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Royal Ontario Museum
of Zoology

Handbook No

THE MAMMALS OF ONTARIO

by
E. C. CROSS and J. R. DYMOND

LIBRARY

ROYAL ONTARIO MUSEUM

Price Twenty-five Cents
1929

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS

ROYAL ONTARIO MUSEUM OF ZOOLOGY

PERSONNEL OF BOARD OF TRUSTEES

The Honourable the Minister of Education

The Honourable the Minister of Mines

The Chairman of the Board of Governors, University of Toronto

Sir Robert Falconer

Sir Joseph Flavelle. Bart.

Colonel R. W. Leonard

Mr. J. B. O'Brian

Mr. Sigmund Samuel

Mrs. H. D. Warren

Chairman of the Board, Mr. J. B. O'Brian

Secretary of the Board, Miss Helen Reynar

Honorary Trustee, Dr. Robert Mond

STAFF

B. A. Bensley, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.C., Director.

E. M. Walker, B.A., M.B., F.R.S.C., Assistant Director.

J. R. Dymond, M.A., Secretary.

L. L. Snyder, Technologist and Associate in Ornithology.

T. B. Kurata, B.S., Preparator.

E. B. S. Logier, Artist.

J. L. Baillie, Cataloguer.

H. P. Stovell, Assistant.

J. H. Fleming, Honorary Curator of Ornithology.

John Edmonds, Honorary Associate in Ornithology.

Mailing address: Telephone:

253 Bloor St. West, Toronto. Kingsdale 1531

ADMISSION

The Museum is open from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. all week-days except Christmas
Day and the morning of New Year's Day. It is also open Sunday from 2 p.m.
to 5 p.m.

Admission is free Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, and on all
public holidays. On other days the admission fee is fifteen cents.

University students are admitted without charge on presentation of their
registration cards.

All classes from the schools, art students, and study groups are admitted
free.

Royal Ontario Museum
of Zoology

Handbook No. 1

THE MAMMALS OF ONTARIO

by
E. C. CROSS and J. R. DYMOND

Price Twenty-five Cents
1929

occurs over a fairly definite extent of country, which is known
as its range. The moose, for instance, is confined to the north
woods, while the cottontail rabbit occurs only in the cleared
and settled areas of southern Ontario.

There is the further fact to be noticed that an animal
occurs only in a certain kind of locality within its range where
conditions are to its liking or suitable to its manner of life.
Such a locality is known as the animal's habitat. The wood-
chuck, for example, is found in fields or clearings where the
soil is sandy or of such a nature as not to offer too much
difficulty in the construction of its burrow; the muskrat on
the other hand is restricted to the neighbourhood of streams,
ponds or lakes.

Because of the fact that animals differ in their habitat
preferences and in their areas of distribution, different species
are met with as we move from one part of the province to
another. There is, of course, no hard and fast line separating
the ranges of the various species. The occurrence of the
varying hare and of the cottontail rabbit in Ontario offers an
interesting example of the gradation which exists in the dis-
tribution of animals. In Northern Ontario we have varying
hares but no cottontail rabbits; in southern Ontario the
cottontail is the common rabbit, but there is an intermediate
region in which both species are met with. Even in such
intermediate areas, the two species do not occupy the same
situations, the hare being found in the cooler and the cotton-
tail in the warmer situations. As we move north in the area
in which the two species overlap, the cottontail becomes
scarcer and scarcer until finally only hares are found; in the
opposite direction the opposite tendency is seen.

The distribution of an animal, or the area over which it is
found, depends on climatic and other conditions (soil, vege-
tation, etc.). In the study of animal distribution it has been
found useful to divide the country into a number of zones or
areas in each of which the climate and other factors affecting
animal life are essentially similar. Each zone is characterized
by a different set of animals although here again there is no
hard and fast line demarking the distribution of the various
animals making up the fauna of the different zones. On the

Tke Ro>)al Ontario Museum of Zoology)
TORONTO, ONTARIO

Reproductions from Trie Wallace Havelock Robb Collection
of Bird Paintings by Allan Brooks

The twelve pictures belonging to this set are reproductions of
twelve paintings from the Wallace Havelock Robb collection in The
Royal Ontario Museum of Zoology. The paintings are by Allan Brooks,
Okanagan Landing, B.C., one of the greatest of living bird artists.

This collection now numbers fifty-one, but it is the hope of the
Museum and of Mr. Robb that it will ultimately comprise paintings of
all of the birds of Eastern Canada.

Mr. Robb. assisted by a number of persons both in the United
States and Canada, has built up the collection to its present proportions
and has given it to the Museum to hold in trust for the people of
Canada to be used in whatever ways may increase the appreciation of
the beauty and value of our native birds.

The Museum will be glad to hear from anyone who may wish to
contribute towards the addition of other paintings to this magnificent
collection.

The reproduction of these twelve paintings was made possible
through the courtesy of the Howard Smith Paper Mills Limited of
Montreal.

borders of the zones intermingling of animals characteristic
of the two zones occurs and some animals range indiscrim-
inately in two or more zones or faunal areas.

The accompanying map indicates the location of the life
zones usually recognized in Ontario.

I

I

MAS I TOBA

Ml NNESOTA

PROVINCE

OF

ONTARIO

Jfc

Map of Ontario showing life zones.

It has been found difficult in the following pages to
designate with any degree of exactness the distribution of the
various species described. This is partly owing to the small
amount of study that our mammal fuana has received, but
there is the additional difficulty that a mammal often occurs
in isolated localities far outside what may be regarded as its
normal range. It has been found necessary, therefore, to
indicate the ranges of most species in very general terms.

5

Identification. It is hoped that the brief descriptions
given in the following pages will prove adequate for the iden-
tification of most of our common forms. In the case of some,
such as the shrews, mice and a few of the bats, recourse must
be had to more detailed descriptions than are thought advis-
able in a publication of this kind. In some cases, too, access
must be had to large series of specimens such as are found in
museums.

References to more comprehensive accounts of the different
groups are given towards the end of the booklet as a guide to
those who may wish to pursue their studies beyond the stage
made possible by the present publication.

The Museum will also be glad to assist anyone in connec-
tion with any difficulty which he may have in natural history
studies.

Measurements. Closely related species of mammals differ
not only in habits and appearance but also in size. Certain
body measurements have been found useful in distinguishing
species, those most commonly used being total length (indi-
cated as T.L. in this booklet), tail vertebrae (T.V.), and hjnd
foot (H.F.). The total length is measured by placing the
animal on its back on a table or board, straightening it out
(but not stretching it), placing a pin in the table or board at
the tip of the mammal's nose and another at the tip of the
fleshy part of the tail, not including the hair, and measuring
the distance between the two pins. The length of the tail
vertebrae is taken from the base of the tail to the end of the
fleshy part, as in the case of total length. The length of the
hind foot is measured in a straight line from the heel along
the sole to the end of the claw on the longest toe. It must be
remembered that there is considerable variation in size not
only between animals of the same species from different parts
of its range but also between individuals in the same locality.
The measurements given in the following pages indicate
approximately the average size for the species in question.
All measurements are given in inches.

SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Periodic Fluctuation in the Numbzr of Animals. One of
the most interesting facts which has come to light as a result
of the study of mammals is the extent to which their numbers
fluctuate from time to timej. Almost everyone is familiar
with the fact that hares at times reach great abundance in
the north woods and that following these periods of maximum
abundance they die off in such numbers as to leave very few
survivors. Their numbers then gradually increase over a
period of years until they are again very abundant. It is
popularly believed that these periods of maximum abundance
recW every seven years but it does not always or everywhere
happen so regularly. Sometimes one plague may follow
another after an interval of five years or may not occur for
ten or twelve years, but it is true that waves of abundance
and Scarcity of hares follow one another at fairly regular
intervals. But the hare is not the only creature affected by
these fluctuations in its numbers. The Canada lynx subsists
almost entirely on hares and as they increase in numbers, the
lynx increases, and following the disappearance of the hare,
the lynx becomes very scarce.

Mice of various kinds are known to have periods of abun-
dance and scarcity, and the same tendency has been noted in
other mammals, birds, snakes, insects, etc. Taverner has
drawn attention to the way in which the scarcity of a certain
animal in one place may affect others in a widely separated
locality. He says: "In times of rabbit abundance all the
flesh-eating animals of the north, including the goshawk, revel
in plenty and increase in number. When this food supply is
cut off, hunger and starvation is their lot and their attention,

fHewitt in 1921 called attention to the periodic fluctuations in the
abundance of a number of animals, especially of varying hares, as shown
by the fur returns of the Hudson Bay Company. Previously Cabot ("In
Northern Labrador"), MacFarlane ("Mammals of Northwest Terri-
tories"), Seton and others had noticed the same tendency. More recently
Elton (Brit. Journ. Exper. Biol. 2:119-163, 1924) has discussed this phen-
omenon in more detail.

rendered keen by need, is turned to sources of supply neglected
when easier prey is procurable. At such times grouse of all
kinds suffer most severely. The grouse of the northern
localities are soon exhausted and the goshawk and large owls
are forced out into new fields. TJiey then come down in the
southern prairie provinces in unusual numbers and continue
there the work that they began in the north."

The cause of these periodic fluctuations in the abundance
of certain mammals is not understood, but on account of its
far-reaching effect on the numbers of certain game and fur-
bearing animals it is important that every possible observation
bearing on the subject should be brought together. By keep-
ing accurate records of the abundance of all sorts of animals —
mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, etc., naturalists can con-
tribute towards the solution of this interesting and important
subject.

Closely Related Animals Fitted for Different Conditions.
Another interesting fact which comes to light when we con-
sider a group of closely related animals is the manner in which
they are fitted to different conditions of life. This is well
illustrated in the weasel family, in which the different members
have become fitted to obtain their livings by such diverse
means and in such diverse situations. The weasels them-
selves hunt over the surface of the ground and into crevices
and holes; the mink while hunting actively on land is quite
at home in the water, swimming and diving in search of
aquatic prey; the otter is so thoroughly adapted for life in
the water that it lives almost entirely on fish which it catches
in their own element; the marten and fisher live in trees in
which they are so much at home that they can catch squirrels ;
the badger has taken to a subterranean life and burrows in
search of the small mammals on which he lives; the wolverine
is not adapted to any particular niche but has had his
strength and cunning developed to a remarkable degree; the
skunk of course is remarkable for the perfection of his par-
ticular means of defence; the other members of the family
possess scent glands like those of the skunk but in none of
them are they so highly developed.

8

Differences between Animals of the Same Species from
Different Localities. In the case of a species of mammal which
occurs over a very wide area, specimens from widely different
parts of its range are usually found to differ rather widely in
their characteristics. Thus the animals from one region may
average larger than those of the same kind from another
region, or they may be of a different colour, have longer tails
or longer ears or differ in other body proportions. Some of
these differences appear to be correlated in some way not yet
understood with certain factors of the environment, thus
specimens from forested areas are usually darker than speci-
mens of the same species from prairie or desert regions, and
northern forms are generally larger than representatives of
the same species from the south. In other characters no such
correlation can be discovered. Thus specimens from one
geographical area usually have certain average differences of
size, colour, body proportions, etc., as compared with those
of the same species from a different geographical area.

Animals of a species occupying different geographical
areas and differing in their characters are regarded as belong-
ing to different geographical races or subspecies. Thus
Marmota monax canadensis, the woodchuck of Northern
Ontario, is smaller and redder than the more southern form,
Marmota monax rufescens. There is, however, usually no
sharp line of demarkation between the geographical races or
subspecies of a mammal either in their characters or their
ranges; in the area intervening between the ranges of neigh-
bouring subspecies occur specimens intermediate in some or
all of their characters between those of the two subspecies in
question.

As the differences between subspecies are not so wide as
those which characterize distinct species, it is thought by
many students of animal life that by careful study it maty be
possible to discover the way in which these smaller differences
have arisen and so provide a clue as to the origin of specific
differences.

The Carnivore's Place in Nature. At first sight it may
appear as if the caVnivorous maimmals, — those that live by

9

killing and devouring others — are a disadvantage in the
economy of nature, but as one investigates the matter more
carefully he begins to wonder if Elton is not right when he
says that for a species to have the right enemies is a biological
advantage.

