ill with fever and ague might have obtained twice the number. He had lived with the people whose house I had occupied, and it is a proof of their goodness, if fairly treated, that although he took with him a quantity of silver dollars to pay for the birds they caught, no attempt was made to rob him, which might have been done with the most perfect impunity. He was kindly treated when ill, and was brought back to me with the balance of the dollars he had not spent. The Wanumbai people, like almost ali the inhabitants of the Aru Islands, are perfect savages, and I saw no signs of any religion. There are, however, three or four villages on the coast where schoolmasters from Amboyna reside, and the people are nominally Christians, and are to some extent educated and civilized. I could not get much real know- ledge of the customs of the Aru people during the short time. I was among them, but they have evidently been con- siderably influenced by their long association with Maho- metan traders. They often bury their dead, although the national custom is to expose the body on a raised stage till it decomposes. Though there is no limit to the number of wives a man may have, they seldom exceed one or two. A wife is regularly purchased from the parents, the price being a large assortment of articles, always including gongs, crockery, and cloth. They told me that some of the tribes kill the old men and women when they can no longer work, but I saw many very old and decrepid people, who seemed pretty well attended to. No doubt all who have much intercourse with the Bugis and Ceramese traders gradually lose many of their native customs, especially as these people often settle in their villages and marry native women. The trade carried on at Dobbo is very considerable, This year there were fifteen large praus from Macassar, and perhaps a hundred small boats from Ceram, Goram, and Ké. The Macassar cargoes are worth about 1,0002. each, and the other boats take away perhaps about 3,000. worth, so that the whole exports may be estimated at 18,0607. per annum. The largest and most bulky items are pearl-shell and tripang, or “ béche-de-mer,” with smaller guantities of tortoise-shell, edible birds’ nests, pearls, orna- TI A892, THE ARU ISLANDS. [CHAP. XXXIL mental woods, timber, and Birds of Paradise. These are purchased with a variety of goods. Of arrack; about equal in strength to ordinary West India rum, 3,000 boxes, each containing fifteen half-gallon bottles, are consumed annually. Native cloth from Celebes is much esteemed for its durability, and large quantities are sold, as well as white English calico and American unbleached cottons, common crockery, coarse cutlery, muskets, gunpowder, gongs, small brass cannon, and elephants’ tusks. These three last articles constitute the wealth of the Aru people, with which they pay for their wives, or which they hoard up as “real property.” Tobacco is in immense demand for chewing, and it must be very strong, or an Aru man will not look at it. Knowing how little these people generally work, the mass of produce obtained annually shows that the islands must’be pretty thickly inhabited, especially along the coasts, as nine-tenths of the whole are marine productions. Tt was on the 2d of July that we left Aru, followed by all the Macassar praus, fifteen in number, who had agreed to sail in company. We passed south of Banda, and then steered due west, not seeing land for three days, till we sighted some low islands west of Bouton. We had a strong and steady south-east wind day and night, which carried us on at about five knots an hour, where a clipper ship would have made twelve. The sky was continually cloudy, dark, and threatening, with occasional drizzling showers, till we were west of Bouru, when it cleared up and we enjoyed the bright sunny skies of the dry season for the rest of our voyage. It is about here, therefore, that the seasons of the eastern and western regions of the Archipelago are divided. West of this line from June to December is generally fine, and often very dry, the rest of the year being the wet season, East of it the weather is exceedingly uncertain, each island, and each side of an island, having its own peculiarities. The difference seems to consist not so much in the distribution of the rainfall as in that of the clouds and the moistness of the atmo- sphere. In Aru, for example, when we left, the little streams were all dried up, although the weather was gloomy ; while in January, February, and March, when we } 4 CHAP, XXXII] THE RETURN VOYAGE. 483 had the hottest sunshine and the finest days, they were always flowing. The driest time of all the year in Aru occurs in September and October, just as it does in Java and Celebes. The rainy seasons agree, therefore, with those of the western islands, although the weather is very different. The Molucca sea is of a very deep blue colour, quite distinct from the clear light blue of the Atlantic. In cloudy and dull weather it looks absolutely black, and » when crested with foam has a stern and angry aspect. The wind continued fair and strong during our whole voyage, and we reached Macassar in perfect safety on the evening of the 11th of July, having made the passage from Aru (more than a thousand miles) in nine and a half days. | My expedition to the Aru Islands had been eminently successful. Although I had been for months confined to the house by illness, and had lost much time by the want of the means of locomotion, and by missing the right season at the right place, I brought away with me more than nine thousand specimens of natural objects, of about sixteen hundred distinct species. I had made the acquaint- ance of a strange and little-known race of men; I had become familiar with the traders of the far East ; I had revelled in the delights of exploring a new fauna and flora, one of the most remarkable and most beautiful and least- known in the world; and I had succeeded in the main object for which I had undertaken the journey—namely, to obtain fine specimens of the magnificent Birds of Para- dise, and to be enabled to observe them in their native forests. By this success I was stimulated to: continue my researches in the Moluccas and New Guinea for nearly five years longer, and it is still the portion of my travels to. which I look back with the most complete satisfaction. 112 484 THE ARU ISLANDS. [oHAP. XXXII. CHAPTER XXXII. THE ARU ISLANDS.—PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ASPECTS OF NATURE. i this chapter I propose to give a general sketch of the physical geography of the Aru Islands, and of their relation to the surrounding countries ; and shall thus be able to incorporate the information obtained from traders, and from the works of other naturalists, with my own observations in these exceedingly interesting and little- known regions. The Aru group may be said to consist of one very large central island with a number of small ones scattered round it. The great island 1s called by the natives and traders «Tana-busar” (great or mainland), to distinguish it as a whole from Dobbo, or any of the detached islands. It is of an irregular oblong form, about eighty miles from north to south, and forty or fifty from east to west, in which direction it is traversed by three narrow channels, dividing it into four portions. These channels are always called rivers by the traders, which puzzled me much till I passed through one of them, and saw how exceedingly applicable the name was. ‘The northern channel, called the river of Watelai, is about a quarter of a mile wide at its entrance, put soon narrows to about the eighth of a mile, which width it retains, with little variation, during its whole length of nearly fifty miles, till it again widens at ‘its eastern mouth. Its course is moderately winding, and the panks are generally dry and somewhat elevated. In many places there are low cliffs of hard coralline limestone, more or less worn by the action of water ; while sometimes level spaces extend from the banks to low ranges of hills a little inland. A few small streams enter it from right and lett, at the mouths of which are some little rocky islands. The depth is very regular, being from ten to tifteen fathoms, and it has thus every feature of a true river, but for the salt water and the absence of a current. The other two rivers, cHaP.uxxnL.] § PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 485 whose names are Vorkai and Maykor, are said to be very similar in general character; but they are rather near together, and have a number of cross channels intersecting the flat tract between them. On the south side of Mayor the banks are very rocky, and from thence to the southern extremity of Aru is an uninterrupted extent of rather elevated and very rocky country, penetrated by numerous small streams, in the high limestone cliffs bordering which the edible birds’ nests of Aru are chiefly obtained. All iny informants stated that the two southern rivers are larger than Watelai. The whole of Aru is low, but by no means so flat as it has been represented, or as it appears from the sea. Most of it is dry rocky ground, with a somewhat undulating surface, rising here and there into abrupt hillocks, or cut into steep and narrow ravines. Except the patches of swamp which are found at the mouths of most of the small rivers, there is no absolutely level ground, although the greatest elevation is probably not more than two hundred feet. The rock which everywhere appears in the ravines and brooks is a coralline limestone, in some places soft and pliable, in others so hard and crystalline as to resemble our mountain limestone. The small islands which surround the central mass are very numerous; but most of them are on the east side, where they form a fringe, often extending ten or fifteen miles from the main islands. On the west there are very few, Wamma and Pulo Babi being the chief, with Ougia and Wassia at the north-west extremity. On the east side the sea is everywhere shallow, and full of coral; and it is here that the pearl-shells are {uund which form one of the chief staples of Aru trade. All the islands are covered with a dense and very lofty forest. The physical features here described are of peculiar interest, and, as far as I am aware, are to some extent unique; for I have been unable to tind any other record of an island of the size of Aru crossed by channels which exactly resemble true rivers. How these channels origi- nated were a complete puzzls to me, till, after a long consi- deration of the whole of tne natural phenomena presented by these islands, 1 arrived at a conclusion which I will now A86 THE ARU ISLANDS. . [cHAP, XXXII endeavour to explain. There are three ways in which we may conceive islands which are not volcanic to have been formed, or to have been reduced to their present condition, —hby elevation, by subsidence, or by separation from a continent or larger island. The existence of coral rock, or of raised beaches far inland, indicates recent elevation ; lagoon coral-islands, and such as have barrier or encircling reefs, have suffered subsidence ; while our own islands, whose productions are entirely those of the adjacent con- tinent, have been separated from it. Now the Aru Islands are all coral rock, and the adjacent sea is shallow and full of coral; it is therefore evident that they have been elevated from beneath the ocean at a not very distant epoch. But if we suppose that elevation to be the first and only cause of their present condition, we shall find ourselves quite unable to explain the curious river-chan- nels which divide them. Fissures during upheaval would not produce the regular width, the regular depth, or the winding curves which characterise them; and the action of tides and currents during their elevation might form straits of irregular width and depth, but not the river-like channels which actually exist. If, again, we suppose the | last movement to have been one of subsidence, reducing the size of the islands, these channels are quite as inex- plicable ; for subsidence would necessarily lead to the flooding of all low tracts on the banks of the old rivers, and thus obliterate their courses ; whereas these remain perfect, and of nearly uniform width from end to end. Now if these channels have ever been rivers they must have flowed from some higher regions, and this must have been to the east, because on the north and west the sea- bottom sinks down at a short distance from the shore to an unfathomable depth; whereas on the east a shallow sea, nowhere exceeding fifty fathoms, extends quite across to New Guinea, a distance of about a hundred and fifty miles. An elevation of only three hundred feet would convert the whole of this sea into moderately high land, and make the Aru Islands a portion of New Guinea; and the rivers which have their mouths at Utanata and Wamuka, might — then have flowed on across Aru, in the channels which are ; now occupied by salt water. When the intervening land — OHAP. XXXIII. | PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. AQ” sunk down, we must suppose the land that now constitutes Aru to have remained nearly stationary, a not very impro- bable supposition, when we consider the great extent of the shallow sea, and the very small amount of depression the land need have undergone to produce it. But the fact of the Aru Islands having once been con nected with New Guinea does not rest on this evidence alone. ‘There is such a striking resemblance between the productions of the two countries as only exists between portions of a common territory. I collected one hundred species of land-birds in the Aru Islands, and about eighty of them have been found on the mainland of New Guinea. Among these are the great wingless cassowary, two species: of heavy brush turkeys, and two of short winged thrushes, which could certainly not have passed over the 150 miles of open sea to the coast of New Guinea. This barrien is equally effectual in the case of many other birds which live only in the depths of the forest, as the kinghunters (Dacelo gaudichaudi), the fly-catching wrens (Todopsis), the great crown pigeon (Goura coronata), and the small wood doves (Ptilonopus perlatus, P. aurantiifrons, and P. coronulatus). Now, to show the real effect of such a ‘barrier, let us take the island of Ceram, which is exactly the same distance from New Guinea, but separated from it by a deep sea. Out of about seventy land-birds inhabiting Ceram, only fifteen are found in New Guinea, and none of these are terrestrial or forest-haunting species. The cassowary is distinct ; the kingfishers, parrots, pigeons, fly- catchers, honeysuckers, thrushes, and cuckoos, are almost always quite distinct species. More than this, at least twenty genera, which are common to New Guinea and Aru, do not extend into Ceram, indicating with a force which every naturalist will appreciate, that the two latter countries have received their faunas in a radically different manner. Again, a true kangaroo is found in Aru, and the same species occurs in Mysol, which is equally Papuan in its productions, while either the same, or one closely allied to it, inhabits New Guinea; but no such animal is found in Ceram, which is only sixty miles from Mysol. Another small marsupial animal (Peramales doreyanus) is common to Aru and New Guinea. The insects show exactly the 488 THE ARU ISLANDS. (CHAP, XXXL | same results. The butterflies of Aru are all either New Guinea species, or very slightly modified forms ; whereas those of Ceram are more distinct than are the birds of the two countries. It is now generally admitted that we may safely reason. on such facts as these, which supply a link in the defective geological record. The upward and downward movements which any country has undergone, and the succession of such movements, can be determined with much accuracy ; — but geology alone can tell us nothing of lands which have entirely disappeared beneath the, ocean. Here physical geography and the distribution of animals and plants are of the greatest service. By ascertaining the depth of the seas separating one country from another, we can form some judgment of the changes which are taking place. If there are other evidences of subsidence, a shallow sea implies a former connexion of the adjacent lands; but if © this evidence is wanting, or if there is reason to suspect a rising of the land, then the shallow sea may be the result of that rising, and may indicate that the two countries will be joined at some future time, but not that they have previously been so. The nature of the animals and plants inhabiting these countries will, however, almost always enable us to determine this question. Mr. Darwin has shown us how we may determine in almost every Case, whether an island has ever been connected with a con- tinent or larger land, by the presence or absence of terres- trial Mammalia and reptiles. What he terms “oceanic islands” possess neither of these groups of animals, though they may have a luxuriant vegetation, and a fair number of birds, insects, and land-shells ; and we therefore conclude that they have originated in mid-ocean, and have never been connected with the nearest masses of land. St. Helena, Madeira, and New Zealand are examples of oceanic islands. They possess all other classes of lite, because these have means of dispersion over wide spaces of sea, which terrestrial mammals and birds have not, as is fully explained in Sir Charles Lyell’s “ Principles of Geology,” and Mr. Darwin’s “ Origin of Species.” On the other hand, an island may never have been actually con- nected with the adjacent continents or islands, and yet CHAP. XXXII. ] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 489 may possess representatives of all classes of animals, because many terrestrial mammals and some reptiles have the means of passing over short distances of sea. But in these cases the number of species that have thus migrated will be very small, and there will be great deficiencies even in birds and flying insects, which we should imagine could easily cross over. The island of Timor (as I have already shown in Chapter XIII.) bears this relation to Australia ; for while it contains several birds and insects of Australian forms, no Australian mammal or reptile is found in it, and a great number of the most abundant and characteristic forms of Australian birds and insects are entirely absent. Contrast this with the British Islands, in Which a large proportion of the plants, insects, reptiles, and Mammalia of the adjacent parts of the continent are fully represented, while there are no remarkable defi- ciencies of extensive groups, such as always occur when there is reason to believe there has been no such connexion. The case of Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, and the Asiatic continent is equally clear; many large Mammalia, terres- trial birds, and reptiles being common to all, while a large number more are of closely allied forms. Now, ceology has taught us that this representation by allied forms in the same locality implies lapse of time, and we therefore infer that in Great Britain, where almost every species is absolutely identical with those on the Continent, the separation has been very recent; while in Sumatra and Java, where a considerable number of the continental species are represented by allied forms, the separation was more remote. | From these examples we may see how important a supplement to geological evidence is the study of the geographical distribution of animals and plants, in deter- mining the former condition of the earth’s surface; and how impossible it is to understand the former without taking the latter into account. The productions of the Aru Islands offer the strongest evidence that at no very distant epoch they formed a part of New Guinea; and the peculiar physical features which I have described, indicate that they must have stood at very nearly the same level then as they do now, having been separated 49() THE ARU ISLANDS. [CHAP. XXXII, by the subsidence of the great plain which formerly con- nected them with it. Persons who have formed the usual ideas of the vegetation of the tropics—who picture to themselves the abundance and brilliancy of the flowers, and the magnificent appear- ance of hundreds of forest trees covered with masses of coloured blossoms, will be surprised to hear, that though vegetation in Aru is highly luxuriant and varied, and would afford abundance of fine and curious plants to adorn our hothouses, yet bright and showy flowers are. as a general rule, altogether absent, or so very Scatve as to produce no effect whatever on the general scenery. To give particulars: I have visited five distinct locali- ties in the islands, I have wandered daily in the forests, and have passed along upwards of a hundred miles of coast and river during a period of six months, much of it very fine weather, and till just as I was about to leave, I never saw a single plant of striking brilliancy © or beauty, hardly a shrub equal to a hawthorn, or a climber equal to a honeysuckle ! It cannot be said | that the flowering season had not arrived, for I saw many ~ herbs, shrubs, and forest trees in flower, but all had blossoms of a green or greenish-white tint, nob superior to © our lime-trees. Here and there on the river banks: and coasts are a few Convolvulacee, not equal to our garden — Ipomeeas, and in the deepest shades of the forest some fine scarlet and purple Zingiberacez, but so few and scattered as to be nothing amid the mass of green and flowerless vegetation. Yet the noble Cycadaceze and screw-pines, thirty or forty feet high, the elegant tree ferns, the lofty palms, and the variety of beautiful and curious plants which everywhere meet the eye, attest the warmth and moisture of the tropics, and the fertility of the soil. It is true that Aru seemed to me exceptionally poor in flowers, but this is only an exaggeration of a general tropical feature ; for my whole experience in the equa- torial regions of the west and the east has convinced me, that in the most luxuriant parts of the tropics, flowers are less abundant, on the average less showy, and are far less effective in adding colour to the landscape than in tempe- ’ CHAP. XXXIII. | ASPECTS OF NATURE. 49] rate climates. I have never seen in the tropics such bril- lant masses of colour as even England can show in her furze-clad commons, her heathery mountain-sides, her glades of wild hyacinths, her fields of poppies, her meadows of buttercups and orchises—carpets of yellow, purple, azure- blue, and fiery crimson, which the tropics can rarely ex- hibit. We have smaller masses of colour in our hawthorn and crab trees, our holly and mountain-ash, our broom, foxgloves, primroses, and purple vetches, which clothe with gay colours the whole length and breadth of our land. These beauties are allcommon. They are characteristic of the country and the climate; they have not to be sought for, but they gladden the eye at every step. In the regions of the equator, on the other hand, whether it be forest or savannah, a sombre green clothes universal nature. You may journey for hours, and even for days, and meet with nothing to break the monotony. Flowers are everywhere rare, and anything at all striking is only to be met with at very distant intervals. The idea that nature exhibits gay colours in the tropics, and that the general aspect of nature is there more bright and varied in hue than with us, has even been made the foundation of theories of art, and we have been forbidden to use bright colours in our garments, and in the decorations of our dwellings, because it was supposed that we should be thereby acting in opposition to the teachings of nature. The argument itself is a very poor one, since it might with equal justice be maintained, that as we possess facul- ties for the appreciation of colours, we should make up for the deficiencies of nature and use the gayest tints in those regions where the landscape is most monotonous. But the assumption on which the argument is founded is totally false, so that even if the reasoning were valid, we need not be afraid of outraging nature, by decorating our houses and our persons with all those gay hues which are so lavishly spread over -our fields and mountains, our hedges, woods, and meadows. It is very easy to see what has led to this erroneous view of the nature of tropical vegetation. In our hot- houses and at our flower-shows we gather together the finest flowering plants from the most distant regions of A92, NEW GUINEA. [CBAP. XXXIV, © the earth, and exhibit them in a proximity to each other which never occurs in nature. A hundred distinct plants, all with bright, or strange, or gorgeous flowers, make a wonderful show when brought together; but perhaps no two of these plants could ever be seen together in a state of nature, each. inhabiting a distant region or a (lifferent station. Again, all moderately warm extra- European countries are mixed up with the tropics in ceneral estimation, and a vague idea is formed that whatever is pre-eminently beautiful mus? come from the — hottest parts of the earth. But the fact is quite the contrary. Rhododendrons and azaleas are plants of tem- perate regions, the orandest lilies are from temperate Japan, and a large proportion of our most showy flower- ing plants are natives of the Himalayas, of the Cape, of the United States, of Chili, or of China and Japan, all temperate regions. True, there are @ ereat number of srand and gorgeous flowers in the tropics, but the pro- portion they bear to the mass of the vegetation 1s ex- ceedingly small; so that what appears an anomaly is — nevertheless a fact, and the effect of flowers on the ceneral aspect of nature is far less in the equatorial than in the temperate regions of the earth CHAPTER XXXIV NEW GUINEA.—DOREY (MARCH TO JULY 1858.) ne my return from Gilolo to Ternate, in March 1858, 1 made arrangements tor my long-wished-for — voyage to the mainland of New Guinea, where I antici- pated that my collections would surpass those which I had formed at the Aru Islands. The poverty of Ternate in articles used by Europeans was shown, by my searching 10 © vain through all the stores for such common things a8 — CHAP. XXXIV. | VOYAGE TO DOREY. 49% flour, metal spoons, wide-mouthed phials, beeswax, a pen- knife, and a stone or metal pestle and mortar. I took with me four servants: my head man Ali, and a Ternate lad named Jumaat (Friday), to shoot ; Lahagi, a steady middle- aged man, to cut timber and assist me in insect-collecting ; and Loisa, a Javanese cook. As I knew I should have to build a house at Dorey, where I was going, I took with me eighty cadjans, or waterproof mats, made of pandanus leaves, to cover over my baggage on first landing, and to help to roof my house afterwards. We started on the 25th of March in the schooner Hester Helena, belonging to my friend Mr. Duivenboden, and bound on a trading voyage along the north coast of New Guinea. Having calms and light airs, we were three days reaching Gané, near the south end of Gilolo, where we stayed to fill up our water-casks and buy a few provisions. We obtained fowls, eggs, sago, plantains, sweet potatoes, yellow pumpkins, chilies, fish, and dried deer’s meat; and on the afternoon of the 29th proceeded on our voyage to Dorey harbour. We found it, however, by no means easy to get along; for so near to the equator the monsoons entirely fail of their regularity, and after passing the southern point of Gilolo we had calms, light puffs of wind, and contrary currents, which kept us for five days in sight of the same islands between it and Poppa. A squall then brought us on to the entrance of Dampier’s Straits, where we were again becalmed, and were three more days creeping through them. Several native canoes now came off to us from Waigiou on one side, and Batanta on the other, bringing a few common shells, palm-leaf mats, cocoa-nuts, and pumpkins. They were very extravagant in their de- mands, being accustomed to sell their trifles to whalers and China ships, whose crews will purchase anything at ten times its value. My only purchases were a float © belonging to a turtle-spear carved to resemble a bird, and a very well made palm-leaf box, for which articles [ gave a copper ring and a yard of calico. The canoes were very narrow and furnished with an outrigger, and in some of them there was only one man, who seemed to think nothing of coming out alone eight or ten miles 494 NEW GUINEA. (CHAP. XXXIV. from shore. The people were Papuans, much resembling the natives of Aru. When we had got out of the Straits, and were fairly in the great Pacific Ocean, we had a steady wind for the first time since leaving Ternate, but unfortunately it was dead ahead, and we had to beat against. it, tacking on and off the coast of New Guinea. I looked with intense interest on those rugged mountains, retreating ridge behind ridge into the interior, where the foot of civilized man had never trod. There was the country of the cassowary and the tree-kangaroo, and those dark forests produced the most extraordinary and the most beautiful of the feathered inhabitants of the earth—the varied species of Birds of Paradise. A few days more and I hoped to be in pursuit of these, and of the scarcely less beautiful insects which accompany them. We had still, however, for several days only calms and light head-winds, and it was not till the 10th of April that a fine westerly breeze set im, followed by a squally night, which kept us off the entrance of Dorey harbour. The next morning we entered, and came to anchor off the small island of Mansinam, on which dwelt two German missionaries, Messrs. Otto and Geisler. The former immediately came on board to give us welcome, and invited us to go on shore and breakfast with him. We were then introduced to his companion—who was suffering dreadfully from an abscess on the heel, which had confined him to the house for six months—and to his wife, a young German woman, who had been out only three months. Unfortunately she could speak no Malay or English, and had to guess at our compliments on her excellent breakfast by the justice we did to it. These missionaries were working men, and had been sent out, as being more useful among savages than persons of a higher class. They had been here about two years, and Mr. Otto had already learnt to speak the Papuan language with fluency, and had begun translating some portions of the Bible. The language, however, is so poor that a con- siderable number of Malay words have to be used; and it is very questionable whether it 1s possible to convey any idea of such a book, to a people in so low a state of civilization. The only nominal converts yet made are a cHap. xxxiv.1 TRADING MISSIONARIES. 