PROPERTY OF 1. L. BLAKEMAN, Danville, Kentucky. No. - i Marine Biological Laboratory Keceived f I Accession No. rs. ± . -. Lon jry, Jr. Given By Place,_ - L .orarian 5 i ROBEaT B£ALI,, BOOKFEI.LER iND StaTIONEB 4'J5 rennsylT»Dia Avenue, Washington, P. C. cO CD 2 == o zr a a r-R a m D Ap es and H alf - Ap e s - MAN AND APES, AN EXPOSITION OF STRUCTURAL RESEMBLANCES AND DIFFERENCES BEARING UPON QUESTIONS OF AFFINITY AND ORIGIN. BY ST. GEORGE MIYART, F.R.S., Y.P.Z.S., LECTURER ON ZOOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMT AT ST. MART'S HOSPITAL. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON & CO., BROADWAY. 1874. LONDON : PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. TO W. K. PAEKER, ESQ., F.R.S., THIS LITTLE WORK IS Drfctcatefc, AS A SLIGHT MARK OF THE ADMIRATION AND REGARD FELT FOR HIM BY HIS AFFECTIONATE FRIEND, THE AUTHOR. DESCRIPTION OF FEONTISPIECE. FIG. 1. The Gorilla {Troglodytes Gorilla). 2. Skull of the Gorilla vertically and antero-posteriorly bisected, to show the great sagittal crest (s) rising above the brain cavity, and the snpra- orbital crest (o) above the orbit. 3. The Squirrel Monkey (Chrysothrix sciurea). 4. The Potto (Perodidicus Potto), showing the rudimentary condition of the index finger. 5. The Angwantibo (Arctocebus calabarensis). 6. The Tarsier (Tarsius spectrum), showing the foot at its maximum of elongation, relatively, in the whole order Primates. 7. The Aye-Aye (Cheiromys madagascariensis). LIST OF WOODCUTS. PAGK 1. Chimpanzee (Troglodytes) . . . .12 2. Orang (Simia) young .... 15 3. Orang, adult male . . . . .19 4. Siamang Gibbon (Eylobates) ... 21 5. Lar Gibbon . . . . .21 6. Wouwou Gibbon .... 23 7. Entellus (Semnopithecus) . . . .23 8. Black-crested monkey ... 25 9. Moor monkey . . . . .25 10. White-thighed monkey (Colobus) . . 29 11. Temminck's Colobus . . . .29 12. Mona (Cercopithecus) .... 31 13. Green monkey . . . • .31 14. Diana monkey . . . • 35 15. White-nosed monkey . . . .35 16. White-eyelid monkey .... 37 17. Toque (Macacus) . . . . .37 18. Ehesus ..... 39 19. Wanderoo . . . . .39 20. Chacma (Cynocephalus) ... 43 21. Mandrill ...... 43 22. Drill ...... 45 23. Coaita (Ateles) . . . . .45 24. Chameck ..... 47 25. The brown Sapajou ( Ctbus) . . .47 VI LIST OF WOODCUTS. PAGR 26. Yellow-breasted Sapajou 51 27. Bed Howler (Mycetes) . 53 28. Couxio (Pithecia) 57 29. Short-tailed Saki (Brachyurus) 57 30. Marmoset (Hapale) 61 31. Silky monkey . 61 32. Skull of ape .... 65 33. Skull of Lemur 65 34. Diadem Lemur (Indris) 67 35. The short-tailed Indri . 71 36. Vari (Lemur) .... 71 37. White-fronted Lemur . 73 38. Slow Lemur (Nycticebus) 73 39. Slender Lemur (Loris) . 77 40. Maholi Galago (Galago) 79 41. Foot of Man and of Orang 89 42. Skeleton of trunk (man) . 93 43. Skull of Man 99 44. Skull of Chimpanzee 99 45. Skull of Orang 101 46. Blade bone of Man . 107 47. Human arm and hand bones . 109 48. Skeleton of Man . . 113 49. Skeleton of Orang 115 50. Skeleton of Chimpanzee . . 115 51. Human haunch-bone and sacrum 119 52. Human leg and foot bones . 123 53. Ankle-bones of Chierogakus and Galago 127 54. Brain of Man . 139 55. Brain of Orang 139 56. Brain of Chimpanzee . 141 57. Brain of Mandrill 141 58. Kahau .... . 153 59. Face of Kahau 153 60. Dentition of Hapalemur . 157 61. Axolotl .... 183 CONTENTS. Pakt I. PAGE External form, habits, geographical distribution and classification ....... 1 Part II. External skeleton (skin and hair), and internal skeleton {the bones") ......... 84 Part III. Nervous system, visceral anatomy, summary of characters and question of affinity and origin . . 134 d>y//f/ MAN AND APES. PART I. The too frequent injustice of popular awards is a trite subject of remark. Christopher Columbus, with a hardihood now somewhat difficult to realise, sailed across an utterly unknown ocean to the discovery of a New World, which nevertheless has not received its appellation from him, but from his imitator, Amerigo Yespucci. As with the new geographical region so with the new force "galvanism." It received its name from Galvani, who called attention to it in 1789 ; but Swammerdamm had none the less discovered it more than a hundred and thirty years earlier. B MAN AND APES. Again, the doctrine of evolution as applied to organic life — the doctrine, that is, which teaches that the various new species of animals and plants have manifested them- selves through a jmrely natural process of hereditary succession — is widely spoken of hy the term " Darwinism." Yet this doctrine is far older than Mr. Darwin, and is held by many who deem that which is truly " Dar- winism ' (namely, a belief in the origin of species by natural selection) to be a crude and utterly untenable hypothesis. We find yet another and parallel example of popular misapprehension in the opinion widely prevalent respecting one species of those animals — the apes — which most nearly resemble us in bodily structure. The species referred to is the much-talked- of Gorilla, and the popular misapprehension concerning it is twofold; first as to its dis- covery, and secondly as to its nature. The Gorilla is very generally supposed to have been first discovered and made known MAN AND APES. to science by M. de Chaillu, whereas, in truth, it was both discovered and described years before M. de Chaillu's name was heard of in connection with it. It was discovered by Dr. Thomas Savage, who, with the assistance of an American missionary, the Rev. Mr. Wilson, procured enough anatomical materials to enable Pro- fessor Jeffries Wyman (in the United States) to describe * important parts of its anatomy. Other specimens were soon afterwards procured, and were described in our own country by Professor Owenf more than twenty years ago. The misconception as to the discovery of the Gorilla, however, is but a trifling matter ; that as to its nature and rank is of far greater importance. The lively interest which has been awak- ened by recent assertions respecting what is * See ' Boston Journal of Natural History/ vol. iv. 1843-4, and vol. v. 1847. t See 'Pro. Zoo. Soc.' 1851, and 'Trans. Zool. Soc.' vol. iv. and v. B 2 MAN AND APES. called " the descent of man," manifests itself far and wide in the daily press — in popular caricatures — on the theatrical stage, and in the Houses of our own Legislature as in the French Assembly. It is interesting also to note that whereas a few years ago the notion of the brute ori- gin of man was vehemently and all but uni- versally scouted, the public are now carried by a wave of sentiment in a diametrically opposite direction, and there is even a widely diffused sympathy with notions which but lately were found so unpalatable. Then there was not tolerance to listen to, far less to fairly appreciate, the arguments advanced by cer- tain men of science in support of their views. Now there is as little disposition as ever to weigh evidence, but the tendency is to accept without examination and without criticism the statements of every advocate of the essential unity of man and beasts. Concomitantly with this change of senti- ment there has also arisen a popular belief in MAN AND APES. the semi-humanity of the Gorilla, or at least an impression that the Gorilla possesses a very special and exceptional affinity to man. This animal is now popularly supposed to be closely connected with that " missing link ' which, as is asserted, once bridged over the gulf separating man from the apes. The Gorilla, if not the direct ancestor of man, is yet generally thought to be related with exceptional closeness to such direct ancestor, and so to constitute the one existing and visible bond between ourselves and the lower animals. Highest of apes — close ally of the Negro — the Gorilla is by some supposed to surpass and excel the humbler and commoner apes, as man surpasses and excels the Gorilla. It is proposed here, putting aside all pre- judice, to investigate, by the unimpassioned process of enumerating and weighing facts of structure, what is the teaching of nature as to the affinities of various apes to man. It is not, therefore, intended to touch directly upon the question of the ape origin of man considered 6 MAN AND APES. in the totality of his nature, because that is a matter not to be settled without the interven- tion of the philosopher and the psychologist. The anatomist — as such, however wide and detailed may be his acquaintance with different animals — is necessarily incompetent to offer a valid opinion on the subject. The matters to be here investigated concern physical science only — facts of zoology and of anatomy, together with the inferences which may be drawn from them respecting man's bodily structure. The questions, then, which are to occupy us, are the following: 1. What is the real zoological position and nature of the Gorilla? 