Were all of the young of any species to survive and mul-
tiply, that species would sooner or later occupy the whole
earth and commit suicide by eating out its food-supply.
On the average but two of all the offspring produced by
each pair of animals will reach maturity. If more matured
that species would increase until it crowded others off the earth .
In the case of the lower animals, such as fish, millions of young
are produced by a pair of adults; in the case of higher animals,
fewer young are produced but greater care is given them. In
any case, however, there must be a terrible mortality among
the offspring of all ariimals. This is the cause of the struggle
for existence, — more animals are produced than can possibly
survive.

What decides which two of the offspring of a pair of
animals shall survive of the dozens, hundreds or millions that
are produced? Is it blind chance that ^ecides? Accidents
no doubt play ah important part in the matter but zoologists
believe tha.t on the average those best fitted to survive do
survive, — those least liable to disease or more robust to throw
it off, the swiftest or the most skilful in escape, the cleverest
in securing food. In naiture the misfits and the unfit are soon
weeded out and only the fit, on the average, left to reproduce
their kind. Man does the same with his domestic animals.
He ruthlessly weeds out those that do not measure up to his
standard and breeds only from the best.

The carnivore is one of nature's selectors. To escape his
enemies an animal must be keen witted, and with all his
physical powers of a high degree of perfection. By weeding
out the unfit and the misfits, the carnivore contributes to the
well-being of the species on which it preys.

10

DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF ONTARIO MAMMALS

The mammals described in the following pages are taken
up in the order in which it was felt that they could be best
described. In most cases common or well-known forms are
discussed before less common forms.

On pages 45 to 48 will be found a complete list of the
species and subspecies dealt with, arranged in the order in
which they appear in Miller's List of North American Recent
Mammals. (U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 128, 1924.)

The Carnivores Order Carnivora

The "flesh-eaters" include many of our most valuable fur-
bearing mammals. They differ widely in size, appearance
and habits, but all make flesh the major portion of their food.
They are especially characterized by their large, strong,
pointed canine teeth. The incisors are small and relatively
weak while the premolars and molars have sharp, cutting
edges which bite on one another like a pair of shears. The
backmost teeth are usually broad and fitted for crushing.
The families represented in Ontario are as follows:

Ursidae Bears

Procyonidae . . . Raccoon

Mustelidae. . . .Weasels, mink, otter, fisher, martin,
wolverene, skunk

Canidae Foxes and wolves

Felidae Lynx

The Bears Ursidae

The general appearance of bears is familiar to everyone.
The coat colour of North American bears varies from jet black
through varying shades of brown and in one case grey-blue to
white. Only two species occur in Ontario — the Black Bear,
and at the extreme north, around James bay, the Polar Bear.

The Black Bear once ranged all over the province but is
now confined to the more unsettled and forested parts.

The bear is very much afraid of man and is usually not

11

dangerous except when cornered or wounded. A mother
bear, however, will fight for her cubs if harm threatens them.

It will eat almost anything it can get, but prefers a vege-
table diet, being especially fond of fruit. It also eats roots,
nuts, grasshoppers, ants, grubs, birds, mammals, frogs, fish,
and even carrion.

This bear hibernates during the winter and it is during
this time that the young, usually two in number, are born.
At birth they are about the size of squirrels, and at an early
stage of development.

The pelt of the black bear is usually a glossy black except
for the face, which is brownish. There is often a white spot
on the chest. Occasionally a brown colour phase known as
the Cinnamon Bear occurs.

A medium-sized black bear weighs two hundred pounds,
a very large one three hundred pounds.

T.L. 60 in. T.V. 5 in. H.F. 7 in.

The Ontario form is Ursus americanus americanus Pallas.

The Polar Bear ranges along the cost of Ontario bordering
on Hudson and James bays, never penetrating very far
inland.

This huge bear also eats almost anything it can find or
catch, ashore or afloat. It does not hibernate and spends
most of its life on drifting icefloes and swimming about in the
sea. The young, usually two in number, are born in Decem-
ber or January. The polar bear measures from seven to nine
feet in length and weighs from seven to sixteen hundred
pounds.

The Hudson bay form is Thalarctos maritimus maritimus (Phipps).

The Raccoons Procyonidae

The Raccoon is distributed over that part of Ontario
south of Parry Sound and Ottawa but occurs sparingly as far
north as the north shore of Lake Huron. It also enters the
province in the west along the Ontario-Minnesota boundary.
Raccoons are usually found along the edges of woodlands,
especially of hardwoods, where they find the hollow trees in
which they prefer to place their dens. Dense coniferous

12

woods are not to their liking. They prefer areas near streams,
lakes or marshes where frogs, fish and other aquatic animals
are to be had, but they will eat almost any fresh food such
as mammals, birds, eggs, reptiles, insects, fruit, green corn
and nuts. Their hunting is done in the darkest hours of the
night.

The young, three to six in number, are born in April or
May. Raccoons "den-up" during the coldest weather,
becoming active early in the spring.

The "coon's" grizzly, grey-brown fur and black-ringed tail
are familiar to almost everyone. The usual weight is between
fifteen and twenty pounds.

T.L. 30 in. T.V. 10 in. H.F. 4.5 in.

The Ontario form is Procyon lotor lotor (Linneaus).

The Weasel Family Mustelldae

Weasels are long, slender-bodied little animals with
short legs. In summer they are brown above and whitish
beneath, but in winter they become white except for the black
tip of the tail.

They are fierce, active hunters with an especial fondness
for the warm blood of their prey. While they can and at
times do climb trees, they spend most of their time hunting
on the ground and investigating burrows. From four to
eight young are brought forth to the litter.

The New York Weasel is the common weasel of southern
Ontario. The northern limit of its range is not definitely
known but it occurs at least as far north as Muskoka.

It preys on mice, squirrels, chipmunks, rabbits, birds and
eggs.

Its size, length of tail and proportion of the black tip of
the tail (about half the total tail length) are its distinguishing
features. Males are larger than females.

Male T.L. 16 in. T.V. 5J in. H.F. lf-2 in

Female T.L. 13 " T.V. 4-4i " H.F. lf-lj "

The Ontario form is Mustela noveboracensis noveboracensis (Emmone).

The Bonaparte Weasel is the common weasel of northern
Ontario. As mentioned above, these two species of weasels

13

occur together over quite an area in central Ontario, the New
York weasel gradually disappearing northward and the
present species becoming rarer towards the south. Its habits
are similar to those of its larger southern relative from which
it may be distinguished by its size, length of tail and propor-
tion of the black tip, which comprises about one-third the
length of the tail.

Male T.L. 11-12 in. T.V. 3-3i in. H.F. lj in.

Female T.L. 9 " T.V. 2-2| " H.F. 1 "

The form occurring over the greater part of the range of this species in
Ontario is Mustela cicognanii cicognanii Bonaparte. A larger form with
longer tail occurs in the extreme north along Hudson and James bays, M.c.
richardsonii (Bonaparte).

The Least Weasel has been recorded in Ontario only from
the shores of James bay. It is the smallest of the weasels
and is further distinguished by the fact that the tail has no
black tip.
Female T.L. 6 in. T.V. 1.2 in. H.F. .9 in.

The form referred to above is Mustela rixosa rixosa (Bangs). A south-
ern form M. r. allegheniensis (Rhoads) occurs along the south shore of Lake
Erie and may possibly extend into southwestern Ontario.

3

Sketches indicating relative lengths of tails and proportion of black tip of three
species of weasels, 1. Least weasel, 2. Bonaparte weasel, 3. New York weasel.

The Mink is generally distributed throughout the pro-
vince. In structure and appearance it resembles the weasel
but is larger, lacks the whitish belly and black-tipped tail and
does not turn white in winter.

14

While not so well adapted to an aquatic mode of life as
the otter, the partly webbed feet and short thick fur fit the
mink very well for its aquatic habits and it is seldom found
far from a stream, pond or lake. Its food consists of fish,
frogs, crayfish, mice, rabbits, muskrats and birds.

The den is usually a burrow in a stream bank or a retreat
under rocks or logs. The young are born in April or May.
Only one brood of from three to ten is brought forth in a year.

There is considerable difference between the minks of different regions
but those of Ontario have received so little study that it is not certain how
many forms occur here. Those in the northwestern part of the province
(Mustela vison lacustris (Preble)) are quite large as compared with those
farther east and south {Mustela vison vison Schreber). M. v. mink (Peale
and Beauvois) occurs in the eastern United States from the coast of New
England south to North Carolina, and in the interior to central Georgia
and Alabama, westward through southern Pennsylvania and Ohio to
Missouri and northeastern Texas, and is said to be the form found in
southern Michigan. It may possibly be represented in southwestern
Ontario. M. v. letijera Hollister ranges from northern Wisconsin and
northern South Dakota to northern Illinois, northern Missouri and southern
Kansas. Dice thinks it probable that this form occurs in northern Mich-
igan. If so, it is possible that it extends also into Ontario in the vicinity
of Sault Ste. Marie.

The Otter is still found in Ontario north of Lake Nipissing.
South of that it has been exterminated except where the water
courses are sufficiently wooded and unsettled.

It is the most aquatic in its habits of any of the weasel
family and is seldom found far from a lake or a stream. Its
dense, oily fur and webbed feet fit it admirably for life in the
water where most of its living is secured. Its food consists
chiefly of fish and crayfish, but it will take mammals, birds, or
even frogs when opportunity occurs.

The young, which are one to three in number and born
in April or May, must be taught by the adults to swim and
catch fish.

The otter is dusky brown in colour and is characterized
especially by its short thick fur, short legs and long tail.
T.L. 40-45 in. T.V. 12-15 in. H.F. 4-4} in.

The Ontario form is Lutra canadensis canadensis (Schreber).

15

The Fisher once ranged over most of Ontario and is still
found not uncommonly in the wilder parts of northern
Ontario. It is essentially a forest animal and disappears
when the pine and spruce forests in which it lives are cut
down.

For its size the fisher is said to be the swiftest and most
deadly of our forest carnivores. So agile is it that it catches
and kills squirrels and martens in the tree tops. On the
ground it hunts and captures a variety of mammals, including
foxes. One of its favourite victims is the porcupine.

The one to five young are usually born in May.

The pelt of the fisher is one of the most valuable of Ontario
furs. It is usually a brownish black in colour with an almost
black area along the back and with black nose, tail and feet.
T.L. 36 in. T.V. 15 in. H.F. 4 in.

The Ontario form is Maries pennanti pennanti (Erxleben).

The Marten is still to be found in northern Ontario as far
south as Algonquin Park.

It lives in the heavy evergreen forests, spending most of
its life in the trees. It is a skillful climber, able to overtake
and kill squirrels among the branches. Birds, small mam-
mals, fish, frogs, insects, reptiles and even fruit are also
included in its bill of fare. The fisher, the lynx and the great
horned owl are probably its most dangerous enemies.

The den is occasionally in a burrow but usually in a hollow
tree. The young martens, from one to five in number, are
born in the latter part of April.

The marten's fur is quite valuable. It is lighter in colour
than that of the fisher. The legs and bushy tail are dark
brown, not black as in the case of that species, while the general
colour is a rich brown.

T.L. 24 in. T.V. 7-8 in. H.F. 3.5 in.

The Ontario form is Martes americana americana (Turton). The
marten found west of Hudson bay is larger and has been described as a
separate geographical race under the name M. a. abieticola (Preble).

The Skunk is generally distributed over the province.
It may be found in all sorts of habitats within its range but is
not usually encountered in thick forests or swamps.

IS

The skunk lacks the swiftness and agility of the other
members of its family and except by luck or strategy is not
able to kill other mammals. Its food consists largely of
insects but it also eats snakes, frogs, birds and mammals
when it can catch them.

While the skunk, properly speaking, does not hibernate,
it does "den-up" during the severest weather. The dens are
usually old woodchuck holes but it will make a burrow for
itself if necessary. The young are born in April or May and
may be anywhere up to ten in number.

The appearance of the skunk is familiar to all, its black
fur, white stripes and bushy tail being quite distinctive.

The fluid which it uses in self-defence is secreted by two
glands under the tail. All the members of this family produce
a similar secretion but it reaches its highest development in
the skunk.

T.L. 24 in. T.V. 6.5-7.5 in. H.F. 3 in.