495 few of the women; and some few of the children attend school, and are being taught to read, but they make little progress. ‘here is one feature of this mission which I believe will materially interfere with its moral effect. The missionaries are allowed to trade to eke out the very small salaries granted them from Europe, and of course are obliged to carry out the trade principle of buying cheap and selling dear, in order to make a profit. Like all savages the natives are quite careless of the future, and when their small rice crops are gathered they bring a large portion of it to the missionaries, and sell it for knives, beads, axes, tobacco, or any other articles they may require. A few months later, in the wet season, when food is scarce, they come to buy it back again, and give in exchange tortoiseshell, tripang, wild nutmegs, or other produce. Of course the rice is sold at a much higher rate than it was bought, as is perfectly fair and just—and the operation is on the whole thoroughly beneficial to the natives, who would otherwise consume and waste their food when it was abundant, and then starve—yet I cannot imagine that the natives see it in this light. They must look upon the trading missionaries with some suspicion, and cannot feel so sure of their teachings being disinterested, as would be the case if they acted like the Jesuits in Singapore. The first thing to be done by the missionary in attempting to improve savages, is to convince them by his actions that he comes among them for their benefit only, and not for any private ends of his own. To do this he must act ina different way from other men, not trading and taking advantage of the necessities of those who want to sell, but rather giving to those who are in distress. It would be well if he conformed himself in some degree to native customs, and then endeavoured to show how these customs might be gradually modified, so as to be more healthful and more agreeable. A few energetic and devoted men acting in this way might probably effect a decided moral improvement on the lowest savage tribes, whereas trading missionaries, teaching what Jesus said, but not doing as He did, can scarcely be expected to do more than give them a very little.of the superficial varnish of religion. Dorey harbour is in a fine bay, at one extremity of 496 NEW GUINEA. [CHAP, XXXIV. which an elevated point juts out, and, with two or three small islar ds, forms a sheltered anchorage. The only vessel +t contained when we arrived was a Dutch brig, laden with coals for the use of a war-steamer, which was expected daily, on an exploring expedition along the coasts of New Guinea, for the purpose of fixing on a locality for a colony. In the evening we paid it a visit, and landed at the village of Dorey, to look out for a place where I could build my house. Mr. Otto also made arrangements for me with some of the native chiefs, to send men to cub wood, rattans, and bamboo the next day. The villages of Mansinam and Dorey presented some features quite new to me. The houses all stand com- pletely in the water, and are reached by long rude bridges. They are very low, with the roof shaped like a large boat, bottom upwards. The posts which support the houses, bridges, and platforms are small crooked sticks, placed without any regularity, and looking as if they were tumbling down. The floors are also formed of sticks, equally irregular, and so loose and far apart that I found it almost impossible to walk on them. The walls consist of bits of boards, old boats, rotten mats, attaps, and palm-leaves, stuck in anyhow here and there, and having altogether the most wretched and dilapidated appearance it 1s possible to conceive. Under the eaves of many of the houses hang human skulls, the trophies of their battles with the savage Arfaks of the interior, who often come to attack them. A large boat-shaped council- house is supported on larger posts, each of which is grossly carved to represent a naked male or female human figure, and other carvings still more revolting are placed upon the platform before the entrance. The view of an ancient lake-dweller’s village, given as the frontispiece of Sir Charles Lyell’s “ Antiquity of Man,” is chiefly founded on a sketch of this very village of Dorey ; but the extreme regularity of the structures there depicted has no place in the original, any more than it probably had in the actual lake-villages. : The people who inhabit these miserable huts are very similar to the Ké and Aru islanders, and many of them are very handsome, being tall and well-made, with well- rst Seid hlnicncannadeh Pyhpuetinan NODE Let _ a fF oe lie CHAP, XXXIV.] THE NATIVES OF DOREY. 497 cut features and large aquiline noses. Their colour is a deep brown, often approaching closely to black, and the fine mop-like heads of frizzly hair appear to be more comuien than elsewhere, and are considered a great orna- ment, a long six-pronged bamboo fork being kept stuck in them to serve the purpose of a comb; and this is assidu- ously used at idle moments to keep the densely growing PAPUAN, NEW GUINEA, mass from becoming matted and tangled. The majority have short woolly hair, which does not seem capable of an equally luxuriant development. A growth of hair somv- what similar to this, and almost as abundant, is found among the half-breeds between the Indian and Negro in South America. Can this be an indication that the Papuans are a mixed race? For the first three days after our arrival I was fully occupied from morning to night building a house, with the K K 498 NEW GUINEA. (CHAP. XXXIV. assistance of a dozen Papuans aud my own men. It was | immense trouble to get our labourers to work, as scarcely one of them could speak a word of Malay ; and it was only by the most energetic gesticulations, and going through a regular pantomime of what was wanted, that we could get them to do anything. If we made them understand that a— few more poles were required, which two could have easily cut, six or eight would insist upon going together, although we needed their assistance in other things. One morning ten of them came to work, bringing only one chopper be- tween them, although they knew I had none ready for use. I chose a place about two hundred yards from the beach, | on an elevated ground, by the side of the chief path from | the village of Dorey to the provision-grounds and the forest. | Within twenty yards was a little stream, which furnished | us with excellent water and a nice place to bathe. There | was only low underwood to clear away, while some fine | forest trees stood at a short distance, and we cut down the wood for about twenty yards round to give us light and | air. The house, about twenty feet by fifteen, was built | entirely of wood, with a bamboo floor, a single door of ~ thatch, and a large window, looking ever the sea, at which | I fixed my table, and close beside it my bed, within a little 7 partition. I bought a number of very large palm-leaf mats 7) of the natives, which made excellent walls ; while the mats © I had brought myself were used on the roof, and were | covered over with attaps as soon as We could get them made. Outside, and rather behind, was a little hut, used | I had my goods and stores brought up, arranged them 7 conveniently inside, and then paid my Papuans with” knives and choppers, and sent them away. The next day our schooner left for the more eastern islands, and I found | myself fairly established as the only European inhabitant” of the vast island of New Guinea. 5 As we had some doubt about the natives, we slept at first with loaded guns beside us and a watch set; but) after a few days, finding the people friendly, and feeling | sure that they would not venture to attack five well-arme@ | men, we took no further precautions. We had still a day. CHAP, XxxIv.} COAST AND INLAND PAPUANS 499 or twos work in finishing up the house, stopping leaks, putting up our hanging shelves for drying specimens inside and out, and making the path down to the water, and a clear dry space in front of the house. On the 17th, the steamer not having arrived, the coal- ship left, having lain here a month, according to her con- . tract ; and on the same day my hunters went out to shoot for the first time, and brought home a magnificent crown pigeon and a few common birds. The next day they were more successful, and I was delighted to see them return with a Bird of Paradise in full plumage, a pair of the fine Papuan lories (Lorius domicella), four other lories and parroquets, a grackle (Gracula dumonti), a king-hunter (Dacelo gaudichaudi), a racquet-tailed kingfisher (Tany- siptera galatea), and two or three other birds of less beauty. I went myself to visit the native village on the hill behind Dorey, and took with me a small present of cloth, knives, and beads, to secure the good-will of the chief, and get him to send some men to catch or shoot birds for me. The houses were ‘scattered about among rudely cultivated clearings. Two which I visited consisted of a central passage, on each side of which opened short passages, ad- mitting to two rooms, each of which was a house accom- modating a separate family. They were elevated at least fifteen feet above the ground, on a complete forest of poles, and were so rude and dilapidated that some of the small passages had openings in the floor of loose sticks, through which a child might fall. The inhabitants seemed rather ugher than those at Dorey village. They are, no doubt, the true indigenes of this part of New Guinea, living in the interior, and subsisting by cultivation and hunting. The Dorey men, on the other hand, are shore-dwellers, fishers and traders in a small way, and have thus the character of a colony who have migrated from another district. These hillmen or “Arfaks” differed much in physical features. They were generally black, but some were brown like Malays. Their hair, though always more or less frizzly, was sometimes short and matted, instead of being long, loose, and woolly; and this seemed to be a constitutional difference, not the effect of care and cultiva- jon. Nearly half of them were afflicted with the scurly Be te Tes 2 } 500 NEW GUINEA. (CHAP. XXXIV. skin-digease. The old chief seemed much pleased with — his present, and promised (through an interpreter I brought with me) to pro- tect my men when they came there shooting, and also to procure me some birds and animals. While conversing, they smoked tobacco of their own grow- ing, in pipes cut from a single piece of wood with a long upright handle. We had arrived at Do- rey about the end of the wet season, when the whole country was soaked with moisture. The native paths were so neglected as to be often mere tunnels closed over with vegetation, and in such places there was always a fearful accumula- tion of mud. To the naked Papuan this is no obstruction He wades through it, and the next watercourse makes him clean again; but to myself, wearing boots and trousers. it was a most disagreeable thing to have to go up WW my knees in a mud-hole every morning. The man I brought with me to cut wood fell ill soon after we arrived, or 1 would have set him to clear fresh paths in the worst — places. For the first ten days it generally rained every afternoon and all night; but by going out every hour of fine weather, 1 managed to get on’ tolerably with my collections of birds and insects, finding most of those collected by Lesson during his visit in the Coquille, as well as many new ones. It appears, however, that Dorey is not the place for Birds of Paradise, none of the natives being accustomed to preserve them. Those sold here are | all brought from Amberbaki, about a hundred miles west, where the Doreyans go to trade. The islands in the bay, with the low lands near the coast, seem to have been formed by recently raised coral PAPUAN PIPE. CHAP. XxXIv.] ARRIVAL OF THE “ ETNA” 901 reefs and are much strewn with masses of coral but little altered. The ridge behind my house, which runs out to the point, is also entirely coral rock, although there are signs of a stratified foundation in the ravines, and the rock itself is more compact and crystalline. It is, therefore, probably older, a more recent elevation having exposed the low grounds and islands. On the other side of the bay rise the great mass of the Arfak mountains, said by the French navigators to be about ten thousand feet high, and inhabited by savage tribes. These are held in great dread by the Dorey people, who have often been attacked and plundered by them, and have some of their skulls hanging outside their houses. If I was seen going into the forest anywhere in the direction of the mountains, the little boys of the village would shout after me, “Arfaki! Arfaki!” just as they did after Lesson nearly forty years before. On the 15th of May the Dutch war-steamer Fina arrived; but, as the coals had gone, it was obliged to stay till they came back. The captain knew when the coalship was to arrive, and how long it was chartered to stay at Dorey, and could have been back in time, but supposed it would wait for him, and so did not hurry himself. The steamer lay at anchor just opposite my house, and I had the advantage of hearing the half- hourly bells struck, which was very pleasant after the monotonous silence of the forest. The captain, doctor, engineer, and some other of the officers paid me visits; the servants came to the brook to wash clothes, and the son of the Prince of Tidore, with one or two companions, to bathe; otherwise I saw little of them, and was not disturbed by visitors so much as I had expected to be. About this time the weather set in pretty fine, but neither birds nor insects became much more abundant, and new birds were very scarce. None of the Birds of Paradise except the common one were ever met with, and we were still searching in vain for several of the fine birds which Lesson had obtained here. Insects were tolerably abun- lant, but were not on the average so fine as those of Amboyna, and I reluctantly came to the conclusion that Dorey was not a good collecting locality. Buttertlies were 502 NEW GUINEA. (CHAP, XXXIV, very scarce, and were mostly the same as those which I had obtained at Aru. Among the insects of other orders, the most curious and novel were a group of horned flies, of which I obtained four distinct species, settling on fallen trees and decaying trunks. ‘These remarkable insects, which have been de- scribed by Mr. W. W. Saunders as a new genus, under the name of Elaphomia or deer-flies, are about half an inch long, slender-bodied, and with very long legs, which they draw together so as to elevate their bodies high above the surface they are standing upon. The front pair of legs are much shorter, and these are often stretched directly forwards, so as to resemble antenne. The horns spring from beneath the eye, and seem to be a prolongation of the lower part of the orbit. In the largest and most singular species, named Elaphomia cervicornis or the stag- Coe « eS ASTI oe Ze ~ 4B SSS = VAN y : SSSR 3 S SS wy HORNED FLIES. Elaphomia cervicornis. Elaphomia wallacei. E. brevicornis. E. alcicornis. horned deer-fly, these horns are nearly as long as the body, having two branches, with two small snags near their bifurcation, so as to resemble the horns of a stag. They are black, with the tips pale, while the body and legs are yellowish brown, and the eyes (when alive) violet and green. The next species (Elaphomia wallace) is of a dark brown colour, banded and spotted with yellow. The horns are about one-third the length of the insect, broad, flat, and of an elongated triangular form. They are of a beautiful CHAP. XXXIV. ] DEER-FLIES. 203 pink colour, edged with black, and with a pale central stripe. The front part of the head is also pink, and the eyes violet pink, with a green stripe across them, giving the insect a very elegant and singular appearance. The third species (Elaphomia alcicornis, the elk-horned deer-fly) is a little smaller than the two already described, but - resembling in colour Elaphomia wallacei. The horns are very remarkable, being suddenly dilated into a flat plate, strongly toothed round the outer margin, and strikingly resembling the horns of the elk, after which it has been named. ‘They are of a yellowish colour, margined with brown, and tipped with black on the three upper teeth. The fourth species (Elaphomia brevicornis, the short- horned deer-fly) differs considerably from the rest. It is stouter in form, of a nearly black colour, with a yellow ring at the base of the abdomen; the wings have dusky stripes, and the head is compressed and dilated laterally, with very small flat horns, which are black with a pale centre, and look exactly like the rudiment of the horns of the two preceding species. None of the females have any trace of the horns, and Mr. Saunders places in the same genus a species which has no horns in either sex (Hla- phomia polita). It is of a shining black colour, and re- sembles Elaphomia cervicornis in form, size, and general appearance. The figures above given represent these insects of their natural size and in characteristic attitudes. The natives seldom brought me anything. They are poor creatures, and rarely shoot a bird, pig, or kangaroo, or even the sluggish opossum-like Cuscus. The tree-kangaroos are found here, but must be very scarce, as my hunters, although out daily in the forest, never once saw them. Cockatoos, lories, and parroquets were really the only common birds. Even pigeons were scarce, and in little variety, although we occasionally got the fine crown pigeon, which was always welcome as an addition to our scantily furnished larder. Just before the steamer arrived I had wounded my ankle by clambering among the trunks and branches of fallen trees (which formed my best hunting grounds for insects), and, as usual with foot wounds in this climate, it turned into an obstinate ulcer, keeping me in the house for several days, 504 NEW GUINEA. [CHAP, XXXIV. When it healed up it was followed by an internal inflam- mation of the foot, which by the doctor’s advice I poulticed incessantly for four or five days, bringing out a severe in- flamed swelling on the tendon above the heel. This had to be leeched, and lanced, and doctored with ointments and poultices for several weeks, till I was almost driven to despair,—for the weather was at length fine, and I was tantalized by seeing grand butterflies flying past my door, and thinking of the twenty or thirty new species of insects that I ought to be getting every day. And this, too, in New Guinea !—a country which I might never visit again,—a country which no naturalist had ever resided in before,—a country which contained more strange and new and beautiful natural objects than any other part of the globe. The naturalist will be able to appreciate my feel- ings, sitting from morning to night in my little hut, unable to move without a crutch, and my only solace the birds my hunters brought in every afternoon, and the few insects caught by my Ternate man, Lahagi, who now went out daily in my place, but who of course did not get a fourth part of what I should have obtained. To add to my troubles all my men were more or less ill, some with fever, others with dysentery or ague; at one time there were three of them besides myself all helpless, the cook alone being well, and having enough to do to wait upon us. The Prince of Tidore and the Resident of Banda were both on board the steamer, and were seeking Birds of Paradise, sending men round in every direction, so that there was no chance of my getting even native skins of the rarer kinds ; and any birds, insects, or animals the Dorey people had to sell were taken on board the steamer, where purchasers were found for everything, and where a larger variety of articles were offered in exchange than I had to show. After a month’s close confinement in the house I was at length able to go out a little, and about the same time I succeeded in getting a boat and six natives to take Ali and Lahagi to Amberbaki, and to bring them back at the end uf a month. Ali was charged to buy all the Birds ot Paradise he could get, and to shoot and skin all other rare or new birds; and Lahagi was to collect insects, which I hoped might be more abundant than at Dorey. When I CHAP, XXXIV.] ARFAK, | 505 recommenced my daily walks in search of insects, I found a great change in the yeighbourhood, and one very agreeable tome. All the time I had been laid up the ship’s crew and the Javanese soldiers who had been brought in a tender (a sailing ship which had arrived goon after the Lina), had been employed cutting down, sawing, and split- ting large trees for firewood, to enable the steamer to get bacx to Amboyna if the coal-ship did not return ; and they had also cleared a number of wide, straight paths through the forest in various directions, greatly to the astonishment of the natives, who could not make out what it all meant. I had now a variety of walks, and a good deal of dead wood on which to search for insects; but notwithstanding these advantages, they were not nearly so plentiful as I had found them at Sarawak, or Amboyna, or Batchian, con- firming my opinion that Dorey was not a good locality. It is quite probable, however, that at a station a few miles in the interior, away from the recently elevated coralline rocks and the influence of the sea air, a much more abun- dant harvest might be obtained. One afternoon I went on board the steamer to return the captain’s visit, and was shown some very nice sketches (by one of the lieutenants), made on the south coast, and also at the Arfak mountain, to which they had made an excursion. From these and the captain’s description, it appeared that the people of Arfak were similar to those of Dorey, and I could hear nothing of the straight-haired race which Lesson says inhabits the interior, but which no one has ever seen, and the account of which I suspect has origi- nated in some mistake. The captain told me he had made a detailed survey of part of the south coast, and if the coal arrived should go away at once to Humboldt Bay, in lon- gitude 141° east, which is the line up to which the Dutch claim New Guinea. On board the tender I found a brother naturalist, a German named Rosenberg, who was draughtsman to the surveying staff. He had brought two men with him to shoot and skin birds, and had been able to purchase a few rare skins from the natives, Among these was a pair of the superb Paradise Pie (Astrapia nigra) in tolerable preservation. They were brought from the island of Jobie, which may be its native country, as it 596 NEW GUINEA. (CHAP. XXXIV, certainly is of the rare” species of crown pigeon (Goura steursii), one of which was brought alive and sold on boara. Jobie, however, is a very dangerous place, and sailors are often murdered there when on shore ; sometimes the vessels themselves being attacked. Wandammen, on the mainland opposite Jobie, where there are said to be plenty of birds, is even worse, and at either of these places my life would not have been worth a week's pur- chase had I ventured to live alone and unprotected as at Dorey. On board the steamer they had a pair of tree- kangaroos alive. They differ chiefly from the ground- kangaroo in having a more hairy tail, not thickened at the base, and not used as a prop; and by the powerful claws on the fore-feet, by which they grasp the bark and branches, and seize the leaves on which they feed. They move along by short jumps on their hind-feet, which do — not seem particularly well adapted for climbing trees. ‘It has been supposed that these tree-kangaroos are a special adaptation to the swampy, half-drowned forests of New Guinea, in place of the usual form of the group, which is adapted only to dry cround. Mr. Windsor Karl makes much of this theory, but, unfortunately for it, the tree- kangaroos are chiefly found in the northern peninsula of New Guinea, which is entirely composed of hills and mountains with very little flat land, while the kangaroo of the low flat Aru Islands (Dorcopsis asiaticus) 18 a ground species. A more probable supposition seems to be, that the tree-kangaroo has been modified to enable it to feed on foliage in the vast forests of New Guinea, as these form the great natural feature which distin- guishes that country from Australia. On June 5th, the coal-ship arrived, having been sent yack from Amboyna, with the addition of some -fresh stores for the steamer. The wood, which had been almost all taken on board, was now unladen again, the coal taken in, and on the 17th both steamer and tender left for Hum- boldt Bay. We were then a little quiet again, and got something to eat ; for while the vessels were here every bit of fish or vegetable was taken on board, and I had often to make a small parroquet serve for two meals. My men ' ; i cHAP, xxxiv.] SCARCITY OF PARADISE BIRDS. 