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MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.

VOL. I.

ORANG UTAN ATTACKED BY DYAKS,

THE

MALAY ARCHIPELAGO:

THE LAND OF THE
ORANG-UTAN, AND THE BIRD OF PARADISE.

A NARRATIVE OF TRAVEL,

WITH STUDIES OF MAN AND NATURE.

BY
ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE,

“TRAVELS ON THE AMAZON AND RIO NEGRO,” “‘ PALM TREES OF THE AMAZON,” ETC

BAM Mo IN TWO VOLS.—VOL. I.

> Ae

London :
MACMILLAN AND CO.
1869.

[The Right of Translation and Reproduction is reserved. ]

LONDON :

R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRIN‘?!

TO
CHARLES DARWIN,
AUTHOR OF “THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES,”
4 Dedicate this Book,
NOT ONLY
AS A TOKEN OF PERSONAL ESTEEM AND FRIENDSHIP
BUT ALSO
TO EXPRESS MY DEEP ADMIRATION
FOR

His Genins and bis Works.

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M" WALLACES ROUTES.

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MWillare® routin shown ith ———— MT Allens routes shown thica Active Voleanves shown thin

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PREFACE.

Y readers will naturally ask why I have delayed

writing this book for six years after my return ;

and I feel bound to give them full satisfaction on this
point.

When I reached England in the spring of 1862, I found
myself surrounded by a room full of packing-cases, con-
taining the collections that I had from time to time sent
home for my private use. These comprised nearly three
thousand bird-skins, of about a thousand species ; and at
least twenty thousand beetles and butterflies, of about
seven thousand species; besides some quadrupeds and
land-shells. A large proportion of these I had not seen
for years; and in my then weak state of health, the
unpacking, sorting, and arranging of such a mass of

specimens occupied a long time.

viii PREFACE.

I very soon decided, that until I had done something
towards naming and describing the most important groups
in my collection, and had worked out some of the more
interesting problems of variation and geographical distri-
bution, of which I had had glimpses while collecting them,
I would not attempt to publish my travels. I could,
indeed, at once have printed my notes and journals,
leaving all reference to questions of natural history for a
future work; but I felt that this would be as unsatis-
factory to myself, as it would be disanponitine to my
friends, and uninstructive to the public.

Since my return, up to this date, I have published
eighteen papers, in the Transactions or Proceedings of the
Linnean Zoological and Entomological Societies, describing
or cataloguing portions of my collections ; besides twelve
others in various scientific periodicals, on more general
subjects connected with them.

Nearly two thousand of my Coleoptera, and many
hundreds of my butterflies, have been already described
by various eminent naturalists, British and foreign ; but
a much larger number remains undescribed. Among those

to whom science is most indebted for this laborious work,

Lea

PREFACE. ix

I must name Mr. F. P. Pascoe, late President of the Ento-
mological Society of London, who has almost completed
the classification and description of my large collection of

Longicorn beetles (now in his possession), comprising more

_ than a thousand species, of which at least nine hundred were

previously undescribed, and new to European cabinets.

The remaining orders of insects, comprising probably
more than two thousand species, are in the collection of
Mr. William Wilson Saunders, who has caused the larger
portion of them to be deseribed by good entomologists.
The Hymenoptera alone amounted to more than nine
hundred species, among which were two hundred and
eighty different kinds of ants, of which two hundred
were new.

The six years’ delay in publishing my travels thus
enables me to give, what I hope may be an interesting
and instructive sketch of the main results yet arrived at
by the study of my collections; and as the countries I

have to describe are not much visited or written about,

and their social and physical conditions are not liable to

rapid change, I believe and hope that my readers will gain

much more than they will lose, by not having read my
-b

x PREFACE.

book six years ago, and by this time perhaps forgotten all
about it.

I must now say a few words on the plan of my work.

My journeys to the various islands were regulated by
the seasons and the means of conveyance. I visited some
islands two or three times at distant intervals, and in
some cases had to make the same voyage four times over.
A chronological arrangement would have puzzled my
readers. They would never have known where they were ;
and my frequent references to the groups of islands,
classed in accordance with the peculiarities of their
animal productions and of their human _ inhabitants,
would have been hardly intelligible. I have adopted,
therefore, a geographical, zoological, and ethnological
arrangement, passing from island to island in what seems
the most natural succession; while I transeress the order
in which I myself visited them as little as possible.

I divide the Archipelago into five groups of islands,
as follow :—

I. Toe Inpo-Matay IsLanps: comprising the Malay

Peninsula and Singapore, Borneo, Java, and

Sumatra.

PREFACE. x1

Il. Tue Timor Group: comprising the islands of

eT:

Timor, Flores, Sumbawa, and Lombock, with

several smaller ones.

CELEBES: comprising also the Sula Islands and

‘Bouton.

IV. THE Motuccan Group: comprising Bouru, Ceram,

Batchian, Gilolo, and Morty; with the smaller
islands of Ternate, Tidore, Makian, Kaiéa, Am-

boyna, Banda, Goram, and Matabello.

V. THE Papuan Group: comprising the great island

of New Guinea, with the Aru Islands, Mysol,

Salwatty, Waigiou, and several others. The Ké

_ Islands are described with this. group on account

of their ethnology, though zoologically and geo-

graphically they belong to the Moluccas.

The chapters relating to the separate islands of each

of these groups are followed by one on the Natural His-

tory of that group; and the work may thus be divided

into five parts, each treating of one of the natural

divisions of the Archipelago.

The first chapter is an introductory one, on the Physical

b2

xii PREFACE.

Geography of the whole region; and the last is a general
sketch of the Races of Man in the Archipelago and the
surrounding countries. With this explanation, and a
reference to the Maps which illustrate the work, I trust
that my readers will always know where they are, and in
what direction they are going,

I am well aware that my book is far too small for
the extent of the subjects it touches upon. It is a mere
sketch ; but so far as it goes I have endeavoured to make
it an accurate one. Almost the whole of the narrative and
descriptive portions. were written on the spot, and have
had little more than verbal alterations. The chapters on
Natural History, as well as many passages in other parts
of the work, have been written in the hope of exciting an
interest in the various questions connected with the origin
of species and their geographical distribution. In some
cases I have been able to explain my views in detail;
while in others, owing to the greater complexity of the
subject, I have thought it better to confine myself to a
statement of the more interesting facts of the problem,
whose solution is to be found in the principles developed

by Mr. Darwin in his various works. The numerous Illus-

PREFACE. xiii

trations will, it is believed, add much to the interest and
value of the book. They have been made from my own
sketches, from photographs, or from specimens; and such
subjects only have been chosen as would really illustrate
the narrative or the descriptions.

I have to thank Messrs. Walter and Henry Woodbury,
whose acquaintance I had the pleasure of making in
Java, for a number of photographs of scenery and of
natives, which have been of the greatest assistance to me.
Mr. William Wilson Saunders has kindly allowed me to
figure the curious horned flies; and to Mr. Pascoe I
am indebted for a loan of two of the very rare Longicorns
which: appear in the plate of Bornean beetles. All the
other specimens figured are in my own collection.

As the main object of all my journeys was to obtain
specimens of natural history, both for my private collec-
tion and to supply duplicates to museums and amateurs, I
will give a general statement of the number of specimens
I collected, and which reached home in good condition. I
must premise that I generally employed one or two,:and
sometimes three Malay servants to assist me;. and for

nearly half the time had the services of an English lad,

xiv PREFACE.

Charles Allen, I was just eight years away from England,
but as I travelled about fourteen thousand miles within
the Archipelago, and made sixty or seventy separate
journeys, each involving some preparation and loss of
time, I do not think that more than six years were really
occupied in collecting.

I find that my Eastern collections amounted to:

310 specimens of Mammalia.

100 — Reptiles.
8,050 _— Birds.
7,500 — Shells.
13,100 — Lepidoptera.
83,200 — Coleoptera.
13,400 — other Insects.

125,660 specimens of natural history.

It now only remains for me to thank all those friends
to whom I am indebted for assistance or information. My
thanks are more especially due to the Council of the Royal
Geographical Society, through whose valuable recommen-
dations I obtained important aid from our own Govern-
ment and from that of Holland; and to Mr. William
Wilson Saunders, whose kind and liberal encouragement

in the early portion of my journey was of great service to

PREFACE. XV

me. I am also greatly indebted to Mr. Samuel Stevens
(who acted as my agent), both for the care he took of my
collections, and for the untiring assiduity with which he
kept me supplied, both with useful information, and with
whatever necessaries I required.

I trust that these, and all other friends who have been
in any way interested in my travels and collections, may
derive from the perusal of my book, some faint reflexion
of the pleasures 1 myself enjoyed amid the scenes

and objects it describes.

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CONTE NES:

FIRST VOLUME.

CHAP,

I,

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

INDO-MALAY ISLANDS.

. SINGAPORE . : ;

. Matacca AND Mount one

. BornEo—THE ORANG-UTAN

. BornEO—JOURNEY IN THE INTERIOR
. BornrEo—THE Dyaxks

. JAVA .

. SUMATRA. 5 :
. NATURAL HIsToRY OF THE info- are fetes F

THE TIMOR GROUP.

. Bant AND LoMBOCK . A

. LompocK—MANNERS AND Gusroua, Maer
. Lompock—How THE RAJAH TOOK THE CENSUS
. Timor. 5 Ue whe

. NATURAL ee OF THE inon ante

PAGE

Xviil CONTENTS.

THE CELEBES GROUP.

CHAP.

XV. CELEBES—MACASSAR .

XVI. CELEBES—MACASSAR .
XVII. CELEBES—MENADO Galt
XVIII. Narurat History oF CELEBES .

THE MOLUCCAS.

XIX. BANDA
XX. AMBOYNA

PAGE

del
358
378
424

448
458

CHAP.

CONTENTS. xix

SECOND VOLUME.

THE MOLUCCAS.

SOT ES UROL TNG 2 cforms Ome NR DI Oa CRC oie ape aes 1
XXII. Gmoto .. . ae gas - aces uh) SL:
XXIII. VoyacE TO THE en fava AND Hincaa sca ste aoe
XXIV. BATCHIAN ..... So bay SNe
XXV. CERAM, GORAM, ANU THE Ae Budto Istanns 4.” “73
XXVI. Bourvu .. . A 5 sth illo PON eee, Sue
XXVII. Toe NATURAL Bide OF THE teaeneuns pod icin SN LS ie.
THE PAPUAN GROUP.

XXVIII. Macassar To THE Aru IsLANDS IN A NATIVE Prav 157
OMX. Toe Ke Isianps'> . % «1... altro te’ arte mat eM LZ /(6
XXX. Tue Aru IsLAnps—RESIDENCE IN aes LU ease LNG)
XXXI. Tur Aru IsLANDS—JOURNEY AND LESS IN THE

TNTERIOR) | [00s oe co ens re pee ee Ps)

XXXII. Tot Aru IstANnps—SEcOND Ratan IN Deus o) PAT

XXXIII. Tur Aru IstANDS—PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ASPECTS

ORV NATURE: ciency Cr oecntat lial eee POO

XXXIV. New GuinzA—DorEY .. . Ty a eee te LOD,
XXXYV. VoyAGE FROM CERAM TO Wauehane Met dP tea) Od
ROXOVIE NVATGIOUS "3.0 7z tn tn Mase fy MH US RIS BAe
XXXVII. Vorace From Wariciou TO TERNATE . . .. . . 368
XXXVIII. THE Brrps oF PARADISE. . . ae ee OOTY
XXXIX. Naturat History oF THE Aisi ridin ae eee
XL. THE Races oF MAn IN THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO . 489
APPENDIX on CRANIA AND LANGUAGES ...... . . 465
INDEX . 503

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

VOLUME I.

DRAWN ON WOOD BY PAGE
1. Orang-Utan attacked by Dyaks . Wor . Frontispiece
2. Rare Ferns on Mount Ophir. (From specimens) Fircu . 48
_ 3. Remarkable Bornean Beetles. ROBINSON . 58
4, F lying Frog. (From a drawing by the Aation KEULEMANS . 60
5. Female Orang-utan. (From a photograph by
Woodbury) . Mes Ce ae) ee OUR 64
6. Portrait of a Dyak Youth. (From sketch and
photographs) . Mis: =) op. cog PANN 104
7. Dyak Suspension-bridge. (From a sketch by
the Autfior)s. <3 -.. > eens Fircu 123
8. Vanda Lowii. (From specimens) eo er 128
9. Remarkable Forest-trees. (From a sketch by
the Author) . : Fircu 130
10. Ancient Bas-relief. (From a specimen in
possession of the Author) . . Bares. 159
11. Portrait of a Javanese Chief. (From a photo-
graph) : BAINEs . E 171
12, The Calliper Butterfly (Chara aes Kadenii) T. W. Woop. . 178
13. Primula imperialis. (From specimens) Fircn . 183
14, Chief’s House and Rice-shed in a Sumatran
Village. (From a photograph) ROBINSON . 196
15. Females of Papilio memnon . RoBINSON . 200
16. Papilio Coén . ; : Ropinson. . . 201
17. Leaf-butterfly in flight cae repose . T. W. Woop . 204
18. Female Hornbill and young bird . TT. W. Woop . 212
19. Grammatophyllum, a gigantic Orchid. (From
a sketch by the Author) . Firce . 216

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

DRAWN ON WOOD BY

20. Gun-boring in Lombock. (From a sketch by

GHERAULNOT)\c.1 yrs cen Moy a 2» 4 14 “BAINES
21. Timor Men. (From a Piosaney . . . BAINES
22. Native Plough and Yoke, Macassar. (From

a sketch by the Author) . . . BAINES
23. Sugar Palms. (From a sketch by the yor es FircH . .
24, Skull of the Babirusa . . . ROBINSON .
25. Peculiar form of Wings of Celebes Butterflies WALLACE .
26. Ejecting an Intruder . . . . . - . «+ BAINES
27. Racquet-tailed Kingfisher. . . . . .. . Ropinson .

MAPS.

Map showing Mr. Wallace’s. Route (tinted)

The British Isles and Borneo on the same scale .
Physical Map (tinted) .

Map of Minahasa, North Celebes

Map of Amboyna

Xxi

PAGE

. 265
. 305

. 358
. 361
. 434
. 441
. 467
. 468

Preface

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

ie
18.

9:
20.
21.
22.
23.
_ 24.

DO oo tT

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

VOLUME II.

Natives shooting the Great Bird of Paradise .
“Wallace’s Standard Wane a new Bird of

Paradise .
Sago Club . Jae RS Pec
Sago-washing in Ceram. (From a sketch by
the Author) . crag 0
Sago Oven. (From a sketch by a 4 hue)

Cuscus Ornatus, a Moluccan Marsupial

Moluccan Beetles

Great Black Cockatoo .

Dobbo in the Trading Season on a -) stch
by the Author) .

Male Brenthide fighting .

Papuan, New Guinea . 5

Papuan Pipe. (From a sketch by y the Aigior

Horned Flies . oo :

Clay-beater, used in New ive

The Red Bird of Paradise . :

My house at Bessir, Waigiou. (from a deta
by the Author) . aes

Malay Anchor. (From a nee by the Asaton

The “ Twelve-wired” and the “ King” Birds
of Paradise . ;

The Magnificent Bird of Par nie :

The Superb Bird of Paradise .

The Six-shafted Bird of Paradise

The Long-tailed Bird of Paradise

The Great Shielded Grasshopper

Papuan Charm

DRAWN ON WOOD BY

PAGE

T. W. Woop. Front.

KEULEMANS .

BAINES.

BAINES.
BAINES.
RoBINSON .
ROBINSON .

T. W. Woop .

BAINEs.
ROBINSON .
BAINES.
BAINES.
ROBINSON .
ROBINSON .

T. W. Woop .

BAINES.
BAINES.

KEULEMANS .
KEULEMANS .
KEULEMANS .
KEULEMANS .
KEULEMANS .

ROBINSON .
ROBINSON .

Bev lals)

41

. 119
. 120
. ies
. 154
. 228

. 267
ey iil
. 806
. 310
. 314
. 324
. 303

. 360
. 377

. 387
. 404
. 406
. 408
. 415
. 484
. 446

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Xxill

MAPS.
PAGE
Amboyna, with parts of Bouruand Ceram . . . . . . . . . 74
The Islands between Ceramand Ké ......... 2. =. 95
Woyacedrom Ceram to Walgiou; =. : . - «. . 2 = = . « 832
Voyage from Waigiou to Ternate . . . . . . . ... . . 369
INSTRUCTIONS TO THE BINDER.
Route Map (tinted blue) . . . . . . . . at beginning of Preface.
Physical Map . .. . ee tem Ge agg. 14. Volar.
Orang-Utan attacked by Dy ike ie cee en roueespiece. 4. 45
Remarkable Beetles, Borneo. . . . . . to face paged58&. ,, 5,
Hjecting an Intruder . . . . : % aA Hus ea ie
_ Natives shooting the Great Bird of ae ade . . Frontispiece. Vol. II.
Wallace’s Standard Wing, male and female . . to facepage4l. ,, ,,
Moluccan Beetles... 2 sh se hn ees % gaa sy ean
Dobbo in the Trading Season . . os , 267.~ BS

The “Twelve-wired” and the “ oe % Birds of (to face short age
BLISC) cn S5) 2) Js Lore toMy» (Of Chap mexvail:

THE SIX-SHAFTED BIRD OF PARADISE. (Parotia sexpennis.)

THE

MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.

CHAPTER I.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

F we look at a globe or a map of the Eastern hemi-
sphere, we shall perceive between Asia and Australia

a number of large and small islands, forming a connected
group distinct from those great masses of land, and having
little connexion with either of them. Situated upon the
Equator, and bathed by the tepid water of the great tropical
oceans, this region enjoys a climate more uniformly hot and
moist than almost any other part of the globe, and teems
with natural productions which are elsewhere unknown.
The richest of fruits and the most precious of spices are
here indigenous. It produces the giant flowers of the
Rafflesia, the great green-winged Ornithoptera (princes
among the butterfly tribes), the man-like Orang-Utan, and
the gorgeous Birds of Paradise. It is inhabited by a
peculiar and interesting race of mankind—the Malay,

VOL. I. B

2 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [CHAP. I.

found nowhere beyond the limits of this insular tract,
which has hence been named the Malay Archipelago.

To the ordinary Englishman this is perhaps the least
known part of the globe. Our possessions in it are few
and scanty ; scarcely any of our travellers go to explore it;
and in many collections of maps it is almost ignored,
being divided between Asia and the Pacific Islands. It
thus happens that few persons realize that, as a whole, it
is comparable with the primary divisions of the globe, and
that some of its separate islands are larger than France
or the Austrian empire. The traveller, however, soon
acquires different ideas. He sails for days, or even for
weeks, along the shores of one of these great islands, often
so great that its inhabitants believe it to be a vast con-
tinent. He finds that voyages among these islands are
commonly reckoned by weeks and months, and that their
several inhabitants are often as little known to each other
as are the native races of the northern to those of the
southern continent of America. He soon comes to look
upon this region as one apart from the rest of the world,
with its own races of men and its own aspects of nature ;
with its own ideas, feelings, customs, and modes of speech,
and with a climate, vegetation, and animated life altogether
peculiar to itself.

From many points of view these islands form one

compact geographical whole, and as such they have always

CHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GHOGRAPHY. 3

been treated by travellers and men of science; but a more
eareful and detailed study of them under various aspects,
reveals the unexpected fact that they are divisible into
two portions nearly equal in extent, which widely differ
in their natural products, and really form parts of two
of the primary divisions of the earth. I have been able
to prove this in considerable detail by my observations on
the natural history of the various parts of the Archipelago;
and as in the description of my travels and residence in
the several islands I shall have to refer continually to this
view, and adduce facts in support of it, I have thought it
advisable to commence with a general sketch of such of
- the main features of the Malayan region as will render
the facts hereafter brought forward more interesting, and
their bearing on the general question more easily under-
stood. I proceed, therefore, to sketch the limits and
extent of the Archipelago, and to point out the more
striking features of its geology, physical geography,
vegetation, and animal life.

Definition and Boundaries.—For reasons which depend
mainly on the distribution of animal life, I consider the
Malay Archipelago to include the Malay Peninsula as far
as Tenasserim, and the Nicobar Islands on the west, the
Philippines on the north, and the Solomon Islands beyond
New Guinea, on the east. All the great islands included
within these limits are connected together by innumerable

B2

4 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [CHAP. I.

smaller ones, so that no one of them seems to be dis-
tinctly separated from the rest. With but few exceptions,
all enjoy an uniform and very similar climate, and are
covered with a luxuriant forest vegetation. Whether we
study their form and distribution on maps, or actually
travel from island to island, our first impression will be
that they form a connected whole, all the parts of which
are intimately related to each other.

Extent of the Archipelago and Islands.—The Malay
Archipelago extends for more than 4,000 miles in length
from east to west, and is about 1,300 in breadth from
north to south. It would stretch over an expanse equal to
that of all Europe from the extreme west far into Central °
Asia, or would cover the widest parts of South America,
and extend far beyond the land into the Pacific and
Atlantic oceans. It includes three islands larger than
Great Britain; and in one of them, Borneo, the whole of
the British Isles might be set down, and would be sur-
rounded by a sea of forests. New Guinea, though less
compact in shape, is probably larger than Borneo. Sumatra
is about equal in extent to Great Britain; Java, Luzon,
and Celebes are each about the size of Ireland. Eighteen
more islands are, on the average, as large as Jamaica;
more than a hundred are as large as the Isle of Wight;
while the isles and islets of smaller size are innumerable.

The absolute extent of land in the Archipelago is not

CHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GHOGRAPHY. 5)

greater than that contained by Western Europe from
Hungary to Spain ; but, owing to the manner in which the

land is broken up and divided, the variety of its produc-

THE BRITISH ISLES AND BORNEO ON THE SAME SCALE.

tions is rather in proportion to the immense surface over
which the islands are spread, than to the quantity of land
which they contain,

6 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [CHAP. I.

Geological Contrasts—One of the chief volcanic belts
upon the globe passes through the Archipelago, and pro-
duces a striking contrast in the scenery of the volcanic
and non-volcanic islands. A curving line, marked out
by scores of active and hundreds of extinct volcanoes,
may be traced through the whole length of Sumatra and
Java, and thence by the islands of Bali, Lombock, Sum-
bawa, Flores, the Serwatty Islands, Banda, Amboyna,
Batchian, Makian, Tidore, Ternate, and Gilolo, to Morty
Island. Here there is a slight but well-marked break, or
shift, of about 200 miles to the westward, where the
volcanic belt again begins, in North Celebes, and passes
by Siau and Sanguir to the Philippine Islands, along the
eastern side of which it continues, in a curving line, to
their northern extremity. From the extreme eastern bend
of this belt at Banda, we pass onwards for 1,000 miles
over a non-volcanic district to the volcanoes observed by
Dampier, in 1699, on the north-eastern coast of New
Guinea, and can there trace another volcanic belt, through
New Britain, New Ireland, and the Solomon Islands, to
the eastern limits of the Archipelago.

In the whole region occupied by this vast line of volca-
noes, and for a considerable breadth on each side of it,
earthquakes are of continual recurrence, slight shocks being
felt at intervals of every few weeks or months, while more

severe ones, shaking down whole villages, and doing more

CHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GHOGRAPHY. 7

or less injury to life and property, are sure to happen, in
one part or another of this district, almost every year. In
many of the islands the years of the great earthquakes form
the chronological epochs of the native inhabitants, by the
aid of which the ages of their children are remembered,
and the dates of many important events are determined.

I can only briefly allude to the many fearful eruptions
that have taken place in this region. In the amount of
injury to life and property, and in the magnitude of their
effects, they have not been surpassed by any upon record.
Forty villages were destroyed by the eruption of Papanda-
yang in Java, in 1772, when the whole mountain was blown
up by repeated explosions, and a large lake left in its place.
By the great eruption of Tomboro in Sumbawa, in 1815,
12,000 people were destroyed, and the ashes darkened the
air and fell thickly upon the earth and sea for 300 miles
round. Even quite recently, since I quitted the country,
a mountain which had been quiescent for more than 200
years suddenly burst into activity. The island of Makian,
one of the Moluccas, was rent open in 1646 by a violent
eruption, which left a huge chasm on one side, extending
into the heart of the mountain. It was, when I last
visited it, in 1860, clothed with vegetation to the summit,
and contained twelve populous Malay villages. On the
29th of December, 1862, after 215 years of perfect in-

action, it again suddenly burst forth, blowing up and com-

8 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [CHAP. 1.

pletely altering the appearance of the mountain, destroying
the greater part of the inhabitants, and sending forth such
volumes of ashes as to darken the air at Ternate, forty
miles off, and to almost entirely destroy the growing crops
on that and the surrounding islands.

The island of Java contains more volcanoes, active and
extinct, than any other known district of equal extent.
They are about forty-five in number, and many of them
exhibit most beautiful examples of the volcanic cone on a
large scale, single or double, with entire or truncated
summits, and averaging 10,000 feet high.

It is now well ascertained that almost all volcanoes
have been slowly built up by the accumulation of matter
—mud, ashes, and lava—ejected by themselves. The
openings or craters, however, frequently shift their posi-
tion; so that a country may be covered with a more or
less irregular series of hills in chains and masses, only
here and there rising into lofty cones, and yet the whole
may be produced by true volcanic action. In this manner
the greater part of Java has been formed. There has been
some elevation, especially on the south coast, where ex-
tensive cliffs of coral limestone are found; and there may
be a substratum of older stratified rocks; but still essentially
Java is voleanic; and that noble and fertile island—the
very garden of the East, and perhaps upon the whole the
richest, the best cultivated, and the best governed tropical

CHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 9

island in the world — owes its very existence to the same
intense volcanic activity which still occasionally devastates
its surface.

The great island of Sumatra exhibits in proportion to
its extent a much smaller number of volcanoes, and a
considerable portion of it has probably a non-volcanic
origin.

To the eastward, the long string of islands from Java,
passing by the north of Timor and away to Banda, are
probably all due to volcanic action. Timor itself consists
of ancient stratified rocks, but is said to have one volcano
near its centre.

Going northward, Amboyna, a part of Bouru, and the
west end of Ceram, the north part of Guilolo, and all the
small islands around it, the northern extremity of Celebes,
and the islands of Siau and Sanguir, are wholly volcanic.
The Philippine Archipelago contains many active and
extinct volcanoes, and has probably been reduced to its
present fragmentary condition by subsidences attending
on volcanic action.

All along this great line of volcanoes are to be found
more or less palpable signs of upheaval and depres-
sion of land. The range of islands south of Sumatra, a
part of the south coast of Java and of the islands east of
it, the west and east end of Timor, portions of all the
Moluccas, the Ké and Aru Islands, Waigiou, and the

10 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [CHAP. 1.

whole south and east of Gilolo, consist in a great measure
of upraised coral-rock, exactly corresponding to that now
forming in the adjacent seas. In many places I have
observed the unaltered surfaces of the elevated reefs, with
great masses of coral standing up in their natural position,
and hundreds of shells so fresh-looking that it was hard
to believe that they had been more than a few years out
of the water; and, in fact, it is very probable that such
changes have occurred within a few centuries.

The united lengths of these volcanic belts is about
ninety degrees, or one-fourth of the entire circumference of
the globe. Their width is about fifty miles; but, for a
space of two hundred on each side of them, evidences of
subterranean action are to be found in recently elevated
coral-rock, or in barrier coral-reefs, indicating recent sub-
mergence. In the very centre or focus of the great curve
of volcanoes is placed the large island of Borneo, in which
no sign of recent volcanic action has yet been observed,
and where earthquakes, so characteristic of the surround-
ing regions, are entirely unknown. The equally large
island of New Guinea occupies another quiescent area, on
which no sign of volcanic action has yet been discovered.
With the exception of the eastern end of its northern
peninsula, the large and curiously-shaped island of Celebes
is also entirely free from volcanoes; and there is some

reason to believe that the volcanic portion has once formed

cuapP. I.] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 11

a separate island. The Malay Peninsula is also non-
volcanic.

The first and most obvious division of the Archipelago
would therefore be into quiescent and volcanic regions,
and it might, perhaps, be expected that such a division
would correspond to some differences in the character of
the vegetation and the forms of life. This is the case,
however, to a very limited extent; and we shall presently
see that, although this development of subterranean fires
is on so vast a scale,—has piled up chains of mountains
ten or twelve thousand feet high—has broken up conti-
nents and raised up islands from the ocean,—yet it has
all the character of a recent action, which has not yet
succeeded in obliterating the traces of a more ancient
distribution of land and water.

Contrasts of Vegetation—Placed immediately upon the
Equator and surrounded by extensive oceans, it is not
surprising that the various islands of the Archipelago
should be almost always clothed with a forest vegetation
from the level of the sea to the summits of the loftiest
mountains. This is the general rule. Sumatra, New
Guinea, Borneo, the Philippines and the Moluccas, and
the uncultivated parts of Java and Celebes, are all forest
countries, except a few small and unimportant tracts, due
perhaps, in some cases, to ancient cultivation or accidental

fires. To this, however, there is one important exception

re, THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [CHAP. 1.

in the island of Timor and all the smaller islands around
it, in which there is absolutely no forest such as exists in
the other islands, and this character extends in a lesser
degree to Flores, Sumbawa, Lombock, and Bali.

In Timor the most common trees are Eucalypti of
several species, so characteristic of Australia, with sandal-
wood, acacia, and other sorts in less abundance. These
are scattered over the country more or less thickly, but
never so as to deserve the name of a forest. Coarse and
scanty grasses grow beneath them on the more barren
hills, and a luxuriant herbage in the moister localities.
In the islands between Timor and Java there is often a
more thickly wooded country, abounding in thorny and
prickly trees. These seldom reach any great height, and
during the force of the dry season they almost completely
lose their leaves, allowing the ground beneath them to
be parched up, and contrasting strongly with the damp,
gloomy, ever-verdant forests of the other islands. This
peculiar character, which extends in a less degree to the
southern peninsula of Celebes and the east end of Java,
is most probably owing to the proximity of Australia.
The south-east monsoon, which lasts for about two-thirds
of the year (from March to November), blowing over the
northern parts of that country, produces a degree of heat
and dryness which assimilates the vegetation and physical
aspect of the adjacent islands to its own, A little further

CHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 13

eastward in Timor-laut and the Ké Islands, a moister
climate prevails, the south-east winds blowing from the
Pacific through Torres Straits and over the damp forests
of New Guinea, and as a consequence every rocky islet is
clothed with verdure to its very summit. Further west
again, as the same dry winds blow over a wider and
wider extent of ocean, they have time to absorb fresh
moisture, and we accordingly find the island of Java
possessing a less and less arid climate, till in the extreme
west near Batavia rain occurs more or less all the year
round, and the mountains are everywhere clothed with
forests of unexampled luxuriance.

Contrasts in Depth of Sea.—It was first pointed out by
Mr. George Windsor Earl, in a paper read before the Royal
Geographical Society in 1845, and subsequently in a
pamphlet “On the Physical Geography of South-Eastern
Asia and Australia,” dated 1855, that a shallow sea con-
nected the great islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo
with the Asiatic continent, with which their natural pro-
ductions generally agreed; while a similar shallow sea
connected New Guinea and some of the adjacent islands
to Australia, all being characterised by the presence of
marsupials.

We have here a clue to the most radical contrast in the
Archipelago, and by following it out in detail I have

arrived at the conclusion that we can draw a line among

14 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [cHapP. I.

the islands, which shall so divide them that one-half shall
truly belong to Asia, while the other shall no less certainly
be allied to Australia. I term these respectively the
Indo-Malayan, and the Austro-Malayan divisions of the
Archipelago. (See Physical Map.)

On referring to pages 12, 13, and 36 of Mr. Earl’s
pamphlet, it will be seen that he maintains the former
connexion of Asia and Australia as an important part of
his view, whereas I dwell mainly on their long continued
separation. Notwithstanding this and other important
differences between us, to him undoubtedly belongs the
merit of first indicating the division of the Archipelago
into an Australian and an Asiatic region, which it has
been my good fortune to establish by more detailed
observations.

Contrasts in Natural Productions—To understand the
importance of this class of facts, and its bearing upon
the former distribution of land and sea, it is necessary to
consider the results arrived at by geologists and naturalists
in other parts of the world.

It is now generally admitted that the present distribu-
tion of living things on the surface of the earth is mainly
the result of the last series of changes that it has under-
gone. Geology teaches us that the surface of the land
and the distribution of land and water is everywhere

slowly changing. It further teaches us that the forms

TTT

PHYSICAL MAP
al the
| MALAY ARCHIPELAGO
hy
Aired Mussel Wallace
1BG8

The Shallow Seu ta tightly tinted — The wecire Veleoanewe are shore hie The Voleanie: Cette are colored Rad, ——————
nae a i = ‘ Loudon, Macanithan & C2

a a |

CHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GHOGRAPHY. 15

of life which inhabit that surface have, during every
period of which we possess any record, been also slowly
changing.

It is not now necessary to say anything about how
either of those changes took place; as to that, opinions
may differ; but as to the fact that the changes themselves
have occurred, from the earliest geological ages down to
the present day, and are still going on, there is no dif-
ference of opinion. Every successive stratum of sedi-
mentary rock, sand, or gravel, is a proof that changes of
level have taken place ; and the different species of animals
and plants, whose remains are found in these deposits, —
prove that corresponding changes did occur in the organic
world.

Taking, therefore, these two series of changes for granted,
most of the present peculiarities and anomalies in the

distribution of species may be directly traced to them. In
- our own islands, with a very few trifling exceptions, every
quadruped, bird, reptile, insect, and plant, is found also
on the adjacent continent. In the small islands of Sar-
dinia and Corsica, there are some quadrupeds and insects,
and many plants, quite peculiar. In Ceylon, more closely
connected to India than Britain is to Europe, many
animals and plants are different from those found in India,
and peculiar to the island. In the Galapagos Islands,

almost every indigenous living thing is peculiar to them,

16 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [CHAP. I.

though closely resembling other kinds found in the nearest
parts of the American continent.

Most naturalists now admit that these facts can only
be explained by the greater or less lapse of time since
the islands were upraised from beneath the ocean, or were
separated from the nearest land ; and this will be generally
(though not always) indicated by the depth of the inter-
vening sea. The enormous thickness of many marine
deposits through wide areas shows that subsidence has
often continued (with intermitting periods of repose)
during epochs of immense duration. The depth of sea
_ produced by such subsidence will therefore generally be
a measure of time ; and in like manner the change which
organic forms have undergone is a measure of time.
When we make proper allowance for the continued in-
troduction of new animals and plants from surrounding
countries, by those natural means of dispersal which have
been so well explained by Sir Charles Lyell and Mr.
Darwin, it is remarkable how closely these two measures
correspond. Britain is separated from the continent by
a very shallow sea, and only in a very few cases have our
animals or plants begun to show a difference from the
corresponding continental species. Corsica and Sardinia,
divided from Italy by a much deeper sea, present a much
greater difference in their organic forms. Cuba, separated

from Yucatan by a wider and deeper strait, differs more

CHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 1h"

markedly, so that most of its productions are of distinct
and peculiar species; while Madagascar, divided from
Africa by a deep channel three hundred miles wide, pos-
sesses so many peculiar features as to indicate separation
at a very remote antiquity, or even to render it doubtful
whether the two countries have ever been absolutely
united.

Returning now to the Malay Archipelago, we find that
all the wide expanse of sea which divides Java, Sumatra,
and Borneo from each other, and from Malacca and Siam,
is so shallow that ships can anchor in any part of it, since
it rarely exceeds forty fathoms in depth; and if we go as
far as the line of a hundred fathoms, we shall include the
Philippine Islands and Bali, east of Java. If, therefore,
these islands have been separated from each other and
the continent by subsidence of the intervening tracts of
land, we should conclude that the separation has been
comparatively recent, since the depth to which the land
has subsided is so small. It is also to be remarked, that
the great chain of active volcanoes in Sumatra and Java
furnishes us with a sufficient cause for such subsidence,
since the enormous masses of matter they have thrown
out would take away the foundations of the surrounding
district; and this may be the true explanation of the
often-noticed fact, that volcanoes and volcanic chains are
always near the sea. The subsidence they produce around

VOL, I. C

18 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [CHAP. I.

them will, in time, make a sea, if one does not already
exist.

But it is when we examine the zoology of these countries
that we find what we most require—evidence of a very
striking character that these great islands must have once
formed a part of the continent, and could only have been
separated at a very recent geological epoch. The elephant
and tapir of Sumatra and Borneo, the rhinoceros of
Sumatra and the allied species of Java, the wild cattle
of Borneo and the kind long supposed to be peculiar to
Java, are now all known to inhabit some part or other
of Southern Asia. None of these large animals could
possibly have passed over the arms of the sea which now
separate these countries, and their presence plainly indi-
cates that a land communication must have -existed since
the origin of the species. Among the smaller mammals
a considerable portion are common to each island and the
continent ; but the vast physical changes that must have
occurred during the breaking up and subsidence of such
extensive regions have led to the extinction of some in
one or more of the islands, and in some cases there seems
also to have been time for a change of species to have
taken place. Birds and insects illustrate the same view,
for every family, and almost every genus of these
groups found in any of the islands, occurs also on the

Asiatic continent, and in a great number of cases the

CHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GHOGRAPHY. J)

species are exactly identical. Birds offer us one of the
best means of determining the law of distribution ; for
though at first sight it would appear that the watery
boundaries which keep out the land quadrupeds could be
easily passed over by birds, yet practically it is not so;
for if we leave out the aquatic tribes which are pre-
eminently wanderers, it is found that the others (and
especially the Passeres, or true perching-birds, which form
the vast majority) are generally as strictly limited by
straits and arms of the sea as are quadrupeds themselves.
As an instance, among the islands of which I am now
speaking, it is a remarkable fact that Java possesses
numerous birds which never pass over to Sumatra, though
they are separated by a strait only fifteen miles wide, and
with islands in mid-channel. Java, in fact, possesses more
birds and insects peculiar to itself than either Sumatra
or Borneo, and this would indicate that it was earliest
separated from the continent; next in organic indivi-
duality is Borneo, while Sumatra is so nearly identical
in all its animal forms with the peninsula of Malacca,
that we may safely conclude it to have been the most
recently dismembered island.

The general result therefore at which we arrive is, that
the great islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo resemble
in their natural productions the adjacent parts of the
continent, almost as much as such widely-separated

c 2

20 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [CHAP. I.

districts could be expected to do even if they still formed
a part of Asia; and this close resemblance, joined with
the fact of the wide extent of sea which separates them
being so uniformly and remarkably shallow, and lastly,
the existence of the extensive range of volcanoes in
Sumatra and Java, which have poured out vast quantities
of subterranean matter and have built up extensive
plateaux and lofty mountain ranges, thus furnishing a
vera causa for a parallel line of subsidence—all lead irre-
sistibly to the conclusion that at a very recent geological
epoch the continent of Asia extended far beyond its
present limits in a south-easterly direction, including the
islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, and probably reach-
ing as far as the present 100-fathom line of soundings.

The Philippine Islands agree in many respects with
Asia and the other islands, but present some anomalies,
which seem to indicate that they were separated at an
earlier period, and have since been subject to many
revolutions in their physical geography.

Turning our attention now to the remaining portion of
the Archipelago, we shall find that all the islands from
Celebes and Lombock eastward exhibit almost as close a
resemblance to Australia and New Guinea as the Western
Islands do to Asia. It is well known that the natural
productions of Australia differ from those of Asia more

than those of any of the four ancient quarters of the

CHAP. I. | PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 21

ho!

world differ from each other. Australia, in fact, stands
alone: it possesses no apes or monkeys, no cats or tigers,
wolves, bears, or hyenas; no deer or antelopes, sheep or
oxen; no elephant, horse, squirrel, or rabbit; none, in
short, of those familiar types of quadruped which are met
with in every other part of the world. Instead of these,
it has Marsupials only, kangaroos and opossums, wombats
and the duck-billed Platypus. In birds it is almost as
peculiar. It has no woodpeckers and no pheasants,
families which exist in every other part of the world; but
instead of them it has the mound-making brush-turkeys,
the honeysuckers, the cockatoos, and the brush-tongued
lories, which are found nowhere else upon.the globe. All
these striking peculiarities are found also in those islands
which form the Austro-Malayan division of the Archi-
pelago.

The great contrast between the two divisions of the
Archipelago is nowhere so abruptly exhibited as on pass-
ing from the island of Bali to that of Lombock, where the
two regions are in closest proximity. In Bali we have
barbets, fruit-thrushes, and woodpeckers ; on passing over
to Lombock these are seen no more, but we have abund-
ance of cockatoos, honeysuckers, and brush-turkeys, which
are equally unknown in Bali,! or any island further west.

1 | was informed, however, that there were a few cockatoos at one spot
on the west of Bali, showing that the intermingling of the productions of
these islands is now going on.

29 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [CHAP. I.

The strait is here fifteen miles wide, so that we may pass
in two hours from one great division of the earth to
another, differing as essentially in their animal life as
Europe does from America. If we travel from Java or
Borneo to Celebes or the Moluccas, the difference is still
more striking. In the first, the forests abound in monkeys
of many kinds, wild cats, deer, civets, and otters, and
numerous varieties of squirrels are constantly met with.
In the latter none of these occur; but the prehensile-
tailed Cuscus is almost the only terrestrial mammal seen,
except wild pigs, which are found in all the islands, and
deer (which have probably been recently introduced) in
Celebes and the Moluccas. The birds which are most
abundant in the Western Islands are woodpeckers, barbets,
trogons, fruit-thrushes, and leaf-thrushes: they are seen
daily, and form the great ornithological features of the
country. In the Eastern Islands these are absolutely
unknown, honeysuckers and small lories being the most
common birds; so that the naturalist feels himself in a
new world, and can hardly realize that he has passed from
the one region to the other in a few days, without ever
being out of sight of land.

The inference that we must draw from these facts is
undoubtedly, that the whole of the islands eastwards
beyond Java and Borneo do essentially form a part of

a former Australian or Pacific continent, although some

CHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 23

of them may never have been actually joined to it, This
continent must have been broken up not only before the
Western Islands were separated from Asia, but probably
before the extreme south-eastern portion of Asia was
raised above the waters of the ocean; for a great part of
the land of Borneo and Java is known to be geologically
of quite recent formation, while the very great difference
of species, and in many cases of genera also, between the
productions of the Eastern Malay Islands and Australia,
as well as the great depth of the sea now separating them,
all point to a comparatively long period of isolation.

It is interesting to observe among the islands them-
selves, how a shallow sea always intimates a recent land-
connexion. The Aru Islands, Mysol, and Waigiou, as
well as Jobie, agree with New Guinea in their species of
mammalia and birds much more closely than they do with
the Moluccas, and we find that they are all united to New
Guinea by a shallow sea. In fact, the 100-fathom line
round New Guinea marks out accurately the range of the
true Paradise birds.

It is further to be noted—and this is a very interesting
point in connexion with theories of the dependence of
special forms of life on external conditions—that this
division of the Archipelago into two regions characterised
by a striking diversity in their natural productions, does

not in any way correspond to the main physical or

24 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [CHAP. I.

climatal divisions of the surface. The great volcanic
chain runs through both parts, and appears to produce no
effect in assimilating their productions. Borneo closely
resembles New Guinea not only in its vast size and its
freedom from volcanoes, but in its variety of geological
structure, its uniformity of climate, and the general aspect
of the forest vegetation that clothes its surface. The
Moluccas are the counterpart of the Philippines in their
volcanic structure, their extreme fertility, their luxuriant
forests, and their frequent earthquakes ; and Bali with the
east end of Java has a climate almost as dry, and a soil
almost as arid as that of Timor. Yet between these cor-
responding groups of islands, constructed as it were after
the same pattern, subjected to the same climate, and
bathed by the same oceans, there exists the greatest pos-
sible contrast when we compare their animal productions,
Nowhere does the ancient doctrine—that differences or
similarities in the various forms of life that inhabit dif-
ferent countries are due to corresponding physical dif-
ferences or similarities in the countries themselves—meet
with so direct and palpable a contradiction. Borneo and
New Guinea, as alike physically as two distinct countries
can be, are zoologically wide as the poles asunder ; while
Australia, with its dry winds, its open plains, its stony
deserts, and its temperate climate, yet produces birds and
quadrupeds which are closely related to those inhabiting

CHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. D5

the hot damp luxuriant forests which everywhere clothe
the plains and mountains of New Guinea.

In order to illustrate more clearly the means by which
1 suppose this great contrast has been brought about, let
us consider what would occur if two strongly contrasted
divisions of the earth were, by natural means, brought
into proximity. No two parts of the world differ so
radically in their productions as Asia and Australia, but
the difference between Africa and South America is also
very great, and these two regions will well serve to illus-
trate the question we are considering. On the one side
we have baboons, lions, elephants, buffaloes, and giraffes ;
on the other spider-monkeys, pumas, tapirs, ant-eaters,
and sloths; while among birds, the hornbills, turacos,
orioles, and honeysuckers of Africa contrast strongly with
the toucans, macaws, chatterers, and humming-birds of
America.

Now let us endeavour to imagine (what it is very
probable may occur in future ages) that a slow upheaval
of the bed of the Atlantic should take place, while at the
same time earthquake-shocks and volcanic action on the
land should cause increased volumes of sediment to be
poured down by the rivers, so that the two continents
should gradually spread out by the addition of newly-
formed lands, and thus reduce the Atlantic which now

separates them to an arm of the sea a few hundred miles

26 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [CHAP. I.

wide. At the same time we may suppose islands to be
upheaved in mid-channel; and, as the subterranean forces
varied in intensity, and shifted their points of greatest
action, these islands would sometimes become connected
with the land on one side or other of the strait, and at
other times again be separated from it. Several islands
would at one time be joined together, at another would be
broken up again, till at last, after many long ages of such
intermittent action, we might have an irregular archipelago
of islands filling up the ocean channel of the Atlantic, in
whose appearance and arrangement we could discover
nothing to tell us which had been connected with Africa
and which with America. The animals and plants in-
habiting these islands would, however, certainly reveal
this portion of their former history. On those islands
which had ever formed a part of the South American
continent we should be sure to find such common birds
as chatterers and toucans and humming-birds, and some
of the peculiar American quadrupeds ; while on those
which had been separated from Africa, hornbills, orioles,
and honeysuckers would as certainly be found. Some
portion of the upraised land might at different times have
had a temporary connexion with both continents, and
would then contain a certain amount of mixture in its
living inhabitants. Such seems to have been the case
with the islands of Celebes and the Philippines. Other

CHAP. I.] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. a

islands, again, though in such close proximity as Bali and
Lombock, might each exhibit an almost unmixed sample
of the productions of the continents of which they had
directly or indirectly once formed a part.

In the Malay Archipelago we have, I believe, a case
exactly parallel to that which I have here supposed. We
have indications of a vast continent, with a peculiar fauna
and flora, having been gradually and irregularly broken
up; the island of Celebes probably marking its furthest
westward extension, beyond which was a wide ocean. At
the same time Asia appears to have been extending its
limits in a south-east direction, first in an unbroken mass,
then separated into islands as we now see it, and almost
coming into actual contact with the scattered fragments of
the great southern land.

From this outline of the subject, it will be evident how
important an adjunct Natural History is to Geology ; not
only in interpreting the fragments of extinct animals
found in the earth’s crust, but in determining past changes
in the surface which have left no geological record. It is
certainly a wonderful and unexpected fact, that an accurate
knowledge of the distribution of birds and insects should
enable us to map out lands and continents which dis-
appeared beneath the ocean long before the earliest tra-
ditions of the human race. Wherever the geologist can

explore the earth’s surface, he can read much of its past

28 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [CHAP. I.

history, and can determine approximately its latest move-
ments above and below the sea-level; but wherever oceans
and seas now extend, he can do nothing but speculate on
the very limited data afforded by the depth of the waters.
Here the naturalist steps in, and enables him to fill up this
great gap in the past history of the earth.

One of the chief objects of my travels was to obtain
evidence of this nature ; and my search after such evidence
has been rewarded by great success, so that I have been
enabled to trace out with some probability the past
changes which one of the most interesting parts of the
earth has undergone. It may be thought that the facts and
generalizations here given, would have been more appro-
priately placed at the end rather than at the beginning
of a narrative of the travels which supplied the facts. In
some cases this might be so, but I have found it impos-
sible to give such an account as I desire of the natural
history of the numerous islands and groups of islands in
the Archipelago, without constant reference to these gene-
ralizations which add so much to their interest. Having
given this general sketch of the subject, I shall be able to
show how the same principles can he applied to the
individual islands of a group as to the whole Archipelago ;
and make my account of the many new and curious
animals which. inhabit them both more interesting and

more instructive than if treated as mere isolated facts,

CHAP. 1.] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 29

Contrasts of Races.—Before I had arrived at the conviction
that the eastern and western halves of the Archipelago
belonged to distinct primary regions of the earth, I had
been led to group the natives of the Archipelago under
two radically distinct races. In this I differed from most
ethnologists who had before written on the subject; for
it had been the almost universal custom to follow William
von Humboldt and Pritchard, in classing all the Oceanic
races as modifications of one type. Observation soon
showed me, however, that Malays and Papuans differed
radically in every physical, mental, and moral character ;
and more detailed research, continued for eight years,
satisfied me that under these two forms, as types, the whole
of the peoples of the Malay Archipelago and Polynesia
could be classified. On drawing the line which separates
these races, it is found to come near to that which divides
the zoological regions, but somewhat eastward of it; a
circumstance which appears to me very significant of the
same causes having influenced the distribution of mankind
that have determined the range of other animal forms.

The reason why exactly the same line does not limit
both is sufficiently intelligible. Man has means of tra-
versing the sea which animals do not possess; and a
superior race has power to press out or assimilate an
inferior one. The maritime enterprise and higher civili-

zation of the Malay races have enabled them to overrun

30 THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. [CHAP. I.

a portion of the adjacent region, in which they have
entirely supplanted the indigenous inhabitants if it ever
possessed any; and to spread much of their language,
their domestic animals, and their customs far over the
Pacific, into islands where they have but slightly, or not
at all, modified the physical or moral characteristics of
the people.

I believe, therefore, that all the peoples of the various
islands can be grouped either with -the Malays or the
Papuans; and that these two have no traceable affinity
to each other. I believe, further, that all the races east of
the line I have drawn have more affinity for each other
than they have for any of the races west of that line ;—
that, in fact, the Asiatic races include the Malays, and all
have a continental origin, while the Pacific races, including
all to the east of the former (except perhaps some in the
Northern Pacific), are derived, not from any existing con-
tinent, but from lands which now exist or have recently
existed in the Pacific Ocean. These preliminary obser-
vations will enable the reader better to apprehend the
importance I attach to the details of physical form or
moral character, which I shall give in describing the

inhabitants of many of the islands.

se

wa 5

4.
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CHAPTER II.

SINGAPORE.

(A SKETCH OF THE TOWN AND ISLAND AS SEEN DURING SEVERAL VISITS
FROM 1854 To 1862.)

EW places are more interesting to a traveller from
Europe than the town and island of Singapore, fur-
nishing, as it does, examples of a variety of Eastern races,
and of many different religions and modes of life. The
government, the garrison, and the chief merchants are
English ; but the great mass of the population is Chinese,
including some of the wealthiest merchants, the agricul-
turists of the interior, and most of the mechanics and
labourers. The native Malays are usually fishermen and
boatmen, and they form the main body of the police. The
Portuguese of Malacca supply a large number of the clerks
and smaller merchants. The Klings of Western India are
a numerous body of Mahometans, and, with many Arabs,
are petty merchants and shopkeepers. The grooms and
washermen are all Bengalees, and there is a small but
highly respectable class of Parsee merchants. Besides

these, there are numbers of Javanese sailors and domestic

32 SINGAPORE. [CHAP. II.

servants, as well as traders from Celebes, Bali, and many
other islands of the Archipelago. The harbour is crowded
with men-of-war and trading vessels of many European
nations, and hundreds of Malay praus and Chinese junks,
from vessels of several hundred tons burthen down to little
fishing boats and passenger sampans; and the town com-
prises handsome public buildings and churches, Mahome-
tan mosques, Hindoo temples, Chinese joss-houses, good
European houses, massive warehouses, queer old Kling
and China bazaars, and long suburbs of Chinese and
Malay cottages.

By far the most conspicuous of the various kinds of
people in Singapore, and those which most attract the
stranger’s attention, are the Chinese, whose numbers and
incessant activity give the place very much the appearance
of a town in China. The Chinese merchant is generally
a fat round-faced man with an important and business-like
look. He wears the same style of clothing (loose white
smock, and blue or black trousers) as the meanest coolie,
but of finer materials, and is always clean and neat; and
his long tail tipped with red silk hangs down to his heels.
He has a handsome warehouse or shop in town and a good
house in the country. He keeps a fine horse and gig, and
every evening may be seen taking a drive bareheaded to
enjoy the cool breeze. He is rich, he owns several retail

shops and trading schooners, he lends money at high

CHAP. II.] THE CHINA BAZAAR. 33

interest and on good security, he makes hard bargains and
gets fatter and richer every year.

In the Chinese bazaar are hundreds of small shops in
which a miscellaneous collection of hardware and dry
goods are to be found, and where many things are sold
wonderfully cheap. You may buy gimlets at a penny
each, white cotton thread at four balls for a halfpenny
and penknives, corkscrews, gunpowder, writing-paper, and
many other articles as cheap or cheaper than you can
purchase them in England. The shopkeeper is very good-
natured ; he will show you everything he has, and does
not seem to mind if you buy nothing. He bates a little,
but not so much as the Klings, who almost always ask
twice what they are willing to take. If you buy a few
things of him, he will speak to you afterwards every time
you pass his shop, asking you to walk in and sit down, or
take a cup of tea, and you wonder how he can get a living
where so many sell the same trifling articles. The tailors
sit at a table, not on one; and both they and the shoe-
makers work well and cheaply. The barbers have plenty
to do, shaving heads and cleaning ears; for which latter
operation they have a great array of little tweezers, picks,
and brushes. In the outskirts of the town are scores of
carpenters and blacksmiths. The former seem chiefly to
make coffins and highly painted and decorated clothes-
boxes. The latter are mostly gun-makers, and bore the

VOL. I. D

34 SINGAPORE. [CHAP. IT.

barrels of guns by hand, out of solid bars of iron. At
this tedious operation they may be seen every day, and
they manage to finish off a gun with a flint lock very
handsomely. All about the streets are sellers of water,
vegetables, fruit, soup, and agar-agar (a jelly made of sea-
weed), who have many cries as unintelligible as those of
London. Others carry a portable cooking-apparatus on a
pole balanced by a table at the other end, and serve up
a meal of shell-fish, rice, and vegetables for two or three
halfpence ; while coolies and boatmen waiting to be hired
are everywhere to be met with.

In the interior of the island the Chinese cut down forest
trees in the jungle, and saw them up into planks; they
cultivate vegetables, which they bring to market; and
they grow pepper and gambir, which form important
articles of export. The French Jesuits have established
missions among these inland Chinese, which seem very
successful. I lived for several weeks at a time with the
missionary at Bukit-tima, about the centre of the island,
where a pretty church has been built and there are about
300 converts. While there, I met a missionary who had just
arrived from Tonquin, where he had been living for many
years. The Jesuits still do their work thoroughly as of old.
In Cochin China, Tonquin, and China, where all Christian
teachers are obliged to live in secret, and are liable to

persecution, expulsion, and sometimes death, every pro-

CHAP. 11.] JESUIT MISSIONARIES. 35

vince, even those farthest in the interior, has a permanent
Jesuit mission establishment, constantly kept up by fresh
aspirants, who are taught the languages of the countries
they are going to at Penang or Singapore. In China
there are said to be near a million converts ; im Tonquin
and Cochin China, more than half a million. One secret
of the success of these missions is the rigid economy
practised in the expenditure of the funds. A missionary
is allowed about 30/. a year, on which he lives in whatever
country he may be. This renders it possible to support a
large number of missionaries with very limited means ;
and the natives, seeing their teachers living in poverty
and with none of the luxuries of life, are convinced that
they are sincere in what they teach, and have really given
up home and friends and ease and safety, for the good of
others. No wonder they make converts, for it must be
a great blessing to the poor people among whom they
labour to have a man among them to whom they can go
in any trouble or distress, who will comfort and advise
them, who visits them in sickness, who relieves them in
want, and who they see living from day to day in danger
of persecution and death entirely for their sakes.

My friend at Bukit-tima was truly a father to his flock.
He preached to them in Chinese every Sunday, and had
evenings for discussion and conversation on religion during
the week. He hada school to teach their children. His

D2

36 SINGAPORE. [CHAP. II.

house was open to them day and night. Ifa man came to
him and said, “I have no rice for my family to eat to-
day,” he would give him half of what he had in the house,
however little that might be. If another said, “I have
no money to pay my debt,” he would give him half the
contents of his purse, were it his last dollar. So, when
he was himself in want, he would send to some of the
wealthiest among his flock, and say, “I have no rice in
the house,” or “I have given away my money, and am in
want of such and such articles.” The result was that his
flock trusted and loved him, for they felt sure that he was
their true friend, and had no ulterior designs in living

among them.

The island of Singapore consists of a multitude of small
hills, three or four hundred feet high, the summits of many
of which are still covered with virgin forest. The mission-
house at Bukit-tima was surrounded by several of these
wood-topped hills, which were much frequented by wood-
cutters and sawyers, and offered me an excellent collecting
ground for insects. Here and there, too, were tiger pits,
carefully covered over with sticks and leaves, and so well
concealed, that in several cases I had a narrow escape from
falling into them. They are shaped like an iron furnace,
wider at the bottom than the top, and are perhaps fifteen

or twenty feet deep, so that it would be almost impossible

CHAP. IT. ] TIGERS AND INSECT HUNTING. 37

for a person unassisted to get out of one. Formerly a
sharp stake was stuck erect in the bottom; but after an
unfortunate traveller had been killed by falling on one,
its use was forbidden. There are always a few tigers
roaming about Singapore, and they kill on an average a
Chinaman every day, principally those who work in the
gambir plantations, which are always made in newly-
cleared jungle. We heard a tiger roar once or twice in
the evening, and it was rather nervous work hunting for
insects among the fallen trunks and old sawpits, when one
of these savage animals might be lurking close by, waiting
an opportunity to spring upon us.

Several hours in the middle of every fine day were
spent in these patches of forest, which were delightfully
cool and shady by contrast with the bare open country
we had to walk over to reach them. The vegetation was
most luxuriant, comprising enormous forest trees, as well
as a variety of ferns, caladiums, and other undergrowth,
and abundance of climbing rattan palms. Insects were
exceedingly abundant and very interesting, and every day
furnished scores of new and curious forms. In about two
months I obtained no less than 700 species of beetles, a
large proportion of which were quite new, and among
them were 130 distinct kinds of the elegant Longicorns
(Cerambycide), so much esteemed by collectors. Almost

all these were coilected in one patch of jungle, not more

38 SINGAPORE. [oHap. 11.

than a square mile in extent, and in all my subsequent
travels in the East I rarely if ever met with so productive
a spot. This exceeding productiveness was due in part no
doubt to some favourable conditions in the soil, climate,
and vegetation, and to the season being very bright and
sunny, with sufficient showers to keep everything fresh.
But it was also in a great measure dependent, I feel sure,
on the labours of the Chinese wood-cutters. They had
been at work here for several years, and during all that
time had furnished a continual supply of dry and dead and
decaying leaves and bark, together with abundance of
wood and sawdust, for the nourishment of insects and
their larve. This had led to the assemblage of a great
variety of species in a limited space, and I was the first
naturalist who had come to reap the harvest they had
prepared. In the same place, and during my walks in
other directions, I obtained a fair collection of butter-
flies and of other orders of insects, so that on the whole
I was quite satisfied with these my first attempts to
gain a knowledge of the Natural History of the Malay
Archipelago.

CHAPTER III.

MALACCA AND MOUNT OPHIR.
(JULY TO SEPTEMBER, 1854.)

IRDS and most other kinds of animals being scarce at
Singapore, I left it in July for Malacca, where I spent
more than two months in the interior, and made an ex-
cursion to Mount Ophir. The old and picturesque town
of Malacca is crowded along the banks of the small river,
and consists of narrow streets of shops and dwelling-
houses, occupied by the descendants of the Portuguese,
and by Chinamen. In the suburbs are the houses of the
English officials and of a few Portuguese merchants,
embedded in groves of palms and fruit-trees, whose varied
and beautiful foliage furnishes a pleasing relief to the eye,
as well as most grateful shade.

The old fort, the large Government House, and the ruins
of a cathedral, attest the former wealth and importance
of this place, which was once as much the centre of
Eastern trade as Singapore is now. The following de-

scription of it by Linschott, who wrote two hundred and

40 MALACCA. [CHAP. III.

seventy years ago, strikingly exhibits the change it has
undergone :—

“ Malacca is inhabited by the Portuguese and by natives
of the country, called Malays. The Portuguese have here
a fortress, as at Mozambique, and there is no fortress in
all the Indies, after those of Mozambique and Ormuz,
where the captains perform their duty better than in this
one. This place is the market of all India, of China, of
the Moluccas, and of other islands round about, from all
which places, as well as from Banda, Java, Sumatra, Siam,
Pegu, Bengal, Coromandel, and India, arrive ships, which
come and go incessantly, charged with an infinity of
merchandises. There would be in this place a much
greater number of Portuguese if it were not for the in-
convenience, and unhealthiness of the air, which is hurtful .
not only to strangers, but also to natives of the country.
Thence it is that all who live in the country pay tribute
of their health, suffering from a certain disease, which
makes them lose either their skin or their hair. And
those who escape consider it a miracle, which occasions
many to leave the country, while the ardent desire of gain
induces others to risk their health, and endeavour to
endure such an atmosphere. The origin of this town, as
the natives say, was very small, only having at the be-
ginning, by reason of the unhealthiness of the air, but

six or seven fishermen who inhabited it. But the number

cHap. 1.) ZH TOWN AND ITS INHABITANTS. Al

was increased by the meeting of fishermen from Siam,
Pegu, and Bengal, who came and built a city, and esta-
blished a peculiar language, drawn from the most elegant
modes of speaking of other nations, so that in fact the
language of the Malays is at present the most refined,
exact, and celebrated of all the East. The name of
Malacca was given to this town, which, by the conve-
nience of its situation, in a short time grew to such
wealth, that it does not yield to the most powerful towns
and regions round about. The natives, both men and
women, are very courteous, and are reckoned the most
skilful in the world in compliments, and study much to
compose and repeat verses and love-songs. Their language
is in vogue through the Indies, as the French is here.”

At present, a vessel over a hundred tons hardly ever
enters its port, and the trade is entirely confined to a few
petty products of the forests, and to the fruit, which the
trees planted by the old Portuguese now produce for the
enjoyment of the inhabitants of Singapore. Although
rather subject to fevers, it is not at present considered
very unhealthy.

The population of Malacca consists of several races.
The ubiquitous Chinese are perhaps the most numerous,
keeping up their manners, customs, and language; the
indigenous Malays are next in point of numbers, and

_ their language is the Lingua-franca of the place. Next

AQ MALACCA. [cHAP. 111.

come the descendants of the Portuguese—a mixed, de-
graded, and degenerate race, but who still keep up the
use of their mother tongue, though ruefully mutilated in
grammar; and then there are the English rulers, and the
descendants of the Dutch, who all speak English. The
Portuguese spoken at Malacca is a useful philological
phenomenon. The verbs have mostly lost their inflections,
and one form does for all moods, tenses, numbers, and
persons. Hw vai, serves for “I go,” “I went,” or, “I
will go.” Adjectives, too, have been deprived of their
feminine and plural terminations, so that the language is
reduced to a marvellous simplicity, and, with the admixture
of a few Malay words, becomes rather puzzling to one
who has heard only the pure Lusitanian.

In costume these several peoples are as varied as in
their speech. The English preserve the tight-fitting coat,
waistcoat, and trousers, and the abominable hat and
cravat ; the Portuguese patronise a light jacket, or, more
frequently, shirt and trousers only; the Malays wear
their national jacket and sarong (a kind of kilt), with
loose drawers; while the Chinese never depart in the
least from their national dress, which, indeed, it is im-
possible to improve for a tropical climate, whether as
regards comfort or appearance. The loosely-hanging
trousers, and neat white half-shirt half-jacket, are exactly
what a dress should be in this low latitude.

CHAP. I. ] TIN-WORKS ; BIRDS. A3

I engaged two Portuguese to accompany me into the
interior ; one as a cook, the other to shoot and skin birds,
which is quite a trade in Malacca. I first stayed a fort-
night at a village called Gading, where I was accom-
modated in the house of some Chinese converts, to whom
I was recommended by the Jesuit missionaries. The
house was a mere shed, but it was kept clean, and I made
myself sufficiently comfortable. My hosts were forming
a pepper and gambir plantation, and in the immediate
neighbourhood were extensive tin-washings, employing
over a thousand Chinese. The tin is obtained in the
form of black grains from beds of quartzose sand, and is
melted into ingots in rude clay furnaces. The soil seemed
poor, and the forest was very dense with undergrowth, and
not at all productive of insects; but, on the other hand,
birds were abundant, and I was at once introduced to the
rich ornithological treasures of the Malayan region.

The very first time I fired my gun I brought down one
of the most curious and beautiful of the Malacca birds,
the blue-billed gaper (Cymbirhynchus macrorhynchus),
called by the Malays the “ Rain-bird.” It is about the
size of a starling, black and rich claret colour with white
shoulder stripes, and a very large and broad bill of the
most pure cobalt blue above and orange below, while the
iris is emerald green. As the skins dry the bill turns
dull black, but even then the bird is handsome. When

44 MALACCA. [cHAP. III.

fresh killed, the contrast of the vivid blue with the rich
colours of the plumage is remarkably striking and beau-
tiful. The lovely Eastern trogons, with their rich brown
backs, beautifully pencilled wings, and crimson breasts,
were also soon obtained, as well as the large green barbets
(Megalzema versicolor)—fruit-eating birds, something like
small toucans, with a short, straight bristly bill, and whose
head and neck are variegated with patches of the most vivid
blue and crimson. A day or two after, my hunter brought
me a specimen of the green gaper (Calyptomena viridis),
which is like a small cock-of-the-rock, but entirely of the
most vivid green, delicately marked on the wings with
black bars. Handsome woodpeckers and gay kinefishers,
green and brown cuckoos with velvety red faces and green
beaks, red-breasted doves and metallic honeysuckers, were
brought in day after day, and kept me in a continual state
of pleasurable excitement. After a fortnight one of my
servants was seized with fever, and on returning to
Malacca, the same disease attacked the other as well as
myself. By a liberal use of quinine, I soon recovered, and
obtaining other men, went to stay at the Government bun-
galow of Ayer-panas, accompanied by a young gentleman,
a native of the place, who had a taste for natural history.
At Ayer-panas we had a comfortable house to stay in,
and plenty of room to dry and preserve our specimens;

but, owing to there being no industrious Chinese to cut

CHAP. lI. ] NEW BUTTERFLY. 45

down timber, insects were comparatively scarce, with the
exception of butterflies, of which I formed a very fine
collection. The manner in which I obtained one fine
insect was curious, and indicates how fragmentary and
imperfect a traveller's collection must necessarily be. I
was one afternoon walking along a favourite road through
the forest, with my gun, when I saw a butterfly on the
ground. It was large, handsome, and quite new to me,
and I got close to it before it flew away. I then ob-
served that it had been settling on the dung of some
carnivorous animal. Thinking it might return to the
same spot, I next day after breakfast took my net,
and as I approached the place was delighted to see the
same butterfly sitting on the same piece of dung, and
succeeded in capturing it. It was an entirely new species
of great beauty, and has been named by Mr. Hewitson
Nymphalis calydona. I never saw another specimen of
it, and it was only after twelve years had elapsed that
a second individual reached this country from the north-
western part of Borneo.

Having determined to visit Mount Ophir, which is
situated in the middle of the peninsula about fifty miles
east of Malacca, we engaged six Malays to accompany us
and carry our baggage. As we meant to stay at least a
week at the mountain, we took with us a good supply of

rice, a little biscuit butter and coffee, some dried fish and

46 MALACCA. [CHAP. IIT.

a little brandy, with blankets, a change of clothes, insect
and bird boxes, nets guns and ammunition. The dis-
tance from Ayer-panas was supposed to be about thirty
miles. Our first day’s march lay through patches of
forest, clearings, and Malay villages, and was pleasant
enough. At night we slept at the house of a Malay chief,
who lent us a verandah, and gave us a fowl and some
egos. The next day the country got wilder and more
hilly. We passed through extensive forests, along paths
often up to our knees in mud, and were much annoyed
by the leeches for which this district is famous. These
little creatures infest the leaves and herbage by the side of
the paths, and when a passenger comes along they stretch
themselves out at full length, and if they touch any part of
his dress or body, quit their leaf and adhere to it. They
then creep on to his feet, legs, or other part of his body
and suck their fill, the first puncture being rarely felt
during the excitement of walking. On bathing in the
evening we generally found half a dozen or a dozen on
each of us, most frequently on our legs, but sometimes on
our bodies, and I had one who sucked his fill from the side
of my neck, but who luckily missed the jugular vein.
There are many species of these forest leeches. All are
small, but some are beautifully marked with stripes of
bright yellow. They probably attach themselves to deer or

other animals which frequent the forest paths, and have

CHAP. 111. } ASCENT OF MOUNT OPHIR. AT

thus acquired the singular habit of stretching themselves
out at the sound of a footstep or of rustling foliage. Early
in the afternoon we reached the foot of the mountain, and
encamped by the side of ‘a fine stream, whose rocky banks
were overgrown with ferns. Our oldest Malay had been
accustomed to shoot birds in this neighbourhood for the
Malacca dealers, and had been to the top of the mountain,
and while we amused ourselves shooting and insect hunt-
ing, he went with two others to clear the path for our
ascent the next day.