2. What are the degrees of resemblance to man which the various kinds of apes exhibit ? 3. What is the bearing of these facts upon the doctrine of evolution (or deriva- tion), as applied to man's body, including the question as to the direction which the line of genetic affinity seems to take in passing from man through the apes to lower animals ? Whatever existing species is most nearly MAN AND APES. related to that extinct root-form, which, ac- cording to Mr. Darwin's hypothesis, was the immediate ancestor of man — must exhibit a greater number of structural characters like those of man than any other existing species. The ape, next in affinity, must show the next degree of resemblance, and so on. • If the Gorilla really possesses that excep- tional affinity to man with which it is popu- larly credited, it must exhibit a cluster of structural approximations to man such as are not to be found in any other animal. If, asrain, there should be reason to think that any anatomical peculiarities have special hereditary significance (either from their not being related to habit, or from the organ in which they are found), then such peculiarities should exist in the Gorilla if it deserves the pre-eminence so commonly attributed to it. In order to understand the first point to be considered (the Gorilla's zoological position), a few words must be said as to the classifica- tion of animals generally. 8 MAN AND APES. All the higher animals (from beasts to fishes) are separated off from lower animals (such as insects, worms, and shell-fish), and form by themselves a great group (or sub- kingdom) called Vertebrata.* The Yerte- brata are divided into five classes : — 1. Mam- malia (beasts). 2. Aves (birds). 3. Reptilia (reptiles). 4. Batrachea (frogs and efts). 5. Pisces (fishes). Each of these classes is subdivided into a number of subordinate groups termed orders, and the class Mammalia may be divided into about twelve of such groups. These are (beginning with the lowest) : 1. Monotremata (Duck-billed Platypus and Echidna). 2. Marsupialia (pouched beasts). 3. FAentata (sloths, ant-eaters, &c). 4. Ungu- lata (hoofed beasts). 5. Proboscidea (elephants). 6. Sirenia (Dugong and Manatee). 7. Cetacea (whales, porpoises). 8. Carnivora (flesh-eating * So called because the animals contained in it always possess a spinal column or back bone, which (except in a few fishes) is made up of a series of separate bony pieces, each of which is called a vertebra. MAN AND APES. 9 beasts). S.Rodentia (mice, squirrels, hares, &c). 10. Insectivora (moles, hedgehogs, shrews, &c). 11. Cheiroptera (bats). 12. Primates. The order Primates contains man (zoo- logically considered) and all the apes and Lemurs ; and it is subdivided into two great groups, or sub-orders. The first of these contains man and the creatures most like him (the apes), on which account it has been called Anihrqpoidea. The second sub-order contains the Lemurs proper and the animals most like them, on which account it has been called Lemuroidea, the creatures contained in it when spoken of being generally also termed " Half-apes " or " Lemuroids" The animals contained in these two sub- orders are exceedingly different, respectively, in structure, and there can be no question but that the anatomical differences between man and the lowest apes are very much less than those which distinguish the lowest apes from the highest of the half-apes. The Anihrqpoidea may conveniently be 10 MAN AND APES. spoken of as man and apes, but structurally the group is divisible into three families* the first of which (Hominidce) contains man only (Homo). The apes may be classed in two families (which, however, scarcely differ so much from each other as do the apes, as a whole, from man), which are as neatly distinguished by geographical distribution as by structural differences. The first of these two ape families is termed Simiadce, and is made up of the apes of the Old World. These are, in fact, almost confined to Africa and Southern Asia, the Rock of Gibraltar and Japan being the northern limits of the group. The second ape family is called Cebidce, and is exclusively confined to Tropical America. * Orders (or sub-orders) are always in zoology sub- divided into smaller groups, each of which is termed a family, and each family is again sub-divided into smaller and more subordinate groups termed genera. Each genera finally is made up of one, few, or many species, as the case may be. MAN AND APES. 13 The Simiadce are again subdivided into three smaller groups or sub-families : — 1 . The Simiince 2. Semnopithecince ; and 3. Cyno- pithecince. The first of these sub-families con- tains the Gorilla, the Chimpanzee, the Orang, and the Gibbons — or long-armed apes. These creatures are the apes which, on the whole, are most like man. They are often there- fore emphatically spoken of as the " anthro- poid apes," and they are also (on account of the bony structure of their chest) termed the " latisternal " or " broad-breastboned ' apes. The Gorilla and the Chimpanzee together constitute the genus Troglodytes. They are both inhabitants of the warmest parts of Western Africa. The Gorilla is much the larger and more bulky animal of the two ; but both kinds are vegetarians as to diet, and arboreal in habit. That the Gorilla in external appearance is not pre-eminently man-like may be seen by the Frontispiece herewith given ; and a single visit to the British Museum 14 MAN AND APES. will serve to convince any unprejudiced observer what a mere brute it is. The Chimpanzee (Fig. 1) has often been ex- hibited alive in this country, and is an attrac- tive feature in menageries, not only from its resemblance to a child deformed by preter- natural wrinkles of age, but also from its live- liness and the facility with which it acquires a number of playful tricks. The anatomy of this animal was very accu- rately described and figured by Tyson in his ' Anatomie of a Pigmie,' published in 1699, and the representation of its external form there given is much better than many which have subsequently appeared. The Orang (Figs. 2 and 3), which forms the genus Simla is exclusively an inhabitant of Borneo and Sumatra, where it attains a con- siderable bulk, but not equal to that of the Gorilla. Slow, solitary, and peaceful in its habits, the Orang never voluntarily abandons the lowland forests, which supply it at once with shelter and with food. Fig. 2. — The Oeang (Simia) in immature condition. MAN AND APES. 17 In captivity its deliberation and langour present a marked contrast with the petulant vivacity of the Chimpanzee. Nevertheless, when attacked it can defend itself with alacrity and effect, as the following anecdote, which Mr. Wallace tells us in his very interesting ' Malay Archipelago,' shows : — "A few miles down the river there is a Dyak house, and the inhabitants saw a large Orang feeding on the young shoots of a palm by the river side. On being alarmed he re- treated towards the jungle, which was close by, and a number of the men, armed with spears and choppers, ran out to intercept him. The man who was in front tried to run his spear through the animal's body, but the Orang seized it in his hands, and in an instant got hold of the man's arm, which he seized in his mouth, making his teeth meet in the flesh above the elbow, which he tore and lacerated in a dreadful manner. Had not the others been close behind, the man would have been more seriously injured, if not killed, as c 18 MAN AND APES. he was quite powerless ; but they soon de- stroyed the creature with their spears and chop- pers. The man remained ill for a long time and never fully recovered the use of his arm." The Gibbons (or long-armed apes) from the genus Hylobates, containing several distinct species, the largest and most interesting of which is called the Siamang (Fig. 4). In external appearance the Gibbons more nearly resemble the Orang than the African Troglodytes, on account of the length of the arms, which is even greater than in Simla. They are, however, much more active in their habits, though generally gentle in disposition. The power of voice possessed by some kinds is remarkable. The Gibbons, like the two preceding genera, have no vestige of a tail. The various species of Gibbons are spread over the South Eastern portion of the con- tinent of Asia, and in the Indian Archipelago — as Borneo, Sumatra, and Java. They are all remarkable for their wonderful agility, swinging themselves for prodigious distances Fig. 3. — The Adult Male Orang. C 2 Fig. 4. — The Siamang Gibbon (Hylobutts). Fig. 5. — The White-handed ok Lar Gibbon. Fig. 6.