Cambridge Geographical Series m tr CD m CD BY THE SAME AUTHOR. ETHNOLOGY. Crown 8vo. With numerous Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Price i os. 6d. Opinions of the Press. The Geographical Journal. — " Both compact, full of details, and yet, strange enough, extremely readable... Will probably become a standard English classic on the subject." Quarterly Review.—"^ Prof. Keane's wonderfully condensed and at the same time fascinating handbook of Ethnology the relationship of these ancient peoples to ourselves is lucidly discussed." Centralblatt f. Anthropologie. — •" Fast jede Seite enthalt Bemerk- ungen, die zuweilen dogmatisch, immer wichtig, oft wertvoll und originell sind." Oxford Magazine. — " A most useful introduction to a wide and complex subject. Valuable references to original authorities abound.'7 Revue Bibliograph. Beige. — " Ce traite d'ethnologie est le meilleur que nous possedions jusqu'a present." Publisher's Circular. — " Mr Keane deserves the gratitude of all earnest students for the thoroughly admirable manner in which he has summarised ethnological data." D Anthropologie.— " L'ouvrage de M. Keane est un excellent expose de Fetat actuel de 1'anthropologie dans son sens le plus large... Une mine de renseignements precieux exposes d'une fac,on claire et avec des donnees bibliographiques exactes." Asiatic Quarterly Revieiv. — " A valuable and important contribu- tion to the study of Ethnology, deep enough for the scholar and yet simple enough for the studdnt." The Australasian. — "A synthesis of all the latest conclusions arrived at with respect to the natural history of the human family." American Journal of Sociology.—" We heartily commend Mr Keane's book to those who wish to know what Ethnology is, what its problems are, and by what methods it works." London Quarterly Review. — "The whole volume is packed with the results of modern science, put in a form so clear and instructive that the work will be a boon to every student." GENERAL EDITOR : F. H. H. GUILLEMARD, M.D. FORMERLY LECTURER IN GEOGRAPHY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. MAN PAST AND PRESENT. SLonUon: C. J. CLAY AND SONS. CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE. AVE MARIA LANE. (SlasgobJ : 263, ARGYLE STREET. F. A. BROCKHAUS. flefo gorfc: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 33ombao: E. SEYMOUR HALE. . MAN PAST AND PRESENT BY A. H. KEANE, F.R.G.S. LATE VICE-PRES. ANTHROP. INSTITUTE : CORRES. MEMBER FLORENTINE ROMAN AND WASHINGTON ANTHROP. SOCIETIES: EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF HINDUSTANI, UNIV. COLL. LONDON. Author of Ethnology; The Indo-Chinese and Oceanic Races and Languages; Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan, etc., etc. CAMBRIDGE: AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 1899 [A// Rights resetted.} PRINTED BY J. AND C. F. CLAY, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. PREFACE. IN the preface to the Ethnology, which formed the first volume of the Cambridge Geographical Series, a promise was held out that it might be followed by another dealing more systemati- cally with the primary divisions of mankind. The present volume appears in part fulfilment of that promise. In the Ethnology were discussed those more fundamental questions which concern the human family as a whole — its origin and evolution, its specific unity, antiquity and primitive cultural stages, together with the probable cradle and area of dispersion of the four varietal divisions over the globe. Here these divisions are treated more in detail, with the primary view of establishing their independent specialisa- tion in their several geographical zones, and at the same time elucidating the difficult questions associated with the origins and inter-relations of the chief sub-groups, and thus bridging over the breaks of continuity between " Man Past and Present." The work is consequently to a large extent occupied with that hazy period vaguely called prehistoric, when most of the now living peoples had already been fully constituted in their primeval homes, and had begun those later developments and migratory movements which followed at long intervals after the first peopling of the earth by pleistocene man. By such movements were brought about great changes, displacements, and dislocations, involving fresh ethnical groupings, with profound modifications, or even total effacements of racial or linguistic characters, and complete severance from the original seats of the parent stocks. In some cases the connecting ties are past recovery, so that the ethnical, like the geological, record must always remain to some extent a mutilated chapter in the history of the world and of humanity. But in our times many of the more serious gaps have vi PREFACE. been often most unexpectedly made good by the combined efforts of philologists, physical anthropologists, and especially archaeolo- gists, who have come to the welcome aid of the palethnologist, hitherto groping almost helplessly in this dark field of human origins. Thus the questions dealing with the early seats, migra- tions, and later inter-relations of the Caucasic peoples on both sides of the Mediterranean — -Hamitic Berbers and Egyptians, Iberians, Picts, Ligurians and Pelasgians — may now be profitably studied, thanks to the craniological measurements of Prof. Sergi and Dr Collignon, the linguistic inquiries of the late G. von der Gabelenz, and the antiquarian researches of Schliemann, de Morgan, Prof. Flinders Petrie, and especially Mr A. J. F.vans, in various parts of this most interesting of all ethnical domains. Availing myself of the results of their labours, I have here endeavoured to show that the Berber and Basque races and languages were originally one, that the Ligurians were not round- headed Kelts but long-headed Afro-Europeans, and that the Pelasgians belonged to the same pre- Hellenic stock, to which must now be credited the ^Egean cultures of pre-Mykenaean and Mykensean times. Should these conclusions be confirmed by further investigation, modern research may claim to have recon- structed the ethnical history of the wide-spread Mediterranean peoples, who still form the substratum, and in some places even the bulk, of the North African, Italian, Spanish, South French, and British populations. By analogous processes the dense clouds of ignorance have been somewhat dissipated in which have hitherto been wrapped the origins, early migrations, and present relations of the Bantu Negroes, of the proto-Malayan and Malagasy members of the Oceanic Mongol family, of the Koreans and Japanese, of the Jats and Rajputs, of the Uigurs, Samoyads, and other less known Finno-Turki groups, and, passing to the New World, of the Dakotan Redskins, of the Aztecs, Mayas, Quechua-Aymaras, Caribs and Arawaks. Another no less important object has been the elucidation of those general principles — scarcely more than formulated in the Ethnology — which are concerned with the psychic unity, the social institutions and religious ideas of primitive and later peoples. PREFACE. vii From this point of view the present may be regarded as a con- tinuous illustration of the first volume, and students of such sociological subjects as the family, clan and tribe, totemic, matri- archal and shamanistic usages, current views on primordial promiscuity and group marriages, early philosophies, theogonies, theories of the universe, assumed revelations involving sublime concepts of a Supreme Being in savage peoples of low cranial capacity, will here find some fresh materials not perhaps unworthy of their consideration. Special attention is given to the subject of coincidences in mythologies, folklore tales, and popular superstitions, such as the prevalent belief in the were-wolf (tiger, leopard, jaguar), and other strange but common modes of thought which may now be followed round the globe from Europe through Malaysia to Africa and the New World. The references to these matters, which will be easily found by consulting the index, may help the student in deciding between the antagonistic views of Prof. Max Miiller, who still holds that all such coincidences " have a reason if only we can find it1," and of those anthropologists who think that, where contact and outward influences are excluded by time and space, such parallelisms are proofs rather of the common psychic nature of man, everywhere acted upon by like causes during the early struggle for existence. Certainly the fresh data here brought together seem to lend strong support to the view that all these manifestations of the dawning reasoning faculty have their root in primitive economic conditions. They are associated in the first instance with the question, not of spirit or ancestor- worship, which comes later, but of the food supply, as shown by M. A. Bernard for the taboo of the New Caledonians (pp. 142-3), and by Mr W. E. Roth for the Australian class-marriage system (pp. 153-4). It follows that, like the physical characters of man, such mental phenomena, and especially those reflected in early social and religious observances, can no longer be profitably studied apart from the standpoint of evolution2. 1 Fortnightly Review, Oct. 1898. 2 See also Mr C. L. Henning's suggestive paper On the Origin of Religion. in The Amer. Anthropologist lot Dec. 1898, which reached me too late to be consulted during the progress of the work. viii PREFACE. A few words will suffice on the general plan and arrangement of the subject-matter. Two preliminary chapters, forming a close link between the two volumes, deal in a summary way with the cradle, origin, and migrations of the pleistocene precursor, with the Stone and Metal Ages (where it was important to accentuate the vast duration of the Neolithic period), and with the evolution of writing systems, with which is ushered in the strictly historical epoch. Then follow the chapters which are devoted seriatim to the primary groups and chief sub-branches of the human family. Each of the main sections is introduced with a general Conspectus, in which are briefly summarised the more salient features con- nected with the primeval home, past and present distribution, physical and mental characters, and chief sub-groups of the several main divisions. With the view of making this volume a trust- worthy book of reference on the multifarious subjects dealt with, I have everywhere aimed at accuracy in the statement of facts, which are as far as possible drawn from the best available sources, and supported by careful reference to recognised authorities. But in the handling of such a body of scattered materials, errors both of omission and commission can scarcely have been avoided, and I can but hope that they will be found neither numerous nor serious. A. H. K. ARAM-GAH, 79, BROADHURST GARDENS, N.W. March, 1899. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGES GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS . . i — 15 CHAPTER II. THE METAL AGES — HISTORIC TIMES AND PEOPLES . 16 — 34 CHAPTER III. THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE . 35 — 81 CHAPTER IV. THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. BANTUS-- NEGRITOES - BUSHMEN — HOTTENTOTS ... . 82 — 125 CHAPTER V. THE OCEANIC NEGROES : PAPUASIANS (PAPUANS AND MELANESIANS) ; AUSTRALIANS ; TASMANIANS ; NE- GRITOES . 126 — 168 CHAPTER VI. THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS . . 169 — 227 CHAPTER VII. THE OCEANIC MONGOLS . . 228—264 x CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. PAGES THE NORTHERN MONGOLS 265 — 313 CHAPTER IX. THE NORTHERN MONGOLS (continued} .... 314 — 348 CHAPTER X. THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES 349 — 404 CHAPTER XI. THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES (continued} .... 405 — 440 CHAPTER XII. THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES 441—489 CHAPTER XIII. THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES (continued} .... 490 — 509 CHAPTER XIV. THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES (continued} .... 510 — 564 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. (The Types are all from Photographs in the Collections of the British Museum, the Anthropological Institute, the Royal Geographical Society and the Author.) PLATE II. 6. PLATE III. PLATE IV. 8. PLATE V. Position of Pithecanthropus Erectus ..... Diagram of the Simian Stem showing Line of Human Ascent Evolution of the Akkadian Cuneiform Script PLATE I. i. Congo Native (Bantu Negro Type) ' 2. Zulu Girl (Bantu Negroid Type) 3. Nama Man (Hottentot Type) 4. New Caledonian (Melanesian Type), 1. Mulgrave Native (Australian Type) 2. Aeta Woman (Negrito Type, Philippines) 3. Panyan Woman (Negrito Type, India) 4. Rotuma Girl (Sub-Melanesian Type) 1. Javanese Girl (Malayan Type) 2. Bugis, Celebes I. (Malayan Type) 3. Nicobarese (Sub- Malayan Type) 4' 1) " " j. Lao Woman (Shan Type) i. Kalmuk Woman, Full Face (W. Mongol Type) 3. Kalmuk Woman, Profile ,, ,, 4. Samaghir (East Mongol Type) 1 . Gold of Amur River (South Tungus Type) 2. Gilyak Woman (N.E. Mongol Type) 3. Korean (East Mongoloid Type) 4. Liu-Kiuan (Sub-Japanese Type) PAGE 4 6 29 1 20 164 232 284 302 x CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. PAGES THE NORTHERN MONGOLS 265—313 CHAPTER IX. THE NORTHERN MONGOLS (continued} .... 314 — 348 CHAPTER X. THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES 349 — 404 CHAPTER XI. THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES (contimied} .... 405 — 440 CHAPTER XII. THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES 441—489 CHAPTER XIII. THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES (continued} .... 490 — 509 CHAPTER XIV. THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES (contimted} .... 510 — 564 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. (The Types are all from Photographs in the Collections of the British- Museum, the Anthropological Institute, the Royal Geographical Society and the Author.) i. 2. 3- 4- 5. PLATE II. 6. PLATE III. PLATE IV. 8. PLATE V. Position of Pithecanthropus Erectus ..... Diagram of the Simian Stem showing Line of Human Ascent Evolution of the Akkadian Cuneiform Script PLATE I. i. Congo Native (Bantu Negro Type) ' 2. Zulu Girl (Bantu Negroid Type) 3. Nama Man (Hottentot Type) 4. New Caledonian (Melanesian Type) , 1. Mulgrave Native (Australian Type) 2. Aeta \Voman (Negrito Type, Philippines) 3. Panyan Woman (Negrito Type, India) 4. Rotuma Girl (Sub-Melanesian Type) 1 . Javanese Girl (Malayan Type) 2. Bugis, Celebes I. (Malayan Type) 3. Nicobarese (Sub-Malayan Type) j. Lao Woman (Shan Type) 2. Kalmuk Woman, Full Face (W. Mongol Type) 3. Kalmuk Woman, Profile ,, ,, 4. Samaghir (East Mongol Type) 1 . Gold of Amur River (South Tungus Type) " 2. Gilyak Woman (N.E. Mongol Type) 3. Korean (East Mongoloid Type) 4. Liu-Kiuan (Sub-Japanese Type) PAGE 4 6 29 I2O 164 232 284 302 Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 9. PLATE VI. 10. PLATE VII. 1. " Sitting Bull " (Dakotan Type) 2. "Scorched Lightning" (Dakotan Type) 3. Yankton Chief (Dakotan Type) 4. Elizabeth Wynan (Dakotan Type) 1. Cree of Hudson Bay (N. Algonquian Type) 2. Spokan Warrior (Salishan Type) 3. Guatuso (Costa Rican Type) n. PLATE VIII. i. Carib (Guiana Type) 12. PLATE IX. 13. PLATE X. 14. PLATE XI. 3. 4- i. 2. 3- i. PAGE 394 15. PLATE XII. i. 2. 3- 4- i. 2. 3- 4- Tehuelche (Patagonian Type) Bohemian (West Slav Type) Egyptian Dancing Derwish (Hamito-Semitic Type) Egyptian Bedouin (Arab Type) Turco, Algeria (Hamitic Type) ^ " )> Berber Woman, Biskra (Mediterranean Type) J Persian of Shiraz (Iranian Type) Baluchi (Lowland Tajik Type) Kling Woman (Dravidian Type) Igorrote, Luzon I. (Indonesian Type) Toda Man, S. India (Caucasic Type) ] " '» J> Ainu, Sakhalin I. (Caucasic Type) Ainu, Yezo I. (Caucasic Type) 416 434 468 470 554 558 CHAPTER I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. The World peopled by Migration from one Centre by Pleistocene Man — The Primary Groups evolved each in its special Habitat — But all sprung from the Pliocene Precursor — The "First Man" -The Human Cradle-land— Characters of the First Man — The Transition from Pliocene to Pleistocene Man — 'Uniform Character of Pleistocene Man and his Works — Progress during the Stone Ages— The Primary Groups specialised in pre-Neolithic Times — Duration of the New Stone Age — The early History of Man a Geological Problem — -The Human Varieties the Outcome of their several Environments — Correspondence of Geographical with Racial and Cultural Zones. IN order to a clear understanding of the many difficult ques- tions connected with the natural history of the human family, two cardinal points have to be steadily borne in . . ._ . . . . The World mind — the specific unity ot all existing varieties, peopled by MI- and the dispersal of their generalised precursors fne^Centre'b over the whole world in pleistocene times. As both Pleistocene points have elsewhere been dealt with by me some- what fully1, it will here suffice to show their direct bearing on the general evolution of the human species from that remote epoch to the present day. It must be obvious that, if man is specifically one, though not necessarily sprung of a single pair, he must have had, in homely language, a single cradle-land, from which the peopling of the earth was brought about by migration, not by independent developments from different species in so many independent geographical areas. 1 Ethnology, Chaps. V. and VII. K. I MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. It follows further, and this point is all-important, that, since the world was peopled by pleistocene man, it was peopled by a generalised proto-human form, prior to all later racial differences. The existing groups, that is, the four primary divisions — Ethiopia Mongolic, American and Caucasic, — have each had their pleistocene ancestor, from whom each has sprung independently and diver- gently by continuous adaptation to their several environments. The Primary ^ tnev st^ constitute mere varieties, and not Groups evolved distinct species, the reason is because all come of each in its . special like pleistocene ancestry, while the divergences have been confined to relatively narrow limits, that is, not wide enough to be regarded zoologically as specific differences1. No doubt Dr R. Munro is right in suggesting that "during the larger portion of the quaternary (pleistocene) period, if not, indeed, from its very commencement, man had already acquired his human characters." But by " human characters " are here to be understood, not those by which one race may be dis- 1 Eth. Ch. VII. On the strength of this statement I have been claimed as a polygenist both by Sergi and by Ehrenreich, the latter remarking that "mil dieser jedenfalls naturgemassen Auffassung bekennt sich Keane, so eifrig er den Monogenismus verficht, doch im Grande zum Polygenismus" (Anthropologische Studien ilber die Urbewohner Brasiliens, Brunswick, 1897, p. 19). As well charge a writer with polygenist views who should say that most of the Whites born in " Greater Britain " are sprung from different groups of emigrants from the British Isles. The founders of the British colonies, though different individually, were of one stock, and so the pleistocene founders of the first human groups were also different individually, but of one stock, from which all mankind has sprung. As polygenist theories are again somewhat rife on the Continent, it may here be pointed out that excessive polygenism tends to discredit the very evolutionary teachings which its advocates profess to uphold. Starting from several absolutely independent centres, it arrives at the same results that are reached by the evolutionist starting from one absolute centre. Hence it is not needed in any scheme of human origins, while a little reflection will show that, without doing any great violence to their principles, these pluralists may readily accommodate their extreme views to the assumption that the primary varietal groups have been developed in different geographical areas (zoological zones) from so many undifferentiated groups of the generalised pleistocene stock. Had they sprung from specifically different pliocene anthropoids, as held by Sergi and others, the differences would now be not merely specific, but generic, which nobody maintains. - Address, Anthrop. Section, Brit. Ass. 1893. I.] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 3 tinguished from another, but those more general qualities of body and mind, by which man himself was already distinguished from all the other anthropoid groups. Till recently this statement must have been regarded as mere speculation. But it acquires a large degree of probability, if not absolute certainty, by the remains of Pithecanthropus erectus, found in 1892 by Dr Eugene Dubois in the pliocene beds of East Java1, that is, the very region which more than one eminent naturalist had pointed to as the probable original home of mankind. Since their discovery these remains have been subjected to the strictest scientific scrutiny, with the result that their But all sprung human character has been placed beyond reason- from the PHO- able doubt. They have, indeed, been described by some anatomists as rather pre-human than actually human2 . but nobody now denies that they at least represent a form inter- mediate between man and the higher apes, or rather between man and the generalised Simian prototype, which is practically the same thing. They do not bridge over the impassable gap between Man and Gorilla or Chimpanzee ; but they form, none the less, a true link, which brings Man much nearer than before to the common stem from which all have diverged3. No one has studied the question more carefully than M. L. Manouvrier, who concludes that Homo javanensis walked erect, was about the medium height, and a true precursor, possibly a direct ancestor, of man. Virchow's usual suggestion that the skull was "pathological," such as might be Man/'" picked up anywhere, is severely handled ; it is 1 Eth. p. 144. 2 O. C. Marsh, Amer. J. of Sc. June, 1896. 3 They also supply some of the essential elements of a human prototype, so that Virchow's assertion that " Noch ist kein einheitlicher Urtypus fur die Menschen festgestellt " (Rassenbildung &c., 1896, p. 5) no longer holds good. So also is turned aside the shaft of the polygenists, whose theory " dispenses with a cradle of mankind which causes the monogenists so much brain- cudgelling. We no longer need to find a single centre for man, and then start him on hypothetical wanderings over the globe" (Ehrenreich, op. cit. p. 21). The single centre, and the hypothetical wanderings, it may now be retorted, no longer present any serious difficulties, while the objections to the polygenist view remain unanswered and unanswerable (Eth. p. 156 sq.). I 2 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. pointed out that the cranial capacity decreases with the antiquity of all the skulls hitherto brought to light, and that this skull has a capacity of from 900 to 1000 c.c., that is, "stands at the level of the smallest which have been occasionally found amongst the reputedly lowest savage peoples." An -accompanying diagram shows its position intermediate between Chimpanzee and the Man of Spy'2, and Manouvrier adds that it may perhaps be more directly connected with the Australian race. " The differ- entiation of the human races having probably been but slightly Cro-Magnon POSITION OF P. ERECTUS. (Manouvrier, Bui. Soc. d'Anthrop. 1896, p. 438.) developed in the pliocene epoch, I may be permitted to suggest that the race of Trinil [Java] was the common ancestor of many 1 Bui. Soc. d'Anthrop. 1896, p. 419. 2 Eth. p. 146. I.] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 5 human races, if not of all those that have been subsequently specialised." Dr D. Hepburn also2 declares that the femur is distinctly human, and not merely ape-like, that it ante-dates all other human remains hitherto discovered, and that of living races the nearest akin are the Australians, Andamanese, Bushmen, thereby lending support to the view that these low races spring from a common primeval stock, which originally inhabited the now vanished Indo- African Continent3. This pliocene inhabitant of Java may thus in a sense be taken as the long sought-for "First Man"; and as it is not very probable that he can have had any un- Cr^fe ["nd3" doubtedly human precursors elsewhere, the Indo- Malaysian inter-tropical lands may also with some confidence be regarded as the cradle of the human family. Ethnology thus at last acquires a probable starting-point both for the dispersal of early man over the globe, and for the subsequent evolution of the human races in their respective zones of specialisation. In support of this view comes the opportune discovery made by Dr Noetling in 1894 of the works of pliocene man in Upper Burma4. To the doubts raised by Mr R. D. Oldham5 as to the occurrence of these chipped flints in the original deposit, suggesting that they may have been washed down from the plateau over which such implements are scattered, the finder has given a reply which seems to have satisfied everybody. He shows that the flints were really found in situ associated with the remains of such extinct fauna as Rhinoceros perimensis and Hipparion antelopinum, and assigns the beds to the Lower Pliocene, adding that he has made another find in the same beds, a femur and a humerus, worn and polished by human action6. This tropical Indo-Malaysian could therefore already use his hands to fashion his rude stone implements; he characters of could walk erect and had even occupied a tolerably the First Man- 1 Eth. p. 454. ; The Trinil Femur contrasted with the Femora of various savage and civilised Races, in J. of Anat. and Physio 1. 1896, xxxi. p. i sq. 3 Eth. p. 236. 4 Eth. p. 423—4. 5 Natural Science, Sept. 1895. 6 Natural Science, April, 1897. MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. wide domain, comprising at least the Sunda Islands and Indo-China, regions at that time still connected by continuous land across the shallow waters, nowhere over fifty fathoms deep, which now flow between the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra and Java. Lastly, he was about the average height, say, 5 feet 6 inches, and had a cranial capacity of perhaps 1000 c.c., that is, double that of the highest apes (Gorilla, Orang, both 450 to 500), not greatly inferior to that often occurring amongst the lowest present races (Australians, Negritoes, Bushmen, 1100 to 1300), and just midway between Gorilla and the highest present races (Europeans 1500), as shown in the subjoined diagram. European 1550 c.c. Low races — 1250 c.c P. erectus- — 1000 c.c SIMIAN STEM. In an instructive paper " On the Intermediary Links between Man and the Lower Animals," read before the Edinburgh Royal I.] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 7 Society (Jan. 4, 1897), Dr Munro remarked that the transition probably took place in a limited area, so that the chances of finding the intermediary links of this tion from Piio- stage were very small. On the other hand the probability of finding erect beings with skulls in all grades of development, from a slightly changed Simian type up to that of civilised man, was enormously greater. He regarded the erect posture as the most conspicuous line of demarcation between man and the lower animals. From this standpoint the Java skeleton would come under the category of human ; but if this line of distinction was to be dependent in any degree on mental phenomena, Dr Dubois was perfectly justified in regarding it as a transitional form, because it was a long time after the attainment of the erect posture before his religious, moral and intellectual faculties became human characters. Many fossil remains of man were intermediary links, which marked different stages in the history of mankind, and the further back such investigations were carried, the more simian-like did the brain-case become. If the geological horizon of the Java man were correctly defined as the borderland between the Pliocene and Quaternary [Pleistocene] periods, one could form some idea how far back we had to travel to reach the common stock from which men and anthropoids had sprung. The lower races of to-day, he concluded, were also survivals of intermediary links, which had been thrown into the side eddies of the great stream of evolution. This greatly strengthens the view always advocated by me that man began to spread over the globe after he had acquired the erect posture, but while in other physical and in mental respects he still differed not greatly from his nearest akin. But no doubt he already possessed the rudimentary organs, and consequently the germs, of speech, and this1, combined with his other advan- tages, enabled him soon to acquire sufficient supremacy over all other animals to constitute himself the one universal species. Hence the range of man alone coincides with that of the habitable world. Whether he had occupied the whole of this domain in the "He gave man speech, and speech created thought, Which is the measure of the universe." Prometheus Unbound ', n. 4. 8 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. pliocene age itself may well be doubted, and in the absence of sufficient evidence must in any case be left for the present an open question. Reasons have elsewhere been given1 for rejecting Sergi's tertiary Hominidtz, assumed to Migrations ^e already specialised in pliocene times, and the more probable view seems still to be that the occu- pation of the globe was not effected, or at least not completed, before the early pleistocene epoch. In other words, the earth was mainly peopled by the generalised pleistocene precursors, who moved about, like the other migrating faunas, unconsciously, everywhere following the lines of least resistance, advancing or receding, and acting generally on blind impulse rather than of any set purpose. That such must have been the nature of the first migratory movements will appear evident when we consider that they were carried on by rude hordes, all very much alike, and differing not greatly from other zoological groups, and further that these migra- tions took place prior to the development of all cultural appliances beyond the ability to wield a broken branch or a sapling, or else chip or flake primitive stone implements2. Herein lies the explanation of the curious phenomenon, which is such a stumbling-block to premature systematists, that all the works of early man, and man himself, everywhere present the most startling resemblances, affording absolutely no Uniform ....... .. character of elements for classification, for instance, during the Early Man and t{mes corresponding with the Chellian or first period his Works. of the Old Stone Age. Years ago Virchow declared that there was no distinguishing between the forms of palaeolithic implements found in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, and those who have examined the collections in Argentina, the United States, and Europe will readily assent to that statement. After referring to the identity of certain objects from the Hastings kitchen-middens and a barrow near Sevenoaks, Mr W. J. L. Abbot proceeds : "The first thing that would strike one 1 Eth. p. 37- 2 Thus Lucretius:— "Anna antiqua manus, ungues, dentesque fuerunt, Et lapides, et item silvarum fragmina rami." I.] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 9 in looking over a few trays of these implements is the remark- able likeness which they bear to those of Dordogne. Indeed many of the figures in the magnificent ' Reliquiae Aquitanicae ' might almost have been produced from these specimens." And Sir J. Evans, extending his glance over a wider horizon, discovers implements in other distant lands " so identical in form and character with British specimens that they might have been manu- factured by the same hands... On the banks of the Nile, many hundreds of feet above its present level, implements of the European types have been discovered, while in Somaliland, in an ancient river valley, at a great elevation above the sea, Mr Seton- Karr has collected a large number of implements formed of flint and quartzite, which, judging from their form and character, might have been dug out of the drift-deposits of the Somme and the Seine, the Thames or the ancient Solent." And on the very strength of these identities Sir John re-echoes my theory that man originated in the East and migrated thence to Europe'2. Certain skulls from South Australia seem cast in almost the same mould as the Neanderthal, the oldest known in Central Europe, and the palaeolithic crania hitherto discovered in the latter region present without exception the same uniform long-headed type. The same type persists, though not everywhere, well into the New Stone Age, so that at first sight one might suppose that but few or slight specialisations of the pleistocene precursors were anywhere developed during the immensely long Old Stone Age, to which M. Jules Peroche assigns a period of some 300,000 years since the beginning of the Chellian epoch3. But of course changes were always and everywhere going on, although scarcely perceptible in the less favoured regions, while in the later periods of the Old Stone during the Age the progress in the arts was so great that in some respects it was never afterwards surpassed or even equalled. Some of the exquisitely-wrought flints of the Solutrian period cannot now be reproduced, and many such objects ascribed by 1 Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1896, p. 133. ; Inaugural Address, Brit. Ass. Meeting, Toronto, 1897. See also Dr F. Carlsen in Glob us, 72, p. 67. f Les Temperatures quaternaires, Lille, 1897. 10 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. French archaeologists to the first would be assigned in England to the second Stone Age. With this advancement in culture, that of the physical man must have gone on hand in hand. Hence it seems a reasonable assumption to suppose that even before the close of palaeolithic times all the great divisions of mankind had already Division" mary been specialised in their several geographical areas, specialised in In any case we may safely conclude that the existing pre-Neolithic . ..... ...... Times. primary varieties had been everywhere fully consti- tuted in that intermediate period between the Old and New Stone Ages, which archaeologists have found it so difficult accurately to determine, and in which some have even imagined a complete break or " hiatus ", separating the two periods by an undefined interval of time. No such interval is conceivable everywhere, else we should have to suppose, not only that the natural history of the human species began again with the dawn of neolithic times, but also that this fresh start from nothing was made not by one generalised but by many highly specialised forms, not (on the creative assumption) by one pair planted in one region, but by several pairs or groups dotted in convenient localities over the face of the globe. Even for Europe no break of continuity is now admitted by the best observers, and Sir W. Turner, amongst others, assumes that " when Neolithic man reached Western Europe he in all likelihood found his Palaeolithic predecessor settled there, and a greater or less degree of fusion took place between them." Assuming therefore that the evolution of the human species was practically completed in all its fulness some Duration of the New stone time before the beginning of the New Stone Age, A.°~c we may perhaps form some approximately accurate notion of the date to which, not the pliocene and pleistocene forerunners, but their specialised late palaeolithic descendants may be referred. I have already ventured to suggest a period of about 100,000 years for the duration of the Post-Pleistocene epoch, which largely coincides with the New Stone Age2. Those who may have felt inclined to look on this as a somewhat 1 Nature, Jan. 13, 1898, p.- 259. • Etli. p. 55. I.] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. II wild conjecture are now invited to consider, first, the vast an- tiquity of strictly historic times in the light of recent research, and especially the still receding vista of Egyptian, Babylonian, and Minaean origins as summarily referred to in the following pages ; second, the inconceivably remote age assigned to the appearance of Neolithic Man in Scotland by no less an authority than Sir William Turner. After showing that there is undoubted evidence of the presence of man in North Britain during the formation of the Carse clays, this careful observer explains that the Carse cliffs, now in places 45 to 50 feet above the present sea-level, formed the bed of an estuary or arm of the sea, which in post- glacial times extended almost, if not quite across the land from east to west, thus separating the region south of the Forth from North Britain. He even suggests, after the separation of Britain from the Continent in earlier times, another land connection, a "Neolithic land-bridge" by which the men of the New Stone Age may have reached Scotland when the upheaved zoo-foot terrace was still clothed with the great forest growths that have since disappeared l. One begins to ask, Are even 100,000 years sufficient for such oscillations of the surface, upheaval of marine beds, appearance of great estuaries, renewed connection of Britain with the Continent by a "Neolithic land-bridge"? In the Falkirk district Neolithic kitchen-middens occur on, or at the base of, the bluffs which over- look the Carse lands, that is, the old sea-coast. In the Carse of Gowrie also a dug-out canoe was found at the very base of the deposits, and immediately above the buried forest-bed of the Tay valley2. That the Neolithic period was also of long duration even in Scandinavia has been made evident by Carl Wibling, who cal- culates that the geological changes on the south-east coast of Sweden (Province of Bleking), since its first occupation by the men of the New Stone Age, must have required a period of " at least 10,000 years." 1 Discourse at the R. Institute, London, Nature, Jan. 6 and 13, 1898. 2 Nature. 1898, p. 235. 3 Tidenfbr Blekings forsta bebyggande, Karlskrona, 1895, p. 5. 12 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Still more startling are the results of the protracted researches carried on by Herr J. Nuesch at the now famous station of Schweizersbild, near Schaffhausen in Switzerland1. This station was apparently in the continuous occupation of man during both Stone Ages, and here have been collected as many as 14,000 objects belonging to the first, and over 6000 referred to the second period. Although the early settlement was only post-glacial, a point about which there is no room for doubt, Dr L. Laloy2 has estimated "the absolute duration of both epochs together at from 24,000 to 29,000 years." We may, therefore, ask, if a comparatively recent post-glacial station in Switzerland is about 29,000 years old, how old may a pre- or inter-glacial station be in Gaul or Britain? From all this we see how fully justified is Mr J. W. Powell's remark that the natural history of early man be- comes more and more a geological, and not merely Man a Geoiog- an ethnological problem 3. We also begin to under- ical Problem. ° . stand how it is that, after an existence of some five score millenniums, the first specialised human varieties have di- verged greatly from the original types, which have thus become almost "ideal quantities," the subjects rather of palseontological than of strictly anthropological studies. And here another consideration of great moment presents itself. During these long ages some of the groups- most African negroes south of the equator, most Outcome of Oceanic negroes (Melanesians and Papuans), all their several Environ- Australian and American aborigines -- have re- mained in their original habitats ever since what may be called the first settlement of the earth by man. Others again, the more restless or enterprising peoples, such as the Mongols, Manchus, Turks, Ugro-Finns, Arabs, and most Euro- peans, have no doubt moved about somewhat freely ; but these later migrations, whether hostile or peaceable, have for the most part been confined to regions presenting the same or like 1 Das Schiveizersbild, eine Niederlassung aus palieolithischer tend neolitischer Zeit, in Nouveaux Metnoires Soc. Helvttiqne des Sciences Naturdles, Vol. xxxv . Zurich, 1896. ! L' Anthropologie^ 1897, p. 350. 