Early next morning we started after breakfast, carrying
blankets and provisions, as we intended to sleep upon the
mountain. After passing a little tangled jungle and
swampy thickets through which our men had cleared a
path, we emerged into a fine lofty forest pretty clear of
undergrowth, and in which we could walk freely. We
ascended steadily up a moderate slope for several miles,
having a deep ravine on our left. We then had a level
plateau or shoulder to cross, after which the ascent was
steeper and the forest denser till we came out upon the
“Padang-batu,” or stone field, a place of which we had
heard much, but could never get any one to describe intel-
ligibly. We found it to be a steep slope of even rock, ex-
tending along the mountain side farther than we could see.
Parts of it were quite bare, but where it was cracked and

fissured there grew a most luxuriant vegetation, among

48 MALACCA.

which the
pitcher plants
were the most
remarkable.
These won-
derful plants
never seem to
succeed well in our hot-houses,
and are there seen to little
advantage. Here they grew
up into half climbing shrubs,
their curious pitchers of
various sizes and forms hang-
ing abundantly from their
leaves, and continually excit-
‘ing our admiration by their
size and beauty. A few
coniferze of the genus Dacry-
dium here first appeared, and
in the thickets just above
the rocky surface we walked
through groves of those splen-
did ferns Dipteris Horsfieldii
and Matonia pectinata, which

bear large spreading palmate

[cHAaP. 111.

RARE FERNS ON MOUNT OPHIR.

fronds on slender stems six or eight feet high. The Matonia

CHAP. III. ] FERNS AND PITCHER-PLANTS. 49

is the tallest and most elegant, and is known only from
this mountain, and neither of them is yet introduced into
our hot-houses.

It was very striking to come out from the dark, cool, and
shady forest in which we had been ascending since we
started, on to this hot, open rocky slope where we seemed
to have entered at one step from a lowland to an alpine
vegetation. The height, as measured by a sympiesometer,
was about 2,800 feet. We had been told we’ should find
water at Padang-batu, but we looked about for it in vain,
as we were exceedingly thirsty. At last we turned to the
pitcher-plants, but the water contained in the pitchers
(about half a pint in each) was full of insects, and other-
Wise uninviting. On tasting it, however, we found it very
palatable though rather warm, and we all quenched our
thirst from these natural jugs. Farther on we came to
forest again, but of a more dwarf and stunted character
than below; and alternately passing along ridges and de-
scending into valleys, we reached a peak separated from the
true summit of the mountain by a considerable chasm.
Here our porters gave in, and deciared they could carry
their loads no further; and certainly the ascent to the
highest peak was very precipitous. But on the spot where
we were there was no water, whereas it was well known
that there was a spring close to the summit, so we deter-
mined to go on without them, and carry with us only

VOL, I. E

50 MALACCA. [CHAP. IT},

what was absolutely necessary. We accordingly took a
blanket each, and divided our food and other articles among
us, and went on with only the old Malay and his son.
After descending into the saddle between the two peaks
we found the ascent very laborious, the slope being so steep
as often to necessitate hand-climbing.” Besides a bushy
vegetation the ground was covered knee-deep with mosses
on a foundation of decaying leaves and rugged rock, and it
was a hard hour’s climb to the small ledge just below the
summit, where an overhanging rock forms a convenient
shelter, and a little basin collects the trickling water.
Here we put down our loads, and in a few minutes
more stood on the summit of Mount Ophir, 4,000 feet
above the sea. The top is a small rocky platform
covered with rhododendrons and other shrubs. The
afternoon was clear, and the view fine in its way—ranges
of hill and valley everywhere covered with interminable
forest, with glistening rivers winding among them. Ina
distant view a forest country is very monotonous, and no
mountain I have ever ascended in the tropics presents a
panorama equal to that from Snowdon, while the views in
Switzerland are immeasurably superior. When boiling
our coffee I took observations with a good boiling-point
thermometer, as well as with the sympiesometer, and we
then enjoyed our evening meal and the ncble prospect that

lay before us. The night was calm and very mild, and

CHAP. III. ] THE ARGUS PHEASANT. 51

having made a bed of twigs and branches over which we
laid our blankets, we passed a very comfortable night. Our
porters had followed us after a rest, bringing only their rice
to cook, and luckily we did not require the baggage they
left behind them. In the morning I caught a few butter-
flies and beetles, and my friend got a few land-shells ; and
we then descended, bringing with us some specimens of
the ferns and pitcher-plants of Padang-batu.

The place where we had first encamped at the foot of the
mountain being very gloomy, we chose another in a kind
of swamp near a stream overgrown with Zingiberaceous |
plants, in which a clearing was easily made. Here our
men built two little huts without sides, that would just
shelter us from the rain; and we lived in them for a week,
shooting and insect-hunting, and roaming about the forests
at the foot of the mountain. This was the country of the
great Argus pheasant, and we continually heard its ery.
On asking the old Malay to try and shoot one for me, he
told me that although he had been for twenty years shooting
birds in these forests he had never yet shot one, and had
never even seen one except after it had been caught. The
bird is so exceedingly shy and wary, and runs along the
ground in the densest parts of the forest so quickly, that it
is impossible to get near it; and its sober colours and rich
eye-like spots, which are so ornamental when seen in a
museum, must harmonize well with the dead leaves among

E 2

5Y, MALACCA. [CHAP. LIL.

which it dwells, and render it very inconspicuous. All
the specimens sold in Malacca are caught in snares, and
my informant, though he had shot none, had snared
plenty.

The tiger and rhinoceros are still found here, and a few
years ago elephants abounded, but they have lately all
disappeared. We found some heaps of dung, which
seemed to be that of elephants, and some tracks of the
rhinoceros, but saw none of the animals. We, however,
kept a fire up all night in case any of these creatures
should visit us, and two of our men declared that they did
one day see a rhinoceros. When our rice was finished, and
our boxes full of specimens, we returned to Ayer-Panas,
and a few days afterwards went on to Malacca, and thence
to Singapore. Mount Ophir has quite a reputation for
fever, and all our friends were astonished at our reckless-
ness in staying so long at its foot; but we none of us
suffered in the least, and I shall ever look back with
pleasure to my trip, as being my first introduction to
mountain scenery in the Eastern tropics.

The meagreness and brevity of the sketch I have here
given of my visit to Singapore and the Malay Peninsula
is due to my having trusted chiefly to some private letters
and a note-book, which were lost; and to a paper on
Malacca and Mount Ophir which was sent to the Royal

Geographical Society, but which was neither read nor

CHAP. III. LOST PAPERS. 53

printed owing to press of matter at the end of a session,
and the MSS. of which cannot now be found. I the less
regret this, however, as so many works have. been written
on these parts; and I always intended to pass lightly
over my travels in the western and better known portions
of the Archipelago, in order to devote more space to the
remoter districts, about which hardly anything has been

written in the English language.

CHAPTER IV.
BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN.

ARRIVED at Sarawak on November Ist, 1854, and
left it on January 25th, 1856. In the interval I
resided at many different localities, and saw a good deal of
the Dyak tribes as well as of the Bornean Malays. I was
hospitably entertained by Sir James Brooke, and lived in
his house whenever I was at the town of Sarawak in the
intervals of my journeys. But so many books have been
written about this part of Borneo since I was there, that
I shall avoid going into details of what I saw and heard
and thought of Sarawak and its ruler, confining myself
chiefly to my experiences as a naturalist in search of shells
insects birds and the Orang-utan, and to an account of a
journey through a part of the interior seldom visited by
Europeans.
The first four months of my visit were spent in various
parts of the Sarawak River, from Santubong at its mouth
up to the picturesque limestone Mountains and Chinese

gold-fields of Bow and Bedé. This part of the country

CHAP Iv.] THE SIMUNJON RIVER. 55

has been so frequently described that I shall pass it over,
especially as, owing to its being the height of the wet
season, my collections were comparatively poor and insig-
nificant.

In March 1865 I determined to go to the coal-works
which were being opened near the Simunjon River, a
small branch of the Sadong, a river east of Sarawak and
between it and the Batang-Lupar. The Simunjon enters
the Sadong River about twenty miles up. It is very
narrow and very winding, and much overshadowed by the
lofty forest, which sometimes almost meets over it. The
whole country between it and the sea is a perfectly level
forest-covered swamp, out of which rise a few isolated
hills, at the foot of one of which the works are situated.
From the landing-place to the hill a Dyak road had been
formed, which consisted solely of tree-trunks laid end to
end. Along these the bare-footed natives walk and carry
heavy burdens with the greatest ease, but to a booted
European it is very slippery work, and when one’s atten-
tion is constantly attracted by the various objects of
interest around, a few tumbles into the bog are almost
inevitable. During my first walk along this road I saw
few insects or birds, but noticed some very handsome
orchids in flower, of the genus Ceelogyne, a group which I
afterwards found to be very abundant, and characteristic -of

the district. On the slope of the hill near its foot a

56 BORNEO. [CHAP. IV.

patch of forest had been cleared away, and several rude
houses erected, in which were residing Mr. Coulson the
engineer, and a number of Chinese workmen. I was at
first kindly accommodated in Mr. Coulson’s house, but
finding the spot very suitable for me and offering great
facilities for collecting, I had a small house of two rooms
and a verandah built for myself. Here I remained nearly
nine months, and made an immense collection of insects,
to which class of animals J devoted my chief attention,
owing to the circumstances being especially favourable.

In the tropics a large proportion of the insects of all
orders, and especially of the large and favourite group
of beetles, are more or less dependent on vegetation, and
particularly on timber, bark, and leaves in various stages
of decay. In the untouched virgin forest, the insects
which frequent such situations are scattered over an
immense extent of country, at spots where trees have
fallen through decay and old age, or have succumbed to
the fury of the tempest; and twenty square miles of
country may not contain so many fallen and decayed trees
as are to be found in any small clearing. The quantity
and the variety of beetles and of many other insects that
can be collected at a given time in any tropical locality,
will depend, first upon the immediate vicinity of a great
extent of virgin forest, and secondly upon the quantity of

trees that for some months past have been, and which are

CHAP. IV.] INSECTS. 57

still being cut down, and left to dry and decay upon the
ground. Now, during my whole twelve years’ collecting
in the western and eastern tropics, I never enjoyed such
advantages in this respect as at the Simunjon coal-works.
For several months from twenty to fifty Chinamen and
Dyaks were employed almost exclusively in clearing a
large space in the forest, and in making a wide opening for
a railroad to the Sadong River, two miles distant. Besides
this, sawpits were established at various points in the
jungle, and large trees were felled to be cut up into beams
and planks. For hundreds of miles in every direction a
magnificent forest extended over plain and mountain, rock
and morass, and I arrived at the spot just as the rains
began to diminish and the daily sunshine to increase; a
time which I have always found the most favourable
season for collecting. The number of openings and sunny
places and of pathways, were also an attraction to wasps
and butterflies ; and by paying a cent each for all insects
that were brought me, I obtained from the Dyaks and the
Chinamen many fine locusts and Phasmide, as well as
numbers of handsome beetles.

When I arrived at the mines, on the 14th of March,
I had collected in the four preceding months, 320 different
kinds of beetles. In less than a fortnight I had doubled
this number, an average of about 24 new species every

day. On one day I collected 76 different kinds, of which

58 BORNEO. [CHAP. Iv.

34 were new tome. By the end of April I had more than
a thousand species, and they then went on increasing at a
slower rate; so that I obtained altogether in Borneo about
two thousand distinct kinds, of which all but about a
hundred were collected at this place, and on scarcely more
than a square mile of ground. The most numerous and
most interesting groups of beetles were the Longicorus and
Rhynchophora, both pre-eminently wood-feeders. The
former, characterised by their graceful forms and long
antennee, were especially numerous, amounting to nearly
three hundred species, nine-tenths of which were entirely
new, and many of them remarkable for their large size,
strange forms, and beautiful colouring. The latter corre-
spond to our weevils and allied groups, and in the tropics
are exceedingly numerous and varied, often swarming upon
dead timber, so that I sometimes obtained fifty or sixty
different kinds in a day. My Bornean collections of this
group exceeded five hundred species.

My collection of butterflies was not large; but I obtained
some rare and very handsome insects, the most remarkable
being the Ornithoptera Brookeana, one of the most elegant
species known. This beautiful creature has very long and
pointed wings, almost resembling a sphinx moth in shape.
It is deep velvety black, with a curved band of spots of a
brilliant metallic-green colour extending across the wings

from tip to tip, each spot’ being shaped exactly like a small

sa

‘Taoey[e ay Sndpedoms9 “1OOV]T[VM SNUTYIOJBIOW
‘TIsIAapUNRS sopoworsa py snjzelpaorny snaniqd

‘SNpURIR] SNIVUsoOpe[D

*sroue XAQUIB.IOD00N

BORNEO,

REMARKABLE BEETLES FOUND AT SIMUNJON,

CHAP. IV.] A FINE BUTTERFLY. 59

triangular feather, and having very much the effect of a
row of the wing coverts of the Mexican trogon laid upon
black velvet. The only other marks are a broad ueck-
collar of vivid crimson, and a few delicate white touches on
the outer margins of the hind wings. This species, which
was then quite new and which I named after Sir James
Brooke, was very rare. It was seen occasionally flying
swiftly in the clearings, and now and then settling for an
instant at puddles and muddy places, so that I only suc-
ceeded in capturing two or three specimens. In some
other parts of the country I was assured it was abundant,
and a good many specimens have been sent to England ;
but as yet all have been males, and we are quite unable
to conjecture what the female may be like, owing to the
extreme isolation of the species, and its want of close
affinity to any other known insect.

One of the most curious and interesting reptiles which
I met -with in Borneo was a large tree-frog, which was
brought me by one of the Chinese workmen. He assured
me that he had seen it come down, in a slanting direction,
from a high tree, as if it flew. On examining it, I found
the toes very long and fully webbed to their very extremity,
so that when expanded they offered a surface much larger
than the body. The fore legs were also bordered by a
membrane, and the body was capable of considerable

inflation. The back and limbs were of a very deep shining

60 BORNEO. [CHAP. IV.

green colour, the under surface and the inner toes yellow,
while the webs were black, rayed with yellow. The body
was about four inches long, while the webs of each hind

foot, when fully expanded, covered a surface of four square

FLYING FROG.

inches, and the webs of all the feet together about twelve
square inches. As the extremities of the toes have dilated

discs for adhesion, showing the creature to be a true tree-

CHAP. IV. | CURIOUS MAMMALIA. 61

frog, it is difficult to imagine that this immense membrane of
the toes can be for the purpose of swimming only, and the
account of the Chinaman, that it flew down from the tree,
becomes more credible. This is, I believe, the first instance
known of a “ flying frog,” and it is very interesting to
Darwinians as showing, that the variability of the toes
which have been already modified for purposes of swim-
ming and adhesive climbing, have been taken advantage of
to enable an allied species to pass through the air like the
flying lizard. It would appear to be a new species of the
genus Rhacophorus, which consists of several frogs of a
much smaller size than this, and having the webs of the
toes less developed.

During my stay in Borneo I had no hunter to shoot for
me regularly, and, being myself fully occupied with insects,
I did not succeed in obtaining a very good collection of the
birds or Mammalia, many of which, however, are well known,
being identical with species found in Malacca. Among
the Mammalia were five squirrels, two tiger-cats, the Gym-
nurus Rafflesii, which looks like a cross between a pig and
a polecat, and the Cynogale Bennetti—a rare, otter-like
animal, with very broad muzzle clothed with long bristles.

One of my chief objects in coming to stay at Simunjon

was to see the Orang-utan (or great man-like ape of Borneo)
~ in his native haunts, to study his habits, and obtain good

specimens of the different varieties and species of both

62 LORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [cap Iv.

sexes, and of the adult and young animals. Jn all these
objects I succeeded beyond my expectations, and will now
give some account of my experience in hunting the Orang-
utan, or “ Mias,” as it is called by the natives; and as this
name is short, and easily pronounced, I shall generally use
it in preference to Simia satyrus, or Orang-utan.

Just a week after my arrival at the mines, I first saw
a Mias. I was out collecting insects, not more than a
quarter of a mile from the house, when I heard a rustling
in a tree near, and, looking up, saw a large red-haired
animal moving slowly along, hanging from the branches by
its arms. It passed on from tree to tree till it was lost in
the jungle, which was so swampy that I could not follow
it. This mode of progression was, however, very unusual,
and is more characteristic of the Hylobates than of the
Orang. I suppose there was some individual peculiarity in
this animal, or the nature of the trees just in this place
rendered it the most easy mode of progression.

About a fortnight afterwards I heard that one was
feeding in a tree in the swamp just below the house, and,
taking my gun, was fortunate enough to find it in the same
place. As soon as I approached, it tried to conceal itselt
among the foliage ; but I got a shot at it, and the second
barrel caused it to fall down almost dead, the two balls
having entered the body. This was a male, about half-

grown, being scarcely three feet high. On April 26th, I

cuap. Iv.| STRENGTH OF A WOUNDED ORANG. 63

was out shooting with two Dyaks, when we found another
about the same size. It fell at the first shot, but did not
seem much hurt, and immediately climbed up the nearest
tree, when I fired, and it again fell, with a broken arm and
a wound in the body. The two Dyaks now ran up to it,
and each seized hold of a hand, telling me to cut a pole,
and they would secure it. But although one arm was
broken and it was only a half-grown animal, it was too
strong for these young savages, drawing them up towards
its mouth notwithstanding all their efforts, so that they
were again obliged to leave go, or they would have been
seriously bitten. It now began climbing up the tree again;
and, to avoid trouble, I shot it through the heart.

On May 2d, I again found one on a very high tree, when
I had only a small 80-bore gun with me. However, I fired
at it, and on seeing me it began howling in a strange
voice like a cough, and seemed in a great rage, breaking off
branches with its hands and throwing them down, and
then soon made off over the tree-tops. I did not care to
follow it, as it was swampy, and in parts dangerous, and
I might easily have lost myself in the eagerness of
pursuit.
_ On the 12th of May I found another, which behaved in
a very similar manner, howling and hooting with rage, and
throwing down branches. I shot at it five times, and it

remained dead on the top of the tree, supported in a fork

64 BORNKEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. (CHAP. IV.

in such a manner that it would evidently not fall. I there-
fore returned home, and luckily found some Dyaks, who
came back with me, and climbed up the tree for the animal.

This was the first full-grown specimen I had obtained ; but

FEMALE ORANG-UTAN. (From a Photograph.)

it was a female, and not nearly so Jarge or remarkable as
the full-grown males. It was, however, 3 ft. 6 in. high,
and its arms stretched out to a width of 6 ft. 6 in. I pre-
served the skin of this specimen in a cask of arrack, and
prepared a perfect skeleton, which was afterwards purchased

for the Derby Museum.

CHAP. IV. ] AN INFANT MIAS. 65

Only four days afterwards some Dyaks saw another
Mias near the same place, and came to tell me. We found
it to be a rather large one, very high up on a tall tree.
At the second shot it fell rolling over, but almost imme-
diately got up again and began to climb. At a third shot
it fell dead. This was also a full-grown female, and while
preparing to carry it home, we found a young one face
downwards in the bog. This little creature was only about
a foot long, and had evidently been hanging to its mother
when she first fell) Luckily it did not appear to have
been wounded, and after we had cleaned the mud out of
its mouth it began to cry out, and seemed quite strong and
active. While carrying it home it got its hands in my
beard, and grasped so tightly that I had great difficulty in
getting free, for the fingers are habitually bent inwards at
the last joint so as to form complete hooks. At this time
it had not a single tooth, but a few days afterwards it cut
its two lower front teeth. Unfortunately, I had no milk
to give it, as neither Malays Chinese nor Dyaks ever use
the article, and I in vain inquired for any female animal
that could suckle my little infant. I was therefore obliged
to give it rice-water from a bottle with a quill in the
cork, which after a few trials it learned to suck very well.
This was very meagre diet, and the little creature did not
thrive well on it, although I added sugar and cocoa-nut
milk occasionally, to make it more nourishing. When

VOL. I. F

66 ‘BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [owap. rv.

I put my finger in its mouth it sucked with great
vigour, drawing in its cheeks with all its might in the
vain effort to extract some milk, and only after per-
severing a long time would it give up in disgust, and
set up a scream very like that of a baby in similar
circumstances.

When handled or nursed, it was very quiet and con-
tented, but when laid down by itself would invariably ery;
and for the first few nights was very restless and noisy. I
fitted up a little box for a cradle, with a soft mat for it to
lie upon, which was changed and washed every day; and
I soon found it necessary to wash the little Mias as well.
After I had done so a few times, it came to like the
operation, and as soon as it was dirty would begin crying,
and not leave off till I took it out and carried it to the
spout, when it immediately became quiet, although it
would wince a little at the first rush of the cold water
and make ridiculously wry faces while the stream was
running over its head. It enjoyed the wiping and rubbing
dry amazingly, and when I brushed its hair seemed to be
perfectly happy, lying quite still with its arms and legs
stretched out while I thoroughly brushed the long hair
of its back and arms. For the first few days it clung
desperately with all four hands to whatever it could lay
hold of, and I had to be careful to keep my beard out of its

way, as its fingers clutched hold of hair more tenaciously

CHAP. IV. | AN INFANT MIAS. 67

than anything else, and it was impossible to free myself
without assistance. When restless, it would struggle about
with its hands up in the air trying to find something to take
hold of, and, when it had got a bit of stick or rag in two
or three of its hands, seemed quite happy. For want of
something else, it would often seize its own feet, and after
atime it would constantly cross its arms and erasp with
each hand the long hair that grew just below the opposite
shoulder. The great tenacity of its grasp soon diminished,
and I was obliged to invent-some means to give it exercise
and strengthen its limbs. For this purpose I made a short
ladder of three or four rounds, on which IT put it to hang
for a quarter of an hour at atime. At first it seemed
much pleased, but it could not get all four hands in a
comfortable position, and, after changing about several
times, would leave hold of one hand after the other, and
drop on to the floor. Sometimes when hanging only by
two hands, it would loose one, and cross it to the opposite
shoulder, grasping its own hair; and, as this seemed much
more agreeable than the stick, it would then loose the
other and tumble down, when it would cross both and lie
on its back quite contentedly, never seeming to be hurt
by its numerous tumbles. Finding it so fond of hair, I
endeavoured to make an artificial mother, by wrapping
up a piece of buffalo-skin into a bundle, and suspending
it about a foot from the floor. At first this seemed to suit
F2

68 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [cHaP. Iv.

it admirably, as it could sprawl its legs about and always
find some hair, which it grasped with the greatest tenacity.
I was now in hopes that I had made the little orphan
quite happy ; and so it seemed for some time, till it began
to remember its lost parent, and try to suck. It would
pull itself up close to the skin, and try about everywhere
for a likely place; but, as it only succeeded in getting
mouthfuls of hair and wool, it would be greatly disgusted,
aud scream violently, and, after two or three attempts, let
go altogether. One day it got some wool into its throat,
and I thought it would have choked, but after much
gasping it recovered, and I was obliged to take the imita-
tion mother to pieces again, and give up this last attempt
to exercise the little creature.

After the first week I found I could feed it better
with a spoon, and give it a little more varied and more
solid food. Well-soaked biscuit mixed with a little
egg and sugar, and sometimes sweet potatoes, were
readily eaten; and it was a never-failing amusement to
observe the curious changes of countenance by which it
would express its approval or dislike of what was given
to it. The poor little thing would lick its lips, draw in
its cheeks, and turn up its eyes with an expression of
the most supreme satisfaction when it had a mouthful
particularly to its taste. On the other hand, when its food

was not sufficiently sweet or palatable, it would turn the

CHAP. IV.] AN INFANT MIAS. 69

mouthful about with its tongue for a moment as if trying
to extract what flavour there was, and then push it all
out between its lips. If the same food was continued, it
would set up a scream and kick about violently, exactly
like a baby in a passion.

After I had had the little Mias about three weeks, I
fortunately obtained*a young hare-lip monkey (Macacus
cynomoleus), which, though small, was very active, and
could feed itself. I placed it in the same box with. the
Mias, and they immediately became excellent friends,
neither exhibiting the least fear of the other. The little
monkey would sit upon the other’s stomach, or even on
its face, without the least regard to its feelings. While:
I was feeding the Mias, the monkey would sit by, picking
up all that was spilt, and occasionally putting out its
hands to intercept the spoon; and as soon as I had finished
would pick off what was left sticking to the Mias’ lips,
and then pull open its mouth and see if any still remained
inside; afterwards lying down on the poor creature’s
stomach as on a comfortable cushion. The little helpless
Mias would submit to all these insults with the most
exemplary patience, only too glad to have something warm
near it, which it could clasp affectionately in its arms. It
sometimes, however, had its revenge; for when the monkey
wanted to go away, the Mias would hold on as long as it
could by the loose skin of its back or head, or by its tail,

70 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [CHAP. Iv.

and it was only after many vigorous jumps that the
monkey could make his escape.

It was curious to observe the different actions of these
two animals, which could not have differed much in age.
The Mias, like a very young baby, lying on its back quite
helpless, rolling lazily from side to side, stretching out all
four hands into the air, wishing to “grasp something, but
hardly able to guide its fingers to any definite object ; and
when dissatisfied, opening wide its almost toothless mouth, ~
and expressing its wants by a most infantine scream. The
little monkey, on the other hand, in constant motion.;
running and jumping about wherever it pleased, examining
everything around it, seizing hold of the smallest objects
with the greatest precision, balancing itself on ‘the edge
of the box or running up a post, and helping itself to
anything eatable that came in its way. There could hardly
be a greater contrast, and the baby Mias looked more
baby-like by the comparison.

When I had had it about a month, it began to exhibit
some signs of learning to run alone. When laid upon the
floor it would push itself along by its legs, or roll itself
over, and thus make an unwieldy progression. When
lying in the box it would lift itself up to the edge into
almost an erect position, and once or twice succeeded in
tumbling out. When left dirty, or hungry, or otherwise

neglected, it would scream violently till attended to, varied

CHAP. IV.] DEATH OF INFANT MIAS. } 71

by a kind of coughing or pumping noise, very similar to
that which is made by the adult animal. If no one was
in the house, or its cries were not attended to, it would
be quiet after a little while, but the moment it heard a
footstep would begin again harder than ever.

After five weeks it cut its two upper front teeth, but in
all this time it had not grown the least bit, remaining
both in size and weight the same as when I first procured
it. This was no doubt owing to the want of milk or other
equally nourishing food. Rice-water, rice, and biscuits
were but a poor substitute, and the expressed milk of the
cocoa-nut which I sometimes gave it did not quite agree
with its stomach. To this I imputed an attack of diarrhcea
from which the poor little creature suffered greatly, but a
small dose of castor-oil operated well, and cured it. A
week or two afterwards it was again taken ill, and this
time more seriously. The symptoms were exactly those
of intermittent fever, accompanied by watery swellings on
the feet and head. It lost all appetite for its food, and,
after lingering for a week a most pitiable object, died,
after being in my possession nearly three months. I
much regretted the loss of my little pet, which I had at
one time looked forward to bringing up to years of
maturity, and taking home to England. For several
months it had afforded me daily amusement by its curious

ways and the inimitably ludicrous expression of its little

72 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [CHAP. IV.

countenance. Its weight was three pounds nine ounces,
its height fourteen inches, and the spread of its arms
twenty-three inches. I preserved its skin and skeleton,
and in doing so found that when it fell from the tree it
must have broken an arm and a leg, which had, however,
united so rapidly that I had only noticed the hard swell-
ings on the limbs where the irregular junction of the
bones had taken place.

Exactly a week after I had caught this interesting little
animal I succeeded in shooting a full-grown male Orang-
utan. I had just come home from an entomologising
excursion when Charles! rushed in out of breath with
running and excitement, and exclaimed, interrupted by
gasps, “Get the gun, sir,—be quick,—such a large Mias!”
“Where is it?” I asked, taking hold of my gun as I spoke,
which happened luckily to have one barrel loaded with
ball. “Close by, sir—on the path to the mines—he can’t
get away.” Two Dyaks chanced to be in the house at the
time, so I called them to accompany me, and started off,
telling Charley to bring all the ammunition after me as
soon as possible. The path from our clearing to the mines
led along the side of the hill a little way up its slope, and
parallel with it at the foot a wide opening had been made for
a road, in which several Chinamen were working, so that
the animal could not escape into the swampy forest below

1 Charles Allen, an English lad of sixteen, accompanied measan assistant,

_

CHAP. 1V. | A MIAS HUNT. Te

without descending to cross the road or ascending to get
round the clearings. We walked cautiously along, not
making the least noise, and listening attentively for any
sound which might betray the presence of the Mias,
stopping at intervals to gaze upwards. Charley soon
joined us at the place where he had seen the creature, and
having taken the ammunition and put a bullet in the
other barrel we dispersed a little, feeling sure that it must
be somewhere near, as it had probably descended the hill,
and would not be likely to return again. After a short
time I heard a very slight rustling sound overhead, but on
gazing up could see nothing. I moved about in every
direction to get a full view into every part of the tree
under which I had been standing, when I again heard the
same noise but louder, and saw the leaves shaking as if
caused by the motion of some heavy animal which moved
off to an adjoining tree. I immediately shouted for all of
them to come up and try and get a view, so as to allow me
to have a shot. This was not an easy matter, as the Mias
had a knack of selecting places with dense foliage beneath.
Very soon, however, one of the Dyaks called me and
pointed upwards, and on looking I saw a great red hairy
body and a huge black face gazing down from a great
height, as if wanting to know what was making such a
disturbance below. I instantly fired, and he made off at
once, so that I could not then tell whether I had hit him.

74 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [cuap. 1v.

He now moved very rapidly and very noiselessly for so
large an animal, so I told the Dyaks to follow and keep
him in sight while I loaded. The jungle was here full of
large angular fragments of rock from the mountain above,
and thick with hanging and twisted creepers. Running,
climbing, and creeping among these, we came up with the
creature on the top of a high tree near the road, where the
Chinamen had discovered him, and were shouting their
astonishment with open mouth: “Ya Ya, Tuan; Orang-
utan, Tuan.” Seeing that he could not pass here without
descending, he turned up again towards the hill, and I got -
two shots, and following quickly had two more by the
time he had again reached the path; but he was always
more or less concealed by foliage, and protected by the
large branch on which he was walking. Once while load-
ing I had a splendid view of him, moving along a large
limb of a tree in a semi-erect posture, and showing him to
be an animal of the largest size. At the path he got on
to one of the loftiest trees in the forest, and we could see
one leg hanging down useless, having been broken by a
ball. He now fixed himself in a fork, where he was
hidden by thick foliage, and seemed disinclined to move.
I was afraid he would remain and die in this position, and
as it was nearly evening I could not have got the tree cut
down that day. I therefore fired again, and he then
moved off, and going up the hill was obliged to get on to

CHAP. IV. | BAGGING A GIANT. 79

some lower trees, on the branches of one of which he fixed
himself in such a position that he could not fall, and lay
all in a heap as if dead, or dying.

I now wanted the Dyaks to go up and cut off the branch
he was resting on, but they were afraid, saying he was not
dead, and would come and attack them. We then shook
the adjoining tree, pulled the hanging creepers, and did all
we could to disturb him, but without effect, so I thought it
best to send for two Chinamen with axes to cut down the
tree. While the messenger was gone, however, one of the
Dyaks took courage and chmbed towards him, but the
Mias did not wait for him to get near, moving off to another
tree, where he got on to a dense mass of branches and
ereepers which almost completely hid him from our view.
_ The tree was luckily a small one, so when the axes came
we soon had it cut through; but it was so held up by jungle
ropes and climbers to adjoining trees that it only fell into
a sloping position. The Mias did not move, and I began
to fear that after all we should not get him, as it was near
evening, and half a dozen more trees would have to be cut
down before the one he was on would fall. As a last
resource we all began pulling at the creepers, which shook
the tree very much, and, after a few minutes, when we had
almost given up all hopes, down he came with a crash and
a thud like the fall of a giant. And he was a giant, his

head and body being full as large as a man’s. He was of

76 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [CHAP. IV.

the kind called by the Dyaks “Mias Chappan,” or “ Mias
Pappan,” which has the skin of the face broadened out
to a ridge or fold at each side. His outstretched arms
measured seven feet three inches across, and his height,
measuring fairly from the top of the head to the heel,
was four feet two inches. The body just below the
arms was three feet two inches round, and was quite
as long as a man’s, the legs being exceedingly short in
proportion. On examination we found he had _ been
dreadfully wounded. Both legs were broken, one hip-
joint and the root of the spine completely shattered, and
two bullets were found flattened in his neck and jaws!
Yet he was still alive when he fell. The two Chinamen
carried him home tied to a pole, and I was occupied with
Charley the whole of the next day, preparing the skin and
boiling the bones to make a perfect skeleton, which are
now preserved in the Museum at Derby.

About ten days after this, on June 4th, some Dyaks
came to tell us that the day before a Mias had nearly
killed one of their companions. A few miles down the
river there is a Dyak house, and the inhabitants saw a
large Orang feeding on the young shoots of a palm by the
river-side. On being alarmed he retreated towards the
jungle which was close by, and a number of the men,
armed with spears and choppers, ran out to intercept him.

The man who was in front tried to run his spear through

pal:

CHAP. IV. ] MIAS ATTACKED BY DYAKS. Fiat

the animal’s body, but the Mias seized it in his hands, and
in an instant got hold of the man’s arm, which he seized in
his mouth, making his teeth meet in the flesh above the
elbow, which he tore and lacerated in a dreadful manner.
Had not the others been close behind, the man would have
been more seriously injured, if not killed, as he was quite
powerless ; but they soon destroyed the creature with their
spears and choppers. The man remained ill for a long
time, and never fully recovered the use of his arm.

They told me the dead Mias was still lying where it had
been killed, so I offered them a reward to bring it up to
our landing-place immediately, which they promised to do.
They did not come, however, till the next day, and then
decomposition had commenced, and great patches of the
hair came off, so that it was useless to skin it. This I
regretted much, as it was a very fine full-grown male. I
cut off the head and took it home to clean, while I got
my men to make a close fence about five feet high round
the rest of the body, which would soon be devoured by
maggots, small lizards, and ants, leaving me the skeleton.
There was a great gash in his face, which had cut deep
into the bone, but the skull was a very fine one, and the
teeth remarkably large and perfect.

On June 18th I had another great success, and obtained
a fine adult male. A Chinaman told me he had seen him
feeding by the side of the path to the river, and I found

78 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [CHap. Iv.

him at the same place as the first individual I had shot.
He was feeding on an oval green fruit having a fine red
arillus, like the mace which surrounds the nutmeg, and
which alone he seemed to eat, biting off the thick outer
rind and dropping it im a continual shower. I had found
the same fruit in the stomach of some others which I had
killed. Two shots caused this animal to loose his hold,
but he hung for a considerable time by one hand, and
then fell flat on his face and was half buried in the
swamp. For several minutes he lay groaning and panting,
while we stood close round, expecting every breath to be
his last. Suddenly, however, by a violent effort he raised
himself up, causing us all to step back a yard or two,
when, standing nearly erect, he caught hold of a small tree,
and began to ascend it. Another shot through the back
caused him to fall down dead. <A flattened bullet was
found in his tongue, having entered the lower part of the

abdomen and completely traversed the body, fracturing the

first cervical vertebra. Yet it was after this fearful wound.

that he had risen, and begun climbing with considerable
facility. This also was a full-grown male of almost exactly
the same dimensions as the other two I had measured.

On June 21st I shot another adult female, which was
eating fruit in a low tree, and was the only one which I
ever killed by a single ball.

On June 24th I was called by a Chinaman to shoot a

=

CHAP. IV. ] MAKING A NEST. 79

Mias, which, he said, was on a tree close by his house, at
the coal-mines. Arriving at the place, we had some diffi-
culty in finding the animal, as he had gone off into the
jungle, which was very rocky and difficult to traverse.
At last we found him up a very high tree, and could see
that he was a male of the largest size. As soon as I had
fired, he moved higher up the tree, and while he was doing
so I fired again; and we then saw that one arm was
broken. He had now reached the very highest part of an
immense tree, and immediately began breaking off boughs
all around, and laying them across and acrogs to make a
nest. It was very interesting to see how well he had
chosen his place, and how rapidly he stretched out his
unwounded arm in every direction, breaking off good-
sized boughs with the greatest ease, and laying them back
across each other, so that in a few minutes he had formed
a compact mass of foliage, which entirely concealed him
from our sight. He was evidently going to pass the night
here, and would probably get away early the next morn-
ing, if not wounded too severely. I therefore fired again
several times, in hopes of making him leave his nest ; but,
though I felt sure I had hit him, as at each shot he moved
a little, he would not go away. At length he raised him-
self up, so that half his body was visible, and then
gradually sank down, his head alone remaining on the

edge of the nest. I now felt sure he was dead, and tried

80 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [CHAP. IV.

to persuade the Chinaman and his companion to cut down
the tree; but it was a very large one, and they had been
at work all day, and nothing would induce them to
attempt it. The next morning, at daybreak, I came to
the place, and found that the Mias was evidently dead, as
his head was visible in exactly the same position as before.
I now offered four Chinamen a day’s wages each to cut the
tree down at once, as a few hours of sunshine would cause
decomposition on the surface of the skin; but, after looking
at it and trying it, they determined that it was very big
and very hard, and would not attempt it. Had I doubled
my offer, they would probably have accepted it, as it would
not have been more than two or three hours’ work; and
had I been on a short visit only I would have done so;
but as I was a resident, and intended remaining several
months longer, it would not have answered to begin paying
too exorbitantly, or I should have got nothing done in
future at a lower rate. :

For some weeks after, a cloud of flies could be seen
all day, hovering over the body of the dead Mias; but in
about a month all was quiet, and the body was evidently
drying up under the influence of a vertical sun alternating
with tropical rains. Two or three months later two
Malays, on the offer of a dollar, climbed the tree, and
let down the dried remains. The skin was almost entire,

enclosing the skeleton, and inside were millions of the

.

CHAP. IV.] MODE OF WALKING. 81

pupa-cases of flies and other insects, with thousands of two
or three species of small necrophagous beetles. The skull
had been much shattered by balls, but the skeleton was
perfect, except one small wrist-bone, which had probably
dropped out and been carried away by a lizard.

Three days after I had shot this one and lost it, Charles
found three small Orangs feeding together. We had a
long chase after them, and had a good opportunity of
seeing how they. make their way from tree to tree, by
always choosing those limbs whose branches are inter-
mingled with those of some other tree, and then grasping
several of the small twigs together before they venture
to swing themselves across. Yet they do this so quickly
and certainly, that they make way among the trees at the
rate of full five or six miles an hour, as we had continually
to run to keep up with them. One of these we shot and
killed, but it remained high up in the fork of a tree; and,
as young animals are of comparatively little interest, I did
not have the tree cut down to get it.

At this time I had the misfortune to slip among some
fallen trees, and hurt my ankle, and, not being careful
enough at first, it became a severe inflamed ulcer, which
would not heal, and kept me a prisoner in the house the
whole of July and part of August. When I could get out
again, I determined to take a trip up a branch of the Simiin-
jon River to Semabang, where there was said to be a large

VOL, I, G

82 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [cwap. Iv. .

Dyak house, a mountain with abundance of fruit, and
plenty of Orangs and fine birds. As the river was very
narrow, and I was obliged to go in a very small boat with
little luggage, I only took with me a Chinese boy as a
servant. I carried a cask of medicated arrack to put Mias
skins in, and stores and ammunition for a fortnight.
After a few miles, the stream became very narrow and
winding, and the whole country on each side was flooded.
On the banks were abundance of monkeys,—the common
Macacus cynomolgus, a black Semnopithecus, and the
extraordinary long-nosed monkey (Nasalis larvatus), which
is as large as a three-year old child, has a very long tail,
and a fleshy nose, longer than that of the biggest-nosed
man. The further we went on the narrower and more
winding the stream became; fallen trees sometimes
blocked up our passage, and sometimes tangled branches
and creepers met completely across it, and had to be
cut away before we could get on. It took us two days
to reach Semabang, and we hardly saw a bit of dry land
all the way. In the latter part of the journey I could
touch the bushes on each side for miles; and we were
often delayed by the screw-pines (Pandanus), which grew
abundantly in the water, falling across the stream. In
other places dense rafts of floating grass completely filled
up the channel, making our journey a constant succession
of difficulties.

CHAP. Iv.] A DYAK HOUSE. 83

Near the landing-place we found a fine house, 250
feet long, raised high above the ground on posts, with a
wide verandah and still wider platform of bamboo in
front of it. Almost all the people, however, were away
on some excursion after edible birds’-nests or bees’-wax,
and there only remained in the house two or three old men
and women with a lot of children. The mountain or hill
was close by, covered with a complete forest of fruit-trees,
among which the Durian and Mangusteen were very
abundant; but the fruit was not yet quite ripe, except
a little here and there. I spent a week at this place,
going out every day in various directions about the moun-
tain, accompanied by a Malay, who had stayed with me
while the other boatmen returned. For three days we
found no Orangs, but shot a deer and several monkeys.
On the fourth day, however, we found a Mias feeding on
a very lofty Durian tree, and succeeded in killing it, after
eight shots. Unfortunately it remained in the tree, hanging
by its hands, and we were obliged to leave it and return
home, as it was several miles off. As I felt pretty sure it
would fall during the night, I returned to the place early
the next morning, and found it on the ground beneath the
tree. To my astonishment and pleasure, it appeared to be
a different kind from any I had yet seen; for although a
full-grown male by its fully developed teeth and very
large canines, it had no sign of the lateral protuberance

G2

84 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [CHAP. Iv.

on the face, and was about one-tenth smaller in all its
dimensions than the other adult males. The upper in-
cisors, however, appeared to be broader than in the larger
species, a character distinguishing the Simia morio of
Professor Owen, which he had described from the cranium
of a female specimen. As it was too far to carry the
animal home, I set to work and skinned the body on
the spot, leaving the head hands and feet attached, to
be finished at home. This specimen is now in the British
Museum.

At the end of a week, finding no more Orangs, I re-
turned home; and, taking in a few fresh stores, and this
time accompanied by Charles, went up another branch of
the river, very similar in character, to a place called Men-
yille, where there were several small Dyak houses and one
large one. Here the landing-place was a bridge of rickety
poles, over a considerable distance of water ; and I thought
it safer to leave my cask of arrack securely placed in the
fork of a tree. To prevent the natives from drinking it, I
let several of them see me put in a number of snakes and
lizards ; but I rather think this did not prevent them from
tasting it. We were accommodated here in the verandah
of the large house, in which were several great baskets of
dried human heads, the trophies of past generations of
head-hunters. Here also there was a little mountain

covered with fruit-trees, and there were some magnificent

cuAP, Iv.] DYAK MODE OF CLIMBING. 85

Durian trees close by the house, the fruit of which was
ripe; and as the Dyaks looked upon me as a benefactor in
killing the Mias which destroys a great deal of their fruit,
they let us eat as much as we liked, and we revelled in
this emperor of fruits in its greatest perfection.

The very day after my arrival in this place, I was so
fortunate as to shoot another adult male of the small
orang, the Mias-kassir of the Dyaks. It fell when dead,
but caught in a fork of the tree and remained fixed. As I
was very anxious to get it, I tried to persuade two young
Dyaks who were with me to cut down the tree, which was
tall, perfectly straight and srmooth-barked, and without a
branch for fifty or sixty feet. To my surprise, they said
they would prefer climbing up it, but it would be a good
deal of trouble, and, after a little talking together, they said
they would try. They first went to a clump of bamboo
that stood near, and cut down one of the largest stems,
From this they chopped off a short piece, and splitting it,
made a couple of stout pegs, about a foot long, and sharp
at one end. Then cutting a thick piece of wood for a
mallet, they drove one of the pegs into the tree and hung
their weight upon it. It held, and this seemed to satisfy
them, for they immediately began making a quantity of
pegs of the same kind, while I looked on with great
interest, wondering how they could possibly ascend such a

lofty tree by merely driving pegs in it, the failure of any

86 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN, [cHap., Iv.

one of which at a good height would certainly cause their
death. When about two dozen pegs were made, one of
them began cutting some very long and slender bamboo
from another clump, and also prepared some cord from the
bark of a small tree. They now drove in a peg very firmly
at about three feet from the ground, and bringing one of the
long bamboos, stood it upright close to the tree, and bound
it firmly to the two first pegs, by means of the bark cord,
and small notches near the head of each peg. One of the
Dyaks now stood on the first peg and drove in a third,
about level with his face, to which he tied the bamboo in
the same way, and then mounted another step, standing on
one foot, and holding by the bamboo at the peg imme-
diately above him, while he drove in the next one. In
this manner he ascended about twenty feet, when the
upright bamboo becoming thin, another was handed up
by his companion, and this was joined on by tying both
bamboos to three or four of the pegs. When this was also
nearly ended, a third was added, and shortly after, the
lowest branches of the tree were reached, along which the
young Dyak scrambled, and soon sent the Mias tumbling
headlong down. J was exceedingly struck by the ingenuity
of this mode of climbing, and the admirable manner in
which the peculiar properties of the bamboo were made
available. The ladder itself was perfectly safe, since if

any one peg were loose or faulty, and gave way, the strain

CHAP. IV. ] THROWING DOWN BRANCHES. 87

would be thrown on several others above and below it. I
now understood the use of the line of bamboo pegs stick-
ing in trees, which I had often seen, and wondered for
what purpose they could have been put there. This
animal was almost identical in size and appearance with
the one I had obtained at Semabang, and was the only
other male specimen of the Simia morio which I obtained.
It is now in the Derby Museum.

I afterwards shot two adult females and two young
ones of different ages, all of which I preserved. One of
the females, with several young ones, was feeding on a
Durian tree with unripe fruit; and as soon as she saw us
she began breaking off branches and the great spiny
fruits with every appearance of rage, causing such a
shower of missiles as effectually kept us from approaching
too near the tree. This habit of throwing down branches
when irritated has been doubted, but I have, as here
narrated, observed it myself on at least three separate
occasions. It was however always the female Mias who
behaved in this way, and it may be that the male, trusting
more to his great strength and his powerful canine teeth,
is not afraid of any other animal, and does not want
to drive them away, while the parental instinct of the
female leads her to adopt this mode of defending herself
and her young ones. y

In preparing the skins and skeletons of these animals, I

88 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [CHAP. Iv.

was much troubled by the Dyak dogs, which, being always
kept in a state of semi-starvation, are ravenous for animal
food. I had a great iron pan, in which I boiled the bones
to make skeletons, and at night I covered this over with
boards, and put heavy stones upon it; but the dogs
managed to remove these and carried away the greater part
of one of my specimens. On another occasion they
gnawed away a good deal of the upper leather of my strong
boots, and even ate a piece of my mosquito-curtain, where
some lamp-oil had been spilt over it some weeks before.
On our return down the stream, we had the fortune to fall
in with a very old male Mias, feeding on some low trees
growing in the water. The country was flooded for a long
distance, but so full of trees and stumps that the laden
boat could not be got in among them, and if it could have
been we should only have frightened the Mias away. I
therefore got into the water, which was nearly up to my
waist, and waded on till I was near enough for a shot,
The difficulty then was to load my gun again, for I was so
deep in the water that I could not hold the gun sloping
enough to pour the powder in. I therefore had to
search for a shallow place, and after several shots under
these trying circumstances, I was delighted to see the
monstrous animal roll over into the water. I now towed
"him after me to the stream, but the Malays objected to
have the animal put into the boat, and he was so heavy

CHAP. IV.] MY LAST MIAS. 89

that I could not do it without their help. I looked about
for a place to skin him, but not a bit of dry ground was to
be seen, till at last I found a clump of two or three old
trees and stumps, between which a few feet of soil had
collected just above the water, and which was just large
enough for us to drag the animal upon it. I first measured
him, and found him to be by far the largest I had yet seen,
for, though the standing height was the same as the others
(4 feet 2 inches), yet the outstretched arms were 7 feet
9 inches, which was six inches more than the previous one,
and the immense broad face was 134 inches wide, whereas
the widest I had hitherto seen was only 113 inches. The
girth of the body was 3 feet 74 inches. I am inclined to
believe, therefore, that the length and strength of the arms,
and the width of the face, continues increasing to a very
great age, while the standing height, from the sole of the
foot to the crown of the head, rarely if ever exceeds 4 feet
2 inches. :

As this was the last Mias I shot, and the last time I
saw an adult living animal, I will give a sketch of its
general habits, and any other facts connected with it. The
Orang-utan is known to inhabit Sumatra and Borneo, and
there is every reason to believe that it is confined to these
two great islands, in the former of which, however, it
seems to be much more rare. In Borneo it has a wide

range, inhabiting many districts on the south-west, south-

90 BORNHO—THE ORANG-UTAN, [CHAP. IV.

east, north-east, and north-west coasts, but appears to
be chiefly confined to the low and swampy forests. It
seems, at first sight, very inexplicable that the Mias
should be quite unknown in the Sarawak valley, while it
is abundant in Sambas, on the west, and Sddong, on the
east. But when we know the habits and mode of life of
the animal, we see a sufficient reason for this apparent
anomaly in the physical features of the Sarawak district.
In the Sadong, where I observed it, the Mias is only found
when the country is low level and swampy, and at the
same time covered with a lofty virgin forest. From
these swamps rise many isolated mountains, on some of
which the Dyaks have settled, and covered with planta-
tions of fruit trees. These are a great attraction to the
Mias, which comes to feed on the unripe fruits, but always
retires to the swamp at night. Where the country becomes
slightly elevated, and the soil dry, the Mias is no longer
to be found. For example, in all the lower part of the
Sddong valley it abounds, but as soon as we ascend above
the limits of the tides, where the country, though still flat,
is high enough to be dry, it disappears. Now the Sarawak
valley has this peculiarity—the lower portion though
swampy is not covered with continuous lofty forest, but is
principally occupied by the Nipa palm ; and near the town
of Sarawak where the country becomes dry, it is greatly
undulated in many parts, and covered with small patches

CHAP. 1V.] THE MIAS DISTRICT. 91

of virgin forest, and much second-growth jungle on ground
which has once been cultivated by the Malays or Dyaks.

Now it seems to me probable, that a wide extent of
unbroken and equally lofty virgin forest is necessary to
the comfortable existence of these animals. Such forests
form their open country, where they can roam in every
direction with as much facility as the Indian on the
prairie, or the Arab on the desert; passing from tree-top
to tree-top without ever being obliged to descend upon
the earth. The elevated and the drier districts are more
frequented by man, more cut up by clearings and low
second-growth jungle not adapted to its peculiar mode of
progression, and where it would therefore be more exposed
to danger, and more frequently obliged to descend upon
the earth. There is probably also a greater variety of
fruit in the Mias district, the small mountains which
rise like islands out of it serving as a sort of gardens or
plantations, where the trees of the uplands are to be found
in the very midst of the swampy plains.

It is a singular and very interesting sight to watch
a Mias making his way leisurely through the forest. He
walks deliberately along some of the larger branches, in
the semi-erect attitude which the great length of his arms
and the shortness of his legs cause him naturally to
assume; and the disproportion between these limbs is

increased by his walking on his knuckles, not on the palm

92 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [CHAP. IV.

of the hand, as we should do. He seems always to choose
those branches which intermingle with an adjoining tree,
on approaching which he stretches out his long arms, and,
seizing the opposing boughs, grasps them together with
both hands, seems to try their strength, and then de-
liberately swings himself across to the next branch, on
which he walks along as before. He never jumps or
springs, or even appears to hurry himself, and yet manages
to get along almost as quickly as a person can run through
the forest beneath. The long and powerful arms are of
the greatest use to the animal, enabling it to climb easily
up the loftiest trees, to seize fruits and young leaves from
slender boughs which will not bear its weight, and to
gather leaves and branches with which to form its nest.
I have already described how it forms a nest when
wounded, but it uses a similar one to sleep on almost
every night. This is placed low down, however, on a
small tree not more than from twenty to fifty feet from
the ground, probably because it is warmer and less ex-
posed to wind than higher up, Each Mias is said to
make a fresh one for himself every night; but I should
think that is hardly probable, or their remains would be
much more abundant; for though I saw several about the
coal-mines, there must have been many Orangs about every
day, and in a year their deserted nests would become very

numerous. The Dyaks say that, when it is very wet, the

CHAP. IV. ] HABITS AND FOOD. 93

Mias covers himself over with leaves of pandanus, or large
ferns, which has perhaps led to the story of his making
a hut in the trees.’

The Orang does not leave his bed till the suh has well
risen and has dried up the dew upon the leaves. He
feeds all through the middle of the day, but seldom
returns to the same tree two days running. They do not
geem much alarmed at man, as they often stared down
upon me for several minutes, and then only moved away
slowly to an adjacent tree. After seeing one, I have often
had to go half a mile or more to fetch my gun, and in
nearly every case have found it on the same tree, or within
a hundred yards, when I returned. I never saw two full-
erown animals together, but both males and females are
sometimes accompanied by half-grown young ones, while,
at other times, three or four young ones were seen in
company. Their food consists almost exclusively of fruit,
with occasionally leaves, buds, and young shoots. They
seem to prefer unripe fruits, some of which were very sour,
others intensely bitter, particularly the large red, fleshy
arillus of one which seemed an especial favourite. In
other cases they eat only the small seed of a large fruit,
and they almost always waste and destroy more than they
eat, so that there is a continual rain of rejected portions
below the tree they are feeding on. The Durian is an

especial favourite, and quantities of this delicious fruit are

94 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [cHAP. Iv.

destroyed wherever it grows surrounded by forest, but they
will not cross clearings to get at them. It seems won-
derful how the animal can tear open this fruit, the outer
covering of which is so thick and tough, and closely
covered with strong conical spines. It probably bites off
a few of these first, and then, making a small hole, tears
open the fruit with its powerful fingers.

The Mias rarely descends to the ground, except when,
pressed by hunger, it seeks for succulent shoots by the
river side; or, in very dry weather, has to search after
water, of which it generally finds sufficient in the hollows
of leaves. Once only I saw two half-grown Orangs on the
ground in a dry hollow at the foot of the Siminjon hill.
They were playing together, standing erect, and grasping
each other by the arms. It may be safely stated, however,
that the Orang never walks erect, unless when using its
hands to support itself by branches overhead or when
attacked. Representations of its walking with a stick
are entirely imaginary.

The Dyaks all declare that the Mias is never attacked
by any animal in the forest, with two rare exceptions; and
the accounts I received of these are so curious that I give
them nearly in the words of my informants, old Dyak
chiefs, who had lived all their lives in the places where
the animal is most abundant. The first of whom I in-

quired said: “No animal is strong enough to hurt the

CHAP. IV.] MIAS AND CROCODILE. 95

Mias, and the only creature he ever fights with is the
crocodile. When there is no fruit in the jungle, he goes
to seek food on the banks of the river, where there are
plenty of young shoots that he likes, and fruits that
grow close to the water. Then the crocodile sometimes
tries to seize him, but the Mias gets upon him, and
beats him with his hands and feet, and tears him and
kills him.” He added that he had once seen such a
fight, and that he believes that the Mias is always the
victor. ,

My next informant was the Orang Kaya, or chief of the
Balow Dyaks, on the Siminjon River. He said: “The
Mias has no enemies; no animals dare attack it but the
crocodile and the python. He always kills the crocodile
by main strength, standing upon it, pulling open its jaws,
and ripping up its throat. If a python attacks a Mias,
he seizes it with his hands, and then bites it, and soon
kills it. The Mias is very strong; there is no animal in
the jungle so strong as he.”

It is very remarkable that an animal so large, so
peculiar, and of such a high type of form as the Orang-
utan, should be confined to so limited a district—to two
islands, and those almost the last inhabited by the
higher Mammalia; for, eastward of Borneo and Java,
the Quadrumania, Ruminants, Carnivora, and many other

eroups of Mammalia, diminish rapidly, and soon entirely

96 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [cHAP. Iv.

disappear. When we consider, further, that almost all
other animals have in earlier ages been represented by
allied yet distinct forms—that, in the latter part of the
tertiary period, Europe was inhabited by bears, deer,
wolves, and cats; Australia by kangaroos and other mar-
supials ; South America by gigantic sloths and ant-eaters ;
all different from any now existing, thouch intimately
allied to them—we have every reason to believe that the
Orang-utan, the Chimpanzee, and the Gorilla have also
had their forerunners. With what interest must every
naturalist look forward to the time when the caves
and tertiary deposits of the tropics may be thoroughly
examined, and the past history and earliest appearance
of the great man-like apes be at length made known.

I will now say a few words as to the supposed existence
of a Bornean Orang as large as the Gorilla. I have
myself examined the bodies of seventeen freshly-killed
Orangs, all of which were carefully measured; and of seven
of them I preserved the skeleton. I also obtained two
skeletons killed by other persons. Of this extensive series,
sixteen were fully adult, nine being males, and seven
females. The adult males of the large Orangs only varied
from 4 feet 1 mch to 4 feet 2 inches in height, measured
fairly to the heel, so as to give the height of the animal
if it stood perfectly erect ; the extent of the outstretched
arms, from 7 feet 2 inches to 7 feet 8 inches; and the

CHAP. IV. | SUPPOSED GIGANTIC SPECIES. 97

width of the face, from 10 inches to 134 inches. The
dimensions given by other naturalists closely agree with
mine. The largest Orang measured by Temminck was
4 feet high. Of twenty-five specimens collected by
Schlegel and Miiller, the largest old male was 4 feet
1 inch; and the largest skeleton in the Calcutta Museum
was, according to Mr. Blyth, 4 feet 14 inch. My speci-
mens were all from the north-west coast of Borneo; those
of the Dutch from the west and south coasts; and no
specimen has yet reached Europe exceeding these dimen-
sions, although the total number of skins and skeletons
must amount to over a hundred.

Strange to say, however, several persons declare that
they have measured Orangs of a much larger size. Tem-
minck, in his Monograph of the Orang, says, that he
has just received news of the capture of a specimen
) feet 3 inches high. Unfortunately, it never seems to
have reached Holland, for nothing has since been heard
of any such animal. Mr, St. John, in his “Life in the
Forests of the Far East,’ vol. 1. p. 237, tells us of an
Orang shot by a friend of his, which was 5 feet 2 inches
from the heel to the top of the head, the arm 17 inches
in girth, and the wrist 12 inches! The head alone was
brought to Sarawak, and Mr. St. John tells us that he
assisted to measure this, and that it was 15 inches broad
by 14 long. Unfortunately, even this skull appears not

VOL. I. H

98 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [CHAP. Iv.

to have been preserved, for no specimen corresponding to
these dimensions has yet reached England.

In a letter from Sir James Brooke, dated October 1857,
in which he acknowledges the receipt of my Papers on the
Orang, published in the “ Annals and Magazine of Natural
History,” he sends me the measurements of a specimen
killed by his nephew, which I will give exactly as I
received it: “September 3d, 1867, killed female Orang-
utan. Height, from head to heel, 4 feet 6 inches. Stretch
from fingers to fingers across body, 6 feet 1 ch. Breadth
of face, including callosities, 11 inches.” Now, in these
dimensions, there is palpably one error; for in every
Orang yet measured by any naturalist, an expanse of
arms of 6 feet 1 inch corresponds to a height of about
3 feet 6 inches, while the largest specimens of 4 feet to
4 feet 2 inches high, always have the extended arms as
much as 7 feet 3 inches to 7 feet 8 inches. It is, in fact,
one of the characters of the genus to have the arms so
long that an animal standing nearly erect can rest its
fingers on the ground. A height of 4 feet 6 inches would
therefore require a stretch of arms of at least 8 feet! If it
were only 6 feet to that height, as given in the dimensions
quoted, the animal would not be an Orang at all, but
a new genus of apes, differing materially in habits and
mode of progression. But Mr. Johnson, who shot this

animal, and who knows Orangs well, evidently considered

CHAP. IV. ] ERRORS OF MEASUREMENT. 99

it to be one; and we have therefore to judge whether it
is more probable that he made a mistake of two feet
in the stretch of the arms, or of one foot in the height.
The latter error is certainly the easiest to make, and it
will bring his animal into agreement, as to proportions
and size, with all those whieh exist in Europe. How easy
it is to be deceived in the height of these animals is well
shown in the case of the Sumatran Orang, the skin of
which was described by Dr. Clarke Abel. The captain
and crew who killed this animal declared, that when
alive he exceeded the tallest man, and looked so gigantic
that they thought he was 7 feet high; but that, when he
was killed and lay upon the ground, they found he was
only about 6 feet. Now it will hardly be credited that
the skin of this identical animal exists in the Calcutta
Museum, and Mr. Blyth, the late curator, states “ that
it is by no means one of the largest size ;” which means
that it is about 4 feet high!

Having these undoubted examples of error in the
dimensions of Orangs, it is not too much to conclude that
Mr. St. John’s friend made a similar error of measurement,
or rather, perhaps, of memory ; for we are not told that
the dimensions were noted down aé the time they were
made. The only figures given by Mr. St. John on his
own authority are that “the head was 15 inches broad
by 14 inches long.” As my largest male was 134

H 2

100 BORNEO—THE ORANG-UTAN. [CHAP. IV.

broad across the face, measured as soon as the animal
was killed, I can quite understand that when the head
arrived at Sarawak from the Batang Lupar, after two if
not three days’ voyage, it was so swollen by decomposition
as to measure an inch more than when it was fresh. On
the whole, therefore, I think it will be allowed, that up to
this time we have not the least reliable evidence of the

existence of Orangs in Borneo more than 4 feet 2 inches
high.

CHAPTER V.
BORNEO—JOURNEY IN THE INTERIOR.
(NOVEMBER 1855 TO JANUARY 1856.)

S the wet season was approaching I determined to
return to Sarawak, sending all my collections with
Charles Allen round by sea, while 1 myself proposed to go
up to the sources of the Sddong River, and descend by the
Sardwak valley. As the route was somewhat difficult, I
took the smallest quantity of baggage, and only one servant,
a Malay lad named Bujon, who knew the language of the
Sadong Dyaks, with whom he had traded. We left the
mines on the 27th of November, and the next day reached
the Malay village of Gudong, where I stayed a short time
to buy fruit and eggs, and called upon the Datu Bandar, or
Malay governor of the place. He lived in a large and
well-built house, very dirty outside and in, and was very
inquisitive about my business, and particularly about the
coal mines. These puzzle the natives exceedingly, as they
cannot understand the extensive and costly preparations for

working coal, and cannot believe it is to be used only as

102 BORNEO. (crap. v.

fuel when wood is so abundant and so easily obtained. It
was evident that Europeans seldom came here, for numbers
of women skeltered away as I walked through the village ;
and one girl about ten or twelve years old, who had just
brought a bamboo full of water from the river, threw it
down with a cry of horror and alarm the moment she
caught sight of me, turned round and jumped into the
stream. She swam beautifully, and kept looking back as
if expecting I would follow her, screaming violently all
the time ; while a number of men and boys were laughing
at her ignorant terror.

At Jahi, the next village, the stream became so swift in
consequence of a flood, that my heavy boat could make no
way, and I was obliged to send it back and go on in a very
small open one. So far the river had been very mono-
tonous, the banks being cultivated as rice-fields, and little
thatched huts alone breaking the unpicturesque line of
muddy bank crowned with tall grasses, and backed by the
top of the forest behind the cultivated ground. A few
hours beyond Jahi we passed the limits of cultivation, and
had the beautiful virgin forest coming down to the water's
edge, with its palms and creepers, its noble trees, its ferns,
and epiphytes. The banks of the river were, however, still
generally flooded, and we had some difficulty in finding a
dry spot to sleep on. Early in the morning we reached

Empugnan, a small Malay village situated at the foot of an-

CHAP. V.] VILLAGE OF HILL DYAKS. 103

isolated mountain which had been visible from the mouth
of the Simiinjon River. Beyond here the tides are not
felt, and we now entered upon a district of elevated forest,
with a finer vegetation. Large trees stretch out their
arms across the stream, and the steep, earthy banks are
clothed with ferns and zingiberaceous plants.

Early in the afternoon we arrived at Tabdkan, the first
village of the Hill Dyaks. On an open space near the
river about twenty boys were playing at a game something
like what we call “prisoner’s base;” their ornaments of
beads and brass wire and their gay-coloured kerchiefs and
waist-cloths showing to much advantage, and forming a
very pleasing sight. On being called by Bujon, they imme-
diately left their game to carry my things up to the “ head-
house,”—a circular building attached to most Dyak
villages, and serving as a lodging for strangers, the place
for trade, the sleeping-room of the unmarried youths, and
the general council-chamber. It is elevated on lofty posts,
has a large fireplace in the middle and windows in the
roof all round, and forms a very pleasant and comfortable
abode. In the evening it was crowded with young men
and boys, who came to look at me. They were mostly fine
young fellows, and I could not help admiring the simplicity
and elegance of their costume. Their only dress is the
long “chawat,” or waist-cloth, which hangs down before

and behind. It is generally of blue cotton, ending in

104 BORNEO.

[CHAP. V.

three broad bands of red, blue, and white. Those who

can afford it wear a handkerchief on the head, which

PORTRAIT OF DYAK YOUTH.

is either red, with
a narrow border of
gold lace, or of three
colours, like the
“chawat.” The large
flat moon - shaped
brass earrings, the
heavy necklace of
white or black beads,
rows of brass rings
on the arms and
legs, and armlets of
white shell, all serve
to relieve and set
off the pure reddish
brown skin and jet-
black hair. Add to
this the little pouch
containing materials

for betel - chewing,

and a long slender knife, both invariably worn at the

side, and you have the every-day dress of the young Dyak

gentleman.

The “ Orang Kaya,” or rich man, as the chief of the tribe

CHAP. V.] DYAK GAMES. 105

is called, now came in with several of the older men ; and
the “ bitchara” or talk commenced, about getting a boat and
men to take me on the next morning. As I could not
understand a word of their language, which is very difte-
rent from Malay, I took no part in the proceedings, but was
represented by my boy Bujon, who translated to me most
of what was said. A Chinese trader was in the house,
and he, too, wanted men the next day; but on his hinting
this to the Orang Kaya, he was sternly told that a white
man’s business was now heing discussed, and he must wait
another day before his could be thought about.

After the “bitchara” was over and the old chiets gone,
I asked the young men to play or dance, or amuse them-
selves in their accustomed way ; and after some little hesi-
tation they agreed to do so. They first had a trial of
strength, two boys sitting opposite each other, foot being
placed against foot, and a stout stick grasped by both their’
hands. Each then tried to throw himself back, so as to
raise his adversary up from the ground, either by main
strength or by a sudden effort. Then one of the men
would try his strength against two or three of the boys;
and afterwards they each grasped their own ankle with a
hand, and while one stood as firm as he could, the other
swung himself round on one leg, so'as to strike the other's
free leg, and try to overthrow him. When these games had

been played all round with varying success, we had a

106 BORNEO. [cHapP. y.

novel kind of concert. Some placed a leg across the knee,
and struck the fingers sharply on the ankle, others beat
their arms against their sides like a cock when he is going
to crow, thus making a great variety of clapping sounds,
while another with his hand under his armpit produced a
deep trumpet note; and, as they all kept time very well,
the effect was by no means unpleasing. This seemed quite
a favourite amusement with them, and they kept it up
with much spirit.

The next morning we started in a boat about thirty feet
long, and only twenty-eight inches wide. The stream here
suddenly changes its character. Hitherto, though swift, it
had been deep and smooth, and confined by steep banks.
Now it rushed and rippled over a pebbly, sandy, or rocky
bed, occasionally forming miniature cascades and rapids,
and throwing up on one side or the other broad banks of
finely coloured pebbles. No paddling could make way
here, but the Dyaks with bamboo poles propelled us along
with great dexterity and swiftness, never losing their
balance in such a narrow and unsteady vessel, though
standing up and exerting all their force. It was a brilliant
day, and the cheerful exertions of the men, the rushing of
the sparkling waters, with the bright and varied foliage
which from either bank stretched over our heads, produced
an exhilarating sensation which recalled my canoe voyages

on the grander waters of South America.

cap. v.] COSTUME OF D¥YAK WOMEN. 107

Early in the afternoon we reached the village of
Borotoi, and, though it would have been easy to reach the
next one before night, I was obliged to stay, as my men
wanted to return and others could not possibly go on with
me without the preliminary talking. Besides, a white man
was too great a rarity to be allowed to escape them, and
their wives would never have forgiven them if, when they
returned from the fields, they found that such a curiosity
had not been kept for them to see. On entering the house
to which I was invited, a crowd of sixty or seventy men,
women, and children gathered round me, and I sat for half
an hour like some strange animal submitted for the first
time to the gaze of an inquiring public. Brass rings were
here in the greatest profusion, many of the women having
their arms completely covered with them, as well as their
legs from the ankle to the knee. Round the waist they
wear a dozen or more coils of fine rattan stained red, to
which the petticoat is attached. Below this are generally
a number of coils of brass wire, a girdle of small silver
coins, and sometimes a broad belt of brass ring armour.
On their heads they wear a conical hat without a crown,
formed of variously coloured beads, kept in shape by rings
of rattan, and forming a fantastic but not unpicturesque
head-dress.