— The Silvery Gibbon or Wouwou. YiG, 7.— The Extelltjs Monkey (Semnopithecw). pig 8. — The Black-crested Monkey. Fig. 9. — The Moor Monkey. i MAN AND APES. 27 from bough to bough with great rapidity by means of their enormously long arms, which reach down to the ankle-joint when the body is erect. The Siamang inhabits Sumatra, and goes about in troops, which morning and evening make the woods re-echo with their sonorous cries. The white-handed or Lar Gibbon (Fig. 5) comes from Malacca and Siam. It was described and figured by Buffon. The Silvery Gibbon, or Wouwou of Camper (Fig. 6) is an inhabitant of Java. The Gibbons differ from the higher Simiince in that they have the small pads of naked callous skin upon which the body rests when in a sitting attitude. These naked spaces are called ischial* callosities. The second sub-family embraces a num- ber of large long-tailed species of monkeys, * So called because they cover the lower part of that portion of the haunch-bone which is called the ischium. (Fig. 51, a 7). 28 MAN AND APES. grouped into two genera. The first of these Semnopithecus — of which the Entellus (or Sacred Monkey of the Hindoos) may serve as an example— is entirely confined to Southern Asia (Fig. 7). The Semnopitheci have a small thumb on each hand, and are provided with ischial callosities. The arms are shorter than the legs, and their progression on the ground is quadrupedal. They are less active than the Gibbons or most other old-world apes. Gentle when young, they become morose with age. The largest species is the singular Kahau or Probosis Monkey, an ape of Borneo (Figs. 58 and 59, page 153) . The black-crested and Moor monkeys (Figs. 8 and 9) have soft glossy fur. The animals of this genus are rarely seen in menageries. There are numerous species of a geographical distribution similar to that of the long-armed apes. The other genus, Colobus (remarkable for the absence of the thumb), is as exclusively African. The Celobi are like the Semnopitheci in form Fig. 10.— The White-thighed Monkey (Colobus). Fig. 11.— Temminck's Colobus. Fig. 12.— The Mona Monkey (Cercopithecus). Fig. 13.— The Green Monkey. MAN AND APES. 33 and habit, but their hands (or forepaws) are destitute of thumbs, or have them only in a quite rudimentary condition. Many of the species are decorated with beautiful fur, so that their skins are an article of commerce, and are often made to cover ladies' muffs. There are various species of Colobi. Temminck's Colobus (Fig. 11) inhabits Sierra Leone. The White-thighecl Colobus (Fig. 10), a most beautiful animal, is from the banks of the Gambia. The third sub-family (Cynopithecince) con- tains three genera, namely, Cercojjithecus, Macacus, and Otocephalus. The first of these, Ceixopitheciw, is made up of smaller, long- tailed African monkeys, some of which are very common in our menageries ; as are also species of the second and Asiatic genus Macacus, in which the length of the tail is different in different kinds. Some of the Cercopitheci are very attractive little beasts, and the females and young are often kept as D 34 MAN AND APES. pets. Such are especially (Fig. 14) the Diana Monkey (so called from its white- crescentic band above the forehead) and the White-nosed Monkey (Fig. 15). Both are inhabitants of the warmer parts of Western Africa. The Mona Monkey (Fig. 12) is remarkable for its brilliant coloration, its head being yellowish-olive with a black stripe on the forehead, and yellowish whiskers, and a purple face. The back is chestnut brown, and there is a white spot on each side near the root of the tail, which is black. The Green Monkey (Fig. 13), from the Cape de Yerd Islands, is one of the commonest and best known species of the genus. The White-eyelid Monkeys (Fig. 16) differ in some small characters from the other Cercopitheci, so that they have been by some authors placed in a distinct genus. mhey are also inhabitants of Western Africa. All the Cercopitheci have thumbs pretty well developed ; they have also ischial callosities and Fig. 14. — The Diana Monkey. Fig. 15. — The White-nosed Monkey. D 2 Fig. 16. — A White-eyelid Monkey. Fig. 17.— The Toque (Macacus). ' /^'l, - .. Fig. 18. — The Ehesus Monkey. Fig. 19. — The Wandehoo. MAN AND APES. 41 " cheek-pouches." These pouches are placed one on each side of the month, and the animals make use of them as pockets wherein to stow away food for subsequent consump- tion. The Macaci, or Macaques, are not found in Africa, but they extend farther north than any other monkeys. As it is, two species of this genus (M. Speciosus and M. Inuus) are respectively found in Japan and at Gibraltar. The Gibraltar ape is pretty closely resembled by an Indian Monkey — the Rhesus — which swarms in many parts of Hindostan (Fig. 18). Some Macaci, as e.g., the Toque (Fig. 17), have a sort of cap of more or less elongated radiating hairs upon their head. The Wan- deroo (Fig. 19) has the face encircled by a kind of mane of very long hairs, giving this ape a very conspicuous and distinctive appearance. All the Macaques have thumbs, cheek- pouches, and large ischial callosities. They are generally less gentle and docile than the 42 3IAN AND APES. Cercojntheci, and approximate in disposition, as also in appearance, to the next group. The third genus, Cynocephalus, contains the great and brutal Baboons, which are entirely confined to Africa and that part of Asia which is zoologically African — namely, Arabia. From amongst the species of the genus may be mentioned the Chacma of South Africa and the Drill and Mandrill of Western Africa. The Chacma (Fig. 20) is remarkable for the elongation of its muzzle. It is a powerful brute, frequenting rocks and living in troops. Its food is mainly vegetables, but it will also eat eggs, and large insects, and scorpions, which it is said to deprive of their sting by a rapid and dexterous pinch. The Drill (Fig. 22) is a large beast with a black face. The Mandrill (Fig. 21) is one of the largest of the apes, exceeding the Chim- panzee in bulk. It is remarkable for the brilliant coloration of the face, the cheeks being brilliant blue, the nose vermilion, and the beard golden yellow. Fig. 20.— The Chacma Baboon (Cynocephalus). Fig. 21. — The Mandrill. Fie. 22.— The Drill. Tig. 23.— The Coaita (Ateles). Fig. 21. — The Chameck Spider Monkey. s ■ Fig. 25. — The Brown Sapajou or Capuchin Monkey (Ctbux). MAN AND APES. 49 All the Baboons have thumbs and cheek- pouches, and their ischial callosities are very large and conspicuous, being sometimes bril- liantly coloured. The second family of apes, the Cebidce, or monkeys of the New World, form a very distinct group from the Simiadce, and a little experience readily enables an observer to pro- nounce at a glance that a given ape belongs to the New World without waiting to ex- amine its distinctive characters. They range throughout the Continent of Tropical America, though their headquarters are the forests of Brazil. Strange to say they are absent from the West Indian islands. All the Cebidce are devoid of ischial cal- losities and cheek pouches. None have the prominent muzzles of the African baboons, and none attain to so great a bulk as do these latter. More generally (and for the most part almost exclusively) arboreal than are the apes of the New World, many of the Cebidce are E 50 MAN AND APES. furnished with a prehensile tail, which serves as an important aid in climbing, and is a structure quite absent throughout the Simiadce, The apes of the New World also differ in having an extra grinding tooth on each side of each jaw, and in the fact that their thumbs are never opposable like those of the Simiadce and of Man, but bend almost in the same plane with the fingers. Also the septum between the nostrils is broad instead of narrow. The Cebidcenxe subdivisible into iive smaller groups or sub-families : — 1. The Cebince ; 2. Mycetince ; 3. Pitheciince ; 4. Nyctipithecince ; and 5. Hapalirwe. The sub-family Cebince contain the genera Ateles and Cebus. The Spider Monkeys Ateles are, as their name implies, long-limbed and slender, but their hands are as thumbless as are those of the African apes before noticed. Their long tails are strongly prehensile and naked beneath towards the tip, for more secure prehension. So powerful is their grasp that Yig. 26.