507 now returned from Amberbaki, but, alas! brought me almost nothing. They had visited several villages, and even went two days’ journey into the interior, but could find no skins of Birds of Paradise to purchase, except the common kind, and very few even of those. The birds found were the same as at Dorey, but were still scarcer. None of the natives anywhere near the coast shoot or prepare Birds of Paradise, which come from far in the interior over two or three ranges of mountains, passing by barter from village to village till they reach the sea, There the natives of Dorey buy them, and on their return home sell them to the Bugis or Ternate traders. It is therefore hopeless for a traveller to go to any particular place on the coast of New Guinea where rare Paradise birds may have been bought, in hopes of obtaining freshly killed specimens from the natives ; and it also shows the scarcity of these birds in any one locality, since from the Amberbaki district, a celebrated place, where at least five or six species have been procured, not one of the rarer ones has been obtained this year. The Prince of Tidore, who would certainly have got them if any were to be had, was obliged to put up with a few of the common yellow ones. I think it probable that a longer residence at Dorey, a little farther in the interior, might show that several of the rarer kinds were found there, as I obtained a single female of the fine scale-breasted Ptiloris magnificus. I was told at Ternate of a bird that is certainly not yet known in Europe, a black King Paradise Bird, with the curled tail and beautiful side plumes of the common species, but all the rest of the plumage glossy black. The people of Dorey knew nothing about this, although they recognised by description most of the other species. When the steamer left, I was suffering from a severe attack of fever. In about a week I got over this, but it was followed by such a soreness of the whole inside of the mouth, tongue, and gums, that for many days I could put nothing solid between my lips, but was obliged to subsist entirely on slops, although in other respects very well. At the same time two of my men again fell ill, one with fever, the other with dysentery, and both got very bad. I did what I could for them with my small stock of medicines 508 NEW GUINEA. (CHAP. XXXIV. but they lingered on for some weeks, till on June 26th poor Jumaat died. He was about eighteen years of age, a native, I believe, of Bouton, and a quiet lad, not very active, but doing his work pretty steadily, and as well as he was able. As my men were all Mahometans, I let them bury him in their own fashion, giving them some new cotton cloth for a shroud. On July 6th the steamer returned from the eastward. The weather was still terribly wet, when, according to rule it should have been fine and dry. We had scarcely any- thing to eat, and were all of us ill. Fevers, colds, and dysentery were continually attacking us, and made me long to get away from New Guinea, as much as ever I had longed to come there. The captain of the Kina paid me a visit, and gave me a very interesting account of his trip. They had stayed at Humboldt Bay several days, and found it a much more beautiful and more interesting place than Dorey, as well as a better harbour. The natives were quite unsophisticated, being rarely visited except by stray whalers, and they were superior to the Dorey people, morally and physically. They went quite naked. Their houses were some in the water and some inland, and were all neatly and well built ; their fields were well cultivated, and the paths to them kept clear and open, in which respects Dorey is abominable. They were shy at first, and opposed the boats with hostile demonstrations, bend- ing their bows, and intimating that they would shoot if an attempt was made to land. Very judiciously the captain gave way, but threw on shore a few presents, and after two or three trials they were permitted to land, and to go about and see the country, and were supplied with fruits and vegetables. All communication was carried on with them by signs—the Dorey interpreter, who accom~ panied the steamer, being unable to understand a word of their language. No new birds or animals were obtained, but in their ornaments the feathers of Paradise birds were seen, showing, as might be expected, that these birds range far in this direction, and probably all over New Guinea. It is curious that a rudimental love of art should eo-exist with such a very low state of civilization. The CHAP, Xxxiv.] ART AND BARBARISM. 209 people of Dorey are great carvers and painters. The outsides of the houses, wherever there is a plank, are covered with rude yet characteristic figures. The high- peaked prows of their boats are orna- mented with masses of open filagree work, cut out of solid blocks of wood, and often of very tasteful design, As a figure-head, or pinnacle, there is often a human figure, with a head of cassowary feathers to imitate the Papuan “ mop.” The floats of their fishing-lines, the wooden beaters used in tempering the clay for their pottery, their tobacco- boxes, and other household articles, are covered with carving of tasteful and often elegant design. Did we not already know that such taste and skill are com- patible with utter barbarism, we could hardly believe that the same people are, in other matters, entirely wanting in all sense of order, comfort, or decency. Yet such is the case. ‘They live in the most miserable, crazy, and filthy hovels, which are utterly destitute of anything that can be called furniture ; not a stool, or bench, or board is seen in them, no brush seems to be known, and the clothes they wear are often filthy bark, or rags, or sacking. Along the paths where they daily pass to and from their provision grounds, not an overhanging bough or straggling briar ever seeims to be cut, so that you have to brush through a rank vegetation, creep under fallen trees and spiny creepers, and wade through pools of mud and mire, which cannot dry up because the sun is not allowed to penetrate. Their food is almost wholly roots and vegetables, with fish or game only as an occasional luxury, and they are consequently very subject to various skin diseases, the children especially being often miserable- aS \\: i v toa mT p ti i ti CARVED TOOL FOR MAKING POITERY. 510 NEW GUINEA. (CHAP. XXXIV. looking objects, blotched all over with eruptions and sores. If these people are not savages, where shall we find any ? Yet they have all a decided leve for the fine arts, and spend their leisure time in executing works whose good taste and elegance would often be admired in our schools of design ! During the latter part of my stay in New Guinea the weather was very wet, my only shooter was ill, and birds became scarce, so that my only resource was insect-hunt- ing. I worked very hard every hour of fine weather, and daily obtained a number of new species. Every dead tree and fallen log was searched and searched again ; and among the dry and rotting leaves, which still hung on certain trees which had been cut down, I found an abundant harvest of minute Coleoptera. Although I never after- wards found so many large and handsome beetles as in Borneo, yet I obtained here a great variety of species. For the first two or three weeks, while I was searching out the best localities, I took about 30 different kinds of beetles a day, besides about half that number of butterflies, and a fow of the other orders. But afterwards, up to the very last week, I averaged 49 species a day. On the 31st of May, I took 78 distinct sorts, a larger number than I had ever captured before, principally obtained among dead trees and under rotten bark. A good long walk on a fine day up the hill, and to the plantations of the natives, capturing everything not very common that came in my way, would produce about 60 species ; but on the last day of June I brought home no less than 90 distinct kinds of beetles, a larger number than | ever obtained in one day before or since. It was a fine hot day, and I devoted it to a search among dead leaves, beating foliage, and hunting under rotten bark, in all the best stations L had discovered during my walks. I was out from ten in the morning till three in the afternoon, and it took me six hours’ work at home to pin and set out all the specimens, and to separate the species. Although I had already been working this spot daily for two months and a half, and had obtained over 800 species of Coleoptera, this day's work added 32 new ones. Among these were 4 Longicorns, 2 Carabide, 7 Staphylinide, 7 Curculionide, 2 Copride, 4 Chrysomelide, J ‘ : 4 a 7 CHAP. XXXIV.] WE LEAVE DOREY. 51] 3 Heteromera, 1 Elater, and 1 Buprestis. Even on the last day I went out, I obtained 16 new species; so that although I collected over a thousand distinct sorts of beetles in a space not much exceeding a square mile during the three months of my residence at Dorey, I cannot believe that this represents one half the species really inhabiting the same spot, or a fourth of what might he obtained in an area extending twenty miles in each direction. On the 22d of July the schooner Hester Helena arrived, and five days afterwards we bade adieu to Dorey, without much regret, for in no place which I have visited have I encountered more privations and annoyances. Continual rain, continual sickness, little wholesome food, with a plague of ants and flies, surpassing anything I had before met with, required all a-naturalist’s ardour to encounter ; and when they were uncompensated by great success in collecting, became all the more insupportable. This long- thought-of and much-desired voyage to New Guinea haa realized none of my expectations. Instead of being far better than the Aru Islands, it was in almost everything much worse. Instead of producing several of the rarer Paradise birds, I had not even seen one of them, and had not obtained any one superlatively fine bird or insect. I cannot deny, however, that Dorey was very rich in ants. One small black kind was excessively abundant. Almost every shrub and tree was more or less infested with it, and its large papery nests were everywhere to be seen. They immediately took possession of my house, building a large nest in the roof, and forming papery tunnels down almost every post. They swarmed on my table as I was at work setting out my insects, carrying them off from under my very nose, and even tearing them from the cards on which they were gummed if I left them for an instant. They crawled continually over my hands and face, got into my hair, and roamed at will over my whole body, not producing much inconvenience till they began to bite, which they would do on meeting with any obstruction to their passage, and with a sharpness which made me jump again and rush to undress and turn out the offender. They visited my bed also, so that night 512 _ NEW GUINEA. [ouap. XXXIV. _ brought no relief from their persecutions; and I verily believe that during my three and a half months’ residence at Dorey I was never for a single hour entirely free from them. They were not nearly so voracious as many other kinds, but their numbers and ubiquity rendered it neces- sary to be constantly on guard against them. The flies that troubled me most were a large kind of blue-bottle or blow-fly. These settled in swarms on my pird skins when first put out to dry, filling their plumage with masses of eggs, which, if neglected, the next day produced maggots. They would get under the wings or under the body where it rested on the drying-board, some- times actually raising it up half an inch by the mass of eggs deposited in a few hours ; and every egg was so firmly clued to the fibres of the feathers, as to make it a work of much time and patience to get them off without injuring the bird. In no other locality have I ever been troubled with such a plague as this. On the 29th we left Dorey, and expected a quick voyage home, as it was the time of year when we ought to have had steady southerly and easterly winds. Instead of these, however, we had calms and westerly breezes, and it was seventeen days before we reached Ternate, a distance of five hundred miles only, which, with average winds, could have been done in five days. + was a great treat to me to find myself back again in my comfortable house, enjoying milk to my tea and coffee, fresh bread and butter, and fowl and fish daily for dinner. This New Guinea voyage had used us all up, and I determined to stay and recruit before I com- menced any fresh expeditions. My succeeding journeys to Gilolo and Batchian have already been narrated, and it now only remains for me to give an account of my residence in Waigiou, the last Papuan territory I visited in search of Birds of Paradise. : i 4 ox, xxxv.] VOYAGE FROM CERAM 10 WAIGIOV. 513 CHAPTER XXXV. VOYAGE FROM CERAM TO WAIGIOU. (JUNE AND JULY 1860.) N my twenty-fifth chapter I have described my arrival at Wahai, on my way to Mysol and Waigiou, islands which belong to the Papuan district, and the account of which naturally follows after that of my visit to the main- land of New Guinea. I now take up my narrative at my departure from Wahai, with the intention of carrying various necessary stores to my assistant, Mr. Allen, at Silinta, in Mysol, and then continuing my journey to Waigiou. It will be remembered that I was travelling in a small prau, which I had purchased and fitted up in Goram, and that, having been deserted by my crew on the coast of Ceram, I had obtained four men at Wahai, who, with my Amboy- nese hunter, constituted my crew. Between Ceram and Mysol there are sixty miles of open sea, and along this wide channel the east monsoon blows strongly ; so that with native praus, which will not lay up to the wind, it requires some care in crossing. In order to give ourselves sufficient leeway, we sailed back from Wahai eastward, along the coast of Ceram, with the land- breeze; but in the morning (June 18th) had not gone nearly so far as I expected. My pilot, an old and expe- rienced sailor, named Gurulampoko, assured me there was a current setting to the eastward, and that we could easily lay across to Silinta,in Mysol. As we got out from the land the wind increased, and there was a considerable sea, which made my short little vessel plunge and roll about violently. By sunset we had not got halfway across, but could see Mysol distinctly. All night we went along un- easily, and at daybreak, on looking out anxiously, I found that we had fallen much to the westward during the night, owing, no doubt, to the pilot being sleepy and not keeping the boat sufficientiy close to the wind. We could see the LL == 22.4. UT Bary 2/3 me [Ze es p.m, of iat = New Guinea SKETCH MAP of voyage from CERAM 70 WAICIOU Sune. T ‘July 4: 7860. 130] East Longitude. cH. xxxv.] VOYAGE FROM CERAM TO WAIGIOU. d15 mountains distinctly, but it wae clear we should not reach Silinta, and should have some difficulty in getting to the extreme westward point of the island. The sea was now very boisterous, and our prau was continually beaten to leeward by the waves, and after another weary day we found we could not get to Mysol at all, but might perhaps reach the island called Pulo Kanary, about ten miles to the north-west. Thence we might await a favourable wind to reach Waigamma, on the north side of the island, and visit Allen by means of a small boat. About nine o'clock at night, greatly to my satisfaction, we got under the lee of this island, into quite smooth water—for I had been very sick and uncomfortable, and had eaten scarcely anything since the preceding morning. We were slowly nearing the shore, which the smooth dark water told us we could safely approach, and were congra- tulating ourselves on soon being at anchor, with the pros- pect of hot coffee, a good supper, and a sound sleep, when the wind completely dropped, and we had to get out the oars to row. We were not more than two hundred yards from the shore, when I noticed that we seemed to get no nearer although the men were rowing hard, but drifted to the westward ; and the prau would not obey the helm, but continually fell off, and gave us much trouble to bring her up again. Soon a loud ripple of water told us we were seized by one of those treacherous currents which so fre- quently frustrate all the efforts of the voyager in these seas ; the men threw down the oars in despair, and in a few minutes we drifted to leeward of the island fairly out to sea again, and lost our last chance of ever reaching Mysol! Hoisting our jib, we lay to, and in the morning found ourselves only a few miles from the island, but with such a steady wind blowing from its direction as to render it impossible for us to get back to it. We now made sail to the northward, hoping soon to get a more southerly wind. Towards noon the sea was much smoother, and with a 8.S.E. wind we were laying in the direction of Salwatty, which I hoped to reach, as I could there easily get a boat to take provisions and stores to my companion in Mysol. This wind did not, however, last long, but died away into-a calm; and a light west wind Eb 3 516 VOYAGE FROM CERAM — [cuiar. xxxv, springing up, with a dark bank of clouds, again gave us hopes of reaching Mysol. "We were soon, however, again disappointed. The ESE. wind began to blow again with violence, and continued all ni ght in irregular gusts, and with a short cross sea tossed us about unmercifully, and so continually took our sails aback, that we were at length forced to run before it with our jib only, to escape being swamped by our heavy mainsail. After another miserable and anxious night, we found that we had drifted westward of the island of Poppa, and the wind being again a little southerly, we made all sail in order to reach it. This we did not succeed in doing, passing to the north-west, when che wind again blew hard from the E.S.E., and our last hope of finding a refuge till better weather was frus- trated, This was a very serious matter to me, as I could not tell how Charles Allen might act, if, after waiting in vain for me, he should return to Wahai, and find that I had left there long before, and had not since been heard of. Such an event as our missing an island forty miles long would hardly cecur to him, and he would conclude either that our boat had foundered, or that my crew had murdered me and run away with her. However, as it was physically — impossible now for me to reach him, the only thing to be done was to make the best of my way to Waigiou, and trust to our meeting some traders, who might convey to him the news of my safety. Finding on my map a group of three small islands, twenty-five miles north of Poppa, I resolved, if possible, to rest there a day or two. We could lay our boat's head NE. by N.; but a heavy sea from the eastward so con- tinually beat us off our course, and we made so much leeway, that I found it would be as much as we could do to reach them. It was a delicate point to keep our head — in the best direction, neither so close to the wind as to. stop our way, or so free as to carry us too far to leeward. I continually directed the steersman myself, and by imces- sant vigilance succeeded, just at sunset, In bringing our poat to an anchor under the lee of the southern point of one of the islands. The anchorage was, however, by no means good, there being @ fringing coral reef, dry at low water, beyond which, on a bottom strewn with masses OHAP. XXXV.] TO WAIGIOU. 517 coral, we were obliged to anchor. We had now been inces- santly tossing about for four days in our small undecked boat, with constant disappointments and anxiety, and it was a great comfort to have a night of quiet and com- parative safety. My old pilot had never left the helm for more than an hour at a time, when one of the others would relieve him for a little sleep; so I determined the next morning to look out for a secure and convenient harbour, and rest on shore for a day. In the morning, finding it would be necessary for us. to get round a rocky point, I wanted my men to go on shore and cut jungle-rope, by which to secure us from being again drifted away, as the wind was directly off shore. I unfortunately, however, allowed myself to be overruled. by the pilot and crew, who all declared that it was the easiest thing possible, and that they would row the boat round the point in a few minutes. They accordingly got up the anchor, set the jib, and began rowing; but, just as I had feared, we drifted rapidly off shore, and had to drop anchor again in deeper water, and much farther off. The two best men, a Papuan and a Malay, now swam on shore, each carrying a hatchet, and went into the jungle to seek creepers for rope. After about an hour our anchor loosed hold, and began to drag. This alarmed me greatly, and we let go our spare anchor, and, by running out all our cable, appeared tolerably secure again. We were now most anxious for the return of the men, and were going to. fire our muskets to recall them, when we observed them. on the beach, some way off, and almost immediately our anchors again slipped, and we drifted slowly away into deep water. We instantly seized the oars, but found we could not counteract the wind and current, and our frantic cries to the men were not heard till we had got a long way off, as they seemed to be hunting for shell-fish on the beach. Very soon, however, they stared at us, and ina few minutes seemed to comprehend their situation; for they rushed down into the water, as if to swim off, but again returned on shore, as if afraid to make the attempt. We had drawn up our anchors at first not to check our rowing; but now, finding we could do nothing, we let them both hang down by the full length of the cables. This 518 VOYAGE FROM CERAM [cHAP. XXXY. stopped our way very much, and we drifted from shore very slowly, and hoped the men would hastily form a raft, or cut down a soft-wood tree, and paddle out to us, as we were stilt not more than a third of a mile from shore. They seemed, however, to have half lost their senses, gesticulating wildly to us, running along the beach, then going into the forest; and just when we thought they had prepared some mode of making an attempt to reach us, we saw the smoke of a fire they had made to cook their shell-fish! They had evidently given up all idea of coming after us, and we were obliged to look to our own position. We were now about a mile from shore, and midway be- tween two of the islands, but we were slowly drifting out to sea to the westward, and our only chance of yet saving the men was to reach the opposite shore. We therefore set our jib and rowed hard ; but the wind failed, and we drifted out so rapidly that we had some difficulty in reaching the extreme westerly point of the island. Our only sailor — left, then swam ashore with a rope, and helped to tow ~ us round the point into a tolerably safe and secure anchor- age, well sheltered from the wind, but exposed to a little swell which jerked our anchor and made us rather un- easy. We were now in a sad plight, having lost our two best men, and being doubtful if we had strength left to hoist our mainsail. We had only two days’ water on board, and the small, rocky, voleanic island did not promise us much chance of finding any. The conduct of the men on shore was such as to render it doubtful if they would make any serious attempt to reach us, though they might easily do so, having two good choppers, with which in a day they could make a small outrigger raft on which they could safely cross the two miles of smooth sea with the wind right aft, if they started from the east end of the island, so as to allow for the current. I could only hope they would be sensible encugh to make the attempt, and determined to stay as long as I could to give them the chance. We passed an anxious night, fearful of again breaking our anchor or rattan cable. In the morning (23d), finding all secure, I waded on shore with my two men, leaving the i 7 CHAP. XXXxv.] TO WAIGIOU. 519 old steersman and the cook on board, with a loaded musket to recall us if needed. We first walked along the beach, till stopped by the vertical cliffs at the east end of the island, finding a place where meat had been smoked, a turtle-shell still greasy, and some cut wood, the leaves of which were still green,—showing that some boat had been here very recently. We then entered the jungle, cutting our way up to the top of the hill, but when we got there could see nothing, owing to the thickness of the forest. Returning, we cut some bamboos, and sharpened them to dig for water in a low spot where some sago-trees were erowing ; when, just as we were going to begin, Hol, the Wahai man, called out to say he had found water. It was a deep hole among the sago-trees, in stiff black clay, full of water, which was fresh, but smelt horribiy from the quantity of dead leaves and sago refuse that had fallen in. Hastily concluding that it was a spring, or that the water had filtered in, we baled it all out as well as a dozen or twenty buckets of mud and rubbish, hoping by night to have a good supply of clean water. I then went on board to breakfast, leaving my two men to make a bamboo raft to carry us on shore and back without -wading. I had scarcely finished when our cable broke, and we bumped against the rocks. Luckily it was smooth and calm, and no damage was done. We searched for and got up our anchor, and found that the cable had been cut by grating all night upon the coral. Had it given way in the night, we might have drifted out to sea without our anchor, or been seriously damaged. In the evening we went to fetch water from the well, when, greatly to our dismay, we found nothing but a little liquid mud at the bottom, and it then became evident that the hole was one which had been made to collect rain water, and would never fill again as long as the present drought continued. As we did not know what we might suffer for want of. - water, we filled our jar with this muddy stuff so that it might settle. In the afternoon I crossed over to the other side of the island, and made a large fire, in order: that our men might see we were still there. The next day (24th) I determined to have another search for water; and when the tide was out rounded a 520 VOYAGE FROM CERAM (CHAP. XXXV.. rocky point and went to the extremity of the island without finding any sign of the smallest stream. On. our way back, noticing a very small dry bed of a watercourse,. I went up it to explore, although everything was so: dry that my men loudly declared it was useless to expect water there; but a little way up I was rewarded by finding a. few pints in a small pool. We searched higher up'in every hole and channel where water marks appeared, but could find not a drop more. Sending one of my men. for a:large jar and teacup, we searched along the beach till we found signs of another dry watercourse, and on ascending this were so fortunate as to discover two deep sheltered rock-holes containing several gallons of water, enough to: fill all our jars. When the cup came we enjoyed a good drink of the cool pure water, and before we left had carried: away, I believe, every drop on the island. In the evening a good-sized prau appeared in sight, making apparently for the island where our men were left, and we had some hopes they might be seen and picked up, but 1t passed along mid-channel, and did not notice the signals we tried to make. I was now, however, pretty easy as to the fate of the men. There was plenty of sago on our rocky island, and there would probably be some on the flat one they were left on. They had chop- pers, and could cut down a tree and make sago, and would most likely find sufficient water by digging. Shell-fish. were abundant, and they would be able to manage very well till some boat should touch there, or till 1 could send and fetch them. The next day we devoted to. cutting wood, filling up our jars with all the water we could find, and making ready to sail in the evening. I shot a small lory closely resembling a common species. at Ternate, and a glossy starling which. differed from the: allied birds of Ceram and Matabello. Large wood-pigeons. and crows were the only other birds I saw, but I. did. not. obtain specimens. About eight in the evening of June 25th we started, and found that with all hands at work we could just haul. up our mainsail. We had a fair wind during the night and. sailed north-east, finding ourselves 1 the. morning about. twenty miles west of the extremity of Waigiou with a CHAP. XXXV.] TO WAIGIOU. 