GIFT OF
Mark Hawley Ray f!6

=Tl

Management and
Feeding of Sheep

By

Thomas Shaw

Late Professor of A nimal Husbandry at tht
University of Minnesota

Author of

The Study of Breeds, Animal Breeding, Feeding Farm Animals,

The Management and Feeding of Cattle, Soiling Crops

and the Silo, Dry Land Farming, etc.

NEW YORK

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

LONDON

KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co., Limited
1914

Copyright, 1914, by

ORANGE JUVD COMPANY

All Rights Reserved

Entered at Stationers' Hall
LONDON, ENGLAND

/<2

PRINTED IN U. S. A.

To all students of the agricultural colleges who are

interested in the study of sheep, and to all persons

interested in growing the same, this book

is respectfully dedicated by the Author

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Authoi desires to acknowledge his indebtedness
to the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States
Department of Agriculture, and also to certain of the ex-
periment stations, for the aid received from publications
coming from these sources when writing this volume.

THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE

That sheep husbandry in America is not yet beyond the
threshold of possible advancement cannot be gainsaid,
and that such is the fact is exceedingly unfortunate for
American agriculture. Great Britain alone has nearly
half as many sheep as all the United States. The reason
why the industry thus languishes cannot be discussed
here. This book has -been written in the hope that it may
aid in some degree in giving this exceedingly important
industry that place which it should occupy in the agri-
culture of this continent.

Several excellent works on sheep have been written
in America, but in none of these has the discussion been
confined to feeding and management. In all of them the
breeds and breeding have been more or less dwelt upon,
and just to that extent has the space been curtailed that
could have been given to discussing feeding and man-
agement. No work has been written previously which
dwells solely upon these phases of sheep husbandry. That
there is room for such a work will be conceded by all who
have thought upon the question.

In writing this treatise, the Author has aimed to give
in orderly sequence and in simple language the subjects
discussed and everything pertaining to the discussion of
the various phases of these. The effort has also been
made to discuss both feeding and management with such
fullness and comprehensiveness as would not be incon-
sistent with conciseness of statement. The breeds of
sheep, the general subject of breeding and the general
principles that relate to feeding are not dwelt upon, as
these have been discussed at some length in works pre-
viously written by the Author.

St. Anthony Park, Minnesota, 1914.

vil

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I
Sheep as Improvers of Soil Fertility

Pag«

1. WHY THE SHEEP HAS A GOLDEN HOOF 1

(a) Because it brings enrichment to the soil.

(b) Because it is the unchangeable foe of weeds.

(c) Because of the dual return given annually.

(d) Fertility is to be reckoned with profits.

2. WHAT SHEEP REMOVE FROM THE SOIL 3

(a) The fertility removed in carcass and wool.

(b) The fertility brought up from the subsoil.

(c) The enduring character of sheep pastures.

;i. WHY THE DROPPINGS OF SHEEP ARE VALUABLE . 5

(a) Because of their chemical constituents.

(b) Because of their readily available condition.

(c) Because of their even distribution.

(d) Because they are left where most needed.

4. FERTILIZING POOR LAND QUICKLY AT Low COST 7

(a) Grazing with sheep on pasture.

(b) Supplementing the pasture with concentrates.

(c) Using commercial fertilizers on the pastures.

(d) Fertilizing distant pastures by grazing them.

5. SHEEP AND FERTILITY IN PADDOCKS 8

(a) The convenience of these in growing soiling food.

(b) Strewing coarse fodders over these when feeding

them.

(c) The frequent renewal of grasses in these.

6. SHEEP AND FERTILIZER FOR GARDENERS 10

(a) Gardeners fattening sheep in winter.

(b) When such feeding should be undertaken.

(c) Fertilizer may be thus obtained sometimes with-

out cost.

(d) Fertilizer for gardens from feeding stations.

(e) Sheep guano from the western ranges.

7. How SHEEP MANURE TAKES HARM 11

(a) It may be injured by leaching.

(b) It may be injured by molds.

(c) The wisdom of applying it as early as possible.

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER II

Sheep as Scavengers and Improvers of Crop Yields

Page

1. SHEEP AS WEED DESTROYERS 13

(a) Weeds that sheep will not eat are rare.

(b) The stage at which they consume them best.

(c) Sheep as gleaners in pastures.

(d) Sheep as gleaners amid the stubbles.

(e) Sheep as gleaners in standing corn.

(f) Sheep as gleaners in by-places.

(g) Sheep as gleaners on the summer fallow.

2. FREEING LAND FROM WEEDS BY SHEEP 17

(a) When and how this may be done.

(b) The crops best adapted for such grazing.

(c) The benefits from such grazing.

(d) The difficulties that may be encountered.

(e) The Author's experience therewith.

3. SHEEP AS DESTROYERS OF BRUSH 23

(a) The aid that they may thus render.

(b) How far they should be thus used.

(c) How to manage them when grazing brush.

4. IMPROVING GRAIN YIELDS THROUGH GRAZING WITH SHEEP__ 24

(a) The grain crops thus improved by grazing.

(b) When and where such results may be looked for.

(c) When a.nd where such grazing may work harm.

5. IMPROVING THE STAND OF GRASS THROUGH GRAZING WITH

SHEEP . 27

(a) How newly sown grass is thus improved.

(b) When newly sown grass is thus improved.

(c) Where newly sown grass is thus improved.

(d) When such grazing would be injurious.

6. IMPROVING CLOVER SEED YIELDS THROUGH GRAZING WITH

SHEEP 28

(a) How such improvement is effected.

(b) Why sheep do this work most effectively.

(c) When such grazing may do harm.

7. WHY SHEEP SHOULD BE KEPT ON NEARLY ALL FARMS 29

(a) Because of the service they can render.

(b) A small flock kept almost without cost.

(c) The conditions are favorable to thrift.

(d) Why small flocks are not more numerous.

8. SHEEP AND'FRESH MEAT ON THE FARM 31

(a) They are specially adapted to furnishing such food.

(b) The mutton they furnish is a delicacy.

(c) The influence on the cost of living.

TABLE OF CONTENTS XI

CHAPTER III
Sheep for Wool, for Mutton and for Both Uses

Page

1. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON USE 33

(a) The divisions based on such classification.

(b) Where sheep are kept for these uses.

(c) Which shall be dominant determined by conditions.

2. THE WOOL AND MUTTON PRODUCING BREEDS 35

(a) Which are termed "w6ol producing."

(b) Which are termed "mutton producing."

(c) These distinctions are being modified.

3. THE INFLUENCES THAT AFFECT WOOL PRODUCTION 37

(a) The chief of these are climate, food and care,

breeding and age.

(b) The influence of climate on wool.

(c) The influence of food and care on wool.

(d) The influence of breeding on wool.

(e) The influence of age on wool.

4. THE INFLUENCES THAT AFFECT MUTTON PRODUCTION 41

(a) The chief of these are climate, food, breeding, care

and wool.

(b) The influence of climate on mutton.

(c) The influence of food on mutton.

(d) The influence of breeding on mutton.

(e) The influence of care on mutton.

(f) The influence of wool on mutton.

5. THE WOOL AND MUTTON BREEDS CONTRASTED 44

(a) The contrast as to size.

(b) The contrast as to form.

(c) The contrast as to hardihood.

6. CONDITIONS MORE FAVORABLE TO WOOL PRODUCTION MAINLY 45

(a) Rugged lands of but little value.

(b) Dry climates where vegetation is parched.

(c) Situations remote from market.

(d) Areas with but few inhabitants.

7. CONDITIONS MORE FAVORABLE TO MUTTON PRODUCTION

MAINLY 46

(a) Lands valuable and productive.

(b) Climates favorable to abundant growth.

(c) Locations near great centers of population.

3. CROSSING MERINOS ON MUTTON BREEDS AND THEIR GRADES., 48

(a) The results as shown in size and weight.

(b) The results as shown in wool production.

(c) The results as shown in hardihood.

Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

9. CROSSING MUTTON BREEDS ON MERINOS AND THEIR GRADES— 50

(a) The results as shown in size and weight.

(b) The results as shown in wool production.

(c) The results as shown in hardihood.

10. WHAT THE AIM SHOULD BE IN WOOL PRODUCTION 53

(a) To secure wool of a desired grade in largest

quantity.

(b) To secure its even distribution over the body.

(c) To secure even and highest quality in the wool.

11. WHAT THE AIM SHOULD BE IN MUTTON PRODUCTION 55

(a) To secure the most flesh compatible with normal

size.

(b) To secure highest development in the best parts.

(c) To secure highest quality in the mutton produced.

(d) To meet the demands which the markets call for.

CHAPTER IV
Wool Described and Classified

1. WHAT Is MEANT BY WOOL 58

(a) The condition of wool.

(b) Wherein hair differs from wool.

(c) Wool and hair in the improved and unimproved

breeds.

2. THE DISCUSSION OF FIBER IN WOOL 60

(a) The form, appearance and size of the fibers.

(b) The two parts of the fiber.

(c) The three layers which compose each fiber.

3. THE DISCUSSION OF YOLK IN WOOL ,___ 62

(a) What is meant by yolk.

(b) The mission of yolk in wool.

(c) Influences that affect yolk in wool.

(d) The amount of yolk that is desirable.

4. How WOOLS ARE CLASSIFIED 64

(a) On the basis of the length.

(b) On the basis of diameter in the fiber.

(c) On the basis of adaptation to use.

5. SHORT, INTERMEDIATE AND LONG WOOLS 65

'a) Short wool, whence obtained, and its uses.

'b) Intermediate wool, whence obtained, and its uses.

(c) Long wool, whence obtained, and its uses.

TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii

Page

6. SUPERFINE, FINE, INTERMEDIATE AND COARSE WOOL 66

(a) Superfine wool, whence obtained, and its uses.

(b) Fine wool, whence obtained, and its uses.

(c) Medium wool, whence obtained, and its uses.

(d) Coarse wool, whence obtained and its uses.

7. CARDING AND COMBING WOOLS 68

(a) Carding wools, whence obtained, and their uses.

(b) Combing wools, whence obtained, and their uses.

(c) Delaine wools, whence obtained, and their uses.

8. WOOL AS DISTRIBUTED OVER THE BODY 70

(a) Where wool of the best quality is found.

(b) Where wool of the second best quality is found,

(c) Where wool of the third best quality is found.

(d) The further subdivision of these grades.

CHAPTER V
Characteristics of Wool

1. THE LEADING CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 73

(a) The chief essential qualities in good wool.

(b) The chief defects in wool.

(c) Influences from environment hurtful to wool.

2. STRENGTH OF FIBER IN WOOL 74

(a) Strength of fiber defined.

(b) Indications of strength in fiber.

(c) How secured and increased.

3. LENGTH OF STAPLE IN WOOL 75

(a) Length of staple in wool defined.

(b) Variations in length of staple.

(c) How secured and increased.

4. THICKNESS OR DENSITY IN WOOL 77

(a) Thickness or density defined.

(b) Variations in density.

(c) How secured and increased.

5. CRIMP OR CURL IN WOOL 78

(a) Crimp or curl defined.

(b) Variations in crimp.

(c) How secured and increased.

6. SOFTNESS OR PLIANCY IN WOOL 79

(a) Softness or pliancy defined.

(b) Variations in softness.

(c) How softness is secured and increased.

XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

7. COLOR IN THE STAPLE OF WOOL 80

(a) Color in the staple defined

Variations in the color of wool.

How desirable color is secured and increased.

8. UNIFORMITY OF FLEECE IN WOOL 81

(a) Uniformity in fleece defined.

(b) Variations in uniformity.

(c) How uniformity is increased and secured.

(d) How far uniformity is attainable.

9. STYLE OR QUALITY IN WOOL 82

(a) Style or quality defined.

(b) Variations in style.

(c) How secured and maintained.

10. CLOSURE OF FLEECE IN WOOL 83

(a) Closure of fleece defined.

(b) The benefits from such closure.

(c) The extent to which it should be sought.

11. FELTING IN WOOL 84

(a) Felting wool defined.

(b) The causes that produce felting.

(c) How felting in wool may be prevented.

1£. CLOUDINESS IN WOOL 85

(a) Cloudy wool defined.

(b) The causes that produce cloudy wool.

(c) How cloudiness in wool may be prevented.

13. STRIPY OR WATERY WOOL 86

(a) Stripy or watery wool defined.

(b) The causes that produce stripy wool.

(c) How stripy wool may be prevented.

14. BREAK OR JOINT IN WOOL 87

(a) Break or joint defined.

The causes that produce break or joint.

How break or joint in wool may be prevented.

15. KEMP OR JAR IN WOOL 88

(a) Kemp or jar defined. .

(b) The causes that produce kemp or jar.

(c) How kemp or jar in wool may be prevented.

16. TOPPINESS, BROAD TOPPINESS, BLACK TOP AND CLOTS IN

WOOL 89

(a) Toppiness, broad toppiness, black top, and clots

defined.

(b) The causes that produce these defects.

^ i

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TABLE OF CONTENTS XV

Page

TOPPINESS, BROAD TOPPINESS, ETC. — Continued

(c) How these defects may be prevented.
17. INFLUENCES FROM ENVIRONMENT THAT ARE HURTFUL 91

(a) Injury from burs and how to prevent it.

(b) Injury from needle grass and how to prevent it

(c) Injury from substances when taking fodder.

(d) Injury from exposure or improper housing.

CHAPTER VI
Lambs from Birth Until Weaned

1. THE SEASON WHEN LAMBS SHOULD COME 93

(a) The influences that determine this.

(b) Milk lambs for the winter market.

(c) Winter lambs for the spring market.

(d) Lambs to be sold as breeders.

(e) Lambs to be finished in the autumn.

(f) Lambs to be finished in the winter.

2. THE DAMS WHEN NEARING PARTURITION 95

(a) When important to know the exact time of this.

(b) How it may be known when the lambs will come.

(c) When and how to separate such dams.

3. SPECIAL CARE AT THE LAMBING SEASON 97

(a) Reasons why such care is necessary.

(b) Necessary in fields as well as in shed.

(c) It should be ungrudgingly given.

4. GIVING AID TO THE DAMS IN LABOR 98

(a) When such aid may be necessary.

(b) Why it should be given skillfully and gently.

(c) It is better not given when all is well.

."). GIVING AID TO THE YOUNG LAMBS 100

(a) Of no advantage when the lambs are strong.

(b) When aid will be helpful.

(c) How aid may be given.

<>. REVIVING LAMBS THAT MAY HAVE BEEN CHILLED 102

(a) The methods of reviving them.

(b) The dangers to be avoided.

(c) When young lambs are chilled in fields.

7. EWES NOT OWNING THEIR LAMBS 103

(a) The causes that may lead to this.

(b) How to manage in such instances.

(c) Procedure when ewes lose their lambs.

XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

8. REARING LAMBS BY HAND 105

(a) When such rearing may be necessary.

(b) The first milk given.

(c) The cost is usually excessive.

(d) How such cost may be reduced.

9. SUPPLEMENTAL FOOD FOR LAMBS 107

(a) When supplemental food is needed.

(b) When supplemental food is given.

(c) What should determine its character.

(d) Grain more profitable fed direct than through dams.

10. FOODS SUITABLE FOR YOUNG LAMBS 108

(a) Fodders for young lambs.

(b) Succulence for young lambs.

(c) Concentrates for young lambs.

11. THE LAMB CREEP 110

(a) The necessity for a lamb creep.

(b) The lamb creep in the shed.

(c) The lamb creep in the pasture.

12. WEANING LAMBS AND How IT Is DONE 111

(a) The age at which lambs should be weaned.

(b) Weaning should be abrupt rather than gradual.

(c) Grading the lambs when weaned.

13. FOOD FOR LAMBS WHEN WEANED 113

(a) The character of the pasture.

(b) When supplementary grain food is necessary,

(c) The best grain mixtures to feed.

14. CASTRATING LAMBS . 114

(a) When they should be castrated.

(b) Why they should be castrated.

(c) The best age at which to castrate.

(d) How to castrate lambs of different ages.

15. DOCKING LAMBS 117

(a) Why lambs should be docked.

(b) When lambs should be docked.

(c) How lambs should be docked.

16. THE REGISTRATION OF PURE-BRED LAMBS 119

(a) They should be given marks soon after birth.

(b) Why registration should be deferred for a time.

(c) Why pure breds should be registered the first

season.

(d) Why they should be ear-tagged when registered.

TABLE OF CONTENTS XV11

Page

17. MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS 120

(a) Young lambs nursing to excess.

(b) Furnishing earth to young lambs.

(c) Water for young lambs.

(d) Nurse cows for delicate lambs.

CHAPTER VII
Feeding and Care of Breeding Ewes

1. EWES FROM WEANING UNTIL BRED 122

(a) The age at which breeding should begin.

(b) From weaning until put in winter quarters.

(c) Food and care in winter.

(d) From winter until the mating season.

2. MANAGEMENT OF EWES AT THE BREEDING SEASON 124

(a) Aim to breed when the system is building up

(b) How such a condition may be attained.

(c) Methods followed modified by conditions.

(d) Mating under extensive conditions.

(e) Mating on the arable farm.

3. FROM THE PASTURE TO WINTER QUARTERS 126

(a) Methods of changing modified by conditions.

(b) What should be guarded against.

(c) Benefits from continued partial grazing.

4. IDEAL CONDITIONS FOR WINTERING EWES 128

(a) The ideal location for the shed.

(b) The ideal shed or stable.

(c) The ideal yard and paddock.

5. THE GRADING OF THE FLOCK 129

(a) When such grading may be necessary.

(b) How such grading may be accomplished.

(c) The size of the flock when graded.

6. FOOD PRIOR TO THE TIME OF LAMBING 130

(a) The fodders that are suitable.

(b) The succulence that is suitable.

(c) The concentrates that are suitable.

7. EXERCISE FOR BREEDING EWES WHEN PREGNANT 133

(a) Why such exercise is necessary.
^ (b) How to secure the necessary exercise.
^ — (c) The reserve pasture for winter grazing.

XV111 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

8. CARING FOR EWES AT THE TIME OF LAMBING 135

(a) Not much care called for on the pastures.

(b) Food for ewes during first days after lambing.

(c) Care of the udder after lambing.

(d) Grading ewes subsequently to lambing.

9. FOOD FOR EWES SUBSEQUENTLY TO LAMBING 137

(a) Forage that is suitable.

(b) Succulence that is suitable.

(c) Concentrates that are suitable.

10. FROM THE SHED TO THE PASTURES 139

(a) The change should be gradually made.

(b) The reduction of the fodder.

(c) The reduction of the grain.

11. MANAGEMENT WHEN ON PASTURE 141

(a) No additional food usually needed for dams.

(b) Soiling food may be fed if needed.

(c) Cheaper to furnish supplemental grazing.

12. MANAGEMENT WHEN WEANING THE LAMBS 142

(a) The separation should be abrupt and complete.

(b) The care called for by the udder.

(c) A low diet best until the milk flow has ceased

13. MANAGEMENT OF EWES TO BE DISCARDED 144

(a) When they should be sold at once.

(b) The cheapest method of fattening them.

(c) When they may be fattened in winter.

14. MISCELLANEOUS ATTENTIONS MORE OR LESS CALLED FOR 144

(a) The ventilating of the sheds.

(b) The bedding of the shed and yards.

(c) Special feeding for ewes whose teeth are failing.

(d) Protection from cold storms, spring and autumn.

(e) Tagging and trimming called for.

f ) The paring of the feet of ewes.

g) Dipping for ticks once or twice a year.

h) The shed space called for by a breeding ewe.
i) The great hazard from close housing.

CHAPTER VIII
The Feeding and Care of Rams

FOOD FROM WEANING UNTIL WINTER 151

(a) Separating and disposing of the cull males.

'b) Suitable pastures from weaning until housing.

'c) Suitable concentrates from weaning until housing.

TABLE OF CONTENTS XIX

Page

2. FOOD AND CARE THE FIRST WINTER 152

(a) Shelter and winter quarters for such rams.

(b) Food suitable for shearling rams.

(c) The number that may be kept together.

(d) Bringing strange rams together.

3. STOCK RAMS IN WINTER 153

(a) The quarters suitable for such rams.

(b) The food suitable for such rams.

(c) Why they should run with the dams.

4. FOOD AND CARE FOR SALE RAMS IN SUMMER .. 154

(a) The pastures that are suitable.

(b) Feeding supplementary food.

(c) The trimming of sale rams.

5. FOOD AND CARE FOR STOCK RAMS IN SUMMER ..... 155

(a) The pastures that are suitable.

(b) Feeding supplementary food.

(c) Preparing for the season of service.

6. FOOD AND MANAGEMENT DURING THE SEASON OF SERVICE 157

(a) The quarters for such rams.

(b) The food for such rams in shed or field.

(c) The management when in service.

(d) The service of which rams are capable.

7. THE DISPOSAL OF RAMS 160

(a) The disposal of ram lambs.

(b) The disposal of shearling rams.

(c) The disposal of stock rams.

(d) The age to which rams may be profitably used.

8. MISCELLANEOUS ATTENTIONS CALLED FOR 161

(a) Trimming the wool on sale rams.

(b) Trimming the feet of rams.

(c) The chalking of rams in field service.

(d) Isolating rams brought in from distant flocks.

CHAPTER IX
Pastures and Grazing Them By Sheep

1. THE BEST NATURAL GRAZING LANDS FOR SHEEP 164

(a) Those that have good drainage.

(b) Those that produce herbage, fine and nutritious

(c) Those that have ample shade and living water.

(d) Extensive pastures better adapted to sheep than to

cattle.

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XXX11 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

4. FITTING SHEEP FOR SALE 355

(a) They should possess good flesh and bloom.

(b) They should be measurably trimmed.

(c) They should be carefully graded when sold in lots.

5. THE DISPOSAL OF GRADE SHEEP AND LAMBS 356

(a) On the farm they are usually sold as lambs.

(b) On the range they are sold as lambs or wethers.

(c) Lambs furnishing meat for the home.

6. DETERMINING THE AGE OF THE SHEEP 357

'a) Indications furnished by the teeth,
'b) Other indications of age.
[c) Variations in indications.

7. PREPARING SHEEP FOR SHIPPING 359

(a) Sheep that are shipped from the ranges.

(b) Sheep that are shipped from farm pastures.

(c) Sheep that are shipped from the feed yards.

8. SHIPPING STOCKERS FROM THE RANGES 361

(a) The number that one car can carry.

Grading before shipping.
[c} Better not unloaded in transit.

9. SHIPPING FINISHED SHEEP IN CARLOTS 363

(a) Securing cars for shipment.

(b) The number that one car will carry.

(c) Disposal at the stockyards.

10. SHIPPING FINISHED SHEEP IN TRAINLOADS 364

[a) An unloading point near the market.

[b) When the sheep should reach it.

[c) How the sheep are handled subsequently.

v<

i!

CHAPTER XVIII
Protecting Sheep From Dogs and Wolves

1. How DOGS AND WOLVES AFFECT SHEEP HUSBANDRY 366

(a) The losses from both sources are enormous.

(b) The greatest loss is the effect upon the industry.*

(c) The loss from dogs is greater than from wolves

(d) That it is so is a blot upon our civilization.

2. How DOGS WORRY SHEEP 368

(a) They more frequently attack them at night.

(b) The usual mode of attack.

(c) The power of the dogs to worry.

(d) To detect the dogs is almost impossible.

(e) Losses additional to sheep killed or maimed.

TABLE OF CONTENTS XXX111

Page

3. PROTECTION BY LEGISLATIVE ENACTMENT 369

(a) This has usually proved inadequate.

(b) The owners of dogs the more numerous.

(c) The influence of the sporting element.

4. LEGISLATION THAT WILL PROTECT FROM DOGS 370

(a) Taxing dogs to reimburse for losses.

(b) What experience has shown with reference thereto.

5. PROTECTIVE MEASURES ON THE FARM 371

(a) Protection furnished by bells and goats.

(b) Protection furnished by corrals.

(c) Protection furnished by fences.

(d) Protection through the medium of firearms.

(e) Protection by means of poison.

6. WHY SHEEP Do BETTER WHEN NOT CORRALLED 373

(a) They travel only to secure food.

(b) They are less liable to contract disease.

(c) They can pasture more in the cool of the day.

7. THE DOG INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 376

(a) The number of the dogs kept.

(b) The cost of keeping a dog.

(c) The enormity of the waste incurred.

8. THE PLACE FOR THE DOG IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY 377

(a) Under range conditions indispensable.

(b) In unfenced arable areas essential.

(c) The wonderful fidelity of shepherd dogs.

9. THE LOSSES INCURRED BY THE WOLVES 378

(a) Where these losses are most serious.

(b) The two classes of wolves.

(c) The way in which they destroy.

10. PROTECTIVE MEASURES AGAINST WOLVES 381

Protection furnished by numerous bells.
Protection furnished by trapping.

(c) Protection furnished through poisoning.

(d) Protection furnished through state bounties.

(e) Protection furnished by hunting.

(f ) Protection furnished by fences.

CHAPTER XIX
The More Common Ailments of Sheep

PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF DISEASE IN SHEEP 385

(a) Treatment less satisfactory with sheep than other
stock.

XXXiv TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF DISEASE — Continued

(b) The importance of preventive measures.

(c) Proper environment for and care of sheep.

2. PARASITES THAT PREY EXTERNALLY ON SHEEP 387

The sheep tick and its life history.
The scab mite and its life history.
(c) The sheep louse and its history.

3. PARASITES THAT PREY INTERNALLY ON SHEEP 391

(a) The stomach worm and treatment.

The tape worm and treatment.

The lung worm and treatment.

Nodule disease and treatment.
(e) Grub in the head and treatment.

4. AILMENTS FROM DIGESTIVE SOURCES 404

(a) Bloat and treatment.

(b) Overtaxed digestion and treatment.

(c) Diarrhea and treatment.

(d) Colic and treatment.

(e) Stretches and treatment.

5. AILMENTS AFFECTING THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION 41ft

(a) Catarrh and treatment.

(b) Bronchitis and treatment.

(c) Pneumonia and treatment.

(d) Pleurisy and treatment.

6. AILMENTS ARISING FROM REPRODUCTION 412

(a) Abortion and treatment.

(b) Retention of the afterbirth and treatment.

(c) Inversion of the womb and treatment.

7. AILMENTS THAT AFFECT THE LIMBS 414

'a) Common foot rot and treatment.
Contagious foot rot and treatment.
Broken limbs and treatment.

8. AILMENTS PECULIAR TO LAMBS 417

(a) Indigestion and treatment.

(b) White scours and treatment.

(c) Retention of excrement and treatment.

(d) Wool balls and treatment.

(e) Navel disease and treatment.

9. AILMENTS MISCELLANEOUS IN CHARACTER 418

(a) Goiter and treatment.

(b) Ophthalmia and treatment.

(c) Tumors and treatment.

(d) Urinary troubles and treatment.

(e) Garget and treatment.

TABLE OF CONTENTS XXXV

CHAPTER XX
Dipping Sheep for Ticks and Scabs

Page

1. THE OBJECTS SOUGHT FROM DIPPING SHEEP 421

(a) The removal of external parasites.

(b) Improving the condition of the skin.

(c) Increasing growth in the wool.

2. THE Two CLASSES OF SHEEP DIPS 422

(a) Those that are proprietary.

(b) Those that are non-proprietary.

(c) Considerations when choosing between them.

3. THE BASIC ELEMENT IN SHEEP DIPS 425

(a) Those with arsenic as the basic element.

(b) Those with carbolic acid as the basic element.

(c) Those with tobacco as the basic element.

(d) Those with lime and sulphur as the basic element.

4. THE DIPPING PLANT 431

(a) For a large flock.

(b) For an ordinary farm flock.

(c) For a few animals.

5. THE SEASON FOR DIPPING 436

(a) It may be done at nearly all seasons.

(b) The best seasons for dipping.

(c) The frequency of the dipping.

6. FACTS THAT BEAR UPON THE WORK OF DIPPING 438

(a) The amounts of the dip called for.

(b) Renewing the supply when dipping sheep.

(c) The time that sheep should remain in the dip.

(d) Particulars that apply to dipping for scab.

(e) The necessity for gentle handling.

7. CARE OF THE ANIMALS SUBSEQUENTLY TO DIPPING 440

(a) The aim should be to change their quarters.

(b) When disinfecting former quarters is necessary.

(c) How disinfection is secured.

8. REMOVING PARASITES BY OTHER METHODS 441

(a) By pouring liquids from a vessel.

(b) By applying unguents.

(c) By feeding sulphur.

9. How FAR DIPPING Is A NECESSITY 443

(a) When removing ticks and scabs.

(b) When cleansing the skin.

(c) How to render it unnecessary.

XXXVI TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXI
Establishing a Flock and Improving It

Page

1. IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS WHEN ESTABLISHING A FLOCK__ 445

(a) The consideration of environment.

(b) The consideration of proximity to market.

(c) The consideration of food supplies.

2. ESTABLISHING A PURE-BRED FLOCK 447

(a) Who may engage in the work.

(b) Determining the choice of breed.

(c) The character of the foundation animals.

(d) The sources from which they may be obtained.

3. ESTABLISHING A FLOCK OF GRADES 451

(a) The essentials as to form in the females.

(b) Blood elements in the same.

(c) The sources from which they may be obtained.

4. THE SIRES USED IN GRADE FLOCKS 452

(a) They should always be purely bred.

(b) The factors that determine choice in breed.

(c) The character of the rams.

5. THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE FLOCK 455

(a) The three factors in improvement

(b) The part played by the sires.

(c) What is accomplished by selection.

(d) What may be due to food.

6. IMPROVEMENT THROUGH THE SIRES 457

(a) Why successive sires from the same breed should

be chosen.

(b) The time called for to reach high development.

(c) The Minnesota station experiment.

(d) To what extent in-breeding may be practiced.

7. IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SELECTION 459

(a) Discard inferior females before they are bred.

(b) Ewes that should be discarded at the weaning sea-

son.

(c) The necessity for rejecting some will always exist.

8. IMPROVEMENT THROUGH FOOD 461

(a) Food adapted to the needs of the sheep.

(b) Food adapted to the needs of the breed.

(c) Food adapted to the requirements of the breeding.

9. WHEN CROSSING Is LEGITIMATE 462

(a) When pure breeds may be crossed.

(b) Making more than one cross.

(c) Introducing an out cross.

TABLE OF CONTENTS XXXV11

Pag«

10. BREEDING FOR SINGLE OR TWIN LAMBS . 464

(a) When to breed for one or the other.

(b) The part that breeding plays in such production

(c) The part that food plays in such production.

11. MUCH SHOULD BE LEFT TO THE GOOD SHEPHERD 466

(a) His knowledge of the flock is most intimate.

(b) Usually he is a good judge of sheep.

(c) He may also be a good salesman.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
rig. Pagt

1. Panel of Movable Fence and Headpiece 21

2. Southdowns Noted as Mutton Producers 34

3. Yearling Rambouillets Grown for Wool and Mutton 36

4. Wool as Classified on the Sheep 70

5. The Shorn Fleece as Frequently Classified 72

6. Feeding Rack for Lambs 115

7. Shropshires on Iowa Agricultural College Farm 140

8. A Noted Prize- Winning Yearling Shropshire Ram 156

9. A Noted Prize- Winning Yearling Oxford Down Ram 159

}0. Shropshires on Summer Grazing 165

:il. Fattening Sheep in the Willamette Valley, Oregon 220

?.2. Typical Dorset Horn Ram 240

1.3. Iowa College Lambs in Charge of Keepers 258

14. Shearing Sheep by Machinery in Montana 302

15. Plan of Convenient Sheep Rack 330

16. Ground Plan of Sheep Barn 342

17. Ground Plan of Barn with Yard Protection 344

18. Ground Plan of Barn at Minnesota Experiment Station 346

19. Sheep Barn at Minnesota Experiment Station 348

20. Loading Sheep for Shipment at Columbus, Montana 360

21. Ground Plan of Dipping Plant 434

22. Dipping Vat for a Small Flock 435

23. Southdown Sheep 456

xxxlx

CHAPTER I
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY

In discussing the influence which sheep exert on soil
fertility, the following points will be considered: (i) Why
the sheep has a golden hoof; (2) What sheep remove
from the soil ; (3) Why the droppings of sheep are val-
uable; (4) Fertilizing poor land quickly at low cost;
(5) Sheep and fertility in paddocks; (6) Sheep and fer-
tilizer for gardeners; and (7) How sheep manure may
lose its fertility.

Sheep and the golden hoof — There are good reasons
for believing that long ages ago the statement had con-
gealed into a proverb, that "the sheep has a golden hoof."
The originator of the saying and the date of its origin
can never be known now. These have been lost amid the
dimness of a distant past. There is not much doubt, how-
ever, as to why sheep came to be so characterized. Un-
questionably they were so designated primarily because
of the favorable influence which they exerted on the fer-
tility of soil on which they grazed. But it would be cor-
rect to speak of them also because of the service which
they render in destroying the many forms of weed life,
and because of the dual returns which they give of meat
and milk every season.

That sheep do add materially to the enrichment of
the soils on which they graze cannot be questioned, since
it is a fact of general observation. Wherever sheep graze
on pastures they grow richer and more productive rather
than poorer and less productive, when grazed under
proper conditions. It is possible to graze pastures so
closely with sheep that the grasses may fail. This some-
times happens on the far western ranges where the
grasses have to fight for life because of the lack of mois-

2 : :^ : MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

ture* But when such decrease follows in the yields of the
grasses it is not owing to any decrease in fertility, as may
be shown by increase in the returns from pastures prop-
erly grazed in the same areas. When pastures are broken
up that are grazed by sheep, the growth is more vigorous
than on grass pastures beside them of similar age and
similarly broken but that have not been so grazed. Even
when sheep graze amid the stubbles after grain has been
harvested, the favorable influence on the crops that follow
is frequently distinctly traceable. How sheep increase
the fertility of the land when they remove fertility in the
form of flesh, bones and wool is explained below.

Sheep are the inveterate foes of weed life in
nearly all of its forms. The weeds that sheep will not
consume upon the farm are few indeed, providing they
can have access to them while the weeds are young.
When tender and succulent, they will consume many
weeds in preference to grass. Almost the only class of
weeds that they will not eat when young are those that
are furnished with spines, as in the case of the thistle.
When weeds become woody, they will not consume the
stems unless under the constraint of hunger, but they will
in nearly all instances consume the seeds. The excep-
tions are seeds encased in pods that are furnished with a
defense in the form of prickles, as in the case of the
cocklebur and the burdock. It would be very interesting
to know the number of the weeds that a sheep consumes
in a day, in a year, or in a lifetime when given timely
access to the weeds. Sheep will also crop down the young
sprouts that spring up around the stumps of trees that
have been cut down, and in this way they hasten decay
in the stumps.

Sheep give a dual return annually. They give a re-
turn in lambs and also in wool. This is true at least of
the females that have reached the age for breeding. Other
meat-making animals give a return in meat, except in the
case of the dairy cow. This capacity to give a dual return

SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY 3

goes far toward giving the sheep a foremost place among
live stock on the farm in the profits which they give to the
owner. It has been claimed that under many conditions,
the fleece furnished annually by the sheep will pay the
cost of food and care for the entire year. In some in-
stances it will do more than this, thus leaving the value
of the lamb or lambs produced, less the food it has eaten,
as the net profit. But that is not all the profit, as will
now be shown.

When reckoning the profit from keeping sheep, it is
legitimate, of course, to include the influence which they
exercise on fertility and in checking the growth of nox-
ious forms of weed life. These influences are, in a sense,
intangible. It is impossible to put a money value upon
them, since no rules have been formulated for estimating
exactly the value of these influences, nor is it possible to
formulate them because of their intangible character.
Both, however, are material, and, especially on the arable
farm, they add greatly to the profits from keeping sheep.
That sheep are more profitable, as a rule, than any other
quadruped kept on the arable farm in proportion to the
investment and the labor involved, is the almost universal
testimony of those who have kept the different classes of
these upon the farm.

Fertility removed by sheep — The amount of fertility
removed by sheep is relatively small. They only remove
virtually what is transformed into flesh, bone and wool.
In flesh and wool the nitrogenous element predominates,
and this when removed can be much more easily replaced
on the arable farm than phosphoric acid and potash. The
most serious loss is that of phosphorus, since that cannot
be so easily replaced as the supply of nitrogen, and the
supply of potash in the soil is usually relatively more
abundant than that of potash. Sheep remove less of fer-
tility from the farm than other domestic quadrupeds, for
the reason that the droppings fall more constantly on

4 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

the pastures, and for the further reason that the waste
from the droppings is much less, as is shown below.

Notwithstanding the fertility removed by sheep from
the soil in the ways just mentioned, the amount of avail-
able fertility in lands where sheep are grazed is increased
How, it may be asked, is this possible when all the food
which they consume comes from the soil, and a part of it
is taken away in the flesh, bone and wool sold? There is
also some loss of fertility from the droppings through
washing. The loss in the droppings from the latter
source is usually slight, especially when the sheep are on
the pastures. The loss of fertility from other sources
named is evidently more than made up through fertility
brought up from the subsoil and made available near the
surface. The roots of all plants feed more deeply than is
usually supposed, including those of many of the grasses.
This will be at once apparent to those who observe the
length of the roots and rootlets suspended from grass
crowns underneath which the earth has been washed
away on the side of a cliff or ravine. They went far
down into the subsoil before they were thus laid bare.
In doing so they gathered food in the subsoil to support
growth above the surface. The elements of plant growth
in the subsoil are thus being gradually transformed from
inert to available forms in the subsoil, and when thus
transformed are sent upward to maintain leaf and stem
growth. These, in time, when consumed by sheep are
left upon the surface soil for its enrichment. The fertility
thus carried from the subsoil to the surface must be more
than the amount removed in the carcass and the wool of
the sheep grazed on the pastures, otherwise the fertility
of the lands thus grazed would not be increased.

That lands grazed by sheep do increase in available
fertility cannot be gainsaid. The fact has been so fre-
quently observed that it cannot be questioned. Sheep
have grazed upon the Cheviot Hills for generations, and
on grasses unstimulated by the addition of fertilizers from

SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY 5

outside sources, and yet the pastures on these hills are
more rather than less abundant than they were decades
ago. This fact finds demonstration in the comparison of
the carrying power of the grasses. Since lands that are
judiciously grazed by sheep from year to year become
richer, the question naturally arises as to what will be the
limit of the enriching process, or as to whether it has any
limit. The answer to both questions will depend upon
the amount of plant food available and inert in the strata
of soil and subsoil in which the plants feed. It will be
observed that the increase in fertility through such graz-
ing, at least where legumes are absent, comes through
transformation of fertility. Such transformation relates
first to change in form, and second, to change in place.
Now, if the supply of these nutrients is sufficient for
indefinite use, there will be similar increase in fertility in
the lands thus grazed. If, on the other hand, the supply
is insufficient for such use indefinitely, then a time would
come when the power of such lands to carry sheep would
grow less, unless aided from some outside source. Hap-
pily, the supply of inert plant food materials in the soil
is sufficient to sustain plant growth indefinitely, in some
forms at least, otherwise the prairies could not have main-
tained for long centuries in undiminished volume the
grasses that grow upon them.

Sheep manure valuable — The droppings of sheep are
valuable, first, because of the chemical constituents ; sec-
ond, because of the readily available condition ; third, be-
cause of the even way in which they are distributed on
the soil ; and fourth, because they are distributed where
most needed. In all of these respects it would probably
be correct to say that the droppings of sheep are more
valuable than the droppings of any other class of quadru-
peds kept upon the farm. This is certainly true when
these influences are considered together.

The analyses of the fertilizer obtained from the differ-
ent classes of domestic animals will, of course, vary with

6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

the food fed. For this and other reasons it would be
only possible to state approximately the relative value of
these. Roberts has given much thought to this question
and his investigations have led him to conclude that the
average value of a ton of farm manures from horses, cows,
sheep and swine ranks as follows:

Horses $2.49

Cows 2.43

Sheep 4.25

Swine 3.20

In this estimate the nitrogen in the manure is rated
at 15 cents a pound, the phosphoric acid at 7 cents and the
potash at 4^2 cents. The superior value of sheep manure
is thus clearly apparent from the standpoint of chemical
analysis. Add to this the other points of superiority, and
the showing is very pronounced in favor of sheep manure.

The readily available condition in which the drop-
pings of sheep are found adds greatly to their value.
When they fall on the soil it is usually in the form of
detached particles. These come in close contact with the
soil. The first shower which falls upon them carries
down more or less of the manurial constituents into the
soil. This is all the more readily accomplished because of
the finer and more thorough grinding which sheep give
to their food than other domestic quadrupeds. The drop-
pings of other animals fall in masses, hence much of their
bulk does not come in close contact with the soil. The
loss from these, therefore, by washing and leaching is
much greater than from the droppings of sheep. It is
also much greater from oxidation and from pests that
prey upon them.

As the droppings of horses and cattle fall in masses,
they destroy vegetation beneath them, and they overfer-
tilize the ground for a short distance around, and there
is also waste from the causes named. But the droppings
of sheep scatter when they fall. Sheep travel much when

SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY 7

they graze, and because they do they distribute their
droppings much more evenly over the entire area grazed
than other classes of stock. Because of this, it would
probably be correct to say that sheep while grazing will
distribute manure about as effectively and as evenly as
though it had been distributed by a manure spreader.
This adds greatly to the value of the manure, since the
cost of drawing and distributing farmyard manure is
relatively high, sometimes so high as to make its use
prohibitory when it has to be drawn far.

The droppings are also distributed by sheep where
they are most needed. Sheep instinctively seek the
higher ground when they are at rest. Because of this,
the proportion of the droppings left on these is usually
much greater than that left on the lower lands. The lat-
ter are usually much less in need of fertility than the
former, hence the distribution thus effected fertilizes most
the land that is most in need of fertilization.

Sheep and quick fertilization — Lands low in fertility
may be quickly fertilized by grazing sheep on them un-
der certain conditions of management. The grazing will
in itself add to the available fertility, even though the
food eaten should be only grass. It will add more quickly
to the available fertility if the land is plowed and some
crop is sown on it to provide grazing. The more fre-
quently such crops are sown, the more will be the increase
in the available fertility, even in the absence of applied
fertilizers, hence the wisdom in trying to grow more than
one crop on such land each season.

Whether the grazing is furnished by grasses or
grains, the fertilizing may be much hastened by feeding
concentrates to the sheep thus grazed. This may some-
times be done with profit when grazing sheep are suckling
their lambs. It may usually be done with profit when
grazing sheep that are being fattened. The fertilization
thus added is proportionate to the richness in manurial
elements of the foods and to the amount of the same.

8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

The fertilization may be hastened by the judicious
use of commercial fertilizers. When these are applied in
addition to the concentrates fed, the increase in fertility
will be proportionate under normal conditions. When
these influences act in conjunction, the fertilization is
rapid, and it is virtually without waste, especially when
grass pastures are thus grazed. As the grasses that
cover the soil almost entirely prevent waste in the fer-
tilizer applied, there is not only increase in the top
growth from the application of the fertilizer, but there
is proportionate increase in the root growth, a fact of
much significance when the pastures are broken, be-
cause of the extent to which root growth adds fertility
to the soil. There is probably no method that will im-
prove worn lands more quickly and more cheaply with
reference to fertilization and also to their mechanical con-
dition.

Such a method of fertilizing arable lands distant
from the farmsteading is entirely practicable, and it is
eminently satisfactory. It would be too costly to ferti-
lize them by applying farmyard manure, because of the
cost of labor involved. Fertilization through commercial
fertilizers would be slower and less satisfactory. When
practiced as outlined, it should be safe, relatively, cheap
and eminently satisfactory.

Sheep and fertility in paddocks — A sheep paddock, as
is generally known, is a small inclosure located near the
farmsteading, more roomy than a yard and much less so
than a field. It is, in a way, an indispensable adjunct of the
arable farm. It furnishes in summer grazing grounds for
temporary use or for the more permanent occupancy of
rams or of other animals that may be in the process of
fitting for shows. It may also in some instances be de-
voted to the growing of soiling foods or of pastures other
than grasses. When used, as they sometimes are in win-
ter, as yards for feeding certain fodders, the soil becomes
very rich, and in consequence it becomes well fitted for

SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY 9

the kinds of production just referred to. When soiling
food is grown for sheep, it is greatly important, as a
matter of economy in labor, that it shall be grown near
at hand to where it is to be fed. The feeding of such
foods to sheep is usually limited to the needs of those
that are being fitted for the shows, hence a limited area
such as a paddock furnishes will usually suffice for such a
use. Paddocks, because of the richness of the soil
through the droppings of the sheep, and because of their
proximity to the sheds, have pre-eminent adaptation for
the growing of such foods.

In the winter or after the ground has become frozen,
certain fodders are sometimes fed in one or more of these
paddocks. They are simply strewn over the ground from
day to day, and the place of strewing is changed daily.
They are thus fed, in part, as a matter of convenience,
and also in some instances to encourage the sheep to
take exercise while picking them over. Corn and sor-
ghum fodders are frequently fed thus. When so fed, un-
less when they are present in excessive quantities, the
most convenient way to get rid of them is to bury them
with the plow. In this way the removing of a product
that is difficult to handle is obviated, and the soil becomes
filled with humus imbedded in the rich covering of fer-
tility that encircles it. When the seed of soiling crops is
sown on such land, the growth is usually of a most vig-
orous kind.

The occasional plowing of paddocks has the further ad-
vantage that it renders them much less liable to harbor
disease in certain forms. It is thought, and with much
countenance of support, that the hazard to sheep from
grazing in paddocks is much reduced when the soil is
frequently turned over with the plow. It has been thought
tnat the germs of such ailments as tapeworm and stom-
ach worm are sometimes taken into the stomachs of
lambs by grazing on the vegetation of paddocks that have
not recently been plowed.

IO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Sheep and fertilizer for gardeners — As is well known,
gardeners require a large amount of fertilizers. In some
instances they have found that they can obtain it more
cheaply by feeding sheep in winter than in any other way.
It may be ; in fact, it usually is, that both the food and the
sheep are purchased. In the fattening process large
quantities of the fertilizer are made and so near to the
place of application that, when all things are taken into
account, it is much more profitable to obtain it thus than
by purchase in the adjacent towns or cities.

Some localities are much better adapted to such feed-
ing than others. Where it is to be markedly successful,
the sheep must be obtainable at reasonable prices, and
they should be brought to the farm without incurring
undue outlay, as the price of transportation. Suitable
food must be obtainable without excessive cost. The in-
dividual who feeds should have a thorough knowledge of
his business. When the animals so fed are marketed, it.
should be with the best judgment. Thus handled, there
should be some profit on the sheep in addition to the fer-
tilizer.

The profit, as in all fattening, may not come from the
increase made in weight during the fattening process, but
from increase in the weight of the animal when the fat-
tening process began. The person who must purchase
all his food will make less profit as a rule than the individ-
ual who grows at least a part of it. But, in any event,
safe buying and selling of the sheep and careful, judicious
purchasing and feeding of the foods should result in some
cash profit from the venture ; thus furnishing the manure
without other cost than that involved in applying it. This
to the gardener should prove a great boon, as the fer-
tilizer thus furnished would add greatly to the efficacy of
the action of commercial fertilizers when these also are
used.

Fertilizer from sheep is in some instances made in
very large quantities in feeding centers where sheep are

SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY II

fed in a large way. Very much of what has been thus
made in the past has been wasted, owing to the cost of
carrying it to farms and gardens where it is needed.
Much of the precious substance, in the far West especially,
has been drawn out in trainloads and dumped into
ravines as the best way of disposing of it. The fertilizer
thus made is rich in the elements of fertility, as in making
it the sheep are fed chiefly on concentrated food. Much
of the grain thus fed is given as screenings, especially in
the West, and as these are fed in the unground form, the
manure contains many weed seeds, the vitality of which
has not been destroyed. These have not been consumed
by the sheep, but have been dropped by them while tak-
ing their food. Their presence makes it so far undesir-
able for gardeners.

Fertilizer is sometimes obtained from the western
ranges where sheep have been corralled and wintered for
successive years. This product is sometimes known as
sheep guano. It contains much plant food, relatively, as
it has lost but little in manurial constituents through
leaching, and it is almost devoid of admixture of such sub-
stances as litter and earth. In some instances these ac-
cumulations have assumed large proportions, but they
have frequently become much deteriorated through age.
Notwithstanding they have been shipped more or less
freely to the East, where they have been used by garden-
ers, more especially by those engaged in growing products
of the greenhouse. The cost of transportation has
proved restrictive to the trade.

How sheep manure takes harm — Sheep manure, like
that from other animals, may be injured by leaching, as in
yards where sheep are wintered it is usually spread over
much surface area relatively. In such instances the loss
from this source is serious where the rains are frequent,
hence the wisdom of applying it under such conditions
as soon as possible after it is made.

Sheep manure is also frequently injured by molds.

12 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

These are caused by undue heat in the manure in the ab-
sence of moisture. This heated condition of the manure
is sometimes spoken of as "fire fang." The hazard of loss
from this source is much greater when the manure is un-
der cover than when it is exposed to the elements. The
mold usually assumes a white color in sheep manure. It
has then lost nearly all its nitrogen, and its value in other
respects has become greatly lessened. Sheep manure un-
der cover is much liable to become thus affected owing to
the relatively small amount of liquid in the voidings.

' To get the best possible value from sheep manure it
should be applied to the land in the fresh form, and as
soon as possible after it is made. That, of course, holds
true of all manure, but it is pre-eminently true of manure
made by sheep. When allowed to mold so that the mold
permeates the mass, it will not repay the labor of apply-
ing it.

The cost of applying manure made by sheep is, in the
aggregate, considerably less than in the case of other ani-
mals. This is owing to the longer period relatively dur-
ing which they remain in the pasture. In the autumn
they are frequently grazed for several weeks after cattle
have been confined to the yards, and usually they are
turned out to graze for two to four weeks after cattle
have been confined to the yards, and generally they are
turned out to graze from two to three weeks earlier in the
spring. This, of course, adds to the value of sheep as fer-
tilizers of the land.

CHAPTER II

SHEEP AS SCAVENGERS AND IMPROVERS OF
CROP YIELDS

In Chapter II the discussion dwells upon the follow-
ing: (i) Sheep as weed destroyers; (2) Freeing land
from weeds by sheep ; (3) Sheep as destroyers of brush ;

(4) Improving grain yields through grazing with sheep ;

(5) Improving the stand of grass by such grazing; (6)
Improving clover seed yields through grazing; (7) Why
sheep should be kept on nearly all farms ; and (8) Sheep
and fresh meat on the farm. The great service which
they may render in all these ways is too little understood.
Their ability to render it is largely the outcome of that
instinct which prompts them to feed upon a wide variety
of food. They have been known to winter upon seaweed,
even in stern maritime climates, and in these they have
in some instances been fed considerable quantities of
dried fish.

Sheep as weed destroyers — The value of sheep as
weed destroyers has seldom been taken at its true worth.
The varieties of weeds that sheep will not consume are
few, providing they may have access to them when they
are young, and when consuming the weeds they also
transform them into useful mutton. The weeds thus con-
sumed that taint mutton offensively are few indeed.
Among the number are pennycress (Thalaspi arvense)
and the wild onion (A Ilium vine ale).

Among the common noxious weeds that they do not care
to eat, are the mullein and the burdock, and such forms of
weed life as are protected by spines or prickles. But they will
frequently consume weeds thus protected when they are
young, as in the case of the Russian thistle (Salsola Kali, var.
tragus). The number of the weeds that they will consume

13

14 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

is legion. But sheep consume weeds much more readily
when they are young than when they reach a more advanced
stage of growth. Succulence in plants is especially grateful
to sheep, and woodiness in the same is equally distasteful to
them. For instance, they will readily consume squirrel tail
(Hordeum jubatum) and foxtail (Setaria glauca) when
young, but when these reach an advanced stage of growth,
they will almost starve rather than feed upon them. They
show a decided preference for some forms of weed life as
compared even with the useful grasses when the former
are in the zenith of their succulence. Allow the same weeds
to reach the woody stage and they will not eat them. Such
are the weeds popularly known as pigweed (Amaranthus
hybridus), and lamb's-quarters (Chenopedium album).

But in many instances, after weeds have become so
woody that sheep will not consume them, they will strip
them of their leaves and thus prevent them from maturing
seeds. There are but few classes of weed seeds that they
will not consume when given access to them, hence the im-
mense service that they may render in grain fields after the
crop has been harvested. Among the exceptions are those
protected by stiff hair, as foxtail ; and by prickles and spines,
as in the case of the cocklebur (Xanthium canadense) and
the sand bur (Cenchrus tribuloides).

Because of this weed-eating habit, sheep may be made
to render much service in pastures, even when gleaning along
with other live stock. Many forms of weed life grow amid
pastures betimes which cattle and horses will not consume
at any stage of their growth. When sheep may have access
to these, they trim them down proportionately to their num-
bers, and in many instances will in time cause them to dis-
appear. In this way such intruders in pastures as briers and
bushes of various kinds may be destroyed, as well as plants
more properly classified as weeds. In pastures on timber
lands newly cleared sheep may be thus made to render most
valuable service by destroying the sprouts that grow amid
the trees.

SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 15

When sheep may glean amid the stubbles from which
grain crops have been removed, they not only gather the
heads of the fallen grain more or less, but they feed upon
the weeds which have grown among the same. Even though
they should reject the stalk, almost invariably they will con-
sume the seeds. The seeds of some weeds when sufficiently
numerous aid materially in fattening them. Such is wild
buckwheat (Polygonum convolvulus), which grows so
abundantly in the grain fields of the northwestern prairies.
The service which sheep may thus be made to render grain-
growing farmers is very great. When such crops as dwarf
essex rape and fall turnips have been sown along with the
grain, the profits from such grazing usually are greatly en-
hanced.

Sheep may be made to profitably consume weeds that
grow amid standing corn under certain conditions of growth,
without any injury to the corn. These conditions call for
corn of sufficient height to produce ears reasonably high
from the ground, and that has not been too far bent over
by storms. As is generally known in seasons of much rain-
fall, weeds may grow luxuriantly after the last cultivation
given to the corn, and unless eaten down before the corn is
harvested many of them may mature their seeds. For such
grazing lambs have higher adaptation than sheep, since they
are much less liable to disturb the corn.

Lambs are usually weaned about the time that such
grazing is ready. The corn stalks furnish a grateful shade
for the lambs. While thus gleaning they will, when suffi-
ciently numerous, clean out the weeds. They may also trim
off the lower leaves of the corn, but the corn crop will not
be harmed by such trimming. Usually they will not disturb
the ears as long as other food is plentiful.

There is no place probably wherein sheep will render
better service than when allowed to glean amid the by-places
of the farm. These include such places as paddocks, lanes,
fence borders, nooks and corners around outbuildings, and
even around the dwelling, front and rear, in the absence of

^6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

flowers and shrubs. They may even in certain instances ren-
der good service when gleaning in groves and belts planted
for protection. It is in such places that weeds are more
liable to become entrenched and to escape destruction, since,
if destroyed otherwise than by sheep, hand labor is involved,
and usually at a season when such labor cannot well be
spared. When the vegetation on these by-places is neglected,
it not only means that mischievous forms of weed life grow-
to maturity, but they give the farm an unkempt appearance
that is repelling. The difference between a nicely grazed
lane and one rank with weed life is very marked, and the
same is true of other nooks and corners. When sheep have
timely and sufficient access to these, almost without any aid
they will keep them so trimmed that they will present a neat
appearance. When the sheep are thus employed, they will
be consuming a variety of food which is much helpful to
their well being. Sheep thus grazed are usually fat, and
their summer food is obtained without cost.

Nowhere probably can sheep render better service than
when grazing on fallow land when it is infested with weed
life. Under some conditions there would be little or no
food for sheep on land that is summer-fallowed, as, for in-
stance, when the land is frequently plowed while lying fallow
or frequently cultivated after it has been plowed. Under
other conditions much food is furnished, especially on
western prairies where weed growth is very rapid in the
summer. When sheep can have access to such lands they
will crop down weeds that might otherwise go to seed. The
presence of sheep in sufficient numbers would reduce the
amount of cultivation that would otherwise be called for.
and the grazing would tend to impact the soil, which would
in many instances prove a material aid when growing the
succeeding grain crop. If, at the proper time, which would
not be later than the end of June, three pounds of rape seed
were sown per acre and covered with a stroke of the har-
row, the grazing furnished by the same would in many in-
stances fatten 10 to 15 sheep or lambs, and with benefit

SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 17

rather than injury to the crop that would follow. Any
weeds growing up amid the rape would be consumed by the
sheep. The only real hazard incurred would be the possi-
bility of having too much straw in the grain crop that would
follow, because of the fertility left on the surface of the soil
by the sheep.

Freeing lands from weeds — Many kinds of weeds
may be eradicated by simply growing crops in close suc-
cession and grazing them down with sheep. When thus
grazed the land is divided by fences, portable or other-
wise, so that the grazing may be conducted in alternation
on the different inclosures. The succession of crops is so
close that each division of the land is made to produce
two and in some instances three crops in one season.
The crops thus grown are annuals, and some mature so
quickly that they may be regarded as catch crops when
thus grown. But it is necessary while grazing sheep thus
to have a grass pasture in reserve on which the sheep
may be grazed when the wet condition of the ground may
make it inadvisable to continue the grazing on the lands
on which the crops are grown in succession.

The crops best adapted for such grazing will depend
to a considerable degree on the conditions that relate to
soil and climate. Soils low in adaptation are those classed
as clay, because vegetation on these grows slowly and
they impact readily if grazed when wet. Nor do light
sands rank high for such a use, because of the amount of
fertilization which they require to produce good grazing,
especially when the grazing of these is first begun. Loam
soils, and especially sandy loams, have highest adaptation
for being thus grazed.

In the north the crops that may be grown thus in-
clude rye, mixed grains, rape, cabbage, corn and sorghum.
In the central states, cowpeas and soy beans may be
added to the list. In the far western states, kale and
vetches may be added, but not soy beans and cowpeas.
In the Atlantic states, the list may include all those

l8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

named and in addition crimson clover, but the sand vetch
would grow rather than the common vetch grown in the
West. In the southern states, the list is a long one. It
includes winter rye, certain of the cereals, the sand or
hairy vetch, cowpeas, soy beans, velvet beans, corn and
the sorghums, rape, cabbage and kale.

The succession in which these crops should be grown
will depend largely on natural adaptation. Certain of
them, as winter rye, the sand vetch and crimson clover,
grow best in the early spring. Others, as corn, the sor-
ghums, cowpeas, soy beans and velvet beans, grow best
in the summer ; and yet others, as rape, cabbage and kale,
are naturally at their best in the autumn.

The following are prominent among the benefits that
follow such grazing : First, noxious weeds that infest the
soil are removed from it, in some instances entirely, and
in all instances the reduction is marked. The complete-
ness of the removal effected will depend on the class of
the weeds and the ways in which they propagate, on the
kind or kinds of the forage crops and on the manner of
growing them.

This system of grazing will soon destroy all biennial
weeds, as weeds of this class will soon succumb to culti-
vation so intensive. It will also reduce the most trouble-
some perennials to such an extent in two or three seasons
that the labor of removing by hand any plants that may
grow later becomes easily practicable. This reduction is
effected through the germination of the weed seeds lying
in the soil. The frequent stirring given to the soil
hastens the germination and the weeds thus started are
cared for by the sheep. The eradication of perennials
may take longer, but in most instances the frequent
stirring of the soil, the cropping down of the young plants
and the smothering influence of the pasture crops will
bring about the desired results.

Each kind of forage crop is more hurtful to the
growth of some weeds than to the growth of others. By

SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 19

changing the succession in the crops, it is easily possible to
cripple all kinds of weeds in their growth, by growing those
crops which will best effect the end sought in each in-
stance. Some crops grow more quickly than others, and
in doing so make grazing possible at a time that will do
most harm to the weeds. Some crowd weeds more than
others, and some furnish the opportunity for attacking
weeds to a greater extent than others in the preparation
of soil called for and also in the time when such prepara-
tion should be given. When these influences are given
due attention, the destroying process will be proportion-
ately hastened.

The method by which these crops are grown has an
important bearing on the destruction of weed life. Grow-
ing crops that call for harrowing after the planting season
will result in destroying more weeds than growing crops
that do not call for such treatment, and growing those
that call for both harrowing and cultivating will prove
even more effective in the removal of weeds. Careful
cultivation given to forage crops while they are grow-
ing will be more effective in destroying perennial weeds
than other forms of weed life.

Second, the weeds that grow are transformed into mut-
ton during the cleaning process. Other classes of live stock
are much prone to reject weeds, and consequently when the
effort is made to destroy them they are seldom turned to any
good use. It may not be possible to make high-class mutton
from weeds alone, but experience has abundantly proved that
excellent mutton can be made from forage crops grown as
outlined and the weeds that grow along with them.

Third, the land is fertilized while thus being grazed.
This does not mean that the content of its fertility in the soil
and subsoil is increased, but that the fertility in the subsoil,
or at least a part of it, is transformed from inert into avail-
able forms, and is brought from the subsoil and incorporated
in the surface soil, in which it is readily accessible to the
roots of the crops that may be sown. The accumulation of

2O MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

fertility in the surface soil thus becomes more rapid than the
depletion of the same through the fertility removed in the
flesh and in the wool of the sheep sold that have been thus
grazed. If there is any loss of fertility, it is in the subsoil
rather than in the surface soil.

Fourth, the soil is left in a condition which makes it
practicable to prepare it for a crop that is to follow at a
minimum expenditure of labor. The grazing last grown is
usually eaten down to the ground. The soil is in a great
measure free from all forms of weed growth. The richest
portion of the cultivable area is that which is near the sur-
face, because of the recent distribution of the droppings on
the same. It is important that they shall be kept near the
surface, hence in preparing such land for the succeeding
crop, the disk will usually answer the purpose better than
the plow, hence the labor called for is less than if the land
were plowed.

Fifth, this method of grazing sheep tends to protect
them from some forms of parasitical disease. For instance,
it is about certain that it tends to shield lambs from attack
by tapeworms, and stomach worms. When the dams are
not allowed to graze on old pasture lands in the spring, it is
believed that lambs thus grazed with their dams will not usu-
ally be attacked with these ailments. If this belief should be
sustained in all instances, it will bring within the reach of
the flock master an easily practicable method of protecting
his flock from infestation.

Sixth, grazing sheep thus tends to increase the revenue
from the land. This arises from the marked increase in
the production of wool and mutton as compared with pro-
duction from the same under the usual conditions that at-
tend the grazing of sheep. The expense of production where
the management is judicious, should be less relatively than
under ordinary methods of grazing, though much more in
the aggregate. Experiments conducted to show a compara-
tive profit from such a system of grazing as compared with
grazing on grass pastures only have not come to the knowl-

SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 21

edge of the author, but the profits should certainly be satis-
factory where the management is judicious.

There are, of course, some objections to grazing sheep
thus. One is found in the labor involved at a busy season of
the year. There is first, the work of preparing the land for
each successive crop and sowing it; second, the labor in-
volved, it may be, in cultivating some of the crops; third,
the labor of taking the sheep to and from the pastures, and
fourth, the work of removing and putting up frequently such
portions of the fences as are movable when movable fences
are used.

A second objection is found in the outlay for fencing.
While it is, of course, practicable to introduce this system of
grazing on any arable farm and on any portion of it where
introduced on a large scale, the arrangement of the fences
with reference to the grazing is a matter of prime impor-
tance. When planning any system of grazing through grow-
ing crops in succession, the aim should be to secure one plot

1

1

II

1

1

u

II

1

1

II

I

1

FIG. 1— PANEL OF MOVABLE FENCE AND HEADPIECE

or field long in proportion to the width, in order that the
outlay for the cross fences, movable or otherwise, should
be relatively low. If two such plots or fields can be secured
with a lane between them, the conditions are so far im-
proved. There should be easy access to a grass pasture and
also to the sheds, as it is necessary to admit the sheep fre-
quently to the sheds or the pastures while they are being
thus grazed. In Figure I is shown a panel of movable fence
and the headpiece for the same. Each panel is composed of
three boards, 4x1 inches wide and a fourth one at the bot-

22 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

torn 1x6 inches wide. When complete the panel is 12 feet
long and 3 feet 2 inches high. The end cross slats are nailed
on the same side and 6 inches from the ends of the boards.
The spaces from below are 6, 6*4 and 7^4 inches. The bot-
tom board of the headpiece is 6 x i% inches and 3 feet 6
inches long on the ground side. The two uprights are 4
x i% inches and 4 feet long. One is nailed on each side
of the sole piece, and these cross each other at about 6
inches from the ends. The notches are 3 inches deep and
2 inches wide. When in place the corresponding slats of
the panels rest side by side in the notches. Wire nails
are used 3^2 inches long. It is frequently necessary to
drive a short stake beside the base of the headpiece, which
is also nailed to it, to prevent the wind from tipping it
over.

A third objection to grazing sheep thus arises from
the harm that follows such grazing when the soil is wet
from rain or when the crops well grown are wet with
dew. Harm comes to the land if grazed soon after heavy
rain ; such harm results from impaction. It increases with
increase in the clay content in the soil, with increase in
the saturation of the land, and with increase in the weight
of the sheep that are being thus grazed. Harm conies to
the crop, especially when the growth has advanced some
distance above the ground, as the sheep while grazing on
it when wet with dew or rain break it down much more
readily than they would under other conditions of graz-
ing. The grazing is also soiled more or less by earth ad-
hering to it, and in this way it becomes so offensive to
the sheep as to be rejected by them. Harm to some ex-
tent may also come to the sheep when wading through
tall pastures, as for instance those furnished by rape, corn
and sorghum, when these are saturated by rain or a
copious dew. Such a condition is not natural, and, there-
fore, it cannot be conducive to the well being of the sheep.
The necessity for a grass pasture will be thus apparent
on which to graze the sheep when the other pastures are

SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 23

too wet to admit of grazing them without injury. In an
experiment conducted at the Minnesota station the author
succeeded in grazing 16 sheep, of which 10 were lambs,
during nearly all the period of grazing from spring until
the late autumn on one acre of land, without giving them
any additional food. The acre was divided into four equal
parts and crops were grown in succession on each of
these. The sheep were moved from one to the other divi-
sion as occasion called for such removal and the crops
were grown in succession. As soon as one crop was
grazed down, another was sown. The crops consisted
mainly of winter rye, mixed grains, dwarf Essex rape,
sorghum, small growing corn, and cabbage. The experi-
ment made it very clear that in humid areas a very large
number of sheep could be maintained on a relatively small
area of land, and with much benefit to the land, viewed
from the standpoints of weed eradication and fertilization.
Sheep as destroyers of brush — Sheep when properly
managed may render substantial aid in destroying brush
on lands from which it is desired to clear away the same.
Their value for such uses, however, has probably been
overestimated. For destroying brush, they are not nearly
the equal of goats. Nevertheless, they may be turned to
excellent account in destroying the sprouts that spring
up around the roots of trees in pastures from which the
forest has been recently cut away. They will also clean
out such growths of shrub and brush as are wont to
spring up after the forest has been cut away, as, for in-
stance, sassafras of the South and the raspberry of the
North. Mowing down the briers where sheep graze will
materially hasten their extermination. Some breeds of
sheep have higher adaptation for such a use than others.
In this respect the Merinos probably stand first, because
of the natural inheritance from ancestors which have been
accustomed to graze over wide areas on which grew a
varied flora, and because it is more admissible to keep

24 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

them in large flocks where much grazing may be required
than in the case of other breeds.

Sheep should never be confined exclusively to brush
pastures. The leaves of trees and shrubs are not the
natural diet of sheep, although they may live on the same
for a considerable time. While goats will fatten on such
food, if sheep are confined to brush pastures exclusively
or even mainly, but one result can follow, which is that
the flock will become the wreck of its former self. Great
loss has sometimes followed the attempts to keep sheep
thus by investors who did not know that sheep would
not thrive on brush.

Nevertheless, under certain conditions, they may be
used with much advantage in destroying brush, provid-
ing they are suitably managed when thus used. They
should be provided with a grass pasture on which they
may graze during a portion of each day. The brush will
be more quickly destroyed if the sheep can be taken from
the corral to the brush pasture in the morning when they
are hungry, or if they can be turned into it the previous
evening. They will then browse freely on the brush, but
in the afternoon they should have the run of a grass
pasture well stocked with grass. When the grass and
the brush are in the same pasture, the brush will eventu-
ally be killed, but not in one season where the brush pre-
ponderates.

Grain grazed by sheep — In some instances grain
crops may be grazed by sheep during the early stages of
growth with benefit to the crop, in addition to the graz-
ing furnished. In other instances such grazing, even of
the same crops and on the same soils, may prove detri-
mental to the yields obtained from them. In some in-
stances the increase from such grazing may be more than
50 per cent, and in other instances the decrease may be
equally large. The marked difference in the results may
be the outcome of a difference in the character of the
seasons in conjunction with prudent or imprudent grazing.

SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 25

Nearly all the small cereals may be profited by such
grazing under certain conditions. The winter crops, as
winter rye, winter wheat and in the South winter oats,
will furnish such grazing for a longer period, of course,
than any of the cereals that are spring sown. Peas do not
stand such grazing as well as other cereals, and the same
is probably true of legumes generally. The production
of corn and the sorghums is probably lowered in all in-
stances by such grazing where a mature crop is sought.
If corn is eaten down after it has produced the first joint,
it will not grow again.

It would seem correct to say, on first thought, that
the yields obtained from the small cereals will not be in-
creased by such grazing, except in instances in which the
crop ungrazed would produce relatively too large a pro-
portion of straw. But this view must not be pressed too
far, for there are instances in which the simple impaction
of the soil by the treading of the sheep would seem to
have improved the yields even where straw is not pro-
duced in excess. Such are certain soils of the prairie, so
light in texture as to sink easily beneath the tread. The
impaction thus produced tends to lessen the escape of
moisture by surface evaporation and its benefits are
greatest in a dry season. Furthermore, when the small
cereals are grazed, they stool more than when not grazed,
and this means a relative increase in nearly all instances
in the number of heads produced.

When winter rye, wheat or oats are growing so rankly
as a result of rich land and early sowing that, unchecked,
they will head out too early, then it would be in order to
graze them down for a time. But judgment must be
used as to the closeness of the grazing, as undue exposure
of the roots to the influences of severe winter weather
may prove harmful to the crop. Localities in which the
winter weather is usually not extreme are best adapted to
such grazing. When spring-sown cereals grow so rankly
in the early stages of growth that the danger is imminent

26 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

that they will lodge, then great good may result from
grazing them down for a time by sheep. Early sown
crops will profit the most from such grazing, as the graz-
ing tends to make the crops ripen somewhat later, hence
the grazing down of late crops may so defer maturity in
these that they would pass the season most favorable to
maturing under the best conditions before maturity is
reached. When the area to be grazed is large relatively
in proportion to the number of sheep on hand, the graz-
ing may begin on spring-sown cereals as soon as the sheep
can obtain food from the plants, but cereals fall sown are
not usually grazed thus early, as the season for grazing is
so much longer than with cereals spring sown.

Grazing cereals with sheep may harm the crops
rather than help them under certain conditions. Harm
will follow if they are grazed on these crops growing on
clay soil so moist that impaction will result from the graz-
ing. Such soils do not receive benefit from impaction,
but usually the opposite. Such grazing is seldom prac-
ticable on stiff clays, and generally is not needed, as on
such soils crops do not usually grow too rankly. Harm
will follow the grazing of winter crops much beyond the
season when spring growth begins, although winter rye
may in some instances be pastured with advantage to the
crop for two or three weeks subsequently to the opening
of the growing season, and harm will follow if the graz-
ing is continued so long in any case as to reduce the pro-
duction of straw below what is necessary to produce normal
yields of grain. Such an occurrence follows pasturing
too long continued in all instances, and it is accentu-
ated when the weather turns dry. The necessity, there-
fore, for exercising correct judgment when grazing such
crops is ever present. As the nature of the weather can-
not be forecasted with certainty, the prudence which
stops short of adequate pasturing is to be commended
rather than the temerity which hazards pasturing unduly
severe.

SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 2J

Grazing young grass with sheep — The stand of newly
sown grasses and clovers has in many instances been im-
proved by grazing them with sheep, whether these have
been sown alone or with a nurse crop, but this result does
not follow under all conditions nor on all soils. When
sown alone, the benefit may come, first, from the impac-
tion of the soil, and, second, from the removal of the
shade of weeds that would otherwise overshadow the
grasses. When sown with grain crops, the benefit may
come, first, from the impaction through treading; second,
from the removal of the shade that would otherwise over-
shadow the young grasses, and, third, from lessening the
need for moisture supplies in the grain crops, thus leav-
ing more for the grasses.

Newly sown grasses are thus improved in nearly all
instances when they are sown along with one or more
kinds of grain in the spring; that is, on soils where such
grazing is admissible. On light soils they are more im-
proved relatively than on heavy soils, and in a dry season
than in one over moist. Such grazing of newly sown
grasses is not so admissible in the autumn, as it would
tend to the removal of the protection which is so help-
ful to the plants in winter. On light, spongy soils diffi-
culty is found in obtaining a stand of grasses sown along
with a nurse crop when the season turns dry. The grasses
grow so delicately, because of the little moisture left for
them by the grain plants, and because of the crowding
of the same, that in many instances they perish outright
after the nurse crop has been removed by harvesting.

On the soft, spongy soils of the prairie, and espe-
cially where moisture is not plentiful, when grass seeds
are sown with one or more of the small cereals and the
grain and grass are grazed down almost from the first,
the stand of the grass will be much better than if the crop
had not been so grazed. In some seasons a stand of grass
will be obtained on such soils if thus grazed when failure
would have resulted but for the grazing. When grass

25 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

seeds are sown on newly cleared forest lands, the same
result will follow. The sunlight admitted by the grazing
tends to make the young plants strong. A stand of grass
may thus be obtained in many instances when the seed is
sown along with some crop grown especially to provide
grazing for sheep. For instance, grasses may be thus
sown with rape, cowpeas, soy beans, and even sorghum
when the latter is grown for grazing.

Such grazing, however, is not admissible on lands
that usually impact too readily. Such are heavy clay
soils. The growth of the young plants on these is rela-
tively slow at the best, and would be slower if the soil,
already too dense, were made more so by the treading of
sheep. To graze such soils when unduly moist would not
only greatly injure present but also future production.

Sheep and clover seed yields — The yields of clover
seed may frequently be much increased by grazing the
crop judiciously with sheep. This holds true, not only of
the common red, but also of the alsike and the mammoth
varieties. The increase in the yields of seed with the
varieties last named arises, first, from the check given to
over-exuberant growth in clovers ; and, second, from the
influence which early grazing has on increased stooling
in plants. The first tends to center development more
on seed production than on the production of stem and
leaves; and the second, by increasing the number of the
stems and the heads, increases the number of the seeds.
The increase with the medium red arises from the same
causes, and also from the more favorable season for abun-
dant seed production at which the crop may be made to ma-
ture. Ordinarily, seed is obtained from the second growth
of the common red variety, the first having been taken
for hay. Owing to the lateness of the growth in some in-
stances, and probably to the partial- exhaustion of the
powers of the plant in others, the yields of the seed are
reduced. Reduction in yields is also caused in some in-
stances by the clover midge (Cecidomyia leguminicola),

SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 29

and it may be by other insects. By grazing with sheep the
maturity of the .seed crop may be so hastened that the crop
will escape injury from the midge.

When clover intended for seed is grazed by sheep the
grazing should begin soon after growth begins in the
clover. The aim should be to so stock the land that the
grazing shall be reasonably close and also reasonably uni-
form. The continuance of the grazing should be deter-
mined by the character of the season and by the variety
of the clover. In a dry season it should be short, in a wet
season longer, but in no instance should it continue many
weeks from the beginning of the grazing. The common
red clover may be grazed longer than the other varieties.
Unless the grazing is uniform the red clover seed will
not ripen evenly.

Such grazing should not be attempted on clay soils
when they are so wet that impaction would follow the
grazing; nor should it be too long continued, lest the abil-
ity of the plants to produce sufficiently strong stems and
plants for abundant production of seeds should be too
much curtailed. As the nature of the weather cannot be
forecasted with certainty, it is difficult to determine when
such grazing should cease. It should be remembered,
however, that to graze too little is wiser than to graze too
much.

Sheep on all farms — Several reasons may be given
showing why sheep should be kept on all or nearly all
the farms of the United States and Canada. They should
be so kept, first, because of the service which they can
render; second, because a small flock may be so main-
tained at little cost; and third, because the conditions un-
der which they may be so kept are most favorable to their
thrift.

The service which they may render in destroying
weeds has already been discussed. See page 13. So
marked is this service that it alone would furnish a justi-
fication for keeping them in at least limited numbers.

3<D MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Usually the farm which sustains a small band of sheep
may at once be distinguished from farms around it with-
out sheep by the greater cleanliness which characterizes
it. If sheep were generally kept on farms, the disgrace
of weed pollution which rests upon so many of the farms
of this country would to a great extent be taken away.
But in addition to this service, they may be made to fur-
nish a large proportion of the meat required by the farmer
and his household. The quality of the meat so furnished
cannot be surpassed, since it is grown on a wide variety
of foods much of which is possessed of ample succulence, at
least during the season of grazing. Should the meat thus
furnished be not all wanted on the farm, the market for it
locally is usually good.

The cost of keeping a small flock on the farm is small
indeed. Much of the food which they consume during
the grazing season would not be consumed but for the
presence of the sheep. The food to be charged against
them is what they consume in winter, and the season for
the winter feeding of sheep is shorter than with other
animals. When the service which they render in destroy-
ing weeds and in enriching the soil is considered, the
charges that may legitimately be made against them are
small indeed.

It has been noticed that when sheep are thus kept in
small flocks, they keep in a better condition as to flesh
and thrift generally than if kept in large bands. The per-
centage of loss is also much less. The reasons are found
in the variety of the food furnished in the absence of over-
stocking in the pasture and over-crowding in the sheds,
and in the lessened liability to disease which the lowering
of vitality brings with it in the weaker animals in a large
flock. When the benefits from keeping a small band of
sheep on the farm are considered, it is, indeed, surpris-
ing that they are found on so few farms. The percentage
of the farms on which they are now kept is small, indeed,
compared with the same a few decades ago. The reasons

SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 31

for the change include the following : First, the loss from
dogs has driven many farmers out of the industry. With
increase in population dogs have proportionately in-
creased, and the losses resulting, therefore, have more
than kept pace with increase in the number of the dogs,
since vagrant dogs in growing villages are more numer-
ous than when the population was less dense, and these
are often ill fed. Second, many farms, especially those
on western prairies, are not fenced and until they are, in
part at least, sheep cannot be kept upon them. Third,
the transfer of the manufacture of wool from the looms of
the farm to those of the woolen mills has very much less-
ened the necessity for keeping the sheep on the farm.

The number of sheep that may thus be kept on the
farm with profit for the uses specified will, of course,
vary with the conditions. It would seem correct to say
that usually the flock should not be less than, say 20
breeding ewes on each 160 acres. That number should
keep weeds well in check in by-places, and should furnish
all the mutton, and more probably, than would be wanted
on the farm. If the number on the average farm were
introduced into the farms of the United States and Can-
ada, the result would be a virtual revolutionizing of the
sheep industry in both countries.

Sheep and fresh meat on the farm — No kind of live
stock kept on the farm is so well adapted to furnish the
household with fresh meat as sheep, unless it be poultry.
This is owing to the light weight relatively of the carcass.
Unless, in the warmest months, a lamb may be kept fresh
until consumed, and with an ice-house on the farm, it
may be kept fresh in any weather.

The mutton which such sheep furnish is a delicacy.
The variety of the plants on which the sheep feed is such
as to furnish excellent flavor in the meat. The succu-
lence makes it tender and juicy. The abundance of the
grazing makes it well covered. No kind of meat can be
furnished that is superior to mutton thus grown. It is a

32 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

luxury in the line of meat, and the marvel is that so few
of the farmers avail themselves of the opportunity to en-
joy it.

The influence on the cost of living is very material.
In the average home where all the food consumed is pur-
chased, meat is the most costly item of the living. Where
it is not reared it must, of course, be purchased; hence
the wisdom of trying to render such outlay unnecessary
as far as practicable by growing home supplies of meat
on the farm.

CHAPTER III

SHEEP FOR WOOL, FOR MUTTON AND FOR
BOTH USES

This chapter discusses the following phases of the
subjects of which it treats: (i) Classification of sheep
based on use; (2) The wool and mutton-producing
breeds ; (3) The influences that affect wool production ;
(4) The influences that affect mutton production; (5)
The wool and mutton breeds contrasted; (6) Conditions
more favorable to mutton production mainly ; (7) Cross-
ing merinos on mutton breeds and their grades; (8)
Crossing mutton breeds on Merinos and their grades;
(9) What the aim should be in wool production ; and (10)
What the aim should be in mutton production.

Classification based on use — The classification of
sheep based on use divides them into wool-producing and
mutton-producing breeds, and also into breeds which are
grown for the dual purpose of furnishing both wool and
mutton. In the United States and Canada sheep are
never grown exclusively for one purpose, though they are
frequently grown with a view to give prominence to wool
production in the one instance and to mutton production
in the other. In well-managed flocks, the aim now is to
produce a maximum yield of both wool and mutton from
the breed or grade of sheep that is being grown.

The time was when sheep were grown in the United
States much more for the production of wool than for the
production of mutton. Wool was the primary object
sought, mutton being the secondary or incidental product.
This held down what may be termed the American
Merino age of sheep husbandry in the United States.
This period covered practically the whole of the nine-
teenth century, although during the last quarter of the

34

SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 35

century the current had set in toward increased mutton
production. During the greater portion of this century
it has been claimed, and the claim would seem to be cor-
rect, that Merinos and their grades constituted fully 95
per cent of all the sheep grown. On the ranges especially
were sheep grown mainly for wool, and to further the
production thus obtained they were kept in many
in'stances to a reasonably advanced age, in striking con-
trast to the comparatively early age at which such stocks
are disposed of at the present time. It would seem cor-
rect to say that under no conditions are sheep kept in the
United States only for the production of wool. This,
however, has been done doubtless in pastoral countries
before the era when the shipping of frozen mutton began.

Whether wool or mutton shall be most sought in the
growing of sheep under American and Canadian condi-
tions will be determined chiefly by the conditions under
which they are grown. On the arable farm mutton pro-
duction, as a rule, is the dominant end for which they are
grown. The greatly increased demand for mutton dur-
ing recent years has stimulated production for this end.
The character of the foods grown makes such produc-
tion easily possible. Even on the range, mutton pro-
duction has much more significance than in former years.
This change is accentuated by the demand for sheep to be
fattened, the supply being now largely drawn from the
ranges. The increased demand for mutton sheep during
recent years has greatly increased the crossing of the
Merino types with rams of the more distinctive mutton
breeds.

Wool and mutton-producing breeds — The Merino
types were formerly classed as wool-producing sheep,
because of the extent to which the production of wool
was dominant. These were probably the only types in
America that were so characterized. The modifications
in the breeding of these during recent years, and espe-
cially during the past three or four decades, has, in a

MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

sense, brought them into the dual class. More especially
is this true of the Rambouillet and Delaine types.

The mutton breeds include all the middle and long
wool breeds. The former of these in America include the
Southdown, Tunis, Dorset, Shropshire, Cheviot, Suffolk,
Hampshire and Oxford Down breeds. The mountain
breeds are in the dual class. Of these only the West

FIG. 3— YEARLING RAMBOUILLETS GROWN FOR WOOL AND MUTTON

Property of F. W. Cook, Mansfield, Ohio.

(Courtesy of owner)

SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 37

Highland and the Welsh Mountain are in this country,
and the numbers of both are yet inconsiderable.

A classification strictly accurate will put all the
breeds of sheep in America in the dual class. Some of
these, as the Merino types, may be properly classed as
wool and mutton producing. All the other breeds may
be properly classed as mutton and wool producing. The
modifications resulting from the improvement of the mut-
ton form on the one hand and .wool production on the
other have in many instances been quite pronounced
during recent years.

Influences that affect wool production — The chief of
the influences that affect wool production are climate,
food and care, breeding and age. The influences thus ex-
erted are not equally potent, and these do not always
influence wool in the same way. These influences will
now be considered briefly.

It would seem correct to say that with decrease in
the mean temperature of climates wool increases in fine-
ness, and vice versa. This view is supported by the fact
that the wool fibers borne by sheep on the plains of hot
climates are usually coarser and fewer in number than
the same in cold climates. On the other hand, the moun-
tain breeds are usually clad in wool that is more or less
dense and fine. Too much must not be made, however, of
these general contrasts. They may be so influenced by
food and breeding that contrasts even the opposite may
be drawn from breeds kept under such conditions. The
fineness of the wool of the Spanish Merino for instance,
has been maintained in the somewhat austere climate of
New England as fully as in the balmy climate of South-
ern Spain. The same is true of this breed of sheep in the
mild latitudes of Australia or in the stern climate of
Sweden. It is evident, therefore, that other influences, as
selection, food and breeding, may be made to more than
counterbalance this general tendency of climate. The
degree of the moisture in climates also influences wool,

38 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

but it probably does so more through the influence which
it exerts on food than directly. It is true, nevertheless,
that while moisture is generally favorable to the growth
of wool of strong fiber, this does not follow where heavy
and excessive rainfall is allowed to wash out much of the
yolk from the wool. Such wool will lack that softness
and elasticity which it would otherwise possess.

That food and care exercise a potent influence on
wool is a foregone conclusion. That it should be so is
self-evident, since wool is produced and sustained by food
the same as the flesh and bone which it covers, and suit-
able protection, therefore, is as necessary for the produc-
tion and maintenance of the former as of the latter. Food
influences wool, first, through the sustenance actually
furnished to the fibers ; and, second, through the lubrica-
tion given to them, Both influences will be proportionate
to the amount and character of the food given, but both
will be modified by the care bestowed on the flock and
the protection furnished. Foods that have the highest
adaptation to the requirements of digestion will also have
the highest adaptation for wool production. Foods, there-
fore, that have high adaptation for the growth of the car-
cass have also high adaptation for the growth of the wool
that covers it.

Speaking in a general way, it would seem correct to
say (i) that the coarseness of the wool increases with the
coarseness of the food fed; (2) that its length up to a
certain limit increases with the suitability of the food;
(3) that the strength of its fiber is influenced by the suc-
culence of the food; and (4) that evenness of strength in
the fiber is influenced by the degree of the nutrition fur-
nished. That the general tendency in coarse foods is to
produce coarse wool is shown in the evolution of breeds
in Great Britain. The breeds which produce the finest
wool are found on the downs of the southern counties.
The breeds with coarse wool are found on lands with
coarser herbage, as those of Lincoln and Kent. And yet

SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 39

this general tendency must not be pressed too far, as the
fineness of the wool in the Merino breeds has been main-
tained alike on the short herbage of the mountains of
Spain and the more abundant herbage of the low lands of
Holland. The influence thus exerted is so slow as to be
imperceptible, hence it may be counteracted by other in-
fluences, such as breeding and selection. The influence is
indirect, as directly food does not increase the diameter
of the wool fiber, nor does it increase the number of fibers.
The influence of suitability in food on increase in the
length of wool is shown in the great increase in the length
of staple in the American Merino compared with its an-
cestor, the Spanish Merino. The limit of such increase
is the limit of capacity in the breed. That the strength of
the fiber is influenced by the succulence in the food fol-
lows from the favorable influence which succulence ex-
erts on digestion. The more vigorous the digestion, the
more abundant are the materials from the assimilated
nutrients fed, and, therefore, the more abundant will be
the nutrient used in wool production. The peculiar luster
imparted to the wool of Lincoln sheep on their native
soils is the outcome of the succulence, and, it may be, of
some other characteristics of the grazing. The great ex-
cellence of the wool of Merino sheep grown in parts of
Ohio and Pennsylvania is doubtless due in part to the
succulent and nutritious character of the herbage. Yet
this thought must not be pushed too far, as good wool is
furnished by the dry herbage of the hot plains of Aus-
tralia. The influence of food on the strength of the fiber
is so marked that deprivation in the food supplies tends
at once to decrease in the size of the wool fiber and de-
tracts from the lubrication which tends so much to main-
tain strength and good condition in the wool.

That care should influence growth in wool is self-
evident. Neglect in any form will soon be evidenced in
the wool. Lack of food will weaken the fiber. Lack of
succulence in the food will lessen its luster. Lack of

4O MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

protection from rainstorms will result in loss of yolk in
the fleece of coarse wool sheep, and a massed and pasty
condition of yolk in that of fine wool breeds. Too much
protection will unsettle equilibrium in the consistency of
the yolk through an excess of heat. Lack of care will,
of course, neutralize the effects of good feeding in pro-
portion as it exists.

Breeding, accompanied by careful selection, is more
potent in bringing about modifications in wool produc-
tion than any other influence. The influence thus ex-
erted relates to increase or decrease in the number of
the wool fibers, to the length of these and to the size and
strength of the fiber. Breeding without selection and
selection without breeding will effect such changes, but
very much more slowly than when these act in conjunc-
tion. Even when acting in conjunction, the changes ef-
fected are slow. A few generations of judicious breeding,
accompanied by selection, will enable the breeder to
change the form to meet the requirements of modification ;
but many generations may be required to effect the same
in regard to wool. The exact method of securing these
modifications cannot be discussed here, they are so many
and so various. But attention should be called to the
modifications in wool production in the evolution of the
Rambouillet and Delaine breeds from the American Me-
rino, which are now matters of history.

The trend of the influence exerted by age and size
on wool production is the same in all breeds. The differ-
ence is one rather of degree than of kind. It would seem
correct to say that, as a rule, the heaviest fleece shorn
is that first taken from the sheep, and that decrease fol-
lows in an increasing ration as age advances. The said
decrease is not usually marked in the second shearing.
With Merinos it is claimed that in some instances there
is no decrease. The decrease extends not only to the
weight of the wool, but also to the length and the amount
of the yolk produced. In some breeds it is seen in the

SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 4!

loss of wool or failure to produce wool on the underline.
The most wool and the best wool is, therefore, produced
by young sheep. It is also true that the percentage of
wool to live weight decreases steadily with increase in
the size of the sheep. In the best shearers the unwashed
fleece of the Merino goes as high as 36 per cent of the
live weight. The percentage of wool in the middle wool
breeds to the live weight is considerably less and in the
coarse wool breeds there is further decrease. The high
relative production of wool in Merinos is due in part to
the large amount of yolk in the wool. It is claimed that
the weight of the secretions and exhalations from the
yolk glands exceed the evacuations from the bowels and
bladder taken together.

Influences that affect mutton production — The chief
influences that affect the production of mutton are
climate, food, breeding, care and wool. As in the produc-
tion of wool, these influences are by no means equally
potent. Food, breeding and care exert a more potent in-
fluence on mutton form than climate or the fleece.

In the evolution of breeds, climate has exerted an
important influence. This influence is, of course, much
greater when sheep may be maintained with little or no
protection. Climate affects both size and constitution in
sheep. It affects size largely through the character of the
food, which is the outcome of climatic conditions. This
explains, in part at least, why the largest breeds of sheep
have been evolved in temperate climates. The oppressive
heat of hot climates militates against size and the stern-
ness of cold climates exerts a similar influence. A moist
climate is more favorable to increase in size and also to
prolificacy than a dry one. The favorable influence on
prolificacy is the outcome of the succulence in the food.
The best climatic conditions for the development of
sheep are those where the temperatures are moderate and
equable and where the air is moist. This, in part, ac-
counts for the great success attained in growing sheep

42 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

of high quality in Great Britain. Sheep reared under
austere conditions are more rugged, as a rule, than sheep
reared under conditions the opposite. But the influences
thus exerted by an invigorating climate may, of course,
be counteracted by unwise protection.

It would seem correct to say that no influence is so
marked on mutton production as that of food. Food
affects the development of carcass in many ways. Chiefly
among these are the influences that it exerts on size, on
bone development and on the fiber of the flesh. The in-
fluence exerted by food on size is shown in the evolution
of the various breeds of sheep produced in Great Britain.
The small breeds, like the Southdown, are the product of
the short and fine grasses of the southern downs. The
large breeds, like the Lincoln, were produced by luxuri-
ant and somewhat coarse herbage. The influence of food
on development is further illustrated in the increase in
the average size of the American Merino over its ances-
tor, the Spanish Merino. It is also shown in the rela-
tively large size of sheep of any breed that are main-
tained on a diet in which alfalfa is a leading food factor.
The influence of food on bone development is seen in the
greater size and strength of bone possessed by sheep that
are fed freely on foods that contain relatively a high per-
centage of phosphoric acid and potash as compared with
the same in sheep to which foods low in these ingredients
are freely fed. Where field roots form a considerable por-
tion of the diet of the animal during the period of growth,
the development of bone will be much more than when
such food as corn is fed in the place of roots.