— The Yellow-breasted Sapajou (Cebus). E 2 Fig. 27.— The Ked Howling Monkey (Mycetes). MAN AND APES. 55 the whole body can be easily sustained banging by the tail only. It even serves as a fifth hand, grasping and bringing in objects other- wise out of reach. The Spider Monkeys are very gentle in dispositiou, and seem by this, by their long limbs and great agility, to represent, as it were, in the New World the Gibbons of the Eastern Hemisphere. There are various species of Spider Monkeys. Amongst them may be mentioned the Coaita (Fig. 23), which is destitute of every external trace of a thumb ; and the Chameck (Fig. 24), in which each thumb is represented by a minute, nailless tubercle. The commonest American monkeys are the Sapajous (Cebus), which are those generally exhibited for their tricks by itinerant Italians. They have long tails curled at the end, but not naked beneath, nor capable of grasping with the power possessed by the tails of the Spider Monkeys. There are numerous races of Sapajous, but 50 MAN AND APES. the individuals vary so remarkably that the number of species has been as yet by no means satisfactorily determined. The common brown Sapajou, or Capuchin (Fig. 25), and the yellow-breasted kind (Fig. 26) may be mentioned as examples. The Sapajous make good pets, being both lively and gentle ; their voice, moreover, is attractive, having a gentle and pleasing flute- like sound. The Howling Monkeys (Mycetes) are slug- gish and, apparently, stupid animals. They have long and very prehensile tails (Fig. 27) ; but, as their name implies, it is their power of voice which particularly distinguishes them. They have longish thumbs, and their muzzles are more produced than are those of any other of the Cebidce ; so that they may be considered, as it were, to be the Baboons of the New World, as the Spider Monkeys are its Gib- bons. The Howlers are strictly arboreal in their habits, and especially frequent the forests of Fig. 28. — The Couxio (Pithecia). Fig. 29. — A Short-tailed Saki (Brachyurus). MAN AND APES. 59 Brazil. Their tail is naked beneath towards its tip, as in the genus Ateles. The second sub-family of American mon- keys, the Pitheciince or Sakis, is interesting from peculiarities in the hairy clothing. The tail may be long or short, but is never pre- hensile. There are two genera — the long-tailed species, forming the genus Pitkecia ; while the short-tailed species are grouped under the generic designation Brachyurus. One of the species, the Couxio (Fig. 28), is furnished with a magnificent beard ; and from its blackness, it has received the specific ap- pellation P. Satanas. Another species, the Yarke, has the head, in the female sex, adorned with elongated hair. The Brachyuri are the only American apes with short tails (Fig. 29), and they are the least arboreal, frequenting bushes rather than trees. They are very timid creatures, and gentle and rather slow in their movements. It is but very rarely that any of the Pitheciince have been 60 MAN AND APES. brought alive to Europe. They have the front teeth of the lower jaw (lower incisors) much inclined instead of standing up vertically, as in the other apes and in man. The little Squirrel Monkey (Chrysotlirix) — Frontispiece, Fig. 3 — is a singularly attractive and beautiful little animal. Two allied genera are called respectively Callitkrix and Nycti- pithecus. These three genera constitute the sub-family Nyctipithecince. None of them have prehensile tails. The typical form Nyctipithecus, or the Douroucouli, is nocturnal in its habits. The Squirrel Monkey, or Saimiri, appears to eat insects more readily and greedily than vegetable food. The last sub-family of American monkeys comprises the delicate little Marmosets (Fig. 30), or Ouistitis (Hapale), which differ notably from all the other apes, whether of the Old or New World ; so that some authors have purposed to raise them to the rank of a distinct family. Fig. 30.— A Marmoset (Hapale). Fig. 31.— The Marikina or Silky Monkey. MAN AND APES. 63 They have, like the other American monkeys, the extra grinding tooth on each side of each jaw, but at the same time the hindermost grinder, present both in all the other apes and in man, here disappears. The great toe is exceedingly small, and each of the five fingers is furnished with long, pointed, and curved claws, while the inner- most of the five fingers (the thumb) is not at all opposable to the others. The tail is not prehensile, but long, and furnished with more or less elongated hairs. The Marmosets are about the size of Squirrels, or smaller. They are, like Squirrels, active in their motions, and arboreal, living in small troops. They eat fruit and insects, and are very delicate in constitution ; so that, though often brought to this country, they generally live but a short time. Nevertheless, they breed here occasionally, and bring forth as many as three at a birth; while all the other apes habitually bring forth but one. 64 MAN AND APES. There are numerous species of Marmosets. Several kinds have a long tuft of hair on each side of the head. . One beautiful species, the Marikina or Silky Monkey (Fig. 31), has the fur of golden yellow. The Ouistitis has little intelligence, and cannot, it appears, be taught the tricks easily learned by other apes. Passing now to the second sub-order of the Primates, i.e., to the Lemuroids, or Half-apes, we find a geographical distribution of much interest. The great bulk of the sub-order is exclusively confined to the Island of Madagascar, three genera only being found on the continent of Africa, and not elsewhere, and three others in South Eastern Asia only. In fact, the Lemuroids have a distribution on the earth's surface similar to that of the woolly-haired races of men. All the Half-apes differ strikingly from the apes in external appearance, but there is much - Utt-^^MlllfMin ||flj| Fig. 32. — Skull of a Young Ape (Cercopitlieciis). Fig. 33. — Skull of a Half Ape (Lemur). fa Fig. 34.— The Diadem Lemur (Indr.'s). F 2 31 AN AND APES. 69 difference between the different kinds of half- apes themselves. The difference in external appearance be- tween the apes and half-apes is accompanied by a variety of important anatomical distinc- tions.* The sub-order Lemuroidea is divided into three families, as in the Anthropoidea ; but while it is the highest family of the higher sub-order, namely, the family Hominidce, which contains but a single o;enus, but one genus is found in the two lower orders of Lemuroidea, namely, in the Cheiromyidce and Tarsiidce, while the family Lemuridce contains the bulk of the sub-order. All the Lemuroids eat vegetable food or insects, and all are nocturnal in their habits. None possess a prehensile tail, cheek-pouches, or ischial callosities, and almost always the muzzle is much more produced than in most apes (Fig. 33). * For details see 'Pro. Zool. Soc.' 1873, May 20th, " On the Zoological Rank of the Lemuroidea." 70 MAN AND APES. The family Lemur idee is again divisible into four sub-families: (1) the Indrisince ; (2) the Lemurinoe; (3) the Nycticebince ; and (4) the Galag ininoe. The first sub-family contains various species, all exclusively confined to the island of Madagascar. They are the largest animals of the Lemuroid sub-order. One species is the short-tailed Indris (Fig. 35) ; another is the Diadem Lemur (Fig. 34), which has a long tail ; and a third (to which reference will hereafter occasionally be made) is the Woolly Lemur. Though some of the just-mentioned species have the word u Lemur ' as part of their name, the true Lemurs (Lemur), which are the typical Lemuroicls, are members of the second sub-family, the Lemurinoe. They have woolly fur, long tails, and pointed fox-like muzzles. There are numerous species, which present much variety in colouration and arrangement of the fur. As examples, may be mentioned Fig. 35.