52% number of islands intervening. About ten o’clock we ran full on to a coral reef, which alarmed us a good deal, but. luckily got safe off again. About two in the afternoon we reached an extensive coral reef, and were sailing close alongside of it, when the wind suddenly dropped, and we drifted on to it before we could get.in our heavy mainsail, which we were obliged to let run down and fall partly overboard. We had much difficulty in getting off, but at last got into deep water again, though with reefs. and islands all around us. At night we did not know what to do, as no one on board could tell where we were or what dangers might surround us, the only one of our crew who was acquainted with the coast of Waigiou having been left on the island. We therefore took in all sail and allowed ourselves to drift, as we were some miles from the nearest land. A light breeze, however, sprang up, and about. midnight we found ourselves again bumping over a coral reef. As it was very dark, and we knew nothing of our position, we could only guess how to get off again, and had there been a little more wind we might have been knocked to pieces. However, in about half an hour we did get off, and then thought it best to anchor on the edge of the reef till morning. Soon after daylight on the 27th, finding our prau had received no damage, we sailed on with uncertain winds and squalls, threading our way among islands and reefs, and guided only by a small map, which was very incorrect and quite useless, and by a general notion of the direction we ought to take. In the afternoon we found a tolerable anchorage under a small island and stayed for the night, and I shot a large fruit- pigeon new to me, which I have since named Carpophaga tumida. JI also saw and shot at the rare white-headed kingfisher (Halcyon saurophaga), but did not kill it. The next morning we sailed on, and having a fair wind reached the shores of the large island of Waigiou. On rounding a point we again ran full on to a coral reef with our mainsail up, but luckily the wind had almost died away, and with a good deal of exertion we managed to get safely off. We now had to search for the narrow channel among the islands, which we knew was somewhere hereabouts, 522 VOYAGE FROM CERAM ~~ [omar. Xxxv. and which leads to the villages on the south side of Waigiou. Entering a deep bay which looked promising, we got to the end of it, but it was then dusk, so we anchored for the night, and having just finished all our water could cook no rice for supper. Next morning early (29th) we went on shore among the mangroves, and a little way inland found some water, which relieved our anxiety considerably, and left us free to go along the coast in search of the opening, or of some one who could direct us to it. During the three days we had now been among the reefs and islands, we had only seen a single small canoe, which had approached pretty near to us, and then, notwith- standing our signals, went off in another direction. The shores seemed all desert; not a house, or boat, or human being, or a puff of smoke was to be seen ; and as we could only go on the course that the ever-changing wind would allow us (our hands being too few to row any distance), our prospects of getting to our destination seemed rather remote and precarious. Having gone to the eastward ex- tremity of the deep bay we had entered, without finding any sign of an opening, we turned westward ; and towards evening were so fortunate as to find a small village of seven miserable houses built on piles im the water. Luckily the Orang-kaya, or head man, could speak a little Malay, and informed us that the entrance to the strait was really in the bay we had examined, but that it was not to be seen except when close in-shore. He said the strait was often very narrow, and wound among lakes and rocks and islands, and that it would take two days to reach the large village of Muka, and three more to get to Waigiou. I succeeded in hiring two men to go with us to Muka, bringing a small boat in which to return ; but we had to wait a day for our guides, so I took my gun and made a little excursion into the forest. The day was wet and drizzly, and I only succeeded in shooting two small birds, but I saw the great black cockatoo, and had a elimpse of one or two Birds of Paradise, whose loud screains we had heard on first approaching the coast. Leaving the village the next morning (July 1st) with a light wind, it took us all day to reach the entrance to the channel, which resembled a small river, and was concealed CHAP. Xxxv.] TO W AIGIOU. 523 by a projecting point, so that it was no wonder we did not discover it amid the dense forest vegetation which every- where covers these islands to the water's edge. A little way inside it becomes bounded by precipitous rocks, after winding among which for about two miles, we emerged into what seemed a lake, but which was in fact a deep culf having a narrow entrance on the south coast. This eulf was studded along its shores with numbers of rocky islets, mostly mushroom shaped, from the water having worn away the lower part of the soluble coralline lime- stone, leaving them overhanging from ten to twenty feet. Every islet was covered with strange-looking shrubs and trees, and was generally crowned by lofty and elegant palms, which also studded the ridges of the mountainous shores, forming one of the most singular and picturesque landscapes I have ever seen. The current which had brought us through the narrow strait now ceased, and we were obliged to row, which with our short and heavy prau was slow work. I went on shore several times, but the rocks were so precipitous, sharp, and honeycombed, that I found it impossible to get through the tangled thickets with which they were everywhere clothed. It took us three days to get to the entrance of the gulf, and then the wind was such as to prevent our going any further, and we might have had to wait for days or weeks, when, much to my surprise and gratification, a boat arrived from Muka with one of the head men, who had in some mysterious manner heard I was on my way, and had come to my as-. sistance, bringing a present of cocoa-nuts and vegetables. Being thoroughly acquainted with the coast, and having: several extra men to assist us, he managed to get the prau: along by rowing, poling, or sailing, and by night had brought us safely into harbour, a great relief after our tedious and unhappy voyage. We had been already eight days among the reefs and islands of Waigiou, coming a distance of about fifty miles, and it was just forty days since we had sailed from Goram. Immediately on our arrival at Muka, I engaged a small boat and three natives to go in search of my lost men, and sent one of my own men with them to make sure of their going to the right island. In ten days they returned, but 524 WAIGIONU. [CHAP, XXXVI. to my great regret and disappointment, without the men. The weather had been very bad, and though they had reached an island within sight of that in which the men were, they could get no further. They had waited there six days for better weather, and then, having no more provisions, and the man I had sent with them being very ill and. not expected to live, they returned. As they now knew the island, I was determined they should make another trial, and (by a liberal payment of knives, hand- kerchiefs, and tobacco, with plenty of provisions) persuaded them to start back immediately, and make another attempt. They did not return again till the 29th of July, having stayed a few days at their own village of Bessir on the way; but’ this time they had succeeded and brought with them my two lost men, in tolerable health, though thin and weak. They had lived exactly a month on the island ; had found water, and had subsisted on the roots and tender flower-stalks of a species of Bromelia, on shell-fish, and on a few turtles’ eggs. Having swum to the island, they had only a pair of trousers and a shirt between them, but had made a hut of palm-leaves, and had altogether got. on very well. They saw that I waited for them three days: at the opposite island, but had been afraid to cross, lest the current should have carried them out to sea, when they would have been inevitably lost. They had felt sure I would send for them on the first opportunity, and appeared more grateful than natives usually are for my having done so; while I felt much relieved that my voyage, though sufficiently unfortunate, had not involved loss of life. EE CHAPTER XXXVI. WAIGIOU. (JULY TO SEPTEMBER 1860.) oie village of Muka, on the south coast of Waigiou, consists of a number of poor huts, partly in the water and partly on shore, and scattered irregularly over a space CHAP, XXXVI. ] A LEAKY HOUSE. 525 of about half a mile in a shallow bay. Around it are a few cultivated patches, and a good deal of second-growth woody vegetation ; while behind, at the distance of about half a mile, rises the virgin forest, through which are a few paths to some houses and plantations a mile or two inland. The country round is rather flat, and in places swampy, and there are one or two small streams which run behind the village into the sea below it. Finding that no house could be had suitable to my purpose, and having so often experienced the advantages of living close to or just within the forest, I obtained the assistance of half-a- dozen men; and having selected a spot near the path and the stream, and close to a fine fig-tree, which stood just within the forest, we cleared the ground and set to build- ing a house. As I did not expect to stay here so long as I had done at Dorey, I built a long, low, narrow shed, about seven feet high on one side and four on the other, which required but little wood, and was put up very rapidly. Our sails, with a few old attaps from a deserted hut in the village, formed the walls, and a quantity of “cadjans,” or palm-leaf mats, covered in the roof. On the third day my house was finished, and all my things put in and comfort- ably arranged to begin work, and I was quite pleased at having got established so quickly and in such a nice situation. , It had been so far fine weather, but in the night it rained hard, and we found our mat roof would not keep out water. It first began to drop, and then to stream over everything. I had to get up in the middle of the night to secure my insect-boxes, rice, and other perishable articles, and to find a dry place to sleep in, for my bed was soaked. Fresh leaks kept forming as the rain continued, and we all passed a very miserable ana sleepless night. In the morning the sun shone brightly, and everything was put out to dry. We tried to find out why the mats leaked, and thought we had discovered that they had been laid on upside down. Having shifted them all, and got everything dry and comfortable by the evening, we again went to bed, and before midnight were again awaked by torrents of rain and leaks streaming in upon us as bad as ever. There was no more sleep for us that night, and the next 526 WAIGIOU. [CHAP. XXXVL day our roof was again taken to pieces, and we came to the conclusion that the fault was a want of slope enough in the roof for mats, although it would be sufficient for the usual attap thatch. I therefore purchased a few new and some old attaps, and in the parts these would not cover we put the mats double, and then at last had the satisfaction of finding our roof tolerably water-tight. I was now able to begin working at the natural history of the island. When I first arrived I was surprised at being told that there were no Paradise Birds at Muka, although there were plenty at Bessir, a place where the natives caught them and prepared the skins. I assured the people I had heard the cry of these birds close to the village, but they would not believe that I could know their cry. However, the very first time I went into the forest I not only heard but saw them, and was convinced there were plenty about; but they were very shy, and it was some time before we got any. My hunter first shot a female, and I one day got very close to a fine male. He was, as I expected, the rare red species, Paradisea rubra, which alone inhabits this island, and is found nowhere else. He was quite low down, running along a bough searching for insects, almost like a wood- pecker, and the long black riband-like filaments in his tail hung down in the most graceful double curve imagin- able. I covered him with my gun, and was going to use the barrel which had a very small charge of powder and number eight shot, so as not to injure his plumage, but the gun missed fire, and he was off in an instant among the thickest jungle. Another day we saw no less than eight fine males at different times, and fired four times at them; but though other birds at the same distance almost always dropped, these all got away, and I began to think we were not to get this magnificent species. At length the fruit ripened on the fig-tree close by my house, and many - birds came to feed on it; and one morning, as I was taking my coffee, a male Paradise Bird was seen to settle on its top. I seized my gun, ran under the tree, and, gazing up, could see it flying across from branch to branch, seizing a fruit here and another there, and then, before I could get a sufficient aim to shoot at such a height (for it was one of CHAP. XXXVI.] RED BIRD OF PARADISE. 527 ca; Zz ——— = a = the loftiest trees : of the tropics), it was away into the forest. They now visited the tree every morning ; but they stayed so short a time, their motions were so rapid, and it was so difficult to see them, owing to the lower trees, which impeded the view, that it was only after several days’ SEEN watching, and one \ EN or two Drasee that ANE | I brought down WU ue DWE) any bird_a male in the most mag- THE RED BIRD OF PARADISE. (Paradisea rubra.) nificent pluma ge y Le Ai) 4 ys Lp Lf Uy y} Zi WM, f Z) S 528 W ATGIOU. [CHAP. XXXVI. This bird differs very much from the two large species which I had already obtained, and, although it wants the grace imparted by their long golden trains, is In many respects more remarkable and more beautiful. The head, back, and shoulders are clothed with a richer yellow, the deep metallic green colour of the throat extends further over the head, and the feathers are elongated on the forehead into two little erectile crests. The side plumes are shorter, but are of a rich red colour, terminating in delicate white points, and the middle tail-feathers are represented by two long rigid glossy ribands, which are black, thin, and semi- cylindrical, and droop gracefully in a spiral curve. Several other interesting birds were obtained, and about hali-a- dozen quite new ories; but none of any remarkable beauty, except the lovely little dove, Ptilonopus pulchellus, which with several other pigeons I shot on the same fig-tree close to my house. It is of a beautiful green colour above, with a forehead of the richest crimson, while beneath it is ashy white and rich yellow, banded with violet red. On the evening of our arrival at, Muka I observed what appeared like a display of Aurora Borealis, though I could hardly believe that this was possible at a point a little south of the equator. The night was clear and calm, and the northern sky presented a diffused light, with a constant succession of faint vertical flashings or flickerings, exactly similar to an ordinary aurora in England. The next day was fine, but after that the weather was unprecedentedly bad, considering that it ought to have been the dry monsoon. For near a month we had wet weather; the sun either not appearing at all, or only for an hour or two about noon. Morning and evening, as well as nearly all night, it rained or drizzled, and boisterous winds, with dark clouds, formed the daily programme. With the exception that it was never cold, it was just such weather as a very bad English Novemher or February. The people of Waigiou are not truly indigenes of the island, which possesses no “ Alfuros,” or aboriginal in- habitants. They appear to be a mixed race, partly from Gilolo, partly from New Guinea. Malays and Alfuros from the former island have probably settled here, and many of them have taken Papuan wives from Salwatty or cuar. xxxvi.] MALAYS AND PAPUANS. 529 Dorey, while the influx of people from those places, and of slaves, has led to the formation of a tribe exhibiting almost all the transitions from a nearly pure Malayan to an entirely Papuan type. The language spoken by them is entirely Papuan, being that which is used on all the coasts of Mysol, Salwatty, the north-west of New Guinea, and the islands in the great Geelvink Bay,—a fact which indicates the way in which the coast settlements have been formed. The fact that so many of the islands between New Guinea and the Moluccas—such as Waigiou, Guebé, Poppa, Obi, Batchian, as well as the south and east peninsulas of Gilolo—possess no aboriginal tripes, but are inhabited by people who are evidently mongrels and wanderers, is a remarkable corroborative proof of the distinctness of the Malayan and Papuan races, and the separation of the geographical areas they inhabit. If these two great races were direct modifications, the one of the other, we should expect to find in the intervening region some homogeneous indigenous race presenting intermediate characters. For example, between the whitest inhabitants of Kurope and the black Klings of South India, there are in the inter- vening districts homogeneous races which form a gradual transition from one to the other; while in America, although there is a perfect transition from the Anglo- Saxon to the negro, and from the Spaniard to the Indian, there is no homogeneous race forming a natural transition from one to the other. In the Malay Archipelago we have an excellent example of two absolutely distinct races, which appear to have approached each other, and inter- mingled in an unoccupied territory at a very recent epoch in the history of man; and I feel satisfied that no unprejudiced person could study them on the spot without being convinced that this is the true solution of the problem, rather than the almost universally accepted view that they are but modifications of one and the same race. The people of Muka live in that abject state of poverty that is almost always found where the sago-tree is abun- dant. Very few of them take the trouble to plant any vegetables or fruit, but live almost entirely on sago and fish, selling a little tripang or tortoiseshell to buy the scanty clothing they require. Almost all of them, how- M M 530 WAIGIOU. CoHaP. XXXVI. ever, possess one or more Papuan slaves, on whose labour they live in almost absolute idleness, just going out on little fishing or trading excursions, as an excitement in their monotonous existence. They are under the rule ol the Sultan of Tidore, and every year have to pay @ small tribute of Paradise birds, tortoiseshell, or sago. To obtain these, they go in the fine season on a trading voyage to the mainland of New Guinea, and getting a few goods on credit from some Ceram or Bugis trader, make hard bargains with the natives, and gain enough to pay their tribute, and leave a little profit for themselves. Such a country is not a very pleasant one to live in, for as there are no superfluities, there is nothing to sell; and had -t not been for a trader from Ceram who was residing there during my stay, who had a small vegetable garden, and whose men occasionally got a few spare fish, I should often have had nothing to eat. Fowls, fruit, and vegetables are luxuries very rarely to be purchased at Muka ; and even cocoa-nuts, so indispensable for eastern cookery, are not to be obtained; for though there are some hundreds of trees in the village, all the fruit is eaten oreen, to supply the place of the vegetables the people are too lazy to cultivate. Without eggs, cocoa-nuts, or plantains, we had very short commons, and the boisterous weather being unpropitious for fishing, we had to live on what few eatable birds we could shoot, with an occasional cuscus, or eastern opossum, the only quadruped, except pigs, inhabiting the island. I had only shot two male Paradiseas on my tree when they ceased visiting it, either owing to the fruit becoming scarce, or that they were wise enough to know there was danger. We continued to hear and see them in the forest, but after a month had not succeeded in shooting any more ; and as my chief object in visiting Waigiou was to get these birds, I determined to go to Bessir, where there are a number of Papuans who catch and preserve them. I hired a small outrigger boat for this journey, and left one of my men to guard my house and goods. We had to walt several days for fine weather, and at length started early one morning, and arrived late at night, after a rough and disagreeable passage. The village of Bessir was built in cHaP.xxxvi.] MY HOUSE AT BESSIR. 53] the water at the point of a small island. The chief food of the people was evidently shell-fish, since great heaps of the shells had accumulated in the shallow water between the houses and the land, forming a regular “ kitchen-mid- den” for the exploration of some future archxologist. We spent the night in the chief’s house, and the next morning went over to the mainland to look out for a place where I could reside. This part of Waigiou is really another island to the south of the narrow channel we had passed through in coming to Muka. It appears to consist almost entirely of raised coral, whereas the northern island contains hard crystalline rocks. The shores were a range of low lime- stone cliffs, worn out by the water, so that the upper part generally overhung. At distant intervals were little coves and openings, where small streams came down from the interior; and in one of these we landed, pulling our boat up on a patch of white sandy beach. Immediately above was a large newly-made plantation of yams and plantains, and a small hut, which the chief said we might have the use of, if it would do for me. It was quite a dwarf’s house, just eight feet square, raised on posts so that the floor was four and a half feet above the ground, and the highest part of the ridge only five feet above the floor. As I am six feet and an inch in my stockings, I looked at this with some dismay; but finding that the other houses were much further from water, were dreadfully dirty, and were crowded with people, I at once accepted the little one, and determined to make the best of it. At first I thought of taking out the floor, which would leave it high enough to walk in and out without stooping; but then there would not be room enough, so I left it just as it was, had it thoroughly cleaned out, and brought up my baggage. The upper story I used for sleeping in, and for a store-room. In the lower part (which was quite open all round) I fixed up a small table, arranged my boxes, put up hanging-shelves, laid a mat on the ground with my wicker-chair upon it, hung up another mat on the windward side, and then found that, by bending double and carefully creeping in, I could sit on my chair with my head just clear of the ceiling. Here I lived pretty comfortably for six weeks, taking all my meals and doing all my work at my little MM 2 532, WAIGIOU. [cHAP. XXXVI. table, to and from which I had to creep in a semi-horizontal position a dozen times a day; and, after a few severe knocks on the head by suddenly rising from my chair, learnt to accommodate myself to circumstances. We put up a little sloping cooking-hut outside, and a bench on which my lads could skin their birds. At night I went. up to my little loft, they spread their mats on the floor below, and we none of us grumbled at our lodgings. MY HOUSE AT BESSIR, IN WAIGIOU. My first business was to send for the men who were accustomed to catch the Birds of Paradise. Several came, and I showed them my hatchets, beads, knives, and hand- kerchiefs; and explained to them, as well as I could by signs, the price I would give for fresh-killed specimens. It ‘3 the universal custom to pay for everything in advance ; but only one man ventured on this occasion to take goods: to the value of two birds. The rest were suspicious, and wanted to see the result of the first bargain with the strange white man, the only one who had ever come to their ‘sland. After three days, my man brought me the first pird—a very fine specimen, and alive, but tied up in @ CHAP. XxxvI.] NATIVE BIRD-CATCHERS. 533 ‘small bag, and consequently its tail and wing feathers very much crushed and injured. I tried to explain to him, and to the others that came with him, that I wanted ‘them as perfect as possible, and that they should either kill them, or keep them on a perch with a string to their leg. As they were now apparently satisfied that all was fair, and that I had no ulterior designs upon them, six others took away goods; some for one bird, some for more, and one for as many as six. They said they had to go a long way for them, and that they would come back as soon as they caught any. At intervals of a few days or a week, some of them would return, bringing me one or more birds ; but though they did not bring any more in bags, there was not much improvement in their condition. As they caught them a long way off in the forest, they would scarcely ever come with one, but would tie it by the leg to a stick, and put it in their house till they caught another. ‘The poor creature would make violent efforts to escape, would get among the ashes, or hang suspended by the leg till the limb was swollen and half-putrefied, and sometinies die of starvation and worry. One had its beautiful head all -defiled by pitch from a dammar torch; another had been ‘so long dead that its stomach was turning green. Luckily, however, the skin and plumage of these birds is so firm -and strong, that they bear washing and cleaning better than almost any other sort; and I was generally able to clean them so well that they did not perceptibly differ from those I had shot myself. Some few were brought me the same day they were caught, and I had an opportunity of examining them in all their beauty and vivacity. As soon as I found they were generally brought alive, I set one of my men to make a large bamboo cage with troughs for food and water, -hoping to be able to keep some of them. I got ‘the natives to bring me branches of a fruit they were very fond of, and I was pleased to find they ate it ‘greedily, and would also take any number of live grass- hoppers I gave them, stripping off the legs and wings, and ‘then swallowing them. They drank plenty of water, and were in constant motion, jumping about the cage from perch to perch, clinging on the top and sides, and rarely 534 WAIGIOU. [cHaP. XXXVI resting a moment the first day till nightfall. The second day they were always less active, although they would eat as freely as before; and on the morning of the third day they were almost always found dead at the bottom of the cage, without any apparent cause. Some of them ate boiled rice as well as fruit and insects; but after trying many in succession, not one out of ten lived more than three days. The second or third day they would be dull, and in several cases they were seized with convui- sions, and fell off the perch, dying a few hours after- wards. I tried immature as well as full-plumaged birds, but with no better success, and at length gave it up as a hopeless task, and confined my attention to preserving specimens in as good a condition as possible. The Red Birds of Paradise are not shot with blunt arrows, as in the Aru Islands and some parts of New Guinea, but are snared in a very ingenious manner. A large climbing Arum bears a red reticulated fruit, of which the birds are very fond. The hunters fasten this fruit on a stout forked stick, and provide themselves with a fine but strong cord. They then seek out some tree in the forest on which these birds are accustomed to perch, and climbing up it fasten the stick to a branch and arrange the cord in a noose so ingeniously, that when the bird comes to eat the fruit its legs are caught, and by pulling the end of the cord, which hangs down to the ground, it comes free from the braneh and brings down the bird. Sometimes, when food is abundant elsewhere, the hunter sits from morning till night under his tree with the cord in his hand, and even for two or three whole days in succession, without even getting a bite; while, on the other hand, if very lucky, he may get two or three birds in a day. There are only eight or ten men at Bessir who practise this art, which is un- known anywhere else in the island. I determined, there- fore, to stay as long as possible, as my only chance of. getting a good series of specimens; and although I was nearly starved, everything eatable by civilized man being scarce or altogether absent, I finally succeeded. The vegetables and fruit in the plantations around us did not suffice for the wants of the inhabitants, and were — almost always dug up or gathered before they were ripe. It — CHAP. XXXVI. ] SCARCITY OF FUOD. 535 was very rarely we could purchase a little fish; fowls there were none; and we were reduced to live upon tough pigeons and cockatoos, with our rice and sago, and some- times we could not get these. Having been already eight months on this voyage, my stock of all condiments, spices and butter, was exhausted, and I found it impossible to eat sufficient of my tasteless and unpalatable food to support health. I got very thin and weak, and had a curious disease known (I have since heard) as brow-ague. Directly after breakfast every morning an intense pain set in on a small spot on the right temple. It was a severe burning ache, as bad as the worst toothache, and lasted about two hours, generally going off at noon. When this finally ceased, I had an attack of fever, which left me so weak and so unable to eat our regular food, that I feel sure my life was saved by a couple of tins of soup which I had long reserved for some such extremity. I used often to go out searching after vegetables, and found a great treasure in a lot of tomato plants run wild, and bearing little fruits about the size of gooseberries. I also boiled up the tops of pumpkin plants and of ferns, by way of greens, and occasionally got a few green papaws. The natives, when hard up for food, live upon a fleshy sea- weed, which they boil till it is tender. I tried this also, but found it too salt and bitter to be endured. Towards the end of September it became absolutely necessary for me to return, in order to make our home- ward voyage before the end of the east monsoon. Most of the men who had taken payment from me had brought the birds they had agreed for. One poor fellow had been so unfortunate as not to get one, and he very honestly brought back the axe he had received in advance; another, who had agreed for six, brought me the fifth two days before I was to start, and went off immediately to the forest again to get the other. He did not return, however, and. we loaded our boat, and were just on the point of starting, when he came running down after us holding up a bird, which he handed to me, saying with great satisfaction, “ Now I owe you nothing.” ‘These were remarkable and quite unexpected instances of honesty among savages, where it would have been very easy for 536 WAIGIOU. [CHAP., XXIXVL, them to have been dishonest without fear of detection or punishment. The country round about Bessir was very hilly and rugged, bristling with jagged and honey-combed coral- line rocks, and with curious little chasms and ravines. The paths often passed through these rocky clefts, which in the depths of the forest were gloomy and dark in the extreme, and often full of fine-leaved herbaceous plants and curious blue-foliaged Lycopodiacee. It was in such places as these that I obtained many of my most beau- tiful small butterflies, such as Sospita statira and Taxila pulchra, the gorgeous blue Amblypodia hercules, and many others. On the skirts of the plantations I found the hand- some blue Deudorix despcena, and in the shady woods the lovely Lyczena wallacei. Here, too, 1 obtained the beau- tiful Thyca aruna, of the richest orange on the upper side, while below it is intense crimson and glossy black; and a superb specimen of a green Ornithoptera, absolutely fresh and perfect, and which still remains one of the glories of my cabinet. My collection of birds, though not very rich in number of species, was yet very interesting. I got another speci- men of the rare New Guinea kite (Henicopernis longi- cauda), a large new goatsucker (Podargus superciliaris), and a most curious ground-pigeon of an entirely new genus, and remarkable for its long and powerful bill. It has been named Henicophaps albifrons. I was also much pleased to obtain a fine series of a large fruit-pigeon with a protuberance on the bill (Carpophaga tumida), and to ascertain that this was not, as had been hitherto supposed, a sexual character, but was found equally in male and female birds. I collected only seventy-three species of birds in Waigiou, but twelve of them were entirely new, and many others very rare; and as I brought away with me twenty-four fine specimens of the Paradisea rubra, | did not regret my visit to the island, although it had by no means answered my expectations. Hap. xxxvil.