The influence of food on fiber — that is, on the grain
of the flesh — is seen in the coarser fiber of the flesh of
the large breeds as compared with those of the small
breeds. The former have been evolved on pastures which
furnish herbage rich and relatively coarse. The latter
have been evolved on pastures that furnish a short and
relatively fine herbage. When Southdown sheep are

SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 43

grazed for successive generations on herbage abundant
and coarse, they increase in size, but they lose something
in the fineness of the grain of the flesh.

The influence of breeding on mutton production is
very marked. The progeny of the first cross of a pre-
potent pure-bred sire on ewes of common or mixed breed-
ing will bear a close resemblance to the sire in appearance
and qualities. The progeny of, say, the fourth generation
will bear so close a resemblance to the breed from which
the sires are chosen that, judged from the standpoint of
appearances, they would pass for pure breds. These re-
sults, however, can only be attained when food is suffi-
ciently furnished and when the care is as it should be.
The crossing, or to speak more accurately, the uperad-
ing, thus effected, should have a regard to the conditions
which relate to the furnishing of food. If the attempt is
made to increase size through up-grading beyond what
the food ordinarily furnished will maintain, it will end in
failure. The natural tendency toward increased size, the
outcome of breeding, must be adequately supported by
such food supplies as will maintain the tendency referred to.

The care bestowed qualifies every attempt to improve
the carcass through breeding as well as through feeding.
The effort to effect improvement through correct breeding
may be more than neutralized by lack of proper care. On
the other hand, superior care may go far toward neutraliz-
ing the untoward results that follow mistakes in breeding.
The care that should be given is dwelt upon in nearly every
chapter of the book.

Wool is helpful to production in so far as it furnishes
protection sufficient to keep the sheep in a comfortable
condition. To accomplish this the covering must be
enough to protect the carcass against inclement weather,
and it should not be so much as to prove oppressive
through the over-production of heat. Up to a certain
limit, therefore, wool production will be helpful to mut-
ton production, notwithstanding the drain on assimilated

44 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

food in order to produce the wool. On the other hand,
it is adverse to mutton production, first, when it is pres-
ent beyond the actual needs of the sheep to insure a con-
dition of comfort ; second, when the effort to secure it of
a certain quality leads to confinement which results in re-
duced vigor ; and third, when maximum production of wool
is sought regardless of the influence which it exerts on the
development of carcass. It is present beyond the needs
of the sheep when it becomes oppressive on the advent of
warm weather. The decrease of vigor in the Saxon
Merino, which accompanied the efforts to secure wool
superfine in quality, illustrates the adverse influence re-
sulting from too much confinement. The lack of mutton
form of the highest type in Merinos illustrates the ad-
verse influence on the carcass where maximum produc-
tion is sought in wool.

Likewise when maximum production is sought in mut-
ton, the influence is adverse to maximum production in wool.
This finds illustration in the far less degree of the im-
provement of the wool product made by Bakewell in
Leicester sheep as compared with the improvement made
in the mutton form. While it is impossible to achieve
maximum production in wool and mutton in the same ani-
mal, it is, nevertheless, quite possible to reach high at-
tainment in both respects in the same animal. This is
amply illustrated in the transformation of the Spanish
Merino into the Rambouillet and Delaine types. It is
also illustrated in the high productions of sheep of the
Shropshire breed in both wool and mutton.

Wool and mutton breeds contrasted — The more ap-
parent contrasts between the two classes are such as re-
late to size, form, hardihood and prolificacy. Breeds
recognized as wool producing are of less size, as a rule,
than those usually recognized as the mutton breeds. The
average weight of the American and Saxon Merino is less
than that of the mutton breeds. The difference, how-
ever, is growing less. This result comes from the in-

SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 45

creased attention given to the improvement of mutton,
form during recent years. As a result of this the differ-
ence in size between the breeds named is not marked. It
is also greater than that of the mountain breeds.

It would seem correct to say that the essentials as
to form for successful wool production are essentially the
same as for successful mutton production. But it is
quite possible, nevertheless, to grow wool of the highest
class on form that is far from ideal for the production of
mutton. Owing to the less favorable conditions as to
food and care furnished to sheep kept mainly for wool,
these have less development in mutton form than is found
in the distinctive mutton breeds. This lack of mutton
form is evidenced in less of rotundity of body, less of
chest width, and heart girth, and less of length of quarter
with more length of leg.

Sheep kept mainly for wool production are more
hardy than those kept primarily for mutton production,
as a rule. They can endure more privation because of
low temperatures and short feed supplies than those kept
mainly for mutton. The mutton-producing varieties are
not only less hardy, but they call for a greater variety of
food and more care.

While the mutton breeds differ in the degree to
which they possess prolificacy, as a rule, they are more
prolific than breeds in which wool production is domi-
nant. The wool-producing types seldom average more
than loo per cent of lambs. Some of the mutton breeds
average much higher.

Conditions favorable to wool production — The con-
ditions that favor wool rather than mutton production
are: (i) Rugged lands of but little agricultural value;
(2) climates with vegetation dry and more or less parched
at certain seasons ; (3) situations remote from markets ;
and (4) areas with but few inhabitants.

On rugged lands sheep may be grown, but not fat-
tened in high form. On the western ranges of the United

46 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

States and Canada sheep may be grown in fine form for
wool production, but on these they cannot be finished.
To secure good finish they must usually be taken to other
areas where food is more abundant. The same is true
even in a more marked degree of sheep grown on the
ranges of Australia.

Sheep will maintain themselves on vegetation dry
and parched at certain seasons providing the grazing is
sufficient for their needs. The grasses in such areas usu-
ally cure while retaining their hold on the soil. They
will produce wool, though not of the highest type, in bet-
ter form relatively than they will produce mutton. To
furnish mutton of the highest class the element of suc-
culence must be abundantly present. When the range
lands are remote from markets, wool may be transported
much more cheaply than mutton in proportion to the rela-
tive value of the two products. The value of a pound of
wool is usually several times the value of a pound of
mutton on foot ; hence the cost of marketing wool is pro-
portionately less. This furnishes one explanation as to
why wethers on the arable farm are more commonly mar-
keted in the lamb form, whereas on the ranges several
clips of wool are taken before they are sold. The former
grow mutton most cheaply while less than one year old,
and are usually marketed cheaply, whereas the marketing
of the latter is relatively costly.

Where a country is but sparsely settled the demand
for mutton is correspondingly light. The more densely
peopled the country is, other things being equal, the
greater relatively is the demand for mutton. The more
intense the range conditions, therefore, the more the
profit relatively that comes from giving attention to the
production of wool rather than to the production of mut-
ton.

Conditions favorable to mutton production — The
conditions favorable to mutton production mainly are :
(i) Lands valuable and productive; (2) climates favor-

SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 47

able to abundant growth; and (3) locations not distant
from populous centers. These conditions are, in a sense,
the opposite of those that favor wool production as the
leading object for which sheep are grown.

The return from wool only, or chiefly, would not be
sufficient from high-priced lands to justify the introduc-
tion of sheep husbandry on such lands. The profit from
the sheep under such conditions comes more from the
mutton than from the wool, and it comes rather from the
sale of lambs than from the sale of mutton in a more ma-
ture form. The higher the productive power of such
lands, the larger is the amount of mutton that can be
produced from them, and the net returns will be propor-
tionate. A part of the return will also come from the in-
creased production resulting from such a system of hus-
bandry. When mutton is grown on such lands, the high-
est profits may usually be obtained from winter lambs
(see page 255), owing to the high price for which they
may be sold.

Of course, mutton of the highest class cannot be pro-
duced save in localities where food is plentiful and suc-
culent. To produce such conditions it is essential that
the climate, as well as the soil, shall be favorable to
abundant production. Abundant production and succu-
ence in the growth usually go together. The pre-emi-
nence of Great Britain in producing mutton sheep is
owing in no inconsiderable degree to the moist character
of its insular climate. The same is true, though in a less
degree, of that portion of Ontario that lies between the
Great Lakes. The dry ranges of the western states have
a soil possessed of great natural fertility, and yet the pro-
duction is not abundant nor succulent because of lack of
moisture.

The importance of proximity to populous centers on
the part of those who grow mutton arises from the de-
mand for such food in the aggregate, from the high prices
that are paid for the superior grades and from the rela.-

48 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

tively low cost of marketing the same. The great and
constant demand lessens the possibility of great fluctua-
tions in price such as results from a glutted market. The
discriminations in such markets are such as to encourage
the production of superior grades, a result that seldom
follows in a market of subordinate importance. The low
cost of marketing when the markets are near is just so
far to the advantage of the grower. It also makes it pos-
sible for him to fill orders on short notice and in a way
suited to the needs of the purchaser.

Crossing Merinos on the mutton breeds — It cannot
be said that the crossing of Merinos on any of the mutton
breeds or the grades of these has been helpful to improve-
ment in mutton production. It does, however, add to the
fineness of the wool and to the weight of the fleece. The
increase in weight is due, first, to increase in density, and,
second, to increase in the amount of yolk produced. The
improvement thus effected in what is sometimes termed
native sheep — that is, sheep produced by generations of
aimless breeding — is very marked, and it may also extend
in some instances to the form and mutton-producing
qualities. Where wool production is the dominant object
for which sheep are kept, such crossing or up-grading,
as it may properly be termed, is not only legitimate, but
is highy commendable. During the nineteenth century,
except in the last quarter, such crossing was much prac-
ticed. In wool-growing countries, such as Australia, it
is very generally practiced.

The crossing of Merino types on the mutton-produc-
ing breeds and the grades of these has in nearly all in-
stances resulted in decrease in size, weight, early matur-
ing properties, desirable mutton form, propensity to fatten,
and prolificacy. The decrease in size does not follow in
all classes of sheep. In some instances both size and form
are improved by the use of Merino sires, especially of the
Delaine and Rambouillet types. Such improvement is
the normal result when the types crossed upon are of

SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 49

low grade. More commonly, however, the mutton types
and grades of these are of superior size and weight to
the Merino ; hence the result, as a rule, is decrease in size
and weight.

As a rule the mutton types and their grades mature
more quickly than Merinos. The difference is in some in-
stances material. Southdown sheep will reach maturity
in, say, two years, as pronounced as the maturity reached
by Merinos in three years. The slower growth thus re-
sulting adds to the cost of production, and is so far ad-
verse to the growing of milk lambs, or even lambs that
are to be marketed at a more advanced age.

That the improved mutton breeds and their grades
have a more desirable mutton form than the average of
the Merino types cannot be gainsaid. Because of this
they are designated the mutton breeds. The usual result,
therefore, from crossing the Merino types on these is
mutton form that is somewhat less desirable. Neverthe-
less, there are some types of sheep that may be improved
in form by the Merino cross. The influence of the Merino
cross on the propensity to fatten is similar. Animals that
mature slowly also fatten more slowly than quick-matur*
ing animals ; hence the transmission that imparts slow
maturity will also impart proportionately the tendency
to fatten slowly. But this fact must not be pressed too
far, since the Merinos in America have been greatly im-
proved in their maturing and also in their flesh-producing
properties.

The adverse influence of the Merino cross upon pro-
lificacy is probably more marked than the adverse in-
fluence in the other respects mentioned. The original
Spanish Merino was a shy breeder. This, to some extent,
has been corrected by the superior environment and
better food given to them in the United States. But even
now they are less prolific than many of the mutton
breeds, and in crossing this characteristic is measurably
transmitted.

50 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Crossing Merinos on other breeds in nearly all in-
stances improves their hardihood. The Merino is un-
doubtedly the most hardy of the improved breeds in
America. This superior hardihood is partly the outcome
of inheritance, partly the result of the impervious or re-
sistant character of the fleece to storms, and partly the
outcome of exposure, which their superior hardihood en-
ables them to resist. This characteristic explains, in a
measure at least, the great popularity of the Merino blood
on the western ranges. It has been found that sheep pos-
sessed of a considerable measure of Merino blood will en-
dure exposure better than other breeds ; that their graz-
ing properties over wide areas are superior; and that they
can be grazed more successfully than other sheep in large
bands. The large size of the Rambouillet and the im-
proved mutton form of the Delaines make it practicable
in many instances to maintain size in the types crossed
upon, and also fair mutton qualities, in addition to the
improvement in the fleece which results from these
crosses.

Crossing mutton breeds on Merinos — The American
Merino, and especially grades of the same, furnishes ex-
cellent material for being crossed upon by the mutton
breeds. In the pure form the Merino is strongly resistant
to change. This is the outcome from centuries of breed-
ing without admixture of blood from any outside source.
The characteristics of the Merinos thus crossed will be
dominant in a greater degree in the progeny than the
characteristics of the breed used in crossing. But grades,
though strongly possessed of Merino blood, are much
more plastic. The superior ruggedness which they
possess transmits to the progeny that vigor which enables
them to bear up under forced feeding.

The crossing of Merino grades by sires of the mut-
ton breeds results in increase in size and weight, and in
improvement in the mutton form, and in the propensity
to fatten readily. It also tends to remove wrinkles. The

SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 51

increase in size and weight is influenced by the breed
from which the sire is chosen. Usually the greater the
average weight and size in the breed which has furnished
l.he sires, the greater will be the increase in the size and
weight of the resultant progeny. Such increase in even
the first cross may carry the progeny beyond the weight
at the usual age for marketing that is most in favor in the
markets of to-day. The crosses most in favor at the pres-
ent time are those made with sires of the middle wool
breeds. Among these, those of the dark-faced or Down
types are highest in favor, and of these the smaller breeds,
as the Southdown and Shropshire, are the most used. The
improvement in form is shown in the widening and firm-
ing of the back, increasing correspondingly the rotundity
of the body and increasing the development of chest and
thigh. The tendency to take on flesh is so improved that
an excellent finish is easily practicable with sheep and
lambs of the first cross made, as above outlined. One
cross from the mutton breeds on grade Merinos will
greatly reduce the formation of wrinkles, so objectionable
in mutton sheep, and in many instances it will entirely ob-
literate them. It is peculiarly fortunate that the results
from these crosses are so favorable. The western ranges
are virtually stocked with Merino grade sheep. Range
conditions are unfavorable to finishing these, with some
exceptions. When too advanced in age for further use on
the range, the ewes may be shipped to the stockyards,
taken from thence to the farms, made to produce one
crop of lambs and then finished in good form on such
pasture as rape. In this way a farmer may easily pro-
vide for himself lambs for feeding in the late autumn and
winter.

A cross from any of the mutton breeds will tend to
reduce the wool of high grade Merinos in fineness, in
density and in the quantity of yolk that it contains, and
from all, or nearly all of them, the tendency will be to
increase the length of the fiber and to decrease the weight

52 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

of the fleece. The reduction in fineness and density will
be relatively slow, and it will be measurably proportion-
ate to the character of the fleece possessed by the breed
used in crossing. The reduction in the yolk results from
the law of transmission operating through the crossing of
a breed with less yolk in the wool upon one possessed of
more. The increase in the length of the fiber will depend
upon relative length of the same in the breed used in
crossing and in the grade crossed upon. A cross from
any of the long wool breeds will lengthen the fiber in all
instances. A similar result will follow, though less in
degree, from some crosses made by certain of the middle
wool breeds, as the Oxford Down and Cheviot. A cross
of the Southdown will usually result in shortening the
wool fiber. The Lincoln cross upon Merino grades stands
high in favor, viewed from the standpoint of wool pro-
duction. Sheep the progeny of such crosses are heavy
shearers. The wool is strong in fiber and prized by man-
ufacturers. The Shropshire cross is also a favorite, viewed
from the standpoint of quality and yield in the wool.

Crossing the mutton breeds upon those essentially of
Merino lineage tends in some degree to lessen hardihood
in the progeny, and it may also be said to detract from
their ability to rustle for food. The less dense character
of the fleece resulting makes them less resistant to storms.
The decrease in the yolk still further lessens such power.
They are also less inclined, and are indeed less able, to
roam over large areas when seeking food. On the arable
farm these considerations are not of moment nearly so
great as on the range. In but few instances, and possibly
not in any, has it been found possible on the western
ranges to maintain sufficient stamina in sheep, the prog-
eny of any considerable number of crosses made suc-
cessively from using sires of any of the mutton breeds.
After crossing thus for a time it has been found necessary
to introduce one or more outcrosses of Merino blood to in-
crease inherent vigor and especially storm-resistant power.

SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 53

The aim in wool production — The aim should be:
(i) In wool production to secure wool of a desired grade
in the largest quantity attainable; (2) to secure its even
distribution over the body; and (3) to secure even and
highest quality in the wool. These should be in wool
whatever the breed or grade.

The grade of wool that should be sought should be
determined chiefly by the demand that exists for that
class of wool and the capacity of the sheep to produce it.
Each of the pure breeds produces wool of a certain kind
that is characteristic of the breed. It would not be wise
to seek to transform the character of that wool into
something essentially different. Much time would be
called for to make such change as would have to be made
through selection. But when the sheep are not purely
bred, then it may be essentially proper to seek such mod-
ification, even though sires from another breed should be
used in making it. For instance, when fine wool was very
dear as compared with coarse wool, the use of Merino
sires was not only legitimate but commendable, and when
the price so changed that medium and coarse wools sold
virtually as high as fine wools, the use of sires from the
breeds that produced such wool was justifiable, and all
the more so when mutton quality in the sheep became
relatively more important.

Each pure breed of sheep has a certain standard of
wool characteristic of the breed. This standard is not
always adhered to by the breeders. For instance, Shrop-
shire sheep come into the show ring possessed of wool
more or less open and possessed of characteristics per-
taining to the Oxford Down fleece. Such wool is usually
long, and when present makes the animal appear larger.
The judge in the show ring should discourage the pro-
duction of wool in any breed at variance with the stand-
ard for the breed.

The demand for wool of a certain grade varies with
change in the fashions. Such variation may cover a

54 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

period of years ; hence to profit by such change it may be
necessary to change the breed from which sires are
chosen. Such change, however, should be modified by
the effect that it will have on mutton production when
that is an important consideration. Such change when
sought should come through the process of upgrading
rather than that of promiscuous crossing. That is, it
should come by choosing the successive sires from one
breed. Having decided upon the grade of wool sought,
every reasonable effort should be made to secure it in the
largest quantity attainable.

The even distribution of wool over the body varies
somewhat in breeds, and it varies much in individuals of
the breed. Such distribution is secured in a high degree
in the various Merino types, in Shropshires among middle
wool breeds, and in Lincolns among long wool breeds.
Formerly Southdowns and Leicesters were occasionally
bare in the underline, especially as the age advanced, but
this defect in wool covering is being largely corrected in
breeding.

The degree of the wool covering on the head and legs
is determined, first, by the breed, and second by the relative
importance attached to such covering. Viewed as an indica-
tion of correct breeding it is important, but viewed from
the standpoint of fancy, it has but little significance. When
it is carried to the extent of making a fancy point of
greater moment than a point of much practical impor-
tance, then it becomes decidedly adverse to production
of the highest type.

Absolute evenness in the quality of the wool that
covers the sheep is unattainable. It is unattainable in
relation to length, to density and to the size of the fiber.
The wool on the underline and certain other parts of the
frame is never so long as on the sides and back. The
density of the wool is always greater, for instance, on the
back than on certain parts of the underline. The size of
the fiber is also usually greater on the outer thighs than

SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 55

on the shoulders or side. But the difference in these
respects is more marked in certain of the breeds, and in
all or nearly all of them it is'capable of still further reduc-
tion. While uniformity in all these respects is important,
uniformity in length is of especial importance. It is
found more complete in the fine wool than in the coarse
wool types.

Usually the first quality of wool is obtained along
the sides of the sheep from the hip to the shoulder and
including a part of both. The second quality is found on
the back from the poll to the rumps, much the poorest
grade in this class being on the rumps. The third quality
is found on the throat, forearm, belly, thighs, legs and
head. These divisions are very general, the wool in each
of them being graded by further subdivision. (See page
70.)

To secure highest quality in wool calls into exercise
a high degree of skill in breeding. With such an end in
view, it involves continued selection of the most careful
kind, and it necessitates furnishing food and protection
adapted to the end sought. Improvement in wool pro-
duction is much more difficult of attainment and calls for
a much longer time to effect it than improvement in mut-
ton production.

The aim in mutton production — The chief aim in
mutton production should be: (i) To secure the most
flesh compatible with normal size; (2) the highest de-
velopment in the best parts; (3) highest quality in the
mutton production ; and (4) to meet the demands which
the markets call for. To accomplish these ends in a
marked degree is not incompatible with securing wool
also abundant in quantity and of high quality.

Each breed or grade has its own standard of size.
This standard is not inflexible. It is modified by food
conditions. Thus the standard of size for sheep that are
grown chiefly on alfalfa is higher than the standard for
the same on the downs of southern England. In other

56 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

words, the sheep grown on the former will naturally
grow to a larger size than sheep grown on the latter. But
size without aptitude to fatten is not only not helpful, but
it may be harmful ; hence the aim should be, when look-
ing for mutton, to breed sheep that may be made to carry
a large proportion of mutton relatively to the size of the
carcass. Size more than normal in the flock is frequently,
though not always, associated with roughness and a lack
of highest fleshing capacity.

High development in the best parts is greatly impor-
tant in the sheep grown for mutton. What is termed the
saddle, the loin and the leg of mutton include the most
valuable cuts. The leg of mutton — that is, the lower part
of the hind quarter — is much prized; hence the impor-
tance of seeking much development in the same. Good
development in the entire back is greatly important, but
it is especially so on the loin, because of the value of the
cuts produced there. High quality in the mutton pro-
duced is the outcome of breeding, of the foods fed, and of
the blending of these foods. That some breeds have
higher adaptation than others, viewed from the stand-
point of quantity and quality, cannot be gainsaid. Some
breeds have better development of the valuable parts of
the carcass than others, and some produce meat of more
perfect blending than others. When seeking improve-
ment in mutton qualities through grading, therefore, it is
a question of much practical moment as to which breed
the sires shall be chosen from. Nevertheless, the individ-
uality of the animals in the breed is more important rela-
tively than the breed.

The influence of food on the quality of the mutton
is very marked. From grasses that are lacking in succu-
ence the same high quality of mutton cannot be produced
as from grasses equal in nutriment and possessed of am-
ple succulence. Nor can mutton of the same fine texture
be made from coarse herbage as from that which is fine.
Neither can so high a grade of mutton be made, as a rule,

SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 57

on pasture or dry fodders only as on these foods, sup-
plemented by grain. The exceptions include such graz-
ing as is furnished by rape and field roots.

The proper blending of the foods has a marked in-
fluence on the quality of the mutton. Dry fodders and
grain only will furnish mutton of high quality viewed
from the standpoint of high finish in the carcass, but
these will not furnish meat so juicy as when some succu-
lent food is fed. To make proper provision for such
succulent food may necessitate much forethought and
may call for no little effort to secure them, and the de-
termination of the quantities to be fed may call for the
exercise of experience and skill, but the fact remains that
no flockmaster is so well equipped for wintering a flock
or for finishing the same as the one who has on hand an
ample store of succulent food.

In growing mutton the demands of the market can-
not be ignored. It is not enough that the grower of mut-
ton shall produce a good article. To bring the best price
it must meet the conditions of the market demands. It
must at least approximate the demands of the market in
the size and weight of carcass and in the finish of the
same. This finds easy illustration in the growing and
marketing of milk lambs. The largest price is paid for
the lambs which are possessed of a certain weight or
which approximate the same and which have high finish.
Lambs of equal weight but of less finish will be propor-
tionately discounted, and the same is true of lambs of
higher weight though possessed of equal finish. Sim-
ilar illustrations could be furnished from the other
classes of sheep.

CHAPTER IV
WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED

Chapter IV treats of the following phases of this
question: (i) What is meant by wool; (2) the discussion
of fiber in wool ; (3) the discussion of yolk in wool ; (4)
how wools are classified; (5) short, intermediate and long
wools ; (6) superfine, fine, intermediate and coarse wools ;
(7) carding and combing wools ; and (8) wool as distrib-
uted over the body.

What is meant by wool — Strictly speaking, as the
term is ordinarily used, wool is the covering or fleece of
the sheep. But the use of the term has been extended so
as to include: (i) The heavy fleece of the alpaca, vicuna,
and other species of the llama ; (2) the hair of the Angora,
Cashmere and other breeds of the goat ; (3) several kinds
of fur from certain fur-bearing animals ; and (4) the soft
down from the underline of the camel. In one sense,
therefore, it is simply hair of a soft, pliable and elastic
character, more or less spiral and wavy in form. The de-
gree in which these characteristics are present varies
greatly in the different breeds. It would seem correct
to say that softness, pliability and elasticity are possessed
in the highest degree by the fine wool breeds, in a less
degree by the middle wool breeds and in a still less de-
gree by the coarse wool breeds. The spiral form of fiber
occurs to the greatest extent in some of the coarse wool
breeds and the wavy or crimpy form in the fine wool
breeds. Many breeds of sheep, especially those that are
neglected, are covered with hair underneath, which may
properly be classed as wool. The absence of hair in the
improved breeds is chiefly owing to improvements ef-
fected through selection and breeding. No sooner are
sheep neglected, exposed and subjected to hard condi-

n

WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 59

tions, than a tendency to reversion sets in. The fiber be-
comes shorter, straighter and coarser, until in some in-
stances it closely resembles hair.

Wool may be distinguished from hair, and in fact
from all vegetable fibers, by the corrugated character of
the fibers and by its property of felting. The latter is the
outcome of the epithelial scales which overlap each other
along the course of the fibers. Other distinctions are as
follows: (i) Wool is usually possessed of more staple
than hair; (2) it is more pliable, softer and more elastic;
(3) it is more dense than hair, the number of wool fibers
being much greater on a given surface than the number of
hairs on the same ; (4) all wools are possessed of more or
less crimp and curve or wave, while hair is straight, or but
slightly wavy. It is also stronger than wool. This com-
parison is made between sheep and the various quadru-
peds kept on the farm other than sheep. It will not hold
good in every particular when contrasted with the cover-
ing of some of the fur-bearing animals. The exact point
where the distinctions come in between wool and hair
is not in all instances easily determined.

Mohair and Cashmere wool are prominent among the
hairlike products that have attained to much prominence
in the manufacture of clothing. The former is a lustrous
wool, obtained from the Angora goat. It is of good length,
pure white in color, has a high luster, and is fine and
wavy. It is used in making astrakhans, velvets, fine
wraps and half-silk goods. The latter is the fine and ex-
tremely soft white or gray fur of the Cashmere goat bred
in Thibet. The outer covering consists of long tufts of
hair, and underneath it is the Cashmere wool of com-
merce. It is a soft downy wool of a brownish gray
tint, and has a fine silky fiber. It is used in making the
costly Oriental shawls and the finest wraps.

The contrast between the covering of the improved
and unimproved breeds is very great. In the latter, the
wool fibers are shorter and less dense, as a rule. They

6O MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

fall short of the standard of good wool in all its essen-
tial characteristics. Especially is this true in the less
degree of the strength of fiber in the wool and the lack
of uniformity in the strength of the same. The contrast
is even more marked in the unevenness of the length of
the wool as distributed over the body and in the varia-
tions in the quality of the same. In the latter sense these
variations are so marked that the covering on some parts
of the body is wool, and on other parts of the same it
bears a closer resemblance to hair. In the improved
breeds, hair is almost entirely wanting, save on the legs
and head, and the amount of this covering on the parts
named differs much in the different breeds.

Discussion of fiber in wool — Fiber in wool means
each distinct filament of which the fleece — that is, the
covering of the sheep — is composed. Each fiber is usually
essentially circular in form, more or less crimped or
waved, and in many instances is larger at the extremity
and near the base than in the center of the fiber. This
is not true, however, of Merino wool of the first grade.
When grown in temperate climates the fibers are essen-
tially circular in form, but when grown in a hot climate
they incline to a flattish oval. Crimp means deviation
from straight growth in the wool fibers (see page 78). In
some instances it takes the form of folding, as it were, of
the fiber on itself, and in other instances a wavy or spiral
character of growth. Climates unduly cold may eliminate
crimp, and those unduly hot may tend to make it exces-
sive. The greater size of the diameter at the base and
toward the tips of the wool fibers arises probably from the
less friction in the fibers at these points.

When the animal is healthy and thrifty, the appear-
ance of the fiber is brilliant. It has a shining, glistening
appearance when the wool is parted on any part of the
body of the sheep. This bright lustrous appearance is
caused by the yolk, which, exuding from the glands of the
skin moves on toward the tips of the hairs and keeps them

WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 6l

oiled, as it were, along their entire lengths. The color of
the fiber is usually a pure white, but in some instances it
is tinted with yellow shades, as when the yolk is present
in large quantities. When sheep are out of condition
the wool is dull and lusterless.

In size the wool fibers vary greatly. These varia-
tions are in a marked degree the outcome of breeding,
but they are also influenced by climate and food. The
variations in length run all the way from less than 2
inches to 20 inches. The variations in the diameter of the
fiber are even greater. They run all the way from
i-3,oooth of an inch in the very finest of the merino types
to i-275th of an inch in the coarsest Algerian sheep.

Each wool fiber is composed of two parts, known as
the stem or shaft and the root or bulb, out of which the
stem rises, and on which it is dependent for its sustenance.
The bulb or root imbedded in the derma is implanted in a
gland known as the hair follicle. It is simply an enlarge-
ment which fits somewhat socket-like into the fiber sack
which incases it. It rests upon a small bulb in the bot-
tom of the fiber sack. This small sack is at once the
source of and the support of the fiber. The hair follicle
is formed of the epidermis and the dermis of the sheep's
skin. It penetrates the body only for a short distance.
The blood vessels, in minute and numerous branches, are
distributed over the walls of the follicle. The nourish-
ment thus furnished is molded into the structure of the
fiber. Should a fiber be plucked out, a new one may be
produced to take its place. The hair or wool follicle is
to be carefully distinguished from the follicle which pro-
duces perspiration and that from which the yolk exudes.

The shaft is that portion of the fiber which rises up
from the root bulb of the same, and continuing to grow
outward with other fibers, forms the fleece of the sheep.
All the elements of growth are furnished by the hair germ,
which rises into the hair bulb. It is not the function of
the yolk to furnish nutriment to the fiber.

62 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Each wool fiber is made up of three layers or por-
tions. These are known respectively as the epidermis,
the cortical substance and the medullary substance. The
epidermis or outer layer, which is very thin, embraces
a vast number of imbricated scales, lying on one another.
These are formed by the growth of cells, which, as they
grow, assume the form of scales, and in a healthy sheep
they have a high luster. The new portion pushes out the
old. The scales overlap and thus constitute the felting
properties of the wool. They also tend to keep dirt from
entering the fleece. The cortical substance, or intermedi-
ate layer, is fibrous in character and forms two-thirds
of the substance of each fiber, and also contains the mat-
ter which gives color to the wool. The medullary sub-
stance, or inner layer, is sometimes spoken of as the marrow
of the fiber. A majority of the fibers have the marrow hol-
low through much of their length.

Discussion of yolk in wool — Yolk (see page 74) is an
alkaline soapy substance secreted from the glands of the
skin. The yolk follicle empties into the wool follicle near
the mouth of the latter, and extending therefrom it lubri-
cates the fibers to their outer extremities. It also lubri-
cates the skin.

The chief function of yolk in wool is to prevent the
fibers from felting together and to prevent them from
wearing by friction ; but it also tends to protect the fleece
from the accumulation of foreign substances within it.
The less wear in the fibers that are well supplied with
yolk accounts in part at least for the greater strength
of fiber in wools well supplied with the same. The pro-
tection thus furnished from rain acts similarly. The
wool is protected from foreign substances, in part at least,
by the outward movement of the yolk. The edges of the
scales on the fiber-like little barbs point toward the tip of
the fiber, and, therefore, carry the yolk outward along
with more or less substances that may have found their
way into the fleece. Those wools which possess the

WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 63

greatest number of imbrications to the square inch require
the greatest amount of yolk. Such is the wool of the
Merino, with its high felting properties. Yolk is liquid
when it exudes from the yolk glands, and in some breeds
it remains so ; but in others it turns into gummy or waxy
orange-yellow scales, which adhere to the wool. Even
when it thus accumulates it does not materially weaken
the strength of the fibers.

The chief of the influences that affect yolk in wool
are food, protection and breeding. The relation between
liberal feeding and the plentiful production of yolk is of
the closest nature. Food that promotes thrift also tends
to increase the amount of yolk in the wool. The rela-
tion between food and yolk is so intimate that the differ-
ence in the amount of the same and the difference in the
strength of the wool resulting will be apparent on differ-
ent soils separated only by a river bed. Protection, as by
housing when rain storms prevail and by blanketing un-
der certain conditions, not only tends to keep the yolk in
condition, but it also tends to increase in its accumulation.
The quantity of yolk in wool may be increased or de-
creased through transmission in breeding. Such trans-
mission may be looked for when breeding pure breds or
grades.

The amount of yolk that is desirable and the condi-
tions in which it is found are by no means unimportant.
With reference to the former, however, there is not en-
tire agreement. Yolk is seldom present in excess as long
as it remains in the liquefied form, and colorless or nearly
so, in the unshorn fleece. It is usually in excess when it
forms dry or pasty masses in the wool, nor is it in a de-
sirable condition when exposure to rain washes it down
so as to form a pasty, gluey mass in the fleece. Yolk is
deficient in wool when the latter lacks softness and
pliancy to the touch and when it lacks brilliancy of luster
when the fleece is opened out.

64 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Of course, the amount of yolk required varies with
the class of wool. (See page 48.)

How wools are classified — Wools are classified: (i)
On the basis of length, (2) on the basis of diameter in the
fiber, and (3) on the basis of adaptation to use. A clearly
definite and accurate classification in either respect is
scarcely possible, owing to the difference found in wool of
the same breed, to the constant changes that result from
crossing and grading, and to the modifications which re-
sult from time to time from the introduction of improved
machinery in the manufacture of the wool. Short wools
are sometimes classified as carding and long wools as
combing, but because of the changes referred to, the dis-
tinctions between carding and combing wools have been
much modified during recent decades.

Based on the standard of length, wool from the dif-
ferent pure breeds found in America may be classed as
short, intermediate and long, but in the process of manu-
facture, they are usually known as short and long. The
American Merino and the Southdown breeds produce
short wool. The Leicester, Cotswold and Lincoln breeds
produce long wool. The other breeds produce wool that,
strictly speaking, is of intermediate length, but which
usually comes under the classification of combing wool.
The length of the wool of this class differs considerably.
The Oxford Down breed produces the longest wool in the
intermediate class. The wool produced by some of the
breeds is so nearly alike in length that it is scarcely pos-
sible to decide as to which is the longer.

On the basis of diameter in the fiber, wool is classi-
fied as superfine, fine, medium and coarse. Superfine
wools are those of the very finest character, as, for in-
stance, the best of the Saxony and Merino grades. Fine
wools are chiefly furnished by the Merino in its various
branches, as the American Merino, the Delaine and the
Rambouillet, and also by high grades of these breeds.
Medium wools usually include those obtained from the

WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 65

various Down breeds — the Tunis, the Dorsets and the
Cheviots — also from grades of these. Coarse wools are ob-
tained from the long wooled breeds and from the West
Highland sheep and grades of all these breeds.

In the order of fineness it would be correct to say that
of three fine wool breeds the American Merino produces
the finest grade, the Delaine coming next in fineness, and
the Rambouillet third, but the difference in this respect
is not a wide one. It would be at least approximately
correct to say that in the order of fineness in medium wool,
the pure breeds in America rank as follows, beginning
with the finest: Southdown, Tunis, Dorset, Shropshire,
Cheviot, Suffolk Down, Hampshire Down and Oxford
Down. The coarse wooled breeds, beginning with the
finest wool, will rank as follows : Leicester, Lincoln, Cots-
wold and West Highland.

Wool is further classified on the basis of use. On
this basis it may be divided into three great classes.
These are: (i) Carding wools, which are used for mak-
ing garments for ordinary wear, and which are also very
commonly classified as clothing wools. These are used
mainly as broadcloths and the thicker and heavier woolen
cloths. (2) Combing wools, which, generally speaking,
are made into garments calling for superior softness,
lightness and strength of wear. In the finer sorts they
are much used for making garments that are much prized
and worn by women. The better class of these are known
as delaines (see page 70). (3) Carpet and knitting wools.
These are also combing wools, but of a class far different
from the delaines. They include the cheapest, coarsest
and harshest sorts of wool. They approach more nearly
to hair than other wools. These wools are now virtually
all imported. The only staple of this class now grown in
the United States comes from the original Mexican sheep
of the southwest.

Short, intermediate and long wools — The length of
wool ordinarily runs all the way from, say less than 2

66 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

inches, to more than 20 inches. The classification based
on length is not accurately denned. In a general way it
may be said short wools are not more than 2^ inches
long. They are obtained from the Saxony and Silesian
breeds and from some types of the Merino. For general
qualities and fineness of fiber these wools are unexcelled.
The fiber is not only short, but it is also fine and strong
and elastic, and is possessed of good felting qualities. It
is used chiefly in the manufacture of clothes where much
milling is required. Much milling is a process by which
the fibers are condensed, as it were, so as to make the
clothes stronger and firmer. It is made into superfine and
dress-faced fabrics of relatively high value.

Intermediate wool is more than 2^2 inches long and
not more than say 5 inches. It includes all that class
known as delaines, which means fine combing wools from
pure and grade Merinos that exceed say 2j^ inches in
length. These are amongst the most valuable of the
combing wools. (See page 70.) It also includes the
dark-faced breeds in America, to which may be added the
Dorsets, the Tunis and the Cheviots. The wool of these
is made into many kinds of fabrics.

The long wools are more than 5 inches in length, and
they may be as much as 20 inches. They are, of course,
combing wools, and they are made into many fabrics,
strong and of good wearing properties, but lacking in the
finish and fineness of the garments made from the other
wools.

Superfine, fine, intermediate and coarse wools — The
classification of wool on the basis of diameter in the fiber
is difficult, owing (i) to the influence of the general char-
acter of the food on the fiber, (2) of the general character
of the climate, and (3) to individuality in the members of
the flock. Food, rich and abundant, strengthens the fiber
more than it affects the diameter, but it influences the lat-
ter also in the direction of increase. Warm climates tend
to increase in the diameter of wool fibers, but to decrease

WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 67

in their number, and the reverse of this is true of climates
cool to cold. These influences, however, act with measur-
able slowness. Individuals in the flock may differ consid-
erably from one another in the degree of the fineness of
the fiber. This, however, should not be a serious hin-
drance to present classification, although by selection in
breeding it may in time considerably modify the classifi-
cation, by improving it.

Classification on the basis of diameter, as previously
intimated, divides wool into superfine, fine, intermediate
and coarse. But the line of change between these is not
absolutely and unchangeably settled, some of the reasons
for which are given above.

It can scarcely be said that wools classed as super-
fine are produced to any considerable extent in America.
These are furnished largely by the Saxony and Silesian
breeds, which are not now and never have been numer-
ous in this country. It is true, nevertheless, that some
of the Merino wools produced in this country have
equaled in fineness the finest of the wools produced by
the breeds named. The finest Saxony and Silesian wools
have a diameter of fiber running from say i-2,oooth to
i-i,6ooth of an inch. Lamb's wool is the finest, and next
in fineness is the clip taken from sheep at one year. The
former is taken when the lambs are about six months old.
Superfine wools are made into garments light, soft and of
relatively high values.

The fine wool breeds in America include all the vari-
ous types of the American Merino, pure and high grade,
the Delaine in its various families, and the Rambouillet.
These are named in order of fineness, beginning with the
finest, but the wool furnished by individual animals may
not be in entire agreement with this classification. The
fiber in the Merino, with some individual exceptions in
which the wool is finer, runs from say i-i, Sooth of an inch
to i-i,4OOth and in some instances it is even greater. The
Delaine and Rambouillet types produce wool not much

68 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

less fine. High grade Merinos also produce wool that is
quite fine. The Australian Merino in the best grades is
but little behind the American Merino. The finer of
these wools are largely made into light and soft fabrics
for woman's wear and the medium into worsted and de-
laine goods.

The intermediate wools produced in this country, as
previously intimated, come from the following breeds,
which are named in the order of their fineness, beginning
with the finest: Southdown, Tunis, Dorset, Shropshire,
Cheviot, Suffolk, Hampshire and Oxford. This classifi-
cation may be challenged, but it is doubtful if it can be
improved upon at the present time. The finest of these
is the Southdown, the fibers of which have a diameter of
about i-iiooth of an inch. These wools, known as cloth-
ing wools, are made into a great variety of clothes, a
majority of which are for everyday wear. They also fur-
nish blankets.

The coarse wools produced in this country come from
the following breeds, named in the order of their fineness,
beginning with the finest: Leicester, Lincoln, Cots wold
and Black Faced Highland. These are used for making
garments coarse of texture, but that will endure much
wear. Wools still coarser than some of the above come
from Peru, Chile, Russia, Turkey, Greece and China,
These are made into carpets and the coarsest kinds of
goods, also into knitting yarn.

Carding and combing wools — From the standpoint of
the manufacturer, all wools are classified as carding or
combing. The former seldom exceed 2 to 4 inches in
length, the latter include wools that are longer. But
these distinctions are being modified by the French
methods of spinning, which comb and spin even wools
that are short.

Carding wools are sometimes called felting wools.
Felting is the amalgamation or matting of the fibers. The
small toothlike projections of one fiber catch into those

WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 69

of another adjacent thereto, and become entangled or in-
terlocked. The deeper the scales fit into one another, the
closer is the structure of the thread. The process of inter-
locking is aided by the curly nature of the fiber, which
inclines it to twist around any adjacent object. It is fur-
ther aided by what is termed the milling process. During
this process pressure is applied to it in the presence of
some lubricant, such as soap and warm water. The felt-
ing process is accompanied by shrinkage of a kind that
lessens the area covered by the cloth, but adds to its
thickness.

The felting value of wool is largely determined by the
number of the serrations per inch in the fiber and by the
freedom with which the upper edge of the side projects
from the fiber. The process known as carbonization
opens out the scales and thereby increases felting power
in the wool. A similar result follows the application of
lime or acid to the wool on pelts. The serrations are the
most numerous and the most clearly defined in wool of
the various Merino types. These serrations vary greatly
in the different wools. More commonly the larger and
coarser the wool, the fewer are the number of the serra-
tions. Merino wools have been grown in Vermont with
3,000 serrations to the inch, but the average is somewhat
fewer than 2,000. The best Saxony wools contain 2,800
to the inch and the best Australian, 2,400. Southdown
wool contains about 2,000, Leicester wool 1,800 and com-
mon domestic wool about 1,200. In some of the inferior
wools the number is sometimes less than 500. These
short-stapled carding wools are made into broadcloths,
and the thicker sorts of woolen clothing. They are also
used for the production of woolen yarns.

Combing wools are prepared for spinning by a proc-
ess known as combing. In this process the fibers are
made to lay parallel with one another preparatory to
spinning them into thread, while in carding wools they
become inextricably intermixed. As previously shown,

MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

these virtually embrace all wools from a few inches and
upward in length, and they are combed to be made into
coarse worsted yarns. One class of these is known as
the delaine, and the other as carpet and knitting wools.
The latter are coarse, long and strong.

Delaine wools are fine combing wools with staple of
medium length. They come between the short-stapled
carding wools and the longer and coarser types of comb-
ing wool. They virtually include all combing wools that
contain much Merino blood. They are first carded and
then combed for the production of fine worsted yarns for

ladies' dress goods, light
and soft and of superior
excellence.

Homemade rugs are
sometimes made from
the skins of sheep and
lambs. The skins for
such use should be re-
moved with much care,
so that they will be free
from cuts and from
adherent flesh. It is
then washed in warm

water with salt and alum dissolved in it of equal propor-
tions. It is then wrung and spread on a table and
stretched and scraped smooth. It is next sprinkled with
finely powdered salt and alum and left for two weeks.
Then follows washing in warm water with soft soap
added, wringing, stretching and pulling until it is soft
and pliable, after which it is dried. The stretching and
pulling are continued until the skins are quite dry, with
a view to keep them soft. Such skins make admirable
rugs for a carriage or for house wear, and they may be
dyed to suit the fancy.

Wool as distributed over the body — The quality of
the wool varies greatly on different parts of the body in

FIG. 4— WOOL AS CLASSIFIED ON THE
SHEEP

WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 71

the same animal. Before being milled it is sorted or
graded — that is, divided into various classes according to
its quality — in order that each grade may be made into
that class of goods for which it is best suited. What may
be termed extreme grading divides the wool into four-
teen classes, as shown in Fig. 4. In Nos. I and 2 — that
is, on the shoulder and side — the best grades of wool are
found. The wool in No. 2 is slightly stronger and coarser
than in No. I, otherwise the quality is about the same.
In both it is of relatively good length and strength of
staple and is soft and uniform. In Nos. 3, 4 and 5, what
may be termed second choice wool is found. In all of
these the staple is relatively short and the quality lowers
slightly in the order given. In No. 6 is produced wool on
the back and loin that may be given third place. In Nos.
7, 8 and 9 the wool is relatively long and strong. No. 8,
sometimes called the breech, furnishes the coarsest wool
of the entire fleece. In No. 10 it is short and more or less
dirty. In No. II it is short and relatively fine. In No. 12
the short wool is usually damaged some by rubbing. In
Nos. 13 and 14 it is of but little value. In each gradation
there is some peculiarity that makes it diff-erent from the
others.

Grading the fleece as above outlined is not univer-
sally adhered to. Another system, outlined in the Inter-
national Library of Technology, is now more generally in
favor apparently than that given above. It grades wool
on different parts of the fleece by the following gradation,
each successive grading being less valuable than the pre-
ceding: (i) Shoulders and sides; (2) lower part of the
body; (3) loin and back; (4) upper part of legs; (5)
upper portion of the neck ; (6) central part of the back ;
(7) the belly; (8) the root of the tail sometimes called
the rumps; (9) the lower part of the legs; (10) the head,
throat and chest, the wool on these having practically the
same characteristics; and (n) the shins or shank.

A third division of the qualities of wool, and which

MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

also is possessed of much merit, is shown in Fig. 5. The
best wool — that is, the finest and most evenly grown — is
always found on the shoulders, I,
i. Not infrequently this high
quality wool shades into 2, 2, 5
and 6. In the wool trade these
are known as picklock and prime.
When the wool at 4, shorter than
i, i, is free from colored hairs, it
is super-excellent. The wool at
3, 3 is shorter and less closely
grown than I, I. The quality of
6 is not much below that of 2, 2,
into which it shades, and also
which it resembles. For many
uses the wool at i, i, 2, 2, 5 and

f- fot-Ati fr.o-^fVi^i- "Ra^Vixrar/l

° are taKen togetner. JoacKwara
from 6, the wool becomes increas-

ingly coarse, the best being found at 7, 7. At 8, 9 and 9

the coarsest wool is found, that at 8 being the coarsest.

The wool grows in large locks of coarse hair and can only

be used for coarse yarns.

FIG. 5— THE SHORN FLEECE

AS FREQUENTLY CLASSIFIED

CHAPTER V
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL

The discussion in Chapter V treats of the following
phases of the various qualities and characters that per-
tain to wool: (i) The leading characteristics of wool;
(2) strength of fiber; (3) length of staple; (4) thickness
or density; (5) crimp or curl; (6) softness or pliancy;
(7) color in the staple ; (8) uniformity in fleece ; (9) style
or quality; (10) closure of fleece; (n) felting; (12) cloud-
iness; (13) stripy or watery wool; (14) break or joint;
(15) kemp or jar; (16) toppiness, broad toppiness, black
top and clots; and (17) influences from environment that
are hurtful. The discussion of these must of necessity be
brief.

Leading characteristics of wool — The more important
of the essential qualities in good wool are: (i) Strength
of fiber; (2) length of staple; (3) thickness or density;
(4) crimp or curl; (5) softness or pliancy; (6) color in
staple ; (7) uniformity in fleece ; (8) style or quality ; and
(9) closure of fleece. The different degrees in which these
characters are possessed is in some instances very
marked. Prominent among the defects in wool are felt-
ing of the fleece in whole or in part, cloudiness or dis-
coloration, a stripy condition, break or joint, kemp or jar
and toppiness, broad toppiness, black top and clots. For
the discussion of these see p. 84.

In addition to the defects in wool from the sources
named above, there are certain baneful influences which
result from environment that are hurtful to wool. These
are dwelt upon later (see p. 91). Like the defects in
wool enumerated above, they are all preventable where
the management is what it ought to be. For the discus-
sion of these see pp. 84-92.

73

74 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Strength of fiber in wool— Strength of fiber in wool
means the ability which it has throughout its entire
length to resist the force of distention. The true measure
of the strength of fiber is the strength of its weakest part.
It will not avail to have fiber strong through much of its
length when weak through any part of the same. It is
one of the most useful and important qualities in wool, as
on the strength of the fiber depends in a large measure
the value of wool for manufacturing uses.

Among the important indications of strength of fiber
are, first, a bright glistening appearance in the wool ; sec-
ond, an abundance of oil or yolk in the same ; and third,
uniformity in the size of the fiber. The glistening ap-
pearance is largely the outcome of an abundance of yolk
in the wool, but this lustrous appearance is also accentu-
ated by the reflection of scales that surround the fiber.
Its presence, however, is not an absolute guaranty of
strength throughout the entire length of the fiber, for
there may have been periods during the growth of the
fiber, when an abundance of yolk was not present, a con-
dition that would be adverse to strength of fiber at such
times. During any periods when yolk is not adequately
present, there is more or less wear in the fibers through
friction. Insufficient nutrition which causes an insuffi-
ciency of yolk also causes weak fiber through lack of food
supplied to the same. It lacks strength, therefore, from
lack of food and through excessive friction. Lack of uni-
formity in the size of the fiber may be so marked that in
some instances it is apparent to the eye unaided. In other
instances it can only be detected with a microscope. It is
of great importance in wool, as when weak beyond a cer-
tain degree, it breaks during certain of the processes of
manufacture.

Since strength of fiber is the outcome of nourishment
and of lubrication, and since both are produced by food,
it becomes apparent that if the fiber is to be uniform in
size and strength, the food fed should be suitable and am-

CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 75

pie during the entire period covered by the growth of the
fiber. Should the nourishment be insufficient at any time
to the needs of the animal, the wool, from lack of nourish-
ment, will not develop properly at such a time. It will
lack size and strength of fiber, proportioned to the con-
tinuance of the period during which the nourishment was
insufficient and to the extent to which it was lacking.
Other conditions that may lower stamina in sheep, as un-
due exposure, annoyance beyond a certain degree from
insect pests and disease, will weaken the fiber. The im-
portance of what may be termed evenness of condition in
sheep cannot be over-estimated in its relation to uni-
formity of strength of fiber in the wool. This property
may also be influenced in some slight degree by inherit-
ance. Such influence, however, if it exists, is of small im-
portance compared with the influences already stated.

Length of staple in wool — Length of staple in wool
means simply length of the wool fibers. It has an im-
portant bearing, first, on the weight of the fleece ; second,
on the profit from the same, as the result of the former;
and third, on the character of the goods manufactured.
Difference in length may take wool from the carding into
the combing class in the same breed of sheep.

The variations in the length of the staple in wool are
very great. In some instances it has attained a length
of 18 to 20 inches as the result of one year's growth ; in
other instances the growth is even less than an inch. The
variations between these extremes are of all lengths. It
would be approximately correct to say that short wools
are less than 3 inches long, intermediate wools are some-
where between, say 3 and 5 or 6 inches.

Variations in length of staple in wools are caused by
such influences as breed, food, grade and age. Each
breed has a standard of length written or unwritten, usu-
ally the latter. This standard is not so inflexible that it
cannot be modified. The standard of length, for instance,
is longer in the American than in the Spanish Merino; in

76 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

the Delaine than in the American Merino; and in the
Rambouillet than in the Delaine Merino. Notwithstand-
ing that the three breeds named last have been evolved
from the first.

The. influence of food on the length of staple is consid-
erable. It is probably less, however, than the influence of
breed and of selection in breeding. Generous feeding
makes modification in the length of the wool fibers easier
in the direction of increase, but it would seem correct to
say that the influence of food is much greater on the diam-
eter of the wool fibers than on the length of the staple.

The influence from grade — that is, from cross breed-
ing and grading on the length of the staple — is very
marked in many instances. It is marked in proportion to
the contrast between the length of the staple in the
breeds crossed. The Cotswold and Lincoln crosses in-
variably lengthen the staple in wool when crossed upon
the other breeds. The Southdown cross shortens the
same in nearly all breeds. This influence on the length
of staple is much greater than that of the other influences
named.

The influence of age on the length of staple is not in-
considerable. The longest fleece is that which is first
taken from the sheep when it represents one year's
growth. This is owing, doubtless, to the greater activity
of the processes that relate to nutrition in the same ani-
mal. The second shearing will furnish wool something
less in length, and each year subsequently there will be
some decrease in the length of the staple. The difference
in the length of staple between a young sheep and the
same when advanced in age is marked.

Length of staple is secured and maintained by liberal
feeding. The more liberal the feeding, up to a certain
limit, the longer will be the wool fiber. It does not fol-
low, however, that the relation between food and growth
in the wool corresponds exactly to the relation between
food and flesh production in the same animal. For in-

CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 77

stance, the wool fibers in an animal in lean condition may
be longer relatively than those possessed by one in good
condition. Nature in this way makes provision for the
protection of the animal. Length of staple may be in-
creased through selection in breeding, backed up by lib-
eral feeding, but in all breeds there is a limit in the length
of the wool fibers beyond which it may not be desirable
to go, just as there is a limit in size which it may not be
desirable to exceed.

Thickness or density in wool — Thickness or density in
wool has reference to the number of the fibers that grow
on a given area of body surface. The density of the wool
has also a bearing on its elasticity. Other things being
equal, the more dense it is the more elastic will it be ; that
is, the greater will be the rebound when pressure is re-
moved from it. Usually there is a relation between the
coarseness or fineness of the fiber and the number of the
fibers ; as a rule the coarser the fiber, the smaller the num-
ber of the fibers, and vice versa. Thickness or density in
the fibers has an important bearing on the weight of the
fleece. The larger the number of the wool fibers, other
things being equal, the heavier will be the weight of the
fleece. It also exercises an important influence in pro-
tecting the animal from injury by rain or sleet storms.
The density of the wool accounts in part at least for the
superior hardihood of the American Merino. The more
dense the wool, the more perfect is the protection thus
furnished.

The variations in the density of wool are very consid-
erable. Some of the finest grades of Saxony wool measure
i-2,oooth of an inch. In growing wool the aim should be
to secure as much of density as possible without hinder-
ing development in other directions. Up to a certain
limit there would seem to be no antagonism between
density and length; nevertheless, the fact remains that
the most dense wools are of short fiber and the least dense
wools are of long fiber.

78 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Density is a breed characteristic and, therefore, is not
directly influenced by feeding. It is secured in the pure
breeds, and is maintained and increased, by judicious
breeding. It may be influenced materially by judicious
selection, especially of the males used in service. Sim-
ilarly in grade sheep it is increased by the use of sires
possessed of much density of wool. But increase in
density in wool, like increase in fineness of fiber, comes
slowly. The form of the sheep can be transformed much
more quickly than a corresponding change can be made
in the density of the wool.

Crimp or curl in wool — Crimp or curl in wool means
the crimped or waved character of the fibers. Strictly
speaking, crimp means the tendency of the wool fibers to
form more or less regular and minute but not too close
lying folds in the process of their growth, and curl or
wave means the tendency in the fibers to produce waves
or curls — that is, spirals — as they grow outward. The
latter tendency is the same as the former in kind, though
less in degree. It is caused by more or less regular alter-
nations in the thickening of the fiber, first on one side
and then on the other. These are more or less spirally
arranged. A curly fiber is a great aid in spinning wool,
since it can be drawn finer and a more compact and
rounded thread formed. Crimp or curl is much more pro-
nounced, and is relatively more important in the fine
wools. Crimp is to some extent an indication of strength
in wool, and gives it higher adaptation for certain proc-
esses of manufacture. In high-class Merino wool the
degree of crimp possessed is a matter of much importance.
In the best bred fleeces, the crimp is perceptible to the
naked eye, to the very tip of the fibers, and is not merged
into dark clots or indurations.

The variations in degree in crimp in wool are very
marked. In very fine wools, at least 30 to 33 waves or
crimps are found in an inch in length. These waves
should be perfectly regular but not so abrupt as to ap-

CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 79

pear as folds. Long Leicester wool has about eight or
nine curls to an inch in length of fiber. There is also a
marked difference in the degree to which the waved or
curled fibers combine, so as to form locks or spirals which
hang like ringlets. Some of these are very large and some
are quite small, even in sheep of the same breed.

While the immediate cause of crimp or curl is the
thickening of the cortical layer of the fiber, first on one
side and then on the other, .the reasons why growth in
the fiber should proceed thus are not well understood. It
is known, however that the degree to which crimp or
curl may be maintained in wool is influenced by selection
in breeding. When a fine wooled sheep, as the American
Merino, is crossed by a coarse wooled sheep, as the Cots-
wold, there is a reduction in the waves or crimp found
in the wool of the progeny and vice versa.

Softness or pliancy in wool — Softness or pliancy in
wool, which is the opposite of wiriness or stiffness, means
its lack of resistance to gentle pressure. The measure of
the resistance to such pressure is the measure of the soft-
ness. Elasticity is that quality in wool which causes it
to yield readily under pressure and then to resume its
former position when the pressure is removed. There is
no antagonism between softness and elasticity. On the
other hand, they are usually associated. Elasticity is in-
dicative of life in wool, hence the more of it that soft
wools have, the more valuable they are. Softness or
pliancy in wool can only be measured by the sense of
touch, hence the difficulty of expressing in words just
what it means. The trained hand of a wool sorter meas-
ures it in a moment, through the sense of touch.

Softness or pliancy in wool differs much in the differ-
ent breeds of sheep, and in different parts of the same
fleece. The difference may be almost as great in wool
from certain breeds as the difference between feathers
and down. The softest wool is furnished by the fine wool
breeds, other things being equal. Among the other in-

8O MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

fluences that affect softness in wool, apart from those that
relate to breeding, are the plentifulness and the quality of
the yolk, climate, lack of condition, old age, disease, ex-
posure and the chemical constituents of the soil. Wool
lacking yolk is lacking in softness and elasticity, and
these qualities increase with the increase in the yolk up to
a certain limit, as long as it retains the liquid form.

Cool climates furnish softer wool than those that are
hot. A lean condition affects softness adversely through
a lessened nourishment of the wool fiber and of the sup-
ply of yolk. Old age, disease, and undue exposure, simi-
larly affect softness in wool, and for the same reason.
Soils affect this quality directly through the constituents
which they furnish, and indirectly through the degree of
the nutrition and the succulence in the food furnished.
Clay soils furnish wool of good quality, while limestone
soils produce wool that is much more harsh. Since the
chief of the causes that influence softness or pliancy in
wool are known, the methods of maintaining and increas-
ing these are also known. Such maintenance and increase
will, of course, be secured by shunning, as far as may be
practicable, the influences that are adverse to softness.
Careful regard should be had to the breeding, as no single
influence affects this quality more than breeding, under
normal conditions.

Color in the staple of wool — Color in the staple of wool
may affect all the fibers of the fleece through the entire
length of the same, or it may affect only some of them
thus on certain parts of the body. The color, as white
or black, illustrates the former. Black or gray patches
in the fleece in certain parts of the body illustrate the lat-
ter. But it may also affect the shade which the wool
fibers will assume when the fleece is parted, as the out-
come of condition linked with breed peculiarities.

Varieties in the color of the staple, even in the wools
that are essentially white colored, are considerable. When
the wool of a fleece of this class is parted, the color may

CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 8l

be a beautiful white, a rich yellow or an orange tint, ac-
cording to the breed or grade of the sheep. In some in-
stances there is more or less banding of these colors.
Banding means their occurrence in bars and in alterna-
tions that run across the wool at right angles to the length
of the fibers. Such banding is not only allowable, but is
considered an indication that is favorable rather than
otherwise. Fleeces that are entirely black or mottled are
directly or indirectly the outcome of breeding.

Desirable color may be secured and increased mainly
through selection in breeding. If wool of any of the
recognized and useful shades is desired, the aim should
be to breed only from sheep that carry fleeces that are
thus characterized. If sheep possessed of wool of differ-
ent colors are present in the same flock, undesirable color
in the wool may appear in some of the progeny, though
the breeding should be otherwise correct.

Uniformity of fleece in wool — Uniformity in wool has
reference to a similarity in the wool fibers as distributed
over the body. It has reference to fineness of fiber, to
length of fiber, strength of fiber and to density in the
same. Complete uniformity in any of the senses named
is not attainable ; nevertheless, in all of these respects it
is much more nearly approximated in some breeds and
grades of sheep than in others, and the same is true of
individuals of the same breed.

When the wool is nearly equally fine at the should-
ers, ribs, hips, rumps and thighs, it is said to be uniform
as to fineness. When it is nearly equally long at the
shoulders, back, sides, hips and thighs, it is said to be
uniform as to length. When it is about equally strong on
all the parts named, it is said to be uniform in strength of
fiber. When it is nearly equally dense and elastic at the
shoulders, loin and rump, it is said to be uniform in
density.

The variations in uniformity of fleece are more ac-
centuated usually in breed than in individuals of a breed,

82 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

but even in the latter sense there is considerable lack of
uniformity. The unimproved types have much less of
uniformity in the fleece than the improved types, and
in the highly improved breeds the contrast is even
greater. Wool is usually somewhat coarser at the rump
and hips than at the sides and shoulders. It is usually
longer on the upper portion of the body and on the
shoulders, sides and hips of the same than on other por-
tions; as, for instance, the head, belly and limbs. The
difference in strength of fiber is usually less than that in
length of the same, for the influences that produce strong
fiber on one part of the body also tend to produce the
same on every other part. Less of density is often found
on the thighs and underline than on the other parts of
the body.

Uniformity in the fleece is maintained by continued
and careful selection in breeding. To secure it in a
marked degree, several generations of careful up-grad-
ing are necessary, combined with a rigid selection with
reference to the end sought. Great improvement has thus
been made in the uniformity of the fleece produced by sev-
eral of the improved breeds, including some of the oldest.

Complete uniformity in the fleece is unattainable. It
would not be possible to produce wool equally fine, long,
strong or dense on the extremities of the body as on the
body itself. Nor would this be altogether desirable. But
on the body itself the greatest uniformity attainable
should be sought. The value of the fleece will be pro-
portionately enhanced as uniformity in the same is en-
hanced.

Style or quality in wool — Style in wool has reference
to a combination of good qualities and to the absence of
defects in the same. It includes such good qualities as
strength of fiber, length of staple, thickness or density,
crimp or curl, softness or pliancy, color in the staple and
uniformity in the fleece. While all of these are impor-
tant with reference to their bearing on quality, strength

CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 83

of fiber and softness or pliancy are specially so. Quality
excludes such defects as felting in the fleece, cloudiness
or discolorations, a stripy condition, break or joint, kemp
or jar and such influences as toppiness and clots. It also
excludes all such defects as result from the baneful in-
fluences of environment, such as burs, spines and chaff.

The variations in style are as various as the charac-
teristics in breeds and grades of the same, and yet all
classes of good wool have much in common, regardless of
breed or grade. The leading characteristics of good wool
all point in the same direction and the defects to be
shunned are the same.

Style or quality in wool cannot be secured in the ab-
sence of good breeding, the most careful selection and
the most ample care in the management of the flock. In
the breeding of the sheep none of the valuable qualities of
wool are to be lost sight of. In the selection of the same,
those that rank highest in qualities of fleece are to be
retained, and those that have defects are to be rejected.
The exclusion of the baneful influences of environment
are entirely, or at least in a large measure, in the hands of
the owner.

Closure of fleece in wool — By closure of fleece in wool
is meant the gluing of the wool fibers as a result of the
abundance of the yolk at the extremities of the wool, to
which dust and dirt adhere so as to form a crust. This
crust gives the fleece a dirty appearance, to the extent
even of causing it to assume a dark shade approaching
blackness on the surface. Such is the appearance of the
wool carried by certain of the Merino types. One of
these, the American Spanish Black Top, has been thus
named because of the blackness of the fleece on its outer
surface. This crust is nearly impervious to rain, and is
a great protection to the wool against all kinds of dirt
from whatsoever source it may come. This property may,
however, under some conditions, become a detriment,

84 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

as shown later. This peculiarity of fleece is confined to the
fine wooled breeds.

The benefits from such closure have already been
touched upon. Sheep that are thus protected can endure
exposure to rain, and especially to cold rain, very much
better than sheep not thus covered. This furnishes one
explanation of the superior hardihood of the Merino
types. The only avenues through which any dirt can
penetrate the wool are the openings between the glued
masses, and these are so minute as practically to exclude
dirt. Should it enter between the locks or masses, the
outward movement of the yolk continually tends to eject it.

Closure in the fleece is largely the outcome of breeding
and selection. It is not possessed equally by the Merino
breeds, nor even by individuals of the same breed or class.
It is also much influenced by food. Sheep that are well
fed will possess more closure of fleece than others of sim-
ilar breeding when on a spare diet. This follows from
the plentiful and suitable food supplies and a sufficiency
of yolk. Closure is not to be sought to the extent of
gluing all the fibers together over any considerable area
of the body, as this would make a covering so warm as to
be unendurable in the summer season. The gluing is
rather to be confined to small aggregations of fibers in a
way that does not interfere with the escape of body heat
through radiation.

Felting in wool — Felty wool is that in which the
fibers have a tendency to felt together on the sheep's
back. In the aggravated form it is known as cots or cot-
ted wool. The fibers so felt together that by shearing
time portions of the fleece or all of it is so completely
felted or matted that it can be lifted up by a single lock
without parting asunder. It more generally develops in
the winter season, when the sheep are on a dry diet. Such
a fleece has a relatively low value and should not be sold
with other wool.

Cotting is caused primarily by an absence of yolk. In

CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 85

some instances the yolk glands dry to such an extent that
many of the fibers have parted from the body before the
fleece is shorn. Because of this, the removal of the fleece
is not difficult. The secondary causes of cotting include
continued wet weather, which washes the yolk out of the
fleece, low condition or the presence of certain forms of
disease. It is also to some extent the outcome of inherit-
ance. Furthermore, it has been claimed that it sometimes
results from ammoniacal exhalations arising in an un-
clean stable. Cotting is much more frequent in the coarse
than in the fine wool breeds, as the latter produce yolk
more abundantly than the former, and the more dense
fleece which they possess renders it more impervious to
water.

Since the causes that produce cotting are known, the
means that should be taken to prevent it are evident.
Sheep must be provided with food that will furnish suffi-
cient yolk where cotting is to be prevented. They must
be sufficiently protected during wet weather. They must
be maintained in a reasonably good condition as to thrift.
They must be kept free from disease that results in low
condition, and they ought to be furnished with sheds free
from conditions that produce filth. Where the felting is
the outcome of constitutional inheritance, in whole or in
part, the animals thus affected should be disposed of as
soon as this may be practicable.

Cloudiness in wool — Cloudy wool means the pres-
ence of discolorations in the wool on various parts of the
body. In some instances the wool assumes a lemon color
or one that may be designated as yellowish, nankeen or
saffron along the back or sides of the sheep. Sometimes
it becomes more than ordinarily white on the neck, espe-
cially when the sheep have been housed for a time and
are then not housed. In some instances the wool ad-
heres from the bottom upwards after the manner of felt,
though less in degree. The wool is not necessarily in-
jured in the staple, although in some instances it is, de-

86 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

pendent on the cause of the cloudiness. The first quality
of wool is elastic, lies loosely, and is white as snow. The
next choice is a rich buff yellow or golden tint, and pos-
sessed of uniformity in a marked degree. Cloudiness,
therefore, detracts from the beauty and salableness of the
wool. Discoloration from soil, as the dark wool of the
adobe soil of California, or the reddish tint from the red
clays of Tennessee, is not the same exactly as cloudiness,
but, like cloudiness, it detracts somewhat from the mar-
ket price paid.

Cloudy wool may be produced by any one of the fol-
lowing causes: (i) Rain dripping down on sheep from
deficient roofs ; (2) irregular and uneven exposure ; (3)
deprivation of exercise to the extent of lowering the cir-
culation ; and (4) inheritance. Should the circulation be
unduly lowered, the yolk will not be present in sufficient
quantity, nor will it be sufficiently liquefied to carry it to
the extremities of the fibers. In such instances the fiber
of the wool is injured. When cloudy wool is the outcome
of inheritance, the defect becomes constitutional. The
fine wooled breeds have wool thus defective more fre-
quently than the other sheep.

The measures that should be taken to prevent cloudi-
ness in wool will depend on the cause from which it may
emanate. Should it result from the dripping of the water,
mending or remending the roof or removing the sheep,
will stay the evil. Should it be the outcome of uneven ex-
posure, protecting the sheep from falling storms and al-
lowing them to go in and out from the shelter of sheds at
will, should prove effective. Should the circulation be un-
duly lowered through lack of exercise or insufficient food,
more exercise and better food should remove the trouble.
When the defect is constitutional, the animals so affected
should be rejected for breeding.

Stripy or watery wool — The term was formerly ap-
plied to wool lacking in wave or crimp and that is non-
elastic; that is to say, lifeless when compressed by the

CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 87

hand. The origin of these terms, not so frequently used
during recent years as formerly, is somewhat obscure.
The term stripy may have arisen from the deadness re-
ferred to in the wool which characterized some portions only
of the fleece in some instances in the living animal. The
term watery may possibly have arisen from the lack of
resistance to handling, shown by lifeless wools which
are non-resistant. Such wool is sometimes found on the
shoulders of inferior animals where only good wool should
be. Wool removed from animals that may have died from
disease, and especially disease that has lingered some
time, is thus lacking in elasticity. Such wool is dis-
counted in the market, frequently to the extent of several
cents a pound.

The causes that produce stripy and watery wool are,
inheritance, lack of thrift and disease. Crimp and wave
in wool increase elasticity in proportion as they are pres-
ent, and reduce it in proportion as they are absent. The
non-elasticity of the wool will be influenced adversely as
thrift is lacking. The loss of elasticity in wool is pro-
portionate to the intensity of disease in the same and to
the period covered by the disease.

The remedy for non-elasticity, the outcome of inherit-
ance, is the rejection for breeding of animals thus affected
or so inclined. When it is the outcome of lack of thrift,
any treatment that conduces to thrift will so far remove
the trouble. When caused by disease, it is very seldom
that any efficient remedy can be applied. It is not to be
understood that wool thus far injured can be restored to
a normal condition, but that the application of the reme-
dies will prevent the continuance of the production of
such wool. Non-elastic wool is more difficult to card and
comb than other wool.

Break or joint in wool — Break or joint in wool indi-
cates that when it is stretched or distended it will part
asunder at some point of its length. The break will, of
course, occur where the fiber is weakest. It makes wool

88 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

useless for any combing purpose and very greatly im-
pairs its value for any use. The break may occur along
the length of the fiber according to the cause that may
have produced it, and the time when that cause was
operative.

The immediate cause of break or joint is arrested
nutrition for a longer or shorter period. When the glands
that nourish the wool fibers are not sufficiently fed, they
are unable to furnish the materials for sufficient growth
in the wool ; no sooner does this happen than the growth
made by the fibers at such a time is less than normal. The
reduction will relate both to the size and strength of the
fiber, and the continuance of such enfeebled growth will
be exactly proportioned to the continuance of the period
of deficient sustenance. The weakess of the fiber will also
be proportioned to the degree to which sustenance was
wanting. The primary cause is, of course, the lack of
food or the lack of proper nutrition in the food, but other
causes may have a qualifying influence. These include
undue exposure, alkaline pastures and various forms of
disease which for a time have reduced condition in the
sheep.

The cause of break or joint in wool being known, the
way to prevent it is also known. Ample and suitable
nutrition will always prevent it in healthy sheep. When
sheep can be kept healthy this weakness in wool cannot
occur. There may, of course, be conditions under which
it is impossible to furnish the requisite nutrition, as dur-
ing prolonged drought in range areas. There may also
be occasions when it is not possible to furnish the requi-
site shelter. Usually, however, on the arable farm suffi-
cient foresight may be used to safeguard the flock from
injury by the causes named, and therefore to prevent the
occurrence of break or joint in wool.

Kemp or jar in wool — Kemp or jar in wool, some-
times called gare, is simply hair. Though these hairs
occur singly, they may be distributed over the body. They

CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 89

are chiefly found on rams, and most commonly occur on
the face, neck, forearm, and scrotum. When thus found,
they are very liable to be present to some extent else-
where. In rams of the Merino types they sometimes
occur on the exposed surface of the neck folds, and less
frequently on the folds at the sides and hips. In Cots-
wold sheep and Angora goats they are of commonest
occurrence at the hips. The presence of these hairs in
the wool is highly objectionable, since in the combs and
cards they are equally unmanageable. They will not
blend with the wool fibers, and they will not take dye
so readily as wool. Their presence has been known to
reduce the value of the fleece by fully 50 per cent. Hairs
short and curled are the most objectionable.

The cause of kemp or jar is not certainly understood.
It is most liable to occur in males, and more especially
among the more vigorous of these; hence there would
seem to be some relation between occurrence of these
hairs and constitutional vigor.

Some authorities look upon the presence of these
hairs as the outcome of spontaneous variation, but since
some breeds produce them more frequently than others,
it would seem reasonable to look upon them as being in
some way the outcome of atavic transmission. The wild,
coarse and frizzly character of the hairs is akin to these
properties found in the wool of some at least of the prim-
itive breeds.

Until the cause of kemp or jar in wool is definitely un-
derstood, it may not be possible to entirely prevent it.
It is certain, however, that rams or other sheep that are
thus affected should not be kept for breeding. Such
selection, long continued, would probably eliminate the
evil.

Toppiness, broad toppiness, black tops and clots in
wool — Toppiness in wool means unevenness and lack of
smoothness in the closure of the fleece, resulting from in-
equality in the length of the fibers. Such wool is, of

90 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

course, not equal in value with wool possessed of even
length of fiber. Broad toppiness, means the division of
the wool into broad masses or tops, caused by the inter-
lacing of the fibers, which are to some extent split from
the top downwards. Such a condition is objectionable,
viewed from the standpoint of the manufacturer.

Black top means the gluing together of the wool
fibers over much of the body so as to render it almost
impervious to rain. It extends the whole length of the
fleece, and is densest along the back, but occurs more or
less on the sides. It hinders the extension of the crimp
to the extremities of the fibers, such as is found in a per-
fect fleece. If the sheep are much confined in winter it
becomes separated into masses or lumps. Each of these,
tipping more or less of the fibers, becomes exceedingly
hard, and, in proportion, they impair the value of wool.
The worst form of clot is gray shoulder clot, which is
somewhat akin to blacktop, but exceeds it in degree. It
occurs at the withers and frequently extends half way
down the shoulders and more or less along the backbone.
In a short-fibered fleece, the locks will be glued together
in some instances for half their length, and will be about
as hard as stone. The influence of all these conditions,
with reference to its bearing on the manufacture of the
wool, will be readily perceived. These defects are chiefly
if not entirely confined to the Merino types of sheep.

These conditions are all traceable more or less to
inheritance, but they are also influenced by food and
management, though not equally so. Food and manage-
ment may not be able to influence in any marked degree
the unevenness in the fibers that leads to toppiness, but
it may influence in a marked degree gray shoulder clot,
if caused by a feeble circulation and if aggravated by
rain and washing out the softer parts of the yolk and
allowing the residuum to gum the locks together.

In so far as these defects are the outcome of inherit-
ance, they can largely be prevented by selection. In so

CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 9!

far as they are the outcome of deficient management, it is
almost needless to say that correct management will in
time lessen the tendency to such defects, if it does not
entirely remove it.

Influences from environment that are harmful — The
influences from environment that are harmful in wool are
various. They are such as relate to soils which tend to
color the wool, to imperfect protection, as the roofs of
sheds that leak, and the adherence of foreign substances
to the wool, such as burs, spines and chaff. The hurtful-
ness from soils it is not possible to remedy in some in-
stances. Those from leaking roofs may easily be pre-
vented by simply stopping the leaks. Those from for-
eign substances are taken into the wool while the sheep
are grazing or taking fodder in winter, and are therefore
preventable.

Burs are of various kinds, as the burdock, the cockle-
bur, the beggar tick and the sand bur. When these are
allowed to grow in the pastures, the sheep when grazing
come in touch with them and they become entangled in
the wool, to the extent in some instances of covering the
whole fleece. Especially is this true of the burdock. The
remedy is to prevent these from maturing their seeds ;
that is, from forming mature burs in which the seed is
inclosed. For the best methods of doing this, the reader
is referred to "Weeds and How to Eradicate Them," by
the author.

Needle grass is peculiar to range pastures, especially
to those ranges that lie west from the Rocky mountains.
At one time it infested nearly all the land in the West
known as prairie land. This grass grows up tall amid the
prairie grasses early in the season and matures spines,
which in shape somewhat resemble needles. When the
sheep graze among them as they approach maturity in
June or July, they fall into the wool, and through motion
in the same while the sheep are walking, they work down
into the flesh. Lambs are the greater sufferers from their

92 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

presence, for the reason that they have longer wool at
that season than the old sheep. The remedy consists of
keeping the flock, if possible, on other pastures until the
needles fall to the ground. If the grass that produces
them was cut sufficiently early they would not mature
any seed, but on the range this would not be practicable.
Should the wool be infested with the needles, removing
the fleece will prevent further harm. This grass and
nearly all kinds of plants that thus injure wool are easily
destroyed by careful cultivation.

Injury from chaff and broken pieces of straw comes
from sheep feeding from improperly constructed racks,
and at the sides of unfenced stacks. When thus feeding,
chaff, short pieces of straw and dust fall down upon the
backs of the sheep and work their way into the wool.
The wool on the top of the neck and shoulders is natu-
rally the most injured by these substances. That of the
long wooled breeds takes the greatest harm, since it is
the most open, and that of the fine wooled breeds the
least, since it is the most dense. The remedy is plain. It
is to provide properly constructed racks and to prevent
sheep from feeding at stacks of any kind.

Sheep sometimes lose more or less of their wool,
especially in the winter season. This may result from
undue exposure, as when the wool drops off the outer
portions of the wrinkles in Merinos which have been
chilled. It may result from housing overwarm, which
produces a fevered condition of the system, sometimes
aggravated by constipation resulting from the food fed.
It may also result from certain forms of disease, which
also tend to produce the fevered condition referred to. In
some instances sheep will pull out more or less of the
wool from the bodies of the others. Such a condition
usually evidences something lacking in the food. Should
the habit become confirmed, which it does in rare in-
stances, those addicted to it should be sent to the block.

CHAPTER VI
LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED

In Chapter VI the discussion dwells upon the follow-
ing: (i)The season when lambs should come; (2) The
care of the dams when nearing parturition ; (3) Special
care at the lambing season ; (4) Giving aid to the dams
in labor; (5) Giving aid to the young lambs ; (6) Reviving
lambs that may have been chilled; (7) Managing ewes
that do not own their lambs ; (8) Rearing lambs by hand ;
(9) Supplemental food for lambs; (10) Food suitable for
young lambs; (n) The lamb creep ; (12) Weaning lambs,
and how it is done; (13) The proper food for lambs when
weaned; (14) Castrating lambs; (15) Docking lambs;
(16) The registration of pure bred lambs; and (17) Mis-
cellaneous considerations.

When lambs should come — The best season for lambs
to come is determined by such influences as the market
for which they are grown, the shelter that has been pro-
vided, and to some extent by the breeding habit in the
sheep. Of these influences the first is by far the most
important, as, if sheep, and more particularly lambs, are
not adapted to the conditions of the market for which
they have been grown, they soon become a drug in the
hands of the owner. To have young lambs at a season
when the weather is cold in the absence of provision to
properly protect them would be to court disaster to the
lamb crop. Some breeds of sheep, not many, however,
drop their lambs in the autumn, and others in the spring.
The attempt to modify such habit, when this may be de-
sired, cannot be quickly done (see p. 243). Lambs in-
tended for the winter market, usually spoken of as hot-
house or milk lambs, should come after the hot weather
is over in summer and before lambs come for the spring
market. They should be sold, as a rule, after the winter

94 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

holiday season and before the Easter season. If ready
too early, they would reach the market in competition
with the vast supply of poultry that fill the market just
prior to the holiday season. If not ready early enough,
they come in competition with early spring lambs, and
at a lower price.

Lambs for the spring market are supposed to be
ready for the shambles not later than the Easter season.
The milk lambs usually supply the needs of the market
until the approach of the Easter season. The winter
lambs, which come chiefly in the months of February and
March, will take the market at an early age when plump
and fat. Though they do not sell for prices so high as
milk lambs, they will at the age of six to ten weeks sell
for prices as high if not higher than they will bring sev-
eral months later. These good prices for really good
lambs may, and frequently do, continue for several weeks
after the Christmas season, but the price paid after that
season is less relatively in proportion to the weight of
the lambs. When prices can be obtained for such lambs
fully equal to those obtained for them several months
later, there are no good reasons for keeping them thus
long before selling them for meat.

When lambs are to be sold for breeding uses, they
should come early rather than late. The aim should be to
have them come as early as winter lambs intended for
the Easter market, but they should not be pushed so
rapidly as the latter when young. Such lambs should
come thus early for the reason, first, that those who pur-
chase give the preference to large lambs when making
their selections ; and, second, that they usually grow to a
larger size. That the result last mentioned follows may
be disputed, but there would seem to be some truth in the
belief. And it seems to be more in evidence in the case
of Merinos than of some other breeds. It may rest upon
the advantage which a strong and well-developed animal
has on entering the winter over one not so well developed.

LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 95

It is more important relatively that male lambs come
early when they are to be used in service, as in such in-
stances the added maturity which they possess will bet-
ter fit them for such a use.

Lambs to be finished in the autumn and before the clos-
ing in of winter should come at a time intermediate be-
tween winter lambs to be sold early and spring lambs for
breeding the following winter. The aim should be to
have them come just before the season for turning out to
graze. The relative loss in the lambs will probably be
less when they come at such a time than if the lambing
season was deferred until the coming of the earliest grass.
The lambs thus safely started in the sheds will grow
rapidly when the dams are turned out on the succulent
grazing. If both ewes and lambs are supplied with suit-
able grazing, the latter will reach such weights as the
market demands before the arrival of winter.

Lambs to be finished in the winter following their
birth should not come until the grass has made sufficient
growth to sustain both ewes and lambs in good form.
Should they come earlier they will be larger than the
market calls for if kept all the time on good grazing.
The market prefers lambs ranging somewhere between
80 and loo pounds. Some years ago lambs much heavier
were most in favor, but it is not thus now. The larger
the normal size of the breed the later may the lambs
come, lest they should reach weights too heavy before
the season arrives for finishing them.

Dams when nearing parturition — When lambs are
dropped on the pastures it is not specially necessary to
know to a day just when they will be born, but it is
important to know that lambs may be expected after a
certain date, and that no more need be looked for be-
yond another fixed date. These, dates may, of course, be
readily known by noting when the male was admitted to
the flock at the mating season and when he was removed.
This knowledge makes it possible to give that close atten-

96 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

tion to the flock which is necessary at such a time. When
lambs are born in the sheds it is important to know when
each individual ewe may be expected to bring forth her
young, and the more valuable the dams are the more im-
portant is such information relatively. The profits from
the flock are determined largely by the success that at-
tends the effort to save the lambs.

It is possible, of course, to know within a day or two
the time when each individual ewe may be expected to
bring forth her young. This can be known by noting the
time of the service and keeping a record of the same. The
period of gestation in ewes is 147 days. It seldom varies
more than a day or two, but it may occur not less than
a week before or after the period named. Such a record
is valuable to any shepherd, but it is particularly valua-
ble in the case of pedigreed sheep.

When the sheep are yet in the sheds, the dams that
are about to bring forth their young should be separated
from the flock by taking them to the lambing pen, or by
surrounding them with a movable inclosure made of posts
and slats within which they are confined until the lambs
are well on their feet. These portable pens should be
light and the slats on the sides so close near the bottom
as not to admit of the young lambs getting through be-
tween them, and thus wandering away from the ewe.
Pieces, 2x2 inches and 3 to 4 feet long, will answer for
the posts, and strips 3 to 4 feet long and 4 to 6 inches wide
for the sides. Such lumber, or even a little less in the
thickness, will furnish them strong enough. The dimen-
sions of these inclosures should to some extent be de-
termined by the size of the sheep.

The advantage claimed for these portable pens over
the stationary pen is that when the dams are confined in
the former, they are still left in quarters to which they are
accustomed and in sight of the other sheep ; hence they
worry less than if removed to a stationary lambing pen.
This, however, may be obviated in a measure by thus

LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 97

confining more than one ewe at a time. In the stationary
pen, it may be necessary to have divisions, portable or
otherwise, in which to keep the ewes separate from one
another.

When it is not known just when the ewes are to yean,
it may be well to examine the flock occasionally, and to
separate from the others the dams that are soon to yean.
The most important indication of the near approach of
the time of yeaning is the condition of the udder. It, of
course, enlarges and fills out, as a rule, before the lambs
are produced, and the teats distend. If ewes are cast or
thrown for the purpose of examining the udder, the
handling should be of the gentlest character. Such ex-
amination is seldom necessary at intervals less than a
week apart. The first indication of actual yeaning is a
restless movement and a distracted look. Then follow
indications too apparent to be mistaken.

Special care at the lambing season — The lambing
season is the flockmaster's harvest. If the losses at such
a time are frequent, the profits will be cut down accord-
ingly. To keep the percentage of loss down to a mini-
mum at such a season should be the honest, earnest en-
deavor of every shepherd. But even with the best of
care, some losses may usually be looked for in a large
flock. Many of the ewes will bring forth their young in
the night. The presence of the shepherd at such a time
may result in saving the life of a lamb and even of a ewe ;
hence when the sheep are yet in the sheds, the shepherd
should not fail to visit the flock at midnight, and again
in the very early morning. The more inclement the
weather the greater is the necessity for such nocturnal
vigils. Where the flock is large it may be necessary
sometimes for the shepherd to remain much of the night
with the flock. Such vigils may be trying, but they are a
part of the true shepherd's work, and they will be un-
grudgingly given by a shepherd who has his work suffi-
ciently at heart. At such times he should not fail to sus-

98 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

tain his own strength by taking suitable food and drink.

It would not be practicable to spend time at night
with a flock in the field, nor is it necessary, the weather
is so much warmer at such a time. But the flock should
be visited late in the evening and at early dawn in the
morning. When the slightest hazard is present that
storms may happen in the night, the sheep should with-
out fail be brought home to the shed at nightfall.

Extra attention at such a time is an absolute neces-
sity, and the shepherd should not even consider it irk-
some, for it is a legitimate part of his work. Trouble may
arise in his absence in a score of different ways. The
dams in labor may not be able to bring forth without help.
Some lambs may be so weak as to be unable to get on
their feet without being helped to the milk of the dam,
and others, as in the case of twins, may wander away
from the dam and perish. For these and other reasons
too much attention cannot be given to the flock during
the lambing season.

Assisting ewes in labor — When all goes well during
parturition, it is better to let nature have her way and to
refrain from assisting in the delivery of the lambs. But
should any hindrance arise that tends to delay delivery
too long, or should a false presentation occur, assistance
given may save the life of the lamb and in some instances
that of the ewe.

Trouble may arise from various causes. Prominent
among these are lambs with the head abnormally large, a
false presentation and the retention of lambs that are
dead. A weak condition of the ewes at the time of lamb-
ing always tends to aggravate such troubles. Such a
condition may of itself tend so to prolong the time occu-
pied in labor as to hazard the life of the progeny, if not
of the dam, unless aid is given with due discretion.

When a lamb with a head abnormally large comes
to the birth and yet is not born within a reasonable time,
aid should be given to the ewe in labor. This may be

LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 99

done by placing the hand flatwise on the skin of the
vulva and pressing it back over the head of the lamb.
When the head is thus freed, the front legs should be
drawn forth, one at a time, until freed. Then by taking
both legs in one hand and pulling in a somewhat circular
direction toward the rear of the ewe's udder the delivery
will speedily be completed. But the attendant should
only attempt to render aid thus at such times as the ewe
herself is straining; that is, trying to deliver her progeny.

False or unnatural presentations may occur in vari-
ous forms, but two of these that are most common are,
first, the head lying back against the side; and, second,
the rear end of the lamb coming first, the legs at the
same time being doubled back. In the former instances
the lamb should be pushed back into the womb and there
so straightened that it will come in the natural way. In
the latter instances it is also pushed back and the legs
put in position. It then comes from the dam stern end
first.

When a pregnant ewe separates herself from the
other members of the flock and appears dull and stupid,
it will usually be found that she has recently aborted or
that she is carrying a dead lamb. In the latter instance
relief must be prompt if the life of the ewe is to be saved,
as in such instances blood poisoning quickly follows,
which will certainly prove fatal. The ewe is best in posi-
tion, when relieved of her lambs, when resting on her
back or buttock, but it will be well if the position is occa-
sionally changed. The person who removes the lamb
should trim his nails short and anoint his hands with
some lubricant which is also antiseptic, and the hands
should be entirely free from wounds of any kind. Various
devices are practiced to aid the operator, as, for instance,
forcing the finger through the soft part of the under jaw
of the lamb and slipping a piece of string sufficiently
strong in the form of a noose over the under jaw of the
same. The effort to take away the dead lamb should

IOO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

only be made in unison with the efforts of the ewe to be
relieved of it. The aim should be to remove the placenta
at the same time. After the lambs have been removed
the womb should be treated with tepid solutions of car-
bolic injections twice a day for a few days. If much time
is covered in relieving a ewe of her dead lamb or lambs,
it may be necessary to administer some stimulant to pre-
vent her from succumbing.

Giving aid to young lambs — When the lambs come
strong and vigorous it is seldom necessary to give them
help in any way. As soon as they ought to take food
from the dam they will do so, as a rule, unless in in-
stances when the ewes will not own them. Sometimes
even strong lambs will not nurse for a time, for the rea-
son that they are not hungry, but usually they will seek
to nurse as soon as they are well on their feet. When
they come into the world in a cold atmosphere, it may be
wise to try and get them to take some of the milk of the
dam as soon as possible after they are born, to fortify
them against the cold. Wrapping them in a warm
blanket may also prove very helpful. In some instances
it may be necessary to remove the thin mucus mem-
brane, that covers the mouth of the lamb to obviate the
danger of suffocation ; but usually the ewe, when strong,
will remove this when caring for the lamb.

Newly born and young lambs may require aid from
the shepherd under the following conditions: (i) When
they are weak and unable of themselves to take nourish-
ment ; (2) when the dam gives attention chiefly to one
lamb when twins are born ; (3) when free passage of the
bowels is not secured within a reasonable time of the
birth of the lamb ; (4) when lambs become chilled.

When lambs are too weak in themselves to take
nourishment, it should be given to them within a rea-
sonable time after they are born, usually within, say, half
an hour of birth. When the dam has milk for the lamb,
it should be assisted in taking the same directly from the

LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED!

dam. When only one person is present, the task may
not be an easy one, especially if the lamb is unable to
stand. In such instances it renders the work easier if
the ewe is turned up ; that is, placed upon her buttock, her
back being supported against the breast of the shepherd.
His hands are then sufficiently free to enable him to aid
the lamb in nursing. When two persons are present the
work is more easily and usually more effectively accom-
plished. The lamb may also be fed by drawing some milk
from the ewe and feeding the same to the lamb with a
spoon. When the atmosphere is cold, it will aid in giving
the milk warm if hot water has been in the cup just
before the milk is withdrawn from the ewe. The lamb's
mouth is kept open sufficiently by putting a finger into
it, and care must be taken not to feed the milk too fast,
lest the lamb should strangle. If no milk can be obtained
from the ewe, which sometimes happens, resort must be
had to cow's milk. When such milk is fed, one-third of
its bulk in water should be added and also a little sugar,
to make it more nearly resemble the milk of the ewe in
its constituents. Milk should be thus given in very small
quantities, and frequently, rather than in large amounts
and at long intervals.