Walking out to a small hill near the village, cultivated

as a rice-field, I had a fine view of the country, which was

108 BORNEO. [CHAP. Vv.

becoming quite hilly, and towards the south, mountainous.
I took bearings and sketches of all that was visible, an
operation which caused much astonishment to the Dyaks
who accompanied me, and produced a request to exhibit
the compass when I returned. I was then surrounded by
a larger crowd than before, and when I took my evening
meal in the midst of a circle of about a hundred spectators
anxiously observing every wovement and criticising every
mouthful, my thoughts involuntarily recurred to the lions
at feeding time. Like those noble animals, I too was used
to it, and it did not affeet my appetite. The children here
were more shy than at Tabékan, and I could not persuade
them to play. I therefore turned showman myself, and
exhibited the shadow of a dog’s head eating, which pleased
them so much that all the village in succession came out
to see it. The “rabbit on the wall” does not do in
Borneo, as there is no animal it resembles. The boys had
tops shaped something like whipping-tops, but spun with
a string.

The next morning we proceeded as before, but the river
had become so rapid and shallow and the boats were all
so small, that though I had nothing with me but a change
of clothes, a gun, and a few cooking utensils, two were
required to take me on. The rock which appeared here
and there on the river-bank was an indurated clay-slate,

sometimes crystalline, and thrown up almost vertically.

CHAP. V.] AN EVENING PARTY. 109

Right and left of us rose isolated limestone mountains,
their white precipices glistening in the sun and contrasting
beautifully with the luxuriant vegetation that elsewhere
clothed them. The river bed was a mass of pebbles,
mostly pure white quartz, but with abundance of jasper
and agate, presenting a beautifully variegated appearance.
It was only ten in the morning when we arrived at Budw,
and, though there were plenty of people about, I could
not induce them to allow me to go on to the next village.
The Orang Kaya said that if I insisted on having men, ot
course he would get them, but when I took him at his
word and said I must have them, there came a fresh re-
monstrance ; and the idea of my going on that day seemed
so painful that I was obliged to submit. I therefore
walked out over the rice-fields, which are here very ex-
tensive, covering a number of the little hills and valleys
into which the whole country seems broken up, and
obtained a fine view of hills and mountains in every
direction.

In the evening the Orang Kaya came in full dress (a
spangled velvet jacket, but no trowsers), and invited me
over to his house, where he gave me a seat of honour
under a canopy of white calico and coloured handkerchiefs.
The great verandah was crowded with people, and large
plates of rice with cooked and fresh eggs were placed on

the ground as presents for me. A very old man then

110 BORNEO. [cHap. v.

dressed himself in bright-coloured cloths and many orna-
ments, and sitting at the door, murmured a long prayer
or invocation, sprinkling rice from a basin he held in his
hand, while several large gongs were loudly beaten and
a salute of muskets fired off. A large jar of rice wine,
very sour but with an agreeable flavour, was then handed
round, and I asked to see some of their dances. These
were, like most savage performances, very dull and un-
graceful affairs; the men dressing themselves absurdly
like women, and the girls making themselves as stiff
and ridiculous as possible. All the time six or eight
large Chinese gongs were being beaten by the vigorous
arms of as many young men, producing such a deafening
discord that I was glad to escape to the round house,
where I slept very comfortably with half a dozen smoke-
dried human skulls suspended over my head.

The river was now so shallow that boats could hardly
get along. I therefore preferred walking to the next
village, expecting to see something of the country, but
was much disappointed, as the path lay almost entirely
through dense bamboo thickets. The Dyaks get two crops
off the ground in succession ; one of rice, and the other
of sugar-cane, maize, and vegetables. The ground then
lies fallow eight or ten years, and becomes covered with
bamboos and shrubs, which often completely arch over

the path and shut out everything from the view. Three

CHAP. V. | WEALTHY DY AKS. lil

hours’ walking brought us to the village of Senankan,
where I was again obliged to remain the whole day, which
I agreed to do on the promise of the Orang Kaya that
his men should next day take me through two other
villages across to Sénna, at the head of the Sarawak River.
I amused myself as I best could till evening, by walking
about the high ground near, to get views of the country
and bearings of the chief mountains. There was then
another public audience, with gifts of rice and eggs, and
drinking of rice wine. These Dyaks cultivate a great
extent of ground, and supply a good deal of rice to
Sarawak. They are rich in gongs, brass trays, wire, silver
coins, and other articles in which a Dyak’s wealth consists ;
and their women and children are all highly ornamented
with bead necklaces, shells, and brass wire.

In the morning I waited some time, but the men that
were to accompany me did not make their appearance.
On sending to the Orang Kaya I found that both he and
another head-man had gone out for the day, and on
inquiring the reason was told that they could not persuade
any of their men to go with me because the journey was
a long and fatiguing one. As I was determined to get on,
I told the few men that remained that the chiefs had
behaved very badly, and that I should acquaint the Rajah
with their conduct, and I wanted to start immediately.

Every man present made some excuse, but others were

112 BORNHO. [CHAP. Vv.

sent for, and by dint of threats and promises, and the
exertion of all Bujon’s eloquence, we succeeded in getting
off after two hours’ delay.

For the first few miles our path lay over a country
cleared for rice-fields, consisting entirely of small but deep
and sharply-cut ridges and valleys, without a yard of level
ground. After crossing the Kayan River, a main branch

of the Sadong

e, we got on to the lower slopes of the Seboran

Mountain, and the path lay along a sharp and moderately
steep ridge, affording an excellent view of the country.
Its features were exactly those of the Himalayas in
miniature, as they are described by Dr. Hooker and other
travellers; and looked like a natural model of some parts
of those vast mountains on a scale of about a tenth,
thousands of feet being here represented by hundreds. I
now discovered the source of the beautiful pebbles which
had so pleased me in the river-bed. The slaty rocks had
ceased, and these mountains seemed to consist of a sand-
stone conglomerate, which was in some places a mere
mass of pebbles cemented together. I might have known
that such small streams could not produce such vast
quantities ot well-rounded pebbles of the very hardest
materials. They had evidently been formed in past ages,
by the action of some continental stream or seabeach,
before the great island of Borneo had risen from the ocean,

The existence of such a system of hills and valleys repro-

CHAP. V. ] THE HIMALAYAS IN MINIATURE. 113

ducing in miniature all the features of a great mountain
region, has an important bearing on the modern theory,
that the form of the ground is mainly due to atmospheric
rather than to subterranean action. When we have a
number of branching valleys and ravines running in many
different directions within a square mile, it seems hardly
possible to impute their formation, or even their origina-
tion, to rents and fissures produced by earthquakes. On the
other hand, the nature of the rock, so easily decomposed*
and removed by water, and the known action of the
abundant tropical rains, are in this case, at least, quite
_ sufficient causes for the production of such valleys. But
the resemblance between their forms and outlines, their
mode of divergence, and the slopes and ridges that divide
them, and those of the grand mountain scenery of the
Himalayas, is so remarkable, that we are forcibly led to
the conclusion that the forces at work in the two cases
have been the same, differing only in the time they have
been in action, and the nature of the material they have
had to work upon.

About noon we reached the village of Menyerry, beau-
tifully situated on a spur of the mountain about 600 feet
above the valley, and affording a delightful view of the
mountains of this part of Borneo. I here got a sight of
Penrissen Mountain, at the head of the Sarawak River,
and one of the highest in the district, rising to about

VOL. I. 1

114 BORNEO. [cwap. v.

6,000 feet above the sea. To the south the Rowan, and
further off the Untowan Mountains in the Dutch territory,
appeared equally lofty. Descending from Menyerry we
again crossed the Kayan, which bends round the spur,
and ascended to the pass which divides the Sadong and
Sarawak valleys, and which is about 2,000 feet high. The
descent from this point was very fine. A stream, deep in
a rocky gorge, rushed on each side of us, to one of which
*we gradually descended, passing over many lateral gulleys
and along the faces of some precipices by means of native
bamboo bridges. Some of these were several hundred
feet long and fifty or sixty high, a single smooth bamboo
four inches diameter forming the only pathway, while
a slender handrail of the same material was often so
shaky that it could only be used as a guide rather than
a support.

Late in the .afternoon we reached Sodos, situated on a

spur between two streams, but so surrounded by fruit

trees that little could be seen of the country. The house .

was spacious clean and comfortable, and the people very
obliging. Many of the women and children had never
seen a white man before, and were very sceptical as to my
being the same colour all over, as my face. They begged
me to show them my arms and body, and they were so
kind and good-tempered that I felt bound to give them

some satisfaction, so I turned up my trousers and let them

.

—

CHAP. V.] SODOS AND SENNA DY AKS. 115

see the colour of my leg, which they examined with great
interest.

In the morning early we continued our descent along
a fine valley, with mountains rising 2,000 or 3,000 feet in
every direction. The little river rapidly increased in size
till we reached Senna, when it had become a fine pebbly
stream navigable for small canoes. Here again the up-
heaved slaty rock appeared, with the same dip and direc-
tion as in the Sddong River. On inquiring for a boat to
take me down the stream, I was told that the Senna
Dyaks, although living on the river-banks, never made or
used boats. They were mountaineers who had only come
down into the valley about twenty years before, and had
not yet got into new habits. They are of the same tribe
as the people of Menyerry and Sodos. They make good
paths and bridges, and cultivate much mountain land, and
thus give a more pleasing and civilized aspect to the
country than where the people move about only in boats,
and confine their cultivation to the banks of the streams.

After some trouble I hired a boat from a Malay trader,
and found three Dyaks who had been several times with
Malays to Sarawak, and thought they could manage it
very well. They turned out very awkward, constantly
running aground, striking against rocks, and losing their
balance so as almost to upset themselves and the boat ;
offering a striking contrast to the skill of the Sea Dyaks.

12

ily as BORNEO. [cwap. v.

At length we came to a really dangerous rapid where
boats were often swamped, and my men were afraid to
pass it. Some Malays with a boat-load of rice here over-
took us, and after safely passing down kindly sent back
one of their men to assist me. As it was, my Dyaks lost
their balance in the critical part of the passage, and had
they been alone would certainly have upset the boat.
The river now became exceedingly picturesque, the ground
on each side being partially cleared for rice-fields, afford-
ing a good view of the country. Numerous little granaries
were built high up in trees overhanging the river, and
having a bamboo bridge sloping up to them from the
bank; and here and there bamboo suspension bridges
crossed the stream, where overhanging trees favoured their
construction.

I slept that night in the village of the Sebungow
Dyaks, and the next day reached Sarawak, passing
through a most beautiful country, where limestone moun-
tains with their fantastic forms and white precipices shot
up on every side, draped and festooned with a luxuriant
vegetation. The banks of the Sarawak River are everywhere
covered with fruit trees, which supply the Dyaks with a
great deal of their food. The Mangosteen, Lansat, Ram-
butan, Jack, Jambou, and Blimbing, are all abundant ; but
most abundant and most esteemed is the Durian, a fruit

about which very little is known in England, but which

CHAP. V.] THE DURIAN. PER

both by natives and Europeans in the Malay Archipelago
is reckoned superior to all others. The old traveller
Linschott, writing in 1599, says:—“It is of such an
excellent taste that it surpasses in flavour all the other
fruits of the world, according to those who have tasted it.”
And Doctor Paludanus adds :—*“ This fruit is of a hot and
humid nature. To those not used to it, it seems at first
to smell like rotten onions, but immediately they have
tasted it they prefer it to all other food. The natives
give it honourable titles, exalt it, and make verses on it.”
When brought into a house the smell is often so offensive
that some persons can never bear to taste it. This was
my own case when I first tried it in Malacca, but in
Borneo I found a ripe fruit on the ground, and, eating it
out of doors, I at once became a confirmed Durian eater.
The Durian grows on a large and lofty forest tree, some-
what resembling an elm in its general character, but with
a more smooth and scaly bark. The fruit is round or
slightly oval, about the size of a large cocoanut, of a
green colour, and covered all over with short stout spines
the bases of which touch each other, and are consequently
somewhat hexagonal, while the points are very strong and
sharp. It is so completely armed, that if the stalk is
broken off it is a difficult matter to lift one from the
eround. The outer rind is so thick and tough, that from

whatever height it may fall it is never broken. From the

118 BORNEO. [cHapP. v.

base to the apex five very faint lines may be traced, over
which the spines arch a little; these are the sutures of
the carpels, and show where the fruit may be divided with
a heavy knife and a strong hand. The five cells are
satiny white within, and are each filled with an oval mass
of cream-coloured pulp, imbedded in which are two or
three seeds about the size of chestnuts. This pulp is the
eatable part, and its consistence and flavour are inde-
scribable. A rich butter-like custard highly flavoured
with almonds gives the best general idea of it, but inter-
mingled with it come wafts of flavour that call to mind
cream-cheese, onion-sauce, brown sherry, and other incon-
eruities. Then there is a rich glutinous smoothness in
the pulp which nothing else possesses, but which adds
to its delicacy. It is neither acid, nor sweet, nor juicy,
yet one feels the want of none of these qualities, for it is
perfect as it is. It produces no nausea or other bad effect,
and the more you eat of it the less you feel inclined to
stop. In fact to eat Durians is a new sensation, worth
a voyage to the East to experience.

When the fruit is ripe it falls of itself, and the only
way to eat Durians in perfection is to get them as they
fall; and the smell is then less overpowering. When un-
ripe, it makes a very good vegetable if cooked, and it is
also eaten by the Dyaks raw. In a good fruit season large

quantities are preserved salted, in jars and bamboos, and

cHap. V.] A DANGEROUS FRUIT. 119

kept the year round, when it acquires a most disgusting
odour to Europeans, but the Dyaks appreciate it highly
as a relish with their rice. There are in the forest two
varieties of wild Durians with much smaller fruits, one of
them orange-coloured inside; and these are probably the
origin of the large and fine Durians, which are never found
wild. It would not, perhaps, be correct to say that the
Durian is the best of all fruits, because it cannot supply
the place of the subacid juicy kinds, sueh as the orange,
erape, mango, and mangosteen, whose refreshing and cool-
ing qualities are so wholesome and grateful ; but as pro-
ducing a food of the most exquisite flavour it is unsurpassed.
If I had to fix on two only, as representing the perfection
of the two classes, I should certainly choose the Durian
and the Orange as the king and queen of fruits.

The Durian is, however, sometimes dangerous. When
the fruit begins to ripen it falls daily and almost hourly,
and accidents not unfrequently happen to persons walking
or working under the trees. When a Durian strikes a
man in its fall, it produces a dreadful wound, the strong
spines tearing open the flesh, while the blow itself is very
heavy; but from this very circumstance death rarely
ensues, the copious effusion of blood preventing the in-
flammation which might otherwise take place. A Dyak
chief informed me that he had been struck down by a

Durian falling on his head, which he thought would

120 - BORNEO. [cHAP. V.

certainly have caused his death, yet he recovered in a
very short time.

Poets and moralists, judging from our English trees and
fruits, have thought that small fruits always grew on lofty
trees, so that their fall should be harmless to man, while
the large ones trailed on the ground. Two of the largest
and heaviest fruits known, however, the Brazil-nut fruit
(Bertholletia) and Durian, grow on lofty forest trees, from
which they fall as soon as they are ripe, and often wound
or kill the native inhabitants. From this we may learn
two things: first, not to draw general conclusions from a
very partial view. of nature; and secondly, that trees and
fruits, no less than the varied productions of the animal
kingdom, do not appear to be organized with exclusive
reference to the use and convenience of man.

During my many journeys in Borneo, and especially
during my various residences among the Dyaks, I first
came to appreciate the admirable qualities of the Bamboo.
In those parts of South America which I had previously
visited, these gigantic grasses were comparatively scarce ;
and where found but little used, their place being taken as
to one class of uses by the great variety of Palms, and as
to another by calabashes and gourds. Almost all tropical
countries produce Bamboos, and wherever they are found
in abundance the natives apply them to a variety of uses.

Their strength lightness smoothness straightness round-

CHAP. V.] USES OF BAMBOO. 121

ness and hollowness, the facility and regularity with which
they can be split, their many different sizes, the varying
length of their joints, the ease with which they can be
eut and with which holes can be made through them,
their hardness outside, their freedom from any pronounced
taste or smell, their great abundance, and the rapidity of
their growth and increase, are all qualities which render
them useful for a hundred different purposes, to serve
which other materials would require much more labour
and preparation. The Bamboo is one of the most won-
derful and most beautiful productions of the tropics,
and one of nature’s most valuable gifts to uncivilized
man.

The Dyak houses are all raised on posts, and are often
two or three hundred feet long and forty or fifty wide.
The floor is always formed of strips split from large
Bamboos, so that each may be nearly flat and about three
inches wide, and these are firmly tied down with rattan to
the joists beneath. When well made, this is a delightful
floor to walk upon barefooted, the rounded surfaces of the
bamboo being very smooth and agreeable to the feet, while
at the same time affording a firm hold. But, what is more
important, they form with a mat over them an excellent
bed, the elasticity of the Bamboo and its rounded surface
being far superior to a more rigid and a flatter floor.

Here we at once find a use for Bamboo which cannot be

(122 BORNEO. [onap. v.

supplied so well by another material without a vast
amount of labour, palms and other substitutes requiring
much cutting and smoothing, and not being equally good
when finished. When, however, a flat, close floor is
required, excellent boards are made by splitting open large
Bamboos on one side only, and flattening them out so as
to form slabs eighteen inches wide and six feet long, with
which some Dyaks floor their houses. These with con-
stant rubbing of the feet and the smoke of years become
dark and polished, like walnut or old oak, so that their
real material can hardly be recognised. What labour is
here saved t6,a savage whose only tools are an axe and a
knife, and who, if he wants boards, must hew them out of
the solid trunk of a tree, and must give days and weeks of
labour to obtain a surface as smooth and beautiful as the
Bamboo thus treated affords him. Again, if a temporary
house is wanted, either by the native in his plantation or
by the traveller in the forest, nothing is so convenient as
the Bamboo, with which a house can be constructed with
a quarter of the labour and time than if other materials
are used.

As I have already mentioned, the Hill Dyaks in the
interior of Sarawak make paths for long distances from
village to village and to their cultivated grounds, in the
course of which they have to cross many gullies and

ravines, and even rivers; or sometimes, to avoid a long

cnar. v.] DYAK BRIDGES. 123

circuit, to carry the path along the face of a precipice. In
all these cases the bridges they construct are of Bamboo,
and so admirably adapted is the material for this purpose,
that it seems doubtful whether they ever would have

attempted such works if they had not possessed it. The

DYAK CROSSING A BAMBOO BRIDGE.

Dyak bridge is simple but well designed. It consists
merely of stout Bamboos crossing each other at the road-
way like the letter X, and rising a few feet above it. At
the crossing they are firmly bound together, and to a large
Bamboo which lays upon them and forms the only path-

way, with a slender and often very shaky one to serve as a

124 BORNEO. [CHAP. Vv.

handrail. When a river is to be crossed an overhanging
tree is chosen, from which the bridge is partly suspended
and partly supported by diagonal struts from the banks, so
as to avoid placing posts in the stream itself, which would
be liable to be carried away by floods. In carrying a path
along the face of a precipice, trees and roots are made use
of for suspension; struts arise from suitable notches or
crevices in the rocks, and if these are not sufficient, im-
mense Bamboos fifty or sixty feet long are fixed on the
banks or on the branch of a tree below. These bridges
are traversed daily by men and women carrying heavy
loads, so that any insecurity is soon discovered, and, as the
materials are close at hand, immediately repaired. When
a path goes over very steep ground, and becomes slippery
in very wet or very dry weather, the Bamboo is used in
another way. Pieces are cut about a yard long, and
opposite notches being made at each end, holes are formed
through which pegs are driven, and firm and convenient
steps are thus formed with the greatest ease and celerity.
It is true that much of this will decay in one or two
seasons, but it can be so quickly replaced as to make
it more economical than using a harder and more
durable wood. ,

One of the most striking uses to which Bamboo is
applied by the Dyaks, is to assist them in climbing lofty

trees, by driving in pegs in the way I have already

CHAP. V.] USES OF BAMBOO. 125

described at page 85. This method is constantly used in
order to obtain wax, which is one of the most valuable
products of the country. The honey-bee of Borneo very
generally hangs its combs under the branches of the
Tappan, a tree which towers above all others in the
forest, and whose smooth cylindrical trunk often rises a
hundred feet without a branch. The Dyaks climb these
lofty trees at night, building up their Bamboo ladder as
they go, and bringing down gigantic honeycombs. These
furnish them with a delicious feast of honey and young
bees, besides the wax, which they sell to traders, and with
the proceeds buy the much-coveted brass wire, earrings,
and gold-edged handkerchiefs with which they love to
decorate themselves. In ascending Durian and other fruit
trees which branch at from thirty to fifty feet from the
ground, I have seen them use the Bamboo pegs only,
without the upright Bamboo which renders them so much
more secure.

The outer rind of the Bamboo, split and shaved thin, is
the strongest material for baskets; hen-coops, bird-cages,
and conical fish-traps are very quickly made from a single
joimt, by splitting off the skin in narrow strips left
attached to one end, while rings of the same material or
of rattan are twisted in at regular distances. Water is
brought to the houses by little aqueducts formed of large

Bamboos split in half and supported on crossed sticks of

126 BORNEO. [cuap. v.

various heights so as to give it a regular fall. Thin long-
jointed Bamboos form the Dyaks’ only water-vessels, and a
dozen of them stand in the corner of every house. They
are clean, light, and easily carried, and are in many ways
superior to earthen vessels for the same purpose. They
also make excellent cooking utensils ; vegetables and rice
can be boiled in them to perfection, and they are often
used when travelling. Salted fruit or fish, sugar, vinegar,
and honey are preserved in them instead of in jars or
bottles. In a small Bamboo case, prettily carved and
ornamented, the Dyak carries his sirih and lime for betel
chewing, and his little long-bladed knife has a Bamboo
sheath. His favourite pipe is a huge hubble-bubble, which
he will construct in a few minutes by inserting a small
piece of Bamboo for a bow] obliquely into a large cylinder
about six inches from the bottom containing water, through
which the smoke passes to a long slender Bamboo tube.
There are many other small matters for which Bamboo is
daily used, but enough has now been mentioned to show
its value. In other parts of the Archipelago I have
myself seen it apphed to many new uses, and it is pro-
bable that my limited means of observation did not make
me acquainted with one-half the ways in which it is ser-
viceable to the Dyaks of Sarawak.

While upon the subject of plants I may here mention a

few of the more striking vegetable productions of Borneo.

CHAP. V.] PITCHER-PLANTS AND FERNS. oi

The wonderful Pitcher-plants, forming the genus Nepen-
thes of botanists, here reach their greatest development.
Every mountain-top abounds with them, running along
the ground, or climbing over shrubs and stunted trees ;
their elegant pitchers hanging in every direction. Some
of these are long and slender, resembling in form the
beautiful Philippine lace-sponge (EKuplectella), which has
now become so common; others are broad and short. Their
colours are green, variously tinted and mottled with red
or purple. The finest yet known were obtained on the
summit of Kini-balou, in North-west Borneo. ~ One of the
broad sort, Nepenthes rajah, will hold two quarts of water
in its pitcher. Another, Nepenthes Edwardsiania, has a
narrow pitcher twenty inches long; while the plant itself
erows to a length of twenty feet.

Ferns are abundant, but are not so varied as on the
volcanic mountains of Java; and Tree-ferns are neither so
plentiful nor so large as in that island. They grow, how-
ever, quite down to the level of the sea, and are generally
slender and graceful plants from eight to fifteen feet high.
Without devoting much time to the search I collected fifty
species of Ferns in Borneo, and I have no doubt a good
botanist would have obtained twice the number. The
interesting group of Orchids is very abundant, but, as is
generally the case, nine-tenths of the species have small

and inconspicuous flowers. Among the exceptions are the

128 BORNEO. [crape. v.

fine Coelogynes, whose
large clusters of yellow
flowers ornainent the
gloomiest forests, and
thatmostextraordinary
plant, Vanda Lowii,
which last is particu-
larly abundant near
some hot springs at
the foot of the Penin-
jauh Mountain. = It
grows on the lower
branches of trees, and
its strange pendant
flower - spikes often
hang down so as almost

to reach the ground.

These are generally six or eight feet
long, bearing large and handsome flowers
three inches across, and varying in
colour from orange to red, with deep
purple-red spots. I measured one spike,
which reached the extraordinary length |
of nine feet eight inches, and bore nN
thirty-six flowers, spirally arranged ager y 2:

upon a slender thread-like stalk. Spe-

CHAP. V.] FOREST TREES. 129

cimens grown in our English hot-houses have produced
flower-spikes of equal length, and with a much larger
number of blossoms.

Flowers were scarce, as is usual in equatorial forests,
and it was only at rare intervals that I met with anything
striking. A few fine climbers were sometimes seen,
especially a handsome crimson and yellow Aischynanthus,
and a fine leguminous plant with clusters of large Cassia-
like flowers of a rich purple colour. Once I found a
number of small Anonaceous trees of the genus Polyalthea,
producing a most striking effect in the gloomy forest
shades. They were about thirty feet high, and their
slender trunks were covered with large star-like crimson
flowers, which clustered over them like garlands, and
resembled some artificial decoration more than a natural
product. (See illustration, next page.)

The forests abound with gigantic trees with cylindrical,
buttressed, or furrowed stems, while occasionally the
traveller comes upon a wonderful fig-tree, whose trunk is
itself a forest of stems and aérial roots. Still more rarely
are found trees which appear to have begun growing in
mid-air, and from the same point send out wide-spreading
branches above and a complicated pyramid of roots de-
scending for seventy or eighty feet to the ground below,
and so spreading on every side, that one can stand in the
very centre with the trunk of the tree immediately over-

VOL. I. K

130 BORNEO. [cHapP. v.

POLYALTHEA, STRANGE FOREST TREE. TREE-FERN.

head. Trees of this character are found all over the

Archipelago, and the accompanying illustration (taken

CHAP. V. | PENINJAUH MOUNTAIN. 131

from one which I often visited in the Aru Islands) will
convey some idea of their general character. I believe
that they originate as parasites, from seeds carried by
birds and dropped in the fork of some lofty tree. Hence
descend aérial roots, clasping and ultimately destroying
the supporting tree, which is in time entirely replaced by
the humble plant which was at first dependent upon it.
Thus we have an actual struggle for life in the vege-
table kingdom, not less fatal to the vanquished than the
struggles among animals which we can so much more
easily observe and understand. The advantage of quicker
access to light and warmth and air, which is gained in one
way by climbing plants, is here obtained by a forest tree,
which has the means of starting in life at an elevation
which others can only attain after many years of growth,
and then only when the fall of some other tree has made
room for them. Thus it is that in the warm and moist
and equable climate of the tropics, each available station
is seized upon, and becomes the means of developing new
forms of life especially adapted to occupy it.

On reaching Sarawak early in December I found there
would not be an opportunity of returning to Singapore till
the latter end of January. I therefore accepted Sir James
Brooke’s invitation to spend a week with him and Mr.
St. John at his cottage on Peninjauh. This is a very steep
pyramidal mountain of crystalline basaltic rock, about a

K 2

132 BORNEO. [cHapP. v.

thousand feet high, and covered with luxuriant forest,
There are three Dyak villages upon it, and on a little plat-
form near the summit is the rude wooden lodge where the
English Rajah was accustomed to go for relaxation and
cool fresh air. It is only twenty miles up the river, but
the road up the mountain is a succession of ladders on
the face of precipices, bamboo bridges over gullies and
chasms, and slippery paths over rocks and tree-trunks and
huge boulders as big as houses. A cool spring under an
overhanging rock just below the cottage furnished us with
refreshing baths and delicious drinking water, and the
Dyaks brought us daily heaped-up baskets of Mangusteens
and Lansats, two of the most delicious of the subacid
tropical fruits. We returned to Sarawak for Christmas
(the second I had spent with Sir James Brooke), when all
the Europeans both in the town and from the out-stations
enjoyed the hospitality of the Rajah, who possessed in a
pre-eminent degree the art offhaking every one around
him comfortable and happy.

A few days afterwards I returned to the mountain with
Charles and a Malay boy named Ali and stayed there
three weeks for the purpose of making a collection of
land-shells, butterflies and moths, ferns and orchids. On
the hill itself ferns were tolerably plentiful, and I made
a collection of about forty species. But what occupied.

me most was the great abundance of moths which on

CHAP. V. | CATCHING MOTHS. 133

certain occasions I was able to capture. As during the
whole of my eight years’ wanderings in the East I never
found another spot where these insects were at all plen-
tiful, it will be interesting to state the exact conditions
under which I here obtained them.

On one side of the cottage there was a verandah, looking
down the whole side of the mountain and to its summit on
the right, all densely clothed with forest. The boarded
sides of the cottage were whitewashed, and the roof of
the verandah was low, and also boarded and white-
washed. As soon as it got dark I placed my lamp on
a table against the wall, and with pins, insect-forceps, net,
and collecting-boxes by my side, sat down with a book.
Sometimes during the whole evening only one solitary
moth would visit me, while on other nights they would
pour in, in a continual stream, keeping me hard at work
catching and pinning till past midnight. They came
literally by thousands. These good nights were very few.
During the four weeks that I spent altogether on the
hill I only had four really good nights, and these were
always rainy, and the best of them soaking wet. But wet
nights were not always good, for a rainy moonlight night
produced next to nothing. All the chief tribes of moths
were represented, and the beauty and variety of the
species was very great. On good nights I was able to
capture from a hundred to two hundred and fifty moths,

134

BORNEO. [cHAP. Vv.

and these comprised on each occasion from half to two-

thirds that number of distinct species. Some of them

would settle on the wall, some on the table, while many

would fly up to the roof and give me a chase all over

the verandah before I could secure them. In order to

show the curious connexion between the state of the’

weather and the degree in which moths were attracted

to light, I add a list of my captures each night of my

stay on the hill.

No. of

Date. AD tHE: Remarks.
1855.
Dec. 13th | 1 Fine ; starlight.
» 14th | 75 Drizzly and fog.
5, doth | 41 Showery; cloudy.
» 16th 158 (120 species.) Steady rain.
spk Tp ss 82 Wet; rather moonlight.
ar Sth 9 Fine ; moonlight.
ee Ath 2 Fine ; clear moonlight.
» 8lst | 200

1856. }

Jan. Ist 185
Ci | 68
wih dal 50
Athy A eae
» oth 10
» oth 8
Se ith 8
Sth 10
» 9th 36
,, 10th 30
» llth | 260

Carried forward | 1,245

(130 species.) Dark and windy;
heavy rain.

Very wet.

Cloudy and showers.
Cloudy.

Fine.

Fine.

Very fine.

Very fine.

Fine.

Showery.

Showery.

Heavy rain all night, and dark.

CHAP. V. | HOW TO CATCH MOTHS. 135

Date. Eri | Remarks.
Brought forward | 1,245 |

Jan. 12th | 56 Showery.

, 13th | 44 | Showery; some moonlight.

» 14th 4 Fine ; moonlight.

» 15th 24 Rain ; moonlight.

» 16th 6 Showers ; moonlight.

ry Le: 6 Showers ; moonlight.

» 18th 1 | Showers; moonlight.
Total . . /|1,886 |

It thus appears that on twenty-six nights I collected
1,386 moths, but that more than 800 of them were col-
lected on four very wet and dark nights. My success here
led me to hope that, by similar arrangements, I might in
every island be able to obtain abundance of these insects ;
but, strange to say, during the six succeeding years I was
never once able to make any collections at all approaching
those at Sarawak. The reason of this I can pretty well
understand to be’ owing to the absence of some one or
other essential condition that were here all combined.
Sometimes the dry season was the hindrance; more fre-
quently residence in a town or village not close to virgin
forest, and surrounded by other houses whose lights were
a counter-attraction; still more frequently residence in a
dark palm-thatched house, with a lofty roof, in whose
recesses every moth was lost the instant it entered. This
last was the greatest dtawback, and the real reason why I

never again was able to make a collection of moths; for

136 BORNEO. [cHAP. v.

I never afterwards lived in a solitary jungle-house with a
low boarded and whitewashed verandah, so constructed as
to prevent insects at once escaping into the upper part of
the house, quite out of reach. After my long experience,
my numerous failures, and my one success, I feel sure that
if any party of naturalists ever make a yacht-voyage to
explore the Malayan Archipelago, or any other tropical
region, making entomology one of their chief pursuits, it
would well repay them to carry a small framed verandah,
or a verandah-shaped tent of white canvas, to set up in
every favourable situation, as a means of making a col-
lection of nocturnal Lepidoptera, and also of obtaining rare
specimens of Coleoptera and other insects. I make the sug-
gestion here, because no one would suspect the enormous
difference in results that such an apparatus would pro-
duce; and because I consider it one of the curiosities of a
collector’s experience to have found out that some such
apparatus is required.

When I returned to Singapore I took with me the Malay
lad named Ali, who subsequently accompanied me all
over the Archipelago. Charles Allen preferred staying
at the Mission-house, and afterwards obtained employment
in Sarawak and in Singapore, till he again joined me four

years later at Amboyna in the Moluccas.

CHAPTER VI.
BORNEO—THE DYAKS.

[J\HE manners and customs of the aborigines of Borneo

have been described in great detail, and with much
fuller information than I possess, in the writings of Sir
James Brooke, Messrs. Low, St. John, Johnson Brooke, and
many others. I do not propose to go over the ground
again, but shall confine myself to a sketch, from personal
observation, of the general character of the Dyaks, and of
such physical, moral, and social characteristics as have
been less frequently noticed.

The Dyak is closely allied to the Malay, and more
remotely to the Siamese, Chinese, and other Mongol races.
All these are characterised by a reddish-brown or yellowish-
brown skin of various shades, by jet-black straight hair,
by the scanty or deficient beard, by the rather small and
broad nose, and high cheekbones ; but none of the Malayan
races have the oblique eyes which are characteristic of
the more typical Mongols. The average stature of the
Dyaks is rather more than that of the Malays, while it is

138 BORNEVO—THE DYAKS. [CHAP. VI.

considerably under that of most Europeans. Their forms
are well proportioned, their feet and hands small, and
they rarely or never attain the bulk of body so often
seen in Malays and Chinese.

I am inclined to rank the Dyaks above the Malays in
mental capacity, while in moral character they are un-
doubtedly superior to them. They are simple and honest,
and become the prey of the Malay and Chinese traders,
who cheat and plunder them continually. They are more
lively, more talkative, less secretive, and less suspicious
than the Malay, and are therefore pleasanter companions.
The Malay boys have little inclination for active sports
and games, which form quite a feature in the life of the
Dyak youths, who, besides outdoor games of skill and
strength, possess a variety of indoor amusements. One
wet day, in a Dyak house, when a number of boys and
young men were about me, | thought to amuse them with
something new, and showed them how to make “ cat’s
cradle” with a piece of string. Greatly to my surprise,
they knew all about it, and more than I did; for, after
I and Charles had gone through all the changes we could
make, one of the boys took it off my hand, and made
several new figures which quite puzzled me. They then
showed me a number of other tricks with pieces of string,
which seemed a favourite amusement with them.

Even these apparently trifling matters may assist us to

CHAP. vI.] CHARACTER. 139

form a truer estimate of the Dyaks’ character and social
condition. We learn thereby, that these people have passed
beyond that first stage of savage life in which the struggle
for existence absorbs the whole faculties, and in which
every thought and idea is connected with war or hunting,
or the provision for their immediate necessities. These
amusements indicate a capability of civilization, an apti-
tude to enjoy other than mere sensual pleasures, which
might be taken advantage of to elevate their whole intel-
lectual and social life.

The moral character of the Dyaks is undoubtedly high—
a statement which will seem strange to those who have
heard of them only as head-hunters and pirates. The Hill
Dyaks of whom I am speaking, however, have never been
pirates, since they never go near the sea; and head-hunting
is a custom originating in the petty wars of village with
village, and tribe with tribe, which no more implies a bad
moral character than did the custom of the slave-trade
a hundred years ago imply want of general morality in all
who participated in it. Against this one stain on their
character (which in the case of the Sardwak Dyaks no
longer exists) we have to set many good points. They are
truthful and honest to a remarkable degree. From this
cause it is very often impossible to get from them any
definite information, or even an opinion. They say, “If I
_ were to tell you what I don’t know, I might tell a lie;”

140 BORNEO—THE DYAKS. (cHAP. VI.

and whenever they voluntarily relate any matter of fact,
you may be sure they are speaking the truth. In a Dyak
village the fruit trees have each their owner, and it has
often happened to me, on asking an inhabitant to gather
me some fruit, to be answered, “I can’t do that, for the

2

owner of the tree is not here;” never seeming to con-
template the possibility of acting otherwise. Neither will
they take the smallest thing belonging to an European.
When living at Simiinjon, they continually came to my
house, and would pick up scraps of torn newspaper or
crooked pins that I had thrown away, and ask as a great
favour whether they might have them. Crimes of violence
(other than head-hunting) are almost unknown; for in
twelve years, under Sir James Brooke’s rule, there had
been only one case of murder in a Dyak tribe, and that
one was committed by a stranger who had been adopted
into the tribe. In several other matters of morality
they rank above most uncivilized, and even above many
civilized nations. They are temperate in food and drink,
and the gross sensuality of the Chinese and Malays is
unknown among them. They have the usual fault of all
people in a half-savage state—apathy and dilatoriness ;
but, however annoying this may be to Europeans who
come in contact with them, it cannot be considered a very
grave offence, or be held to outweigh their many excellent

qualities.

CHAP. VI. ] CHECKS TO POPULATION. 141

During my residence among the Hill Dyaks, I was
much struck by the apparent absence of those causes
which are generally supposed to check the increase of
population, although there were plain indications of sta-
tionary or but slowly increasing numbers. The conditions
most favourable to a rapid increase of population are, an
abundance of food, a healthy climate, and early marriages.
Here these conditions all exist. The people produce far
more food than they consume, and exchange the surplus
for gongs and brass cannon, ancient jars, and gold and
silver ornaments, which constitute their wealth. On the
whole, they appear very free from disease, marriages take
place early (but not too early), and old bachelors and old
maids are alike unknown. Why, then, we must inquire,
has not a greater population been produced? Why are
the Dyak villages so small and so widely scattered, while
nine-tenths of the country is still covered with forest ? ;

Of all the checks to population among savage nations
mentioned by Malthus—starvation, disease, war, infanti-
cide, immorality, and infertility of the women—the last
is that which he seems to think least important, and of
doubtful efficacy ; and yet it is the only one that seems
to me capable of accounting for the state of the popula-
tion among the Sarawak Dyaks. The population of Great
_ Britain increases so as to double itself in about fifty years.

To do this it is evident that each married couple must

142 BORNEO—THE DYAKS. [cHAP. VI

average three children who live to be married at the age
of about twenty-five. Add to these those who die in
infancy, those who never marry, or those who marry late

in life and have no offspring, the number of children born

to each marriage must average four or five; and we know

that families of seven or eight are very common, and of
ten and twelve by no means rare. But from inquiries
at almost every Dyak tribe I visited, I ascertained that
the women rarely had more than three or four children,
and an old chief assured me that he had never known
a woman have more than seven. In a village consisting
of a hundred and fifty families, only one consisted of six
children living, and only six of five children, the majority
appearing to be two, three, or four. Comparing this with
the known proportions in European countries, it is evident
that the number of children to each marriage can hardly
average more than three or four; and as even in civilized
countries half the population die before the age of twenty-
five, we should have only two left to replace their parents ;
and so long as this state of things continued, the popu-

lation must remain stationary. Of course this is a mere

illustration ; but the facts I have stated seem to indicate.

that something of the kind really takes place; and if so,
there is no difficulty in understanding the smallness and
almost stationary population of the Dyak tribes.

We have next to inquire what is the cause of the small

CHAP. VI. | CONDITION OF WOMEN. 143

number of births and of living children in a family.
Climate and race may have something to do with this, but
a more real and efficient cause seems to me to be the hard
labour of the women, and the heavy weights they constantly
earry. A Dyak woman generally spends the whole day in
the field, and carries home every night a heavy load of
vegetables and firewood, often for several miles, over rough
and hilly paths; and not unfrequently has to climb up
a rocky mountain by ladders, and over slippery stepping-
stones, to an elevation of a thousand feet. Besides this,
she has an hour’s work every evening to pound the rice
with a heavy wooden stamper, which violently strains
every part of the body. She begins this kind of labour
when nine or ten years old, and it never ceases but
with the extreine decrepitude of age. Surely we need
not wonder at the limited number of her progeny, but
rather be surprised at the successful efforts of nature to
prevent the extermination of the race.

One of the surest and most beneficial effects of ad-
vancing civilization, will be the amelioration of the
condition of these women. The precept and example
of higher races will make the Dyak ashamed of his
comparatively idle life, while his weaker partner labours
like a beast of burthen. As his wants become increased
and his tastes refined, the women will have more household

duties to attend to, and will then cease to labour in the

144 BORNEO—THE DYAKS. [CHAP. VI.

field—a change which has already to a great extent taken
place in the allied Malay, Javanese, and Bugis tribes.
Population will then certainly increase more rapidly,
improved systems of agriculture and some division of
labour will become necessary in order to provide the
means of existence, and a more complicated social state
will take the place of the simple conditions of society
which now obtain among them. But, with the sharper
struggle for existence that will then occur, will the hap-
piness of the people as a whole be increased or diminished ?
Will not evil passions be aroused by the spirit of compe-
tition, and crimes and vices, now unknown or dormant,
be called into active existence? These are problems that
time alone can solve; but it is to be hoped that education
and a high-class European example may obviate much
of the evil that too often arises in analogous cases, and
that we may at length be able to point to one instance
of an uncivilized people who have not become demoralized
and finally exterminated, by contact with European civi-
lization.

A few words in conclusion, about the government of
Sarawak. Sir James Brooke found the Dyaks oppressed
and eround down by the most cruel tyranny. They were
cheated by the Malay traders, and robbed by the Malay
chiefs. Their wives and children were often captured and

sold into slavery, and hostile tribes purchased permission

CHAP. VI. ] OPINIONS OF SIR JAMES BROOKE. 145

from their cruel rulers to plunder, enslave, and murder
them. Anything like justice or redress for these injuries
was utterly unattamable. From the time Sir James ob-
tained possession of the country, all this was stopped.
Equal justice was awarded to Malay, Chinaman, and Dyak.
The remorseless pirates from the rivers farther east were
punished, and finally shut up within their own territories,
and the Dyak, for the first time, could sleep in peace.
His wife and children were now safe from slavery ; his
house was no longer burnt over his head ; his crops and
his fruits were now his own, to sell or consume as he
pleased. And the, unknown stranger who had done all
this for them, and asked for nothing in return, what could
he be? How was it possible for them to realize his
motives? Was it not natural that they should refuse to
believe he was a man? for of pure benevolence combined
with great power, they had had no experience among men.
They naturally concluded that he was a superior being,
come down upon earth to confer blessings on the afflicted.
In many villages where he had not been seen, I was asked
strange questions about him. Was he not as old as the
mountains? Could he not bring the dead to life? And
they firmly believe that he can give them good harvests,
and make their fruit-trees bear an abundant crop.

In forming a proper estimate of Sir James Brooke’s
government, it must ever be remembered that he held

VOL, I. L

146 BORNEO—THE DYAKS. [cHaP. VI.

Sarawak solely by the goodwill of the native inhabitants.
He had to deal with two races, one of whom, the
Mahometan Malays, looked upon the other race, the
Dyaks, as savages and slaves, only fit to be robbed and
plundered. He has effectually protected the Dyaks, and
has invariably treated them as, in his sight, equal to the
Malays; and yet he has secured the affection and good-
will of both. Notwithstanding the religious prejudices
of Mahometans, he has induced them to modify many of
their worst laws and customs, and to assimilate their
criminal code to that of the civilized world. That his
government still continues, after twenty-seven years—
notwithstanding his frequent absences from ill-health,
notwithstanding conspiracies of Malay chiefs, and insur-
rections of Chinese gold-diggers, all of which have been
overcome by the support of the native population, and
notwithstanding financial, political, and domestic troubles
—is due, I believe, solely to the many admirable qualities
which Sir James Brooke possessed, and especially to his
having convinced the native population, by every action
of his life, that he ruled them, not for his own advantage,
but for their good.

Since these lines were written, his noble spirit has
passed away. But though, by those who knew him not,
he may be sneered at as an enthusiast adventurer, or

abused as a hard-hearted despot, the universal testimony

a

CHAP. VI.] STR JAMES BROOKE. 147

of every one who came in contact with him in his adopted
country, whether European, Malay, or Dyak, will be, that
Rajah Brooke was a great, a wise, and a good ruler—
a true and faithful friend—a man to be admired for his
talents, respected for his honesty and courage, and loved
for his genuine hospitality, his kindness of disposition,

and his tenderness of heart.

1 oy

CHAPTER VII.
JAVA.

i SPENT three months and a half in Java, from July

18th to October 31st, 1861, and shall briefly describe
my own movements, and my observations on the people
and the natural history of the country. To all those who
wish to understand how the Dutch now govern Java, and
how it is that they are enabled to derive a large annual
revenue from it, while the population increases, and the
inhabitants are contented, I recommend the study of
Mr. Money’s excellent and interesting work, “How to
Manage a Colony.” The main facts and conclusions of that
work I most heartily concur in, and I believe that the
Dutch system is the very best that can be adopted, when
a European nation conquers or otherwise acquires posses-
sion of a country inhabited by an industrious but semi-
barbarous people. In my account of Northern Celebes, I
shall show how suecessfully the same system has been

applied to a people in a very different state of civilization

CHAP. VII. ] THE MODE OF GOVERNMENT. 149

from the Javanese ; and in the meanwhile will state in
the fewest words possible what that system is.

The mode of government now adopted in Java is to
retain the whole series of native rulers, from the village
chief up to princes, who, under the name of Regents, are
the heads of districts about the size of a small English
county. With each Regent is placed a Dutch Resident,
or Assistant Resident, who is considered to be his “ elder
brother,” and whose “orders” take the form of “recom-
mendations,” which are however implicitly obeyed. Along
with each Assistant Resident is a Controller, a kind of
inspector of all the lower native rulers, who periodically
visits every village in the district, examines the proceed-
ings of the native courts, hears complaints against the
head-men or other native chiefs, and superintends the
Government plantations. This brings us to the “culture
system,” which is the source of all the wealth the Dutch
derive from Java, and is the subject of much abuse in this
country because it is the reverse of “free trade.” To
understand its uses and beneficial effects, it is necessary
first to sketch the common results of free European trade
with uncivilized peoples.

Natives of tropical climates have few wants, and, when
these are supplied, are disinclined to work for supertluities
without some strong incitement. With such a people the

introduction of any new or systematic cultivation is almost

150 JAVA. [cHap. vit.

impossible, except by the despotic orders of chiefs whom
they have been accustomed to obey, as children obey their
parents. The free competition of European traders, how-
ever, introduces two powerful inducements to exertion.
Spirits or opium is a temptation too strong for most
savages to resist, and to obtain these he will sell whatever
he has, and will work to get more. Another temptation
he cannot resist, is goods on credit. The trader offers him
gay cloths, knives, gongs, guns, and gunpowder, to be paid
for by some crop perhaps not yet planted, or some product
yet in the forest. He has not sufficient forethought to take
only a moderate quantity, and not enough energy to work
early and late in order to get out of debt; and the conse-
quence is that he accumulates debt upon debt, and often
remains for years, or for life, a debtor and almost a slave.
This is a state of things which occurs very largely in every
part of the world in which men of a superior race freely
trade with men of a lower race. It extends trade no doubt
for a time, but it demoralizes the native, checks true civi-
lization, and does not lead to any permanent increase in
the wealth of the country; so that the European govern-
ment of such a country must be carried on at a loss.

The system introduced by the Dutch was to induce the
people, through their chiefs, to give a portion of their time
to the cultivation of coffee, sugar, and other valuable

products. A fixed rate of wages—low indeed, but about

CHAP. VII. THE CULTURE SYSTEM. Poul

equal to that of all places where European competition has
not artificially raised it—was paid to the labourers engaged
in clearing the ground and forming the plantations under
Government superintendence. The produce is sold to the
Government at a low fixed price. Out of the net profits
a percentage goes to the chiefs, and the remainder is
divided among the workmen. This surplus in good years
is something considerable. On the whole, the people are
well fed and decently clothed ; and have acquired habits
of steady industry and the art of scientific cultivation,
which must be of service to them in the future. It must
be remembered, that the Government expended capital
for years before any return was obtained; and if they
now derive a large revenue, it is in a way which is far
less burthensome, and far more beneficial to the people,
than any tax that could be levied.

But although the system may be a good one, and as
well adapted to the development of arts and industry in a
half-civilized people, as it is to the material advantage of
the governing country, it is not pretended that in practice
it is perfectly carried out. The oppressive and servile
relations between chiefs and people, which have ‘con-
. tinued for perhaps a thousand years, cannot be at once
abolished ; and some evil must result from those relations,
till the spread of education and the gradual infusion of

European blood causes it naturally and insensibly to dis-

152 JAVA. [CHAP. VII.

appear. It is said that the Residents, desirous of showing
a large increase in the products of their districts, have
sometimes pressed the people to such continued labour on
the plantations that their rice crops have been materially
diminished, and famine has been the result. If this has
happened, it is certainly not a common thing, and is to be
set down to the abuse of the system, by the want of judg-
ment or want of humanity in the Resident.

A tale has lately been written in Holland, and trans-
lated into English, entitled ‘Max Havelaar; or, the
Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company,” and
with our usual one-sidedness in all relating to the Dutch
Colonial System, this work has been excessively praised,
both for its own merits, and for its supposed crushing
exposure of the iniquities of the Dutch government of
Java. Greatly to my surprise, I found it a very tedious
and long-winded story, full of rambling digressions ; and
whose only point is to show that the Dutch Residents
and Assistant Residents wink at the extortions of the
native princes; and that in some districts the natives
have to do work without payment, and have their goods
taken away from them without compensation. Every
statement of this kind is thickly interspersed with italics
and capital letters; but as the names are all fictitious, and
neither dates, figures, nor details are ever given, it is im-

possible to verify or answer them. Even if not exaggerated,

CHAP. VII. ] NATIVE CHIEFS. 115333

the facts stated are not nearly so bad as those of the
oppression by free-trade indigo-planters, and torturing by
native tax-gatherers under British rule in India, with which
the readers of English newspapers were familiar a few |
years ago. Such oppression, however, is not fairly to be
imputed in either case to the particular form of govern-
ment, but is rather due to the infirmity of human nature,
and tothe impossibility of at once destroying all trace
of ages of despotism on the one side, and of slavish
obedience to their chiefs on the other.

It must be remembered, that the complete establishment
of the Dutch power in Java is much more recent than
that of our rule in India, and that there have been several
changes of government, and in the mode of raising revenue.
The inhabitants have been so recently under the rule of
their native princes, that it is not easy at once to destroy
the excessive reverence they feel for their old masters, or
to diminish the oppressive exactions which the latter have
always been accustomed to make. There is, however, one
grand test of the prosperity, and even of the happiness,
of a community, which we can apply here—the rate of
increase of the population.

Tt is universally admitted, that when a country increases
rapidly in population, the people cannot be very greatly
oppressed or very badly governed. The present system of

raising a revenue by the cultivation of coffee and sugar,

154 JAVA. [cHAP. VIL.

sold to Government at a fixed price, began in 1832.
Just before this, in 1826, the population by census was
5,500,000, while at the beginning of the century it was
estimated at 3,500,000. In 1850, when the cultivation
system had been in operation eighteen years, the popula-
tion by census was over 9,500,000, or an increase of 73
per cent. in twenty-four years. At the last census, in
1865, it amounted to 14,168,416, an increase of very nearly
50 per cent. in fifteen years—a rate which would double
the population in about twenty-six years. As Java (with
Madura) contains about 38,500 geographical square miles,
this will give an average of 368 persons to the square
mile, just double that of the populous and fertile Bengal
Presidency as given in Thornton’s Gazetteer of India, and
fully one-third more than that of Great Britain and Ireland
at the last Census. If, as I believe, this vast population
is on the whole contented and happy, the Dutch Govern-
ment should consider well, before abruptly changing a
system which has led to such great results.

Taking it as a whole, and surveying it from every
point of view, Java is probably the very finest and most
interesting tropical island in the world. It is not first
in size, but it is more than 600 miles long, and from
60 to 120 miles wide, and in area is nearly equal to
England ; and it is undoubtedly the most fertile, the most

productive, and the most populous island within the

rf

~

CHAP. VII.] SCENERY AND PRODUCTIONS. 155

tropics. Its whole surface is magnificently varied with
mountain and forest scenery. It possesses thirty-eight
volcanic mountains, several of which rise to ten or twelve
thousand feet high. Some of these are in constant activity,
and one or other of them displays almost every pheno-
menon produced by the action of subterranean fires, except
regular lava streams, which never occur in Java. The
abundant moisture and tropical heat of the climate causes
these mountains to be clothed with luxuriant vegetation,
often to their very summits, while forests and planta-
tions cover their lower slopes. The animal productions,
especially the birds and insects, are beautiful and varied,
and present many peculiar forms found nowhere else
upon the globe. The soil throughout the island is ex-
ceedinely fertile, and all the productions of the tropics,
together with many of the temperate zones, can be easily
cultivated. Java too possesses a civilization, a history and
antiquities of its own, of great interest. The Brahminical
religion flourished in it from an epoch of unknown
antiquity till about the year 1478, when that of Mahomet
superseded it. The former religion was accompanied by a
Civilization which has not been equalled by the con-
querors ; for, scattered through the country, especially in
the eastern part of it, are found buried in lofty forests,
temples, tombs, and statues of great beauty and grandeur ;

and the remains of extensive cities, where the tiger, the

156 JAVA. [CHAP. VII.

rhinoceros, and the wild bull now roam undisturbed.
A modern civilization of another type is now spreading
over the land. Good roads run through the country from
end to end; European and native rulers work har-
moniously together; and life and property are as well
secured as in the best governed states of Europe. I
believe, therefore, that Java may fairly claim to be the
finest tropical island in the world, and equally interesting
to the tourist seeking after new and beautiful scenes; to
the naturalist who desires to examine the variety and
beauty of tropical nature; or to the moralist and the
politician who want to solve the problem of how man may

be best governed under new and varied conditions.

The Dutch mail steamer brought me from Ternate to
Sourabaya, the chief town and port in the eastern part of
Java, and after a fortnight spent in packing up and sending
off my last collections, I started on a short journey into
the interior. Travelling in Java is very luxurious but
very expensive, the only way being to hire or borrow a
carriage, and then pay half-a-crown a mile for post-horses,
which are changed at regular posts every six miles, and
will carry you at the rate of ten miles an hour from one
end of the island to the other. Bullock carts or coolies
are required to carry all extra baggage. As this kind of

travelling would not suit my means, I determined on

CHAP. VII. | TRAVELLING BY POST. 157

making only a short journey to the district at the foot of
Mount Arjuna, where I was told there were extensive
forests, and where I hoped to be able to make some
good collections. The country for many miles behind
Sourabaya is perfectly flat and everywhere cultivated ;
being a delta or alluvial plain watered by many branching
streams. Immediately around the town the evident signs
of wealth and of an industrious population were very
pleasing; but as we went on, the constant succession of
open fields skirted by rows of bamboos, with here and
there the white buildings and tall chimney of a sugar-mill,
became monotonous. The roads run in straight lines for
several miles at a stretch, and are bordered by rows of
dusty tamarind-trees. At each mile there are little guard-
houses, where a policeman is stationed; and there is a
wooden gong, which by means of concerted signals may be
made to convey information over the country with great
rapidity. About every six or seven miles is the post-house,
where the horses are changed as quickly as were those
of the mail in the old coaching days in England.

I stopped at Modjokerto, a small town about forty miles
south of Sourabaya, and the nearest point on the high road
to the district I wished to visit. I had a letter of intro-
duction to Mr. Ball, an Englishman long resident in Java
and married to a Dutch lady, and he kindly invited me to
stay with him till I could fix on a place to suit me A

158 JAVA. [CHAP. VII.

Dutch Assistant Resident as well as a Regent or native
Javanese prince lived here. The town was neat, and had
a nice open grassy space like a village green, on which
stood a magnificent fig-tree (allied to the Banyan of India,
but more lofty), under whose shade a kind of market is
continually held, and where the inhabitants meet together
to lounge and chat. The day after my arrival, Mr. Ball
drove me over to the village of Modjo-agong, where he was
building a house and premises for the tobacco trade, which
is carried on here by a system of native cultivation and
advance purchase, somewhat similar to the indigo trade in
British India. On our way we stayed to look at a frag-
ment of the ruins of the ancient city of Modjo-pahit, con-
sisting of two lofty brick masses, apparently the sides of a
gateway. The extreme perfection and beauty of the brick-
work astonished me. The bricks are exceedingly fine and
hard, with sharp angles and true surfaces. They are laid
with great exactness, without visible mortar or cement, yet
somehow fastened together so that the joints are hardly
perceptible, and sometimes the two surfaces coalesce in a
most incomprehensible manner. Such admirable brick-
work I have never seen before or since. There was no
sculpture here, but abundance of bold projections and
finely-worked mouldings. Traces of buildings exist for
many miles in every direction, and almost every road and

pathway shows a foundation of brickwork beneath it—the

CHAP. ViI.] ANCIENT RUINS. 159

paved roads of the old city. In the house of the Waidono
or district chief at Modjo-agong, I saw a beautiful figure

carved in high relief out of a block of lava, and which had

ANCIENT BAS-RELIEF,

been found buried in the ground near the village. On my
expressing a wish to obtain some such specimen, Mr. B.

asked the chief for it, and much to my surprise he imme-

160> JAVA. [cHaP. VII.

diately gave it me. It represented the Hindoo goddess
Durga, calied in Java, Lora Jonggrang (the exalted virgin).
She has eight arms, and stands on the back of a kneeling
bull. Her lower right hand holds the tail of the bull,
while the corresponding left hand grasps the hair of a
captive, Dewth Mahikusor, the personification of vice, who
has attempted to slay her bull. He has a cord round his
waist, and crouches at her feet in an attitude of supplica-
tion. The other hands of the goddess hold, on her right
side, a double hook or small anchor, a broad straight sword,
and a noose of thick cord; on her left, a girdle or armlet
of large beads or shells, an unstrung bow, and a standard
or war flag. This deity was a special favourite among the
old Javanese, and her image is often found in the ruined
temples which abound in the eastern part of the island.
The specimen I had obtained was a small one, about
two feet high, weighing perhaps a hundredweight ; and the
next day we had it conveyed to Modjo-kerto to await my
return to Sourabaya. Having decided to stay some time
at Wonosalem, on the lower slopes of the Arjuna Moun-
tain, where I was informed I should find forest and
plenty of game, I had first to obtain a recommendation
from the Assistant Resident to the Regent, and then an
order from the Regent to the Waidono; and when after
a week’s delay I arrived with my baggage and men at

Modjo-agong, I found them all in the midst of a five days’

CHAP. Vu. | NATIVE MUSICIANS. 161

feast, to celebrate the circumcision of the Waidono’s
younger brother and cousin, and had a small room in an
outhouse given me to stay in. The courtyard and the
great open reception-shed were full of natives coming and
going and making preparations for a feast which was to
take place at midnight, to which I was invited, but pre-
ferred going to bed. A native band, or Gamelang, was
playing almost all the evening, and I had a good oppor-
tunity of seeing the instruments and musicians. The
former are chiefly gongs of various sizes, arranged in sets
of from eight to twelve, on low wooden frames. Each set
is played by one performer with one or two drumsticks.
There are also some very large gongs, played singly or in
pairs, and taking the place of our drums and kettledrums.
Other instruments are formed by broad metallic bars, sup-
ported on strings stretched across frames ; and others again
of strips of bamboo similarly placed and producing the
highest notes. Besides these there were a flute and a
curious two-stringed violin, requiring in all twenty-four
performers. There was a conductor, who led off and regu-
lated the time, and each performer took his part, coming
in occasionally with a few bars so as to form a harmonious
combination. The pieces played were long and complicated,
and some of the players were mere boys, who took their
parts with great precision. The general effect was very
pleasing, but, owing to the similarity of most of the instru-
VOL. I. M

162 JAVA. [cwap. vu.

ments, more like a gigantic musical box than one of our
bands; and in order to enjoy it thoroughly it is necessary
to watch the large number of performers who are engaged
init. The next morning, while I was waiting for the men
and horses who were to take me and my baggage to my
destination, the two lads, who were about fourteen years
old, were brought out, clothed in a sarong from the waist
downwards, and having the whole body covered with a
yellow powder, and profusely decked with white blossoms
in wreaths, necklaces, and armlets, looking at first sight
very like savage brides. They were conducted by two
priests to a bench placed in front of the house in the open
air, and the ceremony of circumcision was then performed
before the assembled crowd.

The road to Wonosalem led through a magnificent forest,

in the depths of which we passed a fine ruin of what

appeared to have been a royal tomb or mausoleum. It is

formed entirely of stone, and elaborately carved. Near

the base is a course of boldly projecting blocks, sculptured

in high relief, with a series of scenes which are probably

incidents in the life of the defunct. These are all beauti-
fully executed, some of the figures of animals in particular
being easily recognisable and very accurate. The general
design, as far as the ruined state of the upper part will
permit of its being seen, is very good, effect being given

by an immense number and variety of projecting or re-

CHAP. VII. ] ANCIENT TOMB. 163

treating courses of squared stones in place of mouldings.
The size of this structure is about thirty feet square by
twenty high, and as the traveller comes suddenly upon it
on a small elevation by the roadside, overshadowed by
gigantic trees, overrun with plants and creepers, and
closely backed by the gloomy forest, he is struck by the
solemnity and picturesque beauty of the scene, and is led
to ponder on the strange law of progress, which looks so
like retrogression, and which in so many distant parts of
the world has exterminated or driven out a highly artistic
and constructive race, to make room for one which, as far
as we can judge, is very far its inferior.

Few Englishmen are aware of the number and beauty of
the architectural remains in Java. They have never been
popularly illustrated or described, and it will therefore
take most persons by surprise to learn that they far sur-
pass those of Central America, perhaps even those of India.
To give some idea of these ruins, and perchance to excite
wealthy amateurs to explore them thoroughly and obtain
by photography an accurate record of their beautiful
sculptures before it is too late, I will enumerate the most
important, as briefly described in Sir Stamford Raffles’
“History of Java.”

BRAMBANAM.—Near the centre of Java, between the
native capitals of Djoko-kerta and Surakerta, is the village
of Brambanam, near which are abundance of ruins, the

M 2

164 ; JAVA. [cHap. VII.

most important being the temples of Loro-Jongran and

Chandi Sewa. At Loro-Jongran there were twenty sepa-

rate buildings, six large and fourteen small temples. They —

are now a mass of ruins, but the largest temples are
supposed to have been ninety feet high. They were all
constructed of solid stone, everywhere decorated with carv-
ings and bas-reliefs, and adorned with numbers of statues,
many of which still remain entire. At Chandi Sewa, or
the “Thousand Temples,” are many fine colossal figures.
Captain Baker, who surveyed these ruins, said he had
never in his life seen “such stupendous and finished
specimens of human labour, and of the science and taste
of ages long since forgot, crowded together in so small
a compass as in this spot.” They cover a space of nearly
six hundred feet square, and consist of an outer row of
eighty-four small temples, a second row of seventy-six, a
third of sixty-four, a fourth of forty-four, and the fifth
forming an inner parallelogram of twenty-eight, in all
two hundred and ninety-six small temples; disposed in
five regular parallelograms. In the centre is a large
cruciform temple surrounded by lofty flights of steps
richly ornamented with sculpture, and containing many
apartments. The tropical vegetation has ruined most of
the smaller temples, but some remain tolerably perfect,
from which the effect of the whole may be imagined.

About half a mile off is another temple, called Chandi

CHAP. VII. ] RUINED TEMPLES. 165

Kali Bening, seventy-two feet square and sixty feet high,
in very fine preservation, and covered with sculptures of
Hindoo mythology surpassing any that exist in India.
Other ruins of palaces, halls, and temples, with abundance
of sculptured deities, are found in the same neighbourhood.
Borosopo.—About eighty miles westward, in the pro-
vince of Kedu, is the great temple of Borobodo. It is built
upon a small hill, and consists of a central dome and seven
ranges of terraced walls covering the slope of the hill and
forming open galleries each below the other, and com-
municating by steps and gateways. The central dome is
fifty feet in diameter ; around it is a triple circle of seventy-
two towers, and the whole building is six hundred and
twenty feet square, and about one hundred feet high. In
the terrace walls are niches containing cross-legged figures
larger than life to the number of about four hundred, and
both sides of all the terrace walls are covered with bas-
reliefs crowded with figures, and carved in hard stone;
aud which must therefore occupy an extent of nearly
three miles in length! The amount of human labour and
skill expended on the Great Pyramid of Egypt sinks into
insignificance when compared with that required to com-
plete this sculptured hill-temple in the interior of Java.
Gunona Prav.—About forty miles south-west of Sama-
rang, on a mountain called Gunong Prau, an extensive

plateau is covered with ruins. To reach these temples

166 JAVA. [CHAP. VII.

four flights of stone steps were made up the mountain
from opposite directions, each flight consisting of more
than a thousand steps. Traces of nearly four hundred
temples have been found here, and many (perhaps all)
were decorated with rich and delicate sculptures. The
whole country between this and Brambanam, a distance
of sixty miles, abounds with ruins ; so that fine sculptured
images may be seen lying in the ditches, or built into
the walls of enclosures.

In the eastern part of Java, at Kediri and in Malang,
there are equally abundant traces of antiquity, but the
buildings themselves have been mostly destroyed. Sculp-
tured figures, however, abound; and the ruins of forts,
palaces, baths, aqueducts, and temples, can be everywhere
traced. It is altogether contrary to the plan of this book
to describe what I have not myself seen; but, having been
led to mention them, I felt bound to do something to call
attention to these marvellous works of art. One is over-
whelmed by the contemplation of these innumerable
sculptures, worked with delicacy and artistic feeling in
a hard, intractable, trachytic rock, and all found in one
tropical island. What could have been the state of society,
‘what the amount of population, what the means of sub-
sistence which rendered such gigantic works possible, will,
perhaps, ever remain a mystery; and it is a wonderful

example of the power of religious ideas in social life, that

Sie att

CHAP. VII.] WILD PEACOCKS. 167

in the very country where, five hundred years ago, these
grand works were being yearly executed, the inhabitants
now only build rude houses of bamboo and thatch, and
look upon these relics of their forefathers with ignorant
amazement, as the undoubted productions of giants or of
demons. It is much to be regretted that the Dutch
Government do not take vigorous steps for the preservation
of these ruins from the destroying agency of tropical
vegetation ; and for the collection of the fine sculptures

which are everywhere scattered over the land.

Wonosalem is situated about a thousand feet above the
sea, but unfortunately it is at a distance from the forest,
and is surrounded by coffee-plantations, thickets of bamboo,
and coarse grasses. It was too far to walk back daily to the
forest, and in other directions I could find no collecting
ground for insects. The place was, however, famous for
peacocks, and my boy soon shot several of these magni-
ficent birds, whose flesh we found to be tender, white, and
delicate, and similar to that of a turkey. The Java
peacock is a different species from that of India, the neck
being covered with scale-like green feathers, and the crest
of a different form ; but the eyed train is equally large and
equally beautiful. It is a singular fact in geographical
distribution that the peacock should not be found in

Sumatra or Borneo, while the superb Argus, Fire-backed,

168 JAVA. [cHap. VII.

and Ocellated pheasants of those islands are equally un-
known in Java. Exactly parallel is the fact that in Ceylon
and Southern India, where the peacock abounds, there are
none of the splended Lophophori and other gorgeous
pheasants which inhabit Northern India. It would seem
as if the peacock can admit of no rivals in its domain.
Were these birds rare in their native country, and unknown
alive in Europe, they would assuredly be considered as
the true princes of the feathered tribes, and altogether
unrivalled for stateliness and beauty. As it is, I suppose
scarcely any one if asked to fix upon the most beautiful
bird in the world would name the peacock, any more
than the Papuan savage or the Bugis trader would fix
upon the bird of paradise for the same honour.

Three days after my arrival at Wonosalem, my friend
Mr. Ball came to pay me a visit. He told me that two -
evenings before, a boy had been killed and eaten by a tiger
close to Modjo-agong. He was riding on a cart drawn by
bullocks, and was coming home about dusk on the main
road; and when not half a mile from the village a tiger
sprang upon him, carried him off into the jungle close by,
and devoured him. Next morning his remains were dis-
covered, consisting only of a few mangled bones. The
Waidono had got together about seven hundred men, and
was in chase of the animal, which, I afterwards heard,

they found and killed. They only use spears when in

CHAP. VII. ] TIGER HUNT. 169

pursuit of a tiger in this way. They surround a large tract
of country, and draw gradually together till the animal is
enclosed in a compact ring of armed men. When he sees
there is no escape he generally makes a spring, and is
received on a dozen spears, and almost instantly stabbed
to death. The skin of an animal thus killed is, of course,
worthless, and in this case the skull, which I had begged
Mr. Ball to secure for me, was hacked to pieces to divide
the teeth, which are worn as charms.