— The Short-tailed Lndri. ^i S I '■'■ v^^^fc.- Fig. 36. — The Yari {Lemur). Fig. 37.— The White-Fronteb Demur. =^< ^KP^ .i Fig. 38. — The Slow Lemur (Xyctkebas). MAN AND APES. the ruffed Lemur, or Yari (Fig. 36), and the white-fronted Lemur (Fig. 37). Lemurs are very common animals in mena- geries, and live fairly in confinement. They make agreeable pets, though their powerful eye-teeth render an accidental bite no slight infliction. They are exclusively natives of Madagascar, as also are the other two genera of this sub- family, Hapalemur and Lepilemur — the last- mentioned genus being the only one of the three which is furnished with a tail shorter than the body. The species belonging to the third sub-family constitute a curious group of slow-paced, tail- less, or short-taijed Lemuroids (Nycticebince), and contains two African and two Asiatic genera. The African genera are the Potto (Perodicticus), and the Augwantibo (Arctocebus) (see Frontispiece, Figs. 4 and 5). The Asiatic genera are the Slender Lemur (Loris) (Fig. 39) and the Slow Lemur (Nycticebus) (Fig 38). In all these four genera the forefinger of 76 MAN AND APES. each hand is short, but in the Potto it is reduced to a minute rudiment, so that each hand is but three-fingered. All possess a very tenacious grasp, and by a special arrangement of the muscles and tendons the mere stretching of the leg causes the toes to flex and embrace tightly any object placed within their grasp. In this way the dead body may be securely suspended by the weight of the trunk extending the legs. These animals devour not only eggs and insects, but also birds, in addition to fruit. The fourth sub-family (Galaginince) con- tains two genera — one an exclusively Mada- gascar type, the other as exclusively peculiar to the continent of Africa. Both have the ankle elongated in a re- markable degree and in a peculiar manner, described below (Fig. 53) with the rest of the skeleton. The Madagascar genus is called Cheiro- galeus. The other genus of the sub-family is called Fig. 39. — The Slender Lemur (Loris). MAN AND APES. 81 Gal ago (Fig. 40). It is a singular and beautiful genus, widely distributed over the continent of Africa, and containing many species. They have, as just remarked, feet of very peculiar construction, are very active in their move- ments, and great leapers. Another genus of Half-apes is so excep- tional as to form a family by itself (Tarsiidce). It is the Tarsier (Tarsius). These little animals inhabit the Islands of Celebes and Borneo, and have a foot of the Galago type, but still more exaggerated (Frontispiece, Fig. 6). The last genus of the sub-order, which also ranks as a family called Cheiro-myida?, is the Aye- Aye ( Cheiromys). This very remarkable animal (Frontispiece, Fig. 7) was discovered by Sonnerat in Madagascar, in 1780, and was never again seen till 1844, when a specimen was forwarded to Paris. It is now represented in our national collection by two stuffed specimens and by a skeleton ; and there is also a skeleton in the Museum of the G 82 MAN AND APES. Royal College of Surgeons. The Aye-Aye is said to live on grubs which infest trees beneath the bark. The Tarsier and the Aye- Aye are the two animals which depart most widely from the general type of organization prevalent in the order Primates. Thus it becomes evident that the position of the Gorilla is in the African group, of the latisternal. sub-family, of the Old World ape family, of the Anthropoid division of the order Primates. This is the answer to the first of the three questions proposed. The various groups of Primates may be tabulated as follows : — MAN AND APES. 83 SUB-ORDER I.— ANTHROPOIDEA. Family I.— Homlxid^j Homo. Family IT.— Simiad^e Sub-family. f Troglodytes. 1. Simiince . iSimia. {Hylobates. 2. Semopithecince J Semnopithecus. { Colobus. iCercopithecus. Macacus. .Cynocephalus. Family III. — Cebid^e Sub-family. i 1. Cebince . 2. Mycitince 3. Puheciince f Ateles. \ Cebus. Mycetes. I Pithecia. 1 Brachynrus. j'Callithrix. 4. Nyctipithecince \ Chrysothrix. (Nyctipithecus. 5. Hapalince . Hapale. SUB-ORDER II.— LEMUROIDEA. ' Indrisince . . Indris. Family IV. — Lemtjkid^:. <{ Sub-family. Lemurince . Nycticebince Galaginince Family V. — Taesiid^ . Family YI. — Cheikomyid^: f Lemur. < Hapalemur. (Lepilemur. Nycticebus. Loris. Perodicticus. , Arctocebus. (Cheirogaleus. | Galago. Tarsius. Cheiromys. G 2 84 PAET II. The second and more interesting question now follows : " What are the degrees of re- semblance to man which the various kinds of apes exhibit ? ' It may be well to begin with what is most manifest and external — the hair. All the apes and all the Half-apes agree together, and differ from man in having the body almost entirely clothed with copious hair, and es- pecially in never having the back naked. The poster o-inferior part of the body is indeed conspicuously naked, and the skin there thickened, in the Baboons and long- tailed monkeys of the Old World. But the presence of such ischial callosities can hardly MAN AND APES. 85 be approximation to the nakedness of man, since both in Simla and in Troglodytes they are wanting, while in Hylobates they are exceedingly small. On the other hand, the absence of these dermal thickenings in the Orang, Chimpanzee, and Gorilla is no especial mark of affinity to man, since they are equally absent in all the American apes and in all the Lemuroids. One of the most grotesque conceptions suggested by Mr. Darwin is that the naked- ness of man, and especially of woman, has been produced by the gradual extension over the body (through the persistent choice of more and more hairless spouses) of an incipient local nakedness like that now existing in certain apes.* No facts known to the author afford the slightest basis for this bizarre hypothesis. No single ape or Lemuroid has so exclusive and preponderating a development of hair on the head and face as exists in most men. As to the head, long hair thereon is not a * See "Descent of Man," vol. ii. p. 377. 86 MAN AND APES. character found in the highest apes, but rather in the Semnopitheci, and in forms approaching the Baboons. As to the face, a beard and copious whiskers are not un- known amongst apes. The male Orang (Fig. 3) has a beard, and certain Cercopitheci (e.g., the Diana Monkey, Fig. 14) have long hair on the cheeks and chin. Nevertheless, it is not in the highest apes, nor even in the higher family, that we find a luxuriance in this respect like what we may often find in man. We must go for such luxuriance to the New World apes — to the Sakis (see Fig. 28), which are certainly not the highest forms even of their own family, and which indeed show a certain resemblance (e. g., in their teeth) to the Lemuriod sub-order. The opposed directions of the hair on the arm and forearm respectively (the apices converging to the elbow) is the same in most latisternal apes as in man. Nevertheless, in at least one such ape (H. agilis) the hair of the whole limb is directed uniformly towards MAN AND APES. 87 the hand, as in most lower species. Yet we find it m some of the Cebidce as in man. Passing to the solid, structures which the hair clothes, we come to one of the most characteristic peculiarities of the human body. The whole of the apes and the whole of the Half-apes agree together, and differ from man in having the great toe, or (as it is called in anatomy) the hallux, so constructed as to be able to oppose the other toes (much as our thumb can oppose the fingers), instead of beiug parallel with the other toes, and exclu- sively adapted for supporting the body on the ground. The prehensile character of the hallux is fully maintained even in those forms which, like the Baboons, are terrestrial rather than arboreal in their habits, and are quite quadrupedal in their mode of progression. It was this circumstance that led Cuvier to give to that separate order in which he places man alone, the name Bimana, while on the order of apes and Lemurs he imposed the term Quadrumana. 