3 Forum, Feb. i! I.] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 13 physical and climatic conditions. Wherever different climatic zones have been invaded, the intruders have failed to secure a permanent footing, either perishing outright, or disappearing by absorption or more or less complete assimilation to the aboriginal elements. Such are some "black Arabs" in Egyptian Sudan, other Semites and Hamites in Abyssinia and West Sudan (Himya- rites, Fulahs and others), Finns and Turks in Hungary and the Balkan Peninsula (Magyars, Bulgars, Osmanli), Portuguese and Netherlanders in Malaysia, English in tropical or sub-tropical lands, such as India, where Eurasian half-breeds alone are capable of founding family groups. The human varieties are thus seen to be, like all other zoo- logical species, the outcome of their several environments. They are what climate, soil, diet, pursuits and inherited characters have made them, so that all sudden transitions are usually followed by disastrous results1. "To urge the emigration of women and children, or of any save those of the most robust health, to the tropics, may not be to murder in the first degree, but it should be classed, to put it mildly, as incitement to it." Acclimatiza- tion may not be impossible, but in all extreme cases, it can be effected only at great sacrifice of life, and by slow processes, the most effective of which is perhaps Natural Selection. By this means we may indeed suppose the world to have been first peopled. At the same time it should be remembered that the first migra- tions were all completed in inter-glacial, if not in pre-glacial ages, when the climate of the globe was everywhere much milder than at present. Consequently the different zones of temperature were less marked, and the passage from one region to another more easily effected than in later times. In a word the pleistocene precursors had far less difficulty in adapting themselves to their new surroundings than modern peoples have when they emigrate, 1 The party of Eskimo men and women brought back by Lieut. Peary from his Arctic expedition in 1897 were unable to endure our temperate climate. Many died of pneumonia, and the survivors were so enfeebled that all had to be restored to their icy homes to save their lives. Even for the Algonquians of Labrador a journey to the coast is a journey to the grave. 2 W. Z. Ripley, Acclimatization , New York, 1896, p. 24. 14 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. for instance, from Southern Europe to Brazil and Paraguay, or from the British Isles to Rhodesia and Nyassaland. What is true of man must be no less true of his works ; from which it follows that racial and cultural zones must Correspond- coincide, while a correspondence must also exist ence of Geogra- phical with between these and the zones of temperature, except Racialand Cu!- r -, ,._ , . . . turai Zones. so iar as the latter may be modified by altitude, marine influences, or other local conditions. A glance at past and existing relations the world over will show that such harmonies have at all times prevailed. No doubt the overflow of the leading European peoples during the last 400 years has brought about divers dislocations, blurrings, and in places even total effacements of the old landmarks. But, putting aside these disturbances, it will be found that in the eastern hemisphere the inter-tropical regions, hot, moist and more favourable to vegetable than to animal vitality, have always been the home of savage, cultureless populations. Within the same sphere are also comprised most of the extra-tropical southern lands, all tapering towards the antarctic waters, and consequently too contracted to constitute areas of higher specialisation. Similarly the sub-tropical Asiatic peninsulas, the bleak Tibetan tableland, the Pamir, and arid Mongolian steppes are found mainly in possession of somewhat stationary communities, which present every stage between sheer savagery and civilisation. In the same way the higher races and cultures are confined to the more favoured north temperate zone, so that between the parallels of 24° and 50° (but owing to local conditions falling in the far East to 40° and under, and in the extreme West rising to 55°), are situated nearly all the great centres, past and present, of human activities — the Egyptian, Babylonian, Mykenaean (^Egean), Hellenic, .Etruscan, Roman, and modern European. Almost the only exceptions are the Minsean and Sabsean- (Himyaritic) of Yemen (Arabia Felix) and Abyssinia, where the low latitude is neutralised by altitude and a copious rainfall. Thanks also to altitude, to marine influences, and the con- traction of the equatorial lands, the relations are almost completely reversed in the New World. Here all the higher developments took place, not in the temperate but in the tropical zone, within I.] GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 15 which lay the seats of the Peruvian, Chimu, Chibcha and Maya- Quiche cultures ; the Aztec sphere alone ranged northwards a little beyond the Tropic of Cancer. Thus in both hemispheres the iso-cultural bands follow the isothermal lines in all their deflections, and the human varieties everywhere faithfully reflect the conditions of their several en- vironments. 16 CHAPTER IT. THE METAL AGES — HISTORIC TIMES AND PEOPLES. Progress of Archaeological Studies — Sequence of the Metal Ages — The Copper Age — The Bronze Age — The Iron Age — Hallstatt Culture — Man and his Works in the Metal Ages — The Prehistoric Age in the West — And in China — Historic Times — Evolution of Writing Systems — Hieroglyphs and Cuneiforms — The Alphabet — The Persian and other Cuneiform Scripts— The Mas-d'Azil Markings — Alphabetiform Signs on Neolithic Monuments —Character and Consequences of the later historic Migrations — The Race merges in the People — The distinguishing Characters of Peoples- Elements of Classification. IF, as above seen, the study of human origins is largely a geological problem, the investigation of the later develop- ments, during the Metal Ages and prehistoric Progress of Archaeological times, belongs mainly to the field of Archaeology. Hence it is that for the light which has in recent years been thrown upon the obscure interval between the Stone Ages and the strictly historic epoch, that is to say, the period when in his continuous upward development man gradually exchanged stone for the more serviceable metals, we are indebted chiefly to the patient labours of such men as Worsaae, Steenstrup, Forchhammer, Schliemann, Sayce, Layard, Lepsius, Mariette, Maspero, Montelius, Brugsch, Petrie, Peters, Haynes, Sir J. Evans, A. J. Evans and others, all archaeologists first, and anthropologists only in the second instance. From the researches of these investigators it is now clear that copper, bronze, and iron were indeed successively introduced in the order named, so that the current expressions, th?eMUetaiCAge. "Copper," "Bronze," and "Iron" Ages remain still justified. But it also appears that overlap- II.] THE METAL AGES. 17 pings, already beginning in late Neolithic times, were everywhere so frequent that in many localities it is quite impossible to draw any well-marked dividing lines between the successive metal periods. That iron came last, a fact already known by vague tradition to the ancients1, is beyond doubt, and it is no less certain that bronze of various types intervened between copper and iron. But much obscurity still surrounds the question of copper, which occurs in so many graves of Neolithic and Bronze times, that this metal has even been denied an independent position in the sequence. But we shall not be surprised that confusion should prevail on this point, if we reflect that the metals, unlike stone, came to remain. Once introduced they were soon found to be indis- pensable to civilised man, so that in a sense the " Metal Ages " still survive, and must last to the end of time. Hence it was natural that copper should be found in prehistoric graves asso- ciated, first with polished stone implements2, and then with bronze and iron, just as, since the arrival of the English in Australia, spoons, clay pipes, penknives, pannikins, and the like, are now found mingled with stone objects in the graves of the aborigines. But that there was a true Copper Age prior to that of Bronze, though possibly of not very long duration, except of course in the New World3, has been placed AJeh£ beyond reasonable doubt by recent investigations. Much attention has lately been paid to the subject by Dr 1 Thus Lucretius :— " Posterius ferri vis est aerisque reperta, Sed prior aeris erat quam ferri cognitus usus." 2 To indicate this association of stone and copper in pre- Aryan times and before the close of the New Stone Age, Italian archaeologists have introduced the compound term " eneolitico " ((zneus = copper, adj., and Xt'#os, stone), of \\hich Prof. G. Sergi writes: — " Questa civilta denominata neolitica o eneo- litica dalF uso del ranie, era caratterizzata dalP uso della pietra finamente lavorata e del rame, dal rito funerario dell' inumazione con sepolture in grotte artificial!, in tumuli, in dolmen, e quindi in forme e modi molto piu avanzati dell' uso degli Arii, quando giunsero in Europa, i quali avevano sepolture misere e vasi rozzissimi per cinerari" (Arii e Italici, Turin, 1898, pp. 199, 200). 3 Eth., p. 335. K. 2 [8 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. J. H. Gladstone, who finds that copper was worked by the Egyptians in the Sinaitic Peninsula, that is, in the famous mines of the Wadi Maghara, from the 4th to the i8th dynasty, perhaps from 5000 to 3000 B.C. During that epoch tools were made of pure copper in Egypt and Syria, and by the Amorites in Palestine, often on the model of their stone prototypes1. Probably from the same source was obtained the copper which had already come into general use in Babylonia some 6000 years ago. After a careful analysis of the metal objects from Tell-Loh2, M. Berthelot concludes that the employment of copper in Chaldaea, about 4000 years before the new era, for the manu- facture of arms and utensils, and for other purposes, is placed beyond doubt3. Amongst the not over-numerous authentic documents attesting a Copper Age in Western Europe must now be included the nest or cache of pure copper ingots found at Tourc'h, west of the Aven Valley, Finisterre, described by M. de Villiers du Terrage, and comprising 23 pieces, with a total weight of nearly 50 Ibs.4 These objects, which belong to " the transitional period when copper was used at first concurrently with polished stone, and then disappeared as bronze came into more general use5," came probably from Hungary, at that time apparently the chief source of this metal for most parts of Europe. Of over 200 copper objects described by Dr Mathaeus Much6 nearly all were of Hungarian or South German provenance, five only being accredited to Britain and eight to France. The study of this subject has been greatly advanced by Herr J. Hampel, who holds on solid grounds that in some regions, especially Hungary, copper played a dominant part for many centuries, and is undoubtedly the characteristic metal of a distinct 1 Paper on " The Transition from Pure Copper to Bronze, &c.," read at the Meeting of the Brit. Assoc. Liverpool, 1896. • M. de Sarzec's finds, Eth., p. 301. 3 VAgedu Cuivre en Chaldce, in La Nature, April 3, 1897. 4 L' Anthropologie^ 1896, p. 526 sq. This antiquary aptly remarks that " 1'expression age de cuivre a une signification bien precise comme s'appliquant a la partie de la periode de la pierre polie ou les me'taux font leur apparition." 5 L? Anthropologie^ 1896, p. 526sq. (i In Die Kupferzeit in Europa, 1882. II.] THE METAL AGES. 19 culture. His conclusions are based on the study of about 500 copper objects found in Hungary and preserved in the Buda Pesth collections. Reviewing all the facts attesting a Copper Age in Central Europe, Egypt, Italy, Cyprus, Troy, Scandinavia, North Asia, and other lands, he concludes that a Copper Age may have sprung up independently wherever the ore was found, as in the Ural and Altai Mountains, Italy, Spain, Britain, Cyprus, Sinai ; such culture being generally indigenous, and giving evi- dence of more or less characteristic local features1. In fact we know for certain that such an independent Copper Age was developed not only in the region of the Great Lakes of North America, but also amongst the Bantu peoples of Katanga and other parts of Central Africa. Copper is not an alloy like bronze, but a soft, easily-worked metal occurring in large quantities and in a tolerably pure state near the surface in many parts of the world. The wonder is, not that it should have been found and worked at a somewhat remote epoch in several different centres, but that its use should have been so soon superseded in so many places by the bronze alloys. From copper to bronze, however, the passage was slow and progressive, the proper proportion of tin, which was probably preceded in some places by an alloy A £ of antimony, having been apparently arrived at by repeated experiments often carried out with no little skill by those prehistoric metallurgists. As suggested by Bibra in 1869, the ores of different metals would appear to have been at first smelted together empirically, and the process continued until satisfactory results were obtained. Hence the extraordinary number of metals, of which percentages are found in some of the earlier specimens, such as those of the Elbing Museum, which on analysis yielded tin, lead, silver, iron, antimony, arsenic, sulphur, nickel, cobalt, and zinc in varying quantities 2. 1 Ncuere Stitdien iiber die Kupferzeit, in Zeitschr.f. Et/i., 1896, No. 2. 2 Otto Helm, Chemische Untersuchungen vorgeschichtlicher Bronzen. in Zeitschr.f. Eth., 1897, No. 2. This authority agrees with Hempel's view that further research will confirm the suggestion that in Transylvania (Hungary) " eine Kupfer-Antimonmischung vorangegangen, welche zugleich die Bronze- kultur vorbereitete " (ib. p. 128). 20 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Some bronzes from the pyramid of Medum analyzed by Prof. J. H. Gladstone1 yielded the high percentage of 9-1 of tin, from which we must infer, not only that bronze, but bronze of the finest quality, was already known to the Egyptians of the 4th dynasty. Yet M. J. de Morgan, who does not question this inference, and thinks that copper was also known to the Egyptians about 5000 B.C., holds that nowhere in Africa was there either a distinct Copper or a Bronze Age. In America the transition was from stone to copper only, but the passage was in Africa everywhere from stone to iron2. On the other hand it is shown by M. Maspero that all the Metal, as indeed also the Stone Ages, were successively passed through in Babylonia, where metal implements, first of copper, then of bronze, lastly of iron, abounded in immense variety from remote times3. Metal tools of fine temper were here certainly needed for carving the extremely hard diorite statues found in 1 88 1 by M. de Sarzec at Sirgalla (Legash), which cannot be much less than 6000 years old. In Europe the transition from copper to bronze is supposed to have taken place everywhere much about the same time. But we shall see that the date, about 2000 B.C., usually assigned to the change, will have to be set back fully 1000 years, at least for some localities. Indeed the narrow views hitherto current regarding the chronology of the Metal Ages have already received a rude shock from the fruitful researches especially of Mr A. J. Evans in the Eastern Mediterranean. Warning notes are already heard in all directions, and Chr. Blinkenberg amongst others remarks that, if Mykensean culture had attained its bloom in the i5th and follow- ing centuries, pre-Mykenaean graves and their contents must be dated back to the very beginning of the second, and even to the latter part of the third millennium B.C.4 1 Proc. Soc. Bib. Archicol. 1892, pp. 223-6. '• Recherches sur les Origincs de VEgypte, &c., 1896. M. de Morgan here overlooks the development of a copper industry above referred to in various parts of Central Africa, apparently at a very early date. The Daivn of Civilization, 3rd ed. 1898, passim. 4 Prcemykeniske Oldsager ; Bidragtil studiet af Grakenlands celdeste Kiiltui\ Copenhagen, 1896. II.] THE METAL AGES. 21 If M. de Morgan be right in assuming a direct transition from stone to iron everywhere in Africa, then the Iron . . The Iron Age. Age must have been synchronous in that region with those of the other metals in Europe and Asia. But trading and other relations would appear to have been established between North Africa — and especially Egypt — and the Mediterranean peoples at a much earlier period than is generally supposed. Thus may perhaps be explained the allusions to iron long before it had come into common use amongst these peoples, and in fact at a time when it was almost regarded as a "precious metal." " Iron," writes Mr S. Laing, "was no doubt known at a very early period, but it was extremely scarce, and even as late as Homer's time was so valuable that a lump of it constituted one of the principal prizes at the funeral games of Patroclus1." From this it would seem evident that there could have been no Iron Age in Europe, but only a slight knowledge of the metal, when the Homeric rhapsodies are commonly supposed to have taken shape, say, about 1000 B.C., or at most some 150 years before the beginning of the Olympiads (884 B.C.), that is, mostly before the beginning of authentic history for the Greek world. But archaeologists now distinguish not one, but two Iron Ages, the first of which alone must have lasted a considerable time. It pre- vailed in a large portion of Italy (Umbria and Venetia) ; it had its chief, or one of its chief, centres at Halstatt beyond Haiistatt the Alps, and its domain extended thence eastwards and LaTene so as to embrace the present German and Slavonic lands of Carniola, Styria, Carinthia, Istria, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and other parts of the Danubian basin. With this period Sergi even associates the pre-Phcenician or old Italic script, which he has partly reconstructed from the signs or characters occurring on the bronzes and earthenware of Villanova, Bologna, and other parts of Umbria2. These characters he connects on the one hand with those of the pre-Neolithic Maz-d'Azil cave, described by M. Ed. Piette3, and on the other 1 Human Origins, p. 168. 2 Arii e Italid, p. 218 sq. 3 V Anthropologie^ 1896, p. 385 sq. 22 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. with Mr A. J. Evans' pre-Phoenician Cretan syllabary. On this and other grounds Sergi joins the new school of archaeologists in their demand for an extension of the Metal Ages, remarking that " this script appears in its forms and variants to be extremely old, and in my opinion it seems as if it ought to cause the all but established chronology of the First Iron Age to be set back in Italy and elsewhere1." From Hallstatt Prof. W. Ridgeway- believes on good grounds that the use of iron spread to Switzerland, Italy, France, Spain, Greece, Eastern Germany, and in fact to the whole of Europe, everywhere largely replacing the bronze tools and weapons which we know from Tacitus were then in common use. The Hallstatt period, which is supposed to have reached its bloom about 800 B.C., was continued in Switzerland and some other places quite into Roman times. But during the last centuries of its existence it was replaced in Gaul by a later Iron Age, which from its chief centre is usually referred to as the La Tene period. It was to some extent of local origin, and in great measure independently developed, though not uninfluenced by southern, especially Massilian (Greek) forms. Eventually the La Tene culture superseded the Hallstatt in all the lands of Keltic speech, and the somewhat abrupt transition from one to the other is perceptible in Switzerland, where La Tene forms were intro- duced by later immigrants, also no doubt of Keltic speech. Notwithstanding their quite recent date, as compared with the early rise of the Eastern civilisations, all these metal periods must be regarded as strictly prehistoric for Central and Western Europe; they are antecedent to all trustworthy historical records, which in the West with one or two exceptions, such as the foundation of the Greek colony of Massilia (Marseilles, 539 B.C.), go no further back than Roman times. That the peoples of those days were physically well developed, Man and his ^^ *n a £reat Part °^ Europe and Asia already of works in the Aryan speech, there can be no reasonable doubt. A skull of the early Hallstatt period, from a grave near 1 Arii e I fa lid, p. 219. The Starting Point of the Iron Age in Europe, Paper read at the British Assoc. Liverpool, 1896. II.] THE METAL AGES. 23 Wildenroth, Upper Bavaria, is described by Prof. Virchow as long- headed, with a cranial capacity of no less than 1585 c.c., strongly developed occiput, very high and narrow face and nose, and in every respect a superb specimen of the regular-featured, long- headed North European1. Their works, found in great abundance in the graves, especially of the Bronze and Iron periods, but a detailed account of which belongs to the province of archaeology, interest us in many ways. The painted earthenware vases and incised metal-ware of all kinds enable the student to follow the progress of the arts of design and ornamentation in their upward development from the first tenta- tive efforts of the prehistoric artist at pleasing effects. Human and animal figures, though rarely depicted, occasionally afford a curious insight into the customs and fashions of the times. On a clay vessel, found in 1896 at Lahse in Posen, is figured a regular hunt- ing scene, where we see men mounted on horseback, or else on foot, armed with bow and arrow, pursuing the quarry (nobly- antlered stags), and returning to the penthouse after the chase2. The drawing is extremely primitive, but on that account all the more instructive, showing in connection with analogous representa- tions on contemporary objects, how in prehistoric art such figures tend to become conventionalised and purely ornamental, as in similar designs on the vases and textiles from the Ancon Necro- polis, Peru. " Most ornaments of primitive peoples, although to our eye they may seem merely geometrical and freely-invented designs, are in reality nothing more than degraded animal and human figures3." This may perhaps be the reason why so many of the drawings of the metal period appear so inferior to those of the cave-dwellers and of the present Bushmen4. They are often mere convention- alised reductions of pictorial prototypes, comparable, for instance, to the characters of our alphabets, which are known to be degraded forms of earlier pictographs. 1 Rin Schddel aus der cilteren ffallstattzt-if, in Verhandl. Berlin. Ges. f. Anthrop. 1896, pp. 243 — 6. 2 Dr Hans Seger, Figiirliche Darstelhingen auf schlesischen Grcibgefiisseii dcr Hallstattzcit, Globus, Nov. 20, 1897. 3 Ibid., p. 297. 4 Eth., pp. 88 and 249-50. 24 MAN I PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Of the so-called " Prehistoric Age " it is obvious that no strict definition can be given. It comprises in a general historic Age in way that vague period prior to all written records, dim memories of which — popular myths, folklore, demi-gods1, eponymous heroes2, traditions of real events3 — lingered on far into historic times, and supplied ready to hand the copious materials afterwards worked up by the early poets, founders of new religions, and later legislators. That letters themselves, although not brought into general use, had already been invented, is evident from the mere fact that all memory of their introduction beyond the vaguest traditions had died out before the dawn of history. The works of man, while in themselves necessarily continuous, stretched back to such an inconceivably remote past, that even the great landmarks in the evolution of human progress had long been forgotten by later generations. And so it was everywhere, in the New World as in the Old, amongst Eastern as amongst Western Peoples. and in China. _ . In the Chinese records the ' Age of the Five Emperors " -five, though nine are named — answers somewhat to our prehistoric epoch. It had its eponymous hero, Fu Hi, reputed founder of the empire, who invented nets and snares for fishing and hunting, and taught his people how to rear domestic animals. To him also is ascribed the institution of marriage, and in his time Tsong Chi is supposed to have invented the Chinese characters, symbols, not of sounds, but of objects and ideas. Then came other benevolent rulers, who taught the people agriculture, established markets for the sale of farm produce, Homer's ^(.Qiuv yevos avSpuv, 11. xn. 23, if the passage is genuine. ! Such as the Greek Andreas, the " First Man," invented in comparatively recent times, as shown by the intrusive d in di/5pe? for the earlier d^epes, " men." Andreas was of course a Greek, sprung in fact from the river Peneus and the first inhabitant of the Orchomenian plain (Pausanias, IX. 34, 5). 3 For instance, the flooding of the Thessalian plain, afterwards drained by the Peneus and repeopled by the inhabitants of the surrounding mountains (rocks, stones), whence the myth of Deucalion and Pyrrha, who are told by the oracle to repeople the world by throwing behind them the "bones of their grandmother," that is, the "stones" of mother Earth. II.] HISTORIC TIMES AND PEOPLES. 25 discovered the medicinal properties of plants, wrote treatises on diseases and their remedies, studied astrology and astronomy, and appointed "the Five Observers of the heavenly bodies." But this epoch had been preceded by the " Age of the Three [sixj Rulers," when people lived in caves, ate wild fruits and uncooked food, drank the blood of animals and wore the skins of wild beasts (our Old Stone Age). Later they grew less rude, learned to obtain fire by friction, and built themselves habitations of wood or foliage (our early Neolithic Age). Thus is everywhere revealed the background of sheer savagery, which lies behind all human culture, while the " Golden Age " of the poets fades with the " Hesperides " and Plato's "Atlantis" into the region of the fabulous. Little need here be said of strictly historic times, the most characteristic feature of which is perhaps the general use of letters. By means of this most fruitful of f^^nc human inventions, everything worth preserving was perpetuated, and thus all useful knowledge tended to become accumulative. It is no longer possible to say when or where the miracle was wrought by which the apparently multifarious sounds of fully-developed languages were exhaustively analysed and effectively expressed by a score or so of arbitrary signs. But a comparative study of the various writing-systems in use in different parts of the world has revealed the process by which the transition was gradually brought about from rude pictorial repre- sentations of objects to purely phonetical symbols. As is clearly shown by the "winter counts " of the North Ameri- can aborigines, and by the prehistoric rock carvings 0 J Evolution in Upper Egypt, the first step was a pictography the of writing actual figure, say, of a man, standing for a given man, and then for any man or human being. Then this figure, more or less reduced or conventionalised, served to indicate not only the term man, but the full sound man, as in the word manifest, and in the modern rebus. At this stage it becomes a phonogram, or phonoglyph, which, when further reduced beyond all recognition of its original form, may stand for the syllable ma as in ma-ny, without any further reference either to the idea or the sound man. The phonogram has now become the symbol 26 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. of a monosyllable, which is normally made up of two elements, a consonant and a vowel, as in the Devanagari, and other syllabic systems. Lastly, by dropping the second or vowel element the same symbol, further modified or not, becomes a letter representing the sound w, that is, one of the few ultimate elements of articulate speech. A more or less complete set of such characters, thus worn down in form and meaning, will then be available for indi- cating more or less completely all the phonetic elements of any given language. It will be a true alphabet, the wonderful nature of which may be inferred from the fact that only two, or possibly three, such alphabetic systems are known with absolute certainty to have ever been independently evolved by human ingenuity1. From the above exposition we see how inevitably the Phoenician parent of nearly all late alphabets expressed at first the conso- nantal sounds only, so that the vowels or vowel marks are in all cases later developments, as in Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, the Italic group, and the Runes. In primitive systems, such as the Egyptian, Akkadian, Chinese, Maya-Quiche and Mexican, one or more of the various trans- itional steps may be developed and used simultaneously, with a constant tendency to advance on the lines above indicated, by gradual substitution of the later for the earlier Hieroglyphs and Cunei- stages. A comparison of the Akkadian cuneiform forms. ... . . . and Egyptian hieroglyphic systems brings out some curious results. Thus at an extremely remote epoch, say 6000 years ago 2, the Akkadians had already got rid of the pictorial, and to a great extent of the ideographic, but had barely reached the alphabetic phase. Consequently their cuneiform groups, 1 Such instances as George Guest's Cherokee system, and the crude attempt of a Vei (West Sudanese) Negro, if genuine, are not here in question, as both had the English alphabet to work upon. A like remark applies to the old Irish and Welsh Ogham, which are more curious than instructive, the characters, mostly mere groups of straight strokes, being obvious substitutes for the corresponding letters of the Roman alphabet, hence comparable to the cryptographic systems of Wheatstone and others. 2 " We discovered written records no less than 6000 years old, and proved that writing and civilisation were then by no means in their infancy." (J. P. Peters, Expedition to Babylonia, &c., Vol. I. Philadelphia, 1897.) II.] HISTORIC TIMES AND PEOPLES. although possessing phonetic value, mainly express full syllables, scarcely ever letters, and rarely complete words. Ideographs had given place first to phonograms and then to mere syllables, "complex syllables in which several consonants may be dis- tinguished, or simple syllables composed of only one consonant and one vowel or vice versa V The Egyptians, on the other hand, carried the system right through the whole gamut from pictures to letters, but retained all the intermediate phases, the initial tending to fall away, the final to expand, while the bulk of the hieroglyphs represented in various degrees the several transitional states. In many cases they " had kept only one part of the syllable, namely a mute consonant ; they detached, for instance, the final u from bu and pu, and gave only the values b and / to the human leg and to the mat g . The peoples of the Euphrates stopped half way, and admitted actual letters for the vowel sounds «, i and u only2." In the process of evolution, metaphor and analogy of course played a large part, as in the evolution of language itself. Thus a lion might stand both for the animal and for courage, and so on. The first essays in phonetics took somewhat the form of a modern rebus, thus : O = khau = sieve, H =pu = mat ; = ru = mouth, whence O H := kho-pi-ru = to be, where the sounds and not the meaning of the several components are alone attended to3. By analogous processes was formed a true alphabet, in which, however, each of the phonetic elements was repre- sented at first by several different characters derived from several different words having the same initial syllable. Here was, therefore, an embarras de richesses, which could be got rid of only by a judicious process of elimination, that is, by dis- carding all like-sounding symbols but one for the same sound. When this final process of reduction was completed by the scribes, in other words, when all the phonetic signs were rejected except 23, i.e., one for each of the 23 phonetic elements, the Phoe- nician alphabet as we now have it was completed. Such may 1 Maspero, op. «'/., p. 728. - Ibid. 3 Tbid. p. 233. 28 -MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. be taken as the real origin of this system, whether the scribes in question were Akkadians, Egyptians, Minaeans or Europeans, that is, whether the Phoenician alphabet had a cuneiform, a hiero- glyphic, a South Arabian, a Cretan (^Egean), Ligurian or Iberian origin, for all these and perhaps other peoples have been credited with the invention. On this point there will be more to say when we come to discuss Himyaritic, pre-Mykenaean,- and Italic origins. But whatever be the source of the Phoenician, that of the Persian system current under the Achaemenides The Persian . . . t . and other is clear enough. It is a true alphabet of 37 cna- Cuneiform racters, derived by some selective process directly from the Babylonian cuneiforms, without any at- tempt at a modification of their shapes. Hence although simple compared with its prototype, it is clumsy enough compared with the Phoenician script, several of the letters requiring groups of as many as four or even five "wedges" for their expression. None of the other cuneiform systems also derived from the Akkadian (the Assyrian, Elamite, Vannic, Medic) appear to have reached the pure alphabetic state, all being still encumbered with numerous complex syllabic characters. The subjoined table, for which I have to thank Mr T. G. Pinches, will help to show the genesis of the cuneiform combinations from the earliest known pictographs. These pictographs themselves are already reduced to the merest outlines of the original pictorial representations. But no earlier forms, showing the gradual transition from the primitive picture writing to the degraded pictographs here given, have yet come to light. Here it may be asked, what is to be thought of the already- mentioned pebble-markings from the Mas-d'Azil Cave of the Madelenian (late Old Stone) Age? If they are truly phonetic, then we must suppose that Palaeolithic man not only invented an alphabetic writing system, but did this right off by intuition, as it were, without any previous knowledge of letters. At least no one will suggest that the Dordogne cave-dwellers were already in possession of pictographic or other crude systems, from which the Mas-d'Azil " script " might have been slowly evolved. Yet M. Piette, who groups II.] HISTORIC TIMES AND PEOPLES. EVOLUTION OF THE AKKADIAN CUNEIFORMS. 1000 B.C. and later. •M g -f. :=?HK About 2500 to 1500 B.C. 0 Oldest known line forms, 3000 B.C. and earlier. =t> \ A a =M» c. ' "bird." " sheep " (pro- bably a sheep- fold). "ox." ;'togo," " to stand. — "hand." "man." — "dagger." — "fish." "reed." "reed." "corn': ("ear of corn ''). "god," "heaven." " constellation," " star." 30 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. these pebbles, painted with peroxide of iron, in the four cate- gories of numerals, symbols, pictographs, and alphabetical cha- racters, states, in reference to these last, that "13 out of 23 Phoenician characters were equally Azilian graphic signs" (loc. at.}. He even suggests that there may be an approach to an inscription in one group, where, however, the mark indicating a stop implies a script running Semitic-fashion from right to left, whereas the letters themselves seem to face the other way. A possible connection has been suggested by Sergi between the Mas-d'Azil signs and the markings that have formP signs' on been discovered on the megalithic monuments of Neolithic North Africa, Brittany, and the British Isles. These Monuments. are all so rudimentary that resemblances are in- evitable, and of themselves afford little ground for necessary connections. Primitive man is but a child, and all children bawl and scrawl much in the same way. Nevertheless M. Latourneau1 has taken the trouble to compare five such scrawls from " Libyan inscriptions " now in the Bardo Museum, Tunis, with similar or identical signs on Brittany and Irish dolmens. There is the familiar circle plain and dotted O O, the cross in its simplest form + , the pothook and segmented square p [~~l , all of which recur in the Phoenician, Keltiberian, Etruscan, Libyan or Tuareg systems. Latourneau, however, who does not call them letters but only "• signes alphabe'tiformes," merely suggests that, if not phonetic marks when first carved on the neolithic monuments, they may have become so in later times. Against this it need only be urged that in later times all these peoples were supplied with complete alphabetic systems from the East as soon as they required them. By that time all the peoples of the culture-zone were well-advanced into the historic period, and had long forgotten the rude carvings of their neolithic forefathers. 1 Bui. Soc. cTAnthrop. 1896, p. 319. II.] HISTORIC TIMES AND PEOPLES. 31 Armed with a nearly perfect writing system, and the correlated cultural appliances, the higher races soon took a foremost place in the general progress of mankind, and gradually acquired a marked ascendancy, not only over the less cultured populations of the globe, but in large measure over the forces of nature herself. With the development of naviga- and Conse- tion and improved methods of locomotion, inland seas, barren wastes, and mountain ranges ceased to c.al) be insurmountable obstacles to their movements, which within certain limits have never been arrested throughout all recorded time. Thus, during the long ages following the first peopling of the earth by pleistocene man, fresh settlements and readjustments have been continually in progress, although wholesale displace- ments must be regarded as rare events. With few exceptions, the later migrations, whether hostile or peaceful, were, for reasons already stated1, generally of a partial character, while certain insular regions, such as America and Australia, remained little affected by such movements till quite recent times. But for the inhabitants of the Eastern hemisphere the results were none the less far-reaching. Continuous infiltrations could not fail ulti- mately to bring about great modifications of early types, while the ever-active principle of convergence tended to produce a general uniformity amongst the new amalgams. Thus the great varietal divisions, though undergoing slow changes from age to age, con- tinued, like all other zoological groups, to maintain a distinct regional character. Prof. Flinders Petrie has acutely observed that the only mean- ing the term " race ': now can have is that of a The " Race " group of human beings, whose type has become merges in the unified by their rate of assimilation exceeding the rate of change produced by foreign elements2. We are also reminded by Gustavo Tosti that " in the actual state of science the word ' race ' is a vague formula, to which nothing definite may be found to correspond. On the one hand, the original races can 1 Et/i., p. 342. 2 Address, Meeting British Assoc. Ipswich, 1895. 