After a week at Wonosalem, I returned to the foot of
the mountain, to a village named Djapannan, which was
surrounded by several patches of forest, and seemed alto-
gether pretty well suited to my pursuits. The chief of
the village had prepared two small bamboo rooms on
one side of his own courtyard to accommodate me, and
‘seemed inclined to assist me as much as he could. The
weather was exceedingly hot and dry, no rain having
fallen for several months, and there was, in consequence,
a great scarcity of insects, and especially of beetles. I
therefore devoted myself chiefly to obtaining a good set of
the birds, and succeeded in making a tolerable collection.
All the peacocks we had hitherto shot had had short or
imperfect tails, but I now obtained two magnificent speci-
mens more than seven feet long, one of which I preserved
entire, while I kept the train only attached to the tail of
two or three others. When this bird is seen feeding on

170 JAVA. [cHaP. vil.

the ground, it appears wonderful how it can rise into the
air with such a long and cumbersome train of feathers.
It does so however with great ease, by running quickly for
a short distance, and then rising obliquely ; and will fly
over trees of a considerable height. I also obtained here
a specimen of the rare green jungle-fowl] (Gallus furcatus),
whose back and neck are beautifully scaled with bronzy
feathers, and whose smooth-edged oval comb is of a violet
purple colour, changing to green at the base. It is also
remarkable in possessing a single large wattle beneath its
throat, brightly coloured in three patches of red, yellow, and
blue. The common jungle-cock (Gallus bankiva) was also
obtained here. It is almost exactly like a common game-
cock, but the voice is different, being much shorter and
more abrupt; whence its native name is Bekéko. Six
different kinds of woodpeckers and four kingfishers were
found here, the fine hornbill, Buceros lunatus, more than
four feet long, and the pretty little lorikeet, Loriculus
pusillus, scarcely more than as many inches.

One morning, as I was preparing and arranging my
specimens, I was told there was to be a trial; and presently
four or five men came in and squatted down on a mat
“under the audience-shed in the court. The chief then
came in with his clerk, and sat down opposite them. Each
spoke in turn, telling his own tale, and then I found out

that those who first entered were the prisoner, accuser,

were

CHAP. VII. | TRIAL OF A THIEF. 171

policemen, and witness, and that the prisoner was indi-

cated solely by having a loose piece of cord twined round

his wrists, but not tied. It was a case of robbery, and
> y;

after the evidence was given, and a few questions had

PORTRAIT OF JAVANESE CHIEF.

been asked by the chief, the accused said a few words, and
then sentence was pronounced, which was a fine. The
parties then got up and walked away together, seeming

quite friendly ; and thronghout there was nothing in the

172 JAVA. [cHAP. VII.

manner of any one present indicating passion or ill-feeling
—a very good illustration of the Malayan type of character.

In a month’s collecting at Wonosalem and Djapannan
I accumulated ninety-eight species of birds, but a most
miserable lot of insects. I then determined to leave East
Java and try the more moist and luxuriant districts at the
western extremity of the island. I returned to Sourabaya
by water, in a roomy boat which brought myself, servants,
and baggage at one-fifth the expense it had cost me to
come to Modjo-kerto. The river has been rendered
navigable by being carefully banked up, but with the usual
effect of rendering the adjacent country liable occasionally
to severe floods. An immense traffic passes down this
river; and at a lock we passed through, a mile of laden
boats were waiting two or three deep, which pass through —
in their turn six at a time.

A few days afterwards I went by steamer to Batavia,
where I stayed about a week at the chief hotel, while
I made arrangements for a trip into the interior. The
business part of the city is near the harbour, but the
hotels and all the residences of the officials and European
merchants are in a suburb two miles off, laid out in wide
streets and squares so as to cover a great extent of ground. —
This is very inconvenient for visitors, as the only public
conveyances are handsome two-horse carriages, whose —

lowest charge is five guilders (8s. 4d.) for half a day, so

CHAP. VII. | BATAVIA AND BUITENZORG. 173

that an hour’s business in the morning and a visit in
the evening costs 16s. 8d. a day for carriage hire alone.

Batavia agrees very well with Mr. Money’s graphic ac-
count of it, except that his “clear canals” were all muddy,
and his “smooth gravel drives” up to the houses were one
and all formed of coarse pebbles, very painful to walk upon,
and hardly explained by the fact that in Batavia every-
body drives, as it can hardly be supposed that people
never walk in their gardens. The Hotel des Indes was
very comfortable, each visitor having a sitting-room and
bedroom opening on a verandah, where he can take his
morning coffee and afternoon tea. In the centre of the
quadrangle is a building containing a number of marble
baths always ready for use; and there is an excellent
table d’hote breakfast at ten, and dinner at six, for all
which there is a moderate charge per day.

I went by coach to Buitenzorg, forty miles inland and
about a thousand feet above the sea, celebrated for its
delicious climate and its Botanical Gardens. With the
latter I was somewhat disappointed. The walks were all
of loose pebbles, making any lengthened wanderings about
them very tiring and painful under a tropical sun. The
gardens are no doubt wonderfully rich in tropical and
especially in Malayan plants, but there is a great absence
of skilful laying-out; there are not enough men to keep
the place thoroughly in order, and the plants themselves

are seldom to be compared for luxuriance and beauty to

174 JAVA. [cHaAP. vil.

the same species grown in our hothouses, This can easily
he explained. The plants can rarely be placed in natural
or very favourable conditions. The climate is either too
hot or too cool, too moist or too dry, for a large proportion
of them, and they seldom get the exact quantity of shade
or the right quality of soil to suit them. In our stoves
these varied conditions can be supplied to each individual
plant far better than in a large garden, where the fact that
the plants are most of them growing in or near their
native country is supposed to preclude the necessity of
giving them much individual attention. Still, however,
there is much to admire here. There are avenues of
stately palms, and clumps of bamboos of perhaps fifty
different kinds; and an endless variety of tropical shrubs
and trees with strange and beautiful foliage. As a change
from the excessive heats of Batavia, Buitenzorg is a
delightful abode. It is just elevated enough to have
deliciously cool evenings and nights, but not so much as
to require any change of clothing; and to a person long
resident in the hotter climate of the plains, the air is
always fresh and pleasant, and admits of walking at
almost any hour of the day. The vicinity is most pic-
turesque and luxuriant, and the great volcano of Gunung-
Salak, with its truncated and jagged summit, forms a
characteristic background to many of the landscapes. A
great mud eruption took place in 1699, since which date

the mountain has been entirely inactive.

CHAP. VII. ] TERRACED HILLS. 175

On leaving Buitenzorg, I had coolies to carry my
baggage and a horse for myself,‘both to be changed every
six or seven miles. The road rose gradually, and after the
first stage the hills closed in a little on each side, forming
a broad valley; and the temperature was so cool and
agreeable, and the country so interesting, that I preferred
walking. Native villages imbedded in fruit trees, and
pretty villas inhabited by planters or retired Dutch
officials, gave this district a very pleasing and civilized
aspect ; but what most attracted my attention was the
system of terrace-cultivation, which is here universally
adopted, and which is, I should think, hardly equalled in
the world. The slopes of the main valley, and of its
branches, were everywhere cut in terraces up to a con-
siderable height, and when they wound round the recesses
of the hills produced all the effect of magnificent amphi-
theatres. Hundreds of square miles of country are thus
terraced, and convey a striking idea of the industry of the
people and the antiquity of their civilization. These
terraces are extended year by year as the population
increases, by the inhabitants of each village working in
concert under the direction of their chiefs; and it is
perhaps by this system of village culture alone, that such
extensive terracing and irrigation has been rendered pos-
sible. It was probably introduced by the Brahmins from
India, since in those Malay countries where there is no

trace of a previous occupation by a civilized people, the

176 JAVA. (crap. vil.

terrace system is unknown. I first saw this mode of cul-
tivation in Bali and Lombock, and, as I shall have to
describe it in some detail there (see Chapter X.), I need
say no more about it in this place, except that, owing to
the finer outlines and greater luxuriance of the country
in- West Java, it produces there the most striking and
picturesque effect. The lower slopes of the mountains in
Java possess such a delightful climate and luxuriant soil ;
living is so cheap and life and property are so secure,
that a considerable number of Europeans who have been
engaged in Government service, settle permanently in the
country instead of returning to Europe. They are scat-
tered everywhere throughout the more accessible parts of
the island, and tend greatly to the gradual improvement
of the native population, and to the continued peace and
prosperity of the whole country.

Twenty miles beyond Buitenzorg the post road passes
over the Megamendong Mountain, at an elevation of about
4,500 feet. The country is finely mountainous, and there
is much virgin forest still left upon the hills, together with
some of the oldest coffee-plantations in Java, where the
plants have attained almost the dimensions of forest trees.
About 500 feet below the summit level of the pass there
is a road-keeper’s hut, half of which I hired for a fortnight,
as the country looked promising for making collections.
I almost immediately found that the productions of West

Java were remarkably different from those of the eastern

CHAP. VI. | BIRDS AND BUTTERFLIES. Way

part of the island; and that all the more remarkable and
characteristic Javanese birds and insects were to be found
here. On the very first day, my hunters obtained for me the
elegant yellow and green trogon (Harpactes Reinwardti), the
gorgeous little minivet flycatcher (Pericrocotus miniatus),
which looks like a flame of fire as it flutters among the
bushes, and the rare and curious black and crimson oriole
(Analcipus sanguinolentus), all of them species which are
found only in Java, and even seem to be confined to its
western portion. In a week I obtained no less than
twenty-four species of birds, which I had not found in
the east of the island, and in a fortnight this number
increased to forty species, almost all of which are peculiar
to the Javanese fauna. Large and handsome butterflies
were also tolerably abundant. In dark ravines, and occa-
sionally on the roadside, I captured the superb Papilio
arjuna, whose wings seem powdered with grains of golden
green, condensed into bands and moon-shaped spots ; while
the elegantly-formed Papilio codn was sometimes to be
found fluttering slowly along the shady pathways (see
figure at page 201). One day a boy brought me a butter-
fly between his fingers, perfectly unhurt. He had caught
it as it was sitting with wings erect, sucking up the liquid
from a muddy spot by the roadside. Many of the finest
tropical butterflies have this habit, and they are generally
so intent upon their meal that they can be easily ap-
VOL. I. N

178 JAVA. [cHAP. vil.

proached and captured. It proved to be the rare and
curious Charaxes kadenii, remarkable for having on each

hind wing two curved tails like a pair of callipers. It was

CALLIPER BUTTERFLY.

the only specimen I ever saw, and is still the only repre-
sentative of its kind in English collections. a

In the east of Java I had suffered from the intense heat
and drought of the dry season, which had been very
inimical to insect life. Here I had got into the other

CHAP. VII. ] TCHIPANAS. 179

extreme of damp, wet, and cloudy weather, which was
equally unfavourable. During the month which I spent
in the interior of West Java, I never had a really hot fine
day throughout. It rained almost every afternoon, or
dense mists came down from the mountains, which equally
stopped collecting, and rendered it most difficult to dry my
specimens, so that I really had no chance of getting a fair
sample of Javanese entomology.

By far the most interesting incident in my visit to Java
was a trip to the summit of the Pangerango and Gedeh
mountains; the former an extinct volcanic ‘cone about
10,000 feet high, the latter an active crater on a lower
portion of the same mountain range. Tchipanas, about
four miles over the Megamendong Pass, is at the foot of
the mountain. A small country house for the Governor-
General and a branch of the Botanic Gardens are situated
here, the keeper of which accommodated me with a bed
for a night. There are many beautiful trees and shrubs
planted here, and large quantities of European vegetables
are grown for the Governor-General’s table. By the side
of a little torrent that bordered the garden, quantities of
orchids were cultivated, attached to the trunks of trees, or
suspended from the branches, forming an interestin g open-
air orchid-house. As I intended to stay two ‘or three
nights on the mountain I engaged two coolies to carry my
baggage, and with my two hunters we started early the

N 2

180 JAVA, [CHAP, VII.

next morning. The first mile was over open country,
which brought us to the forest that covers the whole
mountain from a height of about 5,000 feet. The next
mile or two was a tolerably steep ascent through a grand
virgin forest, the trees being of great size, and the under-
erowth consisting of fine herbaceous plants, tree-ferns,
and shrubby vegetation. I was struck by the immense
number of ferns that grew by the side of the road. Their
variety seemed endless, and I was continually stopping to
admire some new and interesting forms. I could now well
understand what I had been told by the gardener, that
300 species had been found on this one mountain. A
little before noon we reached the small plateau of Tjiburong,
at the foot of the steeper part of the mountain, where
there is a plank-house for the accommodation of travellers.
Close by is a picturesque waterfall and a curious cavern,
which I had not time to explore. Continuing our ascent
the road became narrow, rugged and steep, winding zigzag
up the cone, which is covered with irregular masses of
rock, and overgrown with a dense luxuriant but less lofty
vegetation. We passed a torrent of water which is not
much lower than the boiling point, and has a most singular
appearance as it foams over its rugged bed, sending up
clouds of steam, and often concealed by the overhanging
herbage of ferns and lycopodia, which here thrive with

more luxuriance than elsewhere.

7)

CHAP. VII.] PANGERANGO MOUNTAIN. 181

At about 7,500 feet we came to another hut of open
bamboos, at a place called Kandang Badak, or “ Rhinoceros-
field,” which we were going to make our temporary abode.
Here was a small clearing, with abundance of tree-ferns
and some young plantations of Cinchona. As there was now
a thick mist and drizzling rain, I did not attempt to go on to
the summit that evening, but made two visits to it during
my stay, as well as one to the active crater of Gedeh. This
is a vast semicircular chasm, bounded by black perpendicular
walls of rock, and surrounded by miles of rugged scoria-
covered slopes. The crater itself is not very deep. It
exhibits patches of sulphur and variously-coloured vol-
canic products, and emits from several vents continual
streams of smoke and vapour. The extinct cone of Pan-
gerango was to me more interesting. The summit is an
irregular undulating plain with a low bordering ridge, and
one deep lateral chasm. Unfortunately there was per-
petual mist and rain either above or below us all the
time I was on the mountain ; so that I never once saw the
plain below, or had a glimpse of the magnificent view
which in fine weather is to be obtained from its summit.
Notwithstanding this drawback I enjoyed the excursion
exceedingly, for it was the first time I had been high
enough on a mountain near the Equator to watch the
change from a tropical to a temperate flora. I will now

briefly sketch these changes as I observed them in Java.

182 JAVA. [cHAP. VII.

On ascending the mountain, we first meet with tem-
perate forms of herbaceous plants, so low as 3,000 feet,
where strawberries and violets begin to grow, but the
former are tasteless, and the latter have very small and
pale flowers. Weedy Composite also begin to give a
European aspect to the wayside herbage. It is between
2,000 and 5,000 feet that the forests and ravines exhibit
the utmost development of tropical luxuriance and beauty.
The abundance of noble Tree-ferns, sometimes fifty feet
high, contributes greatly to the general effect, since of all
the forms of tropical vegetation they are certainly the most
striking and beautiful. Some of the deep ravines which
have been cleared of large timber are full of them from
top to bottom ; and where the road crosses one of these
valleys, the view of their feathery crowns, in varied
positions above and below the eye, offers a spectacle of
picturesque beauty never to be forgotten. The splendid
foliage of the broad-leaved Musacee and Zingiberacee,
with their curious and brilliant flowers ; and the elegant and
varied forms of plants allied to Begonia and Melastoma,
continually attract the attention in this region. Filling
up the spaces between the trees and larger plants, on
every trunk and stump and branch, are hosts of Orchids,
Ferns and Lycopods, which wave and hang and inter-
twine in ever-varying complexity. At about 5,000 feet

I first saw horsetails (Equisetum), very like our own

CHAP. Vil. ]

species. At 6,000
feet, Raspberries
abound, and thence
to the summit of
the mountain there
are three species
of eatable Rubus.
At 7,000 feet Cy-
presses appear, and
the forest trees be-
come reduced in
size, and more
covered with
mosses and lichens.
From this point
upward these
rapidly increase,
so that the blocks
of rock and scoria
that form the

mountain slope are

MOUNTAIN PLANTS. 183

PRIMULA IMPERIALIS

completely hidden in a mossy vegetation. At about 8,000

feet European forms of plants become abundant. Several

species of Honey-suckle, St. John’s-wort, and Guelder-rose

abound, and at about 9,000 feet we first meet with the rare

and beautiful Royal Cowslip (Primula imperialis), which

184 JAVA. [CHAP. VII.

is said to be found nowhere else in the world but on this
solitary mountain summit. It has a tall, stout stem, some-
times more than three feet high, the root leaves are eighteen
inches long, and it bears several whorls of cowslip-like
flowers, instead of a terminal cluster only. The forest trees,
gnarled and dwarfed to the dimensions of bushes, reach
up to the very rim of the old crater, but do not extend
over the hollow on its summit. Here we find a good
deal of open ground, with thickets of shrubby Artemisias
and Gnaphaliums, like our southernwood and cudweed, but
six or eight feet high ; while Buttercups, Violets, Whortle-
berries, Sow-thistles, Chickweed, white and yellow Cru-
ciferee, Plantain, and annual grasses everywhere abound.
Where there are bushes and shrubs, the St. John’s-wort
and Honeysuckle grow abundantly, while the Imperial
Cowslip only exhibits its elegant blossoms under the
damp shade of the thickets.

Mr. Motley, who visited the mountain in the dry season,
and paid much attention to botany, gives the following
list of genera of European plants found on or near the
summit :—Two species of Violet, three of Ranunculus,
three of Impatiens, eight or ten of Rubus, and species
of Primula, Hypericum, Swertia, Convallaria (Lily of the
Valley), Vaccinium (Cranberry), Rhododendron, Gnapha-
lium, Polygonum, Digitalis (Foxglove), Lonicera (Honey-

suckle), Plantago (Rib-grass), Artemisia (Wormwood),

CHAP. V1. | EUROPEAN VEGETATION. 185

Lobelia, Oxalis (Wood-sorrel), Quercus (Oak), and Taxus
(Yew). A few of the smaller plants (Plantago major and
lanceolata, Sonchus oleraceus, and Artemisia vulgaris) are
identical with European species.

The fact of a vegetation so closely allied to that of
Europe occurring on isolated mountain peaks, in an island
south of the Equator, while all the lowlands for thousands
of miles around are occupied by a flora of a_ totally
different character, is very extraordinary ; and has only
recently received an intelligible explanation. The Peak
of Teneriffe, which rises to a greater height and is much
nearer to Europe, contains no such Alpine flora; neither
do the mountains of Bourbon and Mauritius. The case
of the volcanic peaks of Java is therefore somewhat
exceptional, but there are several analogous, if not exactly
parallel cases, that will enable us better to understand
in what way the phenoiiena may possibly have been
brought about. The Ingher peaks of the Alps, and even
of the Pyrenees, contain a number of plants absolutely
identical with those of Lapland, but nowhere found in
the intervening plains. On the summit of the White
Mountains, in the United States, every plant is identical
with species growing in Labrador. In these cases all
ordinary means of transport fail. Most of the plants
have heavy seeds, which could not possibly be carried

such immense distances by the wind; and the agency of

186 JAVA. [CHAP. VII.

birds in so effectually stocking these Alpine heights is
equally out of the question. The difficulty was so great,
that some naturalists were driven to believe that these
species were all separately created twice over on these
distant peaks. The determination of a recent glacial epoch,
however, soon offered a much more satisfactory solution,
and one that is now universally accepted by men of science.
At this period, when the mountains of Wales were full
of glaciers, and the mountainous parts of Central Europe,
and much of America north of the great lakes, were
covered with snow and ice, and had a climate resembling
that of Labrador and Greenland at the present day, an
Arctic flora covered all these regions. As this epoch of
cold passed away, and the snowy mantle of the country,
with the glaciers that descended from every mountain
summit, receded up their slopes and towards the north
pole, the plants receded also, always clinging as now to
the margins of the perpetual snow line. Thus it is that
the same species are now found on the summits of the
mountains of temperate Europe and America, and in the
barren north-polar regions.

But there is another set of facts, which help us on
another step towards the case of the Javanese mountain
flora. On the higher slopes of the Himalaya, on the tops
of the mountains of Central India and of Abyssinia, a

number of plants occur which, though not identical with

CHAP. VII. | THE GLACIAL EPOCH. 187

those of European mountains, belong to the same genera,
and are said by botanists to represent them; and most
of these could not exist in the warm intervening plains.
Mr. Darwin believes that this class of facts can be
explained in the same way; for, during the greatest severity
of the glacial epoch, temperate forms of plants will have
extended to the confines of the tropics, and on its de-
parture, will have retreated up these southern mountains,
as well as northward to the plains and hills of Europe.
But in this case, the time elapsed, and the great change
of conditions, have allowed many of these plants to become
so modified that we now consider them to be distinct
species. A variety of other facts of a similar nature, have
led him to believe that the depression of temperature was
at one time sufficient to allow a few north-temperate
plants to cross the Equator (by the most elevated routes)
and to reach the Antarctic regions, where they are now
found. The evidence on which this belief rests, will be
found in the latter part of Chapter II. of the “Origin
of Species;” and, accepting it for the present as an
“hypothesis, it enables us to account for the presence of
a flora of European type on the volcanoes of Java.

It will, however, naturally be objected that there is
a wide expanse of sea between Java and the continent,
which would have effectually prevented the immigration

of temperate forms of plants during the glacial epoch.

188 JAVA. [CHAP. VI.

This would undoubtedly be a fatal objection, were there
not abundant evidence to show that Java has been
formerly connected with Asia, and that the union must
have occurred at about the epoch required. The most
striking proof of such a junction is, that the great Mam-
malia of Java, the rhinoceros, the tiger, and the Banteng
or wild ox, occur also in Siam and Burmah, and these
would certainly not have been introduced by man. The
Javanese peacock and several other birds are also common
to these two countries; but, in the majority of cases, the
species are distinct, though closely allied, indicating that
a considerable time (required for such modification) has
elapsed since the separation, while it has not been so long
as to cause an entire change. Now this exactly cor-
responds with the time we should require since the
temperate forms of plants entered Java. These are
almost all now distinct species ; but the changed conditions
under which they are now forced to exist, and the proba-
bility of some of them having sinee died out on the con-
tinent of India, sufficiently accounts for the Javanese
species being different.

In my more special pursuits, I had very little success
upon the mountain; “owing, perhaps, to the excessively
unpropitious weather and the shortness of my stay. At
from 7,000 to 8,000 feet elevation, I obtained one of the

most lovely of the small fruit pigeons (Ptilonopus rosei

CHAP. VII.] MOUNTAIN BIRDS. 189

eollis), whose entire head and neck are of an exquisite
rosy pink colour, contrasting finely with its otherwise
ereen plumage ; and on the very summit, feeding on the
ground among the strawberries that have been planted
there, I obtained a dull-coloured thrush, with the form
and habits of a starling (Turdus fumidus). Insects were
almost entirely absent, owing no doubt to the extreme
dampness, and I did not get a single butterfly the whole
trip ; yet I feel sure that, during the dry season, a week’s
residence on this mountain would well repay the collector
m every department of natural history.

After my return to Toego, I endeavoured to find another
locality to collect in, and removed to a coffee-plantation
some miles to the north, and tried in succession higher
and lower stations on the mountain; but I never suc-
ceeded in obtaining insects in any abundance, and birds
were far less plentiful than on the Megamendong Moun-
tain. The weather now became more rainy than ever,
and as the wet season seemed to have set in in earnest,
I returned to Batavia, packed up and sent off my col-
lections, and left by steamer on November 1st for Banca
and Sumatra.

CHAPTER VIII.
SUMATRA,
(NOVEMBER 1861 TO JANUARY 1862.)

TIVHE mail steamer from Batavia to Singapore took me to

Muntok (or as on English maps, “ Minto”), the chief
town and port of Banca. Here I stayed a day or two, till I
could obtain a boat to take me across the straits, and up
the river to Palembang. A few walks into the country
showed me that it was very hilly, and full of granitic and
laterite rocks, with a dry and stunted forest vegetation ;
and I could find very few insects. A good-sized open
sailing-boat took me across to the mouth of the Palembang
river, where at a fishing village, a rowing-boat was hired
to take me up to Palembang, a distance of nearly a hundred
miles by water. Except when the wind was strong and
favourable we could only proceed with the tide, and the
banks of the river were generally flooded Nipa-swamps, so
that the hours we were obliged to lay at anchor passed
very heavily. Reaching Palembang on the 8th of Novem-
ber, I was lodged by the Dector, to whom I had brought

CHAP. VI1I. | PALEMBANG. 191

a letter of introduction, and endeavoured to ascertain
where I could find a good locality for collecting. Every
one assured me that I should have to go a very long way
further to find any dry forest, for at this season the whole
country for many miles inland was flooded. I therefore
had to stay a week at Palembang before I could determine
on my future movements.

The city is a large one, extending for three or four miles
along a fine curve of the river, which is as wide as the
Thames at Greenwich. The stream is, however, much
narrowed by the houses which project into it upon piles,
and within these, again, there is a row of houses built upon
great bamboo rafts, which are moored by rattan cables
to the shore or to piles, and rise and fall with the tide.
The whole river-front on both sides is chiefly formed of
such houses, and they are mostly shops open to the water,
and only raised a foot above it, so that by taking a small
boat it is easy to go to market and purchase anything that
is to be had in Palembang. The natives are true Malays,
never building a house on dry land if they can find water
to set it in, and never going anywhere on foot if they can
reach the place in a boat. A considerable portion of the
population are Chinese and Arabs, who carry on all the
trade ; while the only Europeans are the civil and military
officials of the Dutch Government. The town is situated
at the head of the delta of the river, and between it and

192 SUMATRA. [cHap, VIII.

the sea there is very little ground elevated above high-
water mark; while for many miles further inland, the
banks of the main stream and its numerous tributaries are
swampy, and in the wet season flooded for a considerable
distance. Palembang is built on a patch of elevated
ground, a few miles in extent, on the north bank of the
river. At a spot about three miles from the town this
rises into a little hill, the top of which is held sacred by
the natives, and is shaded by some fine trees, inhabited by
a colony of squirrels, which have become half tame. On
holding out a few crumbs of bread or any fruit, they come
running down the trunk, take the morsel out of your
fingers, and dart away instantly. Their tails are carried
erect, and the hair, which is ringed with grey, yellow, and
brown, radiates uniformly around them, and looks exceed-
ingly pretty. They have somewhat of the motions of
mice, coming on with little starts, and gazing intently
with their large black eyes, before venturing to advance
further. The manner in which Malays often obtain the
confidence of wild animals is a very pleasing trait in their
character, and is due in some degree to the quiet delibera-
tion of their manners, and their love of repose rather than
of action. The young are obedient to the wishes of their
elders, aud seem to feel none of that propensity to mischief
which European boys exhibit. How long would tame

squirrels continue to inhabit trees in the vicinity of an

CHAP. VIII. } TAME SQUIRRELS. 195

English village, even if close to the church? They would
soon be pelted and driven away, or snared and confined in
a whirling cage. I have never heard of these pretty
animals being tamed in this way in England, but I should
think it might be easily done in any gentleman’s park,
and they would certainly be as pleasing and attractive as
they would be uncominon.

After many inquiries, I found that a day’s journey by
water above Palembang there commenced a military road,
which extended up to the mountains and even across to
. Bencoolen, and I determined to take this touts and travel
on till I found some tolerable collecting eround. By this
means I should secure dry land and a good road, and avoid
the rivers, which at this season are very tedious to ascend
owing to the powerful currents, and very unproductive to
the collector owing to most of the lands in their vicinity
being under water. Leaving early in the morning we did
not reach Lorok, the village where the road begins, till
late at night. I stayed there a few days, but found that
almost all the ground in the vicinity not under water was
cultivated, and that the only forest was in swamps which
were now inaccessible. The only bird new to me which |
obtained at Lorok was the fine long-tailed parroquet
(Paleeornis longicauda). The people here assured me that
the country was just the same as this for a very long way
—more than a week’s journey, and they seemed hardly to

VOL. I. 0)

194 SUMATRA. [cHAP. VIII.

have any conception of an elevated forest-clad country, so
that I began to think it would be useless going on, as the
time at my disposal was too short to make it worth my
while to spend much more of it in moving about. At
length, however, I found a man who knew the country,
and was more intelligent ; and he at once told me that
if I wanted forest I must go to the district of Rembang,
which I found on inquiry was about twenty-five or thirty
miles off.

The road is divided into regular stages, of ten or twelve
miles each, and, without sending on in advance to have
coolies ready, only this distance can be travelled in a day.
At each station there are houses for the accommodation
of passengers, with cooking-house and stables, and six or
eight men always on guard. There is an established
system for coolies at fixed rates, the inhabitants of the
surrounding villages all taking their turn to be subject to
coolie service, as well as that of guards at the station
for five days at a time. This arrangement makes travel-
ling very easy, and was a great convenience for me. I had
a pleasant walk of ten or twelve miles in the morning,
and the rest of the day could stroll about and explore
the village and neighbourhood, having a house ready to
occupy without any formalities whatever. In three days
I reached Moera-dua, the first village in Rembang, and

finding the country dry and undulating, with a good

CHAP. VIII. | LOBO RAMAN. 195

sprinkling of forest, I determined to remain a short time,
and try the neighbourhood. Just opposite the station
was a small but deep river, and a good bathing-place ;
and beyond the village was a fine patch of forest, through
which the road passed, overshadowed by magnificent trees,
which partly tempted me to stay; but after a fortnight
I could find no good place for insects, and very few birds
different from the common species of Malacca. I there-
fore moved on another stage to Lobo Raman, where the
euard-house is situated quite by itself in the forest, nearly
a inile from each of three villages. This was very agree-
able to me, as I could move about without having every
motion watched by crowds of men women and children,
and I had also a much greater variety of walks to each
of the villages and the plantations around them.

The villages of the Sumatran Malays are somewhat
peculiar and very picturesque. A space of some acres is
surrounded with a high fence, and over this area the houses
are thickly strewn without the least attempt at regularity.
Tall cocoa-nut trees grow abundantly between them, and
the ground is bare and smooth with the trampling of many
feet. The houses are raised about six feet on posts, the
best being entirely built of planks, others of bamboo. The
former are always more or less ornamented with carving
and have high-pitched roofs and overhanging eaves. The
gable ends and all the chief posts and beams are some-

02

196 SUMATRA. _[CHAP. VIII.

times covered with exceedingly tasteful carved work, and
this is still more the case in the district of Menangkabo,
further west. The floor is made of split bamboo, and is
‘ather shaky, and there is no sign of anything we should

call furniture. There are no benches or chairs or stools,

CHIEL’S HOUSE AND RICE SHED IN A SUMATRAN VILLAGE.

but merely the level floor covered with mats, on which the
inmates sit or ie. The aspect of the village itself is very
neat, the ground being often swept before the chief houses ;
but very bad odours abound, owing to there being under
every house a stinking mud-hole, formed by all waste
liquids and refuse matter, poured down through the floor

above. In most other things Malays are tolerably clean—

CHAP. VIII. ] MALAY HOUSES. 197

in some scrupulously so; and this peculiar and nasty
eustom, which is almost universal, arises, I have little
doubt, from their having been originally a maritime and
water-loving people, who built their houses on posts in the
water, and only migrated gradually inland, first up the
rivers and streams, and then into the dry interior. Habits
which were at once so convenient and so cleanly, and
which had been so long practised as to become a portion
of the domestic life of the nation, were of course continued
when the first settlers built their houses inland; and with-
out a regular system of drainage, the arrangement of the
villages is-such, that any other system would be very
inconvenient.

In all these Sumatran villages I found considerable
difficulty in getting anything to eat. It was not the
season for vegetables, and when, after much trouble, |
managed to procure some yams of a curious variety, |
found them hard and scarcely eatable. Fowls were very
scarce ; and fruit was reduced to one of the poorest kinds
of banana. The natives (during the wet season at least)
live exclusively on rice, as the poorer Irish do on potatoes.
A pot of rice cooked very dry and eaten with salt and
red peppers, twice a day, forms their entire food during a
large part of the year. This is no sign of poverty, but is
simply custom; for their wives and children are loaded

with silver armlets from wrist to elbow, and carry dozens

198 SUMATRA. (cmap. Vil.

of silver coins strung round their necks or suspended from
their ears.

As I had moved away from Palembang, I had found the
Malay spoken by the common people less and less pure,
till at length it became quite unintelligible, although the
continual recurrence of many well-known words assured
me it was a form of Malay, and enabled me to guess at
the main subject of conversation. This district had a
very bad reputation a few years ago, and travellers were
frequently robbed and murdered. Fights between village
and village were also of frequent occurrence, and many
lives were lost, owing to disputes about boundaries or
intrigues with women. Now, however, since the country
has been divided into districts under “Controlleurs,” who
visit every village in turn to hear complaints and settle
disputes, such things are no more heard of. This is one of
the numerous examples I have met with of the good effects
of the Dutch Government. It exercises a strict surveil-
lance over its most distant possessions, establishes a form
of government well adapted to the character of the people,
reforms abuses, punishes crimes, and makes itself every-
where respected by the native population.

Lobo Raman is a central point of the east end of
Sumatra, being about a hundred and twenty miles from
the sea to the east, north, and west. The surface is

undulating, with no mountains or even hills, and there is

CHAP. VIII. | THE INTERIOR. R 9g

no rock, the soil being generally a red friable ciay.
Numbers of small streams and rivers intersect the country,
and it is pretty equally divided between open clearings
and patches of forest, both virgin and second growth, with
abundance of fruit trees; and there is no lack of paths to
get about in any direction. Altogether it is the very
country that would promise most for a naturalist, and
I feel sure that at a more favourable time of year it would
prove exceedingly rich; but it was now the rainy season,
when, in the very best of localities, insects are always
scarce, and there being no fruit on the trees there was
also a scarcity of birds. During a month’s collecting, I
added only three or four new species to my list of birds,
although I obtained very fine specimens of many which
were rare and interesting. In butterflies I was rather
more successful, obtaining several fine species quite new to
me, and a considerable number of very rare and beautiful
insects. I will give here some account of two species of
butterflies, which, though very common in collections, pre-
sent us with peculiarities of the highest interest.

The first is the handsome Papilio memnon, a splendid
butterfly of a deep black colour, dotted over with lines and
groups of scales of a clear ashy blue. Its wings are five
inches in expanse, and the hind wings are rounded, with
scalloped edges. This applies to the males ; but the females

are very different, and vary so much that they were once

200 SUMATRA. [CHAP. VIL.

supposed to form several distinct species. They may be
divided into two groups—those whi¢h resemble the male

in shape, and those which differ entirely from him in the

DIFFERENT FEMALES OF PAPILIO MEMNON,

outline of the wings. The first vary much in colour,
being often nearly white with dusky yellow and red
markings, but such differences often occur in butterflies.

The second group are much more extraordinary, and would

CHAP. VIII. ] CURIOUS BUTTERFLIES. 201

never be supposed to be the same insect, since the hind
wings are lengthened éut into large spoon-shaped tails, no
rudiment of which is ever to be perceived in the males or
in the ordinary form of females. These tailed females are

never of the dark and blue-glossed tints which prevail in

PAPILIO COON.

the male and often occur in the females of the same form,
but are invariably ornamented with stripes and patches of
white or buff, occupying the larger part of the surface of
the hind wings. This peculiarity of colouring led me to
discover that this extraordinary female closely resembles
(when flying) another butterfly of the same genus but of a
different group (Papilio codn); and that we have here a

ease of mimicry similar to those so well illustrated and

202 SUMATRA. [cHaP, vill.

explained by Mr. Bates.1 That the resemblance is not
accidental is sufficiently proved by the fact, that in the
North of India, where Papilio coén is replaced by an
allied form (Papilio Doubledayi) having red spots in place
of yellow, a closely-allied species or variety of Papilio
memnon (P. androgeus), has the tailed female also red

spotted. The use and reason of this resemblance appears

to be, that the butterflies imitated belong to a section of

the genus Papilio which from some cause or other are not
attacked by birds, and by so closely resembling these in
form and colour the female of Memnon and its ally, also
escape persecution. Two other species of this same section
(Papilio antiphus and Papilio polyphontes) are so closely
imitated by two female forms of Papilio theseus (which
comes in the same section with Memnon), that they com-
pletely deceived the Dutch entomologist De Haan, and he
accordingly classed them as the same species !

But the most curious fact connected with these distinct
forms is, that they are both the offspring of either form.
A single brood of larvee were bred in Java by a Dutch
entomologist, and produced males as well as tailed and
tailless females, and there is every reason to believe that
this is always the case, and that forms intermediate in

character never occur. To illustrate these phenomena, let
1 Trans. Linn. Soe. vol. xviii. p. 495; “‘ Naturalist on the Amazons,”
vol. i. p. 290.

CHAP. VIII.] A STRANGE FAMILY. 203

us suppose a roaming Englishman in some remote island
to have two wives—one a bDlack-haired red-skinned
Indian, the other a woolly-headed sooty-skinned negress ;
and that instead of the children being mulattoes of brown
or dusky tints, mingling the characteristics of each parent
in varying degrees, all the boys should be as fair-skinned
and blue-eyed as their father, while the girls should
altogether resemble their mothers. This would be thought
strange enough, but the case of these butterflies is yet
more extraordinary, for each mother is capable not only of
producing male offspring like the father, and female like
herself, but also other females like her fellow wife, and
altogether. differing from herself !

The other species to which I have to direct attention is
the Kallima paralekta, a butterfly of the same family
group as our Purple Emperor, and of about the same size
or larger. Its upper surface is of a rich purple, variously
tinged with ash colour, and across the fore wings there is
a broad bar of deep orange, so that when on the wing it is
very conspicuous. This species was not uncommon in dry
woods and thickets, and I often endeavoured to capture it
without success, for after flying a short distance it would
enter‘a bush among dry or dead leaves, and however care-
fully I crept up to the spot I could never discover it till
it would suddenly start out again and then disappear in a

similar place. At length I was fortunate enough to see

204 SUMATRA. [CHAP. VIII.

LEAF BUTTERFLY IN FLIGHT AND REPOSE,

the exact spot where the butterfly settled, and though I
lost sight of it for some time, I at length discovered that it

was close before my eyes, but that in its position of repose

CHAP. VI11.] LEAF-LIKE BUTTERFLY. 205

it so closely resembled a dead leaf attached to a twig as
almost certainly to deceive the eye even when gazing full

o, and

upon it. I captured several specimens on the wing,

was able fully to understand the way in which this
wonderful resemblance is produced.

The end of the upper wings terminates in a fine
point, just as the leaves of. many tropical shrubs
and trees are pointed, while the lower wings are some-
what more obtuse, and are lengthened out into a short
thick tail. Between these two points there runs a dark
eurved line exactly representing the midrib of a leaf, and
from this radiate on each side a few oblique marks which
well imitate the lateral veins. These marks are more
clearly seen on the outer portion of the base of the wings,
and on the inner side towards the middle and apex, and
they are produced by striz and markings which are very
common in allied species, but which are here modified and
strengthened so as to imitate more exactly the venation of
a leaf. The tint of the under surface varies much, but
it is always some ashy brown or reddish colour, which
matches with those of dead leaves. The habit of the
Species is always to rest on a twig and among dead or
dry leaves, and in this position with the wings closely
pressed together, their outline is exactly that of a mode-
rately-sized leaf, slightly curved or shrivelled. The tail

of the hind wings forms a perfect stalk, and touches the

206 SUMATRA. [CHAP. VIII.

stick while the insect is supported by the middle pair of
legs, which are not noticed among the twigs and fibres
that surround it. The head and antenne are drawn back
between the wings so as to be quite concealed, and there
is a little notch hollowed out at the very base of the
wings, which allows the head to be retracted sufficiently.
All these varied details combine to produce a disguise
that is so complete and marvellous as to astonish every
one who observes it; and the habits of the insects are
such as to utilize all these peculiarities, and render them
available in such a manner as to remove all doubt of
the purpose of this singular case of mimicry, which is
undoubtedly a protection to the insect. Its strong and
swift flight is sufficient to save it from its enemies when
on the wing, but if it were equally conspicuous when at
rest it could not long escape extinction, owing to the
attacks of the insectivorous birds and reptiles that abound
in the tropical forests. A very closely allied species,
Kallima inachis, inhabits India, where it-is very common,
and specimens are sent in every collection from the
Himalayas. On examining a number of these, it will be
seen that no two are alike, but all the variations correspond
to those of dead leaves. Livery tint of yellow, ash, brown,
and red is found here, and in many specimens there occur
patches and spots formed of small black dots, so closely

resembling the way in which minute fungi grow on leaves

:

CHAP. V1. ] PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCES. 207

that it is almost impossible at first not to believe that
fungi have grown on the butterflies themselves !

If such an extraordinary adaptation as this stood alone,
it would be very difficult to offer any explanation of it ; but
although it is perhaps the most perfect case of protective
imitation known, there are hundreds of similar resem-
blances in nature, and from these it is possible to deduce
a general theory of the manner in which they have been
slowly brought about. The principle of variation and that
of “natural selection,” or survival of the fittest, as elabo-
rated by Mr. Darwin in his celebrated “ Origin of Species,”
offers the foundation for such a theory; and I have myself
endeavoured to apply it to all the chief cases of imitation
in an article published in the Westminster Review for 1867,
entitled, “ Mimicry, and other Protective Resemblances
among Animals,” to which any reader is referred who
wishes to know more about this subject.

In Sumatra, monkeys are very abundant, and at Lobo
Raman they used to frequent the trees which overhang
the guard-house, and give me a fine opportunity of
observing their gambols. Two species of Semnopithecus
were most plentiful—monkeys of a slender form, with very
long tails. Not being much shot at they are rather bold,
and remain quite unconcerned when natives alone are
present; but when I came out to look at them, they would

stare for a minute or two and then make off. They take

208 SUMATRA. [cHap. vill.

tremendous leaps from the branches of one tree to those of
another a little lower, and it is very amusing when one
strong leader takes a bold jump, to see the others following
with more or less trepidation; and it often happens that
one or two of the last seem quite unable to make up their
minds to leap till the rest are disappearing, when, as if in
desperation at being left alone, they throw themselves
frantically into the air, and often go crashing through the
slender branches and fall to the ground.

A very curious ape, the Siamang, was also rather abundant,
but it is much less bold than the monkeys, keeping to the
virgin forests and avoiding villages. This species is allied to
the little long-armed apes of the genus Hylobates, but is
considerably larger, and differs from them by having the two
first fingers of the feet united together, nearly to the end,
whence its Latin name, Siamanga syndactyla. It moves
much more slowly than the active Hylobates, keeping
lower down in trees, and not indulging in such tremendous
leaps ; but it is still very active, and by means of its im-
mense long arms, five feet six inches across in an adult
about three feet high, can swing itself along among the
trees at a great rate. I purchased a small one, which had
been caught by the natives and tied up so tightly as to
hurt it. It was rather savage at first, and tried to bite; but
when we had released it and given it two poles under the

verandah to hang upon, securing it by a short cord,

CHAP. VIII. | MONKEYS AND APES. 909

running along the pole with a ring, so that it could move
easily, it became more contented, and would swing itself
about with great rapidity. It ate almost any kind of fruit
and rice, and I was in hopes to have brought it to England,
but it died just before I started. It took a dislike to me
at first, which I tried to get over by feeding it constantly
myself One day, however, it bit me so sharply while giving
it food, that I lost patience and gave it rather a severe
beating, which I regretted afterwards, as from that time it
disliked me more than ever. It would allow my Malay
boys to play with it, and for hours together would swing
by its arms from pole to pole and on to the rafters of the
verandah, with so much ease and rapidity, that it was a
constant source of amusement to us. When I returned to
Singapore it attracted great attention, as no one had seen
a Siamang alive before, although it is not uncommon in
some parts of the Malay peninsula.

As the Orang-utan is known to inhabit Sumatra, and
was in fact first discovered there, I made many inquiries
about it; but none of the natives had ever heard of such an
animal, nor could I find any of the Dutch officials who
knew anything about it. We may conclude, therefore, that
it does not inhabit the great forest plains in the east of
Sumatra where one would naturally expect to find it, but
is probably confined to a limited region in the north-west—
a part of the island entirely in the hands of native rulers.

VOL, I. Ng

210 SUMATRA. [CHAP. vul.

The other great Mammalia of Sumatra, the elephant and
the rhinoceros, are more widely distributed ; but the former
is much more scarce than it was a few years ago, and
seems to retire rapidly before the spread of cultivation.
About Lobo Raman tusks and bones are occasionally found
in the forest, but the living animal is now never seen.
The rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sumatranus) still abounds, and
I continually saw its tracks and its dung, and once dis-
turbed one feeding, which went crashing away through the
jungle, only permitting me a momentary glimpse of it
through the dense underwood. I obtained a tolerably
perfect cranium, and a number of teeth, which were picked
up by the natives.

Another curious animal, which I had met with in Singa-
pore and in Borneo, but which was more abundant here, is
the Galeopithecus, or flying lemur. This creature has a
broad membrane extending all round its body to the
extremities of the toes, and to the point of the rather long
tail. This enables it to pass obliquely through the air
from one tree to another. It is sluggish in its motions, at
least by day, going up a tree by short runs of a few feet,
and then stopping a moment as if the action was difficult.
It rests during the day clinging to the trunks of trees, where
its olive or brown fur, mottled with irregular whitish spots
and blotches, resembles closely the colour of mottled bark,
and no doubt helps to protect it. Once, in a bright

CHAP. VIII. | THE FLYING LEMUR. 2

twilight, I saw one of these animals run up a trunk in
a rather open place, and then glide obliquely through the
air to another tree, on which it alighted near its base, and
immediately began to ascend. I paced the distance from
the one tree to the other, and found it to be seventy yards ;
and the amount of descent I estimated at not more than
thirty-five or forty feet, or less than one in five. This I
think proves that the animal must have some power of
guiding itself through the air, otherwise in so long a dis-
tance it would have little chance of alighting exactly upon
the trunk. Like the Cuscus of the Moluccas, the Galeo-
pithecus feeds chiefly on leaves, and possesses a very
voluminous stomach and long convoluted intestines. The
brain is very small, and the animal possesses such remark-
able tenacity of life, that it is exceedingly difficult to kill
it by any ordinary means. The tail is prehensile, and is
probably made use of as an additional support while feed-
ing. It is said to have only a single young one at a time,
and my own observation confirms this statement, for I
once shot a female, with a very small blind and naked
little creature clinging closely to its breast, which was
quite bare and much wrinkled, reminding me of the young
of Marsupials, to which it seemed to form a transition.
On the back, and extending over the limbs and membrane,
the fur of these animals is short, but exquisitely soft,
resembling in its texture that of the Chinchilla.
P2

212 SUMATRA. [CHAP. VIII.

FEMALE HUORNBILL, AND YOUNG BIRD,

I returned to Palembang by water, and while staying a
day at a village while a boat was being made watertight,

I had the good fortune to obtain a male, female, and young

CHAP, VIII. ] HORNBILLS. 213

bird of one of the large hornbills. I had sent my hunters
to shoot, and while I was at breakfast they returned,
bringing me a fine large male, of the Buceros bicornis,
which one of them assured me he had shot while feeding
the female, which was shut up ina hole inatree. I had
often read of this curious habit, and immediately returned
to the place, accompanied by several of the natives. After
crossing a stream and a bog, we found a large tree lean-
ing over some water, and on its lower side, at a height of
about twenty feet, appeared a small hole, and what looked
like a quantity of mud, which I was assured had been
used in stopping up the large hole. After a while we
heard the harsh cry of a bird inside, and could see the
white extremity of its beak put out. I offered a rupee to
any one who would go up and get out the bird, with the
ege or young one; but they all declared it was too difficult,
‘and they were afraid to try. I therefore very reluctantly
came away. In about an hour afterwards, much to my
surprise, a tremendous loud hoarse screaming was heard,
and the bird was brought me, together with a young one
which had been found in the hole. This was a most
curious object, as large as a pigeon, but without a particle
of plumage on any part of it. It was exceedingly plump
and soft, and with a semi-transparent skin, so that it
looked more like a bag of jelly, with head and feet stuck

on, than like a real bird.

214 SUMATRA. [CHAP. VIII.

The extraordinary habit of the male, in plastering up the
female with her egg, and feeding her during the whole
time of incubation, and till the young one is fledged, is
common to several of the large hornbills, and is one of
those strange facts in natural history which are “stranger

than fiction.”

WP

CHAPTER IX.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE INDO-MALAY ISLANDS.

N the first chapter of this work I have stated generally
the reasons which lead us to conclude that the large
islands in the western portion of the Archipelago—Java,
Sumatra, and Borueo—as well as the Malay peninsula and
the Philippine islands, have been recently separated from
the continent of Asia. I now propose to give a sketch of
the Natural History of these, which I term the Indo-Malay
islands, and to show how far it supports this view, and
how much information it is able to give us of the antiquity
and origin of the separate islands.

The flora of the Archipelago is at present so imperfectly
known, and I have myself paid so little attention to it,
that I cannot draw from it many facts of importance. The
Malayan type of vegetation is however a very important
one; and Dr. Hooker informs us, in his “ Flora Indica,”
that it spreads over all the moister and more equable parts
of India, and that many plants found in Ceylon, the Hima-

layas, the Nilghiri, and Khasia mountains are identical with

216 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE [CHAP. IX.

those of Java and the Malay peninsula. Among the more
characteristic forms of this flora are the rattans—climbing
palms of the genus Calamus, and a great variety of tall,

as well as stemless palms. Orchids, Araceze, Zingiberacex

——

SSS
a
Le

ass

GRAMMATOPHYLLUM, A GIGANTIC ORCHID.

and ferns, are especially abundant, and the genus Gramina-
tophylum—a gigantic epiphytal orchid, whose clusters of
leaves and flower-stems are ten or twelve feet long—is

pecuhar to it. Here, too, is the domain of the wonderful

CHAP. 1X. ] INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. 27

pitcher plants (Nepenthacez), which are only represented
elsewhere by solitary species in Ceylon, Madagascar, the
Seychelles, Celebes, and the Moluccas. Those celebrated
fruits, the Mangosteen and the Durian, are natives of this
region, and will hardly grow out of the Archipelago. The
mountain plants of Java have already been alluded to as
showing a former connexion with the continent of Asia ;
and a still more extraordinary and more ancient connexion
with Australia has been indicated by Mr. Low’s collections
from the summit of Kini-balou, the loftiest mountain in
Borneo.

Plants have much greater facilities for passing across
arms of the sea than animals. The lighter seeds are easily
carried by the winds, and many of them are specially
adapted to be so carried. Others can float a long time
unhurt in the water, and are drifted by winds and currents
to distant shores. Pigeons, and other frnit-eating birds, are
also the meaus of distributing plants, since the seeds
readily germinate after passing through their bodies. It
thus happens that plants which grow on shores and low-
lands have a wide distribution, and it requires an extensive
knowledge of the species of each island to determine the
relations of their floras with any approach to accuracy. At
present we have no such complete knowledge of the botany
of the several islands of the Archipelago ; and it is only by

such striking phenomena as the occurrence of northern and

218 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE [CHAP. IX.

even European genera on the summits of the Javanese
mountains that we can prove the former connexion of that
island with the Asiatic continent. With land animals, how-
ever, the case is very different. Their means of passing a
wide expanse of sea are far more restricted. Their distri-
bution has been more accurately studied, and we possess
a much more complete knowledge of such groups as
mammals and birds in most of the islands, than we do of
the plants. It is these two classes which will supply us
with most of our facts as to the geographical distribution
of organized beings in this region.

The number of Mammalia known to inhabit the Indo-
Malay region is very considerable, exceeding 170 species.
With the exception of the bats, none of these have any
regular means of passing arms of the sea many miles in
extent, and a consideration of their distribution must
therefore greatly assist us in determining, whether these
islands have ever been connected with each other or with
the continent since the epoch of existing species.

The Quadrumana or monkey tribe form one of the most
characteristic features of this region. Twenty-four dis-
tinct species are known to inhabit it, and these are distri-
buted with tolerable uniformity over the islands, nine
being found in Java, ten in the Malay peninsula, eleven in
Sumatra, and thirteen in Borneo. The great man-like

Orang-utans are found only in Sumatra and Borneo; the

Re tate

CHAP. IX.] INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. 219

curious Siamang (next tu them in size) in Sumatra and
Malacca; the long-nosed monkey only in Borneo; while
every island has representatives of the Gibbons or long-
armed apes, and of monkeys. The lemur-lke animals,
Nycticebus, Tarsius, and Galeopithecus, are found in all
the islands.

Seven species found on the Malay peninsula extend
also into Sumatra, four into Borneo, and three into Java;
while two range into Siam and Burmah, and one into
North India. With the exception of the Orang-utan,
the Siamang, the Tarsius spectrum, and the Galeopi-
theeus, all the Malayan genera of Quadrumana are re-
presented in India by closely allied species, although,
owing to the limited range of most of these animals, so
few are absolutely identical.

Of Carnivora, thirty-three species are known from the
Indo-Malay region, of which about eight are found also
in Burmah and India. Among these are the tiger, leopard,
a tiger-cat, civet, and otter; while out of the twenty
genera of Malayan Carnivora, thirteen are represented in
India by more or less closely allied species. As an ex-
ample, the Malayan bear is represented in North India
by the Thibetan bear, both of which animals may be
seen alive at the Zoological Society’s Gardens.

The hoofed animals are twenty-two in number, of which

about seven extend into Burmah and India. All the deer

220 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE [CHAP. IX.

are of peculiar species, except two, which range from
Malacca into India. Of the cattle, one Indian species
reaches Malacca, while the Bos sondiacus of Java and
Borneo is also found in Siam and Burmah. A goat-like
animal is found in Sumatra which has its representative
in India; while the two-horned rhinoceros of Sumatra
and the single-horned species of Java, long supposed to be
peculiar to these islands, are now both ascertained to
exist in Burmah, Pegu, and Moulmein. The elephant of
Sumatra, Borneo, and Malacca is now considered to be
identical with that of Ceylon and India.

In all other groups of Mammalia the same general

phenomena recur. A few species are identical with those

of India. A much larger number are closely allied or
representative forms; while there are always a small
number of peculiar genera, consisting of animals unlike
those found in any other part of the world. There are
about fifty bats, of which less than one-fourth are Indian
species ; thirty-four Rodents (squirrels, rats, &c.), of which
six or eight only are Indian; and ten Insectivora, with one
exception peculiar to the Malay region. The squirrels are
very abundant and characteristic, only two species out of
twenty-five extending into Siam and Burmah. The
Tupaias are curious insect-eaters, which closely resemble
squirrels, and are almost confined to the Malay islands, as

are the small feather-tailed Ptilocerus lowii of Borneo,

CHAP. IX. | INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. 921

and the curious long-snouted and naked-tailed Gymnurus
raftlesii.

As the Malay peninsula is a part of the continent of
Asia, the question of the former union of the islands to
the mainland will be best elucidated by studying the
species which are found in the former district, and also in
some of the islands. Now, if we entirely leave out of con-
sideration the bats, which have the power of flight, there
are still forty-eight species of mammals common to the
Malay peninsula and the three large islands. Among these
are seven (Juadrumana (apes, monkeys, and lemurs), animals
who pass their whole existence in forests, who never swim,
and who would be quite unable to traverse a single mile of
sea; nineteen Carnivora, some of which no doubt might
cross by swimming, but we cannot suppose so large a
number to have passed in this way across a strait which,
except at one point, is from thirty to fifty miles wide ; and
five hoofed animals, including the Tapir, two species of
rhinoceros, and an elephant. Besides these there are
thirteen Rodents and four Insectivora, including a shrew-
mouse and six squirrels, whose unaided passage over
twenty miles of sea is even more inconceivable than that
of the larger animals.

But when we come to the cases of the same species
inhabiting two of the more widely separated islands, the

difficulty is much increased. Borneo is distant nearly

222 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE [cHAP. IX.

150 miles from Biliton, which is about fifty miles from
Banca, and this fifteen from Sumatra, yet there are no
less than thirty-six species of mammals common to Borneo
and Sumatra. Java again is more than 250 miles from
Borneo, yet these two islands have twenty-two species in
common, including monkeys, lemurs, wild oxen, squirrels,
and shrews. These facts seem to render it absolutely cer-
tain that there has been at some former period a connexion
between all these islands and the main land, and the fact
that most of the animals common to two or more of them
show little or no variation, but are often absolutely identi-
cal, indicates that the separation must have been recent in
a geological sense ; that is, not earlier than the Newer
Pliocene epoch, at which time land animals began to
assimilate closely with those now existing.

Even the bats furnish an additional argument, if one
were needed, to show that the islands could not have been
peopled from each other and from the continent without
some former connexion. For if such had been the mode of
stocking them with animals, it is quite certain that creatures
which can fly long distances would be the first to spread
from island to island, and thus produce an almost perfect
uniformity of species over the whole region. But no such
uniformity exists, and the bats of each island are almost,
if not quite, as distinct as the other mammals. For

example, sixteen species are known in Borneo, and of

CHAP. 1X.] INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. 22:3

these ten are found in Java and five in Sumatra, a propor-
tion about the same as that of the Rodents, which have no
direct means of migration. We learn from this fact, that the
seas which separate the islands from each other are wide
enough to prevent the passage even of flying animals, and
that we must look to the same causes as having led to the
present distribution of both groups. The only sufficient
cause we can imagine is the former connexion of all the
islands with the continent, and such a change is in perfect
harmony with what we know of the earth’s past history,
and is rendered probable by the remarkable fact that a
rise of only three hundred feet would convert the wide seas
that separate them into an immense winding valley or plain
about three hundred miles wide and twelve hundred long.

It may, perhaps, be thought that birds which possess
the power of flight in so pre-eminent a degree, would not
be limited in their range by arms of the sea, and would
thus afford few indications of the former union or separa-
tion of the islands they inhabit. This, however, is not the
case. A very large number of birds appear to be as strictly
limited by watery barriers as are quadrupeds ; and as they
have been so much more attentively collected, we have
more complete materials to work upon, and are enabled
to deduce from them still more definite and satisfactory
results. Some groups, however, such as the aquatic birds,

the waders, and the birds of prey, are great wanderers ;

DIA NATURAL HISTORY OF THE [CHAP. Ix.

other groups are little known except to ornithologists. JT
shall therefore refer chiefly to a few of the best known
and most remarkable families of birds, as a sample of the
conclusions furnished by the entire class.

The birds of the Indo-Malay region have a close resem-
blance to those of India; for though a very large proportion
of the species are quite distinct, there are only about fifteen
peculiar genera, and not a single family group confined to
the former district. If, however, we compare the islands
with the Burmese, Siamese, and Malayan countries, we
shall find still less difference, and shall be convinced that
all are closely united by the bond of a former union. In
such well-known families as the woodpeckers, parrots,
trogons, barbets, kingfishers, pigeons, and pheasants, we
find some identical species spreading over all India, and
as far as Java and Borneo, while a very large proportion
are common to Sumatra and the Malay peninsula.

The force of these facts can only be appreciated when
we come to treat of the islands of the Austro-Malay
region, and show how similar barriers have entirely
prevented the passage of birds from one island to another,
so that out of at least three hundred and fifty land birds
inhabiting Java and Borneo, not more than ten have
passed eastward into Celebes. Yet the Straits of Macassar
are not nearly so wide as the Java sea, and at least a

hundred species are common to Borneo and Java.

CHAP. IX. ] INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. 225

I will now give two examples to show how a know-
ledge of the distribution of animals may reveal unsus-
pected facts in the past history of the earth. At the
eastern extremity of Sumatra, and separated from it by a
strait about fifteen miles wide, is the small rocky island of
Banca, celebrated for its tin mines. One of the Dutch re-
sidents there sent some collections of birds and animals
to Leyden, and among them were found several species
distinct from those of the adjacent coast of Sumatra. One
of these was a squirrel (Sciurus bangkanus), closely allied
to three other species inhabiting respectively the Malay
peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo, but quite as distinct from
them all as they are from each other. There were also two
new ground thrushes of the genus Pitta, closely allied
to, but quite distinct from, two other species inhabiting
both Sumatra aud Borneo, and which did not perceptibly
differ in these large and widely separated islands. This is
just as if the Isle of Man possessed a peculiar species of
thrush and blackbird, distinct from the birds which are
common to England and Ireland.

These curious facts would indicate that Banca may have
existed as a distinct island even longer than Sumatra and
Borneo, and there are some geological and geographical
facts which render this not so improbable as it would at
first seem to be. Although on the map Banca appears so
close to Sumatra, this does not arise from its having been

VOL. I. Q

226 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE [CHAP. 1X.

recently separated from it; for the adjacent district of
Palembang is new land, being a great alluvial swamp
formed by torrents from the mountains a hundred miles
distant. Banca, on the other hand, agrees with Malacca,
Singapore, and the intervening island of Lingen, in being
formed of granite and laterite; and these have all most
likely once formed an extension of the Malay peninsula.
As the rivers of Borneo and Sumatra have been for ages
filling up the intervening sea, we may be sure that its
depth has recently been greater, and it is very probable
that those large islands were never directly connected with
each other except through the Malay peninsula. At that
period the same species of squirrel and Pitta may have
inhabited all these countries ; but when the subterranean
disturbances occurred which led to the elevation of the
volcanoes of Sumatra, the small island of Banca may have
been separated first, and its productions being thus isolated
might be gradually modified before the separation of the
larger islands had been completed. As the southern part of
Sumatra extended eastward and formed the narrow straits
of Banca, many birds and insects and some Mammalia
would cross from one to the other, and thus produce a
general similarity of productions, while a few of the older
inhabitants remained, to reveal by their distinct forms their
different origin. Unless we suppose some such changes

in physical geography to have occurred, the presence of

CHAP. IX. | INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. 227

peculiar species of birds and mammals in such an island
as Banca is a hopeless puzzle; and I think I have shown
that the changes required are by no means so improbable
as a mere glance at the map would lead us to suppose.

For our next example let us take the great islands of
Sumatra and Java. These approach so closely together,
and the chain of volcanoes that runs through them gives
such an air of unity to the two, that the idea of their
having been recently dissevered is immediately suggested.
The natives of Java, however, go further than this; for
they actually have a tradition of the catastrophe which
broke them asunder, and fix its date at not much more
than a thousand years ago. It becomes interesting, there-
fore, to see what support is given to this view by the
comparison of their animal productions.

The Mammalia have not been collected with sufficient
completeness in both islands to make a general comparison
of much value, and so many species have been obtained
only as live specimens in captivity, that their locality has
often been erroneously given,—the island in which they
were obtained being substituted for that from which they
originally came. Taking into consideration only those
whose distribution is more accurately known, we learn that
Sumatra is, in a zoological sense, more nearly related to
Borneo than it is to Java. The great man-like apes, the
elephant, the tapir, and the Malay bear, are all common to

Q2

298 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE [CHAP. Ix.

the two former countries, while they are absent from the
latter. Of the three long-tailed monkeys (Semnopithecus)
inhabiting Sumatra, one extends into Borneo, but the two
species of Java are both peculiar to it. So also the great
Malay deer (Rusa equina), and the small Tragulus kanchil,
are common to Sumatra and Borneo, but do not extend into
Java, where they are replaced by Tragulus javanicus. The
tiger, it is true, is found in Sumatra and Java, but not in
Borneo. But as this animal is known to swim well, it
may have found its way across the Straits of Sunda, or it
may have inhabited Java before it was separated from the
main land, and from some unknown cause have ceased to
exist in Borneo.

In Ornithology there is a little uncertainty owing to the
birds of Java and Sumatra being much better known than
those of Borneo ; but the ancient separation of Java as an
island, is well exhibited by the large number of its species
which are not found in any of the other islands. It
possesses no less than seven pigeons peculiar to itself, while
Sumatra has only one. Of its two parrots one extends
into Borneo, but neither into Sumatra. Of the fifteen
species of woodpeckers inhabiting Sumatra only four reach
Java, while eight of them are found in Borneo and twelve
in the Malay peninsula. The two Trogons found in Java
are peculiar to it, while of those inhabiting Sumatra at

least two extend to Malacca and one to Borneo. There are

CHAP. TX. ] INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. 229

a very large number of birds, such as the great Argus
pheasant, the fire-backed and ocellated pheasants, the
crested partridge (Rollulus coronatus), the small Malacca
parrot (Psittinus incertus), the great helmeted hornbill
(Buceroturus galeatus), the pheasant ground-cuckoo (Car-
pococcyx radiatus), the rose-crested bee-eater (Nyctiornis
amicta), the great gaper (Corydon sumatranus), and the
green-crested gaper (Calyptomena viridis), and many
others, which are common to Malacca, Sumatra, and
Borneo, but are entirely absent from Java. On the other
hand we have the peacock, the green jungle cock, two blue
ground thrushes (Arrenga cyanea and Myophonus flavi-
rostris), the fine pink-headed dove (Ptilonopus porphyreus),
three broad-tailed ground pigeons (Macropygia), and many
other interesting birds, which are found nowhere in the
Archipelago out of Java.

Insects furnish us with similar facts wherever sufficient
data are to be had, but owing to the abundant collections
that have been made in Java, an unfair preponderance may
be given to that island. This does not, however, seem to
be the case with the true Papilionide or swallow-tailed
butterflies, whose large size and gorgeous colouring has led
to their being collected more frequently than other insects.
Twenty-seven species are known from Java, twenty-nine
from Borneo, and only twenty-one from Sumatra. Four

are entirely confined to Java, while only two are peculiar

230 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE [CHAP. IX.

to Borneo and one to Sumatra. The isolation of Java will,
however, be best shown by grouping the islands in pairs,
and indicating the number of species common to each pair.
Thus :—

Borneo. . . 29 species ) : :
Sumatra . . 21 do. 20 species common to both islands.
Borneo . . . 29 do. )

Javals. eee ie do. 20 = Ze

Sumatra . . 21 do. )

Javed Lampnre-jaeeddo;-- 75 i pe. do.

Making some allowance for our imperfect knowledge of
the Sumatran species, we see that Java is more isolated
from the two larger islands than they are from each other,
thus entirely confirming the results given by the distri-
bution of birds and Mammalia, and rendering it almost
certain that the last-named island was the first to be com-
pletely separated from the Asiatic continent, and that the
native tradition of its having been recently separated from
Sumatra is entirely without foundation.

We are now enabled to trace out with some probability
the course of events. Beginning at the time when
the whole of the Java sea, the Gulf of Siam, and the
Straits of Malacca were dry land, forming with Borneo,
Sumatra, and Java, a vast southern prolongation of the
Asiatic continent, the first movement would be the sink-

ing down of the Java sea, and the Straits of Sunda, con-

‘

CHAP. IX, ] INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. 231

sequent on the activity of the Javanese volcanoes along
the southern extremity of the land, and leading to the
complete separation of that island. As the volcanic belt
of Java and Sumatra increased in activity, more and more
of the land was submerged, till first Borneo, and atter-
wards Sumatra, became entirely severed. Since the epoch of
the first disturbance, several distinct elevations and depres-
sions may have taken place, and the islands may have been
more than once joined with each other or with the main
land, and again separated. Successive waves of immigra-
tion may thus have modified their animal productions,
and led to those anomalies in distribution which are so
difficult to account for by any single operation of elevation
or submergence. The form of Borneo, consisting of radiat-
ing mountain chains with intervening broad alluvial
- valleys, suggests the idea that it has once been much more
submerged than it is at present (when it would have
somewhat resembled Celebes or Gilolo in outline), and has
been increased to its present dimensions by the filling up
of its gulfs with sedimentary matter, assisted by gradual
elevation of the land. Sumatra has also been evidently
much increased in size by the formation of alluvial plains
along its north-eastern coasts.

There is one peculiarity in the productions of Java that
is very puzzling—the occurrence of several species or

groups characteristic of the Siamese countries or of India,

232 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE [CHAP. Ix.

but which do not occur in Borneo or Sumatra. Among
Mammals the Rhinoceros javanicus is the most striking
example, for a distinct species is found in Borneo and
Sumatra, while the Javanese species occurs in Birmah and
even in Bengal. Among birds, the small ground dove,
xeopelia striata, and thé curious bronze-coloured magpie,
Crypsizhina varians, are common to Java and Siam; while
there are in Jaya species of Pteruthius, Arrenga, Myio-
phonus, Zoothera, Sturnopastor, and Estrelda, ‘the nearest
allies of which are found in various parts of India, while
nothing like them is known to inhabit Borneo or Sumatra.

Such a curious phenomenon as this can only be under-
stood, by supposing that, subsequent to the separation
of Java, Borneo became almost entirely submerged, and
on its re-elevation was for a time connected with the
Malay peninsula and Sumatra, but not with Java or
Siam. Any geologist who knows how strata have been
contorted and tilted up, and how elevations and depres-
sions must often have occurred alternately, not once or
twice only, but scores and even hundreds of times, will
have no difficulty in admitting that such changes as have
been here indicated are not in themselves improbable. The
existence of extensive coal-beds in Borneo and Sumatra, of
such recent origin that the leaves which abound in their
shales are scarcely distinguishable from those of the forests

which now cover the country, proves that such changes of

CHAP. IX. ] INDO-MALAY ISLANDS. 233

level actually did take place; and it is a matter of much
interest, both to the geologist and to the philosophic
naturalist, to be able to form some conception of the order
of those changes, and to understand how they may have
resulted in the actual distribution of animal life in these
countries ;—a distribution which often presents phenomena
so strange and contradictory, that without taking such
changes into consideration we are unable even to imagine

how they could have been brought about.

CHAPTER X.
BALI AND LOMBOCK.
(JUNE, JULY, 1856.)