As in the case of so many of our mammals, definite information as to
the forms occurring in Ontario is very meagre. The species found in
northern Ontario is Mephitis mephitis mephitis (Schreber), and in southern
Ontario Mephitis mephitis nigra (Peale and Beauvois) . The form occurring
in Northern Michigan and Minnesota M. m. hudsonica (Richardson) may
occur in the adjoining parts of Ontario.

The Wolverine occurs only in the extreme northern part
of the province and there only sparingly. It is the largest of
the weasel family and is especially characterized by its great
strength and cunning. It has been described as the animal
world's greatest thief, and does considerable damage by
following up lines of traps and destroying the animals caught
in them, and breaking and carrying away the traps.

The wolverine cannot climb or run well and so most of
its hunting is done on the ground Its food consists prin-
cipally of birds, mice, lemmings, young animals, reptiles and
insects, but it has been known to attack and kill even deer.

The young, varying from two to five, are born in some
sheltered nest in midsummer.

The wolverine's squat, powerful frame and long, dark
coat with a yellowish band along the side make it unmistakable.
T.L. 37-41 in. T.V. 7-8.5 in. H.F. 7-8 in.

Our species is Gulo luscus (Linnaeus).

17

Foxes and Wolves Canidae

The members of this family are medium-sized, carnivorous
animals, dog-like in form. Their hunting is confined to the
land although they can swim well enough if occasion demands.
In contrast to most animals, the father takes an active part
in the care of the young. They do not hibernate but are
active all winter. Four representatives of the family occur
in Ontario.

The Red Fox is distributed all over the province and is
found in all sorts of habitats within its range.

It preys on mice, rabbits, squirrels, birds and other small
animals. Birds' eggs, fruit, berries and even carrion are also
eaten. The fox in turn is preyed upon by eagles, wolves, the
lynx, and fisher.

The young, numbering from four to nine, are born in
March or April, usually in a burrow but sometimes a hollow
log or an old stump is used as a den.

Black, Silver and Cross foxes are colour phases of the
common red fox.

T.L. 40 in. T.V. 16 in. H.F. 6.5 in.

The Ontario red fox is Vulpes fulva (Desmarest).

The Arctic Fox frequents that part of Ontario bordering
on Hudson bay.

Its food Consists of small mammals, birds and eggs, fruit,
berries and carrion. During the winter it ranges the ice floes
for sea food as well as hunting on land.

The summer coat of the Arctic fox is dark brown above,
with lighter underparts; in the winter the animal is entirely
white. A "blue" colour phase that does not turn white in
winter sometimes occurs.

The chief enemies of this fox are wolves and polar bears.

The den is either a burrow or a retreat among the rocks
and there in the early summer the young, numbering as high
as eleven, are born*

T.L. 30 in. T.V. 10 in. H,F. 4.5 in.

The Ontario form is Alopex lagopus innuitus (Merriam).

The Brush Wolf ranges over the greater part of the

18

province, from the Manitoba boundary as far east as Ottawa,
south as far as the Kawartha lakes and north at least as far
as the main line of the Canadian National Railway.

This wolf pVeys chiefly on small mammals and birds but
will eat reptiles, fruit or carrion.

The young, three to ten in number, are born in spring.
The den is in a burrow, a hollow log or among rocks.

The brush wolf is smaller than the timber wolf and usually
has finer fur of a more reddish hue.
Female. . . . .T.L. 49 in. T.V. 16 in. H.F. 7.2 in.

The Ontario form is provisionally identified as Canis latrans Say.

The Timber Wolf ranges as far south and east as the
brush wolf and is distributed all over northern Ontario up to
Hudson bay.

It preys on the animals within its range from deer to mice,
as well as eating birds, fish and carrion.

The young vary in number, six to nine being the average-
They are born in spring or early summer. The den is usually
among rocks or in a hollow log, or less often in a hole in the
ground.

In colour the timber wolf shows great variations, from
white, grizzled gray or reddish gray to an almost blue shade
and sometimes to a deep black. Its large size, coarse fur,
which on the neck and shoulders form a sort of mane, and
proportionately shorter tail, will usually distinguish it from
the brush wolf.

Male T.L. 64 in. T.V. 16 in. H.F. 10 in.

Female..... T.L. 56 " T.V. 12 " H.F. 10 "
The timber wolf of eastern Canada 13 Canis lycaon Schreber.

The Cat Family Felidae

Two species of lynx are the only representatives of this
family now found in Ontario. The cougar (Felts couguar
Kerr) was occasionally found in the southern part of the
province up till the middle of the last century but has now
been extinct in Ontario for nearly fifty years.

19

The Canada Lynx is generally distributed over northern
Ontario, especially in the wilder sections.

Its staple diet consists of hares but it also eats squirrels,
mice, birds, snakes and frogs and has been known to attack
and kill even deer and caribou. Its numbers fluctuate
markedly with the rise and fall in number of hares, as de-
scribed in the introduction.

The lynx is a large cat-like animal with prominent tufts
of long hairs on its ears, with long legs and big feet, and short
tail, tipped with black. In summer the colour is brownish, in
winter a grizzled gray. In winter, too, the large feet become
larger still by the growth of long, stiff hairs and serve as
snowshoes to enable the animal to walk on snow into which
other animals of its size and weight sink.

T.L. 36-39 in. T.V. 4 in. H.F. 9^ in.

The Ontario form is Lynx canadensis canadensis Kerr.

The Bay Lynx or Bobcat, as it is sometimes called,
once ranged over southern Ontario, as far north as Georgian
bay. It is still found occasionally in various parts of its
former range where wooded and unsettled areas give it a
refuge.

The bay lynx preys on the same animals as its northern
relative, the Canada lynx, and has similar habits.

It also resembles that species in appearance but is more
reddish in colour, more definitely spotted, the black spots on
the tail having a tendency to form rings. It is not always
possible to identify lynx with certainty from external appear-
ances. As the extent to which this species still occurs in
Ontario is doubtful, persons killing an animal which they
believe to be of this species are urged to communicate with
the Museum. For certain identification the skull should be
saved and measurements made of the animal before skinning,
as described on page 6.

T.L. 36 in. T.V. 7 in. H.F. 7 in.

The Ontario form is Lynx rufus rufus (Schreber).

20

Order Marsupialia

The Opossum formerly occurred sparingly along the
north shore of Lake Erie, but none has now been recorded
from Ontario for many years.

The Ontario form was Didelphis virginiana virginiana Kerr.

Moles and Shrews Order Insectivora

Moles and shrews are small, mouse-like animals with long,
pointed snouts, and minute eyes and ears. The soft, erect,
velvety fur differs from that of most mammals in that it may
be stroked forwards as easily as backwards. They subsist
largely on insects which the moles secure by burrowing, and
the shrews by searching among the leaves and fallen debris
of the forest floor. Two families are represented in Ontario,
the Moles (Talpidae), and the Shrews (Soricidae).

The Moles Talpidae

The moles differ from shrews in the possession of broad,
shovel-like forefeet adapted for digging. They prefer a loose,
sandy or loamy soil and in it will drive burrows in all direc-
tions in search of earth worms and grubs. Long ridges of
earth and piles of loose soil are the usual visible evidence of
these active little miners. Very little is known regarding
their habits. The young, about four in number, are born in
April or May and remain in the nest deep underground till
well grown.

The Prairie Mole is found in Ontario only in the south-
western part of the province. It is most abundant in open
ground, such as meadows, but is also found in open wood-
lands and other similar locations.

It may be readily distinguished from other Ontario moles by
its naked tail and absence of fleshy projections about the nose.
T.L. 6} to 7 in. T.V. 1 to \\ in.

The Ontario form is Scahpus aquaticus machrinus (Rafinesque).

The Hairy-Tailed Mole is nowhere common but occurs
throughout most of southern Ontario. It resembles the
prairie mole in general appearance except that its tail is
thickly haired.

T.L. 6 in. T.V. 1* in.

The Ontario form is Parascalops breweri (Bachman).

21

The Star-Nosed Mole is generally distributed over On-
tario. It is most abundant in wet,
swampy ground but is sometimes found
in dry locations. In winter the star-
nosed mole will burrow under the snow
or even run about on the surface. It is
easily recognized by the peculiar fringe
of fingerlike processes about its nose.

Nose of star-nosed mole rpj 71 Q * T V Ql '

showing fringe of tentacles. 1 .L.. i 2~o in. l.V. Og in.

The Ontario form is Condylura cristata (Linnaeus).

The Shrews Soricidae

The shrews are the smallest of our mammals. In appear-
ance they are not unlike moles but their forefeet are not
enlarged for digging. They are usually found in damp situa-
tions, such as along the banks of streams, in low meadows,
sphagnum bogs, swamps or cool, damp woods. These tiny
hunters spend their lives searching under rocks, logs and
vegetation for insects and worms, but will kill and eat mice
if opportunity offers. They do not hibernate but are active
under the snow all winter.

The shrews offer many difficulties to the beginner, but will
be found an intensely interesting group by anyone who will
devote a little time to their study. Comparatively little is
known about the occurrence and distribution of shrews in
Ontario. The opportunity of making original discoveries is
perhaps greater in this group than in that of any other group
of Ontario mammals.

Short-tailed Shrews

Two species of Ontario shrews may be readily known from
all others by their short tails which are less than half the
length of the head and body.

The Mole Shrew or Short-Tailed Shrew is one of the
commonest and most widely distributed of our shrews. Its
range covers the entire province except perhaps the extreme
north. In habits it is more like a mole than a shrew, in that
it hunts about beneath the layer of decaying leaves and other
debris that covers the forest floor. Its size will serve to dis-

22

Sketches indicating relative sizes and lengths of tails of Ontario shrews, 1. Mole
shrew, 2. Saddleback shrew, 3. Cinereous shrew, 4. Little short-tailed shrew, 5.
Pigmy shrew, 6. Smoky shrew, 7. Water shrew.

tinguish it from the next, the only other species of short-tailed
shrew in Ontario.

T.L. 5 in. T.V. 1 in.

The Ontario form Blarina brevicauda talpoides (Gapper) is perhaps
identical with B.b. brevicauda (Say).

The Little Short-Tailed Shrew is known at present
from only one locality in Ontario, viz., Long Point on Lake
Erie.

T.L. 3.1 in. T.V. .64 in.

The Ontario form is Cryptotis parva (Say).

I^ONG-TAILED SHREWS

The following shrews have the tail more than half the
length of the head and body.

The Pigmy Shrew is our smallest mammal. It is thought
to occur throughout the province but little definite informa-
tion as to its occurrence and habits is available. It is said to
prefer dry clearings rather than dark woods or damp places.
Its diminutive size is one of its distinctive features.

23

From our other long-tailed shrews it may be distinguished
with certainty by an examination of its teeth. Looking at
the side of the upper jaw only three unicuspid teeth can be
seen while in the others there are four and sometimes five
such teeth.

T.L. 3.3 in. T.V. 1.3 in. H.F. .42 in.

The form throughout most of northern Ontario, and at least as far
south as Georgian bay is Microsorex hoyi intervectus Jackson ; southward
in Ontario, M. h. hoyi (Baird). The range limits of all these forms are
uncertain.

Sketch showing difference between dentition of genus

Sorex (Cinereous shrew) (a) and Microsorex (Pigmy

shrew) (b). In the former note the two-lobed incisor

followed by five unicuspid teeth and first molariform

tooth; in the latter the third unicuspid is small,

disc-like antero-posteriorly flattened and the fifth uni-
cuspid is minute.

The Smoky Shrew is likely to be found anywhere in
Ontario south of Lake Nipissing. The northern limit of its
range is not known. It may usually be distinguished from
the next species by its larger size.

The incompletely pigmented ridges on the inner side of
the upper unicuspid teeth afford a more certain means of
distinguishing this species from the preceding.

T.L. 4.6 in. T.V. 1.8 in. H.F. .52 in.

The form found in Ontario is Sorex fumeus fumeus Miller.

The Cinereous Shrew is the commonest and next to the
pigmy shrew the smallest of our long- tailed shrews. It is
generally distributed throughout Ontario.

It is likely to be confused with the smoky shrew. From
this species it is distinguished by its much smaller and lighter
skull, while each of the upper unicuspid teeth has a completely

24

pigmented vertical ridge on the inner side. The unicuspid
teeth are arranged in pairs, while in the smoky shrew they are
graduated in size from the front backwards.