32 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. only be said to belong to palaeontology, while the more limited groups, now called races, are nothing but peoples, or societies of peoples, brethren by civilization more than by blood. The race thus conceived ends by identifying itself with nationality1." Hence it has been asked why, on the principle of convergence, a fusion of various races, if isolated long enough in a given area, may not eventually lead to a new racial type, without leaving any trace of its manifold origin'2. Such new racial types would be normal for the later varietal groups, just as the old types were normal for the earlier groups, and a general application might be given to Topinard's famous dictum that les peuples seuls sont des realites3, that is, peoples alone —groups occupying definite geographical areas — have an objective existence. Thus, the notion of race, as a zoological expression in the sense of a pure breed or strain, falls still more into the back- ground, and, as Virchow aptly remarks, "this term, which always implied something vague, has in recent times become in the highest degree uncertain4." Hence Dr Ehrenreich treats the present populations of the earth rather as zoological groups which have been The distin- . .... guishing cha- developed in their several geographical domains, f anc^ are to be distinguished not so much by their bony structure as by their external characters, such as hair, colour, and expression, and by their habitats and languages. Relying on these essential factors, he proposes a general scheme of the primary divisions, which largely agrees with that already advanced in Ethnology, Part II. Too much weight is no doubt given to language^ which is called the " main point," while peoples are said to be realities " only so far as they are characterised by their speech; peoples stand and fall with their speech5." But with the general principle little fault can be found, and the cogent remarks on the intimate connection of peoples with their physical sur- 1 Amer. J. of Sociology, Jan. 1898, pp. 467-8. ; A. Vierkandt, Glolms, 72, p. 134. 3 Elements d1 Anthropologie Generate, p. 207. 4 Rassenbildnng u. Erblichkeit ; Bastian- Festschrift, 1896, p. i. ' Anthropologische Studien, &c., p. 14. II.] HISTORIC TIMES AND PEOPLES. 33 roundings are well worth the attention of those anthropologists who attach little importance to anything except the osseous frame- work. " We recognise the fact that each of these groups belongs to a definite zone, a geographical province in which we have to seek the centre of their origin, or rather of their present specialised forms." He also quotes Bastian's remark that in order to discover this centre we should not travel beyond the typical geographical groups, lest in the search for absolute beginnings we may again be plunged into the mythologies. This fear has now been removed by Dr Dubois' discovery, and in other respects Ehrenreich's essay may be accepted as a timely corrective of the somewhat extravagant and contradictory views1 current, especially in France and Italy, on the supreme and even exclusive importance of the craniological factor. We shall have to return to the battle of the long-heads and the round-heads. It will then be seen that too much importance need not be attached to discussions, which threaten again to involve ethnological studies in the chaos from which they were rescued by the establishment of evolutionary principles towards the middle of the nineteenth century. It seems obvious that in dealing with the difficult question of " Man Past and Present " light should be sought in all quarters. We cannot afford to neglect any of classification!" the factors entering into the problem of human origins and later developments. Hence in the broad groupings, which are- here adopted, and which are based on the treatment of the Primary Divisions in the second part of the Ethnology, due weight is given to all available data — physical and mental 1 How antagonistic they are may be judged from the attitude of Prof. Sergi, leader of the Italian school, towards M. de Lapouge, founder of the new French craniology, all of whose views regarding skull modifications are summarily dismissed as "fantastic," while his own belief in the persistence of skull types is reiterated in the strongest language. " Lapouge is unfortunately bitten by the Ligurian brachycephalism [the theory that the Ligurians were round-headed]... but all the theories advanced by him on the development of cranial forms from prehistoric to present time I hold without more ado to be fantastic" ( Ur sprung des Mittelldndischen Stammes, Leipzig, 1897, P- 63). K- 3 34 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. II. characters, usages, religion, speech, cultural features, history, and geographical range. Such, broadly speaking, are the elements of classification, and wherever two or more groups are found agreeing in all, or at least in the more essential, of such elements, they may be regarded as branches of one stock. So far, and no further, is a strictly zoological or genetic classification possible in the present state of the multifarious inhabitants of the globe. CHAPTER III. THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. Conspectus — The Negro-Caucasic "Great Divide" -The Negro Domain- Negro Origins — Persistence of the Negro Type — Two Main Sections : Sudanese and Bantus — -Contrasts and Analogies — Sudanese and Bantu Linguistic Areas— The "Drum Language" -West Sudanese Groups — The Wolofs: Primitive Speech and Pottery; Religious Notions — The Mandingans : Culture and Industries ; History ; the Guine and Mali Empires — The Felups: Contrasts between the Inland and Coast Peoples; Felup Type and Mental Characters — Timni; — African Freemasonry — The Sierra Leonese — Social Relations— The Liberians — The Kruinen — The Upper Guinea Peoples — Table of the Gold Coast and Slave Coast Tribes — Ashanti Folklore — Fetishism ; its true inwardness — Ancestry Worship and the "Customs" -The Benin Bronzes — The J\Iossi — African Agnostics — Central Sudanese — General Ethical and Social Relations — The Sonrhay — Domain — Origins — Egyptian Theories — Sonrhay Records— The Hausas — Dominant Social Position — Speech and Mental Qualities- Origins — Kanenibii; Kanuri; Baghinni; Afosgu — Ethnical and Political Relations in the Chad Basin — The Aborigines — Islam and Heathendom— Slave-Hunting — Arboreal Strongholds — Mosgu Types and Contrasts — The Cultured Peoples of Central Sudan-- Kanem-Bornu Records — East Sudanese — Range of the Negro in Eastern Sudan — The Mabas — Ethnical Relations in Waday — The Nubas — The Nubian Problem — Nubian Origins and Affinities — The Negro Peoples of the Nile-Congo watersheds— Shilluks ; Dinkas; Bongos; Mangbattus; Niam-Niams — Two Physical Types — Linguistic Groups — Mental Qualities — Cannibalism — The African Cannibal Zone — Arts and Industries — High Appreciation of Pictorial Art — Sense of Humour. CONSPECTUS OF SUDANESE NEGROES. Primeval Home, Africa south of the Sahara. Distritm- Present Range, the Primeval Home less Abyssinia, Past and Ga/ta, Somali and Masai Lands ; Tripolitana, Mauritania Times. and Egypt sporadically ; several of the southern United States ; West Indies ; Guiana ; parts of Brazil and Peru. 3—2 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Physical Charac- ters. Mental Charac- ters. Main Divisions. Hair, always black, rather short, and crisp or frizzly, not woolly, differing from other human hair only in being flat in transverse section ; colour, very dark brown or chocolate and blackish, never quite black ; skull, generally dolichocephalous (long, index No. 72) ; jaws, prognathous (projecting, i7idex No. 60) ; cheek-bone, rather small, moderately retreating, rarely prominent ; nose, very broad at base, fiat, small {platyrrhine, No. 56) ; eyes, large, round, prominent, black with yelloivish cornea ; stature, above the average, 5 ft. 10 in.; lips, tumid and everted ; arms, disproportionately lotig ; legs, slender with small calves ; feet, broad, fiat, vvith low instep and larkspur heel. Temperament, sensuous, indolent, improvident ; fit- ful, passionate and cruel, though often affectionate and faithful; little sense of dignity, and slight self-consciousness, hence easy acceptance of yoke of slavery ; musical. Speech, almost everywhere in the agglutinating state, generally with suffixes. Religion, anthropomorphic; spirits endowed with human attributes, mostly evil and more powerful than man ; ancestry-worship, fetishism, and witchcraft very prevalent; human sacrifices to the dead a common feature. Culture, low; cannibalism formerly rife, perhaps uni- versal, still general in some regions ; no science or letters; arts and industries confined mainly to agriculture, pottery, wood-carving, weaving, and metallurgy ; no perceptible progress anywhere except under the influence of higher races. West Sudanese: Wolof ; Mandingan ; Felup ; Timni ; Kru ; Sierra Leonese ; Liberian ; Tshi,Ewe,and Yoruba ; Ibo ; Efik ; Borgu ; Mossi. Central Sudanese : Sonrhay ; Hausa ; Mosgu ; Kanembu ; Kamiri ; Baghirmi ; Yedina. East Sudanese: Maba ; Fur; Nuba; Skill uk ; Dinka ; Bari ; Abaka ; Bongo ; Janghey ; Mangbattu ; Zandeh ; Momfu ; Base; Barea. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 37 From the anthropological standpoint Africa falls into two distinct sections, where the highest (Caucasic) and the lowest (Ethiopic) divisions of mankind have been conterminous throughout all known time. •9re,tt Dl~ vide. Mutual encroachments and interpenetrations have probably been continuous, and indeed are still going on. Yet so marked is the difference between the two groups, and such is the tenacity with which each clings to its proper domain, that, despite any very distinct geographical frontiers, the ethnological parting line may still be detected. Obliterated at one or two points, and at others set back always in favour of the higher division, it may be followed from the Atlantic coast along the course of the Senegal river east by north to the great bend of the Niger at Timbuktu ; then east by south to Lake Chad, beyond which it runs nearly due east to Khartum, at the confluence of the White and Blue Niles. From this point the now isolated Negro groups (Base and Barea), on the northern slope of the Abyssinian plateau, show that the original boundary was at first continued still east to the Red Sea at or about Massowa. But for many ages the line appears to have been deflected from Khartum along the White Nile south to the Sobat confluence, then continuously south-east- wards round by the Sobat valley to Lake Albert Nyanza, up the Somerset Nile to the Victoria Nyanza, and thence with a consider- able southern bend round Masailand eastwards to the Indian Ocean at the equator. All the land north of this irregular line belongs to the Hamito- Semitic section of the Caucasic division, all south of it to the western (African) section of the Ethiopic DJmai^egr° division. Throughout this region — which comprises the whole of Sudan from the Atlantic to the White Nile, and all south of Sudan except Abyssinia, Galla, Somali and Masai lands- the African Negro, clearly distinguished from the other main groups by the above summarised physical1 and mental qualities, [ Graphically summed up in the classical description of the Negress : — Afra genus, tota patriam testante figura, Torta comam labroque tumens, et fusca colorem, Pectore lata, jacens mammis, compressior alvo, Cruribus exilis, spatiosa prodiga planta. 38 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. largely predominates everywhere and in many places exclusively. The route by which he probably reached these intertropical lands, where he may be regarded as practically indigenous, has been indicated in Ethnology, Chs. x. and XL That the occupation took place in pleistocene times, if not even earlier, is made daily more evident from the Origfns researches of travellers in hitherto unvisited districts. At the meeting of the Royal Society, April 30, 1896, Sir John Evans stated that the numerous palseoliths found by Mr Seton-Karr on his second visit to Somaliland, which originally formed part of the Negro domain, were in form absolutely identical with some from the Somme and other places ; hence there need be no hesitation in claiming them as palaeoliths, despite the absence of a fossil fauna. The finds, he pointed out, help to bridge over the interval between palaeolithic man in Britain and in India, and add another link to the chain of evidence by which the original cradle of man may eventually be identified, tending to prove the unity of race between the inhabitants of Asia, Africa, and Europe in palaeolithic times. Mr Seton-Karr tells us that he obtained several thousands of such objects — spear- heads, scrapers, knives, flakes, cores — in sites which presented the appearance of having been regular workshops. Nearly all the flints were either damaged or unfinished, while some were found amid a mass of flakes and chips, "as though the people had dropped their work, and, carrying with them all their perfect weapons and belongings, had fled, never to return1." Similar evidence has been collected from Upper Guinea, Angola, and the extreme south, showing not only the Persistence of the Negro early arrival but also the general dispersal of the Negro over his present domain during the first Stone Age. Yet since that remote epoch the specialised Negro type, as depicted on the Egyptian monuments some thousands of years ago, has everywhere been maintained with striking uni- formity. " Within this wide domain of the black Negro there is a remarkably general similarity of type. ...If you took a Negro from the Gold Coast of West Africa and passed him off amongst a 1 Some Implements in Somaliland, Paper read at Meeting of Brit. Assoc. Ipswich, 1895. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 39 number of Nyasa natives, and if he were not remarkably distin- guished from them by dress or tribal marks, it would not be easy to pick him out1." Nevertheless considerable differences are perceptible to the practised eye, and the contrasts are sufficiently J ... Two Main marked to justify ethnologists in treating the sections: Su- Sudanese and the Bantus as two distinct sub- divisions of the family. In both groups the relatively full-blood natives are everywhere very much alike, and the contrasts are presented chiefly amongst the mixed or Negroid populations. In Sudan the disturbing elements are both Hamitic (Berbers and Tuaregs) and Semitic (Arabs) ; while in Bantuland they are mainly Hamitic (Gallas) in all the central and southern districts, and Arabs on the eastern seaboard from the equator to Sofala beyond the Zambesi. To the varying propor- tions of these several ingredients may perhaps be traced the often very marked differences observable on the one hand between such Sudanese peoples as the Wolofs, Mandingans, Hausas, Nubians, Zandehs, and Mangbattus, and on the other between all these and the Swahili, Waganda, Zulu-Xosas, Bechuanas, Ovahereros and some other Negroid Bantus. But the distinction is based on social, linguistic, and cultural, as well as on physical grounds, so that, as at present constituted, the Sudanese and Bantus really constitute two tolerably well-defined branches of the Negro family. Thanks to Muham- madan influences, the former have attained a much Analogies3 higher level of culture. They cultivate not only the alimentary but also the economic plants, such as cotton and indigo ; they build stone dwellings, walled towns, substantial mosques and minarets ; they have founded powerful states, such as those of the Hausas and Sonrhays, of Ghanah and Bornu, with written records going back a thousand years, although these historical peoples are all without exception half-breeds, often with more Semitic and Hamitic than Ethiopic blood in their veins. No such cultured peoples are anywhere to be found in Bantu- land except on the east coast, where the " Moors " founded great 1 Sir H. H. Johnston, British Central Africa, 1897, p. 393. 4O MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. cities and flourishing marts centuries before the appearance of the Portuguese in the eastern seas. To the Minaeans or Sabaeans, kinsmen of the Moors, must also be credited the Zimbabwe monu- ments and other ruins explored by Theodore Bent in the mining districts south of the Zambesi. But in all the Negro lands free from foreign influences no true culture has ever been developed, and here cannibalism, witchcraft, and sanguinary "customs" are either still rife, or have been but recently suppressed by the direct action of European administrations. Numberless authorities have described the Negro as un- progressive, or, if left to himself, incapable of progress in his present physical environment. Sir H. H. Johnston, who knows him well, goes much further, and speaks of him as a fine animal, who, " in his wild state, exhibits a stunted mind and a dull content with his surroundings, which induces mental stagnation, cessation of all upward progress, and even retrogression towards the brute. In some respects I think the tendency of the Negro for several centuries past has been an actual retrograde one. As we come to read the unwritten history of Africa by researches into languages, manners, customs, traditions, we seem to see a back- ward rather than a forward movement going on for some thousand years past — a return towards the savage and even the brute. I can believe it possible that, had Africa been more isolated from contact with the rest of the world, and cut off from the immigra- tion of the Arab and the European, the purely Negroid races, left to themselves, so far from advancing towards a higher type of humanity, might have actually reverted by degrees to a type no longer human ' ". I do not say that this is so, but I give it as the matured opinion of an administrator, who has had a wider experience of the natives of Africa than almost any man living. There is one point in which the Bantus somewhat unaccount- ably compare favourably with the Sudanese. In all other regions the spread of culture has tended to bring about linguistic unity, as we see in the Hellenic world, where all the old Sudanese . . and Bantu idioms were gradually absorbed in the ' common Areas 1Stl dialect" of the Byzantine empire, again in the Roman empire where Latin became the universal 1 British Central Africa^ p. 472. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 41 speech of the West, and lastly in the Muhammadan countries, where most of the local tongues have nearly everywhere, except in Sudan, disappeared before the Arabic, Persian, and Turkish languages. But in Negroland the case is reversed, and here the less cultured Bantu populations all, without any known exception, speak dialects of a single mother-tongue, while the greatest linguistic confusion prevails amongst the semi-civilized as well as the savage peoples of Sudan1. Although the Bantu language may, as some suppose, have originated in the north and spread southwards to the Congo, Zambesi, and Limpopo basins, it cannot now be even remotely affiliated to any one of the numerous distinct forms of speech current in the Sudanese domain. Hence to allow time for its diffusion over half the continent, the initial movement must be assigned to an extremely remote epoch, and a corresponding period of great duration must be postulated for the profound linguistic disintegration that is everywhere witnessed in the region between the Atlantic and Abyssinia. Here agglutination, both with prefixed and postfixed particles, is the prevailing morphological order; as in the Mandingan, Fulah, Nubian, Dinkan, and Mang- battu groups. But every shade of transition is also presented between true agglutination and inflection of the Hamito-Semitic types, as in Hausa, Kanuri, Kanem, Dasa or Southern and Teda or Northern Tibu2. Elsewhere, and especially in Upper Guinea, the originally agglutinating tongues have developed on lines analogous to those followed by Tibetan, Burmese, Chinese, and Otomi in other conti- nents, with corresponding results. Thus the Tshi, Ewe, and Yoruba, surviving members of a now extinct stock language, formerly diffused over the whole region between Cape Palmas and the Niger Delta, have become so burdened with monosyllabic 1 Eth. p. 272-3. 2 Even a tendency to polysynthesis occurs, as in Vei, and in Yoruba, where the small-pox god Shakpanna is made up of the three elements shan, to plaster, kpa to kill, and enia a person = one who kills a person by plastering him (with pustules). Cf. also okandilognn with Latin twenty = nineteen ; and sa!sz = sa.-lo-si (se lo sa), Purg. v. 135. 42 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. homophones (like-sounding monosyllables), that to indicate their different meanings several distinguishing tones have been evolved, exactly as in the Indo-Chinese group. In Ewe (Slave Coast) the root do, according as it is toned may mean to put, let go, tell, kick, be sad, join, change, grow big, sleep, prick, or grind. So great are the ravages of phonetic decay, that new expedients have been developed to express quite simple ideas, as in Tshi (Gold Coast) addanmu, room (addan house, mu interior); akwancherifo, a guide (akwan road, cheri to show, fo person) ; ensahtsiabah, finger (ensah hand, tsia small, abbah child = hand's-little-child) ; but middle-finger = "hand's-little-chief " (ensahtsiahin^ where ehin chief takes the place of abbah child). Common both to Sudanese and Bantus, especially about the western borderlands (Upper Guinea, Cameruns, &c>) *s tne "drum-language," which affords a striking illustration of the Negro's musical faculty. "Two or three drums are usually used together, each producing a different note, and they are played either with the fingers or with two sticks. The lookers-on generally beat time by clapping the hands. To a European, whose ear and mind are untrained for this special faculty, the rhythm of a drum expresses nothing beyond a repetition of the same note at different intervals of time ; but to a native it expresses much more. To him the drum can and does speak, the sounds produced from it forming words, and the whole measure or rhythm a sentence. In this way, when company drums are being played at an ehsddu [palaver], they are made to express and convey to the bystanders a variety of meanings. In one measure they abuse the men of another company, stigmatising them as fools and cowards ; then the rhythm changes, and the gallant deeds of their own company are extolled. All this, and much more, is conveyed by the beat- ing of drums, and the native ear and mind, trained to select and interpret each beat, is never at fault. The language of drums is as well understood as that which they use in their daily life. Each chief has his own call or motto, sounded by a particular beat of his drums. Those of Amankwa Tia, the Ashanti general who fought against us in the war of 1873-4, used to say Pirihuh, hasten. Similar mottoes are also expressed by means III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 43 of horns, and an entire stranger in the locality can at once translate the rhythm into words1." Similar contrasts and analogies will receive due illustration in the detailed account here following of the several more repre- sentative Sudanese groups. WEST SUDANESE. Wolofs. Throughout its middle and lower course the Senegal river, which takes its name from the Zenaga Berbers, forms the ethni- cal "divide" between the Hamites and the Sudanese Negroes. The latter are here represented by the Wolofs, who with the kindred Jolofs and Serers occupy an extensive territory between the Sene- gal and the Gambia rivers. Whether the term "Wolof" means "Talkers," as if they alone were gifted with the faculty of speech, or " Blacks " in contrast to the neighbouring " Red " Fulahs, both interpretations are fully justified by these Senegambians, at once the very blackest and amongst the most garrulous tribes in the whole of Africa. The colour is called "ebony," and they are commonly spoken of as " Blacks of the Black." They are also very tall even for Negroes, and the Serers especially may claim to be " the Patagonians of the Old World," men six feet six inches high and proportionately muscular being far from rare in the coast districts about St Louis and Dakar. Their language, which is widespread throughout Senegambia, may be taken as a typical Sudanese form of speech, unlike any other in its peculiar agglutinative struc- woloTspeech ture, and unaffected even in its vocabulary by the Hamitic which has been current for ages on the opposite bank of the Senegal. A remarkable feature is the so-called "article," always postfixed and subject to a two-fold series of modifications, first in accordance with the initial consonant of the noun, for which there are six possible consonantal changes (w, ;//, b, d, s, ^), and then 1 A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples, &c., 1887, pp. 327-8. Only one European, Herr R. Betz, long resident amongst the Dualas of the Cameruns district, has yet succeeded in mastering the drum language ; he claims to understand nearly all that is drummed and is also able to drum himself. (Athenaeum, May 7, 1898, p. 6n.) 44 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. according as the object is present, near, not near, and distant, for which there are again four possible vowel changes (/, u, o. a), or twenty-four altogether, a tremendous redundancy of useless variants as compared with the single English form the. Thus this Protean particle begins with b, d or w to agree with bdye, father, digene, woman, or /0s, horse, and then becomes bi^ bu, bo, ba ; dij du, &c. ; wt, wu &c. to express the presence and the varying distances of these objects: ddye-fo=faiher-the-here; bdye- bu — father-the-there ; b dye-bo — father-the-yonder ; bdye-bd = father- the-away in the distance. All this is curious enough ; but the important point is that it probably gives us the clue to the enigmatic alliterative system of the Bantu languages as explained in Ethnology, p. 273, the position of course being reversed. Thus as in Zulu in- kose requires en- kulu, so in Wolof bays requires />/, tfVgene di\ and so on. There are other indications that the now perfected Bantu grew out of analogous but less developed processes still prevalent in the Sudanese tongues. Equally undeveloped is the Wolof process of making earthen- ware, as observed by M. F. Regnault amongst the w^VoTpottery natives brought to Paris for the Exhibition of 1895. He noticed how one of the women utilised a somewhat deep bowl resting on the ground in such a way as to be easily spun round by the hand, thus illustrating the transition between hand-made and turned pottery. Kneading a lump of clay, and thrusting it into the bowl, after sprinkling the sides with some black dust to prevent sticking, she made a hollow in the mass, enlarging and pressing it against the bowl with the back of the fingers bent in, the hand being all the time kept in a vertical position. At the same time the bowl was spun round with the left palm, this movement combined with the pressure exerted by the right hand causing the sides of the vessel to rise and take shape. When high enough it was finished off by thickening the clay to make a rim. This was held in the right hand and made fast to the mouth of the vessel by the friction caused by again turning the bowl with the left hand. This trans- itional process appears to have been observed nowhere else \ 1 Bui. Soc. cCAnthrop., Paris, 1895, p. 734 sq. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 45 Most of the Wolofs profess themselves Muhammadans, the rest Catholics, while all alike are heathen at heart ; only the former have charms with texts from the Nations0"8 Koran which they cannot read, and the latter medals and scapulars of the "Seven Dolours" or of the Trinity, which they cannot understand. Many old rites still flourish, the household gods are not forgotten, and for the lizard, most popular of tutelar deities, the customary milk-bowl is daily replenished. Glimpses are thus afforded of the totemic system which still survives in a modified form amongst the Bechuanas, the Man- dingans, and several other African peoples, but has elsewhere mostly died out in Negroland. The infantile ideas associated with plant and animal totem tokens have been left far behind, when a people like the Serers have arrived at such a lofty con- ception as Takhar, god of justice, or even the more materialistic Tiurakh, god of wealth, although the latter may still be appealed to for success in nefarious projects which he himself might scarcely be expected to countenance. But the harmony between religious and ethical thought has scarcely yet been reached even amongst some of the higher races. Mandingans, In the whole of Sudan there is scarcely a more numerous or wide-spread people than the Mandingans, who— with their endless ramifications, Kassonke, Tallonke, Soninke. Bcuiibara. Vei and Culture and Industries. many others — occupy most of the region between the Atlantic and the Joliba (Upper Niger) basin, as far south as about 9° N. latitude. Within these limits it is often difficult to say who are, or who are not members of this great family, whose various branches present all the transitional shades of physical type and culture grades between the true pagan Negro and the Muhammadan Negroid Sudanese. Even linguistic unity exists only to a limited extent, as the numerous dialects of the Mande stock-language have often diverged so greatly as to constitute independent tongues quite unintelligible to the neighbouring tribes. The typical Mandin- gans, however — JFaidherbe's Malinka-Soninke group — may be dis- tinguished from the surrounding populations by their more softened features, broader forehead, larger nose, fuller beard, and 46 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. lighter colour. They are also distinguished by their industrious habits and generally higher culture, being rivalled by few as skilled tillers of the soil, weavers, and workers in iron and copper. They thus hold much the same social position in the west that the Hausas do in the central region beyond the Niger, and the French authorities think that "they are destined to take a position of ever increasing importance in the pacified Sudan of the future1." Thus history brings about its revenges, for the Mandingans proper of the Kong plateau may fairly claim, despite their late servitude to the Fulah conquerors and their present ready accept- ance of French rule, to be a historical people with a not inglorious record of over 1000 years, as founders of the two great empires of Melle and Guine, and of the more recent states of Moasina, Bambara, Kaarta, Kong, and others about the water-parting be- tween the headstreams of the Niger, and the rivers flowing south to the Gulf of Guinea. Here is the district of Handing, which is the original home of the Manding'ke, i.e. " People of Handing," as they are generally called, although Mande appears to be the form used by themselves2. Here also was the famous city of Hali or Melle, from which the Upper Niger group take the name of MaWnke, in contradistinction to the SonVnke of the Senegal 1 Dr E. T. Hamy, Les Races Negres in L? Anthropologie, 1897, p. 257 sq. 2 " Chaque fois que j'ai demande avec intention a un Mande, ' Es-tu Peul, Mossi, Dafina?' il me repondait invariablement, lje suis Mande.'1 C'est pourquoi, dans le cours de ma relation, j'ai toujours designe ce peuple par le nom de Maude, qui est son vrai nom." (Capt. Binger, Du Niger an Golfe de Giiinee, 1892, Vol. n. p. 373.) At p. 375 this authority gives the following subdivisions of the Mande family, named from their respective tenne (idol, fetish, totem) :— 1 . Bamba, the crocodile : Bauiuiana, not Bambara, which means kafir or infidel, and is applied only to the non-Moslem Mande groups. 2. Mali, the hippopotamus: Maltuke", including the Kagoros and the Tagwas. 3. Sama, the elephant : Sama''nke. 4. Sa, the snake : Sa-mokho. Of each there are several sub-groups, while the surrounding peoples call them all collectively Wakore, Wangara, Sakhersi, and especially Diula. Attention to this point will save the reader much confusion in consulting Earth, Caillie, and other early books of travel. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 47 river, the Jatinke of Futa-Jallon, and the Bamana of Bambara, these being the more important historical and cultured groups. According to native tradition and the annals of Ahmad Baba, rescued from oblivion by Barth \ the first Man- dingan state of Guine (Ghana, Ghanata), a name still surviving in the vague geographical term "Guinea," goes back to pre-Muhammadan times. Wakayamangha, The Guin6 its legendary founder, is supposed to have flourished and Mali 300 years before the Hejira, at which date twenty- two kings had already reigned. Sixty years after that time the Moslem Arabs or Berbers are said to have already reached West Sudan, where they had twelve mosques in Ghana, first capital of the empire, and their chief stronghold till the foundation of Jinni on the Upper Niger (1043 A.D.). Two centuries later (1235 — 60) the centre of the Mandingan rule was transferred to Mali, which under the great king Mansa- Musa (1311 — 1331) became the most powerful Sudanese state of which there is any authentic record. For a time it included nearly the whole of West Sudan, and a great part of the western Sahara, besides the Sonrhay State with its capital Gogo, and Timbuktu. Mansa-Musa, who, in the language of the chronicler, "wielded a power without measure or limits," entered into friendly relations with the emperor of Morocco, and made a famous pilgrimage to Mecca, the splendours of which still linger in the memory of the Mussulman populations through whose lands the interminable procession wound its way. He headed 60,000 men of arms, says Ahmad Baba, and wherever he passed he was pre- ceded by 500 slaves, each bearing a gold stick weighing 500 mitkals (14 Ibs.), the whole representing a money value of about ,£4,000,000 (?). The people of Cairo and Mecca were dazzled by his wealth and munificence; but during the journey a great part of his followers were seized by a painful malady called in their language tuat^ and this word still lives in the Oasis of Tuat, where most of them perished. Even after the capture of Timbuktu by the Tuaregs (1433), Mali long continued to be the chief state in West Nigritia, and 1 Travels, Vol. IV. p. 579 sqq. 48 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. carried on a flourishing trade, especially in slaves and gold. But this gold was still supposed to come from the earlier kingdom of Guine, which word consequently still remains associated with the precious metal in the popular belief. About the year T 500 Mali was captured by the Sonrhay king, Omar Askia, after which the empire fell to pieces, and its memory now survives only in the ethnical term MaWnke. Felups. From the semi-civilised Muhammadan negroid Man- dingans to the utterly savage full-blood negro Felups the transition is abrupt, but instructive. inland and jn other regions the heterogeneous ethnical groups Coast Peoples. . l crowded into upland valleys, as in the Caucasus, have been called the "sweepings of the plains." But in West Sudan there are no great ranges towering above the low- lands, and even the "Kong Mountains" of school geographies have now been wiped out by Capt. Binger \ Hence the rude aborigines of the inland plateau, retreating before the steady advance of Islam, found no place of refuge till they reached the indented fjord-like Atlantic seaboard, where many still hold their ground. This is the explanation of the striking contrasts now witnessed between the interior and so many parts of the West Coast ; on the one hand powerful political organizations with numerous, more or less homogeneous, and semi-civilised negroid populations, on the other an infinite tangle of ethnical and linguistic groups, all alike weltering in the sheerest savagery, or in grades of barbarism even worse than the wild state. Even the Felnps, whose territory now stretches from the Gambia to the Cacheo, but formerly reached the Felup Type and Mental Geba and the Bissagos Islands, do not form a single group. Originally the name of an obscure coast-tribe, the term Felup or Fulup has been extended by the Portuguese traders to all the surrounding peoples — Ayaniats, Jolas, Jigitshes, Vacas, Joats, Karons, Banyuns, Banjars, Fidiins, Bayots and some others who amid much local diversity, presented a sufficiently general outward resemblance to be regarded as a 1 " La chaine des Montagnes tie Kong n'a jamais existe que dans ^'imagination de quelques voyageurs mal renseignes" (op. cit. I. p. 285). III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 49 single people by the first European settlers. The Felups proper display the physical and mental characters of the typical Negro even in an exaggerated form — black colour, flat nose, wide nostrils, very thick and everted lips, red on the inner surface, stout muscular frame, correlated with coarse animal passions, crass ignorance, no arts industry or even tribal organization, so that every little family group is independent and mostly in a state of constant feud with its neighbours. All go naked, armed with bow and arrow, and live in log huts which, though strongly built, are indescribably filthy1. Matriarchal usages still prevail, rank and property being trans- mitted in the female line. There is some notion of a superhuman being vaguely identified with the sky, the rain, wind or thunder- storm. But all live in extreme terror of the medicine-man, who is openly courted, but inwardly detested, so that whenever it can be safely done the tables are turned, the witch-doctor is seized and tortured to death. Timni, Kru, Sierra-Leonese, Liberians. Somewhat similar conditions prevail all along the seaboard from Sierra Leone to, and beyond, Cape Palmas, disturbed or modified by the Liberian intruders from the North American plantations, and by the slaves rescued in the thirties and forties by the British cruisers and brought to Sierra Leone, where their descendants now live in settled communities under European influences. These " coloured " citizens of Sierra Leone and Liberia, who are so often the butt of cheap ridicule, and are themselves perhaps too apt to scorn the kindred "niggers" of the bush, have to be carefully distinguished from these true aborigines who have never been wrenched from their natural environment. In Sierra Leone the chief aboriginal groups on the coastlands are the Timni of the Rokelle river, flanked north and south by two branches of the Bulams, and still farther south the Gallinas, Veys and Golas ; in the interior the Lokkos, Limbas, Konos, and Knssas, with Kurankos, Mendis, Hubus, and other Mandingans and Fulahs everywhere in the Hinterland. Bertrand-Bocande, Sur les Floups ou Felonps, in But. Soc. de Gt'ogr. 1849. K. 4 50 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Of all these the most powerful during the British occupation have always been the Timni (Timani, Temne), who Beliefs!1 so^ to the English the peninsula on which now stands Freetown, but afterwards crying off the bargain, repeatedly tried to drive the white and coloured intruders into the sea. They are a robust people of softened Negro type, and more industrious farmers than most of the other natives. Like the Wolofs they believe in the virtue both of Christian and Moslem amulets, but have hitherto lent a deaf ear to the preachers of both these religions. Nevertheless the Protestant missionaries have carefully studied the Timni language, which possesses an oral literature rich in legends, proverbs, and folklore1. The Timni district is a chief centre of the so-called porro fraternity2, a sort of secret society or freemasonry widely diffused throughout the coastlands, and possessing its own symbols, tattoo markings, pass- words, and language. It presents curious points of contact with the brotherhoods of the Micronesian islanders, but appears to be even more potent for good and evil, a veritable religious and political state within the state. "When their mandates are issued all wars and civil strife must cease, a general truce is established, and bloodshed stopped, offending communities being punished by bands of armed men in masks. Strangers cannot enter the country unless escorted by a member of the guild, who is recog- nised by passwords, symbolic gestures, and the like. Their secret rites are celebrated at night in the depths of the forest, all intruders being put to death or sold as slaves3." In studying the social conditions prevalent amongst the Sierra Leonese proper, it should be remembered that they 6 are sPrung> not onb' from representatives of almost 1 A full account of this literature will be found in the Rev. C. F. Schlenker's valuable work, A Collection of Temne Traditions, Fables and Proverbs ; London, 1861. Here is given the curious explanation of the tribal name, from o-tem, an old man, and ne, himself, because, as they say, the Temne people will exist for ever. 2 There is also a sisterhood — the bondo — and the two societies work so far in harmony that any person expelled from the one is also excluded from the other. 