HE islands of Bali and Lombock, situated at the east
end of Java, are particularly interesting. They are the
only islands of the whole Archipelago in which the Hindoo
religion still maintains itself—and they form the extreme
points of the two great zoological divisions of the Eastern
hemisphere; for although so similar in external appear-
ance and in all physical features, they differ greatly in their
natural productions. It was after having spent two years
in Borneo, Malacca and Singapore, that I made a some-
what involuntary visit to these islands on my way to
Macassar. Had I been able to obtain a passage direct to
that place from Singapore, I should probably never have
vone near them, and should have missed some of the
most important discoveries of my whole expedition to
the East.
It was on the 13th of June, 1856, after a twenty days’

passage from Singapore in the “ Kembang Djepoon” (Rose

CHAP. X.] BALI—BILELING. 935

of Japan), a schooner belonging to a Chinese merchant,
manned by a Javanese crew, and commanded by an
English captain, that we cast anchor in the dangerous
roadstead of Bileling on the north side of the island of
Bali. Going on shore with the captain and the Chinese
supercargo, I was at once introduced to a novel and inter-
esting scene. We went first to the house of the Chinese
Bandar, or chief merchant, where we found a number of
natives, well dressed, and all conspicuously armed with
krisses, displaying their large handles of ivory or gold, or
beautifully grained and polished wood.

_ The Chinamen had given up their national costume and
adopted the Malay dress, and could then hardly be distin-
guished from the natives of the island—an indication of
the close affinity of the Malayan and Mongolhan races.
Under the thick shade of some mango-trees close by the
house, several women-merchants were selling cotton goods;
for here the women trade and work for the benefit of their
husbands, a custom which Mahometan Malays never adopt.
Fruit, tea, cakes, and sweetmeats were brought us; many
questions were asked about our business and the state of
trade in Singapore, and we then took a walk to look at the
village. It was a very dull and dreary place; a collection
of narrow lanes bounded by high mud walls, enclosing
bamboo houses, into some of which we entered and were
very kindly received,

236 BALI. [CHAP. X.

During the two days that we remained here, I walked
out into the surrounding country to catch insects, shoot
birds, and spy out the nakedness or fertility of the land.
I was both astonished and delighted; for as my visit to
Java was some years later, J had never beheld so beautiful
and well cultivated a district out of Europe. <A slightly
undulating plain extends from the sea-coast about ten
or twelve miles inland, where it is bounded by a fine
range of wooded and cultivated hills. Houses and villages,
marked out by dense clumps of cocoa-nut palms, tamarind
and other fruit trees, are dotted about in every direction ;
while between them extend luxuriant rice-grounds, watered
by an elaborate system of irrigation that would be the
pride of the best cultivated parts of Europe. The whole
surface of the country is divided into irregular patches,
following the undulations of the ground, fromm many acres
to a few perches in extent, each of which is itself perfectly
level, but stands a few inches or several feet above or below
those adjacent to it. Every one of these patches can be
flooded or drained at will, by means of a system of ditches
and small channels, into which are diverted the whole of
the streams that descend from the mountains. Every patch
now bore crops in various stages of growth, some almost
ready for cutting, and all in the most flourishing condition

and of the most exquisite green tints.

The sides of the lanes and bridle roads were often edged

:

CHAP. X.] CATTLE— BIRDS. 37

with prickly Cacti and a leafless Euphorbia, but the
eountry being so highly cultivated there was not much
room for indigenous vegetation, except upon the sea-beach.
We saw plenty of the fine race of domestic cattle descended
from the Bos banteng of Java, driven by half-naked boys,
or tethered in pasture-grounds. They are large and hand-
some animals, of a light brown colour, with white legs,
and a conspicuous oval patch behind of the same colour.
Wild cattle of the same race are said to be still found
in the mountains. In so well-cultivated a country it was
not to be expected that I could do much in natural history,
and my ignorance of how important a locality this was
for the elucidation of the geographical distribution of
animals, caused me to neglect obtaining some specimens
which I never met with again. One of these was a weaver
bird with a bright yellow head, which built its bottle-
shaped nests by dozens on some trees near the beach.
It was the Ploceus hypoxantha, a native of Java; and
here, at the extreme limits of its range westerly. I shot
and preserved specimens of a wagtail-thrush, an oriole,
and some starlings, all species found in Java, and some
of them peculiar to that island. I also obtained some
beautiful butterflies, richly marked with black and orange
on a white ground, and which were the most abundant
insects in the country lanes. Among these was a new

species, which I have named Pieris tamar.

238 LOMBOCK. [cHAP. X.

Leaving Bileling, a pleasant sail of two days brought
us to Ampanam in the island of Lombock, where I pro-
posed to remain till I could obtain a passage to Macassar.
We enjoyed superb views of the twin volcanoes of Bali
and Lombock, each about eight thousand feet high, which
form magnificent objects at sunrise and sunset, when they
rise out of the mists and clouds that surround their bases,
glowing with the rich and changing tints of these the
most charming moments in a tropical day.

The bay or roadstead of Ampanam is extensive, and
being at this season sheltered from the prevalent south-
easterly winds, was as smooth as a lake. The beach of
black volcanic sand is very steep, and there is at all times
a heavy surf upon it, which during spring-tides increases
to such an extent that it is often impossible for boats to
land, and many serious accidents have occurred. Where
we lay anchored, about a quarter of a mile from the shore,
not the slightest swell was perceptible, but on approaching
nearer undulations began, which rapidly increased, so as to
form rollers which toppled over on to the beach at regular
intervals with a noise like thunder. Sometimes this surf
increases suddenly during perfect calms, to as great a force
and fury as when a gale of wind is blowing, beating to
pieces all boats that may not have been hauled sufficiently
high upon the beach, and carrying away incautious natives.

This violent surf is probably in some way dependent on

\. die eee

CHAP. x. | AMPANAM. 239

the swell of the great southern ocean, and the violent
currents that flow through the Straits of Lombock. These
are so uncertain that vessels preparing to anchor in the
bay are sometimes suddenly swept away into the straits,
and are not able to get back again for a fortnight !
What seamen call the “ripples” are also very violent in
the straits, the sea appearing to boil and foam and dance
like the rapids below a cataract; vessels are swept about
helpless, and small ones are occasionally swamped in the
finest weather and under the brightest skies.

I felt considerably relieved when all my boxes and
myself had passed in safety through the devouring surf, |
which the natives look upon with some pride, saying,
that “their sea is always hungry, and eats up everything
it can catch.” I was kindly received by Mr. Carter, an
Englishman, who is one of the Bandars or licensed traders
of the port, who offered me hospitality and every assistance
during my stay. His house, storehouses, and offices were
in a yard surrounded ‘by a tall bamboo fence, and were
entirely constructed of bamboo with a thatch of grass, the
only available building materials. Even these were now

very scarce, owing to the great consumption in rebuilding

- the place since the great fire some months before, which in

an hour or two had destroyed every building in the town.
_ The next day I went to see Mr. S., another merchant

to whom I had brought letters of introduction, and who

‘940 LOMBOCK. [cHAP. xX. —

lived about seven miles off. Mr. Carter kindly lent me
a horse, and I was accompanied by a young Dutch gentle-
man residing at Ampanam, who offered to be my guide.
We first passed through the town and suburbs along a
straight road bordered by mud walls and a fine avenue of
lofty trees; then through rice-fields, irrigated in the same
manner as I had seen them at Bileling, and afterwards
over sandy pastures near the sea, and occasionally along
the beach itself. Mr. 8. received us kindly, and offered
me a residence at his house should I think the neighbour-
hood favourable for my pursuits. After an early break-
fast we went out to explore, taking guns and insect-net.
We reached some low hills which seemed to offer the
most favourable ground, passing over swamps, sandy flats
overgrown with coarse sedges, and through pastures and
cultivated grounds, finding however very little in the way
of either birds or insects. On our way we passed one
or two human skeletons, enclosed within a small bamboo
fence, with the clothes, pillow, mat, and betel-box of the
unfortunate individual,—who had been either murdered or
executed. Returning to the house, we found a Balinese
chief and his followers on a visit. Those of higher rank
sat on chairs, the others squatted on the floor. The chief
very coolly asked for beer and brandy, and helped himself
and his followers, apparently more out of curiosity than

anything else as regards the beer, for it seemed very

CHAP. xX. ] BIRDS AND DRAGON-FLIES. 241

distasteful to them, while they drank the brandy in
tumblers with much relish.

Returning to Ampanam, I devoted myself for some days
to shooting the birds of the neighbourhood. The fine fig-
trees of the avenues, where a market was held, were tenanted
by superb orioles (Oriolus broderpii) of a rich orange
colour, and peculiar to this island and the adjacent ones
of Sumbawa and Flores. All round the town were abun-
dance of the curious Tropidorhynchus timoriensis, allied
to the Friar bird of Australia. They are here called
“Quaich-quaich,” from their strange leud voice, which
seems to repeat these words in various and not unmelo-
dious intonations.

Every day boys were to be seen walking along the
roads and by the hedges and ditches, catching dragon-flies
with birdlime. They carry a-slender stick, with a few
twigs at the end well anointed, so that the least touch
captures the insect, whose wings are pulled off before it
is consigned to a small basket. The dragon-flies are so
abundant at the time of the rice flowering that thousands
are soon caught in this way. The bodies are fried in oil
with onions and preserved shrimps, or sometimes alone,
-and are considered a great delicacy. In Borneo, Celebes,
and many other islands, the larvae of bees and wasps are
eaten, either alive as pulled out of the cells, or fried like
the dragon-flies. In the Moluccas the grubs of the palm-

VOL. T. R

°

242 LOMBOCK. [cHAP. x.

beetles (Calandra) are regularly brought to market in bam-
boos, and sold for food; and many of the great horned
Lamellicorn beetles are slightly roasted on the embers and
eaten whenever met with. The superabundance of insect
life is therefore turned to some account by these islanders.

Finding that birds were not very numerous, and
hearing much of Labuan Tring at the southern extremity
of the bay, where there was said to be much uncultivated
country and plenty of birds as well as deer and wild
pigs, I determined to go there with my two servants, Ali,
the Malay lad from Borneo, and Manuel, a Portuguese of
Malacca accustomed to bird-skinning. I hired a native
boat with outriggers, to take us with our small quantity
ot luggage, and a day’s rowing and tracking along the
shore brought us to the place.

I had a note of introduction to an Amboynese Malay,
and obtained the use of part of his house to live and work
in. His name was “ Inchi Daud” (Mr. David), and he was
very civil; but his accommodations were limited, and he
could only give me part of his reception-room. This was
the front part of a bamboo house (reached by a ladder of
about six rounds very wide apart), and having a beautiful
view over the.bay. However, I soon made what arrange-
ments were possible, and then set to work. The country
around was pretty and novel to me, consisting of abrupt

volcanic hills enclosing flat valleys or open plains. The

»

i

;

CHAP. x. ] MOUND-MAKING BIRDS. 243

hills were covered with a dense scrubby bush of bamboos
and prickly trees and shrubs, the plains were adorned with
hundreds of noble palm-trees, and in many places with
a luxuriant shrubby vegetation. Birds were plentiful and
very interesting, and I now saw for the first time many
Australian forms that are quite absent from the islands
westward. Small white cockatoos were abundant, and
their loud screams, conspicuous white colour, and pretty
yellow crests, rendered them a very important feature in
the landscape. This is the most westerly point on the
globe where any of the family are to be found. Some
small honeysuckers of the genus Ptilotis, and the strange
mound-maker (Megapodius gouldii), are also here first
met with on the traveller's journey eastward. The last-
mentioned bird requires a fuller notice.

The Megapodide are a small family of birds found only
in Australia and the surrounding islands, but extending as
far as the Philippines and North-west Borneo. They are
allied to the gallinaceous birds, but differ from these and
from all others in never sitting upon their eggs, which they
bury in sand, earth, or rubbish, and leave to be hatched by
the heat of the sun or of fermentation. They are all
characterised by very large feet and long curved claws,
and most of the species of Megapodius rake and scratch
together all kinds of rubbish, dead leaves, sticks, stones,
earth, rotten wood, &c., till they form a large mound, often

R 2

244 LOMBOCK. [cnap. x.

six feet hich and twelve feet across, in the middle of
which they bury their eggs. The natives can tell by the
condition of these mounds whether they contain eggs or
not ; and they rob them whenever they can, as the brick-red
egos (as large as those of a swan) are considered a great
delicacy. A number of birds are said to join in making
these mounds and lay their eggs together, so that some-
times forty or fifty may be found. The mounds are to be
met with here and there in dense thickets, and are great
puzzles to strangers, who cannot understand who can
possibly have heaped together cartloads of rubbish in such
out-of-the-way places; and when they inquire of the
natives they are but little wiser, for it almost always
appears to them the wildest romance to be told that it is
all done by birds. The species found in Lombock is about
the size of a small hen, and entirely of dark olive and
brown tints. It is a miscellaneous feeder, devouring fallen
fruits, earth-worms, snails, and centipedes, but the flesh is
white and well-flavoured when properly cooked.

The large green pigeons were still better eating, and were
much more plentiful. These fine birds, exceeding our
largest tame pigeons in size, abounded on the palm-trees,
which now bore huge bunches of fruits—mere hard globular
nuts, about an inch in diameter, and covered with a dry
green skin and a very small portion of pulp. Looking at

the pigeon’s bill and head, it would seem impossible that it

CHAP. X.] BEAUTIFUL BIRDS. 245

could swallow such large masses, or that it could obtain
any nourishment from them; yet I often shot these birds
with several palm-fruits in the crop, which generally burst
when they fell to the ground. I obtained here eight
species of Kingfishers, among which was a very beautiful
new one, named by Mr. Gould, Halcyon fulgidus. It was
found always in thickets, away from water, and seemed to
feed on snails and insects picked up from the ground after
the manner of the great Laughing Jackass of Australia.
The beautiful little violet and orange species (Ceyx rufi-
dorsa) is found in similar situations, and darts rapidly
along like a flame of fire. Here also I first met with the
pretty Australian Bee-eater (Merops ornatus). This elegant
little bird sits on twigs in open places, gazing eagerly
around, and darting off at intervals tu seize some insect
which it sees flying near ; returning afterwards to the
same twig to swallow it. Its long, sharp, curved bill, the
two long narrow feathers in its tail, its beautiful green
plumage varied with rich brown and black and vivid blue
on the throat, render it one of the most graceful and
interesting objects a naturalist can see for the first time.
Of all the birds of Lombock, however, I sought most
after the beautiful ground thrushes (Pitta concinna), and
always thought myself lucky if I obtained one. They were
found only in the dry plains densely covered with thickets,

and carpeted at this season with dead leaves. They were

246 LOMBOCK. [cHAP. xX.

so shy that it was very difficult to get a shot at them, and
it was only after a good deal of practice that I discovered
how to do it. The habit of these birds is to hop about
on the ground, picking up insects, and on the least alarm
to run into the densest thicket or take a flight close along
the ground. At intervals they utter a peculiar cry of two
notes which when once heard is easily recognised, and
they can also be heard hopping along among the dry
leaves. My practice was, therefore, to walk cautiously
along the narrow pathways with which the country
abounded, and on detecting any sign of a Pitta’s vicinity
to stand motionless and give a gentle whistle occasionally,
imitating the notes as near as possible. After half an
hour's waiting I was often rewarded by seeing the pretty
bird hopping along in the thicket. Then I would perhaps
lose sight of it again, till, having my gun raised and ready
for a shot, a second glimpse would enable me to secure my
prize, and admire its soft puffy plumage and lovely colours.
The upper part is rich soft green, the head jet black with
a stripe of blue and brown over each eye; at the base of
the tail and on the shoulders are bands of bright silvery
blue, and the under side is delicate buff with a stripe of
rich crimson, bordered with black on the belly. Beautiful
grass-green doves, little crimson and black flower-peckers,
large black cuckoos, metallic king-crows, golden orioles,

and the fine jungle-cocks—the origin of all our domestic

CHAP. X.] THORNY JUNGLE. 247

breeds of poultry—were among the birds that chiefly
attracted my attention during our stay at Labuan Tring.
The most characteristic feature of the jungle was its
thorniness. The shrubs were thorny; the creepers were
thorny ; the bamboos even were thorny. Everything grew
zigzag and jagged, and in an inextricable tangle, so that to
get through the bush with gun or net or even spectacles,
was generally not to be done, and insect-catching in such
localities was out of the question. It was in such places
that the Pittas often lurked, and when shot it became a
matter of some difficulty to secure the bird, and seldom
without a heavy payment of pricks and scratches and torn
clothes could the prize be won. The dry volcanic soil
and arid climate seem favourable to the production of such
stunted and thorny vegetation, for the natives assured me
that this was nothing to the thorns and prickles of Sum-
bawa, whose surface still bears the covering of volcanic
ashes thrown out forty years ago by the terrible eruption
of Tomboro. Among the shrubs and trees that are not
prickly the Apocynacez were most abundant, their bilobed
fruits of varied form and colour and often of most tempting
appearance, hanging everywhere by the waysides as if to
invite to destruction the weary traveller who may be un-
aware of their poisonous properties. One in particular
with a smooth shining skin of a golden orange colour

rivals in appearance the golden apples of the Hesperides,

248 LOMBOCK. [CHAP. x.

and has great attractions for many birds, from the white
cockatoos to the little yellow Zosterops, who feast on the
crimson seeds which are displayed when the fruit bursts
open. The great palm called “Gubbong” by the natives,
a species of Corypha, is the most striking feature of the
plains, where it grows by thousands and appears in three
different states—in leaf, in flower and fruit, or dead. It
has a lofty cylindrical stem about a hundred feet high and
two to three feet in diameter; the leaves are large and fan-
shaped, and fall off when the tree flowers, which it does
only once i its life ina huge terminal spike, on which are
produced masses of a smooth round fruit of a green colour
and about an inch in diameter. When these ripen and fall
the tree dies, and remains standing a year or two before it
falls. Trees in leaf only are by far the most numerous,
then those in flower and fruit, while dead trees are scat-
tered here and there among them. The trees in fruit are
the resort of the great green fruit pigeons, which have been
already mentioned. Troops of monkeys (Macacus cyno-
molgus) may often be seen occupying a tree, showering
down the fruit in great profusion, chatterme when dis-
turbed and making an enormous rustling as they seamper
off among the dead palm leaves; while the pigeons have a
loud booming voice more like the roar of a wild beast than
the note of a bird.

My collecting operations here were carried on under

CHAP. X. | COLLECTING UNDER DIFFICULTIES. D249

more than usual difficulties. One small room had to serve
for eating sleeping and working, for storehouse and dis-
secting-room ; in it were no shelves, cupboards, chairs or
tables; ants swarmed in every part of it, and dogs, cats and
fowls entered it at pleasure. Besides this it was the parlour
and reception-room of my host, and I was obliged to con-
sult his convenience and that of the numerous guests who
visited us. My principal piece of furniture was a_ box,
which served me as a dining-table, a seat while skinning
birds, and as the receptacle of the birds when skinned and
dried. To keep them free from ants we borrowed, with some
difficulty, an old bench, the four legs of which being placed
in cocoa-nut shells filled with water kept us tolerably free
from these pests. The box and the bench were however
literally the only places where anything could be put
away, and they were generally well occupied by two
insect boxes and about a hundred birds’ skins in process of
drying. It may therefore be easily conceived that when
anything bulky or out of the common way was collected,
the question “Where is it to be put?” was rather a diffi-
cult one to answer. All animal substances moreover re-
quire some time to dry thoroughly, emit a very disagreeable
odour while doing so, and are particularly attractive to
ants, flies, dogs, rats, cats, and other vermin, calling for
especial cautions and constant supervision, which under

the circumstances above described were impossible.

250 LOMBOCK. [owaP. x.

My readers may now partially understand why a travel-
_ling naturalist of limited means, like myself, does so much
less than is expected or than he would himself wish to
do. It would be interesting to preserve skeletons of many
birds and animals, reptiles and fishes in spirits, skins of
the larger animals, remarkable fruits and woods and the
most curious articles of manufacture and commerce;
but it will be seen that under the circumstances I have
just described it would have been impossible to add
these to the collections which were my own more especial
favourites. When travelling by boat the difficulties are as
great or greater, and they are not diminished when the
journey is by land. It was absolutely necessary therefore
to limit my collections to certain groups to which I could
devote constant personal attention, and thus secure from
destruction or decay what had been often obtained by
much labour and pains.

While Manuel sat skinning his birds of an afternoon,
generally surrounded by a little crowd of Malays and
Sassaks (as the indigenes of Lombock are termed), he often
held forth to them with the air of a teacher, and was
listened to with profound attention. He was very fond of
discoursing on the “special providences” of which he be-
lieved he was daily the subject. “ Allah has been merciful
to-day,” he would say—-for although a Christian he adopted

the Mahometan mode of speech—‘“ and has given us some

CHAP. X.] BIRD-FATALISM. 251

very fine birds; we can do nothing without him.” Then
one of the Malays would reply, “To be sure, birds are like
mankind ; they have their appointed time to die; when
that time comes nothing can save them, and if it has not
come you cannot kill them.” A murmur of assent follows
this sentiment, and cries of “Butul! Butul!” (Right,
right.) Then Manuel would tell a long story of one of his
unsuccessful hunts ;—how he saw some fine bird and fol-
lowed it a long way, and then missed it, and again found
it, and shot two or three times at it, but could never hit it.
“Ah!” says an old Malay, “its time was not come, and
so it was impossible for you to kill it.’ A doctrine this
which is very consoling to the bad marksman, and which
quite accounts for the facts, but which is yet somehow not
altogether satisfactory.

It is universally believed in Lombock that some men
have the power to turn themselves into crocodiles, which
they do for the sake of devouring their enemies, and many
strange tales are told of such transformations. I was
therefore rather surprised one evening to hear the following
curious fact stated, and as it was not contradicted by any
of the persons present I am inclined to accept it provi-
Sionally, as a contribution to the Natural History of the
island. A Bornean Malay who had been for many years
resident here said to Manuel, “One thing is strange in

this country—the scarcity of ghosts.” “How so?” asked

252 LOMBOCK. [CHAP. x.

Manuel. “ Why, you know,” said the Malay, “that in our
countries to the westward, if a man dies or is killed, we
dare not pass near the place at night, for all sorts of noises
are heard which show that ghosts are about. But here
there are numbers of men killed, and their bodies lie un-
buried in the fields and by the roadside, and yet you can
walk by them at night and never hear or see anything at
all, which is not the case in our country, as you know very
well.” “Certainly I do,” said Manuel; and so it was
settled that ghosts were very scarce, if not altogether
unknown in Lombock. I would observe, however, that as
the evidence is purely negative we should be wanting in
scientific caution if we accepted this fact as sufficiently
well established.

One evening I heard Manuel, Ali, and a Malay man
whispering earnestly together outside the door, and could
distinguish various allusions to “ krisses,” throat-cutting,
heads, &e. &e. At length Manuel came in, looking very
solemn and frightened, and said to me in English, “ Sir—
must take care ;—no safe here ;—want cut throat.” On
further inquiry, I found that the Malay had been telling
them, that the Rajah had just sent down an order to the
village, that they were to get a certain number of heads for
an offering in the temples to secure a good crop of rice.
Two or three other Malays and Bugis, as well as the

Amboyna man in whose house we lived, confirmed this

CHAP. X.] MANUEL’S FEARS. 2

account, and declared that it was a regular thing every
year, and that it was necessary to keep a good watch and

o, and

never go out alone. I laughed at the whole thing,

tried to persuade them that it was a mere tale, but to no
effect. They were all firmly persuaded that their lives
were in danger. Manuel would not go out shooting
alone, and I was obliged to accompany him every morn-
ing, but I soon gave him the slip in the jungle. Ali was
afraid to go and look for firewood without a companion,
and would not even fetch water from the well a few yards
behind the house unless armed with an enormous spear.
I was quite sure all the time that no such order had been
sent or received, and that we were in perfect safety. This
was well shown shortly afterwards, when an American
sailor ran away from his ship on the east side of the
island, and made his way on foot and unarmed across to
Ampanam, having met with the greatest hospitality on the
whole route. Nowhere would the smallest payment be
taken for the food and lodging which were willingly fur-
nished him. On pointing out this fact to Manuel, he re-
plied, ‘He one bad man,—run away from his ship,—no

”

one can believe word he say ;” and so I was obliged to
leave him in the uncomfortable persuasion that he might
any day have his throat cut.

A circumstance occurred here which appeared to throw

some light on the cause of the tremendous surf at

254 LOMBOCK. [cuap. x.

Ampanam. One evening I heard a strange rumbling
noise, and at the same time the house shook slightly.
Thinking it might be thunder, I asked, “ What is that?”
“Tt is an earthquake,” answered Inchi Daud, my host;
and he then told me that slight shocks were occasionally
felt there, but he had never known them severe. This
happened on the day of the last quarter of the moon, and
consequently when the tides were low and the surf usually
at its weakest. On inquiry afterwards at Ampanam, I
found that no earthquake had been noticed, but that on
one night there had been a very heavy surf, which shook
the house, and the next day there was a very high tide,
the water having flooded Mr. Carter’s premises, higher
than he had ever known it before. These unusual tides
occur every now and then, and are not thought much of ;
but by careful inquiry I ascertained that the surf had
occurred on the very night I had felt the earthquake at
Labuan Tring, nearly twenty miles off. This would seem
to indicate, that although the ordinary heavy surf may be
due to the swell of the great Southern Ocean confined in
a narrow channel, combined with a peculiar form of bottom
near the shore, yet the sudden heavy surfs and high tides
that occur occasionally in perfectly calm weather, may be
due to slight upheavals of the ocean-bed in this eminently

volcanic region.

|
.

CHAPTER XI.

LOMBOCK: MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE PEOPLE.

AVING made a very fine and interesting collection of
the birds of Labuan Tring, I took leave of my kind
host, Inchi Daud, and returned to Ampanam to await an
opportunity to reach Macassar. As no vessel had arrived
bound for that port, I determined to make an excursion
into the interior of the island, accompanied by Mr. Ross,
an Englishman born in the Keeling Islands, and now
employed by the Dutch Government to settle the affairs
of a missionary who had unfortunately become bankrupt
here. Mr. Carter kindly lent me a horse, and Mr. Ross
took his native groom.

Our route for some distance lay along a perfectly level
country, bearing ample crops of rice. The road was
straight and generally bordered with lofty trees forming
a fine avenue. It was at first sandy, afterwards grassy,
with occasional streams and mud-holes. At a distance
of about four miles we reached Mataram, the capital of
the island and the residence of the Rajah. It is a large

village with wide streets bordered by a magnificent avenue

256 LOMBOCK. [CHAP. XI.

of trees, and low houses concealed behind mud walls.
Within this royal city no native of the lower orders is
allowed to ride, and our attendant, a Javanese, was obliged
to dismount and lead his horse while we rode slowly
through. The abodes of the Rajah and of the High Priest
are distinguished by pillars of red brick constructed with
much taste; but the palace itself seemed to differ but
little from the ordinary houses of the country. Beyond
Mataram and close to it is Karangassam, the ancient
residence of the native or Sassak Rajahs before the con-
quest of the island by the Balinese.

Soon after passing Mataram the country began gradually
to rise in gentle undulations, swelling occasionally into
low hills towards the two mountainous tracts in the
northern and southern parts of the island. It was now
that I first obtained an adequate idea of one of the most
wonderful systems of cultivation in the world, equalling all
that is related of Chinese industry, and as far as I know
surpassing in the labour that has been bestowed upon it
any tract of equal extent in the most civilized couutries
of Europe. I rode through this strange garden utterly
amazed, and hardly able to realize the fact, that in this
remote and little known island, from which all Europeans
except a few traders at the port are jealously excluded,
many hundreds of square miles of irregularly undulating
country have been so skilfully terraced and levelled, and

CHAP, XI.] IRRIGATION. 257

so permeated by artificial channels, that every portion of it
can be irrigated and dried at pleasure. According as the
slope of the ground is more or less rapid, each terraced
plot consists in some places of many acres, in others of
a few square yards. We saw them in every state of
cultivation; some in stubble, some being ploughed, some
with rice-crops in various stages of growth. Here were
luxuriant patches of tobacco; there, cucumbers, sweet
potatoes, yams, beans or Indian-corn, varied the scene.
In some places the ditches were dry, in others little
streams crossed our road and were distributed over lands
about to be sown or planted. The banks which bordered
every terrace rose regularly in horizontal lines above each
other; sometimes rounding an abrupt knoll and looking
like a fortification, or sweeping round some deep hollow
and forming on a gigantic scale the seats of an amphi-
theatre. Every brook and rivulet had been diverted from
its bed, and instead of flowing along the lowest ground
were to be found crossing our road half-way up an ascent,
yet bordered by ancient trees and moss-grown stones so
as to have all the appearance of a natural channel, and
bearing testimony to the remote period at which the work
had been done. As we advanced further into the country,
the scene was diversified by abrupt rocky hills, by steep
ravines, and by clumps of bamboos and palm-trees near
houses or villages; while in the distance the fine range

VOL, I. )

258 LOMBOCK. [CHAP. XI.

of mountains of which Lombock peak, eight thousand feet
high, is the culminating point, formed a fit background
to a view scarcely to be surpassed either in human interest
or picturesque beauty.

Along the first part of our road we passed hundreds of
women carrying rice, fruit, and vegetables to market ; and
further on an almost uninterrupted line of horses laden
with rice in bags or in the ear, on their way to the port of
Ampanam. At every few miles along the road, seated
under shady trees or slight sheds, were sellers of sugar-
cane, palm-wine, cooked rice, salted eggs, and fried plan-
tains, with a few other native delicacies. At these stalls
a hearty meal may be made for a penny, but we contented
ourselves with drinking some sweet palm-wine, a most
delicious beverage in the heat of the day. After having
travelled about twenty miles we reached a higher and drier
region, where, water being scarce, cultivation was confined
to the little flats bordering the streams. Here the country
was as beautiful as before, but of a different character ; con-
sisting of undulating downs of short turf interspersed with
fine clumps of. trees and bushes, sometimes the woodland,
sometimes the open ground predominating. We only
passed through one small patch of true forest, where we
were shaded by lofty trees and saw around us a dark and
dense vegetation, highly agreeable after the heat and glare

of the open country.

CHAP. X1.] A COLD RECEPTION. 259

At length, about an hour after noon, we reached our
destination—the village of Coupang, situated nearly in the
centre of the island—and entered the outer court of a
house belonging to one of the chiefs with whom my friend
Mr. Ross had a slight acquaintance. Here we were re-
quested to seat ourselves under an open shed with a raised
floor of bamboo, a place used to receive visitors and hold
audiences. Turning our horses to graze on the luxuriant
grass of the courtyard, we waited till the great man’s Malay
interpreter appeared, who inquired our business and in-
formed us that the Pumbuckle (chief) was at the Rajah’s
house, but would soon be back. As we had not yet break-
fasted, we begged he would get us something to eat, which
he promised to do as soon as possible. It was however
about two hours before anything appeared, when a small
tray was brought containing two saucers of rice, four small
fried fish, and a few vegetables. Having made as good a
breakfast as we could, we strolled about the village, and
returning, amused ourselves by conversation with a number
of menu and boys who gathered round us; and by exchang-
ing glances and smiles with a number of women and girls
who peeped at us through half-opened doors and other
erevices. Two little boys named Mousa and Isa (Moses
and Jesus) were great friends with us, and an impudent
little rascal called Kachang (a bean) made us all laugh by

his mimicry and antics.

260 LOMBOCK. [CHAP. XI.

At length, about four o’clock, the Pumbuckle made his
appearance, and we informed him of our desire to stay
with him a few days, to shoot birds and see the country.
At this he seemed somewhat disturbed, and asked if we
had brought a letter from the Anak Agong (Son of Heaven):
which is the title of the Rajah of Lombock. This we had
not done, thinking it quite unnecessary; and he then
abruptly told us that he must go and speak to his Rajah,
to see if we could stay. Hours passed away, night came,
and he did not return. I began to think we were suspected
of some evil designs, for the Pumbuckle was evidently
afraid of getting himself into trouble. He is a Sassak
prince, and, though a supporter of the present Rajah, is
related to some of the heads of a conspiracy which was
quelled a few years since.

About five o’clock a pack-horse bearing my guns and
clothes arrived, with my men Ali and Manuel, who had
come on foot. The sun set, and it soon became dark, and
we got rather hungry as we sat wearily under the shed
and no one came. Still hour after hour we waited, till
about nine o’clock, the Pumbuckle, the Rajah, some priests,
and a number of their followers arrived and took their
seats around us. We shook hands, and for some minutes
there was a dead silence. Then the Rajah asked what we
wanted; to which Mr. Ross replied by endeavouring to

make them understand who we were, and why we had

CHAP. XI.] SUSPICIONS. 261

come, and that we had no sinister intentions whatever ;
and that we had not brought a letter from the “Anak
Agong,” merely because we had thought it quite unne-
cessary. A long conversation in the Bali language then
took place, and questions were asked about my guns, and
what powder I had, and whether I used shot or bullets ;
also what the birds were for, and how I preserved them,
and what was done with them in England. Each of my
answers and explanations was followed by a low and serious
conversation which we could not understand, but the pur-
port of which we could guess. They were evidently quite
puzzled, and did not believe a word we had told them.
They then inquired if we were really English, and not
Dutch ; and although we strongly asserted our nationality,
they did not seem to believe us.

After about an hour, however, they brought us some
supper (which was the same as the breakfast, but without
the fish), and after it some very weak coffee and pumpkins
boiled with sugar. Having discussed this, a second con-
ference took place ; questions were again asked, and the
answers again commented on. Between whiles lighter
topics were discussed. My spectacles (concave glasses)
were tried in succession by three or four old men, who
could not make out why they could not see through them,
and the fact no doubt was another item of suspicion

against me. My beard, too, was the subject of some

262 LOMBOCK. [cHap. XI.

admiration, and many questions were asked about personal
peculiarities which it is not the custom to allude to in
European society. At length, about one in the morning,
the whole party rose to depart, and, after conversing some
time at the gate, all went away. We now begged the
interpreter, who with a few boys and men remained about
us, to show us a place to sleep in, at which he seemed very
much surprised, saying he thought we were very well
accommodated where we were. It was quite chilly, and
we were very thinly clad and had brought no blankets, but
all we could get after another hour’s talk was a native mat
and pillow, and a few old curtains to hang round three
sides of the open shed and protect us a little from the cold
breeze. We passed the rest of the night very uncomfort-
ably, and determined to return in the morning and not
submit any longer to such shabby treatment.

We rose at daybreak, but it was near an hour before
the interpreter made his appearance. We then asked to
have some coffee and to see the Pumbuckle, as we wanted
a horse for Ali, who was lame, and wished to bid him
adieu. The man looked puzzled at such unheard-of
demands and vanished into the inner court, locking the
door behind him and leaving us again to our meditations.
An hour passed and no one came, so I ordered the horses
to be saddled and the pack-horse to be loaded, and pre--

pared to start. Just then the interpreter came up on horse-:

CHAP. XI.] A RETREAT. 263

back, and looked aghast at our preparations. ‘“ Where is
the Pumbuckle?” we asked. “Gone to the Rajah’s,” said
he. “ We are going,” said I. “Oh! pray don’t,” said he;
“wait a little; they are having a consultation, and some
priests are coming to see you, anda chief is going off to
Mataram to ask the permission of the Anak Agong for you
to stay.” This settled the matter. More talk, more delay,
and another eight or ten hours’ consultation were not to be
endured ; so we started at once, the poor interpreter almost
weeping at our obstinacy and hurry, and assuring us—
“the Pumbuckle would be very sorry, and the Rajah would
be very sorry, and if we would but wait all would be
right.” I gave Ali my horse, and started on foot, but he
afterwards mounted behind Mr. Ross’s eroom, and we got
home very well, though rather hot and tired.

At Mataram we called at the house of Gusti Gadioca,
one of the princes of Lombock, who was a friend of Mr.
Carter’s, and who had promised to show me the guns made
by native workmen. T'wo guns were exhibited, one six
the other seven feet long, and of a proportionably large
bore. The barrels were twisted and well finished, though
not so finely worked as ours. The stock was well made,
and extended to the end of the barrel. Silver and gold
ornament was inlaid over most of the surface, but the
locks were taken from English muskets. The Gusti

assured me, however, that the Rajah had a man who made

264 LOMBOCK. [cHap. XI.

locks and also rifled barrels. The workshop where these
guns are made and the tools used were next shown us,
and were very remarkable. An open shed with a couple
of small mud forges were the chief objects visible. The
bellows consisted of two bamboo cylinders, with pistons
worked by hand. They move very easily, having a loose
stuffing of feathers thickly set round the piston so as to act
as a valve, and produce a regular blast. Both cylinders
ccmmunicate with the same nozzle, one piston rising while
the other falls. An oblong piece of iron on the ground
was the anvil, and a small vice was fixed on the projecting
root of a tree outside. These, with a few files and hammers,
were literally the only tools with which an old man
makes these fine guns, finishing them himself from the
rough iron and wood.

I was anxious to know how they bored these long
barrels, which seemed perfectly true and are said to shoot
admirably ; and, on asking the Gusti, received the enig-
matical answer : “We use a basket full of*stones.” Being
utterly unable to imagine what he could mean, I asked if
I could see how they did it, and one of the dozen little
boys around us was sent to fetch the basket. He soon
returned with this most extraordinary boring-machine, the
mode of using which the Gusti then explained to me. It
was simply a strong bamboo basket, through the bottom of
which was stuck upright a pole about three feet long, kept

CHAP. XI.] NATIVE GUN-MAKERS. 265

in its place by a few sticks tied across the top with rattans.

The bottom of the pole has an iron ring, and a hole in

GUN-BORING.

which four-cornered borers of hardened iron can be fitted.
The barrel to be bored is buried upright in the ground, the
borer is inserted into it, the top of the stick or vertical

266 TOMBOCK. [cHap. XI.

shaft is held by a cross-piece of bamboo with a hole in it,
and the basket is filled with stones to get the required
weight. Two boys turn the bamboo round. The barrels
are made in pieces of about eighteen inches long, which
are first bored small, and then welded together upon a
straight iron rod. The whole barrel is then worked with
borers of gradually increasing size, and in three days the
boring is finished. The whole matter was explained in
such a straightforward manner that I have no doubt the
process described to me was that actually used; although,
when examining one of the handsome, well-finished, and
serviceable guns, it was very hard to realize the fact, that
they had been made from first to last with tools hardly
sufficient for an English blacksmith to make a horse-shoe.
The day after we returned from our excursion, the
Rajah came to Ampanam to a feast given by Gusti
Gadioca, who resides there; and soon after his arrival we
went to have an audience. We found him in a large
courtyard sitting on a mat under a shady tree; and all his
followers, to the number of three or four hundred, squat-
ting on the ground in a large circle round him. He wore
a sarong or Malay petticoat and a green jacket. He was
a man about thirty-five years of age, and of a pleasing
countenance, with some appearance of intellect combined
with indecision. We bowed, and took our seats on the

ground near some chiefs we were acquainted with, for

CHAP. XI.] THE RAJAH. 267

while the Rajah sits no one can stand or sit higher. He
first. inquired who I was, and what I was doing in Lom-
bock, and then requested to see some of my birds. I
accordingly sent for one of my boxes of bird-skins and
one of insects, which he examined carefully, and seemed
much surprised that they could be so well preserved. We
then had a little conversation about Europe and the
Russian war, in which all natives take an _ interest.
Having heard much of a country-seat of the Rajah’s
called Gunong Sari, I took the opportunity to ask per-
mission to visit it and shoot a few birds there, which he
immediately granted. JI then thanked him, and we took
our leave.

An hour after, his son came to visit Mr. Carter accom-
panied by about a hundred followers, who all sat on the
ground while he came into the open shed where Manuel
was skinning birds. After some time he went into the
house, had a bed arranged to sleep a little, then drank
some wine, and after an hour or two had dinner brought
him from the Gusti’s house, which he ate with eight of
the principal priests and princes. He pronounced a
blessmg over the rice and commenced eating first, after
which the rest fell to. They rolled up balls of rice in’
their hands, dipped them in the gravy and swallowed them
rapidly, with little pieces of meat and fowl cooked in a
variety of ways. A boy fanned the young Rajah while

268 LOMBOCK. [CHAP. XI.

eating. He was a youth of about fifteen, and had already
three wives. All wore the kris, or Malay crooked dagger,
on the beauty and value of which they greatly pride them-
selves. A companion of the Rajah’s had one with a
golden handle, in which were set twenty-eight diamonds
and several other jewels. He said it had cost him 7001.
The sheaths are of ornamental wood and ivory, often
covered on one side with gold. The blades are beautifully
veined with white metal worked into the iron, and they
are kept very carefully. Every man without exception
carries a kris, stuck behind into the large waist-cloth
which all wear, and it is generally the most valuable
piece of property he possesses.

A few days afterwards our long-talked-of excursion to
Gunong Sari took place. Our party was increased by the
captain and supercargo of a Hamburg ship loading with
rice for China. We were mounted on a very miscellaneous
lot of Lombock ponies, which we had some difficulty in
supplying with the necessary saddles, &c. ; and most of us
had to patch up our girths, bridles, or stirrup-leathers, as
best we could. We passed through Mataram, where we
were joined by our friend Gusti Gadioca, mounted on a
handsome black horse, and riding as all the natives do,
without saddle or stirrups, using only a handsome saddle-
cloth and very ornamental bridle. About three miles
further, along pleasant byways, brought us to the place.

CHAP. XI.] TAME FISHES. 269

We entered through a rather handsome brick gateway
supported by hideous Hindoo deities in stone. Within was
an enclosure with two square fish-ponds and some fine trees ;
then another gateway through which we entered into a
park. On the right was a brick house, built somewhat in
the Hindoo style, and placed on a high terrace or platform ;
on the left a large fish-pond, supplied by a little rivulet
which entered it out of the mouth of a gigantic crocodile
well executed in brick and stone. The edges of the pond
were bricked, and in the centre rose a fantastic and pictu-
resque pavilion ornamented with grotesque statues. The
pond was well stocked with fine fish, which come every
morning to be fed at the sound of a wooden gong which
is hung near for the purpose. On striking it a number of
fish immediately came out of the masses of weed with
which the pond abounds, and followed us along the margin
expecting food. At the same time some deer came out of
an adjacent wood, which, from being seldom shot at and
regularly fed, are almost tame. The jungle and woods
which surrounded the park appearing to abound in birds,
I went to shoot a few, and was rewarded by getting several
specimens of the fine new kingfisher, Halcyon fulgidus,
and the curious and handsome ground thrush, Zoothera
andromeda. The former belies its name by not frequenting
water or feeding on fish. It lives constantly.in low damp

thickets picking up ground insects, centipedes, and small

270 LOMBOCK. [cHAP. XI.

mollusca. Altogether I was much pleased with my visit
to this place, and it gave me a higher opinion than I had
before entertained of the taste of these people, although
the style of the buildings and of the sculpture is very
much inferior to those of the magnificent ruins in Java.
I must now say a few words about the character, manners,
and customs of these interesting people.

The aborigines of Lombock are termed Sassaks. They
are a Malay race hardly differmg in appearance from the
people of Malacca or Borneo. They are Mahometans and
form the bulk of the population. The ruling classes, on
the other hand, are natives of the adjacent island of Bali,
and are of the Brahminical religion. The government is
an absolute monarchy, but it seems to be conducted with
more wisdom and moderation than is usual in Malay
countries. The father of the present Rajah conquered the
island, and the people seem now quite reconciled to their
new rulers, who do not interfere with their religion, and
probably do not tax them any heavier than did the native
chiefs they have supplanted. The laws now in force in
Lombock are very severe. Theft is punished by death.
Mr. Carter informed me that a man once stole a metal
coffee-pot from his house. He was caught, the pot restored,
and the man brought to Mr. Carter to punish as he thought
fit. All the natives recommended My. Carter to have him

“ krissed” on the spot ; “for if you don’t,” said they, “he

CHAP, XI.] SEVERE LAWS. 71

will rob you again.” Mr. Carter, however, let him off,
with a warning, that if he ever came inside his premises
again he would certainly be shot. A few months after-
wards the same man stole a horse from Mr. Carter. The
horse was recovered, but the thief was not caught. It is
an established rule, that any one found in a house after
dark, unless with the owner’s knowledge, may be stabbed,
his body thrown out into the street or upon the beach,
and no questions will be asked.

The men are exceedingly jealous and very strict with
their wives. A married woman may not accept a cigar or
a sirih leaf from a stranger under pain of death. I was
informed that some years ago one of the English traders
had a Balinese woman of good family living with him—the
connexion being considered quite honourable by the natives.
During some festival this girl offended against the law by
accepting a flower or some such trifle from another man.
This was reported to the Rajah (to some of whose wives
the girl was related), and he immediately sent to the Eng-
lishman’s house ordering him to give the woman up as she
must be “krissed.” In vain he begged and prayed, and
offered to pay any fine the Rajah might impose, and finally
refused to give her up unless he was forced to do so. This
the Rajah did not wish to resort to, as he no doubt thought
he was acting as much for the Englishman’s honour as

for his own; so he appeared to let the matter drop.

272 LOMBOCK. [CHAP. X1.

But some time afterwards he sent one of his followers
to the house, who beckoned the girl to the door, and
then saying, “The Rajah sends you this,” stabbed her to
the heart. More serious infidelity is punished still more
cruelly, the woman and her paramour being tied back
to back and thrown into the sea, where some large croco-
diles are always on the watch to devour the bodies. One
such execution took place while I was at Ampanam, but I ;
took a long walk into the country to be out of the way till
it was all over, thus missing the opportunity of having a
horrible narrative to enliven my somewhat tedious story.
One morning, as we were sitting at breakfast, Mr.
Carter’s servant informed us that there was an ‘‘ Amok”
in the village—in other words, that a man was “running a
muck.” Orders were immediately given to shut and fasten
the gates of our enclosure; but hearing nothing for some
time, we went out, and found there had been a false alarm,
owing to a slave having run away, declaring he would
“amok,” because his master wanted to sell him. A short
time before, a man had been killed at a gaming-table
because, having lost half-a-dollar more than he possessed, |
he was going to “amok.” Another had killed or wounded
seventeen people before he could be destroyed. In their wars
a whole regiment of these people will sometimes agree to
“amok,” and then rush on with such energetic desperation

as to be very formidable to men not so excited as them-

CHAP. XT. ] “RUNNING A MUCK.” Oey

selves. Among the ancients these would have been looked
upon as heroes or demigods who sacrificed themselves for
their country. Here it is simply said,—they made “ amok.”

Macassar is the most celebrated place in the East for
“running a muck.” There are said to be one or two a
month on the average, and five, ten, or twenty persons are
sometimes killed or wounded at one of them. It is the
national and therefore the honourable mode of committing
suicide among the natives of Celebes, and is the fashion-
able way of escaping from their difficulties. A Roman
fell upon his sword, a Japanese rips up his stomach, and
an Englishman blows out his brains with a pistol. The
Bugis mode has many advantages to one suicidically
inclined. A man thinks himself wronged by society—he
is in debt and cannot pay—he is taken for a slave or has
gambled away his wife or child into slavery—he sees no
way of recovering what he has lost, and becomes desperate.
He will not put wp with such cruel wrongs, but will be
revenged on mankind and die like a hero. He grasps his
kris-handle, and the next moment draws out the weapon
and stabs a man to the heart. He runs on, with bloody
kris in his hand, stabbing at every one he meets. “Amok!
Amok!” then resounds through the streets. Spears,
krisses, knives and guns are brought out against him. He
rushes madly forward, kills all he can—men, women, and
children—and dies overwhelmed by numbers amid all the

\OLS ie Me

274 EOMBOCK. [CHAP. XI.

excitement of a battle. And what that excitement is
those who have been in one best know, but all who have
ever given way to violent passions, or even indulged in
violent and exciting exercises, may form a very good idea.
It is a delirious intoxication, a temporary madness that
absorbs every thought and every energy. And can we
wonder at the kris-bearing, untaught, brooding Malay
preferring such a death, looked upon as almost honourable,
to the cold-blooded details of suicide, if he wishes to
escape from overwhelming troubles, or the merciless
clutches of the hangman and the disgrace of a public
execution, when he has taken the law into his own hands,
and too hastily revenged himself upon his enemy? In
either case he chooses rather to “amok.”

The great staples of the trade of Lombock as well as
of Bali are rice and coffee; the former grown on the plains,
the latter on the hills. The rice is exported very largely
to other islands of the Archipelago, to Singapore, and even
to China, and there are generally one or more vessels
loading in the port. It is brought into Ampanam on
pack-horses, and almost every day a string of these would
come into Mr. Carter’s yard. The only money the natives
will take for their rice is Chinese copper cash, twelve
hundred of which go to a dollar. Every morning two
large sacks of this money had to be counted out into

convenient sums for payment. From Bali quantities of

CHAP. XI.] EXPORTS. 275

dried beef and ox-tongues are exported, and from Lombock
a good many ducks and ponies. The ducks are a peculiar
breed, which have very long flat bodies, and walk erect
almost like penguins. They are generally of a pale reddish
ash colour, and are kept in large flocks. They are very
cheap and are largely consumed by the crews of the rice
ships, by whom they are called Baly-soldiers, but are
more generally known elsewhere as penguin-ducks.

My Portuguese bird-stuffer Fernandez now insisted on
breaking his agreement and returning to Singapore; partly
from home-sickness, but more I believe from the idea that
his life was not worth many months’ purchase among such
bloodthirsty and uncivilized peoples. It was a consider-
able loss to me, as I had paid him full three times the
usual wages for three months in advance, half of which was
occupied in the voyage and the rest in a place where I could
have done without him, owing to there being so few insects
that I could devote my own time to shooting and skinning.
A few days after Fernandez had left, a small schooner
came in bound for Macassar, to which place I took a pas-
sage. As a fitting conclusion to my sketch of these
interesting islands, I will narrate an anecdote which I
heard of the present Rajah; and which, whether altogether
true or not, well illustrates native character, and will serve
as a means of introducing some details of the manners and

customs of the country to which I have not yet alluded.

Tee

CHAPTER XII.
LOMBOCK: HOW THE RAJAH TOOK THE CENSUS.

HE Rajah of Lombock was a very wise man, and he
showed his wisdom greatly in the way he took the
census. For my readers must know that the chief revenues
of the Rajah were derived from a head-tax of rice, a small
measure being paid annually by every man, woman, and
child in the island. There was no doubt that every one
paid this tax, for it was a very light one, and the land
was fertile and the people well off; but it had to pass
through many hands before it reached the Government
storehouses. When the harvest was over the villagers
brought their rice to the Kapala kampong, or head of the
village; and no doubt he sometimes had compassion on
the poor or sick and passed over their short measure, and
sometimes was obliged to grant a favour to those who
had complaints against him; and then he must keep up
his own dignity by having his granaries better filled than
his neighbours, and so the rice that he took to the

“ Waidono” that was over his district was generally a

ee

CHAP. XII.] TAKING A CENSUS. 277

good deal less than it should have been. And all the
“Waidonos” had of course to take care of themselves,
for they were all in debt and it was so easy to take a
little of the Government rice, and there would still be
plenty for the Rajah. And the “Gustis” or princes
who received the rice from the Waidonos helped them-
selves likewise, and so when the harvest was all over and
the rice tribute was all brought in, the quantity was found
to be less each year than the one before. Sickness in one
district, and fevers in another, and failure of the crops in
a third, were of course alleged as the cause of this falling
off; but when the Rajah went to hunt at the foot of the
ereat mountain, or went to visit a “Gusti” on the other
side of the island, he always saw the villages full of people,
all looking well-fed and happy. And he noticed that the
krisses of his chiefs and officers were getting handsomer
and handsomer ; and the handles that were of yellow wood
were changed for ivory, and those of ivory were changed
for gold, and diamonds and emeralds sparkled on many
of them; and he knew very well which way the tribute-
rice went. But as he could not prove it he kept silence,
and resolved in his own heart some day to have a census
taken, so that he might know the number of his people,
and not be cheated out of more rice than was just and
reasonable.

But the difficulty was how to get this census. He

278 LOMBOCK. (CHAP. XII.

could not go himself into every village and every house,
and count all the people; and if he ordered it to be done
by the regular officers they would quickly understand
what it was for, and the census would be sure to agree
exactly with the quantity of rice he got last year. It was
evident therefore that to answer his purpose no one must
suspect why the census was taken ; and to make sure of
this, no one must know that there was any census taken
at all. This was a very hard problem; and the Rajah
thought and thought, as hard as a Malay Rajah can be
expected to think, but could not solve it; and so he was
very unhappy, and did nothing but smoke and chew betel
with his favourite wife, and eat scarcely anything; and
even when he went to the cock-fight did not seem to care
whether his best birds won or lost. For several days
he remained in this sad state, and all the court were
afraid some evil eye had bewitched the Rajah; and an
unfortunate Irish captain who had come in for a cargo of
rice and who squinted dreadfully, was very nearly being
krissed, but being first brought to the royal presence was
graciously ordered to go on board and remain there while
his ship stayed in the port.

One morning however, after about a week’s continuance
of this unaccountable melancholy, a welcome change took
place, for the Rajah sent to call together all the chiefs

and priests and princes who were then in Mataram, his

CHAP. XII. ] TAKING A CENSUS. Zee

capital city ; and when they were all assembled in anxious
expectation, he thus addressed them :

“For many days my heart has been very sick and 1
knew not why, but now the trouble is cleared away, for
I have hada dream. Last night the spirit of the ‘Gunong
Agong’—the great fire mountain—appeared to me, and
told me that I must go up to the top of the mountain.
All of you may come with me to near the top, but then
I must go up alone, and the great spirit will again appear
to me and will tell me what is of great importance to me
and to you and to all the people of the island. Now go
all of you and make this known through the island, and
let every village furnish men to make clear a road for us
to go through the forest and up the great mountain.”

So the news was spread over the whole island that the
tajah must go to meet the great spirit on the top of the
mountain; and every village sent forth its men, and they
cleared away the jungle and made bridges over the mountain
streams and smoothed the rough places for the Rajah’s
passage. And when they came to the steep and cragey
rocks of the mountain, they sought out the best paths,
sometimes along the bed of a torrent, sometimes along
narrow ledges of the black rocks ; in one place cutting down
a tall tree so as to bridge across a chasm, in another con-
structing ladders to mount the smooth face of a precipice.

The chiefs who superintended the work fixed upon the

280 LOMBOCK. [CHAP. XII.

length of each day’s journey beforehand according to the
nature of the road, and chose pleasant places by the banks
of clear streams and in the neighbourhood of shady trees,
where they built sheds and huts of bamboo well thatched
with the leaves of palm-trees, in which the Rajah and his
attendants might eat and sleep at the close of each day.
And-when all was ready, the princes and priests and
chief men came again to the Rajah, to tell him what had
been done and to ask him when he would go up the
mountain. And he fixed a day, and ordered every man
of rank and authority to accompany him, to do honour
to the great spirit who had bid him undertake the journey,
and to show how willingly they obeyed his commands.
And then there was much preparation throughout the
whole island. The best cattle were killed and the meat
salted and sun-dried; and abundance of red peppers
and sweet potatoes were gathered; and the tall pinang-
trees were climbed for the spicy betel nut, the sirih-leaf
was tied up in bundles, and every man filled his tobacco
pouch and lime box to the brim, so that he might not want
any of the materials for chewing the refreshing betel during
the journey. And the stores of provisions were sent on
a day in advance. And on the day before that appointed
for starting, all the chiefs both great and small came to
Mataram, the abode of the king, with their horses and

their servants, and the bearers of their sirik boxes, and

cHAP. XII. | TAKING A CENSUS. 281

their sleeping-mats, and their provisions. And they en-
camped under the tall Waringin-trees that border all the
roads about Mataram, and with blazing fires frighted away
the ghouls and evil spirits that nightly haunt the gloomy
avenues.

In the morning a great procession was formed to con-
duct the Rajah to the mountain. And the royal princes
and relations of the Rajah mounted their black horses,
whose tails swept the ground; they used no saddle or
stirrups, but sat upon a cloth of gay colours; the bits
were of silver and the bridles of many-coloured cords.
The less important people were on small strong horses of
various colours, well suited to a mountain journey; and all
(even the Rajah) were bare-legged to above the knee,
wearing only the gay coloured cotton waist-cloth, a silk
or cotton jacket, and a large handkerchief tastefully folded
round the head. Every one was attended by one or two
servants bearing his sinh and betel boxes, who were alsv
mounted on ponies; and great numbers more had gone on
in advance or waited to bring up the rear. The men in
authority were numbered by hundreds and their followers
by thousands, and all the island wondered what great thing
would come of it.

For the first two days they went along good roads and
through many villages which were swept clean, and where

bright cloths were hung out at the windows; and all the

282 LOMBOCK. [CHAP. XIT.

people, when the Rajah came, squatted down upon the
ground in respect, and every man riding got off his horse
and squatted down also, and many joimed the procession
at every village. At the place where they stopped for the
night, the people had placed stakes along each side of the
roads in front of the houses. These were split crosswise
at the top, and in the cleft were fastened little clay lamps,
and between them were stuck the green leaves of palm-
trees, which, dripping with the evening dew, gleamed
prettily with the many twinkling lights. And few went
to sleep that night till the morning hours, for every house
held a knot of eager talkers, and much betel-nut was
consumed, and endless were the conjectures what would
come of it.

On the second day they left the last village behind
them and entered the wild country that surrounds the
vreat mountain, and rested in the huts that had been
prepared for them on the banks of a stream of cold and
sparkling water. And the Rajah’s hunters, armed with
long and heavy guns, went in search of deer,and wild
bulls in the surrounding woods, and brought home the
meat of both in the early morning, and sent it on in
advance to prepare the mid-day meal. On the third day
they advanced as far as horses could go, and encamped at
the foot of high rocks, among which narrow pathways only

could be found to reach the mountain-top. And on the

CHAP. XII. ] TAKING A CENSUS. 283

io)

fourth morning when the Rajah set out, he was accom-
panied only by a small party of priests and princes with
their immediate attendants; and they toiled wearily up the
rugged way, and sometimes were carried by their servants,
till they passed up above the great trees, and then among
the thorny bushes, and above them again on to the black
and burnt rock of the highest part of the mountain.

And when they were near the summit the Rajah ordered
them all to halt, while he alone went to meet the great
spirit on the very peak of the mountain. So he went on
with two boys only who carried his sirih and betel, and
soon reached the top of the mountain among great rocks,
on the edge of the great gulf whence issue forth con-
tinually smoke and vapour. And the Rajah asked for
sirih, and told the boys to sit down under a rock and look
down the mountain, and not to move till he returned to
them. And as they were tired, and the sun was warm
and pleasant, and the rock sheltered them from the cold
wind, the boys fell asleep. And the Rajah went a little
way on under another rock; and he was tired, and the sun
was warm and pleasant, and he too fell asleep.

And those who were waiting for the Rajah thought him
along time on the top of the mountain, and thought the
great spirit must have much to say, or might perhaps want
to keep him on the mountain always, or perhaps he had

missed his way in coming down again. And they were

284 LOMBOCA. [cHAP. XII.

debating whether they should go and search for him, when
they saw him coming down with the two boys. And
when he met them he looked very grave, but said nothing ;
and then all descended together, and the procession re-
turned as it had come; and the Rajah went to his palace
and the chiefs to their villages, and the people to their
houses, to tell their wives and children all that had
happened, and to wonder yet again what would come of it.

And three days afterwards the Rajah summoned the
priests and the princes.and the chief men of Mataram, to
hear what the great spirit had told him on the top of the
mountain. And when they were all assembled, and the
betel and sirih had been handed round, he told them what
had happened. On the top of the mountain he had fallen
into a trance, and the great spirit had appeared to him
with a face like burnished gold, and had said—“O Rajah !
much plague and sickness and fevers are coming upon all
the earth, upon men and upon horses and upon cattle ; but
as you and your people have obeyed me and have come up
to my great mountain, I will teach you how you and all
the people of Lombock may escape this plague.” And all
waited anxiously, to hear how they were to be saved from
so fearful a calamity. And after a short silence the Rajah
spoke again and told them,—that the great spirit had com-
manded that twelve sacred krisses should be made, and

that to make them every village and every district must

CHAP, XII.] TAKING A CENSUS. 985

send a bundle of needles—a needle for every head in the
village. And when any grievous disease appeared in any
village, one of the sacred krisses should be sent there ;
and if every house in that village had sent the right
number of needles, the disease would immediately cease ;
but if the number of needles sent had not been exact,
the kris would have no virtue.

So the princes and chiefs sent to all their villages and
communicated the wonderful news; and all made haste
to collect the needles with the greatest accuracy, for they
feared that if but one were wanting the whole village
would suffer. So one by one the head men of the villages
brought in their bundles of needles ; those who were near
Mataram came first, and those who were far off came last ;
and the Rajah received them with his own hands, and put
them away carefully in an inner chamber, in a camphor-
wood chest whose hinges and clasps were of silver; and
on every bundle was marked the name of the village
and the district from whence it came, so that it might
be known that all had heard and obeyed the commands
of the great spirit.

And when it was quite certain that every village had
sent in its bundle, the Rajah divided the needles into
twelve equal parts, and ordered the best steel-worker in
Mataram to bring his forge and his bellows and his

hammers to the palace, and to make the twelve krisses

286 LOMBOCK. [CHAP. XI.

under the Rajah’s eye, and in the sight of all men who
chose to see it. And when they were finished, they were
wrapped up in new silk and put away carefully until
they might be wanted.

Now the journey to the mountain was in the time of
the east wind when no rain falls in Lombock. And soon
after the krisses were made it was the time of the rice
harvest, and the chiefs of districts and of villages brought
in their tax to the Rajah according to the number of
heads in their villages. And to those that wanted but
little of the full amount, the Rajah said nothing ; but
when those came who brought only half or a fourth part
of what was strictly due, he said to them mildly, “The
needles which you sent from your village were many more
than came from such-a-one’s village, yet your tribute is
less than his; go back and see who it is that has not
paid the tax.’ And the next year the produce of the tax
increased greatly, for they feared that the Rajah might
justly kill those who a second time kept back the right
tribute. And so the Rajah became very rich, and increased
the number of his soldiers, and gave golden jewels to his
wives, and bought fine black horses from the white-
skinned Hollanders, and made oreat feasts when his
children were born or were married; and none of the
Rajahs or Sultans among the Malays were so great or so

powerful as the Rajah of Lombock.

CHAP. XII.] TAKING A CENSUS. © 287

And the twelve sacred krisses had great virtue. And
when any sickness appeared in a village one of them was
sent for; and sometimes the sickness went away, and then
the sacred kris was taken back again with great honour,
and the head men of the village came to tell the Rajah
of its miraculous power, and to thank him. And some-
times the sickness would not go away; and then everybody
was convinced that there had been a mistake in the
number of needles sent from that village, and therefore
the sacred kris had no effect, and had to be taken back
again by the head men with heavy hearts, but still with

all honour,—for was not the fault their own ?

CHAPTER XIII.

TIMOR.
(coUPANG, 1857—1859. DxELLI, 1861.)

HE island of Timor is about three hundred miles long
and sixty wide, and seems to form the termination
of the great range of volcanic islands which begins with
Sumatra more than two thousand miles to the west. It
differs however very remarkably from all the other islands
of the chain in not possessing any active volcanoes, with
the one exception of Timor Peak near the centre of the
island, which was formerly active, but was blown up
during an eruption in 1638 and lias since been quiescent.
In no other part of Timor do there appear to be any recent
igneous rocks, so that it can hardly be classed as a volcanic
island. Indeed its position is just outside of the great
volcanic belt, which extends from Flores through Ombay
and Wetter to Banda.
I first visited Timor in 1807, staying a day at Coupang,
the chief Dutch town at the west end of the island; and

.again in May 1859, when I stayed a fortnight in the same

CHAP. XIU. ] COUPANG. 289

neighbourhood. In the spring of 1861 I spent four
months at Delli, the capital of the Portuguese possessions
in the eastern part of the island.

The whole neighbourhood of Coupang appears to have
been elevated at a recent epoch, consisting of a rugged
surface of coral rock, which rises in a vertical wall between
the beach and the town, whose low white red-tiled houses
give it an appearance very similar to other Dutch settle-
ments in the East. The vegetation is everywhere scanty
and scrubby. Plants of the families Apocynacee and
Euphorbiacee abound; but there is nothing that can be
called a forest, and the whole country has a parched and
desolate appearance, contrasting strongly with the lofty
forest trees and perennial verdure of the Moluccas or of
Singapore. The most conspicuous feature of the vegetation
was the abundance of fine fan-leaved palms (Borassus
flabelliformis), from the leaves of which are constructed
the strong and durable water-buckets in general use, and
which are much superior to those formed from any other
species of palm. From the same tree, palm-wine and sugar
are made, and the common thatch for houses formed of the
leaves lasts six or seven years without removal. Close
to the town I noticed the foundation of a ruined house
below high-water mark, indicating recent subsidence.
Earthquakes are not severe here, and are so infrequent
and harmless that the chief houses are built of stone.

VOL. I. U

290 TIMOR, [CHAP. XIII.

The inhabitants of Coupang consist of Malays, Chinese,
and Dutch, besides the natives; so that there are many
strange and complicated mixtures among the population.
There is one resident English merchant, and whalers as
well as Australian ships often come here for stores and
water. The native Timorese preponderate, and a very
little examination serves to show that they have nothing
in comnion with Malays, but are much more closely allied
to the true Papuans of the Aru Islands and New Guinea.
They are tall, have pronounced features, large somewhat
aquiline noses, and frizzly hair, and are generally of a
dusky brown colour. The way in which the women talk
to each other and to the men, their loud voices and
laughter, and general character of self-assertion, would
enable an experienced observer to decide, even without
seeing them, that they were not Malays.

Mr, Arndt, a German and the Government doctor,
invited me to stay at his house while in Coupang, and I
gladly accepted his offer, as I only intended making a
short visit. We at first began speaking French, but he got
on so badly that we soon passed insensibly into Malay ;
and we afterwards held long discussions on literary,
scientific, and philosophical questions, in that semi-
barbarous language, whose deficiencies we made up by the
free use of French or Latin words.

After a few walks in the neighbourhood of the town, I

CHAP, XIII. | SOAP SRPINGS. 991

found such a poverty of insects and birds that I deter-
mined to go for a few days to the island of Semao at the
western extremity of Timor, where I heard that there was
forest country with birds not found at Coupang. With
some difficulty I obtained a large dug-out boat with out-
riggers, to take me over, a distance of about twenty miles.
I found the country pretty well wooded, but covered with
shrubs and thorny bushes rather than forest trees, and
everywhere excessively parched and dried up by the long-
continued dry season. I stayed at the village of Oeassa,
remarkable for its soap springs. One of these is in the
middle of the village, bubbling out from a little cone of
mud to which the ground rises all round like a voleano in
miniature. The water has a soapy feel and produces a
strong lather when any greasy substance is washed in it.
It contains alkali and iodine, in such quantities as to
destroy all vegetation for some distance round. Close by
the village is one of the finest springs I have ever seen,
contained in several rocky basins communicating by
narrow channels. These have been neatly walled where
required and partly levelled, and form fine natural baths.
The water is well tasted and clear as crystal, and the
basins are surrounded by a grove of lofty many-stemmed
banyan-trees, which keep them always cool and shady,
and add greatly to the picturesque beauty of the scene.
The village consists of curious little houses very dif-
U2

292 TIMOR. [CHAP. XIII.

ferent from any I have seen elsewhere. They are of an
oval figure, and the walls are made of sticks about four feet
high placed close together. From this rises a high conical
roof thatched with grass. The only opening is a door
about three feet high. The people are like the Timorese
with frizzly or wavy hair and of a coppery brown colour.
The better class appear to have a mixture of some superior
race which has much improved their features. I saw in
Coupang some chiefs from the island of Savu further west,
who presented characters very distinct from either the
Malay or Papuan races. They most resembled Hindoos,
having fine well-formed features and straight thin noses
with clear brown complexions. As the Brahminical
religion once spread over all Java, and even now exists in
Bali and Lombock, it is not at all improbable that some
natives of India should have reached this island, either
by accident or to escape persecution, and formed a per-
manent settlement there.