When twin lambs are born the attentions of the ewe
are sometimes centered on the care of one lamb to the
neglect of the other. In some instances one lamb will
be much stronger than the other, and when milk is not
plentiful will get more than its rightful share. Timely
aid and timely and sufficient attention on the part of the
shepherd may not only prevent many a ewe from disown-
ing her lamb, but may also save the life of lambs that
would otherwise perish. It may be necessary thus to aid
such lambs for several days, or until they are able to take
care of themselves.

If, within a few hours of birth, a lamb should appear
dumpish and drowsy, it will usually be found that this
condition is caused by constipation. If an injection is

MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

promptly administered, usually it will bring relief. A
small dose of castor oil may bring about the same result.
An injection may be prepared by making a suds of warm
water and any kind of pure soap; castile soap answers
well and pure soft water makes suds, of course, more
readily than hard water. From half a teaspoonful to a
teaspoonful will usually suffice for a dose, depending on
the size and strength of the lamb. In obstinate instances
of constipation it may be necessary to give the injection
and also the physic before relief comes. A small syringe
is used in administering the injection.

In some instances the excrement from lambs is so
sticky in character that it will adhere to the parts under
and around the tail head, in some cases to the extent of
closing the passage from the rectum. Such a condition
calls for prompt removal of the same. It is caused by
imperfect digestion, tracing usually to some peculiarity
of the milk of the dam arising from the character of the
rations fed. Milk from ewes that have been fed too much
grain may prove so unsuitable to young lambs at birth
as to result in their death. That from ewes fed entirely
on a dry diet may result in constipation. This seldom
happens when the ewes are fed 'even a moderate allow-
ance of field roots, or when in the absence of roots the
grain food consists of bran, oats and oilcake.

Reviving lambs when chilled — With the best of care,
it sometimes happens in a large flock that lambs newly
born will be chilled before they are seen by the shepherd.
To revive them under any circumstances is no easy task,
and, of course, the farther the chilling process has pro-
ceeded the more difficult is it. As long as life remains,
in the lamb, however, there is hope. In some instances
the reviving process may only cover a few hours. In
other instances the lamb may remain for days on the bor-
derland between life and death.

One of two methods may be followed in the effort
to revive chilled lambs. By the first the lamb is wrapped

LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED IO3

in a warm covering and placed near enough the stove to
warm gradually. A small amount of milk is given to it,
providing it can swallow the same, and in the milk there
should be a small amount of spirits, preferably gin. By
the second, the lamb is immersed for a short time in
warm water except, of course, the head. It may be neces-
sary to add more hot water after the lamb has been in
the water for a short time. It is then vigorously rubbed
until dry, wrapped in a warm covering and placed near
the stove. The first method is usually followed with
lambs that are not chilled to the extent of their being un-
able to take nourishment, and the second method when
they are so far gone as to be unable to take good food.
In the early stages of the chilling process, the lamb may
sometimes be revived by simply giving it milk and
wrapping it for a time in some warm corner of the sheep
shed.

Certain hazards are to be avoided in the attempt to
revive chilled lambs. One of these is the danger that the
lamb will be strangled in the attempt to give it milk. A
second is the hazard that it may be given more milk than
it can digest when in a condition so weakly. A third is
that excessive heat from the stove may further sicken
the lamb and so hasten its death. A fourth is the danger
that constipation may follow. When the indications of
such a condition manifest themselves (see p. 417), the
treatment should be given outlined on the same page. The re-
vived lamb should not be kept away from the dam longer
than is absolutely necessary, lest she disown it.

If lambs are chilled when born in the pastures, the
problem of reviving them is usually more complicated.
The first effort, of course, should be to care for the lamb.
This done it will usually be necessary to confine the dam
to the sheds until the fate of the lamb has been fully de-
termined. To reduce the unrest of the ewe at such a
time, she should have one or two companions.

Ewes not owning their lambs — Various reasons may

IO4 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

be given for ewes not owning their lambs. Prominent
among these are the following: (i) When a ewe produces
twins and one lamb wanders away from her she may
soon come to disown it; (2) she may be so devoid of ma-
ternal instinct as to refuse to give attention to any lamb ;

(3) the maternal instinct may be so developed that the
ewe will injure her lamb by her frenzied attentions and
later will disown it ; (4) the ewe may make a mistake in
identity and may persist in owning the wrong lamb.
Timely intervention on the part of the shepherd may pre-
vent the disowning of the lamb in the first instance.

Ewes that act as indicated in the second and third
instances should not longer be retained for breeding. The
instances are not numerous in which the identity of the
offspring is mistaken.

Among the methods that have been adopted to cause
refractory ewes to own their lambs are the following:
(i) Milk is drawn from the ewe and rubbed over the back
and hips of the lamb, or what is even better, milked on to
the parts named, as then the odor from the hands is less
pronounced than when the milk is rubbed on with the
hands. In some instances the method will succeed, but
not in all or even in a large proportion of these. (2) The
tail of the lamb is cut, and blood from the wound is
smeared on the back and hips of the lamb and on the nose
of the ewe. This method fails in many instances. (3)
The ewe and her lamb are confined in a pen and a dog
is brought up to it. In rare instances, and more espe-
cially in the case of young ewes, this method will rouse
within them the instinct to own and defend their young.

(4) The dam and her lamb are confined in a small in-
closure and the ewe is held many times a day while the
lamb takes its food from her. In time she will become
so reconciled to the lamb as to allow it to take food. But
it may take two or three weeks to accomplish this end.
When the ewe has produced twins and owns one of the
lambs, the difficulty in overcoming her aversion to the other is

LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED IC>5

much increased, as the lamb which she owns will get
more than its share of the food. It may be necessary in
some instances to allow the lamb to nurse occasionally
some other ewe which has an ample supply of milk. (5)
The ewe is confined in a stanchion. This may be tem-
porary or permanent. When temporary the ewe is con-
fined by driving two stakes down into the ground, one on
each side of the neck, and two more, one on each side
of the hip. In both instances they are tied at the top.
The lambs are thus put in a position to help themselves
and when they get strong the ewe will in time allow
them to nurse. Where a large flock is kept it may be
profitable to have a permanent stanchion with feed man-
ger in front of it in which to fasten such ewes in case
of need. When thus fastened the ewes can still lie down
and rest at will.

When a ewe loses her lamb or lambs she may be
made to adopt another by removing the skin from her
dead lamb and tying it over the body of the other lamb
for a time. This plan is usually more successful when the
strange lamb is thus clad with the skin of the other while
it is yet warm. Where this plan does not succeed the
ewe will usually come to allow it to nurse after she has
been made to suckle it for a number of days. The aim
should be to have every ewe of breeding age in the flock
suckle a lamb, not only because of the food which she is
thus made to furnish, but because of the favorable influ-
ence which it has on her future breeding.

Rearing lambs by hand — Lambs may be reared suc-
cessfully that are hand fed. The cost of such rearing,
however, is so much that in many instances it exceeds the
value of the lambs when they are reared for meat pro-
duction only. In the counties of Dorset and Somerset,
England, such lambs are reared regularly by certain
dairymen who obtain them from flocks in which an ex-
cess of lambs have been produced. It will, of course, be

IO6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

profitable to rear pedigreed lambs thus when occasion
calls for it, providing they are well reared.

In some instances the choice must be made between
rearing lambs thus and allowing them to perish. These
include the following: (i) When the dam dies at the
time of parturition and no ewe is available for suckling
the orphan lamb or lambs. (2) When dams have triplets
and one of the number is so weakly that it cannot fight its
battle alone in the struggle for existence. (3) When a
ewe has produced twins and persistently disowns one of
them. In some instances lambs produced at the stock-
yards by ewes intended for or on their way to slaughter,
and these can only be saved by those who have cow's milk
for rearing them.

The only real trouble in rearing such lambs consists
in starting them properly. A little sugar should be added to
the cow's milk when first given to make it more like ewe's
milk in its constituents. One of two methods of feeding
may be adopted. By the first, the lamb is made to take
its food from a bottle with the nipple similar to that used
in feeding children. By the second the lamb is taught to
drink. The first method is the easier one at the outset,
and it enables the lamb to take its milk more slowly, and
therefore more naturally, than when it drinks from a ves-
sel. The second method is the more troublesome until
the lamb begins to drink, after which it is less trouble-
some than the former, since there is no cleansing of bot-
tles and nipples as when these are used. It also makes
it possible to add such food as flaxseed gruel or jelly to
the milk so as to cheapen the cost of production. Lambs
may frequently be taught to drink milk from a dipper by
allowing them at first to take the rim in the mouth and
raising the further edge to bring the milk to them.

The young lambs should be fed quite frequently, as
often at first as every second hour. The food should be
given warm, and preferably from cows newly calved. The
times of feeding may gradually become fewer until the

LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED IO7

lambs are weaned ; when they are two weeks old, five or
six feeds a day should suffice; when a month old,
three or four; when two months old, two; and when three
months old, one. In getting young lambs to drink, no
little patience may be necessary. They should be given
the finger when drinking for a time.

The excessive cost usually incurred in rearing lambs
on cow's milk arises from the fact that in nearly all in-
stances the milk from start to finish is given in the whole
form. There would seem to be no good reasons, how-
ever, why skim milk should not be substituted for whole
milk, as in the case of rearing calves. No experiments
apparently have been conducted in this line. The change
would have to be made gradually as in the case of calves,
and as a matter of convenience in feeding, may be made
when the lambs have been brought down to say three
feeds a day. Flaxseed jelly may be added, as in feeding
calves, and in such quantities as the lambs can utilize.
If too much is fed the bowels will become too lax. When
the lambs have learned to eat grain freely, the equivalent
of the flax gruel may be given as oil meal, and along
with the grain. When thus fed the cost of food should
be less than the value of the meat made from it. Such
lambs should, of course, be furnished with good grazing.

Supplemental food for lambs — No substitute for the
milk of the dams can be given to lambs that will meet
their needs equally well. As long, therefore, as the milk
of the dam meets the requirements of the lamb, supple-
mental food is not necessary. But few dams, however,
can furnish a lamb with all the food that it needs beyond
the first three or four weeks of its life, and many ewes
will not come up to this standard. Especially is this
true of ewes that are not abundantly supplied with suc-
culent food.

As soon, therefore, as the dam is unable to meet the
full needs of the lambs, supplemental food should be
given. When the ewes are out on pastures succulent,

IO8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

nutritious and abundant, the lambs in nearly all instances
will not require supplemental food other than that which
the pasture furnishes. But it is different with lambs not
yet turned out to graze. They should be given succulent
food such as may be available, and also grain, and they
should be given both as soon as they will eat them.

The precise character of the grain fed and the amount
fed should be determined by the object for which the
lambs are reared. This question is further discussed be-
low under the subhead immediately following. The milk
flow of the dams may and ought to be well maintained
by liberal feeding. It is doubtful, however, whether it
will pay to feed grain to ewes on fresh grass for the
purpose of sustaining or increasing the milk flow. It is,
of course, legitimate to do this while the ewes are yet
on dry food, at least up to a certain limit, but experi-
ments have shown that the increase from grain fed
directly to lambs is more than the increase from the same
when the grain is fed to the lamb, as it were, through
the ewe for the purpose of increasing the milk for her
lamb. This fact greatly emphasizes the wisdom of hav-
ing the lambs take grain as soon as they will eat it when
confined to the sheds.

Food suitable for young lambs — When the dams are
on abundant pastures when the lambs are born, it is not
necessary to give them any food during the first months,
as usually they do not need it, and it would not be easy
to induce them to take it under such conditions. But in
the sheds it is different. In these the ewes do not usually
milk so plentifully, hence the aim should be to make up
the lack by giving food to the lambs ; and the earlier that
the lambs come the more important is it relatively that
such food shall be given to them.

Young lambs will begin to nibble at fodders that are
suitable for them when from 7 to 10 or 12 days old. They
should have access to these apart from the ewes, as the
former would pick out all the finer portions such as the

LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED ' IO9

lambs first begin to eat. Such fodders should be fine and
leafy. No fodders furnish food more suitable than clover
hay of fine growth, cut early and well cured. The second
growth for the season of the common red clover has
special adaptation for such feeding, and the same is true
of alsike clover. Vetches and peas grown together and
cut while yet under-ripe are also much relished by young
lambs. They should be grown so thickly as to produce
a fine growth and should have enough of oats in them to
prevent lodging. It will pay well to make provision for
the growing of suitable fodders for young lambs where
these come to hand early and in any considerable num-
bers.

Succulence should be provided for them in the form
of cabbage, field roots or ensilage. Of these, cabbage
will be found the most relished by the young lambs, but
they soon become very fond of field roots. The cab-
bage heads thus fed must be sliced. The field roots are
best prepared by running them through a cutting box
which cuts them into slices and then cuts the slices into
narrow strips by the operation. They are also fond of
corn silage, but cabbage and field roots are better adapted
to the production of suitable bone and muscle. The aim
should be to make field roots the chief reliance for such
feeding, as, though not more suitable than cabbage, they
are more easily stored.

The nature of the concentrates and the amounts to
feed young lambs is influenced by the use that is to be
made of them. When the lambs are to be sold while yet
on the dams the aim should be so to feed them that they
shall be plump and fat, but when reared for breeding
more of growth with less of fatness is the important con-
sideration. For the former the following mixture will be
found suitable, viz. : Ground corn, bran and oil meal in
the proportions of two, one, and one parts by weight. If
the corn is simply cracked the lambs will relish it as well
or even better than when ground. When corn is ground

IIO "MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

for lambs the cob should be excluded. The oil cake may
be best fed in the form of granules about the size of peas.
In the above ration, peas may be substituted for corn,
and oats for bran. Corn and wheat in the proportion of
two and one parts will also make a good grain ration.
For the latter, oats, bran and oilcake, in the proportions
of three, one, and one parts by weight will be found quite
suitable.

The lamb creep — For the first three or four weeks after
the lambs begin to -eat, they should take their food within
what is termed a "lamb creep," which means simply an in-
closure with suitably prepared openings, accessible to the
lambs and not accessible to the dams which nurse them. It
should be located in a nice, dry, airy place and as con-
venient to the pens in which the dams are kept as may
be practicable. When necessary the creep may be located
in the pasture. The size of the creep will, of course, de-
pend on the number of the lambs to be accommodated.
From 4 to 5 square feet should suffice for each lamb,
hence a creep, 12 x 15 feet, should accommodate 36 to 45
lambs, dependent on size and age. The aim should be,
however, to have smaller creeps and to have one in each
division where ewes are kept. The objection to large
creeps lies chiefly in the fact that lambs congregate in
them that differ too much in age. The grading of the
lambs with reference to size is more easily accomplished
when the creeps are not large.

The furnishings of a creep consist of suitable openings
for ingress and egress on the part of the lambs, a trough
in which grain and succulent food may be fed and a little
manger or rack for holding the fodder. The opening or
openings may consist of slats nailed up and down, but
not far enough apart to give access to the ewes. Rollers
are preferable for the openings to slats. They may be
made, say, 3 inches in diameter and are set upright in the
frame. They are fastened with springs above and be-
low, which spread as the lamb passes between. They are,

LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED III

in a sense, a safeguard against tearing wool. The feed
trough may be, say, 14 inches wide at the bottom, 16
inches at the top and 2 to 3 inches deep. A board several
inches wide should run along the trough and supported
so that the lambs can eat beneath it but cannot at the
same time get into the trough with their feet. The
trough should have cross pieces underneath that will keep
it above the level of the litter.

The first lambs that come will be encouraged to eat
sooner than they otherwise would by putting a little meal
into the lamb's mouth when a few days old. The younger
lambs will learn to eat from the example of the older ones.
The meal should be put into the trough two or three
times a day and any left removed as often. No kind of
food should be left with them until it becomes stale. The
danger is slight that lambs will eat too much, but it has
been claimed that gouty rheumatism and paralysis more
or less complete have been caused by the blood becom-
ing so thick that it did not circulate properly.

Young lambs properly fed will gain more in propor-
tion to their weight than calves. The weight of the aver-
age calf at birth will not be far from 81 pounds, and of
the average lamb not far from nine pounds, or one-ninth
of the former. High feeding that will secure 90 pounds
of increase in the former, will secure 20 pounds or two-
ninths as much in the latter. Lambs will also make at
least as economical gains for the food consumed as
young swine.

Weaning lambs — The age at which lambs should be
weaned is modified by such conditions as (i) the sea-
son when they came into life, (2) the object for which
they are grown, and (3) the disposition that is to be
made of the dams. When lambs come early they may
be given a longer period of nursing than when they come
late, as in such instances the ewes have time enough to
get into an improved condition after prolonged nursing
before they are bred again. When grown for show pur-

112 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF S&EEP

poses, and in some instances when grown for breeding,
they are suckled longer than when grown simply for
meat, with a view to get much size. When the ewes
which suckle lambs are low in flesh and are soon to be
bred again, it may be well to shorten somewhat the period
during which the lambs nurse, even at the hazard of
slightly retarding their development for the time being.

The usual period during which lambs nurse covers
about 5 months, or a little less than that. The ewes are
thus given two months and more, in some instances, in
which to recuperate before being bred again. The period
of nursing may be shortened considerably should the
necessity for doing so arise, by giving the lambs a suffi-
cient grain supplement, or it may be likewise extended
by giving a grain supplement to the ewes.

The weaning of the lambs is abrupt rather than grad-
ual. To wean lambs gradually as calves are sometimes
weaned, and also swine, would involve much labor, for
which there would probably be no adequate recompense.
The method almost universally adopted, therefore, is to
remove the lambs quite away from the ewes, and if possi-
ble far enough away so that their bleating will not reach
the ewes. When removed thus far from the lambs, the
latter will dry more quickly than if they heard and
answered the calling of the lambs.

The weaning season also usually furnishes a good
time for grading the rams. When ram and ewe lambs
have run together up to the time of weaning they should
then be separated, otherwise the females may become
pregnant, a result that would be most undesirable. The
weaning season also furnishes a suitable time for select-
ing the females to be retained for breeding. These are
then separated from the others which are to be sold, as
the food subsequently given to these two classes may
differ materially. In some instances the necessity may be
present for further sub-grading the lambs to be sold ac-
cording to the disposal that is to be made of them.

LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 113

Food for lambs when weaned — When lambs are
weaned, they should, if possible, be put upon pastures
fresh, succulent and nutritious. Frequently the ordinary
grasses at such a time are dry, but the second growth of
clover is then at its best, and it furnishes a very suitable
pasture for lambs. In anticipation of the weaning sea-
son, winter rye may be sown in the North and cowpeas
in the South, so that these may be ready for grazing when
the lambs are to be weaned. No plant, however, has
equal suitability to such grazing as the dwarf essex rape,
and none can be furnished in better season at such a
time. When well-grown rape is on hand in plentiful sup-
ply, ordinarily it is not necessary to feed any grain sup-
plement. But much care should be exercised when first
turning the lambs out into the rape, lest there should be
loss from bloating (see p. 193).

Usually lambs for show purposes should be given a
liberal grain supplement in addition to the pasture or the
soiling food to which they may have access. When am-
ple rape pastures are not on hand, lambs of both sexes
which are to be sold for breeding should get a grain sup-
plement. To take the market properly they should be of
good size and also in good flesh. Lambs that are to be
sold for meat will usually profit by a grain ration when
they are to be sold early, but when retained for winter
fattening, this may not be necessary when the grazing
is good. Nor is it necessary under like conditions for ewe
lambs chosen to replenish the flock.

The basic food in the grain supplement for lambs
that are to be set apart for breeding is oats, and for being
ready for the block it is corn. But barley, speltz, rye and
millet may all be used more or less in lieu of corn ; oats
alone will furnish a good grain supplement for the former,
but corn is too strong a food to feed alone to the latter.
Among grain supplements fed to lambs retained for
breeding the following will be found suitable : Oats alone,
oats and bran, the latter not to exceed 33 per cent by

114 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

weight of the mixture, as lambs are not particularly fond
of bran; oats and wheat in the proportions of, say, three
and one parts respectively. Among those fed to lambs
which are to be sent to the block are the following : Corn
and bran, of which not more than 33 per cent shall be
bran; corn, bran and oil cake in the proportions of, say
six, two, and one parts by weight. Oats fed freely along
with corn at the first will add much to its suitability, but
later if oats should be dear, they may be gradually elim-
inated from the ration. The quantity to feed will man-
ifestly be much influenced, first, by the character of the
grazing, and, second, by the disposition that is to be made
of the lambs. It is seldom necessary to feed more than a
pound per animal per day, and usually half that amount
will suffice.

When lambs have not been fed grain previously to the
weaning season, they may not begin to eat it at once. In
such instances some grain should be kept in a trough
placed where the lambs are much inclined to congregate
when taking rest. They will soon learn to eat. No such
difficulty arises with lambs that have taken grain at an
earlier age. It is usually most convenient to feed the
lambs in the field. A very simple feeding trough may be
made by nailing together two-inch boards from 6 to 7
inches wide, so as to make a V, and supporting the same
at a suitable height by 2 x 4-inch scantlings nailed
together like the legs of a sawhorse. The height from the
ground should be made to conform to the size of the
lambs. One end of the trough should be left open to
allow water to escape. A narrow strip, say, 1x2 inches
and not less than 3 to 4 feet long, should be nailed on
edge against the scantlings that support the trough and
just at the base of the same. The object is to prevent
the lambs from overturning the trough should they rub
against it.

Castrating lambs — The best age for castrating lambs
is when they are about three days old. In any event cas-

LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 115

tration should not be deferred beyond the age of three
weeks. The lambs will suffer less from the operation
the younger they are after they are well on their feet.
Of course, it may be done later, as late even as the
autumn, but the hazard in-
creases with advancing age
and the benefits decrease.

Very substantial benefits
arise from the early castration
of the lambs that are to be
grown for meat ; that is, if they
are not disposed of until after FIG' ^FEESSRACK FOR
the weaning season. It is not

thought to be necessary to castrate lambs sent to the
block while yet nursing. First, they attain to a
greater size, especially after the age arrives when
they become capable of breeding. After that age
is reached, castrated lambs are more restful, and so make
better gains ; second, they are more easily managed when
castrated. Both sexes may then run together at all times
without the hazard that the females shall become preg-
nant. Third, the early castration results in the produc-
tion of a better carcass. It prevents undue development
of bone, especially in the head and neck, and also lessens
muscular development about the neck and breast where
the meat is not specially valuable. It also stops develop-
ment in the organs of generation, which, of course, are
practically valueless for food. Buyers discount severely
uncastrated lambs. During recent years at the Buffalo
and New York markets, the discrimination against ram
lambs uncastrated after the mating season has been fully
one dollar per lamb. The methods adopted in castrating
young lambs are various. Of these three may be given.
By the first, the scrotum is cut off close to the body with
a pair of strong shears. This should be done when the
lamb is not more than two or three days old. Unless in
the case of lambs that are to be shorn, this method an-

Il6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

swers at least reasonably well, and it is certainly the
easiest method of castration by far that can be adopted.
It has been objected to on the ground that the lambs
show some stiffness of gait for a time after the operation,
which is cited as evidence that it must so far retard de-
velopment.

By the second method, the operator does the work
alone. The lamb is laid on the left side, and the operator
presses the lamb against his knees and keeps it in position
with his elbows which leaves both hands free. With a
sharp knife he cuts off a portion of the base of the scro-
tum, including the lining membrane. The testicles are
thus exposed, and when pressed out by the hand are
seized and drawn out one at a time by the teeth.

By the third method two persons are engaged in the
work. One catches the lamb, gathers the feet in his
hands and then presses its back firmly against his chest.
A second person then cuts off a portion of the scrotum
as in the second instance and similarly draws out the
testicles. No other method will remove the testicles so
easily as when they are firmly grasped by the teeth.
Should there be any repugnance to removing them thus,
they may be grasped by the hand or by forceps in the
hand, drawn out, and in the case of older animals the cord
when drawn far enough is severed with the knife.

Should lambs be purchased for winter feeding in the
autumn that are uncastrated, it may be more profitable to
subject them to castration before feeding thansto feed
them as rams. The work may be done as follows : A
strong person catches the lamb, places him on his but-
tock with his back leaning against the one who holds him.
The holder of the animal takes a hind leg in each hand
and draws the legs up until the lamb is almost lifted from
the ground. The knees should be pressed tightly against
the lamb to prevent struggling. A second person catches
the end of the scrotum in his right hand and with the left
pushes the testicles down against the abdomen and keeps

LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 1 1/

them there by the grip of the left hand. He then cuts
across the sack close to the end of the testicles, but only
cuts through one ply of skin. He then catches the testi-
cles, one at a time, in his right hand and with the left
pushes back all extraneous matter, following the cord
down close to the abdomen. The cord is then firmly
grasped in the left hand and drawn slowly by prying
gently toward the thigh until it is quite drawn away.
Then with a long knife the scrotum is cut clean off where
the first cut was made. Should the season of flies not be
past, a small amount of spirits of turpentine may be
poured into the sac. Tar smeared over the wounded parts
will also aid in keeping flies away. Mature rams are sel-
dom castrated. When thus dealt with clamps are com-
monly used.

When lambs are castrated, the early morning should
be chosen for the operation, as the opportunity is then
afforded of giving them such attentions as may be neces-
sary during the day, and the same is true of the time
chosen for docking lambs referred to below. It is im-
portant that the knife used be sterilized, and also the
hands of the operator, before castration is begun. The
sheds should also be freshly bedded if the lambs are con-
fined to them at the time, to lessen the hazard of germ
contamination that may cause trouble. Usually antisep-
tics are not used when young lambs are castrated. A
three per cent solution of carbolic acid in water will an-
swer the purpose should it be desired to use an antiseptic.

Docking lambs — Whatever benefits may have ac-
crued to sheep in a wild state, it is now the almost uni-
versally accepted view of those who keep sheep that under
domestic conditions the tail should be removed while the
animals are young. This view rests upon the belief, first,
that under domestication the tail can render no substan-
tial benefit to the sheep which possesses it, and second,
that its presence is frequently injurious because of the
filth that accumulates around and beneath it when sheep

Il8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

are being grazed on succulent pastures. Where such filth
accumulates in warm weather, it encourages the presence
of flies, the eggs of which may develop into maggots and
work much harm. Modern taste also looks upon the
sheep that is docked as being more symmetrical and hand-
some than sheep with the tail full length.

The tail should be docked — that is, cut — while lambs
are only a few days old. When done at such an age the
development of the lamb is not hindered. The danger of
loss from bleeding is almost wholly obviated. Such a re-
sult is by no means uncommon where the lambs are not
docked until several weeks old, unless steps should be
taken to prevent it. Valuable lambs docked thus late
have bled to death. This, however, can be prevented
by searing the wound with a hot iron. Opinions differ as
to the advisability of castrating and docking lambs at the
same time. Although more time is used in performing
these operations separately, it would seem reasonable to
conclude that the shock given to the system would be
lessened by performing these operations at different
times.

The cutting of the tail may be done by one person or
by two. When done by one, the lamb is taken under the
left arm and the loose skin is drawn upward toward the
body near the base of the tail. It is then severed with
a pair of strong scissors held in the right hand. A little
powdered blue stone dusted on to the wound will tend
to stanch the bleeding. The skin is then drawn down
so as to partially cover the wound, which heals over more
neatly and smoothly than when the skin is not thus drawn
back before severing the tail.

When two persons perform the docking the lamb is
held by one and the tail is severed by the other. The
lamb may be held by pressing its back firmly against the
breast of the person holding it, the legs being held in his
hands, when a second person severs the tail. By another
method, and a better one, the person holding the lamb

LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 119

places its buttock on a block of suitable height, and a
second person removes the tail by severing it with a chisel
and mallet. The length of the stump left varies some-
what with the breed. Fashion has an influence in deter-
mining this. The tails of the Merino types are cut quite
short. The tails of English Dorsets are sometimes left
as long as 3 inches. The average length of the stump
left is about i^4 to il/2 inches, measured on the underside.

Registration of pure-bred lambs — Where any consid-
erable number of lambs are expected each lamb should
be marked at as early a date as possible to avoid the haz-
ard of loss of identity. This will prove helpful to the
shepherd in caring for a flock even of grade lambs, and in
the case of pure-bred lambs it is essential as a guide to
correct registration when the time comes for registering
the lambs. Some shepherds adopt the plan of tracing
identity by placing small nicks in the ears according to
a certain rule which has been found practicable to use in a
flock of any size. But there is probably no better method
of preserving identity than by marking the lambs with
shepherds' marking ink, as identity may then be traced
on sight. The marking consists in painting on the back
of the lamb with a small brush the number corresponding
to the ear tag of the ewe. This should be done while the
lamb is not yet more than two or three days old. As the
ink fades with time it may be necessary to renew it once
before the lamb is weaned. The registration of pure-bred
lambs should be deferred long enough to demonstrate the
character of the individual development. Such develop-
ment may be of a character so inferior that it would be
unwise to retain the lambs for breeding, hence it would
also be unwise to register them. The nature of the develop-
ment will certainly be known by the time that the lambs are
weaned, and even before the time. The registering of the
lambs, therefore, should not be deferred beyond the sea-
son of weaning.

If lambs are not registered the first season, the dan-

I2O MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

ger is imminent that their identity will be lost. If prop-
erly ear-tagged as soon as registered, the identity of the
animal will not be lost as long as the ear tag retains its
place in the ear, the registration certificate being at the
same' time kept on file. As it is possible, however, that
the ear tag may be lost, although this happens but sel-
dom, it should be renewed as soon as this is discovered,
using, of course, the same number as the one lost. Ear
tags should not be put in the ears of young lambs, as the
weight of the ear tag may make the ear unshapely.

The owner of sheep who may desire to register them
and who is not yet informed as to how he should proceed
should write to the secretary of the association which
represents that particular breed, asking for the desired in-
formation. The reply will furnish all that is necessary to
know to enable the person to record his sheep. Many of
the associations furnish ear tags corresponding to the
numbers in the certificates of registration, and these
should at once be inserted in the ears of the sheep. The
rules of many of the associations compel the registration
of lambs within the year in which they are born, and this
rule is doubtless a wise one.

Miscellaneous considerations — It sometimes happens
that the milk of a ewe highly fed is so rich and so abun-
dant that the lamb takes more than it can properly digest.
The principle is the same as when the Jersey cow gives
milk too rich in butter fat for the best needs of her calf.
Lambs are sometimes lost from this cause. When the
lamb is unable to take all the milk, a lamb in need of
more milk should be allowed to suck the ewe once or
twice a day for a time. This will prevent the young lamb
from getting an excess of milk. Should a lamb be sepa-
rated from its dam through any mischance for any con-
siderable time, to prevent derangement in the digestion
of the lamb, the ewe should be partially milked out before
the lamb is allowed to suck.

Some shepherds store up some dry clean earth in the

LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 121

autumn and place it where the lambs may nibble at it if
they care to do so. When roots are fed to lambs in winter,
it has been noticed that lambs will eat some of the earth
adhering to them. Observing this fact has doubtless led
to the provision referred to. While no harm should fol-
low such provision, the measure of its efficacy is yet an
undetermined factor.

Lambs should be amply supplied with water from
the time that they will take it, which will be from the age
of, say, two weeks and onward. Such provision is seldom
made for lambs, notwithstanding its importance. It can
usually be best provided for them by placing it in a low
vessel within the creep and renewing it frequently. The
necessity for water decreases with increase in the con-
sumption of field roots.

In almost every flock of ewes at the lambing season
some young lambs will be found that are not getting
enough milk from their dams to make them grow vigor-
ously. It is quite possible to help them materially by
keeping a nurse cow at hand from which they can get a
good meal once or twice a day. A docile, low-set cow of
the Jersey type should prove very suitable. One person
should have the cow in charge and another should man-
age the lambs. It is not difficult usually to learn a hun-
gry lamb thus to help itself. The effect on the growth
of the lambs will be very marked.

CHAPTER VII
FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES

In this chapter the following subdivisions of the
question relating to the feeding and care of breeding ewes
are discussed: (i) Ewes from the time that they are
weaned as lambs until bred; (2) Management at the
breeding season; (3) Changing from autumn pasture to
winter quarters; (4) The ideal conditions for wintering;
(5) Grading the flock; (6) Food prior to the time of
lambing; (7) Exercise for breeding ewes when pregnant;
(8) Caring for ewes at the time of lambing; (9) Food for
ewes subsequently to lambing; (10) From the sheds to
the pastures; (n) Management when on pasture; (12)
Management when weaning the lambs; (13) The man-
agement of ewes to be discarded; and (14) The miscella-
neous attentions that are more or less called for. The
importance of giving proper care to the ewes cannot be
easily over-estimated because of the important bearing
that it has upon the profits. The attention called for,
though greater at certain seasons, cannot be withheld
at any time without hazard to the owner.

Ewes from weaning until bred — There is almost a
consensus of opinion as to the wisdom of deferring the
breeding of the ewes so that they will not drop their first
lambs until two years old. This opinion is based on the
results that usually follow the breeding of ewes so that
they produce lambs at one year old. These results are
usually: (i) Lambs not up to the standard in size and
inherent powers of development ; (2) inability on the part
of the ewes to provide for their lambs while nursing them
as compared with that of ewes not bred at so early an
ag"e I (3) ultimate lessening in size and vigor of the aver-
age in the flock. But it may not be correct to claim that

FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 123

such early breeding should never be practiced. It is prac-
ticed more or less in the south of England by the breed-
ers of Hampshire Downs, and to a less extent by the
breeders of some of the other breeds. It is believed that
the practice tends to promote early maturing and also
affects prolificacy favorably. But the conditions in the
south of England are highly favorable to the production
of succulent foods so necessary as an aid to rapid growth
in lambs, whether fed directly or through the ewes.
Where such foods are not plentiful during much of the
year, ewes should not be allowed to produce lambs until
two years old, and in the case of Merinos it may in some
instances be wiser to defer such production for one more
year.

The food and care called for subsequent to weaning
will be influenced by the fact as to whether the lambs are
bred the same autumn, or not until the following autumn.
When bred as lambs, more of concentrated food should
be given during the autumn subsequent to weaning, and
also during all of the following winter, the reasons for
which will be apparent. In any event, the lambs should in
nearly all instances be given some concentrates from the
time that they are weaned until the following spring, but
to this there are some exceptions. These include condi-
tions which furnish in plentiful supply of such pastures as
rape until winter closes in and of field roots during the
winter. The aim should be to select the ewe lambs for
breeding when they are weaned, and to separate them
from the lambs that are to be fattened, as the treatment
called for by these two classes may differ somewhat. In
the absence of rape pastures, succulent blue grass and
winter rye are good. When grain is fed, oats, with a
small amount of wheat bran added, are excellent. But
a small amount of any of the other cereals will answer.
The grain is usually fed but once a day, and seldom in
excess of one-half pound to one pound per animal.

During the winter, the aim should be to keep the

124 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

lambs separate from the pregnant ewes, as the latter will
call for a different ration. The aim should be to keep
them growing and "sappy" without laying on too much
fat. This will follow if they can have an abundant sup-
ply of roots, even in the absence of grain, especially if
the fodder fed is good. In the absence of field roots, some
grain will prove helpful. But when fine, well-cured clover
and alfalfa of tender growth are fed, the additional grain
called for will be very limited. Almost any of the small
grains will answer, especially when a small quantity of
wheat bran, or in its absence oilcake, is added. The
amount of grain to feed should be determined by the con-
dition of the ewes. In the absence of field roots, two or
three pounds of good corn silage daily will be helpful.

From winter on until the mating season, such want
no other food than ordinary pasture. It may not be neces-
sary at such a time to keep them in pastures separate
from those grazed by the ewes which are nursing their
lambs. In some instances, however, it may be desirable
to give them pastures less bountiful than those occupied
by the latter, to prevent them from reaching that stage
of obesity which would be unfavorable to impregnation.

Management at the breeding season — It is a matter
of considerable importance that the ewes shall mate so
as to drop lambs approximately at the time desired and
within a reasonably short period. The object for which
they are grown will then be more fully realized, the labor
of caring for them will be less and uniformity in the flock
will be better maintained. The flockmaster may not al-
ways be able to accomplish this, because of the extent
to which the weather during the season affects pastures,
but he may adopt measures that will prove a material aid
in the direction desired.

The time at which the ewes will mate may be con-
trolled more readily when the lambs have been weaned
early in the season. Opportunity is then given for the
ewes to recover from the reduced flesh resulting from the

FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 125

nursing of their lambs. Such a condition will be acceler-
ated by pastures that are rich, succulent and plentiful.
Where these are not forthcoming" to the degree desired,
resource must be had to feeding grain. But the system
followed will be modified materially by the conditions
under which the animals are kept.

When sheep are kept under extensive conditions, as
on the range or on rugged pastures, it may not be prac-
ticable to furnish any succulent food. Under such con-
ditions the shepherd can do but little toward hastening
the breeding. Usually, however, it is not desired to has-
ten it, as the lambs cannot come before the grasses have
made a start the following spring. Under semi-range
conditions it may be possible to furnish supplemental
food that will modify the time within which the ewes will
mate.

On the arable farm the aim should be to have the
ewes mate when the system is building up. The breed-
ing organs sharing in such increase are stimulated into
action. Food is the chief influence in bringing about such
renovation. Where ewes can have access to abundant
rape pastures pretty well grown, they will soon come in
heat. Other succulent and nutritious pastures, such as
clover, will exercise a similar influence, but not in an
equal degree. Where pastures sufficiently stimulating
may not be had, then the process known as flushing may
be resorted to. It consists in feeding grain for two to
four weeks before the mating is desired. Almost any
kind of grain will answer. Some shepherds favor feeding
barley and wheat. Corn and rye are probably least in
favor for such feeding. The quantity to feed may be put
at from one-half to one pound per animal daily.

It is also considered that, in warm climates, the mat-
ing season will be hastened by shearing the ewes just
after their lambs are weaned. While it is probably true
that such shearing does exert an influence in the direc-
tion sought, it is questionable if the practice is likely to

126 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

become general. It involves labor, and in the meantime
the wool does not sell for so good a price.

The condition of the ewes at the time of mating is
supposed, and with good reasons, to exercise some influ-
ence on the number of the lambs that will be born. A
vigorous condition of the ewes at the time of mating is
favorable to fecundity. It is not the only influence, how-
ever, that favors an abundant lamb crop (see p. 465).

From the pastures to winter quarters — The change
from pastures to winter quarters will be modified by the
conditions such as relate to climate and peculiarities of
season. Under some conditions the first snows remain
and close abruptly the pasturing season. Under other
conditions, the first snows usually melt, so that grazing
may be resumed for a time, and under yet other condi-
tions it may be continued during much of the winter.
The aim should be to have grazing continue as long as
this may be practicable, not so much in order to save
stored foods as to give the sheep that exercise that is so
helpful to the maintenance of the flock in a good condition
of health and vigor. Some winters in areas not far north
sheep can graze on the pastures during much of the win-
ter, a condition that highly favors vigor in the lambs.

When changing from grazing to winter food given
in the sheds, three things should be guarded against. The
first is eating frozen food, the second exposure to cold
rain or sleet storms and the third sudden changes in the
food.

It is but seldom that harm comes from grazing sheep
on pastures in late autumn in which the old and new
growths are mingled, as, for instance, a blue grass pas-
ture that has not been closely grazed in the summer. The
dry grass mingling with the green seems to counteract
the injury that might result from feeding on frozen green
grass. When, however, the sheep feed upon such food
as frozen rape or clover, and also other green food, the
hazard is present that such ailments as bloat, colic and an

FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES I2/

inflamed condition of the digestive organs may result,
followed by death within a short period. Such hazard
may be present by giving the sheep or lambs so grazed
either grain or palatable fodder before turning them out
to graze. Where the sheep are much grazed on such food,
inattention to this matter may result in severe losses.

Dry snow falling on sheep will harm them but little,
providing they may have the shelter of a grove or bluff to
protect them when driving wind accompanies the storm.
But it is different when they are exposed to cold rain or
sleet storms, especially when they are prolonged. The
Merino types suffer the least from such exposure, and the
breeds with wool not possessed of marked density the most.
The wool of the former is not only dense, but the wool
fibers are glued together at the outer ends so that the rain
cannot easily penetrate the fleece. In the more open
fleeces it may reach the body more or less, and the chilling
that follows may result in lung trouble that soon ends
fatally. In some instances these storms may come in
the night and cannot be certainly forecasted, but when
they do, no time should be lost in getting the sheep under
cover with the breaking of the dawn.

When succulent food, as field roots, have been pro-
vided, sudden change in the essential character of the
foods can be avoided. The roots will provide, in part at
least, the succulence furnished previously by the autumn
pastures. But should the change be sudden and abrupt
from the pastures to the sheds, in the absence of field roots
and silage, the aim should be to feed some oilcake or a
little grain with considerable bran in it to ward off the
tendency to constipation that usually accompanies the
feeding of all dry food.

In a large majority of instances, partial grazing may
be continued after the sheep have been brought into win-
ter quarters. The pastures may have only a light cover-
ing of snow, or in certain parts they may be bare. While
it may be necessary to feed the sheep morning and even-

128 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

ing, continued access to the pastures will be helpful to
the sheep. They may be able to find succulence in the
grass thus gleaned to render unnecessary the feeding of
roots, ensilage, bran or oilcake in order to keep the bowels
in tone.

Ideal conditions for wintering ewes — The ideal loca-
tion for a sheep shed calls for land that is well drained,
protection from injurious winds, ample opportunity to
furnish yards and paddocks, and easy and convenient ac-
cess to the pastures. It may not be possible to secure all
these conditions in the degree to which they may be de-
sired, but the more nearly that they can be approximated,
the more assured will be the success that may be looked
for (see page 322). In the matter of protection the breed-
ing ewes must be given the right of way, as males and
ewes not breeding do not necessarily call for conditions
of environment equally favorable in the winter season.

The ideal shed or shelter for breeding ewes must
have in it several divisions, permanent or temporary, for
the use of the ewes that rear lambs, in addition to other
divisions that may be necessary for the sheep carried over
that will not produce lambs (see page 335). This is
necessary because of the needs of the ewes and also of
the lambs at different stages of development in the latter.
Where the flocks are small, these divisions may be tem-
porary, but with large flocks it will be more convenient
to have them permanent. Where the ewes and lambs
are kept, it is specially important to have an abundance
of sunlight.

The ideal yard for the ewes and lambs must be pro-
tected. This is indispensable. It is also, in a sense, a
necessity that it shall be located on the sunny side of the
shed. It is more convenient when the yards have divi-
sions in the sheds, but this is not always necessary. When
it is necessary these can be made by the use of movable
materials (see page 21). Paddocks are not so much
necessary for breeding ewes as for rams, as the paddocks

FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 129

do not usually furnish grazing at that season when the
ewes are confined to the sheds.

Where the ewes can have access more or less to the
pastures in the winter season, the advantage from hav-
ing the pastures not too distant will be at once appar-
ent. To have a winter pasture near may be in some in-
stances of sufficient importance to make this question a
subject of careful thought. The more stern the winter
climate, the more important is it to have such a pasture
near the sheds.

The grading of the flock — When the flock is small, as
when, for instance, it does not number more than 20 to
30 ewes, and when these are all strong and vigorous, but
little grading of the ewes may be necessary. But it is
different with large flocks. In any event the aim should
be to put the ewe lambs retained for breeding in quarters
separate from the breeding ewes, as the food best suited
to the needs of both is not the same, although in some
instances the difference may not be marked. Where many
ewes are kept for breeding, they will not be alike in age,
in the amount of flesh they carry, and in all-round vigor.
Where such is the case, they should be divided into lots
that will admit of feeding each according to its precise
needs. The basis of the grading may rest upon condition
of flesh or age or on both. As the winter advances and
the lambing season approaches, the necessity for regrad-
ing may exist, based upon the advanced condition of
pregnancy or the opposite. Of course, after the lambs
begin to come, further regrading may be necessary to
meet the needs of the ewes and lambs, based upon the age
of the latter. Some grading may also be necessary for
the rams, as when, for instance, ram lambs and older
males are wintered over, the food requirements for the
two being different. Any selected for feeding for the
block must also have separate quarters.

Where the flocks are large, the divisions, or some
of them that make such grading possible, should be per-

I3O MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

manent. Where the flock is small, permanent divisions
are less necessary. In any case more or less use may be
made of the feed racks used in feeding to increase the
number of the pens that may be called for. This should
be kept in mind when the movable racks are being made,
and they should be constructed accordingly. With in-
crease in the permanent divisions comes the necessity for
increase in the temporary or permanent divisions in the
yards.

The limit of the number of sheep that can be success-
fully kept in one division of the shed cannot be given ex-
cept by approximation, as more of some breeds may be
kept together without hazard than of other breeds. The
fine wool breeds can be kept in larger flocks than other
breeds. It would seem safe to say that the percentage of
loss in sheep increases more or less with increase in the
size of the flock.

When a small flock of sheep is kept on the farm, say
20 to 30 head, the percentage of loss under normal con-
ditions should be practically eliminated. Except with the
fine wooled breeds, the aim should be to keep not more
than say 50 breeding ewes in the division of the sheep
house.

Food prior to the time of lambing — For all classes of
sheep, but especially for breeding ewes, the fodders fed
should be possessed of the following characteristics: (i)
They should be of fine growth and leafy. To have them
thus calls for special care in growing them. Corn and
sorghum fodders, for instance, should be sown more
thickly, to insure fine growth, when grown to feed sheep
than when grown to feed cattle. The finer varieties of
clover also should be sought rather than the coarser. (2)
They should be cut early and well cured. Sheep will not
consume woody material in the form of dry fodder, hence
an early stage of cutting is necessary and also careful cur-
ing to prevent a woody condition of the fodder and to pre-
serve its palatability. (3) They should include variety.

FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 13!

Sheep more than other quadrupeds seem to crave variety
summer and winter. Though alfalfa of fine growth
should form the bulk of the diet fed to them, they will at
the same time consume considerable quantities of well-
cured wheat straw.

Leguminous fodders have highest adaptation for all
classes of sheep, but especially for pregnant ewes. No
class of roughage probably is superior to alfalfa, grown
thickly, alsike clover and also the common red clover.
Hay produced by the common vetch is excellent. That
from the sand vetch is not quite so good. Hay from the
Canada field pea and oats is excellent. That from the
cowpea is good if well cured. Hay from millet cut when
the earliest heads begin to tint, and cured in the cock, an-
swers well to feed once a day, but it should not form the
sole fodder for any long period. Hay from Russian brome
grass, being leafy, is one of the best fodders furnished by
the grasses. Hay composed of timothy and clover, grown
thickly and cut early is very good, but that from timothy
alone, if coarse, and especially if cut late, is not well
suited to the needs of sheep.

Pea straw well cured stands at the head of the list
of the varieties of straw. When not coarse, cut promptly
on maturing and cured without exposure to rain, it fur-
nishes food that sheep greatly relish, but if cut late and
exposed to heavy rain, it is not of much value as fodder.
Next to pea straw in value is that obtained from oats
The value of straw furnished by any of the cereals is
much dependent on the early stage of maturity at which
it is cut. Bean straw is excellent when well saved, but
is usually limited in supply. Rye straw is probably the
least valuable straw for sheep because of its woody char-
acter. Corn fodder finely grown and well preserved an-
swers well as a part of the fodder ration during the late
autumn and midwinter months, but corn stover is not so
good because of its coarseness. Finely grown sorghum

132 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

will be relished, but much waste will follow from feeding
sorghum that is coarse.

Before the lambing season it is not usual to feed
roughage more than twice a day in the form of hay. But
the practice is commendable which adds straw of the
cereals for the noon feed. What is left of this in the feed
racks should be used as litter to spread over the sheds or
yards. It may be necessary to supplement this with other
litter, as a comfortable and dry bed is greatly conducive
to the welfare of sheep in winter. In some instances corn
fodder, sorghum fodder or Kafir corn fodder is strewn
on the frozen ground for the noon feed, that the sheep
may get food and exercise while consuming it. Under
other conditions, it is fed in racks, usually out of doors.

In the larger portion of the United States, succulence
can only be furnished for sheep in two forms — as field
roots or as silage. But in areas far southward, they may
graze during much of the winter on foods sown to pro-
vide such grazing, as rape and kale, and the same is also
true of the Pacific slope west of the Cascade Mountains.
Field roots are more suitable than corn ensilage, but in
the absence of the former the latter will be materially
helpful. Succulence in some form is, in a sense, a neces-
sity, and the aim should be to provide it on the arable
farm. In its absence, it is usually advantageous to feed
bran or oil cake along with the grain fed. It is not neces-
sary to feed a large amount of succulence before the
lambing season, not more than three or four pounds per
day of roots or silage; the latter must be free from
mold, or abortion and other ills may follow. Some feed-
ers use more roots, but it has been noticed that when
large quantities are fed along with clover hay, the lambs
are large but deficient in vitality at birth. This is less
apparent when straw is used freely as a part of the fod-
der ration. The roots are sliced or pulped, as a rule, be-
fore feeding them, and are most frequently fed directly,
and without admixture, but in some instances grain is

FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 133

fed at the same time. It is scarcely practicable to feed
silage to a small flock of sheep, unless it is being fed also
to other stock at the same time, as it cannot be kept in
good condition, because of the small amount fed.

When the roughage is of excellent quality, as when
good clover is fed and when field roots are fed at the
same time, it may not be necessary to feed much grain,
or indeed any, until the lambing season is near at hand ;
but as ewes are ordinarily fed, they will profit from a
small grain ration, say, not more than one-half to one
pound per day, from the time that they are brought to the
sheds, or even before that time should any loss of condi-
tion be apparent. Almost any kind of grain will answer,
although when the roughage is non-leguminous corn
should not be fed. Oats will answer the best of all cereals,
should these be fed without admixture. Some wheat bran
or oilcake, say 20 per cent of bran or 10 per cent of oil-
cake, will aid much in warding off constipation, that great
menace to the well being of sheep in winter when on a
dry diet. It would probably be correct to say that more
of the troubles that afflict sheep in winter may be traced to
this source than to any other single cause.

Exercise for pregnant ewes — With all animals it
would seem to be a law governing reproduction that, if
the progeny are to be vigorous and strong, dams which
bear them must have ample exercise while pregnant.
Ample exercise, however, is a question of degree in exer-
cise as applied to the various breeds. Modification of in-
herent characters may so change the necessities of a breed
that a much less degree of exercise will suffice than would
have been enough at one time in the history of the breed.
But some exercise for the dams is absolutely necessary
for the well-being of the lambs which they bear.

Sheep call for more exercise relatively than other
farm animals, unless it be horses. When feeding in the
pastures, they are continually on the move. It would be
interesting to know how far they thus travel in a day.

134 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

It would seem safe to say that, because of this inherent
feature of their constitution, it would not be easy to give
pregnant ewes too much exercise.

When not sufficiently exercised the lambs come weak
and the amount of nursing and care to enable them to
survive is greatly increased. The lambs produced by
sheep that are seldom housed are on their feet, strong and
vigorous, within a few minutes of birth, while those from
ewes over-housed may not live but for a short period.
There is also trouble frequently with the ewes at the time
of yeaning. But it must not be understood that ewes
well managed cannot in any instances be confined to
the yards and sheds the entire winter without producing
the troubles indicated. Experience has shown this can
be done, but experience has also shown that it is not a
good practice to follow.

How to secure the necessary exercise for pregnant
ewes may be somewhat of a problem under some condi-
tions, as, for instance, when the fields are covered for
months in succession with deep snow. If confined en-
tirely to the yards, the lambs will be lacking in vitality
more or less, and if the. ewes have been in poorly venti-
lated quarters much of the time, the evil will be greatly
aggravated. To encourage the ewes to take exercise,
various devices have been resorted to, as making one or
more roads with a snow plow, and strewing a little hay
along these occasionally, or giving food in racks or other-
wise in some sheltered spot not too near the shed. When
the sheep can have access to the fields for any consider-
able portion of the winter season, such devices to en-
courage them to take exercise will not be necessary. Even
though they obtain but little nutriment while they roam
over the bare portions of the fields, they are getting the
necessary exercise.

Where the ground is usually bare more or less during
the winter, the owner should aim to have a reserve grass
pasture with a thick firm turf on which the ewes may find

FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 135

grazing when the snow is absent. The hazard from eat-
ing frozen grass will not be present as it is in the autumn,
for the sheep do not leave the sheds to graze until they
have taken their morning meal.

Caring for ewes at the lambing season — When ewes
produce their lambs on the pastures, the problem of car-
ing for them is much simplified. In good weather it may
consist mainly in visiting the flock two or three times a
day, to make sure that all is going well. Should the
weather be stormy, however, the problem is much more
complicated. It may be necessary to furnish shelter for
the ewes with newly born lambs. If more than temporary
aid is wanted for either ewes or lambs, both should be
brought to the sheds. If a cold rain is threatened both
ewes and lambs should be housed for the time being, as
no exposure will bring harm to the lambs as quickly as
exposure to cold rain, which at once finds its way through
the short wool to the skin.

Where the flock is large, a lambing pen is necessary,
which should have in it a number of divisions, that may
be permanent, or temporary, or both. The object is to
keep the ewes and their young apart from the others un-
til the lambs have been well started in life. Another plan
encircles the ewe and her lambs with a crate without re-
moving her from the sheds. This is done before or im-
mediately after the lamb is born. The ewe thus managed
will fret less than the one removed to the lambing pen,
as in the former instance practically no change is made
in the environment. When taken to the lambing pen the
removal should be made when practicable two or three
days before the lambs are expected (see page 336).

If some ewes are already there, the ewes so removed
will be less disturbed by the change. The objection to
the use of crates as outlined above is the amount of space
that they use, which in close quarters cannot be spared.

During the first days after lambing food should be
given to the ewes with much caution. Soon after the

136 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

ewe has been delivered of her lamb or lambs, she should
be given water from which the chill has been removed.
No change in the diet is called for other than that which
relates to quantity. No harm can come to the ewes from
taking all the fodder that they will eat such as they are
accustomed to, but grain and field roots should be fed
sparingly at first lest the milk flow should be over-stim-
ulated. With gradual increase, the ewe may usually be
put on what may be termed full feeding for a breeding
ewe within 7 to 10 days from the birth of her lambs, and
sometimes even sooner.

Close attention should be given to the udder of a
newly delivered ewe. In some instances it may be more
or less inflamed when the lambs are born. In others, as
when the milk flow is very plentiful, the lamb may take
food from only one teat. In yet other instances, as when
but little milk is present, the teats are made sore by the
biting of the lambs in trying to get food. Frequent bath-
ing with warm water and then anointing with some
soothing unguent, as sweet oil, will prove helpful to an
inflamed udder. Milking out occasionally the side of the
udder neglected by the lamb, or what is better, to allow
a needy lamb to help itself for a few times, will remove
the difficulty. When the teats are thus made sore, it may
be necessary to allow the lambs to nurse the ewe only a
few times each day for a time. Should the wool around
the udder make it difficult for the lamb to find the teat,
it should be clipped away to the extent of removing the
obstruction.

As the number of the lambs increases, such increase
brings with it more or less of diversity in age, and to meet
the needs of these, the necessity for division increases
accordingly. The aim should be to have the lambs which
occupy each apartment as near of an age as may be found
practicable under the conditions. This, however, becomes
less important as the lambs grow older. After the first

FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 137

3 or 4 weeks they, and also their dams, may be given
practically the same rations.

Food subsequently to lambing — After the lambs are
a few days old, it is very desirable that the dams shall
milk freely, to stimulate growth in the former, as no sub-
stitute can be found equal to the milk of the dam to stim-
ulate growth in the lambs. To accomplish this all the
food fed should be of good quality and ample for the need
of the ewes.

If the roughage provided for winter use is not equal
in suitability for producing milk, that which is most suit-
able for such a purpose should be saved, if possible, for
feeding after the lambs have come. If the fodder is of
the same kind and yet differs in quality, that of the best
quality should be saved for feeding at such a time. For
this stage of the feeding leguminous fodders will be found
the most suitable and three feeds rather than two should
be given daily.

Under no conditions is the free feeding of succulent
roots more helpful to sheep than when they are nursing
their lambs, and under no conditions of feeding should it
be fed more freely to them. Where the supply is abun-
dant they may be given several pounds daily in the sliced
or pulped form. For spring feeding mangels or sugar
beets are very suitable, but any kind of roots well pre-
served will serve the purpose. Corn ensilage is also good
when of good quality and judiciously fed. It must be
conceded, however, that it is not equal to field roots for
such feeding. When fed in large quantities to ewes giv-
ing milk, especially when rich in practically matured grain,
it has been claimed that it tends to induce a somewhat
heated or feverish condition of the system. But when fed
in moderation, that is to say to the extent of not more
than two or three pounds daily, especially in the absence
of field roots, it has been found to be highly satisfactory.
Some successful feeders make it substitute the noon feed
of hay rather than feed it morning or evening. Corn sil-

138 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

age is more in favor as a food for sheep that are being
fattened than for breeding ewes.

The concentrates fed may include any of the cereals,
but to keep the ration in approximate balance the con-
centrates should be chosen with a view to supplement
what may be lacking in the roughage. As leguminous
fodders are more commonly fed than other fodders to
ewes that are nursing their lambs, it is in order to feed
more of the grains rich in carbohydrates with such fod-
ders. But should the fodder consist largely of such food
as fodder corn and corn silage, the grain should be fed
rich in protein. When leguminous fodders are fed, from
say 50 to 60 per cent of the ration may be corn, but when
opposite in character, bran should be fed freely with the
grain. In the absence of field roots, wheat bran or oil-
cake, or both, should be fed to keep the digestion in tone.
A mixture of grains is always more relished than one kind
of grain, at least under prolonged feeding. Along with
leguminous fodders the following rations will be found
suitable: (i) Corn or barley, wheat bran, oilcake, in the
proportions of five, four and one parts by weight; (2)
oats, wheat bran and oilcake in the proportions of six,
three and one parts; (3) oats and oilcake nine and one
parts.

The amount of grain to feed is influenced by the
amount of the field roots or corn ensilage that is fed.
With increase in the proportion of these, there may be
decrease in the amount of grain fed. While the supply of
the grain should be liberal, it will seldom be necessary
to feed more than two pounds of grain per animal daily
for prolonged feeding. The grain is fed whole. When
much wheat bran is fed, it will be more readily consumed
when fed on sliced or pulped roots, as sheep, especially
when young, do not usually show great fondness for bran.
The grain is commonly fed in two feeds daily, and it is not
necessary to grind it except in the case of aged ewes
whose teeth show signs of failing. Nor is it necessary to

FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 139

cut the fodder, as a rule, although cutting a portion of it
and mixing it with grain may insure a greater consump-
tion of the fodder.

From the sheds to the pastures — The change from
the sheds to the pastures should always be made with
more or less caution, lest the digestion of the ewes and
also of the lambs be unduly disturbed. A sudden change
from all dry feed to all succulent food such as the early
spring pastures furnish is almost certain to result in more
or less scouring, and it will take away their appetite for
other foods. The liability to such scouring will be greatly
reduced if the ewes, accompanied by their lambs, and in-
deed all classes of sheep, are given access when spring
grazing begins to pastures that have not been grazed
closely in the autumn, so that they cannot avoid consum-
ing some of the dead grass while they graze. The dead
grass counteracts the tendency to scouring caused by the
fresh grass.

When ewes with lambs are first turned out to graze,
the time for grazing, not long at the first, should be grad-
ually extended until they remain out all the day. The
period covered by the change from all dry food to graz-
ing only will be determined by such conditions as the kind
of the grazing and its plentifulness. The change should
be made as quickly as it can be made without injury to
the flock, as grazing usually furnishes cheaper food than
cured fodder and grain. When grazing begins, the re-
duction in the food in the sheds properly commences with
the roughage. There should be no anxiety to put the
sheep on grazing until they have first taken a full morn-
ing meal. The reduction in the roughage fed should keep
pace with the disinclination of the sheep to consume it.
With increase in the pasture consumed there should also
be corresponding decrease in the succulent food, as field
roots, if such is being fed. The grass, of course, provides
the succulence, and in a cheaper form than it can be
furnished from any other source.

140

FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 14!

The reduction in the feeding of grain should be more
gradual than the reduction in the roughage fed. The rea-
sons for this are: (i) That shrinkage which sometimes
results from the lax condition of the digestion caused by
the fresh grass is counteracted more or less by the grain
fed; (2) that sheep will eat grain for a much longer period
than they will continue to eat roughage ; (3) the lambs
are thus given an opportunity to share in what is even
more helpful to them than to the ewes. But when the
pastures have become abundant and when the sheep have
become quite accustomed to the change, it is doubtful
if the further feeding of grain will be profitable. Reduc-
tion should first begin with the evening feed of grain,
for a reason that will be obvious. The quantity is
gradually reduced until none is fed, and then reduction
should be similarly carried on with the morning feed.

A further important advantage resulting from a grad-
ual change from the sheds to the pastures is found in the
protection against exposure to hurtful influences that
may arise from the lying of the lambs on the ground while
yet cold and damp. They may thus be given the benefit
of well-bedded yards to lie on until the ground has been
warmed by the advance of spring.

Management when on pasture — Ordinarily no addi-
tional food is needed for the dams when on pasture, after
the change from yard to field conditions has been com-
pleted. This, of course, is on the assumption that the
grazing is sufficient. But there may be instances when
it may be desirable to feed such food as oilcake as a means
of speedily adding fertility to the land. And there may
be instances when it is desirable to sell the lambs as soon
as they can be made ready for the market, and also the
dams as quickly as possible thereafter. In such instances
the feeding of grain to the dams on pasture would not
only be justifiable but commendable. Whether it will
prove profitable to feed grain subsequently to the wean-

142 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

ing of the lambs will depend upon conditions, as is shown
below.

Of course, it would be possible to supplement the
grazing by feeding such soiling food as alfalfa, corn or
sorghum. For such a use alfalfa has special adaptation,
especially in those areas where it is irrigated and would
as a result produce many cuttings in a season. When
the conditions of cultivation become intensive in such
areas and labor sufficiently plentiful, such a system of
feeding sheep may be introduced. In the meantime, how-
ever, but little soiling food is fed sheep except in the case
of those that are maintained for some special use, as in
the case of stock rams or sheep that are being fitted for
exhibition. When soiling food is fed it should be put into
racks to prevent waste. Some foods, as alfalfa and clover,
when fed green, should first be wilted to avoid danger
from bloat.

Under existing conditions it has proved cheaper to
supplement the grass pastures by growing other pas-
tures with this end in view. Nearly all the cereals may
be used to provide such grazing, whether sown alone or
in certain combinations (see page 170). The great sav-
ing in the labor involved has made this method of pro-
viding supplemental food for ewes very much more
popular than the method that supplies it in the form of
soiling food.

Management when weaning the lambs — When lambs
are weaned, the method which takes them quite away
from the ewes without permitting them to come together
again is considered preferable to gradual weaning. Usu-
ally all the lambs in a flock are weaned at the time, but
there may be instances when it would be profitable to
separate the younger lambs with their dams and allow
them to take milk from their dams for a few weeks longer.
This is desirable in proportion as the lambing season has
been prolonged. The drying off of the ewes will be more
quickly accomplished if the ewes and lambs are separated

FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 143

so far that the bleating of the lambs will not be heard by
the ewes. Such bleating when heard keeps in active play
the maternal instinct, which tends to the continuance of
milk secretion.

The udders of the dams should be promptly cared
for at such a time. The milk should be partially but not
wholly withdrawn from the udders as often as may be
necessary for the comfort of the ewes and the safety of
their udders. The frequency with which they should be
milked and the number of the milkings called for will
vary with the conditions. As a rule the udders should be
examined on the second day after the lambs have been
removed, or on the third day at the latest. The examina-
tion will show that some of the ewes are so far dry that
it is not necessary to draw any milk from them. It is not
necessary, of course, to examine the udders of these again.
Some may call for. the removal of a little milk, but so
little that it is evident these will not require a second
milking, and they, along with the former, should be sep-
arated from the other portion of the flock if practicable.
The udders of some may show much distention, and from
these a large portion of the milk should be withdrawn.
The second examination need not be made for three or
four days as a rule, when it may be necessary to remove
more milk. In but rare instances is a third examination
necessary.

No sooner have the lambs been removed than the
ewes should be put upon a spare diet until they are
dried. The poorest grazing on the farm will be the best
suited for the purpose. Where such grazing is not to be
had, the ewes may be yarded and given dry roughage
only. The flockmaster should exercise much care when
drying off the ewes, as neglect at such a time may
ruin the udders, which means that ewes thus affected can-
not be used for future breeding. The best milkers in the
flock, and, therefore, the best lamb raisers, are most in
danger of such mishap.

144 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Management of ewes to be discarded — The weaning
season furnishes an opportune time for determining on
which member of the flock shall be discarded. There
may be instances when these should be sold at once. This
will be in order, first, with ewes that suckled early lambs,
and that are as a result of heavy grain feeding in a con-
dition of good flesh when the lambs are weaned ; and,
second, when at the time of the autumn weaning of the
lambs, aged ewes are to be discarded in the absence of
such grazing as rape on which to fatten them. The lat-
ter when sold thus may bring only a low price, and yet
it may DC more profitable to sell them thus than to try
to fatten them.

Ewes are usually in a somewhat lean condition at the
weaning season, and they are not easily fattened when
so old that their teeth have begun to fail. No method of
making them ready for the market has been found supe-
rior to that which fattens them on rape pasture. Such a
pasture well advanced in growth should fit them for the
market in, say two months from the time when they are
given access to it. It is not really essential that grain
shall be given to them at the same time, although in some
instances it may hasten the fattening process.

Usually no profit would result from carrying such
ewes on into the winter and fattening them at that sea-
son. The cost or value of the food would usually be more
than the advance in the return that would accrue from
the fattening process. Aged ewes, if fattened thus, should
have the grain ground for them. Should the ewes be dis-
carded for any other reason than that of advanced age,
it may prove more profitable to carry them on into the
winter before disposing of them.

Attentions miscellaneous in character — Attention
should be given to many details of management, all of
which it would be impossible to enumerate. Prominent
among these, however, are the following: (i) The ven-
tilating of the sheds; (2) the bedding of the sheds and

FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 145

yards; (3) special feeding for ewes whose teeth are fail-
ing ; (4) protection from cold storms spring and autumn ;
(5) tagging and trimming when necessary; (6) paring
the feet; (7) dipping for ticks; (8) the shed space called
for; and (9) the injury from close housing.

The methods of providing ventilation are discussed
later (see page 339). It is the necessity for ventilation
that is now emphasized. When sheep are kept in open
sheds, this danger will not exist. It occurs only in cold
climates and where the doors are kept closed at night.
When thus confined in a shed with a low loft, the air
becomes very impure. They are forced more or less to
breathe air that has been previously inhaled and that is
strongly impregnated with ammonia from the droppings.

The sheds and yards as well should have enough of
bedding to keep them dry as far as this may be practi-
cable. It may not be possible to keep the yards in such a
condition during every day of the winter, but it is impera-
tive that the sheds shall be kept thus. When the sheep
are given straw as a part of the ration, the uneaten por-
tion may be used as bedding, and enough may be obtained
in some instances from this source. The aim should be
to supply bedding in small quantities and frequently
rather than in large quantities and seldom, as the bed is
kept more fresh and free from odors when supplied by
the first method. Damp beds are specially harmful to
young lambs, and the same is true of beds that are foul.
The proper bedding of the yards is not an easy proposi-
tion where the rainfall is abundant in winter, because of
the amount of the litter called for. Under such condi-
tions the yards should be restricted to the smallest dimen-
sions compatible with the needs of the flock. Land plas-
ter, dry earth and even sifted coal ashes may be used with
profit in dusting the manure occasionally.

It may be desired in some instances to carry breed-
ing ewes through the winter to furnish lambs after they
have lost or partially lost their teeth. This may be a legit-

146 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

imate desire when the owner of a small flock of pure
breds is anxious to increase the number. It is important
that such ewes be maintained in reasonably good condi-
tion, or the lambs which they produce will not be prop-
erly maintained. The aim should be to provide food for
these easy of mastication, as, for instance, field roots
pulped or sliced, or ensilage, finely chaffed fodders and
ground grain. It is preferable to feed these mixed rather
than separate. Valuable ewes may be thus maintained
for even two winters after they would fail under ordinary
conditions of feeding.

While some storms are, of course, more or less hurt-
ful to sheep at all seasons, they are specially harmful in
the autumn and the spring, hence every reasonable effort
should be made to protect them from such exposure. In
summer the rain is warm, but in autumn and spring it
sometimes falls with a temperature almost as cold as ice.
Long-continued exposure to such storms may prove a
source of great loss to the flock in the colds and inflam-
mations that may result and in the debility that fre-
quently follows. Exposure to snow in the absence of
driving wind may not be very harmful to the sheep,
though it is always injurious to young lambs, and long
exposure to cold rains is sure death to the latter.

The amount of tagging and trimming called for will
vary much in flocks. Tagging is seldom necessary in
winter in a flock that is healthy, but may become neces-
sary in many instances when sheep are changed from dry
food to that possessed of much succulence. The accumu-
lation of filth around and under the tail head may be-
come very offensive. Underneath maggots may be bred,
which, unremoved, may soon make life burdensome to the
sheep. Much wool may also be rendered valueless in
this way. As soon as such indications appear, the clots
should be cut away with a sharp pair of shears, or if they
have been allowed to harden with a sharp knife. Trim-
ming the fleece is seldom necessary with grade flocks fur-

FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 147

ther than to cut away any torn or protruding locks of
wool, but it may be of more or less benefit in enhancing
the appearance of a flock of pure breds, and in the case
of sheep that are to be shown it has come to be a neces-
sity (see page 268).

The trimming of the hoofs of ewes and other sheep
calls for attention. The horn of the hoof may under some
conditions grow out and become broken or split so as to
cause lameness. In other instances the outer edge turns
under the sole, enhancing the difficulty of walking. These
injurious growths of hoof are most marked in soft soils,
which do not wear the hoofs as do soils that are firm in
texture. The remedy consists in paring off with a sharp
knife all the portion of the bone that may have turned
under the sole, and in clipping back the outer edges, and
especially the toes when they grow out too far.

Dipping for ticks once or twice a year is now recom-
mended and practiced by nearly all flockmasters who take
pride in the conditions of their flocks. It would seem
easily possible to so eradicate ticks that further dipping
would not be necessary, but in practice such attainment
is seldom if ever reached. For the further discussion of
this question (see Chapter XX).

The too close crowding of breeding ewes should be
avoided. They need more room than sheep that are being
fattened or than shearlings that are retained for breeding
uses. The space called for will, of course, vary with the
size of the sheep. Fifteen to 20 square feet will be at
least approximately suitable as shed room for ewes of the
large breeds, as the Leicesters, Lincolns, Cotswolds and
Oxford Downs, and 10 to 15 square feet for ewes of the
smaller fine wool types, as the American Merinos.

Too close housing of sheep in winter will soon bring
disaster to any flock if long persisted in. This comes not
only from inhaling the foul air, but from overheating,
which frequently induces sweating in the sheep. When
turned into the yards in such a condition, catarrhal

148 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

troubles follow. The safe rule is to allow the ewes free
access to the yards day and night, except when the
weather is stormy. In cold climates such housing, given
with the best intentions, has worked great harm to the
flocks. But it is possible to winter ewes successfully by
keeping them in reasonably warm and well-ventilated
barns all the winter.

CHAPTER VIII
FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS

The subdivisions in the discussion of this subject are
the following: (i) Food for rams from weaning until win-
ter; (2) Food and care the first winter; (3) Stock rams in
winter; (4) Food and care for sale rams in summer; (5)
Food and care for stock rams in summer; (6) Food and
management during the season of service; (7) The dis-
posal of rams ; and (8) Miscellaneous attentions called for.

The care and management suitable for ram lambs to
be used in breeding up to the weaning season is the same
as for other lambs. It has been given in Chapter VI.

When the lambs have been weaned, they should be
culled, separating those possessed of sufficient promise
from such as are inferior. The culling should include
such as are off in markings, ungainly in form, deficient in
fleece and lacking in size and robustness.

It would be a great mistake to sell or to buy lambs
for use in pure-bred flocks that lack the markings char-
acteristic of the breed, or that are possessed of character-
istics which do not properly belong to the same, how-
soever excellent the animals may be in other respects. A
bare head or leg in the Shropshire illustrates the former,
and the presence of black wool in any part of the fleece
the latter. But such rams, if strong and vigorous, may
be superlatively useful in grade flocks, hence they should
not be sacrificed where such a market exists for them.

Lambs that are ungainly in form include such as are
not possessed sufficiently of that blocky form that indi-
cates vigor and good mutton-producing qualities. Such
lambs may possess good size, but they are frequently
found too long in limb and neck, too sharp in the spine,
too much sunken in the crops and too narrow throughout.

149

I5O MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Such animals will not transmit the most desirable mutton
form. Ram lambs of highest excellence for breeding, as
also mature rams, should be compact, wide throughout,
strong in the back, full in the breast, level in the crops,
round in the ribs and heavy and shapely in the twist and
masculine in the head.

Deficiency in the fleece that should be possessed by
rams kept for breeding may relate more or less to any of
the requisites of a good fleece, or in extreme instances to
several of them. The importance of correct wool char-
acteristics increases with increase in the relative value of
the kind of wool furnished and increase in the value that
the wool bears to the mutton produced by the same ani-
mal. Correct characteristics in the wool of the highest
type of Merino is of more relative value than the same
in a high type Southdown, but in no instance is it unim-
portant where the breeding is pure. Nor would it be cor-
rect to say that it is unimportant in the breeding of grades.
Here also the importance of correct wool furnishings in
the male increase in proportion to the relative value of the
fleece sought.

Lambs may be lacking in size but so possessed of other
good qualities that there should be hesitancy about re-
jecting them for service, especially when high-class mut-
ton is sought. If the lambs are of good form and carry
the furnishings that indicate robustness, they may be
peculiarly valuable for the production of good mutton
from grade ewes ; especially when the ewes are somewhat
rough and lacking in quality will excellent results be
obtained from such rams, as the lambs begotten by them
will possess a combined compactness of form and refine-
ment of limb that would not result from the use of larger
sires though equally correct in form. In pure-bred flocks,
however, there should be hesitancy about using sires in
service that are under size, lest size in the average of the
flock should be too much reduced. In no instance should
such sires be used when lacking in robust vigor.

FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS 151

When the ram lambs are graded, those drawn for sale
to breeders of pure breds should be kept apart fro.n
those to be sold to the breeders of grades, and also from
the culls that are to go to the block. The chief argument
for such isolation is found in the adverse influence which
lambs of the second and third classes named would have
on the sale of those of the first class, and likewise the
adverse influence which those of the third class would
have on the sale of those of the second class. It would
aid in making sales of the .small lambs sold for breeding
if they could be separated from those that are larger but
off in markings ; but in practice it is difficult to make so
many divisions. If lambs of the first class are not all dis-
posed of in the lamb form, it may be profitable to carry
them over for sale as shearlings, but none of the other
classes should be thus held over as a rule. They should
all go to the block rather than be carried over, as the de-
mand for them as .shearlings would probably not be good.

Food for rams from weaning until winter — From the
time that the lambs are weaned until winter closes
in, or until they are sold, no kind of pasture
that can be furnished is superior to dwarf Essex rape,
with access at the same time to an old grass pasture. In
the absence of rape, second growth clover is good, or blue
grass that is succulent and plentiful, or early sown win-
ter rye, or indeed any kind of succulent food such as may
be plentifully gathered amid the grain stubbles. Fall
turnips amid these are specially helpful. Much caution
should be used in grazing high-class lambs on the rape,
lest there should be loss from bloating (see page 193).

From the time of weaning until the lambs are housed
for winter or sold, the necessity for concentrates and the
quantity of the same to be fed will depend in a consider-
able degree upon the pasture. When the supply of such
grazing as well-grown rape, kohlrabi or fall turnips is
plentiful, the necessity is not present for feeding large
quantities of grain, because of the nutritious character of

152 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

these pastures. In their absence it will probably prove
advantageous to feed about I pound of grain daily per
animal with oats as its base, the additions to the oats
being preferably wheat bran or oilcake or both for the
lambs to be used in feeding, and corn or barley for those
to be sent to the block. With the former good growth is
the prime consideration, but with the latter high condi-
tion is the prime requisite.

It will usually be time well spent- to tag the lambs
held for sale as breeders when necessary, and to trim
them more or less — more in the case of the dark-faced
breeds and less in that of the other breeds (see page 296).

Food and care the first winter — The shelter called for
to protect ram lambs the first winter will suffice if it gives
them a dry bed and shields them from falling storms and
drafts. For convenience in feeding and watering, they
are frequently kept in one of the apartments of the sheep
house, and when -so kept it is less necessary to have them
on the sunny side of the sheep house than in the case of
breeding ewes. It is very necessary to furnish them with
a yard or paddock in which to exercise. It will add to
their sureness in begetting progeny if they can spend
much of the time in the winter in the pastures, when the
conditions will admit of this. In spring they may remain
overnight in the pastures considerably earlier than would
be safe in the case of the breeding ewes. For reasons that
will be manifest, they should be kept entirely separate
from the ewes of the flock.

As it is important that such lambs shall continue to
make good growth the first winter, they must be fed
accordingly. The aim should be to give them growth
without excessive fatness. This will be realized only
when they are given food essentially nitrogenous in char-
acter and succulent. If liberally supplied with field roots,
almost any kind of fodders will answer that are of fine
growth and well cured. With three or four pounds of
roots daily, and good leguminous hay, but little grain

FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS 153

will be needed. But if the lamb's have been fed grain
while on the autumn pasture, it will usually pay to give
them some grain daily through the winter, but not usu-
ally more than i pound per animal daily. The standard
grain food for such animals is oats, or barley, wheat,
bran, and a small proportion, say 5 per cent, of oilcake,
added. When the rams are to be sold for range uses,
pampering should be guarded against, or the rams will
not have the desired vigor for roughing it on the range.
Ranchmen should not invest in males without carefully
investigating as to the way in which they have been fed
and cared for.

The number of the ram lambs that may be profitably
kept in one flock will be influenced by the breed. It would
probably be correct to say that of the fine wooled breeds
as many as 100 animals may be kept in one flock, while
a flock of medium or coarse wooled rams should not ex-
ceed 50 animals. The roominess of the quarters and their
suitability generally exercise a wide influence on the num-
ber that may be kept in one flock. If any of the rams
thus brought together, whether going into winter quar-
ters or at other times, are strange to each other, fighting
is sure to follow, and it may result fatally. This may
be prevented by putting the animals thus brought to-
gether in narrow quarters. For want of room they can-
not harm each other seriously, and yet they are able to
settle the question as to relative strength. This is also
greatly important when valuable stock rams previously
kept apart are brought together to pass the winter in the
same quarters.

Stock rams in winter — Stock rams — that is, rams used
in service in the flock — should have an apartment for
themselves, and when this keeps them quite away from
close proximity to the ewes, it is just so much better
suited to their needs, since in it they will be quiet and
restful. In sheep sheds with an aisle running down
through the center of the building, with pens or divisions

154 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

on both sides of it, the breeding ewes are commonly kept
on one side and the rams and sale sheep on the other side.
The apartment in which those rams are kept in winter
should open into a yard, and this into a paddock. No
surer method could be taken of destroying the breeding
powers in rams than to deny them exercise for periods
at all prolonged. Usually the number of the rams thus
kept together is limited. Because of this, it may be more
convenient to keep the rams of different ages all in one
pen. This is allowable when the food is moderate in
character, but the aim should be to keep ram lambs sepa-
rate from the older ewes, as they need a more forcing diet
to give them completed growth.

During the period of active service, the rams have
probably been fed a liberal grain ration to sustain them
at a time when the drain upon their system is severe.
When the season for service is over, there should be a
gradual reduction in the grain fed, and probably a mod-
ification in the kinds fed. During the winter stock rams
should be kept in a good condition of thrift without ex-
cessive fatness. No kind of food will tend to keep them
in this condition better than field roots, but in the case
of rams mangels should not be fed, lest trouble should
result from the lack of free urination. The same kinds of
grain as were given as suitable for ram lambs (see page
113) will also be found suitable for stock rams. The
amount to feed should be regulated by the condition of
the rams, and it should be kept as low as will be rea-
sonably consistent on economical grounds and to avoid
overtaxing the machinery of digestion in the rams.

Should the stock rams be allowed to run with the
breeding ewes in winter, they are less restful than when
kept alone. The danger is present, at least to some ex-
tent, that they may injure the pregnant ewes. Nor is
the food that is suitable for the ewes always suitable for
the stock rams.

Sale rams in summer — As the rams held for sale as

FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS 155

shearlings are of uncompleted growth, it is important
that they shall be given good grazing until the season
for selling arrives. This does not mean, of course, that
the grazing shall be long, in the sense that good grazing
is understood for cattle, but that the range on which they
feed shall be sufficient to enable them to secure food
enough to keep them growing continuously and to main-
tain them in good flesh ; any kind of grazing that will do
this will suffice.

Whether supplementary grain food should be given
will depend chiefly on the character of the grazing. Where
that is sufficient to insure good growth and a fair condi-
tion as to flesh, it would not be economical to add a grain
supplement. When rape furnishes any considerable pro-
portion of the pasture, the feeding of grain will not be
necessary. But because of the value of such rams, it may
be profitable to give them rape only as soiling food rather
than as pasture. When thus fed, the feeding may be so
controlled as to practically eliminate the danger of loss
from bloating. While such rams should be in good con-
dition of flesh, they should not be pampered. This is
even more emphatically true of such rams as are to be
sold for use on the ranges.

Attention should be given to the tagging of sale rams
whenever called for during the season preceding that of
sale. Such attention should be given with great prompt-
ness, otherwise the tagging may deform the symmetry of
the fleece, which will injure the sale to the extent to which
it may be present. A certain amount of trimming will
aid in making sales, especially with the middle-wool
breeds. It is also important that such rams shall be shorn
as early as the weather conditions will admit of such
shearing. Early shearing relieves them of the burden of
that long fleece relatively which shearlings bear, and it
gives them greater length of fleece at the time for selling
than they would otherwise possess.

Stock rams in summer — The pastures for stock rams

156 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

in summer will be ample when they sustain them in good
flesh. In some instances it may not be necessary to keep
them apart from the sale rams. However, they are not
infrequently kept in paddocks, especially as the season
for service approaches, for the reason chiefly that sup-
plementary foods may be conveniently fed to them.

FIG. 8— A NOTED PRIZE-WINNING YEARLING SHROPSHIRE RAM

The property of Geo. McKerrow & Sons, Pewaukee, Wisconsin

(Courtesy of owners)

Where the pastures will maintain sufficient flesh
without grain, it is better not to feed it to them at that
season, as the comparative rest to the digestive powers
which succulent and nutritious grazing brings with it is
beneficial. The change thus effected will make grain
feeding the more effective when it is resumed again, pre-
paring the rams for service.

FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS 157

As the season for service approaches, the rams
should be given supplementary food. Such feeding
should increase gradually from the time when it is be-
gun until maximum amounts are fed. The feeding of
supplementary food should begin not less than two to
three weeks before service begins. The grain fed should
be nitrogenous, and it should not be fed to the extent of
producing undue fatness in the rams with the accom-
panying sluggishness that would result from such a con-
dition. Care must also be taken to feed a due propor-
tion of succulent food along with the grain. Such food is
peculiarly helpful in sustaining in proper condition the
organs concerned in generation.

Rams during the season of service — The food and
management generally suitable for rams during the sea-
son of service will be much influenced by the relative size
and value of the flock with which they are to be mated.
When the flock is small, say not more than a score, there
may be instances in which it would be proper even to
allow valuable rams to remain in the pastures with the
flock and without extra food and care. In the case of
grade flocks it may be admissible to allow them to run
with a flock considerably larger. But when a ram is to
serve 50 valuable ewes, or even a larger number, he
should be kept in a shed with yard or paddock attached
and fed food that will aid in sustaining in vigorous action
the organs concerned in generation. In this way also
the ram may be prevented from wasting his energies
through an excess of service given to each ewe. In some
instances rams of the Merino type are shorn before the
season of service, to relieve them of the oppressive load
of wool which they carry.

The food given to the rams that are in service should
be of high quality. Valuable rams in service are com-
monly kept in a comfortable apartment of a shed during
the day, and are allowed the liberty of a small paddock
or pasture at night.

158 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Where the pasture is restricted, as it frequently is,
green food is fed as soiling food. For such a use nothing
is more suitable than well-grown rape or alfalfa, cut not
later than the stage of early bloom. Many other kinds
of green food will answer, as corn of tender growth, peas
and oats or vetches and oats grown together, field roots
with the tops, cabbage and also pumpkins. Such food
may be given, up to the limit of consumption, providing
the digestion remains undisturbed. Rape and alfalfa, if
fed somewhat wilted, will not produce bloat, which may
happen if the rams were to graze on these, or even on
clover. No grain food is more suitable for such rams than
oats if only one kind of grain is fed, but an addition of a
small amount of Canada peas, wheat or barley, may im-
prove the ration. In the absence of green food, wheat
bran and oil cake, especially the former, may be added
with profit to the grain. The amount of grain fed may
exceed two pounds daily in some instances. In any event
the amount should be liberal. Such rams will also turn
to good account some hay, especially when leguminous
in character.

When the rams run with small flocks of ewes in the
fields, no especial attention for the ram may be necessary
further than to rub some kind of coloring matter over
his breast and brisket to indicate which ewes have been
served (see page 162). In some instances rams are fed
grain while running with the flock. This, however, in-
volves the necessity of a daily visit by the shepherd, and
a further draft on his time while the ram is consuming the
grain. When they are kept up, the ewes are usually
driven to the yard morning or evening. The ram soon
singles out any in heat and these should be at once re-
moved. When all have been served, the ram is at once
removed and the ewes are kept away from the flock for
several hours. In other instances what is known as a
"teaser" is used to indicate which ewes are in heat. A
teaser is simply a ram carrying what may be termed a

FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS

159

cloth apron, which makes it impossible for him to serve
ewes. Of course, valuable rams are not devoted to such
a use.

The amount of service which rams may profitably
render is influenced by such conditions as age, natural
vigor, breed and management during the season of service.
It is not enough that rams shall be capable of begetting

FIG. 9— A NOTED PRIZE-WINNING YEARLING OXFORD DOWN RAM
The property of Geo. McKerrow & Sons, Pewaukee, Wisconsin
(Courtesy of owners)

progeny. It is all important that they beget a numerous
and vigorous progeny, which they will not do if overtaxed
by excessive service. Instances are on record in which rams
have served without any marked reduction in condition
in a single season 200 ewes. These were Merino rams
and the service required extended over a considerable
period. Usually from one-fourth to one-third of that

160 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

number is all that a well-grown ram should be allowed
to serve in a single season, and when the ram is with the
flock it should not comprise so large a number of ewes.
A ram lamb should not usually be allowed to serve more
than 20 ewes. One ram, though mature, should not be
allowed to serve more than say three ewes in a day and
at intervals of not less than three to four hours.

The disposal of rams — The breeders of stock rams
usually aim at the disposal of a large percentage of the
product for the season in the autumn of the year that
produced them. When sold as lambs, the prices obtained
are usually as good, and in some instances better, rela-
tively, than when they are sold as shearlings ; and when
thus sold the risk of loss is shifted to the purchaser, and
larger room is left for those unsold. But sales cannot
usually be made unless they are well developed. Pur-
chasers are but little inclined to buy small ram lambs to
be used as sires, and it is fortunate that they are. Some
breeders object to the use of lambs as sires on the ground
that older sires possessed of more maturity will transmit
more of vigor to the progeny. The laws of breeding give
considerable support to the view, but the idea must not
be pressed too far, as in small flocks, reasonably good
results have followed the use of the ram lambs as sires.

All things taken into account, the purchase of shear-
ling rams is to be preferred to that of ram lambs to be
used in service, but it is more difficult to secure shearlings
possessed of all-round high quality than to secure lambs
possessed of the same, as the best of the lambs are very
frequently sold as lambs, leaving only those that have
been thus passed by to be sold as shearlings. But the in-
dividuality of the animal may more certainly be known
as a shearling, as growth is then more nearly completed.
Ranchmen prefer shearling rams to lambs, for reasons that
will be apparent. Should any of the shearlings remain un-
sold, the wisdom of carrying them over another year to sell
as breeders is questionable. The fact that they have re-

FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS l6l

mained on hand for so long a period raises a suspicion
in the minds of those who are seeking rams that they
were not disposed of because of inferiority in their fur-
nishings.

When good stock rams have been used for say two
years, it may be necessary to dispose of them to avoid in-
breeding. When they have shown peculiar excellence in
the line of prepotency, it would be unfortunate to have
such rams sent to the block. Those seeking rams to head
their flocks of that particular breed, should give the pref-
erence to these when they can obtain them. Their pre-
potency has been proved, which, of course, cannot be said
of young rams. If, however, such rams should be pur-
chased by those not instructed in the care of such rams,
disaster may follow. It will usually be found advisable
to care for them on lines similar to those to which they
have become accustomed. Violence in care and food
given to such rams will usually result in great injury to
them.

The age to which rams may be kept in service with
profit and advantage cannot be stated, except in the most
general way, for reasons that will be apparent. It would
be correct to say that usually the period of most active
service for rams is when they are shearlings, two years
old, three years old and four years old. In other words,
they are in service four seasons. Instances are on record
in which Merino rams have been in service for more than
a dozen years. But there may be instances in which the
period covered will be twice as long. And there may be
other instances when the period of service should be
closed sooner. It is greatly important to use rams only
that are possessed of much vigor, whatsoever the age
may be.

Miscellaneous attentions called for — Certain atten-
tions are called for in the management of rams that may
not seem greatly important, and yet when given they
add to the profit from keeping them. These include (i)

l62 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

trimming the wool on sale rams; (2) trimming the feet
when necessary; (3) "ruddling" the rams when they run
with the ewes at the time of service; and (4) isolating
rams brought in from distant flocks.

The degree of the trimming called for is less than
that given to show rams, but a certain amount of it will
in a majority of instances add to the attractive appear-
ance of the rams. The long wooled breeds may not be im-
proved much by it, nor is it given to the Merino types.
But the middle wooled breeds will be much improved by
trimming (see page 268). The fleece should also be care-
fully guarded against the seeds of plants that adhere to
the wool, such as burs. A few plants growing in by-
places unnoticed will deform the fleece of many rams that
may have grazed near them.

The feet of all rams may need trimming, but the need
will be greatest with rams in service. For the method of
trimming (see page 282). It is greatly important that
stock rams shall be kept active on their feet, for reasons
that will be apparent.

By ruddling is meant applying some coloring sub-
stance to the breast and brisket of the ram that will leave
its imprint on the ewe that has been served. The benefits
resulting are the evidence of service and the possibility
of knowing the date of the same. Lampblack and oil
are the materials used in some instances, and powdered
red chalk and linseed oil in others. Various paint mix-
tures, however, may be used. Those that dry least
quickly will best serve the purpose. The frequency with
which the application is renewed will vary with the dry-
ing properties of the coloring matter used.

The isolating or quarantining of a ram brought into
the flock is a wise precaution, unless it is absolutely cer-
tain that in all respects he is healthy. The introduction
of sheep scab and ticks may in this way be ascertained, if
present, within a few weeks, and in this way may be pre-
vented from reaching the flock. Two careful dippings

FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS 163

given within, say, 10 days of each other will render fur-
ther quarantining unnecessary. Such dipping is greatly
important when rams are taken into flocks on the ranges,
and when done at the farm or ranch all danger of infec-
tion on the way is thus avoided.

CHAPTER IX
PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP

In Chapter IX the following phases of this question
are discussed: (i) The best natural grazing lands for
sheep; (2) Grass pastures permanent in character; (3)
Grass pastures temporary in character ; (4) Pastures sup-
plementary in character; (5) Pastures for winter grazing;
(6) Grazing sheep on grass pastures ; (7) Grazing sheep
on supplementary pastures; and (8) The benefits from
supplementary grazing. In sheep husbandry the ques-
tion of grazing and the methods of conducting the graz-
ing are relatively of much importance, because of the
large portion of the year during which the sheep have
access to the pastures.

The best natural grazing lands — The best natural
grazing lands for sheep are: (i) Those that have good
natural or artificial drainage; (2) that produce herbage
in variety, fine, palatable and nutritious; and (3) that
have ample shade and living water. With these requi-
sites the value of the pastures will be proportionately ad-
vanced by their increasing productiveness.