3 Rechis, Keane's English ed., xn. p. 203. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 5 I every tribe along the seaboard, and even in the far interior, but also to a large extent from the freedmen and runaways of Nova Scotia and London, besides many maroons of Jamaica, who were settled here under the auspices of the Sierra Leone Company towards the close of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century. Others also have in recent years been attracted to the settlements from the Timni and other tribes of the neighbouring districts. The Sierra Leonese are consequently not themselves a tribe, nor yet a people, but rather a people in course of formation under the influence of a new environment and of a higher culture. An immediate consequence of such a sudden aggregation of discordant elements was the loss of all the native tongues, and the substitution of English as the common medium of intercourse. But English is the language of a people standing on the very highest plane of culture, and could not therefore be properly assimilated by the disjecta membra of tribes at the lowest rung of the social ladder. The resultant form of speech may be called ludicrous, so ludicrous that the Sierra Leonese version of the New Testament had to be withdrawn from circulation as verging almost on the blasphemous1. It has also to be considered that all the old tribal relations were broken up, while an attempt was made to merge these waifs and strays in a single community Relations, based on social conditions to which each and all were utter strangers. It is not therefore surprising that the experiment has not proved a complete success, and that the social relations in Sierra Leone leave something to be desired. Although the freedmen and the rescued captives received free gifts of land, their dislike for the labours of the field induced many to abandon their holdings, and take to huckstering and other more pleasant pursuits. Hence their descendants almost [ "Da Njoe Testament, translated into the Negro-English Language by the Missionaries of the Unitas Fratrum," Brit, and For. Bible Soc., London, 1829. Here is a specimen quoted by Ellis from The Artisan of Sierra Leone, Aug. 4, 1886, "Those who live in ceiled houses love to hear the pit-pat of the rain overhead; whilst those whose houses leak are the subjects of restlessness and anxiety, not to mention the chances of catching cold, that is so frequent a source of leaky roofs" 4—2 52 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. monopolise the petty traffic and even the "professions" in Free- town and the other colonial settlements. Although accused of laziness and dishonesty, they have displayed a considerable degree of industrial as well as commercial enterprise, and the Sierra Leone craftsmen — smiths, mechanics, carpenters, builders — enjoy a good reputation in all the coast towns. All are Christians of various denominations, and even show a marked predilection for the " ministry." Yet below the surface the old paganism still slumbers, and vodoo practices, as in the West Indies and some of the Southern States, are still heard of. Morality also is admittedly at a low ebb, and it is curious to note that this has in part been attributed to the freedom enjoyed under the British administration. " They have passed from the sphere of native law to that of British law, which is brought to this young community like an article of ready-made clothing. Is it a wonder that the clothes do not fit ? Is it a wonder that kings and chiefs around Sierra Leone, instead of wishing their people to come and see how well we do things, dread for them to come to this colony on account of the danger to their morals? In passing into this colony, they pass into a liberty which to them is license1." An experiment of a somewhat different order, but with much the same negative results, has been tried by the T^T^ £± Liberians well-meaning founders of the Republic of Liberia. Here also the bulk of the "civilised aristocrats" are descended of emancipated plantation slaves, a first consign- ment of whom was brought over by a philanthropic American society in 1820-22. The idea was to start them well in life under the fostering care of their white guardians, and then leave them to work out their own redemption in their own way. All control was accordingly withdrawn in 1848, and since then the settlement has constituted an absolutely independent Negro state in the enjoyment of complete self-government. Progress of a certain material kind has undoubtedly been made. The original "free citizens" had increased from 8000 in 1850 to about 20,000 Right Rev. E. G. Ingham (Bishop of Sierra Leone), Sierra Leone after a Hundred Years, London, 1894, p. 294. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 53 in 1898*, and the central administration, modelled on that of the United States, has hitherto shown itself strong enough to maintain some degree of order amongst the surrounding aborigines, estimated at over one million within the limits of the Republic. But these aborigines have not benefited perceptibly by contact with their " civilised " neighbours, who themselves stand at much the same level intellectually and morally as their repatriated fore- fathers. Since 1874 no interest has been paid on a debt of ^100,000 contracted in 1871; the budget generally shows a deficit on the ordinary revenue2, and no railways or other useful public works have yet been projected. Instead of attending to these matters the "Weegee," as they are called, have constituted themselves into two factions, the " coloured " or half-breeds, and the full-blood negroes who, like the "Blancos" and "Neros" of some South American States, spend most of their time in a perpetual struggle for office. All are of course intensely patriotic, but their patriotism takes a wrong direction, being chiefly manifested in their insolence towards the English and other European traders on the coast, and in their supreme contempt for the "stinking bush-niggers," as they call the surrounding aborigines. Yet some of these aborigines are both physically and morally scarcely inferior to the free citizens themselves. Tlip The Krus (Kroomen, Krooboys3), whose numerous Krumen. hamlets are scattered along the coast from below Monrovia nearly to Cape Palmas, are assuredly one of the most interesting people in the whole of Africa. Originally from the interior, they have developed in their new homes a most un- African love of the sea, hence are regularly engaged as crews by the European skippers plying along those insalubrious coast- lands. 1 This increase, however, appears to be due to a steady immigration from the Southern States, but for which the Liberians proper would die out, or become absorbed in the surrounding native populations. 2 Statesman 's Year Book, 1898, p. 735-6. 3 Possibly the English word "crew," but more probably an extension of Kraoh, the name of a tribe near Settra-kru, to the whole group. 54 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. In this service, in which they are known by such nicknames as " Bottle-of-Beer," " Mashed-Potatoes," " Bubble-and-Squeak," " Pipe-of-Tobacco," and the like, their word may always be depended upon. But it is to be feared that this loyalty, which with them is a strict matter of business, has earned for them a reputation for other virtues to which they have little claim. Despite the many years that they have been in the closest contact with the missionaries and traders, they are still at heart the same brutal savages as ever. After each voyage they return to the native village to spend all their gains and pilferings in drunken orgies, and relapse generally into sheer barbarism till the next steamer rounds the neighbouring headland. " It is not a comfortable reflection," writes Bishop Ingham, whose testimony will not be suspected of bias, " as we look at this mob on our decks, that, if the ship chance to strike on a sunken rock and become unmanageable, they would rise to a man, and seize all they could lay hands on, cut the very rings off our fingers if they could get them in no other way, and generally loot the ship. Little has been done to Christianise these interesting, hard- working, cheerful, but ignorant and greedy people, who have so long hung on the skirts of civilisation1." The case is mentioned of a gang about to land at their own village, one member of which is ailing. So they tell the captain- "We no want that man; he go die." As however they want his effects and cannot have them without the man himself, they agree to take him ashore. But no sooner is the ship at a safe distance, than they take their moribund kinsman by the head and feet, and fling him overboard2. And so is dissipated the mirage that has hitherto hung round the reputation of the Kruboy for half the virtues under heaven. But the very worst "sweepings of the Sudanese plateau" seem The u er to nave gathered along the Upper Guinea Coast, Guinea occupied by the already mentioned Ts/iit Ewe, and Peoples. . . Yoruba groups. 1 hey constitute three branches of one linguistic, and probably also of one ethnical family, of which, 1 Sierra Leone after a Hundred Years, p. 280. 2 Op. dt. p. 281. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 55 owing to their historic and ethnical importance, the reader may be glad to have here subjoined a somewhat complete tabulated scheme : TRIBES OF TSHI AND GA SPEECH Gold Coast Ashanti Safwhi Denkera Bekwai Nkoranza Adansi Assin Wassaw Ahanta Fanti Agona Akwapim Akim Akwamu Kwao Ga TRIBES OF EWE SPEECH Slave Coast West Dahomi Eweawo Agotine Anfueh Krepe Avenor Awuna Agbosomi Aflao Ataklu Krikor Geng Attakpami Aja Ewemi Appa TRIBES OF YORUBA SPEECH Slave Coast East and Niger Delta Yoruba Ibadan Ketu Egba Jebu Remo Ode Ilorin Ijesa Ondo Mahin Benin (Bini) Kakanda Wari Ibo Efik The Ga of the Volta delta are here bracketed with the Tshi because the late Col. Ellis, our great authority on the Guinea peoples1, considers the two languages to be distantly connected. He also thinks there is a foundation of fact in the native traditions, which bring the dominant tribes — Ashanti, Fanti, Dahomi, Yoruba, Bini — from the interior to the coast districts at no very remote period. Thus it is recorded of the Ashanti and Fanti, now hereditary foes, that ages ago they formed one people who were reduced to the utmost distress during a long war with some 1 The services rendered to African anthropology by this distinguished officer call for the fullest recognition, all the more that somewhat free and unacknow- ledged use has been made of the rich materials brought together in his classical works on 77;,? Tshi-speaking Peoples (1887), The Ewe-speaking Peoples (1890), and The Yoruba-speaking Peoples (1894). 56 MAN I PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. inland power, perhaps the conquering Muhammadans of the Ghana or Mali empire. They were saved, however, some by eating of the s/ia?i, others of the fan plant, and of these words, with the verb di, "to eat," were made the tribal Folklore*1 names Shan-di, Fan-di, now Ashanti, Fanti. The seppiriba plant, said to have been eaten by the Fanti, is still called fan when cooked. Other traditions refer to a time when all were of one speech, and lived in a far country beyond Salagha, open, flat, with little bush, and plenty of cattle and sheep, a tolerably accurate descrip- tion of the inland Sudanese plateaux. But then came a red people, said to be the Fulahs, Muhammadans, who oppressed the blacks and drove them to take refuge in the forests. Here they thrived and multiplied, and after many vicissitudes they came down, down, until at last they reached the coast, with the waves rolling in, the white foam hissing and frothing on the beach, and thought it was all boiling water until some one touched it and found it was not hot, and so to this day they call the sea Eh-huru den o nni shew, "Boiling water not hot," but far inland the sea is still " Boiling water1." To Col. Ellis we are indebted especially for the true explana- tion of the much used and abused term fetish, as applied to the native beliefs. It was of course already known to be not an . African but a Portuguese word2, meaning a charm, its true amulet, or even witchcraft. But Ellis shows how it came to be wrongly applied to all forms of animal and nature worship, and how the confusion was increased by De Brosses' theory of a primordial fetishism, and by his statement that it was impossible to conceive a lower form of religion than fetishism, which might therefore be assumed to be the beginning of all religion3. 1 The Tshi-speaking Peoples, p. 332 sq. 2 Feiti$o, whence also feiticeira, a witch, feiticeria, sorcery, &c., all from feitifo, artificial, handmade, from ~La.\..facio 2cn.&factitius. 3 Du Ciilte des Dieiix Fetiches, 1760. It is generally supposed that the word was invented, or at least first introduced, by De Brosses; but Ellis shows that this also is a mistake, as it had already been used by Bosnian in his Description of Guinea, London, 1705. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 57 On the contrary it represents rather an advanced stage, as Ellis discovered after four or five years of careful observation on the spot. A fetish, he tells us, is something tangible and inani- mate, which is believed to possess power in itself, and is wor- shipped for itself alone. Nor can such an object be picked up anywhere at random, as is commonly asserted, and he adds that the belief " is arrived at only after considerable progress has been made in religious ideas, when the older form of religion becomes secondary and owes its existence to the confusion of the tangible with the intangible, of the material with the immaterial ; to the belief in the indwelling god being gradually lost sight of until the power originally believed to belong to the god, is finally attributed to the tangible and inanimate object itself." But now comes a statement that may seem paradoxical to most students of the evolution of religious ideas. We are assured that fetishism thus understood is not specially or at all character- istic of the religion of the Gold Coast natives, who are in fact "remarkably free from it" and believe in invisible intangible deities. Some of them may dwell in a tangible inanimate object, popularly called a "fetish"; but the idea of the indwelling god is never lost sight of, nor is the object ever worshipped for its own sake. True fetishism, the worship of such material objects and images, prevails, on the contrary, far more " amongst the Negroes of the West Indies, who have been christianised for more than half-a-century, than amongst those of West Africa. Hence the belief in Obeah, still prevalent in the West Indies, which formerly was a belief in indwelling spirits which inhabited certain objects, has now become a worship paid to tangible and inanimate objects, which of themselves are believed to possess the power to injure. In Europe itself we find evidence amongst the Roman Catholic populations of the South, that fetishism is a corruption of a former culte, rather than a primordial faith. The lower classes there have confused the intangible with the tangible, and believe that the images of the saints can both see, hear and feel. Thus we find the Italian peasants and fishermen beat and ill-treat their images when their requests have not been complied with.... These appear to be instances of true fetishism1." 1 The Tshi-speaking Peoples, ch. XII. p. 194 and passim. 58 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Another phase of religious belief in Upper Guinea is ancestry worship, which has here been developed to a degree unknown elsewhere. As the departed have to be the"Cus- maintained in the same social position beyond the toms." grave that they enjoyed in this world, they must be supplied with slaves, wives, and attendants, each according to his rank. Hence the institution of the so-called " customs," or anni- versary feasts of the dead, accompanied by the sacrifice of human victims, regulated at first by the status and afterwards by the whim and caprice of chiefs and kings. In the capitals of the more powerful states, Ashanti, Dahomey, Benin, the scenes wit- nessed at these sanguinary rites rivalled in horror those held in honour of the Aztec gods. Details may here be dispensed with on a repulsive subject, ample accounts of which are accessible from many sources to the general reader. In any case these atrocities teach no lesson, except that most religions have waded through blood to better things, unless arrested in mid-stream by the intervention of higher powers, as happily in Upper Guinea, where the human shambles of Kumassi, Abomeh, Benin and most other places have now been swept away. On the capture of Benin by the English in 1897 a rare and unexpected prize fell into the hands of ethnologists. Here was found a large assortment of carved ivories, woodwork, and especially a series of about 300 bronze and brass plates or panels with figures of natives and Europeans, armed and in armour in full relief, all cast by the cire perdue process1, some barbaric, others, and especially a head in the round of a young negress, showing high artistic skill. These remarkable objects are now mostly in the British Museum, where they have been studied by Messrs C. H. Read and O. M. Dalton2, who are evidently right in assigning the better class to the six- teenth century, and to the aid, if not the hand, of some Portuguese artificers in the service of the King of Benin. They add that "casting of an inferior kind continues down to the present time ': 1 That is, from a wax mould destroyed in the casting. After the operation details were often rilled in by chasing or executed in repousse work. 2 " Works of Art from Benin City," Jour. Anthrop. Inst., February, 1898, p. 362 sq. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 59 and it may here be mentioned that armour has long been and is still worn by the cavalry, and even their horses, in the Muhammadan states of Central Sudan. " The chiefs (Kashelldwd) who serve as officers under the Sultan [of Bornu] and act as his bodyguard wear jackets of chain armour and cuirasses of coats of mail1." It is clear that metal casting in a large way has long been practised by the semi-civilised peoples of Sudan. Within the great bend of the Niger the veil, first slightly raised by Earth in the middle of the nineteenth century, /". -n- /^ The Mossi. has now been drawn aside by Capt. Binger, Capt. Lugard and later explorers. Here the Mossi, Borgn and others have hitherto more or less successfully resisted the Moslem advance, and are consequently for the most part little removed from the savage state. Even the " Faithful " wear the cloak of Islam somewhat loosely, and the level of their culture may be judged from the case of the Imam of Diulasu, who pestered Capt. Binger for nostrums and charms against ailments, war, and mis- fortunes. What he wanted chiefly to know was the names of Abraham's two wives. " Tell me these," he would say, " and my fortune is made, for I dreamt it the other night; you must tell me; I really must have those names or I'm lost2." In some districts the ethnical confusion is considerable, and when Binger arrived at the Court of the Mossi King, Baikary, he was addressed successively in Mossi, Hausa, Sonrhay, and Fulah, until at last it was discovered that Mandingan was the only native language he understood. Waghadugu, capital of the chief Mossi state, comprises several distinct quarters occupied respectively by Mandingans, Marengas (Sonrhays), Zang-wer'os (Hausas), Chil- migos (Fulahs), Mussulman and heathen Mossis, the whole popu- lation scarcely exceeding 5000. However, perfect harmony pre- vails, the Mossi themselves being extremely tolerant despite the 1 A. Featherman, Social History of Mankind, The Nigritians, p. -281. See also Reclus, French ed., Vol. xn. p. 718: " Les cavaliers portent encore la cuirasse comme au moyen age Les chevaux sont reconverts de la tneme maniere." In the mythical traditions of Buganda also there is reference to the fierce Wakedi warriors clad in "iron armour" (ch. IV.). 2 Du Niger an Golfe de Guinee, I. p. 377. 60 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. long religious wars they have had to wage against the fanatical Fulahs and other Muhammadan aggressors1. Religious indifference is indeed a marked characteristic of this people, and the case is mentioned of a nominal Agnostics. Mussulman prince who could even read and write, and say his prayers, but whose two sons "knew nothing at all," or, as we should say, were " Agnostics." One of them, however, it is fair to add, is claimed by both sides, the Moslems asserting that he says his prayers in secret, the heathens that he drinks dolo (palm-wine), which of course no true believer is supposed ever to do. CENTRAL SUDANESE. In Central Sudan, that is, the region stretching from the Niger to Wadai, a tolerably clean sweep has been made Ethnica? and of the aborigines, except along the southern fringe Social Reia- an(] 'm parts of the Chad basin. For many cen- tions. turies Islam has here been firmly established, and in Negroland Islam is synonymous with a greater or less degree of miscegenation. The native tribes who resisted the fiery Arab or Tuareg or Tibu proselytisers were for the most part either extirpated, or else driven to the southern uplands about the Congo-Chad water-parting. All who accepted the Koran became merged with the conquerors in a common negroid population, which supplied the new material for the development of large social communities and powerful political states. Under these conditions the old tribal organisations were in great measure dissolved, and throughout its historic period of about a millennium Central Sudan is found mainly occupied by peoples gathered together in a small number of political systems, each with its own language and special institutions, but all alike accepting Islam as the State religion. Such are or were the 1 Early in the fourteenth century they were strong enough to carry the war into the enemy's camp and make more than one successful expedition against Timbuktu. At present the Mossi power is declining, and their territory has already (1898) been parcelled out (on paper) between the British and French Sudanese hinterlands. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 6l Sonrhay Empire and the Hausa States ; such are the still inde- pendent or at least autonomous kingdoms of Bornu with Kanem and Baghirmi, and these jointly cover the whole of Central Sudan as above defined. Sonrhay s\ How completely the tribe2 has merged in the people" may be inferred from the mere statement that, although no longer an independent nation2, the Negroid Sonrhays form a single ethnical group of about two million souls, all of one speech and one religion, and all dis- Dom3ii*y tinguished by somewhat uniform physical and mental characters. This territory lies mainly about the border- lands between Sudan and the Sahara, stretching from Timbuktu east to the Asben oasis and along both banks of the Niger from Lake Debo round to the Sokoto confluence, and also at some points reaching as far as the Hombori hills within the great bend of the Niger. Here they are found in the closest connection with the Ireghe- naten ("mixed") Tuaregs, and elsewhere with other Tuaregs, and with Arabs, Fulahs or Hausas3, so that exclusively Sonrhay communities are now somewhat rare. But the bulk of the race is still concentrated in Gurma and in the district between Gogo and Timbuktu, the two chief cities of the old Sonrhay empire. They are a distinctly Negroid people, presenting various shades of intermixture with the surrounding Hamites Sonrhay and Semites, but generally of a very deep brown or Type and blackish colour, with somewhat regular features and that peculiar long, black, and ringletty hair, which is so charac- teristic of Negro and Caucasic blends, as seen amongst the 1 Also Songhay, gh and rh being interchangeable throughout North Africa ; Ghat and Rhat, Ghadames and Rhadames, &c. In the mouth of an Arab the sound is that of the guttural £ ghain, which is pronounced by the Berbers and Negroes somewhat like the Northumberland burr, hence usually transliterated by rh in non-Semitic words. 2 It should be noticed that these terms are throughout used as strictly de- fined in Etli. Ch. I. 3 Earth's account of Wulu (iv. p. 299), " inhabited by Tawarek slaves, who are trilingues, speaking Temashight as well as Songhay and Fulfulde " is at present generally applicable, mutatis mutandis, to most of the Sonrhay settle- ments. 62 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Trarsas and Braknas of the Senegal, the Bejas, Danakils, and many Abyssinians of the region between the Nile and the Red Sea. Barth, to whom we still owe the best account of this his- torical people, describes them as of a dull, morose temperament, the most unfriendly and churlish of all the peoples visited by him in Negroland. This writer's suggestion that they may have formerly had relations with the Egyptians1 has been revived in Origins37 an exaggerated form by M. Felix Dubois, whose views have received currency in England through uncritical notices of his Timbouctou la Mysterieuse (Paris, 1897). But there is no "mystery" in the matter. The Theorfes.a Sonrhay are a Sudanese people, whose exodus from Egypt is a myth, and whose Kissur language, as it is called, has not the remotest connection with any form of speech known to have been at any time current in the Nile valley". Such dumping down of a whole people on the Niger bend, after travers- ing some thousands of miles of sandy wastes or densely settled plains, has naturally excited the ridicule of serious students, such as Herr Brix Forster, whose caustic exposure of the myth may be seen in Globus, 71, p. 193 sq.3 The Sonrhay empire, like that of the rival Mandingans, claims a respectable antiquity, its reputed founder Za-el- Yemeni having flourished about 680 A.D. Za Kasi, fifteenth in succession from the founder, was the 1 As so much has been made of Earth's authority in this connection, it may be well to quote his exact words: " It would seem as if they (the Sonrhay) had received, in more ancient times, several institutions from the Egyptians, with whom, I have no doubt, they maintained an intercourse by means of the energetic inhabitants of Aujila from a relatively ancient period " (iv. p. 426). Barth, therefore, does not bring the people themselves, or their language, from Egypt, but only some of their institutions, and that indirectly through the Aujila Oasis in Cyrenaica, and it may be added that this intercourse with Aujila appears to date only from about 1150 A.D. (iv. p. 585). ' Hacquard et Dupuis, Manuel de la langue Son gay, parlee de Tombouctoii a Say, dans la boucle du Niger, 1897, passim. 3 Of M. Dubois' theory this writer remarks that it " tragt entvveder den Stempel phantasiereicher Willkur oder entbehrt des Ruhmes unser Wissen durch neue Thatsachen bereichern zu konnen, " p. 195. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 63 first Muhammadan ruler (1009); but about 1326 the country was reduced by the Mandingans, and remained throughout the i4th and a great part of the i5th century virtually subject to the Mali empire, although Ali Killun. founder of the new Sonni dynasty, had acquired a measure of independence about 1335 — 6. But the political supremacy of the Sonrhay people dates only from about 1464, when Sonni Ali, i6th of the Sonni dynasty, known in history as " the great tyrant and famous miscreant," threw off the Mandingan yoke, " and changed the whole face of this part of Africa by prostrating the kingdom of Melle1." Under his suc- cessor, Muhammad Askia2, " perhaps the greatest sovereign that ever ruled over Negroland3,'' the Sonrhay Empire acquired its greatest expansion, extending from the heart of Hausaland to the Atlantic seaboard, and from the Mossi country to the Tuat Oasis, south of Morocco. Although unfavourably spoken of by Leo Africanus, Askia is described by Ahmed Baba as governing the subject peoples "with justice and equity, causing well-being and comfort to spring up everywhere within the borders of his exten- sive dominions, and introducing such of the institutions of Muhammadan civilisation as he considered might be useful to his subjects4." Askia also made the Mecca pilgrimage with a great show of splendour. But after his reign (1492 — 1529) the Sonrhay power gradually declined, and was at last overthrown by Mulay Hamed, Emperor of Morocco, in 1591 — 2. Ahmed Baba, the native chronicler, was involved in the ruin of his people5, and since then 1 Earth IV. p. 593-4. 2 The Ischia of Leo Africanus, who tells us that in his time the "linguaggio detto Sungai" was current even in the provinces of Walata and Jinni (vi. ch. 2). This statement, however, like others made by Leo at second hand, must be received with caution. In these districts Sonrhay may have been spoken by the officials and some of the upper classes, but scarcely by the people generally, who were of Mandingan speech. 3 Earth iv. p. 414. 4 Ib. p. 415. 5 Carried captive into Marakesh, although later restored to his beloved Timbuktu to end his days in perpetuating the past glories of the Sonrhay nation ; the one Negroid man of letters, whose name holds a worthy place beside those of Leo Africanus, Ibn Khaldun, El Tunsi, and other Hamitic writers. 64 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. the Sonrhay nation has been broken into fragments, subject here to Hausas, there to Fulahs, elsewhere to Tuaregs, and, since the French occupation of Timbuktu (1894), to the hated Giaur. Hausas. In everything that constitutes the real greatness of a nation, the Hausas may rightly claim preeminence "omfnaiit amongst all the peoples of Negroland. No doubt Social early in the nineteenth century the historical Hausa Position. States, occupying the whole region between the Niger and Bornu, were overrun and reduced by the fanatical Fulah bands under Othman Dan Fodye. But the Hausas in a truer sense than the Greeks, "have captured their rude conquerors1/' for they have even largely assimilated them physically to their own type, and while the Fulah political ascendancy is already tottering, the Hausa nationality is again under British auspices asserting its natural social, industrial and commercial predominance through- out Central and even parts of Western Sudan. It could not well be otherwise, seeing that the Hausas form a compact body of some twenty million peaceful and industrious Sudanese, living partly in numerous farmsteads amid their well-tilled cotton, indigo, pulse, and corn fields, partly in large walled cities and great trading centres such as Kano2, Katsena, Yacoba, whose intelligent and law-abiding inhabitants are reckoned by many tens of thousands. Their melodious tongue, of which Hausa Speech and the Rev. C. H. Robinson has given us a far too Mental Quali- ,. ties. meagre account0, has long been the great medium Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artes Intulit agresti Latio. Hor. Epist. n. i, 156-7. The epithet agrestis is peculiarly applicable to the rude Fulah shepherds, who were almost barbarians compared with the settled, industrious, and even cultured Hausa populations, and whose oppressive rule has at last been relaxed by the intervention of England in the Niger-Benue lands. 1 " One of their towns, Kano, has probably the largest market-place in the world, with a daily attendance of from 25,000 to 30,000 people. This same town possesses, what in central Africa is still more surprising, some thirty or forty schools, in which the children are taught to read and write " (Rev. C. H. Robinson, Specimens of Hausa Literature, University Press, Cam- bridge, 1896, p. x). 3 This authority seems uncertain whether to class Hausa with the Semitic or the Hamitic family, or in an independent group by itself, and it must be III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 65 of intercourse throughout Sudan from Lake Chad to and beyond the Niger, and is daily acquiring even greater preponderance amongst all the settled and trading populations of these regions. But though showing a marked preference for peaceful pur- suits, the Hausas are by no means an effeminate people. Largely enlisted in the British service, they have at all times shown fighting qualities of a high order under their English officers, and a well- earned tribute has been paid to their military prowess amongst others by Sir George Goldie and Lieut. Vandeleur1. With the Hausas on her side England need assuredly fear no rivals to her beneficent sway over the teeming populations of the fertile plains and plateaux of Central Sudan, which is on the whole perhaps the most favoured land in Africa north of the equator. According to the national traditions, which go back to no very remote period, the seven historical Hausa States known as the "Hausa bokoy" ("the seven Hausas") origins? take their name from the eponymous heroes Biram, Daura* Gober, Kano, Rano, Katsena and Zegzeg, all said to be sprung from the Deggaras, a Berber tribe settled to the north of Munyo. From Biram, the original seat, the race and its language spread to seven other provinces — Zanfara, Kebbi, Nupe (Nyffi], Givari, Yauri, Yariba and Kororofa, which in contempt are called admitted that some of its features are extremely puzzling. The question cannot here be discussed, but I think further research will show that its affinities are neither with the Semitic nor with the Hamitic, at least directly, but that Hausa is fundamentally a Sudanese Negro language greatly modified by Tibu in- fluences, that in fact it is an outlying member of Nachtigal's Teda-Daza linguistic group. Some light may be thrown on the subject by the studies of Dr G. A. Krause, who, however, starts with the curious and embarrassing theory that Hausa is a combination of two Bantu dialects welded together by people speaking a Hamitic language! It may be incidentally mentioned that Mr Robinson has been instrumental in establishing a Hausa Association "for the purpose of promoting the study of the Hausa language and people" (1891). 1 Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger, by Lt Seymour Vandeleur, with an Introduction by Sir George Goldie, 1898. "In camp," writes Lt Van- deleur, "their conduct was exemplary, while pillaging and ill-treatment of the natives were unknown. As to their fighting qualities, it is enough to say that, little over 500 strong (on the Bida expedition of 1897), they withstood for two days -25,000 or 30,000 of the enemy; that, former slaves of the Fulahs, they defeated their dreaded masters," &c. K. 5 66 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. the "Banza bokoy': ("The Seven Upstarts"). All form collec- tively the Hausa domain in the widest sense. Authentic history is quite recent, and even Komayo, reputed founder of Katsena, dates only from about the i4th century. Ibrahim Maji, who was the first Moslem ruler, is assigned to the latter part of the i5th century, and since then the chief events have been associated with the Fulah wars, ending in the absorp- tion of all the Hausa States in the present unstable Fulah empire of Sokoto, now a British protectorate. The Hausas were them- selves never a conquering power, and their present expansion and social supremacy seem almost entirely due to the natural intelli- gence, industrial habits, and commercial enterprise of this remark- able people. Kanembu ; Kanuri l ; Baghirmi, Mosgu. Round about the shores of Lake Chad are grouped three other PoiiticaiRela- historical Muhammadan nations, the Kanembu tionsinthe ("People of Kaiiem ") on the north, the Kanuri of Chad Basin. Bornu on the west, and the Baghirmi on the south side. The last named is, or has lately been, subject to the Sultan of Waday farther east, and the whole region has been exposed to the ravages of fierce Arab predatory tribes (Salamat and others) from the north, and (since the Madhi's revolt) of Arabo-Nubian armed bands from the east. In other respects these states have hitherto maintained their political independence, although now gravitating towards the rival European powers (England, France, Germany), whose hinterlands have already converged round the Chad basin. In this region the ethnical relations are considerably more complex than in the Hausa States. Here Islam has had greater obstacles to contend with than on the more open western plateaux, and many of the pagan aborigines have been able to hold their ground either in the archipelagos of Lake Chad ( Yediitas, Kuri\ or in the swampy tracts and uplands of the Logon- Shari basin (Mosgu, Mandara, Makari &c.). 1 By a popular etymology these are Ka-Niiri, " People of Light." But, as they are somewhat lukewarm Muhammadans, the zealous Fulahs say it should be Ka-Nari, " People of Fire," i.e. foredoomed to Gehenna ! III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 67 It was also the policy of the Muhammadans, whose system is based on slavery, not to push their religious zeal too far, for, if all the natives were converted, where could .The Abon- gines. they procure a constant supply of slaves, those who accept the teachings of the Prophet being ipso facto entitled to their freedom ? Hence the pagan districts were, and still are, regarded as convenient preserves, happy hunting-grounds to be raided from time to time, but not utterly wasted; to be visited by organised razzias just often enough to keep up the supply in the home and foreign markets. This system, controlled by the local governments themselves, has long prevailed about the borderlands between Islam and heathendom, as we know from Barth, Nachtigal, and one or two other travellers, who have had reluctantly to accompany the periodical slave-hunting expeditions from Bornu and Baghirmi to the territories of the pagan Mosgu people with their numerous branches (Margi, Mandara, Makari, Logon^ Gamergu, Keribina] and the other aborigines (Bede, ATgisem, So, Kerrikerri, Babir] on the northern slopes of the Congo-Chad water-parting. As usual on such occasions, there is a great waste of life, many perishing in defence of their homes or even in||ave through sheer wantonness, besides those carried away captives. "A large number of slaves had been caught this day," writes Barth, " and in the evening a great many more were brought in ; altogether they were said to have taken one thousand, and there were certainly not less than five hundred. To our utmost horror, not less than 170 full-grown men were mercilessly slaughtered in cold blood, the greater part of them being allowed to bleed to death, a leg having been severed from the body1." There was probably just then a glut in the market. A curious result of these relations is that in the wooded districts some of the natives have reverted to ar- boreal habits, taking refuge during the raids in the strongholds. branches of huge bombax trees converted into tem- porary strongholds. Round the vertical stem of these forest giants is erected a breast-high look-out, while the higher horizontal 1 in. p. 194. 