I stayed at Oeassa four days, when, not finding any
insects and very few new birds, I returned to Coupang to
await the next mail steamer. On the way I had a narrow
escape of being swamped. The deep coffin-like boat was
filled up with my baggage, and with vegetables cocoa-nuts
and other fruit for Coupang market, and when we had got
some way across into a rather rough sea, we found that a

quantity of water was coming in which we had no means

CHAP, XIII. | NEARLY SWAMPED. 293

of baling out. This caused us to sink deeper in the water,
and then we shipped seas over our sides, and the rowers
who had before declared it was nothing now became alarmed,
and turned the boat round to get back to the coast of
Semao, which was not far off. By clearing away some of
the baggage a little of the water could be baled out, but
hardly so fast as it came in, and when we neared the coast
we found nothing but vertical walls of rock against which
the sea was violently beating. We coasted along some
distance till we found a little cove, into which we ran the
boat, hauled it on shore, and emptying it found a large
hole in the bottom, which had been temporarily stopped
up with a plug of cocoa-nut which had come out. Had we
been a quarter of a mile further off before we discovered
the leak, we should certainly have been obliged to throw
most of our baggage overboard, and might easily have lost
our lives. After we had put all straight and secure we
again started, and when we were half-way across got into
such a strong current and high cross sea that we were very
nearly being swamped a second time, which made me vow
never to trust myself again in such small and miserable
vessels,

The mail steamer did not arrive for a week, and I
occupied myself in getting as many of the birds as I could,
and found some which were very interesting. Among

these were five species of pigeons, of as many distinct

294 TIMOR. [CHAP, XIII.

genera, and most of them peculiar to the island; two
parrots—the fine red-winged broad-tail (Platycercus vulne-
ratus), allied to an Australian species, and a green species
of the genus Geoffroyus. The Tropidorhynchus timorensis
was as ubiquitous and as noisy as I had found it at
Lombock ; and the Spheecothera viridis, a curious green
oriole, with bare red orbits, was a great acquisition. There
were several pretty finches, warblers, and flycatchers, and
among them I obtained the elegant blue and red Cyornis
hyacinthina; but I cannot recognise among my collections
the species mentioned by Dampier, who seems to have
been much struck by the number of small song-birds in
Timor. He says: “One sort of these pretty little birds
my men called the ringing bird, because it had six notes,
and always repeated all his notes twice, one after the
other, beginning high and shrill and ending low. The
bird was about the bigness of a lark, having a small sharp
black bill and blue wings, the head and breast were of a
pale red, and there was a blue streak about its neck.” In
Semao monkeys are abundant. They are the common
hare-lipped monkey (Macacus cynomolgus), which is found
all over the western islands of the Archipelago, and may
have been introduced by natives, who often carry it about
captive. There are also some deer, but it is not quite
certain whether they are of the same species as are found

im Java.

i ge

CHAP. XIII. | DETLLI. 295

I arrived at Delli, the capital of the Portuguese pos-
sessions in Timor, on January 12, 1861, and was kindly
received by Captain Hart, an Englishman and an old resi-
dent, who trades in the produce of the country and culti-
vates coffee on an estate at the foot of the hills. With
him I was introduced to Mr. Geach, a mining-engineer
who had been for two years endeavouring to discover
copper in sufficient quantity to be worth working.

Delli is a most miserable place compared with even the
poorest of the Dutch towns. The houses are all of mud
and thatch; the fort is only a mud enclosure; and the
custom-house and church are built of the same mean
materials, with no attempt at decoration or even neatness.
The whole aspect of the place is that of a poor native town,
and there is no sign of cultivation or civilization round
about it. His Excellency the Governor's house is the only
one that makes any pretensions to appearance, and that
is merely a low whitewashed cottage or bungalow. Yet
there is one thing in which civilization exhibits itself,
Officials in black and white European costume, and officers
in gorgeous uniforms, abound in a degree quite dispro-
portionate to the size or appearance of the place.

The town being surrounded for some distance by swamps
and mud-flats is very unhealthy, and a single night often
gives a fever to new-comers which not unfrequently proves

fatal. To avoid this malaria, Captain Hart always slept

296 TIMOR. ~ [onar. xut.

at his plantation, on a slight elevation about two miles
from the town; where Mr. Geach also had a small house,
which he kindly invited me to share. We rode there in
the evening; and in the course of two days my baggage
was brought up, and I was able to look about me and see
if I could do any collecting.

For the first.few weeks I was very unwell and could not
go far from the house. The country was covered with low
spiny shrubs and acacias, except in a little valley where
a stream came down from the hills, where some fine trees
and bushes shaded the water and formed a very pleasant
place to ramble up. There were plenty of birds about, and
of a tolerable variety of species; but very few of them
were gaily coloured. Indeed, with one or two exceptions,
the birds of this tropical island were hardly so ornamental
as those of Great Britain. Beetles were so scarce that a
collector might fairly say there were none, as the few
obscure or uninteresting species would not repay him for
the search. The only insects at all remarkable or inter-
esting were the buttertlies, which, though comparatively
few in species, were sufficiently abundant, and comprised
a large proportion of new or rare sorts. The banks of the
stream formed my best collecting-ground, and I daily wan-
dered up and down its shady bed, which about a mile up
became rocky and precipitous. Here I obtained the rare

and beautiful swallow-tail butterflies, Papilio znomaus

i, se

CHAP. XIII. ] RARE INSECTS. 297

and P. liris; the males of which are quite unlike each
other, and belong in fact to distinct sections of the genus,
while the females are so much alike that théy are un-
distinguishable on the wing, and to an uneducated eye
equally so in the cabinet. Several other beautiful butter-
flies rewarded my search in this place; among which |
may especially mention the Cethosia leschenaultii, whose
wings of the deepest purple are bordered with buff in such
a manner as to resemble at first sizht our own Camberwell
beauty, although it belongs to a different genus. The
most abundant butterflies were the whites and yellows
(Pieridz), several of which I had already found at Lom-
bock and at Coupang, while others were new to me.

Early in February we made arrangements to stay for a
week at a village called Baliba, situated about four miles
off on. the mountains, at an elevation of 2,000 feet. We
took our baggage and a supply of all necessaries on pack-
horses; and though the distance by the route we took was
not more than six or seven miles, we were half a day
getting there. The roads were mere tracks, sometimes up
steep rocky stairs, sometimes in narrow gullies worn by
the horses’ feet, and where it was necessary to tuck up our
legs on our horses’ necks to avoid having them crushed.
At some of these places the baggage had to be unloaded,
at others it was knocked off. Sometimes the ascent or

descent was so steep that it was easier to walk than to

298 TIMOR. [cHAP. XIII.

cling to our ponies’ backs ; and thus we went up and down,
over bare hills whose surface was covered with small
pebbles and scattered over with Eucalypti, reminding me
of what I had read of parts of the interior of Australia
rather than of the Malay Archipelago.

The village consisted of three houses only, with low
walls raised a few feet on posts, and very high roofs
thatched with grass hanging down to within two or three
feet of the ground. A house which was unfinished and
partly open at the back was given for our use, and in
it we rigged up a table, some benches, and a screen,
while an inner enclosed portion served us for a sleeping
apartment. We had a splendid view down upon Delli
and the sea beyond. The country round was undulating
and open, except in the hollows, where there were some
patches of forest, which Mr. Geach, who had been all
over the eastern part of Timor, assured me was the most
luxuriant he had yet seen in the island. I was in hopes
of finding some insects here, but was much disappointed,
owing perhaps to the dampness of the climate; for it
was not till the sun was pretty high that the mists cleared
away, and by noon we were generally clouded up again,
so that there was seldom more than ‘an hour or two
of fitful sunshine. We searched in every direction for
birds and other game, but they were very scarce. On our

way I had shot the fine white-headed pigeon, Ptilonopus

ar

CHAP. XIII. ] HILL CULTIVATION. 299

cinctus, and the pretiy little lorikeet, Trichoglossus euteles.
I got a few more of these at the blossoms of the Eucalypti,
and also the allied species Trichoglossus iris, and a few
other small but interesting birds. The common jungle-
cock of India (Gallus bankiva) was found here, and fur-
nished us with some excellent meals ; but we could get no
deer. Potatoes are grown higher up the mountains in
abundance, and are very good. We had a sheep killed
every other day, and ate our mutton with much appetite
in the cool climate which rendered a fire always agreeable.
/ Although one-half the European residents in Delli are
continually ill from fever, and the Portuguese have occupied
the place for three centuries, no one has yet built a house
on these fine hills, which, if a tolerable road were made,
would be only an hour’s ride from the town; and almost
equally good situations might be found on a lower level at
half an hour’s distance. The fact that potatoes and wheat
of excellent quality are grown in abundance at from 3,000
to 3,500 feet elevation, shows what the climate and soil
are capable of if properly cultivated. From one to two
thousand feet high, coffee would thrive; and there are
hundreds of square miles of country, over which all the
varied products which require climates between those of
coffee and wheat would flourish; but no attempt has yet
been made to form a single mile of road, or a single acre

of plantation !

300 TIMOR. [CHAP. XIII.

There must be something very unusual in the climate of
Timor to permit of wheat being grown at so moderate an
elevation. The grain is of excellent quality, the bread
made from it being equal to any I have ever tasted; and
it is universally acknowledged to be unsurpassed by any
made from imported European or American flour. The
fact that the natives have (quite of their own accord)
taken to cultivating such foreign articles as wheat and
potatoes, which they bring in small quantities on the
backs of ponies by the most horrible mountain tracks, and
sell very cheaply at the seaside, sufficiently indicates what
might be done, if good roads were made, and if the people
were taught, encouraged, and protected. Sheep also do
well on the mountains; and a breed of hardy ponies in
much repute all over the Archipelago, runs half wild; so
that it appears as if this island, so barren-looking and
devoid of the usual features of tropical vegetation, were
yet especially adapted to supply a variety of products
essential to Europeans, which the other islands will not
produce, and which they accordingly import from the
other side of the globe.

On the 24th of February my friend Mr. Geach left
Timor, having finally reported that no minerals worth
working were to be found. The Portuguese were very
much annoyed, having made up their minds that copper is

abundant, and still believing it to be so. It appears that

CHAP. XIII. ] SUPPOSED COPPER MINE. B01

from time immemorial pure native copper has been found
at a place on the coast about thirty miles east of Dell.
The natives say they find it m the bed of a ravine, and
many years ago a captain of a vessel is said to have got
some hundreds-weight of it. Now, however, it is evidently
very scarce, as during the two years Mr. Geach resided in
the country, none was found. I was shown one piece
several pounds’ weight, having much the appearance of
one of the larger Australian nuggets, but of pure copper
instead of gold. The natives and the Portuguese have
very naturally imagined, that where these fragments come
from there must be more; and they have a report or
tradition, that a mountain at the head of the ravine is
almost pure copper, and of course of immense value.

After much difficulty a company was at length formed to
work the copper mountain, a Portuguese merchant of Singa-
pore supplying most of the capital. So confident were they
of the existence of the copper, that they thought it would
be waste of time and money to have any exploration made
first; and accordingly sent to England for a mining-
engineer, who was to bring out all necessary tools,
machinery, laboratory, utensils, a number.of mechanics,
and stores of all kinds for two years, in order to com-
mence work on a copper-mine which he was told was
already discovered. On reaching Singapore a ship was

freighted to take the men and stores to Timor, where they

302 TIMOR. | CHAP, XIII.

at length arrived after much delay, a long voyage, and
very great expense,

A day was then fixed to “open the mines.” Captain
Hart accompanied Mr. Geach as interpreter. The Governor,
the Commandante, the Judge, and all the chief people of
the place, went in state to the mountain, with Mr. Geach’s
assistant and some of the workmen. As they went up the
valley Mr. Geach examined the rocks, but saw no signs of
copper. They went on and on, but still nothing except a
few mere traces of very poor ore. At length they stood on
the copper mountain itself. The Governor stopped, the
officials formed a circle, and he then addressed them,
saying,—that at length the day had arrived they had all
been so long expecting, when the treasures of the soil of
Timor would be brought to light——and much more in very
grandiloquent Portuguese; and concluded by turning to
Mr. Geach, and requesting him to point out the best spot
for them to begin work at once, and uncover the mass of
virgin copper. As the ravines and precipices among which
they had passed, and which had been carefully examined,
revealed very clearly the nature and mineral constitution
of the country, Mr. Geach simply told them that there was
not a trace of copper there, and that it was perfectly
useless to begin work. The audience were thunderstruck !
The Governor could not believe his ears. At length, when,

Mr. Geach had repeated his statement, the Governor told

—

CHAP. XIII. | MINERAL PRODUCTS. 303

him severely that he was mistaken; that they all knew
there was copper there in abundance, and all they wanted
him to tell them, as a mining-engineer, was how best to get
ati; and that at all events he was to begin work some-
where. This Mr. Geach refused to do, trying to explain,
that the ravines had cut far deeper into the hill than he
could do in years, and that he would not throw away
money or time on any such useless attempt. After this
speech had been interpreted to him, the Governor saw it
was no use, and without saying a word turned his horse
and rode away, leaving my friends alone on the mountain.
They all believed there was some conspiracy—that the
Englishman would not find the copper, and that they had
been cruelly betrayed.

Mr. Geach then wrote to the Singapore merchant who
was his employer, and it was arranged that he should send
the mechanics home again, and himself explore the country
for minerals. At first the Government threw obstacles in
his way and entirely prevented his moving; but at length
he was allowed to travel about, and for more than a year
he and his assistant explored the eastern part of Timor,
crossing it in several places from sea to sea, and ascending
every important valley, without finding any minerals that
would pay the expense of working. Copper ore exists in
several places, but always too poor in quality. The best

would pay well if situated in England ; but in the interior

304 TIMOR. [cHap. x1.

of an utterly barren country, with roads to make, and all
skilled labour and materials to import, it would have been
a losing concern. Gold also occurs, but very sparingly and
of poor quality. A fine spring of pure petroleum was dis-
covered far in the interior, where it can never be available
till the country is civilized. The whole affair was a
dreadful disappointment to the Portuguese Government,
who had considered it such a certain thing that they had
contracted for the Dutch mail steamers to stop at Delli;
and several vessels from Australia were induced to come
with miscellaneous cargoes, for which they expected to
find a ready sale among the population at the newly-opened
mines. The lumps of native copper are still, however, a
mystery. Mr. Geach has examined the country in every
direction without being able to trace their origin; so that
it seems probable that they result from the débris of old
copper-bearing strata, and are not really more abundant
than gold nuggets are in Australia or California. A high
reward was offered to any native who should find a piece
and show the exact spot where he obtained it, but without
effect.

The mountaineers of Timor are a people of Papuan type,
having rather slender forms, bushy frizzled hair, and the
skin of a dusky brown colour. They have the long nose
with overhanging apex which is so characteristic of the

Papuan, and so absolutely unknown among races of

CHAP. XII. ] NATIVE RACES. 305

Malayan origin. On the coast there has been much admix-

ture of some of the Malay races, and perhaps of Hindoo, as

Yu?

nN it val fl
| hi) Nhu
hep

= oe

TIMOR MEN. (from a photograph.)

well as of Portuguese. The general stature there is lower,
the hair wavy instead of frizzled, and the features less
VOL. I. X

306 TIMOR. [cHAP. XII.

prominent. The houses are built on the ground, while the
mountaineers raise theirs on posts three or four feet high.
The common dress is a long cloth, twisted round the waist
and hanging to the knee, as shown in the illustration
(page 305), copied from a photograph. Both men carry
the national umbrella, made of an entire fan-shaped palm
leaf, carefully stitched at the fold of each leaflet to prevent
splitting. This is opened out, and held sloping over the
head and back during a shower. The small water-bucket
is made from an entire unopened leaf of the same palm,
and the covered bamboo probably contains honey for sale.
A curious wallet is generally carried, consisting of a
square of strongly woven cloth, the four corners of which
are connected by cords, and often much ornamented with
beads and tassels. Leaning against the house behind
the figure on the right are bamboos, used instead of
water jars.

A prevalent custom is the “ pomali,” exactly equivalent
to the “taboo” of the Pacific islanders, and equally re-
spected. It is used on the commonest occasions, and a
few palm leaves stuck outside a garden as a sign of the |
“pomali” willepreserve » its produce from thieves as
effectually as ; ithe threatening notice of man-traps, spring
guns, or a savage dog, would do with us. The dead
are placed on ‘a stage, raised six or, eight’ feet above

the ground, sometimes open and sometimes covered with

CHAP. XIII. | PORTUGUESE GOVERNMENT. 307

a roof. Here the body remains till the relatives can
afford to make a feast, when it is buried. The Timorese
are generally great thieves, but are not bloodthirsty. They
fight continually among themselves, and take every op-
portunity of kidnapping unprotected people of other tribes
for slaves; but Europeans may pass anywhere through
the country in safety. Except a few half-breeds in the
town, there are no native Christians in the island of Timor.
The people retain their independence in a great measure,
and both dislike and despise their would-be rulers, whether
Portuguese or Dutch.

The Portuguese government in Timor is a most miserable
one. Nobody seems to care the least about the improve-
ment of the country, and at this time, after three hundred
years of occupation, there has not been a mile of road
made beyond the town, and there is not a solitary European
resident anywhere in the interior. All the Government
officials oppress and rob the natives as much as they can,
and yet there is no care taken to render the town de-
fensible should the Timorese attempt to attack it. So
ignorant are the military officers, that having received a
small mortar and some shells, no one could be found who
knew how to use them; and during an insurrection of the
natives (while I was at Delli) the officer who expected to
be sent against the insurgents was instantly taken ill! and
they were allowed to get possession of an important pass

x2

308 TIMOR. [cHAP. XIII.

within three miles of the town, where they,could defend
themselves against ten times the force. The result was
that no provisions were brought down from the hills;
a famine was imminent, and the Governor had to send
off to beg for supplies from the Dutch Governor of
Amboyna.

In its present state Timor is more trouble than profit to
its Dutch and Portuguese rulers, and it will continue to
be so unless a different system is pursued. A few good
roads into the elevated districts of the interior; a con-
ciliatory policy and strict justice towards the natives, and
the introduction of a good system of cultivation as in
Java and Northern Celebes, might yet make Timor a
productive and valuable island. Rice grows well on the
marshy flats which often fringe the coast, and maize
thrives in all the lowlands, and is the common food of
the natives as it was when Dampier visited the island
in 1699. The small quantity of coffee now grown is of
very superior quality, and it might be increased to any
extent. Sheep thrive, and would always be valuable as
fresh food for whalers and to supply the adjacent islands
with mutton, if not for their wool; although it is probable
that on the mountains this product might soon be obtained
by judicious breeding. Horses thrive amazingly; and
enough wheat might be grown to supply the whole

Archipelago if there were sufficient inducements to the

ee.

CHAP. X11. ] A VALUABLE ISLAND. oe

natives to extend its cultivation, and good roads by which
it could be cheaply transported to the coast. Under such
a system the natives would soon perceive that European
government was advantageous to them. They would begin
to save money, and property being rendered secure they
would rapidly acquire new wants and new tastes, and
become large consumers of European goods. This would
be a far surer source of profit to their rulers than im-
posts and extortion, and would be at the same time more
likely to produce peace and obedience, than the mock-
military rule which has hitherto proved most ineffective.
To inaugurate such a system would however require an
immediate outlay of capital, which neither Dutch nor
Portuguese seem inclined to make——and a number of
honest and energetic officials, which the latter nation at
least seems unable to produce; so that it is much to be
feared that Timor will for many years to come remain
in its present state of chronic insurrection and mis-
government.

Morality at Delli is at as low an ebb as in the far interior
of Brazil, and crimes are connived at which would entail
infamy and criminal prosecution in Europe. While I was
there it was generally asserted and believed in the place,
that two officers had poisoned the husbands of women
with whom they were carrying on intrigues, and with

whom they immediately cohabited on the death of their

310 TIMOR. (CHAP. XIII.

rivals. Yet no one ever thought for a moment of showing
disapprobation of the crime, or even of considering it a
crime at all, the husbands in question being low half-
castes, who of course ought to make way for the pleasures
of their superiors.

Judging from what I saw myself and by the descriptions
of Mr. Geach, the indigenous vegetation of Timor is poor
and monotonous. The lower ranges of the hills are every-
where covered with scrubby Eucalypti, which only occa-
sionally grow into lofty forest trees. Mingled with these
in smaller quantities are acacias and the fragrant sandal-
wood, while the higher mountains, which rise to about six
or seven thousand feet, are either covered with coarse grass
or are altogether barren. In the lower grounds are a
variety of weedy bushes, and open waste places are covered
everywhere with a nettle-like wild mint. Here is found
the beautiful crown lily, Gloriosa superba, winding among
the bushes, and displaying its magnificent blossoms in
ereat profusion. A wild vine also. occurs, bearing great
irregular bunches of hairy grapes of a coarse but very
luscious flavour. In some of the valleys where the
vegetation is richer, thorny shrubs and climbers are so
abundant as to make the thickets quite impenetrable.

The soil seems very poor, consisting chiefly of decom-
posing clayey shales; and the bare earth and rock is almost

everywhere visible. The drought of the hot season is so

CHAP. Xt] SOIL AND VEGETATION. Po a

severe that most of the streams dry up in the plains before
they reach the sea; everything becomes burnt up, and the
leaves of the larger trees fall as completely as in our winter.
On the mountains from two to four thousand feet elevation
there is a much moister atmosphere, so that potatoes and
other European products can be grown all the year round.
Besides ponies, almost the only exports of Timor are
sandal-wood and bees’-wax. The sandal-wood (Santalum
sp.) is the produce of a small tree, which grows sparingly
in the mountains of Timor and many of the other islands
in the far East. The wood is of a fine yellow colour, and
possesses a well-known delightful fragrance which is won-
derfully permanent. It is brought down to Delli in small
logs, and is chiefly exported to China, where it is largely
used to burn in the temples, and in the houses of the
wealthy.

The bees’-wax is a still more important and valuable
product, formed by the wild bees (Apis dorsata), which
build huge honeycombs, suspended in the open air from
the under-side of the lofty branches of the highest trees.
These are of a semicircular form, and often three or
four feet in diameter. I once saw the natives take a
bees’ nest, and a very interesting sight it was. In the
valley where I used to collect insects, I one day saw three
or four Timorese men and boys under a high tree, and,

looking up, saw on a very lofty horizontal branch three

312 TIMOR. [cHaP. XIII.

large bees’ combs. The tree was straight and smooth-
barked and without a branch, till at seventy or eighty
feet from the ground it gave out the limb which the bees
had chosen for their home. As the men were evidently
looking after the bees, I waited to watch their operations.
One of them first produced a long piece of wood apparently
the stem of a small tree or creeper, which he had brought
with him, and began splitting it through in several direc-
tions, which showed that it was very tough and stringy.
He then wrapped it in palm-leaves, which were secured
by twisting a slender creeper round them. He then
fastened his cloth tightly round his loins, and producing
another cloth wrapped it round his head, neck, and body,
and tied it firmly round his neck, leaving his face, arms,
and legs completely bare. Slung to his girdle he carried a
long thin coil of cord; and while he had been making
these preparations one of his companions had cut a strong
creeper or bush-rope eight or ten yards long, to one end
of which the wood-torch was fastened, and lighted at the
bottom, emitting a steady stream of smoke. Just above
the torch a chopping-knife was fastened by a short cord.
The bee-hunter now took hold of the bush-rope just
above the torch and passed the other end round the trunk
of the tree, holding one end in each hand. Jerking it up
the tree a little above his head he set his foot against the

trunk, and leaning back began walking up it. It was

CHAP. X11. | BEE-HUNTERS. Silts

wonderful to see the skill with which he took advantage of
the slightest irregularities of the bark or obliquity of the
stem to aid his ascent, jerking the stiff creeper a few feet
higher when he had found a firm hold for his bare foot.
It almost made me giddy to look at him as he rapidly got
up—thirty, forty, fifty feet above the ground ; and I kept
wondering how he could possibly mount the next few feet
of straight smooth trunk. Still, however, he kept on with
as much coolness and apparent certainty as if he were
going up a ladder, till he got within ten or fifteen feet of
the bees. Then he stopped a moment, and took care to
swing the torch (which hung just at his feet) a little
towards these dangerous insects, so as to send up the
stream of smoke between him and them. Still going on,
in a minute more he brought himself under the limb, and,
in a manner quite unintelligible to me, seeing that both
hands were occupied in supporting himself by the creeper,
managed to get upon it.

By this time the bees began to be alarmed, and formed
a dense buzzing swarm just over him, but he brought
the torch up closer to him, and coolly brushed away
those that settled on his arms or legs. Then stretching
himself along the limb, he crept towards the nearest
comb and swung the torch just under it. The moment
the smoke touched it, its colour changed in a most curious

manner from black to white, the myriads of bees that had

314 TIMOR. [cHAP. xIII.

covered it flying off and forming a dense cloud above and
around. The man then lay at full length along the limb,
and brushed off the remaining bees with his hand, and then
drawing his knife cut off the comb at one slice close to the
tree, and attaching the thin cord to it, let it down to his
companions below. He was all this time enveloped in a
crowd of angry bees, and how he bore their stings so coolly,
and went on with his work at that giddy height so de-
liberately, was more than I could understand. The bees
were evidently not stupified by the smoke or driven away
far by it, and it was impossible that the small stream from
the torch could protect his whole body when at work.
There were three other combs on the same tree, and all
were successively taken, and furnished the whole party
with a luscious feast of honey and young bees, as well as
a valuable lot of wax.

After two of the combs had been let down, the bees
became rather numerous below, flying about wildly and
stinging viciously. Several got about me, and I was

soon stung, and had to run away, beating them off with

g
my net and capturing them for specimens. Several of
them followed me for at least half a mile, getting into
my hair and persecuting me most pertinaciously, so that
I was more astonished than ever at the immunity of the
natives. Iam inclined to think that slow and deliberate

motion, and no attempt at escape, are perhaps the best

CHAP. XIII. | BEE-HUNTERS. aD

safeguards. A bee settling on a passive native probably
behaves as it would on a tree or other inanimate substance,
which it does not attempt to sting. Still they must often
suffer, but they are used to the pain and learn to bear it
impassively, as without doing so no man could be a bee-

hunter.

CHAPTER XIV.
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE TIMOR GROUP.

F we look at a map of the Archipelago, nothing seems
more unlikely than that the closely connected chain of
islands from Java to Timor should differ materially in their
natural productions. There are, it is true, certain differ-
ences of climate and of physical geography, but these do
not correspond with the division the naturalist 1s obliged to
make. Between the two ends of the chain there is a great
contrast of climate, the west being exceedingly moist and
having only a short and irregular dry season, the east being
as dry and parched up, and having but a short wet season.
This change, however, occurs about the middle of Java, the
eastern portion of that island having as strongly marked
seasons as Lombock and Timor. There is also a difference
in physical geography ; but this occurs at the eastern ter-
mination of the chain, where the volcanoes which are the
marked feature of Java, Bali, Lombock, Sumbawa, and
Flores, turn northwards through Gunong Api to Banda,

leaving Timor with only one voleanic peak near its centre ;

CHAP. XIV. ] NATURAL HISTORY. ila)

while the main portion of the island consists of old sedi-
mentary rocks. Neither of these physical differences cor-
responds with the remarkable change in natural produc-
tions which occurs at the Straits of Lombock, separating
the island of that name from Bali; and which is at once
so large in amount and of so fundamental a character, as
to form an important feature in the zoological geography
of our globe. |

The Dutch naturalist Zollinger, who resided a long time
in the island of Bali, informs us that its productions com-
pletely assimilate with those of Java, and that he is not
aware of a single animal found in it which does not in-
habit the larger island. During the few days which I
stayed on the north coast of Bali on my way to Lombock,
I saw several birds highly characteristic of Javan orni-
thology. Among these were the yellow-headed weaver
(Ploceus hypoxantha), the black grasshopper thrush
(Copsychus amcenus), the rosy barbet (Megalema rosea),
the Malay oriole (Oriolus horsfieldi), the Java ground
starling (Sturnopastor jalla), and the Javanese three-toed
woodpecker (Chrysonotus tiga). On crossing over to
Lombock, separated from Bali by a strait less than twenty
miles wide, I naturally expected to meet with some of
these birds again ; but during a stay there of three months
I never saw one of them, but found a totally different set

of species, most of which were utterly unknown not only in

4

318 NATURAL HISTORY [cHap. XIV.

Java, but also in Borneo, Sumatra, and Malacca. For ex-
ample, among the commonest birds in Lombock were white
cockatoos and three species of Meliphagide or honey-
suckers, belonging to family groups which are entirely
absent from the western or Indo-Malayan region of the
Archipelago. On passing to Flores and Timor the dis-
tinctness from the Javanese productions increases, and we
find that these islands form a natural group, whose birds
are related. to those of Java and Australia, but are quite
distinct from either. Besides my own collections in Lom-
bock and Timor, my assistant Mr. Allen made a good
collection in Flores; and these, with a few species obtained
by the Dutch naturalists, enable us to form avery good idea
of the natural history of this group of islands, and to
derive therefrom some very interesting results.

The number of birds known from these islands up to
this date, is——63 from Lombock, 86 from Flores, and 118
from Timor; and from the whole group 188 species. With
the exception of two or three species which appear to have
been derived from the Moluccas, all these birds can be
traced, either directly or by close allies, to Java on the one
side or to Australia on the other; although no less than 82
of them are found nowhere out of this small group of
islands. There is not, however, a single genus peculiar to
the group, or eveu one which is largely represented in it by

peculiar species ; and this is a fact which indicates that the

CHAP. XIv. | OF THE TIMOR GROUP. 319

fauna is strictly derivative, and that its origin does not go
back beyond one of the most recent geological epochs. Of
course there are a large number of species (such as most of
the waders, many of the raptorial birds, some of the king-
fishers, swallows, and a few others), which range so widely
over a large part of the Archipelago, that it is impossible
to trace them as having come from any one part rather
than from another. There are fifty-seven such species in
my list, and besides these there are thirty-five more which,
though peculiar to the Timor group, are yet allied to wide-
ranging forms. Deducting these ninety-two species, we
have nearly a hundred birds left whose relations with
those of other countries we will now consider.
If we first take those species which, as far as we yet
know, are absolutely confined to each island, we find, in—
Lombock 4, belonging to 2 genera, of which 1is Australian, 1 Indian.
Flores . 12 % 7 5 bare ,, 2 3
Timor . 42 3 20 me 16 * Ans Wes
The actual number of peculiar species in each island I do
not suppose to be at all accurately determined, since the
rapidly increasing numbers evidently depend upon the
more extensive collections made in Timor than in Flores,
and in Flores than in Lombock; but what we can depend
more upon, and what is of more especial interest, is the
greatly increased proportion of Australian forms and de-

creased proportion of Indian forms, as we go from west to

320 NATURAL HISTORY [cuaP. xIv.

east. We shall show this in a yet more striking manner
by counting the number of species identical with those of

Java and Australia respectively in each island, thus:

In Lombock. In Flores. In Timor.
Javanubitdss Gee Too 23 11
Australian birds . . 4 5 10

Here we see plainly the course of the migration which
has been going on for hundreds or thousands of years, and
is still going on at the present day. Birds entering from
Java are most numerous in the island nearest Java; each
strait of the sea to be crossed to reach another island offers
an obstacle, and thus a smaller number get over to the
next island.’ It will be observed that the number of
birds that appear to have entered from Australia is much
less than those which have come from Java; and we may
at first sight suppose that this is due to the wide sea that
separates Australia from Timor. But this would be a hasty
and, as we shall soon see, an unwarranted supposition.
Besides these birds identical with species inhabiting Java
and Australia, there are a considerable number of others
very closely allied to species peculiar to those countries,

and we must take these also into account before we form

1 The names of aJl the birds inhabiting these islands are to be found
in the “ Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London” for the year
1863.

i

CHAP. XIV. ] OF THE TIMOR GROUP. 321

any conclusion on the matter. It will be as well to com-

bine these with the former table thus:

In Lombock. In Flores. | In Timor.

Javanibindsss 2. 2 . + «oa ede 23 11
Closely allied to Javan birds . . 1 5 6
Motels \:.) ieee haus 28 17
Australian birds RUAGRS sian re 5 10
Closely allied to Australian birds . 3 9 26
Total 7 14 36

We now see that the total number of birds which seem
to have been derived from Java and Australia is very
nearly equal, but there is this remarkable difference be-
tween the two series: that whereas the larger proportion
by far of the Java set are identical with those still inhabit-
ing that country, an almost equally large proportion of the
Australian set are distinct, though often very closely allied
species. It is to be observed also, that these representative
or allied species diminish in number as they recede from
Australia, while they increase in number as they recede
from Java. ‘There are two reasons for this, one being that
the islands decrease rapidly in size from Timor to Lom-
bock, and can therefore support a decreasing number of
species ; the other and the more important is, that the dis-
tance of Australia from Timor cuts off the supply of fresh
immigrants, and has thus allowed variation to have full

VOL, I. Y

322 NATURAL HISTORY [cHAP. XIV.

play; while the vicinity of Lombock to Bali and Java
has allowed a continual influx of fresh individuals which,
by crossing with the earlier immigrants, has checked
variation.

To simplify our view of the derivative origin of the
birds of these islands let us treat them as a whole, and
thus perhaps render more intelligible their respective rela-
tions to Java and Australia.

The Timor group of islands contains :—

VeReni onal Ge 8 5 ye Be Australian birds . . . 13
Closely allied species . . 11 | Closely allied species . . 35
Derived from Java . . 47 | Derived from Australia . 48

We have here a wonderful agreement in the number of
birds belonging to Australian and Javanese groups, but
they are divided in exactly a reverse manner, three-fourths
of the Javan birds being identical species and one-fourth
representatives, while only one-fourth of the Australian
forms are identical and three-fourths representatives. This
is the most important fact which we can elicit from a
study of the birds of these islands, since it gives us a very
complete clue to much of their past history.

Change of species is a slow process. On that we are all
agreed, though we may differ about how it has taken place.
The fact that the Australian species in these islands have

mostly changed, while the Javan species have almost all

=

CHAP. XIV. | OF THE TIMOR GROUP. 323

remained unchanged, would therefore indicate that the
district was first peopled from Australia. But, for this to
have been the case, the physical conditions must have been
very different from what they are now. Nearly three
hundred miles of open sea now separate Australia from
Timor, which island is connected with Java by a chain of
broken land divided by straits which are nowhere more
than about twenty miles wide. Evidently there are now
great facilities for the natural productions of Java to
spread over and occupy the whole of these islands, while
those of Australia would find very great difficulty in
getting across. To account for the present state of things,
we should naturally suppose that Australia was once much
more closely connected with Timor than it is at present;
and that this was the case is rendered highly probable by
the fact of a submarine bank extending along all the north
and west coast of Australia, and at one place approaching
within twenty miles of the coast of Timor. This indicates
a recent subsidence of North Australia, which probably
once extended as far as the edge of this bank, between
which and Timor there is an unfathomed depth of ocean.

I do not think that Timor was ever actually connected
with Australia, because such a large number of very abun-
dant and characteristic groups of Australian birds are
quite absent, and not a single Australian mammal has
entered Timor ; which would certainly not have been the

¥y 2

324 NATURAL HISTORY [cHAP. xIV.

case had the lands been actually united. Such groups as
the bower birds (Ptilonorhynchus), the black and red
cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus), the blue wrens (Malurus), the
crowshrikes (Cracticus), the Australian shrikes (Falcun-
culus and Colluricincla), and many others, which abound
all over Australia, would certainly have spread into Timor
if it had been united to that country, or even if for any
long time it had approached nearer to it than twenty
miles. Neither do any of the most characteristic groups
of Australian insects occur in Timor; so that everything
combines to indicate that a strait of the sea has always
separated it from Australia, but that at one period this
strait was reduced to a width of about twenty miles.

But at the time when this narrowing of the sea took
place in one direction, there must have been a greater
separation at the other end of the chain, or we should find
more equality in the numbers of identical and representa-
tive species derived from each extremity. It is true that
the widening of the strait at the Australian end by sub-
sidence, would, by putting a stop to immigration and inter-
crossing of individuals from the mother country, have
allowed full scope to the causes which have led to the
modification of the species; while the continued stream of
immigrants from Java, would, by continual intercrossing,
check such modification. This view will not, however,
explain all the facts; for the character of the fauna of the

a

CHAP. XIV.] OF THE TIMOR GROUP. 325

_

Timorese group is indicated as well by the forms which
are absent from it as by those which it contains, and is by
this kind of evidence shown to be much more Australian
than Indian. No less than twenty-nine genera, all more
or less abundant in Java, and most of which range over a
wide area, are altogether absent; while of the equally
diffused Australian genera only about fourteen are want-
ing. This would clearly indicate that there has been, till
recently, a wide separation from Java; and the fact that
the islands of Bali and Lombock are small, and are almost
wholly voleanic, and contain a smaller number of modified
forms than the other islands, would point them out as of
comparatively recent origin. A wide arm of the sea pro-
bably occupied their place at the time when Timor was in
_ the closest proximity to Australia ; and as the subterranean
fires were slowly piling up the now fertile islands of Bali
and Lombock, the northern shores of Australia would be
sinking beneath the ocean. Some such changes as have
been here indicated, enable us to understand how it
happens, that though the birds of this group are on the
whole almost as much Indian as Australian, yet the species
which are peculiar to the group are mostly Australian in
character; and also why such a large number of common
Indian forms which extend through Java to Bali, should
not have transmitted a single representative to the islands
further east.

326 NATURAL HISTORY [cHAP. XIV.

The Mammalia of Timor as well as those of the other
islands of the group are exceedingly scanty, with the
exception of bats. These last are tolerably abundant, and
no doubt many more remain to be discovered. Out of
fifteen species known from Timor, nine are found also in
Java, or the islands west of it; three are Moluccan spe-
cies, most of which are also found in Australia, and the
rest are peculiar to Timor.

The land mammals are only seven in number, as follows:
1. The common monkey, Macacus cynomolgus, which is
found in all the Indo-Malayan islands, and has spread
from Java through Bali and Lombock to Timor. This
species is very frequent on the banks of rivers, and may
have been conveyed from island to island on trees carried
down by floods. 2. Paradoxurus fasciatus; a civet cat,
very common over a large part of the Archipelago.
3. Felis megalotis; a tiger cat, said to be peculiar to Timor,
where it exists only in the interior, and is very rare. Its

nearest allies are in Java. +4. Cervus timoriensis; a deer,

closely allied to the Javan and Moluccan species, if dis- ©

tinct. 5. A wild pig, Sus timoriensis; perhaps the same
as some of the Moluccan species. 6. A shrew mouse, Sorex
tenuis ; supposed to be peculiar to Timor. 7. An Eastern
opossum, Cuscus orientalis; found also in the Moluccas,
if not a distinct species.

The fact that not one of these species is Australian, or

———

CHAP. XIV. ] OF THE TIMOR GROUP. 327

nearly allied to any Australian form, is strongly corrobora-
tive of the opinion that Timor has never formed a part of
that country; as in that case some kangaroo or other
marsupial animal would almost certainly be found there.
It is no doubt very difficult to account for the presence of
some of the few mammals that do exist in Timor, especially
the tiger cat and the deer. We must consider, however,
that during thousands, and perhaps hundreds of thou-
sands of years, these islands and the seas between them
have been subjected to volcanic action. The land has
been raised and has sunk again; the straits have been
narrowed or widened; many of the islands may have been
joined and dissevered again; violent floods have again
and again devastated the mountains and plains, carrying
out to sea hundreds of forest trees, as has often happened
during volcanic eruptions in Java; and it does not seem
improbable that once in a thousand, or ten thousand years,
there should have occurred such a favourable combination
of circumstances as would lead to the migration of two or
three land animals from one island to another. This is all
that we need ask to account for the very scanty and frag-
mentary group of Mammalia which now inhabit the large
island of Timor. The deer may very probably have been
introduced by man, for the Malays often keep tame fawns ;
and it may not require a thousand, or even five hundred

years, to establish new characters in an animal removed to

328 NATURAL HISTORY [CHAP. XIV

a country so different in climate and vegetation as is
Timor from the Moluccas. I have not mentioned horses,
which are often thought to be wild in Timor, because
there are no grounds whatever for such a belief. The Timor
ponies have every one an owner, and are quite as much
domesticated animals as the cattle on a South American
hacienda.

I have dwelt at some length on the origin of the
Timorese fauna, because it appears to me a most interest-
ing and instructive problem. It is very seldom that we
can trace the animals of a district so clearly as we can
in this case, to two definite sources; and still more rarely
that they furnish such decisive evidence, of the time, and
the manner, and the proportions of their introduction.
We have here a group of Oceanic Islands in miniature—
islands which have never formed part of the adjacent
lands, although so closely approaching them; and their
productions have the characteristics of true Oceanic Islands
slightly modified. These characteristics are, the absence
of all Mammalia except bats, and the occurrence of
peculiar species of birds, insects, and land shells, which,
though found nowhere else, are plainly related to those
of the nearest land. Thus, we have an entire absence of
Australian mammals, and the presence of only a few strag-
glers from the west, which can be accounted for in the

manner already indicated. Bats are tolerably abundant.

CHAP. XIV.] OF THE TIMOR GROUP. 329

Birds have many peculiar species, with a decided relation-

‘ship to those of the two nearest masses of land. The
insects have similar relations with the birds. As an ex-
ample, four species of the Papilionide are peculiar to
Timor, three others are also found in Java, and one in
Australia. Of the four peculiar species two are decided
modifications of Javanese forms, while the others seem
allied to those of the Moluccas and Celebes. The very few
land shells known are all, curiously enough, allied to or
identical with Moluccan or Celebes forms. The Pieridee
(white and yellow butterflies) which wander more, and
from frequenting open grounds are more liable to be blown
out to sea, seem about equally related to those of Java,
Australia, and the Moluccas.

It has been objected to Mr. Darwin’s theory,—of Oceanic
Islands having never been connected with the mainland,—
that this would imply that their animal population was a
- matter of chance; it has been termed the “ flotsam and
jetsam theory,’ and it has been maintained that nature
does not work by the “chapter of accidents.” But in the
case which I have here described, we have the most posi-
tive evidence that such has been the mode of peopling the
islands. Their productions are of that miscellaneous cha-
racter which we should expect from such an origin; and
to suppose that they have been portions of Australia or of

Java will introduce perfectly gratuitous difficulties, and

330 NATURAL HISTORY. [CHAP. XIV.

render it quite impossible to explain those curious rela-
tions which the best known group of animals (the birds) ’
have been shown to exhibit. On the other hand, the
depth of the surrounding seas, the form of the submerged
banks, and the volcanic character of most of the islands,
all point to an independent origin.

Before concluding, I must make one remark to avoid
misapprehension. When I say that Timor has never
formed part of Australia, I refer only to recent geological
epochs. In Secondary or even Eocene or Miocene times,
Timor and Australia may have been connected; but if so,
all record of such a union has been lost by subsequent”
submergence; and in accounting for the present Jand-
inhabitants of any country we have only to consider those
changes which have occurred since its last elevation above
the waters. Since such last elevation, I feel confident that

Timor has not formed part of Australia.

CHAPTER XY.
CELEBES.
(MACASSAR. SEPTEMBER TO NOVEMBER, 1856.)

LEFT Lombock on the 30th of August, and reached
Macassar in three days. It was with great satisfaction
that I stepped on a shore which I had been vainly trying
to reach since February, and where I expected to meet
with so much that was new and interesting.

The coast of this part of Celebes is low and flat, lined
with trees and villages so as to conceal the interior, except
at occasional openings which show a wide extent of bare
and marshy rice-fields. A few hills, of no great height,
were visible in the background; but owing to the per-
petual haze over the land at this time of the year, I could
nowhere discern the high central range of the peninsula,
or the celebrated peak of Bontyne at its southern ex-
tremity. In the roadstead of Macassar there was a fine
42-cun frigate, the guardship of the place, as well as a
small war steamer and three or four little cutters used for

cruising after the pirates which infest these seas. There

302 CELEBES. [CHAP. XV.

were also a few square-rigged trading-vessels, and twenty
or thirty native praus of various sizes. I brought letters of
introduction to a Dutch gentleman, Mr. Mesman, and also
to a Danish shopkeeper, who could both speak English,
and who promised to assist me in finding a place to
stay at, suitable for my pursuits. In the meantime, I
went to a kind of club-house, in default of any hotel
in the place.

Macassar was the first Dutch town I had visited, and I
found it prettier and cleaner than any I had yet seen in
the East. The Dutch have some admirable local regula-
tions. All European houses must be kept well white-
washed, and every person must, at four in the afternoon,
water the road in front of his house. The streets are kept
clear of refuse, and covered drains carry away all impurities
into large open sewers, into which the tide is admitted at
high-water and allowed to flow out when it has ebbed,
carrying all the sewage with it into the sea. The town
consists chiefly of one long narrow street, along the sea-
side, devoted to business, and principally occupied by the
Dutch and Chinese merchants’ offices and warehouses, and
the native shops or bazaars. This extends northwards for
more than a mile, gradually merging into native houses,
often of a most miserable description, but made to have a
neat appearance by being all built up exactly to the straight
line of the street, and being generally backed by fruit

th coe

ee

CHAP. XV.] TOWN OF MACASSAR. Stats)

trees. This street is usually thronged with a native popu-
lation of Bugis and Macassar men, who wear cotton
trousers about twelve inches long, covering only from the
hip to half-way down the thigh, and the universal Malay
sarong, of gay checked colours, worn round the waist or
across the shoulders in a variety of ways. Parallel to this
street run two short ones, which form the old Dutch town,
and are enclosed by gates. These consist of private houses,
and at their southern end is the fort, the church, and a
road at right angles to the beach, containing the houses
of the Governor and of the principal officials. Beyond
the fort again, along the beach, is another long sireet of
native huts and many country houses of the tradesmen
and merchants. All around extend the flat oe tee
now bare and dry and forbidding, covered with dusty
stubble and weeds. A few months back these were a
mass of verdure, and their barren appearance at this
season offered a striking contrast to the perpetual crops
on the same kind of country in Lombock and Bali, where
the seasons are exactly similar, but where an elaborate
system of irrigation produces the effect of a perpetual
spring.

The day after my arrival I paid a visit of ceremony to
the Governor, accompanied by my friend the Danish
merchant, who spoke excellent English. His Excellency

was very polite, and offered me every facility for travelling

304 CELEBES. [CHAP. Xv.

about the country and prosecuting my researches in
natural history. We conversed in French, which all Dutch
officials speak very well.

Finding it very inconvenient and expensive to stay in
the town, I removed at the end of a week to a little
bamboo house, kindly offered me by Mr. Mesman. It was
situated about two miles away, on a small coffee plantation
and farm, and about a mile beyond Mr. M.’s own country-
house. It consisted of two rooms raised about seven feet
above the ground, the lower part being partly open (and
serving excellently to skin birds in) and partly used as
a granary for rice. There was a kitchen and other out-
houses, and several cottages near were occupied by men in
Mr. M.’s employ.

After being settled a few days in my new house, I found
that no collections could be made without going much
further into the country. The rice-fields for some miles
round resembled English stubbles late in autumn, and were
almost as unproductive of bird or insect life. There were
several native villages scattered about, so embosomed in
fruit trees that at a distance they looked like clumps or
patches of forest. These were my only collecting places,
but they produced a very limited number of species, and
were soon exhausted. Before I could move to any more
promising district it was necessary to obtain permission

from the Rajah of Goa, whose territories approach to within —

CHAP. Xv.] THE RAJAH OF GOA. oon

two miles of the town of Macassar. I therefore presented
myself at the Governor’s office and requested a letter to
the Rajah, to claim his protection, and permission to travel
in his territories whenever I might wish to do so. This
was immediately granted, and a special messenger was
sent with me to carry the letter.

My friend Mr. Mesman kindly lent me a horse, and
accompanied me on my visit to the Rajah, with whom he
was great friends. We found his Majesty seated out of
doors, watching the erection of a new house. He was naked
from the waist up, wearing only the usual short trousers
and sarong. Two chairs were brought out for us, but all
the chiefs and other natives were seated on the ground.
The messenger, squatting down at the Rajah’s feet, pro-
duced the letter, which was sewn up in a covering of
yellow silk. It was handed to one of the chief officers,
who ripped it open and returned it to the Rajah, who read
it, and then showed it to Mr. M., who both speaks and
reads the Macassar language fluently, and who explained
fully what I required. Permission was immediately
granted me to go where I liked in the territories of Goa,
but the Rajah desired, that should I wish to stay any time
at a place I would first give him notice, in order that he
might send some one to see that no injury was done me.
Some wine was then brought us, and afterwards some

detestable coffee and wretched sweetmeats, for it is a fact

336 CELEBES. [CHAP. Xv.

that I have never tasted good coffee where people grow it
themselves.

Although this was the height of the dry season, and
there was a fine wind all day, it was by no means a
healthy time of year. My boy Ali had hardly been a
day on shore when he was attacked by fever, which put
me to great inconvenience, as at the house where I was
staying nothing could be obtained but at meal-times.
After having cured Ali, and with much difficulty got
another servant to cook for me, I was no sooner settled
at my country abode than the latter was attacked with
the same disease; and, having a wife in the town, left me.
Hardly was he gone than I fell ill myself, with strong
intermittent fever every other day. In about a week I
got over it, by a liberal use of quinine, when scarcely was
I on my legs than Ali again became worse than ever. His
fever attacked him daily, but early in the morning he was
pretty well, and then managed to cook me enough for the
day. In a week I cured him, and also succeeded in
getting another boy who could cook and shoot, and had no
objection to go into the interior. His name was Baderoon,
and as he was unmarried and had been used to a roving
life, having been several voyages to North Australia to
catch trepang or “ béche de mer,” I was in hopes of being
able to keep him. I also got hold of a little impudent rascal

of twelve or fourteen, who could speak some Malay, to

CHAP. XV.] BIRDS NEAR MACASSAR. 337

carry my gun or insect-net and make himself generally
useful. Ali had by this time become a pretty good bird-
skinner, so that I was fairiy supplied with servants.

I made many excursions into the country, in search of a
good station for collecting birds and insects. Some of the
villages a few miles inland are scattered about in woody
ground which has once been virgin forest, but of which
the constituent trees have been for the most part replaced
by fruit trees, and particularly by the large palm, Arenga
saccharifera, from which wine and sugar are made, and
which also produces a coarse black fibre used for cordage.
That uecessary of life, the bamboo, has also been abun-
dantly planted. In such places I found a good many
birds, among which were the fine cream-coloured pigeon,
Carpophaga luctuosa, and the rare blue-headed roller,
Coracias temmincki, which has a most discordant voice,
and generally goes in pairs, flying from tree to tree, and
exhibiting while at rest that all-in-a-heap appearance and
jerking motion of the head and tail which are so charac-
teristic of the great Fissirostral group to which it belongs.
From this habit alone, the kingfishers, bee-eaters, rollers,
trogons, and South American puff-birds, might be grouped
together by a person who had observed them in a state of
nature, but who had never had an opportunity of examin-
ing their form and structure in detail. Thousands of
crows, rather smaller than our rook, keep up a constant

VOL. I. Z

338 CELEBES. [cHap. xv.

cawing in these plantations; the curious wood-swallows
(Artami), which closely resemble swallows in their habits
and flight but differ much in form and structure, twitter
from the tree-tops ; while a lyre-tailed drongo-shrike, with
brilliant black. plumage and milk-white eyes, continually
deceives the naturalist by the variety of its unmelodious
notes.

In the more shady parts butterflies were tolerably
abundant; the most common being species of Euplea and
Danais, which frequent gardens and shrubberies, and
owing to their weak flight are easily captured. A beautiful
pale blue and black butterfly, which flutters along near
the ground among the thickets, and settles occasionally
upon flowers, was one of the most striking; and scarcely
less so, was one with a rich orange band on a blackish
ground: these both belong to the Pieridz, the group that
contains our common white butterflies, although differing
so much from them in appearance. Both were quite new
to European naturalists.1 Now and then I extended my
walks some miles further, to the only patch of true forest
I could find, accompanied by my two boys with'guns and
insect-net. We used to start early, taking our breakfast
with us, and eating it wherever we could find shade and
water. At such times my Macassar boys would put a
minute fragment ef rice and meat or fish on a leaf, and lay

1 The former has been named Eronia tritea ; the latter Tachyris ithome.

CHAP. XV. ] VISIT TO THE FOREST. 339

it on a stone or stump as an offering to the deity of the
spot; for though nominal Mahometans the Macassar people
retain many pagan superstitions, and are but lax in their
religious observances. Pork, it is true, they hold in
abhorrence, but will not refuse wine when offered them,
and consume immense quantities of “sagueir,” or palm-
wine, which is about as intoxicating as ordinary beer or
cider. When well made it is a very refreshing drink, and
we often took a draught at some of the little sheds digni-
fied by the name of bazaars, which are scattered about
the country wherever there is any traffic.

One day Mr. Mesman told me of a larger piece of forest
where he sometimes went to shoot deer, but he assured me
it was much further off, and that there were no birds.
However, I resolved to explore it, and the next morning
at five o’clock we started, carrying our breakfast and some
other provisions with us, and intending to stay the night
at a house on the borders of the wood. To my surprise
two hours’ hard walking brought us to this house, where we
obtained permission to pass the night. We then walked
on, Ali and Baderoon with a gun each, Baso carrying our
provisions and my insect-box, while I took only my net
and collecting-bottle and determined to devote myself
wholly to the insects. Scarcely had I entered the forest
when I found some beautiful little green and gold speckled
weevils allied to the genus Pachyrhynchus, a group which

Z2

340 CELEBES. [cwar. xv.

is almost confined to the Philippine Islands, and is
quite unknown in Borneo, Java, or Malacca. The road
was shady and apparently much trodden by horses and
cattle, and I quickly obtained some butterflies I had not
before met with. Soon a couple of reports were heard, and
coming up to my boys I found they had shot two speci-
mens of one of the finest of known cuckoos, Phoenicophaus
eallirhynchus. This bird derives its name from its large
bill being coloured of a brilliant yellow, red, and black,
in about equal proportions. The tail is exceedingly long,
and of a fine metallic purple, while the plumage of the
body is light coffee brown. It is one of the characteristic
birds of the island of Celebes, to which it is confined.
After sauntering along for a couple of hours we reached
a small river, so deep that horses could only cross it by
swimming, so we had to turn back ; but as we were getting
hungry, and the water of the almost stagnant river was
too muddy to drink, we went towards a house a few
hundred yards off. In the plantation we saw a small
raised hut, which we thought would do well for us to
breakfast in, so I entered, and found inside a young woman
with an infant. She handed me a jug of water, but looked
very much frightened. However, I sat down on the door-
step, and asked for the provisions. In handing them up,
Baderoen saw the infant, and started back as if he had

seen a serpent. It then immediately struck me that this

CHAP. Xv.] A FINE BUTTERFLY. 341

was a hut in which, as among the Dyaks of Borneo and
many other savage tribes, the women are secluded for some
time after the birth of their child, and that we did very
wrong to enter it; so we walked off and asked permission
to eat our breakfast in the family mansion close at hand,
which was of course granted. While I ate, three men,
two women, and four children watched every motion, and —
never took eyes off me till I had finished.

On our way back in the heat of the day I had the good
fortune to capture three specimens of a fine Ornithoptera,
the largest, the most perfect, and the most beautiful of
butterflies. I trembled with excitement as I took the first
out of my net and found it to be in perfect condition. The
ground colour of this superb insect was a rich shining
bronzy black, the lower wings delicately grained with
white, and bordered by a row of large spots of the most
brilliant satiny yellow. The body was marked with shaded
spots of white, yellow, and fiery orange, while the head and
thorax were intense black. On the under-side the lower
wings were satiny white, with the marginal spots half black
and haif yellow. I gazed upon my prize with extreme
interest, as I at first thought it was quite a new species.
It proved however to be a variety of Ornithoptera remus,
one of the rarest and most remarkable species of this
highly esteemed group. I also obtained several other new

and pretty butterflies. When we arrived at our lodging-

342 CELEBES. [cmar. xv.

house, being particularly anxious about my insect treasures,
I suspended the box from a bamboo on which I could
detect no sign of ants, and then began skinning some of
my birds. During my work I often glanced at my precious
box to see that no intruders had arrived, till after a longer
spell of work than usual I looked again, and saw to my
horror that a column of small red ants were descending the
string and entering the box. They were already busy at
work at the bodies of my treasures, and another half-hour
would have seen my whole day’s collection destroyed.
As it was, I had to take every insect out, clean them
thoroughly as well as the box, and then seek for a place
of safety for them. As the only effectual one I begged a
plate and a basin from my host, filled the former with
water, and standing the latter in it placed my box on the
top, and then felt secure for the night; a few inches of
clean water or oil being the only barrier these terrible pests
are not able to pass.

On returning home to Mamajam (as my house was
ealled) I had a slight return of intermittent fever, which
kept me some days indoors. As soon as I was well, I again
went to Goa, accompanied by Mr. Mesman, to beg the
Rajah’s assistance in getting a small house built for me
near the forest. We found him at a cock-fight in a shed
near his palace, which however he immediately left to

receive us, and walked with us up an inclined plane of

CHAP. Xv. ] THE RAJAH’S DAUGHTERS. 343

+

boards which serves for stairs to his house. This was large,
well built, and lofty, with bamboo floor and glass windows.
The greater part of it seemed to be one large hall divided
by the supporting posts. Near a window sat the Queen,
squatting on a rough wooden arm-chair, chewing the
everlasting sirih and betel-nut, while a brass spittoon by
her side and a sirih-box in front were ready to administer
to her wanis. The Rajah seated himself opposite to her
in a similar chair, and a similar spittoon and sirih-box
were held by a little boy squatting at his side. Two other
chairs were brought for us. Several young women, some
the Rajah’s daughters, others slaves, were standing about; a
few were working at frames making sarongs, but most of
them were idle.

And here I might (if I followed the example of most
travellers) launch out into a glowing description of the
charms of these damsels, the elegant costumes they wore,
and the gold and silver ornaments with which they were
adorned. The jacket or body of purple gauze would
figure well in such a description, allowing the heaving
bosom to be seen beneath it, while “sparkling eyes,” and
“jetty tresses,” and “tiny feet” might be thrown in pro-
fusely. But, alas! regard for truth will not permit me
to expatiate too admiringly on such topics, determined as
I am to give as far as I can a true picture of the people

and places I visit. The princesses were, it is true, suffi-

344 CELEBES. [cHAP. Xv.

ciently good-looking, yet neither their persons nor their
garments had that appearance of freshness and cleanli-
ness without which no other charms can be contemplated
with pleasure. Everything had a dingy and faded ap-
pearance, very disagreeable and unroyal to a European
eye. The only thing that excited some degree of admi-
ration was the quiet and dignified manner of the Rajah,
and the great respect always paid to him. None can
stand erect in his presence, and when he sits on a chair,
all present (Europeans of course excepted) squat upon
the ground. The highest seat is literally, with these people,
the place of honour and the sign of rank. So unbending
are the rules in this respect, that when an English carriage
which the Rajah of Lombock had sent for arrived, it was
found impossible to use it because the driver’s seat was
the highest, and it had to be kept as a show in its coach-
house. On being told the object of my visit, the Rajah at
once said that he would order a house to be emptied for
me, which would be much better than building one, as
that would take a good deal of time. Bad coffee and
sweetmeats were given us as before.

Two days afterwards I called on the Rajah, to ask him
to send a guide with me to show me the house I was to
occupy. He immediately ordered a man to be sent for,
gave him instructions, and in a few minutes we were on

our way. My conductor could speak no Malay, so we

CHAP. Xv. | HOUSE HUNTING. 845

walked on in silence for an hour, when we turned into a
pretty good house and I was asked to sit down. The head
man of the district lived here, and in about half an hour
we started again, and another hour’s walk brought us to
the village where I was to be lodged. We went to the
residence of the village chief, who conversed with my con-
ductor for some time. Getting tired, I asked to be shown
the house that was prepared for me, but the only reply I
could get was, “ Wait a little,” and the parties went on
talking as before. So I told them I could not wait, as I
wanted to see the house and then to go shooting in the
forest. This seemed to puzzle them, and at length, in
answer to questions, very poorly explained by one or two
bystanders who knew a little Malay, it came out that no
house was ready, and no one seemed to have the least idea
where to get one. As I did not want to trouble the Rajah
any more, I thought it best to try to frighten them a little ;
so I told them that if they did not immediately find me a
house as the Rajah had ordered, I should go back and
complain to him, but that if a house was found me I
would pay for the use of it. This had the desired effect,
and one of the head men of the village asked me to go
with him and look for a house. He showed me one or
two of the most miserable and ruinous description, which
I at once rejected, saying, “I must have a good one, and

near to the forest.” The next he showed me suited very

346 CELEBES. [cHAP. xy.

well, so I told him to see that it was emptied the next
day, for that the day after I should come and occupy it.
On the day mentioned, as I was not quite ready to go, I
sent my two Macassar boys with brooms to sweep out the
house thoroughly. They returned in the evening and told
me, that when they got there the house was inhabited, and
not a single article removed. However, on hearing they
had come to clean and take possession, the occupants
made a move, but with a good deal of grumbling, which
made me feel rather uneasy as to how the people generally
might take my intrusion into their village. The next
morning we took our baggage on three pack-horses, and,
after a few break-downs, arrived about noon at our des-
tination. 7
After getting all my things set straight, and having made
a hasty meal, I determined if possible to make friends with
the people. I therefore sent for the owner of the house
and as many of his acquaintances as liked to come, to have
a “bitchara,” or talk. When they were all seated, I gave
them a little tobacco all round, and having my boy Baderoon
for interpreter, tried to explain to them why I came there;
that I was very sorry to turn them out of the house, but
that the Rajah had ordered it rather than build a new one,
which was what I had asked for, and then placed five
silver rupees in the owner’s hand as one month’s rent. I

then assured them that my being there would be a benefit

CHAP. xv. ] SICKNESS. 347

to them, as I should buy their eggs and fowls and fruit ;
and if their children would bring me shells and insects, of
which I showed them specimens, they also might earn a
good many coppers. After all this had been fully ex-
plained to them, with a long talk and discussion between
every sentence, I could see that I had made a favourable
impression; and that very afternoon, as if to test my
promise to buy even miserable little snaii-shells, a dozen
children came one after another, bringing me a few speci-
mens each of a small Helix, for which they duly received
“ coppers,” and went away amazed but rejoicing.

A few days’ exploration made me well acquainted with
the surrounding country. I was a long way from the road
in the forest which I had first visited, and for some distance
round my house were old clearings and cottages. I found
a few good buttertlies, but beetles were very scarce, and
even rotten timber and newly-felled trees (generally so
productive) here produced scarcely anything. This con-
vinced me that there was not a sufficient extent of forest
in the neighbourhood to make the place worth staying at
long, but it was too late now to think of going further, as
in about a month the wet season would begin; so I resolved
to stay here and get what was to be had. Unfortunately,
after a few days I became ill with a low fever which pro-
duced excessive lassitude and disinclination to all exertion.

In vain I endeavoured to shake it off; all I could do was

348 CELEBES. [cHaP. xv.

to stroll quietly each day for an hour about the gardens
near, and to the well, where some good insects were occa-
sionally to be found; and the rest of the day to wait
quietly at home, and receive what beetles and shells my
little corps of collectors brought me daily. I imputed my
illness chiefly to the water, which was procured from
shallow wells, around which there was almost always a
stagnant puddle in which the buffaloes wallowed. Close
to my house was an inclosed mudhole where three buf-
faloes were shut wp every night, and the effluvia from
which freely entered through the open bamboo floor. My
Malay boy Ali was affected with the same illness, and as
he was my chief bird-skinner I got on but slowly with
my collections.

The occupations and mode of life of the villagers differed
but little from those of all other Malay races. The time
of the women was almost wholly occupied in pounding
and cleaning rice for daily use, in bringing home firewood
and water, and in cleaning, dyeing, spinning, and weaving
the native cotton into sarongs. The weaving is done in
the simplest kind of frame stretched on the floor, and is a
very slow and tedious process. To form the checked
pattern in common use, each patch of coloured threads has
to be pulled up separately by hand and the shuttle passed
between them; so that about an inch a day is the usual

progress in stuff a yard and a half wide. The men culti-

CHAP. Xv. | FEAR OF MYSELF. 349

vate a little sirih (the pungent pepper leaf used for chewing
with betel-nut) and a few vegetables; and once a year
rudely plough a small patch of ground with their buffaloes
and plant rice, which then requires little attention till
harvest time. Now and then they have to see to the
repairs of their houses, and make mats, baskets, or other
domestic utensils, but a large part of their time is passed
in idleness.

Not a single person in the village could speak more
than a few words of Malay, and hardly any of the people
appeared to have seen a European before. One most
disagreeable result of this was, that I excited terror alike
in man and beast. Wherever I went, dogs barked, children
screamed, women ran away, and men stared as though
I were some strange and terrible cannibal monster. Even
the pack-horses on the roads and paths would start aside
when I appeared and rush into the jungle; and as to
those horrid, ugly brutes, the buffaloes, they could never
be approached by me; not for fear of my own but of others’
safety. They would first stick out their necks and stare
at me, and then on a nearer view break loose from their
halters or tethers, and rush away helter-skelter as if a
demon were after them, without any regard for what might
be in their way. Whenever I met buffaloes carrying
packs along a pathway, or being driven home to the village,

T had to turn aside into the jungle and hide myself till

350 CELEBES. [cHAP. xv.

they had passed, to avoid a catastrophe which would increase
the dislike with which I was already regarded. Every
day about noon the buffaloes were brought into the village
and were tethered in the shade around the houses; and
then I had to creep about like a thief by back ways, for
no one could tell what mischief they might do to children
and houses were I to walk among them. If I came sud-
denly upon a well where women were drawing water or
children bathing, a sudden flight was the certain result ;
which things occurring day after day, were very unpleasant
to a person who does not like to be disliked, and who had
never been accustomed to be treated as an ogre.

About the middle of November, finding my health no
better, and insects, birds, and shells all very scarce, I deter-
mined to return to Mamajam, and pack up my collections
before the heavy rains commenced. The wind had already
begun to blow from the west, and many signs indicated
that the rainy season might set in earlier than usual; and
then everything becomes very damp, and it is almost
impossible to dry collections properly. My kind friend
Mr. Mesman again lent me his pack-horses, and with the
assistance of a few men to carry my birds and insects,
which I did not like to trust on horses’ backs, we got
everything home safe. Few can imagine the luxury it was
to stretch myself on a sofa, and to take my supper com-

fortably at table seated in my easy bamboo chair, after

CHAP, XV.] HOUSE BUILDING. 351

having for five weeks taken all my meals uncomfortably
on the floor. Such things are trifles in health, but when
the body is weakened by disease the habits of a lifetime
cannot be so easily set aside.

My house, like all bamboo structures in this country,
was a leaning one, the strong westerly winds of the wet
season having set all its posts out of the perpendicular to
such a degree, as to make me think it might some day
possibly go over altogether. It is a remarkable thing that
the natives of Celebes have not discovered the use of
diagonal struts in strengthening buildings. I doubt if
there is a native house in the country two years old and
at all exposed to the wind, which stands upright; and no
wonder, as they merely consist of posts and joists all
placed upright or horizontal, and fastened rudely together
with rattans. They may be seen in every stage of the
process of tumbling down, from the first slight inclination,
to such a dangerous slope that it becomes a notice to quit
to the occupiers.

The mechanical geniuses of the country have only dis-
covered two ways of remedying the evil. One is, after it
has commenced, to tie the house to a post in the ground
on the windward side by a rattan or bamboo cable. The
other is a preventive, but how they ever found it out and
did not discover the true way is a mystery. This plan is,

to build the house in the usual way, but instead of having

352 CELEBES. (cHAP. xv."

all the principal supports of straight posts, to have two or
three of them chosen as crooked as possible. I had often
noticed these crooked posts in houses, but imputed it to
the scarcity of good straight. timber, till one day I met
some men carrying home a post shaped something like a
dog’s hind leg, and inquired of my native boy what they
were going to do with such a piece of wood. “To make a
post for a house,” said he. “But why don’t they get a
straight one, there are plenty here?” said I. “Oh,” re-
plied he, “they prefer some like that in a house, because
then it won’t fall,” evidently imputing the effect to some
occult property of crooked timber. A little consideration
and a diagram will, however, show, that the effect imputed
to the crooked post may be really produced by it. A true
square changes its figure readily into a rhomboid or oblique
figure, but when one or two of the uprights are bent or
sloping, and placed so as to oppose each other, the effect of
a strut is produced, though in a rude and clumsy manner.
Just before I had left Mamajam the people had sown a
considerable quantity of maize, which appears above
ground in two or three days, and in favourable seasons
ripens in less than two months. Owing to a week’s pre-
mature rains the ground was all flooded when I returned,
and the plants just coming into ear were yellow and dead.
Not a grain would be obtained by the whole village, but

luckily it is only a luxury, not a necessary of life. The

CHAP. XV.] PLOUGHING. © 353

rain was the signal for ploughing to begin, in order to sow
rice on all the flat lands between us and the town. The
plough used is a rude wooden instrument with a very
short single handle, a tolerably well-shaped coulter, and
the point formed of a piece of hard palm-wood fastened

in with wedges. One or two buffaloes draw it at a

NATIVE WOODEN PLOUGH.

very slow pace. The seed is sown broadcast, and a rude
wooden harrow is used to smooth the surface.

By the beginning of December the regular wet season
had set in. Westerly winds and driving rains sometimes
continued for days together; the fields for miles around
were under water, and the ducks and buffaloes enjoyed
themselves amazingly. All along the road to Macassar,
ploughing was daily going on in the mud and water,

VOL. I. AA

354 CELEBES. [CHAP. XV.

through which the wooden plough easily makes its way,
the ploughman holding the plough-handle with one hand
while a long bamboo in the other serves to guide the
buffaloes. These animals require an immense deal of
driving to get them on at all; a continual shower of
exclamations is kept up at them, and “Oh! ah! gee!
ugh!” are to be heard in various keys and in an uninter-
rupted succession all day long. At night we were favoured
with a different kind of concert. The dry ground around
my house had become a marsh tenanted by frogs, who
kept up a most incredible noise from dusk to dawn. They
were somewhat musieal too, having a deep vibrating note
which at times closely resembles the tuning of two or
three bass-viols in an orchestra. In Malacca and Borneo
T had heard no such sounds as these, which indicates that
the frogs, like most of the animals of Celebes, are of
species peculiar to it.