If sheep are to thrive continually, it is absolutely
necessary that the pastures on which they thrive shall
possess good natural or artificial drainage. This does not
mean that they must be rolling or even undulating in
character, but that they must be free from stagnant water.
The greater suitability of undulating and rolling lands
for providing such grazing arises from the fact, first, that
they usually do possess good natural drainage ; second,
that the surface of the soil is usually reasonably dry at all
seasons ; and, third, that the herbage growing on them
is usually such as is relished by sheep. But this does not
mean that sheep may not be grown successfully on pas-

164

PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 165

tures that are level and even low, providing they are
properly drained, as has been shown in the great success
that has attended the growing of sheep on the reclaimed
fens of Lincolnshire and the reclaimed marshes of Kent
in England.

That sheep delight in variety in the pastures is abun-
dantly shown in the great variety of weeds even that they

FIG. 10— SHROPSHIRES ON SUMMER GRAZING
The property of Renk Bros., Wisconsin

l66 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

will consume (see page 13). Pastures composed of
mixed grasses should, therefore, prove very suitable for
sheep. But this does not mean that they cannot be
maintained in good form on pasture with but one or two
grasses, as shown in the thrift that usually comes to sheep
maintained on blue grass only or on buffalo grass. Fine
grasses are much preferred to those that are coarse, hence
one reason of the greater fondness of sheep for blue grass
(Poa pratensis) and buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides)
than for orchard grass (Dactylus glomerata) or tall oat
grass (Arrhenatherum avenaceum). Palatability is, of
course, a prime essential in pastures. Usually succulence
and palatability are closely associated, and succulence is
greatest in pastures in the early stages of growth. Those
grasses, therefore, which continue to grow during much of
the season are preferable to those that grow 'quickly to
maturity and then practically cease to grow for the sea-
son. This explains why sheep will eat blue grass with a
relish all the season, though they will -consume weeds
only when they are in the succulent stage. The nutri-
tion in grasses is, of course, greatly important, and it is
greater in seasons relatively dry than in those that are
moist.

The necessity for shade increases with increase in
the summer heat. It is usually test provided by trees,
but in their absence may be furnished by shecls made of
a roof consisting of poles and covered with straw or other
material. In permanent pastures a grove could usually
be grown in a few years, when properly protected. On
farms located on the prairie the grass around the out-
buildings may furnish the necessary shade, but shade in
the pastures is preferable, if for no other reason than con-
tiguity to the grazing. On the dry ranges of the west
sheep not provided with shade suffer considerably from
exposure to the -summer heat.

The advantage of living water in pastures for sheep
cannot easily be overestimated. They should not be al-

PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 1 67

lowed to drink from stagnant pools in the summer sea-
son, nor should they be allowed to feed upon the rank,
coarse herbage that is frequently found growing around
the borders of these, and also on land that during por-
tions of the year is saturated with water. Sheep thus
grazed are much liable to be preyed upon by parasites
which frequently abound where such conditions exist, and
yet in northern areas there are basins and small lakes
which do not incur such hazard; as, for instance, many
of those found in the park area of Minnesota. But in
these the waters, for various reasons, remain clear, and
they do not grow sedge, aquatic plants or coarse grasses
around their borders.

Extensive pastures are better adapted relatively for
being grazed by sheep than by cattle, as they usually
furnish a greater variety of herbage gratifying to sheep
than pastures not extensive, and they give more oppor-
tunity for indulgence in the roaming habit while being
grazed. Sheep will also thrive better relatively on rugged
and sparse pastures than cattle, as, because of their
greater lightness of body, they gather their food with less
effort. An occasional change of pastures is also, as a
rule, helpful to sheep.

Grass pastures permanent in character — Grass pas-
tures for sheep permanent in character are composed,
first, of grasses that are indigenous to the locality, or, if
introduced, highly adapted to the conditions ; and, second,
grasses composed of mixtures which are sown to pro-
duce grazing for long periods.

Prominent among the former are grasses that grow on
unbroken areas without being sown by man after the
forest has been cut away on the unbroken prairie and on
the western ranges. Kentucky blue grass is by far the
most prominent and valuable of the grasses that grow
thus in forest areas, and it promises to cover the larger
portion of the cultivated area of the prairie in the future
not distant. It has the unique quality of being able to

168 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

retain its hold upon the land when it has once been in-
troduced without hindering in any way the processes of
cultivation. Moreover, it forms a thick sod which is fav-
orable to dry and clear grazing, and it furnishes grazing
fine in character and that is much relished. It is, in a
sense, the cosmopolitan grass of the continent, but it is
not well adapted to the dry ranges of the west, nor to the
hot summers of the far south. Grasses of the grama
family must continue in great measure to furnish the
permanent pastures of the ranges. White clover sown
on blue grass pastures usually thenceforth becomes its
abiding partner and adds considerably to the value of the
grazing. Red top has a prominent place among those
that provide such grazing in northerly areas of the
southern states, and Bermuda grass still further south.

The permanent pastures composed of mixtures may
usually include several of the more prominent grasses
and clovers. It would be correct to say that no valuable
grass not possessed of weedlike properties, as quack
grass (Agropyrum repens), for instance, is debarred from
being used to provide permanent pastures in some part
of the United States or Canada. The same is true of
clovers. The mixtures that may be used to form perma-
nent pasture in the various areas of the United States and
Canada are discussed in Chapter XVI of the book,
"Grasses and How to Grow Them," by the author. The
methods of establishing the pastures are also discussed
in the same.

Permanent pastures sown to provide grazing for
sheep are not much in evidence on this continent. The
need for them has not been much felt, owing to the abun-
dance of other grazing in proportion to the numbers of
the sheep kept. Doubtless their day is coming, as where
sheep are numerously kept some form of permanent pas-
ture is necessary, and under most conditions that com-
posed of a number of grasses is more suitable and more
productive than a pasture composed chiefly of but one

PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 169

variety. Alfalfa has been recommended as a permanent
pasture plant for sheep, but its value for such a use unless
mixed with other grasses is problematical, because of the
harm through bloating which the alfalfa may give rise
to in sheep and the harm through close grazing which the
sheep may do to the alfalfa.

Grass pastures temporary in character — The com-
position of grass pastures temporary in character must,
of course, be much influenced by the adaptation in the
grass and clovers in each locality. Such plants only can
be used as are able quickly to establish themselves in the
soil. If they can establish themselves in a single season,
their adaptation is, of course, higher than if a longer
time is required. Timothy occupies a foremost place
among the grasses that establish themselves quickly.
Orchard grass, tall oat grass and some of the rye grasses
are akin to it in this respect, but the limitations to their
adaptation tend much to circumscribe the area of their
growth. Russian brome occupies an intermediate place
and meadow fescue and Kentucky blue grass are so slow
in becoming established as to render it unwise to sow
them for such grazing. All the clovers establish them-
selves quickly and are therefore suitable for such pastures.
No other mixture of grasses has become so gen-
erally popular in providing temporary pastures as timo-
thy and medium red clover, as, sown in the spring along
with a nurse crop, they usually cover the ground by the
advent of winter. But several varieties of clover will
serve the purpose better than one variety, since they
provide food at different times as growth progresses.
Sainfoin, but little grown as yet in America, will doubt-
less have a place in some of the states in providing pas-
ture for sheep. It will grow in soils rather dry and poor.
It is fine of stem and leaf, and sheep are very fond of it.

The duration of such pasture must be determined
by such conditions as the extent to which the pasture is
wanted and the nature of the rotation. Usually such

I/O MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

pastures are of short duration. In some instances they
are grazed but one year; in others for two and even for
three and four seasons. The grazing of these may, of
course, alternate with the production of hay.

More commonly the best arrangement of grass pas-
tures for sheep is that which provides both temporary and
permanent grazing. Permanent pasture in some form is
usually a great convenience when grazing sheep, as it
may be relied upon to furnish grazing at any season of
the year when the ground is bare ; whereas other pastures
might not prove so suitable in periods of prolonged rain-
fall, as they are not covered with so firm a turf.

Pastures supplementary in character — The plan of
supplementing the grass pastures with grazing furnished
by other plants is growing in favor wherever sheep are
kept primarily for mutton. Of course, such pastures can-
not be grown on the open ranges, but the sheep may be
taken from the ranges to the grazing thus provided under
arable farm conditions, and this method of grazing and
even of finishing range sheep is growing in favor.

The following are prominent among the plants that
are or may be grown to provide such grazing for sheep
in the United States and Canada. Among the small
cereals are rye, wheat, oats, barley and speltz. Among
the leguminous cereals are the Canada pea, the cowpea,
the common vetch and the sand vetch. Among those of
the maize and sorghum habit of growth are corn, sweet
sorghum and some of the non-saccharine sorghums.
Among plants of the Brassica family are rape, kale, kohl-
rabi, cabbage and white mustard. Among the tubers are
peanuts and sweet potatoes, and among field roots are
turnips and rutabagas. It is not the purpose to dwell
here on the methods of growing these. They have been
discussed at some length in other works from the author's
pen, more especially "Forage Crops Other than Grasses"
and "Cultivated Crops." The object sought is to show

PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP I/ 1

when and where these crops may be used to supplement
the grass pastures.

Winter rye, much the best of the small cereals to fur-
nish grazing for sheep, is most useful in furnishing graz-
ing to breeding ewes and their lambs in the quite early
spring, even in advance of succulent grazing furnished by
the grass pastures. Cropping it closely should prevent
all danger from ergot, which in some areas has been
known to produce abortion on rich soils. But it is some-
times grown also to furnish grazing in the autumn. Win-
ter wheat in certain areas, as Kansas, is sometimes grazed
by sheep in winter. Spring rye and all the other small
cereals named may be grown if necessary to provide suc-
culent grazing in the early summer, but for such a use
they are not extensively grown.

The Canada pea is seldom grown by itself to provide
grazing for sheep, but it is in combinations, to some ex-
tent, as is shown below. The common vetch is consid-
erably grown to provide grazing for sheep in proximity
to the Pacific, and in the vicinity of the Great Lakes and
the Gulf of St. Lawrence it may come to be freely grown
for such a use. Southward from where highest adapta-
tion is found for the common vetch, the sand or hairy
vetch grows at its best, even as far south as the Gulf of
Mexico, when sown at the proper season. All these are
sown to provide succulent grazing in the spring and early
summer, and the Canada pea and summer vetch are also
sometimes sown to provide food for fattening. The cow-
pea also furnishes good supplemental grazing.

Indian corn may under certain conditions be sown to
provide summer grazing for sheep, but it is better suited
to furnish food on which sheep may be fattened while
they are harvesting the corn. Sweet sorghum, and also
the non-saccharine sorghums, may be sown to provide
midsummer grazing, and thus help out the pastures; espe-
cially in dry areas and in dry seasons. Sheep are not so
fond of such grazing, however, as of that furnished by

1^2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

many other plants. But the habit of growth in these
sorghums furnishes a large amount of grazing, as they
sprout up again when eaten down.

Among plants of the brassica family, rape is by far
the most extensively grown because of its wide distribu-
tion and high excellence in providing grazing that is
highly palatable and abundantly nutritious. Kale in cer-
tain mild areas where it comes safely through the winter
has been found most excellent in providing succulent
food in the spring. Kohlrabi should be more grown for
autumn grazing than it has been heretofore. It will grow
under conditions more dry than those suitable for the
other plants of this family, and, as with rape, the entire
food portion is grown above ground. Cabbage has special
adaptation to furnishing late grazing, even later than that
furnished by rape, owing to the power which the heads
have to resist the influence of frost. White mustard has
been but little grown in this country to provide pasture
for sheep, though frequently grown in Britain for such
a use. It is valued because of its rapid growth, as
in a rape field it tends to prevent bloat in the sheep, be-
cause it stimulates the early mating of ewes grazed on
it, and because it has been noticed that sheep grazed on
it usually do well when put upon other good grazing.

Peanuts and sweet potatoes are not sown primarily
to provide grazing for sheep, but when these are grown
it is claimed that grazing off the tops is a cheap way of
removing them. Sheep are fond of them and they are
nutritious.

Turnips are more grown to provide grazing on the
field than rutabagas. For such a use the seed is fre-
quently sown, as rape is sometimes sown, along with that
of small grain, using from one to two pounds of seed per
acre. But in mild winter latitudes, as in certain of the
mountain states southward, also westward along the
Pacific, there would seem to be no good reasons why tur-

PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 173

nips and rutabagas may not be grown and grazed off
by sheep as they are in Britain.

Some of these plants may be profitably grown in cer-
tain combinations. Those which may be thus grown
include the small cereals, non-leguminous, and those also
that are leguminous, and white mustard. Corn and the
sorghums are not much suitable for such combinations,
owing to the shade which they produce in their growth,
but they may be grown in certain mixtures with some
degree of profit. Rape is frequently grown in various
mixtures, but the benefit from it thus grown, except in a
limited number of instances, is still problematical. Good
results frequently follow from growing it in corn fields
at the time of the last cultivation given to the corn.

The small cereals may be grown in any kind of a
combination that may be desired, bearing in mind that
only spring varieties may be sown together in the one
case and winter varieties in the other. Relative cheap-
ness of seed should go far to determine the varieties that
shall be sown. Oats is a favorite grain to sow along
with the Canada field pea and the common vetch. The
sand vetch fits in well with the winter rye, and in some
localities crimson clover added is a further improvement.
White mustard fits in nicely with rape, since it grows
more quickly than rape, and because of its prominence in
advanced growth and possibly for other reasons will be
much consumed by the sheep when they begin to graze,
and it is believed that the consumption of the mustard
tends to lessen the liability in the rape to produce bloat.
Rape and fall turnips blend nicely when sown along with
grain and furnish a very suitable variety in the grazing.

The succession in such grazing in the northern states
and Canada is much the same. It begins with winter rye.
Then follow the spring cereals, and in close succession on
these dwarf Essex rape, which by variation in the times
of sowing may be made to provide grazing on until the
advent of winter. Corn and the sorghums furnish sue-

174 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

culent grazing only through the warm months of sum-
mer. The grazing of this character for autumn fatten-
ing consists mainly of dwarf Essex rape and mature corn.
The succession in the central states is not far different,
but cowpeas and the sand vetch are more used in these.
The" succession in the southern states begins with such
winter grains as rye and the sand vetch. Then follow
such crops as corn and the sorghums and cowpeas ; also
in some parts the velvet bean, not heretofore mentioned.
The cowpea may be made to cover much of the entire
summer and autumn. The autumn fattening foods will
be corn, mature, and possibly soy beans, mature, which
have not been previously mentioned. The extent to
which winter grazing on rape, kale and crimson clover
may be conducted has not yet been fully determined in
the South. There would seem to be no good reasons,
however, why these crops could not be made to furnish
excellent winter and early spring grazing for sheep and
early lambs in all parts of the South where winter cab-
bages can be grown for the northern market. The Canada
field peas, and also the common vetch sown with enough
oats to sustain them, furnish fattening food for grazing
in certain areas of the mountain states. Field roots, of
course, may not be grazed in the fields in winter where
they remain frozen for any length of time.

Grass pastures for winter grazing — In the northern
states no grass or clover will compare with blue grass.
Of course, this question is not of much practical impor-
tance when the snowfall is such that the ground is sel-
dom bare in the winter. In other areas it is seldom cov-
ered much of the winter, and in these the character of the
grazing is a matter of much importance. When such
grazing is considerable in supply it may furnish a large
proportion of the food, and what is almost equally im-
portant, the exercise thus given to the breeding ewes is
greatly helpful to them and to their progeny. Some other
grasses are good, but not so good as blue grass, since they

PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 1/5

are more injured with the frost. Among these are orchard
grass and Russian brome.

In some areas the pasturing of meadows, especially
those newly sown with clover, is allowable, as in some
parts of Illinois and Iowa. In other areas, and these are
greatly in the majority, such grazing would be most de-
structive to the meadows.

On the western ranges the native grasses, especially
those of the Buffalo species, have very high adaptation
for winter grazing. Where sheep can find enough of these
they will come through the winter in good form. The
damage from such grazing lies in the sudden storms that
arise in winter in much of the range country, which makes
it unsafe to allow the sheep to graze far away from the
winter quarters. This danger can be partially met by
fencing in pastures not distant from the sheds and saving
them specially for such grazing. But with very large
flocks this is not entirely practicable, owing to the very
large amount of the grazing that would be required.
These grasses cure admirably on the ground, as the cur-
ing is brought about by lack of moisture in the absence
of frost. In some of the western mountain valleys, also,
good winter grazing may be furnished by growing alfalfa,
alsike and other clover, and some of the cultivated grasses,
in admixture. The alfalfa is so lacking in succulence
then that the danger from bloat is practically eliminated.

In the southern states the list of grasses suitable for
winter grazing is not so large as in the North. Bermuda,
the standard grass of the far South, does not furnish graz-
ing in winter, as it is so easily killed by frost. Bur clover
may be made to serve a good purpose and each locality
has some native grasses adapted to its needs, that so far
may furnish grazing. But the South has highest adapta-
tion for furnishing supplementary winter grazing from
grain of various kinds and plants of the Brassica family.
These include winter rye, winter oats, vetches and rape.

1/6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Grazing sheep on grass pastures — One of the most
important things about grazing sheep on grass pastures
is to adapt the breed or grade to the character of the pas-
tures. It would seem correct to say : (i) That the weight
of the sheep grazed on pastures may be decreased with in-
crease in the range and decrease in the abundance of its
production. (2) That sheep not too short in limb and
too compact in form can graze more easily on rugged and
sparse pastures than sheep of the opposite type. (3)
That light and small breeds grazed for successive
generations on abundant pastures will increase in size,
but heavy breeds grazed on sparse pastures will soon
become a wreck. The reasons for the above will be obvi-
ous. A light breed will readily gather food on sparse
pastures. This a heavy breed cannot do, because of its
heaviness. Nature has taught this lesson plainly in the
great difference in the size of the mountain breeds and
the heavy breeds grown on seaside marsh lands.

The grazing of sheep on the arable farms cannot be
successfully conducted without fencing. The absence of
fences on so many of the grain farms of the west and the
cost of constructing these is a great hindrance to the
more general introduction of sheep onto those farms.
Suitable fencing for sheep when made of wire is a little
more costly than will suffice for cattle, and the material
more commonly used in future for such fencing will be
woven wire. When barbed wire fences are made for cat-
tle, posts set two rods distant, and three wires, will make
a fence sufficient to confine cattle not materially unruly.
A fence of the same material to confine sheep would an-
swer the purpose better when the posts are set more fre-
quently, and it would call for not less than five barb
wires.

One of the best forms of fencing for sheep is made of
some kind of woven wire with one or more strands of
barb wire strung on the posts above the woven wire.
Such a fence should usually be erected on an elevation

PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 177

or ridge made by turning two, four or six furrows toward
a center, the number of the furrows being dependent to
some extent on the kind of plow used. These furrows
should be smoothed nicely so as to make a fence bottom
without cavities in it. The posts should be set at one
rod distant, or if set at two rods, a stake should be driven
down firmly equidistant between the posts and coming up
as high as the top of the woven wire, which when
stretched should be stapled to it. It should be unneces-
sary to add that these stakes should be made of some
kind of wood that lasts well. The woven wire, of which
there are many kinds on the market, several of which are
good, should not be less than 30 inches. It should be
stretched along the posts near the ground. Above the
woven wire should be at least one barbed wire, approx-
imately 8 or 9 inches above the woven wire. Such a fence
will ordinarily restrain sheep, but it may not be wise to
have it thus low if horses graze on the other side, and if
dogs or wolves are to be kept out it must be higher. It
would seem safe to say, however, that a dog or a wolf
will seldom try to clear a barb wire fence higher than say
4 or 5 feet. To fence securely against dogs and wolves
see page 372.

Fencing in sheep by means of hedges may still be
regarded in the experimental stage. In the northern
states no hedge plant has been found hitherto that is in
all respects completely satisfactory. That which has
proved most satisfactory is the osage orange. Possibly
when our busy American farmers can find more time to
properly care for osage orange hedges, they will prove
more satisfactory. The southern states have a promising
hedge plant for southern latitudes in the Citrus trifoliata,
but it does not seem to have been much used for that pur-
pose, owing probably to the comparative cheapness of
wood in furnishing fencing material.

The closeness of the grazing by sheep that should
be sought or avoided is influenced by the kind of grazing,

1/8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

the season of the grazing, the character of the weather
and the desire to furnish winter grazing from grass pas-
tures. It must be conceded that sheep are fondest of
short and tender grazing and that such grazing is good
for them. The fact must also be recognized that when
grass is eaten very short, it is usually less able to produce
so abundantly as when it has more leaf growth. Between
these two conflicting facts the flockmaster has to de-
termine the course that he must aim to pursue.

Coarse grazing should, as a rule, be closely grazed
for the reason, first, that sheep will not eat it at an ad-
vanced stage of growth, and second, that it has greater
power to grow when in season than the small and fine
grasses. As a rule grazing close in the spring is more
allowable than the same in the autumn, as in the spring
the season of growth is nearly all yet ahead, whereas in
the autumn close grazing leaves the fields so bare that the
grasses in the same start but slowly in the spring. Dur-
ing seasons that are moist growth is much more vigor-
ous than in dry seasons; hence close grazing is so far
more allowable. When winter grazing is to be furnished
in abundant quantity, the sheep grazed on the pastures
may eat them down in the spring, but they should then
be removed during the remainder of the season. Whether
sheep and other stock should be grazed together under
ordinary conditions of grazing is a question that has given
rise to some controversy. The argument may be stated
thus : The chief of the reasons against grazing sheep
with other stock are: (i) That sheep by their continued
movement over the pasture soil it more or less, which so
far detracts from the relish which cattle have for it. (2)
That when the pasture is closely stocked, the sheep are
able to get the lion's share of the grazing, because of the
close habit of grazing that characterizes them. The cat-
tle grazing with them suffer accordingly. (3) When
sheep graze with swine, the latter, when the grazing is at
all close, soil much of it, so that it becomes offensive to

PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 179

sheep, and in rare instances brood sows in heat may hurt
the lambs. (4) When sheep graze with colts, the latter
are much prone, through mere play, to chase the former,
to their injury. The chief of the reasons in favor of such
grazing are: (i) The grazing that follows is more com-
plete, since one class of the stock eats more or less what
another class rejects. (2) Sheep grazing in a pasture
are a great aid in preventing increase in weeds in the
same. (3) It is frequently much more convenient to graze
stock together than separate. The following deductions
from the above would seem legitimate: (i) Such grazing
is admissible and may be commendable when the range
is large and the food is plentiful ; but (2) it should not be
much practiced when the range is small, and not to any
extent when the supplies of the food are short.

Protecting sheep from substances that adhere to the
wool is a matter of much importance. While these sub-
stances, usually designated burs, are of various kinds, as
burdocks, cockleburs and sandburs, burdocks are most
frequently in evidence. They entrench themselves in by-
places in the pastures, and unless combated by man will
continue to produce fresh plants from year to year. This
cosmopolitan weed apparently grows in all parts of the
United States and Canada, and yet its complete eradica-
tion in a pasture or elsewhere is very simple. Cutting a
plant below the crown at any time after it has begun to
grow and by any kind of an implement will cause its
death. Mowing above ground, even after the seedheads
have begun to form, will not stay reproduction, as im-
mediately short seed stalks at once spring up, and will,
if unmolested, mature seeds within a few weeks. The
cocklebur is the great occupant of fields sown to grain or
planted to corn. The aim should be to keep sheep from
such grazing when the fleeces become a mat, as it were,
of burs. It not only disfigures the form of the sheep be-
yond expression, but greatly discounts the value of the
fleece. When plants that injure the character of the wool,

l8o MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

are allowed to grow from year to year in a permanent
pasture, the owner is blameworthy, as usually they can
be eradicated without great labor.

The ideal method of grazing grass pastures is that
which divides them into fields, so that alternation in the
grazing may be possible. This provides grazing with
more freshness and tenderness in it than would be possi-
ble in uninterrupted grazing. It also tends to prevent
eating some parts of the pasture close and continuing to
graze on these to the neglect of grazing on other por-
tions. The objection to this plan is the cost of the fenc-
ing. Where keeping sheep is a leading interest, the aim
should be to provide such fencing, as in its absence graz-
ing best adapted to all the different seasons cannot be
furnished. Pastures grazed in the spring will still have
time to furnish suitable autumn grazing when given a
period of rest from grazing in the summer. Pastures
grazed for a longer period in the spring will still have
time to cover themselves with grass for winter and early
spring grazing. Blue grass in the North and meadow
fescue in the South are probably the two best grasses to
provide such grazing. The protection given by the old
grass greatly aids early growth in the new, and the two
eaten together are more suitable than either eaten alone.

The renovation of pastures grazed by sheep, at least
on the arable farm, should not be difficult. About the
only sure means of renovating those of the open range
is to fence them off and let them rest until, maturing for
a sufficient length of time, they seed themselves. The
renovation of the pastures of the arable farm may be
brought about: (i) Simply by in some way turning open
the surface ; (2) by sowing seed of certain kinds on them
when they are thus torn open ; and (3) by means of direct
fertilization.

Sheep pastures only require renovation by the first
method when they become sodbound. Such a condition
is most liable in quack grass should it be used in provid-

PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP l8l

ing pasture. Next to this, probably is Russian brome,
and after Russian brome, Kentucky blue grass. The best
method of opening the soil in the case of quack grass is
with the plow. The best method of renovating the other
grasses named is to run a good disk over them in two
directions in the early spring when the frost has left the
surface for but a few inches, and then to smooth them
down with a harrow.

When additional seed is sown, it may consist in part
of timothy or other grasses, but more commonly of some
variety or varieties of clover, sown with the understand-
ing that their duration shall be more or less transient.
Their continuance is influenced by the character of the
soil. Meanwhile they add to the value of the grazing.

As pastures grazed by sheep are rendered richer in
available fertility as a result of the grazing, the attempt
to fertilize them by applications is seldom made. There
may be times when it is not only legitimate but com-
mendable, as, for instance, when the ground is being pre-
pared for a crop to follow when the pastures are broken,
that calls for a rich soil to produce maximum crops.
Sheep fed heavily on grain rich in nitrogen, as oilcake,
will rapidly add to the fertility of the land. In some in-
stances enrichment may come incidentally, as when
sheep graze on rape and have access to a grass pasture.
Usually they rest much on the latter and so enrich it.

Grazing sheep on supplementary pastures — The chief
of the requisites to make such grazing successful are the
following: (i) Ample fencing, movable or permanent;
(2) a reserve grass pasture, where practicable, to be used
only when needed ; and (3) conveniences for giving addi-
tional food and water if necessary. The necessity for
these requisites increases with increase in the extent to
which supplementary grazing is used. Where supple-
mentary grazing is furnished by such plants as rape or
turnips sown with the grain, it may not be necessary to
make any marked change in the management from that

l8j MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

ordinarily practiced, but it should be the aim to have a re-
serve grass pasture for reasons given later (see page 183).

The necessity for additional fencing increases with
the intensity of the conditions of the supplementary graz-
ing. Where the attempt is made to keep sheep almost
entirely on such grazing, a plan that in many instances
is entirely feasible, more or less of additional fencing
should be provided. When the flock is large, it would
probably be more economical in the end to have the
fences permanent that inclose these crops. Three to four
fields should be inclosed, and easy of access. These are
necessary to furnish succession in grazing, as each can
usually be made to grow two crops of grazing yearly.

Where the flock is not large, the grazing may be fur-
nished by one field, long and narrow, if it can be so
secured, but it may serve the purpose better to have two
such fields separated by a lane. Narrowness in such in-
stances lessens the necessity for using large amounts of
movable fencing, which when in use, extends across
rather than lengthwise. It is also an advantage in plow-
ing when the cross fences are not in use.

Many kinds of movable fencing have been introduced
and each is possessed of more or less merit, but none of
these is superior to that now described. As has also been
shown in Chapter II, it consists of panels made of wood,
which, when in place, are held so by the headpiece. Each
panel is composed of three boards 4x1 inches, and a
fourth one at the bottom 6 x I inches. The boards are
usually made 12 feet long. Across these horizontal
boards are nailed three slats 4x1 inches. The end slats
are nailed on the same side of the horizontal boards, and
back 6 inches from the ends of the same. The middle slat
on the other side of the boards is equally distant from
the ends. The ends of the second board from the top are
cut off flush with the outside ends of the crossbars. The
spacing between the boards commencing at the bottom

PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 183

is 6, 6^4 and 7)4 inches respectively. The height of the
panel is 3 feet 2 inches.

The headpiece consists of three strips or boards,
nailed together so as to form a triangle. The bottom
piece made of material 6 x I inches, is 3 feet 6 inches long
on the ground side. The two upright pieces that con-
verge, 4x1 inches, are 4 feet long, and below they are
nailed on opposite sides of the sole-piece. Above, they
cross each other about 6 inches from the ends. The
notches cut above and below, as shown in the drawing,
are 2 inches wide and 3 inches deep. When in place the
corresponding slats of the panels just fill the notches
which keep them in position. The nails used are 3^
inches long of the wrought or wire type and should be
well clinched when in place.

Such a fence is easily set up or taken down and may
be quickly moved. It should be made of lumber, pref-
erably strong and light and that will not warp. If handled
carefully it should last many years with but little repair,
but if used roughly the duration of its usefulness will be
short. Its weakest point probably, is liability to shift
with the wind. To guard against this a small piece of
board sharpened below is driven down several inches
into the ground. It may be driven down beside the head-
piece, or it may follow the slant of the same. In either
case a nail is driven through this piece of board and into
the headpiece, and it should be on the windward side.
These stakes are not difficult to loosen when the fence is
to be removed. A number of panels of such fencing will
be found useful on any farm where many sheep are kept
and during all seasons.

A reserve grass pasture is a great convenience when
sheep are much grazed on supplementary pastures. It
furnishes a place: (i) On which to graze the sheep when
the supplementary pastures are wet with rain or dew;
and (2) on which to graze them for days even in succes-
sion, should the supplementary pastures not be ready.

184 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

They also furnish a change that tends to reduce or en-
tirely prevent scouring, the frequent accompaniment of
grazing on supplementary pastures. When sheep graze
on such pastures that have made much growth while they
are wet with dew or rain, they soil the grazing with their
feet, break much of it down and may also impact some
kinds of soil.

There may be instances when such pastures cannot
be furnished. There may be other instances when, in the
hope of more effectively combating stomach worms and
other forms of parasitic life, it is desirable to keep the
sheep away from old pasture grounds. In such instances
it would be necessary to use the sheds as a refuge for the
sheep when not on the supplementary pastures. At such
times it may be necessary to feed them in the sheds
throughout the continuance of storms, and more or less
at other times. Should this be necessary, no more con-
venient place could be secured for such feeding or for provid-
ing water, nor would it be possible to furnish sheds in
better form than through the medium of the sheds.

Benefits from supplemental grazing — Prominent
among the benefits from supplemental grazing for sheep
are: (i) Aid in removing parasites; (2) increase in pro-
duction from a given area ; (3) rendering aid in destroy-
ing weeds ; and (4) the effect on fertilization. These will
be considered further, and also some of the objections to
the system.

The all-important question of parasites in sheep is yet
but imperfectly understood, more especially with refer-
ence to the complete life history of some of these. Until
this is known it is probable that the very best methods of
combating some of these will not be understood. It has
been quite well established, however, that when ewes and
lambs are much sustained on freshly sown supplementary
pastures, especially in the spring, and when they are kept
away from old pasture grounds in the meantime, the
lambs suffer much less from such parasites and tape-

PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 185

worms and stomach worms than when managed in the
ordinary way.

The increase in the return of wool and mutton comes
from the increase in the food grown on a given area when
it is thus grown. The food furnished from a certain area
sown to rape, for instance, may be several times as much
as would be obtained from the same or an equal area of
old grass pasture. The extent of the increase will con-
tinually vary with the different conditions, but the fact
that usually there is increase should draw favorable at-
tention to the growing of these crops. That such addi-
tional increase will more than offset the additional cost
of labor is also true in many instances ; in fact, in a great
majority of these should constitute a further claim for
such attention.

The aid thus furnished in destroying weeds is most
substantial and far reaching. Especially is this true
should the land thus used be confined to the growing of
catch crops for two or three successive years, and it is
more emphatically true with the increase in the number
of the crops grown and grazed. The results claimed fol-
low from the influence which frequent plowing has on the
germination of weed seeds lying in the soil and on the
destruction of weeds by burial, also through the crossing
of the same while being grazed. The eradication of such
annuals as wild mustard is greatly facilitated by the great
increase in germination resulting over ordinary methods
of cultivation. Each seed thus germinated grows a plant
that is consumed. The eradication of biennials becomes
easy and sure through their burial. The eradication of
perennials in much less sure, owing to the way in which
they multiply in the soil ; but if some of the supple-
mentary crops grown, as rape, should be grown and cul-
tivated, all forms of perennials treated thus would be
greatly lessened.

This method of fighting weeds, in the judgment of the
author, will be very efficacious. The opinion thus given

1 86 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

is based to a considerable extent on his own personal
experience. It should also prove one of the cheapest
methods of fighting weeds that can be devised in areas
where sheep are an important factor in agriculture. But
while land is so abundant such intensive methods of pro-
viding food for sheep will probably be not much prac-
ticed. The little labor involved in keeping sheep on grass
pastures is one of its strongest recommendations, while
the system outlined involves much labor. It is just a
question for those who are willing to pay the price.

The influence on fertilization is favorable. This
arises, first, from the fact that the food grown is con-
sumed on the land ; second, from the fertility brought up
from the subsoil in the crops grown, a large part of which
goes back again on the cultivated strata ; and, third, from
the growing of such crops as cowpeas, soy beans and
other quick-growing legumes to provide grazing. True,
there is some fertility removed in the flesh and the wool
produced, but experience has shown that lands treated
thus produce bountiful crops for a time subsequently to
such treatment; hence the inference would seem legiti-
mate that there was increase in available fertility to more
than offset the decrease resulting from what was re-
moved in the flesh and wool.

There are some serious difficulties to be met and
overcome by those who graze sheep thus intensively. One
of these is the labor involved. Under existing conditions
that is one of the most serious, but when a family is
growing up of an age to render help, the difficulty is so
far removed. A second is the cost of the fencing called
for. A third is the increase in land required to grow
crops thus in quick succession, and a fourth is the im-
perative demand made upon the team labor of the farm
when it can ill be spared from other work. The fact re-
mains, nevertheless, that the production can be increased
enormously when sheep are largely grazed on such sup-
plemental foods.

CHAPTER X
FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING

The points chiefly dwelt upon in Chapter X are the
following: (i) Sheep finished on grass pastures without
grain ; (2) Sheep finished on grass pastures with grain ;
(3) Finishing on western grain fields ; (4) Finishing on
rape; (5) Finishing on corn; (6) Finishing on peas; (7)
Finishing on field roots ; and (8) Finishing on other crops.

Finishing on grass without grain — Not many de-
cades ago more sheep, it is believed, were sent to the mar-
kets from the pastures without grain than reached it
through all other channels. This condition is rapidly
changing, owing to the following among other causes : (i)
Farmers are coming to know more and more about the
possible profit from finishing range sheep on their farms,
both in the fields and in the sheds; (2) the effect in ad-
vancing prices inclines ranchmen to favor selling as
stockers rather than for slaughter ; and (3) the sharp dis-
crimination in the prices paid encourages the finishing of
sheep in good form.

When sheep are finished on grass pastures only, the
character of the mutton is much influenced by the variety
of the grazing. It is a foregone conclusion that, to obtain
a juicy carcass, it must be finished on food with more or
less succulence in it. It is not to be expected, therefore,
that mutton finished on dry western ranges after mid-
summer and without other food than the range furnishes
would be lacking in juiciness, however excellent its other
qualities may be. The large quantities of mutton that
came from this source would seem to be so far respon-
sible for the comparatively low estimate put upon mut-
ton by the masses of our people until recent years. It
would not be possible to build up a high national reputa-

187

l88 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

tion for mutton finished only on grass pastures. But it
does not follow that good mutton may not be grown on
grasses only, as is shown below.

The pastures best adapted to the production of good
mutton are those which combine palatability, succulence
and nutrition in the highest degree. This means that the
best quality of mutton finished only on grasses will come
from areas comparatively moist, as these only can main-
tain the requisite succulence in the grasses. Blue grass
is possessed of the requisite qualities in a marked degree
for making good mutton. Along with clover of sufficient
maturity it should make mutton possessed of good finish.
While succulence is essential in the grazing for the pro-
duction of juicy mutton, over-succulence retards fatten-
ing, which explains why sheep are usually in a lower con-
dition at the close of an unusually wet season than at the
close of one possessed of average moisture.

Something depends on the breed or grade of the
sheep and also on the age, viewed from the standpoint of
adaptation for such finishing. Sheep small in size rela-
tively will make a better finish usually than those that
are large, their lightness favoring easy movement. For
a similar reason sheep short of maturity will have some
advantage over sheep fully matured, and more especially
over old sheep. It is also reasonable to suppose that
sheep not accustomed to a grain supplement will also
fare better under such conditions than those that have
been much used to such a supplement.

It has been found that the mutton made from grass
pastures only on the arable farm is superior in juiciness as
a rule to that made on the open range, the reason for
which will be obvious. It has also been found that the
highest quality in such mutton comes from sheep kept
in limited numbers in proportion to the pasture. The
sheep are thus enabled to gather food in much variety
and such as they relish most, hence the good finish which
they soon make and its high quality. In this way nearly

FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING 189

all farmers may provide for their tables a luxury in the
meat line by simply keeping a small band of sheep to
gather food, much of which but for their presence would
go to waste. More sheep could be used in this way, and
with much advantage to the owners, than are now found
in all the United States.

Finishing on grass with grain — The attempt to finish
sheep that have been carried through the winter on grass
pastures, as cattle are frequently fattened, is not of fre-
quent occurrence. That it is not arises probably from the
following among other reasons: (i) Except as lambs
sheep are seldom sold for slaughter from the early pas-
tures, and the later pastures are generally more or less sup-
plementary; (2) the quick fertilizing of the land has sel-
dom been sought by feeding grain to sheep on grass pas-
tures ; and (3) it has been found that they can be fattened
more cheaply and satisfactorily when the grass pastures
are supplemented by other grazing, as rape, roots, corn or
peas. The materials for early finishing on grass are often
scarce, as lambs are usually sold under the age of one
year, or before the new grass comes, and the dams are
employed at that season in nursing their lambs except in
the case of those that may have suckled early or milk
lambs.

That direct profit will result from feeding grain to
ewes that are nursing early lambs, while they nurse them
and subsequently, though on good grass pastures, can
scarcely be doubted. When the ewes also are to be sold
as soon as they can be made ready for the market, any
loss of flesh should be prevented by such feeding when
the change is made from the shed to the pastures. That
direct profit will result from feeding wethers grain under
such conditions has not been determined apparently by
experiment. The chances are against it. But the full
return from such feeding of grain must include the manu-
rial benefits given to the land.

The wisdom of grazing and even of fattening sheep in

I9O MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

orchards under proper conditions of management is not to
be questioned. No cheaper method of fertilizing the orchard
can be -devised. The following are among the benefits from
such grazing and feeding : ( 1 ) The sheep consume the grass,
weeds and young sprouts around the trees. (2) They con-
sume all the fallen fruit and will thus destroy all insect
life which it may contain. The injury from the presence
of the codling moth in apple orchards may thus be greatly
reduced. (3) They distribute fertilizer in a form that is
readily available and proportionate to the food given to
them. (4) They break up the top soil more or less ac-
cording to the conditions present, and thus aid in the
retention of soil moisture. Except in the case of old trees,
however, which carry rough bark, it is absolutely neces-
sary to protect the trunks of the trees by putting around
them loose wire netting. The sheep will also trim back
the tips of the fruit-laden limbs that may come within
their reach, and also consume the fruit which they carry
if grazed long enough in the orchard.

Whether the sheep are simply carried through the
season or are prepared for the block where fertilization is
sought, they must be given supplemental food. To meet
the former condition, wheat bran and oilcake should be
freely fed, since both are rich in valuable fertilizing ele-
ments ; and to suit the latter condition the aim should
be to feed freely corn and oilcake, the former being given
to promote quick fattening. The grain troughs should
be distributed in various parts of the orchard or fre-
quently moved to promote the even distribution of the
manure. Water must be supplied, and salt at all times.

The number of the sheep thus grazed on an acre may
be regulated by the amount and character of the food
given. Some regard, however, must be had to the pasture
which the orchard furnishes when soiling food is not fur-
nished. The fallen fruit is not of much value as a fat-
tener because of its immaturity and acidity, and when
sheep are first introduced into orchards it may be neces-

FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING l$I

sary to introduce them cautiously lest digestive derange-
ment should result.

Finishing on western grain fields — On western grain
fields a large amount of valuable food for sheep remains
after the crop has been removed. It remains in the form
of fallen heads during the processes of harvesting and in
the form of weeds of many kinds, which in many in-
stances carpet the ground because of the numbers in
which they are present. In many instances also they con-
tain weed seeds which contain fattening properties, as
those of wild buckwheat. If given the opportunity sheep
will gather and consume many of the fallen heads, much
of the matured weed seeds, and a large proportion of the
herbage that grows on the ground amid the stubbles.
The area that may be thus grazed is very large, but such
grazing is not without its difficulties.

Among the difficulties to be met the following are
prominent : (i) The almost entire lack of fencing makes it
necessary to maintain a herder during the period of graz-
ing. (2) The harvest, especially in northern areas, is fre-
quently so late that the duration of the period for graz-
ing is short, too short in many instances to put a good
finish on the sheep or lambs before the ground freezes.
(3) As the ground is to grow grain the following season,
the aim is to plow it before winter, and to accomplish
this it is necessary that the plowing be begun as soon as
possible after the grain has been harvested. Nevertheless
very large flocks of sheep have been thus grazed with
profit to the owners, since the pastures are obtained with-
out cost. If the finishing can be completed on mature
corn grazing, it is usually an improvement, as such graz-
ing may frequently be continued after other grazing has
been destroyed with frost.

Where the farm is fenced, the finishing of sheep thus
in a moderate way by farmers whose families may furnish
the requisite labor should prove profitable. The fenced
farm, or a part of it, makes it possible to keep the sheep

IQ2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

together and unherded when occasion calls for it. Graz-
ing on the adjoining unfenced farms is usually welcomed
because of the weeds consumed. If rape or turnips or
both have been sown amid the grain, the pasture is so
improved, but the aim should be to consume these before
hard freezing. The value of these foods in the stubbles,
which is quite material in southern Minnesota, grows less
with higher latitude. The stocks for such grazing may
usually be secured from the ranges west.

In some seasons it happens that on low and ill-drained
prairie lands, the grain cannot be harvested in the usual
way. The saturated ground will not sufficiently sustain
the reaper that would harvest the crop. In a few days the
grain has so fallen down that it cannot be reaped when
the ground has again become firm. In such instances
sheep have been successfully used to harvest the crop.

Finishing sheep on rape — No pasture plant that has
yet been introduced has been found equal to rape for fat-
tening sheep quickly and satisfactorily. The dwarf Essex
is the variety most commonly grown. The service which
this small plant has rendered to sheep husbandry in
America during recent years has been very great, and the
service that it may yet render it would not be easy to
overestimate. Those who may desire information with
reference to the growing of this plant are referred to the
book, "Cultivated Crops," by the author.

The ideal conditions for fattening sheep on rape call
for the following: (i) That the rape shall be well on
toward maturity before it is reaped ; (2) that a grass pas-
ture shall be available to which the sheep may have free
access while they are feeding on the rape ; and (3) that the
climate is such that the winter does not close in suddenly.

When the rape is possessed of much stalk in propor-
tion to the leaf growth, it is not so laxative as the more
tender early leaf growth, and it furnishes more food to
the acre. Moreover, the sheep will eat the stems down
close to the ground. But when rape is sown early, and

FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING 193

especially in climates that are warm, the danger is some-
times present that the crop may be covered by the green
aphis. When so affected its feeding value is greatly re-
duced or even destroyed in proportion to the violence of
the attacks of those insects.

The benefit arising from giving sheep grazed on rape
access also to a grass pasture is found in the favorable in-
fluence that the less succulent grass exercises on the
digestion. It tends to prevent and also to correct scours
which arise from feeding on rape, especially when first
introduced to such grazing. Pastures with much dead
grass on them are the most suitable. Kentucky blue grass
pastures that have not been closely grazed during the
early season of growth have been found to answer the
purpose well. The sheep seem instinctively to crave
more or less of such grazing at such a time. Experiments
conducted by the author showed marked benefit from
access to such grazing.

The autumn season after the summer heat has gone, has
been found the most favorable for finishing sheep on such
grazing. The more prolonged the period covered by the
autumn, therefore, the more prolonged is the period for
grazing. Rape sown not too early readily retains its green-
ness in cool autumn weather, even after it has ceased to
grow. Where the autumns are short and where winter
comes suddenly danger is present that more or less of
the crop will be lost. In damp climates it may be lost by
early snowfall which remains all winter. In dry climates
it may be lost by sudden freezing so severe as to wilt the
crop.

Some caution should be used when introducing sheep to
a rape pasture, or much loss may result. They are usually
much prone to feed on rape so ravenously as to induce bloat-
ing. This, when unrelieved, may produce death in a very
short time. The danger increases with greater succulence in
the rape and with increase in moisture on the plants. Two
methods have been adopted of meeting the danger. By the

194 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

first the sheep are introduced to the rape gradually — that is,
by allowing them to graze but a short time the first day, and
increasing the time from day to day until they are allowed
to remain all the time on the rape. Before turning them on
to the grazing each day they are fed liberally dry hay or
grain, or are allowed to satisfy the appetite, in great part at
least, by grazing on a grass pasture. From half a week to a
week is usually occupied in thus preparing them for perma-
nent grazing on the rape.

By the second method they are allowed to take all the
safe food that they can consume of some material that they
relish, as good grass, and thenceforth they are put upon the
rape and not removed from it unless in case of severe storm.
This method is much simpler than the other, and it is not
usually attended with much hazard when the sheep have
access to an old grass pasture. In no instances should sheep
be turned in to graze on rape when they are hungry. Close
attention should be given to the sheep while being grazed on
rape, as the assurance is never present that there will be no
loss from bloating. It would seem quite safe to say that such
losses decrease: (i) With increase in the maturity of the
rape; (2) with decrease in its succulence from any cause or
causes ; and (3) with increase in the other food given along
with the rape, especially in the dry form. Increase in the
maturity of the rape or decrease of moisture in the climate
lessens succulence in the rape, and as a result makes it a safer
food. In the author's experience rape grown in Ontario,
Canada, caused bloat with much more frequency than rape
grown west of the upper Mississippi. But nowhere is the
liability to bloat so little present as to justify grazing very
valuable sheep upon it without exercising all due caution to
make it impossible for bloating to arise. This may be done
by turning them on to the rape only after having eaten freely
of other food. Another safe way is to cut the rape and feed
it more or less wilted, according to the amount fed. When
rape is grown amid the grain stubbles the liability to bloating
is reduced, because of the presence of other food. It is also

FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING 195

possible to reduce the hazard from bloating so as to almost
entirely eliminate it by the judicious feeding of grain, espe-
cially in the early morning, but grain is a more expensive
food than rape. It should be the aim to visit the flock at
least twice a day, and more frequently at first. Should any
be found suffering from bloat, it may be possible to relieve
them. Should any be found not long dead from this cause,
if the throat is cut open with promptness, the meat is still
good for food, notwithstanding the prejudice that some may
have in regard to eating it. In any event the hide and wool
thereon will far more than pay for its removal.

When sheep are first put upon rape, in some instances
many of them scour, especially in the absence of access to
old grass pastures and in the absence of a grain supplement.
The animals affected may be known readily by the soiling
which this condition induces. They should be tagged with
promptness, and if subsequently the scouring continues, it
may be necessary to remove them and put them on a dry
ration for a time. Sheep have a great craving for salt when
on such grazing, and it should be so abundantly supplied to
them that they will at all times have access to it. When given
in covered troughs the rain cannot dissolve it as when ex-
posed. It is believed that the salt tends to correct the scour-
ing, and the belief would seem well founded. Sheep will
seldom take additional water when they are feeding on rape.

In some areas prolonged storms occur during the rape-
grazing season. When these do occur the sheep should not
be allowed to remain long exposed to them. The rape plants
are so tall that sheep and lambs grazing among them at such
a time get much bedrabbled, and as such rains are usually
cold, such a condition is decidedly harmful. To remove the
sheep at such a time may call for the aid of a saddle horse.
When visiting the flock at any time, a saddle horse will make
it possible to greatly expedite the work.

When white frosts come and cover the leaves, they bring
with them additional hazard. When such food is taken into
the stomach in very large quantities, the irritation following

196 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

may soon result in the death of the animal. These results
may be prevented by confining the sheep to the grass pas-
tures until the sun has removed the rime. Where this can-
not be done, a feed of grain given in the very early morning
before grazing begins will usually, if not indeed in all in-
stances, prove a measure of safety. In some areas the early
snow falls upon the rape and in a day or two vanishes. This
does not lessen the value of the rape for grazing unless
severe frost accompanies or precedes the snowfall. When
frost occurs severe enough at any time to cause the rape to
wilt, its feeding properties are much injured. When the
wilting is marked in the stems, the attempt to fatten sheep
upon it further should be abandoned, nor should it form any
large proportion of the food of other sheep.

The sustaining and fattening power of well-grown rape
is very great. The Wisconsin station grew 36 tons per acre,
and the Ontario station 27 tons. Doubtless even the amount
first named could be exceeded. Twelve tons per acre is a
very moderate crop. On well-grown rape 15 well-grown
lambs may be grazed for about 60 days on an acre, and if the
lambs are of good quality they should increase at the rate
of 10 to 12 pounds per month. Common lambs should in-
crease on rape alone from eight to 10 pounds per month. In
one instance the author obtained an increase of 14.3 pounds
per month from rape only and a gain at the rate of 762
pounds per acre. From common sheep or lambs an increase
of 300 to 400 pounds should be forthcoming from an aver-
age .acre of good rape. The author obtained an increase of
179 pounds per acre from rape sown at the Ontario station,
August 12, after a crop of winter wheat had been harvested.
From what has been said the relative cheapness and profit-
ableness of rape as a food for fattening sheep will be readily
apparent, and all the more so when it is called to mind that
rape is frequently grown as a catch crop. In estimating the
profit, the enhanced value of the weight of carcass when the
grazing begins should be considered.

The question as to whether sheep should be given grain

FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING 197

or not while they are being grazed on rape will turn upon
facts such as relate to the abundance of the rape, the cir-
cumstances attending the grazing and the cost or value of the
grain. There can be no doubt that the feeding of grain will
proportionately extend the period for grazing the rape. Nor
can there be any doubt that the feeding of grain is in some
measure a safeguard: (i) When the rape is immature or
unusually succulent ; (2) when it is grazed in the absence of
a grass pasture; and (3) when the rape is more or less
frozen or even covered with rime. It would seem safe to
say that when the sheep have no other grazing than rape,
the value of the grain fed will more than be recovered in the
returns from the sheep. This, however, does not seem to be
true when the sheep have access at the same time to an old
blue grass pasture. In the experience of Prof John A. Craig,
and also of the author, the increase made from feeding a
supplement of grain to sheep that were being grazed on rape
only was less than that resulting from rape and blue grass
pastures, and the latter furnishes a relatively cheaper food
than the former.

Finishing sheep on corn — The finishing of sheep on
corn by allowing the sheep to harvest the corn is grow-
ing in favor in certain areas. The high cost of labor gives
encouragement to the practice. It is most in favor in
those areas in which corn of the small and quick-growing
varieties has the best chance to mature, but to some ex-
tent it is practiced in areas where large and later varieties
may mature. This method of putting land in condition to
grow good crops of wheat and other grain has met with
much favor in certain parts of North Dakota.

Any variety of corn that will mature with reasonable
certainty in the climate where grown will serve the pur-
pose, but those varieties that bear much ear relatively to
the stalk are the most suitable. Some of the squaw corns
have been found very suitable. The great hardihood of
these corns makes it safe to plant them earlier than it
would be safe to plant other varieties. In some instances

198 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

sweet corn is grown which matures within a short period.
Sweet corn would seem eminently adapted to such graz-
ing in areas where reasonably large varieties of sweet
corn can be grown, as sheep will consume much of the
fodder in addition to the grain when harvesting sweet
corn.

Such grazing should be begun in a cautious way, or
disaster may come to the flock through disturbed diges-
tion. This, however, is not necessarily accompanied by
bloating, as in the case of rape. The increase that may
be made in the duration of the successive periods of graz-
ing may be determined by watching the droppings closely.
Excessive consumption of the fresh corn tends to induce
scouring. The benefit from having a reserve grass pas-
ture on hand at such a time, as in the case of rape, will be
at once apparent. The sheep may then be allowed to go
on the corn when they are not hungry, until they get
accustomed to it.

In grain-growing areas where grass pastures have
not been provided sheep are brought in from the West
and begin grazing amid the stubbles, and from these they
are gradually transferred to the corn grazing. In some
instances rape is grown amid the stubbles and also in the
corn. In either case it will be found helpful, but when
sheep have become so accustomed to corn that they are,
grazed on it alone, it makes a cheap and reasonably safe
fattening food on which to finish them. Should the win-
ter close in early, the grazing may continue, but in such
instances it is specially important that the corn shall be
well matured so that the frost may not increase its flinti-
ness. It will be found helpful also at such a time to be
able to feed corn from the bundle, or it may be clover or
alfalfa, to supplement the food thus gathered during the
day. At no time should sheep that are being thus fat-
tened be made to glean too closely, or the loss may be
more than the gain. Other sheep will do such gleaning
more satisfactorily.

FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING 199

The highest adaptation to this method of fattening
sheep is found in areas where the normal weather condi-
tions of the autumn are dry rather than moist, and where
the advent of winter does not come with such suddenness.
These conditions are usually found in areas within or bor-
dering on the semi-arid belt. But even in areas with
more rainfall sheep may also be finished thus with ad-
vantage and profit. Especially is this true of sweet corn
that may be too smutty for canning. Store sheep will
also make a reasonably good use of frosted corn in the
fields when they are judiciously given access to it.

Finishing sheep on peas — During recent years the
finishing of sheep on peas mainly has grown into an ex-
tensive industry in the San Luis Valley, Col. The eleva-
tion is about 7000 feet above the sea level. The summer
climate is cool, light frosts being present almost every
month in the year. The crop is grown in part by subter-
ranean irrigation natural to much of the valley, but some-
times it is grown by irrigation applied in the usual way.
Among the principal varieties grown are the Mexican and
the small green and white varieties of the Canada field
pea.

From 40 to 50 pounds are sown per acre with the
ordinary seed drill, and enough oats are sown along with
them to sustain the peas, which tends to lessen the waste
while the peas are being harvested. When the peas are
ripe, sheep and lambs are turned in to graze upon them.
In some instances the flock is given a wide range, but
where it can be done the method that grazes off" the field
in successive divisions is preferred. Other sheep are
sometimes made to follow those that are being fattened,
as they are, of course, much better adapted to such glean-
ing. An acre of good peas should fatten, it is said, from
10 to 15 lambs, and that the lambs should gain about 10
pounds per month. This would make the feeding value
of such peas about equal to that of a good crop of well-
grown rape. The peas, however, would have the ad-

2OO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

vantage over both rape and corn in the nitrogen brought
to the land while they were growing.

The possibility of extending such grazing so as to
include wide areas of the mountain country would seem
to be of easy realization. The more important of the
essentials are: (i) A soil with the requisite food elements
to grow the grain ; (2) a climate suitable to the growing
of the crop, and what is even more important, to the
harvesting of the same by sheep ; (3) stock sheep not too
distant that may be secured for finishing. These condi-
tions are present, it is claimed, in considerable areas of
several mountain states, including New Mexico, Wyo-
ming, Utah, Nevada, California, Oregon, Washington,
Idaho and Montana. Some of those valleys are already
proverbial for the excellent crops of peas which they
grow. By no other method can fertility be brought more
cheaply to these lands than by grazing down on them
some kind of legume.

Finishing sheep on field roots — The author has not
met with any instances in which sheep have been finished
in the country on field roots where the latter were har-
vested by the sheep. Such a method of finishing them,
however, should be quite feasible in certain parts of the
United States, as it is in certain parts of Britain. Sheep
have long been fattened thus in Britain, with a small sup-
plement of grain added. Such winter fattening, as it may
be termed, would only be feasible where the frost did not
hinder feeding on the turnips. There should be areas
where this ought to be practicable in the Gulf States, in
some of the western mountain valleys and in portions of
some of the Pacific States. It would, of course, be possi-
ble to cover over rows of roots for temporary use by
strewing earth over them with a plow, enough being
plowed out each day for present use.

Wherever winter crops of cabbages can be grown for
the northern markets, crops of roots may also be grown
and grazed off where they grow. The question, there-

FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING 2OI

fore, resolves itself into one of the greatest relative profit.
Such grazing could be used in fattening, a grain supple-
ment being added, or it could be used to furnish grazing
for ewes nursing milk lambs. Corn would furnish a good
supplemental grain food.

The grazing of roots upon grain fields has already
been touched upon (see page 191). Of course, it would
be quite practicable to harvest entire crops of roots by
such a system, but the land that will grow the roots will
also grow rape, and the latter may be grown with much
less outlay for labor than the former.

Finishing sheep on other crops — It would seem quite
practicable to finish sheep on some other crops not enu-
merated above, or if it were not desired to finish the sheep
they could be made to feed on these crops and thereby
contribute greatly to the fertilization of the land. Prom-
inent among these crops are cowpeas, soy beans and
pumpkins and squashes.

Cowpeas may be grown over wide areas in the South
after other early maturing crops have been reaped. The
value of the grazing will increase with the volume of the
crop and, up to a certain limit, with the advanced stage of
growth. Supplementary grain should be supplied when
necessary for fattening, and corn is very suitable for such
a use. Soy beans would seem to answer the purpose bet-
ter than cowpeas, as they produce more grain to the straw
than cowpeas. They are also of upright growth, and the
pods are near to one another, hence they are of easy access
to the sheep. Sheep should fatten quickly on such graz-
ing, but experience on the question has up to the present
been practically unattainable. Those who have fed
pumpkins to .sheep are loud in their praises. They claim
that when used to pumpkins, no limit may be set to the
quantities fed, as long as they are consumed so as to avoid
waste. They are specially helpful to sheep and lambs
that are being pushed forward on corn. They are more
commonly strewn over grass pastures when fed. At the

2O2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

first it may be necessary to cut them open and to sprinkle
them with salt, but soon the sheep become fond of them.
Squashes of the soft-shelled varieties only are adapted
to such feeding. Whether pumpkin seeds thus consumed
by lambs tend to protect them from intestinal parasites
of certain kinds has not been made quite clear.

CHAPTER XI
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER

In Chapter XI the following phases of fattening
sheep and lambs are discussed: (i) The sources from
which they may be obtained ; (2) Selecting sheep for fat-
tening; (3) Quarters suitable for feeding; (4) Leading
sheep up to full feeding; (5) The fodders that are suit-
able; (6) The succulence that is suitable; (7) The con-
centrates that are suitable; (8) Self-feeders and their
place; (9) Fattening sheep on sugar beet pulp; (10)
Feeding sheep on western ranges; (n) Fattening sheep
on screenings; (12) Fattening two lots in succession;
(13) The hazard to breeding flocks from fattening sheep
brought in from outside sources ; (14) All sheep should be
fattened on the farm; (15) The duration of the fattening
period ; (16) The increase from sheep while fattening, and
(17) The profit from fattening sheep in winter.

Sources from which obtained — Lambs for fattening
may be grown on the farm or purchased from other farms
or from the ranges. Sheep for fattening are usually ob-
tained from range sources, but in some instances they
also may come from the farm, as when disposing of aged
ewes. These, however, are more commonly fattened on
autumn pastures.

The aim should be to fatten lambs on the farm on
which they are grown and for the following reasons: (i)
When thus fattened all the profit resulting from the
transaction comes to the grower of the lambs ; (2) when
thus fattened the profit should be more than when the
lambs are fattened elsewhere ; (3) the hazard of bringing
in disease is lessened. That more profit should accrue
when the lambs are fattened on the farm on which they
were grown is self-evident, as no expense is incurred in

2O4 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

purchasing, such as must be incurred when the lambs are
brought in from an outside source. Where the facilities
for fattening are present, it is very evident that if it pays
a purchaser to buy the lambs and take them to another
farm to fatten them, it should pay the grower better to
fatten them at home.

When the market is near, selling lambs to be fat-
tened on other farms finds little justification. It may be
different when the lambs must be shipped. It may prove
unduly expensive to ship them in any other way than in
carload lots. To accomplish this it may be necessary to
add to the lambs grown, by purchase, or to sell them to
another. This difficulty could, of course, be met by
shipping finished lots in a co-operative way. Of course,
it is better to sell lambs in the finished than in the un-
finished form; hence the farmer who purchases lambs
from other farmers and fattens them may be doing a good
work. Nevertheless it is better in every way, when it can
be done, to fatten the lambs on farms on which they are
grown. Of course, there are farms on which this cannot
be done, as, for instance, where so large a proportion of
the farm is too rugged to grow food other than pasture.
If fattened at all, the lambs growing on these farms must
be fattened elsewhere.

The most important source by far at the present time
from which sheep and lambs can be obtained in the
United States are the ranges of the West. Those grown
on the open range cannot be finished there. If fattened,
it must be in the mountain valleys where food is grown
with the aid of irrigation, or on arable farms that lie east-
ward from the ranges. The number fattened in the moun-
tain valleys as yet is relatively small, nor is it probable
that those valleys will be able in the future to furnish
food enough to fatten all the lambs grown on the ranges
adjacent to them. The surplus must needs be fattened on
the arable farm.

For such fattening they may be obtained by purchase

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER

directly from the range or at the stock yards to which
they are shipped, chiefly in the autumn season. When the
number wanted for feeding is large, it may be more profit-
able to purchase on the range, but where only a small
number is wanted they may be obtained most conveni-
ently from the stock yards. Here also co-operation may
be resorted to when necessary, but in nearly all instances
those farmers who purchase lambs for fattening aim to
feed not less than a carload lot, even though a part or all
of the food must needs be purchased.

Selecting sheep for fattening — In the selection of
sheep for fattening, form and size are much more im-
portant than breed or grade. It would not be correct to
say that breed is of no account, for all breeds are not
equally popular on the block. All things considered, the
most popular sheep with the butcher are those of the
middle wool breeds, and especially the smaller of these,
as the Southdown and Shropshire. But sheep of any
breed or grade with the required form will take the mar-
ket readily when well finished and of suitable size and
weight.

With reference to form, whether lambs or mature
sheep are fed, the aim should be to select them as far as
possible of the smooth, compact and short-limbed types
for the breed or grade which they represent. The pref-
erence should be for animals with firm, strong and
straight backs, round bodies denoting good spring of rib,
and much width through the shoulders and thighs. They
should have rosy or pink skins, indicating a healthy con-
dition of the system.

As to the size, the aim should be to have them con-
form as nearly as may be practicable to the needs of the
market. The market demand may differ in different
localities, but the smooth, neat carcass, with bone not
more than medium, is always preferred to the carcass
rough, or of the lanky order. Lambs that weigh not
more than 60 to 70 pounds when put on feed are to be

2O6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

preferred to those that are older, as they will then take
the market at weights under rather than over 100 pounds.
Weights even lighter than those named are preferred to
those that are heavier. Sheep of the medium and smooth
types are also preferred for fattening to those that are
larger. Heavy-weight lambs and wethers, such as were
much sought for years ago, are no longer in highest favor
with dealers or consumers.

The favorite age at which to turn off feeding lambs
is not a matter of so much importance as the weight
which the lambs reach when marketed. It is necessary
to sell lambs of the large breeds at an early age, lest they
become too heavy for the market demands. The weight
attained by mature sheep will vary, of course, with the
breed. The plan of fattening wethers at an age under one
year is continually growing in favor. The maintenance
of wethers for a longer period is now mainly confined to
the western ranges, and even on these it is growing less
in favor, as the maintenance of breeding ewes is thought
to be more profitable.

The age at which lambs shall be marketed is of much
less consequence than the weight which they possess.
The aim should be to have them reach the market as near
as may be possible to the favorite weights. To accom-
plish this it will be necessary to sell lambs of the large
breeds at an earlier age than those of the smaller breeds.
Shearlings make gains more quickly than sheep that are
older, and they call for a somewhat more nitrogenous diet
to aid in advancing development, though not so much so
as in the case with lambs. The older the sheep, the more
the food that is called for to make increase, and the more
carbonaceous may the ration be. The older that breed-
ing ewes are, the more expensive is it relatively to fatten
them and the less the price that is paid for them in the
market.

The condition of the sheep and lambs at the time of
purchase has an important bearing on the resultant profit,

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 2O/

if any, from feeding them. When purchased by weight,
the less of fat which they carry in proportion to the entire
weight the less opportunity is there for making increase,
but the lack of flesh should not be such as is associated
with a condition of positive lack of thrift. In other words,
when purchasing such animals, capacity to make increase
is more important than increase already made. But lean-
ness must not be present to the extent of calling for a
period too long relatively to bring the system into a con-
dition that capacitates it for making rapid increase.
Should the animals be purchased by the head, then, of
course, the more fat that they carry at the time of pur-
chase the less the quantity to be added thereto, and the
less the expense in completing the fattening.

Quarters suitable for feeding — The quarters suitable
for feeding sheep are much dependent on the climate. The
kind and character of the precipitation exercise a more
potent influence on the quarters that should be provided
than the degree of the precipitation. In some climates
shelter is not really called for other than protection from
winds. In others it should be so accessible that the sheep
could be put under cover on very short notice. The quar-
ters provided for sheep should always protect from falling
storms that are hurtful, strong winds and also from
drafts, and they should furnish a bed free from damp-
ness.

In northern areas it is usually if not in all instances
necessary to have a shed or stable in which the sheep may
be protected from adverse precipitation and a yard at-
tached to which they have the freest access, save in time
of storms. Under such conditions reasonably warm
quarters are not detrimental when the doors are kept
open giving access to the yards. Dry, well-lighted and
airy basements are not objectionable where those condi-
tions are observed, but it would be disastrous to a flock
to confine them in quarters overwarm. If fattened in a
shed it should be possible to close it against storms that

208 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

drift and swirl. The yard should be on the sunny side
and should have the protection of a high board fence or of
stacks of straw on the exposed side, or sides. Of course,
convenience in feeding and providing water should be
given careful attention. When sheep thus fed are shorn,
the quarters in which they are kept must be warm enough
to meet their needs.

In areas reasonably mild and dry, the protection of
a shed even may not be necessary. But the cover of a
grove or the protection of a bluff is always advantageous
in shielding the sheep on feed from the wind. In many
of the western mountain valleys sheep are thus fattened,
and even as far north as Montana. In some instances no
other protection is afforded than that of a fence surround-
ing the inclosure. The temperature is seldom too low
for the wellbeing of sheep on such food, the days of sun-
shine are almost continuous and the storms accompanied
by precipitation are light. Even as far north as Minne-
sota sheep have been fattened with reasonable success
with no other shelter than that of a bluff and a grove such
as grows in the ravines of the prairie.

In areas mild and moist the protection of a shed or
covering of some kind is, in a sense, necessary to shield
the sheep from rain and from snow or sleet should these
occur. In some instances sheds devoted to other uses
during. a part of the year may be used for feeding sheep
in winter. Sheds, for instance, in which tobacco is cured,
are sometimes thus used for protecting sheep that are be-
ing fattened at that season.

Leading sheep up to full feeding — When sheep are
first put upon a fattening ration, much caution should be
exercised with reference to the amount of grain fed and
the rate of increase in the feeding of the same. If the
food is too stimulating in character or excessive in quan-
tity, derangement in the digestion will result that will
greatly retard increase, if it does not lead to even more
serious consequences. Time must be given to allow the

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 209

digestive organs to accommodate themselves to the
change in the diet when unused to grain. Such accommoda-
tion properly attained will enable sheep to digest with
safety and profit after a time several times as much grain
as it would be safe to give to them at the first. Nor can
the system appropriate to itself the nutrients furnished in
heavy grain feeding with as much advantage when feed-
ing begins as at a later period. The lower the condition
of the animals, when feeding begins, the less power have
they to utilize such foods to the best advantage. When
the animals, whether lambs or sheep, are capable of tak-
ing maximum amounts of grain, they are said to be on
"full feed."

Ordinarily the grain fed until the sheep are on full
feed should be nitrogenous in character, but decreasingly
so as full feeding is approached. Much depends, how-
ever, on the nature of the fodder fed. When the rough-
age fed consists largely of clover or alfalfa hay, corn and
bran without other admixture may be fed when other
grain food is more costly. The proportion of bran at the
first should be large, but not so large as to hinder the
sheep from eating it with a relish, and it should decrease
as the feeding advances. But for such preliminary feed-
ing it will always be found helpful to add oats to the
grain fed, at least for a time. When the roughage con-
sists of ordinary hay, there is no better or safer food for
preliminary feeding than oats and bran fed in equal pro-
portions by bulk. Other kinds of grain will answer, but
none is quite so safe or so satisfactory in every way as
oats ; hence when the price of oats is such as to preclude
their use when the sheep are on full feed, it may, never-
theless, be found profitable to feed them to some extent
when the fattening process begins. When bran is not
obtainable, if five to 10 per cent of oilcake be added to
the grain, it will be found helpful. Where any consider-
able quantity of field roots is fed, it may not be neces-
sary to feed either bran or oilcake. When screenings are

2IO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

the sole fattening food, the only caution to observe is
not to increase too rapidly the quantity fed.

The amount to feed at the first will depend on the
character of the food previously eaten. When sheep or
lambs put on feed have never tasted grain previously,
which is sometimes the case with sheep grown on western
ranges, the quantity of grain fed at the first should be
very small, less probably than one-fourth of a pound per
animal daily. If previously well used to grain, the amount
fed may be larger, and it may be increased more rapidly
than with the former. With lambs that have been re-
ceiving a somewhat liberal grain ration from the period
of weaning on to the fattening season, full feeding may be
attained in a very short period; in fact, it may also
begin with the beginning of the fattening season. For
the amount of grain that constitutes full feeding, see
page 210.

From what has been said it will be very evident that
the time required to get sheep that are being fattened on
full feed will vary greatly. With foods rich in nitrogen
a less period is required than with foods rich in carbo-
hydrates. The less concentrated also the grain fed, the
shorter the period required to reach full feeding. But
the less that the sheep have been used to grain feeding,
the longer the time called for to reach this period. It
would seem correct to say that in no case should more
than four weeks be necessary for such feeding, and in
but few instances can it be reached in one week. As the
period advances the grain fed is gradually increased from
day to day in quantity, and sometimes also in strength.

When the grain feeding is crowded too fast, the first
indications of the fact in the conduct of the sheep will be
seen in the loss of appetite. The moment that such con-
ditions manifest themselves, the animals thus affected
should be removed from the others and put on reduced
rations. If such instances are at all numerous the quan-
tity of the grain fed should be reduced until normal con-

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 211

ditions prevail again. When a sheep is thus affected to
the extent of refusing food altogether, its progress in fat-
tening is much hindered, as considerable time must elapse
before the digestive organs recover lost vigor, if, indeed,
they ever recover it fully.

Fodders that are suitable — The range of the fodders
that may be fed to sheep that are being fattened is wide.
Of the legumes, it includes clover in all its varieties>
alfalfa, cowpeas and vetches. Among the non-leguminous
fodders it includes timothy and hay made from various
other grasses, corn stover, corn fodder, sorghum and the
nonsaccharine sorghums and straw of some of the small
cereals. A mixture of pea and oat hay or of vetch and
oat hay makes an excellent change. Millet hay given
alone or with oats may also be used.

Beyond question the legumes furnish the most val-
uable fodders. Relative suitability in these is more a
matter of palatability than of variety, and palatability is
more dependent on fine growth and careful harvesting
than on the kind of the legumes. Timothy and other
grasses are not so highly relished as clovers, but if cut
sufficiently early they will answer the purpose without
admixture. The combination, however, with clover,
when the fodder is of fine growth, furnishes a decided im-
provement. The value of millet hay or of millet and oat
hay is highest when harvested, as some of the millet heads
assume a yellow tint. Corn stover furnishes a cheap fod-
der, but is more suitable when shredded, as a larger pro-
portion of it is then consumed. Corn fodder, if of fine
growth, is decidedly superior to corn stover, and when
of the character mentioned it is not necessary to shred it.
The value of nonsaccharine sorghums for such feeding is
also largely dependent upon their fineness. Whether it
will pay to shred corn or the sorghums for such feeding
is still an unsettled question. The higher in price that fod-
ders are the greater will be the gain from shredding. Corn
fodder has the advantage usually of furnishing more or

212 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

less grain, and the same is true of pea and oat and vetch
and oat fodder cut at a proper stage of growth. Rye straw
is very low in value for such feeding. Wheat straw has
more value, and barley and oat straw have a value still
higher.

Too much importance cannot be attached to the qual-
ity of the fodder. When it has been grown and cured
properly, shredding or chaffing are seldom either neces-
sary or beneficial. Some waste will result from feeding
coarse clover or corn stalks, and considerable waste will
result from feeding straw, but sheep that are being fat-
tened should not be forced to consume such food. When
fodders are scarce and high, it is, of course, more impor-
tant that they shall be eaten somewhat closely.

The aim should be to feed fodders in racks as a rule.
The exceptions are corn and sorghum fodders under some
conditions of feeding. It is allowable sometimes to feed
these by strewing them on frozen surfaces when the con-
ditions are cleanly. Usually they are fed twice a day,
that is, evening and morning, and the aim should be to
clean out the residue, if any, in the racks before each feed
is given. But when very large lots are fed, it may be, in
a sense, necessary to keep a supply of fodder where it will
be at all times accessible to the sheep, notwithstanding
the considerable waste of such fodder, which thenceforth
is only useful for bedding. When straw of the small
cereals is fed, it should be in conjunction with other and
better fodders. When corn or sorghum fodders are on
hand, also hay from the grasses or clovers, and also straw
from the small cereals, the foods mentioned first may be
fed with most profit in the morning. Those mentioned
second in the evening, and those mentioned third at noon.
The most palatable fodder is thus reserved for the even-
ing meal. Corn fodder has a higher feeding value in the
autumn and early winter than later, and this is probably
true of all the sorghum fodders ; hence the aim should be
to save the best fodders as far as practicable for feeding

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 213

during the advanced stage of the fattening process. Straw
of the small cereals may in some instances furnish one of
the two feeds given, but not for long periods of feeding.
Some breeds of sheep, as the Merino, for instance, will
consume such straw more readily than others.

The amount of coarse fodder required cannot be
given with accuracy, as it will vary with the age of the
sheep, the kind and quality of the fodder and the propor-
tion of the concentrates fed, also the kind of the same.
If the fodders are such that sheep will eat them with a
relish until satisfied, they will consume about as much
fodder as grain (see page 218). But usually there is some
waste of fodder ; hence a greater weight of fodder is required
than of concentrates. With the best of alfalfa or clover
hay, it would be practicable to fatten sheep, when the
weight of the hay to the grain is as two to one.

Succulence that is suitable — The chief sources of
succulence in providing food for sheep that are being fat-
tened in winter are silage and field roots. Tubers may be
used to some extent, but usually they are too costly for
such feeding. Almost any kind of field roots will answer
the purpose, but rutabagas and mangels are most in favor,
largely for the reason that they are most cheaply grown.
Sugar beets are sometimes used, but these are more com-
monly fed in the form of pulp. Potatoes may be fed, but
usually they are too valuable for such feeding.

The value of silage in fattening sheep and lambs de-
pends in a considerable degree upon the character of the
silage and the conditions under which it is fed. It is
claimed that lambs especially take more kindly to en-
silage made from corn harvested at a somewhat more
advanced stage of growth than is usual in harvesting
corn intended for the silo. In other words, they prefer
silage not over-succulent and probably for the reason that
it is sweeter than other silage. In extremely cold weather
some care is necessary with reference to the quantity fed,
as the silage will freeze in a very short time in such

214 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

weather, nor does it seem judicious under such conditions
to encourage animals to fill the stomach with such food.
Under no conditions should silage be fed to sheep when
it is moldy or tainted with decay. Notwithstanding, the
high value of silage cannot be questioned, taken in con-
nection with its cheapness as a fattening food for sheep.

Field roots are not much used in the United States
in fattening sheep, for the reason chiefly that they are not
much grown. Viewed from the standpoint of the cost of
production, they are more costly to provide than corn
silage. Notwithstanding, when field roots are judi-
ciously fed, they tend to tone up the digestion, and thus to
influence favorably the health of the animals that are be-
ing fattened. The marked suitability of field roots for
fattening sheep, apart from the question of cost, is indi-
cated in the excellent results obtained from feeding when
sheep are given large quantities of sugar beet pulp; as
with feeding silage, it is not wise to feed very large
quantities of field roots during periods of prolonged and
extreme cold.

No fixed rule is followed in the order in which silage and
roots are fed, or in the number of feeds given daily. In
some instances these are fed once, in others twice. Some-
times they are fed in the morning, at other times in the
evening, and less frequently at noon. When large quan-
tities are fed they are commonly fed both morning and
evening. The silage is, of course, ready for feeding at all
times. The roots should be prepared by slicing them or
running them through a root pulper.

The amounts that may be fed or that should be fed, will
vary with the cost of growing or securing the silage or
roots and with the nature of the other foods. More of
both may be fed along with a heavy grain ration rather than
with a light one, as the considerable bulk of the silage and
roots get them so far for being the complement of the
concentrates which have little bulk. It is not usual to
feed more than three to five pounds of silage daily to

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 215

sheep that are being fattened, but in some instances twice
these amounts are fed. Two to three pounds daily are
helpful, because of the influence of the succulence pres-
ent, as well as of the nutrients in such food. Nor is it
usual to feed more than four to five pounds of field roots
daily, save when fed as beet pulp, but no hazard will re-
sult from feeding quantities double those just mentioned.
Under average conditions the greatest profit will doubt-
less result from feeding small quantities of roots, not more
probably than two to four pounds daily, because of the
beneficent influence which these exercise on the diges-
tion. They are a safeguard under heavy feeding of grain,
and the heavier the feeding of the grain and the more
concentrated it is, the more advantageous is such a safe-
guard.

Concentrates that are suitable — There is no kind of
grain grown on this continent that may not be used in
fattening sheep. These grains include corn, wheat, oats,
barley, rye, speltz and Canada field peas in the North,
sorghum seed both in the saccharine and non-saccharine
varieties in the states further South, and cowpeas and soy
beans in states where these may be successfully grown.
There is also the by-product of certain cereals known as
screenings. Of these corn will probably be used to a
greater extent than any other concentrate, for the reason
that it is more extensively grown than any other, and
that it is relatively cheaper. Wheat has high adaptation
for fattening sheep, as shown in many experiments, but
the high price which it commands forbids feeding it thus.
It is at least doubtful if wheat will ever again be fed in
this way in any considerable quantities, unless it should
be damaged, as by untimely frost. Oats are excellent
fed alone or in combination with other foods, but usually
the high price which they bring makes them a somewhat
expensive grain food. What is said of oats will apply al-
most equally to barley. The amount of rye grown rela-
tively restricts its use. It is not wise to feed it as the sole

2l6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

grain feed for long periods, lest the digestion should be
impaired, but it is an excellent food when properly com-
bined with other grains. Speltz has a feeding value not
far below or different from barley. Canada field peas
are excellent, but feeding them can only become general
in areas south and west where they are plentifully grown.
The sorghum seeds furnish a rich food and they may be
fed in the head without being threshed out. While cow-
peas and soy beans are excellent food for sheep when
fattening, the market price puts them almost out of reach
of the feeder in the meantime. Screenings are an ex-
cellent and a safe food, as has been shown time and again
in the experience of those who have fed sheep by the
hundred and the thousand at the stockyards.

Some of these foods will fatten sheep in reasonably
good form when fed alone, especially when the roughage
fed is of a character that will make the ration approxi-
mately balanced. These include corn, oats, peas and
screenings. Usually, however, better results will be ob-
tained from feeding these in combination with some other
food or foods. When more than two are combined, the
foods are eaten with more of a relish than when a less
number is fed. Some food when present in the grain
ration will in nearly all instances add to their feeding
value though present in limited quantity. Wheat bran
is one of these, but it is less relished by sheep than some
other foods and, therefore, should be fed only in moderate
quantities. Oilcake is another, and though highly rel-
ished, the price forbids feeding it heavily. These aid in
maintaining health, more especially when the animals are
subjected to high pressure feeding. Cottonseed meal may
be fed instead of bran or oilcake, but when fed heavily
it is not so safe a food as these. Oats also aid in keep-
ing the digestion in tone. When oilcake cannot be had,
a less amount of flaxseed will answer, though not quite
so well, in its stead.

When clover, alfalfa or other leguminous fodder is

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 217

being fed, the following grain rations will be found suit-
able after the sheep have been brought up to full feeding :
Corn, sorghum seed, barley, wheat, oats or peas, with say
five per cent of wheat bran or oilcake added, and in the
case of corn and sorghum seed a larger per cent. When
four to five pounds of roots are fed a day, the bran and
oilcake may be dispensed with, but when these and roots
also are included in the ration, the results will usually
be even more favorable. At the Wyoming station, alfalfa,
turnips and corn, alfalfa, turnips and barley, alfalfa, tur-
nips, corn and flaxseed, were all found to make cheap
gains, while alfalfa, turnips and flaxseed made the cheap-
est gains that were realized.

When the roughage is ordinary hay and corn or
sorghum fodders, the following may be used among the
grain rations that will usually prove satisfactory in fat-
tening sheep and lambs: (i) Corn or barley, bran and
oilcake in the proportion of say 75, 15 and 10 per cent by
weight. (2) Corn, barley, rye or sorghum seed ; oats ;
bran and oilcake in the proportions of 50, 25 15 and 10
per cent. (3) Corn, sorghum seed or rye; barley; oats;
bran and oilcake in the proportions of 40, 20, 20, 15 and
5 per cent. (4) Canada field peas and bran or Canada
field peas and oilcake, in the proportions of 90 and 10 per
cent in the first instance and 95 and 5 per cent in the
second instance. (5) Peas; oats; bran and oilcake in the
proportions of 50, 40, 5 and 5 per cent. (6) Oats and oil-
cake in the proportions of 90 and 10 per cent respectively.
(7) Wheat screenings fed alone or with almost any other
kind of grain added.

The following observations apply to the feeding of
grain to sheep and lambs that are being fattened: (i)
Gluten meal may be fed in lieu of corn meal or bran and
in the same quantities as oilmeal. (2) When bran is fed
rather than gluten or oilmeal, about twice the quantity
should be fed. (3) When field roots are sufficiently plen-
tiful, bran, oilcake and gluten meal may be dispensed

218 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

with, but there is no objection to feeding them other than
that which arises from cost. (4) Since corn is as a rule
the cheapest grain food, the aim should be to make it
form as large a part of the ration as is compatible with
the requirements. (5) While oats furnish a reasonably
good fattening food when fed alone, the ration is much
improved by feeding corn freely along with the oats. (6)
While the aim should be to feed the grains so as to bal-
ance the fodders, because of the cheapness of some kinds
of grain, it may be more profitable to feed them some-
what out of balance. (7) The value of wheat screenings,
one of the safest of foods, may vary from what is simply
nominal in a concentrate to what is highest value in the
same, according as they contain much or little grain.

It is not necessary to grind the grain fed to sheep
and lambs that are being fattened any more than it is to
chaff the coarse fodders for the same. They chew their
food finely, hence the digestion is very complete. The
only benefit from grinding screenings is that which arises
from making it impossible for the sheep to scatter the
weed seeds while eating them. They are usually fed
unground. When the cobs are fed with the corn, of
course both must be ground. It has not yet been shown
that such grinding will prove profitable.

The amount of food consumed by the sheep will vary
with the age, size and breed of the sheep. Sheep more
than one year old will consume more food than lambs,
and they will also consume more in proportion to the differ-
ence in the weights. It would seem safe to say that sheep
beyond the age of one year will consume not less than
33 per cent more food than lambs, the age at which they
are usually fattened. Such lambs when on full feed will
consume about one and one-half to two pounds daily of
grain, the amount, of course, varying with the decree of
the concentration. About the same quantity of alfalfa or
clover hay of high quality will be consumed, but a larger
amount will be necessary, of course, when a part is re-

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 219

jected because of coarseness or for other reasons. Lawes
and Gibbert found that sheep consumed food approx-
imately in proportion to their respective weights. It is
probably true that breed exercises no other influence on
food consumption than that which results from variation
in size.

The following observations, general in character, ap-
ply to the feeding of sheep on a finishing ration in winter :
(i) The aim should be to have the feeding racks placed
under cover except in climates dry and comparatively free
from winter storms. The rack space for lambs should
give from 8 to 12 inches to each lamb, and for older sheep
proportionately more. (2) More commonly the food is
given in two feeds daily — that is, morning and evening —
and the aim should be to give the food after morning has
dawned and before the darkness of night has come. The
work of feeding is thus more expeditiously done, and the
resting of the sheep is not thus disturbed. (3) Care
should be taken to clean out all the food usually before
giving other food. The remnant left, if any, may be used
for bedding or fed to other stock, according to the quality.
The influence on food consumption will be helpful. But,
of course, when sheep are fed on the self-feeding plan
such removal of rejected food is not entirely practicable.
(4) Much care should be exercised in observing regular-
ity in feeding. Sheep cannot be made to consume food
exactly fitted to their needs when they are fed irregu-
larly. (5) The aim should be to keep them as free as
possible from disturbing influences. They are very timid,
and unless accustomed to the presence of strangers, as
when fed at experiment stations, such visitations, and in
a greater degree the presence of dogs, will hinder their
gains. (6) They should be given access to salt at all
times, kept in boxes under cover, and in a condition free
from incrustation. When given irregularly the animals
will then drink too much water to make good increase.
(7) Water must be plentifully supplied, and of good

220

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 221

quality, if the sheep are to make the requisite gains.
When large lots are fed, it may be taken from vessels
supplied with floats to regulate the supply. To small
lots it may be furnished in buckets or tubs in the sheds.
Larger quantities of water will be consumed by sheep
that are being fattened, especially in the absence of field
roots or silage. It is quite practicable to feed field roots
to the extent of rendering it unnecessary to furnish any
water. (8) When fattening sheep and lambs in winter,
no practical benefit bearing on increase results from
shearing them before putting them on a fattening ration.
This conclusion rests on the result of general experi-
ments conducted by experiment stations, one of which
was conducted by the author at the experiment station
at Guelph, Ont., Canada. It was found, however, that
lambs thus fattened reached the market of Great Britain
in a form that was more attractive to the buyer than lambs
not shorn when the fattening began. Prof. John A. Craig
also found at the Wisconsin Station that shearing lambs
not more than six months old was helpful in preparing
them for autumn fattening, provided the shearing was
done not later than early October. But when the fatten-
ing of sheep or lambs is carried on into the springtime,
the fattening will be more rapid if the fleece is removed
as soon as the weather grows warm.

Self-feeders and their place — Self-feeding of sheep
means allowing them to take their food from boxes or
racks, according to the kind of the food, whenever they
want to eat from the same. The racks in which the hay
is fed, and also the boxes in which the grain is fed, are so
constructed that the food is continually accessible. In
some instances the grain only is fed in self-feeders, the
coarse fodder being supplied once or twice each day.

Self-feeders for grain are simply oblong boxes with
considerably more width at the top than the bottom.
When exposed they have a roof to protect the grain. In
this roof is a hinged lid, which extends along much or all

222 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

of the roof, through which the grain is admitted to the
boxes. Near the base of the sides is an opening running
the entire length of the boxes, and through this opening
the grain comes down into low troughs as fast as it is
eaten by the sheep. Under the box supports are placed
which raise it high enough from the ground to allow the
sheep to eat the food with comfort. The hay racks used
are in some instances of somewhat similar construction.

Although self-feeders may sometimes be used with
advantage on the ordinary farm, the wisdom of using
them is to be questioned. The sheep, when taking food,
leave more or less saliva on the uneaten grain in the box,
which fact detracts somewhat from its palatability,
resulting in a less consumption of the food. When the
sheep have access at all times to the food, the appetite
is less keen for taking food than when they take it at
stated times and in a way that consumes the entire
amount fed at each time of feeding. Experiments con-
ducted have tended to show that such feeding is expen-
sive, notwithstanding the saving in labor. They have
also shown that with some kinds of food it is more diffi-
cult to maintain the sheep in good health when thus fed.
Such was the experience of the author in feeding lambs at
the Minnesota station. Nevertheless, there is a place for
self-feeders, as when sheep are fed in a wholesale way at
the stock yards, and it may be at large feeding stations in
the semi-range country. Where wheat screenings is the
chief grain food fed, as it is usually at the stock yards,
the use of self-feeders is more justifiable than elsewhere,
as is shown below.

All kinds of grain cannot be fed in self-feeders with
equal advantage. The more concentrated and rich the
grain food, the more hazard is there in feeding it thus. It
would be disastrous to feed corn alone in self-feeders for
any long-continued period, as the tax thus put upon the
energies of the system in digesting quantities so large
of such a food would result in derangement of the diges-

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 223

tive organs, which in some instances would terminate
fatally. Similar results would follow from feeding some
other grain foods alone, but perhaps not quite so quickly.
When rich concentrates are fed in self-feeders, they
should be diluted, so to speak, by mixing with them other
foods, such as wheat, bran, oats or wheat screenings.
When the excess of concentration for such feeding of
these foods alone is thus lowered sufficiently, it is possi-
ble to feed any kind of grain, however rich, in self-feeders
with reasonable safety.

Fattening sheep on sugar beet pulp — Sheep and
lambs are in some instances fattened in a large way in
proximity to sugar beet factories. The principal food fed
is sugar beet pulp ; but, of course, other adjuncts are fed
more or less in conjunction with the pulp. The sheep are
kept in yards. In mild areas, as, for instance the valleys
of Colorado and other mountain states of a similar or
lower latitude, sheds are not provided, but in areas with
colder winters and frequent precipitation, as Michigan,
sheds are necessary. In the middle areas referred to, the
pulp is usually drawn from the pit or inclosure into which
it is conveyed from the factory. It is drawn from day to
day. In some instances it is fed in troughs. In other
instances the feed of hay for the day is strewn along the
fence that surrounds the yard. The pulp is thrown onto
this hay from the wagons which convey it. The sheep
eat the pulp, and thus the hay, by putting their heads
through an opening between the fence boards that has
been made for such a use. There is some waste from such
feeding, but not so much as would be looked for by those
unaccustomed to seeing it. When feeding small lots on
the farm and more distant from the factories, it would be
necessary when the winter climate is severe, to draw the
pulp and put it in a silo before the season of hard freez-
ing. From this it may, of course, be fed at will as desired.

The pulp may be fed ever so freely to the sheep. It
has been claimed that it is more valuable as a food than

224 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

the beets, as any salts inimical to the needs of the sheep
are washed out in the process of manufacturing the beets.
The amount of feed will be influenced by the size of the
sheep and by the respective amounts of hay and grain
fed. As many as 10 pounds per animal daily have been
fed with advantage, but more commonly not more than
five to six pounds are fed daily along with fodder and
grain. It is entirely practicable to finish sheep and lambs
on alfalfa hay and beet pulp, but a better finish is made
when a small amount of grain is fed all the while, or a
larger amount fed only toward the close of the feeding
season. The pulp has high adaptation for feeding sheep
so old that the teeth have begun to fail, as they are able
to consume it without difficulty.

Any kind of fodder may be fed with the pulp that is
nutritious and palatable. In the western valleys alfalfa
is commonly fed along with beet pulp owing to its abun-
dant growth in them. The alfalfa and pulp furnish a grand
food for growing sheep and a very cheap food for finish-
ing them, but the finish is not so satisfactory as when
some grain is fed. Clover when it can be obtained is about
equally satisfactory with alfalfa, but hay from the grasses
or corn or sorghum fodder will suffice.

Corn has peculiar adaptation for being fed along with
sugar beet pulp and any leguminous fodder, as clover or
alfalfa. Good results will be obtained from feeding one
pound daily to lambs, but in some instances more is fed.
The heavier feeding of corn is most important toward
the close of the feeding period. Barley is also good, but
other grains may be substituted for either corn or barley.