5—2 68 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. branches, less exposed to the fire of the enemy, support strongly- built huts and store-houses, where the families of the fugitives take refuge with all their effects, including, as Nachtigal assures us], their domestic animals, such as goats, dogs, and poultry. During the siege of the aerial fortress, which is often successfully defended, long light ladders of withies are let down at night, when no attack need be feared, and the supply of water and provisions is thus renewed from caches or hiding-places round about. In 1872 Nachtigal accompanied a predatory excursion to the pagan districts south of Baghirmi, when an attack was made on one of these tree-fortresses. Such citadels can be stormed only at a heavy loss, and as the Gaberi (Baghirmi) warriors had no tools capable of felling the great bombax-tree, they were fain to rest satisfied with picking off a poor wretch now and then, and bar- barously mutilating the bodies as they fell from the overhanging branches. Some of these aborigines disfigure their faces by the disk-like lip-ornament, which is also fashionable in Nyassa- Mosgu J Types and land, and even amongst the South American Boto- Contrasts. . cudos. 1 he type often diners greatly, and while some of the wide-spread Mosgu tribes are of a dirty black hue, with disagreeable expression, wide open nostrils, thick lips, high cheek-bones, coarse bushy hair, and disproportionate knock- kneed legs, other members of the same family astonished Earth " by the beauty and symmetry of their forms, and by the regularity of their features, which in some had nothing of what is called the Negro type. But I was still more astonished at their complexion, which was very different in different individuals, being in some of a glossy black, and in others of a light copper, or rather rhubarb colour, the intermediate shades being almost entirely wanting. I. observed in one house a really beautiful female who, with her son, about eight or nine years of age, formed a most charming group, well worthy of the hand of an accomplished artist. The boy's form did not yield in any respect to the beautiful symmetry of the most celebrated Grecian statues. His hair, indeed, was very short and curled, but not woolly. He, as well as his mother and the 1 Sahara and Sudan, II. p. 628. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 69 whole family, were of a pale or yellowish-red complexion, like rhubarb1." There is no suggestion of albinoism, and the explanation of such strange contrasts must await further exploration in the whole of this borderland of Negroes and Bantus about the divide between the Chad and the Congo basins. The country has hitherto been traversed only by two or three French pioneers, interested more in political than in anthropological matters. Of the settled and more or less cultured peoples in the Chad basin, the most important are the Kanembu2, who The Cultured introduce a fresh element of confusion in this region, Peoples of . ..... , . . . . Central Sudan. being more allied in type and speech to the Hamitic Tibus than to the Negro stock, or at least taking a transitional position between the two; the Kanuri, the ruling people in Bornu, of somewhat coarse Negroid appearance3; and the southern Baghirmi, also decidedly Negroid, originally supposed to have come from the Upper Shari and White Nile districts4. Their civilisation, such as it is, has been developed exclusively under Moslem influences, but it has never penetrated much below the surface. The people are everywhere extremely rude, and for the most part unlettered, although the meagre and not altogether trustworthy Kanem-Bornu records date from the time of Sef, 1 ir. p. 382-3. 2 That is, "Kanem-men," the postfix bu, be, as in 7'i-bu, Ful-be, answering to the Bantu prefix ba, ?va, as in Ba-Suto, Wa-Sivahili, &c. Here may possibly be discovered a link between the Sudanese, Teda-Daza, and Bantu linguistic groups. The transposition of the agglutinated particles would present no difficulty; cf. Umbrian and Latin (Eth. p. 214). 3 Barth draws a vivid picture of the contrasts, physical and mental, between the Kanuri and the Hausa peoples; " Here we took leave of Hausa with its fine and beautiful country, and its cheerful and industrious population. It is remarkable what a difference there is between the character of the ba-Haushe and the Kanuri — the former lively, spirited, and cheerful, the latter melancholic, dejected, and brutal ; and the same difference is visible in their physiognomies— the former having in general very pleasant and regular features, and more graceful forms, while the Kanuri, with his broad face, his wide nostrils and his large bones, makes a far less agreeable impression, especially the women, who are very plain and certainly among the ugliest in all Negroland" (ii. p. 163-4). 4 See Nachtigal, ii. p. 690. /O MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. reputed founder of the monarchy about 800 A.D. Duku, second in descent from Sef, is doubtfully referred to about Bomu 850 A.D. Hame, founder of a new dynasty, flourished towards the end of the nth century (1086 — 1097), and Dunama, one of his successors, is said to have extended his sway over a great part of the Sahara, in- cluding the whole of Fezzan (1221 — 59). Under Omar (1394 — 1398) a divorce took place between Kanem and Bornu, and henceforth the latter country has remained the chief centre of political power in the Chad basin. A long series of civil wars was closed by Ali (1472 — 1504), who founded the present capital, Birni, and whose grandson, Muhammad, brought the empire of Bornu to the highest pitch of its greatness (1526 — 45). Under Ahmed (1793 — 1810) began the wars with the Fulahs, who, after bringing the empire to the verge of ruin, were at last overthrown by the aid of the Kanem people, and since 1819 Bornu has been ruled by the present Kanemiyin dynasty, while Kanem itself has been wasted by the lawless Tuaregs and made " the wild hunting-ground of continual adventurous ghazzias from every quarter." In Earth's time Barawa, at the eastern end of the Anglo-French border-line, running from the Niger to Lake Chad, had to pay blackmail to the Tuareg freebooters. EASTERN SUDANESE. As some confusion prevails regarding the expression "Eastern Sudan," I may here explain that it bears a very Range of the Negro in East- different meaning, according as it is used in a political or an ethnical sense. Politically it is practically synonymous with Egyptian Sudan, that is the whole region from Darfur to the Red Sea which was ruled or misruled by the Khedivial Government before the revolt of the Mahdi (1883 — 4), and has been restored to Egypt by the British occu- pation of Khartum in 1898. Ethnically Eastern Sudan comprises all the lands east of the Chad Basin, where the Negro or Negroid populations are predominant, that is to say, Waday, Darfur, and Kordofan in the West, the Nile Valley from the frontier of Egypt III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 71 proper south to Lake Albert Nyanza, both slopes of the Nile- Congo divide (the western tributaries of the White Nile and the Welle-Makua affluent of the Congo), lastly the Sobat Valley with some Negro enclaves east of the White Nile, and even south of the equator (Kavirondo, Semliki Valley). Throughout the whole of this region the fusion of the aborigines with the Arab. Tuareg, or Tibu Moslem intruders, . The Mabas. wherever they have penetrated, has been far less complete than in Central and Western Sudan. Thus in Waday the dominant Maba people, whence the country is often called Dar-Maba (" Mabaland"), are rather Negro than Ethnical Negroid, with but a slight strain of Caucasic blood. Relations in In the northern districts the Zoghdwa, Gurdan, Waday> Baele and Bulala Tibus keep quite aloof from the blacks, as do elsewhere the Aramkas, as the Arabs are collectively called in Waday. Yet the Mahamids and some other Bedouin tribes have here been settled for over 500 years, and it was through their assistance that the Mabas acquired the political supremacy they have enjoyed since the seventeenth century, when they reduced or expelled the Tynjurs1, the former ruling race, said to be Nubians originally from Dongola. It was Abd-el-Kerim, founder of the new Moslem Maba state, who gave the country its present name in honour of his grandfather, Wada'i. His successor Khariib I. removed the seat of government to Wara, where Vogel was mur- dered in 1856. Abeshr, the present capital, dates only from the year 1850. Waday has hitherto been visited by no other Europeans except Nachtigal, who just crossed the frontier in 1873, and Massari and Matteucei, who passed rapidly through under escort in 1879. Hence we still await details of the ethnical conditions, most of our information being in fact derived from the reports of El Tunsi These are the same people as the Tunjurs (Tunzers) of Darfur, regarding whose ethnical position so much doubt still prevails. Strange to say, they themselves claim to be Arabs, and the claim is allowed by their neighbours, although they are not Muhammadans. Lejean thinks they are Tibbus from the north-west, while Nachtigal, who met some as far west as Kanem, concluded from their appearance and speech that they were really Arabs settled for hundreds of years in the country (op. cit. II. p. 256). 72 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. ("The Tunisian ") who visited the country towards the close of the 1 8th century. But of these reports I have no first-hand knowledge. Nubas. As in Waday, the intruding and native populations have been either imperfectly or not at all assimilated Problem" ™ Darfur and Kordofan, where the Muhammadan Semites still boast of their pure Arab descent1, and form powerful confederacies of pastoral tribes, who with their Nubian allies constitute the great disturbing element throughout Egyptian Sudan. The Nubians themselves present one of the hardest problems in the whole range of ethnological studies. Having elsewhere discussed the question somewhat fully2, I will here confine myself to a statement of the general conclusions which I have arrived at, and which have not been seriously questioned. We have first of all to get rid of the " Nuba-Fulah " family, which was introduced by Fr. Miiller and accepted by some English writers, but has absolutely no existence. The two languages, although both of the agglutinative Sudanese type, are radically distinct in all their structural, lexical, and phonetic 1 Yet some, such as the dominant Baggaras, are almost as dark as the blackest Negroes, but with quite regular well-shaped features. " These Bag- garas looked like the fiends they really are— of most sinister expression, with murder and every crime speaking from their savage eyes. The Baggara were ever known as a cruel, bloodthirsty people. Courage is their one good quality" (Times Correspondent, July 28, 1896). Of the rival Jaalin (Jalin, Jahaliii} the same observer remarks that they are "a proud and religious people, claiming descent from Abbas, the uncle of the Prophet. They have for a long time been the principal slave-hunters in the Sudan (the famous Zubeir was of this tribe), and were formerly among the most zealous Mahdists " (/£.). All these Nilotic, Atbara, and Kordofan Bedouins (Baggara, Jaalin, Kababish, Shukrieh, Robabat, Homran, Hassanieh, Dobeina, Yemanieh) speak Arabic, but mostly as Chaucer's nun spoke French, and the pronunciation, especially of the Baggara and Kababish tribes, differs greatly from that of the true Arabs. Many of the characteristic Semitic sounds have been replaced by others possibly inherited from a now extinct language, which could scarcely be any other than the Hamitic still current amongst the Bejas beyond the Nile. Baggara, for instance, should be Baqqara, i.e. "cowherds," while many of the Jaalin sub-tribes have the Beja patronymic ending ab \ Gebalab, Kaliab, Sadab, Timerab, &c. 2 Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan, 1884, p. 12 sq. See also Eth. p. 270. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 73 elements, and the two peoples are equally distinct. The Fulahs belong originally to the Hamitic stock, although many have in recent times been largely assimilated to their black Sudanese subjects. The Nubians on the contrary belong originally to the Negro stock, although many have long been assimilated to the Hamitic type through secular interminglings in that part of the Nile Valley which from them takes the relatively modern name of Nubia. But rightly to understand the question we have carefully to distinguish between these half-caste Nubians and the full-blood Negro Nubas, who give their name to the Nuba Mountains, Kordofan, true cradle of the race, where most of the aborigines (Kargo, Kulfan, Rolaji, Tumali) still belong to this connection. From Kordofan, which is itself a Nuba word meaning "Land of the Kordo '; (fan = Arab, ddr, land, country), they spread in remote times west to Darfur and Waday — where they are now represented by the Furs^ Kunjaras, and Tynjurs — and in historic times along the Nile north to the Egyptian frontier. Here they are represented by the three groups of Matokki (Kenus] between the first Cataract and Wadi- el-Arab, the Mahai (Marisi) between Korosko and Wadi-Halfa, at the second Cataract, and the Dongo- lawi, of the province of Dongola between Wadi-Halfa and Jebel Deja near Meroe. These three groups, all now Muhammadans, but formerly Christians, constitute collectively the so-called Nubjan "Nubians" of European writers, but call themselves Origins and Barabra, plural of Berberi, i.e. people of Berber, although they do not at present extend so far up the Nile as that town1. They are unquestionably Strabo's " Noubai, who dwell 1 This term, however, has by some authorities been identified with the Barabara, one of the 113 tribes recorded in the inscription on a gateway of Thutmes, by whom they were reduced about 1700 B.C. In a later inscription of Rameses II. at Karnak (1400 B.C.) occurs the form Beraberata, name of a southern people conquered by him. Hence Brugsch (Reisebericht aus sEgypten pp. 127 and 155) is inclined to regard the modern Barabra as a true ethnical name confused in classical times with the Greek and Roman Barbarus, but revived in its proper sense since the Moslem conquest. See also the editorial note on the term Berber, in the new English ed. of Leo Africanus, Vol. I. p. 199. 74 MAN I PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. on the left bank of the Nile in Libya [Africa], a great nation &C.1"; and are also to be identified with the Nobatce, who in Diocletian's time were settled, some in the Kargey oasis, others in the Nile valley about Meroe, to guard the frontiers of the empire against the incursions of the restless Blemmues. But after some time they appear to have entered into peaceful relations with these Hamites, the present Bejas, even making common cause with them against the Romans ; but the confederacy was crushed by Maximinus in 451, though perhaps not before crossings had taken place between the black Nubas and the Caucasic Bejas. Then these Bejas withdrew to their old homes, which they still occupy, between the Nile and the Red Sea above Egypt, while the Nobat?e, embracing Christianity, as is said, in 545, established the powerful kingdom of Dongola which lasted over 800 years, and was finally overthrown by the Arabs in the i/j-th century, since which time the Nile Nubians have been Muhammadans. But they still retain their old Nuba speech, which, as shown by Lepsius2, differs but slightly from that now current amongst the Kordofan Nubas. This is one of those cases where language renders indispensable service to ethnology3. Taken in connection 1 'E£ dptcrrepcDi' 5£ pvaeus rov Nei'Aou NoO/3cu KO.TOIKOV(TIV iv rrj Aifivrj, &c. (Book xvn. p. 1117, Oxford ed. 1807). Sayce, therefore, is quite wrong in stating that Strabo knew only of " Ethiopians," and not Nubians, "as dwelling northward along the banks of the Nile as far as Elephantine" (Academy, April 14, 1894). 2 Nubische Grammatik, i88i,#asstm. In this classical work Lepsius, after referring to the "dark bronze colour" of the present Nilotic Nubians, "darker than that of the Abyssinians," adds : — " Der alte Negertypus bricht nicht selten wieder ziemlich deutlich durch ; namentlich ist das Wollhaar ziemlich haufig " (p. 74). On these grounds Prichard had already grouped the Nubians not with the Arabs or Hamites, but with the Sudanese Blacks. All the more surprising is Sergi's contention that they are di stirpe camitica, " of Hamitic stock." 3 Even Prof. Sergi, despite his almost exclusive faith in cranial characters as racial tests, admits this: "La traccia e la persistenza del linguaggio attra- verso secoli e malgrado il dominio di altra gente e il mutamento di religione, spesso e simile alia persistenza dei caratteri fisici umani ; ed allora la lingua e un argomento di molto valore antropologico" (Africa, Antropologia delta Stirpe Camitica, Turin, 1897, p. 97). But in this case he declines to deal with the linguistic factor (" Non sono io che posso risolvere i problem: linguistic! "), and is therefore able still to hold that the Nile Nubians are Hamites ("I Nubi della III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : I. SUDANESE. 75 with the historic data, it solves the Nubian problem ; for it is impossible to suppose that the cultured Nile-Nubians could have ever adopted or acquired the speech of the savage Kordofan Nubas, unless it had always been their own mother-tongue ; in other words, unless they were themselves originally Kordofan Nubas. They were Christians, it should be remembered, for many centuries, and although the flourishing Christian Empire of Nubia, with its seventeen bishoprics and its thirteen viceroyalties, all governed by priests, was not founded, as is commonly sup- posed, by the renowned Silco, " King of the Noubads and of all the Ethiopians," it was strong enough frequently to invade Egypt in defence of their oppressed Greek and Koptic fellow-Christians. So early as 640 a combined army of Nubas and Bejas, said to have numbered 50,000 men with 1500 elephants, penetrated as far north as Oxyrhynchus (the Arab Bahnosd) where such a sur- prising store of Greek and other documents was discovered in 1897. Cultured peoples with such glorious records, and traditions going back even to pre-Christian times (Silco and Queen Candace, contemporary of Augustus), do not borrow their language from the rude untutored aborigines on the distant frontiers of their empire. Nevertheless Sayce may be right in conjecturing that the old language of the Meroitic inscriptions was not the present Nubian, but a Hamitic tongue akin to Berber. These inscriptions ante-date the arrival of the Nubians from Kordofan by perhaps 1000 years, and must be referred to the pre-Nuba Hamites of the Nile valley, whom Sayce, I think rightly, identifies with the Berbers. "Two of the Ethiopian deities known to us have a strikingly Libyan (Berber) appearance. One of them is Dudun, a name which bears a remarkable resemblance to that of Didi^ one of the Libyan enemies of Ramses III.1" All this harmonises completely with my view that the present Nubians are late intruders in the Nile Valley below Khartum, where they displaced the original Hamitic inhabitants probably not more than 2500 years ago. valle del Nilo da Asmara a Dongola sono di stirpe camitica" (ib. p. 107). But ethnical problems are like algebraic equations ; they cannot be solved if some of the necessary factors be overlooked. 1 Academy, Ap. 14, 1894. 76 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Before the incursions of the Nubo-Arab traders and raiders, who began to form settlements (zeribas, fenced Peoples of the stations) in the Upper Nile regions above Khartum about the middle of the nineteenth century, most of the Nile-Congo divide (White Nile tributaries and Welle-Makua basin) belonged in the strictest sense to the Negro domain. Sudanese tribes, and even great nations reckoned by millions, had been for ages in almost undisturbed possession, not only of the main stream from the equatorial lakes to and beyond the Sobat junction, but also of the Sobat valley itself, and of the numerous south-western head-waters of the White Nile converging about Lake No above the Sobat junction. Nearly all the Nilotic peoples — the Shillnks and Dinkas about the Sobat confluence, the Bari and Nuers of the Bahr-el-Jebel, the Bongos (Dors\ Rols, Golos, Mittus, Madis, Makarakas, Abakas, Mundus, and many others about the western affluents, as well as the Funj of Senaar — had been brought under the Khedivial rule before the revolt of the Mahdi. The same fate had already overtaken or was threatening the formerly powerful Mombuttu (Mangbattu) and Zandeh (Niam- Niani] nations of the Welle lands, as well as the Krej and others about the low watersheds of the Nile-Congo and Chad basins. Since then the Welle groups have been subjected to the jurisdic- tion of the Congo Free State, while the political Political destinies of the Nilotic tribes must henceforth be Relations. . . controlled by the British masters of the Nile lands from the Great Lakes to the Mediterranean. Although grouped as Negroes proper, very few of the Nilotic peoples present the almost ideal type of the blacks, such as those of Upper Guinea and the Atlantic coast of West Sudan. The complexion is in general less black, the nose less broad at the base, the lips less everted (Shilluks and one or two others excepted), the hair rather less frizzly, the dolichocephaly and prognathism less marked. Apart from the more delicate shades of transition, due to diverse interminglings with Hamites and Semites, two distinct types may be plainly distinguished- one black, often very tall and long-headed (Shilluks, III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 77 Dinkas, J5ari, Nuers, Mittus), the other reddish or ruddy brown, more thick-set, and short-headed (Bongos, Golos, Makarakas, with the kindred Zandehs of the Welle region). The complexion of the latter, as has been suggested by Schweinfurth1, may possibly, though not probably, be due to the properties of the red, ferru- ginous soil prevalent in their districts. But no explanation has been offered of their brachycephaly, which is all the more difficult to account for, inasmuch as it is characteristic neither of the abori- ginal Negro nor of the intruding Hamitic and Semitic elements. Have we here an indication of the transition suspected by many between the true long-headed Negro and the round-headed Negrito, who is also brownish, and formerly ranged as far north as the Nile head-streams, as would appear from the early Egyptian records (Chap, iv.)? Schweinfurth found that the Bongos were " hardly re- moved from the lowest grade of brachycephaly2,'' and the same is largely true of the Zandehs and their Makaraka cousins, as noticed by Junker : u The skull also in many of these peoples approaches the round form,, whereas the typical Negro is assumed to be long- headed3." But so great is the diversity of appearance throughout the whole of this region, including even "a striking Semitic type," that this observer was driven to the conclusion that " woolly hair, common to all, forms in fact the only sure characteristic of the Negro4." More uniformity appears to prevail amongst the languages of the Nile- Welle lands, and from the rather scanty materials collected by Junker, Dr Fr. Mtiller Groups" was able to construct an " Equatorial Linguistic Family," including the Mangbattu, Zandeh, Barmbp, Madi, Bangba, Krej, Golo and others, on both sides of the water-parting. Prof. Leo Reinisch, however, was not convinced, and in a letter addressed to the author declared that " in the absence of sen- tences it is impossible to determine the grammatical structure of Mangbattu and the other languages. At the same time we may detect certain relations, not to the Nilotic, but the Bantu tongues. 1 Heart of Africa, passim. '2 Op. cit. I. p. 263. 3 Travels in Africa, Keane's English ed., Vol. ill. p. 247. 4 Ibid. p. 246. 78 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. It may therefore be inferred that Mangbattu and the others have a tolerably close relationship to the Bantu, and may even be remotely akin to it, judging from their tendency to prefix forma- tions1." Future research will show how far this conjecture is justified. Although Islam has made considerable progress, especially amongst the Funj of Senaar, the Shilluks, Dinkas, and other Nilotic tribes, the bulk of the people are still practically nature-worshippers. Witchcraft con- tinues to flourish amongst the equatorial peoples, and important events are almost everywhere attended by sanguinary rites. When preparing for battle the " medicine-man " flays an infant and places the bleeding victim on the war-path, to be trampled by the warriors marching to victory. Cannibalism also, in some of its most repulsive forms, prevails amongst the Zandehs, who barter in human fat as a universal staple of trade, and amongst the Mang- battu, who cure for future use the bodies of the slain in battle and " drive their prisoners before them, as butchers drive sheep to the shambles, and these are only reserved to fall victims on a later day to their horrible and sickly greediness2." In fact here we enter the true "cannibal zone," which, as I have elsewhere shown, was in former ages diffused ZoneeCannibal a11 over Central and South Africa, or, it would be more correct to say, over the whole continent3, but has in recent times been mainly confined to " the region stretching west and east from the Gulf of Guinea to the western head-streams of the White Nile, and from below the equator northwards in the direction of Adamawa, Dar-Banda and Dar- 1 Travels in Africa, ibid. p. 279. Thus the Bantu fia, IVa, Ama, £c., correspond to the A of the Welle lands, as in A-Zandeh, A-Barmbo, A-Madi, A-Bangba, i.e. Zandeh people, Barmbo people, &c. Cf. also Kanemfo/, Ti&u, ¥\a\be, &c., where the personal particle (bit, be) is postfixed. It would almost seem as if we had here a transition between the northern Sudanese and the southern Bantu groups in the very region where such transitions might be looked for. - Schweinfurth, op. cit. II. p. 93. 3 Prof. Flinders Petrie has come upon undoubted traces of cannibalism in the Negadah district, Egypt. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 79 Fertit. Wherever explorers have penetrated into this least-known region of the continent they have found the practice fully estab- lished, not merely as a religious rite or a privilege reserved for priests, but as a recognised social institution1." Yet many of these cannibal peoples, especially the Mangbattus and Zandehs, are skilled agriculturists, and cultivate some of the useful industries, such as iron and industries! copper smelting and casting, weaving, pottery and wood-carving, with great success. The form and ornamental designs of their utensils display real artistic taste, while the temper of their iron implements is often superior to that of the imported European hardware. Here again the observation has been made that the tribes most addicted to cannibalism also excel in mental qualities and physical energy. Nor are they strangers to the finer feelings of human nature, and above all the surrounding peoples the Zandeh anthropophagists are distin- guished by their regard and devotion for their women and children. In one respect all these peoples show a higher degree of intelligence even than the Arabs and Hamites. " My later experiences," writes Junker, " revealed Appreciation the remarkable fact that certain negro peoples, of pictoriai such as the Niam-Niams, the Mangbattus and the Bantus of Uganda and Unyoro, display quite a surprising under- standing of figured illustrations or pictures of plastic objects, which is not as a rule exhibited by the Arabs and Arabised 1 Africa, 1895, Vol. II. p. 58. In a carefully prepared monograph on " Endocannibalismus," Vienna, 1896, Dr Rudolf S. Steinmetz brings together a great body of evidence tending to show "dass eine hone Wahrscheinlichkeit dafur spricht den Endocannibalismus (indigenous anthropophagy) als standige Sitte der Urmenschen, sowie der niedrigen Wilden anzunehmen " (pp. 59, 60). It is surprising to learn from the ill-starred Bottego-Grixoni expedition of 1892-3 that anthropophagy is still rife even in Gallaland, and amongst the white ("floridi") Cormoso Gallas. Like the Fans, these prefer the meat " high," and it would appear that all the dead are eaten. Hence in their country Bottego found no graves, and one of his native guides explained that " questa gente sepellisce i suoi cari nel ventre, invece che nella terra," i.e. these people bury their dear ones in their stomach instead of in the ground ( Vittorio Bottego, Viaggi di Scoperta, &c., Rome, 1895). SO MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Hamites of North-east Africa. Thus the Unyoro chief, Riongo, placed photographs in their proper position, and was able to identify the negro portraits as belonging to the Shuli, Lango, or other tribes, of which he had a personal knowledge. This I have called a remarkable fact, because it bespoke in the lower races a natural faculty for observation, a power to recognise what for many Arabs or Egyptians of high rank was a hopeless puzzle. An Egyptian pasha in Khartum could never make out how a human face in profile showed only one eye and one ear, and he took the portrait of a fashionable Parisian lady in extremely low dress for that of the bearded sun-burnt American naval officer who had shown him the photograph1." From this one is almost tempted to infer that, amongst Moslem peoples, all sense of plastic, figurative, or pictorial art has been deadened by the Koranic precept forbidding the representation of the human form in any way. The Welle peoples show themselves true Negroes in the possession of another and more precious quality, Hurnour° *ne sense °f humour, although this is probably a quality which comes late in the life of a race. Any- how it is a distinct Negro characteristic, which Junker was able to turn to good account during the building of his famous Lacrima station in Ndoruma's country. " In all this I could again notice how like children the Negroes are in many respects. Once at work they seemed animated by a sort of childlike sense of honour. They delighted in praise, though even a frown or a word of reproach could also excite their hilarity. Thus a loud burst of laughter would, for instance, follow the contrast between a piece of good and bad workmanship. Like children, they would point the finger of scorn at each other2." One morning Ndoruma, hearing that they had again struck work, had the great war-drum beaten, whereupon they rushed to arms and mustered in great force from all quarters. But on finding that there was no enemy to march against, and that they had only been summoned to resume operations at the station, they enjoyed the joke hugely, and after a general explosion of 1 i. p. 245. 2 n. p. 140. III.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: I. SUDANESE. 8 1 laughter at the way they had been taken in, laid aside their weapons and returned cheerfully to work. Some English overseers have already discovered that this characteristic may be utilised far more effectively than the cruel kurbash. Ethnology has many such lessons to teach. K. CHAPTER IV. THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. BANTUS — NEGRITOES- BUSHMEN — HOTTENTOTS. The Sudanese-Bantu Divide — Frontier Tribes — The Bonjo Cannibals — The Bay a Nation—^ " Red People" -The North-East Door to Bantuland- Semitic Elements of the Bantu Amalgam — Malay Elements in Madagascar only — Hamitic Element everywhere — The Wahumas — The Bantus mainly a Negro-Hamitic Cross — The Lactistrians — Their Traditions — The Kintu Legend — The Waganda, Past and Present — Political and Social Institu- tions— Totemic System — Bantu Peoples between Lake Victoria and the Coast — 77ie Wagiryama —Primitive Ancestry- Worship — Mulungu — The Waswahili — The Zang Empire — The Zulu-Xosas — Former and Present Domain - - Patriarchal Institutions - - Genealogies - - Physical Type - Social Organization -- "Common Law" - Mashonas and Makalakas -The mythical Monomotapa Empire — The Zimbabwe Ruins — The Bech lianas — 77/6' Barotse Empire — The Makololo Episode — Spread of Christianity amongst the Southern Bantus — King Khama — The Ova- He rero — Cat fie and Hill Da mar as — The Kongo People — Old Kongo Empire — The Kongo Language — The Kongo Aborigines — Perverted Christian Doctrines — The Kabindas and "'Black Jews" -The Tushilange Bhang-smokers — The Balolo "Men of Iron" -The West Equatorial Bantus — -Bakalai — The Cannibal Fans — Migrations, Type, Origin — The Camerun Bantus — Bantu- Sudanese Borderland — Early Bantu Migrations -Eastern Ancestry and Western Nature- worshippers — Conclusion. — The Negrito Domain, Past and Present — Negritoes at the Courts of the Pharaohs — Negritoes and Pygmy Folklore — The Dume and Doko reputed Dwarfs — The, IVandorobbo Hunters — The Wochna Mimics — The Bushmen and Hottentots — Former and Present Range — The. Wasandawi — Hottentot Geographical Names in Bantuland — Hottentots disappearing — Bushman Folklore Literature — Bushman-Hottentot Language and Clicks -Bushman Mental Characters — Bushman Race-Names. CONSPECTUS. Distribu- Primeval Home. Bantu : between the Equatorial Past and Lakes and Indian Ocean ; Negrito : all the inter-tropical Times. forest zones ; Bushman-Hottentot : from Lake Tanganyika to the Cape. IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. 83 Present Range. Bantu : S. Africa from the Sudanese frontier to the Cape ; Negrito : West Equatorial and Congo forest zones; Bush. -Hot. : Namaqualands ; Kalahari; Lake Ngami and Orange basins. Hair. Bantu : same as Sudanese, but often rather Physical XT 7 r • • Charac- longer ; Negrito: snort, frizzly or crisp, rusty brown ; ters. Bush. -Hot.: much the same as Sudanese, but tufty, simu- lating bald partings. Colour. Bantu : all shades of dark brown, sometimes almost black ; Negrito and Bush.- Hot. : yellowish brown. Skull. Bantu : generally dolicho, but variable ; Negrito : almost uniformly brachy ; Bush.- Hot. : dolicho. Jaws. Bantu : moderately prognathous and even orthognathous ; Negrito and Bush. -Hot. : highly prognathous. Cheek-bones. Bantu : moderately or not at all prominent ; Negrito and Bush. -Hot. : very pro- minent, often extremely so, forming a triangular face with apex at chin. Nose. Bantu : variable, ranging from platyrrhine to leptorrhine (index, 56 to 46); Negrito and Bush. -Hot.: short, broad at base, depressed at root, always platyrrhine. Eyes, Bantu : generally large, black, and prominent, but also of regular Hamitic type ; Negrito and Bush. -Hot. : rather small, deep brown and black. Stature. Bantu: tall, from $ft. 8 in. to 6ft.; Negrito: always much under $ft., mean about 4//. / Bushman: short, with rather wide range, from ^ft. 8 in. to 5 ft. 2 in.; Hot.: undersized, mean ^ft. 5 in. Temperament. Bantu : mainly like the Negroid Mental Charac- Sudanese,far more intelligent than the true Negro, equally ters. cruel, but less fitful and more trustworthy ; Negrito: bright, active and quick-witted, but vindictive and treacherous, apparently not cruel to each other, but rather gentle and kindly; Bushman: in all these respects very like the Negrito, but more intelligent ; Hot. : rather dull and sluggish, but the full-blood (Nama} much less so than the half-caste (Griqua) tribes. • Speech. Bantu : as absolutely uniform as the physical type is variable, one stock language only, of the agglutinating order, with both class prefixes, alliteration and postfixes ; 6—2 84 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. shows vague Sudanese, but no Hamitic affinities, hence is originally a Negro language ; Negrito : unknown ; Bush. -Hot. : agglutinating with postfixes only, with gram- matical gender and other remarkable features ; is a stock language radically distinct from all others. Religion. Bantu : ancestor-worship mainly in the east, spirit-worship mainly in the west, intermingling in the centre, with witchcraft and gross superstitions every- where; Negrito: unknown; Bush. -Hot. : incipient animism and nature-worship, but the religious sentiment scarcely developed. Culture. Bantu: much lower than the Negroid Sudanese, but higher than the true Negro, capacity for progress more evident than actual achievement ; Negrito and Bush. : lowest grade (hunting] ; Hot. : incipient (pastoral}. Main Bantus : BonjoiBaya; Waganda; Wanyoro ; Wapo- Divisions. komo ; Wagiryama ; Waswahili ; Ziilu-Xosa ; Mashona; Bechuana; Ova-Herero ; E s hi- Kongo ; Bashilange ; Ba- lolo ; Manyuema ; Bakalai ; Fan; Mpongwe ; Dwala ; Batanga. Negritoes ; Akka ; Wochua ; Dume (?) ; Wando- robbo(?}; Doko(?); O bongo ; Bativa. Bushmen : Family Groups ; no known tribal names. Hottentots: Wasandawi (?) ; Namaqua ; Griqua ; Gonaqua ; Koraqua ; Hill Damaras. In ethnology the only intelligible definition of a Bantu is a full-blood or a half-blood Negro of Bantu speech \; and, as special anthropology takes no account of language, it follows that from the physical standpoint no very hard and fast line can be drawn between the northern Sudanese and southern Bantu groups, considered as two ethnical units. But these units are made up of endless details, and it is in the study of these details that such physical differences as do exist are discovered and explained. 1 Etk. ch. xi. IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. 85 Thanks to recent political developments in the interior, the linguistic divide may now be traced with some ac- ' The curacy right across the continent. In the extreme Sudanese- west, Sir H. H. Johnston has shown that it coincides with the lower course of the Rio del Rey, while farther east the French expedition of 1891 under M. Dybowski found that it ran at about the same parallel (5° N.) along the elevated plateau which here forms the water-parting between the Congo and the Chad basin. From this point the line takes a south-easterly trend along the southern borders of the Zandeh and Mangbattu territories to the Semliki valley between Lakes Albert Edward and Albert Nyanza, near the equator. Thence it pursues a some- what irregular course, first north by the east side of Lake Albert Nyanza to the mouth of the Somerset Nile, then up that river to Mruli and round the east side of Usoga and the Victoria Nyanza to Kavirondo Bay, where it turns nearly east to the sources of the Tana, and down that river to its mouth in the Indian Ocean. At some points the line traverses debatable territory, as in the Semliki valley, where there are Sudanese and Negrito over- lappings, and again beyond Lake Victoria, where the frontiers are broken by the Hamitic Masai nomads and their Wandorobbo allies. But, speaking generally, everything south of the line here traced is Bantu, everything north of it Sudanese Negro in the western and central regions, and Hamitic in the eastern section between Lake Victoria and the Indian Ocean. In some districts the demarcation is not quite distinct, as in the Tana basin, where some of the Galla and Somali Hamites from the north have encroached Tribes— on the territory of the Wapokomo Bantus on the south side of the river. But on the central plateau M. Dybowski passed abruptly from the territory of the Bonjos, northernmost of the Bantu tribes, to that of the Sudanese Band- ziri, a branch of the wide-spread Zandeh people. In this region, about the crest of the Congo-Chad water-parting, the contrasts appear to be all in favour of the Sudanese and against the Bantus, probably because here the former are Negroids, the latter full- blood Negroes. Thus Dybowski1 found the Bonjos to be a 1 Le Naturaliste, Jan. 1894. 