T.L. 4 in. T.V. 1.6 in. H.F. .5 in.

The Ontario form is Sorex cinereus cinereus Kerr.

The Saddle-back Shrew is known to occur north of
Lake Superior*. It is of medium size with rather short tail.
It is characterized by a pronounced tricolour pattern, "the
back distinctly darker than the sides, which in turn are
distinctly darker than the ventral parts."

T.L. \y2 in. T.V. IX in. H.F. 9/16 in.

The form found north of Lake Superior is Sorex arcticus arcticus Kerr.
5. a. laricorum Jackson, a form found in northern Michigan, may extend
into Ontario in the vicinity of Sault Ste. Marie.

The Water Shrew as its name suggests, is never found
far from water. It is a splendid swimmer and diver, obtain-
ing much of its food in ponds and streams. It is known to
occur in Ontario north of Parry Sound. It may be iden-
tified by its habitat preferences, its size and is thickly fringed
hind feet.

T.L. 6.4 in. T.V. 2.7 in. H.F. .8 in.

Sorex palustris palustris Richardson is the form found north and east
of Lake Superior; 5. p. albibarbis (Cope) occurs east and north of Parry
Sound; the Wisconsin form (5. p. hydrobadistes Jackson) may extend into
Ontario north of Lake Huron.

The Bats Order Chiroptera

Bats are regarded with aversion if not with dread by the
great majority of people. There seems to be something
uncanny and mysterious about a creature that avoids the
day, coming out in the dusk to flit about so noiselessly.
There is, however, no cause to fear the bats found in this
country. Their presence is, if anything, to be desired since
their food consists of insects and they thus rid the air of many
annoying pests.

The bats are the only mammals capable of flight. Their

*Its general range is "Plains of Saskatchewan and boreal parte of
Minnesota and Wisconsin; north to lower Mackenzie valley."

25

"wings" are really modified hands, the fingers being greatly
extended and connected by a thin membrane which also
extends to the hind limb and to the tail.

Bats are to be found almost anywhere within their range
at the proper season and where flying insects abound. Their
favourite hunting grounds are along streams, lakes, forest
glades, meadows and even near street lights.

On the approach of winter most of our bats migrate, but
the question of migration has not been fully investigated as
yet.

The breeding season is in the early fall and the young,
from one to four in number depending on the species, are
born the following spring or summer. The mother carries
the young about with her till they are able to fly.

Owls are probably their worst enemies.

Only one family (Vespertilionidae) is represented in
Ontario.

The Red Bat is known to range over Ontario, south of
Lake Nipissing, but its northern range limits are not known.
This bat is never found far from forests except during
migration. It starts hunting early in the evening, occasion-
ally flying about in the day time. In flight its long narrow
wings may be noted and it shows a tendency to fly high.

The young, one to four in number, are born about June,
the mother carrying them about with her for some time.

Its reddish colouration will serve to identify this bat. It
has 32 teeth.

T.L. 4.25 in. T.V. 2 in. H.F. 3 in.

Forearm 1.5 in.
The Ontario form is Nycteris borealis borealis (Miiller).

The Hoary Bat. The whole of the province is included
in the range of the hoary bat but it is everywhere rare.

Its habits are similar to those of the red bat but it starts
hunting later in the evenings and flies very high.

This is the largest of our bats and may be readily iden-
tified in flight by its size and on closer examination by the
silvery-white tips of the long hairs which overlie the yellowish-

26

gray underfur on the back. It also has 32 teeth.

T.L. 5.5. in. T.V. 2.25 in. H.F. .4 in.

Forearm 2 in.
The Ontario form is Nycteris cinerea (Beauvois).

The Silver-haired Bat is widely but irregularly dis-
tributed over the province. It is most often found along
streams and borders of woods. It spends the day in a hollow
tree or some similar shelter, appearing in the early twilight.
The young are generally two in number.

The dark brown almost black fur of this bat, tipped with
silvery-white, will serve to distinguish it. The teeth are 36
in number.

T.L. 4 in. T.V. 1.6 in. H.F. .3 in.

Forearm 1.5 in.
The Ontario form is Lasionycteris noctivagans (LeConte).

The Big Brown Bat ranges over most of Ontario at least
as far north as the northern shore of Lake Superior, but its
northern range limits are uncertain.

This is the commonest of our larger bats, being often found
in towns and cities, though it seems to prefer meadows,
clearings and watercourses. Some big brown bats hibernate
during the cold weather and others migrate. The young are
one or two in number.

The uniform dull brown colour combined with its size
will usually serve to distinguish it. It possesses 32 teeth.
T.L. 4-5 in. T.V. 1.75-2 in. H.F. .3-.5 in.

Forearm 1.8 in.

The Ontario form is Eptesicus fuscus fuscus (Beauvois).

The Little Brown Bats resemble one another so closely
that without the aid of a series of specimens for comparison it
is, in most cases, almost impossible to distinguish the different
forms. Their ranges include the whole of the province and
they penetrate farther north than any others of our bats.

All the members of this genus have 38 teeth and the
measurements of the commonest form, Myotis lucifugus
lucifugus, are as follows:

T.L. 3.6 in. T.V. 1.6 in. H.F. .35 in.

Forearm, 1.5 in.

But two forms are certainly known to occur in Ontario, Myotis lucifugus

27

lucifugus (LeConte), which ranges all over Ontario as far north as the limit
of trees, and Myotis keenii septentrionalis (Trouessart), which ranges over
southern Ontario and north at least to the north shore of Lake Superior.
The long ears of this bat, reaching well past the tip of the nose when laid
forward, will serve to distinguish it from the former in which the ear will
usually reach only to the nostril.

Two other forms, M. subulatus leibii (Audubon and Bachman) and M.
sodalis Miller and Allen occur in the United States along the St. Lawrence
and lakes Erie and Ontario and may extend into adjoining parts of Ontario.

The Pipistrelle has been recorded only once from Ontario,
but as it appears to be generally distributed south of lakes
Ontario and Erie in the United States, it may be expected to
occur at least occasionally in the neighbouring parts of
Ontario. This species is rather social in its habits and is
often found sleeping during the day in large clusters. The
young are usually two in number.

In size and yellowish brown colouration this small bat

resembles the little brown bats mentioned above but it has

only 34 teeth whereas the bats of the genus Myotis have 38.

T.L. 3.4 in. T.V. 1.5 in. H.F. .32 in.

Forearm 1.3 in.

The Ontario form is Pipistrellus subflavus obscurus Miller.

The Evening Bat has been taken in extreme south-
western Ontario. It is of medium size and dull brown
colouration. The tip of the tail extends beyond the inter-
femoral membrane which is bare.
The teeth are 30 in number.

T.L. 3X in. T.V. \y2 in. H.F. % in.

Forearm lj^ in.
The form found in Ontario is Nycticeius humeralis (Rafinesque).

The Rodents Order Rodentia

The members of this order in Ontario range in size from
mouse to beaver. They differ widely in appearance and
habits but all have the front or incisor teeth reduced to a single
pair, in each jaw. These teeth are chisel-like and are especi-
ally adapted for gnawing. With use they gradually wear
away but do not become worn down because they continue
to grow from the root throughout the entire life of the animal.

28

All rodents depend on a vegetable diet. Ultimately, of
course, all animals depend for their existence on plants and
the rodents are very important in the r61e of converting
vegetation into food for the carnivores.

The rodent families found in Ontario are as follows:

Sciuridae Squirrels, chipmunks and woodchuck.

Castoridae Beaver.

Cricetidae Native mice and rats.

Muridae Introduced mouse and rat.

Zapodidae Jumping mice.

Erethizontidae . . Porcupine.

The Squirrel Family Sciuridae

This family affords an interesting case of closely related
animals that have become adapted to widely different manners
of life. The chipmunks spend much of the time on or near
the ground; the squirrels are at home in the trees, the flying
squirrel being the nearest approach this family has attained
to life in the air; the burrowing habit is represented by the
woodchuck.

The Red Squirrel is a common mammal all over Ontario.
It prefers coniferous woods but is at home almost anywhere.

It does not hibernate but stores up quantities of nuts,
cones and seeds of various kinds for the lean winter season.
Hollow trees are favourite nesting places but outside nests of
leaves perched high in the forking branches of a tree are also
used.

Usually from four to six young are brought forth each
year.

T.L. 12 in. T.V. 5 in. H.F. If in.

Sciurus hudsonicus loquax Bangs is the form found in Ontario south and
east of Georgian bay; Sciurus hudsonicus hudsonicus (Erxleben) is the
northern Ontario form; a third form 5. h. gymnicus Bangs, which occurs
in Quebec south of the St. Lawrence and in the New England States, may
extend into Ontario in the extreme east.

The Black or Gray Squirrel is still to be found in fair
numbers all over southwestern Ontario and even as far north
as Lake Simcoe and Ottawa. It prefers to live in hardwood
forests.

It does not hibernate but stores up food for the winter.
Its nests are either placed in hollow trees or consist of large
bundles of leaves placed high in the branches.

The young number four to six to a litter and it is thought
that sometimes two litters are produced in a season.

The black squirrel is a colour phase of the gray. In some
places the gray phase is the more numerous, in others the
black phase, while in others the two colours occur in almost
equal numbers.

T.L. 18 in. T.V. 8.5 in. H.F. 2.5 in.

Sciurus carolinensis leucotis (Gapper) is the only Ontario form.

The Eastern Chipmunk occurs all over Ontario except
perhaps in the extreme north. It is the only chipmunk found
in southern Ontario.

Its favourite haunts are high, dry ridges or sunny places
with plenty of underbrush or rocks for cover. In forests it is
found in openings and clearings rather than in the deep woods.
When startled it scampers precipitately, with tail erect, to
its burrow, located in a rockpile or under a stump, log or brush
heap.

The chipmunk stores up a great quantity of food for winter
and whether it really hibernates or simply lives underground
in its burrows during this time is not definitely known.

But one litter is thought to be produced each year, the
young usually numbering four or five.

The only animal it is likely to be confused with is the little
Western Chipmunk. The eastern chipmunk's greater size, two
broad stripes and reddish colouration, particularly on the
rump, will usually identify it.

T.L. 9-10 in. T.V. 4 in. H.F. If in.

Tamias striatus lysteri (Richardson) is the form found in southern
Ontario; in northern Ontario Tamias striatus griseus Mearns.

The Western Chipmunk occurs throughout Ontario
north of North Bay. It is smaller and greyer than the fore-
going and has five dark and four narrow light-coloured stripes
on its back.

30

In habits it does not differ essentially from that of its
larger eastern cousin.

T.L. 8-8H in. T.V. 3# in. H.F. \% in.

The ranges of the two forms known to occur in Ontario are uncertain.
Eutamias minimus jacksoni Howell ranges through northern Wisconsin,
Minnesota and Michigan and eastward along the north shore of Lake
Swperior as far as Nipigon, where it is said to intergrade with Eutamias
minimus borealis (Allen).

The Flying Squirrels are tree dwellers, and so are limited
to wooded sections. They are to be found sparingly all over
Ontario, but owing to their nocturnal habits are seldom seen.

Flying squirrels do not fly in the true sense of the term.
They climb to a considerable height in a tree and then, by
spreading out the folds of skin which connect their front and
hind limbs, glide downward, alighting below as well as ahead
of the starting point.

They do not hibernate. Their nests are often placed in
hollow trees, usually in old woodpecker nests, but sometimes
outside nests made of leaves are used. The three to six young
are born late in April.

The Eastern Flying Squirrel, which in Ontario is found
only in the south, is considerably smaller than the northern
species. In addition, the fur on the under side of the former
is white at the roots whereas in the northern flying squirrel
it is grey at the roots.
Eastern flying squirrel: —

T.L. 9 in. T.V. 4 in. H.F. \% in.

Northern flying squirrel: —

T.L. 12 in. T.V. 5^ in. H.F. V/A in.

The Ontario form of the Eastern Flying Squirrel is Glaucomys volans
volans (Linnaeus). The central Ontario form of the Northern Flying
Squirrel is Glaucomys sabrinus macrotis (Mearns); in the north it is G. s.
sabrinus (Shaw).

The Woodchuck lives contentedly in suitable habitats all
over Ontario.