The feeding of the pulp in the dry form to sheep or
lambs that are being fattened has scarcely begun in
America, but it may yet be extensively used for such fat-
tening.

Feeding sheep on western ranges — Sheep and lambs
are frequently fattened in a large way in certain areas of
at least some of the range states in proximity to lands

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 225

usually irrigated which produce alfalfa in great abun-
dance. In some instances they are fed somewhat similarly
in states which border on the range country to the east.
Many thousands are fattened simultaneously at some of
these feeding stations.

Usually the yards are so arranged that only half the
number are occupied at one time. This arrangement is
intended to furnish the opportunity to replenish the feed
racks in the yards not occupied. In other instances the
grain is fed in self-feeders, but the sheep are only allowed
to eat for a limited time, when another lot is admitted.
In many instances the yards are arranged on both sides
of a driveway for convenience in feeding the hay. No
shelter is provided other than what will ward off the
wind. Salt is continually before them and water is always
accessible. In each yard from 400 to 500 sheep are fed.

In some instances the hay is fed on the ground on the
two sides of the driveway. From day to day it is strewn
along the fences. The sheep eat it by putting the head
through a 7 or 8-inch space between the boards in the
fence. In other instances it is fed in wide racks in the
yards, as wide as, say, 12 to 18 feet. The 8-inch boards
that form the sides of these racks run lengthwise, and the
sheep take the hay through the openings between them.
As the hay is eaten it is pushed forward. In yet other
instances the stacks are placed close up to the outer fence,
and as it is eaten it also is pushed forward.

More commonly the grain is fed in limited supply.
The necessity for feeding it thus arises from the fact that
usually corn is fed with sometimes a small percentage of
oilcake in it. Unlimited access to such food would be
attended with hazard. It is fed at first in small quantities,
and in few instances does the amount fed exceed one and
one-half pounds each day for mature sheep when on full feed.

As the food is all dry, large amounts of water are
consumed, which is usually pumped up fresh by wind-
mills from day to day. When fattening sheep and lambs

226 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

thus, the aim is to keep down the outlay for labor to a
minimum, as such labor is relatively costly in the far
West. Such a system of feeding is more or less wasteful
of hay, and the manure resulting is not always used to the
best advantage because of the expense of applying it.

Fattening sheep on screenings — The feeding of
screenings has already been touched upon (see page 218).
Screenings may be obtained from any kind of grain that
calls for winnowing. In the merchantable sense they are
obtained by the screening of grain at elevators, in which
it is sent directly from the threshing machine. In addi-
tion to small and shrunken grain and broken kernels, the
screenings contain the seeds of all kinds of weeds that
have grown in the crops. Sheep are very fond of these,
partly for the reason that they are fond of variety, and
the nutritive properties are such that sheep usually fatten
satisfactorily on such food. Screenings furnish one of the
most healthful of fattening foods, but in some instances
wild mustard seeds are present to the extent of being
prejudicial to the health of the sheep, because of their
over-stimulating character. Screenings largely composed
of shrunken grains of wheat are about as valuable for
feeding sheep as good wheat. On the other hand screen-
ings may contain so much broken straw and so little nutri-
ment as to be of little value in feeding sheep, unless corn
or some other rich grain food is mixed in with them or is
fed as supplemental to them.

Screenings are usually fed only at the stock yards,
where sheep and lambs are fed in sheds in a wholesale
way, or at certain other feeding centers, where they are
similarly fed. They are so fed because they are sent
away from the farm when the grain is sold. In order to
feed them on farms, the farmer would have to buy what
he or some of his neighbors previously gave away, and in
addition would have to pay the cost of transit. Hay is
fed in addition to the screenings, but the main dependence
is on screenings.

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 22/

As has been intimated, screenings are in nearly all
instances fed in self-feeders, and for such feeding they are
one of the safest of foods. Notwithstanding, even screen-
ings will give better results, viewed apart from the cost
of feeding, when fed only in such quantities as will be
eaten clean by the sheep.

Viewed from the standpoint of the farm and its needs,
it would be much wiser to clean the grain and keep the
screenings for feeding on the farm. Because of this it is
not too much to expect that the day is not distant when
the farmer will cease to give away his screenings and will
feed them at home. That he does give them away is
certain, as on every bushel of grain sent to the elevator
there is a certain amount of dockage because of the pres-
ence of screenings. In addition to the cost of the screen-
ings for feeding on the farm is the loss of the fertility
that would have resulted from feeding them.

Fattening two lots in succession — It is quite prac-
ticable to fatten two lots of sheep in succession during the
same winter. When this can be done the profit should be
greater than when one lot only is fattened, other things
being equal, as it results in the more complete utilization
of the plant. Such feeding may be conducted, not only
on the farm, but also at feeding plants established else-
where. The chief obstacle to be overcome in relation to
such feeding is the greater difficulty found in obtaining
the sheep or lambs for feeding at the season when it is
usual to put the second lot on feed. Such feeding is made
possible by the comparatively short season called for to
make sheep ready for the market.

The first lot is put on feed when cool weather is ap-
proaching, say about November i.. In three months they
will usually be ready for the market. They are then sold
at a season when prices for mutton are relatively good ;
that is, in February. If put on feed much earlier they
would be ready to market at the holiday season or dur-

228 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

ing the period of comparative slack demand for meat im-
mediately following that season.

The feeding of the second lot may begin immediately
after the sale of the first lot. When put on foods for fat-
tening, say not later than the middle of February, they
will be ready for market not later than May 15. If they
can be put upon a finishing ration at the beginning of
February, then they may be sold early in May, a month
during which good prices usually prevail for such meat,
as grass-finished animals have not yet reached the market.
But they should be shorn without fail when the weather
begins to get warm.

Where such feeding can be conducted, especially on the
arable farm, the benefit therefrom will be apparent. In addi-
tion to any direct profit that may result, the fertilizer pro-
duced is doubled, which is a matter of great importance
to the feeder whose lands call for additional fertilizer. It
would even be practicable to finish three lots of sheep
within the year on the same farm, and the first lot in such
instances would be finished on grazing such as rape, and
marketed not later than November I.

Hazard to breeding flocks — The fattening of sheep
and lambs on the arable farm, when the supplies for fat-
tening are purchased is attended with no little hazard to
the breeding flock when one is kept upon the same farm.
Such hazard consists in the possible, if not indeed proba-
ble, introduction of parasites, such as tape and stomach
worms. Where the feeders are purchased it is impossi-
ble to know whether these and certain other parasites are
present or not. The presence of such insects as scab
mites and ticks may usually be discovered at the time of
purchase, and by making proper use of dipping tanks
their introduction to the farms may be prevented. If
purchased at the stockyards the dipping may most con-
veniently be done at the stockyards, but if purchased else-
where it must be done on the farm. To make sure that
all the insects will be destroyed when scab is present, two

.

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 229

dippings should be given. Since the presence of internal
parasites cannot usually be known when sheep are pur-
chased, when brought to farms for fattening they should
not be allowed access either to the pastures on which the
breeding flocks graze, or the pens in which they are con-
fined. Although the life history of these parasites is not
fully known, experience has abundantly proved that
breeding flocks may be infected through the introduction
of sheep for fattening. The danger would seem to be
greatest when sheep thus introduced are given access to
the pastures on which the breeding flocks graze. If the
sheep introduced can be confined to sheds and yards to
which the breeding flocks have no access, the hazard in-
curred is reduced to a minimum.

Because of the hazard of introducing parasitical dis-
eases, it is at least questionable if sheep should be brought
in to be fattened on the same farm on which a breeding
flock is kept. Where practicable it would seem better to
increase the breeding flock to the full capacity of the farm,
and to fatten on it only such supplies as the farm was
thus able to furnish. The importance of keeping breed-
ing flocks of sheep free from parasites cannot be over-
estimated. Nor should it be forgotten that the danger of
introducing parasites with sheep purchased on other
farms is as great as when they are purchased at the stock-
yards.

Sheep fattened only on the farm — It is unfortunate in
several respects that all the sheep and lambs that are fat-
tened are not finished on the farm. The benefits from
such feeding include the following: (i) The percentage
of loss from feeding in such lots is less than in those that
are large ; (2) roughage is utilized that may otherwise
be wasted; (3) the fertilizer is turned to good account;
and (4) the farmer is given work that should bring a
profitable return at a time when other work is not press-
ing.

The percentage of loss with sheep fed in small lots

230 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

is less than with sheep fed in large lots, for reasons very
similar to those which explain the greater loss in breed-
ing flocks of large size as compared with those of small
size. These include: (i) The less favorable sanitary
conditions where large lots are kept, from the less pure
character of the air; (2) the less favorable opportunity for
each to get its rightful share of the food; and (3) the
greater opportunity furnished for communicating any
communicable form of ailments that may invade the flock.
These cases, however, are much less with the hardy
Merinos than with the mutton breeds, especially with
those of large size.

On every farm there is a certain amount of roughage
that may be turned to good account where live stock is
kept or fed, which would not be so used but for the pres-
ence of the same. Such fodders include corn stalks, bean
and pea straw, and the straw of various cereals. These,
of course, may be utilized by other kinds of stock, as
horses or cattle, if present; but on many farms it may
not be desirable to keep these in numbers that will con-
sume all the rough fodders grown. Such is the case fre-
quently on what are termed grain farms. Where sheep
are fed in large lots, both the fodders and the grain fed
to them in fattening are taken from the farm, and the
resultant fertilizer seldom comes back again to the farm
from which it was taken.

The waste of fertilizer when sheep are kept in large
lots is usually very great. At many feeding stations but
little use has been made of it in the past. In some in-
stances in the West it has been loaded on to flat cars at
the stockyards, drawn to some ravine or gully and then
thrown off the cars into it as the easiest way of disposing
of it. At feeding stations in the mountain states the
waste of manure is also frequently very great. More care,
however, is now being taken of this precious commodity
than in former years. When the sheep are fed on the
farm, all the fertilizer made may be readily applied and

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 23!

in a way that may be attended with but little loss of its
useful properties.

When sheep are fattened on the farm in winter, the
feed fed to them should result in more profit to the farmer
than if the same were disposed of by selling it directly.
In this way the door is opened for increasing the revenue
of the farm through work done at a season when work
is usually not pressing. The advantage from increasing
revenue at such a time will be so apparent that it need
not be dwelt upon.

Duration of the fattening period — The duration of
the fattening period will depend measurably on the fol-
lowing considerations, along with some others that may
be named: (i) The relative amount of protein and car-
bohydrates respectively in the ration ; (2) the degree of
the concentration in the ration ; (3) the way in which the
food is fed ; (4) the nature of the market ; and (5) the con-
dition of the animals when put on feed. The more protein
and the less carbohydrates in the ration, the longer the
period that is called for in which to finish the sheep, and
vice versa. Foods that are highly concentrated, like corn,
cannot be fed safely for so long a period as foods less
concentrated and more bulky, like oats and field roots.
Sheep or lambs cannot be fed for so long a period when
the food is fed in self-feeders as when fed only up to the
capacity of the animals to consume it from time to time
with a relish. Some markets call for sheep with a some-
what less degree of finish than others ; hence it is not
necessary to feed them for so long a period for the former.
That sheep low in flesh when put on feed will take a
longer time to fatten than those high in flesh is only self-
evident. This factor alone may make a difference of sev-
eral weeks in the time called for in reaching a high degree
of finish. In but few instances are sheep or lambs fin-
ished in less than 60 days, and they can only be finished
thus quickly when they are in good condition as to flesh
when the feeding begins. On the other hand the feeding

232 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

is seldom prolonged for more than 120 days. More com-
monly it covers a period of about 90 days. Lambs call
for a somewhat longer period to reach high flesh than
more mature sheep as they make muscle in a greater de-
gree than the latter.

When sheep and lambs are fattened within a short
time, concentrates rich in the elements of nutrition must
be fed. For such feeding no grain has higher adaptation
than corn. Finishing within short periods is attended
with more hazard than when feeding is more prolonged.
The mortality attending such feeding is usually greater
than when the period of feeding is more extended.

The fattening of sheep and lambs may be prolonged
in two ways. By the first the quantity of protein fed is
large, relatively, and by the second, while the concentrate
fed is chiefly carbonaceous, it is not fed up to the limit
of the capacity of the animals to consume it. While feed-
ing in the latter sense may be more costly in the amount
of food consumed to produce the necessary finish, the less
relative loss may more than compensate for the extra food
used.

With rare exceptions, the aim should be to reach a
high finish in the animals fed. The exceptions include such
times as when home-grown food supplies are short and
the cost of purchased foods is high, and when an early
winter brings fattening on the pastures to an abrupt close
under conditions which preclude the continuance of the
fattening process in sheds. High finish and top market
prices are almost invariably associated. An advance of
even a fraction of a cent a pound will make considerable
difference in the profits.

Increase from sheep while fattening — Prominent
among the conditions that affect increase are breeding,
individuality, age, and food. It is true that breed influ-
ences gains, but to a less degree than individuality in the
animals that are being fattened. Sheep, for instance, that
have been developed largely for the wool produced, as the

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 233

Merino types, do not usually make gains quite equal to
those of the distinct mutton breeds. Likewise less in-
crease is to be expected from culls than from sheep pos-
sessed of good form and robust individuality. Lambs will
usually make larger increase than sheep that are older,
and the relative increase grows less with advancing age.
A ration well furnished with protein will usually be at-
tended with largest increase during the early stages of
fattening, but more of carbohydrates are wanted during
the more advanced stages to make rapid increase.

The normal increase will vary, of course, with the
conditions just pointed out. Moderate increase in lambs
on feed will approximate 7^4 pounds per month ; good in-
crease, 10 pounds ; and excellent increase, 12 pounds. The
normal increase from wethers and other mature sheep will
probably approximate 20 to 25 per cent less.

The source of the profit from fattening sheep is sel-
dom found in the increase made while they are being thus
fattened. It comes from the enhanced value of each
pound of the live weight possessed when the fattening
process began. The market values of food are such that
in nearly all instances a pound of increase made costs
more in the food used in making it than it will sell for in
the market, and yet the advance in value of each pound
of the original weight may be such as to result in sub-
stantial profits.

Profit in fattening in winter — The real source of the
profit has just been pointed out, and yet other factors
have an important influence in determining what the de-
gree of the profit shall be, if any. Chief among these are
the prices paid for the animals purchased, if purchased,
and received for them when marketed, the weight when
put on feed, the relative increase made and the cost of the
food fed. From what has been said it will be apparent
that in order to make any profit on the animals fed, there
must be some increase in the selling over the buying
price.

234 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

To make a very moderate profit, experience has
shown that with concentrates at one cent a pound the
selling price should exceed the buying price by not less
than one cent per pound live weight. To make a good
profit the former should exceed the latter by not less than
\y2 cents per pound.

The marked influence of the weights of the animals
at the time of purchase will be readily apparent. Thus
if one animal purchased and put on feed weighs 100
pounds at the time of purchase and increases in value one
cent per pound because of the fattening, and if another
animal weighs but 60 pounds under similar conditions of
purchase and sale, the increase in the value of the former
at the time of purchase will be 40 cents more than that of
the latter. At first thought it would seem more profitable
to purchase large rather than small animals to put on
feed, but in practice in very many instances this does not
hold true, owing to the bearing of other influences
affected by size and age, as the purchase and sale prices,
rate of increase and cost of the same.

The bearing of the rate of increase and the cost of
food are so apparent as not to call for prolonged dis-
cussion. Rapid increase adds to profit by its actual value,
by reducing the cost of maintenance and by the salutary
influence which it exercises on condition. When the cost
of concentrates exceeds one cent per pound and the selling
price of the finished product is not more than 5 to 6 cents
per pound live weight, careful feeding is necessary to in-
sure much profit.

The relative profit from feeding lambs and wethers
or other sheep more mature than lambs will vary with
conditions such as relate to purchase and sale, also to the
value of food. The comparison may be stated thus :
Lambs usually cost more per pound when purchased,
make more increase and at less cost and are sold at an
advance in price greater, as a rule, than that obtained
for other sheep ; hence the margin of profit on lambs is in

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 235

many instances greater than the same from more mature
sheep. Nevertheless, because of the greater weight of
the more mature sheep at the time of purchase, the ad-
vance in value on this weight may in some instances bring
a larger margin of profit from these. When the sheep
are grown on the farm, the margin of profit from fatten-
ing will be the larger, as they consume from, say, 20 to 30
per cent less food for the increase made. Lambs will call
for approximately 500 pounds of grain and 400 pounds of
hay to make 100 pounds of increase. The risk from loss
during the feeding is also less with lambs.

Usually the finishing of aged ewes in winter is the
most undesirable kind of fattening in relation to sheep, as
they feed slowly, make increase at enhanced cost as com-
pared with other sheep, are fed at greater hazard and are
slower of sale. But in some instances the fattening of
these may fetch a good margin of profit, as when they
may be purchased cheaply and fattened at low cost.

General observations on fattening — i. The fattening
process in its relation to the carcass proceeds in outline
as follows : The formation of fat begins internally by
creating the web that covers the intestines. It then be-
comes manifest at the tailhead, from which it extends for-
ward on both sides of the spine to the neck. It is then
deposited in the muscles. The kidneys become entirely
covered, the muscular tissue becomes marbled, the tail
becomes thick and stiff, the top of the neck broad, and
the cod or udder filled. But the formation of fat is by no
means uniform in sheep. One will lay on the largest pro-
portions of fat on the rump and parts adjacent thereto ;
a second on the back ; a third on the parts adjoining the
forequarter, as the neck, breast and brisket; a fourth on
those pertaining to the hindquarter, as the kidney and
flank ; and a fifth on the internal organs generally.

2. The prominent indications of ripeness in the car-
cass are : Stiffness and thickness at the root of the tail ;
a good covering of flesh on the loin and back generally,

236 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

much width of the neck above and fullness of the breast
below, and thickness of the flank front and rear. If fat
is lacking at the tailhead, it will not be found elsewhere.
If abundantly present at the flanks and cod, it is not likely
to be lacking elsewhere. That degree of fatness should
not be sought that will lead to the rejection of a large
amount of fat when trimming the carcass.

3. The rations for fattening should be fed in approxi-
mate balance as a rule. In these protein foods should be
used with much freedom, especially with lambs, but it
would be easily possible to feed them so freely as to re-
sult in protein waste. In some instances, however, it may
be profitable to feed protein in excess, and in other in-
stances carbohydrates, because of the difference in the
relative value of these.

4. The shrinkage in fat sheep and lambs in transit
will vary with the foods used in fattening, with the degree
of the finish and with the time occupied in reaching the
market. The more succulent the foods used in finishing,
the longer relatively will be the shrinkage, and vice versa.
Well-finished sheep will usually shrink less than those of
lower finish. The longer the animals are in transit the
more, of course, will they shrink. When not more than
one to two days are occupied in transit, the shrinkage
should not be more than, say, four to five pounds for ani-
mals averaging 100 pounds live weight. In journeys on
the cars covering 1,000 miles approximately, shrinkage to
the extent of nine to 10 per cent has been reported.

5. There is not a consensus of opinion as to the cause
of what is termed "sheepy flavor" in mutton, nor is it
easy to express in words what is meant by the term. It
is that flavor sometimes found in mutton which reminds
those who have come in contact with sheep of the pres-
ence of the living animal. The common opinion that it
is caused by careless dressing, as the wool coming in con-
tact with the flesh, is not tenable, as the flavor is some-
times found in sheep that have been carefully dressed. It

FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 237

is doubtless caused by the way that the animals have been
fed and by the condition at the time of slaughter. If the
sheep are not improving, but rather losing flesh at the
time of slaughter, the less active conditions of the ex-
cretory organs removes less perfectly from the system all
the waste products. This view finds countenance in the
fact that the flavor referred to is not present in mutton
well fed and well finished.

CHAPTER XII

MILK LAMBS AND HOW TO OBTAIN, GROW
AND MARKET THEM

Chapter XII considers the following phases of this
question: (i) What is meant by a milk lamb; (2) The
essentials in a milk lamb ; (3) How to obtain milk lambs ;
(4) How to change the breeding habit in ewes ; (5) Expe-
rience at the Minnesota station ; (6) Milk lambs other
than from Dorset sires ; (7) Where milk lambs should be
grown ; (8) The quarters suitable for milk lambs ; (9)
Care and food for the dams ; ( 10) Care and food for the
lambs; (u) Marketing the lambs; (12) Management of
the dams when the lambs are sold; (13) Disposing of the
dams to be sold; (14) Growing milk lambs chiefly from .
grazing; and (15) The room for the industry.

What is meant by a milk lamb — In the strictest sense
a milk lamb is one that is sent to the market while yet
unweaned. Any lamb, therefore, that is sold prior to the
weaning season could with propriety be termed a milk
lamb, even though it should have reached the age of 18
to 20 weeks. But that is not the sense in which the
term is usually understood. Strictly speaking, a milk
lamb is a lamb that is dropped in the late autumn or early
winter and that is pushed forward by forced feeding and
sold at an age usually not more than 10 weeks from the
date of birth. They are frequently called winter lambs,
from the season during which they are usually grown.
They are also known as hothouse lambs from the forcing
and pampering to which they are subjected. The milk
lamb industry, though of long standing in Great Britain,
is of comparatively recent introduction into the United
States. The sale of such lambs as happened to come
early when not more than two to three months old has

MILK LAMBS: HOW TO GET, GROW AND MARKET 239

been commonly practiced for many years, but the sys-
tematic breeding of winter lambs does not go back much
beyond two decades. The industry has almost entirely
grown up since 1890. But few flocks of Dorsets were
owned in the United States at the date mentioned. The
very considerable distribution of Dorsets since that time
has tended much to the advancement of the milk lamb
industry.

Essentials in a milk lamb — With reference to growth
in a milk lamb, it must be rapid; otherwise it will not
possess the requisite tenderness called for in such lambs,
nor would it reach the market at the proper season except
when born at an early period for winter lambs. With
reference to condition, it must be fat and plump; other-
wise it will not grade sufficiently high to command the
good prices usually paid for good winter lambs. With
reference to form, it should possess good mutton requi-
sites with correct form. The breed or grade is not greatly
important. It may, however, have some significance, as
miniature horns in Dorset lambs have to some extent
become recognized as a mark of a true milk lamb. With
reference to weight, it should seldom exceed 45 pounds
and should seldom fall below 35 pounds. Providing the
lambs have sufficient weight and plumpness, the age will
not be inquired into, but the growth made must be made
rapidly, or the lambs will not be possessed of sufficient
plumpness to meet the needs of the market at the weights
that are most desirable. These lambs should reach the
market while under the age of, say, 10 weeks.

The time for marketing milk lambs is supremely im-
portant in its relation to the business. The best time to
market them is subsequently to the holiday season at the
end of the year and before the Easter season. Before the
holiday season the lambs are not much sought for, be-
cause of the extent to which poultry is used. Subse-
quently to the Easter period they would reach the mar-
ket in competition with early lambs not specially grown

240

MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF' SHEEP

as milk lambs. The competition from the poultry in the
one instance and the early lamb in the other would tell
adversely on prices. Milk lambs should not be dropped,
therefore, much earlier than December nor much later
than February. The high price, relatively, paid for milk
lambs is the justification for breeding them.

FIG. 12— TYPICAL DORSET HORN RAM

The property of the Minnesota Experiment Station

(Courtesy of owner)

How to obtain milk lambs — Milk lambs can only be
obtained from a limited number of the pure breeds. The
Dorset and Tunis breeds are the only pure breeds from
which milk lambs are obtained in America in any consid-
erable numbers. The other pure breeds usually drop
their lambs too late to admit of growing them as winter
lambs. Merinos, in many instances, will produce lambs
early in the season if allowed to, but the habit of breed-
ing so as to produce lambs in the early winter is not en-

MILK LAMBS: HOW TO GET, GROW AND MARKET 24!

grafted on them as it is on the other breeds named.
Among the Down breeds Hampshires are probably the
most suitable. But milk lambs may also be obtained
from grades, though not until the breeding habit in these
has been so modified that they will with reasonable cer-
tainty produce lambs at the desired season. Such lambs
may be thus obtained from grades possessed of various
blood elements, but not until the breeding habit is modi-
fied by some such method as that pointed out below,
when discussing changing the breeding habit.

The material from which milk lambs may be obtained
is not plentiful as yet. Pure Dorsets and pure Tunis
sheep are too valuable to grow milk lambs from them.
The attempts to modify the breeding habit in grades are
recent and by no means general. As a result, the material
from this source for breeding winter lambs is not plenti-
ful. But it is from this source that growers of pure bred
lambs will chiefly obtain the ewes that will furnish the
lambs.

How to change the breeding habit — The tendency in
nearly all breeds of sheep is to drop their lambs in the
spring rather than in the autumn or winter. This tend-
ency or breeding habit may be so modified that ewes
will produce lambs at any season that may be desired ;
one or two methods may be chosen to effect such change.
By the first it is brought about by selection, by the sec-
ond through breeding and selection. The second method
will reach the desired end much more quickly than the first.

When the breeding habit is changed by selection, the
ewes that breed early are retained for such breeding. The
progeny of these are also saved for further breeding.
When the flock is well sustained by nourishing food, the
tendency to breed still earlier is encouraged. In time,
therefore, the habit in breeding may be changed from
one season to another. This method of securing change,
however, is too slow in itself to meet the needs of the
growers of milk lambs.

242 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

When the breeding habit is changed by breeding and
selection combined, the change is affected in great part by
the sires chosen. The females set aside for such breed-
ing may be much mixed in their blood elements. In
selecting them the character of the inheritance need not
give much concern. Evidence of Merino inheritance
should be regarded with favor, as it will, when present,
facilitate to some extent quick change in the breeding
habit. Some attention should be given to size and form
when selecting them. They should approximate what is
considered good mutton form and should have reasonably
good size. Moreover, they should have that roominess
of body and refinement of head, neck and limb that indi-
cate capacity to milk freely.

Ewes thus chosen should be mated with rams chosen
from the Dorset or Tunis breeds. The mating should be
as early in the season as the ewes will take service, and it
may to some extent be hastened by giving the ewes nour-
ishing and succulent food. A certain proportion of lambs
will thus be obtained considerably earlier than such ewes
have been accustomed to breed, but not early enough, it
may be, to serve as milk lambs. The females that are
born thus early should be reserved for further breeding.
They should in due time be mated with a ram of the same
breed. If well sustained, a considerable proportion of
these will drop lambs in the early winter. The males
may be pushed forward and sold as milk lambs, but the
females should be retained for future breeding. If well
sustained, a very large proportion of these ewes — that is,
ewes of the second cross — will produce winter lambs.
With ewes of the third generation of such breeding, the
habit of producing winter lambs at the desired season
may be looked upon as practically established. The ewes
that do not show much advance in the time of breeding
can, of course, be discarded, but in well-managed flocks
it will be found that few of these will fail to breed much
earlier than the usual season for breeding.

MILK LAMBS: HOW TO GET, GROW AND MARKET 243

Food plays an important part in hastening or retard-
ing change in the breeding habit. When the ewes that
have produced early lambs are well sustained with nour-
ishing and succulent food during the nursing period, they
will frequently mate soon after the lambs have been
weaned ; hence after the change in the breeding habit has
been established, the ewes will sometimes mate so as to
produce lambs earlier than is desirable if allowed to do so.
When the lambs are sold several weeks before the time
for grazing begins, the ewes will mate more readily be-
fore being turned out to graze than for some time sub-
sequently, owing probably to the temporary reduction in
flesh which usually follows the beginning of the grazing
period. To insure mating sufficiently early, the grazing
should be nutritious, and along with it some supplemental
grain may be helpful in securing sufficiently early breeding.

Experience in Minnesota — To throw light upon this
question, the author instigated a series of experiments at
the Minnesota station several years ago. The ewes
selected for the purpose were of the commonest types
that could be secured. A considerable proportion were
ewes from the range, such as are exposed for sale from
time to time in the stockyards. The blood elements pos-
sessed by them were various. Judging by the indications,
the blood elements of the Southdown, Shropshire, Oxford
Down and Cotswold breeds were more or less present,
and the evidences of Merino blood were pronounced in
nearly all of them. In some instances they carried folds
and even wrinkles.

The males used were pure Dorsets possessed of good
mutton form. In some instances the sire was used on his
own progeny, but this was not generally practiced. Later
when the breeding habit had been modified so that the
ewes could be expected to produce lambs at the required
season, pure males of the dark-faced breeds were used in
service to a limited extent, especially those of the South-
down breed.

244 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

During the summer the ewes were grazed largely on
sown pastures, such as winter rye, rape, peas and oats,
cabbage, and even sorghum, along with a limited amount
of grass pastures. They were so grazed because of the
absence of enough of grass pasture. When the grass
pasture was entirely lacking, which happened in some in-
stances, hay was fed. In winter the ewes that were nurs-
ing their lambs were fed hay or good corn fodder, a liberal
supply of grain, and also of field roots. The lambs were
also encouraged to take grain and roots as soon as they
would take such food. It was found that some of the
ewes of the first cross produced lambs sufficiently early.
A large proportion of those of the second cross or gener-
ation did so, while those of the third generation practi-
cally all produced winter lambs. Only a small per cent
of the ewes were discarded because of breeding too late
in the season. Moreover, it was found that some of the
ewes would take service earlier than was desired, if al-
lowed to do so. In some instances lambs were produced
in October. Some of these, too large to take the market
as milk lambs at the proper season, weighed as much as
80 to 90 pounds when sold in February. It was also
found that lambs obtained from grade Dorset ewes and
dark-faced sires, especially of the Southdown breed, were
more in favor with the dealers than those from Dorset sires.

Other than Dorset sires — When the supply of dams
becomes sufficiently numerous, other than Dorset sires
may be used should this be desired. The advantage from
using them would be the production of lambs with supe-
rior mutton form. When such a result could not be
looked for with a considerable degree of confidence, it
should not be attempted. The reference thus made to the
use of other sires does not imply that the Dorset is not
possessed of good mutton form, but that some breeds may
be somewhat superior to them in this respect. Wrhen no
improvement would result from change in the breed from
which the sires are chosen, it should not be made.

MILK LAMBS: HOW TO GET, GROW AND MARKET 245

For such production pure Southdown sires have been
found the most suitable, and probably next to these the
Shropshires. Lambs from the former have a plumpness
and compactness of form that indicate the ideal mutton
form. Moreover, they bear a refinement of bone that is
closely associated with good killing properties. They
also have a tendency to mature early, which insures rapid
growth while they are young.

Such breeding, however, would probably result in
bringing about some reversion of the early breeding
habit; hence it would seem unwise to retain the females
for future breeding. There would also be some decrease
in the prolificacy of ewes thus begotten and some lessen-
ing of the capacity for milk production. These sires,
therefore, should only be used when dams that produce
winter lambs are plentiful, or when it is not desired longer
to secure from them ewes to be retained for breeding.

Where milk lambs should be grown — Milk lambs
should not be grown except where all the facilities exist
for making the work at least reasonably successful. It
should not be attempted : (i) Where the facilities for mar-
keting are not good ; (2) where the requisite foods cannot
be grown with a reasonable degree of success; (3) where
the place of consumption is far distant from the place of
production ; and (4) where the demand does not exist for
such lambs.

The facilities for marketing include proximity to a
railroad station, and telegraph or telephone communica-
tions with the dealers who want the lambs. Under such
conditions only can orders be received and filled with
sufficient promptness. A long distance from the place of
shipment would add much to the expense of the same.

While it is, of course, allowable to purchase the grain
or a part of it when growing milk lambs, the profit will
be proportionately greater when the food can be grown
successfully on the farm. The coarse fodders used, being
somewhat special in character, can be grown in a more

246 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

suitable form when grown at home. Succulent food, also,
can only be furnished under average conditions by the
farms on which it is fed. Such food plays a very impor-
tant part in the feeding of milk lambs.

While the facilities for moving food products quickly
have been brought to a high degree of perfection, in a
country as large as the United States, where milk lambs
must go far to reach the market, the express charges
would too much cut in upon the profits. The cost of
shipping lambs, for instance, to New York city that are
grown within 100 miles of the same will be much less
than when they are grown 1,000 miles distant.

The demand for milk lambs does not exist in all parts
of the country. They furnish meat only for the wealthy ;
hence they will only find ready sale in certain centers.
This, of course, does not include lambs sold locally in the
spring season while still sucking the dams. These are in
demand wherever meat is in demand, but they do not
bring such prices as are usually paid for winter lambs.

Quarters suitable for milk lambs — In northern areas
the quarters for milk lambs should be reasonably warm.
While it is not absolutely necessary to have a barn built
on the basement plan in which to keep them, such a barn
is very suitable for the work. It should not, however, be
dark or damp, such as barns are in some instances that
are built close against or into a bank. A bright apart-
ment of a basement is a good place to have the young
lambs come into life. Under such conditions the risk to
the young lambs is not great, though the thermometer
without should register 30 degrees and even more below
zero. In the absence of apartments in a basement a lamb-
ing pen should be partitioned off in the sheep house, the
sheeting or lining of which would make it warm enough
to answer the purpose. This will usually be accomplished
by lining the studs inclosing the pen with sheeting of
boards on one or both sides of the studs, and using the
paper under the sheeting at least on one side.

MILK LAMBS: HOW TO GET, GROW AND MARKET 247

It is entirely practicable to keep the dams, and also
the lambs, in a well-ventilated basement during the entire
period covered in the life of the lambs. This may be done
with entire safety to the lambs and also to the dams, as
the period covered by such feeding does not in many in-
stances exceed three months. The even and reasonably
warm temperature of such shelter is favorable to econom-
ical development in the lambs. They may be reared,
however, without hazard in ordinary sheep sheds if the
lambing pens are warm. But when reared in such sheds
access to a sunny yard in mild weather will doubtless
prove beneficial.

In latitudes milder than those of the northern states,
it is not necessary to have sheds so warm, and the neces-
sity grows less as the average temperature rises. In the
far South shelter that would protect from cold wind and
rain would probably prove ample.

Food and care for the dams — Before the lambs come,
grading the dams is seldom a necessity. It may be neces-
sary in some instances, however, to separate aged ewes
and any that may be lean for more liberal feeding. Sub-
sequently to the lambing, however, grading may be ad-
vantageous. The needs of both ewes and lambs may
call for this, as the ewes are not equally capable of taking
forcing food at the stages of the suckling period, and the
same is true in even greater degree of the lambs. The
ewes that produce lambs for replenishing the flock should
also be separated from the others at the time of lambing,
and should be fed apart from them, as forced feeding such as
is given to the others is not good for them or for their lambs.

After the ewes have lambs, the fodders best adapted
to such feeding are those that are largely nitrogenous in
their composition, fine in the character of the growth and
cured so the fodders are appetizing. Alfalfa cut as soon
as the first blooms show, clovers cut in early bloom and
Canada field peas and oats enough to sustain the crop
while growing are excellent. Finely grown corn and

248 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

sorghum are good, but not as good as the former. Of the
clovers, alsike is the most suitable, being of fine growth.
In the central states and southward, cowpea hay will be
in order, in addition to other fodders that may be grown.
They may be allowed to pick over straw used for bedding,
but should not be expected to eat much of it.

The succulence fed must consist mainly of field roots
or corn silage, save in localities so mild that grazing
is practicable to some extent. Before the ewes produce
lambs, and for a few days subsequently, the ewes should
not be given more succulence than is necessary to keep
the digestion in tone. An excess of succulent food at such
a time may so stimulate milk formation as to lead to an
inflamed condition of the udder and possibly to other
evils. But after the lambs have become able to take all
the milk, the dams may be fed field roots practically up
to their capacity to consume them. No food can be given
to the ewes that will tend more to stimulate the milk
flow. Corn silage furnishes good succulence, and in the
absence of field roots should be fed to the extent of 3 to
4 pounds a day when it can be had and when it is of good
quality. It may be somewhat hazardous, however, to
feed it up to the capacity of the sheep to consume it, as
it is not so safe a food as field roots. Far South various
kinds of grazing may be accessible in the fields during a
portion of the time in the form of rape, the sand vetch,
winter oats and even cabbage. During intervals when
grazing would be imprudent these could be fed as a soil-
ing food.

The most suitable concentrates, without regard to
cost, are those that will best maintain the milk flow for
the young lambs, and that will at the same time prevent
undue emaciation in the dams. These will include, or
may include, all the leading cereals grown, but blended with a
view to make a milk-producing ration. Usually wheat
bran will be given considerable prominence in the mix-
ture. The unground grain will most frequently include

MILK LAMBS: HOW TO GET, GROW AND MARKET 249

oats or barley and corn, because they are grown to a
greater extent than other grains. Where the prices will
admit of such feeding, the following is an excellent mix-
ture : 25 to 30 per cent wheat bran, 33 oats, peas or bar-
ley, 36 corn and the balance oilcake or cottonseed meal.
Some grain may be fed before the ewes produce lambs,
but if so it must be fed with much moderation. After the
lambs are several days old, it may be fed almost up to the
limit of the capacity of the ewes to consume the food
with a relish. When the ewes are to be sold for meat
soon after the lambs have been marketed, the corn should
be considerably increased in the grain ration.

Care and food for the lambs — Milk lambs may be
grown when exposed to temperatures that are cool or
even cold, after they have reached the age of two or three
days, but the fact should not be forgotten that thus ex-
posed they will not grow so quickly as when in warmer
quarters, and the food consumption will be relatively
greater. Because of this growers of milk lambs in the
North prefer keeping them reasonably warm, even to the
extent, in some instances, of keeping them and the dams
inside all the while.

The exercise called for is not usually so much for
milk lambs as for lambs grown for breeding. Too much
exercise which they are likely to take when they are given
unlimited range, would retard fattening, though favor-
able to muscle development. Too little exercise may re-
sult in more or less of paralysis in the limbs of the fattest
lambs. Usually they will take enough of exercise when
they are given a reasonable amount of room, and espe-
cially when they may have access to a yard on fine days
an hour or two daily.

As soon as the lambs can be induced to eat, they
should be fed meal, and later grain, apart from the ewes.
Such food as ground oats, wheat middlings and oil meal
are suitable at the first and better in some sort of com-
bination than when fed alone. A little sugar sprinkled

250 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

over the food encourages them to begin eating. After
some of the older ones have begun to eat, the younger
lambs will learn from them. After they have begun to
take food freely, any one of the following rations should
give good results: (i) Bran, oats, cracked corn and oil-
cake in the proportions of, say, three and two parts re-
spectively by weight; (2) cracked corn, ground barley,
oats and oilcake in the proportions of three, four and
three parts ; (3) wheat and oats unground in about equal
parts. Various other grain mixtures will also answer. As
the ages of the lambs increase the proportion of the corn
fed should increase. The meal or grain fed should be re-
moved each time before more is added, if any is left over.
As soon as the young lambs will eat freely they should be
fed meal and other food three times a day. They will not
eat much fodder if fed meal thus freely, but fine clover,
preferably alsike, will prove helpful when made accessi-
ble to them. But they will make an excellent use of roots
pulped or dried in fine strips, such as can be obtained from
certain kinds of root slicers.

The food must be fed to the lambs when it is inac-
cessible to the dams, and when the lambs have access to
it at will. A creep made in a corner of the pen in which
the lambs are kept, will usually answer the purpose best.

Marketing the lambs — The aim should be to secure
a market for the lambs before any are ready for ship-
ment. Those who live sufficiently near the consumer can,
of course, deliver the lambs dressed as needed, but when
not so situated it will be necessary to ship them to a dealer
as ordered. Under such conditions of disposal, the ad-
vantage of having the lambing season cover a consider-
able period will be apparent. Should the supply be greater
than the demand, the surplus lambs should be put upon
the general market, as they will usually sell for more at
such a time than they will bring if carried over until the
following autumn.

The necessity for filling the orders with all reason-

MILK LAMBS: HOW TO GET, GROW AND MARKET 251

able promptness will be at once apparent. This fact
should be taken into account by those who grow
milk lambs when they enter upon the work. The con-
sumers of milk lambs are buying a fancy article for which
they are paying a fancy price, hence any lack of prompt-
ness in filling their orders may result in the loss of that
particular market.

Whether the lambs shall be shipped alive or dead
will depend somewhat on the distance to be covered while
in transit. Lambs that are delivered by conveyance may
be delivered alive if sold to a dealer, or dead if sold to the
consumer. Lambs sent by rail are usually sent dead after
the stomach and its appendages have been removed, but
such removal does not always include the heart, liver or
lungs. In some instances the skins are not removed but
more commonly they are.

The methods followed in dressing the lambs are not
uniform, but the following is submitted as a method that
may be safely followed : The lamb is bled by making a
small opening, frequently in the left side of the neck, just
back of the head, and in front of the neck bones. The
blade of the knife should cut the large artery found there.
The stomach and entrails are then removed without dis-
turbing the liver, lungs or heart. Two spreaders are then
inserted so as to cross each other at right angles when in
place. These are pointed and have shoulders, and one
end of each is inserted in the outer side of the hind flank,
the other end entering the opposite side of the lamb near
the chest. The caul fat is then spread so as to cover all
the meat not covered with the skin, and is held in place
by skewers at the thighs and at the point of the spreaders.
As soon as the animal heat is all given off the carcass is
wrapped in strong paper put oh tightly and it is then
further inclosed in burlap or sacking. Such lambs dressed
have sometimes been shipped in light boxes just large
enough to admit of slipping the carcass into them from
the end.

252 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

The dams after weaning — Whether the dams are sold
after the lambs are weaned or retained for future breed-
ing, the grain food should be at once reduced in quantity,
and the succulent food should be almost entirely withheld.
The object is to reduce the milk flow. It might not be
quite safe to withhold all the grain and succulent food at
once, on the principle that sudden changes of diet are
frequently hurtful. In the case of ewes that are to be
sold, it would certainly be a mistake to reduce the grain
food to a low limit, as it is important that these ewes shall
not lose flesh. Under such feeding it might take a longer
time to dry off the ewes, but even so the extra attention
thus called for is a trifling expense compared with allow-
ing the ewes to lose flesh.

In some instances the lambs are allowed to take milk
from the ewes whose lambs have been sold, in addition
to that furnished by their mothers. In this way lambs
not sufficiently rounded out may soon be made ready for
market. To accomplish this, however, usually involves
holding the ewes two or three times a day while the lambs
take the food thus furnished. The shepherd must be the
judge of the instances in which this method will prove
profitable.

Much attention must be given to the udders when the
lambs are being sold. The dams have been under high
pressure feeding and have not gone far beyond the time
of greatest milk production during the lactation period ;
hence drying them off is a very different matter from the
drying of ewes that have nursed their lambs for the full
lactation period. The udders should be examined daily
for a number of days, and should be relieved of a part
of the milk as frequently as may be found necessary.

The lambs to be retained should be given only such
food as will maintain them in a moderate condition as to
flesh until they are turned onto the grazing, except when
it is desired to have them breed again as soon as this
can be brought about. Should that be desired, stimulat-

MILK LAMBS: now TO GET, GROW AND MARKET 253

ing food should be fed. Such feeding would only be
necessary when two crops of lambs are desired in one
year, which under conditions such as are found in north-
ern areas is not desirable, as the tax is so severe upon the
breeding powers of dams that ere long it would result in
deterioration.

Disposing of the dams — When the dams are to be
sold soon after the sale of the lambs, they must be given
freely such food as will fatten them quickly. When thus
fattened they will sell for a better price than could be ob-
tained for them if sold later, as the competition in mut-
ton in the market is less severe in the spring season when
such ewes may reach the market than it would be later.

For some time previous to the selling of the lambs,
these ewes should be fed more grain that is fattening in
its nature, as corn, than would be necessary for ewes that
are to be retained for breeding, but this food should not
be fed to them to the extent of hindering free milk pro-
duction for the sustenance of the lambs.

As soon as the ewes that are to be sold are dried off
they should be pushed, so to speak, for the block. They
can stand such high feeding for a time, as they have, in
a manner, been accustomed to it before the lambs were
weaned. Corn will furnish the cheapest concentrate for
such fattening in corn-growing areas ; but, of course,
other food, as oats or wheat bran, should be fed along with
it. Ewes may be finished more quickly before than after
the turning out season, because of the temporary loss of
weight that usually follows turning animals out on grass,
but it may under some conditions be more costly than fin-
ishing on grass.

Growing milk lambs from grazing — The areas
adapted to growing milk lambs chiefly from grazing are
somewhat limited in the United States, and they can
scarcely be said to exist at all in Canada. They are con-
fined to portions of the Gulf States and to limited areas
along the Pacific coast, but in states further north than

254 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

those on the Gulf of Mexico, grazing may be furnished
much later and earlier than further north.

Prominent among the foods that may be grown for
such fattening are rape, kale and cabbage. Such foods
also as winter oats, winter rye, crimson clover and vetches
may be utilized more or less. These crops would be
grazed in part and in part used as soiling food, as in ad-
verse weather they should not be grazed. The condition
of the ground may also make grazing impracticable in
very wet weather.

While being grazed the ewes and lambs will fare bet-
ter if they may have access to a grass pasture. Where
this is not obtainable they should be given fodder in the
cured form. The effect upon the digestion will be favor-
able. More or less grain will be helpful to both ewes and
lambs, but especially when they can feed largely on rape,
kale or cabbage that is well headed. The amount of grain
called for is much less than when the ewes are confined
and fed chiefly on dry food.

There may be instances in which it may be desirable
to cut the green food and to feed it to the flock on the
soiling plan. By this method the food may be made ac-
cessible to the sheep with more uniformity than when
they are grazed. They will be less exposed in bad weather
and less food will be wasted, but, of course, more labor is
involved. In the absence of experience in growing lambs
thus the method that will certainly prove the most profit-
able cannot be given.

The room for the industry — That the room for the
industry as conducted at present is not unlimited will be
very evident when it is remembered that winter lamb sold
at the prices which now prevail is, in a sense, a luxury.
But that it may be greatly extended cannot be doubted.
In many important centers it is not known at present, as
it has never been introduced into these. At the present
time it is only used in but few of the metropolitan cities
of the republic.

MILK LAMBS: HOW TO GET, GROW AND MARKET 255

The factors that develop consumption are : The pro-
duction of the lambs, the knowledge that they are being
produced, and in proximity or reasonable proximity to a
center of wealth. Winter lambs, therefore, will find a
market in small centers of population at the rate of, say,
$8 to $10 for a lamb that weighs from 35 to 45 pounds.
But it should be possible to grow lambs in winter so as
to put them on the market at prices considerably lower
than those named. Should that be done, the market for
them would be unlimited.

Of course, the growing of summer lambs will always
have an important place, but under certain conditions it
may prove more profitable to grow winter lambs, even
though sold at not more than $4 to $5 per animal. The
following are among the advantages that may accrue
from growing them: (i) The work is done at a season
when field work is not pressing. (2) The lambs being
grown in winter are but little subject to parasitic dis-
eases, that so frequently prey upon lambs in summer.
(3) The price obtained is much more per pound than that
given for summer lambs. In the southern states lambs
should grow better in winter than in summer, as they
are not exposed to the prolonged heat of the summer
season.

CHAPTER XIII

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR
EXHIBITION

In Chapter XIII the growing and fitting of sheep for
exhibition is discussed under the following subheads :
(i) The sources from which pure breds are obtained; (2)
The sources from which grades and cross breds are ob-
tained ; (3) The quarters for the ewes and lambs ; (4)
Food for the dams while nursing in sheds ; (5) Feed-
ing and caring for the lambs until weaned ; (6) Grazing
for the dams before the time of weaning; (7) The lambs
subsequently to weaning; (8) Trimming the wool for the
fairs; (9) Washing and smearing sheep for shows; (10)
Special treatment for Merino sheep; (n) Show sheep in
transit to the fairs ; (12) Management subsequently to the
fair season; (13) The exercise that is required; (14) Ex-
cessive fatness to be avoided; (15) The age to which
sheep may be shown; and (16) Miscellaneous observa-
tions on showing sheep.

Sources from which pure breds come — As a rule the
leading exhibitors of pure-bred sheep in Great Britain
grow the animals which they exhibit. In the United
States and Canada this method is reversed by many
breeders. They import from the flocks of Britain many
of the sheep which they show. This does not apply
equally to all breeds, as the American and Delaine Me-
rino are in all instances home grown, and in nearly all in-
stances it is true of the Rambouillets. This superiority
of the mutton breeds of sheep in Britain is owing in part
to the temperate and moist climate of that country, so
favorable to the abundant growth of those succulent foods
that are so helpful in forcing early growth, but it is only
fair to concede that it is owing in part to the genius of

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 257

the breeders in evolving superior types and to the skill
and fidelity shown by the shepherds in caring for the
sheep. In some flocks, however, many of the pure-bred
sheep shown even at the largest fairs are bred at home.
Whether the time will come when prize-winning sheep at
the leading fairs shall be grown rather than imported, is a
question on which opinions differ. The solution must
come from the genius of our people, for in some portions
of the United States the conditions are very similar to
those found in Great Britain.

The leading characteristics to be sought in pure breds
that are to be shown are those which belong to the vari-
ous pure breeds, as indicated by the standards which be-
long to these. It is absolutely essential that the breed
characteristics shall be present, including in fair degree
even points that are regarded as fancy, because of the
extent to which these influence the awards of many
judges. The characteristics as to form and size are rela-
tively the most important, but those that relate to wool
are also important. It should be carefully examined with
reference to density, length, texture and all other quali-
ties, and also with reference to its even distribution over
the body. The shades of color in head and legs all have
a bearing on the awards, and the same is true of a rosy
and pink skin. In the males much stress should be laid
upon the evidences of masculinity, and in the females on
those of femininity. Prominent among the former are
compactness, strong head, neck and breast development,
and strong but not coarse limbs. Prominent among the
latter are refinement of head, neck and limbs, and a suffi-
ciency of length of body. When selecting sheep to be
mated with a view to rear show animals from them, much
attention should be given to the record of performance in
the near ancestry when such information is obtainable.

Sources from which grades and crossbreds come —
Grade and cross-bred sheep shown at fairs are almost en-
tirely grown on the farms of those who exhibit them ;

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258

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 259

hence in the exhibits of these the skill of the breeder is
more clearly demonstrated than in many of the exhibits
of pure breds. In but rare instances do professional show
men buy a pen of grades or crossbreds and with them
make the rounds of the leading fairs, as they do frequently
with pure breds.

When grown by the exhibitor, they may be one of several
grades and crosses. The foundation females should be
ewes of fairly good form, not less than medium in size for
the grade, and possessed of that structure which indi-
cates good milk-giving properties. They should possess
much inherent ruggedness ; hence ewes much, mixed in
breeding, even such as come from the range, may answer
the purpose well. Though decided indications of Merino
blood are present, they are not to be rejected on that ac-
count. Such ewes may be variously crossed upon, but no
cross will serve the purpose better, as a rule, than one of
Shropshire or Southdown blood. In the experience of the
author, excellent lambs for exhibition purposes were pro-
duced from ewes mated with a Southdown ram that were
the offspring of such ewes as have just been referred to,
mated with a Shropshire ram. Lambs thus bred at the
Minnesota Station in 1901 were given first place at the
Chicago International, when showing against the world.
In some instances it was found that lambs of the first
generation answered for such breeding, but more com-
monly those of the second generation were even more
suitable, and in some instances further grading gave even
better results.

The rams chosen for mating with such females
should possess medium size for the breed, fleshing prop-
erties of a high order and of proved prepotency where it
is found possible to obtain such evidence. Should rams
unusually large for the breed be chosen, the danger is
present that something of coarseness and too much
strength of limb may be transmitted to the progeny. In
the leading fat stock fairs of Great Britain, the progeny of

200 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Hampshire and Oxford Down sires have been the more
frequent prize winners, but in those of the United States
and Canada the honors have come more frequently to the
progeny of Shropshire and Southdown sires.

The style of carcass wanted is influenced by form,
size, symmetry, bone and breed or grade. The cylindri-
cal and compact form, with much of width, depth and
roundness, and accompanied by firmness of back, is the
most suitable. An animal of medium size and much
symmetry, that is of correct correlation in the different
parts, is in every way to be preferred to one of more size
and less of symmetry. Bone even less than medium for
the breed or grade is preferred to bone that is larger.
While good specimens may be found in all the mutton
breeds and their grades, those that conform most nearly
to the Southdown type stand the best chance of winning.

Quarters for the ewes and lambs — To grow sheep or
lambs for exhibition does not call for quarters elaborate
or costly. In the quarters furnished it is only necessary
to make provision for shelter from drafts, from storms,
from excessive sunshine and for taking food and exer-
cise. Exposure to drafts in the sheds, hurtful to any
class of sheep, would so retard progress in show animals
as to defeat the object for which they are kept. Protec-
tion from storms includes protection from rain, sleet,
snow and strong or harsh winds. Hot sunshine will in-
jure show sheep more than others, since they carry more
fat and the greater the exposure to hot sunshine, the more
is the annoyance at the same time, as a rule, from flies.
The quarters for such sheep should be large enough to
prevent all crowding and the trough room should be
ample. It is also indispensable that the sheep shall be
given opportunity to exercise freely, or the flesh which
they carry will not be sufficiently firm.

While the dams are nursing their young they are
simply kept in an apartment separate from other sheep.
This is necessary in order to furnish them with such foods

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 26l

as they should have, as the aim is at such a time to force
milk production to the limit. But it is not necessary to
keep them separate from the other members of the flock
previously to the lambing season, under proper conditions
of management. In addition to roomy quarters they
should, of course, have much freedom of access to a yard
adjacent. Later they should have access to suitable graz-
ing, but only at stated times, as shown below. Where
grading cannot be furnished, green food should be fed
to them in paddocks.

The quarters for the dams will also be suitable for
the lambs up to the weaning season. But in addition
it is imperative that the lambs are given a protected
place where they can take a portion of their food apart
from the dams. Such a place may usually be furnished
within the apartment in which the dams are fed (see
page 260).

When the lambs are weaned, they may be kept dur-
ing the heat of the day in the same apartment that the
dams have vacated, but at other times should have access
to a yard, a paddock or to an adjacent pasture. The sheds
must be darkened during the day by covering the open
windows with sacking or some such material as will keep
out flies and will, at the same time, provide ample ventila-
tion.

The quarters suitable for shearlings in summer are
limited to those just described as suitable for lambs. In
winter they want a reasonably roomy, bright and airy
space free from drafts and adjacent to a yard. They must
be kept apart from other sheep in order that they may be
given proper and suitable food.

Food for the dams while nursing in sheds — The fod-
ders fed to the dams must be of high quality and such as
are favorable to milk production. Alfalfa and clover stand
at the head of the list in suitability for such feeding, but
peas and oats and vetches and oats of fine growth are ex-
cellent. The alfalfa should be cut at first bloom, and the

262 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

clovers in early bloom, and the peas and oats or vetches
and oats a little short of maturity. Millet of fine growth
and leafy, cut when the heads are beginning to tint, is
good. The same is true of fodder corn, bright and leafy,
of fine growth and cut a little short of full maturity.
Feeding fodders in variety is helpful to sheep of all grades,
and it is especially so to ewes that are being forced, as it
were, to provide milk for their lambs. Such fodder may
be given two or three times a day, and if any is left over,
it should be carefully removed before furnishing the next
feed.

In no form can succulence be given so safely or so
beneficially to such ewes when on dry food as in the form
of field roots. While any kind of field roots will serve
the purpose, there is no variety of the same that is supe-
rior to the rutabaga or the mangel. After the lambs are
able to take all the milk, the ewes may be given 6 to 8
pounds of these in a day, or practically all that they will
consume. They should be given in two feeds and in the
sliced or pulped form. Next in value to field roots is corn
silage, but it is not to be fed so freely as field roots.
When fed in large quantities, as large as, say, six pounds
or more daily, it has not proved so entirely satisfactory
as field roots in its influence on the health of the sheep.

While various concentrates may be fed, none are
more suitable under average conditions than a mixture of
oats, bran and corn or peas in the proportion of five, three
and two parts respectively. Of this they may be fed
virtually all that they will eat with a relish. A very lim-
ited amount of oilcake will also be in some degree help-
ful when it can be obtained.

Feeding and caring for the lambs — The aim should
be to have lambs that are to be shown at the early autumn
fairs come in February or March. For the late fairs, as
the December fat stock shows, they should come in late
March, or even as late as early April. If they come too
early they will be too far grown to meet the conditions

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 263

called for to make them compete in that form which is
most in consonance with the present standard of feeding.
For such a use, single lambs are preferred, for reasons
that will be apparent. As some lambs fail to attain to the
standard indicated in the promise of early growth, the
aim should be to grow more than the number called for by
the exhibit or exhibits, and to select from these as the sea-
son for exhibiting draws near.

In some instances it may be possible to obtain the
assistance which a nurse ewe may give to a lamb in fur-
nishing milk for it, in addition to what is obtained from
its own mother. Ewes that may have lost their own off-
spring may be thus employed, but in some instances it is
difficult to make them thus perform the part of a foster
mother. In other instances the opposite may be true. In
no other way can the most satisfactory development be
obtained from a lamb reared for any purpose than by sup-
plying it abundantly with ewe's milk.

Cow's milk is sometimes fed to lambs that are being
fitted for exhibition with a view to increase their size.
This is more common in case of the large breeds and with
lambs reared for breeders than with lambs to be shown
in the purely fat classes, for size in these would seem to
count for less than in the breeding classes. Lambs are
thus fed from a bottle with a nipple attached. Some sugar
is added at first, that 'the milk may thus be made to ap-
proximate more nearly the constituents in cow's milk.
In some instances a small percentage of water is added.
Lambs are sometimes thus fed up to and on through the
fair season. Testimony, however, regarding the subse-
quent behavior of lambs thus fed when reared for breed-
ing uses is unfavorable. This applies to both males and
females, but is most unfortunate in the case of the former,
because of the more important part they play individ-
ually in the flock.

The best fodders for such lambs while yet unweaned
include clover, alfalfa and vetch hay. These should be of

264 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

the finest growth found in those respective kinds of hay.
Alfalfa cut not later than the very first appearance of
blooms is particularly suitable. The same is true of alsike
clover, or the alsike and small white varieties grown to-
gether. The vetch hay should also be grown so thickly
as to preclude the opportunity for coarse growth. When
on good pasture the lambs may not take much hay, but
they will consume more or less of it and with manifest
advantage. Such fodder should be fed in small racks in-
accessible to the ewes. For succulence they should be
given field oats or cabbage until the season of plentiful
grazing arrives. The most suitable roots at such a time
are rutabagas, mangels and sugar beets, as these are then
in good condition for being fed. They should be fed
sliced or pulped, and if sliced the aim should be to so slice
them that they shall be fed in thin strips. The cabbage
heads should also be cut up or sliced — in fact, minced in
a sense — so that the lambs may readily partake of them.

Young lambs will begin to eat grain, when, say, not
more than 10 days old. There is no better grain for
lambs when they begin to take such food than ground or
crushed oats fed alone. A few days later bran may be
added with advantage. When they have become well
started on such feed, say at the age of four or five weeks,
the following grain ration will be found highly suitable
through the remainder of the nursing period : Oats, bran,
corn or peas by measure in the proportions of 50* 25, 20
and 5 per cent respectively. Peas are preferable to corn
during the milk period, but corn is preferable later. They
should be given practically all the grain that they will
eat.

Lambs to be exhibited should be docked and cas-
trated at an early age (see pages 114-117). Both operations
should be performed with the exercise of careful judg-
ment. The length of the stub has a bearing on the sym-
metry of the lamb, and also the size of the sac from
which the testicles have been drawn. Short docking is

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 265

preferred to that which is larger, as it adds to the square-
like appearance of the buttock. When but little of the
sac is removed in castration, it fills with fat in the well-
finished animal, and is so far an indication of condition.

Grazing for the dams — The aim should be to furnish
grazing for the ewes that will aid them in furnishing a
large amount of milk, relatively, until the lambs are
weaned. Such grazing should be not only palatable but
highly succulent.

Winter rye is first ready in the spring. After rye,
brome grass, blue grass, clover and rape follow each other
in near succession where all these can be grown. The
spring vetch also will be ready somewhat earlier than
rape. After vetch or rape pasture has arrived, so com-
pletely suitable are they that it is not necessary to look
for other pasture. Peas, oats, rape and vetch sown to-
gether furnish grazing that is high in favor with some
of those who grow sheep that are to be shown.

Should it be impracticable to furnish grazing, it may
be possible to furnish soiling food, and this when chosen
with judgment and judiciously fed will give results about
as satisfactory as those obtained from grazing. But feed-
ing soiling food involves more labor, and it does not
furnish an equal opportunity with grazing for the sheep
to take exercise. The best soiling foods include alfalfa,
clover, vetches and oats, kale and rape. When these are
of fine growth and leafy and full of succulence, they will
prove much more suitable than when the opposite condi-
tions prevail. None of these can be obtained so early as
grazing, and until food can be obtained from them the
feeding of roots should be continued, but not necessarily
after the feeding of soiling food or even the grazing of
pasture has commenced.

The feeding of concentrates to both ewes and lambs
should be continued without change until the lambs are
weaned, except that in nearly all instances, it may be re-
duced in quantity. For the components of the grain food

266 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

for such feeding of the ewes see page 247, and of the
lambs see page 249.

Lambs subsequently to weaning — Lambs for exhibi-
tion should be allowed to remain somewhat longer with
the ewes than other lambs. They should seldom be
weaned short of the age of five months. Before being
weaned they are allowed access to grazing with the dams
during a considerable portion of the day; but subse-
quently, and indeed after the arrival of hot weather, they
are kept in sheds and the yards attached much of the
time. After the weaning period they are allowed to graze
for an hour or more in the morning, and also in the even-
ing, but in some instances they are only allowed to graze
once a day, but for a longer period. When grazed once
a day, the evening is preferred, as dew is not then present
on the pastures. As the season for exhibiting approaches,
the period for grazing should probably be curtailed, as
only about so much exercise is needed, and if taken in ex-
cess, increase would probably be somewhat retarded.

Until the fair season, the feeding of more or less
cured fodders should be continued from the weaning sea-
son onward. Even though the lambs are being fed liber-
ally on green food, they will consume a considerable pro-
portion of such food, for the reason that the appetite calls
for it. It is craved probably because it acts as a regulator
of digestion. It will best serve the purpose if composed
of such fodders as alfalfa, clover or vetch hay.

While various kinds of grazing may be used subse-
quently to weaning, none is more suitable than clover and
rape, both of which may usually be in season at such a
time. These will answer practically the same purpose if
fed as soiling food.

After the lambs are weaned, they will profit by the
judicious feeding of field roots, or what may be an equiv-
alent, as, for instance, cabbage. Fall turnips come earlier
than other roots, and they may be fed — roots and tops
together. Later rutabagas and mangels or sugar beets

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 267

may be fed, but for fear of urinary troubles mangels
should not be fed to the males. It may be necessary to
restrict the feeding of roots somewhat at such a time,
lest the lambs should not take enough grain.

The following grain ration will be found suitable
after the weaning season : Oats, bran, corn or peas and
oil cake in the proportions of 50, 15, 25 and 10 per cent,
but toward the end of the fitting period the proportion
of the corn fed should be increased, to add high finish to
the carcass. The grain should be fed in liberal supply,
but never to the extent of putting* the animals off feed or
of inducing that flabby condition of flesh that indicates
over-fitting. To feed just enough and not too much of
any one kind of food calls for the continual exercise of
judgment.

Trimming the wool for the fairs — The practice of
what is known as "trimming" the fleece of show sheep
when preparing them for exhibition is almost universal
with sheep of the middle wool breeds. It is practiced to
a less extent with sheep of the long wool breeds. Merinos
are not thus trimmed, whatsoever the type or breed may
be, but in some instances umber is rubbed sparingly on
the hips, legs and breast where the wool has become
frayed by rubbing. The smaller the breed that is
trimmed, the more severe, as a rule, is the trimming. By
trimming is meant the removal of the points of the wool
fibers of the fleece or of some part of it with the shears,
and in some instances the further removal in addition of
small portions of the length of the wool fiber on certain
parts of the body. As the wool fibers of Merinos are very
frequently glued together more or less at the outer ex-
tremities, such trimming of the fleece would not be possi-
ble.

The object sought in trimming the fleece is to add
to the beautiful and symmetrical appearance of the animal
when it comes into the show ring. The sheep whose
fleece is carefully trimmed will not only appear more

268 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

symmetrical, as a rule, than the one not trimmed, but it
will also appear larger and plumper in its entire anat-
omy. The optical illusion thus produced is not a little
surprising. Trimming may also tend to hide defects of
conformation which otherwise would be more apparent to
the eye. Because of this the practice of trimming has
been fiercely assailed, and without sufficient reason. If
the judge were not allowed to use his hands when making
the awards on sheep, the morality of such trimming
might be questioned. The competent judge by the use
of his hands is supposed to discover any defects of car-
cass hidden by the trimmer's art or by the covering which
nature bestowed upon the animal. It would seem to be
quite as commendable for the exhibitor of sheep to im-
prove them by trimming as for the exhibitor of cattle to
comb the hair upwards near the topline, that the back
may thereby appear wider to the eye.

The trimming of the fleece of the middle wool breeds
is accomplished in outline as follows : The fleece is
blocked out with the shears in what may be termed the
rough ; that is, it is given the desired outline by clipping
off the projecting points of the wool fibers. In doing
this the top and bottom lines should be made straight
and parallel, the breast full and rounding, the thighs
nicely turned and the buttock wide across and yet plump.
The fleece is then gone over with a stiff brush dipped in
water, to aid in straightening the ends of the wool fibers.
In some instances a currycomb is also used. The clipping
of the points, which follows, is made by using sharp thin-
bladed and easy-working shears, which are held quite
level and at right angles to the wool fibers. To make a
finished picture, the trimming must be repeated several
times at intervals. Much practice and good judgment are
called for to make an exact trimmer. But little trimming-
is given to sheep of the long-wool breeds.

When trimming sheep that are to be shown, the
peculiarities of fleece should be given due recognition.

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 269

The Down breeds are covered with a fleece of varying
length, according to the breed. In these density counts
for more than length of staple. The less dense the wool,
however, in a breed, the more valuable is length of staple,
hence the less severe is the trimming as the length of
staple increases. The fleece of long wools should be of
great length of staple, hence the wool fibers are not
clipped back to any extent save on the back.

Washing and smearing show sheep — Certain breeds
of sheep are washed when preparing them for the fairs.
Such washing, however, is apparently confined to the
long wooled breeds. Why washing should virtually be
confined to the long wooled breeds is not clearly apparent,
at least in all instances. It is true, however, that the
fleece of the long wool breeds is less able to protect itself
from the presence of foreign matters, and the wool is
washed to remove these. Washing tends to free the
pores of the skin from gummy and other adherent mat-
ters. In so far as it does this, it promotes the natural flow
of the lubricants that help to keep the wool fibers in a
correct condition. The first washing is given not long
subsequently to the shearing, and the second within two
to three weeks of the show season. The washing may be
conveniently done in a dipping vat if not unduly large.
Castile soap of good quality is generally used. But after
the washing all trace of the soap should be removed by
careful rinsing with clear water, as the continued presence
of soap would tend to make the fleece harsh and dry.
When the washing is done sufficiently long before the
time for exhibiting, the yolk so extends along the wool
fibers as to give them a brilliant appearance, the outside
of the fleece meanwhile being so protected to preserve
its snow-white appearance in the show ring.

The practice of smearing the wool of certain breeds,
as, for instance, the Down breeds, is sometimes adopted.
It was followed more or less in Culley's time, and it is
still practiced in many sections of Great Britain, where

270 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

it is more popular even now than in America. Smearing
or coloring sheep means saturating the surface of the
body, more especially along the back or sides, with some
prepared coloring matter. Various mixtures are used.
These vary with the fashion in favor at the time. A mix-
ture much in favor is made by using yellow ocher, burnt
umber and olive oil. The ocher in powdered form is
added to the oil. The umber is next added, until the
mixture has the desired shade. It is applied by pouring
a small quantity into the palm of one hand, rubbing the
palms together and then applying to the fleece. The ap-
plication is more effective when applied after trimming
the fleece, and blankets should then be used. It is claimed
that more of uniformity in appearance is secured by
smearing, but it injures the wool somewhat for manufac-
turing uses. Some breeders use it as a sort of trade
mark by which their sheep may be distinguished from
others. The practice probably originated, in a degree,
to protect the sheep from the cold rains of autumn and
winter. But since sheep fitted for fairs are not exposed
to such storms, it is at least questionable if smearing as
such should find countenance in the show ring.

Smearing is only practiced with certain breeds. It is
practiced more or less with all the Down and dark-faced
breeds, including the Southdown, Shropshire, Suffolk,
Hampshire and Oxford Down breeds. Why smearing is
practiced on these and not on certain other breeds is not
altogether apparent. The whims of the exhibitors of
these, and more especially of the shepherds, would seem
to be largely responsible for the innovation. Of course,
the dark face and legs of these breeds harmonize better
with dark shades in the fleece than would the white faces
and legs of other breeds.

The fine-wool breeds are never smeared, as the natu-
ral gluing of the wool fibers at their tips renders such
smearing entirely unnecessary as a means of protection.
The Dorsets, Tunis and Cheviots are not thus smeared.

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 271

The same is true of all the long and coarse wool breeds.
Owing to peculiarities of wool formation, smearing them
would make them appear ludicrous.

Of course, show sheep should be kept free from ticks.
This may necessitate dipping them as lambs, and also
annually when shown in subsequent years. The dipping
may be done in the usual way, and along with the other
members of the flock ; or it may be done by using a small
tank, and separately, as a prevention against the possi-
bility of injury (see page 433). The wisdom of combining
dipping and ordinary washing is at least to be questioned.
Dipping rather detracts from the external beauty of the
fleece for a time. Hence an interval of say not less than
six weeks should elapse between the time of dipping and
the showing of the sheep.

Special treatment for Merino sheep — When prepar-
ing Merinos for the fairs, the feeding called for is the
same virtually as for other sheep. Additional precautions,
however, are called for to secure that condition in the
wool that commends it to the skilled judge. Should Me-
rino sheep be exposed to outdoor conditions up to the
time of the fairs, the fleece would have a rough and shaggy
appearance externally. It would not have that exquis-
itely soft response to the sense of touch so much desired
in Merino wool. Nor would the yolk be found in that
condition and distribution which would result in high-
est luster and beauty in the wool fibers on all parts of the
body.

While all the characteristics such as belong to high
quality wool in the Merino fleece should be sought (see
Chapter III), the following are to be regarded as spe-
cially important: (i) Absolute freedom in the external
surface of the wool from clots and indurations and much
softness and moistness to the touch ; (2) a beautiful lus-
trous condition of the wool when the fleece is opened on
any part of the body ; (3) an even distribution of the yolk
along the entire length of the wool, resulting in a glis-

272 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

tening appearance in each fiber when held separately;
(4) a shade of color in the wool masses that may vary
from a glistening white to an orange or golden tint ac-
cording to the amount of the yolk present and to some
extent it may be to the strain of the sheep.

Such a condition of the wool is greatly promoted by
judicious housing and blanketing for some time previous
to the fairs. When Merinos are not housed for some time
previous to the fairs, clots will probably be found on the
external surface of the fleece and it will be harsh to the
touch. Exposure to heavy rains may result in the bleach-
ing of the yolk to a dull tint and in such injury to its
stratifications as to cause it to wash down into the wool
in masses that disfigure it. Especially will such changes
of the yolk follow exposure subject to housing. The
housing should protect from exposure to rain, dews and
frost, and it should cover from, say, 6 to 12 weeks, pre-
viously to the fair.

In the case of Merinos blankets not only help to keep
the fleece clean externally, but they aid in the even dis-
tribution of the yolk because of the influence which they
exert probably on temperature in the wool. They are
also used on other sheep as the show season approaches,
and more especially when in transit and at the fairs. In
addition to keeping the fleece clean and compact, blankets
protect more or less from flies and provide warmth. At
the fairs they also tend to prevent thoughtless visitors
from disturbing the wool. Blanketing is more essential
when preparing Merino sheep for the fairs than with
sheep of other breeds.

Show sheep in transit to the fairs — When sheep are
to be shown, the aim should be to have all the arrange-
ments pertaining to the work made in ample time. This
means that the entries shall be made early; that the
means of transit shall be arranged for so that the time for
leaving shall be definitely and unerringly fixed, and that
food shall be provided in ample supply. These arrange-

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 273

ments must, of course, follow and not precede a definite
mapping out of the show circuit.

Every care should be observed in so making the en-
tries that no opportunity would be lost in competing for
a prize which there was any reasonable hope of winning.
The aim should be to have a number of bales of good
clover and alfalfa included in the food shipment,
as such food cannot be secured at all fairs. By another
method the hay is cut and carried in sacks. Cabbage
heads and field roots in liberal supply should be sacked,
especially the latter. The grain supply, mixed or un-
mixed, is carried in sacks, and it should include a supply
of wheat bran and oil cake, nor should salt be forgotten.
The tools called for include hammer, saw, nippers, shears
and a trocar. The medicines include blue vitriol and lin-
seed or castor oil. Blankets and bedding and washing
utensils for the shepherd are essential to complete the
outfit.

A day or two before shipping, the food should be re-
duced. The reduction should apply to both grain and
roots. Heavy feeding of grain at such a time will dis-
turb the digestion. To feed large quantities of roots
would produce a too lax condition of the bowels. The
reduction thus made should continue while the sheep are
in transit.

Sheep which carry a relatively large amount of flesh
should not be driven far when loading them for shipment
or unloading them on the fair grounds, and when driven
it should be leisurely. The journey should be made
morning or evening, and never in the heat of the day.
The necessary directions in the cars for rams and ewes,
also lambs, should be made beforehand, that each should
be thus afforded opportunity to take its proper food.
They should also be given water in such quantities as
they will take, but of this they will not take much when
thev are in transit.

274 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

When at the fairs food should not be given to the
sheep in quantities too large the first day. Subsequently
they should be in condition to go on a full ration again,
and the food should be the same in kind as that fed be-
fore shipment. Succulent food especially is much rel-
ished at such a time, and should be fed up to the limit of
what may be judicious. Kohl-rabi, cabbage and green
clover make excellent food adjuncts at the autumn fairs,
and all these may usually be had at that season in any
state. Where the facilities will admit of it, the aim should
be to allow the sheep to take a little exercise in the cool
of the day while picking over some portion of the grazing
such as may be near the show pens.

It is of much importance that the fair grounds shall
be reached a day or two before the regular opening of
the fair. The sheep are thus given opportunity to recover
bloom lost in transit; the shepherd has time to groom
them again with the shears, and in this way they come
into the show ring with the best possible chance which
can be given to them for winning in the competitions.

Management subsequently to the fair season — In
some respects the management of lambs, rams and ewes
subsequently to the fair is very similar. In other respects
it is different. More especially with reference to certain
details that apply to the management of each. All classes
of sheep that have been shown and are to be shown again,
whatsoever the age, should be fed less heavily for a con-
siderable period on their return from the fairs, but the
reduction should be made gradually. The benefit from
such reduction lies in relaxing the tension put upon the
digestive organs, and in holding back premature develop-
ment. The management of shearling wethers subse-
quently to the season for exhibiting need not be consid-
ered, as in nearly all instances they are slaughtered at
the close of the exhibition season.

When lambs return from the fairs that are to be
shown in the shearling- form as wethers, the grain por-

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 275

tion should be reduced about one-half and the oilcake in
it should also be proportionately reduced. The following
grain mixture will be very suitable : Oats 50 per cent, bran
25, corn or peas 20 and oilcake 5. They should have a
liberal supply of fodder and roots, and if the season will
admit of it more or less of grazing.

When the winter closes in they should be given
enough grain to result in the maintenance of good flesh.
Until grazing comes in the spring the following grain
food should serve the purpose: Oats and wheat bran,
in the proportions of 3 and 2 parts by weight. The sup-
ply of roots should be most liberal until the arrival of
grazing, after which it may be reduced and then discon-
tinued for a time.

The grazing may consist of such green food as may
be in season, as blue grass, clover or rape. During the
first half of the grazing season, or even for a longer period,
they may be given access to the grazing for a considerable
time, morning and evening, but later and toward the show
season, access to the grazing for one hour or two in the
evening will give them enough exercise. Some green food
fed inside may also be advantageous. The following
grain ration will answer nicely during the grazing season
until the final forcing period begins.

The forcing period should cover from two to three
months preceding the fair season. The following grain
ration along with others that may be given, will suffice :
Oats 50 per cent, bran 15, corn or peas 25 and wheat 10.
When on full feed from two to three pounds should be
fed daily. More corn or peas should be added if neces-
sary as the season approaches for entering the show ring.
The feeding of roots in the autumn and also of fodders
may be conducted as in the case of the lambs.

Shearling wethers to be shown are housed rather
than grazed; that is, they are housed to the extent of
remaining in the sheds at night and during all the warm
portion of the day. The requisites to provide them with

276 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

ventilation and to protect them from flies are virtually
the same as in the case of lambs (see page 322). An apart-
ment of a well-lighted and well-aired basement is very
suitable, because of the coolness which it furnishes in
summer.

In the case of rams and ewes to be shown again, the
reduction in flesh should be very gradually made, and at
the first it should be accomplished more through exercise
than by a material reduction in the grain fed. Should the
reduction follow too quickly, the bright luster in the wool
will be diminished, and in some parts it may fall off. Un-
til the season for showing again, the care given to rams,
and likewise the food, will be much the same as that
called for by shearling wethers (see page 275), with the
difference, first, that they should be kept more on pasture,
and, second, that they be given less carbonaceous food, as
corn. The grazing gives the needed exercise and the car-
bonaceous grain portion would be unfavorable to breed-
ing.

Ewes that are to be shown again should be given
much the same kinds of food and the same kind of treat-
ment as would be suitable for rams, as just submitted.
They should be bred early, and if allowed to give nurse
to their lambs the latter should be weaned early, or it
would not be possible to put sufficient increase on the car-
cass to prepare it for competing with even a reasonable
hope of winning. Because of the extent to which flesh is
usually lost during the nursing period, some breeders rear
the lambs produced on other dams. Ewes not to be
shown again should be reduced in flesh with all reason-
able quickness. As difficulty is sometimes experienced
in getting such ewes to breed, the aim should be to have
them served with a young and vigorous male. In some
instances service is allowed from more than one male.

The exercise that is required — Yards alone may fur-
nish enough exercise for sheep reared only for being
shown in the fat classes prior to disposing of them. But

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 277

even these will profit by the opportunity to take more or
less of exercise in the pasture. The exercise not only tends
to maintain health and vigor, but it also has an important
bearing on the maintenance of a free and easy locomotion.

While yards may suffice in some instances to furnish
exercise for sheep to be shown in the fat classes, show
sheep that are to be used in breeding must have larger
room for exercise. They must be given the larger room
of an ample paddock, or better still the liberty to roam
about in a small pasture. Such exercise is absolutely
necessary to sustain begetting power in the rams and
conceptive power in the ewes. The opportunity thus
given to exercise should be such that it may hinder some-
what the loading of the body with that amount of fat
which is allowable in the fat classes, but such exercise is
absolutely essential if the breeding powers are to be re-
tained.

While in order to secure the necessary exercise dis-
tant pastures would be inconvenient, those not immedi-
ately at hand may be made to answer, the chief objec-
tion being loss in time to the shepherd in taking them to
and from the pastures. The better plan, therefore, is to
have the pastures near and to control the degree of the
exercise given by the time given to the sheep to remain in
the pastures.

During a prolonged fair circuit the question of ex-
ercise during the same becomes increasingly important,
owing to the closeness of the confinement in the show
pens. The aim should be to exercise them for a short
time morning and evening. The aim should be further
to allow those which are pen companions to graze thus
and take exercise together. When they become "shaky"
on their feet while making the show circuit, the want of
exercise will probably be the cause of such a condition.

Excessive fatness to be avoided — The degree of the
fatness to be sought has not yet been decided to the sat-
isfaction of everyone. Even the highest authorities are

278 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

not a unit with reference to this question. This applies
not only to sheep in the fat classes, but also to those in
the breeding classes.

The contention is frequently made that animals in
the fat classes should be brought to that degree of finish
only that will best fit the carcass for profitable disposal
on the block. This would mean, though differently ex-
pressed, that the animal capable of winning alive should
also win out in the dead meat class. This as a theory is
excellent, but in practice the winnings of the animals
when alive seldom correspond with the winnings in the
carcass or dead meat classes. It is not easy to give the
reasons why it is so, but it is probably true that in the
live classes the unwritten standard for judging animals
alive calls for the highest perfection of development and
finish attainable that does no violence to symmetry, good
firm handling and an easy gait, while the unwritten stand-
ard for judging dead calls for a carcass that will sell for
the highest price to the consumer. Such finish in the
living animal is always, or nearly always, beyond the de-
gree of finish in the carcass that exactly meets the de-
mands of the consumer.

The further contention is frequently made that when
sheep are shown in the breeding classes they should not
come into the ring in higher finish than is consonant with
good and regular breeding. This also sounds well in
theory, but the fact remains that the present standard for
judging calls for a higher degree of finish in the animals
than is compatible with the very best results to be ob-
tained in breeding. It follows, therefore, that animals
which stand the best chance for winning in the show
rings will not be the best breeders, and vice versa.

But whether sheep are shown in the fat or breeding
classes, there is a degree of finish which if passed will
hold them back from highest honors in the ring. The in-
dications of over-finish include: (i) A soft and flabby
condition of the flesh on certain parts of the body, espe-

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 279

cially at the flanks. Such a condition is present more fre-
quently in the show rams than in show wethers. (2) Labored
locomotion including a limping or "groggy" gait, which
points with no little certainty to imprudent or over-
feeding. (3) Wool that is losing its luster. When wool
covering sheep loaded with flesh has a dull appearance,
it indicates, with no little certainty, fading, that is, reced-
ing bloom. These evidences are more objectionable, rel-
atively, in breeding animals than in the fat classes, for
when present they indicate that the usefulness of the animals
for breeding is virtually gone. Excess in fitting sheep
is sooner reached with breeding stocks than with those in
the fat classes.

The age to which sheep may be shown — They are sel-
dom found in the show ring beyond the age of three years,
for the reason that they seldom maintain form and bloom
beyond that age equal in degree with sheep that are
younger, nor is the fleece of a sheep beyond the age men-
tioned equal to that of the same sheep at a younger age.
The same sheep, therefore, seldom appears in the show
ring during more than three successive seasons, and in
many instances two seasons is the limit of the show yard
career.

Sheep never appear in finer bloom than when they
are shown as lambs. At that age they carry wool longer
than that which they carry as shearlings. But shearlings
also may carry that finish which is very attractive to the
eye. They are also nearly matured ; hence when the con-
test for supremacy is between shearlings and those that
are older, the former usually bear away the honors. Sheep
seldom appear in the show ring the third season in as
perfect form as previously, although there are some ex-
ceptions. If exhibitors are to hold their place, therefore,
in the show rings, the necessity for superseding the older
show animals is continuous.

That the high fitting called for to enable breeding
sheep to carry honors does militate against the most sue-

280 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

cessful breeding cannot be questioned. Even though be-
getting power should not be lost in the rams, they are not
so valuable as breeders as they would have been had they
not been thus fitted. Their movement in service is less
active than that of other rams, which is so far against
them, and the animals begotten by them are in many in-
stances not equal in vigor with lambs begotten by what
are termed field rams. The lambs produced by ewes thus
fitted are also usually inferior to other lambs in inherent
ruggedness, even though such ewes should retain the
ability to conceive. Those who exhibit sheep, therefore,
must not look for results in the line of breeding that they
may reap from members of the flock not thus fitted.

Miscellaneous observations on showing sheep — (i)
Certain terms are commonly used with reference to the
showing of sheep to designate exactly what is included
in each exhibit or what is meant by each award made.
Sheep are shown singly, in pairs, in pens or in flocks. In
the classes by ages they are shown singly. In the class
exhibits a ram lamb is a male shown under the age of one
year; a shearling ram is a male shown between the age
of one and two years ; and an aged ram is a male that has
passed the age of two years. The ewes are similarly
graded. When shown for champion honors both rams
and ewes are also shown singly. A pair is two of one sex,
but usually only ewes are shown in pairs. A pen, unless
otherwise stated, consists of three individuals. In the
breeding classes a pen usually includes one male, what-
soever the number of females. In the fat classes a pen
usually includes five wethers. A flock in some instances
includes an aged ram, a shearling ram and a ram lamb ;
also the same number of ewes of similar ages, but fre-
quently it includes a mature male and three females
shown in the aged, shearling and lamb forms. The terms
pen and flock are sometimes used to express the same
thing. A special prize means a premium offered outside
of and in addition to the ordinary list of premiums. A

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 28l

champion prize is a prize offered the best animal, male
or female, of the breed, but the term champion also ap-
plies to a pen or flock. A sweepstake prize is a prize
offered for the best individual, male or female, the best
pen or the best flock, all breeds competing.

2. The prize lists issued by the various fair associa-
tions usually determine the date beyond which breeding
sheep are not to be shorn. Usually this date does not go
back further than April 1st. When the date is not thus
fixed, there is no dishonesty in shearing earlier, providing
there is no misrepresentation as to the date of shearing
in response to a question from the judge while engaged
in making the awards. In order to add to the length of
the wool, what is termed "stubble shearing" is sometimes
practiced. This means shearing which leaves on part of
the growth of the wool. When dexterously done it may
also be made to aid in giving the sheep that appearance
in form which is admired in the show ring. The opera-
tion is performed by leveling the wool on the top and
bottom lines with the shears. The sides should then be
trimmed off sufficiently. The wool on the breast and
hindquarters are left overfull at the first, and are grad-
ually molded to the required shapes by subsequent trim-
ming. Usually about half the length of the fleece is taken
off.- Stubble shearing is not dishonest when it violates
no rule of the fair association, but the benefit from the
practice to the breeders of sheep or to the sheep industry
is not apparent. Why, then, should it be given any coun-
tenance? In the fat classes length of wool does not carry
with it the same value as in the breeding classes. Very
long wool is not really desirable, as when present that
plumpness in the appearance so essential in fat sheep in
the show ring is not so easily maintained. Because of this
very early shearing brings with it no real benefit to such
sheep. Of course, they should be shorn before the weight
of the fleece becomes oppressively warm.

282 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

3. Some care is necessary with reference to the racks
and troughs from which sheep take their feed when they
are to be shown. The racks must not allow any chaff
or other fodder to lodge about the wool on the neck of
the sheep. The height of the feeding trough must be so
adjusted, and also of the board over which the sheep feed
on the side of the same, that the wool will not be dis-
turbed on the underside of the throat. These may seem
to be matters of but little moment, and yet they are suffi-
ciently important in themselves to determine which way
the award will go in a close contest. For the proper con-
struction of feed racks see page 330.

4. While attention should be given to trimming the
feet of sheep on the arable farm, for whatsoever purpose
they may be kept, it is trebly important that such care
shall be extended to the feet of show sheep. The feet of
the latter should be trimmed at least once a year. Such
trimming is done in outline as follows : The toes are cut
back with the nippers to the desired length. The excess
of horn is then trimmed off. Horn is in excess when it
grows outward so that it cracks or breaks on the outer
edges or when it turns under the outer rim of the sole.
It is removed by the aid of a knife, sharp and strong.
The sole may also be improved by a slight paring. The
trimming is best done some time before the sheep are
shown.

5. It is greatly important that show sheep shall come
into the ring at what is termed the bloom stage. By bloom
is meant that condition in which the show animal appears
and handles at its best. When the animal has reached this
stage there is a charm of finish about it that is scarcely
possible of complete interpretation by the use of language,
but it is readily discerned when present by the competent
judge. When applied to the appearance, it includes not
only attractiveness in every part of the external form,
but also a corresponding gracefulness and ease of locomo-
tion. When applied to finish, it means that condition of

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 283

flesh which most completely meets the requirements with
reference to quality, distribution and firmness. Short of
the bloom period the animal has not attained the highest
finish of which it is capable. Beyond that stage the bane-
ful evidences of fitting too long continued become at once
apparent. Sheep and also other animals can only be held
for a limited period at the bloom stage ; hence the impor-
tance of having them reach it just at the fair season. To
have them do so is an evidence of skill on the part of the
feeder. This should be most carefully considered when
show sheep are to be carried through a show circuit some-
what prolonged. They should be made to enter it a little
short of the stage of full bloom. They may then be car-
ried on to full bloom before the circuit has been completed
and before the evidences of retrogression become appar-
ent. It is also increasingly difficult to bring animals into
the show ring during succeeding years in a proper condi-
tion of bloom. The time comes at length when such a con-
dition is unattainable.

6. Unless sheep have more or less training previously,
they will not assume that graceful and easy attitude in
the show ring which is so pleasing to any judge. If they
are restless and stand with the feet unduly spread or too
close together, the chances for winning are proportion-
ately discounted. Restlessness cannot be prevented in the
absence of previous handling. The spreading of the feet
forward and backward causes the back to go down. When
the feet are drawn together the back will be hunched up.
In such an instance gentle pressure over the loin with the
right hand, the left hand being underneath the jaw, will
correct such an attitude. Should the animal stand, as it
were, under protest, as though trying to get away from
the attendant, it will not win out in the contest. Should
the ground be uneven, the aim should be to place the
sheep so that the fore part will be on the higher ground.
Rams may be shown to the best advantage when they
are trained to lead on the halter at an early age. When

284 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

so trained they will not hesitate to follow the shepherd
through a crowd, however dense. Should the award be
adverse, the exhibitor should meet the situation calmly.
In the lottery of judging — for in close competition it is a
lottery, in a sense — the award, though in some instances
scarcely deserved, may go the other way.

7. Should the suspicion arise in the mind of the judge
that the age of some of the animals before him has been
misrepresented, he can usually detect the same by examin-
ing the teeth. They do not always show equal advance-
ment in growth at similar ages, but the progress made is
so nearly similar in different animals that the liability to
mistake on the part of a good judge is reduced to a mini-
mum. The following rules relating to the age of show
sheep, as indicated by the teeth, have been adopted by
several of the leading fair associations of Great Britain :
Sheep having their central permanent incisors cut will be
considered as exceeding the age of 10 months. Sheep
having their central permanent incisors fully up will be
considered as exceeding the age of 12 months. Sheep
having their third pair of permanent incisors cut will be
considered as exceeding 19 months. Sheep having their
third pair of permanent incisors fully up and the tempo-
rary molars shed will be considered as exceeding 24
months. Sheep having their corner permanent incisors
well up and showing marks of wear will be considered as
exceeding 36 months.

8. Stock rams which have been exhibited at the fairs
and are again to be exhibited must be managed with great
care if they are to retain their breeding powers. Ordina-
rily ram lambs shown at the autumn fairs should come as
soon as possible after January 1st. To have them come
earlier would give them too much the appearance of a
shearling. A show lamb should not be permitted to serve
more than say 12 to 15 females while yet in the lamb form.
A shearling ram which is to be shown again should not
serve more than, say, 24 to 30 females while yet in the

GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP TOR EXHIBITION 285

shearling form. A two-shear ram should not serve
more than, say, 36 to 45 females if he is to be shown
again. A ram in the three-shear form may be used freely
in service, as it is not probable that he will go back into
the show ring again. Fortunately service is not usually
required of rams until the fairs for the season are over;
hence such service comes at a time when it is legitimate
to cease burdening the animal with flesh. During the sea-
son of service succulent food should oe freely fed to such
rams.

9. The management of ewe lambs that are to be
shown at the fairs in the lamb form in the breeding classes
is less complex than that relating to ram lambs which are
to be shown and also used in service, as the former are
not bred in the lamb form. Of course, they should not be
given so much carbonaceous food when fitting them for
the fairs as would be admissible in fitting for the fat
classes ; nor would it be advisable to load them down so
heavily with flesh. On returning from the fairs if they
can be fed freely on rape they may not need much grain
so long as such food lasts.

10. Blankets, so essential in preparing sheep for ex-
hibition and while making the circuit of the fairs, may be
made from such material as burlap, sacking and ducking.
The ducking is more suitable for use at the fairs on the
score of appearance, though the other material named will
be amply suitable for home use. They should be made so
as to fasten in front of the breast with buttons or straps,
the former being preferable. At the thigh a strap should
be fastened to the blanket in front, passed inside of the
thigh when in place, and buttoned or buckled to the
blanket at the rear of the thigh.