86 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. distinctly Negro tribe with pronounced prognathism, and al- together a rude, savage people, trading chiefly in slaves, who are fattened for the meat market, and when in good condition will fetch about twelve shillings. On the other hand the Bandziri, despite their Niam-Niam connection, are not cannibals, but a peaceful, agricultural people, friendly to travellers, and of a coppery-brown complexion, with regular features, hence perhaps akin to the light-coloured people met by Earth in the Mosgu country. Possibly the Bonjos may be a degraded branch of the Bay as or Nderes, a large nation, with many subdivisions Natk>nBaya widely diffused throughout the Sangha basin, where they occupy the whole space between the Kadei and the Mambere affluents of the main stream (3° to 7° 30' N. \ 14° to 17° E.). They are described by M. F. J. Clozel1 as of tall stature, muscular, well-proportioned, with flat nose, slightly tumid lips, and of black colour, but with a dash of copper-red in the upper classes. Although cannibals, like the Bonjos, they are in other respects an intelligent, friendly people, who, under the influence of the Muhammadan Fulahs, have developed a com- plete political administration, with a Royal Court, a Chancellor, Speaker, Interpreter, and other officials, bearing sonorous titles taken chiefly from the Hausa language. Their own Bantu tongue is widespread and spoken with slight dialectic differences as far as the Nana affluents. M. Clozel, who regards them as mentally and morally superior to most of the Middle and Lower Congo tribes, People*"*1 tells us tnat the Bayas, that is, the " Red People," came at an unknown period from the east, " yield- ing to that great movement of migration by which the African populations are continually impelled westwards." The Yangere section were still on the move some twelve years ago, but the general migration has since been arrested by the Fulahs of Adamawa. Human flesh is now interdicted to the women ; they have domesticated the sheep, goat, and dog, and believe in a 1 Tour (hi Monde, 1896, I. p. i sq. ; and Les Bay as ; Notes Ethno- graphiques et Linguistiquest Paris, 1896. IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. 87 supreme being called S0, whose powers are manifested in the dense woodlands, while minor deities preside over the village and the hut, that is, the whole community and each separate family group. Thus both their religious and political systems present a certain completeness, which recalls those prevalent amongst the semi-civilised peoples of the equatorial lake region, and is evidently due to the same cause — long contact or association with a race of higher culture and intelligence. In order to understand all these relations, as well as the general constitution of the Bantu populations, we have to The North- consider that the already-described Black Zone, East Door to ... . . .. . Bantuland. running from the Atlantic seaboard eastwards, has for countless generations been almost everywhere arrested north of the equator by the White Nile. Probably since the close of the Old Stone Age the whole of the region between the main stream and the Red Sea, and from the equator north to the Mediterranean, has formed an integral part of the Hamitic domain, encroached upon in prehistoric times by Semites and others in Egypt and Abyssinia, and in historic times chiefly by Semites (Arabs) in Egypt, Upper Nubia, Senaar, and Somaliland. Between this region and Africa south of the equator there are no serious physical obstructions of any kind, whereas farther west the Hamitic Saharan nomads were everywhere barred access to the south by the broad, thickly-peopled plateaux of the Sudanese Black-Zone. All encroachments on this side necessarily resulted in absorption in the multitudinous Negro populations of Central Sudan, with the modifications of the physical and mental charac- ters which are now presented by the Kanuri, Hausas, Sonrhays and other Negroid nations of that region, and are at present actually in progress amongst the conquering Fulah Hamites scattered in small dominant groups over a great part of Sudan from Senegambia to Waday. It follows that the leavening element, by which the southern Negro populations have been diversely modified throughout the Bantu lands, could have been drawn 6* only from the Hamitic and Semitic peoples of the Baa£tu Ama1' north-east. But in this connection the Semites themselves must be considered as almost une quantite negligeable, 88 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. partly because of their relatively later arrival from Asia, and partly because, as they arrived, they became largely assimilated to the indigenous Hamitic inhabitants of Egypt, Abyssinia, and Somali- land. No doubt other Semites (Minasans, Sabaeans, and Himya- rites generally) almost certainly reached the east coast below the equator in early historic times. But they appear to have arrived chiefly as traders and miners, and never to have penetrated far inland except in the auriferous regions south of the Zambesi, where their still extant monuments in the Zimbabwe and other districts show that they held the country by military tenure and mixed but slightly with the Negro aborigines. Still later in Muhammadan times, other Semites also from Arabia did arrive and form permanent settlements along the eastern seaboard as far south as Sofala, and these intermingled more freely with the converted coast peoples ( Waswahili, from sa/iel = ''coast"), but not with the Kafirs, or "Unbelievers,'' farther south and in the interior. In our own days these Swahili half- breeds, with a limited number of full-blood Arabs1, have pene- trated beyond the Great Lakes to the Upper and Middle Congo basin, but rather as slave-hunters and destroyers than as peaceful settlers, and contracting few alliances, except perhaps amongst the Wayao and Magwangara tribes of Mozambique, and the cannibal Manyuemas farther inland. To this extent Semitism may be recognised as a factor in the constituent elements of the Bantu populations. Elements in Malays have also been mentioned, and some ethno- Madagascar legists have even brought the Fulahs of Western Sudan all the way from Malaysia. Certainly if they reached and formed settlements in Madagascar, there is no intrin- sic reason why they should not have done the same on the main- land. But I have failed to find any evidence of the fact, and if they ever at any time established themselves on the east coast they have long disappeared, without leaving any clear trace of their presence either in the physical appearance, speech, usages or industries of the aborigines, such as are everywhere conspicuous in Madagascar. 1 Even Tipu Tib, their chief leader and " Prince of Slavers," was a half- caste with distinctly Negroid features. >. IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. 89 There remain the north-eastern Hamites, and especially the Galla branch, as the essential extraneous factor in riamitic this obscure Bantu problem. To the stream of Element QVC j-y ^y }•} g j-g migration described by M. Clozel as setting east and west, corresponds another and an older stream, which ages ago took a southerly direction along the eastern seaboard to the extremity of the continent, where are now settled the Zulu-Xosa nations, almost more Hamites than Negroes. The impulse to two such divergent movements could have come only from the north-east, where we still find the same ten- dencies in actual operation. During his exploration of the east equatorial lands, Capt. Speke had already observed that the rulers of the Bantu nations about the Great Lakes (Karagwe, Waganda, Wanyoro, &c.) all belonged to the same race, known by the name of Wahuma. that is, The Wahu- mas. " Northmen," a pastoral people of fine appearance, who were evidently of Galla stock, and had come originally from Gallaland. Since then Schuver found that the Negroes of the Afilo country are governed by a Galla aristocracy1, and we now know that several Wahuma communities bearing different names live interspersed amongst the mixed Bantu nations of the lacus- trian plateaux as far south as Lake Tanganyika and Unyamwezi- land. Here the Watusi, Wahha, and Waruanda are or were all of the same Hamitic type, and M. Lionel Decle "was very much struck by the extraordinary difference that is to be found between them and their Bantu neighbours2." Then this observer adds : " Pure types are not common, and are only to be found amongst the aristocracy, if I may use such an expression for Africans. The mass of the people have lost their original type through intermix- ture with neighbouring tribes3." With these words M. Decle put his finger on the key of the whole situation. From these indications and many others 1 " Afilo wurde mir vom Lega-Konig als ein Negerland bezeichnet, welches von einer Galla- Aristokratie beherrsch wird " (Petermanrfs Mitt. 1883, v. p. 194)- 2 Jour, Anthrop. Inst. 1895, p. 424. For details of the Wahuma type see Eth. p. 389. 3 Ibid. MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. that might easily be adduced, it may be concluded with some confidence that the great mass of the Bantu popu- mainiy ^Ne^ lations are essentially Negroes, leavened in diverse gro-Hamitic proportions for the most part by Wahuma, that is, Galla or Hamitic elements percolating for thou- sands of generations1 from the north-eastern section of the Hamitic domain into the heart of Bantuland. No doubt all now speak various forms of the same organic Bantu mother-tongue. But this linguistic uniformity is strictly analogous to that now prevailing amongst the multifarious peoples of Aryan speech in Eurasia, and is due to analogous causes — the diffusion in extremely remote times of a mixed Hamito-Ethiopic people of Bantu speech in Africa south of the equator. It might perhaps be objected that the present Wahuma pastors are of Hamitic speech, because we know from Stanley that the late king M'tesa of Buganda was proud of his Galla ancestors, whose lan- guage he still spoke as his mother-tongue. But he also spoke Luganda, and every echo of Galla speech has already died out amongst most of the Wahuma communities in the equatorial regions. So it was with what I may call the " Proto-Wahumas," the first conquering Galla tribes, Schuver's and Decle's '"aristo- cracy," who were gradually blended with the aborigines in a new and superior nationality of Bantu speech, because "there are many mixed races,... but there are no mixed languages2." These views are confirmed by the traditions and folklore still current amongst the " Lacustrians," as the great nations may be called, who are now grouped round about the shores of Lakes 1 I have elsewhere shown that the recent date assigned by Sir H. H. John- ston (British Central Africa, p. 480) to the Bantu migrations, as imagined by him, is not warranted by his facts, while it is quite untenable on other grounds. (Academy, Aug. 21, 1897, p. 145.) Cf. also Karl Ritter (French ed. I. p. 127): " De meme que les Goths et les Vandales se repandirent sur une grande partie cle 1'Europe, les Galla s'etendirent successivement sur ces contrees de 1'Afrique a mesure qu'ils trouvaient des lieux propres a s'etablir : comme les Goths et les Vandales, ils se sont naturalises en pen de temps sur le sol qu'ils avaient envahi, et ont pris la langue, les coutumes, et les moeurs des peuples vaincus." 2 Ethnology, p. 199. IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. QI Victoria and Albert Nyanza. At present, or rather before the recent extension of the British administration to East Central Africa, these peoples were constituted triIns.LaCUS" in a number of separate kingdoms, the most power- ful of which were Buganda (Uganda), Bunyoro (Unyoro), and Karagwe. But they remember a time when all these now scat- tered fragments formed parts of a mighty monarchy, the vast Kitwara Empire, which comprised the whole of the lake-studded plateau between the Ruwenzori range and Kavirondoland. The story is differently told in the different States, each nation being eager to twist it to its own glorification ; but all are agreed that the founder of the empire was Traditions— Kintu, "The Blameless," at once priest, patriarch The r L Legend. and ruler of the land, who came from the north hundreds of years ago, with one wife, one cow, one goat, one sheep, one chicken, one banana-root, and one sweet potato. At first all was waste, an uninhabited wilderness, but it was soon miraculously peopled, stocked, and planted with what he had brought with him, the potato being apportioned to Bunyoro, the banana to Buganda, and these form the staple food of those lands to this day. Then the people waxed wicked, and Kintu, weary of their evil ways and daily bloodshed, took the original wife, cow, and other things, and went away in the night and was seen no more. But nobody believed him dead, and a long line of his mythical successors appear to have spent the time they could spare from strife and wars and evil deeds in looking for the lost Kintu. Kimera, one of these, was a mighty giant of such strength and weight that he left his footprints on the rocks where he trod, as may still be seen on a cliff not far from Ulagalla, the old capital of Buganda. There was also a magician, Kibaga, who could fly aloft and kill the Banyoro people (this is the Buaganda version) by hurling stones down upon them, and for his services received in marriage a beautiful Banyoro captive, who, another Delilah, found out his secret, and betrayed him to her people. At last came king Ma'anda, who pretended to be a great hunter, but it was only to roam the woodlands in search of Kintu, and thus have tidings of him. One day a peasant, obeying 92 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. the directions of a thrice-dreamt dream, came to a place in the forest, where was an aged man on a throne between two rows of armed warriors, seated on mats, his long beard white with age, and all his men fair as white people and clothed in white robes. Then Kintu, for it was he, bid the peasant hasten to summon Ma'anda thither, but only with his mother and the messenger. At the Court Ma'anda recognised the stranger whom he had that very night seen in a dream, and so believed his words and at once set out with his mother and the peasant. But the Katikiro, or Prime- Minister, through whom the message had been delivered to the king, fearing treachery, also started on their track, keeping them just in view till the trysting-place was reached. But Kintu, who knew everything, saw him all the time, and when he came forward on finding himself discovered the enraged Ma'anda pierced his faithful minister to the heart and he fell dead with a shriek. Thereupon Kintu and his seated warriors instantly vanished, and the king with the others wept and cried upon Kintu till the deep woods echoed Kintu, Kintu-u, Kintu-u-u. But the blood-hating Kintu was gone, and to this day has never again been seen or heard of by any man in Buganda. The references to the north and to Kintu and his ghostly warriors " fair as white people " need no comment1. It is noteworthy that in some of the Nyassa- land dialects Kintu (Chintu) alternates with Mulungu as the name of the Supreme Being, the great ancestor of the tribe2. Then follows more traditional or legendary matter, including ~. ,,, an account of the wars with the fierce Wakedi, who The wa- , past wore iron armour, until authentic history is reached with the atrocious Suna II. (1836 — 60), father of the scarcely less atrocious M'tesa. After his death in 1884 Buganda and the neighbouring states passed rapidly through a series of astonishing political, religious, and social vicissitudes, 1 The legend is given with much detail by H. M. Stanley in Through the Dark Continent, Vol. I. p. 344 sq. Another and less mythical account of the migrations of " the people with a white skin from the far north-east " is quoted from Emin Pasha by the Rev. R. P. Ashe in Two Kings of Uganda, p. 336. Here the immigrant Wahuma are expressly stated to have " adopted the language of the aborigines" (p. 337). 2 Sir H. H. Johnston, op. cit. p. 514. IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. 93 resulting in the present pax Britannica, and the conversion of large numbers, some to Islam, others to one form or another of Christianity. At times it might have been difficult to see much religion in the ferocity of the contending factions ; but since the establishment of harmony by the secular arm, real progress has been made, and the Waganda especially have dis- played a remarkable capacity as well as eagerness to acquire a knowledge of letters and of religious principles, both in the Protestant and the Roman Catholic communities. Printing- presses, busily worked by native hands, are needed to meet the steadily increasing demand for a vernacular literature, in a region where blood had flowed continually from the disappearance of "Kintu" till the British occupation. To the admixture of the Hamitic and Negro elements amongst the Lacustrians may perhaps be attributed . J r . Political the curious blend of primitive and higher institu- and Social tions in these communities. At the head of the State was a Kabaka, king or emperor, although the title was also borne by the queen-mother and the queen-sister. This autocrat had his Lutiko, " Privy Council," of which ex qfficio members were the already mentioned Katikiro, Prime Minister or Chan- cellor, the Balangira and Bambaja, royal princes and princesses, the Chief Butler and Chief Baker, and others of high rank, such as the Lord High Admiral and Commander-in-Chief, who attended the grand levees in fine, gold-embroidered cloth robes. The whole State was thoroughly organised with " Earls," great feudal lords at the head of the five provinces, and three distinct social classes, the JBataka, or landed gentry, the Batopi^ peasants or serfs, and the Badii^ slaves or helots without any rights. Yet beneath all this parade of higher political and social institutions, the people are still to some extent in the tribal state, being divided into ebyika, or clans, system11 each with its animal crest or totem, which may not be eaten by them, and with their exogamous (extra-tribal) marriage rites and restrictions, just as amongst the Australian savages. There are the Ensenane or "Grasshoppers," the Endiga^ "Sheep," the Engonya, " Crocodiles," while the king's clan is the royal tribe of the Balangira, " Princes," that is, the Wahuma, as the term is 94 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. understood in Buganda. Although despised by the masses as being wandering herdsmen, these "princes" enjoy royal privileges, such as that of wearing brass and copper anklets, and their social position supplies another proof that their Galla forefathers entered the land as conquerors, and only gradually merged with the black aborigines, a process, as we have seen, still everywhere going on throughout East Central Africa. No direct relations appear to exist between the Lacustrians Bantu and the WakikuyUj the Wakamba^ Wapokomo, peoples^ Wagweno, Wachaga, Wateita, Wataveita, and L. victoria others, who occupy the region east of Lake and the Coast. . . Victoria, between the lana, north-east frontier of Bantuland, and the southern slopes of Kilimanjaro. Their affinities seem to be rather with the Wanyika, Waboni, Waduruma, Wagiryama, and the other coast tribes between the Tana and Mombasa. We learn from Sir A. Hardinge1 that in the British East African Protectorate there are altogether as many as twenty-five distinct tribes, generally at a low stage of culture, with a loose tribal organisation, a fully-developed totemic system, and a universal faith in magic ; but there are no priests, idols or temples, or even distinctly recognised hereditary chiefs or communal councils. The Gallas, who have crossed the Tana and here encroached on Bantu territory, have reminiscences of a higher civilisation and apparently of Christian traditions and observances, derived no doubt from Abyssinia. They tell you that they had once a sacred book, the observance of whose precepts made them the first of nations. But it was left lying about, and so got eaten by a cow, and since then when cows are killed their entrails are carefully searched for the lost volume. Exceptional interest attaches to the Wagiryama, who are the chief people between Mombasa and Melindi, the first trust- worthy accounts of whom have been supplied by the Rev. W. E. Taylor2, and Mr W. W. A. Fitzgerald3. Here again Bantus and Gallas are found in close contact, and we learn that the Wagir- 1 Official Report on the East African Protectorate, 1897. 2 Vocabulary of the Giryama Language, S. P. C. K. 1897. 3 Travels in the Coastlands of British East Africa, London, 1898, p. 103 sq. IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. 95 yama, who came originally from the Mount Mangea district in the north-east, occupied their present homes only about a century ago " upon the withdrawal of the Gallas." The language, which is of a somewhat archaic type, appears to be the chief member of a widespread Bantu group, embracing the Ki-nyika and Ki- pokomo in the extreme north, the Ki-swahili of the Zanzibar coast, and perhaps the Ki-kamba, the Ki-teita, and others of the interior between the coastlands and Lake Victoria. These inland tongues, however, have greatly diverged from the primitive Ki-giryama, which stands in somewhat the same relation to them and to the still more degraded and Arabised Ki-swahili1 that Latin stands to the Romance languages. But the chief interest presented by the Wagiryama is centred in their religious ideas, which are mainly connected with ancestry-worship, and afford an unexpected insight into the origin and nature of that perhaps most Primitive . . . Ancestry- primitive of all forms of belief. There is, of worship. course, a vague entity called a "Supreme Being" in ethnographic writings, who, like the Algonquian Manitu, crops up under various names (here Mulungit] all over east Bantuland, but on analysis generally resolves itself into some dim notion growing out of ancestry-worship, a great or aged person, epony- mous hero or the like, later deified in diverse ways as the Preserver, the Disposer, and especially the Creator. These Wagiryama suppose that from his union with the Earth all things have sprung, and that human Muiungu and the beings are Mulungu's hens and chickens. But there shades, is also an idea that he may be the manes of their fathers, and thus everything becomes merged in a kind of apotheosis of the departed. They think " the disembodied spirit is powerful for good and evil. Individuals worship the 1 Having become the chief medium of intercourse throughout the southern Bantu regions, Ki-swahili has been diligently cultivated, especially by the English missionaries, who have wisely discarded the Arab for the Roman characters. There is already an extensive literature, including grammars, dictionaries, translations of the Bible and other works, and even A History of Rome issued by the S. P. C. K. in 1898. 96 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. shades of their immediate ancestors or elder relatives ; and the Komas [souls ?] of the whole nation are worshipped on public occasions." Although the European ghost or "revenant" is unknown, the spirits of near ancestors may appear in dreams, and express their wishes to the living. They ask for sacrifices at their graves to appease their hunger, and such sacrifices are often made with a little flour and water poured into a coconut shell let into the ground, the fowls and other victims being so killed that the blood shall trickle into the grave. At the offering the dead are called on by name to come and partake, and bring their friends with them, who are also mentioned by name. But whereas Christians pray to be remembered of heaven and the saints, the Wagiryama pray rather that the new-born babe be forgotten of Mulungu, and so live. "Well!' they will say on the news of a birth, "may Mulungu forget him that he may become strong and well." This is an instructive trait, a reminiscence of the time when Mulungu, now almost harmless or indifferent to mundane things, was the embodiment of all evil, hence to be feared and appeased in accordance with the old dictum Timor fecit deos. At present no distinction is drawn between good and bad spirits, but all are looked upon as, of course, often, though not always, more powerful than the living, but still human beings subject to the same feelings, passions, and fancies as they are. Some are even poor weaklings on whom offerings are wasted. " The Shade of So-and-so's father is of no use at all ; it has finished up his property, and yet he is no better," was a native's comment on the result of a series of sacrifices a man had vainly made to his father's shade to regain his health. They may also be duped and tricked, and when pombe (beer) is a-brewing, some is poured • out on the graves of the dead, with the prayer that they may drink, and when drunk fall asleep, and so not disturb the living with their brawls and bickerings, just like the wrangling fairies in A Midsummer Nighfs Dream. Far removed from such crass anthropomorphism, but not morally much improved, are the kindred Waswa- TVi f* hili, who by long contact and interminglings waswahiii. have become largely Arabised in dress, religion, IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. 97 and general culture. They are graphically described by Mr Taylor as " a seafaring, barter-loving race of slave-holders and slave- traders, strewn in a thin line along a thousand miles of creeks and islands ; inhabitants of a coast that has witnessed incessant political changes, and a succession of monarchical dynasties in various centres ; receiving into their midst for ages past a con- tinuous stream of strange blood, consisting not only of serviles from the interior, but of immigrants from Persia, Arabia, and Western India ; men that have come to live, and often to die, as resident aliens, leaving in many cases a hybrid progeny. Of one section of these immigrants — the Arabs — the religion has become the master-religion of the land, overspreading, if not entirely supplanting, the old Bantu ancestor-worship, and profoundly affecting the whole family life." The Waswahili are in a sense a historical people, for they formed the chief constituent elements of the re- nowned Zang (Zeng) empire1, which in Edrisi's Empirea time (i2th century) stretched along the seaboard from Somaliland to and beyond the Zambesi. When the Portuguese burst suddenly into the Indian Ocean it was a great and powerful state, or rather a vast confederacy of states, with many flourishing cities — Magdoshu, Brava, Mombasa, Melindi, Kilwa, Angosha, Sofala — and widespread commercial relations extending across the eastern waters to India and China, and up the Red Sea to Europe. How these great centres of trade and eastern culture were one after the other ruthlessly destroyed by the Portuguese corsairs cd* o ferro e fogo ("with sword and fire," Camoens) is told by Duarte Barbosa, who was himself a Portu- guese and an eye-witness of the havoc and the horrors that not infrequently followed in the trail of his barbarous fellow- countrymen2. 1 The name still survives in Zangue-bar (" Zang-land ") and the adjacent island of Zanzibar (an Indian corruption). Zang is "black," and bar is the same Arabic word, meaning dry land, that we have in Mala-bar on the opposite side of the Indian Ocean. Cf. also barran wa bahran, " by land and by sea." Viage por Malabar y Costas de Africa, 1512, translated by the Hon. Henry E. J. Stanley, Hakluyt Society, 1868. K. 7 98 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Beyond Sofala we enter the domain of the Ama-Zulu, the Ama-Xosa, and others whom I have collectively xJsas Zuk called Znlu-Xosas\ and who are in some respects the most remarkable ethnical group in all Bantu- land. Indeed they are by common consent regarded as Bantus in a preeminent sense, and this conventional term Bantu itself is taken from their typical Bantu language2. There is clear evidence that they are comparatively recent arrivals, necessarily from the north, in their present territory, which was still occupied by Bushman and Hottentot tribes probably within the last thousand years or so. Before the Kafir wars Former and Present with the English (1811 — 77) this territory extended much farther round the coast than at present, and for many years the Great Kei River has formed the frontier between the white settlements and the Xosas. But what they have lost in this direction the Zulu-Xosas, or at least the Zulus, have recovered a hundredfold by their expansion northwards during the iQth century. After the establishment of the Zulu military power under Dingiswayo and his successor Chaka (1793 — 1828), half the continent was overrun by organised Zulu hordes, who ranged nearly as far north as Lake Victoria, and in many places founded more or less unstable kingdoms or chieftaincies on the model of the terrible despotism set up in Zululand. Such were, beyond the Limpopo, the states of Gaza- land and Matabililand, the latter established about 1838 by 1 In preference to the more popular form Zulu- Kafir, where Kafir is merely the Arabic " Infidel " applied indiscriminately to any people rejecting Islam; hence the Siah Posh Kafirs ("Black-clad Infidels") of Afghanistan ; the Kiifra oasis in the Sahara, where Ktifra, plural of Kafir, refers to the pagan Tibus of that district and the Kafirs generally of the East African seaboard. But according to English usage Zulu is applied to the northern part of the territory, mainly Zululand proper and Natal, while Kafirland or Kaffraria is restricted to the southern section between Natal and the Great Kei River. The bulk of these southern " Kafirs" belong to the Xosa connec- tion ; hence this term takes the place of Kafir, in the compound expression Zulu-Xosa. Ama is explained in Eth. p. 272, and the X of Xosa represents an unpronounceable combination of a guttural and a lateral click, this with two other clicks (a dental and a palatal) having infected the speech of these Bantus during their long prehistoric wars with the Hottentots. 2 Eth. p. 271. IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO : II. 99 Umsilikatzi, father of Lobengulu, who perished in a hopeless struggle with the English in 1894. Gungunhana, last of the Swazi (Zulu) chiefs in Gazaland, was similarly dispossessed by the Portuguese in 1896. North of the Zambesi the Zulu bands — Mazitu, Maviti, Mangoni (Angoni), and others — nowhere developed large political states except for a short time under the ubiquitous Mirambo in Unyamweziland. But some, especially the Angoni1, were long troublesome in the Nyassa district, and others about the Lower Zambesi, where they are kno\vn to the Portuguese as " Landins." The Angoni power was finally broken by the English early in 1898, and the reflux movement has now entirely subsided, and cannot be revived, the disturbing elements having been extin- guished at the fountain-head by the absorption of Zululand itself in the British Colony of Natal (1895). Nowhere have patriarchal institutions been more highly developed than among the Zulu-Xosas, all of whom, except perhaps the Ama-Fingus and some Genealogies! other broken groups, claim direct descent from some eponymous hero or mythical founder of the tribe. Thus in the national traditions Chaka was seventh in descent from a legendary chief Zulu, from whom they take the name of Abantu ba-Kwa-Zulu, that is " People of Zulu's Land," although the true mother-tribe appear to have been the now extinct Ama-Ntombela. Once the supremacy and prestige of Chaka's tribe was established, all the others, as they were successively reduced, claimed also to 1 Mr Robert Codrington tells us that these Angoni (Abangoni) spring from a Zulu tribe which crossed the Zambesi about 1825, and established themselves south-east of L. Tanganyika, but later migrated to the uplands west of L. Nyassa, where they founded three petty states. Others went east of the Livingstone range, and are here still known as Magwangwara. But all became gradually assimilated to the surrounding populations. Intermarrying with the women of the country they preserve their speech, dress, and usages for the first generation in a slightly modified form, although the language of daily intercourse is that of the mothers. Then this class becomes the aristo- cracy of the whole nation, which henceforth comprises a great part of the aborigines ruled by a privileged caste of Zulu origin, "perpetuated almost entirely among themselves" (Central A ngo nil and, Geograph. Jour. May 1898, p. 512). 7—2 100 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. be true Zulus, and as the same process went on in the far north, the term Zulu has now in many cases come to imply political rather than blood relationship. Here we have an object lesson, by which the ethnical value of such names as "Aryan," "Kelt," " Briton," " Slav," &c. may be gauged in other regions. So also most of the southern section claim as their founder and ancestor a certain Xosa, sprung from Zuide, who may have flourished about 1500. and whom the Ama-Tembus and Ama- Mpondos also regard as their progenitor. Thus the whole section is connected, but not in the direct line, with the Xosas, who trace their lineage from Galeka and Khakhabe, sons of Palo, who is said to have died about 1780, and was himself tenth in direct descent from Xosa. We thus get a genealogical table as under, which gives his proper place in the Family Tree to nearly every historical " Kafir7'' chief in Cape Colony, where ignorance of these relations caused much bloodshed during the early Kafir wars :- Zuide (1500?) Tembu i i Ama-Tembus (Tembookies) Xosa (1530?) Palo (1780'?) Mpondo Mpondumisi (Mpondos) Gi K] H K i r ileka anta inza reli j Khakhabe j -A. Omlao Gika (ob. 1828) 1 Macoiho Sandili i j Mbalu Gwali 1 Velelo 1 Baxa •\ Ndhlambe Ama-Ndhlambes (Tslambies) •y Ama-Galekas -v Ama-Gaikas V Ama-Mbalus But all, both northern Zulus and southern Xosas, are essenti- ally one people in speech, physique, usages and Tpkysical social institutions. The hair is uniformly of a somewhat frizzly texture, the colour of a light or clear brown amongst the Ama-Tembus, but elsewhere very dark, the Swazis being almost "blue-black"; the head decidedly long (72-54°) and high (195-8°); nose variable, both Negroid and perfectly regular; height above the mean (5ft. 9 to n in.); figure shapely and muscular, though Fritsch's measurements show IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. IOI that it is sometimes far from the almost ideal standard of beauty with which some early observers have credited them. Mentally the Zulu-Xosas stand much higher than the true Negro, as shown especially in their political organi- sation, which, before the development of Dingis- organisation wayo's military system under European influences, was a kind of patriarchal monarchy controlled by a powerful aristocracy. The nation was grouped in tribes connected by the ties of blood and ruled by the hereditary inkose, or feudal chief, who was supreme, with power of life and death, within his own jurisdiction. Against his mandates, however, the nobles could protest in council, and it was in fact their decisions that estab- lished precedents and the traditional code of common law. "This common law is well adapted to a people Law"™ in a rude state of society. It holds everyone accused of crime guilty unless he can prove himself innocent ; it makes the head of the family responsible for the conduct of all its branches, the village collectively for all resident in it, and the clan for each of its villages. For the administration of the law there are courts of various grades, from any of which an appeal may be taken to the Supreme Council, presided over by the paramount chief, who is not only the ruler but also the father of the people1." In the interior, between the southern coast ranges and the Zambesi, the Hottentot and Bushman aborigines Mashonas were in prehistoric ages almost everywhere dis- and Maka- placed or reduced to servitude by other Bantu peoples, such as the Makalakas and Mashonas, the Bechuanas and the kindred Basutos. Of these the first arrivals (from the north) appear to have been the Mashonas and Makalakas, who were being slowly " eaten up " by the Matabili when the process was arrested by the timely intervention of the English in Rhodesia. Both nations are industrious tillers of the soil, skilled in metal- work and in mining operations, being probably the direct descendants cf the natives, whose great chief r 5 O H U MUNKULUNKULU ( Mpondo : Ukulukulu Zulu : Unkulunkulu Inhambane : Mulungulu Sofala : Murungu Bechuana : Mulungulu Lake Moero : Mulungu Lake Tanganyika : Mulungu Makua : Moloko Quillimane : Mlugu Lake Bangweolo : Mungu Tete, Zambesi : Muungu Nyasaland : Murungu Swahili : Muungu Giryama : Mulungu Pokomo : Mungo Nyika : Mulungu Kamba : Mulungu Yanzi : Molongo V Herero : Mukuru NZAMBI Eshi-Kongo : Nzambi Kabinda : Nzambi Pongo Lunda: Zambi Bateke : Nzam Barotse : Nyampe Bihe : Nzambi Loango : Zambi, Nyambi Bunda : Onzambi Bangala : Nsambi Bakele: Nshambi Rungu : Anyambi Ashira : Aniembie Mpongwe : Njambi Benga : Anyambi Dwala : Nyambi Yanzi : Nyambi Herero : Ndyambi ft) •Jl c/i n> o p f ! P CD ^ 3' 8—2 Il6 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Of Munkuhinkulu the primitive idea is clear enough from its best preserved form, the Zulu Unkulunkulu^ which is a repetitive of the root inkulu^ great, old, hence a deification of the great departed, a direct outcome of the ancestry-worship so universal amongst Negro and Bantu peoples1. Thus Unkulunkulu becomes the direct progenitor of the Zulu-Xosas : Unkulunkulu ukobu wetu. But the fundamental meaning of Nzambi is unknown. The root does not occur in Kishi-Kongo, and Mr Bentley rightly rejects Kolbe's far-fetched explanation from the Herero, adding that "the knowledge of God is most vague, scarcely more than nominal. There is no worship paid to God2." More probable seems Mr \V. H. Tooke's suggestion that Nzambi is "a Nature spirit like Zeus or Indra," and that, while the eastern Bantus are ancestor-worshippers, " the western ad- herents of Nzambi are more or less Nature-worshippers. In this respect they appear to approach the Negroes of the Gold, Slave, and Oil Coasts3." No doubt the cult of the dead prevails also in this region, but here it is combined with naturalistic forms of belief, as on the Gold Coast, where Bobowissi^ chief god of all the southern tribes, is the "Blower of Clouds," the "Rain-maker," and on the Slave Coast, where the Dahoman Mawu and the Yoruba Olorun are the Sky or Rain, and the "Owner of the Sky ': (the deified Firmament), respectively4. It would therefore seem probable that the Munkulunkulu peoples from the north-east gradually spread by the indicated routes over the whole of Bantuland, everywhere imposing their speech, general culture, and ancestor-worship on the pre-Bantu 1 So also in Minahassa, Celebes, Empiing, "Grandfather/' is the generic name of the gods. "The fundamental ideas of primitive man are the same all the world over. Just as the little black baby of the Negro, the brown baby of the Malay, the yellow baby of the Chinaman are in face and form, in gestures and habits, as well as in the first articulate sounds they mutter, very much alike, so the mind of man, whether he be Aryan or Malay, Mongolian or Negrito, has in the course of its evolution passed through stages which are practically identical." (Sydney J. Hickson, A Naturalist in North Celebes, 1889, p. 240.) ' Op. cit. p. 96. 3 The God of the Ethiopians, in Nature, May 26, 1892. 