88 MAN AND APES. The dispute as to whether the latter term is or is not applicable to the apes seems rather a dispute about words than about material objects. If we accept, with Professor Owen, as the definition of the word " foot," " an extremity in which the hallux forms the fulcrum in standing or walking" then man alone has a pair of feet. But, anatomically, the foot of apes agrees far more with the foot of man than with his hand, and similarly the ape's hand re- sembles man's hand and differs from his foot. Even estimated physiologically, or according to use, the hand throughout the whole order remains the prehensile organ par excellence, while the predominant function of the foot, however prehensile it be, is constantly locomo- tive. Therefore the term Quadrumana is apt to be misleading, since anatomically as well as physiologically both apes and man have two liands and a pair of feet.* The thumb, in anatomy the pollex, shows * See 'Phil. Trans.' 1867, p. 362. MAN' AND APES. 91 no similar uniformity of condition. In the most man-like apes it is relatively much smaller than in man, and the Lemurs are more mau-like than the apes in the develop- ment of this member. As we liave seen, the latisternal apes are, like man, devoid of a tail. A similar resem- blance is, however, presented by much lower forms, as e.g., by the ape of Gibraltar, and even in the Slender Lemur {Loins) (Pig. 39). As we descend from man, when we first encounter a tail at all, we find it at almost its maximum of development in the whole order, for such is its condition in the Semnopithecince. Short /tails exist in the most varied forms from Macacus to Arctocebus ; but a prehensile tail is found nowhere in the order Primates, save amongst the genera of the American continent. The commoner monkeys of the Old World (the Cynopithecince) have the cheeks peculiarly distensible, serving as pockets. In so far as 92 MAN AND APES. the higher apes resemble man in the absence of this condition, they share that resemblance with all the lower forms of the order, since no cheek-pouches exist in the Cebidce or in any of the Lemuroidea. Passing now to internal anatomy, it will be well to dwell with care on the characters presented by the skeleton. "Without a patient consideration of manv details, it will be im- possible to arrive at any sure result as to the question under consideration, or as to that which is to follow. Hasty conclusions, de- rived from a few characters only, will be cer- tain to mislead us in any investigation of the teaching of nature with respect to the affinities of organised beings. The back-bone of man exhibits a beautiful sigmoid curvature, and is strongly convex in front in the lumbar region. Now it is not in the latisternal apes, but in some of the Baboons, that we meet with the nearest re- semblance to man in this particular. The lumbar region of the back-bone ex- Fig. 42.— Skeleton of the Trunk of Man. a 6, the seven neck bones, or cervicle vertebrae ; c d, the five bones of the loins, or lumbar vertebrae ; g, the sacrum ; A, the hip-bone or ilium ; i, the ischium ; k, the pubis ; /, the thigh socket or acetobulum. MAN AND APES. 95 hibits in most apes certain bony prominences,* which are rudimentary in man. The three highest genera resemble man in this respect, but the same resemblance is found in the Slender Lemur (Lor is) and in closely allied forms. The sacrum f of man (Fig. 51, b) is also nearly as much resembled (size not being con- sidered) by that of Loins as by those of the highest apes. Again, in the angle which this bone forms with the lumbar part of the back- bone, man is most resembled, not by the highest apes, but by some Baboons. The same may be said respecting the concavity of the anterior surface of the sacrum ; and of the three highest genera it is not the Gorilla and Chimpanzee which resemble man most nearly, but the Orang. The hinder aspect of the back-bone exhibits * Termed " Metapophyses " and " Anapophyses." For details as to these see 'Pro. Zool. Soc.' 1854, pp. 571-576. •f The " sacrum " is the large and solid piece of the back-bone to which the haunch-bones are attached. 96 MAN. AND APES. a number of prominences termed spinous processes* These, in most apes, are differently directed towards the two ends of the series, so that they tend to converge towards a single point in the back. They do not do so in man and the latisternal apes, but neither do they in Loins and its allies (Nycticebince). In that the breast-bone, or sternum, is relatively short, and composed but of two bones, man agrees not so much with Troglodytes and Simla as with the Gibbons ; and in the Siamang the sternum is even shorter and broader relatively than in man. The Orang exhibits a singular peculiarity in that the breast-bone long remains made up of ossifications arranged in pairs, side by side, successively (Fig. 49). The normal number of ribs in the Gorilla and Chimpanzee is thirteen pairs,* in the Orang and some Gibbons it is twelve, as in man. In the Orang and Gibbons there are, as in man, five lumbar vertebrae ; in the Gorilla MAN AND APES. 97 and Chimpanzee there are but four, and some- times only three. The bones of the neck (cervical vertebrae) in man have but short spinous processes, while in the Orang and Gorilla these are enormously elongated. It has been proposed to account for this latter condition by the great weight of the head and jaws in these apes. The little group Nycticebinae, however, presents us with a parallel diversity, though the head and jaws are about equally developed in all of them. These spines are quite short in Loris and Nycticebus, while they are prodigiously long in Perodicticus and Arctocebus. The skull of man presents in the frontal region an elevated and rounded contour, very different from what we find in the apes generally, and notably in the higher family of them. It is in the American forms — especially in CallitJmx and Pithecia — that we find the greatest resemblance to man in this respect. It is in the Gorilla that great bony crests (for muscular attachment) — like those H 98 MAN AND APES. of a carnivorous animal — attain their maxi- mum of development. Frontispiece, Fig. 2. The relation of the face to the brain-case is shown by what is called the cranio-facial angle. This angle is estimated by comparing the direction of a line drawn parallel to the base of the skull with another line drawn from the front end of that base to the middle of the lower margin of the upper jaw. Stress has been laid on the difference existing between man and the Gorilla as to this angle. But it does not appear to be a really important character, since much difference exists with regard to this character in forms admitted by all to be closely related, such as the two Baboons — the Mandrill and the Chacma. There is one small cranial character, how- ever, in which the Gorilla approaches man more nearly than does any other Primate. This is the existence of a certain riclge (termed vaginal) on the under surface of the bone which encloses the internal ear. An- other process of the same bone (called Fig. 43. - Skull op Man. Fig. 44.— Skull of Chimpanzee. H 2 MAN AND APES. 103 styloid) is, however, sometimes developed more in accordance with man in one of the Ba- boons than in any other Primate ; while of the latisternal apes it is not the Gorilla, but the Orang, which in this matter is the most human. The Gibbons are more human than the Orang, Chimpanzee, or Gorilla as to the preponderance of the brain-case of the skull over the bony face. But the smaller Ame- rican monkeys exceed the Gibbons in this respect, while the Squirrel Monkey exceeds even man himself. A striking feature in the human skull is the prominence of the inferior margin of the lower jaw in front ; i.e., the presence of a " chin." The feature is quite wanting in the Gorilla, as also in the Orang and Chimpanzee. A more or less developed " chin," however, exists in the Siamang, although no other species of Gibbons, and indeed no other ape or Lemuroid, shows us a similar condition. Another marked character of man's skull is 104 MAN AND APES. the j^rojection and transverse convexity of the bones of the nose. This convexity is quite absent in the Chimpanzee and in most Gib- bons. In the Orang these bones are exceed- ingly small and flat, often even uniting into one bone, or with the adjoining jaw-bones, if indeed they are not altogether absent. In the