CHAPTER XIV
WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP

In Chapter XIV the following phases of these ques-
tions are discussed: (i) Washing sheep before shearing;
(2) When sheep should and should not be washed; (3)
The different methods of washing; (4) Handling sheep
when washing or shearing them; (5) Tagging sheep
when washed; (6) Sheep between washing and shearing;
(7) The time and place for shearing; (8) Methods of
shearing sheep ; and (9) Handling the shorn flock. With-
in the last two or three decades there has been much mod-
ification in the methods of managing sheep, both with ref-
erence to washing and shearing. Modifications with ref-
erence to the former have been brought about by the
transfer of manufacturing wool from the farm home to
the factory, and with reference to the latter by the in-
troduction of shearing by machinery.

Washing sheep before shearing — The following are
chief among the arguments that favor washing sheep
before they are shorn: (i) It is virtually necessary to
wash them when the wool is to be manufactured at home ;
(2) the shearing is more easily done when the sheep are
washed; (3) there is a saving in the cost of transporta-
tion ; and (4) it is possible to estimate more correctly the
exact value of the wool.

When wool is to be manufactured at home, the neces-
sity for washing it is based on the fact that washing the
dirt out of the fleece is much more easily accomplished
while it is yet on the sheep's back than after it has been
removed. The manipulation of the wool so as to remove
the dirt is accomplished much easier when the fleece rests
on a firm surface, which helps to hold it in place, such as
is presented by the body of the sheep. It is based on the

WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 287

further fact that the wool is left in better condition after
it is washed when on the back of the sheep. Where thus
washed time is given for the yolk which lubricates the
wool to rise in the same to add to its luster. If the wool is
washed after it is shorn, the bright appearance is so far lost.

The difference in the ease with which sheep may be
shorn when they are washed may not be much in some
instances, as when there is not much dirt in the wool. In
other instances the difference may be material, for the
reason that the fleece contains much dirt.

The saving in the cost of transportation when wool
is washed is frequently material. The saving in the trans-
portation of washed wool results, first, from the removal
of dirt from the wool, and second, from the removal of an
excess of yolk. Frequently the excess of yolk is greater
than the amount of other foreign substances in the wool.
Particularly is this true of Merino wool. Medium wools
usually contain a less amount of yolk than fine wools,
and long wools a less amount than medium wools. The
shrinkage in the scouring of fine wools of good quality
when washed is about 50 per cent ; when not washed, it
has been put at somewhere near 70 per cent. The objec-
tion to the shipping of wool unwashed, arising from cost,
becomes stronger as the distance from market increases.
Under some conditions it is, of course, of but little
account.

When wool is washed it is easier to adjust the price
that should be paid for wool of the same grade. The
quality in such instances is so far gauged by the charac-
ter of the washing.

When the wool is unwashed, no two fleeces may be
exactly alike in the amount of foreign substances which
they contain, and the same is true in a much greater de-
gree of wools obtained from different flocks. To pay the
same price for such wools would not be just, and to dif-
ferentiate the price based on the amount of foreign sub-
stances which the wool contains is very difficult.

288 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Prominent among the arguments that favor shear-
ing sheep without washing them are the following: (i)
When shorn unwashed, the shearing may be done earlier
than when washing precedes the shearing; (2) when foot
rot is present, washing is a sure means of distributing
the same; and (3) washing frequently harms the sheep
and also those who wash them.

When sheep are shorn unwashed, they can be shorn
as early as may be desired. When washed before shorn,
it is necessary to wait for the water to warm before the
sheep are washed when any considerable number are to
be thus washed. Of course, it would be possible to heat
the water when only a small number are to be shorn.

Experience has shown that if sheep are not washed
until the water in brooks or ponds becomes warm enough
to admit of washing them, that they suffer from an excess
of heat which so far interferes with and hinders the high-
est increase that may be obtained from them. Especially
is this true of sheep that are being fattened and of dams
that are nursing their lambs, and it is also true of the
lambs. The increase made by sheep that are being
pushed on stimulating foods for the market is seriously
hindered by allowing them to suffer from the excessive
heat which results from carrying a fleece which is no
longer necessary to protect them. Likewise ewes that
are suckling lambs can furnish more milk for them when
not burdened with a heavy fleece of wool.

When foot rot is present in any given locality, the
danger is imminent that it will be contracted by and dis-
tributed in flocks that occupy pens that are used in com-
mon to confine sheep that are being washed. Even though
the different flocks should occupy different pens when
being washed at a common washing place, it is not easily
possible to prevent them from treading on common
ground and thus contracting the disease.

The process of washing involves the handling of the
sheep more or less. It also involves handling them be-

WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 289

times when they are easily injured, as when they are with
lamb. It is possible to handle them without injury, but
in rough hands they will suffer more or less harm. They
resist the effort to take them into the water, and if pulled
in by rough hands they will certainly take harm.

The person who washes sheep may also incur some
hazard. The water may still be cold when the washing
season arrives, and when it is there is hazard to the
washer, especially when the number to be washed is large.
Remaining in the water for a long period at such a time
is attended with no little hazard, especially to those who
have become somewhat advanced in life.

Until within the last two or three decades, the prac-
tice of washing sheep was very common. In many com-
munities it was universal. It was necessitated by the cus-
tom of spinning the wool at home and of manufacturing
it into cloth. The manufacture of wool is now almost en-
tirely relegated to the factories, hence the washing of
sheep prior to shearing them is fast becoming obsolete.
It is now largely confined to long wooled sheep that are
to be exhibited at the fairs. In some instances the wash-
ing of lambs of the long wooled breeds with water and
soap in the early autumn is practiced. The object is to
loosen the tangles in the wool, to add luster to it and to
improve the general appearance of the fleece. Long
wooled sheep are always thus washed before they are
shown in the autumn, and lambs are sometimes washed in
good flocks, even when they are not to be shorn.

When sheep should and should not be washed — It
would seem correct to say that sheep should not be
washed, as a rule, except when the wool is to be manu-
factured at home, or in the case of certain breeds that are
to be shown. Notwithstanding the objections to shearing
and transporting wools in the unwashed form, the prac-
tice of so handling it is now almost universal. It has be-
come so doubtless because the benefit that accrues from
handling wools thus has been found greater than from

290 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

handling it by the other method. The improved methods
of scouring which science has produced has contributed
to the change. The decadence of the industry of manu-
facturing of wool at home is in some ways to be regretted,
but in the end the change will doubtless contribute to the
advance of a high civilization.

The washing of show sheep, as previously intimated,
is confined almost entirely to the long wooled breeds.
Why it should be thus is to some extent the outcome of
fashion, but the fashion probably rests on a sensible founda-
tion. That washing does add to the beauty of the fleece of
the long wooled sheep cannot be questioned.

That it adds to the beauty of the middle wooled
breeds, particularly those of the dark-faced types, may be
questioned. That it does not add to the beauty of the
fleece in the fine wooled breeds is a foregone conclusion.

The time for washing sheep will, of course, vary.
When small flocks are to be washed in a tank, the water
being artificially warmed, they may be washed at almost
any time desired. When large flocks are to be washed,
the washing is deferred until the water in the streams and
ponds or lakes in which the sheep are washed has become
warm enough to bring little or no hazard to those who
wash them or to the sheep. When the water is so warm
that it brings no hazard to those who do the washing,
it will certainly bring no hazard to the sheep. In the
northern states sheep are not usually washed in a large
way before the end of May. Going southward, the season
may be continually advanced until the Gulf of Mexico is
reached. The character of the season may cause a varia-
tion of 10 to 14 days in the usual time for washing. In
some seasons it will be advanced and in some retarded.
But in no instances does it take place so early as to pre-
clude the sheep from taking harm through carrying an
excessive weight of fleece after the days have begun to
wax warm.

WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 29!

The different methods of washing — Three methods of
washing sheep have been adopted. By the first they are
washed in a tank; by the second in a brook, pond or
lake ; and by the third beneath an artificial waterfall. All
of these, save the first, are being practiced to a less ex-
tent as the years go by, and for the reason that sheep
are now being washed to a much less extent before shear-
ing than formerly. Where sheep were kept in large bands
the plan was sometimes adopted of swimming them back
and forth several times across a running stream. This
method, accomplished by the shepherd through the aid
of dogs, was, of course, an imperfect method of washing,
but it was only practiced on sheep that grazed on pastures
on which the wool was not much liable to be soiled in a
marked degree.

Sheep are now more commonly washed in a tank or
box than by any other method, as when they are washed
it is rather to prepare them for being shown at fairs than
to cleanse the wool previous to the shearing. A home-
made box made watertight will serve the purpose, but a
galvanized tank such as may now be readily obtained
from various manufacturers of the same is probably not
more costly and it will last much longer. The same tank
may be used for dipping, for ticks or scab, where the flock
is small. When sheep are thus washed, the water should
be brought to a tepid condition should the season of the
year call for warming it thus. Some kind of pure soap
added to the water will greatly aid in removing foreign
matters from the wool. It will also dissolve and remove
yolk scales that may have accumulated. Subsequent
to the washing, the wool should be treated with clean
water so as to remove the soap, as, unremoved, it would
injure its appearance. Two persons will handle the
sheep that are thus being washed much more readily than
one, especially when they are large. They should be clad
in waterproof clothing. The water in the box or tank
should be renewed occasionally, as it soon becomes so

MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

soiled as to be unsuited to further cleansing of the wool.
When sheep are washed in a stream, pond or lake,
the method followed in each instance is virtually the
same. The following are prominent among the requisites
for each washing: (i) A pen or inclosure adjacent to the
water in which to inclose the sheep ; (2) water deep
enough to prevent the sheep from touching the bottom
with their feet and plentiful in supply; (3) a shore line of
sand or gravel, and freedom from mud or mire underneath
the water. The inclosure may be made of rails, poles or
hurdles. Hurdles such as are used in grazing sheep (see
page 13) are more suitable than the other materials
named, because of the ease with which they may be
moved and the quickness with which they may be put in
place. The ends of the two sides should come down
against the water, to prevent the sheep from getting
around them and thus escaping from the inclosure. Un-
less the water is deep enough to float the sheep they can-
not be handled to the best advantage by the person wash-
ing them. As soon as the water causes them to swim they
are immediately under the control of the washer who can
move them about in the water with but little effort. When
water thus deep comes up against the shore where the
pen faces the water the sheep are at once under control
when they enter the same, so that wading them out into
deep water, which they so much resist, is not necessary.
The necessity for a sandy or gravelly shore where the
sheep enter and leave the water will be at once apparent.
Especially where the sheep leave the water is this impor-
tant, as wading through mud or mire would leave the
sheep in such condition when they reach the land, that
they would need to be washed again. Should the bottom
where the sheep are washed be covered with soft mud, it
would not be possible to wash wool clean there, because
of the fouling of the water through the rising of mud
particles. A plentiful supply of water is helpful, as it
does not foul readily, but it should not be so deep as to

WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 293

interfere with the free action of the arms of those engaged
in doing the work. More or less current in the water is
distinctly helpful, as it floats away the dirt removed from
the fleece.

When sheep are washed beneath a waterfall, the
requisites are about the same as when they are washed in
a stream or lake, except that a dep'th of water such as will
float the sheep is not so necessary. They are led out un-
der the falling water, and the dirt in the wool, when it is
properly manipulated, is quickly carried away. Years
ago so important was it considered to have a good place
for washing sheep that running streams were sometimes
dammed for no other purpose than to furnish a waterfall
adapted to such a use.

Handling sheep when washing or shearing them —
The necessity for handling sheep with gentleness while
washing and shearing them should never be forgotten.
The sheep is a timid animal and is easily injured by rough
handling. When the wool is the only medium used in
handling sheep, they will invariably suffer injury at the
hands of those who handle them. When grasped by the
wool they invariably struggle to get away. The measure
of the struggling is the timidity of the sheep, the extent
to which they have been accustomed to handling and
the roughness or gentleness of the handling. When sheep
are grasped by the wool and struggle to get away, and
are then slaughtered and the skin removed, the inner side
of the skin underneath where the wool was grasped will
be reddened with the blood that has centered in blood
vessels there. Its presence bears testimony to the extent
of the injury done.

Sheep may be most readily caught by the aid of a
crook. This means a rod of several feet in width, a piece
of metal attached to the farther end. which is bent back-
wards so as to form a crook. When used in catching
sheep it is thrust forward and quickly drawn backward
so as to catch a leg, usually a hind leg, within the crook.

294 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

This renders the sheep powerless to get away until it can
be grasped by the hand. Long practice will make the
shepherd very dexterous in using this aid in catching
sheep. Its use is now mainly confined to large flocks.

When the attempt is made to catch sheep by hand
within an inclosure, a number of them, and in some in-
stances all the flock, will rush into a corner. The person
who is seeking out one of them should follow, keeping his
eye closely on the sheep that is to be caught. He then
rushes forward and grasps it by placing one hand under-
neath the neck at the throat or in front of the breast and
the other hand at the tailhead or buttock. The sheep is
then in his power should it struggle to move forward or
backward. In some instances the sheep is grasped at
first by the hind leg with one hand, and held until the free
hand, which is usually the left one, is reached forward in
front of the breast of the sheep. Should a sheep be
grasped by the wool over the hips it will lunge forward
to get away, and this will result in injury to the part thus
grasped.

When holding sheep, especially those that are restless
or refractory, they should be held by placing one hand,
usually the left one, so as to grasp the jaw underneath
and well forward. The fingers or some of them are
pushed upward into the soft parts underneath the tongue,
the thumb remaining on the outside of the jaw. The
right hand is thus left free to use as occasion may call
for. With the left hand thus placed and the right hand
at the tailhead, a refractory sheep may be moved forward
should this be desired. The parts underneath the jaw
are sensitive, hence the pressure of the fingers there
should never be more than occasion calls for.

Sheep may be taught to lead the same as other ani-
mals. This is usually necessary only in the case of rams,
more especially such of them as are to be shown. They
will submit readily to such teachings, but it is most effec-
tive when they are thus taught while young. Out on the

WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 295

range nearly all the handling of sheep, or rather the man-
agement of the same, is done by the aid of dogs. The
expertness to which dogs may be trained in thus render-
ing aid would seem in some instances to be almost more
than such as results from mere animal sagacity.

When sheep are being washed rough handling should
be most carefully avoided. This should apply to the
handling, not only while the sheep are being put into the
water, but also while in the water and while being led
out of the same. The greatest hazard occurs while the
sheep are being led into the water. They strenuously re-
sist being put into it. Then it is that they are most in
danger of being harmed. They should be brought for-
ward, as described above, to the water's edge. In the
same way the washer leads them forward until the water
is beyond their depth. To drag them forward by grasp-
ing the wool above the shoulders, their feet being in-
stinctively braced against such dragging, is simply cruel.

When the sheep are beyond their depth, the danger
from harm for the time being is practically over. They
are then virtually powerless in the hands of the washer.
The wool virtually floats them. The washer grasps the
wool between his hands and presses it together. This he
continues to do until the water is no more discolored as
the result of such squeezing. He goes over the whole
surface of the body in this way. In his hands the sheep
may be readily turned so as to bring the wool on any part
of the body within easy reach of the hands of the washer.
It is scarcely necessary to add that no sheep should pass
the washer's hands until its fleece is thoroughly cleansed.

When the washing is completed, it may answer in
some instances, as when the sheep are young and strong
and the shore is firm and clean, to head them in the direc-
tion of the landing place and to allow them to swim
ashore unattended. The sight of the sheep grazing that
have been washed will cause them to try and reach them.
But should the sheep be old or feeble and the landing

296 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

place not all that could be desired, the washer should
accompany them until they are entirely out of the water.
It may be necessary for him to hold them for a few sec-
onds, as should they attempt to walk at once the weight
of water in the fleece may cause them to fall.

Tagging sheep when washed — Tagging means re-
moving from the sheep wool that may have become so
mixed with excrement that it hangs in clots around the
buttock, especially that portion of it around and under-
neath the tail. This condition results from a laxness of
the bowels, usually caused by feeding too freely on succu-
lent grasses while these are yet soft and full of succulence.
Merinos, and especially the lambs subsequently to wean-
ing, are much liable to injury from soiling with urine in
hot weather in both males and females. These condi-
tions, if allowed to increase assume in some instances an
aggravated form, insomuch that the wool covering the
buttock, or soiled by urine, becomes a mass of filth, in
which maggots may breed. This may be prevented, in
part at least, by cutting off the locks of wool thus con-
taminated as soon as such contamination appears. If this
has not been given attention sooner, it should be done in
the inclosure from which the sheep are taken to be
washed. The better plan, however, is to remove the locks
of wool thus contaminated as soon as such soiling of the
wool is noticed. This will aid much in preventing the
soiling of the wool adjacent. An old pair of shears, well
sharpened, may be advantageously used in removing the
soiled locks of wool. But tagging also refers to the re-
moval of locks that may have been loosened from some
cause from the surface of the body, and which, if not re-
moved, will ultimately fall off and be lost.

As already intimated, the best time to begin the
tagging is as soon as it appears. It may be necessary to
repeat the tagging should additional soiling occur. When
aggravated and prolonged, the better plan would be to
confine the sheep and put them on a dry diet until the

WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 297

purging is arrested. When tagging is done at the wash-
ing season, additional help will be called for, so as to avoid
delay in delivering the sheep to the washers.

The tags thus obtained may be so incorporated with
filth as to be practically worthless. In other instances it
may prove profitable to remove the filth and sell the tags.
The filth may be removed by soaking the tags for a time
sufficiently long to soften the manure adhering to them,
and to dissolve it so that it can be removed by one or
more washings. Soap will, of course, aid in the dissolv-
ing and cleansing process. The price paid for such will,
of course, be lower than for other wool.

Sheep between washing and shearing — The interval
between washing and shearing will be influenced to some
extent by the character of the weather. If the weather
is dry and bright, one week should suffice between the
time of washing and shearing. Under other conditions,
it may be necessary to defer the shearing so as to cover
an interval considerably longer. The interval between
washing and shearing should not be unduly prolonged,
lest the wool should become more or less filled with for-
eign substances. This would, of course, so far detract
from the benefit resulting from washing.

The objects in thus deferring the shearing for several
days subsequent to the washing, are, first, to allow the
fleece to dry, and, second, to give time for the yolk to ex-
tend to the tips of the wool fiber. This will add greatly
to the luster of the wool. Should the wool be shorn while
yet overmoist, the labor of shearing is less pleasant, and
the hazard is incurred that injury will come to the wool
through the excess of moisture which it contains. More
or less mold would result, and also discoloration, which
would proportionately discount the price.

Between the period of washing and shearing, the
sheep should be grazed on clean pastures, otherwise the
benefit from washing the fleece may be much neutralized.
In newly settled areas, where logs that have been charred

298 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

abound in the pastures, the newly washed sheep may rub
against these, and so blacken the fleece externally. As
the weather is usually more or less warm at the washing
season, sheep are prone to lie down amid the dust on the
highway and also on other bare ground to which they
may have access. Because of this, the wisdom of keep-
ing them away from such influences and indeed from all
contaminating influences will at once be apparent.

The time and place for shearing — The following are
chief among the influences that bear upon the time of
shearing: (i) The character of the climate; (2) the pro-
tection that can be furnished to the sheep; and (3) the
object for which they are being kept.

In mild latitudes sheep may, of course, be shorn pro-
portionately earlier than in those that are cold, and in dry
climates earlier than in those that are characterized by
much rainfall. The necessity for early shearing is pres-
ent in a much greater degree in warm climates, as when
unshorn the sheep are burdened by the weight and heat
of the fleece after the weather becomes warm.

Where ample protection can be furnished for the
sheep, should the weather turn cold after they are shorn,
the time of shearing may be much advanced. When the
protection is sufficient they may be shorn at any time
during the winter, as for instance, when they are being
prepared for exhibition, and the rules of the fairs where
they are to be shown do not prohibit such early shearing.
Sheep thus shorn may be retained most readily at even
temperatures in a basement. When shorn early, it is, of
course, necessary to keep the sheep in protected sheds
during unpropitious weather. When exposed to temper-
atures too low after the wool has been removed, the dis-
comfort resulting is indicated by the humped attitude
which the animal assumes.

When sheep are to be shown, it is customary to shear
them earlier than the normal season for shearing, unless
the rules of the fairs at which they are shown prohibit

WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 299

such shearing. When they are being fattened for spring
sale, they may be shorn earlier than under other condi-
tions. The heat induced by the fattening foods fed will
result in much discomfort to the sheep, unless the wool
is removed, and discomfort always hinders gains where
it is present.

When sheep are washed they cannot be shorn so
early as when shorn unwashed, as the washing cannot be
done in a large way until the water in which they are to
be washed becomes warm. WThen shorn unwashed, the
time of .shearing may be advanced from five to eight weeks.

If shorn unwashed, the ordinary flock may be shorn
as early as April I in the northern states, where ample
protection may be furnished to the shorn sheep. Usually,
however, the shearing is deferred to a period a little later.
The shearing is more frequently deferred to the middle
of April, or even to the last half of the month, but it is
done proportionately earlier in states that lie southward.
When the sheep are washed, they are seldom shorn in the
northern states earlier than late May or early June.

Sheep that are being fattened may usually be shorn
with advantage fully two weeks earlier than sheep kept
for breeding uses. The necessity for providing exercise
for them is not present as it is with breeding flocks, hence
after they are shorn they may be kept in the sheds all the
time without harm should the weather conditions make
such confinement advisable.

In some instances sheep have been shorn twice a
year; such shearing has usually been done in an experi-
mental way. The increase has not been such as to justify
such shearing, especially in northern areas. It would
seem probable that such shearing would be distinctly ad-
vantageous in warm areas, as, for instance, the southern
states, but this problem does not seem to have been fully
worked out there. The season for the first shearing would
be early, probably as early as March 1st, and for the sec-
ond shearing, about six months later.

3OO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Wherever sheep are shorn it should be under cover,
to protect the shearers and also to protect the sheep, espe-
cially when the shearing is done in warm weather. Then
they should be housed in quarters adjacent to the shear-
ing floor, so as to be convenient to the shearers. They
should thus be penned in lots, sufficient to supply the
shearers for the day, and they should be thus congregated
when free from dew and rain. They should be kept in
clean quarters, to prevent the soiling of their wool. When
the shearing continues for successive days, much attention
must be given to keeping the quarters clean, and the
necessity for such watchfulness is greater when the sheep
have been washed.

When a small band of sheep has been washed, they
may be readily penned for shearing in the end of a lane.
Green grass will answer for a shearing floor, and a few
boards extended across the corner or nook of the fences
that come together there, will form a sufficient protection
for the shearers.

Methods of shearing sheep — Sheep are shorn by hand
and by the aid of machinery. Machine shearing, which is
of comparatively recent introduction, is destined to sup-
plant hand shearing wherever shearing is to be done in a
large way. It not only does the work more expeditiously,
but it does better work and neater than is done by the
average shearer, and when sheep are shorn in large lots,
it is done more cheaply than when done with the shears.
Two methods of hand shearing are followed. One of
these is known as the long method and the other as the
round method.

When sheep are shorn by the long method, the
shearer begins by removing the wool from the head. He
then opens the wool on the throat and shears from the
underline of the same to the top of the neck. This is con-
tinued until a point is reached at or near the shoulder
blade. The position of the sheep is then reversed, and the
wool is then removed from the other side of the neck. A

WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 3OI

series of rings is thus made, extending from the head to
the shoulder blade. The sheep is then laid on its side.
The wool is then shorn from shoulder to buttock on one
side. The cuts made are similar and parallel and of equal
width. The sheep is then turned over and the wool is
removed from the other side, shearing from buttock to
stern. A good shearer keeps the shears gnawing, as it
were, through the wool rather than making distinct cuts
each time the shear handles are pressed toward each
other. When the shears are thus used, the lines left are
more evenly made and the hazard of cutting the skin is
reduced.

When the sheep are shorn by the round method, the
animal is placed on its buttock. The wool is first removed
from the brisket downward to the fore-flank. It is then
shorn from right to left clear across the belly. The wool
on the entire belly thus removed hangs on the left side of
the fleece. The wool is then opened up on the under side
of the neck, and beginning at the ears, the neck and body
are shorn by running the shears around to the ridge of
the topline. The sheep is then turned over and the right
side is shorn in the same way. Each line made by the
shears should be at right angles with the topline. Sheep
thus shorn have a zebra-like appearance, which is very
attractive. Fat sheep have a very neat appearance when
shorn thus, but lean sheep look best when shorn by the
long method. An expert shearer will never cut the wool
twice, that is, he will not, even when shearing past the
spinal column, point the shears so high that any of the
wool will have to be clipped again. Clipping twice means
waste of wool.

When sheep are shorn by machinery, some kind of
power is necessary to drive the clippers used when at
work. When done in a large way, a long line of shaft-
ing is put in place, so that many shearers may work simul-
taneously along the line of the same. The power called
for is not large in amount, compared with the work done.

302

WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 303

Small machines are sometimes used for flocks on farms
that are limited in numbers. These are sometimes worked
by hand power, one person furnishing the power and an-
other using the clippers. In some instances wind power
is used, and also power obtained from tread mills. Where
the power is furnished by hand, it is yet somewhat ques-
tionable as to whether this method will come into general
use. But where power is furnished from other sources,
shearing machinery will doubtless almost entirely super-
sede hand shearing.

The following instructions in the use of the clippers
will be found helpful : Place the sheep in an upright posi-
tion and hold it tightly between the knees. When in
position the shearer should be about one foot to the left
of the long tube and about one foot in front of it. When
shearing, always turn the sheep to the right, which should
be done with the foot, rather than with the hand. When
the sheep is in position, part the wool in front of the bris-
ket and run the clippers down twice as far as the pit of
the stomach. Put the front legs behind the arm at the
shoulder, and make about four swaths or cuts down the
right side between the fore and hind flanks. Then shear
across the belly over to the left side, on a line between
the shoulder and the flank. Keep the heel of the clipper
elevated a little. Then trim out below the scrotum or
udder, and cut the wool off the point of the tail. Place
the left hand just above the stifle and press down so as to
straighten out the right leg, and with inward strokes trim
the inside of the leg.

With the hand similarly placed above the stifle, with
outward strokes trim the inside of the left leg. The
shearer should then place his right foot between the hind
legs of the sheep, leaving it well back of its rump against
the left foot. With the left hand placed against the
sheep's under jaw, the neck is straightened so that the
back will be against the knee, and two swaths are cut
along the right side of the neck. The side of the jaw is

304 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

then turned against the knee, and the left side of the neck
is trimmed, the clippers running lengthwise of the neck back
to its center and then to the top of the head. The sheep
is then turned partly around and is in position to have the
left shoulder shorn. Each stroke made should be to the
center of the back, keeping the left hand on the skin above
the clippers to hold it in a stretched and smooth position.
The left shoulder is now trimmed. The shearer should
hold the sheep lightly in his hand, leaving it well back
and pressing his knees firmly against its brisket. With
long, smooth and quick strokes the wool is removed from
the side of the sheep. When the left hind leg and
tail are trimmed, three or four swaths are run half way
up the back, the shearer standing astride and holding the
sheep firmly between the knees and putting the back in
rainbow shape as far as practicable. The clippers are then
run up the back and the head is trimmed. W^hen the left
side of the neck is shorn, the sheep is set up straight, its
left side being held tightly against the knees and the right
jaw is then trimmed. The sheep's neck is then pressed
down against its left side. Beginning at the under side
of the right side of the neck, swaths should be run down
to the shoulder, the clippers next working back on the
top of the neck. The sheep's neck is then made to drop
against the left side, the shearer placing his foot clear
over out beyond the sheep's leg, its right front knee be-
ing held down tightly under the same, and with inward
strokes the shoulder and front leg are shorn. The sheep's
head is then raised and the shearer's left leg is placed be-
tween the sheep's legs, the sheep being held against the
shearer while the other side and hind leg are shorn. The
aim should be to hold the sheep in an easy position, and
it will not struggle as it otherwise would.

When sheep are shorn by hand they are in some in-
stances placed on a shearing bench, but more commonly
they are placed on a floor ; when shorn by machinery they
are always thus placed. When sheep are shorn in large

WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 305

numbers by either method, each gang of shearers has its
complement of helpers to catch the sheep and also to care
for the wool when the fleece has been removed. The
rapidity with which good shearers will remove the fleece
is, in a sense, surprising. The fleece has been removed
by hand in less than five minutes, and by machinery in
less than two minutes. Owing to the closeness of the
shearing with the clippers, the sheep are more susceptible
to the influences of adverse weather subsequently. Con-
sequently more care should be exercised in providing
them with shelter from inclement weather. Such care
has special significance when sheep are grazed on western
ranges where fluctuations in temperature come suddenly
and in some instances with much severity.

What is known as stubble shearing is sometimes re-
sorted to by those who exhibit sheep at the fairs. When
sheep are thus shorn, a part of the growth of the wool is
left on at the time of the shearing. The object is to add
to the length of the staple. Usually about half of the
fleece is then trimmed, so as to add to the attractiveness
of the animal in the show ring. Stubble shearing is
clearly dishonest when it contravenes any of the rules of
the fair, and is of at least doubtful morality under any
conditions, since it is intended to deceive.

Handling the shorn fleece — In all instances the fleece
should be trimmed before sorting, when such trimming is
needed. By trimming is meant removing tags to which
dried excrement adheres, and other substances foreign
to the wool, as far as this may be possible. The tags will
usually more than repay the cost of washing. This may
be done by first soaking them in water as previously in-
timated, and then washing them two or three times in
warm soap suds. They should be sold apart from the
other wool, and wool that has been pulled should be sim-
ilarly sold.

When the flock is small, the fleece may be prepared for
marketing as follows: It is spread on a clean floor, with

306 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

the outside upward. The two sides are then folded back so
that they will meet in the center. The fleece is then rolled
toward the neck as compactly as this can be done by hand.
Then tie carefully with wool twine, using two or three
strings. Twine that is heavier than is necessary is
frowned upon by the buyers, and justly so, as they get no
equivalent for the twine.

The wool from large flocks may be prepared for the
packing as follows : The fleece is spread on a table of suit-
able height, and wool at the neck, tail and flanks is turned
inwards, the sides meeting in the center, or even overlapping
in some instances. It is then rolled into a neat roll and
tied. The tying is much facilitated by placing the fleece
in a box, sometimes made with hinged sides and ends.
The strings used in tying are first put in place. Narrow
saw cuts in the upper edges of the ends of the box aid in
holding them in place until used. When folded and tied,
the fleece should be neat, smooth and firm, and in shape
resembling a lady's muff.

When the market is not distant, the wool may be
carried by conveyance, as in a wagon box or on a hay
rack; otherwise it should be sacked. If not sacked at
once, it should be stored in a wool room, proof against
the ingress of rats or mice. For convenience in sacking
it is preferably stored where there is room underneath
for suspending the sacks. If stored on shelves easily
accessible, the buyer can inspect it readily and with but
little disturbance to the wool. The fact should not be
overlooked that wool when stored will lose from one
to three per cent of its weight, according to the method
and time of storage and to the amount of the yolk.

When sacking the wool the sack should be suspended
underneath a trap door. When a few fleeces have been
thrown in, a man descends and arranges them, and as
they are handed down one by one, they are systematically
placed in layers and the foot is put on the last fleece laid
in place. When the sack is full it is raised with a lever

WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 307

underneath, the mouth being secured with clamps. The
hoop is then removed, the sack lowered to the floor be-
neath, and the opening is sewed up with twine. A piece
of corn cob tied in each corner of the sack will facilitate
handling.

As a rule, the aim should be to sell the wool while yet
on the farm or ranch. After it has gone to a storing house
the grower is, in a sense, powerless to treat for terms, and
must, therefore, virtually accept those proffered. It is a
great matter when the reputation of the grower is such
that he can sell his wool without inspection.

Trimming the feet — Reference has already been
made to this question (see page 282). The necessity for
such trimming may arise from the following among other
causes: (i) The splitting or breaking of the edges of the
hoof, in some instances to the extent of reaching the quick
in the foot, the resultant pain causing lameness ; (2) the
turning under of the outer edges of the sole so as to in-
crease the difficulty in walking; (3) soreness between the
cleft portions of the hoof, usually spoken of as foul foot ;
(4) foot rot in all its phases.

The frequency with which the foot should be
trimmed will be much influenced by the soil. Sheep graz-
ing on hard flinty soils may call for but little attention
of this nature. The hoofs usually wear sufficiently on
such soils to keep them in shape. On soft soils trimming
should take place once, and sometimes twice a year. Any
indications of lameness should call for an examination of
the feet. It is of special importance that the feet of show
sheep should be well trimmed, otherwise they cannot
have that ease of locomotion which they ought to have
in the presence of a judge. The shearing season furnishes
an opportune time for trimming the feet.

The implements used in trimming the feet are a sharp
knife and what is known as toe clippers or toe shears.
The latter are used in clipping off the horny substance,
especially at the toes. The sheep is placed on its buttock

308 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

with its back to the operator; the left thumb is inserted
between the hoofs, and the shears are used so as to cut
from within. It may be necessary in some instances to
put a board under the foot of the animal when standing
and to cut back the toes with a chisel and mallet. The
paring- of the sole should be such as will give the foot a
firm and even bearing when placed upon the ground.
When the soreness referred to appears, it should be given
prompt attention, lest it should lead to increased trouble,
Finely powdered bluestone has proved an efficient rem-
edy. Trimming for foot rot is discussed elsewhere (see
page 415).

CHAPTER XV
PROVIDING SHEEP WITH WATER AND SALT

In discussing this question the following phases of the
subject are considered: (i) Sheep with and without wa-
ter; (2) Providing water for sheep in summer; (3) Pro-
viding water for sheep in winter; (4) Water and good
health in sheep; (5) The necessity for feeding salt; (6)
Supplying sheep with salt in summer; and (7) Supplying
sheep with salt in winter.

In many instances the attention given to supplying
these is wholly inadequate to the needs of the sheep,
hence the amount of space given to the discussion at this
time.

Sheep with and without water — The views cherished
by many with reference to the amount of water called for
by sheep are very erroneous. The view is frequently held
that sheep do not need water when on pasture. This view
is based on the fact that instances are numerous in cer-
tain areas in which sheep have maintained a good con-
dition as to thrift when grazing where no water had been
provided. Where such a result has followed, however,
the pastures have been at least fairly succulent and the
dews have been copious. From these sources the sheep
were able to obtain sufficient water to produce the re-
sults noted. There are other conditions, however, where
such provision would be wholly inadequate, such as the
range country when the grasses become dry and the dews
fail to come. Sheep may be able to maintain life under
such conditions, but they are not able to make that thrift
that they ought to make and would make if plentifully
supplied with water. Sheep may not need water in sum-
mer under the following conditions: (i) When the
grasses are sufficiently succulent to furnish the sheep

309

3IO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

with all the water that they need. In moist climates they
are frequently found in such a condition through all the
spring and early summer and again in the autumn; in
some instances through the whole of the same, and in
others only in the late autumn. But even in moist
climates, during a part of the summer, the grass alone
will not furnish water adequate to the needs of the sheep.
(2) Where the grasses supplemented by the dews fur-
nish a sufficient supply of water, though neither of these
sources alone would furnish an ample supply. But the
influences that produce succulent food also favor copious
dews, hence when succulence in the food fails beyond a
.certain degree, the dews shrink also, hence in the heat of
summer both of these sources taken together are really
inadequate to furnish the sheep with all the water that
they need. (3) When sheep are feeding on supplemen-
tary foods, such as rape, which contains so much succu-
lence that water is not necessary. It would not be safe
to assume, however, that sheep will not profit from ac-
cess to water when feeding on rape. The degree of the
succulence found in rape varies much with the climatic
conditions under which it is grown. The consumption
of water and consequently the need for the same increases
with increase in the summer heat. Sheep will unques-
tionably profit from access to water in summer, when
they will drink it in any considerable quantities. To de-
prive them of water when on dry pastures is simply cruel,
and the results from such deprivation are intensified as
the weather waxes warmer.

Sheep may not need water in winter when they are
given large quantities of succulent food, as, for instance,
field roots. This may hold good though they are given
a fattening ration. But in practice they are seldom given
enough roots to preclude the necessity for giving water.
The necessity for supplying water increases : (i) With the
closeness of the confinement; (2) with the stimulating
character of the food fed; and (3) with the extent to

PROVIDING SHEEP WITH WATER AND SALT 3! I

which support is called for by lambs that may be nursing
their dams. When the confinement is close, the sheep
have not the same opportunity to eat snow as they do
sometimes in order to relieve their thirst.

Under forced feeding sheep will take much more wa-
ter than under ordinary feeding. The stimulating char-
acter of the food creates heat in the system, and this
proportionately increases the demand for water. When
ewes are nursing their lambs, they cannot adequately sup-
ply them with milk without being themselves abundantly
supplied with water, directly or indirectly, through the
succulence that is fed.

Providing water for sheep in summer — The sources
from which water for sheep is obtained in summer are:
(i) The grazing; (2) dews; (3) streams; (4) wells; and
(5) ponds. Grazing and dews as sources of water sup-
ply have already been considered. Where the supply is
insufficient from these sources, it must be obtained from
one of the other sources mentioned.

Usually water furnished by streams in the pastures
is very suitable to the needs of sheep. Streams with cur-
rent all the way as they flow through the pastures are
eminently suitable, and the same is true of rivulets fed
by perennial springs. But should the waters spread out
betimes on level stretches, where they become stagnant
or nearly so, the grasses that grow in such places may
harbor therein the seeds of death in the parasites that
usually infest such places. Water obtained from wells
is well adapted to the needs of the sheep as a rule, al-
though to this there may be some exceptions, as when it
is impregnated with substances that are not relished by
the sheep, or that may be positively harmful to them be-
cause of the substances which it contains.

Usually, however, water obtained from wells is about
on a par in quality with that obtained from springs. It
is usually pumped up by windmills, so regulated that they
operate only when water may be needed. The troughs

312 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

in which it is furnished must be so low as to be of easy
access to the sheep, and care must be taken to prevent
them from becoming surrounded with wet or muddy
ground, a condition which is instinctively avoided by
sheep.

Water obtained from ponds is usually the least suited
to the needs of sheep, unless it be water that is furnished
by marshy lands. Such water is objectionable because of
the impurities which it may contain. The conditions for
generating these are favored by the stagnant condition
of the waters. Supplying sheep with water from such a
source should be avoided where this is practicable, and
yet there may be instances in which water from this
source is not really harmful. Such instances are some-
times found on elevated upland ranges, when the purity
of the air guards the water from impurities such as would
be generated under conditions the opposite.

Proximity to water in the grazing grounds is highly
advantageous to the well-being of the sheep. When they
have to travel a long distance in warm weather to obtain
water supplies, they will not thrive as they would when
the opposite conditions prevail. Where the pastures are
large, the aim should be to have water supplied in various
parts of the same.

Providing water for sheep in winter — Water obtained
from brooks and ponds does not meet the needs of sheep
in winter as it does the needs of other animals. They
are naturally timid and shrink from drinking where the
slightest physical hazard is present. If ice should be
found on the shores of a stream, sheep will not approach
it, nor can they be taught to drink from openings made in
a pond. Rather than take water under such conditions
they will eat snow, and in the absence of snow will go
without drinking.

Water obtained from wells and cisterns is much more
suitable, because it is so much more readily accessible to
the sheep. But when furnished from these sources, it

PROVIDING SHEEP WITH WATER AND SALT 313

should be made readily accessible to them in order that
their needs in this respect may be fully met. Water sup-
plied for sheep is not warmed as it is in many instances
for cattle. It has not yet been demonstrated that warm-
ing the water for sheep will repay the cost.

While some classes of sheep may do with much less
water than others in winter, no class of sheep should be
denied access to it for a single day. The claim that snow
will prove a sufficient source of water is untenable.
Sheep will eat clean snow to relieve their thirst when wa-
ter can be obtained from no other source, but they will
not eat enough to supply their needs. Water obtained
from this source is unduly cold. Sheep may exist under
these conditions, but they will not thrive as they should.

Ewes nursing lambs call for much water, and the
more highly that they are fed grain the greater is their
need for plentiful supplies of water, in the absence of field
roots. Without an abundant supply of water they cannot
furnish a full supply of milk for their lambs. The amount
of water that ewes thus fed will take will surprise those
not accustomed to such feeding.

Sheep that are being fattened also call for more water
than sheep that are being simply carried through the win-
ter. The large amount of grain food that is fed to them
generates thirst, and the greater the degree of the concen-
tration the greater will be the thirst. No class of sheep
or sheep under no conditions will consume more water
than those that are being thus fattened. These should not
only have access to water, but they should have access
to it at will. The attempts to fatten them in the absence
of an ample supply of water cannot be in the highest
sense successful.

Water should be made easily accessible to sheep. If
supplied in the yards or sheds, they will drink when they
would not do so if required to go (futside of the yard to
take water. It cannot be supplied to the ordinary flock
in better form than when supplied to them in tubs in the

314 ' MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

pens, which may be readily overturned, to free them from
water in freezing weather, after the sheep have been sup-
plied for the day. The water thus needed may be re-
plenished from pails for small lots of sheep and from a
hose for a larger lot. For sheep that are being fattened
in a wholesale way, water may be furnished in a trough
or tub provided with a float.

Water and good health in sheep — The relation be-
tween good health and the character of the water given to
them is of the most intimate nature. No class of animals
kept upon the farm is so much subject to parasitical dis-
eases as sheep, and water is the medium through which
some of these reach them. The importance, therefore, of
furnishing pure water for sheep cannot be easily overesti-
mated. Cattle and swine may be able in some instances
to drink water without apparent injury that would be
baneful to sheep.

Water furnished by ponds is objectionable. It is ob-
jectionable because it is stagnant, and stagnant water is
more favorable to the breeding of harmful forms of para-
sitic life than water from running streams or wells. It
is further objectionable because when long stagnant it
loses something of its sweetness. Sheep are peculiarly
sensitive to such changes. They will not drink water
affected with any form of taint unless compelled to do so
from thirst that must be partially relieved. In cool
climates and under elevated conditions, water from ponds
is much less objectionable than water furnished under
conditions the opposite.

Water furnished from marshy lands is much more
objectionable even than water obtained from ponds. The
relation between access to such water on the part of the
sheep and parasitical diseases, such as tapeworm and
stomach worm, has been forced upon flockmasters in too
many instances to leave any doubt as to the reality and
potency of such a relation. How far the parasites come
from such waters directly or from the grasses eaten by

PROVIDING SHEEP WITH WATER AND SALT 315

the sheep which grow up in such waters or on their mar-
gins has not yet been determined. There can be no
doubt, however, about the relation that exists between
ill doing in the sheep and grazing in areas where access
is had to marshy lands. Because of this, the aim should
be to drain such lands in sheep pastures that are at all
permanent in character, or to so fence them where drain-
ing is impracticable that the sheep will not have access
to them.

Water contaminated by yard seepage is harmful to
sheep. It is harmful because of the taint which character-
izes it and which because of its presence, hinders the
sheep from drinking it freely. But it is further harmful
because of the impurities which it contains. These are
adverse to well doing in sheep. But most of all it is
harmful because of the presence of the various forms of
parasitic life which, in the germ, it may contain. It is
now believed that nodule disease (see page 400) and other
diseases may be communicated in such water. Every care
should be exercised to prevent sheep from drinking it.

The necessity for feeding salt — The necessity for fur-
nishing salt to sheep is always present, save in certain
areas in proximity to the sea. The salt that falls on the
herbage from the rain which has its source in the adjacent
sea is in some instances a sufficient source of supply.
That sheep inherently crave salt cannot be questioned.
This fact is abundantly proved by the eagerness with
which they consume it after having been deprived of it
for any length of time. It is to be expected, therefore,
that where salt is not regularly supplied to the sheep and
in quantity sufficient to meet their needs that they will
not thrive as they would if sufficiently supplied with salt.

Salt is not a food in the sense that hay or grain is.
It does not furnish nutrients. Its mission is that of exer-
cising a favorable influence on digestion. This influence
is exercised in various ways. It stimulates certain of the
functions pertaining to digestion into more complete ab-

316 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

sorption into the system of the nutrients in the food in
the process of assimilation. It acts as a corrective to
digestion overlax which results from feeding large quan-
tities of succulent food. It may also be made to increase
the consumption of food when judiciously added to the
same. As a result of this, increase in form or function
should result proportionately.

With the exception given above (see page 315), the
necessity for supplying animals with salt is always pres-
ent and at all seasons. The effect of rain containing saline
influences does not extend very far inland. Hence the
areas thus affected are relatively limited. Even quadru-
peds not under domestication show a fondness for salt in
the extent to which they have frequented locations where
nature furnishes salt in the region of salt lakes. This
craving is intensified in animals under domestication by
the large quantities of food furnished to them in an artifi-
cial way.

The aim should be to give animals under domestica-
tion access to salt at all times. They will then take no
more than they need, and only in such quantities as they
need it. It is virtually impossible in any other way to
meet the exact needs of the animals. This will be appar-
ent, first, from the fact that no two animals will take the
same quantity of salt though kept under conditions prac-
tically alike, any more than they will take exactly similar
quantities of food when kept under like conditions. Sec-
ond, the different foods fed influence the requirements of
salt, and no one is able to measure the extent of this in-
fluence exactly. Third, the changed character of the
ration continually exercises an influence on the consump-
tion of salt, and no one can measure the extent of this in-
fluence as the animal can. Give sheep free access to salt,
and they will neither take too much nor too little.

Supplying salt in summer — Salt is sometimes fur-
nished to sheep, more especially in summer, in the form of
rock salt. The objection to supplying it in this form is,

PROVIDING SHEEP WITH WATER AND SALT 317

that the sheep will not take enough to fully supply their
needs. The better way is to keep a supply of common
salt constantly accessible to them in the pastures. It is
best supplied in a trough or troughs, covered so as to keep
it where rain cannot fall upon it, as in the event of rain
falling upon it much of it would dissolve and thus be lost.
The trough or troughs in which it is kept should be placed
near the watering troughs, as the sheep are more prone
to congregate around these places than in other parts of
the pasture. The recommendation to distribute salt
around harmful plants is of doubtful value. The object
sought is to kill the plants through the adverse influence
of the salt on growth and the close cropping that follows
from the sheep. The results from such application are
seldom commensurate with the outlay.

In very many instances salt is supplied to sheep on
pastures only at intervals. The shepherd visits the flock,
calls the sheep around him and places the salt in small
piles on the ground. The craving of the sheep for the
salt is shown by the eagerness with which the sheep con-
sume it. But when thus supplied, they consume too large
quantities at once, hence the benefits from taking the salt
are in a sense neutralized. In fact, the consumption of
large quantities of salt at one time may be positively in-
jurious through the excessive drinking of water that fol-
lows and the disturbance which such a condition creates.

The need for salt increases with increase in succu-
lence in the pastures on which sheep graze. Succulent
grazing tends to relax the bowels, and to such an extent
in some instances, as to lead to purging, if the condition
is not corrected. Salt, it is believed, acts so far as a cor-
rective, hence the necessity for having it plentifully sup-
plied to sheep thus grazed. While it is important that
sheep shall be thus supplied with salt on all kinds of
grazing that is succulent, it is of special importance that
they shall be thus supplied when grazing on rape, owing
to the large quantities of that plant which they consume.

318 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Supplying salt in winter — As in summer, salt should
also be made constantly accessible to sheep in winter. It
is best supplied to them in boxes under the cover of the
sheds.

In very cold weather it is better to supply it in mod-
erate quantities frequently renewed than in large quanti-
ties seldom renewed, as when supplied in large quantities
it does not remain so fresh and clean, and it incrusts more
or less from the congealing of the moisture left upon it
while the sheep are taking it.

Salt is sometimes given in the food. When thus sup-
plied it certainly does add to the relish with which the
food is eaten, but to supplying it thus there is the strong
objection that it cannot be known just how much should
be supplied. There is the further objection that such
a method of supplying salt involves more labor. To de-
prive sheep of salt either winter or summer will certainly
hinder their thrift, and to apply it only at intervals in the
winter is open to the same objection as supplying it thus
in summer.

When succulent food is fed in winter, the craving for
salt increases with increase in the succulence given. This
applies to succulence in whatsoever form it may be fed.
This, however, is not relatively so important as in sum-
mer, as the succulent food eaten at that season is more
succulent than the food fed in winter. It is also believed
that the consumption of salt increases with the forced
character of the feeding.

CHAPTER XVI
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER

In Chapter XVI the discussion will consider the fol-
lowing items: (i) The shelter called for in winter; (2)
The shelter called for in summer; (3) Considerations in
locating a sheep shed; (4) Shelter that is not costly; (5)
The more essential features of a permanent sheep house ;
(6) A building, oblong and not too wide; (7) A structure
of two stories; (8) Facilities for convenient feeding; (9)
Divisions in the lower story; (10) Warm lambing pens;
(n) Facilities for watering; (12) Sunlight, yard room
and paddocks; (13) Ventilation without drafts; and (14)
Plans of sheep houses.

The shelter called for in winter — The protection
called for by sheep in winter should be such as to shield
them: (i) From falling storms; (2) from winds;- and (3)
from dampness. When given such protection and an am-
ple supply of nutritious and palatable food, they are not
much liable to be harmed by low temperatures.

The most important item of protection is that which
shields them from falling storms, and especially from the
cold storms of rain and sleet, such as fall in winter in cer-
tain latitudes. Dry snow is but little harmful to sheep
when it falls upon them, save when it is accompanied by
a driving wind, such as will force it into any openings
that may be present in the fleece. Exposure to cold rain
and sleet, especially when prolonged and when the pre-
cipitation is copious, is always more or less harmful, and
in some instances the toll of loss taken from the open
wool breeds under such exposure may be severe. The
rain, penetrating to the skin, more especially along the
line of the back, may give rise to inflammations that result

819

32O MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

disastrously. The fine wool breeds, especially those of
the Merino types, will be harmed much less by such ex-
posure than the breeds possessed of longer and more open
wool. But for any class of sheep, shed protection should
be provided to shield them from such storms where they
are liable to occur. Especially should the flock be guarded
at those seasons when such storms are liable to occur
suddenly. Slow drizzling rain may do but little harm,
even though prolonged, as the natural heat of the body
is sufficient to ward off any harmful influences from such
exposure.

Protection from the sweep of cold winds is also
greatly important. In prairie areas the necessity for such
protection is greater than the necessity for protection
from cold rains. The latter occur but seldom on the west-
ern prairies, especially in the autumn, whereas the former
blow with much constancy during the winter season.
Such exposure is a disturbing influence, and most of all
in the night, because the flock is at rest. When at lib-
erty to choose their own protection, they will invariably
seek a sheltered place protected from cold winds when
taking their rest. The winds are especially disturbing to
the sheep with long and open wool. By lifting portions
of the fleece the cold wind reaches the body. In the case
of driving snow storms the influences are still more harmful.

Protection from dampness is especially needed when
the sheep are in winter quarters. It is less needed in
climates where the cold is continuous from autumn until
spring. But even in these, should the sheep be sheltered
by leaky straw roofs, rain and melted snow may soon
bring about a condition in the dampness of the bedding
underneath that is inimical to the health of the sheep.
In climates with much rain in winter care should be taken
to renew the bedding in the sheds and yards sufficiently
often to keep them free from dampness. A damp bed
tends to induce rheumatic troubles and various other ail-
ments that may prove peculiarly harmful to the flock.

SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 32!

Sheep do not suffer readily from cold when the con-
ditions maintained above are all present. Give them the
choice of lying on a dry bed beneath the canopy of the sky
in the one instance and beneath an open or a nearly closed
shed in the other, and they will frequently prefer the
former even when the temperatures may be very low;
and it is better for them thus to rest than if confined in
a warm shed.

The shelter called for in summer — In summer sheep
should be protected: (i) From cold rains; (2) from ex-
cessive sunshine ; and (3) from flies. It may not be easy
or possible to provide such protection on the open range,
but on the arable farm it should be quite feasible under
average conditions.

In the early summer in northern latitudes cold rains
fall occasionally and in some instances they are prolonged,
covering two to three days at a time. Farther south such
rains come earlier. These are especially harmful to open-
wool sheep, and they are more harmful to them when
newly shorn than previously. Most of all are they harm-
ful to lambs, and in proportion as they are young. Even
though active disease, as inflammation, should not follow,
the setback to thrift in the sheep and to growth in the
lambs will call for some time to make good the harm
done. At such times the flock should be quickly trans-
ferred to winter quarters and fed on food provided and
reserved for such an emergency. On the open range the
shepherd should aim to have the flock not too distant
from winter shelter, should indications of coming storm
be present.

Protection from excessive sunshine is increasingly
important as the latitude lessens. On the open range it
is less important because of the breezes that are almost
continually present during the heat of the day. Such pro-
tection on the arable farm may be furnished, first,
through the shade of trees, and second, through ventilated
and darkened sheds. The trees may be isolated and grow-

322 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

ing singly, or they may be grown in groups to provide
such shade. On the prairie quick-growing trees should
be planted to provide such shade on the arable farm, and
preferably in groves. Where there is a natural growth
of trees fringing a stream that runs through the pastures,
the shade conditions are ideal, with reference at least to
protection from sunshine. Where the pastures merge
into forest, the shade conditions are also excellent, but in
such instances any considerable growth of young trees
will be prevented. When shade is provided by a venti-
lated shed or basement, especially the latter, it brings
more of coolness with it.

Sheep during the warmest weather are very liable
to be greatly disturbed by flies. A dense forest shade
may furnish some protection, as flies are much less liable
to be frequent where the shadows are dark than when
bright sunshine is present. When sheep may have free
access during the heat of the day to a darkened and ven-
tilated basement, the conditions are ideal for protection
from flies. Ventilation may be furnished by having the
windows open and sufficient darkness may be secured by
covering them with some very coarse cloth, as sacking
material. A fringed piece should hang down over the
place of entrance. The sheep will soon learn to push
through this, and when doing so the frayed material will
brush back the flies. A flock will soon learn to come for
such protection daily when they may have access to it.

Considerations in locating a sheep shed — When locat-
ing a sheep shed the aim should be: (i) To place it on
ground dry and porous; (2) to insure protection on the
windward side ; and (3) to secure ample room for yards
and paddocks. Natural conditions when all are favorable
will add greatly to the ease with which such a location
may be secured, and the lack of these will add equally
to the difficulty of locating the same.

It is greatly important that the sheep sheds should
be located on ground dry and porous. Locating on

SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 323

ground naturally damp and without facilities for drainage
would result in muddy surroundings, and these would
soon bring disaster to the flock. For such a location a
sandy soil is much preferable to a clay soil, but very fre-
quently it may not be possible to secure such a soil.
Where the soil is clay the aim should be to have the
ground slope away more or less from the sheds in as
many directions as it may be possible to secure. This
would be much preferable to placing the shed on clay
land so level and damp that underdrainage would be nec-
essary to remove the excess of water. In some areas of
the prairie it may not be easy to secure a suitable site, but
in such areas it is questionable if sheep can be made to
prosper. Where the soil and subsoil are both sandy the
conditions may not be objectionable, even though the
ground is level. But under any conditions, the aim should
be to secure something of a rise on which to erect the
sheds.

Protection from cold winds, especially on the wind-
ward side, is much influenced by natural conditions.
Where the sheds may be located on the leeward side of a
natural or artificial grove, it may be secured with but little
additional outlay. When the grove is sufficiently dense
and the bluff is sufficiently high, the protection from wind
is so far very complete. It is even more complete when
the land on the sides of the bluff and below it is covered
with trees. In such instances the paddocks, but not neces-
sarily the yards, will be restricted to the leeward side of
the sheds.

Protection from winds is very frequently more diffi-
cult and costly to secure than protection in other areas.
This is especially true when the country is bare of trees,
and when because of the dry conditions it may not be
easy to grow them. But in such areas bluff conditions
beside the streams such as those referred to above, are not
in all instances infrequent, and they have the further ad-
vantage of being near to a living water supply. Where

324 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

no natural protection is present, a grove of considerable
depth should be planted on the windward side. It should
be given sufficient cultivation on and near the surface to
keep it clean, until what are termed forest conditions may
be secured. Such a grove properly cared for will begin
to furnish protection three years from the time of plant-
ing, and in six years the protection should be very ma-
terial. In such locations it may be necessary from the
outset to protect the yards, at least on the sunny side of
the building, by surrounding them with a board fence
sufficiently high to break the force of the wind. In some
instances sheds of fodder or bedding may be so built as
to render some aid in furnishing such protection.

In areas where the temperatures are mild and the
winds are but little constant or violent, yards and pad-
docks may be secured virtually on all sides of the shed,
should this be desired. But where the shed is planted
close up against a grove or bluff, on one side only can
paddocks be secured; that is, in front of the shed and
possibly in some instances at one end. Where the flock
contains many animals, it will be found a great conven-
ience to have several of these on hand. They furnish graz-
ing in summer for small lots, as stock rams, for instance,
should it be desired to keep them apart from the main
flock, or they may be made to furnish soiling food, near at
hand for autumn feeding. In winter when not too much
wind-swept, they furnish a good place in which to strew
corn or other fodders, where the sheep may get some ex-
ercise while picking it over. For the plan of yards and
paddocks see page 338.

Shelter that is not costly — Where small flocks of
sheep are kept, and in areas where the ordinary building
materials are costly, shelter sufficient to answer the pur-
pose may be made from cheap materials. These include
sheds made: (i) Of poles and straw; (2) of baled straw;
and (3) of logs or sods.

A shed made of poles and straw is best adapted to a

SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 325

country with but a limited amountof precipitation in win-
ter. Such a structure is ill-adapted to a climate with
heavy precipitation in winter owing to the difficulty of
preventing leaking in the early spring. It may be con-
structed of almost any kind of poles that may be obtain-
able. In western areas these are usually cottonwood or
poplar that may be cut by the streams. They are built
up in the form of a square, or at least of a pen of three
sides. If built as a square a doorway must be cut open
in the front side, or the poles on that side should not
come within 3 or 4 feet of the ground. The structure
should be 7 or 8 feet high. Strong poles should be laid
across the top rails to support the straw roof. When the
poles have been put in place, a heavy covering of straw
is built all around the structure, save on the front side.
The straw above should be built so as to shed water, as
far as this may be attainable. Such a covering may usu-
ally be most cheaply provided at the season of threshing.
It may shelter a small flock quite satisfactorily as long as
water does not percolate down through the roof.

The building of sheep sheds by using baled straw
has been advocated in the press and on institute plat-
forms, more especially in areas where the winters are cold
and straw is so abundant that it is usually burned to get
it out of the way of the husbandman. Thus it is that
straw is disposed of more commonly in the Northwestern
states and the western provinces of Canada. This method
of providing shelter for sheep and for cattle in such areas
would seem to be not only feasible but commendable.
Notwithstanding, the sheds that have been constructed of
this material are very few. This, however, does not prove
that these would be undesirable to the keeper of live
stock. But few sheep are kept as yet in the grain-
growing areas of the prairie, hence the need for such shel-
ter has not been an important question. Sheds made of
baled straw are furnished with a roof of rafters covered
by boards with battens over the cracks or other rain-

326 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

resisting material. Roofs with but one slope are, of
course, the cheaper. The walls inside may call for some
kind of protection to prevent the sheep from wearing
away any of the material of the bundles, but the protec-
tion does not need to be given to a height greater than 3
to 4 feet. Windows may be made to admit ample light,
and ventilation must be secured where the shed is not
open in front. Such sheds are amply warm, and in a rea-
sonably dry climate should last for a number of years.

In certain range states sheds for sheep have been
constructed of logs. These, in comparatively treeless
areas, are usually obtained from certain soft woods that
grow beside the streams. The walls of these sheds are
built after the fashion of the primitive log dwellings of
years ago. The cracks between them are covered with
clay of the consistency of mortar. The roofs have rafters
with but one slope. These are covered with boards and
the mortar clay is spread over the boards. In areas with
but little rainfall such sheds answer the purpose quite
well. They are of low construction, which is economical
of material. In forest areas where settlement is but re-
cent, sheds may be thus constructed of such timbers as
may be in the locality, but in such instances the roof
should be shingled, the better to resist the copious rain-
fall of such areas.

Sheds may be constructed on the prairies that will
last for a number of years, though made of sods. Cheap
as the construction of these may be, they do not stand
so high in favor apparently as the log shed with the clay
roof, and probably for the reason that more labor is in-
volved in their construction. Sod sheds will not last many
years where the rainfall is heavy.

The more essential features of a sheep house — The
discussion of the more essential features of a permanent
sheep house, will consider the following: (i) A building-
oblong in shape ; (2) a structure of two stories ; (3) facili-
ties for convenient feeding; (4) divisions in the lower

SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 327

story; (5) warm lambing pens; (6) facilities for water-
ing ; (7) sunlight, yard room and paddocks ; (8) ventila-
tion without drafts.

A building oblong in shape and not too wide, is usu-
ally preferred for sheep, to one more nearly square. This
will hold true of it, whether it has a passageway in the
center from end to end and divisions on either side, or
whether it has a passageway along one side and one tier
of pens along the same. For the reason, see page 329.

Whether the structure shall have one or two stories
will depend very much on the climate as to precipitation,
and on the amount of food called for to carry through the
winter. The more moist the climate, the larger the
amount of the precipitation in winter, and the longer the
demand for food continues the greater is the necessity for
two stories rather than one (see page 330).

The matter of the facilities for feeding is greatly im-
portant, because of the bearing that it has upon the
amount of labor involved, and because of the influence
which it has upon the saving or the wasting of food. The
facilities called for vary greatly with the size of the flock
and the divisions in the same, with the nature of the food
or foods fed, and with the climatic conditions (see page

332).

The divisions in the lower story are dependent in a
great measure on the divisions in the flock, and on the
time when the lambs come. The larger the number of
the divisions in the flock and the earlier the season at
which the lambs begin to come, the larger is the number
of the divisions required (see page 335).

The necessity for warm lambing pens is, in a sense,
imperative in a climate of low winter temperatures when
the lambs come before the advent of warm weather.
When the lambs come into existence in the fields, of
course, the necessity for lambing pens is not present. On
the ranges of the West the question of lambing pens does
not need to be considered, but in areas where winter

328 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

lambs are concerned it may be a very vital issue for the
location and construction of lambing pens (see page 336).

The facilities for watering are greatly important.
The idea frequently cherished that sheep do not need to
be supplied with water is certainly fallacious. They can
exist without water when the pastures are succulent or
when snow covers the ground better than any other class
of animals kept on the farm, but the fact remains that
the flockmaster who supplies his sheep with an ample
supply of pure water will be abundantly rewarded for his
pains (see Chapter XV).

The provision of sunlight, yard room and paddocks
is seldom given the consideration which the importance
of these demands. Without ample sunlight in the sheds,
the highest degree of vigor in the sheep cannot be main-
tained. In the absence of suitable yards the proper grad-
ing of the sheep is not practicable, and in the absence of
paddocks it is not possible to keep a breeding flock in
every respect as it should be kept. For the further dis-
cussion of this question see page 338.

The question of ventilation without drafts is greatly
significant. When sheep are confined in close quarters
without proper ventilation, the results will soon become
disastrous to the well-being of the flock. How such ven-
tilation may be secured without drafts is discussed on
Page 339-

The facilities for removing the manure should not be
overlooked, since the frequent removal of the same is
beneficial to the health of the sheep, and it also prevents
serious deterioration in the value of the manure. Such
removal tends to lessen odors that generate, and it tends
to prevent fire fang, which is so common to sheep manure
when made under cover.

A building oblong and not too wide — An oblong
sheep shed has the following advantages over one that is
somewhat square or round in shape: (i) It makes it pos-
sible to increase the divisions easily and to locate them

SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 329

conveniently; (2) it facilitates the easy storage of foods
of different classes and the placing of the same for con-
venient feeding, providing the shed has room for such
storage overhead ; (3) it makes it possible to increase the
yard room and divisions in the same, and such possible
increase becomes greater with increasing narrowness in
the sheds; (4) it facilitates the easy removal of sheep
from pen to pen and without the necessity of exposing
them to outdoor weather. These facts will become more
and more apparent as the plans submitted later in this
chapter are studied.

In some instances to these oblong buildings ex-
tensions are added in the form of an L, which means that
these are placed at right angles to the main shed. Some-
times these extensions are at one end. In other instances
they are at both ends. More commonly they extend quite
across the end of the main building. Where but one ex-
tension is built, it should be placed on the windward side
of the yard. These extensions are, in a sense, a continua-
tion of the main shed, but at a different angle. They
serve the purpose, first, of adding to the room ; second, of
making it possible to add to the yard room; and, third,
of furnishing protection to the yards from winds. There
is no method of furnishing such protection that is more
efficacious.

In such an oblong building the location of the feed
passage depends on the width of the same. Where the
building is wide enough to admit of placing divisions on
both sides of the passage, it must run from end to end,
but not necessarily in the center, as it may be desirable
to have the divisions larger on one side than on the other.
The average width for such a passage is 6 feet. It should
seldom be narrower, but may be wide enough where large
numbers are to be fed to drive two horses and a wagon
through the same. This would call for a width of not less
than 9 or 10 feet. Where fodders and bedding are kept
overhead, they may be thrown down through chutes into

33°

MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

the passage and distributed from the same into any direc-
tion it may be desired. When but one tier of pens is
present the passage should be placed just inside of the
side wall on the shady side of the building. In that the
sheep may have access to the yards on the same side. A
passage thus placed may be a little narrower than a cen-
tral passage, as a less amount of food is fed from it, but
it should seldom be less than 6 feet. The passage should,
of course, extend through the wings. Figure 15 shows an
excellent form of sheep rack that may be at one or both
sides of the feed passage.

A structure of two stories — Whether the sheep shed

should have one or
two stories will be
determined, as inti-
mated elsewhere, by
the necessity that
exists for storing
food and bedding un-
der cover. In
climates in which
the rainfall is fre-
quent and copious in
winter, or in which
the snowfall is deep,
it is a great advan-
tage to have the
same under cover,
and in no other way
can such cover be
provided more
cheaply than through
a sufficiently commodious loft in a sheep barn. In areas
where the winter climate is dry and where but a limited
amount of feeding is called for, it is not necessary to build
sheds with two stories. Where much food is to be stored, the
two-story shed is economical of construction. It is specially

V;

Ti*
Cl.at

FIG. 15— PLAN OF A CONVENIENT SHEEP

RACK, END VIEW
(Courtesy Michigan Agricultural College)

SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 331

economical in roofing, as the one. roof serves the double pur-
pose of providing protection to the fodders in the upper
story and to the sheep in the lower. It is also economical
in foundation material and in other items of construction.

The loft of such a building may be made to store a
large amount of food. The higher the posts or walls
that support the roof, the larger, of course, is the room
for storage. The food and litter in the same may all be
stored by the aid of a horsefork or a sling. When storing
these, the aim should be to locate each kind, as far as this
may be practicable, directly above the pens where the
same is to be fed.

The convenience in feeding fodders from such a loft
will be at once apparent. The food is always dry, regard-
less of the character of the weather, and the same is true
of the litter. It does not require to be drawn from day to
day or at intervals. The forking is downward and, there-
fore, it is easily done. When the food is to be drawn from
time to time there is not only a loss of time involved, but
exposure may be called for that is irksome to the work-
hands. A two-story shed does not necessarily mean a
building located against a bank. It may be built on the
level prairie as well as against the side of a hill. It may
be built entirely of wood or other material. Materials
other than wood for the lower story may keep out the
cold more effectively than wood, but good siding and
one thickness of tar paper will keep a sheep house amply
warm, save for new-born lambs in a cold climate. Such a
structure does not necessarily call for a driveway into the
upper story, as the food is lifted by machinery.

Whether a sheep house should be built against a
bank under any conditions is a disputed question. If
such a basement can be made to secure freedom from
dampness and also from an undue lack of light, there
should be no objection to it. It is quite possible in many
instances to secure both. Such a basement may also
bring with it the following advantages: (i) It may be

332 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

made to furnish an excellent place for the birth of young
lambs by simply penning off such an apartment; (2) it
makes it possible to locate the sites where it will be con-
venient to feed from it and where the lower portion may
have protection from the frost; (3) it makes it easily
possible to make a safe storehouse for roots at little cost.
Should a basement, however, be damp, it should not be
used for housing sheep.

Facilities for convenient feeding — When the facilities
for convenient feeding are what they should be, the sav-
ing in labor will thereby be greatly reduced. These in-
clude: (i) Feed racks and their location; (2) a feed room
and its location ; (3) a root cellar and its location ; (4) a
silo and its location ; and (5) the feeding of hay and the
furnishing of litter at a minimum of cost for labor.

The feed racks are, as a rule, placed just inside the
passages. This makes it easily possible to feed from the
passages where the fodder comes down from the loft over-
head into the passages ; when the fodder comes down into
the passages, and where the racks are of proper construc-
tion, the fodder may be fed without injury to the fleece
from the chaffy particles in the fodder. For the construc-
tion of such a rack, see Fig. 15. In other instances the
racks, when movable and of the right length, may serve
the purpose of partitions between the divisions and of
racks at the same time. In other instances the racks for
fodder are placed in the yards, and in many instances of
range feeding they are placed along the outer border of
the yards. This admits of rilling them from without and
with fodder that in quantity will last for several days. This
way of feeding fodders is not ideal, but the high price of
labor during recent years makes it in some instances a
necessity. It is not an ideal way of feeding sheep when
the fodder will suffice for more than a day, but there may
be instances in which it is admissible to furnish fodders
that will last for several days.

SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 333

Every sheep house with a large number of sheep in
it should have a large feed room in which food may be
prepared for the use of the flock. The preparation of the
food for sheep is very simple. In many instances the
grain does not need to be ground to make it suitable for
the sheep. They grind it very effectively in the process
of consuming it, or in the process of rumination that fol-
lows. But there are instances in which it may be profit-
able to feed fodders in the cut form and mixed with
grains. In such instances a feed room may, in a sense,
be a necessity. The location for the same will be influ-
enced by the plan of the divisions in the shed. In some
instances the feed room is located in one end of the shed
on one or both sides of the passageway, and in other in-
stances on only one side. When the silo is located at the
side of the building and near the center, the feed room
should be centrally located, but should the silo be at one
end or corner of the same, then the feed room should be
located at or near the end, with a view to facilitate the
blending of foods, when this may be necessary or ad-
visable.

The location of the root cellar is influenced by the
location of the feed room. If the roots are to be pulped
or sliced, and in many instances they are thus fed, the best
place for such pulping or slicing is in the feed room. This
means, therefore, that the root cellar should be under the
feed room or adjacent thereto. In cold climates where
the feed room is near one end of the building, the most
convenient place for the root cellar, all things considered,
is underneath the feed room. The roots may thus be
easily protected from frost. Where the sheep house is
placed against a bank, and where the feed room is located
centrally on one side, both the silo and the root cellar
should be located in the bank and so as to open into the
feed room. Such an arrangement greatly facilitates the
blending of foods, should this be desired. Where but a
limited quantity of roots is fed, however, it may be ad-

334 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

vantageous in some instances to store them where they
may be taken from a cellar located in a bank or pit, not
too distant from the place of feeding. In other instances
they are stored in a division of the lower story adjacent
to the feed room. This storage room is protected from in-
tense cold by siding and tar paper. The only tangible ob-
jection to such an arrangement is the room which it occu-
pies, which in its absence could be used as a division for
sheep.

When a silo is used, it should be located near the feed
room, though the latter should be located at one end of
the shed, or centrally on one side of the same. In a shed
placed against a bank no better place can be found for
the silo than in the bank and in proximity to the centrally
located feed room. When the silage to be fed is thus
thrown down into the feed room it is protected against
frost, and it may be thus easily mingled with other foods
should this be desired. But in many instances such mix-
ing is not deemed necessary.

In no way can fodder be furnished so conveniently as
when it is stored in a suitable loft above the pens and
when it comes down into a passageway from which it
may be conveniently fed. But it may also be fed from a
wagon driven through the passageway, where large quan-
tities are to be fed. In practically rainless climates, in the
winter season, it may be fed from racks that are not pro-
tected from climatic influences and located on the outside
of the yards, thus making it convenient to feed fodders
thrown into the racks from outside sources. Into these
racks enough of food is placed at one time to last for sev-
eral days. They are so shaped as to act in a sense as self-
feeders. Theoretically such feeding is unwise, as it is
more or less wasteful of food, and the palatability of the
fodder is thereby also reduced. Notwithstanding, where
large bands are to be fed in dry areas, such a system of
feeding is not to be condemned.

Litter may be very conveniently furnished from a

SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 335

loft, providing it has been stored there. In many in-
stances, however, there may not be room for such storage
until some of the food is fed out. It may then be drawn
from a stack on a still day and stored in the loft. When
thus stored it may always be kept in a dry condition,
which in bedding is a great matter. When straw is fed in
the racks, which is quite legitimate in many instances, in
order to furnish a part of the fodder, the uneaten residue
may be used from time to time for bedding.

Divisions in the lower story — Several divisions in the
lower story are necessary where a flock of any consider-
able size is kept. The different gradations call for food
rations that in many instances are more or less different.
For instance the stock and sale rams may call for a food
different from the breeding ewes. These may call for
food different from the shearling ewes, and all of these
may call for food different from ewes that are suckling
lambs. Where sheep are being fattened in considerable
numbers, it may also be greatly advantageous to grade
the sheep according to size and age.

It is evident, therefore, that there should be some
correspondence between the number of the divisions and
the gradations in the flock. The larger the number of the
latter the larger the number of the divisions should be.
During the lambing season it is an advantage to have
some extra divisions for the better grading of ewes that
are nursing lambs. The space called for in such divisions
is influenced by such considerations as the size of the
sheep, the object for which they are being kept and the
yard room available, when considered along with the
climatic conditions. For large sheep not fewer than 15
square feet of space should be furnished and for small
sheep not fewer than 10 feet. Lambs that are being fat-
tened with abundant yard room and in a dry climate will
do with even a less amount of space.

If some or all of the partitions are movable, the
divisions may be enlarged. It may be very convenient in

336 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

some instances to be able to enlarge or reduce the size of
the divisions at will. The aim should be, of course, to
give the sheep all the room that can be secured at all times.

Warm lambing pens — When lambs come in the win-
ter season, the necessity for a warm lambing pen is im-
perative. When such a division is found in the basement
of a shed that is located against a bank the problem is
easy. The lambing pen may be located almost anywhere
in the basement, but it is some advantage to have it
located on the sunny side, so that some sunshine may be
admitted into the lambing pen. When it is made in a
wooden structure, it must be made to resist the ready
penetrations of low temperatures, This may be accom-
plished by sheeting closely on the outside and inside of
the studding with boards and putting tar paper under-
neath one or both sides of the same, according to the
severity of the winter weather. In such an apartment
lambs may come safely when the thermometer is 40 de-
grees below zero, providing the dams are healthy and
strong. The exact location of the lambing pen is largely
a matter of convenience, but the aim should be to locate
it on the sunny and sheltered side of the building. Care
must also be taken to provide the necessary ventilation.

The furnishings of a lambing pen may consist of a
number of small inclosures made of fencing material.
These may be movable. In these the ewes and their
lambs may be kept singly, and in some instances in twos
or threes, and graded according to the age of the lambs ;
but more commonly they are kept singly for two or three
days until the lambs get strong. They are then taken to
another division to make room for ewes with younger
lambs or with lambs not yet born.

Facilities for watering — In areas where a living
stream with pebbled beds runs through or in proximity
to the yards, it may be made to furnish water in suitable
form, providing ice does not form along the edges of the
stream. But where ice forms sheep will not readily drink

SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 337

from openings in the same, hence they should not be re-
quired to do so. Where large flocks are kept, it is very
convenient to draw the water from taps attached to
hydrants. In such instances it may be drawn into a
trough suitably located under cover, but when it can be
drawn from a tap into a tub located within each division
the furnishing of water is greatly simplified. Even when
the water comes from but one tap or from a pump, where
the flocks are small, the plan is a good one which carries
it in a pail when the water in the tubs is to be replenished.

The tubs should be of low construction, so that the
sheep may readily take water from them. When the
weather is cold, the water may be emptied out of the
buckets at nightfall, and they may be replenished again
the next day. In this way the tubs may easily be kept
clean. The water thus emptied out does no harm virtu-
ally to the litter, because of the smallness of the quantity.
The plan is not good which draws the water into a trough
in which it freezes over quite frequently when the weather
is cold, as sheep do not care to drink water that is thus
icy cold unless impelled to by thirst. But water may be
thus provided in some instances with advantage when the
trough is so sheltered that ice does not readily form on
the water.

It is greatly important to furnish water to sheep in
winter when they are getting only dry food, even though
they may have access to clean snow. It is even more im-
portant that the water given to them shall be pure and
free from taint. When it is not furnished, they will drink
from small pools adjacent to the yards when the snow
melts. When they take water thus the hazard is present
that they may take up disease germs that may lead to
serious loss. Sheep should never be allowed to take water
from such sources when this can be prevented.

Sunlight, yard room and paddocks — When locating a
sheep shed, the question of sunlight should receive the
most careful consideration. The same is true in regard

338 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

to the location and size of the yards, and also in relation
to the location and size of the paddocks.

With regard to sunlight, the conclusion may be
hastily reached that the part which it plays in successful
sheep husbandry is unimportant. Such a conclusion is
far from correct. Sunshine when properly focused, espe
cially in the lambing pens, may in many instances make
the difference between life and death in relation to the
survival of newly born lambs. The free access of sun-
light is destructive to disease germs, whatsoever may be
their nature. It tends to strengthen and sustain life
wherever it comes. These truths find recognition in the
practice which gives the weaker animals of the flock, as
the ewes and lambs, the occupancy of the apartments on
the sunny side of the building and locates the stronger
animals, as shearling ewes and rams, in apartments on
the shady side of the same.

There may be a difference of opinion with reference
to the size of the yards to which sheep have access, but
there should be no difference of opinion with reference
to their location. In regard to the former it may be said
that roomy yards are preferable under dry conditions, but
where there is much precipitation, reasonably small yards
are to be preferred, as they call for a less amount of litter
to keep them clean and dry and a less frequent removal of
the same. In regard to the latter, where yards are located
on but one side of the shed, the sunny side should, of
course, be given the preference. But yards on the shady
side may be very necessary sometimes, and they may also
serve a very useful purpose. When the yards are fur-
nished with movable partitions, the number of those
divisions in use at one time may be increased or de-
creased to suit present convenience. When the yards are
narrow, the partitions may be made to lift out. When
they are wide, the partitions must be in part permanent,
each being provided with a gate. In some instances the
possible number of divisions in the yards is the same as

SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 339

the number of the divisions in the pens, each pen having
its own corresponding yard.

The number of the paddocks and their location will,
of course, be determined in a great measure by such con-
ditions as the size of the flock and the gradations of the
same, and by the object for which it is being kept. The
size of the paddocks should ordinarily bear some propor-
tion to the size of the flock and to the divisions in the
same. The more the gradations in flock, the more is the
number of the paddocks that are called for; but it does
not follow that as many paddocks are called as there are
divisions in the flock, as it is seldom necessary to have all
the gradations in the paddocks at the same time; hence
the same paddock may be used by more than one division
of the sheep. In some instances they may be reached
from the yards directly, but more commonly they are
ranged on both sides of a lane leading out from the yards.
In this way they may be increased in number to the ex-
tent of the needs, and they may also be of such size as
may be deemed proper. They are thus rendered easily
accessible.

Ventilation without drafts — Ventilation is necessary
and greatly important under all conditions, but artificial
ventilation is not always a necessity. Sheep cannot be
given too much fresh air, providing it comes to them in
the absence of drafts, but they may very easily be given
too little. No class of live stock will suffer more in the
absence of adequate ventilation.

It is always necessary to provide artificial ventilation
when sheep are housed in a shed the doors of which are
closed for even a period of short duration, when it is
occupied by sheep. In but few ways can disaster be more
quickly brought to a flock than by housing them in close
quarters in the absence of sufficient ventilation. They
are harmed, first, by a lack of a sufficiency of pure air;
second, by the excessive warmth that is usually gener-
ated under such conditions, and which is especially harm-

340 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

ful to sheep with heavy fleeces, whether short or long;
and, third, by the catarrhal troubles which are generated
when the flock emerges from such warm surroundings
into an atmosphere of low temperatures.

Artificial ventilation is not called for where sheep are
housed in, or rather are protected by a shed that is open
in front, and in which they are given free access to yards
in front of the shed. Rest in a shed under such conditions
is not greatly different from resting overnight in an un-
covered yard. In such instances, however, there should
be no open windows or doors at the ends or rear of such
a structure that would produce air currents when it is
occupied with sheep while the temperature is low.

In sheep houses of ordinary construction, which con-
sist of but one story and which have doors only on the lee
side, with windows that may be opened on occasion on
the other side, by keeping the doors open, enough fresh
air will ordinarily be secured. Should the wind blow
from what is ordinarily the lee side, ventilation may be
secured by closing the doors and opening the rear win-
dows.

Should the sheep house have divisions on both sides
of a passage which runs lengthwise through it, then the
plan is good which has doors and windows on both sides
of the house. Fresh air may be admitted by opening the
doors or windows, or both, on one side only, according
as the wind may blow. In this way fresh air may be ad-
mitted at all times and in abundant supply, as shown in
Fig. 18. When there is a loft overhead, the shutes which
extend upward in the same may be made to render sub-
stantial service in carrying away the warm air. Except
in very still and mild weather the windows or doors, or
both, should only be open on one side at the same time.

Ventilation in the rear divisions of a basement is not
so easily secured when these have a bank of earth on one
side. Usually, however, windows may be secured, if
placed high, though in some instances it may be necessary

SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 341

to remove a circle of earth from around the window to
admit light as well as air. Further ventilation may be
secured by carrying cold air down through wooden box
tubes from the outside and warm air up by what is known
as the "King System" of ventilation. This whole ques-
tion, however, is even now much controverted.

Plans of sheep houses — The plans of sheep sheds are
many and diverse, and much may be said in favor of a
goodly number of these, could the necessary space be se-
cured. At this time, however, but three plans will be
submitted. These are intended : (i) To meet the needs of
an ordinary farm flock ; (2) to meet those of a large farm
flock; and (3) of a large breeding flock. These are of
simple construction, and experience has put the stamp of
approval on them. They are not submitted as absolute
guides, but rather to furnish ideas that may be found
helpful when sheep sheds are to be constructed.

There are, of course, instances when sheds are not
necessary, or rather where it is possible to engage in cer-
tain phases of sheep husbandry in their absence. In the
dry and mild areas of the West they are frequently fat-
tened under the canopy of the skies. Even in areas with
winters cold and dry and with a snowfall not too heavy,
they are sometimes fattened without other shelter than
that of a grove. But in all, or nearly all, instances where
breeding flocks are kept under American conditions, it is
a great convenience, though not an absolute necessity, to
have a shed that will provide shelter and more or less of
storage for food.

Fig. 16 submits the ground plan of a sheep shed
adapted to the needs of what may be termed an ordinary
farm flock. The building is 72 feet long and 24 feet wide.
It is divided into six equal parts on the ground floor,
excluding the passage which runs the whole length on
the one side. This passage, 4 feet wide, is designed to
afford easy access for the attendant from one division to
another, and it also affords a ready means of removing

34^

MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

individual animals from one pen to another. In other
instances it admits of carrying food or litter from the feed
box in one division to be fed or strewn in another. The
size of the respective divisions is shown in the plan. Of
the main divisions only two are permanent, viz., those
which separate the lambing pens from the pens adjacent
to them. The lambing pens should be boarded up to the
ceiling to insure sufficient warmth, and may in addition,
if necessary, be covered with tar paper. The three cen-

7-2±

\.

sheep yard 10 ftwide

PADDOCKS

FIG. 16— GROUND PLAN OF SHEEP BARN FOR AN ORDINARY FARM FLOCK

tral divisions may have movable double feeding racks be-
tween them, should this be desired. Two of these are
placed in line, end to end, between each division. By re-
moving these racks, much of the building may virtually
be converted into an open shed, since the doors are 6 to 7
feet wide, or by removing one or more of the racks on the
yard side of the building and inclosing the open space at
the ends of those which remain. One part of the build-
ing may be used as an open shed, and any divisions thus
inclosed would answer for keeping the stock ram in it sep-

SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 343

arate from the ewes, and also any rams that may be on
hand. From the small boxes or receptacles underneath
the shutes fodder can be readily obtained. The number
of these may be reduced to three if absolutely necessary,
one box serving to hold fodder for two apartments. The
shutes are near the side of the building, and though they
extend up into the mow for some distance, they do not
seriously interfere with the storing of food or litter over-
head, as it may be taken in by a horse fork or a sling at
the end of the building and underneath the ridge.

The posts of the building should be of any desired
length in keeping with the symmetry of the same. A
height of 14 to 16 feet would usually be ample. There
should be room in the loft to hold at least a supply of
fodder for one season, and if there is room for a supply
of litter also the condition is to that extent more satis-
factory. Grain may also be stored in the loft over the
shepherd's room. By using hoppers or hopper-shaped
bins above, ducts leading from these, and spouts below,
which may be opened and closed at will, a supply of grain
can always be conveniently obtained. The siding may
be composed of boards with battens over the cracks, or it
may consist of ordinary drop siding, with or without a
lining of tarred or building paper inside, according to cir-
cumstances. When the lambing pens are properly made,
wood lining may not be necessary on the inside of the
walls under some conditions, but more commonly it will
be necessary in northern areas in order to make the pens
sufficiently warm. It may not always be necessary to
use so much space in the lambing pens, and when the
lambs come late these can be dispensed with altogether.
The same is true of the shepherd's room.

The yard may be readily divided by running across
it one or more movable partitions, thus making as many
divisions in the yard as may be desired. It will be ob-
served that provision is made for gates at the ends of the
yard, hence a wagon may be driven in front of the divi-

344

MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

sions for the easy removal of the manure. Through the
gates which open from the paddocks into the yards, or
from the yards into the paddocks, ingress or egress is
easy.

Fig. 17 gives the ground plan of a shed which will
meet the needs of a large flock kept under ordinary farm
conditions. It nearly incloses three sides of a rectangle

or square, according as
the side wings are long
or short. The buildings

A I | p. I at the corners are for

the storage of fodder or
B ^E"08^»>e«.Re«Ttox««»« Jj*"" grain. They are 24 x

C'CCtC H/n C«uTt» . - -

24 feet and the posts
are 18 feet high, but
these dimensions, as

Lalso those submitted
later, may be modified
to meet more exactly
the requirements. But
there should always be
a proper relation be-
tween the storage room
in the buildings and the

feeding requirements in the sheds. The two long sheds are
1 6 x 80 feet and the shorter one, which, of course, may be
larger, is 16 x 40 feet. The roof of the sheds between the
buildings for storage may be given but one slant, in which
case the height of the same at the rear plate does not
need to exceed 7 feet. But a ridge roof may be preferable.
When the sheds have a loft running along the whole of
the length, or a part of the same, and with sufficient
capacity to store enough litter to supply the flock during
all the winter, such storage will be found a great conveni-
ence during the period of winter feeding. When the roof
of the shed is given but one slant, the bedding may be re-
ceived into the loft through windows on the yard side.

FIG. 17— PLAN OF SHEEP BARN WITH
YARD PROTECTION

SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 345

The location of the lambing pens and of the root cellar
is shown in the engraving, but should occasion call for
it there may be a lambing pen in each of the structures
which will hold fodder, and two root cellars, one below each
of the corner structures, would be a great convenience when
feeding the roots. The feeding racks, D, are placed along
the front of the sheds, but they may be placed toward the
rear, or as desired. The hay chutes come down into in-
closures of suitable height at C. The size of these must
be adjusted to the amounts of the fodder called for, but
they should be amply large. The feed bin, B, 10 x 12 feet,
is shown in the sketch, and to the rear of it is a stairway
leading to the root cellar, which is underneath the lamb-
ing pen. The loft over the feed room and the lambing
pen should have a tight floor. The sheds may be divided
by movable partitions, and the yard may also be sub-
divided by movable fences.

The following are among the advantages of such a
structure: (i) It furnishes shelter for a large flock of
sheep and storage room for food and litter for the same
at relatively small cost. (2) It furnishes permanent shel-
ter against the winds, virtually without cost, and it is
shelter of the most effective kind. (3) It makes it easily
possible to get abundant paddock room by placing the
paddocks at the rear of the buildings. The sheep may be
admitted into these directly from the sheds.

Fig. 18 shows the ground plan of a sheep house
adapted to the needs of a large breeding flock kept under
farm conditions. It represents the ground plan of the
sheep barn at the Minnesota experiment farm. A build-
ing of the same dimensions may be too costly for an
average breeding flock on the ordinary farm, but the same
is not true of it where a large breeding flock is to be main-
tained for a term of years. There are certain features
about the plan which can be profitably utilized by the
flockmaster when erecting shelter for sheep on a much
smaller scale.

346

MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

The building was planned by the author with a view
to breeding and also to feeding sheep in an experimental
way. It is no feet long and 36 feet wide. The posts are
14 feet high, but should be 16 feet as designed by the
author. On one side of the front end entrance is a silo,
and on the other a wool room, which may also serve as a
shepherd's room in winter, should this be desired. The
next two apartments are lambing pens, one on either side.
The following divisions are for the sheep, on both sides of

FIG. 13— GROUND PLAN OF SHEEP BARN AT THE MINNESOTA EXPERIMENT

STATION

the passage, which is 6 feet wide and runs from end to
end of the building, but not in the center. This was
planned so that the chutes which bring the fodders from
above would not interfere with the working of the horse
fork, when taking in food from the end of the building.
On one side of the passage five divisions are located 20x18
feet. These open into yards on the shady side of the
building. Sheep for experimental uses were kept in these.
On the farm such members of the flock as are not good
to produce lambs could be kept in them. They could be
reduced in size by placing the passage toward that side

SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 347

of the building, and this would proportionately enlarge
the pens- on the other side. On the side of the passage
opposite to the large pens is one 20 x 12 feet and eight
12 x 10 feet. These are for ewes in lamb and they open
on the sunny side of the building.

It will be observed that each of the partitions is mov-
able. They may be lifted only far enough to serve the
purpose of a lamb creep, or they may be lifted out so as
to enlarge the pens. When thus lifted out, a wagon may
be driven right through the divisions from end to end for
the removal of the manure. Ingress for the wagon is
made by the double doors, 7^ x 7 feet, at the ends of
the building and egress for the same into the yards in
the divisions remote from the plan of entrance.

Such apartment on the sunny side has a window,
and on the shady side each has two. The size of the win-
dows is 30 x 26 inches, and they are made to slide up
and down. Each apartment is also furnished with a door
cut in twain across the middle. These doors, 3x6 inches
across, open outward. The feeding racks run along the
passage on each side of the same. A door opens from the
passage into each division of the shed. It is 2 feet, 8
inches wide, and 2 feet 10 inches high, which is 2 inches
less than the height of the lining on both sides of the
passage. The walls are boarded up with deep siding
nailed on to the studs with building paper underneath
the siding. The floor is simply of earth, except in the
feed room, the shepherd's room and the passage.

The fodder and litter may be taken in at the ends of
the loft or through doors at the sides of the same. Both
the fodder and litter come down through chutes into the
passage below. These chutes, three in number are 22 x 32
inches and they are suitably spaced. As they extend up-
ward they slant toward one side so as not to interfere with
the action of the horse fork. When the different kinds of
fodder are suitably stored in sections in the loft, they are
at all times accessible. Should it be desired, the apart-

348

MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

ments may be littered from a wagon driven in front of the
pens. The loft has a tight floor.

Water is brought in by means of pipes connected
with the water system that supplies the buildings. In
the absence of such a system it could, of course, be in-
troduced through means of a well, a windmill and a tank.
It is drawn from hydrants into pails, as needed, and the
sheep drink from shallow buckets in the divisions. These
may be kept clean by overturning them daily.

The silo, as will be observed, is circular. It is 24 feet
high and 12 feet across. The staves are 2x3 inches, and

FIG. 19— SHEEP BARN AT THE MINNESOTA EXPERIMENT STATION

these are tongued and grooved, which is not now consid-
ered necessary. It is girded around with 15 hoops of
^-inch band iron, 3 inches broad. Twelve hoops suitably
spaced would probably prove ample. The bottom hoop
is just above the floor and the distance between the hoops
increases somewhat as they extend upward. Hinged
doors open into a chute extending upward on the side
next to the feed room. These would better serve the pur-
pose if they were not hinged, but rather fitted in from the
inside, the edges being beveled. The size suitable for

SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 349

such a box chute is 24 x 37 inches, and it should have
a ladder within attached to one side. The doors may be
24 inches long and 18 inches broad. The floor consists of
two thicknesses of brick laid in cement.