4 E. B. Ellis, 7V/ /, p. 23; Ewe, p. 31 ; Yoniba, p. 36. IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: IT. 117 aborigines, except along the Atlantic coastlands and in parts of the interior. Here the primitive Nature-worship, embodied in Nzambi, held and still holds its ground, both meeting on equal terms— as shown in the above Table — amongst the Bayanzi, the Ova-Herero, and the Bechuanas (Mulungulu generally, but Nyampe in Barotseland), and no doubt in other inland regions. But the absolute supremacy of one on the east, i c i i • i r i • Conclusion. and of the other on the west, side of the continent, seems conclusive as to the general streams of migration, while the amazing uniformity of nomenclature is but another illustration of the almost incredible persistence of Bantu speech amongst these multitudinous illiterate populations for an incalculable period of time. THE NEGRITOES. Yet, during the whole of this period, a substratum of non-Bantu Nesrrito, Bushman, and Hottentot elements has also The Negrito persisted throughout the same ethnical domain. Domain past The affinities of these primitive peoples, both to each other and collectively to the true Negro, have already been discussed1. The proper domain of the African Negritoes is the inter-tropical forest-land, although they appear to be at present confined to somewhat narrow limits, between about six degrees of latitude north and south of the equator, unless the Bushmen be included. But formerly they probably ranged much farther north, possibly in Neolithic times accompanying their "big brothers" into central Europe (Switzerland), and in historic times finding their way down the Nile valley to Egypt, where they were certainly known some 4000 or 5000 years ago. This is evident from the frequent references to them in the "Book of the Dead "as far back as the 6th Dynasty. Like the dwarfs in mediaeval times, they were in hio;h request at the courts of the Negritoes at Pharaohs, who sent expeditions to fetch these the Courts of Danga (Tank) from the "Island of the Double," that is, the fabulous region of Shade Land beyond Punt, where they dwelt. The first of whom there is authentic record was brought from this region, apparently the White Nile, to King 1 Eth. Chap. XI. Il8 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Assa (3300 B.C.) by his officer, Baurtet. Some 70 years later Heru-Khuf, another officer, was sent by Pepi II "to bring back a pygmy alive and in good health," from the land of great trees away to the south1. That the Danga came from the south we know from a later inscription at Kartrak, and that the word meant dwarf is clear from the accompanying determinative of a short person of stunted growth. It is curious to note in this connection that the limestone statue of the dwarf Nem-hotep, found in his tomb at Sakkara and figured by Ernest Grosse, has a thick elongated head suggest- ing artificial deformation, unshapely mouth, dull expression, strong full chest, and small deformed feet, on which he seems badly balanced. It will be remembered that Schweinfurth's Akkas from Mangbattuland were also represented as top-heavy, although the best observers, Junker and others, describe those of the Welle and Congo forests as shapely and by no means ill-proportioned. Prof. Kollmann also, who has examined the remains of the Neolithic pygmies from the Schweizersbild Station, Negritoes and Pygmy Switzerland, "is quite certain that the dwarf-like Folklore. . - . , . proportions of the latter have nothing in common with diseased conditions. This, from many points of view, is a highly interesting discovery. It is possible, as Dr Niiesch suggests, that the widely-spread legend as to the former existence of little men, dwarfs and gnomes, who were supposed to haunt caves and retired places in the mountains, may be a reminiscence of these Neolithic pygmies2." This is what may be called the picturesque aspect of the Negrito question, which it seems almost a pity to spoil by too severe a criticism. But " ethnologic truth " obliges us to say that the identification of the African Negrito with Kollmann's European dwarfs still lacks scientific proof. Even craniology fails us here, and although the Negritoes are in great majority round- headed, Dr R. Verneau has shown that there may be exceptions3, 1 Schiaparelli, Una Tomba Egiziana, Rome, 1893. 2 Prof. James Geikie, Scottish Geogr. Mag. Sept. 1897. :{ Thus he finds (U Anthropologie, 1896, p. 153) a presumably Negrito skull from the Babinga district, Middle Sangha river, to be distinctly long- headed (73*2) with, for this race, the enormous cranial capacity of about IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. . 119 while the theory of the general uniformity of the physical type has broken down at some other points. Thus the Dume, south of Gallaland, discovered by Dr Donaldson Smith1 in the district where the Doko Negritoes reputed Dwarfs. had long been heard of, and even seen by Antoine d'Abbadie in 1843, were found to average five feet, or more than one foot over the mean of the true Negrito. D'Abbadie in fact declared that his "Dokos" were not pygmies at all2, while Donaldson Smith now tells us that "doko" is only a term of contempt applied by the local tribes to their "poor relations." "Their chief characteristics were a black skin, round features. woolly hair, small oval-shaped eyes, rather thick lips, high cheek bones, a broad forehead, and very well formed bodies" (p. 273). The expression of the eye was canine, "sometimes timid and suspicious-looking, sometimes very amiable and merry, and then again changing suddenly to a look of intense anger." Pygmies, he adds, " inhabited the whole of the country north of Lakes Stephanie and Rudolf long before any of the tribes now to be found in the neighbourhood ; but they have been gradually killed off in war, and have lost their characteristics by inter-marriage with people of large stature, so that only this one little remnant, the Dume, remains to prove the existence of a pygmy race. Formerly they lived principally by hunting, and they still kill a great many elephants with their poisoned arrows" (p. 274 — 5). Some of these remarks apply also to the Wandorobbo, another small people who range nearly as far north as the Dume, but are found chiefly farther south all over r0bboHunters~ Masailand, and belong, I have little doubt, to the same connection. They are the henchmen of the Masai nomads, whom they provide with big game in return for divers services, and hold with them much the same amicable relations as the little Neolithic folk held with their tall neighbours in central Europe. Those met by Mr W. Astor Chanler were also " armed with 1440 c.c. Cf. the Akka measured by Sir W. Flower (1372 c.c.), and his Andamanese (1128), the highest hitherto known being 1200 (Virchow). Through Unknown African Conn fries, &c., 1897. - Bill. Soc. Geogr. xix. p. 440. I2O MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. bows and arrows, and each carried an elephant-spear, which they called bonati. This spear is six feet in length, thick at either end, and narrowed where grasped by the hand. In one end is bored a hole, into which is fitted an arrow two feet long, as thick as one's thumb, and with a head two inches broad. Their method of killing elephants is to creep cautiously up to the beast, and drive a spear into its loin. A quick twist separates the spear from the arrow, and they make off as fast and silently as possible. In all cases the arrows are poisoned ; and if they are well intro- duced into the animal's body, the elephant does not go far1." From some of the peculiarities of the Achua (Wochua) Negritoes met by Junker south of the Welle one Mimics. °° can understand why these little people were such favourites with the old Egyptian kings. These were " distinguished by sharp powers of observation, amazing talent for mimicry, and a good memory. A striking proof of this was afforded by an Achua whom I had seen and measured four years previously in Rumbek, and now again met at Gambari's. His comic ways and quick nimble movements made this little fellow the clown of our society. He imitated with marvellous fidelity the peculiarities of persons whom he had once seen ; for instance, the gestures and facial expressions of Jussuf Pasha esh- Shelahis and of Haj Halil at their devotions, as well as the address and movements of Emin Pasha, ' with the four eyes ' (spectacles). His imitation of Hawash Effendi in a towering rage, storming and abusing everybody, was a great success ; and now he took me off to the life, rehearsing after four years, down to the minutest details, and with surprising accuracy, my anthropometric perform- ance when measuring his body at Rumbek2." A somewhat similar account is given by Dr Ludwig Wolf of the Batwa pygmies visited by him and Herr Wissmann in the Kassai region. Here are whole villages in the forest-glades inhabited by little people with an average height of about 4 feet 3 inches. They are nomads, occupied exclusively with hunting and the preparation of palm-wine, and are regarded by their Bakubu neighbours as benevolent little people, whose special mission is 1 Through Jungle and Desert, 1896, p. 358 — Q. - Travels, in. p. 86. PLATE I. r • 1 i. CONGO NATIVE. (Bantu Negro Type.) 2. ZULU GIRL. (Bantu Negroid Type.) 3. NAMA MAN. (Hottentot Type.) 4. NEW CALEDONIAN. (Melanesian Type.) To face page 1 20] IV.] THE AFRICAN NEGRO: II. 121 to provide the surrounding tribes with game and palm-wine in exchange for manioc, maize, and bananas1. Despite the above-mentioned deviations, occurring chiefly about the borderlands, considerable uniformity both of physical and mental characters is found to prevail amongst the typical Negrito groups scattered in small hunting communities all over the Welle, Semliki, Congo, and Ogowai woodlands. These groups must therefore be regarded as the fragments of a homogeneous dwarfish race, who have an authentic historical record going back to the early Egyptian dynasties, and still persist in a great part of inter-tropical Africa. THE BUSHMEN AND HOTTENTOTS. Towards the south the Negrito domain was formerly conter- minous with that of the Bushmen, of whom traces were discovered by Sir H. H. Johnston2 as far north andUHotten- as Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika, and who, it is tots- Former and Present reasonable to suppose, belong to the same primitive Range, stock. The differences mental and physical now separating the two sections of the family may easily be explained by the different environments — hot, moist and densely wooded in the north, and open steppes in the south. But evidence has now been produced of the presence of a belated Hottentot or Hottentot-Bushman group rpt_ ^ as far north as the Kwa-Kokue district, between Wasandawi. Kilimanjaro and Lake Victoria. The Wasandawi people here visited by Herr Oskar Neumann are not Bantus, and speak a language radically distinct from that of the neighbouring 1 //// Innern Afrika's, p. 259 sq. As stated in Eth. p. -248, Dr Wolf connects all these Negrito peoples with the Bushmen south of the Zambesi, and I really think this generalisation may now be accepted. - "It would seem as if the earliest known race of man inhabiting what is now British Central Africa was akin to the Bushman-Hottentot type of Negro. Rounded stones with a hole through the centre, similar to those which are used by the Bushmen in the south for weighting their digging-sticks, have been found at the south end of Lake Tanganyika. I have heard that other examples of these ' Bushman ' stones have been found nearer to Lake Nyasa, &c." (Op. cit. p. 52.) 122 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Bantus, but full of clicks like that of the Bushmen. Two Sandawi skulls examined by Virchow ] showed distinct Hottentot characters, with a cranial capacity of 1250 and 1265 c.c., pro- jecting upper jaw and orthodolicho head2. The geographical prefix Kwa, common in the district (Kwa-Kokue, Kwa-Mtoro, Kwa-Hindi), is pure Hottentot, meaning " people," like the postfix qua (Kwa] of Kora-^7/0, Nama-^//# &c. in the present Hottentot domain. The transposition of prefixes and postfixes is a common linguistic phenomenon, as seen in the Sumero- Akkadian of Babylonia, in the Neo-Sanskritic tongues of India, and the Latin, Oscan, and other members of the Old Italic group. Farther south a widely-diffused Hottentot-Bushman geo- graphical terminology attests the former range of geographical this primitive race all over South Africa, as far Names in north as the Zambesi. Lichten stein had already Bantuland. discovered such traces in the Zulu country3, and Vater points out that " for some districts the fact has been fully established; mountains and rivers now occupied by the Koossa [Ama-Xosa] preserve in their Hottentot names the certain proof that they at one time formed a permanent possession of this people4." Thanks to the custom of raising heaps of stones or cairns over the graves of renowned chiefs, the migrations of the Hottentots may be followed in various directions to the very heart of South Zambesia. Here the memory of their former presence is per- petuated in the names of such water-courses as Nos-ob, Up, Mol-opo, Hyg-ap, Gar-ib, in which the syllables ob, up, J Lifu, Mare, Uvea, and Isle of Pines. These Polynesians appear to have all come originally from Tonga, first to Uvea Island (Wallis), and thence in the 1 8th century to Uvea in the Loyalties, cradle of all the New Caledonian Polynesian settlements. 4 This low index is characteristic of most Papuasians, and reaches the extreme of dolichocephaly in the extinct Kai-Colos of Fiji (65°), and amongst some coast Papuans of New Guinea measured by Miklukho-Maclay. But this observer found the character so variable in New Guinea that he was unable to use it as a racial test. In the New Hebrides, Louisiades, and Bismarck group also he found many of the natives to be round-headed, with indices as high as 80 and 85 ; and even in the Solomon Islands Dr Guppy records cephalic indices ranging from 73 to 82 with a mean of 81 in Treasury Island (Nature, April 26, 1883). Thus this feature is no more constant amongst the Oceanic than it is amongst the African Negroes. (See also M. Maclay's paper in Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 1882, p. 171 sq.) 3 Eth. p. 184. (i Eth. pp. 170, 425. V.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: PAPUASIANS. 141 height 5 ft. 4 in. ; speech Melanesian with three marked varieties, that of the south-eastern districts being considered the most rudi- mentary member of the whole Melanesian group1. New Caledonia is one of the few places in the Pacific where distinct evidence has been found of an early Stone Age corresponding to that of Palaeolithic times in AJehe the northern hemisphere. Serpentine hatchets have from time to time been brought to light in pleistocene beds2, one at Kutomo in the coralline limestone associated with Biilimus senilis and other fossil or sub-fossil shells, and at Bonrail M. Glaumont discovered some hearths under 5 feet of alluvia, and at a depth of 20 feet four clay cooking-vessels like those still in use. Alluvial matter, however, accumulates rapidly in this district3. The present natives, if not the direct descendants of the people of the Stone Age, must still have arrived at a very remote period, probably following the Mirations. general movement of migration from Malaysia. The direction of the winds offers no obstacle, nor are the trades of the Pacific regular enough to prevent such migratory move- ments from west to east. The land connections were also, as seen, more continuous than at present, while the taro and yarn- apparently of South Asiatic origin, but now widely diffused over the Pacific islands — would seem to indicate the route followed by the early human immigrants. From the state of their industries, in some respects the rudest, in others amongst the most advanced in Melanesia, it may be inferred that after their arrival the New Caledonians, like the Tasmanians, the Andamanese, and some other insular groups, remained for long ages almost completely secluded from the rest of the world. Owing to the poverty of the soil the struggle for food must always have been severe. Question.° Hence the most jealously guarded privileges of the chiefs were associated with questions of diet, while the paradise of the dead was a region where they had abundance of food and could gorge on yams. Their stomach, like that of the Bushmen, 1 Bernard, p. 262. 2 P. 270. 3 Rev. (TEthnogr. 1889, p. 214. 142 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. seems to have acquired an exceptional power of expansion and contraction, enabling them at one time to consume incredible quantities of food, at another to go fasting for days together without feeling any ill effects from such violent oscillations between want and surfeit. They were also earth-eaters, while cannibalism and the institution of taboo, if originally associated with religion, had certainly lost that character in New Caledonia, where they are mainly connected with the eternal food question. In the absence of game and cattle the natives could become neither hunters nor pastors, and were driven to fishing and agriculture to supplement the scanty resources of the land flora and fauna. Hence it is as fishers and husbandmen that they became one of the most advanced peoples in the Oceanic world. The skill displayed in the irrigation of their taro fields was rivalled only by the natives of Fiji. Like the Levites amongst the Jews, the office of takata (priest or wizard) was hereditary, and the chief feature of Trans- their religion was the cult of the dead. In fact the migration and Pessimism. gods, all evil, were, as in Bantuland, the souls of the departed, and especially of the chiefs, who acquired increased power of working harm by migrating into sharks, the winds, or thunder-storms. Thus the spirits of their forefathers that oppressed them in life bestride the whirlwind in death, and continue to harry the living by disturbing the order of nature. All this developed a gloomy, sullen temperament, a pessimistic mood and the ferocity of despair, as displayed especially at the tribal gatherings (/////-/////), and in the orgies after the taro feast, which often ended in massacres and hideous scenes of cannibalism. Returning to the Papuan lands proper, in the insular groups west of New Guinea we enter one of the most en- Ptmuuti™ tangled ethnical regions in the world. Here are, no doubt, a few islands such as the Aru group, mainly inhabited by full-blood Papuans, men who furnished Wallace with the models on which he built up his true Papuan type, which has since been vainly assailed by so many later observers. But in others — Ceram, Buru, Timor, and so on to Flores — diverse ethnical and linguistic elements are intermingled in almost V.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES : PAPUASIANS. 143 hopeless confusion. Discarding the term " Alfuro ': as of no ethnical value1, we find the whole area west to about 120° E. longitude2 occupied in varying proportions Elements* by pure and mixed representatives of three distinct stocks : Negro (Papuans), Mongol (Malayans), and Caucasic (Indonesians). From the data supplied by Crawfurd, Wallace, Forbes, Ten Kate and other trustworthy observers, I have con- structed the subjoined table, in which the east Malaysian islands are disposed according to the constituent elements of their in- habitants3 :- Am Group — True Papuans dominant ; Indonesians (Korongo- ei) in the interior. Kei Group — Malayans ; Indonesians ; Papuan strain every- where. Timor ; Wetta ; Timor Laut — Mixed Papuans, Malayans and Indonesians : no pure type anywhere. Serwatti Group — Malayans with slight trace of black blood (Papuan or Negrito). Roti and Sumba — Malayans. Savu — Indonesians. Flores ; Solor ; Adonera ; Lomblen ; Pantar ; Allor — Papuans pure or mixed dominant ; Malayans in the coast towns. Burn — Malayans on coast; reputed Papuans, but more pro- bably Indonesians in interior. Ceram — -Malayans on coast; mixed Malayo-Papuans inland. Amboina; Banda — Malayans; Dutch-Malay half-breeds ("Per- keniers"). Goram — Malayans with slight Papuan strain. Matabello ; Tior ; Nuso Telo ; Tt0nf0I0fca--Pa.pua.iis with Malayan admixture. Misol — Malayo-Papuans on coast ; Papuans inland. Tidor ; Ternate ; Sulla; Makian — Malayans. Batjan — Malayans ; Indonesians. 1 Eth. p. 328. * But excluding Celebes, where no trace of Papuan elements has been discovered. 3 For details see Dr F. H. H. Guillemard, Australasia, Vol. II. and Reclus, Vol. xiv. 144 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Gilolo — Mixed Papuans ; Indonesians in the north. Waigiu ; Salwatti ; Batanta -- Malayans on the coast; Papuans inland. From this apparently chaotic picture, which in some places, such as Timor, presents every gradation from the full-blood Papuan to the typical Malay, Crawfurd concluded that the eastern section of Malaysia constituted a region of transition f between the yellowish-brown lank-haired and the Displacements dark-brown or black mop-headed stocks. In a and Crossings. . . sense this is true, but not in the sense intended by Crawfurd, who by "transition" meant the actual passage by some process of development from type to type independently of interminglings. But such extreme transitions have nowhere taken place spontaneously, so to say, and in any case could never have been brought about in a small zoological area presenting every- where the same climatic conditions. Biological types may be, and have been, modified in different environments, arctic, temperate, or tropical zones, but not in the same zone, and if two such marked types as the Mongol and the Negro are now found juxtaposed in the Malaysian tropical zone, the fact must be explained by migrations and displacements, while the intermediate forms are to be at- tributed to secular intermingling of the extremes. Why should a man, passing from one side to another of an island 10 or 20 miles long, be transformed from a sleek-haired brown to a frizzly-haired black, or from a mercurial laughter-loving Papuan to a Malayan " slow in movement and thoroughly phlegmatic in disposition, rarely seen to laugh or become animated in conversation, with ex- pression generally of vague wonder or weary sadness ri ? Wallace's classical description of these western Papuans, who are here in the very cradleland of the race, can Papuan and never lose its charm, and its accuracy has been fully contrasts. confirmed by all later observers. " The typical Papuan race," he writes, " is in many respects the very opposite of the Malay. The colour of the body is a deep sooty-brown or black, sometimes approaching, but never quite equalling, the jet-black of some negro races. The hair is very 1 Dr S. J. Hickson, A Naturalist in North Celebes, 1889, p. 203. V.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: PAPU ASIANS. 145 peculiar, being harsh, dry, and frizzly, growing in little tufts or curls, which in youth are very short and compact, but afterwards grow out to a considerable length, forming the compact, frizzled mop which is the Papuan's pride and glory. ...The moral charac- teristics of the Papuan appear to me to separate him as distinctly from the Malay as do his form and features. He is impulsive and demonstrative in speech and action. His emotions and passions express themselves in shouts and laughter, in yells and frantic leapings....The Papuan has a greater feeling for art than the Malay. He decorates his canoe, his house, and almost every domestic utensil with elaborate carving, a habit which is rarely found among tribes of the Malay race. In the affections and moral sentiments, on the other hand, the Papuans seem very deficient. In the treatment of their children they are often violent and cruel, whereas the Malays are almost invariably kind and gentle1." The ethnological parting-line between the Malayan and Papuasian races, as first laid down by Wallace, Ethnical and nearly coincides with his division between the Biological Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan floras and faunas, the chief differences being the positions of Sumbawa and Celebes. Both of these islands are excluded from the Papuasian realm, but included in the Austro-Malayan zoological and botanical regions. AUSTRALIANS AND TASMANIANS. Both Australians and Tasmanians are, or were, absolutely conterminous with their respective insular domains, where they had, till the British occupation, remained practically secluded from the outer world throughout the whole course f -, . ..A Region of of their natural development since the first peopling iong isolation of the land in the Stone Ages. Similar conditions have prevailed in a large way elsewhere only in America. Hence it is that the inhabitants of these isolated ethnical zones alone present a certain degree of uniformity in their physical and mental characters. The modifications are 1 The Malay Archipelago, Chap. XL. K. 10 146 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. here everywhere such as may be accounted for on the hypothesis that the present aborigines represent a blend of two, or at most three1 different elements in extremely remote times, with later interminglings and fresh groupings of these same elements through inevitable local shiftings and disturbances, but without any serious addition of further foreign elements after the first settlements. To the observer arriving on the north coast of Australia from New Guinea this homogeneous character of the aborigines is very striking. From a region of considerable ethnical confusion, presenting all shades of transition from the full-blood Papuan to the variable Melanesian, he enters a continent in which a strong family likeness is at once detected between all the scattered groups of its primitive inhabitants. This family likeness is more- over so marked that, amid all the local differences, the natives are everywhere instantly recognised as members of a single ethnical division, and we at once realise the vast period of time needed for the development of their highly specialised type. Their arrival is referred by Mr A. W. Howitt to a time anterior to Early Peopling of the present distribution of land and water, as they must have reached their present homes by some now submerged land-connection, or at all events across narrow channels navigable by frail canoes or catamarans. An immense period of time, he contends, is " one of the elements of any solution of the problem," and during that period the natives have been completely isolated within a continental area of develop- ment. They arrived, he thinks, by a land-bridge either connecting with the Indo-Asiatic continent, or by a land extension of the Austral continent towards the north-west, or over some shallow channels between Australia and those lands2. 1 Dr O. Finsch, who studied specimens from regions as wide apart as South Queensland, the Gulf of Carpentaria and West Australia, is satisfied with one: " Auf Grund dieser Untersuchungen iiberzeugte ich mich, dass die Australier eine eigene Rasse bilden, welche den Melanesiern oder Papuas entfernter stehen als letztere reinen Afrikanischen Negern " (A'etse in dcr Siidsee, 1884, p. 66). 2 Paper read at the Meeting of the Australian Ass. for the Adv. of Science, Sydney, Jan. 1898. I need scarcely point out how completely these views harmonise with those advanced in Eth. Chap. XI. V.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES : AUSTRALIANS. 147 Strong support is given to this assumption by the absolutely independent and uniform character of Australian speech. The divergences from a common aggluti- Australian native form, radically distinct from any other, are far less than the divergences of the American tongues from a common polysynthetic form, while the phonetic system may be described as everywhere identical. A few traces of sibilants have been noticed, but practically these sounds are unknown to all the Australian dialects. Here we have complete accord between linguistic and anatomical characters, both alike arguing for a common racial origin1. All attempts to affiliate this group to the Dravidian of Southern India, or to any other, have signally failed, as we see from the " proofs " of affinity with " words used by the Aryan race " put forward by Mr S. Bennett, Mr Taplin and others2. Thus kiradjee, a doctor, is equated with the Greek Xeipoupyos, whereas the comparison, to prove anything, should be with the Greek \^, a hand, and epyov, work, terms not found in any Australian dialect. So mah, to strike = Hindi mah, which should be mar, as mdh means month, and mah nothing at all ; and it will hardly be credited that cobbera, head, is collated with English cob, and Spanish cobra, which should be Portuguese, only in that language cobra does not mean head, but snake. And the whole process is unscientific, all the native dialects being ransacked for likely words, which are then compared, not with a particular Aryan tongue, but with all of them, ancient and modern, and even with Hebrew, or Arabic, or "Moorish" {gibber- GY/?r-altar), which are not Aryan, but Semitic. Hence, if the comparisons could be established, the logical inference would be that the Australians are proved by their languages to be an amalgam of Aryans and Semites, living and dead, from all parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. For this reason the comparisons made by Mr Curr with African Negro languages3 must also be pronounced worth- less. 1 The absence of sibilant sounds is attributed by Prof. Macalister to the macrodont alveolar arch and corresponding modified tongue, which make their utterance a difficult feat to accomplish {Paper, Brit. Ass. Edinburgh, 1891). 2 In R. Brough Smyth's Aborigines of Victoria, 1878, Vol. II. p. 5 sq. 3 I. p. 171 sq. 10 — 2 148 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. It is more profitable to note, as an indication of the level of the Australian intellect, that in none of these System61 dialects are there any words for the numerals higher than one and two, or here and there three1, beyond which four— 2 + 2, 7^ = many, lots, heaps, and so on. Even bula, a common word for two, is used in some places for three, and in others for many, as if the numerical relation were altogether beyond the grasp of the native mind2. In any case "no Australian Black in his wild state can, I believe, practically count as high as seven. If you lay seven pins on a table for a Black to reckon, and then abstract two, he would not miss them. If one were removed, he would miss it, because his manner of counting by ones and twos amounts to the same as if he reckoned by odds and evens3." In fact the Australian stands practically at the binary stage, and has nowhere yet reached the first of the three natural systems — quinary with a 5 base, decimal with 10, and vigesimal with 20. Nor can it be said that they had no need of a more highly developed arithmetic system, for it would be con- Hunters! venieiit to reckon at least the number of their children and wives, and (as hunters) of the contents of successful " bags." Professor Richard Simon4 rightly regards them as the typical hunters, in this respect unapproached by the Canadian trapper, the South African Bushman, or any other people savage or civilized. Hence in the wild state the Australian is the most independent of mortals, but at the same time is prevented from making any progress in culture beyond a certain very low level. The difficulty of capturing game with his primitive methods compels him to give his whole time to the quest of food, and spend his days in roaming restlessly over wide 1 Thus karbo = ^ in the Herbert Vale dialect ; but radicals beyond 2 are very rare. '2 Here \ve are reminded by Dr L. L. Conant that a few languages are absolutely destitute of pure numerical terms. Thus the Bolivian Chiquito has no true word for one, and etaitia, so used, really means " alone " (The humeral Concept : Its Origin and Development, 1 896) . 3 E. M. Curr, The Australian Race, Melbourne, 1886, Vol. I. p. 32. 4 Reiseerlebnisse, &c. in Australien, £c., Leipzig, 1896, passim. V.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: AUSTRALIANS. 149 hunting-grounds, and devising all sorts of artificial methods and precautions for preventing these preserves from becoming over- peopled. As in New Caledonia, the food question was at the base of most social institutions. That some system of gesture-language is current amongst the natives has long been known, and Mr A. H. Howitt figures in Brough Smyth1 a few of the signs of which speech^ he had acquired a knowledge amongst the tribes of Cooper's Creek. On this subject Mr Smyth himself writes : " It is believed that they have several signs, known only to themselves or to those amongst the whites who have had intercourse with them for lengthened periods, which convey information readily and accurately2." This statement is now fully confirmed by Dr Walter E. Roth, who, during his long residence amongst the Queensland natives, has discovered and become proficient in a tolerably complete gesture-system ranging over a wide area. It seems fully as effective as the West African drum-language, which has also now been mastered by Herr R. Betz in the Cameriins district. Dr Roth has determined the value of no less than 213 manual signs, which are in use amongst a large number of tribes in the North-west-central Queensland district, and serve all the purposes of a lingua franca, and, thanks to the keen vision of the natives, have the further advantage of being intelligible at considerable distances. These signs, which he describes and figures3, are, like those taught in our deaf and dumb schools, capable of expressing a wide range of thought, different plants, animals, natural objects, persons, events, conditions, feelings, and so forth. This gesture-speech thus differs from articulate speech " only in this, that the one appeals to the sense of vision, the other to that of hearing4,'' and should be a complete reply to those philosophers who argue that thought and spoken language are one. 1 R. Brough Smyth's Aborigines of Victoria, 1878, II. p. 308. * n. p. 4. 3 Ethnological Studies among the North- West- Central Queensland Ab- origines, Brisbane, 1898, Chap. IV. with appended illustrations. 4 Eth. p. 195. ISO MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Great efforts have been made by believers in the natural equality of all mankind to present the native insti- Capachy. tutions, religious ideas, and general capacity in as favourable a light as possible. Brough Smyth shows plainly enough that children in the schools of Victoria are capable of assimilating a certain amount of teaching, and appeal is especially made to their artistic sense and power of delineation, even in the wild state, as shown by the pictorial representations in their caves and rock shelters. Favourite " motives " of this primitive " School of Art," which compares badly with those of the Bushmen and Palaeolithic cave-men, are the human hand and the snake, and this is the account given of the "technique" by Mr Ernest Giles: "The drawing [of the hand] is done by filling the mouth with charcoal powder if the device is to be black, if red with red ochre powder, damping the wall where the mark is to be left, and placing the palm of the hand against it, with the fingers stretched out ; the charcoal or ochre powder is then blown against the back of the hand ; when it is withdrawn, it leaves the space occupied by the hand and fingers clean, while the surrounding portions of the wall are all black or red, as the case may be. One device represents a snake going into a hole ; the hole is actually in the rock, while the snake is painted on the wall, and the spectator is to suppose that its head is just inside the hole. The body of the reptile is curled round and round the hole, though its breadth is out of all proportion to its length, being 7 or 8 inches thick and only 2 to 3 feet long. It is painted with charcoal ashes which had been mixed up with some animal's or reptile's fat1." The process resembles that of our sand-engraving on glass-ware. Their sense of right and wrong Mr Giles describes as hazy, and he is uncertain whether they have any know- Idfaes.lgl°US ledge of a Supreme Being, allowing, however, that " nothing of the nature of worship, prayer, or sacrifice has been observed'-'." Elsewhere he argues that they 1 Australia Twice Traversed, 1889, Vol. I. p. 78. For other processes see Mr R. H. Mathews' Paper on The Rock Paintings and Carvings of the Aus- tralian Aborigines, in Jour. Anthrop. Ins/. 1896, p. 145. 2 Ib. I. p. 44. V.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES.: AUSTRALIANS. 151 have no beliefs on the subject of God or an after-life, and that those who credit them with such notions "have been imposed upon, and that, until they had learnt something of Christianity from missionaries and others, the Blacks had no beliefs or practices of the sort1." That this is the only possible view seems evident from the crude myths and legends associated with Pundgyl, who is known in various forms to many tribes, and has been selected by the missionaries from the native "theogonies" as the nearest approach to a deity in their religious texts2. The Pundgyl (Bunjil) of the Wawurongs of the Yarra River, has a wife, Boiboi, whose face he has never seen, a son Bin-beal and a brother Pal-ly-yan, by whose help he made most things. He is provided with a large knife, and after making the earth he went all over it, cutting and slashing it into rivers and creeks, mountains and valleys. Then, after contact with the whites, there is a curious adaptation of Bunjil to Biblical legends, as when people grow wicked he waxes angry, raises storms and fierce winds which shake the big trees on the hilltops. Thereupon he again goes about with his big knife, cutting this way and that way, and men, women, and children are all cut into very little pieces. But the pieces are alive, and wriggle about like worms, when great storms come, and they are blown about like snowflakes. They are wafted into the clouds, and by the clouds borne hither and thither all over the earth, and thus is mankind dispersed. But the good men and women are carried upwards and become stars, which still shine in the heavens. But other myths point at an incipient state of ancestor-worship, and Nurunderi, the wonderful god or eponymous hero of the Narringeri tribe on the Lower Murray River, is described as originally coming down the Darling River, and sending back two messengers to report his 1 I. p. 45. So also Carl Lumholtz, one of our safest guides in all that concerns the mental state and usages of the natives: "At all events it is certain that neither idolatry nor sacrifices are to be found in Australia. Nor have the natives so far as 1 know, ever been seen to pray" (Among Cannibals, 1889, p. 284). - Thus, Gen. 1. i, Ganbronin Pnndgyl Mannan monguit wooiivorer bar beek, in a Victoria dialect (Brough Smyth, II. p. 130). 152 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. arrival to the up-country people. They cross over to Lake x\lbert, where they meet hostile tribes, and marvellous contests ensue. Nurunderi throws flat stones into Lake Alexandrina, which become bream, and he goes up to the Coorong, where he slays a chief who has kidnapped his children. When he reaches Encounter Bay his wives forsake him, but he calls upon the sea to overflow, and they are all swallowed up in the waves. In the end he goes up to Wyirrewarri^ i.e. Cloudland, where he now dwells. Although the practice of cannibalism has been questioned, Lumholtz shows that the aborigines are omnivorous in the strictest sense of the word, devouring everything at all digestible, from vermin and insects to man. He mentions live beetles and their larvae, fleas, pediculi, grasshoppers, children (by their mothers), captives, and people generally. "The Australians are cannibals. A fallen foe, be it man, woman, or child, is eaten as the choicest delicacy ; they know no greater luxury than the flesh of a blackmail1.'3 Religious rites and ceremonial customs do not apply here, the natives knowing nothing of such observances. A common test of a people's culture is the treatment of their women, and in this respect the Australians must, as ofTiirw^mln. Prof' R' Semon shows 2> be ranked below the Bushman and on a level with the Fuegians. When we read the accounts of the barbarous treatment to which the Australian lubra is habitually subjected, all our preconceived notions of the "noble savage" are quickly dispelled, and we begin to wonder how mankind ever succeeded in struggling upward to a higher state. Brough Smyth gives us a truly pathetic account of the marriage customs in vogue among the Victorian tribes : " A man having a daughter of 13 or 14 years of age arranges with some elderly person for the disposal of her; and, when all are agreed, she is brought out and told that her husband wants her. Perhaps she has never seen him but to loathe him. The father carries a spear and a waddy, or a tomahawk, and, anticipating resistance, is thus prepared for it. The poor girl, sobbing and sighing, and muttering 1 Op. dt. p. 101. 2 Die Natur, 1896, No. 20. V.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: AUSTRALIANS. 