}]) VOYAGE FROM WAIGIOU. G37 CHAPTER XXXVII. VOYAGE FROM WAIGIOU TO TERNATE. (SEPTEMBER 29 TO NOVEMBER 5, 1860.) HAD left the old pilot at Waigiou to take care of my house and to get the prau into sailing order—to caulk her bottom, and to look after the upper works, thatch, and rigging. When I returned I found it nearly ready, and immediately began packing up and preparing for the voyage. Our mainsail had formed one side of our house, but the spanker and jib had been put away in the roof, and on opening them to see if any repairs were wanted, to our horror we found that some rats had made them their nest, and had gnawed through them in twentv places. We had therefore to buy matting and make new sails, and this delayed us till the 29th of September, when we at length left Waigiou. It took us four days before we could get clear of the land, having to pass along narrow straits beset with reefs and shoals, and full of strong currents, so that an unfavourable wind stopped us altogether. One day, when nearly clear, a contrary tide and head wind drove us ten miles back to our anchorage of the night before. This delay made us afraid of running short of water if we — should be becalmed at sea, and we therefore determined, if possible, to touch at the island where our men had been lost, and which lay directly in our proper course. ‘The wind was, however, as usual, contrary, being 8.S.W. instead of 8.8.E., as it should have been at this time of the year, and all we could do was to reach the island of Gagie, where we came to an anchor by moonlight under bare volcanic hills. In the morning we tried to enter a deep bay, at the head of which some Galela fishermen told us there was water, but a head-wind prevented us. For the reward of a handkerchief, however, they took us to the place in their boat, and we filled up our jars and bamboos. We then went round to their camping-place on the north ° } Ll Wee Yo ye mae ae if Nae 7 | S we \ it ae wt Oh % CSC 1 ~ Bove 3 5 a a es oO 88 ees = a) Se ste Ts Mf s Os Mh = F:: Blt Sey prot. a J o< o Ss DAMMER Wil i Na Ss a 5 Ail ¥ wnat cull, usaf VP car “il Al ww) ya gf I ih; ‘nn ‘i I : 4 2D na —: i i a cA me ‘ : my’ =fE2 H ilfites i Dope Ny nh | i yi HE aa bd lift fin nf ny inn a : ? ith e's of * 9 ) = ous =. ERNATE ae PEI = coAP.xxxvu.] VOYAGE FROM WAIGIOU. 39 coast of the island to try and buy something to eat, but could only get smoked turtle meat as black and as hard as lumps of coal. A little further on there was a plan- tation belonging to Guebe people, but under the eare of a Papuan slave, and the next morning we got some plan- tains and a few vegetables in exchange for a handkerchief and some knives. On leaving this place our anchor had got foul in some rock or sunken log in very deep water, and after many unsuccessful attempts, we were forced to cut our rattan cable and leave it behind us. We had now only one anchor left. Starting early, on the 4th of October, the same S.S.W. wind continued, and we began to fear that we should hardly clear the southern point of Gilolo. The night of the 5th was squally, with thunder, but after midnight it got tolerably fair, and we were going along with a light wind and looking out for the coast of Gilolo, which we thought we must be nearing, when we heard a dull roaring sound, like a heavy surf, behind us. In a short time the roar increased, and we saw a white line of foam coming on, which rapidly passed us without doing any harm, as our boat rose easily over the wave. At short intervals, ten or a dozen others overtook us with great rapidity, and then the sea became perfectly smooth, as it was before. I concluded at once that these must be earthquake waves; and on refer- ence to the old voyagers we find that these seas have been long subject to similar phenomena. Dampier encountered them near Mysol and New Guinea, and describes them as follows: “ We found here very strange tides, that ran in streams, making a great sea, and roaring so loud that we could hear them before they came within a mile of us. The sea round about them seemed all broken, and tossed the ship so that she would not answer her helm. These ripplings commonly lasted ten or twelve minutes, and then the sea became as still and smooth as a millpond. We sounded often when in the midst of them, but found no. ground, neither could we perceive that they drove us any way. We had in one night several of these tides, that came mostly from the west, and the wind being from that - quarter we commonly heard them a leng time before they came, and sometimes lowered our topsails, thinking it was 540 VOYAGE FROM WAIGIOU [cHAP. XXXVII. a gust of wind. They were of great length, from north to south, but their breadth not exceeding 200 yards, and they drove a great pace. For though we had little wind to move us, yet these would soon pass away, and leave the water very smooth, and just before we encountered them we met a great swell, but it did not break.” Some time afterwards, I learnt that an earthquake had been felt on the coast of Gilolo the very day we had encountered these curlous waves. When daylight came, we saw the land of Gilolo a few miles off, but the point was unfortunately a little to wind- ward of us. We tried to brace up all we could to round it, but as we approached the shore we got into a strong current setting northward, which carried us so rapidly with it that we found it necessary to stand off again, in order to get out of its influence. Sometimes we approached the point a little, and our hopes revived ; then the wind fell, and we drifted slowly away. Night found us in nearly the same position as we had occupied in the morning, so we hung down our anchor with about fifteen fathoms of cable to prevent drifting. On the morning of the 7th we were however, a good way up the coast, and we now thought our only chance would be to get close in-shore, where there might be a return current, and we could then row. The prau was heavy, and my men very poor creatures for work, so that it took us six hours to get to the edge of the reef that fringed the shore; and as the wind might at any moment blow on to it, our situation was a very dangerous one. Luckily, a short distance off there was a sandy bay, where a small stream stopped the growth of the coral; and by evening we reached this and anchored for the night. Here we found some Galela men shooting deer and pigs; but they could not or would not speak Malay, and we could get little information from them. We found out that along shore the current changed with the tide, while about a mile out it was always one way, and against us; and this gave us some hopes of getting back to the point, from which we were now distant twenty miles. Next morning we found that the Galela men had left before daylight, having perhaps some vague fear of our intentions, and very likely taking me for a pirate. During the morning a boat CHAP, XXXVII.] TO TERNATE. 54) passed, and the people informed us that, at a short distance further towards the point, there was a much better harbour, where there were plenty of Galela men, from whom we might probably get some assistance. At three in the afternoon, when the current turned, we started; but having a head-wind, made slow progress. At dusk we reached the entrance of the harbour, but an eddy and a gust of wind carried us away and out to sea. After sunset there was a land breeze, and we sailed a little to the south-east. It then became calm, and we hung down our anchor forty fathoms, to endeavour to coun- teract the current; but it was of little avail, and in the morning we found ourselves a good way from shore, and just opposite our anchorage of the day before, which we again reached by hard rowing. I gave the men this day to rest and sleep; and the next day (Oct. 10th) we again started at two in the morning with a land breeze. After I had set them to their oars, and given instructions to keep close in-shore, and on no account to get out to sea, I went below, being rather unwell, At daybreak I found, to my great astonishment, that we were again far off-shore, and was told that the wind had gradually turned more ahead, and had carried us out—none of them having the sense to take down the sail and row in-shore, or to call me. As soon as it was daylight, we saw that we had drifted back, and were again opposite our former anchorage, and, for the third time, had to. row hard to get to it. As we approached the shore, I saw that the current was favourable to us, and we con- tinued down the coast till we were close to the entrance: to the lower harbour. Just as we were congratulating ourselves on having at last reached it, a strong south-east squall came on, blowing us back, and rendering it impos- sible for us to enter. Not liking the idea of again return- ing, I determined on trying to anchor, and succeeded in doing so, in very deep water and close to the reefs; but the prevailing winds were such that, should we not hold, we should have no difficulty in getting out to sea. By the time the squall had passed, the current had turned against us, and we expected to have to wait till four in the afternoon, when we intended to enter the harbour. 542 VOYAGE FROM WAIGIOU [cHaP. XXXVII. Now, however, came the climax of our troubles. The swell produced by the squall made us jerk our cable a good deal, and it suddenly snapped low down in the water. We drifted out to sea, and immediately set our mainsail, but we were now without any anchor, and in a vessel so poorly manned that it could not be rowed against the most feeble current or the slightest wind, it would be madness to approach these dangerous shores except in the most perfect calm. We had also only three days’ food left. It was therefore out of the question making any further attempts to get round the point without assistance, and I at once determined to run to the village of Gani-diluar, about ten miles further north, where we understood there was a good harbour, and where we might get provisions and a few more rowers. Hitherto winds and currents had invariably opposed our passage southward and we might have ex- pected them to be favourable to us now we had turned our bowsprit in an opposite direction. But it immediately fell calm, and then after a time a westerly land breeze set in, which would not serve us, and we had to row again for hours, and when night came had not reached the village. We were so fortunate, however, as to find a deep sheltered cove where the water was quite smooth, and we con- structed a temporary anchor by filling a sack with stones from our ballast, which being well secured by a network of rattans held us safely during the night. The next morning my men went on shore to cut wood suitable for making fresh anchors, and about noon, the current turning in our favour, we proceeded to the village, where we found an excellent and well-protected anchorage. On inquiry, we found that the head men resided at the other Gani on the western side of the peninsula, and it was necessary to send messengers across (about half a day’s journey) to inform them of my arrival, and to beg them to assist me. I then succeeded in buying a little sago, some dried deer-meat and cocoa-nuts, which at once relieved our immediate want of something to eat. W:L, 65 to 85; H:L, ‘71 to *85; so nearly identical with some of the Malayan groups as to offer no clear points of difference. The Polynesians, the Australians, and the African negroes offer equally wide ranges of variation, as will be seen by the following summary of the dimensions of the crania of these races and the preceding :— Number CaPACITy. W :L. BA: L. of Crania, 83. Malays (66 male). | 60 to 91 70 to °92 72 to ‘90 28. Papuans (23 m.). | 66 ,, 80 G5. pe ABB 8 eee 156. Polynesians(90m.)| 62 ,, 91 H9- |. °90 “68 44, “88 23. Australians (16m.)/ 59 ,, 86 | °57 ,, 80 | -64,, -80 72. Negroes (38m.) . The only conclusions that we can draw from this table are, that the Australians have the smallest crania, and the Poly- nesians the largest ; the Negroes, the Malays, and Papuans not 602 APPENDIX. differing perceptibly in size. And this’ accords. very well with what we know of their mental activity and capacity for civilization. | The Australians have the longest skulls ; after which come the Negroes ; then the Papuans, the Polynesians, and the Malays. The Australians have also the lowest skulls ; then the Negroes ; the Polynesians and Papuans considerably higher and equal, and the Malay the highest. 3 It seems probable, therefore, that if we had a much more exten- sive series of crania the averages might furnish tolerably reliable race-characters, although, owing to the large amount of individual variation, they would never be of any use in single examples, or even when moderate numbers only could be compared. So far as this series goes, it seems to agree well with the conclusions I have arrived at, from physical and mental cha- racters observed by myself. These conclusions briefly are: that the Malays and Papuans are radically distinct races ; and that the Polynesians are most nearly allied to the latter, although they have probably some admixture of Malayan or Mongolian blood. LANGUAGES. During my travels among the islands of the Archipelago, I col- — lected a considerable number of vocabularies, in districts hitherto little visited. These represent about fifty-seven distinct languages (not including the common Malay and Javanese), more than half | of which I believe are quite unknown to philologists, while only a few scattered words have been recorded of some others. Unfortunately, nearly half the number have been lost. Some years ago I lent the whole series to the late Mr. John Crawford, and having neglected to apply for them for some months, I | found that he had in the meantime changed his residence, and that the books, containing twenty-five of the vocabularies, had been mislaid ; and they have never since been recovered. Being merely old and much battered copy-books, they probably found | APPENDIX. 603 their way to the dust-heap along with other waste paper. I had previously copied out nine common words in the whole series of languages, and these are here given, as well as the remaining thirty-one vocabularies in full. Having before had experience of the difficulty of satisfactorily determining any words but nouns and a few of the commonest adjectives, where the people are complete savages and the language of communication but imperfectly known, I selected about a hundred and twenty words, and have adhered to them throughout as far as practicable. After the English, I give the Malay word for comparison with the other languages. In orthography I adopt generally the continental mode of sound- ing the vowels, with a few modifications, thus :— '-Emglish)....:@ e@ iorie- ei o t ii Sounded....ah a ee 1 o éoréh oo These sounds come out most prominently at the end of asyllable; when followed by a consonant the sounds are very little different from the usual pronunciation. Thus, “Api” is pronounced A ppee, while “ Minta” is pronounced Mintah. The short t is pronounced like er in English, but without any trace of the guttural. Long, short, and accented syllables are marked in the usual way. The languages are grouped geographically, passing from west to east ; those from the same or adjacent islands being as much as possible kept together. I profess to be able to draw very few conclusions from these vocabularies. I believe that the languages have been so much modified by long intercommunication among the islands, that resemblances of words are no proof of aftinity of the people who use those words. Many of the wide-spread similarities can be traced to organic onomatopeeia. Such are the preva- lence of g (hard), mg, ni, in words meaning “tooth;” of 2 and m in those for “tongue ;” of nge, ung, sno, in those for “nose.” Others are plainly commercial words, as “ salaka ” and 604 APPENDIX. “ringgit” (the Malay word for dollar) for silver, and “ mas” for gold. The Papuan group of languages appear to be distin- guished by harsher combinations of letters, and by monosyllabic words ending in a consonant, which are rarely or never found in the Malay group. Some of the tribes who are decidedly of Malay race, as the people of Ternate, Tidore, and Batchian, speak languages which are as decidedly of a Papuan type ; and this, I believe, arises from their having originally immigrated to these islands in small numbers, and by marrying native women acquired a considerable portion of their language, which later arrivals of Malays were obliged -to learn and adopt if they settled in the country. As I have hardly mentioned in my narrative some of the names of the tribes whose languages are here given, I will now give a list of them, with such explanatory remarks as I may think useful to the ethnologist, and then leave the vocabularies to speak for themselves. LIST OF VOCABULARIES COLLECTED. Those marked * are lost. 1. Malay.— The common colloquial Malay as spoken in Singapore ; written in the Arabic character. 2. Javanese.—Low or colloquial Javanese as spoken in Java; written in a native character. *3, Sassak.—Spoken by the indigenes of Lombock, who are Mahometans, and of a pure Malay race. *4, Wiacassar.—Spoken in the district of Southern Celebes, near Macassar ; written in a native character. Mahometans. *5, Bugis.—Spoken over a large part of Southern Celebes ; written in a native character distinct from that of Macassar. Mahometans. | 6. Bouton.—Spoken in Boutong, a large island south of Celehes. Mahometans. 4 a ‘ee ” 5 4 ee a eee - APPENDIX. bia 7. Salayer.—Spoken in Salayer, a smaller island south of Celebes. Mahometans. *8. ‘Tomore.—Spoken in the eastern peninsula of Celebes, and in Batchian, by emigrants who have settled there. Pagans. Note.—The people who speak these five languages of Celebes are of pure Malayan type, and (all but the last) are equal in civilization to the true Malays. *9, Tomohon; *10, Langowen.— Villages on the plateau of Minahasa. “11. Ratahan; *12. Belang.— Villages near the south-east coast of Minahasa. *13. Tanawanko.—On the west coast. *14. Kema.—On the east coast. *15. Bantek.—A suburb of Menado, 16. Menado.—The chief town. 17. Bolang-hitam.—A village on the north-west coast, between Menado and Licoupang. These nine languages, with many others, are spoken in the north-west peninsula of Celebes, by the people called Alfuros, who are of Malay race, and seem to have affinities with the Tagalas of the Philippines through the Sanguir islanders. These languages are falling into disuse, and Malay is becoming the universal means of communication. Most of the people are being converted to Christianity. 18. Sanguir Islands and Siau.— Two groups of islands between Celebes and the Philippines. The inhabitants wear a peculiar costume, consisting of a loose cotton gown hanging from the neck nearly to the feet. They resemble, physically, the people of Menado. 7 19. Salibabo Islands, also called Talaut.— This voca- bulary was given me from memory by Captain Van der Beck. See page 39, 20. Sula Islands.—tThese are situated east of Celebes, and their inhabitants seem to be Malays of the Moluccan type, and are Mahometans, 21. Cajeli; 22. Wayapo; 23. Massaratty.—These are 606 APPENDIX. three villages on the eastern side of Bouru. The people are allied to the natives of Ceram. ‘Those of Cajeli itself are Mahometans. 24. Amblau.— An island a little south-east of Bouru. Mahometans. *25. Ternate.—The northernmost island of the Moluccas. The inhabitants are Mahometans of Malay race, but somewhat mixed with the indigenes of Gilolo. 26. Tidore.—The next island of the Moluccas. The inha- bitants are undistinguishable from those of Ternate. | *97. Kaida Islands.—A small group north of Batchian. *28. Batchian.—Inhabitants like the ae. Maho- metans, and of a similar Malay type. 29. Gani.—A village on the south peninsula of Gilolo. Inhabitants, Moluccan-Malays, and Mahometans. *30. Sahoe; 21. Galela.—vVillages of Northern Gilolo. The inhabitants are ‘called Alfuros. They are indigenes of Polynesian type, with brown skins, but Papuan hair and features. Pagans. 32. Liang. — —A village on the north coast of Amboyna. Several other villages near speak the same language. They are Mahometans or Christians, and seem to be of mixed joiiagl and Polynesian type. 33. Morella and Mamalla. — Villages in N onth- West Amboyna. ‘The inhabitants are Mahometans. 34. Batu-merah.—A suburb of Amboyna. Inhabitants “Mahometans, and of Moluccan-Malay type. 35. Lariki, Asilulu, Wakasiho.—Villages in West Am- boyna inhabited by Mahometans, who are reported to have come originally from Ternate. 36. Saparua. —An island east of Amboyna. Inhabitants of the brown Polynesian type, and speaking the same language as those on the coast-of Ceram opposite. 37, Awalya; 38. Camarian.— Villages on the andi coast of Ceram. Inhabitants indigenes of Polynesian type, now Christians. DM yee APPENDIX: 607 39. Teluti and Hoya; 40. Ahtiago and Tobo.— Villages on the south coast of Ceram. Inhabitants Mahometans, of mixed brown Papuan or Polynesian and Malay type. 41, Ahtiago.—Alfaros or indigenes inland from this village. Pagans, of Polynesian or brown Papuan type. 42. Gah.—Alfuros of East Ceram. 43. Wahai—lInhabitants of much of the north coast of Ceram. Mahometans of mixed race. Speak several dialects of this language. *44, Goram.—sSmall islands east of Ceram. Inhabitants of mixed race, and Mahometans. 45. Matabello.—Small islands south-east of Goram. In- habitants of brown Papuan or Polynesian type. Pagans. 46. Teor.—A small island south-east of Matabello. JIn- habitants a tall race of brown Papuans. Pagans. | *47. Ké Islands.—-A small group west of the Aru Islands, Inhabitants true black Papuans. Pagaus. *48. Aru Islands.—A group west of New Guinea. In- habitants true Papuans. Pagans. 49. Mysol (coast).—An island north of Ceram, Inhabitants Papuans with mixture of Moluccan Malays. Semi-civilized. 50. Mysol (interior)—Inhabitants true Papuans. Savages. *51. Dorey.—North coast of New Guinea. Inhabitants true Papuans. Pagans. “52. Teto; *53. Vaiqueno, Kast Timor; *54. Brissi, West Timor.—lInhabitants somewhat intermediate between the true and the brown Papuans. Pagans. 3 *55, Savu; *56. Rotti.—Islands west of Timor. -Inhabit- ants of mixed race, with apparently much of the Hindoo type. *57. Allor; *58. Solor.—JIslands between Flores and Timor. Inhabitants of dark Papuan type. 59. Bajau, or Sea Gipsies.—A roaming tribe of fishermen of Malayan type, to be met with in all parts of the Archipelago. 603. CO OD AT OVO BO he English....... . Malay... J ayancod Besos . Sasak (Lomibock)... ne oma Bugis . Bouton . eee . Galayer .....- cesesecee cee ~ TOMOTE ... cove cooceeeeeens ~. TOMONON 2.0.00 00- vee cees . LaAnZOWAD .....+ ser eeeeee . Ratahan . Belang ....cceseceeseeeeee . Tanawanko ......ecceree SAR CIIR. Hen coos coves ome Res . Bantek .. Psp ee x 23 i Menado .. ceeds Lcuteeh ou Jeee . Bolang Tae cecs-re ase . Sanguir Is. .......see0 is Salibabo | OE ee ne » Sul Tas asset oes ot .cctewcesde ~ Cajeli ....ccccccsseeeeeeeee » WAyapo ...cercceeeecereee . Massaratty ....--.-ceeeee PTI DIAW. anisehcasoss od cose os . IS BYTIAGG icnsccnccesenapecsseonrcens . TPICOTC veocvecvccscsccessesscoe ces BMC AIG, Lal. absbsceenaes ast noe eben Batchian .osccccccceecsecce cee PASO cd cnc can con svsnne dake i SSS OO ac decvenass ns. csn ess ~ Galella .rcccescevcccss ove . Liamg ..oceeeeeseeoes . Morella ........00.- . Batu-merah....... . Lariki, &......++. . HAPATUa oo. seeccceee ses cee serene . Awaiya . Camarian .. .. Pelutt .. a Altiago (Mah. Ju . Ahtiago (Alf. ee . ATU F Mysol (Coast) ... eos Coe ere eet sese eoes eoeeeree Ning Worps in Frery-NINE LANGUAGES §.Ce re = i North Celebes. ee eee eeeccce . GROPAIN cecsce ces tenes cenicescesens . Meten...... 0000+. H » MiteN.... oosgesaee o Métis . Bure. setae : Mulmetan ...... Bit icc .ccpaspecsices - Do. (Interior) . Tes . Dorey .. d cpcdeursceouaeer APPENDIX. BLACK, eevevesooe ees ; Leling paitanmatct Malotong ....... Amaita i Wailin..esesee AT Mahonde ....... eoeceses woeecose eoscces eee cee oer MMitil ied WY GGA secivet se0cre Miti. wtictihialed WiC) ciicesceescee Kameichei...... Kokotu KOKOCU 4. wcsnte 40s ere Ngoa.. aa Kitkudu .. ie aaane Kok6tu .... hae a M&tA cen ccoasetan Meters cise: essa. Meta metan ... FIRE, sec AP coerce cesoeecee Gini i «ose: LAOUOLL.. insebey on Sala. eoevesoee Puro eooeeoese PRatua Assad Labo eaoeeeeee eeeceecece eoneee eee eoecsoere ' eercee Sula ...csevsce-se. Ngerun ........ , wee DUD . cco ccscescee NZCTUD see eeeees sees RAMON coe eee+oe- LAUNG wee see eeeeee ... RADON ....00-+e+. Ldong ona wees .... WaMu et ..-, WaMu .. eee LARGE. NOSE. Busar eee ree fits eeeeeeeor eee Gedé ee eeeeee ore tee ots s AMALQIIES 5c. 00+ .onene ouscueaaiel Kamurong...... vee TUWOD cocose cee, NGCTUM «+. 0ee-ee Wank ...esee00. N QUE «.. +002 SEPT eae coe ce. coe naspahantigie Hirong ...... +++ .««.Nieni .. pa eae ey Neinya ts téha . Tah ee niet Pee Lats ""Usnod ... ynda-a oe. NINUrA ra oon FULD, Soe sient « ~wak cone LIGDTY octtens pa | ES a soon LAAN venscncene ..e NUa-mMo ae ...Eraamei.........Hili-mo nea sevceccscecesQOliGOlO «+ seseeee Pee eee Wt ch eeseeerere eee cevmveeat BLOND so o~ chaise sce eres SU WETE. c00 20-00 secoeeee Wiramani ekioks pou eee edaas TUN eoveve eorecee oF) eee diane sc aneereeE TOE UL ++ a son ves GALAses ove cee ces eee SONS gulu .. = sane RIOR sccansene oe aoe: aad AADB. 1005s dese MOT] 52, Teto, EB. wsccceeuee )§ Metan eee wenn BOE bio ae 53, Vaiqueno, EH. ..... s+ \e Meta o0:...ssseeee LLU ooo eee eee CU Naiki « eee bo MUL Secnsa dee «- Re 54. Brissi, W......+---e0e. JE, Metan coc Ad coceee vases Naaik, Bena.. BTID 5 005000-+-o SAU citccsceass vecccs cede seus «ROGET cnewesiecs ons crricceses ccostes » ATIOT o..c00ceee csc ccee . Solor .. cevosaceces MLILATIE »:< . Bajau (Sea “Gipsies) sooecee LIAWON «- sesseeeeeeMoneai . »-Howonga . be ...Matua, Malda. Iidun..... 5 we BO ceecce cers csecee NATU . 0s cee cee eee ves AP] ooveee serene ene Belang wound Trung ... concen seoves sess ceee ADIL cesses cee coe eee BASAr * adeaateroh ws cseuns uel eooeeseeee a a. APPENDIX. OF THE MALay ARCHIPELAGO, $9 90 SI SUP OS bo be : Mohintek .. Rewaaaad . Koki... ‘ Kokonio..... eee . Dodio .. EeOIGSS e OP va . Bakoti® . Iehi ichi.. vate stttae avviltl wee . Cheka.. 