It prefers high and dry situations, frequenting fields and
the openings in the forest rather than the deep woods. It
becomes very fat in the fall and goes into hibernation at an
early date.

31

The young, numbering three to five, are born in late April.
The woodchuck is commonly a grizzled, reddish brown but
occasionally a very dark or black specimen is found.
T.L. 24 in. T.V. 5 in. H.F. 3.5 in.

Marmota monax monax (Linnaeus) perhaps occurs in the extreme
outh-western part of the province. Marmota m. rufescens (Howell) occurss
over the rest of southern Ontario. Marmota m. canadensis (Erxleben)
ranges over northern Ontario.

The Beaver Family Castoridae

The Beaver in early times was abundant along the water-
courses throughout the province, and for many years was the
most sought after North American fur-bearer. Finally, from
excessive trapping, it became almost extinct, but as a result of
the protection afforded it recently it is gradually increasing in
some localities.

The beaver subsists on aquatic and other plants and on the
bark, twigs, foliage and even the wood of trees, particularly
aspen, cottonwoods and willows.

A dome-like lodge of branches and mud built in a pond
created by damming a slow-flowing stream forms the usual
home but occasional individuals live in bank burrows along
suitable streams.

The form found in Ontario is Castor canadensis canadensis Kuhl.

Rats and Mice
In considering the rats and mice it is necessary to dis-
tinguish between the semi-domestic house mouse and house rat,
which have reached America since the white man came, and
the rats and mice native to the country. The introduced
mouse and rat usually live in buildings, and cause enormous
economic loss by consuming grain and other stores and by
their injury to the buildings. The rat is moreover a carrier of
disease. The native mice as a rule frequent the fields and
wooded areas, but some of them, notably the meadow mice,
are destructive to crops and particularly to young orchards
which they injure by girdling the small trees. Most of our
native species of mice, however, live in uncultivated areas and
are of little economic importance except as food for some of the

32

carnivorous fur-bearing animals. In this connection Ernest
Thompson Seton says: "What moss is to the reindeer, what
grass is to the cattle, the mouse millions of the north are to all
the northern carnivores from bear to Blarina. When we shall
have fully worked out the life history of each of these species,
I believe we shall learn that the whole of that vast, beautiful,
important, and specialized production that we call the
Carnivora rests on a broad, simple basis of Muridae, that in
turn rests on the grass, that rests on the earth. We shall for
each of these flesh-eaters write, 'it sometimes eats this and
sometimes eats that, but by far the greatest bulk of its food
is mice.' "

The muskrat, a member of this group, is, of course, one of
our most important furbearers.

Native Rats and Mice Cricetidae

Long-tailed Native Mice
(Tail about as long as body)

The White-footed Mice (Deer Mice) are found in every
part of Ontario. They are sleek, graceful little animals with
large ears, big eyes and a long, slender tail. They derive one
of their common names from the colour of their coats which
are fawn-coloured above and white below. 'The name, white-
footed mice, is also accurately descriptive of another of their
characteristic markings. The tail, which is about as long as
the body, is cferk above and whitish beneath. Young and
immature specimens are quite dark as compared with adults.

These mice do not hibernate but are active throughout the
winter. They are commonly found in or near wooded areas,
but sometimes enter houses.

A number of forms of Peromyscus occur in Ontario. Peromyscus
maniculatus maniculatus (Wagner) is the form in the Hudsonian zone.
Peromyscus maniculatus gracilis (LeConte) occurs in the rest of the province.
The latter area is occupied also by Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis
(Fischer). The two forms, however, are said to occupy different habitats
within their common range, " gracilis showing preference for the colder,
more moist places, or deep, mostly coniferous woods; noveboracensis for the
dryer, more open county, or deciduous woods."

With the clearing away of the forest of southwestern Ontario and of
Michigan and Illinois there has spread into this area from the prairies of

33

the middle west, Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii (Hoy and Kennicott).
This form has now spread as far east as Toronto. The immigration of this
prairie mouse makes three forms of deer mice in some sections of Ontario.
P. m. bairdii is the smallest of the three, has the shortest tail and is darkest
in colour; P. m. gracilis has a longer, more hairy and more distinctly bi-
coloured tail and softer and duller coloured fur than P. /. noveboracensis.
The latter is the most brightly coloured of the three.

There is so much variation in size among these mice that the following
measurements indicate only the average size of the different forms. In
the study of these mammals access to a properly named series of specimens
such as is found in museums is almost a necessity.

Total length Tail vertebrae Hind foot

P. m. maniculatus 7 inches 3f inches % inch

P. m. gracilis 1x/2 " 3^ " X "

P. m. bairdii 5 " 2)4 " f "

P. /. noveboracensis 6^ " 3 H i "

Short-Tailed Native Mice

The Meadow Mouse is found throughout the province.
It is a stout, little animal with small eyes, inconspicuous
ears, short legs and tail, and long, thick fur. It is dark
brownish grey above with grayish underparts. The short
tail is covered with short, dark hairs.

They prefer to live in grassy places. They are active by
day as well as by night and make a network of runways among
the vegetation, connecting their burrows with their feeding
grounds. They are active all winter under the snow, but
have the habit of gathering stores for winter use. Their large
nests of dry grass are sometimes placed in underground
chambers; at other times in depressions on the surface. Under
favourable conditions, particularly when their natural enemies
are absent, they sometimes increase in numbers sufficiently
to cause "mouse plagues."

Their food consists almost entirely of grass, roots, seeds,
bark, etc. Their enemies are legion, including hawks, owls,
weasels, skunks, foxes, wolves and all other carnivorous
mammals. Milk snakes, fox snakes and rattlesnakes prey on
them also.

T.L. 5^-7 in. T.V. lJ^-2 in. H.F. % in.

The form in southern Ontario is Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus
(Ord); in the north M. p.fontigenus (Bangs).

34

The Yellow-cheeked Vole has been taken in Ontario
north of Lake Superior and at Lake Abitibi. It resembles the
preceding species in size but has larger ears. It is especially
characterized by a yellowish patch on the side of the face
between the nose and the eye. Its habits are little known.
T.L. 6H in. T.V. 1^ in. H.F. ^ in.

The Ontario form is Microtus chrotorrhinus chrolorrhinus (Miller).

The Red-backed Vole is quite similar to the meadow
mouse, to which it is closely related, but its ears are longer and
it usually has a broad reddish band running down the centre
of its back.* It prefers cool forests and so is now found
chiefly in northern Ontario, occurring farther south only in
low, cool swamps and bogs.

Their habits are somewhat similar to those of the meadow
mouse, except as affected by differences in their habitats.
The entrances to their burrows are often placed in the shelter
of a stump or log. They are vegetable feeders and have about
the same enemies as their near relatives.

T.L. 5H in. T.V. 13^ in. H.F. tf in.

The Ontario form is Clethrionomys gapperi gapperi (Vigors).

The Pine Mouse is another close relative of the meadow
mouse to which it bears considerable resemblance. Its tail,
however, is shorter and its fur finer, shorter and more glossy,
giving it a somewhat mole-like apperance.

In habits, as well as in appearance, the pine mouse re-
sembles the mole for it tunnels just under the surface of the
ground. It prefers open woods with some brush and "scrub,"
rather than thick forests.

This mouse has been taken in Ontario only in the neigh-
bourhood of London.

T.L. 4§ in. T.V. f in. H.F. \ in.

The Ontario form is Pitymys pinetorum scalopsoides (Audubon and
Bachman).

The Lemming Mouse occurs throughout Ontario at
least as far north as Lake Nipigon. It looks something like a
short-tailed meadow mouse but is really more closely related

*In some localities individuals occur which lack the red on the back.

35

to the lemmings.* Its fur, which is coarser than that of the
meadow mouse, has a grizzled appearance above; below, the
colour is whitish over darker under-fur. The tail is bicolour.
The lemming mouse may be recognized by its orange-coloured
incisors, the upper of which are grooved longitudinally. In
comparison with other mice which is resembles in appearance
it has a very short tail. Its habits are almost unknown;
specimens have been taken in dry situations as well as in bogs,
which are said to be its favourite habitat.

T.L. 4f in. T.V. f in. H.F. 11/16 in.

The form occurring ?n Ontario, formerly recorded under the name
Synaptomys fatuus Bangs, should now be known as S. cooperi cooperi
Baird.

Phenacomys is a rare mouse which has been recorded
only a few times from northern Ontario.

In general appearance it resembles a medium-sized meadow
mouse, except that it has a shorter tail and a distinctly
yellowish area on the nose. The feet are pale buff and the
tail faintly bicolour. f

Very little is known regarding its habits. It has been
found in dry situations as well as in bogs.

T.L. bl/2 in. T.V. 1% in. H.F. ft in.

The Ontario form is Phenacomys ungava ungava Merriam.

The lemmings are stout, long-haired relatives of the meadow mice
found chiefly in Arctic regions. The group is perhaps best known because
of the migrations occasionally undertaken by the lemming of Scandinavia.
During these migrations vast hordes of the creatures are said to move
steadily in one direction, regardless of all obstacles, even crossing rivers
and lakes and when they come to the sea, swimming until they drown.
They form an important item in the food of many carnivorous birds and
mammals of the Arctic.

In northern Canada occur the collared lemmings (Dicrostonyx hudsonius
and its relatives) which are the only mice to turn white in winter, and the
brown lemming (Lemmus trimucronatus (Richardson)). These true lem-
mings are confined to Arctic America and perhaps do not occur as far south
as Ontario.

{The hind foot is 6-tuberculate, the outer tubercle large and prominent,
while in Microtus it is nearly obsolete.

Phenacomys, in common with Clethrionomys and Ondatra, differ from
all other Cricetidae in having rooted molars in the adult. From Cleth-
rionomys, Phenacomys may be distinguished by having the posterior border
of the palate not shelf-like.

3d

The Muskrat is found all over the province, being especi-
ally common in marshes, slow-flowing streams, and shallow,
muddy lakes.

Its principal food consists of the roots and branches of
aquatic plants, but it is fond of molluscs, and will also eat fish
or flesh on occasion.

In suitable situations muskrats build dome-shaped houses
of reeds and other coarse vegetation, but in a stream with
high banks they usually live in burrows.

They are very prolific, three to twelve young being born
to a litter, and in Ontario two or three litters are produced
each year.

T.L. 21 in. T.V. 10 in. H.F. 3^ in.

Ondatra z. zibethica (Linnaeus) is the form found over most of the prov-
ince. Along Hudson Bay a smaller form Ondatra z. alba (Sabine) occurs.

Introduced Rats and Mice Muridae

The House Mouse is unfortunately only too familiar to
most people. It has followed man into most parts of Ontario
except in some of the more sparsely settled districts of the
north.

It is distinguished from our native mice by its long, hairless
tail and by the nearly uniform brownish gray colour of its
upper and under parts.

T.L. 6| in. T.V. 3J in. H.F. f in.

The scientific name of this mouse is Mus musculus musculus Linnaeus.

The House Rat is native to central Asia. It reached
Europe early in the eighteenth century and is believed to have
first arrived in Great Britain about 1730. Since then it has
been disseminated by ships and other transportation means
to nearly all parts of the globe. Because of their immense
numbers, world-wide distribution, destructiveness and the
fact that they are carriers of disease, rats are the worst
mammal pests known to man.

T.L. 12-16 in. T.V. 6-7 in. H.F. 1^-1^ in.

The scientific name of the common house rat is Rattus norvegicus
(Erxleben).

Two European relatives of the house rat preceded it to North America,

37

the black rat Rattus rattus rattus (Linn.), and the roof rat Rattus rattus
alexandrinus (Geoffroy). The house rat being larger and fiercer has driven
the other two invaders from the haunts which it prefers and so reduced
them to insignificance. The black rat and the roof rat have occasionally
reached Ontario in shipments from abroad but so far as known have never
survived and spread.

J umping Mouse Family Zapodidae

Jumping Mice are slender-bodied, mouse-like animals
with long hind legs and very long, slender tails (5-6 in.). They
progress by leaping, the long tail serving as a balancing organ.
The hind feet are very long, like those of a little kangaroo,
while the front legs are relatively short.

Their nests are placed in underground chambers opening
off burrows — shallow in summer and deeper for winter use.
Chambers for food storage are also provided although they
pass the winter in hibernation.