My kind friend and landlord, Mr. Mesman, was a good
specimen of the Macassar-born Dutchman. He was about
thirty-five years of age, had a large family, and lived in a
spacious house near the town, situated in the midst of a
grove of fruit trees, and surrounded by a perfect labyrinth
of offices, stables, and native cottages occupied by his
numerous servants, slaves, or dependants. He usually
rose before the sun, and after a cup of coffee looked after

his servants, horses, and dogs, till seven, when a sub-

CHAP. XV. | A MACASSAR FARM. 355

stantial breakfast of rice and meat was ready in a cool
verandah. Putting on a clean white linen suit, he then
drove to town in his buggy, where he had an office, with
two or three Chinese clerks who looked after his affairs.
His business was that of a coffee and opium merchant.
He had a coffee estate at Bontyne, and a small prau which
traded to the Eastern islands near New Guinea, for mother-
of-pearl and tortoiseshell. About one he would return home,
have coffee and cake or fried plantain, first changing his
dress for a coloured cotton shirt and trousers and bare
feet, and then take a siesta with a book. About four, after
a cup of tea, he would walk round his premises, and
generally stroll down to Mamajam, to pay me a visit and
look after his farm.

This consisted of a coffee plantation and an orchard
of fruit trees, a dozen horses and a score of cattle, with
a sinall village of Timorese slaves and Macassar servants.
One family looked after the cattle and supplied the house
with milk, bringing me also a large glassful every morn-
ing, one of my greatest luxuries. Others had charge of
‘the horses, which were brought in every afternoon and fed
with cut grass. Others had to cut grass for their master’s
horses at Macassar—not a very easy task in the dry
season, when all the country looks like baked mud; or
in the rainy season, when miles in every direction are
flooded. How they managed it was a mystery to me,

AA?

356 CELEBES. [cHAP. Xv.

but they know grass must be had, and they get it. One
lame woman had charge of a flock of ducks. Twice a day
she took them out to feed in the marshy places, let them
waddle and gobble for an hour or two, and then drove
them back and shut them up in a small dark shed to
digest their meal, whence they gave forth occasionally a
melancholy quack. Every night a watch was set, principally
for the sake of the horses, the people of Goa, only two
miles off, being notorious thieves, and horses offering the
easiest and most valuable spoil. This enabled me to sleep
in security, although many people in Macassar thought I
was running a great risk, living alone in such a solitary
place and with such bad neighbours.

My house was surrounded by a kind of straggling-hedge
of roses, jessamines, and other flowers, and every morning
one of the women gathered a basketful of the blossoms for
Mr. Mesman’s family. I generally took a couple for my
own breakfast table, and the supply never failed during
my stay, and I suppose never does. Almost every Sunday
Mr. M. made a shooting excursion with his eldest son, a
lad of fifteen, and I generally accompanied him; for
though the Dutch are Protestants, they do not observe
Sunday in the rigid manner practised in England and
English colonies. The Governor of the place has his
public reception every Sunday evening, when card-playing
is the regular amusement.

CHAP. XV.] MACASSAR. 357

On December 13th I went on board a prau bound for
the Aru Islands, a journey which will be described in the
latter part of this work.

On my return, after a seven months’ absence, I visited
another district to the north of Macassar, which will form

the subject of the next chapter.

CHAPTER XVI.
CELEBES.
(MACASSAR. JULY TO NOVEMBER, 1857.)

REACHED Macassar again on the 11th of July, and
established myself in my old quarters at Mamajam, to
sort, arrange, clean, and pack up my Aru collections. This
occupied me a month; and having shipped them off for
Singapore, had my guns repaired, and received a new one
from England, together with a stock of pins, arsenic, and
other collecting requisites, I began to feel eager for work
again, and had to consider where I should spend my time
till the end of the year. I had left Macassar, seven
months before, a flooded marsh being ploughed up for the
rice-sowing. The rains had continued for five months, yet
now all the rice was cut, and dry and dusty stubbles
covered the country just as when I had first arrived there.
After much inquiry I determined to visit the district of
Maros, about thirty miles north of Macassar, where Mr.
Jacob Mesman, a brother of my friend, resided, who had
kindly offered to find me house-room and give me assist-

ance should I feel inclined to visit him. I accordingly

CHAP. XVI.] MAROS. 359

obtained a pass from the Resident, and having hired a
boat set off one evening for Maros. My boy Ali was so
ill with fever that I was obliged to leave him in the
hospital, under the care of my friend the German doctor,
and I had to make shift with two new servants utterly
ignorant of everything. We coasted along during the
night, and at daybreak entered the Maros river, and by
three in the afternoon reached the village. I immediately
visited the Assistant Resident, and applied for ten men to
carry my baggage, and a horse for myself. These were
promised to be ready that night, so that I could start as
soon as I liked in the morning. After having taken a cup
of tea I took my leave, and slept in the boat. Some of the
men came at night as promised, but others did not arrive
till the next morning. It took some time to divide my
baggage fairly among them, as they all wanted to shirk
the heavy boxes, and would seize hold of some light
article and march off with it, till made to come back and
wait till the whole had been fairly apportioned. At length
about eight o’clock all was arranged, and we started for
our walk to Mr. M.’s farm.

The country was at first a uniform plain of burnt-up
rice-grounds, but at a few qniles’ distance precipitous hills .
appeared, backed by the lofty central range of the pemin-
sula. Towards these our path lay, and after having

gone six or eight miles the hills began to advance into

360 OELEBES. (CHAP. XVI.

the plain right and left of us, and the ground became
pierced here and there with blocks and pillars of lime-
stone rock, while a few abrupt conical hills and peaks rose
like islands. Passing over an elevated tract forming the
shoulder of one of the hills, a picturesque scene lay before
us. We looked down into a little valley almost entirely
surrounded by mountains, rising abruptly in huge preci-
pices, and forming a succession of knolls and peaks and
domes of the most varied and fantastic shapes. In the
very centre of the valley was a large bamboo house,
while scattered around were a dozen cottages of the same
material.

I was kindly received by Mr. Jacob Mesman in an airy
saloon detached from the house, and entirely built of
bamboo and thatched with grass. After breakfast he took
me to his foreman’s house, about a hundred yards off,
half of which was given up to me till I should decide
where to have a cottage built for my own use. I soon
found that this spot was too much exposed to the wind
and dust, which rendered it very difficult to work with
papers or insects. It was also dreadfully hot im the after-
noon, and after a few days I got a sharp attack of fever,
which determined me to move I accordingly fixed ona
place about a mile off, at the foot of a forest-covered hill,
where ina few days Mr. M. built for me a nice little

house, consisting of a good-sized enclosed verandah or open

CHAP. XVI. “MY HUT IN THE FOREST. 361

room, and a small inner sleeping-room, with a little cook-
house outside. As soon as it was finished I moved into it,

and found the change most agreeable.

Ae

SUGAR PALM. (Arenga saccharifera.)

The forest which surrounded me was open and free

from underwood, consisting of large trees, widely scattered

362 CELEBES. : [CHAP. XVI.

with a great quantity of palm-trees (Arenga saccharifera),
from which palm wine and sugar are made. There were
also great numbers of a wild Jack-fruit tree (Artocarpus),
which bore abundance of large reticulated fruit, serving
as an excellent vegetable. The ground was as thickly
covered with dry leaves as it is in an English wood in
November; the little rocky streams were all dry, and
scarcely a drop of water or even a damp place was any-
where to be seen. About fifty yards below my house, at
the foot of the hill, was a deep hole in a watercourse
where good water was to be had, and where I went daily
to bathe, by having buckets of water taken out and pour-
ing it over my body.

My host Mr. M. enjoyed a thoroughly country life, de-
pending almost entirely on his gun and dogs to supply
his table. Wild pigs of large size were very plentiful
aud he generally got one or two a week, besides deer
occasionally, and abundance of jungle-fow], hornbills, and
great fruit pigeons. His buffaloes supplied plenty of milk,
from which he made his own butter; he grew his own
rice and coffee, and had ducks, fowls, and their eges in pro-

fusion. His palm-trees supplied him all the year round

“<c 2

with “sagueir,’ which takes the place of beer; and the
sugar made from them is an excellent sweetmeat. All
the fine tropical vegetables and fruits were abundant in

their season, and his cigars were made from tobacco of his

CHAP. XVI.] COUNTRY LIFE. 863

own raising. He kindly sent me a bamboo of buffalo-
milk every morning; it was as thick as cream, and re-
quired diluting with water to keep it fluid during the day.
It mixes very well with tea and coffee, although it has
a slight peculiar flavour, which after a time is not dis-
agreeable. I also got as much sweet “sagueir” as I liked
to drink, and Mr. M. always sent me a piece of each pig
he killed, which with fowls, eggs, and the birds we shot
ourselves, and buffalo beef about once a fortnight, kept
my larder sufficiently well supplied.

Every bit of flat land was cleared and used as rice-
fields, aud on the lower slopes of many of the hills tobacco
and vegetables were grown. Most of the slopes are
covered with huge blocks of rock, very fatiguing to
scramble over, while a number of the hills are so pre-
cipitous as to be quite inaccessible. These circumstances,
combined with the excessive drought, were very unfavour-
able for my pursuits. Birds were scarce, and I got but
few new to me. Insects were tolerably plentiful, but
unequal. Beetles, usually so numerous and interesting,
were exceedingly scarce, some of the families being quite
absent and others only represented by very minute species.
The Flies and Bees, on the other hand, were abundant, and
of these I daily obtained new and iateresting species.
The rare and beautiful Butterflies of Celebes were the

chief object of my. search, and I found many species

364 CELEB ES. [CHAP. XvI.

altogether new to me, but they were generally so active
and shy as to render their capture a matter of great
difficulty. Almost the only good place for them was in
the dry beds of the streams in the forest, where, at damp
places, muddy pools, or even on the dry rocks, all sorts of
insects could be found. In these rocky forests dwell some
of the finest butterflies in the world. Three species of
Ornithoptera, measuring seven or eight inches across the
wings, and beautifully marked with spots or masses of
satiny yellow on a black ground, wheel through the
thickets with a strong sailing flight. About the damp
places are swarms of the beautiful blue-banded Papilios,
miletus and telephus, the superb golden green P. macedon,
and the rare little swallow-tail Papilio rhesus, of all of
which, though very active, I succeeded in capturing fine
series of specimens.

I have rarely enjoyed myself more than during my
residence here. As I sat taking my coffee at six in the
morning, rare birds would often be seen on some tree close
by, when I would hastily sally out in my slippers, and
perhaps secure a prize I had been seeking after for weeks.
The great hornbills of Celebes (Buceros cassidix) would
often come with loud-flapping wings, and perch upon a
lofty tree just in front of me; and the black baboon-
monkeys, Cynopithecus nigrescens, often stared down in

astonishment at such an intrusion into their domains;

CHAP. XVI.] A NATURALIST’S PLEASURES 365

while at night herds of wild pigs roamed about the house,
devouring refuse, and obliging us to put away everything
eatable or breakable from our little cooking-house. A few
minutes’ search on the fallen trees around my house at
sunrise and sunset, would often produce me more beetles
than I would meet with in a day’s collecting, and odd
moments could be made valuable which when living in
villages or at a distance from the forest are inevitably
wasted, Where the sugar-palms were dripping with sap,
flies congregated in immense numbers, and it was by
spending half an hour at these when I had the time to
spare, that I obtained the finest and most remarkable
collection of this group of insects that I have ever made.
Then what delightful hours I passed wandering up and
down the dry river-courses, full of water-holes and rocks
and fallen trees, and overshadowed by magnificent vege-
tation! I soon got to know every hole and rock and
stump, and came up to each with cautious step and bated
breath to see what treasures it would produce. At one
place I would find a little crowd of the rare butterfly
Tachyris zarinda, which would rise up at my approach,
and display their vivid orange and cinnabar-red wings,
while among them would flutter a few of the fine blue-’
banded Papilios. Where leafy branches hung over the
gully, I might expect to find a grand Ornithoptera at rest

and an easy prey. At certain rotten trunks I was sure to

366 CELEBES. [CHAP. XV1.

get the curious little tiger beetle, Therates flavilabris.
In the denser thickets I would capture the small metal-
lic blue butterflies (Amblypodia) sitting on the leaves,
as well as some rare and beautiful leaf-beetles of the
families Hispide and Chrysomelide.

I found that the rotten jack-fruits were very attractive
to many beetles, and used to split them partly open and lay
them about in the forest near my house to rot. A morn-
ing’s search at these often produced me a score of species,
—Staphylinidee, Nitidulide, Onthophagi, and minute Cara-
bide being the most abundant. Now and then the
“ sagueir” makers brought me a fine rosechafer (Sternoplus
schaumii) which they found hcking up the sweet sap.
Almost the only new birds I met with for some time
were a handsome ground thrush (Pitta celebensis), and
a beautiful violet-crowned dove (Ptilonopus celebensis),
both very similar to birds I had recently obtained at
Aru, but of distinct species.

About the latter part of September a heavy shower of
rain fell, admonishing us that we might soon expect wet
weather, much to the advantage of the baked-up country.
I therefore determined to pay a visit to the falls of the
Maros river, situated at the point where it issues from the
mountains—a spot often visited by travellers and con-
sidered very beautiful. Mr. M. lent me a horse, and I

obtained a guide from a neighbouring village ; and taking

CHAP. XVI.] FALLS OF THE MAROS RIVER. 367

one of my men with me, we started at six in the morning,
and after a ride of two hours over the flat rice-fields
skirting the mountains which rose in grand precipices on
our left, we reached the river about half-way between
Maros and the falls, and thence had a good bridle-road to
our destination, which we reached in another hour. The
hills had closed in round us as we advanced; and when
we reached a ruinous shed which had been erected for the
accommodation of visitors, we found ourselves in a flat-
bottomed valley about a quarter of a mile wide, bounded
by precipitous and often overhanging limestone rocks. So
far the ground had been cultivated, but it now became
covered with bushes and large scattered trees.

As soon as my scanty baggage had arrived and was
duly deposited in the shed, I started off alone for the fall,
which was about a quarter of a mile further on. The
river is here about twenty yards wide, and issues from a
chasm between two vertical walls of limestone, over a
rounded mass of basaltic rock about forty feet high, form-
ing two curves separated by a slight ledge. The water
spreads beautifully over this surface in a thin sheet of
foam, which curls and eddies in a succession of concen-
tric cones till it falls into a fine deep pool below. Close
to the very edge of the fall a narrow and very rugged
path leads to the river above, and thence continues close

under the precipice along the water’s edge, or sometimes

_ 368 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVI.

in the water, for a few hundred yards, after which the
rocks recede a little, and leave a wooded bank on one
side, along which the path is continued, till in about
half a mile a second and smaller fall is reached. Here
the river seems to issue from a cavern, the rocks having
fallen from above so as to block up the channel and bar
further progress. The fall itself can only be reached by
a path which ascends behind a huge slice of rock which
has partly fallen away from the mountain, leaving a space
two or three feet wide, but disclosing a dark chasm de-
scending into the bowels of the mountain, and which,
having visited several such, I had no great curiosity to
explore.

Crossing the stream a little below the upper fall, the
path ascends a steep slope for about five hundred feet,
and passing through a gap enters a narrow valley, shut
in by walls of rock absolutely perpendicular and of great
height. Half a mile further this valley turns abruptly to
the right, and becomes a mere rift in the mountain. This
extends another half mile, the walls gradually approaching
till they are only two feet apart, and the bottom rising
steeply to a pass which leads probably into another valley,
but which I had no time to explore. Returning to where
this rift had begun, the main path turns up to the left
in a sort of gully, and reaches a summit over which a

fine natural arch of rock passes at a height of about fifty

CHAP. XVI. | MOUNTAIN PATHS. 369:

feet. Thence was a steep descent through thick jungle
with glimpses of precipices and distant rocky mountains,
probably leading into the main river valley again. This
was a most tempting region to explore, but there were
several reasons why I could go no further. I had no
euide, and no permission to enter the Bugis territories,
and as the rains might at any time set in, I might be
prevented from returning by the flooding of the river.
1 therefore devoted myself during the short time of my
visit to obtaining what knowledge I could of the natural
productions of the place.

The narrow chasms produced several fine insects quite
new to me, and one new bird, the curious Phlegenas
tristigmata, a large ground pigeon with yellow breast and
crown, and purple neck. This rugged path is the highway
from Maros to the Bugis country beyond the mountains.
During the rainy season it is quite impassable, the river
filling its bed and rushing between perpendicular cliffs
many hundred feet high. Even at the time of my visit
it was most precipitous and fatiguing yet women and
children came over it daily, and men carrying heavy
loads of palm sugar of very little value. It was along
the path between the lower and the upper falls, and about
the margin of the upper pool, that I found most insects.
The large semi-transparent butterfly, Idea tondana, flew
lazily along by dozens, and it was here that I at length

VOL. I. BB

ono CELEBES. [CHAP. XVI.

obtained an insect which I had hoped but hardly ex-
pected to meet with—the magnificent Papilio androcles,
one of the largest and rarest known swallow-tailed
butterflies. During my four days’ stay at the falls I was
so fortunate as to obtain six good specimens. As this
beautiful creature flies, the long white tails flicker like
streamers, and when settled on the beach it carries them
raised upwards, as if to preserve them from injury. It is
scarce even here, as I did not see more than a dozen
specimens in all, and had to follow many of them up and
down the river’s bank repeatedly before I succeeded in
their capture. When the sun shone hottest about noon,
the moist beach of the pool below the upper fall presented

a beautiful sight, being dotted with groups of gay butter-

flies,—orange, yellow, white, blue, and green,—which on
being disturbed rose into the air by hundreds, forming
clouds of variegated colours.

Such gorges, chasms, and precipices as here abound, I
have nowhere seen in the Archipelago. A sloping surface
is scarcely anywhere to be found, huge walls and rugged
masses of rock terminating all the mountains and inclosing
the valleys. In many parts there are vertical or even
overhanging precipices five or six hundred feet high, yet
completely clothed with a tapestry of vegetation. Ferns,
Pandanaceze, shrubs, creepers, and even forest trees, are

mingled in an evergreen network, through the interstices

CHAP. XV1.] PRECIPICES. 371

of which appears the white limestone rock or the dark
holes and chasms with which it abounds. These precipices
are enabled to sustain such an amount of vegetation by
their peculiar structure. Their surfaces are very irregular,
broken into holes and fissures, with ledges overhanging
the mouths of gloomy caverns; but from each projecting
part have descended stalactites, often forming a wild gothic
tracery over the caves and receding hollows, and affording
an admirable support to the roots of the shrubs, trees, and
ereepers, which luxuriate in the warm pure atmosphere
and the gentle moisture which constantly exudes frum the
rocks. In places where the precipice offers smooth sur-
faces of solid rock, it remains quite bare, or only stained
with lichens and dotted with clumps of ferns that grow
on the small ledges and in the minutest crevices.

The reader who is familiar with tropical nature only
through the medium of books and botanical gardens, will
picture to himself in such a spot many other natural
beauties. He will think that I have unaccountably for-
gotten to mention the brilliant flowers, which, in gorgeous
masses of crimson gold or azure, must spangle these
verdant precipices, hang over the cascade, and adorn the
margin of the mountain stream. But what is the reality ?
In vain did I gaze over these vast walls of verdure, among
the pendant creepers and bushy shrubs, all around the
cascade, on the river’s bank, or in the deep caverns and

BB2

372 CELEBES. [cHAP. XVI.

gloomy fissures,—not one single spot of bright colour
could be seen, not one single tree or bush or creeper
bore a flower sufficiently conspicuous to form an object
in the landscape. In every direction the eye rested on
green foliage and mottied rock. There was infinite variety
in the colour and aspect of the foliage, there was grandeur
in the rocky masses and in the exuberant luxuriance of
the vegetation, but there was no brilliancy of colour, none
of those bright flowers and gorgeous masses of blossom,
so generally considered to be everywhere present in the
tropics. I have here given an accurate sketch of a luxu-
riant tropical scene as noted down on the spot, and its
general characteristics as regards colour have been so often
repeated, both in South America and over many thousand
miles in the Eastern tropics, that I am driven to conclude
that it represents the general aspect of nature in the
equatorial (that is, the most tropical) parts of the tropical
regions. How is it then, that the descriptions of travellers
generally give a very different idea? and where, it may be
asked, are the glorious flowers that we know do exist in
the tropics? These questions can be easily answered.
The fine tropical flowering-plants cultivated in our hot-
houses, have been culled from the most varied regions,
and therefore give a most erroneous idea of their abun-
dance in any one region. Many of them are very rare,

others extremely local, while a considerable number

CHAP. XVI | ABSENCE OF FLOWERS. one

inhabit the more arid regions of Africa and India, in which
tropical vegetation does not exhibit itself in its usual
luxuriance. Fine and varied foliage, rather than gay
flowers, is more characteristic of those parts where tropical
vegetation attains its highest development, and in such
districts each kind of flower seldom lasts in perfection
more than a few weeks, or sometimes a few days. In
every locality a lengthened residence will show an abun-
dance of magnificent and gaily-blossomed plants, but they
have to be sought for, and are rarely at any one time or
place so abundant as to form a perceptible feature in the
landscape. But it has been the custom of travellers to
describe and group together all the fine plants they have
met with during a long journey, and thus produce the
effect of a gay and flower-painted landscape. They have
rarely studied and described individual scenes where vege-
tation was most luxuriant and beautiful, and fairly stated
what effect was produced in them by flowers. I have
done so frequently, and the result of these examinations
has convinced me, that the bright colours of flowers
have a much greater influence on the general aspect of
nature in temperate than in tropical climates. During
twelve years spent amid the grandest tropical vegetation,
I have seen nothing comparable to the effect produced on
our landscapes by gorse, broom, heather, wild hyacinths,

hawthorn, purple orchises, and buttercups.

374 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVI.

The geological structure of this part of Celebes is
interesting. The limestone mountains, though of great
extent, seem to be entirely superficial, resting on a basis
of basalt which in some places forms low rounded hills
between the more precipitous mountains. In the rocky beds
of the streams basalt is almost always found, and it is a
step in this rock which forms the cascade already described.
From it the limestone precipices rise abruptly ; and in as-
cending the little stairway along the side of the fall, you
step two or three times from the one rock on to the other,
—the limestone dry and rough, being worn by the water
and rains into sharp ridges and honeycombed holes,—the
basalt moist, even, and worn smooth and slippery by the
passage of bare-footed pedestrians. The solubility of the
limestone by rain-water is well seen in the little blocks
and peaks which rise thickly through the soil of the
alluvial plains as you approach the mountains. They are
all skittle-shaped, larger in the middle than at the base,
the greatest diameter occurring at the height to which the
country is flooded in the wet season, and thence decreasing
regularly to the ground. Many of them overhang consider-
ably, and some of the slenderer pillars appear to stand upon
a point. When the rock is less solid it becomes curiously
honeycombed by the rains of successive winters, and I
noticed some masses reduced tu a complete network of

stone, through which light could be seen in every direction.

CHAP. XVI. | EXCESSIVE DROUGHT. 379

From these mountains to the sea extends a perfectly flat
alluvial plain, with no indication that water would accu-
mulate at a great depth beneath it, yet the authorities at
Macassar have spent much money in boring a well a
thousand feet deep in hope of getting a supply of water
like that obtained by the Artesian wells in the London and
Paris basins. It is not to be wondered at that the attempt
was unsuccessful.

Returning to my forest hut, I continued my daily search
after birds and insects. The weather however became
dreadfully hot and dry, every drop of water disappearing
from the pools and rock-holes, and with it the insects
which frequented them. Only one group remained un-
affected by the intense drought ; the Diptera, or two-winged
flies, continued as plentiful as ever, and on these I was
almost compelled to concentrate my attention for a week
or two, by which means I increased my collection of that
Order to about two hundred species. I also continued to
obtain a few new birds, among which were two or three
kinds of small hawks and falcons, a beautiful brush-
tongued paroquet, Trichoglossus ornatus, and a rare black
and white crow, Corvus advena.

At length about the middle of October, after several
gloomy days, down came a deluge of rain, which continued
to fall almost every afternoon, showing that the early part

of the wet season had commenced. I hoped now to get a

376 CELEBES. [cHAP. XVI.

good harvest of insects, and in some respects I was not
disappointed. Beetles became much more numerous, and
under a thick bed of leaves that had accumulated on some
rocks by the side of a forest stream, I found abundance of
Carabidze, a family generally scarce in the tropics. The
butterflies however disappeared. Two of my servants
were attacked with fever, dysentery, and swelled feet, just
at the time that the third had left me, and for some days
they both lay groaning in the house. When they got a
little better I was attacked myself, and as my stores were
nearly finished and everything was getting very damp, I
was obliged to prepare for my return to Macassar, especi-
ally as the strong westerly winds would render the passage
in a small open boat disagreeable if not dangerous.

Since the rains began, numbers of huge millipedes, as
thick as one’s finger and eight or ten inches long, crawled
about everywhere, in the paths, on trees, about the house,
—and one morning when I got up I even found one in my
bed! They were generally of a dull lead colour or of a
deep brick red, and were very nasty-looking things to be
coming everywhere in one’s way, although quite harmless.
Snakes too began to show themselves. I kilied two of
a very abundant species, big-headed and of a bright green
colour, which lie coiled up on leaves and shrubs and can
scarcely be seen till one is close upon them. Brown

snakes got into my net while beating among dead leaves

CHAP. Xv1.] EFFECTS OF THE RAIN. 377

for insects, and made me rather cautious about inserting
my hand till I knew what kind of game I had captured.
The fields and meadows which had been parched and
sterile, now became suddenly covered with fine long grass ;
the river-bed where I had so many times walked over
burning rocks, was now a deep and rapid stream; and
numbers of herbaceous plants and shrubs were everywhere
springing up and bursting into flower. I found plenty
of new insects, and if I had had a good, roomy, water-and-
wind-proof house, I should perhaps have stayed during the
wet season, as I feel sure many things can then be
obtained which are to be found at no other time. With
my summer hut, however, this was impossible. During
the heavy rains a fine drizzly mist penetrated into every
part of it, and I began to have the greatest difficulty in
keeping my specimens dry.

Early in November I returned to Macassar, and having
packed up my collections, started in the Dutch mail
steamer for Amboyna and Ternate. Leaving this part of
my journey for the present, I will in the next chapter
conclude my account of Celebes, by describing the extreme
northern part of the island which I visited two years

later.

CHAPTER XVII.
CELEBES.
(MENADO. JUNE TO SEPTEMBER, 1859.)

T was after my residence at Timcr-Coupang that I

visited the north-eastern extremity of Celebes, touching
on my way at Banda, Amboyna, and Ternate. I reached
Menado on the 10th of June, 1859, and was very kindly,
received by Mr. Tower, an Englishman, but a very old
resident in Menado, where he carries on a general business.
He introduced me to Mr. L. Duivenboden (whose father
had been my friend at Ternate), who had much taste for
natural history; and to Mr. Neys, a native of Menado,
but who was educated at Calcutta, and to whom Dutch,
English, and Malay were equally mother-tongues. All
these gentlemen showed me the greatest kindness, accom-
panied me in my earliest walks about the country, and
assisted me by every means in their power. I spent a
week in the town very pleasantly, making explorations
and inquiries after a good collecting station, which I had

much difficulty in finding, owing to the wide cultivation

CHAP. XVII.] MENADO. 379

of coffee and cacao, which has led to the clearing away of
the forests for many miles round the town, and over
extensive districts far into the interior.

The little town of Menado is one of the prettiest
in the East. It has the appearance of a large garden
containing rows of rustic villas, with broad paths between,
forming streets generally at right angles with each other.
Good roads branch off in several directions towards the
interior, with a succession of pretty cottages, neat gardens,
and thriving plantations, interspersed with wildernesses
of fruit trees. To the west and south the country 1s
mountainous, with groups of fine voleanic peaks 6,000 or
7,000 feet high, forming grand and picturesque back-
grounds to the landscape.

The inhabitants of Minahasa (as this part of Celebes is
ealled) differ much from those of all the rest of the island,
and in fact from any other people in the Archipelago.
They are of a light-brown or yellow tint, often approach-
ing the fairness of a European; of a rather short stature,
stout and well-made; of an open and pleasing counte-
nance, more or less disfigured as age increases by projécting
cheek-bones ; and with the usual long, straight, jet-black
hair of the Malayan races. In some of the inland villages
where they may be supposed to be of the purest race, both
men and women are remarkably handsome ; while nearer

the coasts where the purity of their blood has been de-

380 CELEBES. [cHap. Xvn.

stroyed by the intermixture of other races, they approach
to the ordinary types of the wild inhabitants of the sur-
rounding countries.

In mental and moral characteristics they are also highly
peculiar. They are remarkably quiet and gentle in dispo-
sition, submissive to the authority of those they consider
their superiors, and easily induced to learn and adopt the
habits of civilized people. They are clever mechanics, and
seem capable of acquiring a considerable amount of intel-
lectual education.

Up to a very recent period these people were thorough
savages, and there are persons now living in Menado who
remember a state of things identical with that described by
the writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
The inhabitants of the several villages were distinct tribes,
each under its own chief, speaking languages unintelli-
gible to each other, and almost always at war. They built
their houses elevated upon lofty posts to defend themselves
from the attacks of their enemies. They were head
hunters like the Dyaks of Borneo, and were said to be
sometimes cannibals. When a chief died, his tomb was
adorned with two fresh human heads; and if those of
enemies could not be obtained, slaves were killed for the
occasion. Human skulls were the great ornaments of the
chiefs’ houses. Strips of bark were their only dress. The

country was a pathless wilderness, with small cultivated

CHAP. XVII.] NATIVES OF MINAHASA. 381

patches of rice and vegetables, or clumps of fruit-trees,
diversifying the otherwise unbroken forest. Their religion
was that naturally engendered in the undeveloped human
mind by the contemplation of grand natural phenomena
and the luxuriance of tropical nature. The burning
mountain, the torrent and the lake, were the abode of their
deities; and certain trees and birds were supposed to have
especial influence over men’s actions and destiny. They
held wild and exciting festivals to propitiate these deities
or demons; and believed that men could be changed by
them into animals, either during life or after death.

Here we have a picture of true savage life; of small
isolated communities at war with all around them, subject
to the wants and miseries of such a condition, drawing a
precarious existence from the luxuriant soil, and living on
from generation to generation, with no desire for physical
amelioration, and no prospect of moral advancement.

Such was their condition down to the year 1822, when
the coffee-plant was first introduced, and experiments were
made as to its cultivation. It was found to succeed ad-
mirably at from fifteen hundred up to four thousand feet
above the sea. The chiefs of villages were induced to
undertake its cultivation. Seed and native instructors
were sent from Java; food was supplied to the labourers
engaged in clearing and planting; a fixed price was esta-

blished at which all coffee brought to the government col-

382 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVII.

lectors was to be paid for, and the village chiefs who now
received the titles of “ Majors” were to receive five per cent.
of the produce. After atime, roads were made from the port
of Menado up to the plateau, and smaller paths were cleared
from village to village; missionaries settled in the more
populous districts and opened schools, and Chinese traders
penetrated to the interior and supplied clothing and other
luxuries in exchange for the money which the sale of the
coffee had produced. At the same time, the country was
divided into districts, and the system of “ Controlleurs,”
which had worked so well in Java, was introduced. The
“Controlleur” was a European, or a native of European
blood, who was the general superintendent of the cultiva-
tion of the district, the adviser of the chiefs, the protector
of the people, and the means of communication between
both and the European Government. His duties obliged
him to visit every village in succession once a month, and
to send in a report on their condition to the Resident.
As disputes between adjacent villages were now settled by
appeal to a superior authority, the old and inconvenient
semi-fortified houses were disused, and under the direction

?

of the “Controlleurs” most of the houses were rebuilt
onaneat and uniform plan. It was this interesting district
which I was now about to visit.

Having decided on my route, I started at 8 A.M. on the

22d of June. Mr. Tower drove me the first three miles

CHAP. XVII. ] PRETTY VILLAGES. 383

in his chaise, and Mr, Neys accompanied me on horseback
three miles further to the village of Lotta. Here we met
the Controlleur of the district of Tondano, who was return-
ing home from one of his monthly tours, and who had
agreed to act as my guide and companion on the journey.
From Lotta we had an almost continual ascent for six
miles, which brought us on to the plateau of Tondano at
an elevation of about 2,400 feet. We passed through three
villages whose neatness and beauty quite astonished me.
The main road, along which all the coffee is brought down
from the interior in carts drawn by buffaloes, is always
turned aside at the entrance of a village, so as to pass
behind it, and thus allow the village street itself to be kept
neat and clean. This is bordered by neat hedges often
formed entirely of rose-trees, which are perpetually in
blossom. There is a broad central path and a border of fine
turf, which is kept well swept and neatly cut. The houses
are all of wood, raised about six feet on substantial posts
neatly painted blue, while the walls are whitewashed. They
all have a verandah enclosed with a neat balustrade, and are
generally surrounded by orange-trees and flowering shrubs.
The surrounding scenery is verdant and _ picturesque.
Coffee plantations of extreme luxuriance, noble palms and
tree ferns, wooded hills and volcanic peaks, everywhere
meet the eye. I had heard much of the beauty of this

country, but the reality far surpassed my expectations.

384 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVII.

About one o'clock we reached Tomohon, the chief place
of a district, having a native chief now called the “ Major,”
at whose house we were to dine. Here was a fresh surprise
for me. The house was large, airy and very substantially
built of hard native timber, squared and put together in a
most workmanlike manner. It was furnished in European
style, with handsome chandelier lamps, and the chairs and
tables all well made by native workmen. As soon as we
entered, madeira and bitters were offered us. Then two
handsome boys neatly dressed in white and with smoothly
brushed jet-black hair, handed us each a basin of water
and a clean napkin on a salver. The dinner was excel-
lent. Fowls cooked in various ways, wild pig roasted
stewed and fried, a fricassee of bats, potatoes rice and
other vegetables, all served on good china, with finger
glasses and fine napkins, and abundance of good claret and
beer, seemed to me rather curious at the table of a native
chief on the mountains of Celebes. Our host was dressed
in a suit of black with patent-leather shoes, and really
looked comfortable and almost gentlemanly in them. He
sat at the head of the table and did the honours well,
though he did not talk much. Our conversation was en-
tirely in Malay, as that is the official language here, and in
fact the mother-tongue and only language of the control-
leur, who is a native-born half-breed. The Major's father,

who was chief before him, wore, I was informed, a strip of

CHAP. XVII] VILLAGE OF RURUKAN. 385

bark as his sole costume, and lived in a rude hut raised on
lofty poles, and abundantly decorated with human heads.
Of course we were expected, and our dinner was prepared
in the best style, but I was assured that the chiefs all
take a pride in adopting European customs, and in being
able to receive their visitors in a handsome manner.

After dinner and coffee, the Controlleur went on to
Tondino, and I strolled about the village waiting for my
baggage, which was coming in a bullock-cart and did not
arrive till after midnight. Supper was very similar to
dinner, and on retiring I found an elegant little room
with a comfortable bed, gauze curtains with blue and red
hangings, and every convenience. Next morning at sun-
rise the thermometer in the verandah stood at 69°, which
I was told is about the usual lowest temperature at this
place, 2,500 feet above the sea. I had a good breakfast
of coffee, eggs, and fresh bread and butter, which I took in
the spacious verandah, amid the odour of roses, Jessamine,
and other sweet-scented flowers, which filled the garden
in front; and about eight o’clock left Tomohdén with a
dozen men carrying my baggage.

Our road lay over a mountain ridge about 4,000 feet
above the sea, and then descended about 500 feet to the
little village of Rurikan, the highest in the district of
Minahasa, and probably in all Celebes. Here I had de-
termined to stay for some time to see whether this eleva-

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CHAP. XVII. | COFFEE PLANTATIONS. O87

tion wouid produce any change in the zoology. The
village had only been formed about ten years, and was
quite as neat as those I had passed through and much
more picturesque. It is placed on a small level spot, from
which there is an abrupt wooded descent down to the
beautiful Jake of Tondano, with volcanic mountains be-
yond. On one side is a ravine, and beyond it a fine
mountainous and wooded country.

Near the village are the coffee plantations. The trees
are planted in rows, and are kept topped to about seven
feet high. This causes the lateral branches to grow very,
strong, so that some of the trees become perfect hemi-
spheres, loaded with fruit from top to bottom, and pro-
ducing from ten to twenty pounds each of cleaned coffee
annually. These plantations were all formed by the
Government, and are cultivated by the villagers under
the direction of their chief. Certain days are appointed
for weeding or gathering, and the whole working popu-
lation are summoned by sound of gong. An account is
kept of the number of hours’ work done by each family,
and at the year’s end the produce of the sale is divided
among them proportionately. The coffee is taken to
Government stores established at central places over the
whole country, and is paid for at a low fixed price.
Out of this a certain percentage goes to the chiefs and
majors, and the remainder is divided among the inha-

cc2

388 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVII.

bitants. This system works very well, and I believe is
at present far better for the people than free-trade would
be. There are also large rice-fields, and in this little
village of seventy houses I was informed that a hundred
pounds’ worth of rice was sold annually.

I hada small house at the very end of the village, almost
hanging over the precipitous slope down to the stream,
and with a splendid view from the verandah. The thermo-
meter in the morning often stood at 62° and never rose
so high as 80°, so that with the thin clothing used in
the tropical plains we were always cool and sometimes
positively cold, while the spout of water where I went
daily for my bath had quite an icy feel. Although I
enjoyed myself very much among these fine mountains
and forests, I was somewhat disappointed as to my collec-
tions. There was hardly any perceptible difference between
the animal life in this temperate region and in the torrid
plains below, and what difference did exist was in most
respects disadvantageous to me. There seemed to be
nothing absolutely peculiar to this elevation. Birds and
quadrupeds were less plentiful, but of the same species.
In insects there seemed to be more difference. The
curious beetles of the family Cleridz, which are found
chiefly on bark and rotten wood, were finer than I have
seen them elsewhere. The beautiful Longicorns were scarcer

than usual, and the few butterflies were all of tropical

CHAP. XVII. | HILL VEGETATION. 389

species. One of these, Papilio blumei, of which I obtained
a few specimens only, is among the most magnificent I
have ever seen. It is a green and gold swallow-tail,
with azure-blue spoon-shaped tails, and was often seen
flying about the village when the sun shone, but in a very
shattered condition. The great amount of wet and cloudy
weather, was a great drawback all the time I was at
Rurukan.

Even in the vegetation there is very little to indicate
elevation. ‘The trees are more covered with lichens and
mosses, and the ferns and tree-ferns are finer and more
luxuriant than I had been accustomed to see them on the
low grounds, both probably attributable to the almost
perpetual moisture that here prevails. Abundance of a
tasteless raspberry, with blue and yellow Composite, have
somewhat of a temperate aspect; and minute ferns and
Orchidez, with dwarf Begonias on the rocks, make some
approach to a sub-alpine vegetation. The forest however
is most luxuriant. Noble palms, Pandani, and tree-ferns
are abundant in it, while the forest trees are completely
festooned with Orchidez, Bromeliz, Araceze, Lycopodiums,
and mosses. The ordinary stemless ferns abound; some
with gigantic fronds ten or twelve feet long, others barely
an inch high; some with entire and massive leaves,
others elegantly waving their finely-cut foliage, and adding

endless variety and interest to the forest paths. The

390 CELEBES. [cHAP. XVII.

cocoa-nut palm still produces fruit abundantly, but is
said to be deficient in oil. Oranges thrive better than
below, producing abundance of delicious fruit; but the
shaddock or pumplemous (Citrus decumana) requires the
full force of a tropical sun, for it will not thrive even at
Tondano a thousand feet lower. On the hilly slopes rice
is cultivated largely, and ripens well, although the tem-
perature rarely or never rises to 80°, so that one would
think it might be grown even in England in fine summers,
especially if the young plants were raised under glass.
The mountains have an unusual quantity of earth or
vegetable mould spread over them. Even on the steepest
slopes there is everywhere a covering of clays and sands,
and generally a good thickness of vegetable soil. It is
this which perhaps contributes to the uniform luxuriance
of the forest, and delays the appearance of that sub-alpine
vegetation which depends almost as much on the abun-
dance of rocky and exposed surfaces as on difference of
climate. Ata much lower elevation on Mount Ophir in
Malacca, Dacrydiums and Rhododendrons with abundance
of Nepenthes, ferns, and terrestrial orchids suddenly took
the place of the lofty forest; but this was plainly due to
the occurrence of an extensive slope of bare granitic rock
at an elevation of less than 3,000 feet. The quantity of
vegetable soil, and also of loose sands and clays, resting

on steep slopes, hill-tops and the sides of ravines, is a

CHAP. XVII] AN EARTHQUAKE. 391

curious and important phenomenon. It may be due in
part to constant slight earthquake shocks, facilitating the
disintegration of rock; but would also seem to indicate
that the country has been long exposed to gentle atmo-
spheric action, and that its elevation has been exceedingly
slow and continuous.

During my stay at Rurikan my curiosity was satisfied
by experiencing a pretty sharp earthquake-shock. On the
evening of June 29th, at a quarter after eight, as I was
sitting reading, the house began shaking with a very gentle,
but rapidly increasing motion. I sat still enjoying the
novel sensation for some seconds; but in less than half a
minute it became strong enough to shake me in my chair,
and to make the house visibly rock about, and creak and
crack as if it would fall to pieces. Then began a cry
throughout the village of “Tana goyang! tana goyang!”
(Earthquake! earthquake!) Everybody rushed out of their
houses—women screamed and children cried—and I
thought it prudent to go out too. On getting up, I found
my head giddy and my steps unsteady, and could hardly
walk without falling. The shock continued about a minute,
during which time I felt as if I had been turned round
and round, and was almost sea-sick. Going into the house
again, I found a lamp and a bottle of arrack upset. The
tumbler which formed the lamp had been thrown out of

the saucer in which it had stood. The shock appeared to

o92 CELEBES. [cHAP. XVII.

be nearly vertical, rapid, vibratory, and jerking. It was
sufficient, I have no doubt, to have thrown down brick
chimneys and walls and church towers; but as the houses
here are all low, and strongly framed of timber, it is impos-
sible for them to be much injured, except by a shock that
would utterly destroy a European city.. The people told me
it was ten years since they had had a stronger shock than
this, at which time many houses were thrown down and
some people killed.

At intervals of ten minutes to half an hour, sheht
shocks and tremors were felt, sometimes strong enough to
send us all out again. There was a strange mixture of
the terrible and the ludicrous in our situation. We might
at any moment have a much stronger shock, which would
bring down the house over us, or—what I feared more—
cause a landslip, and send us down into the deep ravine
on the very edge of which the village is built; yet I
could not help laughing each time we ran out at a slight
shock, and then in a few moments ran in again. The
sublime and the ridiculous were here literally but a step
apart. On the one hand, the most terrible and destructive
of natural phenomena was in action around us—the rocks,
the mountains, the solid earth were trembling and con-
vulsed, and we were utterly impotent to guard against the
danger that might at any moment overwhelm us. On the

other hand was the spectacle of a number of men, women,

CHAP. XVII.] AN EARTHQUAKE. 39a

and children running in and out of their houses, on what
each time proved a very unnecessary alarm, as each shock
ceased just as it became strong enough to frighten us. It
seemed really very much like “playing at earthquakes,”
and made many of the people join me in a hearty laugh,
even while reminding each other that it really might be no
laughing matter.

At length the evening got very cold, and I became very
sleepy, and determined to turn in; leaving orders to my
boys, who slept nearer the door, to wake me in case the
house was in danger of falling. But I miscalculated
my apathy, for I could not sleep much. The shocks
continued at intervals of half an hour or an hour all
night, just strong enough to wake me thoroughly each
time and keep me on the alert ready to jump up in case
of danger. I was therefore very glad when morning came.
Most of the inhabitants had not been to bed at all, and
some had stayed out of doors all night. For the next
two days and nights shocks still continued at short in-
tervals, and several times a day for a week, showing that
there was some very extensive disturbance beneath our
portion of the earth’s crust. How vast the forces at work
really are can only be properly appreciated when, after
feeling their effects, we look abroad over the wide expanse
of hill and valley, plain and mountain, and thus realize in

a slight degree the immense mass of matter heaved and

394 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVII.

shaken. The sensation produced by an earthquake is
never to be forgotten. We feel ourselves in the grasp of a
power to which the wildest fury of the winds and waves
are as nothing; yet the effect is more a thrill of awe than
the terror which the more boisterous war of the elements
produces.. There is a mystery and an uncertainty as
to the amount of danger we incur, which gives greater
play to the imagination, and to the influences of hope
and fear. These remarks apply only to a moderate earth-
quake. A severe one is the most destructive and the
most horrible catastrophe to which human beings can be
exposed.

A few days after the earthquake I took a walk to Ton-
dano, a large village of about 7,000 inhabitants, situated at
the lower end of the lake of the same name. I dined with
the Controlleur, Mr. Bensneider, who had been my guide
to Tomohdn. He had a fine large house, in which he often
received visitors ; and his garden was the best for flowers
which I had seen in the tropies, although there was no
great variety. It was he who introduced the rose hedges
which give such a charming appearance to the villages ;
and to him is chiefly due the general neatness and good
order that everywhere prevail. I consulted him about a
fresh locality, as I found Rurikan too much in the clouds,
dreadfully damp and gloomy, and with a general stagnation

of bird and insect life. He recommended me a village

CHAP. XvVIt.] WATERFALL AT TONDANO. 395

some distance beyond the lake, near which was a large
forest, where he thought I should find plenty of birds. As
he was going himself in a few days I decided to accompany
him.

After dinner I asked him for a guide to the celebrated
waterfall on the outlet stream of the lake. It is situated
about a mile and half below the village, where a slight
rising ground closes in the basin, and evidently once
formed the shore of the lake. Here the river enters a
gorge, very narrow and tortuous, along which it rushes
furiously for a short distance and then plunges into a
great chasm, forming the head of a large valley. Just
above the fall the channel is not more than ten feet wide,
and here a few planks are thrown across, whence, half hid
by luxuriant vegetation, the mad waters may be seen
rushing beneath, and a few feet farther plunge into the
abyss. Both sight and sound are grand and impressive.
It was here that, four years before my visit, the Governor-
General of the Netherland Indies committed suicide, by
leaping into the torrent. This at least is the general
opinion, as he suffered from a painful disease which was
supposed to have made him weary of his life. His body
was found next day in the stream below.

Unfortunately, no good view of the fall could now be
obtained, owing to the quantity of wood and high grass

that lined the margins of the precipices. There are two

396 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVII.

falls, the lower being the most lofty ; and it is possible, by
a long circuit, to descend into the valley and see them
from below. Were the best points of view searched for
and rendered accessible, these falls would probably be
found to be the finest in the Archipelago. The chasm
seems to be of great depth, probably 500 or 600 feet.
Unfortunately I had no time to explore this valley, as I
was anxious to devote every fine day to increasing my
hitherto scanty collections.

Just opposite my abode in Rurtkan was the school-
house. The schoolmaster was a native, educated by the
Missionary at Tomohon. School was held every morning
for about three hours, and twice a week in the evening
there was catechising and preaching. There was also a
service on Sunday morning. The children were all taught
in Malay, and I often heard them repeating the multi-
plication-table up to twenty times twenty very glibly.
They always wound up with singing, and it was very
pleasing to hear many of our old psalm-tunes in these
remote mountains, sung with Malay words. Singing is
one of the real blessings which Missionaries introduce
among savage nations, whose native chants are almost
always monotonous and melancholy.

On catechising evenings the schoolmaster was a great
man, preaching and teaching for three hours at a stretch

much in the style of an English ranter. This was pretty

CHAP. XVII.] MISSIONARIES. 397

cold work for his auditors, however warming to himself;
and I am inclined to think that these native teachers,
having acquired facility of speaking and an endless supply
of religious platitudes to talk about, ride their hobby
rather hard, without much consideration for their flock.
The Missionaries, however, have much to be proud of in
this country. They have assisted the Government in
changing a savage into a civilized community in a wonder-
fully short space of time. Forty years ago the country
was a wilderness, the people naked savages, garnishing
their rude houses with human heads. Now it is a garden,
worthy of its sweet native name of “Minahasa.” Good
roads and paths traverse it in every direction ; some of the
finest coffee plantations in the world surround the villages,
interspersed with extensive rice-fields more than sufficient
for the support of the population.

The people are now the most industrious, peaceable,
and civilized in the whole Archipelago. They are the
best clothed, the best housed, the best fed, and the best
educated ; and they have made some progress towards a
higher social state. I believe there is no example else-
where of such striking results being produced in so short
a time—results which are entirely due to the system of
government now adopted by the Dutch in their Eastern
possessions. The system is one which may be called a

“paternal despotism.” Now we Englishmen do not like

398 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVII.

despotism—we hate the name and the thing, and we would
rather see people ignorant, lazy, and vicious, than use any
but moral force to make them wise, industrious, and good.
And we are right when we are dealing with men of our own
race, and of similar ideas and equal capacities with our-
selves. Example and precept, the force of public opinion,
and the slow, but sure spread of education, will do every-
thing in time; without engendering any of those bitter
feelings, or producing any of that servility, hypocrisy, and
dependence, which are the sure results of despotic govern-
ment. But what should we think of a man who should
advocate these principles of perfect freedom in a family or
a school? We should say that he was applying a good
general principle to a case in which the conditions ren-
dered it inapplicable—the case in which the governed are
in an admitted state of mental inferiority to those who
govern them, and are unable to decide what is best for their
permanent welfare. Children must be subjected to some
degree of authority, and guidance ; and if properly managed
they will cheerfully submit to it, because they know their
own inferiority, and believe their elders are acting solely
for their good. They learn many things the use of which
they cannot comprehend, and which they would never
learn without some moral and social if not physical
pressure. Habits of order, of industry, of cleanliness, of

respect and obedience, are inculcated by similar means.

CHAP. XVII.] A PATERNAL DESPOTISM. 399

Children would never grow up into well-behaved and
well-educated men, if the same absolute freedom of action
that is allowed to men were allowed to them. Under the
best aspect of education, children are subjected to a mild
despotism for the good of themselves and of society ; and
their confidence in the wisdom and goodness of those
who ordain and apply this despotism, neutralizes the bad
passions and degrading feelings, which under less favour-
able conditions are its general results.

Now, there is not merely an analogy,—there is in many
respects an identity of relation, between master and pupil
or parent and child on the one hand, and an uncivilized
race and its civilized rulers on the other. We know (or
think we know) that the education and industry, and the
common usages of civilized man, are superior to those of
savage life; and, as he becomes acquainted with them, the
savage himself admits this. He admires the superior
acquirements of the civilized man, and it is with pride
that he will adopt such usages as do not interfere too much
with his sloth, his passions, or his prejudices. But as the
wilful child or the idle schoolboy, who was never taught
obedience, and never made to do anything which of his
own free will he was not inclined to do, would in most
cases obtain neither education nor manners; so it is much
more unlikely that the savage, with all the confirmed

habits of manhood and the traditional prejudices of race,

400 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVII.

should ever do more than copy a few of the least bene-
ficial customs of civilization, without some stronger
stimulus than precept, very imperfectly backed by
example.

If we are satisfied that we are right in assuming the
government over a savage race, and occupying their country ;
and if we further consider it our duty to do what we can
to improve our rude subjects and raise them up towards
our own level, we must not be too much afraid of the cry
of “despotism” and “slavery,” but must use the authority
we possess, to induce them to do work which they may not
altogether like, but which we know to be an indispensable
step in their moral and physical advancement. The Dutch
have shown much good policy in the means by which they
have done this. They have in most cases upheld and
strengthened the authority of the native chiefs, to whom
the people have been accustomed to render a voluntary
obedience; and by acting on the intelligence and self-
interest of these chiefs, have brought about changes in the
manners and customs of the people, which would have
excited ill-feeling and perhaps revolt, had they been directly
enforced by foreigners.

In carrying out such a system, much depends upon the
character of the people; and the system which succeeds
admirably in one place could only be very partially worked

out in another. In Minahasa the natural docility and

CHAP. XVII. ] THE CULTIVATION SYSTEM. AOL

intelligence of the race have made their progress rapid ; and
how important this is, is well illustrated by the fact, that in
the immediate vicinity of the town of Menado are a tribe
called Banteks, of a much less tractable disposition, who
have hitherto resisted all efforts of the Dutch Government
to induce them to adopt any systematic cultivation. These
remain in a ruder condition, but engage themselves will-
ingly as occasional porters and labourers, for which their
greater strength and activity well adapt them.

No doubt the system here sketched, seems open to serious
objection. It is to a certain extent despotic, and interferes
with free trade, free labour, and free communication. A
native cannot leave his village without a pass, and cannot
engage himself to any merchant or captain without a
Government permit. The coffee has all to be sold to
Government, at less than half the price that the local
merchant would give for it, and he consequently cries out
loudly against “monopoly” and “oppression.” He forgets,
however, that the coffee plantations were established by
the Government at great outlay of capital and skill; that
it gives free education to the people, and that the monopoly
is in lieu of taxation. He forgets that the product he
wants to purchase and make a profit by, is the creation of
the Government, without whom the people would still be
savages. He knows very well that free trade would, as
its first result, lead to the importation of whole cargoes of

VOL. I. DD

402 CELEBES. [cHaP. xvn.

arrack, which would be carried over the country and
exchanged for coffee. That drunkenness and poverty
would spread over the land; that the public coffee plan-
tations would not be kept up; that the quality and quan-
tity of the coffee would soon deteriorate ; that traders and
merchants would get rich, but that the people would re-
lapse into poverty and barbarism. That such is invariably
the result of free trade with any savage tribes who pos-
sess a valuable product, native or cultivated, is well known
to those who have visited such people; but we might even
anticipate from general principles that evil results would
happen. If there is one thing rather than another to
which the grand law of continuity or development will
apply, it is to human progress. There are certain stages
through which society must pass in its onward march
from barbarism to civilization. Now one of these stages
has always been some form or other of despotism, such as
feudalism or servitude, or a despotic paternal government ;
and we have every reason to believe that it is not possible
for humanity to leap over this transition epoch, and pass
at once from pure savagery to free civilization, The Dutch
system attempts to supply this missing link, and to bring
the people on by gradual steps to that higher civilization,
which we (the English) try to force upon them at once.
Our system has always failed. We demoralize and we
extirpate, but we never really civilize. Whether the Dutch

CHAP. XVII. | FEMALE LABOUR. 408

system can permanently succeed is but doubtful, since it
may not be possible to compress the work of ten centuries
into one; but at all events it takes nature as a guide, and
is therefore more deserving of success, and more likely to
succeed, than ours.

There is one point connected with this question which I
think the Missionaries might take up with great physical
and moral results. In this beautiful and healthy country,
and with abundance of food and necessaries, the population
does not increase as it ought to do. I can only impute
this to one cause. Infant mortality, produced by neglect
while the mothers are working in the plantations, and by
general ignorance of the conditions of health in infants.
Women all work, as they have always been accustomed to
do. It is no hardship to them, but I believe is often a
pleasure and relaxation. They either take their infants
with them, in which case they leave them in some shady
spot on the ground, going at intervals to give them
nourishment, or they leave them at home in the care of
other children too young to work. Under neither of these
circumstances can infants be properly attended to, and
great mortality is the result, keeping down the increase of
population far below the rate which the general prosperity
of the country and the universality of marriage would lead
us to expect. This is a matter in which the Government
is directly interested, since it is by the increase of the

DD2

404 : CELEBES. [cHap, xvnl.

population alone that there can be any large and per-
manent increase in the produce of coffee. The Missionaries
should take up the question, because, by inducing married
women to confine themselves to domestic duties, they will
decidedly promote a higher civilization, and directly in-
crease the health and happiness of the whole community.
The people are so docile, and so willing to adopt the
manners and customs of Europeans, that the change might
be easily effected, by merely showing them that it was a
question of morality and civilization, and an essential
step in their progress towards an equality with their white
rulers.

After a fortnight’s stay at Rurtikan, I left that pretty
and interesting village in search of a locality and climate
more productive of birds and insects. I passed the evening
with the Controlleur of Tondano, and the next morning at
nine, left in a small boat for the head of the lake, a dis-
tance of about ten miles. The lower end of the lake is
bordered by swamps and marshes of considerable extent,
but a little further on the hills come down to the water's
edge and give it very much the appearance of a great
river, the width being about two miles. At the upper end
is the village of Kakas, where I dined with the head man
in a good house like those I have already described; and
then went on to Langdéwan, four miles distant over a level

plain. This was the place where I had been recommended

CHAP. XVII.] HOT SPRINGS. 405

to stay, and I accordingly unpacked my baggage and made
myself comfortable in the large house devoted to visitors.
I obtained a man to shoot for me, and another to accom-
pany me the next day to the forest, where I was in hopes
of finding a good collecting ground.

In the morning after breakfast I started off, but found
I had four miles to walk over a wearisome straight road
through coffee plantations before I could get to the forest,
and as soon as I did so it came on to rain heavily, and
did not cease till night. This distance to walk every day
was too far for any profitable work, especially when the
weather was so uncertain. I therefore decided at once
that I must go further on, till I found some place close
to or in a forest country. In the afternoon my friend
Mr. Bensneider arrived, together with the Controlleur of
the next district, called Belang, from whom I learnt that
six miles further on there was a village called Panghu,
which had been recently formed and had a good deal of
forest close to it; and he promised me the use of a small
house if I liked to go there.

The next morning I went to see the hot-springs and
mud volcanoes, for which this place is celebrated. A
picturesque path among plantations and ravines, brought
us to a beautiful circular basin about forty feet diameter,
bordered by a calcareous ledge, so uniform and truly
curved that it looked like a work of art. It was filled

406 CELEBES. [CHAP. XvIT,

with clear water very near the boiling point, and emitting
clouds of steam with a strong sulphureous odour. It
overflows at one point and forms a little stream of hot
water, which at a hundred yards’ distance is still too
hot to hold the hand in. A little further on, in a piece
of rough wood, were two other springs not so regular
in outline, but appearing to be much hotter, as they were
in a continual state of active ebullition. At intervals
of a few minutes a great escape of steam or gas took
place, throwing up a column of water three or four feet
high.

We then went to the mud-springs, which are about a
mile off, and are still more curious. On a sloping tract of
ground in a slight hollow is a small lake of liquid mud, in
patches of blue, red, or white, and in many places boiling
and bubbling most furiously, All around on the indu-
rated clay, are small wells and craters full of boiling mud.
These seem to be forming continually, a small hole appear-
ing first, which emits jets of steam and boiling mud, which
on hardening, forms a little cone with a crater in the
middle. The ground for some distance is very unsafe, as it
is evidently liquid at a small depth, and bends with pres-
sure like thin ice. At one of the smaller marginal jets
which I managed to approach, I held my hand to see if it
was really as hot as it looked, when a little drop of mud

that spurted on to my finger scalded like boiling water.

CHAP. XVII. ] MUD VOLCANOES. 407

A short distance off there was a flat bare surface of rock,
as smooth and hot as an oven floor, which was evidently
an old mud-pool dried up and hardened. For hundreds of
yards round where there were banks of reddish and white
clay used for whitewash, it was still so hot close to the
surface that the hand could hardly bear to be held in
cracks a few inches deep, and from which arose a strong
sulphureous vapour. I was informed that some years
back a French gentleman who visited these springs ven-
tured too near the liquid mud, when the crust gave way
and he was engulfed in the horrible caldron.

This evidence of intense heat so near the surface over
a large tract of country, was very impressive, and I could
hardly divest myself of the notion that some terrible
catastrophe might. at any moment devastate the country.
Yet it is probable that all these apertures are really
safety-valves, and that the inequalities of the resistance
of various parts of the earth’s crust, will always prevent
such an accumulation of force as would be required to
upheave and overwhelm any extensive area. About seven
miles west of this is a volcano which was in eruption
about thirty years before my visit, presenting a mag-
nificent appearance and covering the surrounding country
with showers of ashes. The plains around the lake formed
by the intermingling and decomposition of volcanic pro-

ducts are of amazing fertility, and with a little manage-

408 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVII.

ment in the rotation of crops might be kept in continual
cultivation. -Rice is now grown on them for three or
four years in succession, when they are left fallow for
the same period, after which rice or maize can be again
grown. Good rice produces thirty-fold, and coffee trees
continue bearing abundantly for ten or fifteen years, with-
out any manure and with scarcely any cultivation.

I was delayed a day by incessant rain, and then pro-
ceeded to Panghu, which I reached just before the daily
rain began at 11 a.m. After leaving the summit level of
the lake basin, the road is carried along the slope of a fine
forest ravine. The descent is a long one, so that I estimated
the village to be not more than 1,500 feet above the sea, yet
I found the morning temperature often 69°, the same as
at Tondano at least 600 or 700 feet higher. I was pleased
with the appearance of the place, which had a good deal
of forest and wild country around it; and found prepared
for me a little house consisting only of a verandah and a
back room. This was only intended for visitors to rest in,
or to pass a night, but it suited me very well. I was so
unfortunate, however, as to lose both my hunters just at
this time. One had been left at Tonddno with fever
and diarrhcea, and the other was attacked at Langéwan
with inflammation of the chest, and as his case looked
rather bad I had him sent back to Menado. The people

here were all so busy with their rice-harvest, which it was

CHAP. XVII. | BIRDS AND INSECTS. 409

important for them to finish owing to the early rains, that
I could get no one to shoot for me.

During the three weeks that I stayed at Panghu it
rained nearly every day, either in the afternoon only, or
all day long; but there were generally a few hours’ sun-
shine in the morning, and I took advantage of these to
explore the roads and paths, the rocks and ravines, in
search of insects. These were not very abundant, yet I
saw enough to convince me that the locality was a goud
one, had I been there at the beginning instead of at the
end of the dry season. The natives brought me daily a
few insects obtained at the Sagueir palms, including some
fine Cetonias and stag-beetles. Two little boys were very
expert with the blowpipe, and brought me a good many
small birds, which they shot with pellets of clay. Among
these was a pretty little flower-pecker of a new species
(Prionochilus aureolimbatus), and several of the loveliest
honeysuckers I had yet seen. My general collection of
birds was, however, almost at a standstill; for though I at
length obtained a man to shoot for me, he was not good
for much, and seldom brought me more than one bird a
‘day. The best thing he shot was the large and rare fruit-
pigeon peculiar to Northern Celebes (Carpophaga forsteni),
which I had long been seeking after.

I was myself very successful in one beautiful group

of insects, the tiger-beetles, which seem more abundant

410 CELEBES. [CHAP, XVII.

and varied here than anywhere else in the Archipelago.
I first met with them on a cutting in the road, where
a hard clayey bank was partially overgrown with mosses
and small ferns. Here, I found running about, a small
olive-green species which never took flight; and more
rarely a fine purplish black wingless insect, which was
always found motionless in crevices, and was therefore
probably nocturnal. It appeared to me to form a new
genus. About the roads in the forest, I found the large
and handsome Cicindela heros, which I had before obtained
sparingly at Macassar; but it was in the mountain torrent
of the ravine itself that I got my finest things. On dead
trunks overhanging the water and on the banks and foliage,
I obtained three very pretty species of Cicindela, quite
distinct in size, form, and colour, but having an almost
identical pattern of pale spots. I also found a single
specimen of a most curious species with very long antenne.
But my finest discovery here was the Cicindela gloriosa,
which I found on mossy stones just rising above the water.
After obtaining my first specimen of this elegant insect, I
used to walk up the stream, watching carefully every
moss-covered rock and stone. It was rather shy, and
would often lead me a long chase from stone to stone,
becoming invisible every time it settled on the damp
moss, owing to its rich velvety green colour. On some

days I could only catch a few glimpses of it, on others I

CHAP, XVI1.] NATIVES OF MINAHASA. All

got a single specimen, and on a few occasions two, but
never without a more or less active pursuit. This and
several other species I never saw but in this one ravine.
Among the people here I saw specimens of several types,
which, with the peculiarities of the languages, gives me
some notion of their probable origin. A striking illustra-
tion of the low state of civilization of these people till
quite recently, is to be found in the great diversity of their
languages. Villages three or four miles apart have sepa-
rate dialects, and each group of three or four such villages
has a distinct language quite unintelligible to all the rest ;
so that, till the recent introduction of Malay by the Mis-
sionaries, there must have been a bar to all free communi-
cation. These languages offer many peculiarities. They
contain a Celebes-Malay element and a Papuan element,
along with some radical peculiarities found also in the
languages of the Siau and Sanguir islands further north,
and therefore probably derived from the Philippine Islands.
Physical characters correspond. There are some of the less
civilized tribes which have semi-Papuan features and hair,
while in some villages the true Celebes or Bugis phy-
‘siognomy prevails. The plateau of Tondadno is chiefly
inhabited by people nearly as white as the Chinese, and
with very pleasing semi-European features. The people
of Siau and Sanguir much resemble these, and I believe

them to be perhaps immigrants from some of the islands

412 CELEBES. [cHAP, XVI.

of North Polynesia. The Papuan type will represent the
remnant of the aborigines, while those of the Bugis
character show the extension northward of the superior
Malay races.

As I was wasting valuable time at Panghu owing to the
bad weather and the illness of my hunters, I returned to
Menado after a stay of three weeks. Here I had a little
touch of fever, and what with drying and packing away
my collections and getting fresh servants, it was a fortnight
before I was again ready to start. I now went eastward
over an undulating country skirting the great volcano of
Kabat, to a village called Lempias, situated close to the
extensive forest that covers the lower slopes of that moun-
tain. My baggage was carried from village to village by
relays of men, and as each change involved some delay, I
did not reach my destination (a distance of eighteen miles)
till sunset. I was wet through, and had to wait for an
hour in an uncomfortable state till the first instalment of
my baggage arrived, which luckily contained my clothes,
while the rest did not come in till midnight.

This being the district inhabited by that singular animal
the Babirusa (Hog-deer) I inquired about skulls, and soon
obtained several in tolerable condition, as well as a fine one
of the rare and curious “ Sapi-utan ” (Anoa depressicornis).
Of this animal I had seen two living specimens at Menado,

and was surprised at their great resemblance to small

CHAP. XVII.] LEMPIAS AND LICOUPANG. 413

cattle, or still more to the Eland of South Africa. Their
Malay name signifies “forest ox,” and they differ from very
sinall high-bred oxen principally by the low-hanging dew-
lap, and straight pointed horns which slope back over the
neck. I did not find the forest here so rich in insects as
I had expected, and my hunters got me very few birds,
but what they did obtain were very interesting. Among
these were the rare forest Kingfisher (Cittura cyanotis),
a small new species of Megapodius, and one specimen of
the large and interesting Maleo (Megacephalon rubripes),
to obtain which was one of my chief reasons for visiting
this district. Getting no more, however, after ten days’
search I removed to Licoupang, at the extremity of the
peninsula, a place celebrated for these birds, as well as for
the Babiruisa and Sapi-utan. I found here Mr. Goldmann,
the eldest son of the Governor of the Moluccas, who was
superintending the establishment of some Government salt-
works. This was a better locality, and I obtained some
fine butterflies and very good birds, among which was
one more specimen of the rare ground dove (Phlegeenas
tristigmata), which I had first obtained near the Maros
waterfall in South Celebes.

Hearing what I was particularly in search of, Mr.
Goldmann kindly offered to make a hunting-party to the
place where the “ Maleos” are most abundant, a remote

and uninhabited sea-beach about twenty miles distant.

414 CELEBES. [cHAP, XVII.

The climate here was quite different to that on the
mountains, not a drop of rain having fallen for four
months ; so I made arrangements to stay on the beach a
week, in order to secure a good number of specimens.
We went partly by boat and partly through the forest,
accompanied by the Major or head-man of Licoupang, with
a dozen natives and about twenty dogs. On the way they
caught a young Sapi-utan and five wild pigs. Of the
former I preserved the head. This animal is entirely
confined to the remote mountain forests of Celebes and
one or two adjacent islands which form part of the same
group. In the adults the head is black, with a white mark
over each eye, one on each cheek and another on the
throat. The horns are very smooth and sharp when
young, but become thicker and ridged at the bottom with
age. Most naturalists consider this curious animal to be
a small ox, but from the character of the horns, the fine
coat of hair and the descending dewlap, it seemed closely
to approach the antelopes.

Arrived at our destination we built a hut and prepared
for a stay of some days, I to shoot and skin “Maleos,”
Mr. Goldmann and the Major to hunt wild pigs, Babirusa,
and Sapi-utan. The place is situated in the large bay
between the islands of Limbé and Banca, and consists of a
steep beach more than a mile in length, of deep loose and

coarse black volcanic sand or rather gravel, very fatiguing

—

"CHAP. XVUL] MALEOS’ BREEDING PLACE. A15

to walk over. It is bounded at each extremity by a small
river, with hilly ground beyond; while the forest behind
the beach itself is tolerably level and its growth stunted.
We have here probably an ancient lava stream from the
Klabat voleano, which has flowed down a valley into the
sea, and the decomposition of which has formed the loose
black sand. In confirmation of this view it may be men-
tioned, that the beaches beyond the small rivers in both
directions are of white sand.