4 Dechéki witile : Ahuntal wes. . Ana-a.. LON 2. § Thihil .. YE pdletee . Olihil .. ‘ Kokanéii. aaouate . Toate... neces BinEDa vssesenenen ae |) pee ee * Kotwed..: occccccces coo NOLAN « Bes 5 Giinam cobs eandexeee . Senpoh ... 5 Besarbamba .. els #7 Liii a > ANG wscnacsedent eee err ens . Anoana, oe a Mek ses K . Didiki.,..... See teeeesros Délah.. SMALL, TONGUE, SEPP eects ckescuacsssdddah .. Chili. eae “so Lilah . ve bk gt oes eivabeds 0 Koki. eaten kt @eceee ogeteh one DUA .. ...Lilah . an re ; MOL cupieete aces eeducsuadacteanee anh Cee eee eeeeeeceace eee eeecesceaecese --Maanen eee eee ses -dftinartea . IVCDE “ce tees eee ee © « Mae acs ...Mod .. . Wiki eedc ee . Lidah .. . Wai-waio re aoscsiweneuestacul GIGL . ade ~neeu Nagai FOGE tab sa ate eooee Moka .. don adenine ‘Numawa « | |? dese netinins oe Nelak ..ccssscscvscscscceMelin ., ee eee . Wota wota... ry aeiemmnt iiti eee eee cecoceces é eee eee see ceeece POC Oe eee eee eee eee -Gigi eeece SGT vec scucsses ....Kaprendi COS CeCe eee ees Bees ~~ Wewelli. wip Ewel .... i Seeeee eee eeeee eeees wieeeat alate PP eee eee ees sli ...... danse ene ee etm otitG Ge vh ciara: Seely ©... .» Lilah Phaxal canning occe coo DLITAN ....000 00000. eee COS eco eer eer eecceroe eka Wiabiaeby tren +». NiSi-mo eeccee ---Aran ... bes Aobtes Pa iti.) ———e tle lapel EMG. 2, s@ARGIN ... POC Coes eee, eper? @ill sca Libre eee eee esecesecos Set eees eee eens O08 COS eae cees Ses Wea tna -ee--- Mabida. Mopotiho. .-. Mawérah. ... Mawirah. Bae --. Umpoti. oe DOL, eerceecce Piteh. 609 610 APPENDIX. OnE HUNDRED AND SEVENTEEN Worps IN THIRTY-THREI English .....+-.-sssceeees ANT. ASHES. BAD. BANANA. 1, Malay.......:.secceeeee-- StMUE.....00. HDi. aves Jahat..........Pisang ....0mm 9, JavaneSe.......--seveeeee: SiMe... ... sa. AA ee Olle... eae Gudang ...... §. Bouton . Gc Sea Orapu ......... Maduki ....... Oléka ........ 7. Salayer ©, Celebi bara ain: Ne hae Geli ..-.siconene Loka — 16. Menado 4 ¢ 17. Bolang- § N. Celebes ..simseb+-++---Aba er Dalrny ipeitert O Lene — idan Tohomo....... AW s.sccecseee Moiatu........: Pagie .:.sm es 18. Sanguir, Sian.........+ Kidso .....+.+ Henani ....... Lids voscie dscns Busa ...:..s0m 19. Salibabo........sesesee ee eer F: 20. Sula Is. .....eseeseeseeers Kokoi ......... Afrthai.. secs Badtz’... Pia. .::...0am & 21. Cajeli........- Mosisin ....... Aptal o:2) iene Wakiési7;..5-5 Umpiulue...... 29. Wayapo...... faeces pa pies Aptai. ivi Dabdho .......Ftiat......... : 23. Massaratty... Misisin ....... Ogotin ....i0e Daboho ....... Fuati ....09 e. 24, Amblaw.......seceeereees Kaikal | nies. LAVA.» sence Behei .......0i+ Biyeh .....imm. HE THATS seictecielewe oe coenesss8 pic ae Se oc TGS. scene JUMA ccuevesees Koi ...... 0mm 90; Gant .5.c-.000> fstslot ae Syed h cde Tapin’ ...3....4 [eRat ‘Givens Lékka s. 81. Galela........ Goltido........ Kapok ...’s.: 6: INGORO:. ssa yes. Boéle......m ; BO, Laan ais macaw sve 3g UII A nes.mes Awmati.......Ahia .......+++. Kula Ll 33. Morella .........++- = Odn i desde Armatel .....: AMMA, .. 2200000 Kula .....0m 34. Batumerah......... < Manisié ....... Howaluxi ....Akahia........ Tani 35, Lariki......c..ss-0+% G: Mion. sarees Aow matei ...Ahia........... Kora 36. Sapara.........seeeree ...Sumakow.....Hamatanyo...Ahia paceulites” Kila 37. AWALYS ..-....2s0s0 TOMS: Si saw on Ahwotol ...... Alaia. a cncredcss Wari .....am 38, Camarian.ds..:s.+- Siimukdo......Hao matei ...Ahié.........++. U'ki......0me 36> "Teluttion coco esincns _ Phoino pdb ibe Yafow matdn.Ahia........... Peléwa.. sss: 40. Ahtiago and Tobo } & Foin.........+-. Laftain ....... AVEG- vecswdeies a 41> Ahtiago (Alfuros) aids onnedetee Laf teinim ...Kafetdia ...... k gOeiGahi..,..dbincewavon Niofer .c..00 Alf tai... sce Nungalétuk..Fidia...... AS. Weanahsecccscnares Isalema .......TOKaP \.- cans See. 45, Matabello ...........-++ Otima st. Aow lémi.....Rahat ......... Phudi AGO TOOL a ktses. Talah ....a 50. Mysol Kumlih........ Geni; ...-sseuer Liga; cciasen nny A APPENDIX. 6ll LANGUAGES OF THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, BELLY. BIRD BLACK. BLOOD BLUE. BOAT. 2. Pritioug...... Bigane:...:..ltam.:3a;%..... Daraly j ir. ITU: cache tte Praii. B. Wirbetert...... Manoleucr...... 10 CA s.th Gesives Bit. «sccadee Prau. 6. Kompo........ Manumanu...Amaita ...... Orah. MAD ues, baced Bunka. 7, Pompon ...... Burung ....... Hitam < bene en Buéti......0m 34. Batumerah......... 4 AMATO, hoe sae Laliviiwa. pee ADUSU 5.500- »- Satipa ....... S5). Tnamilel...cscees back “ ANGAS cate Ruri, een Hagar aps0s +0 Buéti...... 36. Saparua........e+eeeee-Jnawallah eos ELT yep silanes TAU8U sng asenss Ruiiwai ...... 37. Awaiya .....ccsees Sanawala...... Lila .......-.++ Hiagali cuss - Pueti......m | 38. Camarian....... x Patani, >... s Kuincha .... AS. WOuel ....-..c0izee Hatare ....... LUNE ons gs mereen Heli ....seseees Kapal ... . 45. Matabello ............++ Wan. wesrrrs: Lairu ...ceceee- ODUIT,......-. UdI8S «... 00 AG. (PRO ee teens (haf. *s=250 Telimin ....... Urut .......+++ Fan. sssavscnere go, .....0a8 ( AG, SNIP BOL scasen nena + «nnn Badan ......«s. Kaboom ...... Peat sessunnenur Bus ......-m 50: -Wigsol | 5 ica 2 ee Padan .....+0- Mot bom...... Aan |: cance Boo .....00mm BO) as ....cnaeaved Be Aten Badal 2c. «pes Bakes «a.com Panah sisecs-- Putt .....008 , APPENDIX. 613 LANGUAGES OF THE MALAy ARCHIPELAGO.— Continued. BUTTERFLY. CAT. CHILD. CHOPPER. COCOA-NUT. COLD. 1. Kiptkipt...Kiching...A‘nak ...... OMAN. <55/.s IAPS 2.00000. Dingin, Tijok 2 Ripiyess...... Kuching ...Anak .......Parang........Krambil ...... A’dam., 6. Kumberd......Ombutd....Odnana.....Kapuru........ Kalimbungo.. Magari. 7: Kolikoti...... BN s.0505.. Anak ....... Berang........Nyéroh ....... Dingin. 16. Karinbote....Tusa........ Dodio ..... .Kompilang ...Bangoh ......Madadun. és Wieto..th os Ngeiu ...... Anako...... Boroko: ........: BOng0 i. 7.0000. Motimpia. 18. KalibumbongMiau........ 0) re EUAN is é00558 Bangu ......... Matuno. ABBE RENE fe Miau........ Pigi-neneh .Galéleh ........ Nyu. 20. Maapa......... PAGO. 2.60... Ningne ....Féda ........... POM eesti cnet Bagéa 21. Lahen ...;:..... EMPiises....A Nal. ....... EBON 2 ni ose Niwi........... Numniri. ES Re Nanat ...... DEG. Korine sax Niwi...........Daméti. 23. Tapalapat ....Mao......... Naanati....Katten ....... NEW sis pesto te oa Dabridi. m4. Kolafi ......... TM cic. Emlumo ...Laiey.......... PET R cceedets can Komoriti. 26. Kopa kopa ...Tuisa........ Nzofa: .,.... BU ears vein a BOO oiccsvcace Géga 29. Kalibobo...... EO a semen < Untuna ....Barakas....... Niwitwan ....Makufin 31. Mimaliki .....Béki........ Manzopa.... Taito .......... i ee Damala. me. Kakopi ....... Tusa ........ Niena: ....... TODO is sare wey INTO tec sec sas Periki 33. Pepeiil........ See Wana. Hepho...5::.... Ww 5ccc.. 0: Periki. 34. Kupo kupo...Temai ...... Opolidna ...Tkiti............ Nivweli........, Muti. 35. Lowar lowar..Sia......... ‘(ee WD Sasa vie Sel sss. Periki. 36. Kokohan..... a Anahéi...... PIB G sica ves sc Muolio........ Puriki. S Koritten..caet Madw ...... Wana........ 1 eee Liweli. .2...4... Pepéta ee id cxncogndeneee a 1 Se PONE i stage Niweéli......... Mariki 9. Tutuptno ....Sia.......... ae TIBI oe ois i «xs Nuelo. ...:...., Pilikéko. 40. Bubdmdi......Sikar ....... Inignak ....Béda............ A eae Baidik. 5 sakes tena Léfim.......Anavim ....Tafim..........Nuim .........Makériki . Kowa kowa...Shika....... GIS 552.10. Péde.... INTs chiens Lifie. » Kohati ....050eicas..... : ae Tulumaina ...Liien .......... Mariri . Obadba........Oddra ......Enéna ...... DOOR isi ckaesces 13/3 Renee Aridin Bokop ; «cane | MME tyns.0ck UDED <.. 0.4.06. INGP. Alowei ........ Apaldwe ...... Maiydni.......A’sU......-+ ws 38. Camarian.......... Mali sd.sccos onsgee one Maiydnani....Astia.......00 = ad he ¢ Mai ip de shases Killa 5 icone Meisakano ... Wast.....-.16 40, Ahtiago and Tobo } & Kulé........... Matalima.....Riisa.......00- Yds .......00m 41. Ahtiago (Alfaros) | C Dak lépar ....Pilia sosecqunpes UME aes Nawang ... BR AGN igananisvanenane Mat cpistsepey Malal ....csusne RUS2 oo creeceee: Kafani...... Hi) WBA). o:s00eseieinnr Mai Uoxsoecqae Kaseiella...... Mairaran....... ASU ......00 45. Mata pall’ ....:.-.-.o0ans Gomari........ Larnumwas... Rusa ........+- Afina ...... BS. TRS pee css «vcore e tnieg Yok man....s, Lilew . «sewage RU sseegutter How , AQ, Myso] .......0.scoceeseeees Jog mah ...... Seasan ......... Mengangan ... Yes 50. Mysol.......cesesseeveeees Bo Mus. 54% Kiwi signee Menjangan ... YeM......eer G9), TBR Uies nersnseccesnabnce ans Paitued <.c003 Liste icewonnaa Paige s toase' ev Asv .....:00mm APPENDIX. aie LANGUAGES OF THE MALAay ARCHIPELAGO.— Continued. DOOR EAR. EGG, EYE. FACE FATHER 1, Pintw..........Telinga ....... Per cca Mata ...sacsecs Mika... cine Bapa. 2. Lawang....... Kiping ....... Vidok:.is Moto . 0:1 ot ee ee Baba 6. Obamba ......Talinga ....... Ontolo...... Mata. «3.1000 OPOR Wc tp xsy Amana {x Dipti. nd ee di ::) Sonn UC ee IGS i sete. Ama. 16. Raroangen....Turi............ Natu’... Miata cave id. Dubn,. 0.45.4, Jama. i. Pintd' Zone Boronga ...... Ae Mata .......... PALO sc selvaeaah Kiamat 18.. Pinta. Cre EUlby, «2t).3. Bate 2 toasts Gaels). teas. Yaman ec scnccsceesscuiibonedveeedehesdoccececcs.ccs.. 20. Yamata.......Telinga ....... Metélo...... Hams ...37 i a ee Nibaba. . Lilolono ...... Melilan......... Pelon ....'.3. Lamimo...... Uhamo........A’mam. 22. Karemet sack Telingan ...... PO indi Raman........ ~Pupam s........ Nama - Hendloni.....Linganani....Telo......... Ramani....... Pupan lalin .. Naama. 24. Sowéni......... Herenatia . ..Rehdi....... Lumatibuk6i. Ufnati lareni. Amao. . Mora MAN .......... BOSE 555.0083. ln eee et SAD oid Cee te Baba Nara Tingét ........ TOM cue Umtowt ...... Genage, ....... Bapa. >, WOR Zick Hi Nangow ...... Magosi...;;Lako -.....0.%. Nangabio ....Nambéba 32. Metentre.....Terina......... Muntiro....Mata....... 2t Mibike adv... Ama. 133. Metenulu..... MOMN .....5:0 Mantirhui.Mata .......... UU wakan...<...0. A’ma. '34. Lamdta ....... Telinawa ..... Muntelod...Matava ....... Ware «0.500... Kopapa 35. Metoiiru ...... Terma ......... Momatiro .Mata .......... U'wa Ama. 36. Metoro........ Teréna......... ORO: s5.2c08: ee Wearit a. x2 cule. Ama 37. Aledni......... Terina mo ....Teldli ...... Mata mo...... Wamu mo....Ama 88. Metanordi....Terinam ...... Terani..... (a er Wémo... o3ca. Ama. . Untaniydn ...Tinacdno ..... Ah Si ee Matacolo ..... Fag@olo ..::..... Amacolo, . Lolamatan ...Likan ......... TOLD... sdts. Wistar | +1. et ii, ae Téman. . Motilnim ....Telikeinléim.Tolnim..... Midtara.. 62: Uhtnam....... Améi . Yebtteh ...... Tanomulino..Tolor ....... Matanina..... Funonina..... Mama Olamatan ....Teninare ...... Latun ...... ER aot sa, Matalalin.....Ama Fidia.s i. s24 Teer ......... S97) oe Matada ....:4.. Omomania ...Iei. Rematin ...... 7 ae ATS :2..45%. Diath .i2..9eh. Matindin...... A’ma Datakis::.ice Tenaan........ 1 a ee ED cs tein 2 IONE ov ees Mam i ee ee Maine... .....:Tolo,.....%:. Mut morobu..Mutino........ Mam. Bolawah ...... Telinga .......Untello ....Mate .......... BEB 6 n'st0: dati Uah, 616 APPENDIX. One HUNDRED AND SEVENTEEN Worpbs IN THIRTY-THREE — English ......ecsseereees FEATHER. FINGER. FIRE. FISH 1. Malay.........-----seeeee Balt i.-Ry. Jari :..cihts ee A’pi...... [kan 2. JAaVANeSC oeseceeeseereeees Wal -:.)....:: Jari seed. ckeatsenneeene Giini..... [wa .......08 | 6. Bouton Is, (eaves ee ry Bae Saranga Mae “se Wha.ice Tkani.....4 7. Salayer Bates BAS Karam .c.isseccstectelin aes JMO a... 08 16. Menado N. Celobes. eomeut ...Talrimido we Pitung .Maranigan. 17. Bolang- Burato .......-SAQZOWATL......++eeerees Puro .....S€& ...--e0e hitam 18. Sanguir, Sian .....----- Dekii-aHle Limado 3.........ces000- Puttin ...Kina........! 19. Salibabo......seceeeseeeeeeees "ss lebble'ch'sleslee'slv els viable hela EEE Puton ...Inasah...... 90. Sula Is. .....ccceeeeeeeees NriGa: Ae wesae Kokowana .......+000 APE sissies Kéna .....00 21. Cajeli.......+ Bolon' Sys. Limam kokon......... Ahit...... Tani ......008 22. Wayapo ...--- Bouru. Fulun .......-. Wangan ....cssseeeeees Bana ....[kan.......+ 23. Massaratty... Polun' Aes Wangan .......sceeeees Bana ....[kan......+ 94, Amblaw.....sceeereeertes Bolen eee Lemnati kokoli ...... AMM 2. ates Tkiani ....m 26. Tidore ....sceeeeeneereere® Gde0 ii0/2 ‘Gia Maraga......seeee U'ku..... N¥an ....008 99. Gani ......-++ é Lonke {3% Odes0 | s2:....eseeneeenem Litan ...Jan........0 Gilolo._ , ; 31. Galela........- Li Ae Ravages <<. vovsieasdvene Uku...... Nadu .:....00m 32. Liang ....cseeereeer ) oj Huru «..-...+.- Rimaka hatu.......... Aow ....-Lyat.....e0e os 33. Morella ......--++ = Manuhrui Limaka hatui......... Aow ....-Lyail...eeees 34, Batumerah......... a Pulte 22.35. Limawa kukualima..Aow ...... Tani ......2am 95, Larikl......scccsees Aruka a. Hoolan ........ Sint] ap acbndes cs Tnaé:...-..-04 34. Batumerah......... ea KK tgae op cansare HilAah. issn Sieili siscd- <3 Inao:.,.....m Sh Metiki.....saccer- ef Pee Haren: scccnsese Siittivene tdetes Ina 36. Saparua -.9ssenbet TAK i. .0sde00 Wall ...s00- Umias,..«2-5+--- Wine, .:..m 43, Wahal....c.scoeee Yakiss ........Hulan ......... U'muti......... Ina ....26--08 45. Matabello ............++ LAGE -n20re202 Wulan .. U'MUSS...-..++. Nina. AG. Teor ...cccseceosescereeoee Lek 5, -<000200- Phulan...- Quoh 59. Bajt onscoonsstigsascenesese Tikala ...00.0+- Dal oceseoeees Hurait cajhosnse Tikus APPENDIX. 625 _ LANGUAGES OF THE Marnay ARCHIPELAGO.— Continued. RED. RICE. RIVER. ROAD. ROOT. _ SALIVA, 1. Migrate... Brdat ec... Siingei......... ABAD cus sds:: Ay Rat. snes Lidah. Bo) BATES Dace. Bras......... Sungei......... Malaku .......Oyok ......ce. I'du. 6. Meraliin..:..... Pei, esi... RVG: tchgien.i... Tra ciara hs Koleséna....... Ovilu y ae . SORdEe Y= Oe Biras ...:...Balang......... Dialan satan Akar ..........Pedro. 16. Mahamu ...... Bogaseh ...Rariou......... Dalreny vic.) xs. Hamu.......... Edu. 17. Mopoha....... Bugasa.....Ongagu ....... LOGA ctiwan ibs. Wakatia ...... Due. . Hamua Bowaseh ...Sawan .......:. DAW esrted. << Pungenni.....Udu. . Maramutah... Boras. Miia Sas Bias 52%... pungeiiiaii..s fe 7 TS Pe Kao akar...... Bihu. - Unmitla'y. cabal... Wailé aii... Ealani’t0, Alamiuti ...... Bulai. 22. Miha self Balai... OE AER eos PUTIN 5. Adeceicay a8 so one enevee Puhah, Mihs vite cnc Paes Ji& ... UAL s adhuadds ss ffs) cle) Kao lahin ....Fubah - Mehvairl 2. Malad i22.... Waibatang ...Lahuléa.......Owdti.......... Rubunatéa. » Kobomid occ: Digest... SCS ae Lolinga....... Hatimodto ...Gidi. » Mecotty 2 ... Samasi......Waiyr ......... Lola iad 91. Niwolo......... Iput. - Desoélla ...... Itamo ...... LGA ait ous J 00; EKG beseh icons. de eae Kivi. . AR aOR hee 7 Weyr .cdi3k... VAR aM tin6 Rive bi Tehula, on MOT. asa. Atietn se... Weyl hatei...Lalan.......... Hiwadati........ Tehula. +» AWOL. «ica. ES ee Dal AnG sah thopes ey combs: Tohulé. - Keo medio. Héla...... ..Wai hatei ....Lalan .......... Ai waat....... Tohural. . Kaonued......! Ee Ct Tala ten IPivc> Aiwaari....... Tohulah, - Merandte.. ..Hdla........ Walildhe .....Laldni......... Lamitt 6.224. Tohulah. . Katia Yaa H@lasis::... Walirghi ...... Uslanis.o cr. Haiwadri ..... Tohtlah, , Wao edna Palais... Wailolin......Latina ........ Sal saeges cca Apicolo, . Dadowt 222 Babe ec... Waildlan...... I Olan, :2226. (Ai) waht..... Béber. - Lahanin ...... Hélim ...... Wailanim.....Lalim ......... Ai liléham ....Pito. . Merah. Faasi ....... Arr lehn .;.... i i ee BSP 5 t es: Gunisia. « Mosinaisi.eicc. Allan........ Tolo maina...Olamatan..... UamMUM,: 1.2. cA ito. - Ululi..........Faha........Arr siiasiia ...Laran ......... AL ANG.2..225,: Ananihi, Fulifuli Paser ....... Wehr fofowt..Lagain ........ Woki.......... Munini. (Mame: Ai .ckae MierSisck.... a ee eed 0 Gaka watu ...Clif. Pe. eee Ragial st. ... Weyoh......... hf See as Aikowa .......Tefoo. Méraly #:,.se0s Buas........Ngusor ....... Lalan FU DAe> weisieinecncsosese scans Lal bathe Ss 626 APPENDIX. Ox HUNDRED AND SEVENTEEN Worps IN THIRTY-THRE a English ......+0.-++++++-SALT. SEA. SILVER. SKIN. 1. Malay......secceceereeees Garam ......... Laut: ivacntas Pérak:sistsonae Bult .......2 2, Javanese ....eeeceeeeeees Uyeah ve DOZOTO . oe eee ee Perak: \i...ssee Kalt.......4 r 6. Bouton Is. pee ore Aine eee Andal .......+ Risli,.jicheem Okulit .......2 7. Salayer Sela .sfiisAvkes Laut Divan Salaka ......00. Balulan...... F 16. Menado : iy Bouma OO aes ne highest Shai. .aliaided sees vcsie eh ee Nacen Simuto ........ Borango ......Ringit .......+ Kurito....... 18. Sanguir, Sian........... Aging .....0+-- Laudis vate. Perak. vis .cees Rishi ae & 19. Galibabo........-scsssseccerscsnsercsecen ens Tagaroang....Salaba ......++- Timokah ...... 90, Sula te Sine Chat ea Mahi .......0+. Salaka ........: Kooli..c.2km a 21. Cajeli.......-- Sasi ....ceceeeee Ola cs itech ves Silaka ......+.. Usum ......m 22. Wayapo...... Bouru. Sasi ......+ee ee Olatiai.ttine Silaka ......0.- Usam ....-..4m 23. Massaratty... Sasi .....s-0s08 Masi.........+-- Silaka ......... Okonen ...... 9A, Armblaw......sseseeseeees Sasieh ........- Tipntthsi8. ttt Silaka ........- Tinyau....... 2 26. Tidore .....scseeeese Gasinglnbees Wélo...Wti Saldka ......++. ATi ow... 99, Gani .......-+ ae Beenie Be Wolat 0.0.4 Salaka......... Kakutut .... 31. Galela......... Gadi . Petes TeOw. @svisbases Salaka......... Makahi ..... 39, Liang .....--ereeeee og Tash -eeeeeeerees Mit. ..1Gt ek Pisiputi.......Urita ....... 33, Morella .......:+ ETasi sees Mie). Lan Wot Salaka......++. Dit 53 34, Batumerah......... ra Tési .....-..-0 Lauti .vccwoses Salaka.........ASAV@ ..-.+- £ ie voy < beeper ere “OG Past. Saviest Latitain J. Salakiiit..c..+ Bsa ica | 36. Saparta.........seeeeeeees Past: 2S Stee Sawah .......+- Salaka ......+.. Kutai.... Sd AT, AWaiyd ....s-eeee Paste Hae Lauhaha ...... Salaka......---Lelutini ... 48, Camarian.......... Pasie AAAs Lauhaha ...... Salaka......... Wehti .... OO Tee iE rete hestanees EiGsat aes Toweln .....+.- Saldk .....004+- Lilicolo .... 30. Ahtiago and Tobo 5 Mésin Boeke ee Tgi veil. i bewws Salaka........- Tkulit «...-3 31. Ahtiago (Alfuros) S Teisim ........ Taisine i... sev Salaka ....ccssccsecsceeeceees IORE: ocas se vatee sess Sfle «2: laraes Tagok .J.usvses Salak/i'.Jesooes Likito ..... | Te ake | 6 ere Pas SU sae Loatit.. css eee Selaka ......+ Unin ...... 45. Matabello .........---++ Gira DAN Tahi-.6 ares Salaha ......+.- Aliti......2 AG. TROL schictecac....seeeses. Siren Shik Hoak........++ SE) een Holit ......08 49, Mysol......sessereeeceeees Lesin 3. .tveve. Sol ...cceeeeeee SULTP ..eeeeeee Kine .....-« 50. Mysol.....ccseeeeseeeeeees Garam ......... Belot .......+.-Salup .......-..Mot kehin 5Q, Bajit c...seccseceeceeceeees Garam ......... Medilaut ...... Salaka .....++.. Kulit ....: APPENDIX. aa 2 LANGUAGES OF THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.— Continued. SMOKE. SNAKE. SOFT. SOUR. SPEAR. STAR. 1. Alpe tnt: Walagy:). 5... Lumbit....Masam......... Tombak ...... Bintang. 2. Wy ces POS ai)... Garno.:.,;..A‘sam. ......,... Tombak ....+. Lintang, G OMGR i Ke Savha ...... Maroba ....Amopara...... Pandano ...... Kalipope. ¢. Senhe 2d Bae if, 43.3... Lumut ..... 01 nee Poki ..... Bintang. 16. Pupiisy........ Katoiin ....Marobo ....Maresing ..... Budiak ........ Bitty. £7.. Obomi' ince Nosei.,:.... Murumpito Morosomo ................006... Matitie. tS: asin. 2) ee Katéan ..:..Musikomi .Naloso......... Malehan ...... Bituin. Be ss ee aa Oo osc hscecccsacsdiecsassdlenseocc, seceecess.., Kanumpitah, m0. Apléntie ae et eahy.:... Madma.....Manili......... Pedwihi....... Fatui } 21. Melin......... Nehei ...... Namlomo .Numnino.....Tombak.......Tilin 22. Fenen ......... Niha Lomo... 3% Parmio: 2.54 Nerd 4.5. ...... Tan, #23. Fenen ......... Wao Lumloba ...Dumwilo ..... Nero. $. sos POOH, 24, Mipéli......... PiaE, oc. :.. Maloh ...... Numliloh ....Tuwaki .......Maralai. 26. Munyépho ...Yéya ....... Boleh ...... PSY shal axe Sagu sagu .... Ngdma. 29. ISO ;..cdesccees BOwW.5...5... TRIit, ;....5, Sian s34,5 cee Sagu-sagu ....Betdl. Bi. Odépo stn Inhiar Damiudo ...Dakiopi.......Tombak ...... Ngoma Sa. Kune ys3.. TU hath... Apoka...... Li ere a i Marin 33. Aowaht...,...Nia ...c..... (4) 5 re Marino........ Le ares Marin 34. Asaha ......... Niéi......... Maluta.....Amokinino ...Sapolo......... Alanmaténa. 35. Aow pot ...... iar io2...: Maro: ;.,. 22% Marino... SOpar ...5,.... Mari. BG. Poho: 46.,22:. Lae Maru .......Marimo .......Kaléi..........Mareh. . Wall sea Tepeli ...... Mamoéni...Maalino....... SOMMnI 2 s..c- Oona . Pomite a eae Maru Maarino ...... Sanoko........ Umili 39. Yafoin Nifir .i..... PNT 5 firs fe Malim...,....5 4. 5 Ur epee ed Meléno, m. Numi Bafin:.:..... Mamélin ...Manil ......... BOG sieges Toi. - Waham rapoi Koioim ....Mulisnim..Kounim ...... Leis-dnum ...Kohim. 42. Kobun ........Tekoss ..... Maltis ..... Mateibi ....... OURS. vance Tilassa. Howinsbson Tipolum ...Mulumu ...Manino EERE taste, Teén. Ef ubun ...... Tofagin ....Maluis...... BRATAIG vag oss. Galla galla....Tdin. . Yaf mein......Urubai......Mafon ...... WMeGION 3.034. Gala gala......Tokun Lath hie Aecceaae POKGie:.... Unibia..:.:7. Embisin ...... ol ee Toen Yap hoi'........POK asia... EGY wn cept LOW «5 «ater ade (1 ER RORARR RF Umbo ...... --Ular .,......Laimah .....Gusuh ......... Wijah ......... Kiuliginta, 62 8 APPENDIX. One HUNDRED AND SEVENTEEN Worps IN THIRTY-THRI E English .......++0+++0+++-SUN- SWEET. TONGUE. TOOTH. 1. Malay.......coccssesseeees Mata-ari ...... Manis ......... Lidah ..,..s00 a ©. Javanese ......0.--eeee++ SUNZING! «...-- | Ts eee Tlat ..csveuem Tait. .... 00k 6. Bouton g. Cite ohana Mameko ...... Lilah. /.. case Nichi .......2 7. Salayer Mata-alo ...... Tani... iciseeeve Lilah Jive Gigi...... 16. Menado} tebes, Mata Tots «+---Manisy vo Lila scalecion. Negisi .. 17. Bolang:¢"... .) Utimaeatonae Mogingo ...... Dilla nesta Dongito ....+. hitam . 18. Sanguir, Sian...........Kaliha......... Mawangi......Lilah ......+++ Isi. 19. Salibabo........seeceeee Ni-P ol 9). Sula 1s. ..sseeceeeereeeee LED sesceeeeees Mina Maki Nihi:.. 006 os 21. Cajeli........ LEE sp sceren Enminei.......Mahmo .......Nisim ..... 22. Wayapo..... Bouru. Hangat ....... Dumina....... Maalt?tisceses Nisi ........amm 23. Massaratty... idee Durianaa ..... Maanen veeveeeMiSiTION «00m 24, Amblaw......sseseererees Laei Mina ......0000 Munartéa..... Nisnyatéa ... 26. Tidore ...secceseeseeseeee® Wangi Mami 72 sivc: Ald A8ea: Ing :.....00tm 29. Gani ......o L Gilol Fows }.Jes0ses Gamis")..stss ImGd Soeicsse Afod.....c00 31. Galela......... ) Wangi........- Damrtttt cs a02 Nangaladi....Ini .....see0 32. Liang ....cecereerers j Riamata ...... Masusu .......Meka.....++++ Niki.....ooe 33. Morella ........-++ E Liamatei ee Masustl ....... MékKa......000 Nikin ’ 34. Batumerah......... { "4 Limatdni .. Kagel apeceen Numdwa..... Nindiwa .. SH. Lariki.......s2++-00 <4 Liamdta ...... Mastma ...... Meh ‘asiceccss Nikil:....04 36. Saparua........e-++eee+++-Riamatani ....Mosuma ress Mo ..iasesisus Nio ....c0ses 37. AWALYA .cecceseeees Liamatel ...... Emési .....0000 Méi ...02.2000 Nisi mo... 38, Camarian .......... Liamatei ...... Maséma ...... Me6ém .....00 Nikim .. BO, TRV case ctecanen sa _Liamuatan.....Sunsima ..... Mecdlo......00 Lilico ..... 40. Ahtiago and Tobo } s Liamdtan ..... Merasan ......Mélin .....++-. Nifan ....06s 41, Ahtiago (Alfuros) CS Tien ee cena ee Ninum .......- Nesnim .... BAG. 2. venconecenssses Woleh ......... Masérat....... Lemukonina. Nisikonina AS. Wlisl...........<>- J Len... Moleli .......%: Me wiiiidsvenie Lesin ...00« 45. Matabello ...........++ OSE vstis een Mateltelatan .Tumomé ......Nifda ...04 AG... TROL. sectivenien «+0 ke=~090% LOW \....-c00eee Minek ......... MEn......00.000- Nifin ...+. AQ, MySol.....sccoceeseererees SeasaM ....... Krismis.......-ATAM seseeeseees Kalifin.... 50. Mysol.......cceseeeeeeeees Kibet icone Mis -:.)tieeeoee Arrant. ).dvoraves Kelif .... BQ. Baje ..ccccdecsnceceseee res Matalon ...... Manis .........Délah.......- , Gigi... APPENDIX. 629 LANGUAGES OF THE MaLay ARCHIPELAGO.— Continued. , WATER. WAX. WHITE. WIFE. WING WOMAN. 1... Ayre sus: . Talli ia 51) ae POE iss an crt Sayap......e... Purumpuan. 2. Banyu...... Tiling... ..; FON its a an Seng wedo ...Sewiwi......... Wong wedo. 6. Manu....... fi Sa Maputi........Orakenana ...Opani ........ - Bawine. a. eee Pantis ...... A sg te BAIL. «0.93.6 KADt togee. cose, Baini 16, Akéi.;..:2... ar Mabida .......Gagijan........Panidey...... Taumatababiney Bi. Sardgegi esi Pet ces 55: Mopotiho .....Wure Poripikia......Bibo nS. Aki. oe Lilin ...Mawirah ...... SOWA evans ich Tula .........., Mahoweni. 0. Wise area et Mawirah ...... Babimehy 3 ve.<. s BRS eiecareee Kuning ....... Hi bccpateeees Gahu ....... 21. Cajeli NOW fo se-eceaeet Umpoéro Silei ............ Tis... .:-am 22. Wayapo...... Bouru. Kao .......-+++- Koni... s.ns0s Umsiun ....... Rua ......004 | 23. Massaratty... EIR RE oS KotilssSh cee Nosiuni....... Rus .....:0 . 24. Amblaw.......ceeeeseeees WS at. Maewee Umpotoi ...... Saihi.ceterhes $s ..: , 96. Tidore ....:seeeeseeeeeees LUO co eeeeeeees Kinachi ys cen Remol sccaesss: Mal6fo ...... DO. HSA soap soe-rs citela, 8 ccoceeve ees MGGIIIAL .25 5: Lepso....-..++ Leplu......m 31. Galela......... GObtess oeveny ost Decokurati ...Moi ......-.++:: Sinuto ....... BQ, Liang .....-.coreeres gj AYED oe ceseees Poko:sjieees Gain paemenaeee Rus:......m 83. Morella .......++-. BAL. eessseseeen Pole witeae Sa: Sean Tria... a 34, Batumerah......... rg Ai cede ee a5 see A P00 ooeeees ees WESA oeeeeeeeee Lut... 2 we AiagaNel 2 vticoeegtak oY eee PUK :secscesress lea (202 Soe... ; 36. Gaparua......ceeeeeeeee Al ees paNenbier en POOH iit, clea His ‘ccageanrssds Rua .....4 37, AWALYA ..ccsesceres SAT csengnes vay Popordle ...... Lai-isa ........ Lita ...... 38, Camarian .........- AD Pont Scare teeroelae: ..> cam 89, Telata ics.estoncetes _, Lyeil vcceeeeeeePOKO cecceeeees DAIL ceereeeeeees Lua .......d 40, Ahtiago and Tobo | # A'i ..........-.,Ununing ......5ait gs SE nee 2 a | 41. Ahtiago (Alfuros) & Ai-im........-.Uninim........H8& .......00++ Elia......m 3 42. Gaah......ceccsersoees Kaya..........Kunukunu .0 00 vincoapabateae Lotu ....0m , 43. Wahal........ss000 Aiden sees eagrade Masikuni......Sali .......+.++ Lus ...:ca 45. Matabello ..........-+++ WE Saas Wuliwulan ...Sa.........e20e+ Rue... cm 46. Teor a a Kuni |; ¢. Aneeee Kayée ....3.2- Rua .....a 49. Mysol.......essseceeceeees Gah iene sees Kumenis ...... Ratity <1... Lu 50. Mysol Ei oo LD son Seen K’tim Lu APPENDIX. 63] LANGUAGES OF THE MaLay ARCHIPELAGO.— Continued. THREE. FOUR. FIVE. SIX. SEVEN. EIGHT. bi, Fite A'mpat........ Lima ange ATR) a se a Tijok. .2 504 Delapan. a 3: Papstswi.,..,. Latha vied.:, i OAT pty WU 456. Wola. 6. Taruano....Patanu........ Limanu ....... Namano ...... Pituano..:.,.. Veluano. fe Tolle... 2 Ampat Tara ipeR ... nam. ..2et Tujoh ......... Karna 26, Tatera.ik ee Bite uc ld... WI dsiccicctoicd LL ae a Walru Af. . Tore sri Opato ......... Rima .. Onomo......... BGO 5 ERG Waro 18. Tellon <..... an PAG cong cv: Rani. .°...; Pea piilece cs: ..: Walu. 19. Tetalu..;... Apatah .......Delima........Annuh......... PEO tee cyas te Waru. m0. Gada ". ccs GATS... 005 BUM. oii agy os: GaNG cies... SSO (os eee ae Gatahua. mh. TOO sive: "ae PAINS Gis bec sce Ji eae gee a 1a ti Mame Seiehehti Walo ma Lello ...c... eae PAA Shcrcs. cs. 2 She apereea tg 12 sere Water te Etrua BS. Tello- cise. Pa ND 5 v0 408-2: t,he eerie PEO 23... oo Tria 24, Relu......... eee... 1te «4... yi See eda PIG coche sees Walu 26. Rangi....... eee Runt¢ha ...... Llc nA al PeModl /<22:.; Tufkangi. 29. Leptol...... Lepfoht....... Depuit........ Lepwonan ....Lepfit ......... Lepwal. Bol. Sangi........ || Spa aeranS Matona .....4 Butanga ...... Tumidingi....Itupangi. BOL Tero .......eELAM ccscesese. TOME ccccce ses 1: Cs 7, Seen 12 elena edhe Waru. BS. Lelo...siaces eT APMIS eves es coe INGHA foes cncet "ol eedieenepiegendy Waru 24, Telua....... Até SRAM 4 esas. ots Nend Itud Walftia. 35. Toro PEEIDE ocaaes cosas. 11 rR Noo Itu Waru mo. ‘LOPHK..seca8 LST FUN occa. cccse 1 Co Si Aa 1 aR ra Waru 37. Te-elu...... : SSR aaa TAMOG .'.2..020- IWOMWG! oot. Witu Walu 38. Tello A‘a DMM we s1sss-020NUMIO ...... 5 Itu Walu oe. LOl jcc See Lima Sad ANOL. o aravens sce til LUG .. Wagu mo. TOL. someueas | Oe aaa Raa niecs OU cent see ie Se Wal. ml. E’ntoly. a Munera........uhlima........kindi ......... Wit eee Enwol. 42. Tolo ........ ent. 220TH ....,.2.. 2. Wonen .f2).-. Piro are me. Told....n.ae Ati Nima. i ahaa Time. Alu 45 Tolu | Sea Sea 0 ial fp area Allu er Tel... ore eo ee es Want: 2 4e. ee Wal A 5 ea ee aa ME i cveckas ccs. Oman 19 peepee 5 2 ee: on, a 15 pete ea Cntr... 62 le | Rie eit a. Tiga... ss. 60s Ampat 4... :... BAM o3s Wohin sceemebanes Angas cae ete Huselali ..........c+sesen 34. Batumerah......... oe i Wi cnichbauomeeses Husa . scone Husalaisa .........0- al G5. Viarikasessdsuss--sse> Ti Siwa....:0 auvaen iw’ Husa ....0-.