The root cellar is 16 feet in diameter. Its location
and form will be readily apparent from the plan. The wall
is of bricks laid in mortar. In no part does the wall come
nearer on the inside than 3 feet 8 inches from the outer
walls of the building, that the frost may be the more
easily excluded. The window spaces, which are also used
as chutes for admitting the roots, have triple thickness
of glass in the form of a double window without and a
single one within. The floor overhead is ceiled, first, with
shiplap ; second, with two thicknesses of tarred paper ;
third, with furring to make an air space ; and fourth, with
shiplap. The door which opens into the feed room at the
head of the stair has also two thicknesses of boards, with
tarred paper and airspace. Fig. 19 gives an outside view
of the structure.

The yards extend out 18 feet from the building on
either side, and they are separated from one another by
movable divisions. A less width than 18 feet, as, for in-
stance, 12 or 14 feet, would make the moving of the
partitions much easier. They extend from the shed to
the fence that hems in the yard.

CHAPTER XVII
DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP

Chapter XVII considers: (i) The culling of the
flock; (2) The disposal of the culls; (3) The disposal of
pure bred sheep and lambs ; (4) Fitting sheep for sale ;
(5) The disposal of grade sheep and lambs; (6) Deter-
mining the age of sheep ; (7) Preparing sheep for ship-
ping; (8) Shipping stockers from the ranges; (9)
Shipping finished sheep in car lots; and (10) Shipping
finished sheep in train loads.

The culling of the flock — Every breeding flock should
be culled not less often than once a year, and it is seldom
necessary to cull more frequently. The time usually re-
garded as the most suitable is the season when the lambs
are to be weaned. The real value of the ewes may be
better understood at that time than at any other season.
They have been weaning their lambs, and the most im-
portant indication of their value as breeders is the form
and furnishings of the lamb or lambs which they may
have reared. That time is further opportune because it
separates material for disposal at a season when it may
most readily be disposed of, or most readily and cheaply
prepared for disposal.

The culling of the farmer's pure-bred flock should
consider: (i) The ewes to be retained or sold; (2) the
ewe lambs to be retained or sold ; (3) the ram lambs held
for immediate sale and those to be carried over; and (4)
the animals to be sent to the block, old or young. The
ewes retained for breeding should, of course, include the
best, and the aim should be to secure them, so far as may
be practicable, of the same type. Those set aside may be
too valuable to justify making them into mutton, hence
it is legitimate to sell them as breeders. The same rules

DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 351

should guide in the selection of the ewe lambs, and when
once set aside for the home flock the temptation to sell
them to customers should be strenuously resisted. The
strongest and best only of the ram lambs should be
offered for immediate sale, and these should be kept apart
from the others. To graze them together will injure the
sale of the best lambs. The other ram lambs will take
the market better as yearlings. The cull lot for feeding
will include old ewes, any whose udders may have failed,
and lambs off in form and markings and in the character
of the fleece.

When culling grade flocks there is, of course, no
legitimate place for the retention or sale of rams for
breeding uses. Much care should be exercised, however,
in the selection of the ewes to be retained and of the
ewe lambs. Unless the ewes that have suckled lambs are
considered in connection with the lambs, mistakes in the
selection of the ewes are very liable to occur. A ewe
should not be rejected on the sole ground that she is low
in flesh. If a large lamb at weaning time stands by her
side, the lamb is the explanation of and apology for her
leanness. She has been generous in the proportion of
food turned over to the lamb, but if she is dried and put
on a good pasture, she will soon pick up again. The ewe
that fed her lamb poorly all summer will look much better
at weaning time than the other. The owner of a good
grade flock can afford to cull severely.

It would seem approximately correct to say that
grade flocks should be so renewed from year to year that
every three years the animals in it would be entirely
changed. This applies to farm conditions. The plan
which takes three crops of lambs from ewes and then dis-
poses of them meets with much favor. This is said in full
knowledge of the fact that some ewes may breed success-
fully for a much longer period. The lambs are thus pro-
duced by ewes in the zenith of their usefulness. The
ewes themselves are also disposed of at an age when they

352 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

are still capable of fattening readily on suitable rations.
Range ewes of the Merino types will produce profitably
for a longer period, but such ewes should not be retained
on the ranch after their teeth have begun to fail. The
culling of pure-bred flocks not so strong numerically as
they are to be, is apt to be less severe than the circum-
stances would justify. Because of this those flocks fre-
quently fall below a high standard.

Disposal of the culls — When sheep and lambs are
culled on the range, they must be sold for what they will
bring, as they cannot be fattened on the range. More
commonly they are shipped to some stock yard center and
are then sold to be finished when the facilities for such
finishing may be found on the farm or at the yards. Dur-
ing recent years the extension of the beet-sugar industry
to the mountain valleys of the West and the growth of
alfalfa in the same areas has opened up a new field for
the fattening of culls, especially culls rejected because of
age. The soft pulp can be readily eaten by these, though
they should be almost toothless with age.

On the arable farm the culls may be fattened. They
may be fattened in the autumn on suitable grazing, more
especially on rape, or they may be fattened after the win-
ter has closed in. Usually they may be more cheaply
fattened on grazing, and this makes it possible to get
them out of the way before the coming of winter, which
usually brings with it a call for all the available space
that it may be possible to secure.

Culls are usually slow feeders, and in many instances
the profit from feeding is less than that secured from a
better class of animals. In the nature of things it is so,
as the influences that led to their rejection as breeders
are still operative, and will in consequence make them rela-
tively slow feeders. The want of uniformity, which in
most instances they possess, tends also to discount the
price paid for them. Nevertheless, there may be instances

DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 353

when it may be legitimate to buy culls for feeding (see
page 224).

There are instances, especially in small flocks, where
the culls may be used with advantage on the farm. Be-
cause they have been culled out for slaughter, it does
not follow that they will not furnish meat of good quality.
That will depend chiefly on the way in which they are
fattened. A sheep may be rejected as a breeder because
it is undersize or off in form in some particulars, and yet
it may furnish excellent mutton. Aged sheep fattened
quickly will lose much of that toughness that would
otherwise characterize the meat. The home supply of
meat may in many instances be largely drawn from this
source for the entire winter by those who have a liking
for mutton ; when thus used there is no discount put upon
the animals simply because they are culls. Such dis-
counting is very common when these are sold upon the
market.

Dressing sheep for home use is not difficult. A fast
of 24 hours before slaughtering is helpful. The method
frequently followed is in outline as follows : The animal
is caught, laid on its side and held by one person with his
knee upon the shoulder, one leg at least being firmly held
in each hand. The throat is cut by a second person as
he holds the lower jaw point firmly in his hand. The
skin is then removed before or after hanging up the sheep
and the inwards are taken out. The carcass remains sus-
pended until the animal heat has left it. The longer that
it can be kept without taint the better will be the mutton.

Disposal of pure breds — Pure-bred sheep and lambs
set aside for disposal are more commonly sold by private
sale. They are usually regarded as being too valuable to
sell for meat as long as they are capable of breeding suc-
cessfully. In some instances ewes whose teeth have be-
gun to fail are purchased as material on which to found
flocks, as such material can usually be purchased cheaply.
The practice is not to be condemned, nor is it to be in-

354 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

discriminately commended. If ewes thus purchased are
suitably fed, they may be able to produce and rear lambs
for one or two years longer than if not thus provided with
food suited to their advanced age; that is, food that is
easy to masticate and rich in nutrients. But the fact
remains that ewes past the meridian of vigor will not rear
lambs of equal excellence with those reared by the same
ewes when in their prime.

The sale and purchase of inferior rams for breeding
uses, simply because they are purely bred is a serious
mistake. It may bring immediate gain to the seller, but
in the end it is sure to react against the reputation of the
breeder and of the breed. Such animals ought to be sold
for slaughter, every temptation to dispose of them for
any other use should be resisted and the same is true of
pure-bred ewes of decided inferiority.

Orders for pure-bred sheep, and especially for pure-
bred rams, are very frequently filled by mail. They cannot
be filled otherwise when the buyer and seller live far
apart, because of the expense that would be thus incurred
in traveling. Such orders are based on the reputation
of the seller, who cannot be too careful to keep his repu-
tation unsullied in the way in which the orders are filled.
Those who give them should be careful to describe the
character of the animal or animals that they want, and
those who fill them should be equally careful to fill them
in the line of the requirements. If they cannot do this
they should not try to fill them. Some breeders have been
able to build up a very large business on these lines.
Other breeders have never been able to do so, the differ-
ence in the results being based chiefly on a difference
in the methods of filling orders.

The leading live stock fairs that are held usually
furnish auspicious times for the purchase of stock, rams
especially; for the purchase of what are commonly re-
ferred to as field rams — that is, rams that have been fitted
for the show ring. Many breeders take to the fairs a

DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 355

number of such rams for sale, hence the person who may
desire to invest is given the opportunity to choose from
various flocks.

In Great Britain a large proportion of the rams
reared are sold at sales held in certain centers every year.
Those sales furnish opportunities that cannot be improved
upon for securing stock rams. They bring the buyer and
seller close together at a minimum of cost, so the pro-
spective buyer has the opportunity of inspecting animals
from many flocks before the sale is held. The sale also
tends to inspire those who furnish the animals sold to
bring them possessed of high excellence, that the prices
paid may add to their reputation as successful breeders.
It would be a great mistake to bring inferior animals to
such sales. The sales should be well advertised and the
sheep carefully catalogued.

It cannot be said that the attempts to sell sheep for
breeding at such sales in America have been altogether
successful, a result that may have arisen in part from
the apparent hesitancy on the part of those who furnish
the animals to hazard the selling of high-class sheep by
auction. That such sales will yet become common in this
country would seem to be a foregone conclusion, because
of the fine opportunity which they furnish to intending
purchasers for inspecting animals from many herds. The
tendency at the present time is to hold such sales at cen-
ters where important live stock fairs are held, and
simultaneously with the fairs. The time and place for
holding these sales, however, is at present in the tentative
stage.

Fitting sheep for sale — When sheep or lambs are
held for sale, either public or private, they will not sell
readily, nor will they bring good prices unless possessed
of reasonably good flesh and a fair amount of bloom.
Both conditions appeal to the eye. Where the animals
offered are thin, the suspicion is aroused that they are
lacking in bloom; they do not possess the attractions

356 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

which bloom brings with it. Bloom may be defined as
that condition in which form, wool and action are pleas-
ing and attractive. It indicates present and prospective,
continued thrift. Animals long maintained under high
pressure feeding at length lose their bloom, and when
they do they cannot again regain it to the same extent, as
the energies of the system have been weakened by over-
work. To sell sheep at auction that are low in flesh or
lacking in bloom is a great mistake. Sheep held for sale
at home or elsewhere, should be at least measurably
trimmed with the shears. The nature of the trimming
will depend on the kind of the sheep and the conditions
under which they have been kept. Trimming improves
the appearance of the sheep. The claim that it tends to
deceive is not valid, as the intending purchaser is not
debarred from handling the sheep. If he neglects to
handle them, he may be deceived by the fleece of the
sheep untrimmed as well as by the fleece of that trimmed.
When sold in lots at home or in the sale ring, the respec-
tive lots should be carefully graded. This means that the
individuals in the respective lots should be chosen with
reference to similarity in age, size and type. Such uni-
formity is pleasing to the eye, and it brings added value
to the lots thus sold. Those sold at auction should be
numbered on the side or back with ink applied with
stamp or stencil, that they may be readily identified.
Portable pens will be greatly helpful in bringing lots to
the sale ring.

Disposal of grades — More commonly grade sheep
grown upon the farm are disposed of as lambs ; that is,
under the age of 12 months. The exact age for such dis-
posal will depend on the aims of the grower and on his
facilities for furnishing lambs at different ages. It would
seem correct to say that, as a rule, the profit made from
lambs decreases relatively with increase in age, providing
that in all instances they are put upon the market in fin-
ished form. A well-fed lamb two or three months old

DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 357

will frequently sell for as much as the same lamb would
bring if retained until 9 to 12 months old. When not
sold as milk lambs, the aim should be to finish them on
the farm, so that the profit made from the finishing may
accrue to the owner rather than to someone who may
purchase them for feeding. On the range sheep are sold
as lambs or wethers. Whether they should be sold as lambs
or older, depends in no small degree on the relative price
of wool and mutton. The higher relatively the price paid
for wool, the more advantageous, relatively, to sell as
wethers rather than lambs, and vice versa. In former
decades the range stocks were disposed of as wethers,
but at present the disposal of males as lambs is on the
increase. The tendency is to increase the ewes, since a
ewe will furnish a fleece and a lamb, while the wether
furnishes a fleece only. It is true, nevertheless, that a
wether will sell for more than a lamb, and he will con-
sume less grazing than .a ew.e and a lamb.

On the range the surplus stock is usually sold to go
to the block directly or after having been fattened at
some place of finishing not in the range country. The
aged ewes culled out are disposed of similarly. But on
the farm it may be different. Where the flock is small
the animals singled out for disposition may frequently be
all used in supplying meat for the farmer and his family.
It may seem incongruous to recommend the disposal of
culls in that way, but when sheep are kept in but lim-
ited numbers the grade of culls even may rank relatively
high.

Determining the age of sheep — When culling the
flock, it is not always possible to determine the age of
those which ought to be discarded on the ground of age,
nor can a judge be quite sure of the exact age when pass-
ing upon sheep in the show ring. In the latter instances,
however, he can make a close approximation from indica-
tions furnished by the teeth. The absence of teeth and

MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

other indications will throw some light upon this question
of old age.

At birth, or before the first month is past, the lamb
is possessed of eight incisors or milk teeth, as they are
sometimes called. These are all in the under jaw and in
the front part of the mouth. Directly above is a bony
substance known as the dental pad, which serves in the
place of teeth. At the age of, say, 12 to 16 months, the
two central incisors make way for the two first perma-
nent ones. At the age of, say, 21 or 22 months, the sec-
ond pair of permanent incisors appear, and of course, on
either side of the first pair. At the age of 30 months,
and in some instances earlier, the third pair are in place,
and at the age of, say, 36 months, but sometimes two or
three months later, the fourth and last pair are in place,
when the sheep are said to have a full mouth.

The mature sheep has 24 grinding teeth, usually
spoken of as molars. Of these 12 are in the under and 12
in the upper jaw, six on each side. Of these the first,
second and third, counting from the front backwards, are
present at birth, but are replaced later. In about three
months from birth the first permanent molars appear,
occupying the fourth place. At about nine months the
second permanent molars appear, occupying the fifth
place, and at about 18 months the third complement of
permanent molars occupy the sixth place. At, say, 22
months, the first and second temporary molars in each
side and in both the upper and lower jaw are replaced,
and at, say, 24 months, the third temporary molars are re-
placed. The full mouth has 32 teeth in all. The perma-
nent teeth are both larger and darker in color than the
temporary teeth.

The other indications of age — that is, of old age —
include the partial or total loss of the teeth, depression
of the loin, hollowness at the barrel depression, sagging
of the paunch and distension of the nostril. There is
some relation between longevity in the breed and the time

DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 359

when the teeth fail. In some breeds the teeth are lost
at about half the age at which they are lost in other
breeds. The more that quick maturity has been sought
in a breed, the younger the age at which the teeth are
shed, and vice versa. The other indications referred to are
also affected by the same influence. Longevity in the
Merino is much greater than in the other breeds now in
America. In former decades American Merinos have in
some instances produced lambs at the age of 20 years.
The instances are not numerous with nearly all the other
breeds in which they have produced lambs beyond half
the age mentioned.

It is apparent, therefore, that the indications of age
mentioned are only approximations more or less close to
the truth. The time at which the teeth are shed, for
instance, is much influenced by the forced character of
the feeding, or the opposite. Liberal feeding tends to
produce early shedding of the teeth. When sheep are
liberally fed they get their first pair of permanent incisors
at about 11 months, the second at 18 months, the third at
27 months and the fourth at 36 months. At the S*nithfield
fat stock show in England, sheep having their central
permanent incisors cut are considered as beyond the age
of 10 months ; those having them fully grown as beyond
12 months ; those having the third pair cut as exceeding
19 months; and those having the third pair fully up and
all the temporary molars replaced as exceeding 24 months.

Preparing sheep for shipping — When sheep are
shipped from the ranges a change of food is not necessary
preceding their shipment. They may be taken directly
from the pastures to the cars on which they are loaded.
It is important that the car is well furnished with bedding,
as it will add greatly to their comfort and will help to
keep the wool from getting soiled. For an ordinary single
deck car not less than 200 to 300 pounds of bedding should
be furnished in the form of straw where obtainable, or
old hay where straw is not to be had.

860

DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 361

When shipping sheep from farm pastures to the mar-
ket it may be necessary, in some instances, to put them
on dry feed for a day or two prior to shipping. The object
sought is to lessen the tendency to scouring that might
otherwise result. Such a course is important when sheep
are being finished on succulent pastures, such as rape.
When shipped from feed lots, the grain ration should be
materially reduced for a day or two before shipping. Oats
furnishes the safest grain food to feed at such a time.

Instances may occur in which the individual may
have only a part of a carload to ship. His aim should be
to get some neighbor similarly situated to join with him
in completing the loading of the car. Such co-operation
in localities far from market is" highly important, and
should be made a matter of pre-arrangement before the
feeding begins. Swine also may be used, of course, to
complete the loading of the car, but when so used the
partition that separates the sheep and swine should be
strongly made.

When shipping sheep out of the stock yards to be
finished on the farm or elsewhere, it is a wise precaution
to dip them before removing them from the stock yards.
Such dipping is a safeguard against scab and ticks, but if
scab is suspected the sheep ought to be dipped twice with
an interval between (see page 439). The stock yards
furnish the dipping plant and materials for dipping, and
they take charge of the same at so much per head. The
charge is usually a moderate one. The aim should be to
carry the sheep in disinfected cars after they have been
thus dipped. As the run from the stock yards to the farm
or other place where the sheep are to be finished is not
usually a long one, the car is furnished with bedding only.
When the sheep will be long in transit some hay is put
around the sides of the car, which they will consume, in
part at least, on the way.

Shipping stockers from the ranges — When sheep are
shipped as stockers from the ranges, the numbers are such

362 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

usually as to admit of grading the animals before they
are shipped. The aim in grading should be: (i) To keep
the old and young ewes separate from each other and
from the lambs and wethers; (2) to keep the lambs and
wethers apart, and, when the numbers will justify it, to
grade the lambs and wethers according to age and size.
When the yards are reached where these are exposed for
sale, the different classes should occupy different pens.
The benefit resulting is that higher relative price which
uniformity brings with it. The purchaser of stockers de-
sires uniformity, for the reason that an even lot will fat-
ten more readily than a mixed lot or a lot similar in kind
but differing much in the flesh which they carry, and the
uniformity in the feeders purchased will tend much to
produce uniformity in the feeders finished. Uniformity
in the latter is even more desirable than in the former.

Sheep are sometimes shipped in a single deck car,
and sometimes in one with two decks. The number that
a car will carry will, of course, depend on the size of the
sheep or lambs, the amount of flesh that they carry and
the length of the car. On a car 36 feet long from 120 to
130 wethers may be shipped as stockers on a single deck.
When shipping old ewes they should not be crowded so
closely as in the case of wethers, as they are less able
to bear up under untoward conditions than wethers.
Stock lambs vary more in size than wethers ; hence this
variation is greater in the number that the car will carry.
When the lambs are developed so as to weigh 60 to 70
pounds, a single deck of a 36-foot car should carry from
140 to 150 head. When the lambs are under 60 pounds in
weight, the single deck should carry 170 to 180 head. A
maximum weight in the load carried is fixed upon as the
basis of charge for the car. If the car is not loaded up to
this maximum, the shipper is so far the loser; but if
loaded to exceed the maximum, the shipper pays propor-
tionately for the excess.

DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 363

The aim should be not to unload the stockers in
transit more frequently than the law compels such
unloading. Sheep, like cattle, will not eat or drink
much while in transit; hence the all-important consid-
eration is to try and get them to their destination as
quickly as possible. When they reach the stockyards,
if so considered, they are subject to inspection, and as a
safeguard cannot go out for being finished without being
dipped once, and twice in case that scabies are discovered.
The cost of sheep held in the yards is, of course, borne by
the owners.

Shipping finished sheep in car lots — When sheep are
to be shipped in car lots, the wise feeder will look well
ahead with reference to securing cars at the time fixed
upon for shipping. The importance of giving most care-
ful attention to this matter increases with the distance
from the market and the lack of competition in the rail-
roads. The officials of the road should be given such
timely notice of the need of cars as to leave them without
excuse if the cars are not forthcoming. Instances may be
cited in which failure to secure cars at the proper time
has turned what would have been a handsome profit into
no profit at all. This result followed the constrained feed-
ing of the sheep after they were ready for shipment and
downward tendencies in the markets.

Where large numbers of sheep are fed, the grading
of the shipments will be easily practicable. It may not be
practicable on the farm where but one carload lot is fin-
ished. In the former instance the finished animals may
be sent forward as ready, the less finished going later. In
the latter instance they may be graded after reaching the
yards, if this is thought best.

The number of finished animals that a car will carry
will, of course, be influenced by their size and the degree
of the finish possessed. In a single-deck 36-foot car, about
100 finished wethers such as come from the range can be
shipped without discomfort through overcrowding. From

364 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

120 to 130 finished lambs will make a load. But the num-
bers given may be exceeded or diminished so as to vary
considerably through the influences named.

Usually it will be found to the advantage of the
shipper to consign the shipment to some reputable com-
mission firm. The advice of the said firm with reference
to a propitious time for shipping will usually prove help-
ful. The commission house should be apprised by wire
of the time when the loaded consignment will leave, so
that they will know when to look for it at the yards.
After inspection the stock is in charge of the commission
firm until sold. The said firm makes sure that the ani-
mals are properly unloaded, that they are properly fed
and watered, and that the animals are promptly sold at
the best rates obtainable. A check is then issued to the
owner, with the charges deducted. These charges include
such items as switching charges, the cost of food, charges
for weighing and the commission charges.

Shipping finished sheep in train loads — As a matter
of economy in shipping, sheep are sometimes sent forward
from the place of feeding in train loads from points that
are far away. To put these on the market at one time
might involve hazard, especially when several days are
occupied in the journey, owing to the change in market
values. To avoid such hazard, the plan is adopted of
securing an unloading point not distant from the mar-
ket. The plant at this point may also be used as a feed-
ing station.

The sheep should reach this plant in ample time to
enable them to recover from the effects of the long jour-
ney in transit before they are put upon the market. The
owner secures the services of a commission house located
at the market. From the said firm he gets information
from time to time as to the needs of the market. He is
then enabled to forward selected animals from time to
time in carload lots in the line of the needs of the mar-
ket. In this way he secures the best returns obtainable

DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 365

for the shipments forwarded. If some of the sheep or
lambs are not yet ready to be sent to the market, the
opportunity is furnished to feed them longer.

Some of the growers of sheep thus virtually maintain
two feeding stations. One is located in the country near
to the pastures where the sheep are grown and where the
necessary fattening foods are obtainable, and the other is
not distant from the place of final disposal. Sheep grown
on the ranges are thus fattened in some of the mountain
valleys of the West, where alfalfa and the coarse grains
can be produced abundantly through the aid of irrigating
waters from the mountain streams. Marketable lambs
four days in transit and weighing 50 to 100 pounds will
shrink about seven to eight pounds; one-year wethers
weighing about 120 pounds, about 10 pounds; and aged
wethers and ewes, about 12 pounds. The shorter the
period of transit the greater relatively would be the
shrinkage, and vice versa.

CHAPTER XVIII

PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND
WOLVES

The discussions in Chapter XVIII are as follows: (i)
How dogs and wolves affect sheep husbandry ; (2) How
dogs worry sheep; (3) Protection to sheep owners from
legislatures; (4) Remedial legislation; (5) Protective
measures on the farm ; (6) Why sheep do better when not
corralled ; (7) The dog industry in the United States ;
(8) The place for the dog in sheep husbandry ; (9) The
losses incurred by wolves; and (10) Protective measures
against wolves.

How dogs and wolves affect sheep husbandry — It is
not possible to state with precision the annual loss to
sheep husbandry from the ravages of wolves and dogs.
Statistics relating to these losses have not been compiled
in a systematic way, and for the reason probably that the
task of compiling them would not be an easy one. That
these losses in the aggregate are very great is unques-
tionably true. In the special report of the sheep indus-
try of the United ^States published by the United States
department of agriculture in 1892, it is stated that the
loss from dogs alone in Ohio was placed at $152,034 and
in Missouri at $200,000. In Bulletin No. 20 of the biolog-
ical survey of the United States department of agricul-
ture, it is stated that the average animal loss from wolves
reported from several of the range states has been 5 per
cent, and that in some areas the losses incurred by wolves
and other wild animals, chiefly the former, has been as
much as 20 per cent. It would seem correct to say that
the loss incurred from these two sources is greater than
the loss resulting from disease.

PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 367

The direct loss from the ravages of dogs and wolves
is probably far less than the indirect loss resulting there-
from, which means the adverse influence which these
losses exert upon the extension of the industry. During
recent years especially the demand for mutton has greatly
increased, while the increase in the number of sheep
grown has made but little advance for many years. The
number of sheep in the United States in 1884 is officially
stated as 50,626,626, and in 1907 as 53,240,282. The in-
crease in the 23 years included has been only 2,613,656.
In Great Britain the number of sheep kept at the present
time is about half as many as are maintained in all the
states of the Union. In the older states where sheep hus-
bandry has declined, as, for instance, in New England,
the losses incurred by vagrant dogs is the reason usually
given by the farmers for the lessened numbers of the
sheep kept. In some of the range states during recent
years the number of the sheep kept has grown less, and
one reason most commonly given is the loss resulting
from the presence of wolves.

At the present time it is not possible to state whether
the actual loss from dogs or wolves is the greater loss.
Viewed from the standpoint of the hindrance to exten-
sion in sheep husbandry, however, there can be no ques-
tion that the former exert the greater influence. The
greatest relative increase in the numbers of sheep kept in
the future should come from the arable rather than from
the range states ; hence the great importance of protective
measures in these against the ravages of dogs.

While the losses incurred from the ravages of wolves
have been very serious, and are even now, it can scarcely
be said that these could have been prevented in the past.
The same is not true, however, of the losses resulting
from the attacks of dogs. In great measure they could
have been prevented. That they have not been prevented
is little less than a blot upon our civilization. That the
farmers have not risen in resistless protest against the in-

368 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

difference shown by legislators to these losses is not cred-
itable to their manhood; that legislatures have so fre-
quently trifled with the remedial measures proposed is not
creditable to their patriotism.

How dogs worry sheep — The night season is the time
usually chosen by dogs for worrying sheep, but in some
instances they will not refrain from attacking them in the
day. The problem of devising means that will enable the
farmers who keep sheep to receive compensation for the
loss sustained is much complicated by -this habit in the
dogs to make their attacks in the night season. It makes
it practically impossible to know whose dogs did the mis-
chief. But even though this could be known, and though
the law made provision that the owners of the sheep
should be given full compensation by the owners of the
dogs, in very many instances the owners of the latter
would be unable to make payment. More commonly the
slaughtering of the sheep is done by vagrant dogs owned
by people who are too poor and frequently too negligent
also to provide proper food for them. The exceptions,
however, are not few, for dogs that are well fed will some-
times worry sheep. It has even been claimed that shep-
herd dogs have been known to worry sheep, but such
instances, if they happened, are extremely rare.

In some instances dogs will worry sheep though
alone. More commonly, however, they make the attack
when in pairs or trios. They sometimes go for a con-
siderable distance in search of a flock. They will not only
attack sheep in the open field, but will also attack them
when yarded, if the yard or corral is accessible. When
attacked in the yard or corral the slaughter is usually
very great. But the same is true in some instances in
the open field, as the surrounding fence makes it impossi-
ble for them to get away.

The power of dogs to worry sheep is very great. In
some instances, more especially when the attack is made
by a single dog, it is confined to a single sheep from the

PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 369

carcass of which the murderer of the innocent makes a
meal. More commonly, however, but little flesh is eaten.
No sooner has one sheep been killed or maimed suffi-
ciently to satisfy the dog, than he leaves it and engages
in the chase after another. More commonly the neck is
the favorite place of attack, but the attacks are by no
means confined to that part of the animal. In some in-
stances the slaughter is only stayed when the dogs have
become too exhausted to carry it on longer. Two dogs
have been known to kill and maim more than 100 sheep
in one of those nocturnal carnivals of slaughter.

It is almost impossible to prove the identity of the
dogs, even though they should be caught at the nefarious
work in the broad light of day. Assured identity of a dog
seen at a distance is not easy, and owing to their swift-
ness when pursued, it is usually impossible to follow them
to the home of the owner. In a few instances strong cir-
cumstantial evidence may be obtained against a dog sus-
pected of guilt, by wool hairs adhering to the teeth or
blood marks around the jaws, but the danger exists that
the fact of making such an examination may create hard
feelings by men who have been neighbors.

The loss in a flock of sheep that have been worried
by dogs is by no means all represented, as a rule, by the
number of the sheep killed or wounded. The injury to
the surviving numbers of the flock is such that the profit
that would otherwise have accrued is much reduced. This
arises from the ill-doing for a considerable period at least
following the attack. This ill-doing is probably the out-
come in part at least of the severe shock given to the
nervous system arising from fright.

Protection by legislative enactment — From what has
been said it will be apparent that in the absence of legis-
lation bearing upon compensation to the owners of sheep
attacked by dogs, it will be impossible for them to secure
such compensation. Such legislation has usually been
difficult to obtain, for reasons given below. It has sel-

3/O MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

dom proved entirely satisfactory when attempted, and in
some instances where such legislation has been attempted
it has been subsequently repealed. The fact remains,
nevertheless, that an industry so important to the mate-
rial interests of the state should be protected. The diffi-
culty usually met with in securing legislation on the sub-
ject arises in part from the far greater numerical strength
of those who keep dogs and no sheep than of those who
keep sheep. Some legislators at least recognize this fact,
and, doing so, they are slow to support a measure that
may alienate supporters. It also arises in part from the ex-
treme difficulty in framing legislation that will give jus-
tice to all and that will give oppression to none.

It would seem to be true, however, that the strongest
reason for opposing such legislation is found in the
strength of the sporting instinct in many legislators and
also in many of their supporters, more especially those
located in towns and villages. This love of hunting would
seem to be so strong in many instances as to blunt the
sense of justice with reference to legislation that would
seriously interfere with conducting the sport of hunting
on old-time lines. The dog is, in a sense, an indispensa-
ble adjunct to successful hunting. Hence legislators
sometimes hesitate to pass laws that may be regarded by
those who keep hunting dogs as inimical to their interests.

Legislation to protect from dogs — No legislation that
has been enacted has proved entirely satisfactory. That
system, it would seem correct to say, has proved the least
objectionable which puts a tax on all dogs outside of cor-
porate cities, funds the same in the county in which it
is collected, and reimburses the owner of sheep from this
fund in whole or in part for loss incurred by dogs. In
very many instances the owners of dogs conceal them
when the assessment is being taken, and in some in-
stances deny the presence of their existence, and in this
way they are not listed for taxing. The system has been
objected to, first, because it taxes useful and useless dogs

PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 371

alike; second, because the fund collected does not in all
instances cover the loss; and third, because in some coun-
ties practically no sheep are reared.

Because of these and other objections, laws that have
been passed to protect sheep from dogs have in several
instances been repealed. The cities have laws or by-laws
relating to dogs, hence they are beyond the jurisdiction
of the counties, and so cannot be reached by enactments
in these, and yet many of the losses incurred result from
the attacks of city dogs.

Whether legislation will yet be enacted that will
prove more effective remains to be seen. As long as the
sentiment that exalts the sport of hunting to a higher
plane than sheep husbandry remains, remedial legislation
to protect sheep will not be easily obtained. That the
industry ought to be thus protected, however, cannot for
one moment be questioned. The agitation for it, there-
fore, should never cease until it is obtained.

Protective measures on the farm — In the absence of
adequate protection from the legislature, the sheep own-
er can adopt protective measures that will go far to in-
sure safety for his sheep. Even when legislation has been
enacted it may be fitly supplemented by the adoption of
such measures. These include protection furnished by
bells, by goats, by corrals, by fences, by firearms and
by poison.

It has been claimed that putting bells in large num-
bers on sheep will afford protection against dogs and also
against wolves. That protection to some extent has thus
been afforded is probably true, but whether such protec-
tion would in all instances prove adequate is at least an
open question. The effectiveness would doubtless be in-
fluenced, first by the size of the flock, and, second, by the
extent to which it is equipped with bells. It has been the
practice of some flockmasters to furnish from 25 to 50
per cent of the flock with bells.

In some instances the presence of "billy" goats in the

372 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

flock, that is of male goats, has to some extent furnished
protection to sheep from dogs. Such protection, how-
ever, in large flocks will not always prove adequate, as
the flock not infrequently divides into groups in large
pastures, and in some of these the goats may be absent
when the dogs attack the sheep. Nor is it by any means
certain that male goats will always prove effective in the
fight with dogs when they are present. The same may be
said of Dorset males, though in some instances they may
drive away timid dogs. Even ewes with young lambs will
sometimes fight dogs in defence of their young, but usu-
ally they prove quite unequal to conducting such a con-
test.

The corral is a sure means of protection for sheep at
night when the inclosure is properly made. When the
fence is inadequate to keep out dogs, the corral only
tends to facilitate the slaughter when dogs get inside.
To the sheep in such an event it becomes a veritable death
trap. To yarding sheep in corrals there are also some
objections as shown below.

One of the surest and most effective ways of protect-
ing sheep against dogs is by fencing the pastures so
that dogs cannot enter them. A fence constructed as fol-
lows will protect against dogs : Set posts 8 feet long, say
one rod apart, and sunk 3 feet into the ground. Along
these stretch barbed wire just at the surface of the
ground, say, 3 inches ; above this stretch a strip of woven
wire 36 inches broad and with mesh not exceeding 5
inches. Six inches above the woven wire stretch a barb
wire; 6 inches higher stretch another and 8^ inches
higher still a third. The fence will thus be 5 feet from the
ground to the top of the barb wire. A strip of strong
wood 2x1 inches, placed erect and midway between the
posts, and to which the wires are stapled, will prevent
them from sagging. A wire woven up and down at the
same place will effect the same end. The bottom wire is
intended to prevent the dogs from crawling under. .

PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 373

Should any runways pass under the fence, these will need
special attention. The gates must also be carefully made
and put in place. These may be of wire similar to that
used in building the fence, but which, of course, should
be carefully stayed between the headpiece and the end-
piece of the gate. A fence thus built will be quite suit-
able for inclosing a corral.

Protection by means of firearms may not in all in-
stances be in strict accord with the letter of the law, and
disobedience to law very seldom finds justification. But
when a dog visits the property of another unattended by
an owner he is a trespasser. The law relating to trespass
usually forbids such visitation of any member of the
human family without the concurrence of the owner of
the land. Should domestic animals, as, for instance, the
horse and the cow, invade property, the law usually makes
provision for impounding them. Why, then, should a
dog be given license to go where other domestic animals
and even man himself cannot go without permission? The
dog cannot be impounded. The only protection against
his undesirable presence is that which sends him to the
shades of non-existence. It would be difficult, indeed,
to find a court that would punish a man who would thus
protect himself against trespass.

Protection by means of poison is justified on the
same ground as protection by means of firearms. The
reasons which sustain the one method of dealing with
dogs will also sustain the other. Dogs are much more
easily poisoned than wolves (see page 382), as they are
much less wary and suspicious. A piece of meat charged
with strychnine trailed across a field and left in a suit-
able place will usually lure dogs to their death who in-
vade that field. In the absence of legislation to protect
sheep from dogs measures thus heroic will furnish a con-
siderable degree of protection.

The corral and its place — A corral, as is generally
known, is a roofless inclosure into which sheep are

374 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

brought for safe keeping for the night. The protection
sought is against dogs and beasts of prey. On the arable
farm where the sheep are corraled at night the yard and
the shed which opens into it is usually made to serve the
purposes of a corral. On the range this is frequently im-
practicable ; in fact, it is so usually during the grazing sea-
son, owing to the distance of the grazing grounds from
the sheds.

A corral is always a necessity on the open range, as
under such conditions the danger is always more or less
present that the flock may be preyed upon by beasts of
prey. When the range is very large, it may be necessary
to have more than one corral. Of course, on the arable
farm such increased protection is never necessary, un-
less the sheep should be kept during a part of the grazing
season on pastures too distant to admit of driving them to
the home corral.

Although the corral is indispensable under many
conditions of sheep husbandry, it is nevertheless a
hindrance in some respects to the production attainable
were it not necessary to corral the sheep. It calls for
travel that would not otherwise be necessary; it fosters
to some extent the spread of disease should it be present
in the flock, and it prevents the sheep from grazing as
they otherwise would in the coolest portion of the day.

When sheep are sustained by grazing alone, they get
all the exercise they need when taking their food, and
should the pasture be sparse, they get more than they
need. Every additional step taken beyond the require-
ments of health is taken at the expense of flesh, hence the
more distant that the corral is from the pastures, the
greater is the loss from such journeying. The aim should
be, therefore, to so locate the corral that unnecessary
time on the part of the sheep would be prevented. This
may call for the construction of more than one corral
on large grazing grounds. The other conditions to be
considered in locating a corral include: (i) Protection

PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 375

from wind such as is provided by a bluff or grove; (2)
ground with sufficient slope to keep the corral dry; and
(3) proximity to water for the sheep and also the shep-
herd, who usually lodges in a little shack near to the
corral. On the arable farm sheep accustomed to the .cor-
ral will come to the same at nightfall as the outcome of
habit. The way is left open for them to do so. On the
range they are, of course, accompanied by the shepherd.

Should disease be present in the flock, the spread of
the same is facilitated by corraling at night. Crowding
the sheep into close quarters, of course, brings them into
closer contact with certain forms of disease which are
communicable in the germ form and in other forms.
Sheep in small flocks and possessed of large liberty
always thrive better than those kept under conditions
the opposite.

The most objectionable feature to the corral is that
it deprives sheep of the opportunity to graze during those
times which are most favorable for such grazing, espe-
cially in warm weather. When sheep can lie out on the
pastures they will invariably graze in the cool of the even-
ing, and in some instances on into the night. In the early
morning they again start out to gather feed while the
grasses are wet with dew. Such grazing in the cool of
the day allows the sheep to take more rest in the heat
of the day than would otherwise be possible, which adds
much to their thrift.

When they are driven nightly to the corral in large
bands, they feed more or less on the way in and out,
especially when going out in the morning. Because of
this the grazing becomes bare within a considerable dis-
tance of the corral. When this happens in proximity to
the quarters in which the sheep are wintered it is so far
unfortunate as it tends so far to deprive the sheep of
grazing during the open weather of winter. To avoid
such a result the aim should be, on the range, to have the
summer corral distant from winter quarters.

376 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Notwithstanding these drawbacks to the corral, it is
an absolute necessity in the range country because of the
hazard from wild animals. Were it not for the hazard
from dogs, it would seldom be a necessity on the farm,
hence the cost and labor of protecting sheep in the corral
and the loss resulting therefrom is nearly all to be
charged against the mischief wrought by dogs.

Dogs in the United States — In the absence of care-
fully compiled statistics, it would not be possible to state
with definiteness the number of the dogs maintained in
the United States. Unquestionably it runs far into the
millions. The assessors' returns show that in many coun-
ties in a large proportion of the arable states the number
of the dogs far exceeds that of the number of the sheep.
Furthermore, it would seem safe to say that 19 out of each
20 of the dogs kept are of no use whatever save to amuse
children generally and a certain class of women. It
would be interesting to know the cost of food for dogs
in the United States. Owing to the concentrated food
called for by dogs, the cost of keeping each dog is several
times the cost of keeping each sheep. The cost of food
for large dogs is not so very much less than the cost of
food for the average child. A very large proportion of
the dogs kept are owned by the poor; hence, in maintain-
ing them, if they are to be properly maintained, they are
not infrequently given food that should be given instead
to the children of the household. More frequently they
are not properly fed, and because of this they must gather
food by scouring the country as scavengers, hence the
source of many of the depredations which they commit
while so engaged. It would seem probable that the cost
of maintaining dogs in the United States is greater than
th'e cost of maintaining sheep in the same. In other
words, the United States pays more per annum for main-
taining the greatest hindrance that exists to the sheep
industry than it does to sustain that industry. This does
not mean that the children of the home are not to enjoy

PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 377

the comfort which the household dog brings to them, that
the home is not to enjoy the protection of a watch dog,
or that the lover of sport is not to have his hunting dog;
but it does mean that those who keep dogs are morally
bound, and should be legally bound, so far as laws can
bind them, to keep their dogs from worrying the farmers'
sheep.

The great amount of the waste thus incurred in main-
taining useless dogs is the least part of the loss. It is
small in comparison with the loss sustained by the nation
in the extent to which the attacks of dogs hinder the
extension of what should be one of the greatest industries
which the nation possesses.

The dog in sheep husbandry — The dog has his place
in sheep husbandry, and an important place it is. The
shepherd dog is wanted to help in guiding the sheep, and
the hunting dog is frequently wanted to aid in defending
it. It would not be possible to care for sheep on the
ranges in the absence of dogs, because of the size of
the flocks. The sheep on western ranges cannot be led
by the shepherd, as were the smaller flocks in ancient
times. They must be driven, and it would be quite
impracticable to drive flocks so large without the aid
of one or more dogs. The necessity for the aid of the
hunting dog in defending the flock is dependent upon the
degree of the hazard to exposure incurred by proximity
to the haunts of wild animals which prey upon it.

The shepherd's dog is also a necessity in arable areas
that are in a large measure unfenced, and even in areas
where the pastures are large though fenced. A well-
trained dog under such conditions, and also on the range,
is far more helpful to the shepherd than even a mounted
assistant would be. The time will never come under
range conditions, and also under conditions that are ara-
ble in whole or in part, when the shepherd dog can be
entirely dispensed with.

The true shepherd's dog furnishes a wonderful illus-

MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

tration of the marvelous degree of the perfection of the
development to which an animal of the canine species
may be brought through centuries of skillful breeding
accompanied by careful and wise training. In these re-
spects the collie is perhaps without a rival. The prompt
and unfailing obedience of the collie would frequently
put to the blush the obedience of a well-trained child.
The sagacity shown in doing its work is nothing short
of wonderful. Its fidelity to the interests of its master
knows no wavering. In these and also in other respects
it would almost seem as though it were guided by reason
rather than by instinct. More, probably, than any other
animal does it illustrate the near approach which instinct
may make to the realm of reason without actually invad-
ing it. It is thus apparent that there are dogs and dogs.

The losses incurred by wolves — In all countries
where the opportunity occurs wolves prey upon sheep,
and doubtless they have done so in every age. In North
America wolves are divided into two groups, known re-
spectively as timber wolves and coyotes. The former
inhabit wooded areas to a far greater extent than coyotes,
whose presence is almost entirely confined to the open
country.

Timber wolves are larger than coyotes. They are also
usually larger in northern areas than in those far South.
The color varies in different areas. In eastern Canada, it
is a dark gray ; in the southeastern states, a dark gray or
black ; in southern Texas, red ; in Mexico, brindled ; in the
western range country, a light gray; along the central
Pacific area, dusky or black ; and in Alaska and Canada,
far northward, it is almost white.

Coyotes, so named by the Spaniards, are usually of
a dirty gray, with more or less of a reddish tint about the
head, neck and legs. The proportion of the red and black
varies much with the different species. In size they are
larger than a fox and smaller than the timber wolf, but
the size varies considerably in the different species, of

PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 379

which there are several. They are furnished with a
pointed muzzle, erect ears and a bushy tail.

Timber wolves were originally distributed over all
parts of the continent that produced forest. With the
settlement of the country they continually recede. In the
eastern and central states they are now entirely extinct,
but in various areas near large tracts of forest they are
still a source of considerable loss. This is especially true
of northern Michigan, northern Wisconsin and northern
Minnesota and of much of the range country, where their
former prey, the buffalo, is not found any more. They
frequently make their dens in lonely places in the open
country. Coyotes inhabit all the range country from the
Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean and from Athabasca
on the north to Costa Rica on the south. In nearly all
the range country they are as numerous as when the
country was first occupied, and in some areas have in-
creased, notwithstanding the efforts that have been made
to destroy them. The explanation is found in the in-
creased food supplies which civilization has made accessi-
ble to them.

The idea that forest reserves in the range states are
largely accountable for the presence of wolves is not true,
as in the mountain areas they are not found, save in the
summer season where live stock are driven up to higher
altitudes to graze. They breed in the foothills. Fre-
quently the dens are located near washed-out places along
the sides of streams or under rocks in side hills. Some-
times the dens are enlarged from holes made by badgers
or other wild animals. In many instances the view from
elevations near the dens extends over a large area, hence
the approach of an intruder is almost impossible without
discovery. The breeding season varies with the climate,
but in the central west it occurs in April, and by August
the young wolves are able to shift for themselves.
Wolves breed but once a year. The period of gestation

380 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

is about 63 days. The litters number, say, from four to
eight each.

Wolves usually hunt from sunset to sunrise, but in
some instances they search for prey in the daytime. They
live almost entirely on animal food. The smaller species
live largely on wild game, but they also prey upon
domestic fowl of all kinds, lambs and young swine. Of
wild game they prey upon such birds as quail, grouse,
wild ducks and the eggs of these at the breeding sea-
son, and such animals as mice, gophers, ground squirrels,
chipmunks, woodchucks, prairie dogs, rabbits and even
house cats. In addition to the above the large species
of coyotes prey upon sheep, goats, calves, and various
species of deer. In winter they will invade towns, getting
food from the offal of slaughterhouses and other sources.
Timber wolves prey upon such animals as sheep, goats,
hogs, calves, cattle and horses. They seldom attack
herded animals.

Coyotes, when looking for their prey, are much prone
to hide behind bushes or in the long grass near to the
paths which the smaller wild animals frequently journey
over and pounce upon them when they are passing. When
they attack domestic animals they of necessity have to
come more or less into the open. They will seize a lamb
or a young pig by the back and carry it away. When
preying upon mature sheep on the range they give chase
to the animal, tear out a piece of flesh, and then fre-
quently leave it, and likewise give chase to another.
When tired they make their night meal upon one of the
carcases. As many as a score of lambs have been killed
by a wolf in a single night. It has been claimed that one
family of wolves have been known to destroy live stock
worth not less than $3,000 in a single year. Frequently
they hunt alone, but sometimes in small bands.

The losses to sheep owners incurred by wolves is
very large in the aggregate. It occurs not only in all the
range states, but in the states more or less adjacent to

PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 381

these which are largely under cultivation. These losses
meanwhile do not grow less, especially in areas inhabited
by coyotes.

The extent of the loss in domestic animals from
wolves has been put at five to 20 per cent. Even in the
Bad Lands of North Dakota, which are not distant from
cultivated areas, as much as 15 per cent of the live stock
has been destroyed by wolves in a single season. The
total losses incurred in Wyoming in the heart of the wolf
country have been estimated at more than $1,000,000 a
year. To this loss must be added the adverse influence
which the proximity of wolves exerts upon farmers and
ranchmen, many of whom would keep sheep but for the
fear of the loss that might follow. Those losses will
assuredly grow less in time as the country becomes more
completely occupied.

Protective measures against wolves — The following
are among the protective measures adopted when seeking
to shield sheep from the attacks of wolves : (i) The use of
bells ; (2) the setting of traps ; (3) the use of poison ; (4)
the offering of bounties ; (5) the agency of organized
hunting; and (6) the agency of fencing.

When a considerable proportion of the sheep in a
flock are furnished with bells, there can be no doubt that
for a time at least the bells will furnish some measure of
protection, as in the case of dogs (see page 371). It is
extremely probable, however, that in time the bells would
cease to frighten the wolves as at the first, and would
so far cease to protect. That ranchmen have not made
any extensive or general use of this means of protection
would indicate that they have no large measure of faith
in its effectiveness. In arable areas, where coyotes are
naturally more timid and wary than on the range, such
protection will probably be found more effective. Coyotes
are so wary and suspicious that they are not easily caught
in traps, and this wariness increases with increasing near-
ness to the haunts of man. Nearly all the coyotes caught

382 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

by this method are under one year old, indicating clearly
that wariness increases with age in the wolves. They
are sometimes trapped without bait, and sometimes with
it. In the former instances the traps are sunk level with
the ground in a narrow trail, as in an opening between
bushes, and the chain and trap covered, but not too
deeply, with leaves and grass. In the latter they are
usually placed near a wolf trail, and are likewise con-
cealed with leaves or grass. Bait is left near in large
or small chunks. It should be trailed some distance if
practicable from the saddle horse a couple of days after
the traps have been set, to put the wolves on the scent.
It should be put in place from the saddle. Some trappers
rub their hands on tainted meat or with some scent as oil
of anise before handling wolf bait. Nothing less than
what is known as a number four double spring trap
should be used and the chain should be correspondingly
strong and attached to the trap with a swivel. The chain
should be securely wired to an anchor, as a fallen timber,
a strong bush or twisted iron stakes driven down below
the surface of the ground. Success in trapping is in no
slight degree dependent on the use of scents that will
attract the wolves. Musk has proved effective in a con-
siderable degree. Asafoetida is less effective. Urine
taken from the wolf's bladder is probably more effective
than either.

Wolves are not easily poisoned, as they will not
readily consume any food which has been handled by
man. Coyotes are more suspicious regarding such food
than timber wolves, and are, therefore, less readily poi-
soned. They may be poisoned in some instances by drop-
ping, preferably from the saddle, small chunks of poi-
soned meat, preferably fat, along a trail. Strychnine
about the size of a walnut is almost the only poison used,
and in the pure sulphate form. The strychnine, as crystals
or capsules, should be inserted in the meat with a knife
blade. Four grains are enough for a mature wolf. The

PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 383

pieces of meat should be handled with gloves and may
be carried in a pail. They are best dropped along a
scented drag line, made by dragging a piece of hide or a
dead rabbit, bleeding more or less, over the ground or
along a wolf trail, or they may be put under carcasses on
which wolves are feeding. In some instances wolves will
dig up poisoned bait and eat it, when they would not
touch it if exposed. Young wolves are much more readily
poisoned than old ones.

For many years past bounties have been offered for
wolf skins in all or nearly all the states infected by
wolves. These state bounties have ranged from 25 cents
upward, seldom falling below $2 for a young wolf skin,
and in some instances amounting to several times that
sum for a grown female. These have been supplemented
by bounties paid by live stock associations and the owners
of live stock. These supplementary bounties have raised
the earnings of the hunter to not less than $15 for some
classes of skins, and in some instances that amount has
been exceeded. The hunter also gets from 50 cents to $6
for the skins, according to the quality.

Enormous sums relatively have been paid out in
bounties. In California an act was passed in 1891, mak-
ing the bounty on coyotes $57 each. During the 18
months that the act was in force that state paid out
$187,485 on wolf hides. In Kansas in the year following
July i, 1903, bounties were paid on 20,000 wolf skins. The
Standard cattle company operating in Wyoming in a
single year paid bounties on wolves amounting to nearly
$2,500, the bounty being $5 a hide.

That the offering of bounties has made the number
of wolves considerably less than it would otherwise have
been cannot be questioned. The discouraging thing about
it, however, is, first, that it has not gone far toward the
extermination of wolves, and, second, that it has led to
the fraudulent practices on the part of wolf hunters.

384 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

Meantime, however, it would clearly be a mistake to cease
to offer bounties for wolf hides.

Wolf hunts are frequently conducted in various por-
tions of the range country. Horsemen go out in different
directions and drive the wolves toward a center, where
they are dispatched in various ways, but chiefly by dogs.
The most useful dogs in hunting wolves are staghounds,
Russian wolf hounds, greyhounds and their crosses. The
ordinary greyhound can easily overtake a coyote, but is
usually unable to kill it unaided. Three dogs are fre-
quently needed to successfully chase and kill a coyote.
This method of hunting is costly in horseflesh and in the
time of the riders, and in some instances in dogs. By
watching near the dens before daylight old wolves may
sometimes be shot on their return from a nocturnal trip.
But in no way can they be destroyed so effectively and so
easily as by capturing the young in the breeding dens. A
spade is usually necessary* as an aid to getting into the
dens and a stout hook on the end of a stick will aid in
getting them out of the crevices. One of the most effec-
tive means of protecting sheep from wolves is to confine
them within fences of suitable construction. At the first a
few barb wires properly stretched will keep out coyotes,
but in time these will not prove effective. For the con-
struction of a fence that will protect, see page 372. Such
fencing is very suitable for corrals which are indispensa-
ble in the range country. It is costly, however, under
ordinary range conditions, but increased revenue will
accrue from the complete control which it gives the
ranchman over the management of at least a portion of
his grazing grounds.

CHAPTER XIX
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP

The discussion in Chapter XIX dwells briefly on the
following: (i) The prevention and treatment of disease
in sheep; (2) Parasites that prey externally on sheep;
(3) Parasites that prey internally on sheep ; (4) Ailments
from digestive sources ; (5) Ailments affecting the organs
of respiration; (6) Ailments arising from reproduction;
(7) Ailments that affect the limbs ; (8) Ailments peculiar
to lambs ; and (9) Ailments miscellaneous in character.

Protection and treatment of disease — Treatment for
diseases and other ailments of sheep are very commonly
less satisfactory than with any other class of domestic
animals. This is probably owing : (i) To the peculiar
location of many of the ailments that afflict sheep, which
makes treatment unusually difficult. Such are the ail-
ments of stomach worms, which make their abode in the
fourth stomach ; of grub in the head, which is located in
the nasal sinuses, so close to the brain as to be practically
unreachable ; and goiter in lambs, which is located in the
glands of the throat. (2) To the absence of that strong
vitality that is essential to ability to stand up sturdily for
a time at least in the face of attack. This is evidenced in
attacks of bloat, where the percentage of the losses under
treatment is much larger than the percentage of losses
from cattle that are treated for the same. (3) To the
further fact that it would seem true that the veterinary
profession have centered less on the study of the ail-
ments of sheep than on those of the horse and the cow,
since the latter are relatively more valuable.

From what has been said it will be apparent that pre-
ventive measures for guarding sheep against diseases will
be doubly important. While treatment for tapeworm and
stomach worm is difficult, and not infrequently unsatis-

385

386 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

factory, it is possible when selecting the foundation ani-
mals for a flock to be practically sure that they are not
thus affected. This may be known from the previous
history of the flock. It is also possible to keep the flock
away from wet pastures that favor increase in such para-
sites when they are present. Similarly, while but little
can be done by way of treatment for goiter, it is quite
practicable to breed only from dams that do not usually
give birth to lambs that are not thus affected, In other
words, it is possible to discard for breeding uses all
females that have given birth to lambs in which goiter
has developed. It is also practicable to keep sheep under
conditions that will prevent them from drinking in dirty
pools which favor the development of nodule disease, and
to shield them, at least measurably, from the gadfly which
lays the egg that ultimately develops into grub in the
head. All such preventive measures are practicable,
while the successful treatment of some at least of the ail-
ments of sheep is virtually an impossibility.

While proper environment and suitable care are im-
portant with all classes of live stock, these would seem to
be doubly important in the case of sheep. All experience
in the past has shown: (i) That sheep will keep much
more healthy on dry and rolling pastures than on those
opposite in character; (2) that pure living water is essen-
tial to the well-being of sheep ; and (3) that they do not
stand up well under close confinement. It is certainly
much wiser to aim to furnish such conditions than to
neglect to furnish them and later to have to grapple with
the ailments which their absence gives rise to.

Proper care that will prevent troubles from arising
in the flock is also to be greatly preferred to the necessity
for dealing with these should they arise as the result of
lack of care. For instance, it is vastly easier to keep sheep
in sleeping sheds free from drafts than to cure catarrh,
which comes as the result of exposure to drafts. It is
much easier to furnish succulent food that wards off in-

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 387

digestion than to deal with indigestion should it arise,
and it is vastly easier to keep the farmer's flock away
from infestation of scab mites than to deal with scab
should it come.

Parasites that prey externally on sheep — The prin-
cipal of these are three in number, viz., the sheep tick,
the scab mite and the sheep louse. Of these the scab
mite is altogether the most harmful. The sheep tick is
more or less in evidence wherever sheep are kept on this
continent, but not necessarily so. The sheep louse is not
greatly prevalent in America.

The sheep tick (Melophagus avinnus) was introduced
from the Old World. It is a wingless fly. When full
grown it is less than one-fourth of an inch long. The
body is short, flattened and varying in color from white
to reddish. The color is influenced somewhat by the
amount of blood which it has taken from the sheep. The
ticks bear considerable resemblance to the spider in form,
but the limbs are very much shorter. The sheep tick
propagates by means of the eggs laid by the females.
These are relatively large, flat and ovoid in shape and
brown in color. Within each is an imperfectly developed
larva. The eggs, usually spoken of in common phrase
as "nits," are made to adhere to the wool by a sticky sub-
stance which covers them when they are first laid. But
one is deposited at a time, and it is thought the female
seldom lays more than 7 or 8 eggs in her lifetime, and the
number is probably less than the figures named, a fact
which has an important bearing on the possible eradica-
tion of the pest. They hatch in some instances in about
four weeks from the time when they are laid.

They occur on sheep at all seasons, but are usually
most numerous and troublesome toward the approach of
spring. They cannot live long away from the body of the
sheep, the warmth of which seems to be essential to their
existence in conjunction with the food which they obtain
from it and the protection furnished by the wool. Their

388 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

food consists wholly of blood, which they take through
the proboscis with which they penetrate the skin.

The injury which they inflict comes chiefly from the
prolonged itching which follows the puncture of the skin.
When present in large numbers, the annoyance resulting
is very great. When the wool is removed by shearing,
the ticks, in great measure at least, leave the old sheep.
They either perish or become transferred to the lambs.
To these they are oftentimes a source of great annoyance,
because of their numbers, and also because of the greater
ease with which they may puncture the tender skin of the
lambs. Evidences of the discomfort are manifested in the
extent to which they bite at themselves and rub against
external objects. For treatment see Chapter XX.

Sheep scab is so called from the scabs which come on
the skin and which are the outcome of inflammation re-
sulting from the innumerable bites of the scab mites when
taking their food. Three classes or species of scab mites
infest sheep. The first is known as Sarcoptes scabiei, the
second as Chorioptes communis and the third Psoroptes
communis. The first causes scab on the head the second
scab on the feet, and the third scab on various parts of
the body. That named last is by far the most common
of the three and also by far the most harmful. The life
history of the three is very similar.

The scab mite (Sarcoptes scabiei) is so small as to be al-
most invisible to the naked eye, but its presence may be
known by the scabs which result and the location of these.
They are first noticed on those portions of the head that are
comparatively free from hair and grease, as on the upper
lip, the nostrils and around the eyelids and ears. From
these starting points they gradually spread over various
parts of the head. For treatment the application of some
one of the approved scab dips or ointments (see Chapter
XX) will suffice in the early stages of the infection, but
in the more advanced stages it may be necessary to first

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 389

soften the scabs with some kind of oil or grease and then
to remove them with soap and water.

The mite, Chorioptes communis, occurs so rarely that
it is scarcely necessary to discuss it. It may be said,
however, that it usually begins on the feet and extends
upwards. The skin when attacked shows an inflamed
condition followed by free scaling of the same, and this
in turn is followed by the forming of yellowish-colored
crusts, beneath which the parasites congregate. For-
tunately this trouble is not readily communicated to other
sheep, and it may be treated in the same way as Sarcoptes
scabiei, referred to in the preceding paragraph.

The mite, Psoroptes communis, is by far the most
troublesome and harmful of all the external parasites
which prey upon sheep. The trouble resulting is now
more commonly referred to as body scab. So great has
been the loss resulting from its presence that legislation
has been enacted in many countries with a view to pre-
vent its spread and in the hope of ultimately bringing
about its eradication. Although it infests goats, com-
munication usually comes from other sheep or from the
quarters which they have inhabited or visited not long
previously.

This mite, though small, is visible to the naked eye.
The life history of all these mites is very similar. They
attack the external skin by biting it in search of food.
Scabs quickly form as the result of the irritation that fol-
lows. This irritation is thought to be, in part at least,
the outcome of a poisonous fluid which accompanies the
bite. Under the scabs the mites lay their eggs. These
eggs hatch in 2 to 3 days, and the mites reach the adult
stage in about 15 days. As each adult female lays about
T5 eggs, the multiplication of the mites is eventually
almost without limit, and it only leaves with the death of
the sheep or v/ith the removal of the mites through treat-
ment.

The mite, Psoroptes communis, attacks sheep of all

39° MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

classes and ages. Unlike the mite that produces head
scab, it works underneath a covering of wool, and appar-
ently preferably where the wool is longest. Consequently
the autumn and winter are the most favorable to its dis-
tribution. Other influences that favor rapid multiplica-
tion in the mites are such as pertain to old age, to lack of
stamina generally and to insanitary surroundings.

The indications that point to the probable presence
of scab are the rubbing of the sheep against external ob-
jects and the attempts to bite themselves. Soon the coats
become rough, taggy and ragged. Examination may
show the insects themselves. At first when attacked by
the scab mites minute elevations appear on the skin
slightly more white or yellow than the surrounding skin.
These become so numerous at length as to unite. From
the summit of each a watery serous fluid exudes which
leads eventually to covering the skin with a yellowish
scaly layer under which the parasites hide. These sur-
faces continually enlarge by the mites working outward.
The mites usually begin their attacks along the back and
carry to the neck glands and rump. They congregate
most around the edges of the scabs.

The losses from scab to flockmasters through the
presence of scab in the aggregate are very great. These
losses occur: (i) Through ill-doing on the part of the
sheep ; (2) through loss by death which may result from
scab directly or indirectly through disease favored by the
enfeebled condition resulting because of the presence of
scab ; and (3) through the cost of the curative methods
that are necessary to free the flock from the presence of
the mites. The suffering endured by the sheep thus at-
tacked is exceedingly great. The mites are communicated
by contact with tufts of wool torn from the bodies of in-
fected sheep. In these the mites which are exposed even
to low temperatures may live for 20 days. (For treat-
ment see Chapter XXI).

The sheep louse of the genus Trlchodectes is not very

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 39!

common in this country. It is a small creature about 1-25
of an inch in length, with white body and a reddish head.
It is found more commonly on poorly sheep and in places
where the wool is not plentiful, as between the legs and
body. The eggs are laid at the base of the wool fibers.
When numerously present their bite leads to a roughened
scabby skin, which induces discomfort, shown by the at-
tempt to scratch and bite the affected parts. The remedy
is the same as for ticks (see Chapter XXI).

Parasites that prey internally on sheep — The more
harmful of these are : The stomach worm, tapeworm, lung
worm, the worm that is associated with nodule disease
and grub in the head. These do not include nearly all the
parasites of this class/but those not included seldom lead
to serious loss in the flocks.

The stomach worm (Haemouchus contortus) leads to
greater loss in the flock, and mainly through the loss of
lambs, than any other ailment that affects the sheep of
this continent. It is a small hairlike worm that inhabits
the fourth stomach of sheep and goats. When present
they may be found in all stages of growth in the same.
Immediately after the slaughter of an infested lamb they
may be found adhering by their heads to the mucous
membrane, and oftentimes in immense numbers. At such
a time they are of a reddish color. This may result in
part at least from their feeding on the blood of the vic-
tim. This parasite has doubtless been brought from the
Old World. It has long been more or less prevalent in
the southwestern states and territories, where it was
called lombriz, a corruption of the Spanish word lombrici,
which means worms. It now gives more or less trouble
in all or nearly all the states of the Union and the prov-
inces of Canada.

It is not always easy to distinguish between the
symptoms present resulting from stomach worms as com-
pared with those resulting from the presence of some
other parasites. Prominent among these, however, are

392 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

an emaciated condition, a pale skin, a dry harsh coat, a
moping gait and diarrhea. One of the surest evidences,
however, when it is present, is the small white worm in
the droppings. Usually no positive symptoms occur un-
til after the lambs have been affected for some time.
When death occurs, it is generally soon after the symp-
toms have become prominent. The trouble affects old
sheep as well, but they are much less harmed than lambs
by the presence of the worms. Death from this source
occurs mainly among lambs that have access to pastures
at a somewhat early age.

The life history of the stomach worm is in outline as
follows : The worms occur in largest numbers in the
fourth stomach of the sheep. In the adult sexual stage
they are able to live and carry out their reproductive
functions only in the alimentary canal of sheep and some
other ruminants. Each female produces thousands of
eggs very diminutive in size. They pass out of the in-
testines with the feces. In a few hours, days or weeks,
according to the temperature, they hatch out, if not killed
by drying or freezing. The tiny embryonic worms then
develop to what may be termed the final larval or infec-
tious stage. This period of development requires days or
weeks, according to the temperature. In the infectious
stage they can withstand long periods of drought and
cold. When in that stage they are most active in the
presence of moisture, as during wet weather or when
dews and fogs abound they crawl up grass blades and
thus readily reach the stomach of sheep and lambs. In
some instances they must develop very quickly, as they
are found in lambs in immense numbers that are less than
three months old.

This theory of the source and manner of infection
finds support in experiments conducted by the author at
the Minnesota station. When the lambs were confined
to the sheds and fed on soiling foods to supplement the
milk of the dams, they were free from attack ; whereas the

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 393

previous year the loss of lambs produced by the same
dams, though grazed on the same pastures, was serious.
It is true, nevertheless, as experiment has shown, that in-
fection is possible when both dams and lambs are con-
fined to the pens, but it is not likely to occur in any con-
siderable degree. When guarding against this disease,
preventive measures are greatly important. These in-
clude : (i) Using great care when introducing the founda-
tion stock on which the future flock is to be built; (2)
grazing lambs on new rather than old pastures while they
are young; (3) changing the pastures frequently; (4)
sustaining vigor in the lambs by feeding nourishing foods
to them; (5) giving food in racks and water in troughs
when practicable. When choosing the material on which
to found a flock, if the assurance is present that no indica-
tions of stomach worm have ever visited the flock, it is,
in a sense, certain that introductions from that flock will
not bring stomach worms with them, especially if the
flock is one that has been long established and has not
recently been reinforced from outside sources. It will
also be necessary to proceed in the same cautious manner
should materials be brought in subsequently from outside
sources to reinforce the flock. While introducing the
lambs to new pastures will not in itself be a guaranty
against invasion, it will lessen the hazard, and this will
be still further reduced if the pastures are grown from
cereals sown purposely to make them. The lambs do not
graze these so closely as they would old pastures, espe-
cially when the herbage is plentiful ; hence they are less
liable to invasion by the parasites. Such pastures are also
much less liable to be infested by the larvae. If the lambs
come quite early in the season, especially in northern
areas, they will be so far grown that they will be more re-
sistant to the sapping influences resulting from the pres-
ence of the worms. If the lambs are to be maintained
within the yards while the old sheep go out to the pas-
tures this process will be facilitated by giving the lambs

394 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

food within a creep and then removing the dams from the
yards while they are eating. If the lambs are to remain
with the dams, it is specially important that the latter
shall be put onto fresh grazing at the time of turning
them out to graze. When the pastures are changed fre-
quently, the lambs are much less liable to take up the
germs than when they graze closely. If the lambs are
fed heavily on supplemental foods, they are much less
liable to succumb to the attacks of the disease. This is
probably owing to the greater power of resistance which
the liberal feeding brings to them. Such foods as oilcake
and oats are well suited to such feeding. Where the fod-
der is fed in racks rather than on the ground, the hazard
of taking up the germs is obviated, and the same is true
when the water also is pumped up from wells into
troughs from which it is taken by the sheep.

Several remedies have been used which have proved
at least reasonably effective when properly administered.
The two that stand high in favor at the present time are
known as the turpentine and gasoline treatments respec-
tively. Of these the latter is now more commonly used.
The spirits of turpentine is best given as an emulsion,
obtained by mixing it with milk. The dose for a lamb
three to four months old is a teaspoonful of turpentine in
about six times the quantity of milk. The two should be
well mixed, which is accomplished by shaking the com-
bination. The gasoline is given in flaxseed tea of thin
consistency or sweet milk. The dose is from one tea-
spoonful to one tablespoonful, according to the age and
size of the animal to be treated. The gasoline is poured
into a bottle containing 4 ounces of the tea or milk. Two
teaspoonfuls of the gasoline are required for a 5o-pound
lamb. The two are well shaken before being adminis-
tered. A small measuring glass, known as a graduate,
should be used in measuring the ingredients. This treat-
ment has practically superseded the turpentine and also

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 395

the benzine treatment, popular at one time, being cheaper
than either and at least as effective.

When given the treatment, the animals should be
yarded and fed in the early evening. The treatment
should be administered the next morning at a late hour
on an empty stomach. They should be thus managed
from day to day during the continuance of the treatments.
It is recommended that three treatments should follow on
as many consecutive days, especially in the case of the
lambs. In cases of very serious infection the lambs
should be again dosed once a week, and all the lambs in
the flock should be treated. The ewes should also be
treated, but not necessarily to the same extent as the
lambs.

Sheep are drenched from a horn or a stout glass
drenching bottle. Two persons are called for to accom-
plish the work. One throws the sheep on its buttock and
holds it between his legs with the back toward him. The
lower jaw is held in his left hand, which raises the head
to the level of the line of the back, but not higher. The
right hand may grasp the upper jaw or pull outward the
pouch of the side of the jaws. The other places the mouth
of the drenching bottle well up against the roof of the
mouth and pours slowly, to avoid strangling. A moderate
amount of the mixture is better than a large amount, as
it is more completely retained in the fourth stomach.
During recent years, administering the drench to sheep
while they are in a standing posture has grown rapidly
in favor, and the practice is sustained by some good
reasons.

Some shepherds feed certain mixtures as antidotes
during more or less of the year. Tobacco dust has been
fed along with sulphur, copperas and salt. Others feed
proprietary worm powders. The evidences in favor of
the value of such feeding are far from being completely
convincing.

The tapeworm (Taenia expansa), though not as harm-

39^ MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

ful to sheep in America as the stomach worm, especially
in tillable areas is frequently a source of very great loss
to the flockmaster. Introduced from Europe, it is now
virtually distributed over all parts of the United States
and Canada. Although found at all seasons, it is usually
most troublesome in the late spring, summer and autumn.
Some seasons it is epizootic, as it were, especially among
lambs, but it may also cause loss among yearlings. Damp
moist weather and heavy and moist soil conditions are
more favorable to its spread than conditions the opposite.
Among the symptoms of the disease are the following:
The lambs become emaciated, notwithstanding liberal
feeding. The mucous membranes become pale, which has
led to the designation "paper skin" sometimes applied to
the disease. The wool becomes dry and harsh from want
of the usual yolk supply. They take more and more a
woebegone appearance, accompanied by a moping and
staggering gait. The symptoms are in many respects
like those accompanying the invasion of stomach worms.
They may be distinguished from the latter after the dis-
ease has made some progress by the presence of the small
white oblong segments of the worms, which are voided
by the affected animals. These adhere to the pellets of
the droppings, also to the wool and dirt around the tail
head. As the trouble progresses diarrhea becomes more
and more pronounced, and the animals affected frequently
die from exhaustion. Other troubles may also attack them
in their weakened condition and hasten the end. The
desire for food and drink may increase rather than dimin-
ish until near the end. The life history is, in substance,
as follows : The embryos pass from sheep to sheep, but
through an intermediary, as, for instance, the dog. It is
believed that they are taken in the food when grazing, and
especially on short pastures, and also in the water when
they may drink from pools or ponds. They develop
rapidly by producing segments at the rear end which be-
come broader and shorter as growth progresses. The

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 397

eggs are developed within the segments. When mature
they are shed in the excrement. The time of growth oc-
cupies from two to three months. The number present
may run all the way from, say, two or three to 100, but
more commonly they seldom exceed half a dozen in one
animal. The adult worm is about 15 feet long. The
width varies from 1-25 of an inch at the head to ^4 of an
inch at the other extremity. The thickness varies from
i-io to 1-12 of an inch, but these measures are subject to
wide variations. The large growth so fills the small in-
testines that they obstruct the digestive processes while
they abstract nutriment from the food materials present
for growth. The disease is present to some extent
through all the year, but it is chiefly harmful to lambs
and during the first two or three months of grazing.
Worms have been found in lambs two to four months
old from 6 to 15 feet long, so rapidly do they grow. After
sheep pass the age of 18 months they seldom die from
tapeworm, but they harbor the parasites more or less.
The chief losses are with lambs under the age of six
months, and they give more trouble in wet seasons and
on damp pastures than under conditions the opposite. As
in the case of stomach worms, preventive measures are
more efficacious than treatment. These are practically
the same as for stomach worms (see page 393). Where
it can be done, confining the lambs to the sheds or corrals
until near the weaning season is a very sure means of
protection. This is most easily accomplished with lambs
that come early in the season.

The treatment for the worm is in many respects sim-
ilar to that given in the case of stomach worms (see
page 394), but other treatment is sometimes resorted to.
Formerly a decoction of pumpkin seeds was used as treat-
ment, but the materials for making it are- not easy to
obtain in large quantity in the spring of the year. An-
other and equally effective remedy is two drams of male
fern given in two to four ounces of castor oil, or two

398 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

drams of powdered areca nut and one dram of male fern
given in four ounces of syrup. The above is the dose
for a large lamb and a shearling. For sheep the dose
should be increased from 50 to 100 per cent. It is given
in the morning after an all-night fast. Large lambs and
yearlings must be treated before weakness is marked.

The fringed tapeworm (Taenia fimbriata) is very con-
siderably harmful to sheep south of the parallel 45 degrees
north and in much of the area west of the Mississippi River.
The parasites are found in the duodenum and the gall
ducts. They are frequently very numerously present and
are of various sizes, thus indicating continued invasion.
They develop very slowly. The life history is not fully
known, hence the most effective methods of dealing with
the evil are not known. Preventive measures such as are
used in the case of stomach worms will be helpful (see
Page 393)-

Lung worms in sheep are of two kinds. These are
known respectively as the hair lung worm and the thread
lung worm. The former of these is probably the more
widely diffused, but the latter is more epizootic in flocks
than the former. The hair lung worm penetrates the air
passages of the lungs to their termination. The thread
lung worm penetrates the bronchial tubes. The symp-
toms of these ailments and also the life history of the
worms is not greatly different.

The hair lung worm (Strongylus ovis pulmonis) is
considered the smaller of the two. Until the disease is
well advanced its presence may not be detected except by
post mortem. When present, little tubercles may be
found in the lungs. When these are cut open, there is
a worm inside. The mating takes place in the bronchi
and soon the worms are produced to further aggravate
the trouble. The hair lung worm (Strongylus filaria)
when present may be found by slitting open the bronchial
tubes.

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 399

The symptoms in the early stages of the disease may
be mistaken for those caused by some other ailments.
Sheep that are seriously affected with either disease have
pale mucous membranes, a coat harsh and dry, more or
less difficulty in breathing, and in many instances a deep
cough. Both ailments are of rather slow development,
especially in the case of the hair lung worm; hence the
losses that occur are in old rather than in young sheep.
Such ailments as bronchitis and pneumonia are much
more rapid in their action. The losses occur to a greater
extent from lack of thrift than from deaths in the flock.

The life history of the hair and thread lung worms
respectively is not far different. The young of both es-
cape from the lungs of the sheep oftentimes while in the
act of coughing. They are scattered over the yards and
pastures where sheep take their food and drink, and prob-
ably through the medium of these they reach the lungs of
the sheep. When the former reaches the extreme end of
the bronchial tube they become encysted. In the cyst
they grow to adult size. Escaping from the cyst, they
make their way into the small air tubes, mate and repro-
duce. The eggs are laid in the surrounding cavities. The
young worms hatched from these make their way into
the neighboring air chambers, and some of them are
caught up at a later period. These may aid in the spread-
ing of the disease. The thread lung worm deposits eggs
in the surrounding mucus within the bronchial tubes.
Each egg contains within it a young worm. When these
are hatched many of them are expelled through coughing,
and these in turn may aid in spreading the disease. The
symptoms are more pronounced than in the case of the
hair worms. The young parasites have great vitality.
They can live for months in stagnant water.

The preventive measures that may be adopted may
not always be effective in all instances in staying the
progress of the disease. The expulsion of the parasites
through coughing makes it difficult to keep hitherto un-

4OO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

affected animals free from attack. The presence of the
worms in the lambs indicates that they are continually
passing through indirectly from sheep to sheep. Of
course, it will help to prevent invasion if the lambs are
kept away from pastures in which the old sheep graze and
from drinking in pools of water.

For the hair lung worm no very effective treatment has
been discovered. For the thread lung worm tracheal in-
jections have been found partially effective, but they
should be administered only by a skilled veterinarian.
Fumigation may render some aid, but may not be prac-
ticable in all instances, from want of a suitable place in
which to fumigate. At the best it cannot be said that it
is completely effective. It should be done in a building
nearly airtight. Sulphur burned slowly is the best sub-
stance for such fumigating. The treatment should be
given daily for a week, when it is discontinued for two
weeks, and repeated again daily for several days. The
attendants must guard against suffocation, which they
may readily do by watching the movements of the sheep
through a window. The worms are thus benumbed and
in the coughing that follows many will be ejected.

Nodular disease (Oesophagostoma columbianum), fre-
quently called nodule disease, is characterized by tumors
present in the intestines. It is caused by a nematode or
round worm, which is usually found in considerable num-
bers in the large intestine. It may also be found in the
tumors and these may extend the entire length of the
intestine. It is now to be reckoned with in many flocks,
but to a greater extent probably east from the Mississippi
River, than west from the same. It is the source of very
considerable loss. The harm resulting is in proportion
to the number of the parasites.

The indications of the presence of nodular disease are
not greatly different from those that indicate the pres-
ence of stomach worms (see page 391). These include
bloodless lips, dry wool, emaciation, and, in the more

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 40!

severe cases, diarrhoea. Nevertheless, sheep may in some
instances be infected in a considerable degree and still re-
tain a fair degree of thrift, but usually the indications of
debility are present, and increasingly so as time advances.
Unlike the stomach worm affection, it does more harm to
mature sheep than to lambs. This may be partly the out-
come of the gradual rate of the infection and the slow
rate of development within the tumors. The parasites
affect the digestion adversely.

The life history of the parasite is only known during
the period of its development in the intestiual canal.
When the eggs escape, as doubtless they do, in the ex-
crement, they in some way reach the sheep, probably
in the food or water. In the intestines they become sur-
rounded by a cyst and later by the products of the inflam-
mation which they produce in the surrounding tissues.
When about 1-16 of an inch long they break from the
tumors and begin life in the intestine, where they grow
to maturity.

The preventive measures are about the same as for
stomach worms (see page 393). Frequent changing of
the pastures, the avoidance of all grazing grounds and the
breaking up of the same are greatly important. Nodular
disease is most in evidence in the early spring season.
There is no sure remedy for the disease.

While preventive measures should receive every at-
tention when combating internal parasites, and while
treatment should be most faithfully and persistently ad-
ministered where it is probable that it will do some good,
it is true, nevertheless, that in many instances it would be
better in every way to sell the entire flock and begin
again with other sheep after an interval of several
months. This will apply in many instances to the inva-
sion of flocks by stomach worms, tapeworms, lung worms
and the worms that cause nodular disease. One season
should suffice to leave the farm free from sheep, that the
germs may perish. When restocking the farm every pre

4O2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

caution should be taken to make sure that the sheep
brought in are healthy.

Grub in the head (Oestrus ovis) is sometimes called
nasal catarrh. The trouble resulting is caused by a worm
laid by a species of the gadfly within the nostrils of sheep
which crawls up into the remotest parts of the upper cav-
ities of the nostril adjacent to the brain, where it grows
to maturity, and in instances not a few leads to the death
of the sheep. This result usually follows from the in-
flammation produced, which extends more or less to ad-
jacent portions of the brain. The fly which lays the grub
was probably brought into America with the early im-
portations of sheep. It is widely distributed. It is more
troublesome in the mild than in cold latitudes, owing
doubtless to the longer period congenial to its develop-
ment. But as far north as the southern Canadian boun-
dary, in some instances, the losses from its presence are
quite serious. Because of the slow development of the
grub, it is much more harmful to old than to young
sheep. The fly which lays the eggs is of sluggish habits,
and seldom flies, save when in search of some place to
deposit its young. It then flies swiftly with a low whir-
ring sound. It is considerably larger than a house fly and
it is claimed that it has no mouth, its only instinct appar-
ently being to reproduce its kind. The young are de-
posited, not as an egg, but as a maggot within the rim
of the nostrils of the sheep. The usual time of the ap-
pearance of the fly is probably June and July in the northern
states, but in the southern states it is doubtless present much
longer, as there the grubs may be found in the nasal cavi-
ties during all the year and in various stages of growth.
The sheep are much agitated when the fly makes its at-
tacks. In some instances as soon as a fly touches the nose
of a sheep it shakes its head and strikes the ground vio-
lently with the forefeet. Holding the nose close to the
ground, the sheep run away. In other instances they
crowd together during the heat of the day with the nose

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 403

in proximity to the ground. It is only in the spring time
when the larva are well developed that they cause trouble.
A discharge is first noticed, which when it first appears is
clear and serous, but later it is thick and mucous. More
or less sneezing is present, and this is accompanied by a
discharge of mucus and in some instances of the larvae.
As the trouble advances they frequently turn the head
backward and shake it and they rub the nose against the
ground. Still later they lift their feet high when walking
and go with lowered head accompanied occasionally by
staggering. In some instances the breathing is affected,
owing to obstructions which arise in the air passages by
the presence of the worms, or of the resulting inflamma-
tion in the mucous membrane. Appetite fails, a frothy
substance runs from the nose, they grit their teeth, con-
vulsions follow and death comes usually within a few
days of the appearance of the symptoms. In many in-
stances the animals may recover, especially in the absence
of the later symptoms referred to.

The life history is in outline as follows : As soon as
the young larva are deposited they begin to crawl up-
ward into the nostril. When mature the grubs are y^ of
an inch long and about 1-3 of an inch wide, and are of a
dark color. When mature the larva escapes from the
nostril, falls to the ground, bores a hole an inch or two in
the same, and in 20 to 60 days emerges as a fly. The
period of the development of the larva is about 10 months.
In young lambs only young larva are found. The great-
est infection is found in sheep two years and over. In
ewes the sinuses may hold even more than four or five
of the larva, without crowding, and males can hold a
number considerably larger.

Preventive measures, though they involve much
labor, are all important. Because of the labor which they
involve, they can be best resorted to in the case of small
flocks such as are kept on the ordinary farm. One of
these is the smearing of the nostrils of the sheep with

404 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

some offensive substance which will keep the flies away.
The following is one of the best of these: Take equal
parts of tar and grease, tar and fish oil, or tar and whale
oil soap. Mix them and apply with a brush. This appli-
cation must be repeated every few days, as it soon loses
its potency. A second method secures some strong
scented dip and applies the same as a spray on the sheep
as they are bunched. Yet another preventive, and prob-
ably the best that can be resorted to, is to provide the
sheep with a cool, well-ventilated and darkened resting
place in which they may remain during the heat of the
day in the warm season. Then it is that the fly does its
mischievous work.

Treatment for grub in the head is practically out of
the question. In some rare instances a skilled veterinarian
may destroy the grubs by trephining, but in more in-
stances failure will result. The cost involved in the case
of common sheep is too great to justify resorting to this
kind of treatment.

Ailments from digestive sources — The ailments from
digestive sources are many. In this volume it would be
impossible to discuss all of these. Such a discussion may
properly belong to a work on the diseases of sheep. The
following only will be discussed: (i) Bloat and its treat-
ment; (2) overtaxed digestion and its treatment; (3)
diarrhea and the treatment; (4) colic and the treatment;
and (5) stretches and the treatment.

Bloat, sometimes and probably more frequently called
"hoven," may result from any abrupt change to a palata-
ble diet, especially one that contains much moisture. In
this country it is usually caused by eating too freely of
such rations as rape, clover and alfalfa, especially when
these are quite succulent. The danger is increased when
these foods are wet with rain or dew, or are in a more
or less frozen condition. Feeding upon the tops of imma-
ture mangels may also produce bloat. Fermentation of
the food in the rumen is the immediate cause of this con-

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 405

dition. The distension resulting may so press upon the
lungs that the animal unless speedily relieved may die
from suffocation.

This trouble may be prevented by not allowing the
animals to feed upon such foods when the stomach is
empty. When admitting them to these, it is especially
important that they have been fed some palatable food,
and preferably a dry food, before admitting them to such
pastures. When they have become accustomed to these
the danger is much less, but it is not entirely obviated.
It is always materially lessened by feeding the sheep a
small grain ration in the early morning. This is espe-
cially important after the season of early frosts has
arrived.

The treatment that most speedily and most surely
brings relief results from the use of the trocar and can-
ula. The former is used in puncturing the paunch and the
latter remaining in the puncture is used in furnishing a
channel for the escape of the gas. Puncture with a knife
is hazardous. It may bring temporary relief, but in the
puncture thus made some of the contents of the stomach
may escape and lead to results that are disastrous. A
mild purgative is usually in order after the bloating has
been relieved. In the absence of the trocar and canula,
relief has been obtained in some instances by inserting a
large rope of suitable size in the mouth in the form of a
bit. It is held in place by strings tied to each end and
again at the summit of the head. This treatment aids in
the escape of the gas.

Indigestion may result from a great variety of causes.
Among these are the following: Feeding food over-
succulent or overdry, in an improper condition or ex-
cessive in quantity.

The symptoms will vary with the cause. Food over-
succulent is much liable to lead to diarrhea ; when lacking
in succulence, it may lead to impaction. If fed in an im-
proper condition, as when moldy, it may lead to serious

406 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

derangement of the whole digestive system and also to
other ailments. When fed excessive in quantity, as in the
form of strong grains fed to animals that are being fat-
tened, it leads to digestive derangement that is accompa-
nied by loss of appetite that may be partial or total, pro-
portionate to the degree of the derangement.

The preventive measures in all those instances are
very clear. Along with over-succulent food, some less
succulent should be given. To illustrate: When sheep
are turned in on to a succulent crop of rape, clover or
alfalfa, they should also have access to a grass pasture
in which the grass has lost much of its succulence, or in
its room to a good quality of cured alfalfa or clover hay.
The sheep will partake of the dry food under such con-
ditions. When the fodder is woody and overdry, as it is
in some instances in winter, the aim should be to feed
some more laxative food along with it, as field roots,
oilcake or silage. Overfeeding strong grain foods may
be guarded against by leading up to full feeding grad-
ually and on grains less strong, and by watching the
appetite of the sheep. As soon as any symptoms of wan-
ing appetite are noticed the amount of grain that is being
fed should be lessened. Should the appetite be absent in
a marked degree, it may be wise to withhold the grain
food entirely for a time. From what has been said it will
be apparent that the place for treatment for indigestion
is not a large one. Mild purgatives may be helpful in
some instances in removing from the stomach and intes-
tines substances that may be irritating in their nature. For
such use the following purgatives will be found quite
suitable, viz., four ounces of epsom salts given in water
or three to four ounces of castor oil.

Diarrhea and treatment — Diarrhea may be simple or
parasitic. It is simple when it results from some change
in the diet that disturbs the normal digestive processes.
It is the effort of nature to remove irritant matters in the
stomach and alimentary canal, when these are present. It

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 407

is parasitic when it results from the presence of such para-
sites as stomach worms and tapeworms in the digestive
tract. In such instances the cure is found first or mainly
in the removal of the cause. The treatment for stomach
worms is discussed on page 394, and for tapeworms on
page 397. In the present instance, therefore, the discus-
sion is narrowed down to the methods that will best tend
to combat the evils resulting from the simple form of
diarrhea. As will be shown, the treatment for simple
diarrhea is much less complex than for parasitic diar-
rhea. The symptoms of simple diarrhea are frequent ex-
pulsion of the feces, and more or less watery in character.
They are free from blood and slime, and are not usually
of seriously offensive odor. The appetite is sharper in
most instances than in the absence of the trouble. The
symptoms are not to be confounded with those which in-
dicate the presence of dysentery. In the latter, to which
diarrhea unchecked may lead, fever is present, the debil-
ity is rapid and extreme and the bowels rumble. The
feces are thin but adhesive, are laden with mucus and are
passed with pain. Such attacks are usually more or less
fatal, and when the disease becomes thus serious it is best
dealt with by a competent veterinarian. The causes of
diarrhea may be various. The most common cause is the
partaking too freely of over-succulent food, as when sheep
are turned out to graze upon succulent young grasses in
the spring or into a field of succulent food such as rape.
Frozen rape or frozen clover are aggravating causes. The
trouble, however, may also arise from feeding indigestible
food, from certain changes of diet suddenly made and
from exposure when in an emaciated condition.

Diarrhea may in nearly all instances be prevented by
careful and thoughtful management. When changes of
diet are made, they should be gradual rather than sudden.
When the animals are turned on to a very succulent diet,
the change being made from one that is dry, the aim
should be to have them partake of some dry food in the

408 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

early part of the day for several days before they par-
take solely of the succulent food. When the trouble
conies from feeding the sheep indigestible foods or those
not easily digested, it is very evident that the aim should
be to change the diet, for no good can result from feed-
ing foods that irritate the digestive organs. When the
trouble is the outcome of exposure, it might have been
prevented by shielding the sheep from exposure, and such
shielding is usually within the power of the prudent
flockmaster. When the trouble results from partaking of
food unduly succulent, the feeding of dry fodder or grain
and giving the sheep access to a plentiful supply of salt
will be found helpful, if not, indeed, entirely efficacious.
Since the presence of simple diarrhea in its early stages
of development is simply an effort of nature to get rid of
irritant substances, it is well not to be too hasty in check-
ing it. But when prolonged, the following remedy may
be helpful, viz., three to five ounces of castor oil for a
mature sheep. Follow in due time with tincture of opium
one dram, powdered ginger one dram, and prepared
chalk 12 drams. Rations dry in character should also
be fed, and with due caution.

Colic and treatment — Colic in sheep arises from
digestive disturbances resulting from the feeding of un-
suitable foods. Though closely allied to the disease
known as stretches, it differs from the latter in some of
the essential symptoms. The leading indications of colic
include moaning, grinding the teeth, frequent getting up
and lying down and striking the belly with the hind feet.
Lambs show these symptoms much more frequently than
adults as the result of errors in dieting, whereas in
stretches the animal frequently lays down and stretches
out at full length.

Colic is caused from digestive disturbance, the out-
come of feeding unsuitable food. These include such ra-
tions as frozen rape and clover. Unless soon relieved the

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 409

affected parts may become inflamed and the animal may
die.

The preventive measures are all important. They in-
clude the feeding of dry and succulent foods in due bal-
ance, and avoiding the feeding of the same when injured
by frost. When it occurs in lambs, the milk of a cow or
of a foster mother, which is frequently the aggravating
cause, may be improved by adding limewater to make it
conform more nearly to the constituents natural to the
young lamb.

For treatment such mild remedies as ginger, pepper-
mint and warm gruel may suffice. In other instances a
cathartic may be necessary. A popular remedy consists
of one dram of laudanum and one of powdered ginger
for a mature sheep, administered in flaxseed tea.

Stretches and treatment — When sheep are main-
tained for a long period on heavy and dry rations the
trouble popularly known as "stretches'* is very liable to
occur, more especially when constipation has been pres-
ent for a considerable period. The indications of
stretches include the sudden lying down of the sheep
and stretching out at full length. It is rarely met
with in a flock in which suitable food has been
provided. Clearly, it is the outcome of unsuitable
dieting, resulting in impaction. It is rarely met with in
a flock to which roots are freely fed. The cause being
known, the preventive measures are easy. They include
the feeding of such foods as will ward off constipation.
These' include field roots, oilcake and some such food as
corn ensilage, although the latter is not equal to field
roots in warding off the disease.

For treatment, melted lard has been recommended.
The dose for an adult sheep is about one-quarter of a
pound. When administering the lard a drenching bottle
or a tablespoon may be used. For lambs the following
has been found very helpful : Four ounces of epsom salts,
two tablespoonfuls of molasses and a heaping teaspoonful

4-IO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

of ground ginger. The ginger should be dissolved in half
a pint of water.

Ailments affecting the organs of respiration — In the
discussion that follows the subjects discussed will in-
clude : (i) Catarrh and the treatment ; (2) pneumonia and
the treatment; and (3) pleurisy and the treatment. These
are, of course, only some of the more common ailments of
this class.