Gorilla, on the other hand, they are slightly convex transversely at their upper part, so that here we seem to have evidence of the predominant affinity of the Gorilla to man. Further examination, however, shows that this character can have no such meaning, since a still more decided convexity is found to exist in some Semnopitheci, and even in the lowest Baboons. Moreover, in these Baboons the nasal bones only become convex towards maturity, being at first flat. This character therefore can hardly have been at one time a general one, now preserved only in a few scattered forms. The relative length of the arm and hand, when compared with that of the spine, is very MAN AND APES. 105 different in all the latisternal apes from what exists in man. In this respect the Gorilla is less like man than is the Chimpanzee, though both are less unlike him than are the Orang and Gibbons. In the Gibbons the arm and hand attain about twice the relative length attained in us. The analogous proportions of the leg and foot show a near agreement between the Orang and man. While the Gibbons and Spider Monkeys have relatively longer legs than we have, the Gorilla and Chimpanzee have much shorter ones. If the foot be ex- cluded from the calculation, then the Orang differs the most from man, while the Gibbons exhibit a remarkable conformity to him. In shape the blade-bone of the Gorilla is singularly like that of man, but that of its congener, the Chimpanzee, differs more from man than does that of the Orang. The collar-bone, in both the Chimpanzee and Gorilla, is much shorter when compared with the blade-bone than it is in man. In the 106 MAN AND APES. Gibbons, however, it is still larger than in him ; while in the Orang its relative length is much as in man. Both the bone of the upper arm (humerus) and the bones of the fore-arm (Radius and Ulna) in the Chimpanzee, when compared in length with the spine, more resemble the same bones in man than do those of any other latisternal ape. In the length of the hand, so estimated, the Gorilla is the most human, and it is so in the relative length of the fore-arm bones to the humerus. Much has been said of late as to a certain perforation (Supra condyloid foramen) which has been found in a certain number of ancient human skeletons. Some have supposed this circumstance to indicate a transition in human structure from that of the higher apes. In fact, however, it is not in the Gorilla, nor in any of the latisternal apes, nor even in any of the apes of the Old World, that we find such a perforation normally developed. Such a con- dition is not met with till we descend to the Fig. 46. — Blade-bone of Man with parts of Humerus and Collar-bone. 1, 2, and 3, its three borders ; 4 and 5, its spine and acromicon process ; 6 and 7, supra and infra-spinous fossae ; 8, socket for 9, head of humerus. Fig. 47. — Bones of Man's Aem and Hand. A. Humerus: 4, shaft ; 6, internal condyle ; 7 and 8, surface for radius and ulna. B. Radius : 1, surface for humerus ; 2, neck ; 3, tubercle; 4 and 5, surface for wrist-bones ; 6, shaft. C. Ulna: 1-3, sigmoid cavity for humerus ; 4, shaft ; 5, styloid process. D. Bones of the hand : 1, The eight bones of the wrist ; 2-2, The five metacarpal bones, that of the thumb supporting two other bones (phalanges), each of the others supporting three such bones. MAN AND APES. Ill lower Cebidce (from Cebus downwards), though, with the exception of Arctocebus, it is constant in the Half-apes. The little bones of the wrist are in man only eight in number, arranged in two trans- verse series. The bones of the upper, or proximal row, are : (1) the scapjlioides (or scaphoid bone) ; (2) the lunare (or semi-lunar bone); (3) the cuneiform (or wedge-shaped bone) ; and (4) the pisiform (or pea-shaped bone). The bones of the lower, or dictal row, are : (1) the trapezium ; (2) the trapezoides ; (3) the magnum ; (4) the unciform. The magnum is the largest bone of the dictal series, while the unciform articulates with and supports two metacarpals, namely, the fourth and fifth. The trapezium presents a saddle-shaped surface to the first long bone ((metacarpal) of the thumb, being concave in one direction and convex in another. In almost all the other Primates there are 112 MAN AND APES. nine of such ossicles, an extra bone, called the intermedium, being interposed between the Scaphoides, the Trapezoides, and the Magnum. In the Gorilla and Chimpanzee there are but eight, while the Orang and Gibbons have, like the other monkeys, nine. It is very remark- able that amongst the Lemuroidea we find certain forms, namely, Indris and Lepilemur, which agree with Homo and Troglodytes in having but eight bones to the wrist. One of these wrist-bones (the Pisiform) is much smaller relatively in man and in the Orang than in almost any other species of the order. Strange to say, however, we find in the little slender Lemur (Loris) an approximation in this respect to man much beyond that ex- hibited by the Gorilla. The thumb, as to its relative length, taking again the back-bone as our standard of com- parison, is in the Gorilla more like that of man than is the thumb of any other of the Simiince. But the same degree of resemblance to man exists in many lower forms ; and in Fig. 48.— Skeleton of Man. A, hallux ; B, fibula ; c, clavicle ; f, feruur ; H, humerus ; I, ischium ; L, hip-bone or ilium ; O, pollex ; P, pubis ; K, radius ; T, tibia ; V, ulna. Fig. 49. — Skeleton of Orang. Fig. 50. — Skeleton of Chimpanzee. A, hallux ; B, fibula; c, clavicle ; F, femur; H, humerus ; I, ischium ; L, hip-bone or ilium; 0, pollex ; 0, poll ex ; p, pubis ; R, radius; T, tibia ; u, ulna. I 2 MAN AND APES. 117 the short-tailed Indris the proportion is pre- cisely the same as in ourselves. The very same remarks may be applied to the index finger also. The proportion borne by the thumb to the longest finger of the hand in the Gorilla is slightly more human than what we find in any other latisternal apes. Nevertheless the difference between these apes is trifling, and all differ greatly from man in this proportion ; while in the slender Lemur, and in the Marmoset, the proportion is nearly as it is in us, although in the Marmoset the thumb is not, as in us, opposable. The pelvis, consisting of the two haunch- bones and sacrum, is one of the most cha- racteristic parts of the human skeleton, closely connected as is its shape with the upright posture of man's body. In the breadth of the pelvis (Fig. 42), com- pared with the extreme length of each haunch- bone, man greatly exceeds every other Primate ; he is most nearly approached, however, in this 118 MAN AND APES. respect, not by the Gorilla, but by some of the Gibbons. In the breadth of the pelvis, compared with its extent from before backwards, man is more nearly reached by some Baboons than by any latisternal ape. The haunch-bone (os innominatum) is made up of three bones — 1, the ilium; 2, the pubis; and 3, the ischium — which have coalesced into one mass (Fig. 51, a). In the length of the whole mass, compared with that of the spine, the Gorilla, Chim- panzee, and Orang are considerably less human than are the Gibbons. In the re- lative length of the crest of the ilium, how- ever, the Orang takes precedence. Each ischium ends below in what is called its " tuberosity," on which the body is sup- ported when in a sitting posture. Above this tuberosity is a prominence called the " spine of the ischium ' (Fig. 51, A 9). The shortness of the ischia, the smallness and the non-eversion of the tuberosities, and B Fig. 51.