-0--.Adusaelel ..9....-....0n0m 36, Saparua.......s.c-pnnceer Siva. cscsmepomeaes Husani:icect sans Husani lani...........0« ‘ 37. AWALYA 0. cs.0cee0s Si wa as ssscnenre oes Huttise segs aweens Sinletisa .......0+-+sees - | 88. Camarian .......... Siwa a: dishes 'T'inel...2asps>saae RIRIBB is cosines oon pe nell 60, elutes. sts cencee , BIW: « sjoceneesaeews HGtt ss ayccmees Mesileé ..........s-sccces 40. Ahtiago and Tobo e SiWa. «2 cncgssekeone Vita ss sss oeeneieas Vut sdilan .......... aol 41. Ahtiago (Alfuros) © Enel wax pacupes-t Fotusa .....+000 Fotusa elése.........0+0 0 6) ee ee Sid. v..cascsooeeerre Ocha. cones Ocha le se .........+esees AZ. WAM: ..Ft-v0cesas Sig sccseepeeop oes eh Meee Husa lesa, .......ccescees | 45. Matabello ..........0#+ Bia... d-ssusteeepeers SOW <:sancercsvanas Terwahei.........eseees AG. Ter, etcateencen-e-okzete Siwel.. ..,.acerese= Huté 5 aspeteeen Ocha Kilu.........s0ee 49. Mysol......ssssscsseeeeers Si. ..wdsesuuegeieeer: Lafa \...sscpnsbene Lafu kutim..........am 50.. Mysolia.--<:seocsn-peps- Sin ...osesseeueeoe OD Yah tem metim ...... | » Baju ccocesseeorore bn baste Sambilan...... ,..Sapuloh ..... eee ee , APPENDIX. LANGUAGES OF THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. — Continued, TWELVE. TWENTY. THIRTY. ONE HUNDEED, 1. Sapuloh dtia.............. Praapaloh: <2. << Tiga piloh.......... Saratus. Ne ae on Rongpuluh ......... Talopalan -.2c.5.<2. Atus. 6. Sapulohruano............ Ci ae Tellopule:s. 3 ciceess Sdatu. +. Sapuloh: Peay. .c......... Ruampuloh.........Tellumpuloh ....... Sabilangan. Po ahd) 205 sd oceadvinenc’clases.secaceeesecless..,.. Mahasu. a Ga doc oa sopsninnae cece seeecavaececesoecceececs..«..., Gosoto. 18. Mapuro dua.............. Duampuloh........ Tellumpulo.........Mahdsu. 19. Ressa Qi. .c.v.0..caess0-. Dua puroh ......... Tetalu puroh....... Ma rasu. 20. Poha di gaha............. Poha gahu..........Poha gatil.......... O’ta. oi, Deteie ie... PRU oe os. soc. Hot 'telo 5.3.00 4.: Bot ha. 22. Polo gerenrua............ 17: ao POO. 0. she vase U'tun. =o. Polo tem tias............ LE i are Porollen ee iG! U'tun. 24. Bor lan tea... .4...... PAOEOIGS 5.0. onc 0ess Porc Uruni 26. Nigimédi semolopho . ... Negimelopho....... Negerangi.......... Ratumoi. 29. Yagimsoleplu............ ae Molarel,. 20.8. Utinso, 81. Mogid desinoto ......... Menohallo.......... Muruanet.......0.). Rétumoi, eee. Husa luge ticen det exi: PMG. 433.5... BL WEAPO! aie, een sccs: Huttna. Seo Huss lad. ce eek... Pidcurite ... of. .cs-s. Pintatile’ 2 hi). Hutin. 34, Husalaisa lua............Hotulua ............ Lt! Cs Seat aaa Hutunsd. 385. Husendua ........ ere lg a a Fare ee ad Hutin. 36. Husani elarua............ 1 er ae Hutoro ... Utuni. ef. Sinkioyecgeedee. BOTTA. icc. eens PAOGULELOs cela von de UtiniL iS. Salalnacseeeed, 24° a Hututello ..........Hutunérg. =. Hutulelag saa... utalas, ............ Hututol ............. Huttin 20. Vutsailaniga i... Retna Fite... 5.08 Ay ee Utin. Bi. Eleliig. 28 Ch ar Petes eG, Hutnisé. m2. Husa la iaaih... occu... SS ee re So Ree Lutcho mo. Ocha sligyie ae Hutu tololu .Utun. ee. Ternoruaaeaciinns. 2. Teranrua............ Perantolo’.... 0,042. Ratua, ee. Aria... cbaeee eet , RPOMIUN Ges ceccncses ah a ee Rasa oe. Fofo lu <2 Se ae Loc Go) ee eee Uton oe. Sah angly wise... SO Min 2 Ne ae Toon ne Datus wi . 7 OTe Vee, | CW Ry : ah aula, et 1 i] sh Gf ie teaaalin oil iy Skea ia yees bh id iar a (otter asin a, rileg » adele ‘i nen toblony Vet cima a Ke Keres ibe ae hort i ing Maas WN aes uf ‘cole : ‘wihoee pet RRs, oer erie) ‘i a iene et ing ae ah Mahe we : iy > « F ts yt) PL ha — é Al ube a od eel ” [pas INDEX. A. Abel, Dr. Clarke, his account of a Inias, 63. Acacia, in the Archipelago, 8. Acarus, bites of the, 358. Aischynanthus, climber plants in Borneo, 82. ‘ican negroes, on the crania and languages of the, 599, 600. Ahtiago, village of, 360. Ahtiago and Tobo vocabularies, 607. Alcedo dea, 457. Alfuros, the true indigenes of Gilolo, 314, 31¢, of Papuan race, the - predominant type in Ceram, 365. Ali, the author’s attendant boy, 318, 314, 318, 329 ; the author's t :ad man, 407. Allen, Charles, the author’s agsis- tant, 46; sent with the collec- tions to Sarawak, 64; finds em- ployment, and leaves the author for four years, 203; rejoins the author, 303; news of, 313, 317, 376, 382,516; letterreceived from, 546; his collections, 548; his difficulties, 7b.; his wanderings, 276.; finally obtains employment in Singapore, 7b.; his voyage to Sorong, and his difficulties, 570 et seq. Allor vocabulary, 607, «mahay, bay of, 353 ; Visit to, 358, Amberbaki, visit to, 504, Amblau vocabulary, 606, Amboyna, island of, 4; voyage to, from Banda, 291 ; Map of, 292; the town of, 293 ; volcanoes in remote times, 293 (sce Water, limpid); the author’s cottage in, 295 (see Interior) ; general cha- racter of the people, 299 ; habits and customs, 299, 300 (see Shells), 301-304 ; clove cultivation esta- blished at, 309; departure from, 349; map of, 350, Amboyna lory, 357. Ampanam, 152, 154; birds of, 154; cause of the tremendous surf at, 162, 163. Anchors of the Malays, 542, 543. Andaman Islands, in the Bay of Bengal, 591. Animal life, luxuriance and beauty of, in the Moluccas, 402. Animals, distribution of, the key to facts in the past history of ‘the earth," 144-149, 202-211 ; { geographical distribution of, 488 489. Anonaceous trees in Borneo, 82. Anthribide, species of, 323. Ants, noxious, 467 ; at Dorey, tor- mented by, 511, 512. Ape, the Siamang, 134, Arabs in Singapore, 20. Archipelago, Malay, physical geog. of, 1; productions of, in some cases unknown elsewhere, 7b. (see Islands); extent of, 3; natural division of, into two arts, 9 (see Austro-Malayan, and N atural Pro- ductions) ; shallow waters of, 11- 17 (see Races). Architectural remains in J ava, 101; ruined temples, 104, 105. Arfaks, of New Guinea, 499, 501, 505. Arjuna Mount, 100. 636 Arndt, M., a German resident in Coupang, 185. Arrack, demand for, 459. Art, rudimental love of, among bar- barians, 510. Aru Islands, 7; voyage to, from Macassar in a native prau, 403 et seq.; diary of the voyage, 408 et seg.; arrival at the, 426; ex- ‘ploration of the forests of, 428; entomological captures, 429 ; traders of the, 430; articles for disposal or exchange, 431; im- mense variety of animal life, 482 et seq.'; pirates on the coast of, 436, 437; trade and commerce of, 439, 440; nominally under the government of the Moluccas, 440; journey and residence in the in- terior, 441 ef seg.; map of the, 442; birds of the, 442-448; habits of the natives, 448, 450; their food, 448; arrack their chief luxury, 449; their wretched habitations, 449, 450; their mo- notonous existence, 450; mixture of races, 450; their language, 7b.; men and boys expert archers, 456; inquisitiveness of the inhabi- tants, 461, 462 et seq.; dry and wet seasons, 464; beauty of the human form, 464; females of, 465; perscnal ornaments, 465; movable utensils, 466; household ornaments of the, 466 ; mats and boxes of, 1b.; domestic animals, 467; noxious animals, centipedes, scorpions, &c. 2.5 legend re- specting the, 468; mysterious character of the author, 470; second residence at Dobbo, 472 ; cheapness of European articles of commerce, 475, 476; intemper- ance of the natives, 476 ; consi- derable trade of the, 481, 482; departure from, 482 ; the return voyage, 483; the dry and rainy seasons, 1b.; expedition to, emi- nently successful, 2b.; the speci- mens of natural objects brought from, 7b.; sketch of its physical geography, 484 ef seq.; the great island called Tanabisar, %0.; number of small islands sur- INDEX. rounding the central mass, 1.5 evidence that they once formed a part of New Guinea, 489; its natural aspects and vegetable productions, 490 e7 seq. Aru Islands vocabulary, 607. Aurora borealis observed at Muka, 528. Australia, resemblance to, of the Austro-Malayan division of the - Archipelago, 18, 14; great differ- ence between the productions of, and those of Asia, 14. Australians, on the crania and languages of the, 599, 600. Austro-Malayan division of the Archipelago, 9 (see also Indo- Malayan) ; its close resemblance to Australia, not to Asia, 13. Awaiya, village of, 353 ; arrival at, 358. Awaiya vocabulary, 606. Ayer-panas, life at, 29. B. Babirusa (pig-deer), the, 263, 276; skull of the, 276, 391; of Celebes found in Bouru, 392. Baboon monkeys at Batchian, 338 ; of the Moluccas, 392. Baderoon, the author’s servant, 407; his gambling propensities, 480. Bajau vocabulary, 607. Bali, island of, 3; no forest in, 8; difference between, and Lombock, 14 (see Birds in) ; position of, and of Lombock, 150; the only is- lands of the Archipelago in which the Hindoo religion maintains itself, 150 (see Bileling) ; beauty of the district around, 151; cattle and birds, 152, 203 ; birds in, 70. Ball, Mr., an Englishman, resident in Java, 100. | Bamboo, usefulness of, 55, 12 4om with plate of bridge, 77-80. Banda, island of, 4; from Macassar to, 285; first impression of, 285,' 286; appearance of the town, 286; view of the volcano of, 286, 287; volcanic ‘character of the island, 286, 287; natives of, 290; INDEX, birds and mammalia, 290, 291; the trading locality for nutmegs, 309. : Banda group, 413, Baso, the author’s servant, 407. Batanta, map of, 514. Batavia, arrival at, 110; trade and hotels, 7d. Batchian, island of, 4; voyage to, 318; volcanoes of, 320, 321; ar- rival at, 325; difficulties of ob- taining accommodation, 336, 327; theauthor’scottage in the suburbs, 327 ; interview with the Sultan, 2b.; road to the coal-mines, 328 ; virgin forest of, 2b.; distinct races of, 331; robbery at, 333; wet Season at, 7.3; music and dancing at, 383, 334; domestic habits of, 334; eatable bats at, ab. ; walk in the forest of, 335; objects of natural history at, 335 et seq.; its great variety of surface and of soil, 343; sketch map of, - 588. Batchian vocabulary, 606. Batrachostomus crinifrons, 346. Bats, eatable, 334; at Batchian, 338. Batu-merah vocabulary, 606. Batuassa, village of, 360. Beard, cultivating a, 474, 475. Beck, Capt. Van der, 349, 350; his extraordinary knowledge of __ languages, 351. Bee-eater, Australian, 157, 273. Bee-hunters and bee-hunting, 199- 201. Beeswax in Timor, 199. Beetles, 700 species collected in Singapore, 24; distinct (130) kinds of the Longicorns, 1b. ; proper ground for collecting, 36; large number and new species of, collected at’ the Simunjon coal works, 35, 36, 294; arare beetle, 302; numerous species of, dis- covered, 323, 324, 330; capture of, 337; found at Bouru, 387 ; of the Moluccas, 401; the various species, 401, 402; obtained for tobacco, 422; numerous species in New Guinea, 510, 511; new species, 510. Belideus ariel, 338, 393. 637 Bengalese in Singapore, 20. Bernstein, Dr. 317; collector for the Leyden Museum, 338. Bessir, village of, 524, 5313 visit to, 5381; wretched accommoda- tion there, 531, 532; bargain with the men for catching birds of paradise, 532, 533; their method of snaring them, 533; scarcity of food there, 534, 535; the country around very hilly and rugged, 536. Bileling, arrival at, from Singapore, 150; a Chinese house in, 7d. Bird of Paradise, new form of, 329; named ‘“ Wallace’s Standard Wing,” 330. Birds, in Bali and Lombock, 14; in Malacca, 27, 28; in Bali, 152; in Ampanam, 154; boys’ birdcatch- ing, 154, 155; beautiful birds, 156, 157 (see Simla group, and Celebes), 261 (see Maleo); scarcity of, 343 ; insular forms of, 346; col- lections of, in Bouru, 390, 391; number of species from the Mo- lucca group of islands, 395 ; number of, in Europe compared, 7b.; in India, 2b.; various noises of, 446; numerous varieties of, in the Aru Islands, 457, ef Sq. $ dancing parties of, called “ Sdca. leli,” 463; those which live only in the depths of the forest, 487 ; shot at Dorey, 499; collection of, obtained in Waigiou, 536; of New Guinea, 576; genera and species of, 576, 577. Birds of Paradise, 1; range of, 14, 15; their great beauty, 463, 464: specimens of, obtained in their native forests, 483; at Waigiou, 530; difficulty of catching them, 526, 527 ; description of, 527, 5285 bargains with the bird-catchers of Bessir for capturing them, 532; their success, 532, 533; some of them kept in cages, but they did not live, 533,534; method of snaring them, 534; their his: tory and habits, 549 e¢ 8eq. $ different names applied to, by different nations, 549, 550; their structure and affinities, 550; the §38 Great Bird of Paradise (the Para- disea apoda of Linneus), the largest species known, 550; changes of plumage, $51; native method of catching them, 552, 553; mode of preserving them, 553; the Lesser Bird of Paradise (Paradisea papuana), 593, 554; the true Paradise birds, 554; fed on cockroaches, 554; Paradisea rubra, 555, 557; changes of plumage, 556, 557; King Bird (Paradisea regia), its great beauty, 557, 558; the ‘¢ Magnificent ”’ (Paradisea speciosa), 599, 600 $ the Diphyllodes wilsoni, 560, 561 ; the Superb bird, 561, 562; the Golden or Six-shafted bird (Pa- rotia sexpennis), 562, 563 ; the Standard Wing, 563, 564; the Epimachide, or Long-billed birds, 565; Twelve-wired bird (Para- disea alba), 565 ; Seleucides alba, 5663. the great Epimaque, or Long-tailed bird, 566, 567; Scale- breasted bird, 567, 568; Ptiloris alberti,\P. paradiseus, P. Victorie, 568; Paradise Oriole (Paradisea aurea), 569; list of all the Birds of Paradise yet known, with the places they are believed to in- habit, 570; the countries they chiefly inhabit, 2b.; an article of commerce, 571; Mr. Allen’s voyage to Sorong, in New Guinea, in quest of, 571 et seq.; termina- tion of the search for these beauti- ful birds, 573; difficulties of the undertaking, 573, 574. Bird-winged butterflies, 335, 336, 429; their beauty and brilliancy, 336; of the Moluccas, 401. Boat-building under difficulties, 372, 373; of the Ké Islands, 419- 421. Boats, difficulty in obtaining, 361, 362; description of, 362. Borneo, large enough for the whole of Great Britain to be set down in the centre of, and hidden, 3; the centre of the ‘great curve of volcanoes, 7; a forest country, 8, 16; arrival at, 34 (see Sarawak) ; the orang-utan an inhabitant of, LNDEX. and of Sumatra, 57; journey in the interior, 64 (see Dyak); pheasants in, 107. Borotéi, a Malay village, 68; as- sembling to look at the author,70.; appearance of the people, 20.; assembling to see the author eat, 69; amusing the children, ab. ; departure from to Budw (which see). Botanical locality, 343. Bouru island, map of, 350; visit to, 382; difficulties of the journey, 385; beetle found at, 388; ignorant simplicity of the natives, 389 ; of two distinct races, 4b. ; collections in, 390, 391; mountains of, 412; two distinct races there, 588. Bouton vocabulary, 604. Boutong, island of, 409, 410. Bontyne mountain, 409. Brambanam, an ancient village of Java, 104. Bow and Bedé, Chinese gold-fields in Borneo, 35. Bread-fruit, the tree, 303; excel- lency of, 303, 304. Brenthide, 337;; abundant in Aru, 478; their pugnacity, 478, 479. Brickwork, excellent, in an ancient city in Java, 101. Brissi vocabulary, 607. Britain, New, 5. Brooke, Sir James, at Sarawak, 34; butterfly named after, 37; his account of a mias, 63; the author a guest of, 84; character of his government, 92-94; his suppres- sion of piracy, 341. Brush turkeys, 14. Budw, Malay village, 69; reception by the natives, native dances, 70; proceed to Senankan (which See). . Bugis sailors, their peaceful charac- ter, 440; traders in the far East, 375, 376. | Bugis vocabulary, 604. Buitenzorg, near Batavia, botanical gardens of, 111; climate, &c. 20. ; village culture near, 112. Bukit-tima, residence at, 22; cha- racter of the Jesuit host there, ib. ; mission-house, 23. INDEX. Buprestide, of different species, 323, 324, 337. Buprestis family, 424. Buttercups, violets, whortleberries, &e. in Java, 118, Butterities, collected in Singapore, 24, 25; a new species, 29 ; hand- some specimens of, 37; the Orni- thoptera brookeana, 70, (see Moths); Calliper butterfly, 113; in Sumatra, 127-130; a strange family of, 130-133; species of, in Borneo, Sumatra, and J ava, 146-148 ; in Timor, 189, 190; in Celebes, 215, 216; a fine butter- ‘fly, 217, 218, 235; comparison of the productions of Celebes with those of other districts, 278-284 ; in Amboyna, 294; of Batchian, 330; different Species of, 70.; bird-winged, 335, 336; scarcity of, 343; capture of, 356; diffi- culties of capturing, 422; of the Ké Islands, 423; capture of, at the Aru Islands, 429; loca- tions where the author’s most beautiful specimens were obtained, 536. Butterfly of the genus Pieris, 356. C. Cajeli, harbour of, 382; the town of, 383; the Rajah of, 384; ex- cursion from, 7d.; return to, 390. Cajeli vocabulary, 605. Calliper butterfly, 113. Camarian vocabulary, 606. Carabide, 337. Carnivorous animals of the Moluc- Cas,w392. Carpophaga erspicillata, 342; C. oan oe 3/1, 418; C. neglecta, 371. Cassowary of the Moluccas, 398, Cats, wild, 14, Celebes, island of, 3; north, 4; a forest country, 8; resemblance to Australia, 13 (see Macassar) ; natural history of, 270-284!; birds in, 271-275; mammalia, 275- 277; natives of the, 389, Census, taking a, in Lombock, 177; difficulties in the way of, 178: 639 the Rajah’s stratagem, 17 8, 179; his pilgrimage to the Gunong- Agong (the great fire-mountain), 180, 181; complete success of the Stratagem, 182-184, Centipedes, 467. Cepa, village of, 358. Ceram, visit to, 349 ef seq.; maps of, 350, 364, 514; schools and schoolmasters of, 352; Christianity established in, 352; inhabitants of, 352, 353; trip to the interior, 355; forests of, 356; a forest desert, 357; journey along the coast, 358!; a perfect desert in zoology, 361, 362; the Alfuros of Papuan race the predominant type, 365; trade and natural pro- ductions of, 376; great sago dis- trict of, 3877; voyage from," to Waigiou, 513 et seq.; difficulties of the voyage, 515 et seq.5 an indigenous race there, 588, Cerambyx found at Bouru, 387. Ceyx Cajeli, 391. Chafer, long-armed, 302. Charmosyna placentis, a bird of Djilolo, 315, 330. Chinese, in Singapore, 21; their bazaar, 1b.; trades and occupa- tions of, 22; Jesuits among, 22, 23 ) Christians of Ceram, 352. Civets, 14; civet cats of the Mo- luccas, 392. Cockatoos, 14; in Lombock, 155; of the Aru Islands, 446, 447; their habits, 447, 448, Cock-fighting at Dobbo, 473. - Cockroaches, fed on by the Birds of Paradise, 554. Cocoa-nut trees and cocoa-nuts of Batchian, 335; of Matabello, 367; luxury of, 368; of the Ké Islands, 419. : Cocytia d’Urvillei, moth, 315, 429. Coelogynes in flower, 82. Comet of 1858, 319, 322. Commerce, genius of, at the work of civilization, 439, 440; ethics of, 476. Copper, supposed discovery of, in Timor, 192. a day-flying 640 Coral rocks surrounding Goram, 370, 371; dangers of, 521. Coraline rock, 321, 322. Coti, on the coast of Borneo, 548. Coupang, arrival at, 165; a cold reception, 166; suspicions of the authorities, 167; and conduct of the Pumbuckle, 167, 168; inha- bitants of, 185. Crania of the race of man in the Malay Archipelago, 599; the author’s measurements of, 600, 601. Cranioscopy has produced no cer- tain results, 599. Crew, author deserted by the, 377. Cuba and Yucatan, near proximity, yet widely different, natural pro- ductions of, 11. Cuckoos, in Malacca, 28; m Ce- lebes, 273. Culture, village of, near Batavia, 111. Curculionide, 337. Current, violence of the, 321. Cuscus, prehensile-tailed, 14; or- natus, 338, 394; the genus, 393 5 maculatus, 458. Cynogale Bennetti, the, in Borneo, 39 Cynopitheeus nigrescens, 338, 392. = Dammar, a resin, the production of immense forest trees, 342. Dampier’s Straits, 493. Darwin, Mr., theory of the dispersal of natural productions, 11, 119, 133 ; his theory of oceanic islands, 210. Daud Inchi, an Amboynese Malay, 155. Davis, Dr. J. B., his collections of human crania, 599, 600. Deer, 15; the only ruminant of the Moluccas, 392. Deer flies of New Guinea, 502, 503. Delli, capital of Portuguese Timor, 188, 382, 383; character of, 188; hill cultivation, 191; supposed copper mine, disheartening re- sults of an exploration, 193, 194; low ebb of morality at, 198. INDEX. bak Divisions, two natural ones, of the Malay Archipelago (see Austro- Malayan). ie village of, at Java, 109, Djilolo, village of, 314; forests and birds of, 314, 315; formerly the residence of the Sultans of Ter- nate, 315. Dobbo, arrival at, 427; difficul- ties of taking a house, 428; traders of, 430, 431; articles for exchange, 431; town of, 438, 439; merchandise of, .; man- ners and customs, 439; various races of, i0.; absence of laws, ib.; the genius of commerce at work, 439, 440; departure from, 441; map of, 442; trading at, 458, 459; second residence at, 472; its improved and animated appearance, 4/3 @& 3€q.; cock-_ fighting and_ football at, a. ; cheapness of E articles of commerce, 475, 476; intempe- rance of the natives, 476; the anthor’s recovery from a long illness, 477; mortality at, 479; funeral ceremonies at, 7b.; active preparations for leaving, 480; extensive trade carried on at, 482. Dodinga, village of, 313; Portu- guese fort at, 314. Dogs, their voracity, 467, 468. Doleschall, Dr., in Amboyna, 291; his collection of flies and butter- flies, 293, 294. Dorey, harbour and village of, 496; inhabitants of, 497 ; house-build- at, 497, 498; bird-shooting at, 499 ; the country round about, 501; the author’s protracted sick- ness at, 503, 504; rudimental art and butterflies of, 510; numerous INDEX. Durian and Mangusteen fruit, 53; and Durien, 74, 75; the Durian tree, 75; richness and excellency of, 75; dangerous when it falls from the trees, 75, 76, Dutch, in Malacca, 27; in J ava, 94, 95; excellency of their colonial government (see Java); paternal despotism, 254, 255; the cultiva- tion system, 256; female labour, 257; their influence established in the Malay seas, 308; their praiseworthy efforts to improve the Amboynese of the Malay Archipelago, 354, Dutch mail steamer, life on board, 99, Dyak house, 53; Dyak mode of climbing a tree, 54, 55; Dyak dogs, 56; Dyak accounts of the Mias, 59, 60 (sce Tabékan) ; agri- culture, &. 69, 7 1; houses, bridges, &c. 77-79; the character of the race in its relations to kindred ones, 88; higher in mental capacity than the Malays, %.; amusements of the young, 89; Moral character, ib.; the Nile Dyaks never go to sea, 7b.; head- hunting, 7b.; truthfulness of, 90; honesty, temperance, &c., ib. : checks of population, 90, 91 ; hard work of the women, 92; and idle- ness of the men, 7b.; benefits arising from the government of Sir James Brooke, 92-94. E. Earl, Mr. George Windsor, his paper and pamphlet on the “ Physical Geography of South-Eastern Asia and Australia,” 9, Earthquakes at Ternate, 310. Eclectus grandis, 324, Elephants in Malacca, 33. Klephomia, of New Guinea, differ- ent species, 502, 503. Empugnan, a2 Malay yill e, 65 (see Tabokan), 7, 4 i Entomological specimens, 924, Erythrina, 479, 641 Eucalypti, common tree of Timor, 8 Eurystomus azureus, 330. F. Fauna, of the Moluccas, 395 ef seq. , of the Papuan group, 579, 580. Ferns, rare, on Mount Ophir, 31; collection of, in Borneo, 81; tree fern, plate of, 83; collection of, 85 ; immense number and variety of, 115, 116'; elegant one dis- covered at Ceram, 356. Fire produced by friction, 325. Fishes, tame, at Gunong Sari, 172 (see Shells), Flies, at Dorey, tormented byy? 512. Flores, island of, 4; no forest in, 8. Flowers (see Vegetation and Plants), in Borneo, 81, 82. . Flying-fish, 413. Foot-ball at Dobbo, 474. Forest desert at Ceram, 357. Forest trees (with plate), 81-84; forest “instinct,” 268, 269; of im- mense size, 341, 342. Forests, unexplored, 314, 315 ; of Ceram, 356. Frog, tree, or Flying, in Borneo (with plete), 38, 39, Fruits of the Malay Archipelago tasteless and uneatable, 369, Fruit-trees at Ternate, 307, Funnell, Sir William, his account of Amboyna in the year 1705, 293. G. Gah vocabulary, 607. Galapagos islands, peculiar produc- tions of, 10. Galéla men, 325; from Gilolo, 331. Galéla vocabulary, 606. Gamelang, a native band, 103, Gani-diluar, village of, 542; repairs and provisions obtained there, 542-544, Gani men, their knowledge of the coast, 544, Gani vocabulary, 606. Gaper, blue-billed, 28; green, <5. ee a 642 Garo, an attendant boy, 318. Geach, Mr., an English mining engineer at Delli, 188 ; his dis- heartening report respecting the supposed copper mines, 192, 194. Geoffroyus cyanicollis, 330. Geological contrasts, 3, 4; discoveries and teachings with respect to changes in the distribution of land and water, and forms of life, 10, 1k Geology, lessons taught by, 571. Gilolo, island of, 4; mountainous coast of, 304, 305 ; physical aspect of, 305; visit to the island of, 311, 313; characteristics of the slaves, 311; volcanic appearances at, 317; map of, 688; island of, 539; earthquake on the coast of, 70. Glacial period, 119, 120. Goa, visit to the Rajah of, 214; the Rajah, 70. ; a feast with bad coffee, 214; fever in the Rajah’s terri- tory, %b.; collections in, 216, 217; an intrusion, 217; the Rajah at’a cock-fight,219; his daughters, ib.; house-hunting, 920,..42215 sickness at, 222; the village, 20.; and people, 223; the author a terror to men and beasts, 228 ; house-building, 224; preference for erooked timber, 70. Goldmann, Mr., son of the Governor of the Moluccas, 263, 264. Goram, islands of, 363 ; map of the, 364; return to, 3/0; coral rocks surrounding, 2b. ; geological specu- lations on, 371; the inhabitants a race of traders, 10.; their chief trade, ib.; poverty of the rajahs, 372; difficulties with the work- men of, 373; departure from, 300; trade of, 376. Goram prau, its mode of sailing, 409. Goram vocabulary, 607. Grammatophylum, a gigantic or- chid, 139. Grasshopper, great-shielded, of New Guinea, 576, 578. “ Gubbong,” the palm, 159. Gudong, a Malay village, 64; con- duct of the women on seeing a European, 65 (see Jahi). INDEX. Guebé, island of, 538, 539. Guinea, New, Volcanic action, &e. in, 7; a forest country, 8; resem- blance to Australia, &c. 13; to Borneo, 16. eri in Lombock, 168- 170. Gunong Prau, extensive ruins of, in Java, 106. ek Sari, excursion to, 172, 173. . Gusti Gadioca, a chief of Tomhock, 168; his feast, 170; and rece} tion, 171. iH. Haan, De, Dutch entomologist, 130. Halcyon saurophaga, 521. Har, village of, 417. Hart, Captain, an English resident ; at Delli, 188. . Hawk-tribe, the, in Celebes, 272. Helix pyrostoma, 316. Henicophaps albifrons, 536. Hestia durvillei, 429. Himalayas, the, in miniature, in Borneo, 71, 72. Honeysuckers, 14, 28. . Hooker, Dr., his “Flora Indica,” 138)", : Hornbills, in Sumatra, 136, 137 5. in Celebes, 2738. | Hoya, village of, 358. Humboldt Bay, 508; tants, 7b. : / Huxley, Professor, on the crania of different races, 599. | its inhabi- natural history oF 138-140 mammalia in, 140; monkey tribes, 140, 141; carnivora, 141; i. animals, 7b.; birds, &c. 143, 144 see Animals, distribution of). Insect pests, 467. INDEX Insects at the Simunjon coal works, 36, 37; in Timor, 189, 190; ants, 218; successful collection of, 232, 233, 240, 261; in Celebes, 278 ; comparison of, with other dis- tricts, 279-284; in Amboyna, 295 ; collecting of, 323; astonish- ment of the natives on observing, ab.; scarcity. of, 339, 340 ; great variety of, 346; of the Moluccas, 401, 402; beauty and numbers of, 2b.; bargaining for, with tobacco, 422; irritation caused by, 462; the pests of the tropical forests, 463 ; curious ones at Dorey, 502; of New Guinea, 510, 578, 579, Instinct, failure of, 477, 478. Interior of the island of Amboyna, beauty of scenery, &c. 295 ; even- ing occupation, 296; specimens in, 297, 298. Ireland, New, 3. Irrigation in Lombock, 164. Island, how to determine whether it has ever been connected with any continent, 187. Islands of the Malay Archipelago, extent and variety of, 2; divisible into two portions, 2, 3; definition and boundaries of, 3; size of several of the largest islands, 7b. J. Jackass, laughing, of Australia, 157. Jahi, a Borneo village, 65 (see Em- pugnan). Japan, sketches of the plants of, 294 Java, island of, 3, 5; forty-five vol- canoes in, 6; a forest country, 8; birds and insects peculiar to, 12, 13; residence in, 94; excellency of the Dutch system of govern- ment, 94, 95; the culture System, 95-97; the native chiefs and the people, 96, 97; increase of popu- lation, 97, 98; Java probably the finest tropical island in the world, 98, 99; its history and civiliza- tion, 99; its ancient Brahminical religion, and conversion to Ma- hometanism, 40, (sce Sourabaya) ; 6438 Journey in the interior of, 100; ruins in, 101, 104, 105; a Java- hese trial and chief, 109; collec- tions at Wonosalem and Djapan- nan, 110 (see Vegetation, und Glacial Period), Javanese, the, 21. Javanese vocabulary, 604. Jesuits, French, am ang the Chinese, 22, 23; thoroughness of their work, 