The Meadow Jumping Mouse is found throughout
Ontario. It is of a buff brown colour, grizzled with blackish,
lighter on the lower sides, darker above with a broad dark
band along the back; creamy white beneath; tail bicolour,
without white tip.

It is found in meadows or open spaces grown up with
weeds or brushwood, in the neighbourhood of wet woods.
T.L. 8 in. T.V. 5 in. H.F. If in.

The Ontario form is Zapus hudsonius hudsonius (Zimmermann).

The Woodland Jumping Mouse prefers the neighbour-
hood of cool streams in dense forests and so is largely confined
to northern Ontario, but may occur farther south in suitable
localities. It is a more brightly-coloured animal than the
preceding species, the lower sides being a light yellowish buff;
tail tipped with white.

T.L. 9 in. T.V. 5^ in. H.F. 1J^ in.

Two forms occur in Ontario. The most northerly one is Napaeozapus
insignis abietorum (Preble), farther south N. i. insignis (Miller). The range
limits of these two forms are not definitely known.

3S

The Porcupine Family Erethizontidae

The Porcupine occurs throughout the forested regions
of Ontario,— abundant in some areas, rare in others.

It will eat almost any green food from aquatic plants up,
quite literally, to the tree tops.

Being so well protected by its quills, it has few dangerous
enemies. By virtue of minute barbs, these sharp-pointed
quills, once they enter the flesh, can go ahead but not back
and thus often drive through a vital organ. In this way his
enemies, though successful in killing "Porky," sometimes die
from the effects of the quills received. Contrary to what is
generally believed, the porcupine cannot "shoot" its quills.

The porcupine is active all winter. It has no real nest,
merely a shelter, and there in spring the young, usually but
one, is born.

T.L. 36-40 in. T.V. 6 in. H.F. 3J-4 in.

The Ontario form is Erethizon dorsatum dorsatum (Linnaeus).

Hares and Rabbits Order Lagornorpha

The members of this order differ from the Rodentia in a
number of characters, one readily noticeable point of differ-
ence being in the presence of a second pair of small incisors
behind the large pair in the upper jaw. Only one family, the
Leporidae, occurs in Ontario.

Leporidae

The general appearance of the members of this family
is too well known to need description.

These defenceless animals are the prey of all the car-
nivores from the weasel up; even hawks and owls attack them.
They continue to hold their own in the face of such odds,
partly in virtue of the rapidity at which they multiply.

The food of the various members of the family comprises
almost all sorts of vegetation. They will also eat flesh.

The terms "hare" and "rabbit" are used rather loosely in
this country. A typical hare is long-eared, long-legged and a
swift runner. It does not burrow but rears its young in a nest

39

or "form." A typical rabbit is smaller, shorter-eared,
shorter-legged and is a weak runner. Its nest is placed in a
burrow. There are no typical rabbits native to America,
most of the members of this family here being hares.

The Varying Hare is the common hare of our north
woods. It formerly occurred throughout Ontario but is now
absent from southern Ontario except in bogs and similar cool
"boreal islands."

It is a much larger animal than the cottontail and has
longer hind legs and hind feet. In winter it assumes a white
coat, hence the name varying hare. Its brown summer coat
is of a duller colour than that of the cottontail and it lacks
the white underside of the tail to which that species owes its
name.

These animals are sometimes called snowshoe rabbits
(although they are not true rabbits) because of the breadth of
their hind feet, especially in winter, when the development of
hair at the sides adds to their width. These broad, snowshoe-
like hind feet enable the hare to travel over snow into which
they would otherwise sink.

Another interesting feature of the species is the marked
fluctuations in their numbers, to which reference is made in
the introduction.

The nest is usually placed in a depression in the ground.
There may be as many as ten young to a litter and more
than one litter during the season.

T.L. 18-19 in. T.V. If in. H.F. 5.3 in.

The forms found in Ontario are Lepus americanus virginianus (Harlan)
in southern Ontario; Lepus americanus americanus Erxleben throughout
the rest ofthe province, except in "extreme western Ontario," where Lepus
americanus phaeonotus Allen occurs. The range of the latter subspecies
includes northern Minnesota and north into extreme western Ontario and
southern Manitoba.

The Cottontail Rabbit has gradually extended its range
from southwestern Ontario till at the present time it extends
at least as far as Prince Edward county and north to Georgian

40

bay. It is not fond of deep forests, preferring open woods
with some tangled scrubby growth or the brushy borders of
cultivated lands.

Cottontails often make "forms" in which they lie con-
cealed after the manner of a hare. They will also resort to
burrows although it is doubtful if they ever dig the burrows
themselves; they sometimes enlarge the burrows of other
animals which they appropriate. The nest in which the
young are born is placed either in a burrow or in a shallow
depression on the surface. Several litters of from four to
eight young are born in a year.

It never reaches the abundance attained by the varying
hare in the north but is sometimes sufficiently numerous to be
a nuisance and to cause considerable injury by girdling young
trees.

The cottontail is much smaller than the varying hare and
unlike it does not turn white in winter. Its most distinctive
marking and the one from which it gets its name is the fluffy,
snow-white under surface of the tail, which shows conspic-
uously when the animal is in flight.

T.L. 15-18 in. T.V. 2J in. H.F. 4 in.

The Ontario form is Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsii (Allen).

The European Hare (erroneously called Jack Rabbit) was
introduced from Europe into Ontario near Brantford in 1912.
Since then it has spread in all directions and now (1929) occu-
pies most of southwestern Ontario and extends north as far as
Georgian bay and east to Ontario county.

It is seldom found in woods, preferring open fields with
scrubby borders.

It may be readily identified by its large size and long ears.
The tail has a conspicuous clear black median area.

Like the cottontail and unlike the varying hare this
animal does not turn white in winter.

T.L. 2-3 ft. T.V. 3-5 in. H.F. 5-7 in.

The form in Ontario is Lepus e. enropaeus Pallas.

41

Order Artiodactyla

The Deer Family Cervidae

Deer are distinguished by the solid horns or antlers which
they possess. These antlers are borne by the males only in
the case of the moose, elk and deer, but in the caribou the
female as well as the male has antlers.

The antlers are shed and renewed each year. There is a
more or less regular increase in the size of antlers as the
animal increases in age and vigour and a corresponding
diminution in old and feeble animals so that it is not possible
to tell exactly the age of a deer from examination of his
antlers.

The antlers are shed in winter. Within a few weeks new
ones appear, first as little knobs and then as flat or branching
horns, depending on the species of the animal. The develop-
ing antler is covered with a skin clothed with fine, short hairs
and well supplied with nerves and blood vessels. This cover-
ing is known as "velvet." By early fall the antlers are full
grown, the velvet dries up and is scraped off by rubbing them
against trees and shrubs.

The food of these various animals consists of plants of
various kinds, grasses, the twigs and foliage of trees and
shrubs, aquatic plants and lichens.

The wolves are our only beasts of prey hunting the adult
animals to any extent, but any of the carnivorous animals
from the size of a fox up, will attack the young while helpless.

The deer move about to some extent during the day but
the period of greatest activity is in the evening and early
morning.

The^Wbite-tailed Deer is now, probably always has
been, and possibly always will be the commonest big game
animal of eastern North America. It has been gradually
extending its range northward and now occurs throughout
the province south of latitude 50° except in thickly settled
areas.

42

Bush, with plenty of open fields such as occur in second-
growth and burned-over areas suit it better than thick, heavy
forests.

During the winter, if the snow is very deep, the deer
congregate in "yards," which are beaten paths meandering
through good feeding grounds.

The young, one or two in number, are born in late spring
and are kept hidden for about a month before they start to
follow the mother.

The colour of the coat of deer during the hunting season
and in winter is perhaps familiar enough to most people but
many are not aware that in summer the animals are of a
beautiful golden sienna colour. Locally they receive the
rather descriptive name of red deer. Newborn fawns are of a
similar colour but with a heavy spotting of white. This coat
is changed to that of maturity as the fall season approaches.

This species of deer gets its common name from the white
under surface of the tail which is conspicuously displayed as
the animal bounds away through the woods when alarmed.
The main beams of the antlers bend outward, forward, and
then inward, the tips pointing towards each other. The tines
or branches point upward and backward.

The bucks are larger than the does and have been known
to exceed three hundred pounds in weight.

The form in Ontario is Odocoileus virginianus borealis (Miller).

The Moose is the largest member of the deer family, bulls
not infrequently exceeding one thousand pounds in weight.
It is now rather uncommon south of Algonquin Park, and the
French river, but beyond that is generally distributed except
in the extreme north. In fact it has for some time been
gradually extending its range northward. Its favourite
haunts are dense forests interspersed with streams and lakes.

During the summer it subsists largely on aquatic plants,
while in winter it feeds on shrubbery and the tender twigs of
trees, which its great height enables it to reach with ease.

The moose has massive, broad, flat, palmated antlers with
points or tines on the outer edge.

43

The moose is not a handsome deer, his long legs and high
shoulders giving him a rather ungainly appearance. He
seems more like a relic of the past than a part of our present
fauna, but we hope his picturesque presence is not soon to
disappear from our northern forests.

The form in Ontario is Alces americana americana (Clinton).

The Caribou is a close relative of the reindeer of Europe
and like it is confined to northern regions. Its antlers are
partly flattened and partly round, and are usually long with
many branches. A characteristic feature is that one (rarely
both) of the brow tines is flattened and projects downward
nearly to the end of the nose. In size the caribou is inter-
mediate between the white-tailed deer and the moose.

The vast herds of this deer which once ranged over Arctic
America have dwindled to only a fraction of their former
abundance and are now absent from much of the territory
which they formerly occupied. Formerly great herds moved
into our northern woods in winter in search of food and shelter,
at one time ranging as far south as Lake Nipissing, buy they
are now rarely found south of a line from the north shore of
Lake Superior to Lake Abitibi.

Caribou subsist on sedges, moss and lichens which they
obtain in winter by pawing away the snow.

Two forms of the woodland caribou occur in northern Ontario, Rangifer
caribou caribou (Gmelin) being the eastern form, while Rangifer caribou
sylvestris (Richardson) is the form southwest of Hudson bay, and extending
from thence to the northwestward. The barren-ground caribou Rangifer
arcticus arcticus (Richardson) does not occur in Ontario.

The Wapiti or American Elk once ranged over southern
Ontario but soon disappeared when the country began to be
settled. It is perhaps more than one hundred and fifty years
since any wild elk occurred in the province.

It is smaller than the moose but is a much finer looking
animal, — the finest looking of all deer.

The elk is a round-antlered species. The tines, typically
five on each side, point forward from the main beam.

The scientific name of this deer is Cervus c. canadensis (Erxleben).

44

CHECK LIST OF ONTARIO MAMMALS

Arranged according to Miller's "List of North American
recent mammals." U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 128, 1924.

This list is not believed to be complete as future work will
probably add to the species found in Ontario.

So far as known it includes all species and subspecies of
land mammals authoritatively stated to occur in the province.
The fauna of the extreme western (Manitoba border) and
northern part of the province is very inadequately known, so
that any list of Ontario mammals published at the present
time is far from final. Species now extinct in the province
in a wild state but which formerly occurred here are included
in parentheses.

The nomenclature is that of Miller except in the following
cases, in which we have followed the authors indicated.
Sorex arcticus \

Sorex cinereus > Jackson. N.A. Fauna 51. 1928.
Sorex palustris '

Myotis keenii. Miller and Allen. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 144. 1928.
Ursus americanus. Hall. Univ. Calif. Pub. Zool., Vol. 30, No. 10. 1928.
Mephitis mephitis. A. H. Howell. Letter.
Eutamias minimus. Jour. Mammalogy, 6:53. 1925.
Synaptomys cooperi. Howell. N.A. Fauna 50. 1927.
Clethrionomys. Palmer. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 41:87. 1928.

Marsupialia

DlDELPHIIDAE

(Didelphis virginiana virginiana Kerr. Opossum.)

Insectivora

Talpidae

Parascalops breweri (Bach man). Hairy -tailed Mole.
Scalopus aquaticus machrinus (Rafinesque.) Prairie Mole.
Condylura cristata (Linnaeus). Star-nosed Mole.

SORICIDAE

Sorex cinereus cinereus Kerr. Cinereous Shrew.

(=s.p. personatus).
Sorex arcticus arcticus Kerr. Saddle-back Shrew.