Catarrh is of three forms. The most common form
is that known as nasal catarrh. A second form has been
designated epizootic catarrh, and a third form as parasitic
catarrh. The second form is closely allied to the first.
The third form is caused by the presence of such para-
sites as the larvae of Oestrus ovis, grub in the head.

Nasal catarrh is accompanied by frequent sneezing,
discharge from the nose, labored breathing and loss of
appetite. The indications of fever may not be markedly
present. The ailment, in common phrase, has been called
snuffles. When neglected in winter, it sometimes affects
simultaneously the greater part of the flock, and it may
remain until warm weather. The impression that it is
contagious is probably not quite correct. In rare instances
it may prove fatal by the inflammation extending down
the air passages, but these are not of frequent occurrence.

Nasal catarrh is the outcome of exposure, as, for in-
stance, to cold autumn rains or to drafts where the sheep
are taking rest, especially in the night season. It may
also arise from some other causes.

The preventive measures, of course, are such as will
ward off the causes that produce the disease. Special
pains should be taken to guard against autumn storms,
and especially cold rain storms, which in many instances
give rise to this trouble, and also to guard against the
possibility of harmful drafts when providing places of
shelter.

The best treatment is to build up the system through
the medium of suitable and specially nourishing food.

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 41 1

Specific treatment can be given that will compare with
liberal feeding in warding off and removing the ill effects
of the disease.

Bronchitis may be simple or parasitical. It is simple
when it results from undue exposure, as to inclement
weather or to drafts such as produce effects more deep
seated than catarrhal troubles. It is parasitical when it is
the outcome of the presence of some parasites in the bron-
chial tubes, as for instance the thread lung worm, which
has already been discussed (see page 399).

The indications of bronchitis in lambs are a moist
and wheezing cough, more or less fever and increased
rapidity of breathing. The coughing is in most instances
severe and prolonged.

Treatment in the ordinary sense of the term will be
of comparatively little avail. Preventive measures are
vastly more efficacious. These are such as pertain to the
protection of sheep from storms, especially rainstorms,
and from drafts such as produce catarrh. This, how-
ever, does not exclude the use of laxatives and of certain
stimulant tonics. But the most efficacious measures that
can be adopted are such as relate to good nursing, which
means providing good sanitary conditions and a nourish-
ing diet.

Simple pneumonia is more deeply seated than catarrh
or bronchitis. It is a disease of the lungs in which the
inflammation works rapidly, if left unchecked. Because
of the rapidity with which the disease does its work, it
has been termed, in common phrase, "rot of the lights."

The indications of pneumonia are various. It com-
mences with frequent and troublesome coughing. There
is also present an unwillingness to move, heaving of the
flank and signs of labored breathing. As the disease in-
creases the symptoms become intensified. Finally, the
animals stagger and succumb unless relief is furnished,
which occurs but seldom, as the disease is usually quite
fatal.

412 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

This trouble is the outcome of exposure. Very fre-
quently it assumes the form of acute congestion. It may
come from chills after unduly rapid driving, or from want
of sufficient protection after washing or early shearing.
In America it would seem correct to say that the most
common cause is exposure to cold rains in the autumn,
winter or spring, and especially autumn rains, which may
fall unexpectedly, and may be quickly followed by
weather severely cold. Sheep with long and open fleeces,
and especially those with fleeces that part, as it were,
along the line of the back are the most liable to suffer
from such visitation. Preventive measures with this dis-
ease, as well as nasal catarrh and bronchitis, are all im-
portant. The shepherd who is duly alert does not need
to pay much attention to the treatment of these diseases,
for he will seldom have them in his flock.

The preventive measures for pneumonia are about
the same as for catarrh and bronchitis (see page 410).
The treatment is also about the same ; but in the case of
pneumonia treatment is usually of but little avail, owing
to the rapidity with which the disease puts in its deadly
work.

Pleurisy, which affects the lining that incloses the
lungs rather than the lungs themselves, sometimes oc-
curs, but not so frequently as pneumonia. In some in-
stances the two diseases are operative at the same time.
The symptoms of pleurisy are not greatly different, to the
general observer, from those that pertain to pneumonia,
but the breathing is less labored. The causes are meas-
urably virtually the same and also the preventive meas-
ures and treatment.

Ailments arising from reproduction — These include :
(i) Abortion and the treatment; (2) retention of the
afterbirth and treatment; and (3) inversion of the womb
and treatment. These troubles may occur even in flocks
that are well managed.

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 413

Abortion in ewes is much less frequent than in cows.
It seldom becomes epizootic, but it is claimed that in
some instances it does assume a highly contagious form.

When a pregnant ewe isolates herself from the flock,
and when such isolation is accompanied by occasional or
frequent bleating, the evidence is present that she is
likely to abort or that she is carrying a dead lamb.

The causes that lead to abortion are various. It may
result from : ( i ) Improper feeding, as the feeding of fodders
or grains that contain molds ; from feeding frosted roots
or roots in excess ; or from feeding mangels not fully
ripened. (2) From rough treatment, as crowding the
ewes through narrow doorways, or turning them on their
buttocks to dress their feet. (3) From fright, as chasing
by dogs, or from overdriving. (4) From hoven, or as the
outcome of other ailments. (5) From infection.

The preventive measures are those which will ward
off the various causes mentioned. As a safeguard against
contagious abortion the rule is a good one which buries
the ejected foetus and the contaminated litter.

The medicinal treatment consists in injecting some
antiseptic, as a 1.5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, into
the genital organ and strengthening the animals by ad-
ministering to them mild tonics.

Retention of the afterbirth is not infrequent with
ewes where complications have been present during par-
turition. If not removed within a reasonable time, it may
only come away by slow degrees as the mass decays. The
odor thus engendered is very offensive. The affected ani-
mal will not thrive as it should, and fatal complications
may follow as the outcome of blood poisoning. The
trouble will not usually occur with strong and vigorous
animals, but with those that are feeble from lack of food,
or other causes the instances are not infrequent.

Some shepherds attach a weight to the protruding
mass which removes it by degrees. It may be removed
by working the hand, if quite small, into the vagina, and

414 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

gradually working the attachments loose. An antiseptic,
as 15 per cent carbolic acid, may then be syringed into
the womb.

Inversion of the womb, sometimes spoken of as los-
ing the lamb bed, sometimes occurs. When it does it
ought to be replaced at the earliest moment possible, or
the effect upon the ewe will soon prove disastrous.

The trouble may result : (i) From severe labor pains ;
(2) from excessive spasm of the uterus ; or (3) from vio-
lence in the artificial extraction of the lamb.

Before replacing the expelled part it should be
cleansed from all foreign matters and fetal membranes.
Replacement will be aided by laying the sheep on its
back and stretching the hind parts. The organ may be
held in place by the aid of a truss for a time. This is held
in place by a strap that goes around the buttock and fas-
tens at either end to a suitable surcingle put around the
body just behind the forelegs. A small strap which goes
over the top of the hips is also attached to these side
straps. A ewe that has been thus affected should not be
retained for future breeding.

Ailments that affect the limbs — While these are not
numerous, some of them give very much trouble, as, for
instance, foot rot. The only troubles that affect the limbs
that can be discussed in this work are: (i) Common foot
rot; (2) contagious foot rot; and (3) broken limbs.

Common foot rot sometimes called simple foot rot, is
more frequent and more virulent in areas where the pas-
ture lands are moist to wet and where the weather also is
normally moist. In western Europe it is much more prev-
alent than in most parts of the United States. It begins
by lameness, generally in one of the forefeet. At the first
the skin is slightly reddened and then covered with gran-
ulated matter or small warty growths. It usually pro-
ceeds downward on the inner side of one claw. The
whole foot is hot and tender and the coronet swollen.
The horn of the hoof becomes soft, with evidence of de-

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 415

cay, followed by more or less of piecemeal detachment
and accompanied by a very offensive smell. The crumb-
ling may eventually leave the lower part of the foot com-
pletely exposed, but in the less acute cases the hoof,
though not shed, becomes much enlarged and ridgy.
When the sensitive parts are exposed, they sprout in the
form of fungous masses. Ulcers follow, more or less, and
maggots may increase the disintegration. The trouble
unchecked will probably extend to other feet, but seldom
to all of them at once. In time the affected animals come
to feed on their knees when the forefeet are affected and
draw themselves on their bellies when the hind feet are
affected.

The causes that lead to foot rot include the follow-
ing: (i) Overmoisture in pastures on soil so soft as to
encourage too much the growth of spongy hoofs; (2)
animals standing too much in their own excrement when
soft and wet; (3) overmuch grit on sandy chalk or clay
soils; (4) excessive paring of the hoof may encourage
the trouble; (5) punctures with stones, thorns or nails
and bruises may lead to it.

Preventive measures consist in what may be termed
good sanitation and the intelligent and watchful care of
the flock. This includes judicious feeding, careful and
timely trimming of the feet and prompt remedial meas-
ures when the disease appears, with a change of quarters
to prevent its further spread.

The treatment is twofold. It consists, first, in re-
moving all diseased matter by paring and washing, and
second applying some suitable form of dressing. Rey-
nolds gives the following:

"Clean thoroughly between the toes; pare away all
diseased bone and remove the loosened pieces. The hoof,
if grown out of shape, must be trimmed to normal pro-
portion. Excessive granulations must be cut away or
removed by actual cautery, and be repressed by astring-
ent measures or pressure bandages. Pledgets of tow may

4l6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

be dipped in tar and applied over the granulations, so as
to bring pressure at the right point. The patients should
be kept upon clean dry footing and serious cases should
be taken up and kept in the yard or in dry stables. For
astringent dressing tincture of iron is suitable, varying
from full strength to I to 4 dissolved in water. Four per
cent carbolized tar makes a nice application for cleansing
and disinfecting and keeps out dirt. The medical treat-
ment, particularly the astringent, should be very carefully
applied, especially into the crevices and deeper recesses.
It is frequently advisable to treat the whole flock in a
general way ; in that case the flock may be driven through
a large pan containing solution of copper sulphate about
4 inches deep. The animals should be forced to remain in
the pan for several minutes, so as to insure good treat-
ment. The solution should be made up dissolved in water
in the proportion of one to two pounds per gallon of
water.

Contagious foot rot is not to be confounded with com-
mon or simple foot rot. It begins with a redness of skin
about the coronet. Then follows, in the order named,
vesiculation, scab and desiccation. The hoofs then tend
to separate from the sensitive parts which they cover. It
usually breaks out on all the feet at once and fever runs
high.

The disease comes through contact. It may come
through pastures, corrals, transporting ships or cars, and
through the medium of fairs. It runs a course of sev-
eral weeks. Preventive measures are very important.
They include: (i) Keeping the sheep and their feet in
good condition; (2) quarantining diseased animals; and
(3) disinfecting affected quarters. The treatment is in
many respects similar to that given for common foot
rot (see page 415). Removing the diseased parts by par-
ing is first in order. Then follows a caustive dressing,
preferably applied by pouring or dropping, as a brush or
a feather soon becomes tainted with the virus. Tincture

THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 417

of iron will furnish these dressings. Later a coating of
tar will give protection. Large numbers may be treated
by driving them through a trough containing a solution
of carbolic acid, one part to 20 to 30 parts of soap and
water according to the severity of the disease.

Broken limbs must be dealt with according to the
nature of the break. In the absence of a skilled veterina-
rian the aim should be to put the broken limb in place :
then put wet cardboard around, and hold this in place by
wrapping with a strong bandage. Splints may sometimes
answer the purpose better than cardboard.

Ailments peculiar to lambs — The ailments peculiar
to lambs include: (i) Indigestion; (2) white scours; (3)
retention of excrement; (4) wool balls in the stomach;
and (5) navel disease. These ills and the treatment for
each will now be discussed in due order.

Indigestion in lambs may result from the food fur-
nished to the dams through the influence which it exerts
on the digestion of the lamb. It may take the form of
constipation, as when the supply of the milk is meager
and furnished from foods low in nutrition and lacking in
succulence ; or it may take the form of diarrhea from the
feeding of foods excessive in quantity and richness.
When a lamb previously thrifty shows indications of
dumpishness, the presence of constipation is to be sus-
pected. The remedy is mild doses of castor oil, or what
is preferable, an injection of soapy water. A moderate
ration of field roots or of oilcake fed to the dam would
probably prevent such a condition, at least in very many
instances.

Scours in young lambs are the outcome of milk unsuit-
able or excessive or of germ infection. The result is pro-
fuse white-colored evacuations. It seldom takes the epi-
demic form, but many instances may occur simultane-
ously and from the same cause ; that is from the excessive
quantity of the rich milk furnished. When indications of
scours appear, the diet of the dams should be reduced and

4l8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

a portion of the milk taken from the dams of the lambs
that are thus affected, in order that the latter may not be
able to take food to excess. A form of scours may occur
at a later period in which the evacuations have a greenish
tint. It is more fatal than the former. It is produced by
some unsuitable elements in the diet.

Retention of excrement is one outcome of indigestion
in young lambs. It results from some peculiarities in the
milk which are the outcome of certain foods fed to the
dams. The excrement may accumulate to such an extent
about and underneath the tail head as to close the pass-
ages so that evacuation ceases. The remedy is to remove
the adherent matter mechanically. When thus removed
the digestion usually regulates itself within the next few
days.

Wool balls are accumulations of wool in the stomach.
The wool is taken into the stomach in some instances
while the lambs are taking food from the dams, and in
other instances as the result of biting because of the pres-
ence of ticks. It may result, as it does in the case of old
sheep, as the outcome of a depraved appetite resulting
from errors of diet. The trouble may be prevented when
it arises from the first cause by clipping away all loose
locks of wool that may adhere to the udder before the
lambs begin to nurse. When thus affected, the lambs are
dull and stupid and refuse their food. A suitable purga-
tive may relieve the trouble.

Navel disease, more frequently spoken of as navel
ill, is an affection which produces swelling and soreness
in the umbilical cord of lambs soon after birth. It is the
outcome of contact with filth in the sheds. An applica-
tion of tincture of iodine promptly applied will usually
prove effective in destroying the germs.

Ailments miscellaneous in character — The discussion
of these will include: (i) Goiter; (2) ophthalmia; (3)
tumors; (4) urinary troubles; and (5) garget. The treat-
ment will be included.

THE MORE COMMON" AILMENTS OF SHEEP 419

Goiter is an affection of the thyroid glands which
causes them to swell so as to form lumplike substances
in the throat. It affects both lambs and older sheep, but
more especially the latter, and it is the most harmful
to them when they are newly born. The lumps are in
some instances small and hard ; in others they are large
and soft. In many instances the newly born lambs thus
affected will soon die; at other times the trouble leaves
them. The cause of this trouble, which frequently leads
to serious loss, is not well understood. It occurs in sheep
of varying degrees of thrift, but to a greater extent prob-
ably in those more or less pampered than when kept in
the ordinary way. It would seem probable from the be-
havior of sheep grazed on soil which contains much lime,
and which at the same time drink water considerably im-
pregnated with lime and magnesia, that these conditions
favor the increase of goiter. However it may originate
primarily, it would seem to be, in a sense, constitutional
and therefore transmissible. Such being the case, goi-
tered dams, or dams which have produced goitered lambs,
should not be retained for breeding. Applications of
tincture of iodine once a day may give some relief; also
iodide of potassium given in doses of say 5 grains for a
lamb at certain intervals.

Ophthalmia, better known as Conjunctivitis, is an
affection of the eyes of sheep which, unchecked, may lead
to blindness. An inflamed condition is always present.
Simple ophthalmia is a frequent complication of ordinary
nasal catarrh. Other exciting causes include exposure
to cold winds and drafts. It is not infectious, though
many cases may occur in a flock simultaneously, having
originated from the same cause. A zinc lotion, prepared
by a druggist as for treating sore eyes in an individual,
dropped into the eye once or more frequently, should
effect a cure.

Tumors may affect various organs of sheep. Very
commonly they occur at or within the anus. Their pres-

42O MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

ence is indicated by blood in the feces and also by disin-
clination to move the hind legs. Laxative diets are con-
sidered helpful. When they occur on the neck they
should be lanced when ripe and washed out with a solu-
tion of carbolic acid. Animals thus affected should sel-
dom be retained.

Urinary troubles are various and may affect both
males and females in certain instances. One of the most
common forms, however, affects males only, as when
mangels are freely fed to them. The immediate cause is
the forming of crystals at the mouth of the bladder. The
indications of the trouble are retarded or accelerated
breathing, swollen sheath, loss of appetite, retention of
urine, and the evidence of much pain. Treatment in such
instances is of but little avail, but prevention is easy; that
is, by not feeding mangels.

Garget or mammitis is quite common in flocks that are
not carefully watched and cared for at the lambing sea-
son, and also at the time of weaning. It is sometimes
called caked udder, since the inflammation present results
in a hardening of the parts affected. It may result from
various causes, including: (i) Inattention at time of
weaning, or when one twin lamb has been removed dur-
ing the nursing period; (2) exposure to wet and cold,
as when the sheep are left in the pastures; (3) lying on
moist filth in the sleeping places; (4) bruises from the
lambs sucking; and (5) through germ infection.

From what has been said about the causes that lead
to this trouble, the preventive measures will be apparent.
The treatment should begin with bathing the udder with
warm water. This may be followed by applying an un-
guent after the inflamed part has been rubbed dry. The
unguent may be composed of turpentine and lard, about
the consistency of cream. It may be employed with ad-
vantage as frequently as three times daily. Ewes that
have been troubled thus should not be retained for breed-
ing.

CHAPTER XX
DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCAB

This chapter discusses the following phases in regard
to dipping: (i) The objects sought from dipping; (2)
The two classes of sheep dips ; (3) The basic element in
sheep dips; (4) The dipping plant ; (5) The reason for
dipping; (6) Facts that bear upon the work of dipping;
(7) Care of the animals subsequently to dipping; (8) Re-
moving parasites by other methods; and (9) How far
dipping is a necessity.

The objects sought from dipping — These are three:
(i) The removal of external parasites; (2) the improving
of the condition of the skin ; and (3) increasing growth in
the wool. The first of these objects is the most important
by far.

Prominent among the external parasites which dip-
ping aims to remove are sheep ticks and the mites that
produce sheep scab. The rate of increase in both is very
rapid. Gerlach has estimated that the possible increase
of the mites in sheep scab in 90 days is 1,000,000 females
and 500,000 males. Other parasites may also be destroyed
by dipping, as sheep lice and maggots.

The dipping of sheep is of comparatively recent
origin. The sheep industry in America, for instance,
flourished for at least 75 years prior to the introduction
of dipping, and in Europe it flourished for centuries before
this method of fighting parasites had been discovered.
The shepherds of the Old World had fought the battle
successfully against parasites in sheep for centuries be-
fore the introduction of dipping. They did so through
the practices of smearing and pouring. But the efficacy
of these practices for the removal of parasites compared
with dipping are so far behind the latter as, in a sense,

422 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

to remove the grounds of comparison, and the same may
be said also in regard to the greater relative cheapness of
dipping. Where sheep are produced in a large way, as
on the ranges, it would be virtually impossible to keep
them free from external parasites in the absence of dip-
ping.

While dipping sheep will destroy maggots which
sometimes affect sheep and more especially Merinos, as at
the base of the horns in males and in filth that may
accumulate around the anus at certain seasons of the year,
these may be removed without the necessity for dipping
the whole flock. This is done by removing the wool from
the infected parts by shearing and then applying some
agent that will prove destructive to the maggots, as, for
instance, spirits of turpentine and sassafras oil. The
former should not be used on sheep much exposed to rain.
The latter is made by the commingling of sassafras oil
one part and alcohol four parts.

A second object sought from dipping is to cleanse
the skin with a view to promote healthy action in the ex-
udations that tend to maintain good health and to pro-
mote growth in the wool. The cleansing effect of some of
the dips used, especially those with coal tar products as
a base, is very marked. The benefits resulting in the
greater thrift that follows will go far to offset the shrink-
age in weight and fleece that sometimes follows dipping.

A third object sought is increased growth of wool.
Such increase comes mainly from the increased thrift con-
sequent upon dipping. Increase in thrift comes, first,
from relief from the irritation caused by the presence of
parasites, and, second, from the more healthful action of
the organs pertaining to the skin. Such increase may
be material. It may in time far more than compensate
for any loss that may come from a temporary shock given
to the system, such as may come from dipping under
weather conditions that may not be congenial.

The two classes of sheep dips — Sheep dips are essen-

DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 423

tially of two classes with reference to their source, re-
gardless of the ingredients which they contain. These
are proprietary and non-proprietary dips.

The former are made from secret formulas which are
known only to those who make them. The basic ingre-
dients that compose them may be known in a general
way, but the exact methods of compounding and prepar-
ing them are known only to the proprietors. Their effi-
cacy is attested by testimonials from those who have
used them, and by the extent to which they have come
into general use. Some of those dips have been in use
for many years, and the popularity which has come to
them should be regarded as evidence of their efficacy.

The latter are non-proprietary. The ingredients
which compose them are known, also the methods of
compounding and preparing them. They have the sanc-
tion in many instances of governmental authority, and
such sanction has been secured for them on the basis of
necessity. Such necessity has arisen from the enactment
of laws for the protection of sheep, more especially in
transit, from the contaminating influences resulting from
the presence of parasites. In various countries such
enactments have been found necessary for the mainte-
nance and prosperity of the sheep industry. Such legis-
lation made dipping compulsory under certain conditions,
and made it necessary also to prescribe the ingredients
that should be used in preparing dips, the amount of each
to be used, the methods of compounding them and also
the manner in which they shall be used.

A somewhat bitter and prolonged controversy has
arisen between those who have put proprietary dips on
the market and the Bureau of Animal Industry in the
United States, with regard to the dips that shall be given
the authoritative stamp of public use in compulsory dip-
ping, as, for instance, when breeding stocks were about
to be conveyed from state to state. The Bureau claimed,
and apparently with reason, that before giving its sane-

424 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

tion to the use of proprietary dips for such use, the in-
gredients composing them should be disclosed, with the
formulas for compounding them. The proprietors of
these dips objected on the ground that to comply with
the request of the Bureau would be to give away the
secret which was virtually the foundation on which the
success of their business rested. The real question at is-
sue was not the efficacy of those proprietary dips, or
whether they should be used in a private way, but
whether authorities representing the government should
give their sanction to the use of dips in what may be termed
compulsory dipping without being fully informed as to
the character of the dips. It would seem in every way
reasonable that the Bureau should take such a stand.
Nor does this conclusion in any way reflect upon the
efficacy of proprietary dips or upon their relative cost.

The most important of the dips approved by the
United States Bureau of Animal Industry are: (i) The
tobacco and sulphur dip ; (2) the lime and sulphur dip ;
and (3) coal tar dips, when these are used according to
the approved formulas. The use of arsenical and carbolic
dips the Bureau does not encourage, even when the for-
mulas by which they are made are published.

In nearly all instances, however, the formulas for
making proprietary dips have not been disclosed. That;
some of these are efficacious is undoubtedly true. Tha:
the cost is not excessive is also true in some instances.
But the fact remains that in many instances the purchaser
takes chances. The only guarantee of the genuineness of
the solution is the reputation of the individual or the firm
who have put it on the market. Of this he cannot always
be able to secure information. The best that he can do
is to purchase a dip the reputation of which has brought
it into general use.

Proprietary dips have one advantage over non-pro-
prietary dips which, more than anything else, probably
accounts for their very general use. They are already

DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 425

admixed, so that with but little labor added when pre-
paring them for use they are ready to do the work claimed
for them. In nearly all instances considerable labor is in-
volved in compounding homemade dips and in preparing
them for use. These proprietary dips are very numerous
now, and the number is increasing. The publicity given
to them by the agricultural press, which in some instances
may be the result of patronage, encourages their use.

The basic element in dips — All sheep dips have a
basic element; that is, one or more ingredients which
gives to them their efficacy and also the designation by
which they are known. This applies to both proprietary
and non-proprietary dips. The chief of these have the
following elements as their basis: (i) Tobacco and sul-
phur; (2) lime and sulphur; (3) coal tar; (4) carbolic
acid; and (5) arsenic.

The tobacco and sulphur dip stands high in favor,
not only in the estimation of the bureau of animal in-
dustry, but also in the estimation of many flockmasters
who have used it, both in the United States and in the
British colonies of the southern hemisphere, where it first
came into common use. The almost complete eradication
of sheep scab in South Australia and New South Wales
which at one time threatened the ruin of the sheep in-
dustry, is due almost entirely to its use.

The dip is prepared as follows : For every 100 gallons
of dip required, use 21 pounds of tobacco leaves of good
quality and 16 pounds of flowers of sulphur. Soak the leaves
in cold or lukewarm water for 24 hours in a covered vessel.
Bring the water to near the boiling point for a moment
and then remove from the fire. If in the evening allow
the infusion to draw until morning, and in any event for
not less than an hour. Then strain the mass, using
pressure to obtain all the nicotine possible. Mix the flow-
ers of sulphur in water so as to make a thin paste and
pour the same into the dip, meantime stirring it slowly
to prevent the sulphur from settling, as it otherwise

426 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

would. Add water if necessary, that there may be 100
gallons of the solution. After the nicotine solution has
been added, do not raise its temperature higher than no
degrees F., because of the volatile nature of the nicotine
when thus heated.

The tobacco and sulphur dip is, all things considered,
one of the most satisfactory. It is not very costly and in
some instances the farmer can grow his own tobacco. It
is very effective, as two of the best destroyers of para-
sites that infest the wool of sheep, viz., nicotine and sul-
phur, are used together. The sulphur remains for a time
in the wool, and thus far guards against reinfection. It
does not affect the wool injuriously, save by a slight
discoloration temporarily. But to its use there are the
following drawbacks: (i) It spoils rapidly, hence when
made it must be promptly used ; (2) it occasionally sick-
ens the sheep and may also thus affect those engaged in
dipping, especially when non-smokers; (3) the amount of
nicotine in the tobacco varies, hence unless this is known
the dip may not be exactly of the desired strength. The
solution should contain 0.05 of one per cent of nicotine.
Because of the variations in the amount of nicotine in
tobacco, it may be better in many instances to purchase
a proprietary tobacco dip, which has been approved by
the Bureau of Animal Industry.

The lime and sulphur dip is one of the cheapest and
also one of the most effective dips that have been used
in treating sheep for scab. A somewhat heated and pro-
longed controversy with reference to the place that
should be assigned to it among dips has arisen and pre-
vailed during recent years. The parties to this contro-
versy were the bureau of animal industry on the one
hand and certain agricultural papers on the other, who
may have had some pecuniary interest in the outcome of
the discussion.

The objections made to the use of this dip include
the following: (i) That it injures the staple of the wool;

DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 427

(2) that its continued use tends to lessen wool produc-
tion ; (3) that it leads to greater shrinkage in the weight
of the sheep; (4) that it sometimes produces blood poi-
soning; and (5) that it is not always effective in killing
scab. The first objection is at least measurably true. The
harm does consist mainly in a change in the microscopic
structure of the fiber resulting from the caustic action of
the dip. The injury increases with length and fineness
of the wool, and with increase of sediment in the dip.
Wools thus treated shrink more than other wools, do not
scour so readily and do not take dye so uniformly. But
when the sheep are dipped soon after shearing, this ob-
jection would not apply. The other objections have not
been sustained by proof. Much of the injury complained
of has been the outcome of using solutions wrongly com-
pounded and improperly prepared. It would seem correct
to say that no dip has ever been used so extensively and
with more effectiveness. Moreover it is one of the cheap-
est of dips.

It is prepared as follows : To make 100 gallons of the
dip, weigh out eight pounds of unslaked lime and 24
pounds of the flowers of sulphur. Place the lime in a ket-
tle and add enough water to make a lime paste. Add to
this the sulphur by sifting it in and so stirring the mass
as to thoroughly mix the ingredients. Add to the mix-
ture 25 to 30 gallons of boiling water and boil for at least
two hours, stirring the mixture and sediment frequently
during the boiling process. The boiling should be con-
tinued until the sulphur disappears, or almost disappears,
from the surface of the solution, which is then of a more
or less chocolate color. Water is added as necessary.
Then pour the mixture and sediment into a kerosene
barrel or other vessel placed near the dipping vat and
provided with a bunghole about 4 inches from the bottom
Allow ample time for the solution to settle, at least two
or three hours, and then draw off the liquid by the aid
of a spigot. This is much superior to the method of re-

428 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

moving it by dipping, as dipping so stirs up the sediment
that the separation is not complete. Then add water so
as to make 100 gallons of the solution.

When sheep are dipped in transit, as at the stock-
yards, a dip is wanted in some instances that will destroy
or remove scab at one dipping. Experience has shown
that the lime and sulphur dip comes the nearest among
dips to this requirement. To effectively destroy the scab
mite, some of the substance should remain for a time in
the wool. No dip has been found so well adapted to this
purpose as the lime and sulphur dip. In the early stages
of the disease eight pounds of lime will suffice for each
100 gallons of the dip, but in advanced cases of scab with
thick and hard crusts 12 pounds may be necessary. It is
highly important when using this dip that the sediment
shall be kept separate from the ooze.

Coal tar dips, now known under various names, are
essentially of two classes. These are known as creosote
and cresol dips respectively. They are in some instances
homemade, but in others they are proprietary. This class
of dips has gained in favor during recent years.

Coal tar creosote dips contain coal tar, creosote or
coal tar oils and cresylic acid. These are made capable
of being emulsified by the admixture of resin soap, which
on the addition of water forms a mixture that is whitish
milky in color. These dips have proved very effective
in destroying scab mites and they also leave the wool in
a clean, soft and pliable condition, which is a strong point
in their favor. It is also claimed for them that they are
more effective as tick lice destroyers than some other dips.
It is also thought that they are more effective in destroy-
ing the egg of the scab mite than some other dips, but it
should be borne in mind that even should this prove true,
it will not preclude the necessity of a second dipping.

Cresol dips are made from cresylic acid, which is a
coal tar product, and soap. In composition they are very
similar to the product known as lysol. When diluted

.DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 429

with water ready for use they form a more or less soapy,
transparent solution. While they have proved very effec-
tive in the treatment of sheep scab, to their use there is
the serious objection that they tend to leave the wool
in a dry and harsh condition. Because of this defect cresol
dips are not so likely to come into general use as creo-
sote dips. These dips are also affected with reference to
their efficacy by the kind of water used. Soft water is
much superior to hard water, since the former emulsifies
more readily. Hard water is greatly improved by the
addition of lye in the manner practiced in laundries. Be-
cause of the complicated character of the ingredients that
enter into the composition of these dips, those who use
them will probably find it to their advantage to use a
proprietary coal tar dip which has the approval of the
United States department of agriculture and in the pro-
portions specified by the department.

Carbolic dips have carbolic acid as their base. These
dips kill parasites very quickly, but the wash soon leaves
the wool, hence re-infection is soon made possible. To
prevent such a result one pound of the flowers of sulphur
should be added to each six gallons of the dip. These
dips are both homemade and proprietary. The benefits
from using these dips include the following: (i) The pre-
pared dips are very easily and readily prepared for use ;
(2) they act more quickly than tobacco and sulphur dips ;
and (3) they are apparently more harmful to the ticks
than the dips just named. The disadvantages are: (i)
That in the proprietary dips of this class the flockmaster
is ignorant of the exact character of the materials that he
is using and consequently of their value; (2) that the set-
back to the sheep has been shown to be greater than with
some other dips; and (3) they are relatively costly. If
carbolic dips are used, care must be taken that they form
an emulsion if they are to be properly effective. If a scum
arises on the top, a softer water ought to be used. Mean-

43O MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

time the department of agriculture has not recommended
the use of these dips.

Arsenical dips which are both homemade and pro-
prietary have arsenic as their base. Very great caution
should be observed when using these dips because of their
highly poisonous character.

A formula that has received high commendation in
certain quarters is the following: Commercially pure
arsenite of soda 14 pounds, ground roll sulphur 34^
pounds, water 432 gallons. The arsenite of soda should
be thoroughly mixed with the sulphur before adding the
water.

The advantages from using it are: (i) That it has
scab-curing properties, and (2) that because of this it
enters into the composition of a number of dipping pow-
ders, some of which have been long and more or less ef-
fectively used. But to its use there are the following dis-
advantages: (i) Arsenic is a deadly poison, and is there-
fore dangerous to the sheep, and in some degree to those
who use it unless much care is exercised in handling it;
(2) it has a drying effect on the wool, weakens the fiber
of the new growth that immediately follows, and fails to
stimulate the growth of the wool as good oleaginous dips
do ; (3) it tends to throw the sheep off their feed for sev-
eral days, in some instances at least, after the dipping;
(4) its frequent effect on the skin is to produce excoria-
tion, blistering and hardness. After the dipping the yards
into which the sheep are turned should be completely
destitute of food and litter. Every facility should be
given to sheep to dry quickly, and on no account should
they be turned on to the pastures until the dripping has
ceased. Even after it has ceased, the danger is sometimes
present for a time that rain may wash enough of the
arsenic out of the fleece to render the pastures dangerous
at least for a time. The United States department of
agriculture has not put the stamp of approval on those
dips.

DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 43!

The dipping of sheep is usually followed by loss of
weight for a limited period, and this in turn is usually
followed by increase. If sheep are weighed just before
dipping, and again 24 hours subsequently, it will be found
that a loss of weight has resulted ranging from one-half
pound to three and one-half pounds. In the next two or
three weeks some gain may be looked for. When tobacco
and sulphur have been used the gains have not been far
different. From carbolic dips they have proved less sat-
isfactory.

The dipping plant — The dipping plant will be dis-
cussed from the standpoint, first, of the large or range
flock ; second, from that of the ordinary farm flock ; and,
third, from that of the farmer who has but a few ani-
mals. Dipping at the stockyards is now done by methods
prescribed by the Bureau of Animal Industry ; hence the
owner of the sheep dipped is not completely at liberty to
say how the work shall be done.

When dipping a large flock of sheep that runs up, say,
into the hundreds or thousands, and for successive years,
as on the range, to locate permanently the dipping plant
will be money well spent and also to construct it of ma-
terial that will endure, as of brick or cement, when these
materials may be obtained without too much cost. The
requisites of such a plant include the following: (i) Re-
ceiving yards in which to hold the sheep that are to be
dipped. These will vary in size and number with the
numbers in the flock. From the yard nearest to the
dipping plant is a narrow drive or chute through which
the sheep are driven single file to make the plunge into
the dipping vat. If these yards are provided with a floor
that drains to a common point, they may be easily slushed
with the aid of a hose, should this be desired. (2) A dip-
ping vat or tank. These vary in the shape given to them,
but the oblong dipping vat is that most commonly used.
The length will, of course, vary. The longer the vat, the
greater is the saving in the time effected in dipping be-

43^ MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

cause of the larger number of the animals that may be
in it at one time, but the more expensive will it be in the
quantity of the dip called for. It should not be less than
20 feet, and in some instances may exceed 100 feet. The
depth is from 4 to 5 feet, and the width from 24 to 30
inches at the top and 9 to 12 inches at the bottom. It
should be sunk in the ground, save the top 9 to 12 inches,
and should slant a little in the bottom toward the receiv-
ing end to facilitate the emptying or removing of the dip.
It should be protected by a low fence at the places of en-
trance and exit, to keep the sheep in correct line. Toward
the place of exit the floor of the vat should incline up-
ward, the length of the incline being not less than 9 feet,
and it should have slats or cleats across it about a foot or
less in distance from one another to enable the sheep to
walk up and into the dripping pens. (3) There should be
two dripping pens, with a swinging gate at the upper end
of the incline, which may open or close either of the two.
When one division is filled with sheep that have been
dipped the gate is closed on these until the other is filled.
The former are then removed through a gate at the far-
ther end of the pen, which is then ready to receive another
lot. The floor of each dripping pen should slant some-
what toward the fence between them. Under it should
be a gutter to carry the drip back into the vat, but at the
end near the vat there should be a wire grate to hold
back droppings and wool that may have been carried
downward. (4) Provision should be made for preparing
the dip when such preparing is needed and for heating it,
whatsoever kind may be used. When prepared dips are
used water is led into the vat. The dip is then added ac-
cording to the directions, and it may be heated by steam
conveyed through a hose attached to a heater. This,
however, does not preclude the necessity for a boiler to
heat fresh ooze for replenishing the supply in the vats.
It will be advantageous to have two heating or boiling
tanks that will hold from 300 to 400 gallons, and these

DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 433

should be set in brick or stone frames with a fireplace
underneath. If tobacco and sulphur dip is used, there
should be two caldrons with covers. If lime and sul-
phur dip is used, one or more settling tubs may be neces-
sary. The boiled dip may be pumped into these and then
drawn off into the vats, excluding the sediment. (5) The
other requisites include : Graduating marks on the inside
of the vats and heating tanks to indicate the quantity of
the mixtures present, scales for weighing the ingredients,
should such weighing be necessary, a portable pump for
moving the liquid, and one or more thermometers to in-
dicate the temperature of the ooze, both in process of
preparation and prepared.

When dipping a flock of ordinary size the dipping vat
may be permanent and stationary, or it may be movable,
as in the case of the manufactured metal tanks that may
be obtained by purchase. The materials used, when of
home construction, may consist of wood, brick or cement.
When made of wood, pine planks i*/2 to 2 inches thick,
and tongued and grooved, may be used. These are nailed
on the inside of a frame made of scantlings 2x4 inches or
larger. In such instances the joints are also pitched over.
When the flock does not exceed, say, 50 to 100 animals, a
small portable dipping vat may be used. Some portion of
the barn or sheds may be used as a catching pen for the
time being. The sheep may be lifted into the vat and
when dipped may be held for a short time at the top of
the incline to drip. This will do away with the necessity
for a draining yard, but this method is extremely slow.
The dripping may be hastened through the squeezing of
the wool by the attendants.

Where the numbers exceed those stated, and where
the sheep are dipped once or twice a year, the plant
should be permanent. When dipping large flocks, the
following conveniences, should be present : A vat of suit-
able dimensions, a drive or chute through which the sheep
are forced into the vat, a yard or its equivalent from

434

MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

which the sheep are forced into the drive, an incline with
cleats at the further end of the tank, and a draining pen
to carry the drip back into the vat. There should also
be suitable heating apparatus. A heater or cooker, such
as is used in heating or cooking food for swine, may be
used in preparing and renewing the dip.

FIG. 21— GROUND PLAN OF DIPPING PLANT AT WAUKESHA, WIS.
(Courtesy of the owners)

The method of dipping sheep at the Anoka Stock
Farm at Waukesha, Wis., will now be submitted, in the
belief that it will prove helpful to any who may find it
necessary to construct a dipping plant for the benefit of
the farm flock. This farm is owned and operated, by
George Harding and Son. The dipping vat is located at
the rear end of the hog house, which is on sloping ground.
A platform extends out about 6 feet from the hog house,
from which stock, as young cattle, sheep and swine, are
loaded on to a wagon. The passage in the hog house is 40
feet long and 6 feet wide, and it will hold at one time about
40 sheep of average size. The door, which is as wide as
the platform, swings outward, and is thus made to form a

DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 435

barrier on one side of the passage from the alley to the
vat. The other side has protection that is temporary and
movable. The dipping vat comes up against the side of
the platform and extends outward from the end of the hog
house. It is on a level with the platform and also of the
dripping pens at the opposite end. The vat is 9 feet long
on the top, 6 feet long on the bottom, 3 feet 8 inches deep,
2 feet wide at the top and I foot at the bottom. These are
the dimensions inside the vat. The draining yard or pen,
6 x 12 feet, is divided by a partition so as to make two
inclosures, each of which will hold 8 sheep. The drain-
ing pen is slightly depressed toward the partition so as
to carry the ooze back into the vat. At the end of the
partition toward the vat is a gate which swings both

c
n n nr1 £

M M

U U_,

HT. ii

FIG. 22— DIPPING VAT FOR A SMALL FLOCK

ways. The draining pen and also the projecting platform
are about 2^2 feet from the ground. One man puts the
sheep into the vat; two men, one on each side, care for
them when there, and a boy opens the gate, when neces-
sary at the rear of each dripping pen. From three to
four sheep are in the tank at one time, and they remain
in two minutes. The dip is prepared by utilizing the
boiler in the hog house. The eaves of the hog house sup-
ply the vat with more or less water all the time, and this
is used in preparing food for the swine, but the vat is
thoroughly cleansed after each dipping. In this way but
little more than an hour is used for dipping 100 sheep
after all things have been made ready for the work.

For a small flock a good-sized tub may be used or what
is more convenient, a small dipping vat such as may now be

436 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

readily obtained by purchase. The sheep are lifted into
the vat by two men. When dipped sufficiently long, they
are held for a short time on a draining board or table that
will carry the ooze back into the vat. The dripping may
be hastened by squeezing the wool while the sheep are
on the draining board.

The season for dipping — The dipping of sheep may be
done at almost any season of the year. Should it be as-
certained that sheep are affected with scab when tem-
peratures run low, the deferring of the dipping until the
arrival of warm weather will unquestionably result in
greater loss than any loss that may accrue from judicious
dipping in the winter season. This will also apply to
sheep that are much infested with ticks, the presence of
which, because of their numbers, may give rise to great
suffering on the part of the sheep. The loss resulting
from the presence of those parasites will be much greater
than the loss that may arise from judicious dipping in the
winter season. Experiments have shown that dipping
may be conducted with a measurable degree of safety
even in the winter season, and as far northward as the
parallel 45 degrees, when the sheep are properly cared
for after the dipping. Such care includes providing them
with quarters that are reasonably warm and that are com-
pletely protected from drafts. That dipping may be thus
conducted without hazard to the sheep has been amply
demonstrated in experiments conducted at the Wisconsin
station by the late lamented Prof. John A. Craig.

The fact remains, nevertheless, that there are seasons
for dipping that are more favorable for the prosecution
of this than other seasons. The best time for dipping
sheep, all things considered, is just after the sheep have
been shorn in the spring. When dipped at that season,
the amount of dip called for is much less than at other
seasons, because of the absence of wool on sheep that are
thus dipped. If the lambs are dipped at the same time,
and if due precautions are observed to prevent re-infection,

DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 437

such dipping will go far to prevent re-infection by ticks.
But to make sure that the freedom from parasitical inva-
sion will be complete, a second dipping from 10 to 14
days after the first dipping is thought necessary in order
to destroy the ticks in the one case and the scab mites in
the other that may have hatched from nits or eggs that
were not destroyed in the previous dipping.

Viewed from the standpoint of weather conditions,
the two best seasons for dipping are those which follow
the shearing of the sheep and which precede the bring-
ing of the sheep into winter quarters. When sheep are
dipped after the usual time for shearing, the dipping takes
place at that season when the hazard from dipping is
eliminated because of adverse weather conditions; and
when it is done in the early autumn, it is done before such
hazard has come to the management of the flock. But it
would be better to dip the sheep even in winter than to
sustain on them an army of ticks after the winter season
has set in. Even though some loss should follow the
dipping, it will be less than the loss which follows from
allowing ticks or scab-infested sheep to go undipped.

Some authorities claim that the dipping of sheep
twice a year is a necessity — in the spring and in the
autumn. These include the names of men who have made
a name for themselves in sheep husbandry, and especially
in the leading show rings of prominent states. To take a
stand in opposition to the conclusions of such men may
seem presumptuous ; but that is the ground on which the
author stands with reference to the sheep tick and also
with reference to the scab mite. If the sheep are properly
dipped in the spring twice in succession, with an interval
of 10 days between the dippings, and if due care is ex-
ercised with reference to the safeguarding of the sheep
that have been dipped, it should be possible to so free the
sheep from parasites that infection would be so com-
pletely eliminated as to render further dipping unneces-
sary, except in the case of animals brought into the flock

438 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

from outside sources. The common view that parasites
may be kept well in check through dipping, but cannot be
wholly eliminated, is certainly fallacious. It tends to dis-
courage the effort to maintain flocks that shall be wholly
free from infestation, and yet it should be possible to
maintain such flocks as the rule, and not as the exception.
It should be possible to maintain flocks from year to year
on the arable farm that would be absolutely free from
parasitical invasion, and that would, therefore, be free
from the necessity of being dipped.

Facts that bear upon dipping — The amount of the
prepared dip called for cannot be stated, even in an ap-
proximate way. It will be at once apparent that the
amount of the dip called for will vary : (i) With the num-
bers to be dipped ; (2) with the size of the sheep ; and (3)
with the amount of wool which they carry. It will be at
once apparent that the proportionate amount of dip called
for will increase with increase in the numbers of the sheep
to be dipped, and vice versa. This will be apparent from
the fact that enough prepared dip is called for to sub-
merge the sheep before one can be properly dipped. After
that quantity has been provided, enough only is to be
added to make up for the dip that has been carried away
by the sheep after they have left the dripping pens. It
is also very evident that a large sheep will carry away
more adherent dip than a small one, and that a long fleece
will carry away more than a short one, and that a short
fleece will carry away more than a sheep but recently de-
prived of its wool. The quantity of dip called for may
vary from one to four quarts to an animal.

The renewal of the supply of the dip during the dip-
ping process should be carefully provided for. If the sup-
ply of the dip were to run low, the outcome would be im-
perfect dipping, and a repetition of the dipping in the near
future. The dip thus provided as supplemental may also
be made to aid in keeping the dip in the vat at a proper
temperature. To accomplish this, the dip added should

DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 439

be possessed of a higher temperature than the dip in the
vat, and also of a higher temperature than is called for in
the dipping process. The most desirable temperature Is
100 to no degrees, the internal temperature of the sheep
being about 103 degrees F.

The time that the sheep should remain in the dip will
vary, first, with the strength of the dip used, and second,
with the nature of the parasite that is causing trouble.
When dipping for ticks, the sheep should be in the dip for
at least one minute, and when dipping for scab for not
less than two minutes. When dipping for scab, it is
greatly important that the sheep remain full time in the
dip, as many mites are under the scales which are not
readily reached by the dips. The head of each sheep
should also be plunged beneath the dip before it is
allowed to emerge from the same, except in the case of
such poisonous dips as the arsenical and carbolic dips.

It is greatly important that the dipping for scab shall
be effective. If any of the mites survive underneath the
scabs they may lay eggs between the dippings that will
not be hatched out before the second dipping. Should
this happen, a third dipping may be necessary. To pre-
vent such a contingency, some have advocated the use of
a preliminary dip to soften the scabs. This is applied
two or three days prior to the first dipping. In almost all
instances, however, the first dipping is given in the usual
way, and if properly done the instances are very few
when a third dipping is necessary. Where only a small
flock is to be treated, it would be practicable, and it may
also be economical, to rub oil of glycerine over the scabby
places two or three days prior to the first dipping. With
sheep newly shorn this treatment would not be difficult.

When dipping sheep, it is greatly important that they
shall be carefully handled. They are much averse to tak-
ing a plunge bath, and when they try to escape from it
there is neither reason nor justification in handling them
roughly. They are easily injured. When heavy sheep

440 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

emerge from the vat, it may be necessary to give them
some assistance when walking up the incline and to
squeeze some of the ooze out of the wool before they
reach the draining pens. When dipped in a tub, two men
are called for to lift them. One grasps the forelegs after
the sheep has been laid on its side and the other the
hind legs, and it is lifted into the tub with the back
downwards.

Care of sheep subsequently to dipping — As soon as
sheep have been dipped, the aim should be to at once
change their quarters. In fact, it is imperative that this
shall be done, at least for a time, in the case of sheep scab ;
otherwise, re-infestation will take place. This may usually
be accomplished without difficulty after the season for
pasturing has arrived. But when the dipping must be
done in the winter season, change of quarters may not be
practicable. In such instances there is no way of escape
from the necessity for disinfecting the quarters occupied
by the sheep. The necessity for disinfecting would not
seem to be always imperative. When the quarters pre-
viously occupied by sheep have been completely vacated
for, say, six months, in the case of scab, disinfection
would not seem to be necessary. The labor and cost of
disinfection should not be imposed when the necessity
for it does not exist.

When disinfection does take place, it should follow
the second dipping; that is, when the two dippings follow
each other in from 10 to 14 days, as they should for scab.
The disinfection should be very thorough. It should be-
gin by removing all litter and manure from the quarters
previously occupied by the sheep, including the yards.
Thorough spraying of the sheds inside and out, of the
racks, mangers and alleys, and of the yards and fences
inclosing them should follow. Various ingredients may
be used in thus disinfecting the premises. A coal tar dip
will be very effective. A 5 per cent carbolic acid solu-
tion is also excellent. But why not use the residue of the

DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 44!

dip in disinfecting the premises, especially when this can
be done immediately after the dipping of the sheep and
before the dip has lost any of its strength? Such use of
the surplus dip should certainly be economical. The noz-
zle of the sprayer should be such as to apply the dip in
suitable quantity ; that is freely enough and without un-
necessary waste. Whitewashing following the spraying
will be an additional safeguard as to the effectiveness of
the work.

Removing parasites by other methods — Before dip-
ping was introduced for destroying parasites on sheep,
other methods of combating them were of necessity fol-
lowed. These included: (i) Pouring liquids from a ves-
sel ; (2) applying unguents to the skin ; and (3) by feed-
ing certain preparations. Compared with dipping, these
methods were of necessity laborious, costly and not al-
ways effective. They were laborious because of the time
and effort called for to treat sheep singly. They were
costly because of the large amount of the materials called
for. They were not always effective, for the reason that
the application seldom reached all parts of the carcass.

When liquids were applied by pouring, three persons
were called for to do the work effectively. The liquid
most commonly used was a decoction made by steeping
tobacco leaves or stems. One person held the sheep to
be treated ; a second person opened the wool along one
side, a little below the backbone from the neck to the
tail, and a third person poured in the liquid where the
wool had been thus shed. In some instances the sheep
was then set upon its buttock and more or less of the
liquid was poured on to the lower part of the paunch,
beginning at the brisket. This method has rendered rea-
sonably good service in killing ticks, but for treating
scab it was not greatly helpful. In the absence of a dip-
ping plant there may be times when this method of com-
bating ticks may be resorted to with profit, especially in
the autumn season.

442 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

The process of applying ointments, usually spoken of
as smearing, was very common before the dipping age
began. Mercurial ointment was the favorite unguent
used. The work of an expert in this line was done some-
what as follows : He caught the sheep, laid it carefully
on its side and seated himself on a good-sized batting of
straw. The head of the sheep rested on the operator's
shoulder when stooping over it and the body was between
his legs. To his left wrist the horn of a heifer was at-
tached, rilled with the ointment. This left both hands
free to shed the wool, the ointment being taken from the
horn by the middle finger of the right hand and smeared
in the opening. Two strips were opened down the side
on one shoulder, and in most instances it was applied on
some other parts. This method of righting ticks was quite
helpful, but to fight scab by this method was greatly
laborious and more or less dangerous, because of the ex-
ceedingly poisonous character of the ointment.

The opinion has been commonly expressed that if
sulphur is fed to sheep in small quantities, either at short
intervals or continuously for long periods, that it will ma-
terially reduce the liability of infestation by ticks. When
so fed the sulphur is added to the salt in the proportions,
of, say, two to three parts of sulphur in 100 parts of the
mixture. While sulphur used as a part of the mixture
in dipping is more or less of a protection against speedy
re-infection, since its effects linger for a time in the wool,
it does not follow that the same results may be looked
for from feeding sulphur to the sheep in the manner men-
tioned. The influence, if any, is not enough to be very
material. It has also been claimed that when tobacco is
fed to sheep, it will tend to protect them from internal
parasites (see page 395), such as stomach worms, and that
the same or similar results may be looked for from feed-
ing certain mixtures, proprietary and otherwise. In re-
gard to these it may be said that their efficacy has not
been fully demonstrated.

DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 443

How far dipping is a necessity — Dipping under ex-
isting conditions is a necessity wherever sheep are
affected with ticks or scab. While it would be possible
to eradicate both from infested flocks, the cost of such
eradication would be much greater. This would be true,
even of small lots of sheep, since these may be dipped in
a homemade dipping tub, which involves but little cost.
Many authorities favor dipping sheep for ticks in the
spring just after they are shorn, and again in the autumn
when they are to be brought into winter quarters. If
when the sheep are dipped for ticks after being shorn,
the lambs are allowed to go without dipping, the relief
to the sheep would only be temporary, for soon re-infes-
tation would follow, the ticks coming from the lambs.
Dipping the lambs is even more necessary than dipping
the sheep, for the reason, first, that the ticks virtually
leave sheep that are closely shorn for a time after they are
shorn, because the protection has been removed by shear-
ing, and second, the ticks are a greater source of annoy-
ance to the lambs because of the greater tenderness of
their skin. A second dipping, 10 to 14 days later, should
complete the work of removal, both with ticks and scab.
If the sheep and lambs are both moved entirely away
from old quarters after the second dipping, they should
be thenceforth free from those two classes of parasites.
Why, then, should further dipping be necessary for such
removal ?

But there may be some necessity for dipping sheep
of the middle and coarse-wool breeds, in order to cleanse
the wool from dirt and to give the skin a bright appear-
ance. Only some of the dips will do this satisfactorily.
This claim has been made in behalf of the carbolic dips.
To accomplish this end when these classes of sheep are
to be shown, may call for dipping, even when the sheep
are free from parasites. But it would not be profitable to
dip sheep thus, simply to cleanse the fleece in the absence

444 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

of some ulterior purpose, as for instance, that of enter-
ing the show ring.

When the flockmaster is breeding sheep and is buy-
ing occasionally to add to his holdings, the necessity for
dipping at least once, and probably twice, a year will con-
tinue. But should the farmer have only a small flock,
whether he breeds for sale or mainly for a home supply of
mutton, what is there to hinder him from getting com-
pletely rid of ticks or scab by the two consecutive dip-
pings? Why, in such an instance, should there be any
necessity for further dipping, save in the case of a male
that may be brought in occasionally to head the flock?
In the face of such facts, why should the conclusion be
accepted that dipping is a necessary work that must go
on from year to year ?

CHAPTER XXI
ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT

In Chapter XXI the following phases of the subject
of which it treats are discussed: (i) Important considera-
tions when establishing a flock ; (2) Establishing a pure-
bred flock ; (3) Establishing a flock of grades ; (4) The
sires used in grade flocks; (5) The improvement of the
flock ; (6) Improvement through the sires ; (7) Improve-
ment through selection ; (8) Improvement through food ;
(9) When crossing is legitimate; (10) Breeding for single
or twin lambs; (u) Much should be left to the good
shepherd.

Important considerations — The most important con-
sideration when establishing a flock of sheep is that of
environment. Other things being equal, the measure of
the success in keeping sheep will be proportionate to the
completeness in adaptation of the environment to the
needs of the kind of sheep kept. Prominent among the
phases of environment are: (i) the nature of the land;
(2) the production of the same ; (3) the character of the
water supply; (4) the hazard from predatory animals;
and (5) the natural protection.

The nature of the land, as to its contour and also to
its freedom from an excess of moisture, should be care-
fully considered. Level lands are relatively best adapted
to the heavy breeds, undulating or rolling lands to the
middle breeds and rugged and mountain lands to the light
breeds. This does not mean that the heavy breeds, as the
Lincoln and Cotswold, cannot be kept successfully on un-
dulating or rolling lands, nor does it mean that the middle
breeds, as the Shropshire, cannot be kept successfully on
level lands, but that highest adaptation is as outlined
above. The heavy breeds will be kept with much less

445

446 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

success on rugged lands than will attend the keeping of
light breeds on level lands.

Lands that are springy or that are saturated with
water near the surface for any considerable period dur-
ing the season of grazing are ill adapted to the keeping
of sheep. They produce grazing too watery to meet the
needs of sheep, and on such grazing parasites are much
more numerous, as a rule, than on other grazing. Wet
ground also favors the increase of foot rot. Sheep that
are maintained in any considerable degree on such pas-
ture will deteriorate rapidly. This does not mean, how-
ever, that they cannot be maintained successfully on low
lands, even on marsh lands that have been thoroughly
drained, a fact illustrated in the success that attends the
breeding of Romney Marsh sheep in Kent, England.

Level lands are usually more productive than those
that are rolling. Hence the large breeds can get food on
these with less effort than on rolling lands where the
vegetation is less abundant. The middle breeds can
gather food with less effort on rolling lands than on
mountain pastures, where the grazing is less plentiful. It
follows, therefore, that the more abundant the grazing
and the less the distance traveled by the sheep when
satisfying their hunger, the larger may be the sheep so
grazed ; and the more sparse the pastures, and the greater
the distance to be traveled by the sheep when satisfying
their needs, the smaller may be the sheep so grazed. It
is of the utmost importance that the size of the sheep
kept shall be adapted to the character of the grazing.
Even on level lands where the production is sparse, the
heavy breeds should not be kept, as they are ill fitted to
stand the strain of the travel called for when seeking food.

The character of the water supply is supremely im-
portant in the pastures and in the sheds, but especially
in the former, as shown in Chapter XV. One reason for
the greater freedom from disease with she^ p grazed on
rolling pastures arises from their freedom, as a rule, from

ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 447

stagnant waters, which are so fruitful usually in what
may be termed the seed germs of parasitic diseases. The
aim should be at all times to furnish sheep with living
water, whatever may be the source from which it comes.

The hazard from such predatory animals as wolves
and dogs should be well considered by those who pro-
pose to engage in sheep husbandry. Where such hazard
exists, the means for protection and the cost of it should
be taken into account. These have been discussed at
some length in Chapter XVIII.

The question of natural protection is always impor-
tant in relation to sheep husbandry. In some instances
it relates to shielding the animals from excessive cold, in yet
others from excessive wind, and yet again from excessive
rains. Nor should the cost of furnishing artificial protection
be overlooked. These have been already dwelt upon in
Chapter XVI.

Next in importance to the consideration of environ-
ment, is that of proximity to market when milk lambs
are to be grown, but this is not so important when the
lambs are to be carried through the season and fattened.
Its importance grows less as the wool product becomes
relatively more important than the mutton product. Of
course, on distant ranges proximity to market becomes
impossible, at least in many instances.

The consideration of food supplies should be well
weighed. In some instances this involves only the ques-
tion of pasture, summer and winter. In others it involves
the question of grazing in summer and coarse fodder, as
hay, for winter. In yet others it involves the question of
grazing, providing coarse fodders and also concentrates.
The question of grazing alone is involved only in mild
climates; that of grazing and coarse fodders where the
sheep are grown under extensive conditions and finished
somewhere else ; and that of grazing, coarse fodders and
concentrates where the conditions are intensive.

Establishing a pure-bred flock — Many farmers may

448 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

succeed reasonably well in growing a flock of grade sheep
where careful attention is given to the work. A much
smaller number will succeed in growing pure breds, as
the breeding of the latter calls for more skill than the
breeding of the former. Only one here and there among
those who breed pure breds will attain that measure of
success which commands attention far and near, because
of the high skill that must be present in order to attain
such an end. The breeding of pure breds should be en-
tered upon with much caution. It is at least questionable
if the work should be engaged in by any who have not
had previous experience in growing or caring for sheep.
If such persons do engage in breeding pure breds, it
should be in a small way at first, because of the hazard
involved. This, however, does not apply to men with
ample capital and who intrust the work in a great meas-
ure to an experienced shepherd. Those who have made a
marked success of breeding grades will generally make a
success of breeding pure breds.

When determining the choice of the breed that is
to be bred, considerations such as relate to environment
and the disposal of the sheep are all important. In some
instances environment will admit of the choice of one
among a number of breeds, in other instances such choice
is very restricted. Under average farm conditions, where
the lands are undulating and the production is fair, almost
any of the breeds of sheep may be kept with a reasonable
measure of success. But it would be a great mistake to
introduce the heavy breeds on to pastures that are sparse
and where the conditions generally are of the rugged
type. But few breeds of sheep can be produced at their
best where field roots and concentrates are not furnished.

Before decision is reached as to the breed that shall
be grown, the probable demand for good animals of the
breed should be weighed. Some breeds are almost uni-
versally popular, as the Shropshire. Some are only popu-
lar in certain areas, as the Southdown. Some are kept

ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 449

chiefly to supply rams for certain conditions, as when
Lincolns furnish these to influence the character of the
fleece under semi-range conditions. The men are rare
who can force popularity, as it were, upon a community
where the breed has not been popular heretofore. When
the environment and the outlook for the successful dis-
posal of the increase are both in unison with the prefer-
ence which the breeder has for a certain breed, he is so
far fortunate, as he can then bring to his work an enthusi-
asm that would not exist to the same extent when breed-
ing sheep of some other breed. But natural preference
should never be allowed to outweigh the considerations
mentioned.

The breeders of pure breds will be greatly handi-
capped in their work if they are located distant from a
railroad station. When thus located, buyers are less
likely to visit them, and the labor and time involved in
making shipments is greatly increased. Distance from a
railroad station beyond a certain limit in this fast age
would almost certainly bring failure to the enterprise,
though in other respects it should be well conducted. Be-
cause other breeders may be already established in a
neighborhood who breed the same kind of stock is no rea-
son why the beginner should not breed that class of stock.
It furnishes a strong reason why he should do so, as those
looking for animals of that particular breed will be more
ready to visit a locality with several breeders of a breed
than if only one breeder were located there, because it
gives them an opportunity of making selection in the line
of their desires.

It is greatly important that the foundation animals
shall be well chosen. They should not only be correct
in regard to form for the breed, but also in all the lead- -
ing characteristics that appertain to it. They should also
be correct in pedigree.. Some beginners introduce founda-
tion stock indifferent as to form and with no special merit
in the ancestral lines. They do so because these may be

450 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

obtained at low cost. With such foundation stock a high
standard of excellence will not be quickly reached. But
the opposite extreme should be avoided of purchasing
animals that have been fitted for the fairs and shown at
the same. Such animals breed less freely than those kept
under conditions less forced, and on ordinary food they
will not retain the bloom that should characterize the
members of a well-kept flock.

The essentials as to form are given in the book, "The
Study of Breeds," by the author, and will not be repeated
here. They may also be obtained from the accredited
standard of excellence or scale of points, as it is some-
times called, for each breed, from whatsoever source it
may be derived. When selecting the females, similarity
in type should be sought, and the male should be at least
a good specimen of the breed, and preferably line bred.
The most suitable type of breeding ewes will probably
be obtained from rams not extremely masculine in char-
acteristics, but later those characteristics should be highly
developed.

Every possible attention should be given to the
health of the foundation stock. It would probably be
correct to say that, under many conditions, several of the
most troublesome or fatal ailments that afflict sheep
would never be present were these not brought to the
farm or ranch in the foundation animals or in purchases
made subsequently. These include stomach worms, tape-
worms and nodule disease. No pains should be spared
in ascertaining the facts about the previous history of
the flocks with reference to visitations from parasites.
The presence or absence of these in ewes cannot be as-
certained from the appearance of mature individuals in
the flock. When time has made it apparent that none
of these ailments are present, the aim should be to avoid
the introduction of animals of the breed from outside
sources. Those deficient in fleece, and in the wool char-
acteristics proper to the breed, should not be chosen, and

ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 451

likewise those with dark or black spots in the wool or
that have a pale, lifeless-looking skin, which points to a
delicate constitution. The skin should be of a beautiful
rich pink or rose-colored tint.

The aim should be to secure foundation stocks from
reputable breeders, that no shadow may rest upon the
purity of the breeding. The more outstanding the repu-
tation of the breeder, the easier will it be for beginners to
make sales of their surplus stock. It would be easy, how-
ever, to pay too high a price for the advantage which
such reputation would bring. When the requisite essen-
tials are present, the nearer that the animals can be pur-
chased to the place where they are to be maintained the
better it is, as the changed conditions are then less vio-
lent. Inexperienced beginners incur much hazard when
they begin by importing costly animals from other coun-
tries.

Establishing a flock of grades — When establishing a
flock of grades, careful attention should be given to the
form of the females chosen. The essentials of form are
the same virtually as for ewes devoted to the breeding
of milk lambs (see page 242). Any evidences of delicacy
should result in the rejection of such ewes for breeding.
The previous history of the flock as to the presence of
parasitic diseases should be carefully looked into before
making purchases, as in the case of pure breds. But
when the ewes selected are purchased at the stock yards,
such information may be unobtainable. As in the case
of purebreds, when time has evidenced that the flock is free
from such diseases, the aim should be to avoid introduc-
ing other females in addition to those produced by the
flock.

The blood elements possessed by the females, though
not entirely unimportant are probably of less importance
than correct form. The presence of many blood elements
should not be regarded as an objection when choosing
foundation ewes. Usually, the more mixed their breed-

452 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

ing, the more quickly will improvement be effected, when
properly mated with prepotent rams, as such dilution of
blood elements makes it more plastic, and, therefore,
more susceptible to the influences exerted by the more
prepotent parent. The exceptions to this rule are found
in those instances in which the females are already graded
more or less by descent from pure sires of the breed from
which these are to be chosen in future breeding. Com-
mencing with very common females of mixed breeding
and using only pure-bred males in succession of only one
and the same breed, in four or five generations, the aver-
age of the animals for meat-making should fully equal
the average of the breed from which the sires have been
chosen. The improvement or change in wool production
will be less rapid. Improvement through grading is dis-
cussed by the author in Chapter XXVI of the book "Ani-
mal Breeding."

The foundation ewes for grade flocks may usually
be obtained at the stock yards, where a very considerable
trade is conducted in supplies of sheep for feeding. As
a rule they can be more cheaply obtained in autumn. The
major portion come from the range. They are generally
of mixed blood elements, but Merino blood more com-
monly predominates, which is so far a guaranty of rug-
gedness. Such ewes are usually healthy, but this fact
does not certainly assure the buyer that they are abso-
lutely free from parasites. The aim should be to buy
ewes whose teeth have not been seriously injured through
age.

Foundation stocks may also be obtained in many in-
stances from farmers who are breeders of grade sheep.
When thus purchased, the previous history of the flock
in relation to disease may be obtainable. The importance
of obtaining such information cannot be overestimated.

The sires used in grade flocks — The sires used in
grade flocks should in all instances be purely bred where
it is possible to secure them. They should be purely bred,

ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 453

for the reason that it is only rams thus bred that are
prepotent. Cross-bred or grade rams will be less potent
in the character of their transmission, because of the ab-
sence of fixedness in their dominant characters. The
transmission from such rams will be variable in propor-
tion as their blood elements are mixed, which is equiva-
lent to saying in proportion as they are diluted and weak-
ened. When it is not possible to secure pure-bred rams,
the higher the grade of the rams chosen, the better. The
practice of choosing grade sires within the flock is to be
deprecated. If long continued it will certainly result in
lowering the standard of the flock, since it is in-and-in-
breeding that extends to all the animals which compose
the flock. In such instances the mating will be more or
less faulty viewed from the standpoint of conformation,
and it will certainly result in retrogression.

Prominent among the factors that should influence
determination as to which breed the rams shall be chosen
from are environment and the demands of the market.
The exposure, the grazing and the other food supplies
should be considered in relation to environment. Only
rugged sheep, as those possessed of much Merino blood,
should be kept on the ranges, and only mountain breeds
on mountain lands. Only light breeds should be kept
on rugged and sparse pastures, and breeds that naturally
produce lambs early should not be allowed to do so
where succulence cannot be supplied to the dams.

Dominance in the object for which the sheep are
kept, the most suitable size of lamb and the season when
it is wanted should be considered in relation to market
demands. When wool is the dominant object sought,
Merino blood should, as a rule, be prominently in evi-
dence. When mutton is the chief consideration, rams
should be chosen from the mutton breeds ; when the dual
quality or mutton and wool are both sought, as the mar-
kets run today, these will be secured in the highest degree
from choosing rams of one or another of the middle-wool

454 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

breeds. The Southdown pure-bred sire has been found
to produce lambs highly adapted to present market con-
ditions, which give the preference to lambs that reach
the market in the autumn, that weigh less than 100
pounds alive. Lambs of good finish that weigh not more
than 80 or 90 pounds are preferred to those that are
heavier.

The season at which the lambs are to reach the mar-
ket should also be carefully considered. Winter lambs
come most readily through the use of Dorset sires. Early
spring lambs are, as a rule, most easily obtained from
ewes, in which Merino blood is well represented. Rea-
sonably early lambs, possessed of much size, may be most
surely obtained by the use of Hampshire sires.

Should the flock be high grade, the aim should be
to use sires of the breed which have furnished the domi-
nant blood elements to the females. The results from
such breeding are more certain than they would be should
sires be used from some other breed. For instance, should
the Shropshire blood be dominant in a flock of Shropshire
grades, the results from the use of Shropshire sires on
these will be more certain than those that would follow
the use of Lincoln sires.

But in some instances the demands of the market
may call for the use of a sire possessed of blood elements
differing from those that dominate in the ewes.

The mistake of using pure-bred rams of inferior in-
dividuality, even on grade flocks, should be sedulously
avoided, lest the character of the transmission should be
similar. While the breeders of grade flocks would not be
justified in paying such prices for rams as are sometimes
paid by the breeders of high-class pure-breds, the aim
should be to use those only that are possessed of good
individuality.

The requisites as to form and covering in a good sire
for even a flock of grades may be summarized as follows :
He should possess compactness of form, a suitable cover-

ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 455

ing of wool and evidences of vigor. The first includes
a body wide, deep and round, supported by short, straight
limbs. The second includes a fleece uniform in length,
fineness, strength and density, and evenly distributed over
the body. The third includes much width and fullness
of chest, a strong back, a powerful and short neck, a
strong and wide head, a pink skin and an active carriage.
Other requisites are more or less important. There are
also peculiarities pertaining to individual breeds that
should not be overlooked. These may all be learned
through a study of the standards of excellence pertaining
to each breed.

Fancy points, as the degree of the covering on the
head and legs, are of much less importance when choos-
ing rams to head grade flocks than when choosing them
to head those that are pure. Good, strong and useful
rams for grade flocks may in some instances be obtained
cheaply, because of some slight deficiency or superfluity
that would unfit them for service in a valuable pure-bred
flock.

The improvement of the flock — It would seem correct
to say that absolute perfection is never reached in any
flock ; howsoever good it may be as a flock or in the in-
dividuals that represent it, there is always room for fur-
ther improvement. In a large majority of instances there
is room for wide improvement, and it ought to be the aim
of every owner of a flock to reach the maximum of im-
provement attainable under his conditions. The leading
factors concerned in improvement are: (i) The sires
used; (2) selection; and (3) food.

The sires exert or should exert an influence far reach-
ing in the improvement of form and covering and in
bringing about uniformity in the flock. This improve-
ment does not result from any superior influence pos-
sessed by the sire by virtue of his sex. It is the outcome
of his superior prepotency, and where this is wanting
these results will not follow. The sire also exerts an

456

ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 457

important influence on stamina in the flock, on prolifi-
cacy and on maturity.

Selection is an indirect rather than a direct agent in
effecting improvement. It does not directly improve the
individual as the sire does or as food does, but it makes
further improvement possible in the individuals that shall
be born in the flock, through discarding the inferior and
retaining the superior for future breeding. It thus aids
materially in effecting improvement and in bringing about
a higher uniformity.

Food effects improvement by the direct influence
which it exerts upon the entire organism of the individ-
uals in the flock. It powerfully influences size, wool pro-
duction and stamina and it exerts a far-reaching influence
on the functions pertaining to reproduction and the sus-
tenance of the progeny. It is the supplement and also
the complement of the other agencies used in effecting
improvement, and unless it is furnished in liberal supply
all attempts to improve the flock will fail.

Improvement through the sires — As already inti-
mated, improvement coming from the sires arises from
their potency in the transmission of desirable qualities.
Of course, in breeding pure breds, the sires will all be
chosen from the same breed. In breeding grades, the
choice of the breed from which the sires shall be taken
rests entirely with the owner. Some of the owners of
grade flocks select the successive sires used from the same
pure breed, others select for a longer or a shorter period,
first from one breed and then another. The former
method is very much superior to the latter. By the first
method improvement will be continuous until the average
of the animals of the flock reaches the level in their individ-
uality of the average of the breed from which the sires
have been chosen. This method of breeding makes more
and more stable the properties possessed by each succeed-
ing generation. By the second method the tendency is to
render more and more unstable the elements of inherit-

458 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

ance and, consequently to render their transmission more
uncertain.

The time called for to bring grade sheep up to the
level of the flock from which the sires are chosen will
depend to some extent on the blood lines possessed when
the upgrading begins, and to a greater extent on the pre-
potency of the sires. It would seem correct to say that
in no instance would more than five generations of such
breeding be necessary to effect such improvement in the
animal form, and in some instances three generations
would suffice. For making meat, the grades thus im-
proved would probably average better than the pure
breds, as the presence of alien blood brings with it in
many instances renovating power. Many generations of
such breeding would be called for to make the wool fibers
resemble exactly those of the breed from which the sires
have come. Many generations would also be necessary
to make transmission as certain from animals thus up-
graded as from sires of the breed used in improving them.

The rapid improvement that may be effected in the
meat-making qualities of grade sheep finds illustration in
a certain line of experimental work conducted at the
Minnesota Experimental Station, under the direction of
the author. Ewes were purchased of the commonest
types. Some were purchased at the stock yards at South
St. Paul, and some from farmers. The former came
from the western ranges. The breeding, especially of
those bred on the ranges, was very much mixed. There
were evidences in their make-up of the blood of the
coarse wool, the middle wool and the fine wool breeds. In
many of them the evidences of Merino blood were dom-
inant. Dark-faced sires, chiefly Shropshire, were used
upon them in some instances for one, and in others for
two generations. A number of the females were then
selected in the autumn of 1900. These were mated with
a well-bred and well-chosen Southdown ram and a num-
ber of the lambs were prepared for exhibition at the In-

ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 459

ternational Fair held in Chicago the following year. They
were awarded champion honors for the best pen of five
lambs in the grade classes in competition open to the
world. One of the number was awarded first honors in
the dead meat class at the same fair. Thus quickly may
improvement be affected by judicious upgrading.

It may not be correct to say that in-breeding should
not be practiced to any extent, but if practiced it should
be with caution and the exercise of much good judgment.
When the mating is correct, good qualities will be in-
tensified, but when incorrect, those that are undesirable
will likewise be intensified. The mission of in-and-in-
breeding is to aid in the establishment of breeds,
rather than to aid in the establishment of flocks from
breeds already established. With properly chosen sires,
in-and-in-breeding is safer in grade than in pure-bred
flocks, as the former are usually possessed of more of the
elements of ruggedness than the latter at the time of the
establishment of the flock. But even in grade flocks it is
of questionable utility unless when the flock is being es-
tablished, because of the hazard incurred. The evils to
be feared are loss of size and stamina, and also more or
less prolificacy. But it may not only be allowable, but
judicious, to use the first sire chosen on his progeny.

Improvement through selection — Selection in a flock
has reference, first, to the retention of lambs that are to
be used for future breeding, and, second, to the rejection
of ewes that are not desirable any longer because of some
defect or because of age. The ewe lambs to be retained
should, oT course, be the tops of the flock. They should,
of course, be chosen on the basis of size, form, covering
and uniformity in body and fleece. The selection should
be rigid, as in no other way can a high standard be real-
ized. It would seem safe to say that the measure of the
estimate put upon a flock by visitors is the extent to
which inferior specimens are absent, rather than the ex-
tent to which superior specimens are present.

460 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

All females should be rejected for future breeding that
are off in form, that have any physical defect, that have
proved shy breeders or poor nurses and that are begin-
ning to lose or are soon to lose their teeth through age.
Ewes apparently well chosen as lambs lose form to some
extent in some instances as they mature, and should be
discarded, as they so far mar uniformity in the flock and
may also transmit this same defect. Physical defects may
relate to such happenings as injury to the udder, which
may impair or destroy its function, to a tendency to cast
the uterus when the lambs are born and to some ex-
crescences on the skin that are unsightly, also to injury
to the limbs. Shy breeders are unprofitable, as when they
fail to breed the only return for the year is the wool,
and when they do breed, they may transmit the same
characteristic of shy breeding to their progeny. Ewes
that are aging are more expensive to feed than others,
produce less wool, do not feed their lambs as well and
mar the appearance of the flock.

The weaning season is the best season to set them
aside for being turned off, as they may then be prepared
for market and disposed of before the closing in of the
winter. Where flocks are large, the plan of promptly
marketing ewes to be discarded as soon as the reason for
such action is first noticed is to be commended. If this
is not done, these ewes in some instances will be over-
looked and left in the flock. Any kind of mark that will
readily indicate such animals will, of course, suffice, as.
for instance, stamping coloring matter on some part of
the body.

One would imagine at first thought that where the
culling is close and continued from year to year, the time
would come when culls would not appear and that the
necessity for culling the lambs at least would be no longer
necessary. This hope, should it be cherished, will never
be fully realized. The principle of variation is operative
as well as the principle that "like begets like," and some

ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 461

of the variations are downward. This happens in the
best-regulated and best-managed flocks, but the fre-
quency with which culls appear decreases measurably
with increase in the perfection of the management. Varia-
tions in the degree of the vigor possessed by the parents
at generation and during pregnancy, lead to variations in
the progeny. Other influences also are probably similarly
operative. The time will never come, therefore, in any
flock when the necessity for rejecting and discarding will
no more exist.

Improvement through food — Attention to the food
requirements cannot be too closely or too constantly ex-
ercised. The wisest choice of sires and the closest and
most intelligent selection will be in vain unless the food
fed is such as will maintain a high standard of improve-
ment. If food is to effect commensurate improvement,
it must be adapted: (i) To the needs of the sheep; (2)
to the needs of the breed; and (3) to the requirements
of the breeding.

It would be correct to say that some foods given alone or
in combination are adapted in a general way to the feeding
of all classes of sheep, but it would not be correct to say
that such adaptation is exactly equal in the different
classes of sheep.

With sheep maintained for different uses, or with
sheep of different breeds, with reference to the individual
sheep, the food should be so regulated as to meet its needs
at different stages of development and under different
conditions as to use, and it should be of a character that
will help to maintain much of uniformity in condition
throughout the year. Young lambs, for instance, must
have the best class of food given to the flock. After wean-
ing, they should be given the preference in pastures and
an amount of grain that would probably be wasteful if
fed to nature sheep at that season. Pregnant ewes should
be given foods that will produce much milk, while shear-
lings not pregnant may thrive on food different in kind

462 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

and less costly. To cover this question fully would mean
going into all the details of feeding. It can only be said,
further, at this time that if the food is to prove an effec-
tive means of improving flocks, it should be given so as
to best meet the needs of the individual sheep under all
the conditions of development and maintenance to which
it may be subjected, and it should be given, as far as may
be practicable, to maintain as much of equilibrium in con-
dition as may be attainable, otherwise the character of
the fleece will suffer.

That the difference, to some extent at least, in the
food requisites for different breeds must be given some
recognition, will be apparent from the influence that food
has exercised in the evolution of the various breeds.
Where the food furnished differs materially from that
given under the conditions of environment that evolved
the breed, modifications will follow. These will be ad-
verse should the food supplies be lower than breed char-
acteristics call for to sustain them in equilibrium ; and
they will effect improvement in some respects if higher
than the breed characteristics have previously called for.
Thus it is that heavy breeds of sheep retrograde if put on
rations that will maintain equilibrium in the small breeds,
and thus it is that the latter improve in some respects
when the food is an improvement on the food consumed
while the breed was being evolved.

The food fed should meet the needs of the sheep as
modified by breeding. Suppose a large sheep is crossed
upon a small one, the size of the progeny will be in-
creased as compared with the size of the dams which pro-
duced it. This will mean that food supplies that may
have met the needs of the dams will not meet the needs
of the progeny. For the latter they must be more lib-
eral. This explains why increased size, especially in
crossing and grading, results in failure when the food
given is not sufficiently liberal.

When crossing is legitimate — Ordinarily the crossing

ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 463

of pure breeds, especially when they are pedigreed and a
record kept of the pedigrees, is not to be commended.
Their value is such in a large majority of instances as to
make such crossing unwise. The individuals of the breed
in the pure form are usually worth more than the progeny
obtained from crossing them. But there may be instances
when such crossing is admissible. Superior specimens are
sometimes obtained thus for exhibition purposes. Such
crossing as may be necessary to meet exhibition require-
ments is legitimate. When drafts of ewes are made from
the mountain breeds with a view to send them to the
market, it is usually profitable to cross them with males
of some larger breed after they have been put on more
productive pastures and to sell them and their progeny
after they have been made ready for the block through
high feeding. The same is true in some instances of
Merino ewes.

The attempt to improve through crossing where
herds are involved should not usually be carried beyond
the first cross. The result from a second cross and also
from succeeding crosses are frequently disappointing.
This arises from the tendency to reversion in such lines
of breeding. The tendency to reversion is the outcome
possibly of antagonism in the dominant properties in the
leading blood lines for supremacy.

In seeking improvement through grading, an out-
cross may be used in some instances with advantage, and
the same is true in some instances of breeds. But the
nature of the outcross in the two instances is different.
In the first instance it means introducing a sire of a differ-
ent breed; in the second, it means introducing a sire of
the same breed but of a different strain of blood and usu-
ally from an outside herd. Action in the first instance
may result in improving size and wool production, should
these fall below a certain standard. But in such instances
it will usually be wise policy to return again to the sires
belonging to the breed from which they were chosen pre-

464 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

viously. The outcross in such instances is to effect a pur-
pose, and when that purpose is attained, as it usually
is in a single outcross, such crossing for the time being
should cease. Action in the second instance aims to in-
sure renovation and improved stamina when indications
of deterioration may have appeared. These outcrosses,
however, should be introduced with great caution. They
should only be made in the flock generally after their
potency has been proved in the progeny resulting from
the use of the sires thus brought in on a few females of
the flock.

Breeding for single or twin lambs — That the breed-
ing may influence the proportion of the lambs that shall
be of single or plural birth, must be conceded. As to this
there cannot be any room for a difference in opinion, but
opinions may differ with reference to some of the influ-
ences which bear upon this question and the part which
these play respectively. It would seem to be true that
the difference in the prolificacy of breeds has been
brought about by breeding, accompanied by selection and
food.

Opinions differ as to the desirability of having ewes
produce but one or two lambs at a birth. In some in-
stances they produce three, and in rare instances even
more, but a larger number than three is not desirable.
The ewe furnishes milk from but two teats, hence the
lambs do not share equally in the milk produced, nor is
one ewe capable of furnishing all the milk that is neces-
sary to grow three lambs at their best.

The following are chief among the arguments in
favor of the production of single lambs: (i) They forge
ahead more rapidly when young, and in consequence may
be marketed at an earlier age; (2) that a ewe is not so
capable of feeding two lambs properly as of feeding but
one; hence (3) it is easier to maintain a high standard
of development in flocks in which single lambs are the
rule. There is considerable force in the first argument

ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 465

when the object is to send lambs early to the block, or to
sell them for breeding while yet considered lambs. In
the second argument there is a measure of truth, as it is
doubtless true, as sheep are usually cared for, that better
specimens come, on the whole, from the ranks of single
lambs than from those that are twins. But where sheep
are cared for as they ought to be it has been found quite
possible to maintain a high standard of excellence in
breeds in which plural births are numerous. This has
been amply shown in the history of the Dorset breed,
and also in the Hampshires, a breed of large size. While
the third argument is true, it does not follow, as just
stated, that a high standard cannot be maintained when
plural births are numerous.

The chief arguments in favor of plural births are:
(i) That more profit will ordinarily result when these are
numerous than when they, are infrequent; and (2) that
this is realized or may be realized without lowering the
standard of development. In both arguments there is
much force. The value of the dam and two lambs nursed
by her, when mature, is certainly greater than a ewe and
her one lamb, the development being equal in the two
instances. The development of the twins at maturity
may be fully equal to that of the single lamb, but the de-
velopment of the former will not be equal to that of the
latter at an early age. It would seem correct to say that
moderate and continuous growth will produce maximum
development fully equal to that resulting from rapid
growth, but it will not produce it so quickly. Where win-
ter lambs are grown it may be desirable to encourage the
production of single lambs, but where the aim is to grow
sheep for the lines of production for which they are usu-
ally grown, the production of twins should certainly be
encouraged.

Breeding may be made to encourage the production
of single lambs or twins through selection in both sire
and dam. That such production may be increased in

466 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP

either direction through the choice of dams has been
demonstrated in the experience of many breeders, espe-
cially when increase in twins has been sought. Whether
it would be possible to so enstamp the habit of producing
twins on any breed to the extent of excluding the birth
of any single lambs, has not been demonstrated, but it
would seem to be of possible attainment through the con-
tinuous selection of dams and sires of plural birth. That
the sire influences to any extent the numbers produced at
a birth as the result of his inheritance has been disputed,
and experiments to determine this matter beyond possi-
bility of dispute have not yet been forthcoming. If,
however, it is true that the sire of dairy cattle does exer-
cise an influence on milk production in his progeny, a fact
that is generally accepted, it would seem reasonable to
believe that a ram would influence function in his progeny
with reference to the number produced at a birth. It has
been noticed by breeders that more lambs may be looked
for from mature rams than from ram lambs.

That food exercises an important influence on prolifi-
cacy in flocks of sheep is shown: (i) In the more abun-
dant production on an average of the more vigorous ewes
in the flock: (2) in the more abundant production from
ewes mated when the powers of the system are building
up ; and (3) in the more abundant production from rams
vigorous and well sustained, as compared with those un-
der conditions the opposite. The fact last stated has been
disputed, as previously intimated. It would be easily
possible, however, to hinder prolificacy by feeding food
too stimulating and too lacking in succulence. The most
abundant breeding results not from a high condition of
flesh, but from a high condition of the same accompanied
by what may be termed a sappy condition of the system,
resulting from feeding succulent food.

Much left to the shepherd — In managing a flock of
sheep much should be left to the judgment of the shep-
herd, where the flock is of sufficient size to justify keep-

ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 467

ing one. The shepherd has a knowledge of the flock that
is more intimate and thorough than the knowledge of the
same possessed by anyone else. Especially with refer-
ence to details of management his knowledge is the most
complete, and, therefore, when qualified for his work, in-
terference with such details on the part of the owner of a
flock should never take place, except for the best of
reasons.

Usually the shepherd is a good judge of sheep. He
knows which are the best producers and also those that
ought to be discarded, whether because of age or for some
other reason. If sheep are to be added to the flock by
purchase, the opinion of the shepherd should be given due
weight with reference to the wisdom of the transaction.
In such matters the opinion of the shepherd is frequently
superior to that of the flock owner.

In the management of breeding flocks much may be
left to the wise shepherd in making sales privately. Here,
again, his intimate knowledge of the flock makes him a
safe adviser. In fact, with some general instructions, he
may manage the buying and selling, to the great relief
of the owner, and also to his advantage. Responsibility
amicably shouldered upon a competent man adds to his
fidelity and usefulness.

The faithful shepherd is also deserving of much con-
sideration at the lambing season. His labors at such a
time in a large flock are abundant and exacting. His rest
is disturbed, it may be to the extent of making it impossi-
ble for him to meet the needs of the flock as they should
be met. Under such conditions he should be .given full
liberty to call such additional help as will enable him to
tide over this trying season with a minimum of loss. At
many of the fairs in England prizes are also offered to the
shepherds who have reared the largest percentage of
lambs from flocks containing ewes not fewer in number
than the prize list calls for. Some of those shepherds
have the same flock in charge during practically the en-
tire period of their ability to render such service.

INDEX

Page
A

Age, determining, of sheep 357

Ailments of 335

Abortion 413

Bloat 404

Broken limbs 417

Bronchitis 411

Catarrh 410

Colic 408

Diarrhea 406

Digestive disorders 405

Foot-rot 414

Garget 420

Goiter 419

Inversion of womb 414

Navel diseases 418

Ophthalmia 419

Parasites 387, 391

Pleurisy 412

Pneumonia 411

Prevention and treatment of 385

Retention of afterbirth 413

Retention of excrement 418

Stretches 409

Tumors 419

Urinary troubles 420

White scours 417

Wool balls 418

Corral and its place 373

Dams, after weaning 252

Assisting, in labor 98

Care of 247

Disposing of 253

Grazing for, before weaning 265

Dips, arsenical 430

Carbolic 429

Coal tar 428

Lime and sulphur 426

Dipping 421

Basic elements in 425

Care of sheep subsequently to... 440

Classes of 422

Facts of 438

Necessity of 443

Objects sought from 421

Plant for 431

Season for 436

Diseases, protection and treat-
ment of 3?5

Page
Dogs 366

Effect of, upon sheep husbandry. 366

In the United States 376

Place for, in sheep husbandry. . 377

Protection of sheep from 369

Worrying sheep by 368

Ewes 122

Caring for 97

Exercise for breeding 133

Food for 130

Grading of 129

Management of, at breeding sea-
son 124

when on pasture 141

when in labor 98

when weaning lambs 142

to be discarded 144

from weaning until bred 122

Wintering 126

Fattening 203

Concentrates suitable for 215

Duration of, period 231

Fodders suitable for 211

General observations on 235

Increase from sheep while 232

Profit from, in winter 233

Selecting sheep for 205

Screenings for 226

Succulence suitable for 213

Sugar beet pulp for * . 223

Two lots in succession 227

Fertility, in paddocks 8

Removed by sheep

Finishing sheep, on corn 197

Field roots 200

Grass pastures with grain 189

Grass pastures without grain 187

Other crops 201

Peas 199

Rape 192

Western grain fields 191

Flock 445

Breeding in 464

Crossing in, legitimate 462

Culling of 348

Disposal of 352-356

Establishing a 447

Improvement of 455

Pure bred 256

Sires used in 452

470

INDEX

Page

o

Grazing 164

Benefits from supplemental 184

Grain 24

Grass, for winter 174

Sheep on grass 27

Sheep on supplementary 170

Grub in the head . . ... 402

Lambs 93

Aid to young 100

Care for, until weaned 108

Care for, subsequently to weaning 113

Castrating 114

Creep for 110

Docking 117

Food for, when weaned 113

Food for young 108

Rearing, by hand 105

Registration of 119

Reviving chilled 102

Season for, to come 93

Supplemental food for 107

Weaning Ill

Milk lambs 238

Care and food for 262, 249

Changing the breeding habit for. . 241

Definition of 238

Essentials in 239

Growing, from grazing 253

Marketing 250

Obtaining 240

Quarters suitable for 246

Subsequently to weaning 266

Where should be grown 24S

Mutton, aim in production of 55

Breeds producing 35

Conditions favorable to, producing 46

Crossing breeds for 48

Influences affecting 41

Pastures 1 64

Grass, permanent 167

Grass, temporary 169

Grass, supplementary 170

Sheep finished on grass 176

without grain 1"7

Grass, for winter grazing 174

Rams 149

Disposal of 160

Food and care during flrst winter 152
Food from weaning until winter. . 149
Management at season of service 157

Sale, in summer 154

Stock, in summer 15S

Stock, in winter 153

Trimming feet of 162

Page

Sheep i

As brush destroyers 23

Fertilizers of poor land 7

Fertilizers for gardens 10

Improvers of clover seed yields 28

Improvers of soil 7

Weed destroyers 13

Age to be shown 279

Disposal of 250

Droppings of, are valuable .... 5

Excessive fatness in 277

Exercise for 276

Fitting, for sale 355

Food for, while nursing 107

Handling, when shearing or wash-
ing 293

Methods of shearing 300

Methods of washing 291

Preparing, for shipping 359

Quarters for 319

Shipping 361-365

Should be kept on all farms ... 29

Show, in transit to fairs 272

Sources from which obtained .... 203

Special treatment for Merino .... 271

Tagging, when washed 296

Time and place for shearing . . . 29S

Trimming the feet of 307

Washing, before shearing 236

Washing and smearing, for show 269

Salt 309

Necessity for feeding 315

Supplying, in summer 316

Supplying, in winter 318

Scab, sheep 388

Dipping sheep for 421

Self-feeders and their uses 221

Shelter 319

Essential features of 326

In summer and winter 319-321

Locating 322

Tapeworm 395

Tick, sheep 387

Ticks, dipping sheep for 421

Water 309

Facilities for 336

Good health and 314

Necessity for 309

Providing, in summer 311

Providing, in winter 312

Weeds 13

Freeing lands from 17

Wool 73

Aim in production 53

Break in 87

Breeds producing 35

Carding and combing 6"?

Characteristics of 73

Classification of 33, 64

Closure in 83

INDEX 471

Page JPage

Vool— Continued Wool— Continued

Color in 80 Kemp in 88

Crimp or curl in 78 Softness in 79

Definition of 58 Toppiness in I

Density in 77 • Trimming, for fairs 267

Distribution of, over body 70 Uniformity in 81

Fiber in 60, 74 Watery 86

Felting in 84 Yolk in 62

Influences hurtful to 37 Worm, stomach 391

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