It is in this loose hot black sand, that those singular
birds the “ Maleos” deposit their eggs. In the months of
August and September, when there is little or no rain,
they come down in pairs from the interior to this or to one
or two other favourite spots, and scratch holes three or
four feet deep, just above high-water mark, where the
female deposits a single large egg, which she covers over
with about a foot of sand, and then returns to the forest.
At the end of ten or twelve days she comes again to the
same spot to lay another egg, and each female bird is sup-
posed to lay six or eight eggs during the season. The male
assists the female in making the hole, coming down and
returning with her. The appearance of the bird when
Walking on the beach is very handsome. The clossy
~ black and rosy white of the plumage, the helmeted head
and elevated tail, like that of the common fowl, give a

striking character, which their stately and somewhat sedate

416 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVII.

walk renders still more remarkable. There is hardly any
difference between the sexes, except that the casque or
bonnet at the back of the head and the tubercles at the
nostrils are a little larger, and the beautiful rosy salmon
colour a little deeper in the male bird, but the difference
is so slight that it is not always possible to tell a male
from a female without dissection. They run quickly, but
when shot at or suddenly disturbed take wing with a
heavy noisy flight to some neighbouring tree, where they
settle on a low branch; and they probably roost at night
in a similar situation. Many birds lay in the same hole,
for a dozen eggs are often found together; and these are so
large that it is not possible for the body of the bird to
contain more than one fully-developed egg at the same
time. In all the female birds which I shot, none of the
eggs besides the one large one exceeded the size of peas,
and there were only eight or nine of these, which is pro-
bably the extreme number a bird can lay in one season.
Every year the natives come for fifty miles round to
obtain these eggs, which are esteemed a great delicacy,
and when quite fresh are indeed delicious. They are
richer than hens’ eggs and of a finer flavour, and each one
completely fills an ordinary teacup, and forms with bread
or rice a very good meal. The colour of the shell is a pale
brick red, or very rarely pure white. They are elongate
and very slightly smaller at one end, from four to four

CHAP. XvII.] MALEOS’ EGGS. A417

and a half inches long by two and a quarter or two and
a half wide.

After the eggs are deposited in the sand they are no
further cared for by the mother. The young birds on
breaking the shell, work their way up through the sand
and run off at once to the forest; and I was assured by
Mr. Duivenboden of Ternate, that they can fly the very
day they are hatched. He had taken some eggs on board
his schooner which hatched during the night, and in the
morning the little birds flew readily across the cabin.
Considering the great distances the birds come to deposit
the eggs in a proper situation (often ten or fifteen miles) it
seems extraordinary that they should take no further care
of them. It is, however, quite certain that they neither do
nor can watch them. The eggs being deposited by a
number of hens in succession in the same hole, would
render it impossible for each to distinguish its own; and
the food necessary for such large birds (consisting entirely
of fallen fruits) can only be obtained by roaming over an
extensive district, so that if the numbers of birds which
come down to this single beach in the breeding season,
amounting to many hundreds, were obliged to remain in
the vicinity, many would perish of hunger.

In the structure of the feet of this bird, we may detect
a cause for its departing from the habits of its nearest
allies, the Megapodii and Talegalli, which heap up earth,

VoL. I. EE

418 CELEBES. [CHAP. XVII.

leaves, stones, and sticks into a huge mound, in which they
bury their eggs. The feet of the Maleo are not nearly so
large or strong in proportion as in these birds, while its
claws are short and straight instead of being long and
much curved. The toes are, however, strongly webbed at
the base, forming a broad powerful foot, which, with the
rather long leg, is well adapted to scratch away the loose
sand (which flies up in a perfect shower when the birds
are at work), but which could not without much labour
accumulate the heaps of miscellaneous rubbish, which
the large grasping feet of the Megapodius bring together
with ease.

We may also, I think, see in the peculiar organization of
the entire family of the Megapodide or Brush Turkeys, a
reason why they depart so widely from the usual habits of
the Class of birds. Each egg being so large as entirely to
fill up the abdominal cavity and with difficulty pass the
walls of the pelvis, a considerable interval is required
before the successive eggs can be matured (the natives say
about thirteen days). Each bird lays six or eight eggs or
even more each season, so that between the first and last
there may be an interval of two or three months. Now, if
these eggs were hatched in the ordinary way, either the
parents must keep sitting continually for this long period,
or if they only began to sit after the last egg was deposited,

the first would be exposed to injury by the climate, or to

CHAP. Xv11.] HABITS AND INSTINCTS. A19

destruction by the large lizards, snakes, or other animals
which abound in the district; because such large birds
must roam about a good deal in search of food. Here then
we seem to have a case, in which the habits of a bird may
be directly traced to its exceptional organization ; for it
will hardly be maintained that this abnormal structure
and peculiar food were given to the Mezapodide, in order
that they might not exhibit that parental affection, or
possess those domestic instincts so general in the Class
of birds, and which so much excite our admiration.

It has generally been the custom of writers on Natural
History, to take the habits and instincts of animals as fixed
points, and to consider their structure and organization as
specially adapted to be in accordance with these. This
assumption is however an arbitrary one, and has the bad
effect of stifling inquiry into the nature and causes of
“instincts and habits,” treating them as directly due to a
“first cause,’ and therefore incomprehensible to us. I
believe that a careful consideration of the structure of a
species, and of the peculiar physical and organic conditions
by which it is surrounded, or has been surrounded in past
ages, will often, as in this case, throw much light on the
origin of its habits and instincts. These again, combined
with changes in external conditions, react upon structure,
and by means of “ variation” and “ natural selection” both
are kept in harmony.

EE2

420 CELEBES. [cHap. xvi. |

My friends remained three days, and got plenty of wild
pigs and two Andas, but the latter were much injured by
the dogs, and I could only preserve the heads. A grand
hunt which we attempted on the third day failed, owing to
bad management in driving in the game, and we waited
for five hours perched on platforms in trees without getting
a shot, although we had been assured that pigs, Babirusas,
and Andas would rush past us in dozens. I myself, with
two men, stayed three days longer to get more specimens of
the Maleos, and succeeded in preserving twenty-six very
fine ones; the flesh and eggs of which supplied us with
abundance of good food.

The Major sent a boat, as he had promised, to take home
my baggage, while I walked through the forest with my
two boys and a guide, about fourteen miles. For the
first half of the distance there was no path, and we had
often to cut our way through tangled rattans or thickets of
bamboo. In some of our turnings to find the most prac-
ticable route I expressed my fear that we were losing our
way, as the sun being vertical I could see no possible clue
to the right direction. My conductors, however, laughed
at the idea, which they seemed to consider quite ludicrous ;
and sure enough, about half way, we suddenly encountered
a little hut where people from Licoupang came to hunt
and smoke wild pigs. My guide told me he had never

before traversed the forest between these two points ; and

CHAP. XVII.] RATTAN PALMS. 491

this is what is considered by some travellers as one of the
savage “instincts,” whereas it is merely the result of wide
general knowledge. The man knew the topography of
the whole district; the slope of the land, the direction
of the streams, the belts of bamboo or rattan, and many
other indications of locality and direction ; and he was thus
enabled to hit straight upon the hut, in the vicinity of
which he had often hunted. In a forest of which he knew
nothing, he would be quite as much at a loss as a European.
Thus it is, I am convinced, with all the wonderful accounts
of Indians finding their way through trackless forests to
definite points. They may never have passed straight
between the two particular points before, but they are well
acquainted with the vicinity of both, and have such a
general knowledge of the whole country, its water system,
its soil and its vegetation, that as they approach the point
they are to reach, many easily-recognised indications
enable them to hit upon it with certainty.

The chief feature of this forest was the abundance of
rattan palins, hanging from the trees, and turning and
twisting about on the ground, often in imextricable con-
fusion. One wonders at first how they can get into such
queer shapes; but it is evidently caused by the decay and
fall of the trees up which they have first climbed, after
which they grow along the ground till they meet with

another trunk up which to ascend. A tangled mass of

422 CELEBLS. [CHAP. XVII.

twisted living rattan, is therefore a sign that at some former
period a large tree has fallen there, though there may be not
the slightest vestige of it left. The rattan seems to have
unlimited powers of growth, and a single plant may mount
up several trees in succession, and thus reach the enormous
length they are said sometimes to attain. They much
improve the appearance of a forest as seen from the
coast ; for they vary the otherwise monotonous tree-tops
with feathery crowns of leaves rising clear above them,
aud each terminated by an erect leafy spike like a light-
ning-conductor.

The other most interesting object in the forest was a
beautiful palm, whose perfectly smooth and cylindrical
stem rises erect to more than a hundred feet high, with
a thickness of only eight or ten inches; while the fan-
shaped leaves which compose its crown, are almost com-
plete circles of six or eight feet diameter, borne aloft on
long and slender petioles, and beautifully toothed round
the edge by the extremities of the leaflets, which are
separated only for a few inches from the circumference. It
is probably the Livistona rotundifolia of botanists, and is
the most complete and beautiful fan-leaf I have ever seen,
serving admirably for folding into water-buckets and
impromptu baskets, as well as for thatching and other
purposes. 2

A few days afterwards I returned to Menado on horse-

CHAP. XVII. | DEPARTURE. 423

back, sending my baggage round by sea; and had just
time to pack up all my collections to go by the next
mail steamer to Amboyna. I will now devote a few
pages to an account of the chief peculiarities of the
Zoology of Celebes, and its relation to that of the sur-

rounding countries.

CHAPTER XVIII.
NATURAL HISTORY OF CELEBES.

YHE position of Celebes is the most central in the
Archipelago. Immediately to the north are the Philip-
pine islands; on the west is Borneo; on the east are the
Molucca islands; and on the south is the Timor group:
and it is on all sides so connected with these islands by
its own satellites, by small islets, and by coral reefs, that
neither by inspection on the map nor by actual observa-
tion around its coast, is it possible to determine accurately
which should be grouped with it, and which with the
surrounding districts. Such being the case, we should
naturally expect to find, that the productions of this central
island in some degree represented the richness and variety
of the whole Archipelago, while we should not expect
much individuality in a country, so situated, that it would
seem as if it were pre-eminently fitted to receive stragglers
and immigrants from all around.
As so often happens in nature, however, the fact turns

out to be just the reverse of what we should have ex-

ey oe

cHap. xvu1.] NATURAL HISTORY OF CELEBES. 495

pected; and an examination of its animal productions,
shows Celebes to be at once the poorest in the number of
its species, and the most isolated in the character of its
productions, of all the great islands in the Archipelago.
With its attendant islets it spreads over an extent of sea
hardly inferior in length and breadth to that occupied by
Borneo, while its actual land area is nearly double that
of Java; yet its Mammalia and terrestrial birds number
scarcely more than half the species found in the last-
named island. Its position is such that it could receiye
- immigrants from every side more readily than Java, yet
in proportion to the species which inhabit it far fewer
seem derived from other islands, while far more are
altogether peculiar to it ; and a considerable number of its
animal forms are so remarkable, as to find no close allies in
any other part of the world. I now propose to examine
the best known groups of Celebesian animals in some
detail, to study their relations to those of other islands,
and to call attention to the many points of interest which
they suggest.

We know far more of the birds of Celebes than we do
of any other group of animals. No less than 191 species
have been discovered, and though no doubt many more
wading and swimming birds have to be added, yet the list
of land birds, 144 in number, and which for our present

purpose are much the most important, must be very nearly

426 NATURAL HISTORY [CHAP. XVIII.

complete. I myself assiduously collected birds in Celebes
for nearly ten months, and my assistant, Mr. Allen, spent
two months in the Sula islands. The Dutch naturalist
Forsten spent two years in Northern Celebes (twenty
years before my visit), and collections of birds had also
been sent to Holland from Macassar. The French ship
of discovery, L’ Astrolabe, also touched at Menado and
procured collections. Since my return home, the Dutch
naturalists Rosenberg and Bernstein have made extensive
collections both in North Celebes and in the Sula islands ;
yet all their researches combined, have only added eight
species of land birds to those forming part of my own
collection—a fact which renders it almost certain that
there are very few more to discover.

Besides Salayer and Boutong on the south, with Peling
and Bungay on the east, the three islands of the Sula
(or Zula) Archipelago also belong zoologically to Celebes,
although their position is such, that it would seem more
natural to group them with the Moluccas. About 48 land
birds are now known from the Sula group, and if we reject
from these, five species which have a wide range over the
Archipelago, the remainder are much more characteristic
of Celebes than of the Moluccas. Thirty-one species are
identical with those of the former island, and four are
representatives of Celebes forms, while only eleven are

Moluccan species, and two more representatives.

CHAP. XVIII. ] OF CELEBES. 42D7

But although the Sula islands belong to Celebes, they are
so close to Bouru and the southern islands of the Gilolo
group, that several purely Moluccan forms have migrated
there, which are quite unknown to the island of Celebes
itself; the whole thirteen Molucean species being in this
category, thus adding to the productions of Celebes a
foreign element which does not really belong to it. In
studying the peculiarities of the Celebesian fauna, it will
therefore be well to consider only the productions of the
main island.

The number of land birds in the island of Celebes is
128, and from these we may, as before, strike out a small
number of species which roam over the whole Archipelago
(often from India to the Pacific), and which therefore only
serve to disguise the peculiarities of individual islands.
These are 20 in number, and leave 108 species which
we may consider as more especially characteristic of the
island. On accurately comparing these with the birds of
all the surrounding countries, we find that only nine extend
into the islands westward, and nineteen into the islands
eastward, while no less than 80 are entirely confined to
the Celebesian fauna—a degree of individuality, which,
considering the situation of the island, is hardly to be
equalled in any other part of the world. If we still more
closely examine these 80 species, we shall be struck by

the many peculiarities of structure they present, and by

AQ8 NATURAL HISTORY [cHaP. XVII.

the curious affinities with distant parts of the world which
many of them seem to indicate. These points are of so
much interest and importance that it will be necessary to
pass in review all those species which are peculiar to the
island, and to call attention to whatever is most worthy of
remark.

Six species of the Hawk tribe are peculiar to Celebes ;
three of these are very distinct from allied birds which
range over all India to Java and Borneo, and which thus
seem to be suddenly changed on entering Celebes. Another,
(Accipiter trinotatus) is a beautiful hawk, with elegant
rows of large round white spots on the tail, rendering it
very conspicuous and quite different from any other known
bird of the family. Three owls are also peculiar; and one,
a barn owl (Strix rosenbergii), is very much larger and
stronger than its ally Strix javanica, which ranges from
india through all the islands as far as Lombock.

Of the ten Parrots found in Celebes, eight are peculiar.
Among them are two species of the singular raquet-tailed
parrots forming the genus Prioniturus, and which are
characterised by possessing two long spoon-shaped feathers
in the tail. Two allied species are found in the adjacent
island of Mindanao, one of the Philippines, and this form
of tail is found in no other parrots in the whole world.
A small species of Lorikeet (Trichoglossus flavoviridis)

seems to have its nearest ally in Australia.

CHAP. XVIII. ] OF CELEBES. 429

The three Woodpeckers which inhabit the island are all
peculiar, and are allied to species found in Java and
Borneo, although very different from them all.

Among the three peculiar Cuckoos two are very re-
markable. Phcenicophaus callirhynchus is the largest and
handsomest species of its genus, and is distinguished by
the three colours of its beak, bright yellow, red, and black.
Eudynamis melanorynchus differs from all its allies in
having a jet-black bill, whereas the other species of the
genus always have it green, yellow, or reddish.

The Celebes Roller (Coracias temmincki) is an interest-
ing example of one species of a genus being cut off from the
rest. There are species of Coracias in Europe, Asia, and
Africa, but none in the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java, or
Borneo. The present species seems therefore quite out of
place ; and what is still more curious is the fact, that it is
not at all like any of the Asiatic species, but seems more
to resemble those of Africa.

In the next family, the Bee-eaters, is another equally
isolated bird, Meropogon forsteni, which combines the
characters of African and Indian Bee-eaters, and whose
only near ally, Meropogon breweri, was discovered by
* M. Du Chaillu in West Africa !

The two Celebes Hornbills have no close allies in those
which abound in the surrounding countries. The only

Thrush, Geocichla erythronota, is most nearly allied to a

430 NATURAL HISTORY [CHAP. XVIIT.

species peculiar to Timor. Two of the Flycatchers are
closely allied to Indian species which are not found in the
Malay islands. Two genera somewhat allied to the Mag-
pies (Streptocitta and Charitornis), but whose affinities are
so doubtful that Professor Schlegel places them among
the Starlings, are entirely confined to Celebes. They are
beautiful long-tailed birds, with black and white plumage,
and with the feathers of the head somewhat rigid and
scale-like.

Doubtfully allied to the Starlings are two other very
isolated and beautiful birds. One, Enodes erythrophrys,
has ashy and yellow plumage, but is ornamented with
broad stripes of orange-red above the eyes. The other,
Basilornis celebensis, is a blue-black bird with a white
patch on each side of the breast, and the head ornamented
with a beautiful compressed scaly crest of feathers, resem-
bling in form that of the well-known Cock-of-the-rock of
South America. The only ally to this bird is found in
Ceram, and has the feathers of the crest elongated up-
wards into quite a different form.

A still more curious bird is the Scissirostrum pagei,
which although it is at present classed in the Starling
family, differs from all other species in the form of the
bill and nostrils, and seems most nearly allied in its
general structure to the Ox-peckers (Buphaga) of tropical

Africa, next to which the celebrated ornithologist Prince

|
|
|

CHAP. XVIII. | OF CELEBES. 431

Bonaparte finally placed it. It is almost entirely of a slaty
colour, with yellow bill and feet, but the feathers of the
Ttump and upper tail-coverts each terminate in a rigid
glossy pencil or tuft of a vivid crimson. These pretty
uttle birds take the place of the metallic-green starlings of
the genus Calornis, which are found. in most other islands
of the Archipelago, but which are absent from Celebes.
They go in flocks, feeding upon grain and fruits, often
frequenting dead trees, in holes of which they build their
nests; and they cling to the trunks as easily as wood-
peckers or creepers.

Out of eighteen Pigeons found in Celebes eleven are
peculiar to it. Two of them, Ptilonopus gularis and

Turaczna menadensis, have their nearest allies in Timor.
Two others, Carpophaga forsteni and Phlegenas tristig-
mata, most resemble Philippine island species ; and Car-
pophaga radiata belongs to a New Guinea group. Lastly,
in the Gallinaceous tribe, the curious helmeted Maleo
(Megacephalon rubripes) is quite isolated, having its
nearest (but still distant) allies in the Brush-turkeys of
Australia and New Guinea.

Judging, therefore, by the opinions of the eminent
naturalists who have described and classified its birds, we
find that many of the species have no near allies whatever
in the countries which surround Celebes, but are either

quite isolated, or indicate relations with such distant

432 NATURAL HISTORY [CHAP. XVIII.

regions as New Guinea, Australia, India, or Africa. Other
cases of similar remote affinities between the productions
of distant countries no doubt exist, but in no spot upon
the globe that I am yet acquainted with, do so many of
them occur together, or do they form so decided a feature
in the natural history of the country.

The Mammalia of Celebes are very few in number, con-
sisting of fourteen terrestrial species and seven bats. Of
the former no less than eleven are peculiar, including two
which there is reason to believe may have been recently
carried into other islands by man. ‘Three species which
have a tolerably wide range in the Archipelago, are—
1, The curious Lemur, Tarsius spectrum, which is found in
all the islands as far westward as Malacca; 2, the common
Malay Civet, Viverra tangalunga, which has a still wider
range; and 3, a Deer, which seems to be the same as the
Rusa hippelaphus of Java, and was probably introduced
by man at an early period.

The more characteristic species are as follow :—

Cynopithecus nigrescens, a curious baboon-like monkey
if not a true baboon, which abounds all over Celebes, and is
found nowhere else but in the one small island of Batchian,
into which it has probably been introduced accidentally.
An allied species is found in the Philippines, but in no
other island of the Archipelago is there anything resem-

bling them. These creatures are about the size of a

-

CHAP. XVIII. | OF CELEB ES. 43 3

spaniel, of a jet-black colour, and have the projecting
dog-like muzzle and overhanging brows of the baboons.
They have large red callosities and a short fleshy tail,
searcely an inch long and hardly visible. They go in
large bands, living chiefly in the trees, but often descend-
ing on the ground and robbing gardens and orchards.

Anoa depressicornis, the Sapi-utan, or wild cow of the
Malays, is an animal which has been the cause of much
controversy, as to whether it should be classed as ox,
buffalo, or antelope. It is smaller than any other wild
cattle, and in many respects seems to approach some of
the ox-like antelopes of Africa. It is found only in the
mountains, and is said never to inhabit places where there
are deer. It is somewhat smaller than a small Highland
cow, and has long straight horns, which are ringed at the
base and slope backwards over the neck.

The wild pig seems to be of a species peculiar to the
island; but a much more curious animal of this family is
the Babirusa or Pig-deer, so named by the Malays from
its long and slender legs, and curved tusks resembling
horns. This extraordinary creature resembles a pig in
general appearance, but it does not dig with its snout, as
it feeds on fallen fruits. The tusks of the lower jaw are
very long and sharp, but the upper ones instead of grow-
ing downwards in the usual way are completely reversed,
growing upwards out of bony sockets through the skin on

VOL. I. Fr

434 NATURAL HISTORY [owar. xvi.

each side of the snout, curving backwards to near the
eyes, and in old animals often reaching eight or ten inches
in length. It is difficult to understand what can be the

use of these extraordinary horn-like teeth. Some of the

SKULL OF BABIRUSA.

old writers supposed that they served as hooks, by which
the creature could rest its head on a branch. But the way
in which they usually diverge just over and in front of

the eye has suggested the more probable idea, that they

CHAP. XVIII. ] OF CELEBES. 435

serve to guard these organs from thorns and spines, while
hunting for fallen fruits among the tangled thickets of
rattans and other spiny plants. Even this, however, is not
satisfactory, for the female, who must seek her food in the
same way, does not possess them. I should be inclined to
believe rather, that these tusks were once useful, and were
then worn down as fast as they grew; but that changed
conditions of life have rendered them unnecessary, and
they now develop into a monstrous form, just as the
incisors of the Beaver or Rabbit will go on growing, if the
opposite teeth do not wear them away. In old animals
they reach an enormous size, and are generally broken
off as if by fighting.

Here again we have a resemblance to the Wart-hogs
of Africa, whose upper canines grow outwards and curve
up so as to form a transition from the usual mode of
growth to that of the Babirusa. In other respects there
seems no affinity between these animals, and the Babirusa
stands completely isolated, having no resemblance to the
pigs of any other part of the world. It is found all over
Celebes and in the Sula islands, and also in Bouru, the
only spot beyond the Celebes group to which it extends ;
and which island also shows some affinity to the Sula
islands in its birds, indicating perhaps, a closer connexion
between them at some former period than now exists.

The other terrestrial mammals of Celebes are, five species
FF2

436 NATURAL HISTORY [CHAP. XVIII.

of squirrels, which are all distinct from those of Java and
Borneo, and mark the furthest eastward range of the genus
in the tropics; and two of Eastern opossums (Cuscus),
which are different from those of the Moluccas, and mark
the furthest westward extension of this genus and of the
Marsupial order. Thus we see that the Mammalia of
Celebes are no less individual and remarkable than the
birds, since three of the largest and most interesting
species have no near allies in surrounding countries,
but seem vaguely to indicate a relation to the African
continent.

Many groups of insects appear to be especially subject
to local influences, their forms and colours changing with
each change of conditions, or even with a change of locality
where the conditions seem almost identical. We should
therefore anticipate that the individuality manifested in
the higher animals would be still more prominent in these
creatures with less stable organisms. On the other hand,
however, we have to consider that the dispersion and
migration of insects is much more easily effected than —
that of mammals or even of birds. They are much more ~
likely to be carried away by violent winds; their eggs
may be carried on leaves either by storms of wind or by —
floating trees, and their larve and pup, often buried in ~
trunks of trees or enclosed in waterproof cocoons, may be ;

floated for days or weeks uninjured over the ocean. These

CHAP. XVIII] OF CELEBES. 437

facilities of distribution tend to assimilate the productions
of adjacent lands in two ways: first, by direct mutual
interchange of species; and secondly by repeated immi-
erations of fresh individuals of a species common to other
islands, which by intercrossing, tend to obliterate the
changes of form and colour, which differences of condi-
tions might otherwise produce. Bearing these facts in
mind, we shall find that the individuality of the insects
of Celebes is even greater than we have any reason to
expect.

For the purpose of insuring accuracy in comparisons
with other islands, I shall confine myself to those groups
which are best known, or which I have myself carefully
studied. Beginning with the Papilionide or Swallow-
tailed butterflies, Celebes possesses 24 species, of which the
large number of 18 are not found in any other island. If
we compare this with Borneo, which out of 29 species has
only two not found elsewhere, the difference is as striking
as anything can be. In the family of the Pieride, or white
butterflies, the difference is not quite so great, owing
perhaps to the more wandering habits of the group; but
it is still very remarkable. Out of 30 species inhabiting
Celebes, 19 are peculiar, while Java (from which more
species are known than from Sumatra or Borneo), out of
37 species has only 13 peculiar. The Danaide are large,

but weak-flying butterflies, which frequent forests and

438 NATURAL HISTORY [cHaP. XVIII.

gardens, and are plainly but often very richly coloured.
Of these my own collection contains 16 species from
Celebes and 15 from Borneo; but whereas no less than
14 are confined to the former island, only two are peculiar
to the latter. The Nymphalide are a very extensive
group, of generally strong-winged and very bright-coloured
butterflies, very abundant in the tropics, and represented
in our own country by our Fritillaries, our Vanessas, and
our Purple-emperor. Some months ago I drew up a list of
the Eastern species of this group, including all the new
ones discovered by myself, and arrived at the following

comparative results :—

species of Nymphatid, Species peowliarto | Pereentage
JAVabee esate HOLM el. (Oe a POES Nat ee ee
iIBorneors® SFist 2e ht ee SS OE ty. 5 ee eS
Celetiess. 7 5 fo 98 yes. ss nc, wie BOE» OA: Le

The Coleoptera are so extensive that few of the groups
have yet been carefully worked out. I will therefore refer
to one only, which I have myself recently studied—the
Cetoniade or Rose-chafers——a group of beetles which,
owing to their extreme beauty, have been much sought
after. From Java 37 species of these insects are known,
and from Celebes only 30; yet only 13, or 35 per cent., are
peculiar to the former island, and 19, or 63 per cent., to the
latter.

The result of these comparisons is, that although Ce-

lebes is a single large island with only a few smaller ones

CHAP. XVIII. ] OF CELEBES. 439

closely grouped around it, we must really consider it as
forming one of the great divisions of the Archipelago, equal
in rank and importance to the whole of the Moluccan or
Philippine groups, to the Papuan islands, or to the Indo-
Malay islands (Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay
peninsula). Taking those families of insects and birds
which are best known, the following table shows the com-

parison of Celebes with the other groups of islands :—

PAPILIONIDZ AND HAWKS, PARROTS, AND
PIERID, PIGEONS.
Per cent. of peculiar Per cent. of peculiar
Species. Species.
Imdo-Malay.region: ) .-)).9 OG) Wem oh ea a, «DE
Ehlippineeroup; < see OO! wou eto = | 4 fo
Celebesas® Pi mee hk ct te OO a AWEAD ct ten ce) LOO.
NOMEN oe 6 ae n UR oo 8 meee BG a
Biron OTOMptrs cake em | Lote ae ee wae,
apuanoroupy © 2. « Of oho a 6 aes) M4

These large and well-known families well represent the
general character of the zoology of Celebes; and they
show that this island is really one of the most isolated.
portions of the Archipelago, although situated in its very
centre.

But the insects of Celebes present us with other pheno-
mena more curious and more difficult to explain than their
striking individuality. The butterflies of that island are
in many cases characterised by a peculiarity of outline,

which distinguishes them at a glance from those of any

AAO NATURAL HISTORY [CHAP. XVIII.

other part of the world. It is most strongly manifested in
the Papilios and the Pieride, and consists in the fore-
wings being either strongly curved or abruptly bent near
the base, or in the extremity being elongated and often
somewhat hooked. Out of the 14 species of Papilio in
Celebes, 13 exhibit this peculiarity in a greater or less
degree, when compared with the most nearly allied species
of the surrounding islands. Ten species of Pieride have
the same character, and in four or five of the Nymphalide
it is also very distinctly marked. In almost every case
the species found in Celebes are much larger than those of
the islands westward, and at least equal to those of the
Moluccas, or even larger. The difference of form is how-
ever the most remarkable feature, as it is altogether a new
thing for a whole set of species in one country, to differ in
exactly the same way from the corresponding sets in all
the surrounding countries ; and it is so well marked, that
without looking at the details of colouring, most Celebes
Papilios and many Pieridz, can be at once distinguished
from those of other islands by their form alone.

The outside figure of each pair here given, shows the
exact size and form of the fore-wing in a butterfly of
Celebes, while the inner one represents the most closely
allied species from one of the adjacent islands. Figure 1
shows the strongly curved margin of the Celebes species,

Papilio gigon, compared with the much straighter margin

CHAP. XVIII. | OF CELEBES. 44]

of Papilio demolion from Singapore and Java. Figure 2
shows the abrupt bend over the base of the wing in

Papilio miletus of Celebes compared with the slight curva-

ture in the common Papilio sarpedon, which has almost
exactly the same form from India to New Guinea and

Australia. Figure 3 shows the elongated wing of Tachyris

442 NATURAL HISTORY [cHar. xv1II.

zarinda, a native of Celebes, compared with the much
shorter wing of Tachyris nero, a very closely allied species
found in all the western islands. The difference of form
is in each case sufficiently obvious, but when the insects
themselves are compared it is much more striking than
in these partial outlines.

From the analogy of birds, we should suppose that the
pointed wing gave increased rapidity of flight, since it is a
character of terns, swallows, falcons, and of the swift-
flying pigeons. A short and rounded wing, on the other
hand, always accompanies a more feeble or more laborious
flight, and one much less under command. We might
suppose, therefore, that the butterflies which possess this
peculiar form were better able to escape pursuit. But
there seems no unusual abundance of insectivorous birds to
render this necessary ; and as we cannot believe that such
a curious peculiarity is without meaning, it seems probable
that it is the result of a former condition of things, when
the island possessed a much richer fauna, the relics of
which we see in the isolated birds and Mammalia now
inhabiting it; and when the abundance of insectivorous
creatures, rendered some unusual means of escape a
necessity for the large-winged and showy butterflies. It
is some confirmation of this view, that neither the very
small nor the very obscurely coloured groups of butterflies

have elongated wings, nor is any modification perceptible

CHAP. XVIII. | OF CELEBES. 443

in those strong-winged groups which already possess great
strength and rapidity of flight. These were already suffi-
ciently protected from their enemies, and did not require
increased power of escaping from them. It is not at all
clear, what effect the peculiar curvature of the wings has,
in modifying flight.

Another curious feature in the zoology of Celebes is
also worthy of attention. I allude to the absence of
several groups which are found on both sides of it, in the
Indo-Malay islands as well as in the Moluccas; and which
thus seem to be unable, from some unknown cause, to
obtain a footing in the intervening island. In Birds we
have the two families of Podargide and Laniade, which
range over the whole Archipelago and into Australia, and
which yet have no representative in Celebes. The genera
Ceyx among Kingfishers, Criniger among Thrushes, Rhipi-
dura among Flycatchers, Calornis among Starlings, and
Erythrura among Finches, are all found in the Moluccas
as well as in Borneo and Java,—but not a single species
belonging to any one of them is found in Celebes. Among
insects, the large genus of Rose-chafers, Lomaptera, is found
in every country and island between India and New Guinea,
except Celebes. This unexpected absence of many groups,
from one limited district in the very centre of their area of
distribution, is a phenomenon not altogether unique, but,

I believe, nowhere so well marked as in this case; and it

444 NATURAL HISTORY [CHAP. XVIII.

certainly adds considerably to the strange character of
this remarkable island.

The anomalies and eccentricities in the natural history
of Celebes which I have endeavoured to sketch in this
chapter, all point to an origin in a remote antiquity. The
history of extinct animals teaches us, that their distribu-
tion in time and in space are strikingly similar. The rule
is, that just as the productions of adjacent areas usually
resemble each other closely, so do the productions of
successive periods in the same area; and as the produc-
tions of remote areas generally differ widely, so do the
productions of the same area at remote epochs. We are
therefore led irresistibly to the conclusion, that change of
species, still more of generic and of family form, is a
matter of time. But time may have led to a change of
species in one country, while in another the forms have
been more permanent, or the change may have gone on at
an equal rate but in a different manner in both. In
either case the amount of individuality in the productions
of a district, will be to some extent a measure of the time
that district has been isolated from those that surround it.
Judged by this standard, Celebes must be one of the oldest
parts of the Archipelago. It probably dates from a period
not only anterior to that when Borneo, Java, and Sumatra
were separated from the continent, but from that still

more remote epoch when the land that now constitutes

CHAP. XVIII] OF CELEBES. AAD

these islands had not risen above the ocean. Such an
antiquity is necessary, to account for the number of
animal forms it possesses, which show no relation to those
of India or Australia, but rather with those of Africa; and
we are led to speculate on the possibility of there having
once existed a continent in the Indian Ocean which might
serve as a bridge to connect these distant countries. Now
it is a curious fact, that the existence of such a land has
been already thought necessary, to account for the distri-
bution of the curious Quadrumana forming the family of
the Lemurs. These have their metropolis in Madagascar,
but are found also in Africa, in Ceylon, in the penin-
sula of India, and in the Malay Archipelago as far as
Celebes, which is its furthest eastern limit. Dr. Sclater
has proposed for the hypothetical continent connecting
these distant points, and whose former existence is
indicated by the Mascarene islands and the Maldive coral
group, the name of Lemuria. Whether or no we believe in
its existence in the exact form here indicated, the student
of geographical distribution must see in the extraordinary
and isolated productions of Celebes, proofs of the former
existence of some continent from whence the ancestors of
these creatures, and of many other intermediate forms,
could have been derived.

In this short sketch of the most striking peculiarities of

the Natural History of Celebes, I have been obliged to enter

446 NATURAL HISTORY [CHAP, XVIII.

much into details that I fear will have been uninteresting to
the general reader, but unless I had done so my exposition
would have lost much of its force and value. It is by
these details alone, that I have been able to prove the
unusual features that Celebes presents to us. Situated in
the very midst of an Archipelago, and closely hemmed in
on every side by islands teeming with varied forms of life,
its productions have yet a surprising amount of indi-
viduality. While it is poor in the actual number of its
species, it is yet wonderfully rich in peculiar forms ; many
of which are singular or beautiful, and are in some cases
absolutely unique upon the globe. We behold here the
curious phenomenon, of groups of insects changing their
outline in a similar manner when compared with those of
surrounding islands, suggesting some common cause which
never seems to have acted elsewhere in exactly the same
way. Celebes, therefore, presents us with a most striking
example of the interest that attaches to the study of the
geographical distribution of animals. We can see that
their present distribution upon the globe is the result of
all the more recent changes the earth’s surface has under-
gone; and by a careful study of the phenomena we are
sometimes able to deduce approximately what those past
changes must have been, in order to produce the distri-
bution we find to exist. In the comparatively simple case

of the Timor group, we were able to deduce these changes

CHAP. XVIII. | OF CELEBES. 447

with some approach to certainty. In the much more
complicated case of Celebes we can only indicate their
general nature, since we now see the result, not of any
single or recent change only, but of a whole series of
the later revolutions which have resulted in the present

distribution of land in the Eastern Hemisphere

CHAPTER XIX.

BANDA.

(DECEMBER 1857, MAY 1859, APRIL 1861.)

HE Dutch mail steamer in which I travelled from

Macassar to Banda and Amboyna was a roomy and com-
fortable vessel, although it would only go six miles an hour
in the finest weather. As there were but three passengers
besides myself, we had abundance of room, and I was able
to enjoy a voyage more than I had ever done before. The
arrangements are somewhat different from those on board
English or Indian steamers. There are no cabin servants,
as every cabin passenger invariably brings his own, and
the ship’s stewards attend only to the saloon and the
eating department. At six A.M. a cup of tea or coffee is
provided for those who like it. At seven to eight there is
a light breakfast of tea, eggs, sardines, &c. At ten, Madeira
gin and bitters are brought on deck as a whet for the
substantial eleven o’clock breakfast, which differs from
a dinner only in the absence of soup. Cups of tea and

coffee are brought round at three P.M.; bitters, &c. again

CHAP. XIXx.] A DUTCH MAIL STEAMER. 449

at five, a good dinner with beer and claret at half-past six,
concluded by tea and coffee at eight. Between whiles
beer and sodawater are supplied when called for, so there
is no lack of little gastronomical excitements to while
away the tedium of a sea voyage.

Our first stopping place was Coupang, at the west end
of the large island of Timor. We then coasted along that
island for several hundred miles, having always a view
of hilly ranges covered with scanty vegetation, rising ridge
behind ridge to the height of six or seven thousand feet.
Turning off towards Banda we passed Pulo-Cambing,
Wetter, and Roma, all of which are desolate and barren
volcanic islands, almost as uninviting as Aden, and offer-
ing a strange contrast to the usual verdure and luxuriance
of the Archipelago. In two days more we reached the
volcanic group of Banda, covered with an unusually dense
and brilliant green vegetation, indicating that we had
passed beyond the range of the hot dry winds from the
plains of Central Australia. Banda is a lovely little spot,
its three islands enclosing a secure harbour from whence
no outlet is visible, and with water so transparent, that
living corals and even the minutest objects are plainly
seen on the volcanic sand at a depth of seven or eight
fathoms. The ever smoking volcano rears its bare cone
on one side, while the two larger islands are clothed with
vegetation to the summit of the hills.

VOL. I. GG

450 BANDA. [cmar. XIx.

Going on shore, I walked up a pretty path which leads
to the highest point of the island on which the town is
situated, where there is a telegraph station and a magni-
ficent view. Below lies the little town, with its neat red-
tiled white houses and the thatched cottages of the natives,
bounded on one side by the old Portuguese fort. Beyond,
about half a mile distant, les the larger island in the
shape of a horseshoe, formed of a range of abrupt hills
covered with fine forest and nutmeg gardens; while close
opposite the town is the volcano, forming a nearly perfect
cone, the lower part only covered with a light green bushy
vegetation. On its north side the outline is more uneven,
and there is a slight hollow or chasm about one-fifth of the
way down, from which constantly issue two columns of
smoke, as well as a good deal from the rugged surface
around and from some spots nearer the summit. A white
efflorescence, probably sulphur, is thickly spread over the
upper part of the mountain, marked by the narrow black
vertical lines of water gullies. The smoke unites as it
tises, and forms a dense cloud, which in calm damp weather
spreads out into a wide canopy hiding the top of the
mountain. At night and early morning it often rises up
straight and leaves the whole outline clear.

It is only when actually gazing on an active volcano
that one can fully realize its awfulness and grandeur.

Whence comes that inexhaustible fire whose dense and

CHAP. XIX. | THE VOLCANO. 451

sulphureous smoke for ever issues from this bare and deso-
late peak? Whence the mighty forces that produced that
peak, and still from time to time exhibit themselves in the
earthquakes that always occur in the vicinity of volcanic
vents? The knowledge from childhood, of the fact that
voleanoes and earthquakes exist, has taken away somewhat
of the strange and exceptional character that really belongs
to them. The inhabitant of most parts of northern Europe,
sees in the earth the emblem of stability and repose. His
whole life-experience, and that of all his age and genera-
tion, teaches him that the earth is solid and firm, that its
massive rocks may contain water in abundance but never
fire; and these essential characteristics of the earth are
manifest in every mountain his country contains. <A
volcano is a fact opposed to all this mass of experience, a
fact of so awful a character that, if it were the rule instead
of the exception, it would make the earth uninhabitable;
a fact so strange and unaccountable that we may be sure
it would not be believed on any human testimony, if pre-
sented to us now for the first time, as a natural phenomenon
happening in a distant country.

The summit of the small island is composed of a highly
crystalline basalt; lower down I found a hard stratified
slaty sandstone, while on the beach are huge blocks of lava,
and scattered masses of white coralline limestone. The
larger island has coral rock to a height of three or four

GG2Z

452 BANDA. [CHAP. XIX.

hundred feet, while above is lava and basalt. It seems
probable, therefore, that this little group of four islands is
the fragment of a larger district which was perhaps once
connected with Ceram, but which was separated and
broken up by the same forces which formed the volcanic
cone. When I visited the larger island on another occa-
sion, I saw a considerable tract covered with large forest
trees, dead, but still standing. This was a record of the
last great earthquake only two years ago, when the sea
broke in over this part of the island and so flooded it as to
destroy the vegetation on all the low lands. Almost every
year there is an earthquake here, and at intervals of a few
years very severe ones, which throw down houses and
earry ships out of the harbour bodily into the streets.
Notwithstanding the losses incurred by these terrific
visitations, and the small size and isolated position of
these little islands, they have been and still are of con-
siderable value to the Dutch Government, as the chief
nutmeg-garden in the world. Almost the whole surface
is planted with nutmegs, grown under the shade of lofty
Kanary trees (Kanarium commune). The light volcanic
soil, the shade, and the excessive moisture of these islands,
where it rains more or less every month in the year, seem
exactly to suit the nutmeg-tree, which requires no manure
and scarcely any attention. All the year round flowers

and ripe fruit are to be found, and none of those diseases

had Ss.

—_ ._. ee a ae

eo

Se ee ae ee ag ee

CHAP. XIX. | NUTMEGS. 453

occur which under a forced and unnatural system of cul-
tivation have ruined the nutmeg planters of Singapore
and Penang.

Few cultivated plants are more beautiful than nutmeg-
trees. They are handsomely shaped and glossy-leaved,
growing to the height of twenty or thirty feet, and bearing
small yellowish flowers. The fruit is the size and colour
of a peach, but rather oval. It is of a tough fleshy con-
sistence, but when ripe splits open, and shows the dark-
brown nut within, covered with the crimson mace, and is
then a most beautiful object. Within the thin hard shell
of the nut is the seed, which is the nutmeg of commerce.
The nuts are eaten by the large pigeons of Banda, which
digest the mace but cast up the nut with its seed un-
injured.

The nutmeg trade has hitherto been a strict monopoly
of the Dutch Government; but since leaving the country
I believe that this monopoly has been partially or wholly
discontinued, a proceeding which appears exceedingly in-
judicious and quite unnecessary. There are cases in
which monopolies are perfectly justifiable, and I believe
this to be one of them. A small country like Holland,
cannot afford to keep distant and expensive colonies at a
loss; and having possession of a very small island where
a-valuable product, not a necessary of life, can be obtained

at little cost, it is almost the duty of the state to mono-

454 BANDA. [CHAP. XIX.

polise it. No injury is done thereby to any one, but a
great benefit is conferred on the whole population of Hol-
land and its dependencies, since the produce of the state
monopolies saves them from the weight of a heavy taxa-
tion. Had the Government not kept the nutmeg trade of
Banda in its own hands, it is probable that the whole of
the islands would long ago have become the property of
one or more large capitalists. The monopoly would have
been almost the same, since no known spot on the globe
can produce nutmegs so cheaply as Banda, but the profits
of the monopely would have gone to a few individuals
instead of to the nation. As an illustration of how a state
monopoly may become a state duty, let us suppose that no
gold existed in Australia, but that it had been found in
immense quantities by one of our ships in some small and
barren island. In this case it would plainly become the
duty of the state to keep and work the mines for the
public benefit, since by doing so, the gain would be fairly
divided among the whole population by decrease of taxa-
tion ; whereas by leaving it open to free trade while merely
keeping the government of the island, we should certainly
produce enormous evils during the first struggle for the
precious metal, and should ultimately subside into the
- monopoly of some wealthy individual or great company,
whose enormous revenue would not equally benefit the

community. The nutmegs of Banda and the tin of Banca

PA, KR Re ns

CHAP. X1x.] SPICE MONOPOLY. 455

are to some extent parallel cases to this supposititious
one, and I believe the Dutch Government will act most
unwisely if they give up their monopoly.

Even the destruction of the nutmeg and clove trees in
many islands, in order to restrict their cultivation to one or
two where the monopoly could be easily guarded, usually
made the theme of so much virtuous indignation against
the Dutch, may be defended on similar principles, and is
certainly not nearly so bad as many monopolies we our-
selves have till very recently maintained. Nutmegs and
cloves are not necessaries of life; they are not even used
as spices by the natives of the Moluccas, and no one was
materially or permanently injured by the destruction of
the trees, since there are a hundred other products that can
be grown in the same islands, equally valuable and far
more beneficial in a social point of view. It is a case
exactly parallel to our prohibition of the growth of tobacco
in England, for fiscal purposes, and is, morally and economi-
cally, neither better nor worse. The salt monopoly which
we so long maintained in India was much worse. As long
as we keep up a system of excise and customs on articles
of daily use, which requires an elaborate array of officers
and coastguards to carry into effect, and which creates a
number of purely legal crimes, it is the height of absurdity
for us to affect indignation at the conduct of the Dutch,

who carried out a much more justifiable, less hurtful, and

456 BANDA. (CHAP. XIx.

more profitable system in their Eastern possessions. I
challenge objectors to point out any physical or moral evils
that have actually resulted from the action of the Dutch
Government in this matter; whereas such evils are the
admitted results of every one of our monopolies and restric-
tions. The conditions of the two experiments are totally
different. The true “political economy” of a higher, when
governing a lower race, has never yet been worked out.
The application of our “political economy” to such cases
invariably results in the extinction or degradation of the
lower race ; whence we may consider it probable that one
of the necessary conditions of its truth is, the approxi-
mate mental and social unity of the society in which it is
applied. I shall again refer to this subject in my chapter
on Ternate, one of the most celebrated of the old spice-
islands.

The natives of Banda are very much mixed, and it is
probable that at least three-fourths of the population are
mongrels, in -various degrees of Malay, Papuan, Arab,
Portuguese, and Dutch. The first two form the basis of
the larger portion, and the dark skins, pronounced features,
and more or less frizzly hair of the Papuans preponderates.
There seems little doubt that the aborigines of Banda
were Papuans, and a portion of them still exists in the
Ké islands, where they emigrated when the Portuguese

first took possession of their native island. It is such

ee a eC ee a

CHAP. XIX.] ANIMALS. A57

people as these that are often looked upon as transitional
forms between two very distinct races, like the Malays
and Papuans, whereas they are only examples of inter-
mixture.

The animal productions of Banda, though very few, are
interesting. The islands have perhaps no truly indigenous
Mammalia but bats. The deer of the Moluccas and the
pig- have probably been introduced. A species of Cuscus
or Eastern opossum is also found at Banda, and this may
be truly indigenous in the sense of not having been
introduced by man. Of birds, during my three visits of
one or two days each, I collected eight kinds, and the
Dutch collectors have added a few others. The most
remarkable is a fine and very handsome fruit-pigeon,
Carpophaga concinna, which feeds upon the nutmegs, or
rather on the mace, and whose loud booming note is to be
continually heard. This bird is found in the Ké and
Matabello islands as well as Banda, but not in Ceram or
any of the larger islands, which are inhabited by allied
but very distinct species. A beautiful small fruit-dove,

Ptilonopus diadematus, is also peculiar to Banda.

CHAPTER XX.

AMBOYNA.,
(DECEMBER 1857, OCTOBER 1859, FEBRUARY 1860.)

WENTY hours from Banda brought us to Amboyna,
the capital of the Moluccas, and one of the oldest
European settlements in the East. The island consists of
two peninsulas, so nearly divided by inlets of the sea, as
to leave only a sandy isthmus about a mile wide near their
eastern extremity. The western inlet is several miles long

and forms a fine harbour, on the southern side of which is

situated the town of Amboyna. I had a letter of intro- —
duction to Dr. Mohnike, the chief medical officer of the
Moluccas, a German and a naturalist. I found that he
could write and read English, but could not speak it, being :

like myself a bad linguist ; so we had to use French as a

medium of communication. He kindly offered me a room
during my stay in Amboyna, and introduced me to his
junior, Dr. Doleschall, a Hungarian and also an ento-
mologist. He was an intelligent and most amiable young.

man, but I was shocked to find that he was dying of con- —

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460 AMBOYNA. — [cHAP. Xx.

sumption, though still able to perform the duties of his
office. In the evening my host took me to the residence
of the Governor, Mr. Goldmann, who received me in a
most kind and cordial manner, and offered me every
assistance. The town of Amboyna consists of a few
business streets, and a number of roads set out at right
angles to each other, bordered by hedges of flowering
shrubs, and enclosing country houses and huts embosomed —
in palms and fruit trees. Hills and mountains form the
background in almost every direction, and there are few
places more enjoyable for a morning or evening stroll, than —
these sandy roads and shady lanes in the suburbs of the
ancient city of Amboyna.
There are no active voleanoes in the island, nor is it :
now subject to frequent earthquakes, although very ‘
severe ones have occurred and may be expected again. i
Mr. William Funnell, in his voyage with Dampier to the

South Seas in 1705, says: “Whilst we were here, (at ©

Amboyna) we had a great earthquake, which continued ‘
two days, in which time it did a great deal of mischief;
for the ground burst open in many places, and swallowed —
up several houses and whole families. Several of the people 1
were dug out again, but most of them dead, and many had
their legs or arms broken by the fall of the houses. The |
castle walls were rent asunder in several places, and we b

thought that it and all the houses would have fallen down. —

CHAP. XX. | VOLCANIC DISTURBANCES. 461

The ground where we were swelled like a wave in the sea,
but near us we had no hurt done.” There are also
numerous records of eruptions of a volcano on the west
side of the island. In 1674 an eruption destroyed a
village. In 1694 there was another eruption. In 1797
much vapour and heat was emitted. Other eruptions
occurred in 1816 and 1820, and in 1824 a new crater is
said to have been formed. Yet so capricious is the action
of these subterranean fires, that since the last-named epoch
all eruptive symptoms have so completely ceased, that I
was assured by many of the most intelligent European
inhabitants of Amboyna, that they had never heard of any
such thing as a volcano on the island.

During the few days that elapsed before I could make
arrangements to visit the interior, I enjoyed myself much
in the society of the two doctors, both amiable and well-
educated men, and both enthusiastic entomologists, though
obliged to increase their collections almost entirely by
means of native collectors. Dr. Doleschall studied chiefly
the flies and spiders, but also collected butterflies and
moths, and in his boxes I saw grand specimens of the
emerald Ornithoptera priamus and the azure Papilio
ulysses, with many more of the superb butterflies of this
rich island. Dr. Mohnike confined himself chiefly to the
beetles, and had formed a magnificent collection during

many years’ residence in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Japan,

462 AMBOYNA. [CHAP. XX.

and Amboyna. The Japanese collection was especially
interesting, containing both the fine Carabi of northern
countries and the gorgeous Buprestidz and Longicorns of
the tropics. The doctor made the voyage to Jeddo by
land from Nagasaki, and is well acquainted with the
character, manners, and customs of the people of Japan,
and with the geology, physical features, and natural
history of the country. He showed me collections of
cheap woodeuts printed in colours, which are sold at less
than a farthing each, and comprise an endless variety of
sketches of Japanese scenery and manners. Though rude,

they are very characteristic, and often exhibit touches of

ereat humour. He also possesses a large collection of —

coloured sketches of the plants of Japan, made by a

Japanese lady, which are the most masterly things I have

ever seen. very stem, twig, and leaf is produced by —

single touches of the brush, the character and perspective

of very complicated plants being admirably given, and the |

articulations of stem and leaves shown in a most scientific
manner.

Having made arrangements to stay for three weeks at a

small hut, on a newly cleared plantation in the interior of

the northern half of the island, I with some difficulty

obtained a boat and men to take me across the water; -

for the Amboynese are dreadfully lazy. Passing up the —

harbour, in appearance like a fine river, the clearness of

<p.

—

ae ee

«
4
a

CHAP. XX.] SEA GARDENS. 463

the water afforded me one of the most astonishing and
beautiful sights I have ever beheld. The bottom was
absolutely hidden by a continuous series of corals, sponges,
actinie, and other marine productions, of magnificent
dimensions, varied forms, and brilliant colours. The depth
varied from about twenty to fifty feet, and the bottom was
very uneven, rocks and chasms and little hills and valleys,
offering a variety of stations for the growth of these animal
forests. In and out among them, moved numbers of blue
and red and yellow fishes, spotted and banded and striped
in the most striking manner, while great orange or rosy
transparent medusz floated along near the surface. It was
a sight to gaze at for hours, and no description can do jus-
tice to its surpassing beauty and interest. For once, the
reality exceeded the most glowing accounts I had ever
read of the wonders of a coral sea. There is perhaps no
spot in the world richer in marine productions, corals,
shells and fishes, than the harbour of Amboyna.

From the north side of the harbour, a good broad path
passes through swamp clearing and forest, over hill and
valley, to the farther side of the island; the coralline
rock constantly protruding through the deep red earth
which fills all the hollows, and is more or less spread over
the plains and hill-sides. The forest vegetation is here
of the most luxuriant character; ferns and palms abound,

and the climbing rattans were more abundant than I had

464 AMBOYNA. [CHAP. Xx.

ever seen them, forming tangled festoons over almost
every large forest tree. The cottage I was to occupy was
situated in a large clearing of about a hundred acres, part
of which was already planted with young cacao-trees and .
plantains to shade them, while the rest was covered with
dead and half-burnt forest trees; and on one side there
was a tract where the trees had been recently felled and
were not yet burnt. The path by which I had arrived
continued along one side of this clearing, and then again
entering the virgin forest passed over hill and dale to the
northern side of the island.

My abode was merely a little thatched hut, consisting
of an open verandah in front and a small dark sleeping-
room behind. It was raised about five feet from the
ground, and was reached by rude steps to the centre of
the verandah. The walls and floor were of bamboo,
and it contained a table, two bamboo chairs, and a couch.
Here I soon made myself comfortable, and set to work
hunting for insects among the more recently felled
timber, which swarmed with fine Curculionide, Longi-
corns, and Buprestidae, most ‘of them remarkable for
their elegant forms or brilliant colours, and almost all
entirely new tome. Only the entomologist can appreciate
the delight with which I hunted about for hours in the
hot sunshine, among the branches and twigs and bark of |

the fallen trees, every few minutes securing insects which

CHAP. XXx.] SPLENDID INSECTS. 465

were at that time almost all rare or new to European
collections.

In the shady forest paths were many fine butterflies,
most conspicuous among which was the shining blue Papilio
ulysses, one of the princes of the tribe. Though at that
time so rare in Europe, I found it absolutely common in
Amboyna, though not easy to obtain in fine condition, a
large number of the specimens being found when captured
to have the wings torn or broken. It flies with a rather
weak undulating motion, and from its large size, its tailed
wings and brilliant colour, is one of the most tropical-
looking insects the naturalist can gaze upon.

There is a remarkable contrast between the beetles of
Amboyna and those of Macassar, the latter generally small
and obscure, the former Jarge and brilliant. On the whole,
the insects here most resemble those of the Aru islands,
but they are almost always of distinct species, and when
they are most nearly allied to each other the species of
Amboyna are of larger size and more brilliant colours,
so that one might be led to conclude that, in passing east
and west into a less favourable soil and climate, they had
degenerated into less striking forms.

Of an evening I generally sat reading in the verandah,
ready to capture any insects that were attracted to the
light. One night about nine o’clock, I heard a curious
noise and rustling overhead, as if some heavy animal were

VOL. I. HOH

466 AMBOYNA. [CHAP. XX.

crawling slowly over the thatch. The noise soon ceased,
and I thought no more about it and went to bed soon
afterwards. The next afternoon just before dinner, being
rather tired with my day’s work, I was lying on the
couch with a book in my hand, when gazing upwards I
saw a large mass of something overhead which I had not
noticed before. Looking more carefully I could see yellow
and black marks, and thought it must be a tortoise-shell
put up there out of the way between the ridge-pole and
the roof. Continuing to gaze, it suddenly resolved itself
into a large snake, compactly coiled up in a kind of knot;
and I could detect his head and his bright eyes in the
very centre of the folds. The noise of the evening before
was now explained. A python had climbed up one of the
posts of the house, and had made his way under the thatch
within a yard of my head, and taken up a comfortable
position in the roof—and I had slept soundly all night
directly under him.

I called to my two boys who were skinning birds below
and said, “ Here’s a big snake in the roof ;” but as soon
as I had shown it to them they rushed out of the house
and begged me to come out directly. Finding they
were too much afraid to do anything, we called some of
the labourers in the plantation, and soon had half a
dozen men in consultation outside. One of these, a native

of Bouru, where there are a great many snakes, said he

INTRUDER.

EJECTING AN

CHAP. XXx.] AN UNWELCOME GUEST. 467

would get him out, and proceeded to work in a business-
like manner. He made a strong noose of rattan, and
with a long pole in the other hand poked at the snake,
who then began slowly to uncoil itself. He then man-
aged to slip the noose over its head, and getting it well
on to the body, dragged the animal down. There was a
great scuffle as the snake coiled round the chairs and
posts to resist his enemy, but at length the man caught
hold of its tail, rushed out of the house (running so
quick that the creature seemed quite confounded), and
tried to strike its head against a tree. He missed however,
and let go, and the snake got under a dead trunk close by.
It was again poked out, and again the Bouru man caught
hold of its tail, and running away quickly dashed its head
with a swing against a tree, and it was then easily killed
with a hatchet. It was about twelve feet long and very
thick, capable of doing much mischief and of swallowing
a dog ora child.

I did not get a great many birds here. The most re-
markable were the fine crimson lory, Eos rubra—a brush-
tongued parroquet of a vivid crimson colour, which was
very abundant. Large flocks of them came about the
plantation, and formed a magnificent object when they
settled down upon some flowering tree, on the nectar of
which lories feed. I also obtained one or two specimens
of the fine racquet-tailed kingfisher of Amboyna, Tany-

HH 2

468 AMBOYNA. [CHAP. XX.

siptera nais, oue of
the most singular and

beautiful of that beau-

tiful family. These
birds differ from all other
kinefishers (which have
usually short tails) by hav-
ing the two middle tail-
feathers immensely length-
ened and very narrowly
webbed, but terminated by
a spoon shaped enlargement,
as in the motmots and
some of the humming-birds.
They belong to that division
of the family termed king-
“hunters, living chiefly on
insects and small land-mol-
luses, which they dart down
upon and pick up from the
ground, just as a kingfisher
picks a fish out of the water.
They are confined to a very
limited area, comprising the
Moluccas, New Guinea, and
Northern Australia. About

RACQUET-TAILED KINGFISHER.

=e a a Oe ie

7 os

Gee tec eron &

CHAP. Xx. ] BIRDS AND INSECTS. 469

ten species of these hirds are now known, all much resem-
bling each other, but yet sufficiently distinguishable in
every locality. The Amboynese species, of which a very
accurate representation is here given, is one of the largest
and handsomest. It is full seventeen inches long to the
tips of the tail-feathers; the bill is coral red, the under-
surface pure white, the back and wings deep purple, while
the shoulders, head and nape, and some spots on the upper
part of the back and wings, are pure azure blue. The
tail is white, with the feathers narrowly blue-edged, but
the narrow part of the long feathers is rich blue. This
was an entirely new species, and has been well named
after an ocean goddess, by Mr. R. G. Gray.

On Christmas eve I returned to Amboyna, where I
stayed about ten days with my kind friend Dr. Mohnike.
Considering that I had been away only twenty days, and
that on five or six of those I was prevented doing any-
thing by wet weather and slight attacks of fever, I had
made a very nice collection of insects, comprising a much
larger proportion of large and brilliant species than I had
ever before obtained in so short atime. Of the beautiful
metallic Buprestide I had about a dozen handsome species,
yet in the doctor’s collection I observed four or five more
very fine ones, so that Amboyna is unusually rich in this
elegant group.

During my stay here I had a good opportunity of seeing

470 AMBOYNA. [cHAP. xx.

how Europeans live in the Dutch colonies, where they
have adopted customs far more in accordance with the
climate than we have done in our tropical possessions.
Almost all business is transacted in the morning between
the hours of seven and twelve, the afternoon being given
up to repose, and the evening to visiting. When in the
house during the heat of the day, and even at dinner,
they use a loose cotton dress, only putting on a suit of thin
European-made clothes, for out of doors and evening wear.
They often walk about after sunset bareheaded, reserving
the black hat for visits of ceremony. Life is thus made
far more agreeable, and the fatigue and discomfort in-
cident to the climate greatly diminished. Christmas day
is not made much of, but on New Year's day official and
complimentary visits are paid, and about sunset we went
to the Governor's, where a large party of ladies and gen-
tlemen were assembled. Tea and coffee were handed
round, as is almost universal during a visit, as well
as cigars, for on no occasion is smoking prohibited in
Dutch colonies, cigars being generally lighted before the
cloth is withdrawn at dinner, even though half the
company are ladies. I here saw for the first time the
rare black lory from New Guinea, Chalcopsitta atra. The
plumage is rather glossy, and slightly tinged with yellowish
and purple, the bill and feet being entirely black.

The native Amboynese who reside in the city are a

CHAP, XXx.] THE OLD PORTUGUESE. A71

strange half-civilized half-savage lazy people, who seem
to be a mixture of at least three races, Portuguese, Malay,
and Papuan or Ceramese, with an occasional cross of
Chinese or Dutch. The Portuguese element decidedly
predominates in the old Christian population, as indicated
by features, habits, and the retention of many Portuguese
words in the Malay, which is now their language. They
have a peculiar style of dress which they wear among
themselves, a close-fitting white shirt with black trousers,
and a black frock or upper shirt. The women seem to
prefer a dress entirely black. On festivals and state
occasions they adopt the swallow-tail coat, chimney-
pot hat, and their accompaniments, displaying all the
absurdity of our European fashionable dress. Though
now Protestants, they preserve at feasts and weddings the
processions and music of the Catholic Church, curiously
mixed up with the gongs and dances of the aborigines of
the country. Their language has still much more Por-
tuguese than Dutch in it, although they have been in close
communication with the latter nation for more than two
hundred and fifty years; even many names of birds, trees
and other natural objects, as well as many domestic terms,
being plainly Portuguese.t This people seems to have had
a marvellous power of colonization, and a capacity for

1 The following are a few of the Portuguese words in common use by
the Malay-speaking natives of Amboyna and the other Molucca islands :

472, AMBOYNA. [ CHAP. XX.

impressing their national characteristics on every country
they conquered, or in which they effected a merely tem-
porary settlement. In a suburb of Amboyna there is a
village of aboriginal Malays who are Mahometans, and
who speak a peculiar language allied to those of Ceram, as
well as Malay. They are chiefly fishermen, and are said
to be both more industrious and more honest than the
native Christians.

I went on Sunday, by invitation, to see a collection of
shells and fish made by a gentleman of Amboyna. The
fishes are perhaps unrivalled for variety and beauty by
those of any one spot on the earth. The celebrated Dutch
ichthyologist, Dr. Blecker, has given a catalogue of seven
. hundred and eighty species found at Amboyna, a number
almost equal to those of all the seas and rivers of Europe.
A large proportion of them are of the most brilliant colours,
being marked with bands and spots of the purest yellows,
reds, and blues; while their forms present all that strange
and endless variety so characteristic of the inhabitants of
the ocean. The shells are also very numerous, and com-
prise a number of the finest species in the world. The
Pombo (pigeon); milo (maize); testa (forehead); horas (hours); alfinete
(pin); cadeira (chair); lengo (handkerchief); fresco (cool); trigo (flour);
sono (sleep); familia (family); histori (talk); vosse (you); mesmo
(even); cufihado (brother-in-law); senhor (sir); nyora for signora

(madam).—None of them, however, have the least notion that these
words beiong to a European language.

CHAP. Xx. ] SHELLS AND FISHES. 473

Mactras and Ostreas in particular struck me by the variety
and beauty of their colours. Shells have long been an
object of traffic in Amboyna; many of the natives get their
living by collecting and cleaning them, and almost every
visitor takes away a small collection. The result is that
many of the commoner sorts have lost all value in the eyes
of the amateur, numbers of the handsome but very common
cones, cowries, and olives sold in the streets of London for
a penny each, being natives of the distant isle of Amboyna,
where they cannot be bought so cheaply. _ The fishes in
the collection were all well preserved in clear spirit in
hundreds of glass jars, and the shells were arranged in
large shallow pith boxes lined with paper, every specimen
being fastened down with thread. I roughly estimated that
there were nearly a thousand different kinds of shells, and
perhaps ten thousand specimens, while the collection of

Amboyna fishes was nearly perfect.

On the 4th of January I left Amboyna for Ternate ,; but
two years later, in October 1859, I again visited it after
my residence in Menado, and stayed a month in the town
in a small house which I hired for the sake of assorting
and packing up a large and varied collection which I
had brought with me from North Celebes, Ternate, and
Gilolo. I was obliged to do this because the mail-steamer

would have come the following month by way of Amboyna

A474. AMBOYNA. [CHAP. Xx.

to Ternate, and I should have been delayed two months
before I could have reached the former place. I then paid
my first visit to Ceram, and on returning to prepare for
my second more complete exploration of that island, I
stayed (much against my will) two months at Paso, on
the isthmus which connects the two portions of the island
of Amboyna. This village is situated on the eastern side
of the isthmus, on sandy ground, with a very pleasant view
over the sea to the island of Harika. On the Amboyna
side of the isthmus there is a small river which has been
continued by a shallow canal to within thirty yards of
high-water mark on the other side. Across this small
space, which is sandy and but slightly elevated, all small
boats and praus can be easily dragged, and all the smaller
traffic from Ceram and the islands of Sapartia and Hartka,
passes through Paso. The canal is not continued quite
through, merely because every spring-tide would throw
up just such a sand-bank as now exists.

I had been informed that the fine butterfly Ornithoptera
priamus was plentiful here, as well as the racquet-tailed
kinefisher and the ring-necked lory. I found, however,
that I had missed the time for the former; and birds of
all kinds were very scarce, although I obtained a few good
ones, including one or two of the above-mentioned rarities.
I was much pleased to get here the fine long-armed chafer,

Euchirus longimanus. This extraordinary insect is rarely

a

CHAP. XX.] RARE BEETLE. 475

or never captured except when it comes to drink the sap of
the sugar palms, where it is found by the natives when
they go early in the morning to take away the bamboos
which have been filled during the night. For some time
one or two were brought me every day, generally alive.
They are sluggish insects, and pull themselves lazily along
by means of their immense fore-legs. A figure of this
and other Moluccan beetles is given in the 27th chapter of
this work.

I was kept at Paso by an inflammatory eruption, brought
on by the constant attacks of small acari like harvest-
bugs, for which the forests of Ceram are famous, and also
by the want of nourishing food while in that island. At
one time I was covered with severe boils. I had them on
my eye, cheek, armpits, elbows, back, thighs, knees, and
ankles, so that I was unable to sit or walk, and had great
difficulty in finding a side to lie upon without pain. These
continued for some weeks, fresh ones coming out as fast as
others got well; but good living and sea baths ultimately
cured them.

About the end of January Charles Allen, who had been
my assistant in Malacca and Borneo, again joied me on
agreement for three years; and as soon as I got tolerably
well, we had plenty to do laying in stores and making
arrangements for our ensuing campaign. Our greatest

difficulty was in obtaining men, but at last we succeeded

476 AMBOYNA. [cHaP. xx.

in getting two each. An Amboyna Christian named
Theodorus Matakena, who had been some time with me
and had learnt to skin birds very well, agreed to go with
Allen, as well as a very quiet and industrious lad named
Cornelius, whom I had brought from Menado. I had two
Amboynese, named Petrus Rehatta, and Mesach Mata-
kena; the latter of whom had two brothers, named re-
spectively Shadrach and Abednego, in accordance with the
usual custom among these people of giving only Scripture
names to their children.

During the time I resided in this place I enjoyed a
luxury I have never met with either before or since—the
true bread-fruit. A good deal of it has been planted
about here and in the surrounding villages, and almost
every day we had opportunities of purchasing some, as
all the boats going to Amboyna were unloaded just oppo-
site my door to be dragged across the isthmus. Though
it grows in several other parts of the Archipelago, it is
nowhere abundant, and the season for it only lasts a short
time. It is baked entire in the hot embers, and the
inside scooped out with a spoon. I compared it to York-
shire pudding; Charles Allen said it was like mashed
potatoes and milk. It is generally about the size of a
melon, a little fibrous towards the centre, but everywhere
else quite smooth and puddingy, something in consistence

between yeast-dumplings and batter-pudding. We some-

ee

CHAP, XXx.] A DELICIOUS VEGETABLE. 477

times made curry or stew of it, or fried it in slices ;
but it is no way so good as simply baked. It may be
eaten sweet or savory. With meat and gravy it is a
vegetable superior to any I know, either in temperate or
tropical countries. With sugar, milk, butter, or treacle, it
is a delicious pudding, having a very slight and delicate
but characteristic flavour, which, like that of good bread
and potatoes, one never gets tired of. The reason why it is
comparatively scarce is, that it is a fruit of which the seeds
are entirely aborted by cultivation, and the tree can there-
fore only be propagated by cuttings. The seed-bearing
variety is common all over the tropics, and though the
seeds are very good eating, resembling chestnuts, the fruit
is quite worthless as a vegetable. Now that steam and
Ward’s cases render the transport of young plants so easy,
it is much to be wished that the best varieties of this
unequalled vegetable should be introduced into our West
India islands, and largely propagated there. As the fruit
will keep some time after being gathered, we might then
be able to obtain this tropical luxury in Covent Garden
Market.

Although the few months I at various times spent in
Amboyna were not altogether very profitable to me in the
way of collections, yet it will always remain as a bright
spot in the review of my Eastern travels, since it was there

that I first made the acquaintance of those glorious birds

478 AMBOYNA. [cHAP xx.

and insects, which render the Moluccas classic ground in
the eyes of the naturalist, and characterise its fauna as
one of the most remarkable and beautiful upon the globe.
On the 20th of February I finally quitted Amboyna for

Ceram and Waigiou, leaving Charles Allen to go by a

Government boat to Wahai on the north coast of Ceram,

and thence to the unexplored island of Mysol.

ENN USE
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Z cas

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LIST OF PUBLICATIONS. 27

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28 MACMILLAN AND CO.’S

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LIST OF PUBLICATIONS. 31

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34 MACMILLAN AND COS

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LIST OF PUBLICATIONS. 35

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