( = S.richardsonii) .
Sorex fumeus fumeus Miller. Smoky Shrew.
Sorex palustris palustris Richardson. Water Shrew.

45

Sorex palustris albibarbis (Cope). Water Shrew.
Microsorex hoyi hoyi (Baird). j p. n,

Microsorex hoyi intervectus Jackson [
Cryptotis parva (Say). Little Short-tailed Shrew.
Blarina brevicauda talpoides (Gapper). ( = Blarina brevicauda brcvi-
cauda (Say)). Mole Shrew; Short-tailed Shrew.

Chiroptera

Vespertilionidae

Myotis lucifugus lucifugus (LeConte). j Little Brown Bats.

Myotis keenii septentrionalis (Trouessart) . j

( = Myotis subulatus subulatus (Say) of Miller and other lists).
Lasionycteris noctivagans (LeConte). Silver-haired Bat.
Pipistrellus subflavus obscurus Miller. Pipistrelle.
Eptesicus fuscus fuscus (Beauvois), Big Brown Bat.
Nycteris borealis borealis (Miiller). Red Bat.
Nycteris cinerea (Beauvois). Hoary Bat.
Nycticeius humeralis (Rafinesque). Evening Bat.

Carnivora

Ursidae

Ursus americanus americanus Pallas. Black Bear.

Thalarctos maritimus maritimus (Phipps). Polar Bear.
Procyonidae

Procyon lotor lotor (Linnaeus). Raccoon.
Mustelidae

Martes americana americana (Turton). Marten.

Martes pennanti pennanti (Erxleben). Fisher.

Mustela cicognanii cicognanii Bonaparte. Bonaparte Weasel.

Mustela cicognanii richardsonii (Bonaparte). Richardson Weasel.

Mustela rixosa rixosa (Bangs). Least Weasel.

Mustela noveboracensis noveboracensis (Emmons). New York Weasel.

Mustela vison vison Schreber.

Mustela vison lacustris (Preble).

Gulo luscus (Linnaeus). Wolverine.

Lutra canadensis canadensis (Schreber). Otter.

Mephitis mephitis mephitis (Schreber) . ) Q, ,

Mephitis mephitis nigra (Peale and Beauvois). j

(Taxidea taxus taxus (Schreber). Badger.)
Canidae

Vulpes fulva (Desmarest). Red Fox.

Alopex lagopus innuitus (Merriam). Arctic Fox.

Canis latrans Say. Brush Wolf.

Canis lycaon Schreber. Timber Wolf.
Felidae

(Felis couguar Kerr. Cougar.)

Lynx canadensis canadensis Kerr. Canada Lynx.

Lynx rufus rufus (Schreber). Bay Lynx; Bobcat; Red Lynx.

46

Rodentia

SCIURIDAE

Marmota monax rufescens Howell. I w rM V

Marmota monax canadensis (Erxleben). J

Eutamias minimus jacksoni Howell. I m , ^. . .

„ , . . , /■ /An n r Western Chipmunk.

Eutamias minimus boreahs (Allen). )

Tamias striatus griseus Mearns.

White-footed Mouse;
Deer Mouse.

, Eastern Chipmunk.
Tamias striatus lysteri (Richardson). j

Sciurus hudsonicus hudsonicus (Erxleben). (pic • i

Sciurus hudsonicus loquax Bangs. j

Sciurus carolinensis leucotis (Gapper). Gray Squirrel or Black Squirrel.

Glaucomys volans volans (Linnaeus). Eastern Flying Squirrel.

Glaucomys sabrinus sabrinus (Shaw). ) -T _^. ,-,, . 0 . ,
ni , . <• /a* \ I Northern Flying Squirrel.

GLaucomys sabrinus macrohs (Mearns). )

Castoridae

Castor canadensis canadensis Kuhl. Beaver.

Cricetidae

Peromyscus maniculatus maniculatus (Wagner).^
Peromyscus maniculatus gracilis (LeConte).
Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii (Hoy and

Kennicott).
Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis (Fischer)
Synaptomys cooperi cooperi Baird. Lemming Mouse.

( = S. fatuus Bangs).

Phenacomys ungava ungava Merriam. Phenacomys.

Clethrionomys gapperi gapperi (Vigors). Red-backed Vole.

Microtus pennsylvanicus Pennsylvanicus (Ord). 1 -, , „,

,,. \ i • " !T ,. /o > r Meadow Mouse.

Murotus pennsylvanicus fontigenus (Bangs). )

Microtus chrotorrhinus chrotorrhinus (Miller). Yellow-cheeked Vole.
Pitynuys pinetorum scalopsoides (Audubon and Bachman). Pine Mouse.
Ondatra zibethica zibethica (Linnaeus). Muskrat.

MURIDAE

Rattus norvegicus (Erxleben). House Rat.

Mus musculus musculus Linnaeus. House Mouse.

Zapodidae

Zapus hudsonius hudsonius (Zimmermann). Meadow Jumping Mouse.
Napaeozapus insignis insignis (Miller). ) Woodland

Napaeozapus insignis abietorum (Preble). j Jumping Mouse

Erethizontidae

Erethizon dorsatum dorsatum (Linnaeus). Porcupine.

47

Lagomorpha

Leporidae

Lepus americanus americanus Erxleben.

Lepus americanus virginianus (Harlan). ■ Varying Hare.

Lepus americanus phaeonotus Allen.

Lepus europaeus europaeus Pallas. European Hare.

Sylviiagus floridanus mearnsii (Allen). Cottontail Rabbit.

Artiodactyla

Cervidae

(Cervus canadensis canadensis (Erxleben)). Wapiti; American Elk.

Odocoileus virginianus borealis (Miller). White -tailed Deer.

Alces americana americana (Clinton). Moose.

Rangifer caribou caribou (Gmelin). ] „, ..

D .. ., 7 . . /Tt. , - N \ Woodland Caribou.

Rangifer caribou sylvestris (Richardson), j

PUBLICATIONS ON MAMMALS

The same principle has been followed in the preparation
of the following lists of publications as in the preparation of
the preceding pages, viz., to make it a guide to the literature
on mammals. The list is believed to contain the most im-
portant works which one interested in our mammals should
consult in pursuing further his studies on this group.

General Works on North American Mammals

Field book of North American mammals. H. E. Anthony. G. P. Put-
nam's Sons. 1928.

Life histories of northern animals. Two volumes. E. T. Seton. Chas.
Scribner's Sons. 1909.

Lives of game animals. Four volumes. E. T. Seton. Doubleday, Page
& Co. 1925-1928.

The larger North American mammals. E. W. Nelson. National Geo-
graphic Magazine. Nov., 1916.

Smaller mammals of North America. E. W. Nelson. National Geo-
graphic Magazine. May, 1918.

(The above two republished as Wild animals of North America. E. W.
Nelson, Nat. Geog. Soc, Washington, D.C., 1918.)

American animals. Stone and Cram. Doubleday, Page & Co. 1902.

Mammals of America. Nature Lovers Library, University Soc, Inc.,
1917.

List of North American recent mammals. 1923. G. S. Miller. U.S.
Nat. Mus. Bull. 128. 1924.

A manual of the land and freshwater vertebrate animals of the United
States (exclusive of birds). H. S. Pratt. P. Blakiston's Son & Co.
1923.

48

Ontario Mammals

Following is a partial list of references to Ontario mammals.
In addition to these, numerous shorter articles dealing with
one or a few species have been published, chiefly in the
Canadian Field-Naturalist and the Journal of Mammalogy.
Notes on the mammals of Ontario. G. S. Miller, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat.

Hist. 28:1-44. 1897,
Mammals of Ontario. In: Vertebrates of Ontario. C. W. Nash, Dept.

Education, Toronto. 1908.
Mammals. J. H. Fleming. In: The Natural History of the Toronto

region, Ontario, Canada. Roy. Can. Inst., Toronto. 1913.
Mammals. In: The vertebrates of the Otter Lake region, Dorset, Ontario.

A. H. Wright and S. E. R. Simpson. Can. Field-Nat. 34:166-168.

1920.
Notes on the mammals of Ridout, District of Sudbury, Ontario. J. Dewey

Soper. Can. Field- Nat. 34:61-69. 1920.
A biological reconnaissance of portions of Nipissing and Timiskaming

districts, Northern Ontario. J. Dewey Soper. Can. Field- Nat. 36:

17)5; 37:11-13. 1922.
The mammals of Wellington and Waterloo counties, Ontario. J. Dewey

Soper. Jour. Mammal., 4:244-252. 1923.
Notes on the birds and mammals of Brent and vicinity, Algonquin Park,

Ontario, July and August, 1922. L. L. Snyder and J. L. Baillie.

Can. Field-Nat. 37:89-94. 1923.
The mammals of the Lake Nipigon region. J. R. Dymond. In: A faunal

investigation of the Lake Nipigon region, Ontario. Trans. Roy. Can.

Inst. 16:233-291. 1928. Reprinted as Contributions of the Royal

Ontario Museum of Zoology, No. 1.
The mammals of the Lake Abitibi region. L. L. Snyder. In: A faunal

investigation of the Lake Abitibi region, Ontario. University of

Toronto Studies; Biol. Series No. 32, 1928. Reprinted as Contri-
butions of the Royal Ontario Museum of Zoology, No. 2.
Tfae Mammalia of Canada. J. B. Tyrrell. Copp, Clark Co., Ltd.,

Toronto. 1888.

Popular Works on Individual Species or Groups
The beaver: its work and its ways. E. R. Warren. Monographs of the

Amer. Soc. of Mammalogists. 192 ft
The romance of the beaver. A. R. Dugmore. J. B. Lippincott Co.
Beaver habits, beaver control and possibilities in beaver farming. V.

Bailey, U.S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 1078. 1922.
Beaver habits and experiments in beaver culture. V. Bailey. U.S. Dept.

Agric. Technical Bull. No. 21. 1927.
In beaver world. Enos. A. Mills. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1913.
Castorologia or the history and traditions of the Canadian beaver. H. T.

Martin. Wm. Drysdale & Co., Montreal. 1892.

49

The muskrat in New York: its natural history and economics. C. E.

Johnson. Roosevelt Wild Life Bull., Vol. 3, No. 2. 1925.
The moose book. Samuel Merrill. E. P. Dutton & Co., N.Y., 2nd Ed.

1920.
White-tailed deer. Wm. H. Newson. Chas. Scribner's Sons. 1926.
The deer family. Roosevelt, Van Dyke, Elliott and Stone. Macmillan

Co. 1903.
The antelope and deer of America. J. D. Caton. 2nd Ed. 1877*
The black bear. W. H. Wright. Chas. Scribner's Sons. 1910.
The habits and economic importance of wolves in Canada. Norman

Criddle. Dept. Agric. Bull. No. 13, New Series. Ottawa. 1925.
Economic value of North American skunks. D. E. Lantz. U.S. Dept.

Agric, Farmers' Bull. 587. 1914.
Squirrels and other fur-bearers. John Burroughs.
Rats and mice as enemies of mankind. M. A. C. Hinton. Economic

Series No. 8, 2nd Ed. British Museum (Natural History). 1920.
Mouse control in field and orchard. James Silver. U.S. Dept. Agric,

Farmers' Bull. 1397. 1924.

Publications Dealing with Special Groups*

Bats.

American bats of the genera Myotis and Pisonyx. G. S. Miller and

G. M. Allen. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 144. 1928.
Revision of the North American bats of the Vespertilionidae. G. S.

Miller. North Amer. Fauna. No. 13, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1897;
The families and genera of bats. G. S. Miller. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull.

No. 57. 1907.

Moles and Shrews.

Review of the American long-tailed shrews. H. H. T. Jackson. North

Amer. Fauna No. 51, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1928.
Review of the shrews of the American genera Blarina and Notiosorex.

C. H. Merriam. North Amer. Fauna No. 10, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1895.
A review of the American moles. H. H. T. Jackson. North Amer.

Fauna No. 38, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1915.

Carnivores.

Notes on Mustela campestris Jackson and on the American forms of
least weasels. M. H. Swenk. Jour. Mammalogy 7:313-330. 1926.

Synopsis of the American marten. S. N. Rhoads. Proc Acad. Nat.
Sci. Phila. 54:443-460. 1902.