— Haunch-bone and Sacrum of Man. a, Haunch-bone (os innominatum) : a, ilium; b, ischium; c, spine of pubis; 1, acetobulum ; 2, crest of ilium; 3, 4, 5, and 6, iliac spinous processes ; 7, tuberosity of ischium ; 8, ramus of ischium ; 9, spine of ischium; 10, 11, and 12, ramus of pubis; 13, obturator foramen. B, Sacrum : its anterior surface. MAN AND APES. 121 the prolongation of the latter upwards nearly to the spines of the ischia, are four characters almost peculiar to man. He is most nearly approached in these points, not by the Gorilla, nor by any of the Simiince, but by the Slender Lemur (Loris). The development of the spine of the ischium is much more human in the Orang than either in the Chimpanzee or Gorilla. The length of the thigh-bone (femur) compared with that of the back-bone, is greater in man than in any latisternal ape. He is most nearly approached in this respect by the Spider Monkeys (Ateles), while in the Gibbons it is even longer than in man. Comparing the length of the thigh-bone with that of the haunch-bone, we find the short-tailed Indris to be the most human, while Hylobates is more so than are the higher genera of Simiince. In man the relative length of the thigh- bone to the humerus is enormously greater than in any latisternal ape. The Lemurs 122 MAN AND APES. approach us most nearly in this proportion, while, as regards the slenderness of the thigh- bone, the Gibbons agree with us much more than do the thick thigh-boned Orang, Chim- panzee, and Gorilla. The " neck " of the thigh-bone (Fig. 52, A. 2) is especially long and well defined in man and in the latisternal apes, but the Gorilla in this respect is the least human of the latter. The lower end of the thigh-bone of man is distinguished by the much greater projection downwards of its inner part {inner condyle). It are not, however, the Simiince, but the Spicier Monkeys, and some Baboons, which in this character present the nearest resem- blance to ourselves. The length of the shin-bone, compared with that of the back-bone, is greater in man than in any of the Old World apes, except the Gibbons, in which its relative length is even a little greater than in man. Some of the Spider Monkeys resemble him in this more than do any other Primates. Fig. 52. — Bones of Man's Leg and Foot. A, Thigh-bone or Femur : 1, its head ; 2, neck ; 3 and 4, trochan- ters ; 5, shaft ; 6, inner condyle ; 7, outer condyle ; 8, surface for tibia ; 9, tuberosity above inner condyle. B, Tibia: 1, and 2, surface for femur; 4, tuberosity ; 5, shaft; 6, internal malleolus ; 7, horizontal surface for ankle of. C, Fibula : 1, head ; 2, distal end or external malleolus. D, Bones of Foot : 1, astragalus; 2, calcaneum ; 3, naviculare ; 4, cuboides ; 5, internal cuneiform bone ; 6, middle cuneiform bone ; 7, external cuneiform bone. MAN AND APES. 125 The length of the shin-bone compared with that of the thigh-bone is much the same in the Gorilla and Chimpanzee as in man. In the Gibbons it is rather longer, relatively, and in the Orang considerably longer. In the Slow Lemur, however, the proportion is almost as human as in the Gorilla. When the length of the entire foot is com- pared with that of the back-bone, the Orang appears at much disadvantage (as to resem- blance to man) in comparison with all the other latisternal apes ; the Baboons, however, excel the last-named animals in this respect. When the length of the foot is compared with that of the entire leg without it, the Gibbons are seen to take precedence (as to human likeness), not only of all the other latisternal apes, but of all other Primates whatever, except the Nycticebince. If the length of the foot be compared with that of the shin-bone, the Gibbons come absolutely to the front rank of the whole order, while the Orang is seen to be, in this 126 MAN AND APES. respect, the most inhuman of all Primates. The proportion as to length borne by the foot to the hand is more human in the short-tailed Indris than in any other Primate; while, of the latisternal apes, the Gibbons are the least human, and the Orang the most so ; the last named, however, not being nearly so human as is the short-tailed Indris. The ankle-bones form what is called the tarsus, and are seven in number, namely, the astragalus, calcaneum, cuboides, naviculare, and three cuneiform bones. None of them can ordinarily be called " long bones." The astragalus receives the weight of the trunk from the shin-bone ; the calcaneum (or os calcis) forms the prominence of the heel. In the genera Galago, Cheirogaleus, and espe- cially in Tarsius, the os calcis and naviculare are so extraordinarily produced as to become "long bones" — thus adding another segment to the limb. In man the ankle-bones form a larger Fig. 53.— a, Tarsus of Chierogaleus. b, Tarsus of Galago. 1, Astragalus ; 2, calcaneum ; 3, naviculare ; 4, cuboides ; 5, 6, 7, cuneiform bones. MAN AND APES. 129 proportion of the entire foot than in any other Primates except in the Galaginince. As to this point the Gorilla and Chimpanzee are con- siderably more human than are the Gibbons and Orano\ In the man-like slenderness of the ankle, however, some Gibbons much more approximate to man than do the other latis- ternal apes. In the relative length of the great toe (hal- lux), compared with that of the back-bone, man is very closely approximated by the Gorilla, while the Orang falls off greatly. In this pre-eminence, however, the Gorilla is about equalled by some of the Sakis of America. In the proportional length of the longest toe to the back-bone, man is most nearly approached by the Gorilla and Chimpanzee amongst the latisternal apes. He is, however, much more nearly approached by the Lemurs. In man, the great toe much more nearly equals the longest toe in length than in any other Primate. The Chimpanzee is the most K 130 MAN AND APES. human in this matter, but the short-tailed Inclris is almost as much so, and excels the G-orilla and all other latisternal apes. The great toe of the Orang differs from that of every other Primate in that the terminal joint is often absent. In the proportion borne in length by the great toe to the entire foot, man is most closely resembled by the Gibbons and Chim- panzee, while the Orang is the least human of all Primates. In the diminutive develop- ment of the hallux, as compared with the pollex, the Orang is even more exceptional, though an approximation to this is found in the lowest of apes — the Marmosets. In the proportion borne by the hallux to the pollex, man and the Gorilla agree ; then comes the Chimpanzee ; then the Gibbons, and, last of all, the Orang. The Little Squirrel Monkey, however, is almost as human as the Gorilla in this proportion. Such are the main affinities towards man's structure exhibited by the different kinds of MAN AND APES. 131 the higher apes as regards the skeleton. They show that the various species approxi- mate to man, not only in different degrees, but also in different modes. The Orang, cer- tainly, diverges more, as regards the skeleton, from man, than does any other latisternal ape. Thus it has the shortest leg, compared with the arm, of all Primates (hand and foot not being counted), while man has the longest. It has the absolutely longest hand and the shortest thumb, as compared with the fore- finger ; and it has the shortest thigh-bone, compared with the upper arm-bone, of all Primates. The pit for the ligamentum teres* is almost constantly absent, while in man, Gibbons, and the Chimpanzee it is as con- stantly present. The Gorilla alone sometimes shares with the Orang the condition of having no such pit. * This is a ligament which holds the thigh-bone in its place, passing as it does, like a round cord, from the head of the thigh-bone to the inside of the socket of the haunch-bone (acetabulum^), into which the thigh-bone fits. K 2 132 MAN AND APES. The Orang has the shortest shin-bone, compared with the upper arm-bone, and the longest foot, compared with the leg, in the whole order. It has the relatively shortest and most imperfect hallux of any Primate ; while in no other ape or Half-ape does the length of the second toe so closely approach that of the forefinger of the same individual. Estimated by the skeleton only, the Orang cannot be said to approximate to man in any supreme degree, although, as may be remem- bered, several points have been mentioned in which it is more human than in any other latisternal ape. ..,...-, The Gorilla and Chimpanzee have been seen to show many approximations to man as regards the skeleton. In some respects one species has been found to be the more man- like; in other points the other species has been so found. We have found that the Gibbons, one or other of them, exhibit various skeletal cha- racters more human than those presented by MAN AND APES. 133 any other members of the order. Finally, we have seen that even some of the Half-apes present most remarkable resemblances to man. The teaching then, of the skeleton, as also of the other parts we have as yet reviewed, seems to be that resemblance to man is shared in different and not very unequal degrees by