23; their great success, wb.; economy and seif-denial, w.; a missionary friend of the author, 7d. Jobie, large island of, 374, 506. Johnson, Mr., his account of a Mias, 63 “Jong,” legend of, in Aru, 461, Jumaat, death of, 508. Jungle, thorny, 158. Jungle cocks, the origin of all our domestic breeds of poultry, 158. Jungle fowl] in Java, 108, K. Kaida Islands, 321, 322|; inhabi- tants of, 324; a mixed race, 7. ; fruits and other products of, 324, 325; village of, 545. Kaida Islands vocabulary, 606. Kakas, village of, 258. Kallima paralekta, butterfly, 130. Kanary tree, 342. Kasserota, village of, visit to, deter- mined on, 338, 339; difficulties of the journey to, 339 et Seq. Kayan river, in Borneo, 71. Ké Islands, 7, 9, 414 ; landing at, 414; natives of the, 415, 416; habitations of the, 417, 418; ex- plorations in the, 418; immense pigeons of the, zd.; trade and pro- ducts of the, 419; boat-building of the, 419-421; magnificent forests of, 420; money unknown to, 422; mode of bargaining, 7. ; collections at the, 425; inhabited by two kinds of people, 2b.; com trast of character between these people and the Malays, 426 ; language of the ‘people, ib. ; mountainous character of the, vb. ; map of, 442, a a 644 Ké Islands vocabulary, 607. Ké Islanders, a wonderful race of boat-builders, 371. Kediri, ruins of, 106. Keffing, island of, 362. Kema vocabulary, 605. Kiiwaru, little town of, 362; a place of great traffic, 25. ; island of, 375, 376; metropolis of the Bugis traders, 376. King-bird of Paradise, 443; its - beautiful plumage, 443, 444; Te- flections on the, 445; its habits, 445, 446. Kingfishers, 28, 157, 263; a rare specimen, 297-299 ; of the Mo- luccas, 396, 397; of New Guinea, 576. Kissa-laut, long delay at, 361. Klings, of India, in Singapore, 20. Kobror, map of, 442; visited by the natives of, 465. Kora-kora, a boat by which the return to Ternate is effected, 347 ; passengers and accommodations in the, 347, 848; a snake on board, 348. Kwammer, island of, 362. A Lahagi, a native of Ternate, 318. Lahi, a native of Gilolo, 318. Laiemu, village of, 360. Language, curious jumble of, in Malacca, 27. Languages of the races of man in the Malay Archipelago, 599; vocabularies of, 602; list of voca- bularies collected, 604. Langundi, village of, 340, 341; ten days’ residence at, 342. Lansats, fruit, in Sarawak, 84. Lariki, Asilulu, and Wakasiho vo- cabularies, 606. Latchi, a pilot, 318. Law or no law? 439. Leaf-like butterfly, repose, 131. Leeches, forest, in Malacca, 30. Legendary lore, 468-470. Lempias, village of, in Celebes, 263 (see Licoupang). in flight and INDEX. Lemur, flying, in Sumatra, 135; nature of, 2b. Liang vocabulary, 606. Licoupang, village of, in Celebes, 263 (see Maleos). Liliacez, in the forests of Ké, 423. - Linschott, his description of Ma- — lacea, 270 years ago, 26; his account of the Durian fruit, 74. Lizards, immense variety in the Aru Islands, 433. Lobo Raman, village of, 125. Lomaptera, species of, 324. Lomaptera papua, 424. : Lombock, island of, 3, 397; no@ ‘forest in, 8; resemblance to © Australia, 13 (see Bali and Binds), 152; collecting at, under diffi- culties, 159; manners and customs of the people, 163; excursion into the interior, 7b.; irrigation, &c. — 164; punishment of theft and — adultery, 178, 174; jealousy, 2. ; (see Trade). Longicorns, numerous species dis- — covered, 37, 323, 330 ; specimens of, 401. “ Lories, scarcity of in Ceram, 359. Lorius garrulus, 330. Lorok, village of, 124. Luzon, island of, 3. Lycocorax, of the Moluccas, 396. Lycocorax morotensis, 318. Lyell, Sir Charles, his explanation of the means of dispersal of natural productions, 11. M. Macassar, in the island of Celebes, 211; the first Dutch town visited by the author, 212; descriptior of the town, 212, 213; j tempt to collect at, 213; removes to Goa (which see), 229 (see Maros); the rainy season at, 403 trade of, with the Aru Islands, 404; departure from, 405, 408 diary of the voyage, 408 et seg.; re-arrival at, after the return from. Aru, 482. Macassar cargoes, value of, 481. Macassar vocabulary, 604. INDEX. Mace procured from New Guinea, 308. Madagascar, island of, and Africa, marked difference between the productions of, 11. Madeira beetles, 346. Magindano pirates, 341, Makariki, visit to, 355. Makian, island of, 4, 320 ; volcanic eruptions in, 5; voleano of, 27 1.; visit to, 18; coast of, 243. Mahometan priest at Dobbo,. 479. Mahometans in Singapore, 20; of Ceram, 352; of the Ké Islands, 425. Malacca, and Mount Ophir, 25; description of the town, &c., 70.; description of, by Linschott, 270 years ago, 26; present position of the trade of, 27; population, curious character of, and of the language, 27; the works and birds of, 28; elephants in, 33. Malang, ruins of, in J ava, 106. Malay anchor, 543. Malay Archipelago, 304 et seg.; the author’s views as to the races of man in the, 582 et seq.; two strongly contrasted races, the Malays and the Papuans, 582 (sce Malays and Papuans); an indi- genous race in the island of Ceram, 588; tribes of the island of Timor, 7b.; the black woolly- haired races of the Philippines and the Malay peninsula, 590; general view as to their origin and affinities, 590, 591; the Poly- nesian races, 591, 592'; on the crania and the races of man in the, 599, 600. | Malay peninsula, non-volcanie, 7. _ Malay race of Ternate, 310. Malay vocabulary, 604, Malays; a peculiarly interestin grace, found only in the Malay Archi- pelago, 1, 2; villages, &c., des- troyed by volcanoes, 5-7; in Singapore, 20; a Malay Governor aud house, 64 (see Gudong) ; Malay villages, 125 ; of Batchian, 331; different from the Papuans, 415; contrast between the, 417; contrast of character with the, 645 425, psychology of the, 434; widely separated from the Pa- puans, 435; of the Malay Archi- pelago, 582; the most important of the races, 7d.; their physical and mental characteristics, 70. ; different tribes, 583; the savage Malays, tb.; personal character- istics, 7b.; impassive character of, 584; different accounts of them, 585; on the crania and languages of the, 599, 600. Maleos, singular birds, in Celebes, 263 ; description of the birds, 265; and eggs, 265, 266; their breeding- place, 302. Mammalia, or warm-blooded quad- rupeds of the Indo-Malay Islands, 146; of the Timor group, 208; of Celebes, 275; of the Moluccas, 391; of New Guinea, 575. Mangusteen fruit (see Durian), in Sarawak, 84, 138. Manipa, island of, 390. Manowolko, the largest of the Goram group, 863; map of, 364; de- scription of, 365; people and races of, 7b.; return to, 370. Mansinam, island of, 494, 496. Manuel, a Portuguese bird-skinner, engaged by the author, 155; his philosophy, 160-162. Mareh, island of, 320. Maros river, 228; falls of the river, 234; precipices, 236; absence of flowers, 237; drought followed by a deluge of rain, 239 ; effects of, 240 (see Menado), Marsupials in the Malay Archi. pelago, 9; of Celebes, 278; of the Moluccas, 393; of the Papuan Isiands, 575. Massaratty vocabulary, 605, Matabello Islands, 365; dangers of the voyage to, 366; trade of, 367; cocoa-nut trees of, : 7b: s,:vil- lages of, 373, 374 ; savage life of, 374; palm-wine one of the few luxuries of, 368; wild fruits of, 369; strange ideas of the people respecting the Russian war 7b. - their extravagant notions of the Turks, 2d, Matabello vocabulary, 607. 646 Mataram, capital of Lombock, 163, fais and boxes of the Aru Islands, manent ancient, in Java, 103, % Max Havelaar,” story of the Dutch auctions, &c. in the colonies, 97. ~ Maykor, map of, 442; river of, 485. Megachile pluto, 346. Megamendong mountain, road over, 112; a residence on, 113; collec- tions on, and in the neighbour- hood of, 113-121. Megapodide, the, a small family of birds, peculiar to Australia, and to surrounding islands, 156. Megapodii of the Moluccas, 397. Megapodius, the mound-maker bird, 324, Megapodius wallacei, a new species of birds, 397. Melaleuca cajuputi, 384. Menado, in Celebes, 241, 390 ; prettiness of, 241; in the dis- trict Minahasa, 2b. ; pure race, &c., of, 242; the inhabitants recently savages, 242, 243; induced to cultivate the coffee-plant, 243; pretty villages of, 244; a native house, 244, 245 (see Rurukan). Menado vocabulary, 605. Menyerry, a Malay village, 72. Mesman, Mr., a Dutch gentleman in Celebes, 212; his farm and premises, 227 ; Macassar farming, 92,7, 228; brother of, 228 ; planta- tion and country life, 229 ; hospi- tality of, 231, 232. Mesmon Islands, 514; sketch map of the, 538. Mias, native name for the Orang- utan, and so called in this work, 40; the author’s first introduction to, ib.; the“first shot by him, 2. ; strength of a wounded mias, 40, 41; a mias pelting its enemies from the tree tops, 41; the first capture of a full-grown mias, a female (now in the Derby Mu- seum), with plate, 41; capture of an infant mias, 42; its infantine attraction to a beard, 26.; its INDEX. nursing-cradle, washing, and — ech 42, 43; a substitute or a mother, 43, 44 ; spoon-meat, 44; a hare-lip monkey for a com- panion, 44, 45; baby-like appear- ance of the mias, 45,; cutting its teeth, 46; death, 7b.; a mias hunt, 46, 47; capture of a very large animal, 48; size and proportions of, 49; skeleton in Derby Mu- seum, 7b.; a mias” attacked by natives, 7b.; other captures, 50; wounded mias making a nest in the trees, 50, 51; its death and dried remains, 51; mode of walk- ing over the tree tops, 52'; capture of, at Semabang, the specimen now in the British Museum, 53, — 54; the mias throwing down branches, 56; preparing the skins and skeletons, 56,57; the author's last capture, 57; the orang dis- trict, Borneo and Sumatra, 4b. ; habits of, and nature of country inhabited by, 57, 58; singular method of making its way through the forest, 58, 59; his nest for the night, 59; his time of rising | in the morning, 7.; full-grown animals seldom seen in company, 60; food of, ib.; the mias rarely seen on the ground, 7b.; the only two animals it is attacked by, the python and the crocodile, 61; his superiority to both, 7b.; size of the large mias, 62; various accounts of, 62-64; in Sumatra, 134. Microglossum aterrimum, 448. Microscope, astonishment of the na- tives on viewing objects through the, 344. | Millepedes, 467. Mimeta bouruensis, 400; Mimet forsteni, 399. . Mimicry among birds, 399. Minahasa, map of (see Menado), 246 ; natives of, 262. Mindanao, natives of, 392. Missionaries, 494; traders at Mansi nam, 495. Modjokerto, a town in Java, 100 the village-green, and tree, 2. Modjo-pahit, ruins of the ancien’ INDEX. city of, in Java, 101; admirable brickwork in, 7b.; ancient bas- relief, 7b.; presented to the author, 102. Mohnike, Dr., in Amboyna, 291; his collection of beetles, &c. 294, Molucca Sea, its aspects, 483. Moluccan hornbill, 357. Moluccas, the, 7; a forest coun- try, 8, 304 et seq.; final departure from, 390; natural history of the, 391 et seg.; consist of three large islands, 391; their extent and geographical position, 43, ; mammalia, or warm - blooded quadrupeds of the, 7. et seq.; fauna of the, 395, 396]; especially rich in the parrot tribe, 396; most curious groups of birds, 397 et seq.; the cassowary, 398; cases of “mimicry,” 399; insects of the, 401 et seg. ; luxuriance and beauty of animal life in the forests, 402. Monarcha chrysomela, 436. Monarcha loricata, 391. Monarcha telescopthalma, 436. Monkeys, 14; a hare-lipped mon- key, in company with a young orang-utan, 44, 45; abundance and variety of, on the banks of the Simunjon river, 52; in Su- matra, 133, 134. | Monsoon, south-east, in the Malay Archipelago, 8; in the Banda Sea, 36]. Morella and Mamalla vocabularies, 606. Morty, island of, 4, 317, 396. Mosquitoes, 467. Moths, in Borneo, 85; plentifulness of, on the mountains of Sarawak, 86; mode of seeking them, 7d.; list of captures in different kinds of weather, 86; observations on modes of capture, 86, 87. Motir, island of, 320. Mountain plants, 340. “Muck, running a,” curious custom in Lombock, 175. Muka, village of, 523; description of, 524; hut erected at, 525 ; aurora borealis seen at, 528; the people live in abject poverty, 529 ; 647 under the rule of the Sultan of Tidore, 530; destitute of the necessaries or comforts of life, 7b.; the author half-starved while there, 7b.; departure from, 7b. Muntok, the chief town of Banea, 121. Museum, British, specimen of mias in, 54 Museum, Derby, specimen. of mias in, 41, 49, 56. Mysol, map of, 514. Mysol vocabulary, 607. N. Natural history of the Moluccas, 391 et seq. Naturalist, pleasures of the, 232, 233. Nectarinea auriceps, 330. Nectarinea proserpina, 391. Negritos, a distinct race from the Malay, 591. New Guinea or Papua, dangers of trading with, 373; murders com- mitted there, 374, 375; Moluccan fauna derived from, 395, 396 : voyage to, 492, 493 et seq.; trading missionaries of, 494, 495 ; harbour and village of Dorey, 495, 496; the people of, 496, 497; coast and inland Papuans, 499; curious insects of, 502, 503; deer-flies of, 503; Arfak and Jobie, 505, 506; scarcity of Para- dise birds, 507; Humboldt Ba ; 508 ; plague of flies, 512; map of the west point of, 514; birds of, 569 ; with the islands joined to it constitute the Papuan group, 574; perhaps the largest island on the globe, 7d. ; mammalia of, 575; birds of, 576; insects of, 578; the largest islands to the east of, very little known, 579 ; fauna of, 7b.; exhibits a common origin with Australia, 580 ; plants of, 581 (see Papuan Islands), Neys, Mr., a native of Menado, 241. Nicobar pigeon, its beauty, 344, 345. 648 Nutmeg - trees, in Banda, 287 ; beauty of, 288; the nutmeg trade, 288, 289; the spice monopoly, 289. Nutmegs procured from New Guinea, 308. O. Oceanic races, natural division of the, 591. Oeassa, soap-springs of, 186; the inhabitants of, 186, 187. Ondor, the chief village of Goram, 370. Ophir, resolution to visit, 29; the voyage and journey to, 29, 30; the “Padang-batu,” or stone-field, 30; plants on, 31; the summit, 32; trees, foliage, and coffee for breakfast on, 1b.; the great Argus pheasant of, 33. Orang-Kaya, illness of the, 451. Orang Sirani, the name of the Christian descendants of the Por- tuguese, 311, 330. Orang-utan, 1; the great man-ape of Borneo, 39 (see Mias). Orang-Kaya, the rich man, or Chief of a Dyak tribe, 67. Orchids in. flower, 35, 82. Ornithoptera, butterflies, 1 ; of the Moluccas, 401. Ornithoptera Brookeana, named after Sir James Brooke, 37. Ornithoptera creesus, 236. Ornithoptera poseidon, its great beauty, 429. Ossong, village of, 361. Otters, 14, 39. Otto and Gesler, Messrs., trading missionaries, 494, 495. Owls, in Celebes, 272. P: Paciencia Straits, 554. Pacific, different races of the, 591, 59%; geographical dividing line, 593. Palembang, city of, 121, 122; boys, &c., of 123; road from to Ben- coolen, 70. INDEX. 5. Papers lost, 34. _ sugar, 230; a beautiful palm, 9. Poe on the Batchian coast, 341. . Pangerango and Gedeh mountains, trip to the summit of, 114. Panghu, 260; birds and insects in, 261. Papandayang volcano, eruption of, Fy Papilio coén, butterfly, 114, 129. Papilio gambrisius, 356. Papilio memnon, 128. Papilio ulysses, 329, 330. Papilio wallacei, 337. Papilios, fine specimens of, 354. Papua Kowiyee, bloodthirsty tribes of, 374. — . Papuan belles, personal ornaments of the, 465. Papuan Islands, natural history of the, 574 et seqg.; mammalia of the, 575; birds of the, 576 ¢¢ seq. ; geology of the, 577; insects of, 578; large islands to the east of New Guinea, 579; the fauna of, related to that of Australia, 580; . insects of, 2b.; plants of, 581. Papuan race in Ceram, 365. Papuans, the, 316, 317; first view of in their own country, 415; wild- ness of the, 415, 416; different from the Malays, 416; contrast of character with the Malays, 425; reserved and taciturn, 434; of the Malay Archipelago, 582; personal characteristics of the, 585; their stature, 586; their moral and in- tellectual characteristics, 586, 587; island of New Guinea, Ke and Aru Islands, Mysol, Salwatty, and Waigiou inhabited almost exclusively by, 589; closely allied to the negroes of Africa, 593; on the crania and languages of the, 599. Paradigalla carunculata, 569. Paradise birds, manner of shooting, 433; scarcity of in New Guinea, 507. Paradise pie of New Guinea, 569. Paradisea, obtained in full plumage, 463. INDEX. Paradisea regia, 444. Paradisea rubra at Waigiou, 526, 527; twenty-four fine specimens brought away, 636. Paradiseidee (see Birds of Paradise). Parroquet, long-tailed, 124. Parrots, 188 ; in Celebes, 272; of New Guinea, 577. Peacock, the Java, 107. Pearl shells, the chief staple of the Aru trade, 485. Pelah, bad account of, 386; journey to, 7. Penrissen Mountain, at the head of the Sarawak river, 72. Peters, Mr. of Awaiya, 353. Phalenopis grandiflora, 422. Pheasant, great Argus, country of, 33 Pheasants, in Sumatra and Borneo, 107 Philippine Islands, 4; active and extinct volcanoes in, 6, 8; black woolly races of the, 596. Phosphoric light, rushing streams of, 409, Physical geography (sce Archipe- lago). Pieris, genus, 356, Pig, wild, 14, 276. Pigs, their power of swimming, 393 Pigeons, fruit, 121; various, 156, 157; several species of, 186; of immense size, 418; of New Guinea, 576. Pin, a strange novelty to the na- tives, 388, 389. Pirates, on the Batchian coast, 341; Sir J. Brooke’s suppression of, on the coast of Borneo, 7d.; on the coast of Aru, 436; attack the om and murder the crews, 436, 43 Pitcher plant, on Mount Ophir, 31; water in, 32; the plant in Borneo, 81, 139. : Pitta genus, 390. Pitta celebensis, 390. Pitta gigas, a beautiful bird of Gilolo, 314. Plants, on Mount Ophir (Ferns and Pitcher Plants, see both), 31, 32; rhododendrons, 40. ; zingibera- 649 ceous plants, 33 (see Durian and Bamboo); on Pangerango moun- tain, 115-118; geographical distri- bution of, 187, 189 et seq.; dis- tribution of, in New Guinea, 278. Plough, a native, 225; ploughing, ab Plumage of Birds of Paradise, changes of, 556 et seq. Polynesia, an area of subsidence, 593, Polynesian races, 591, 592, 594; on the crania and languages of the, 599, 600. Pomali, or “taboo,” 196. Poppa, map of, 514; difficulties near the island of, 517 et seq. Portuguese, in Singapore, from Malacca, 20 ; in Malacca, 26; bad government of, in Timor, 196; expelled from Ternate by the Dutch, 308; truly wonderful conquerors and colonizers, 425. Pottery, carved tool for making, 509 Prau, native, of Macassar, 405, 406; the crew, 406, 410, 411; captain and owner of the, 411; dangerous defects of the, 412; comforts of the, 427, Primula imperialis in Java, 117. Productions, natural, contrasts of in the Malay Archipelago, 10; peculiarities of position in certain localities, 10, 11; natural means of dispersal of, 11’; a supposed case of natural dispersal, 16; an cxact parallel in the Malay Archi- pelago, 18. Ptilonopus pulchellus, 528, “lepapee superbus, and P. iogaster, 357. Ptiloris alberti, of N, Australia, 568. Pumbuckle chief, in Lombock, 166. R. Races, contrasts of, 19; two distinct, in the Archipelago, the Malays and Papuans, 19, 20, 582 et Seq. (see Malays and Papuans); opinions of Humboldt and Pritchard, 19 : 650 indigenous race in the island of Ceram, 588; the Timorese, 588, 589; the black woolly-haired races of the Philippinejand the Malay peninsula, 5389 ; ceneral view as to their origin and affini- ties, 590 et seg.; the black Poly- nesian races, 591 et seg.; general reflections on, 595 et seq.; on the crania and the languages of the, 599 et seq. Rafiles, Sir Stamford, his account of the ruins of Java, 104. Ratahan vocabulary, 605. Regent Bird of Australia, 569. Rhinoceros, in Malacca, 33. Rifle birds of Australia, 567, 568. Robberies at Batchian, 334. Rosenberg, Herr, 382; @ German naturalist, 505. Ross, Mr., an Englishman resident at Lombock, 165. Rotti vocabulary, 607 Rowan mountains, 72. Ruatan, a river of Ceram, difficulty of crossing, 2. Rurikan, village of, the highest in Minahasa, 245; coffee plantations, 947; hill vegetation, 247-249 (see Tondano) ; missionaries in, 253. Rusa hippelaphus of Java, 392. 355 ; S. Sago district of Kast Ceram, 377. Sago bread, mode of preparing the, 378; oven for baking, 380. Sago palm of Ceram, 377, 378; washing of, 379; conversion into food with little labour, 381. Sago trees, 359, 360; of the Ké Islands, 419. Sahoe, village of, 315, 316; the in- habitants distinct from the Malay races, 316. Sahoe vocabulary, 606. Salayer Straits, 409. Salayer vocabulary, 605. Salibabo Islands, vocabulary of the, 605. Salwatty, map of, 514; island of, 566. INDEX. Sandal wood, in Timor, 8, 199. Sanguir Island, 4. Sanguir Islands vocabulary, 605. Saparua vocabulary, 606. ia cher the, 263; description of, 276. Sarawak, 34; the author enter- tained at, by Sir James Brooke, 35;. gold-fields and coal-works, ib.; the Sadong river and its tributaries, 7b. ; head of the river of, 72; arrival at, from the in- terior, 74; government of, by Sir James Brooke, 92-94. Sardinia and Corsica, natural pro- ductions peculiar to, 10. Sassak vocabulary, 604. Sassaks, the, aborigines of Lom- bock, 173. Savu vocabulary, 607. Scorpions, 467. Screw pines on the Batchian coast, 3419 - Sea, contrasts in depths of, 9, 15. Sea Gipsies, vocabulary of the, 607. Seboran mountain, lower slopes of the, 71. Semabang, a trip to, 52; descrip- tion of, 53; a Dyak house, ab. Semioptera of the Moluccas, 396. Senankan, Malay village, 70. Senna, Malay village, character of the people, &c., 73, 74. Serpents, of immense size, 887, 388. Servants, the author deserted by his, 377. Serwatty Islands, 4. Sharks caught and cooked, 409. Shells and fish, an unrivalled col- lection of, 301. Siau vocabulary, 605. Sickness of the author and his men, 504, 507, 508. Silinta, in Mysol, 514, 515. Simia satyrus, 40. Simunjon river, 35; coal-works, 37 ; advantages of, good locality for insect collecting, 7b.; a trip up the river, 52; narrowness of the stream, 53; monkeyson the banks, ib.; arrival at Semabang, ib. Singapore, sketch of the town and island, 20; inhabitants a mixed race, 21; commerce of, 0b.; Chinese INDEX. in, 21, 22; Jesuit missionaries, 22; character of the island, &c., 24; tigers and tiger-pits, 7d. ; vegetation and insects, 24, 25. Skulls (see Crania). Slavery at Ternate, 311; abolition of, 312. Sleeping shed, 356. Snake on board, 348. Snakes, after rain, in Maros, 240 ; in Amboyna, 296. Soap-springs, in Oeassa, 186. Social position of England, 597; its evils, 7.; in a state of com- parative barbarism, 598. Sodos, Malay village, 73. Solomon Islands, 5. Solor vocabulary, 607. Sorong, in New Guinea, Mr. Allen’s voyage to, 570, 571; difficulties encountered at, 571; ruggedness of the country, 572, 573. Sourabaya, the chief town of East Java, 99. Spaniards, truly wonderful con- querors and colonizers, 425. Species, geographical distribation of, 488, 489, Spice, monopoly of the Dutch (see Nutmeg). Spice trade of the Moluccas, 308; enormous profits of the, 7d. Spice trees, district of the, 308. Spiders, 467; immense variety of, in the Aru Islands, 432. Springs, hot, of Celebes, 259, Squirrels, 14; in Borneo, 39; tame ones in the village of Palem- bang, 123. f St. John, Mr., account of a mias, 62. Sugar-palm (with plate), 230; drink made from, 231. Sula fiber, 413. Sula Islands, 389; vocabulary of the, 605. Sumatra, in the line of the volcanic belt, 4,5; volcanoes in, 6 ; a forest country, 7, 8; the orang confined to, and to Borneo, 57; pheasants in, 108; villages of, 125, 126. Sumbawa, island of, 5; no forest in, 8 651 fi ) Tabokan, a Malay village, 65; as- sembling of men and boys to look at the author, 66; dress, &c. of, %b.’; portrait of a Dyak youth, vb.; a visit from the “ Orang- Kaya,” or rich man of the tribe, 67; sports of, 7b. (see Borotdi). Tamilan, village of, 358. Tanakaki, island of, 408. Tanysiptera, the genus, 457. Tanysiptera acis, 391. Tanysiptera doris, 317, Tanysiptera isis, 330. Teluti, village of, 358, 359. Teluti and Hoya vocabularies, 607. Teor, island of, 366, 413. Teor vocabulary, 607. Ternate, island of, 4; arrival at, 304; mountains of, 305; town of, 16.; letter of introduction to Mr. Duivenboden, known as _ the King of, 2b.; the author’s resj- dence at, 306; mountain of, 307; fruit-trees at, 7b.; fort of, 2. ; palace of the Sultan, 7d. ; power and magnificence of the ancient sultans, 808; spice trade of, 308, 3809; destruction of the spice trees of, 308; influence of the Dutch established at, 2d. ; earthquakes at, 309, 310; the inhabitants are of three well-marked races; 310, 311; slavery at, abolished, 312; return to, in a kora-kora, 347; arrival at, 349; poverty of, in articles used by Europeans, 492; sketch map of, 538; voyage to from Waigiou, 537; difficulties of the voyage, 541, 545 et seq. Ternate vocabulary, 606. Leto vocabulary, 607. Therates labiata, 424, Thieving, trial and punishment for, 440, Thrushes, fruit, 14, 15 ; leaf, 15; ground, 157; beauty of, 7d. Tides, curious phenomena attend- ing, 539, 540. Tidore, island of, 4; voleanic cone of, 304; village of, 320; Sultan . of, 580. Tidore vocabulary, 606. 652 Tiger, in Singapore, 24; traps for, and dinners of, 7b.; in Malacca, $3; tiger-cats in Borneo, 393 a tiger-hunt, 107, 108. Timor, volcano in, 6; no forest in, 8; common trees of, 1b.; extent, &e. of, 184 (see Coupang and Delli); mountains of, 194, 195; value of the island, 197, 198; races of, 588, 589; races of. the islands west of, 589. Timor group of islands, natural history of, 202; birds in, 203- 206; fauna, 207, 208 ; mammalia, 208-210. Timor vocabulary, 607. Tobacco, exchanged for insects, 422. Tobo, village of, 360. Todiramphus diops, 337. Tomboro, volcano of, 5; great eruption of, 70. Tomohon vocabulary, 605. Tomoré, colony from, 331; people of East Celebes, 389, 390. Tomoré vocabulary, 605. Tondano, village of, in Celebes, 222; waterfall at, 252; from Tondano to Kakos (which see). Tower, Mr., an Englishman resi- dent in Menado, 241. Trade, in Lombock, 175, 176 (see Census) ; the magic that keeps all at peace, 439, 440; very consider- able at Dobbo, 481, 482. [ree, large, at Modjokerto, in Java, 100. Tree ferns, of immense size, 435. T'ree-kangaroos, 506. Tricondyla aptera, 424, 425. Tripang, produce of, 376. Trogons, 15, 16. Tropidorhynchi of the Moluccas, strong and active birds, 400, 401. Tropidorhynchus bouruensis, 399; T, subcornutus, 400. Tropidorhynchus fuscicapillus, 317. Turks, extravagant ideas of, enter- tained by the Malay Archipela- gans, 369, 370. U. Untowan mountains, 72. Uta, island of, 366, 367. INDEX. V. Vaiqueno vocabulary, 607. Vanda lowii, the plant, in Borneo, 82. Vegetation, contrasts of, in the Malay Archipelago, 8; Europeans in Java, 118; in Timor, 198, 199; in Celebes, 248. Villages of the Sumatran Malays, 428 pretty villages in Celebes, Violets, &c. in Java, 118. Viverra tangalunga, 392. Viverra zebetha, 338. Vocabularies, list of, collected, 604. Volcanic and non-volcanic islands, contrasts of, 3-6; volcanic helt, course and extent of, 5, 7, 18. Volcanoes, 3-7; mud, 259; view of the volcano at Bali, 286, 287; in Amboyna, 293; of the Malay Islands, 320; elevation and de- pression of the land arising from, 322 323. Vorkai river, 485. Vorkay, map of, 442. W. Wahai, village of, 361; arrival at, 382. Wahai vocabulary, 607. Waidono, district chief in Java, 102. Waigiou, island of, 7; voyage from Ceram to, 513; map of, 514; difficulties of approaching, 522 ; lost servants recovered, 524; arrival at, 525; birds of Paradise at, 527; inclement weather at, 528; the inhabitants a mixed race, 7b.; their language eutirely Papuan, 529; collections obtained in, 536; voyage from to Ternate, 537 et seg.; sketch map of the voyage, 538; difficulties of the voyage, 541, 545 ef seq. Wamma, village of, 429. Wangi-wangi, island of, 409. Wanumbai, village of, 453; lodgings at, 454, 455; savage in- habitants of, 456; inquisitiveness of the natives, 459 et seg.; legend respecting, 468; the author's INDEX. mysterious character, 470; war among the natives, 471; departure from, 472; the people perfect Savages, 481. Warus-warus, village of, 377 ; the country around, 381. Warzbergen, Capt. Herr, obtains a house for the author, 428. Watelai Channel, 452, 453. Watelai River, 484. Water, scarcity of, 520. Wayapo, village of, 386. Wayapo vocabulary, 605. Waypoti, locality of, 386, 387; the author’s house at, 388; ignorance of the natives, 390. Weapons of war, 471. Western Islands, resemblance to Asia, 13. 653 Wokan, island of, 435; map of, 442, Wonosalem, road to, 103; position of, 107; noted for its peacocks, 2b.; collections in, 110. Wood-boring insects, 478, Woodpeckers, 15, 16, 273. Words, nine, selections of in fifty- nine languages, 608, 609. Words, one hundred and seventeen, in thirty-three languages, 610- 628. Z. Zingiberaceous plants, 33. Zollinger, the Dutch naturalist, his account of the island of [ali, 202. THE END, LONDON: RICHARD CLAY & SONS, PRINTERS, % aeott * &! 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