Synopsis of the weasels of North America. C. H. Merriam. North
Amer. Fauna No. 11, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1896.

information on animals not mentioned in this section may be found
in volumes listed under general accounts.

SO

Notes on Canadian weasels. J. D. Soper. Can. Field Nat. 33:43-47.

1919.
Revision of the skunks of the genus Chincha ( = Mephitis). A. H.

Howell. North Amer. Fauna No. 20. U.S. Dept. Agric. 1901.
Synopsis of American minks. N. Hollister. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.,

44:471-480. 1913.

Rodents.

Squirrels
Revision of the American marmots. A. H. Howell. North Amer.

Fauna No. 37, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1915.
Revision of the red squirrels. J. A. Allen. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat.

Hist., 10:249-298. 1898.
Review of the squirrels of eastern N. America. O. Bangs. Proc. Biol.

Soc. Wash., 10:155. 1896.
Revision of the American flying squirrels. A. H. Howell. North Amer.

Fauna No. 44, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1918.

Mice
Revision of the genus Peromyscus. W. H. Osgood. North Amer.

Fauna No. 28, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1909.
Revision of the American lemming mice (Genus Synaptomys). A. B.

Howell. North Amer. Fauna No. 50. U.S. Dept. Agric. 192 7*
Voles of the genus Phenacomys. A. B. Howell. North Amer. Fauna

No. 48. U.S. Dept. Agric. 1926.
The genera and subgenera of voles and lemmings. G. S. Miller. North

Amer. Fauna No. 12. U.S. Dept. Agric. 1896.
Revision of the genus Evotomys. V. Bailey. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.,

11:113-138. 1897.
Revision of the genus Microtus. V. Bailey. North Amer. Fauna No.

17. U.S. Dept. Agric. 1900.
A systematic synopsis of the muskrats. N. Hollister. North Amer.

Fauna No. 32. U.S. Dept. Agric. 1911.
Revision of the genus Zapus. E. A. Preble. North Amer. Fauna No.

15. U.S. Dept. Agric. 1899.

Hares and Rabbits.

The rabbits of North America. E. W. Nelson. North Amer. Fauna
No. 29. U.S. Dept. Agric. 1909.

Deer.

The white-tailed deer of the eastern United States. T. Barbour and
G. M. Allen. Journ. Mammalogy 3:69. 1922.

Conservation
The conservation of the wild life of Canada. C. Gordon Hewitt. Chas.

Scribner's Sons. 1921.
The present status and future prospects of the larger mammals of Canada.

R. M. Anderson. Scot. Geogr. Mag. 40: 259-303. 1924.

See also Reports of the Conservation Commission of Canada.

51

Ecology
Animal Ecology. Chas. Elton. MacMillan Co. 1927.

Distribution and Life Zone<s

Distribution and origin of life in America. R. F. Scharff. Constable &
Co., Ltd. 1911.

Faunas of Canada. P. A. Taverner. Canada Yearbook 1915, pp. 55-63.

Faunal areas of Canada. A. B. Klugh and Eric G. McDougall. Hand-
book of Canada, pp. 195-205. 1924.

Laws of temperature control of the geographic distribution of terrestrial
animals and plants. C. H. Merriam. Nat. Geographic Mag. Vol. 4,
pp. 229-338. 1894.

Wanderings of animals. H. Gadow. Cambridge University Press. 1913.

Mammals of the Past
The age of mammals. H. F. Osborn. Macmillan Go. 1910.
History of land mammals in the western hemisphere. W. B. Scott.

Macmillan Co. 1913.
The pleistocene of North America and its vertebrated animals east of the

Mississippi river. O. P. Hay. Carnegie Inst, of Wash., Pub. No.

322. 1923.

Life History Studies
Field study of life-histories of Canadian mammals. R. M. Anderson.

Can. Field-Nat. 33: 86-90. 1920.
Suggestions for field studies of mammalian life-histories. W. P. Taylor.

Dept. Circ. 59, U.S. Dept. Agric. 1919.

Preservation of Specimens
The capture and preservation of small mammals for study. H. E. Anthony
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York, Guide Leaflet No. 61. 1925.

Fur Farming
Fur Farming in Canada. J. Walter Jones. Commission of Conservation,

Canada. 1914.
Theory and practice of fox ranching. J. A. Allen and W. C. S. McLure.

Irwin Printing Co., Charlottetown, P.E.I. 1926.
Fur-farming for profit. F. G. Ashbrook. Macmillan Co. 1928.

Periodicals
Those interested in mammal study would do well to subscribe to one
or both of the following journals:
Canadian Field-Naturalist. Published by the Ottawa Field-Naturalists'

Club, Ottawa, Ontario.
The Journal of Mammalogy. Published by American Society of Mam-
malogists, Washington, D.C.

52

INDEX

PAGB

Adaptation 8

Alces a. americana 43

Alopex lagopus innuitus 18

American elk 44

Animal, definition of 3

Arctic fox 18

Badger 8

Barren-ground caribou 44

Bats 25

Bat, big brown 27

evening 29

hoary 26

little brown 27

Pipistrelle 28

red 26

silver-haired 27

Bay lynx 20

Bears 11

B*ar, black 11

cinnamon 12

polar 12

Beaver 32

Black bear 11

fox 18

rat 38

squirrel 29

Blarina b. brevicauda 23

talpoides 23

Bobcat 20

Bonaparte weasel 13-14

Brown lemming 36

Brush wolf 18

Canada lynx 7-20

Canidae 18

Canis latrans 18

lycaon 19

Caribou, barren-ground 44

woodland 44

Carnivora 11-33

Carnivores and mice 33

definition of 11

place in nature 9

Castoridae 32

Castor c. canadensis 32

Cat family 19

Cervidae 42

Cervus c. canadensis 44

Chipmunk, eastern 30

western 30

Chiroptera 25

Cinereous shrew 23-24

PAGE

Cinnamon bear 12

Clethrionomys g. gapperi . . . .35-36

Collared lemming 36

Condylura cristata 22

Cottontail rabbit 4-40

Cougar 19

Cricetidae 33

Cross fox 18

Cryptotis parva 23

Deer family 42

white-tailed 42

Deer mice , 33

Dicrostonyx hudsonius 36

Didelphis v. virginianus 21

Distribution of animals 3

Eastern chipmunk 30

Eastern flying squirrel 31

Elk, American 42-44

Eptesicus f . f uscus 27

Erethizontidae 39

Erethizon d. dorsatum 39

European hare 41

Eutamias minimus borealis ... 31

jacksoni. . . 31

Felidae 19

Felis couguar 19

Fisher 8-16

Fluctuations in animal numbers 7

Flying squirrel, eastern 31

northern 31

Fox, arctic 18

black 18

cross 18

red 18

silver 18

Glaucomys v. volans 31

s. sabrinus 31

macrotis 31

Gray squirrel 29

Gulo luscus 17

Habitat, definition of 4

Hairy-tailed mole 21

Hare, varying 4-7-40

European 41

fluctuations in numbers. ... 7

Hares and rabbits 39

Hoary bat 26

House mouse 37

House rat 37

PAGE

Identification of animals 6

Introduced rats and mice 37

Insectivora 21

Jack rabbit 41

Jumping mice 38

Lagomorpha 40

Lasionycteris noctivagans 27

Least weasel 14

Lemming, brown 36

collared 36

Lemming mouse 35

Lemmus trimucronatus 36

Leporidae 40

Lepus a. americanus 40

phaeonotus 40

virginianus 40

e. europaeus 41

Life zones 4-5

Little brown bat 27

short-tailed shrew 23

Long-tailed mice 33

shrews 23

Lutra c. canadensis 15

Lynx c. canadensis 20

r. rufus 20

Canada 7-20

bay 20

Mammal, definition of 3

Marmota m. monax 32

canadensis 32

rufescens 32

Marsupialia 21

Marten 8-16

Martes a. americana 16

abieticola 16

p. pennanti 16

Meadow jumping mouse 38

mouse 34

Measurements 6

Mephitis m. mephitis 17

hudsonica 17

nigra 17

Mice and rats 32

deer 33

introduced 37

native 33

long-tailed 33

short-tailed 34

lemming 35

fluctuations in numbers 7

Microsorex h. hoyi 24

intervectus 24

Microtus c. chrotorrhinus 35

p. pennsylvanicus ... 34

fontigenus 34

hind foot 36

PAGE

Mink 8-14

Moose 4-42-43

Moles 21

Mole, hairy-tailed 21

prairie 21

star-nosed 22

shrew 22-23

Mouse, deer 33

house 37

meadow jumping 38

meadow 34

pine 35

white-footed 33

woodland jumping 38

Muridae 33-37

Muskrat 38-37

Mus m. musculus 37

Mustelidae. 13

Mustela c. cicognanii 14

richardsoni 11

n. noveboracen6is . ... 13

r. rixo6a 14

r. allegheniensis 14

v. vison , 15

lacustris 15

mink 15

Myotis keeni septentrionalis . . 28

1. lucifugus 27

sodalis 28

subulatus leibii 28

Napaeozapus i. insignis 38

i. abietorum .... 38

Native rats and mice 33

Natural selection 10

New York weasel 13

Northern flying squirrel 31

Numbers, fluctuations in 7

Nycteris b. borealis 26

cinerea 26

Nycticeius humeralis 29

Odocoileus virginianus borealis 42

Ondatra z. zibethica 37

alba 37

teeth 36

Opossum 21

Otter 8-15

Parascalops breweri 21

Periodic fluctuations of animal

numbers 7

Peromyscus leucopus novebor-

acensis. . . . : 33-34
m. maniculatus. .33-34

bairdii 34

gracilis 33-34

Phenacomys 36

Phenacomys u. ungava 36

PAGE

Pitymys pinetorum scalopso-

ides 35

Pigmy shrew 23

Pine mouse 35

Pipistrelle 28

Pipistrellus subflavus obscurus 28

Polar bear 12

Porcupine 39

Prairie mole 21

Procyonidae 12

Procyon 1. lotor 13

Rabbit, cottontail 4-40

jack 41

snowshoe 40

Rabbits, hares and 39

Raccoon 13

Race, definition of 9

Range, definition of 4

Rangifer arcticus 44

c. caribou 44

sylvestris 44

Rat, black 38

roof 38

house 38

Rats and mice 32

introduced 37

Native 33

Rattus norvegicus 37

r. rattus 38

r. alexandrinus 38

Red-backed vole 35

Red bat 26

fox 18

squirrel 29

Rodentia 28

Rodents 28

Roof rat 38

Saddle-back shrew .23-25

Scalopus aquaticus machrinus. 21

Sciuridae 29

Sciurus carolinensis leucotis. . . 30

h. hudsonicus 29

gymnicus 29

loquax 29

Short-tailed mice 34

shrews 22

Shrew, cinereous 23-24

little short-tailed 23

mole 23

pigmy 23-24

short-tailed 22-23

saddle-back 23-25

smoky 23-24

water 23-25

Silver-haired bat 27

Silver fox 18

Skunk 8-16

PAGE

Smoky shrew. 23-24

Snowshoe rabbit 40

Soricidae. 22

Sorex a. arcticus 25

laricorum 25

c. cinereus 25

f. fumeus 24

p. palustris 25

albibarbis 25

hydrobadistes 25

Species, definition of 4

Squirrels 29

Squirrel, black 29

eastern flying 31

gray 29

northern flying 31

red 29

Star-nosed mole 22

Struggle for existence 10

Subspecies, definition of 9

Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsii. 41

Synaptomys c. cooped 36

Talpidae 21

Tamias striatus griseus 30

lysteri 30

Thalarctos m. maritimus 12

Timber wolf 19

Ursidae 11

Ursus a. americanus 12

Varying hare 4-7-40

Vespertilionidae 26

Vole, red-backed 35

yellow-cheeked 35

Vulpes fulva 18

Wapiti 44

Water shrew 23-25

Weasel family 13

Weasel, Bonaparte 13-14

least 14

New York 13-14

Western chipmunk 30

White-footed mouse 33

White-tailed deer 42

Wolf, brush 18

timber 19

Wolverine 17

Woodchuck. 29-31

Woodland caribou 44

Woodland jumping mouse .... 38

Yellow-cheeked vole 35

Zapodidae 38

Zapus h. hudsonius 38

Zones, life 4-5

76( 1

■■: ON'