153 words of complaint, claims pity from those who will show none. If she resists the mandates of her father, he strikes her with his spear ; if she rebels and screams, the blows are repeated ; and if she attempts to run away, a stroke on the head from the waddy or tomahawk quiets her. The mother screams and scolds and beats the ground with her kan-nan (fighting-stick); the dogs bark and whine ; but nothing interrupts the father, who, in the per- formance of his duty, is strict and mindful of the necessity of not only enforcing his authority, but of showing to all that he has the means to enforce it. Seizing the bride by her long hair he drags her to the home prepared for her by her new owner. Further resistance often subjects her to brutal treatment. If she attempts to abscond, the bridegroom does not hesitate to strike her savagely on the head with his waddy, and the bridal screams and yells make the night hideous1." But the aborigines are at least exonerated by Mr Curr from the charge of present or former promiscuity, in- volved in the current theories on the complicated Marriages, questions connected with the marriage-systems of the Australians and other lower races. Here it is necessary to distinguish carefully between ^remarriages and the so-called "communal" or "group" marriages; the former having for their sole object, not, as is commonly supposed, the prevention of close consanguineous unions but the proper disposal of the stock of available food'2, the latter implying on the contrary absolute 1 Op. dt. I. p. 76. 2 This point seems fairly well established, and for the first time, by Dr W. E. Roth (op. cit. Chap, ill.) who, thanks to his thorough knowledge of the local dialects, has been able to penetrate the secret, and to show that unions with near relations are not necessarily barred by the class system, while marriage may be prevented between persons unconnected by any ties of blood. His conclusion is that the whole intricate process is based on the food supply, being developed by a kind of natural selection, with a view to make the most of the total quantity at the disposal of the tribe. As in New Caledonia certain items are reserved for the chiefs, so in Australia husband and wife fare differently from each other, and both from their children, and the classes that thus arise have to be kept up by strict marriage laws, which have in principle nothing to do with degrees of consanguinity. The weak point of the current theory is that it implies an interest in the permanent good of the community, 154 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. promiscuity within certain wide limits in the past, and sanctioning the same within narrower limits in the present. About the class- marriages there is no difficulty. Their general existence is established beyond all question both amongst exogamous and endogamous tribes in Australia, North America, and other regions. Indeed their special importance is due to the fact that strikingly analogous systems still prevail in so many other remote lands, "a circumstance which should go far to uphold the doctrine of the unity of the human race V But in the present connection their interest lies in the fact that they exclude the idea of community of women, so that, were class-marriages universal in Australia, Mr Curr would be right in asserting that " the husband is the absolute owner of his wife (or wives)2," and there would be no room for any form of legalised promiscuity. This is seen from the very conditions of the class- system, the chief points of which are: — i. All male and female members of a class belong each to a special class determined by parentage ; 2. Marriage within the several classes is barred to their several members, so that no one of, say, Class A, can marry anyone of that class ; 3. Marriage is restricted to certain prescribed classes, so that no one of Class A can marry into any other class, but only into Class B or other prescribed class. 4. Except in one doubtful case (the Kurnai) the children belong to a class, which is not that of either parent, but results neverthe- less from parentage. This leads to complications, developing into a system " which seems too intricate to have been the in- vention of tribes so low down in the scale of mental capacity*" and leads eventually to disintegration. But although general, the system is not universal, so that theoretically room might be made for the group or communal system, first described by the Rev. Lorimer System Fison4, then accepted by the late Lewis H. Morgan4. and despite Mr Curr's crushing exposure, still taken of which, as pointed out in Ethnology, p. 9, primitive man can have no thought, though fully alive to the necessity of providing for his daily bread. 1 Curr, op. cit. I. p. in. - Ib. p. 109. 3 Ib. p. 118. 4 In Kamilaroi and Kurnai, 1880. Mr A. W. Howitt, joint author of this work, does not commit himself to the theory ; but Prof. Morgan, who V.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: AUSTRALIANS. 155 for granted probably by most ethnologists. Mr Fison assumes that formerly there was no individual marriage, but that the class formed two or more " groups," in which the males of one had as wives the females of the other or of some other, but that later this promiscuous arrangement gave way — in some measure in practice though not in theory — to individual marriage, the man still retaining a more or less exclusive right to certain women, who stand to him in the relation of wives. In fact " marriage is theoretically communal," the relation being not of one individual to another, but of one group to another, while the ancient assumed rule underlies the present assumed lax usage. Without entering into details, it will suffice here to state generally that, after a careful enquiry into the whole subject on the spot, Mr Curr sweeps all these assumptions away, disproves the "facts" on which they are based, and shows convincingly that the promiscuity here in question neither did nor does exist in any part of Australia. Is it too much to hope that visionary group or communal systems, supposed to be survivals of an equally visionary state of pro- miscuity, may be henceforth banished from works dealing with the primitive social institutions of mankind? Another redeeming quality of the natives is their high sense of humour, and mimetic powers comparable to . those of the African Negritoes. " What is comic to Humour and the blacks strikes them at once, and makes them laugh immediately. They are very humorous, have a decided talent for drollery, and are skilful mimics. I once saw a young Australian receive an order from his master, whereupon contributes a Prefatory Note, fully accepts it with all its logical consequences : "Amongst the Australian savages, as this memoir fully shows, groups of males are found united to groups of females, not by any ceremony of a formal marriage to which the groups are parties, but by an organic law, respected 'by tribal usage, recognized over large areas, and followed in actual practice by the cohabitation of the parties. A woman is found one day living with one man in the marriage relation, and on the next day with another man of the same group in the same relation, and perhaps several women with several men at the same time" (p. 10). Of course Prof. Morgan's great authority, as author of the now somewhat discredited Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, made the fortune of this absolutely baseless theory. 156 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. he immediately went to his companions and imitated his master's manner of speaking and acting,' to the great amusement of the whole camp. In their dances they imitate in a striking manner the hopping of the kangaroo and the solemn movements of the emu, and never fail to make the spectators laugh1." But they will never "laugh the sense of misery far away," for it is always with them, and surely killing them as it has already killed their Tasmanian kinsmen. These " eolithic Tasmanians " ' stood even at a lower level of culture than the Australians. At the occupation T Vi o HTo c the scattered bands, with no hereditary chiefs or mamans. social organization, numbered altogether 2000 souls at most, speaking several distinct dialects, whether of one or more stock languages is uncertain. In the absence of sibilants and some other features they resembled the Australian, but were of ruder or less developed structure, and so imperfect that according to Joseph Milligan, our best authority on the subject, "they observed no settled order or arrangement of words in the construction of their sentences, but conveyed in a Speech.Vel°Pe supplementary fashion by tone, manner, and gesture those modifications of meaning which we express by mood, tense, number, &c. 3." Abstract terms were rare, and for every variety of gum-tree or wattle-tree there was a name, but no word for " tree " in general, or for qualities, such as hard, soft, warm, cold, long, short, round, &c. Anything hard was "like a stone," round, "like the moon," and so on, "usually suiting the action to the word, and confirming by some sign the meaning to be understood." Though they carried fire-sticks about, it is doubtful whether they possessed the art of making fire by friction Myth or otherwise. But they remembered a time when there was no fire at all, until two blackfellows standing on a hill-top threw it about like stars ; at which the people were frightened and ran away, but came back and made 1 Lumholtz, op. cit. p. 291. 1 Ethnology, p. 294. 3 Paper in Brough Smyth's work, II. p. 413. V.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: TASMANIANS. 157 a fire of wood, after which '' no more was fire lost in our land. The two blackfellows are in the clouds ; in the clear night you see them like stars. These are they who brought fire to our fathers1." During the disgraceful colonial wars of extermination, a few weapons of a better type appear to have been introduced from the mainland. But before that time they possessed neither the boomerang nor the throwing-stick, nor the shield of the Australians, nothing in fact except the waddy, not unlike the Irish shillelagh, and two kinds of primitive spears, one a mere sapling some 15 feet long, pointed and hardened by fire, the other about 10 feet long and lighter. As neither had any stone or bone attachments, these rude weapons were really inferior to those of the' Old Stone Age, to which were fixed some of those flint or other spear-heads now found in such abundance in the caves and pleistocene beds of the northern hemisphere. In the native diet were included " snakes, lizards, grubs and worms," besides the opossum, wombat, kangaroo, birds and fishes, roots, seeds and fruits, but not human flesh, at least normally. Like the Bushmen, they were gross feeders, consuming enormous quantities of food when they could get it, and the case is mentioned of a woman who was seen to eat from 50 to 60 eggs of the sooty petrel (larger than a duck's), besides a double allowance of bread, at the station on Flinders Island. They had frail bark canoes made fast with thongs or rushes, besides rafts like those of Torres Straits, Dwellings. but no permanent abodes or huts, beyond branches of trees lashed together, supported by stakes, and disposed crescent-shape with the convex side to windward. On the uplands and along the sea-shore they took refuge in caves, rock-shelters and natural hollows. Usually the men went naked, the women wore a loose covering of skins, and personal orna- mentation was limited to cosmetics of red ochre, plumbago, and powdered charcoal, with occasionally a necklace of shells strung on a fibrous twine. 1 Op. cit. II. p. 461. 158 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. During the hopeless struggle with the early settlers, the natives developed a degree of ferocity equal to that of ment"136 their exterminators. But when first encountered by Cook, Peron and other navigators, they appeared to be a mild, inoffensive people, disposed to be friendly or at least not hostile, diffident rather than distrustful. Little or no reference is made to atrocious tribal practices, mutilations and other horrors, which make detailed accounts of the Australian peoples such unpleasant reading. The reason is obvious enough. The Tasmanians had not yet passed from the rude primitive state of the family life to the social condition of the clan and tribe, when complications arise, and the " commonweal " has to be safeguarded by all manner of drastic measures. In the general evolution of human progress the intermediate stages will often be found more unpleasant than either extreme. THE OCEANIC NEGRITOES. In Africa the Negrito substratum, partly sheltered by trackless tropical woodlands, may still be traced in scattered fragments from Mangbattuland to the Cape. In Oceania the Negrito substratum, formerly diffused throughout the Malayan lands, survives only in four widely separated enclaves — the Andaman Islands, the Malay Peninsula, the Philippines, and parts of New Guinea. The " Mincopies," as the Andamanese used to be called, no- body seems to know why, were visited in 1893 by ™fnda' Dr Louis Lapique, who examined a large kitchen- rn ctncst. A •*• *— * midden near Port Blair, but some distance from the present coast, hence of great age1. Nevertheless he failed to find any worked stone implements, although flint occurs in the island. Indeed, chipped or flaked flints, now replaced by broken glass, were formerly used for shaving and tattooing. But, as the present natives use only fishbones, shells, and wood, Dr Lapique somewhat hastily concluded that these islanders, like some other primitive groups, have never passed through a Stone Age at all. The shell-mounds have certainly yielded arrow-heads and polished adzes "indistinguishable from any of the 1 A la Recherche des Negritos, &c. in Tour dii, Monde, New Series, Livr. 35 — 38. The midden was 150 ft. round, and over 12 ft. high. V.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: NEGRITOES. 159 European or Indian celts of the so-called Neolithic period1." But there is no reason to think that the archipelago was ever occupied by a people different from its present inhabitants. Hence we may suppose that their ancestors arrived in the Stone Ages, but afterwards ceased to make stone implements, as less handy for their purposes and more difficult to make than the shell or bone-tipped darts, arrows, and nets with which they capture game and fish "more readily than the most skilful fisherman with hook and line2." Similarly they would seem to have long lost the art of making fire, having once obtained it from a still active volcano in the neighbouring Barren Island3. Many wild statements regarding this primitive Negrito race, due chiefly to the careless observations of passing navigators, but still current in popular ethnographic works, have been dispelled by Mr Man, who shows that they do not make holes in the sand to burrow in like rabbits, that there are no so-called "oven-trees" where pigs are roasted, no cannibalism, nor any bow-traps, boomerangs, wameras (Australian throwing-sticks), or blow-pipes, useless with- out poison, of which they make no use whatsoever. But they do possess two kinds of boats, one a very rude outrigger of primitive type, just as they have two or three kinds of dwellings, one also very frail and primitive — mere leafy shelters like those of the Brazilian Puri, but usually erected only on temporary camping- grounds. In temperament they resemble the Papuans and other dark peoples, "being merry, talkative, petulant, inquisitive, and restless; their speech is rapid, with a constant repetition of the same idea ; a joke, if it does not take too practical a form, is heartily appre- ciated, while all insults or injuries are promptly resented4." A pleasing characteristic is the attitude of the men towards their wives, who, though necessarily doomed to much drudgery, are treated as real helpmates on a footing of perfect equality. Despite 1 E. H. Man, Jonr. Anthrop. Inst. 1881, p. 271. - Ib. p. 279. 3 Close to Barren is the extinct crater of Narcondam, i.e. Narak-andani (Na>-a£=He\\), from which the Andaman group may have taken its name (Sir H. Yule, Marco Polo}. 4 Ib. p. 284. 160 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. the misrepresentations of some explorers, marriage is a permanent tie, divorce being unknown, and "conjugal fidelity till death the rule and not the exception1." No forms of worship have been noticed, though there is a vague belief in Puhtga, an immortal, invisible being, BeHefs10US w^° ^ves m a ^arge stone house in the sky, knows everything, even the thoughts of men, in the daylight, but not in the dark, and has made all things except three or four evil spirits, for whose misdeeds he is not accountable. He pities the victims, sometimes affords them relief, and shows in the thunderstorm his anger at certain crimes and offences. But nothing can lessen their dread of the evil one, to whose machin- ations nearly all deaths, sickness, and other calamities are attributed. There is a curious notion about wax-burning, which, being distasteful to Puluga, is often secretly done when the enemy is a-hunting or a-fishing, in order to stir his wrath and thus spoil the sport. Hence in the criminal code, after falsehood, theft, assault, murder, and adultery, follows wax-burning, the greatest crime of all, equivalent to our sacrilege ! Original also is the native cosmogony, which teaches that the earth-, flat as a plate, rests on the top of a very Cosmogony. tall tree, and is doomed one day to be upset by a great earthquake. Then the living and the dead will change places, and the latter, to hasten the consummation, every now and then combine to shake the tree and so displace the wicker ladder by which it is connected with heaven, but this must be done only in the rainy season, as at other times the parched earth might crumble and crush them all. Mr Man has carefully studied and reduced to writing the Andamanese language, of which there are at least Speech. nine distinct varieties, corresponding to as many 1 Man, //;. p. 237. - That is, the Andaman Islands, which they supposed to comprise the whole world. Hence the few strangers that occasionally arrived were their deceased forefathers, who dwelt on a neighbouring islet and were allowed now and then to revisit the erema, or world. Hence also the natives of India who now come regularly are still called chatigala, i.e. "departed spirits." V.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: NEGRITOES. l6l tribal groups. It has no clear affinities to any other tongue ', the supposed resemblances to -Dravidian and Australian being ex- tremely slight, if not visionary. Its phonetic system is astonish- ingly rich (no less than 24 vowels and 17 consonants, but no sibilants), while the arithmetic stops at two. Nobody ever attempts to count in any way beyond ten, which is reached by a singular process. First the nose is tapped with the finger-tips of either hand, beginning with the little finger, and saying ubatul (one), then ikpbr (two) with the next, after Co^^ng °f which each successive tap makes ankd, "and this." When the thumb of the second hand is reached, making ten, both hands are brought together to indicate 5 + 5, and the sum is clenched with the word ardtfru="a\l." But this feat is exceptional, and usually after two you get only words answering to several, many, numerous, countless, which flight of imagination is reached at about 6 or 7. Yet with their infantile arithmetic these paradoxical islanders have contrived to develop an astonishingly intricate form of speech characterised by an absolutely bewildering superfluity of pro- nominal and other elements. Thus the possessive pronouns have as many as sixteen possible variants according to the class of noun (human objects, parts of the body, degrees of kinship, &c.) with which they are in agreement. For instance, my is dia, dot, dbng, dig, dab, dar, ddkd, dbto, dai, ddr, ad, ad-en, deb, with man, head, wrist, mouth, father, son, step- s^^™^cal son, wife, &c. &c. ; and so with thy, his, our, your, their! This grouping of nouns in classes is analogous to the Bantu system, and it is curious to note that the number of classes is about the same. On the other hand there is a wealth of post- fixes attached as in normal agglutinating forms of speech, so that " in adding their affixes they follow the principles of the ordinary agglutinative tongues ; in adding their prefixes they follow the well-defined principles of the South African tongues. Hitherto, as far as I know, the two principles in full play have never been found together in any other language... In Andamanese both are 1 "The Andaman languages are one group; they have no affinities by which we might infer their connection with any other known group" (Lieut. R. C. Temple, quoted by Mr Man, Anthrop. Jour. 1882, p. 123). K. II 162 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. fully developed, so much so as to interfere with each other's gram- matical functions1." The result often is certain sesquipedalia verba comparable in length to those of the American polysynthetic languages. A savage people, who can hardly count beyond two, possessed of about the most intricate language spoken by man, is a pyschological puzzle which I cannot profess to fathom. In the Malay Peninsula the indigenous element is certainly the Negrito, who, known by many names— Semang, The Semangs. / . J J Sakai, Dma, Liar, Senoi, Mantra, Jakun — forms a single ethnical group presenting some striking analogies with the Andamanese. But, surrounded from time out of mind by Malay peoples, some semi-civilised, some nearly as wild as themselves, but all alike slowly crowding them out of the land, these aborigines have developed defensive qualities unneeded by the more favoured insular Negritoes, while their natural develop- ment has been arrested at perhaps a somewhat lower plane of culture. In fact, doomed to extinction before their time came, they never have had a chance in the race, as Mr Hugh Clifford sings in The Song of the Last Semangs :— "The paths are rough, the trails are blind The Jungle People tread ; The yams are scarce and hard to find With which our folk are fed. We suffer yet a little space Until we pass away, The relics of an ancient race That ne'er has had its day." These particular Semangs, who have hitherto succeeded in maintaining their independence, have a weird legend of a mysterious nation of great Amazons destined one day to come and smite the faithless Sakai people, who have gone over to the enemy's camp, and now join with them in tracking and hunting down their own kinsfolk. These female warriors — who dwell in the depths of the dark woodlands beyond the Gunong Korbu heights, and are stronger, taller, bolder, and of paler colour than any men — have even been seen, and their bows and blow-pipes also, larger and truer and better carved than any 1 Lieut. R. C. Temple, quoted by Mr Man, Anthrop. Jour. 1882, p. 123. V.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES: NEGRITOES. 163 others, are found now and then in the deep recesses of the forests. A Semang chief tells how " many moons ago " he and his two brothers, when following the trail of a wounded stag, found it lying by a brook, killed by a larger arrow than theirs, and that instant looking up, on hearing a loud threatening cry in a strange tongue, he beheld a gigantic pale-skinned woman breaking through the jungle, and then his elder brother fell pierced by an arrow. He escaped by flight, and alone lived to tell the tale, for the two brothers were never seen again. Mr Clifford, who relates this story1, and has perhaps been more intimately associated with the "Orang-utan" (Wild men) as the Malays often call them, than any other white man, describes those of the Plus River valley as "like Appearance. African Negroes seen through the reverse end of a field-glass. They are sooty-black in colour ; their hair is short and woolly, clinging to the scalp in little crisp curls ; their noses are flat, their lips protrude, and their features are those of the pure negroid type. They are sturdily built and well set upon their legs, but in stature little better than dwarfs. They live by hunting, and have no permanent dwellings, camping in little family groups wherever, for the moment, game is most plentiful2." Their shelters — huts they cannot be called — are exactly like the frailest of the Andamanese, mere lean-to's Usages. of matted palm-leaves crazily propped on rough uprights; clothes they have next to none, and their food is chiefly yams and other jungle roots, fish from the stream, and sun-dried monkey, venison and other game, this term having an elastic meaning. Salt, being rarely obtainable, is a great luxury, as amongst almost all wild tribes. Some Chinese rock-salt, once brought to an encampment by Mr Clifford, was eagerly clutched and swallowed in handfuls. "This coarse stuff would take the skin off the tongues of most human beings who attempted to eat it in this way, but I suppose that nature gives the Semang the power to take in abnormally large quantities at one time, because his opportunities of eating it in small daily instalments 1 In Court and Kaiiipong, 1897, p. 179 sq. ' Op. fit. p. 172. II- 2 164 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. are fe\v and far between '." Such a picture will help to explain the large part played by salt in the folklore and superstitions of so many civilised peoples. " The Romans began their feasts by prayers and libations to the gods. The table was consecrated by placing upon it the images of the Lares and saltcellars. A family salt-holder was kept with great care, and to spill the salt at table was esteemed ominous. The prominence of salt as a religious and social symbol is doubtless due to the fact that it became a necessity to most nations at an early stage of civilization, and that it was a luxury very hard for primitive man to obtain in many parts of the world2.'' All the faculties are sharpened mainly in the quest of food, and of means to elude the enemy now closing round their farthest retreats in the upland forests. When hard pressed and escape seems impossible, they will climb trees and stretch rattan ropes from branch to branch where these are too wide apart to be reached at a bound, and along such frail aerial bridges women and all will pass with their cooking-pots and other effects, with their babies also at the breast, and the little ones clinging to their mothers' heels. For like the Andamanese they love their women-folk and children , and in this way rescue them from the Malay raiders and slavers. But unless the British raj soon intervenes their fate is sealed. They may slip from the Malays, but not from their own traitorous kinsmen, who often lead the hunt, and squat all night long on the tree-tops, calling one to another and signalling from these look- outs when the leaves rustle and the rattans are heaved across, so that nothing can be done, and another family group is swept away into bondage. From their physical resemblance, undoubted common de- scent, and geographical proximity, one might also expect to find some affinity in the speech of the Andaman and Malay Negritoes. But Mr Clifford, almost the only European who has made a special study of the dialects on the 1 Op. cit. p. 174. 2 Marie Goldsmith West, The Symbolism of Salt, in Popular Science Monthly, December, 1897, p. 241. The writer refers to Hor. Od. n. 16. 14. A more significative though less known passage occurs in Arnob. n. : Sacras facitis mcnsas salinoniui appositn, ct sinmlacris Dcornin. PLATE II. r. MULGRAYE NATIYE. (Australian Type.) 2. A ETA WOMAN. (Negrito Type, Philippines.) 3. PAN VAN \\OMAN. (Negrito Type, India.) 4. ROT u MA GIRL. (Sub-Melanesian Type.) To face page 164] V.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES : NEGRITOES. 165 mainland, can discover no points of contact between them and any other linguistic group1. This, however, need cause no surprise, being in no discordance with recognised principles2. As in the Andamans, stone implements have been Stone Age. found in the Peninsula, and specimens are now in the Pitt-Rivers collection at Oxford3. But the present aborigines do not make or use such tools, and there is good reason for thinking that they were the work of their ancestors arriving, as in the Andamans, during the Stone Ages. Hence the two groups have been separated for many thousands of years, and their speech has diverged too widely to be now traced back to a common source. With the Negritoes of the Philippines we enter a region of almost hopeless ethnical complications 4, amid The Aetas which, however, the dark dwarfish Aeta peoples crop out almost everywhere as the indigenous element, and in many places as even the recognised owners of the soil long after the arrival of the Malayan intruders. This curious point, hitherto scarcely noticed, has been brought out by Mr John Foreman, one of the best observers of the social relations in the archipelago". After a graphic description of these aborigines, "black as African Negroes," with "curly matted hair like Astrakhan fur," and still widely diffused in small bands "over the whole group of islands/' he writes : " For a long time they were the sole masters of Luzon Island, where they exercised seignorial rights over the Tagalogs and other immigrants, until 1 Senoi grammar and glossary in Jour. Straits Branch R. Asiat. Soc. 1892, No. 24. 1 See Ethnology, Chap. IX. :5 See Mr L. Wray's Paper On The Cave Dwellers of Perak, in Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1897, p. 36 sq. This observer thinks "the earliest cave dwellers were most likely the Negritoes" (p. 47), and the great age of the deposits is shown by the fact that "in some of the caves at least 12 feet of a mixture of shells, bones, and earth has been accumulated and subsequently removed again in the floors of the caves. In places two or three layers of solid stalagmite have been formed and removed, some of these layers having been five feet in thickness " (p. 45). 4 See on this point Prof. Blumentritt's Paper on the Manguians of Min- doro in Globus, LX. No. 14. 0 The Philippine Islands, &c., London and Hongkong, 1890. 1 66 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. these arrived in such numbers, that the Negritoes were forced to the highlands. The taxes imposed upon the primitive Malay settlers by the Negritoes were levied in kind, and, when payment was refused, they swooped down in a posse, and carried off the head of the defaulter. Since the arrival of the Spaniards terror of the white man has made them take definitely to the mountains, where they appear to be very gradually decreasing1." At first sight it may seem unaccountable that a race of such extremely low intellect should be able to assert their supremacy in this way over the intruding Malayans, assumed to be so much their superiors in physical and mental qualities. But it has to be considered that the invasions took place in very remote times, ages before the appearance on the scene of the semi-civilised Muhammadan Malays of history. Whether of Indonesian or of what is called " Malay " stock, the intruders were rude Oceanic peoples, who in the prehistoric period, prior to the spread of civilising Hindu or Moslem influences in Malaysia, had scarcely advanced in general culture much beyond the indigenous Papuan and Negrito populations of that region. Even at present the Gaddanes, Itaves, Igorrotes and others of Luzon hunters! are mere savages, at the head-hunting stage, quite as wild as, and perhaps even more ferocious than any of the Aetas. Indeed we are told that in some districts the Negrito and Igorrote tribes keep a regular Debtor and Creditor account of heads. Wherever the vendetta still prevails, all alike live in a chronic state of tribal warfare : periodical head-hunting expeditions are organised by the young men, to present the bride's father with as many grim trophies as possible in proof of their prowess, the victims being usually taken by surprise and stricken down with barbarous weapons, such as a long spear with tridented tips, or darts and arrows carrying at the point two rows of teeth made of flint or sea-shells. To avoid these attacks some, like the Central Sudanese Negroes, live in cabins on high posts or trees 60 to 70 feet from the ground, and defend themselves by showering stones on the marauders. 1 Op. tit. p. 2 ro. V.] THE OCEANIC NEGROES : NEGRITOES. 1 67 A physical peculiarity of the full-blood Negritoes, noticed by Dr J. Montano1, is the large, clumsy foot, turned slightly inwards, a trait characteristic also of the African Negritoes ; but in the Aeta the effect is exaggerated by the abnormal divergence of the great toe, as amongst the Annamese. The main feature of their character, says this observer, is a deep, inextinguishable love of freedom and personal independence. They are happy only in the midst of their upland forests ; they neither keep slaves themselves, nor endure the yoke of servitude, or even of domestic service, and are in fact as untameable as wild beasts. In Luzon all attempts to bring up their children at the stations have failed, no matter at what age they may have been captured. The case is mentioned of a young Negrito brought to Madrid, educated, and ordained priest, who on his return to the Philippines immediately escaped to the mountains. But their social state varies greatly according as they are more or less exposed to the attacks of the surrounding populations. Under certain influences they may even to some extent give up the nomad life, form settlements in the forest glades, build permanent abodes and raise crops of rice or maize, varying this quiet existence, however, with occasional hunting excursions, when the game is captured with snares and the bow and arrow, their chief weapon. They have also developed a barter trade with their neighbours, exchanging edible roots and medicinal plants, said to be of extraordinary efficacy, for tobacco, textiles, and scraps of iron with which to tip their darts. The social system even amongst the pure nomads is much better developed than has been supposed, and is , , - The Family based on the family and personal property. To everywhere the tribal chief, elected for life, but not hereditary, unitS°cial are referred all disputes, and he also punishes misdeeds in accordance with traditional usage. The Aetas are strict monogamists, and do not appear to be quite destitute of religious notions, as is commonly asserted, judging at least from certain allegorical dances, as amongst the Pueblo Indians, and 1 Voyage aux Philippines, &c., Paris, 1886. 168 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. V. from the ceremonies associated with marriage, births, and deaths. But on this subject we await further information, and the chief point so far established beyond doubt is the existence of the family in the strictest sense of the term. Thus the family is found to be everywhere the social unit amongst Australians, Tasmanians, Andamanese, Semangs and Aetas, all of whom stand at about the lowest grade of human culture. The more the matter is investigated, the more current theories about group or communal marriage based upon the assumption of the "primitive human herd " and primordial promiscuity recede into the back- ground1. In the sumptuous volume on The Philippines, Part n. Negritoes, one of the Dresden Ethnographic Museum series (1896), the editor, Dr A. B. Meyer, describes the Negrito hair as fine and woolly, disposed in close spirals varying from a deep seal-brown to black, and diffused evenly over the scalp, not in separate tufts with intervening bald spaces. In this publication Prof. Kern brings together various speci- mens of Negrito speech, all of pure Malayo-Polynesian type and nearly allied to the Tagalog and Visayan of the Northern and Central Philippines. But the specimens are all from districts under Malayan influences, so that they leave untouched the question of an original Aeta language corresponding to that of the Anda- manese. The present Negrito population is here estimated at no more than 20,000, distributed in small groups over the islands of Luzon, Alabat, Mindoro, Panay, Negros, Mindanao, Tablas, Cebu and Palawan, mostly full- blood, but forming half-breed communities in Negros and other places. 1 Ethnology, pp. 13, 14. CHAPTER VI. THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. South Mongol Domain — Tibet, the Mongol Cradleland — Stone Age in Tibet— The Primitive Mongol Type — The Balti and Ladakhi — Balti Type and Origins — The Tibetans Proper — Type — The Bhotiyas — Prehistoric Ex- pansion of the Tibetan Race — Sub-Himalayan Groups: the Gurkhas — Mental Qualities of the Tibetans — Lamaism — -The Horsoks — The Tanguts -Polyandry — The Bonbo Religion — Buddhist and Christian Ritualism— The Prayer-Wheel — Language and Letters — Diverse Linguistic Types— Lepcha — Angami-Naga and Kuki-Lushai speech — Kuki Creation Legend —General Ethnic Relations in Indo-China — Aboriginal and Cultured Peoples — The Talaings — The Manipuri — Head-hunting — The Game of Polo — The Khel System — The Chins — Mental and Physical Qualities- Gods, Nats, and the After- Life — The Kakhyens — Caucasic elements— The Karens — Type — Temperament — Christian Missions — The Burmese -Type — Character — Buddhism— Position of Woman — Tattooing — The Tai-Shan Peoples --The Ahom, Khamti and Chinese Shans — Shan Cradleland and Origins — Caucasic Contacts — Tai-Shan Toned Speech — Shan, Lolo, and Mosso Writing Systems — Mosso Origins — Aborigines of South China and Annam — Man-tse Origins and Affinities- — Caucasic Aborigines in South-East Asia- — The Siamese Shans — Origins and Early Records — Social System — Buddhism — The Annamese — Origins— Physical and Mental Characters — Language and Letters — Social Institutions — Religious Systems — The Chinese — Origins — The Babylonian Theory- Persistence of Chinese Culture and Social System-- Letters and Early Records — Traditions of the Stone and Metal Ages — Chinese Cradle and Early Migrations — Absorption of the Aborigines — Survivals: Hok-lo, Hakka, Pun-ti — Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism — Fung-shui and An- cestry Worship — Islam and Christianity — The Mandarin Class. CONSPECTUS. Primeval Home. The Tibetan Plateau. Distribu- Present Range. Tibet; S. Himalayan slopes ; Indo-China to tlie Isthmus of Kra ; China ; Formosa; Times. Parts of Malaysia. Hair, uniformly black, lank, round in transverse Physical \^ i\ 3 I 3. C ~ section; sparse or no beard, moustache common. Colour, generally a dirty yellowish brown, shading off to olive and coppery brown in the south, and to lemon or whitish in N. China. Skull, normally brachy (8o°--84°), but I/O MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. in China sub-dolicho (77°) and higJi, Jaws, slightly prognathous. Cheek-bones, very high and prominent laterally. Nose, very small, and concave, with widish nostrils (mesorrhine 52°), but often large and straight amongst the upper classes. Eyes, small, black, and oblique (outer angle slightly elevated], vertical fold of ski/i over inner canth us. Stature, below the average ( 5 //. 4 in. ) , but in N. China often tall (^ ft. 10 in. to 6ft.). Lips, rather thin, sometimes slightly protruding. Arms, legs, and feet, of normal proportions, calves rather small, and feet of Chinese women artificially deformed. Mental Temperament. Somewhat sluggish, with little Charac- ters- initiative, but great endurance ; cunning rather than intelligent: generally thrifty and industrious, but mostly indolent in Siam and Burma ; moral standard low, with slight sense of right and wrong. Speech. Mainly isolating and monosyllabic, due to phonetic decay ; loss of formative elements compensated by tone; some (south Chinese, Annamese] highly tonic, but others (in Himalayas and North Burma) highly agglu- tinating and consequently toneless. Religion. Ancestry and spirit-worship, underlying various kinds of Buddhism ; religious sentiment weak in Annam, strong in Tibet ; thinly diffused in China. Culture. Ranges from sheer savagery (Indo-Chinese aborigines] to a low phase of civilization; some mechanical arts (ceramics, metallurgy, weaving], and agriculture well developed ; painting, sculpture, and architecture mostly in the barbaric stage ; letters wide-spread, but true literature and science slightly developed ; stagnation very general. Mai.n. Bod-pa. Tibetan; Tanvut ; Horsok; Si-fan: Balti; Divisions. J Ladakhi ; Gurkha; Bhotiya; Miri ; Mishmi; Abor. Burmese. Naga ; Kuki-Lushai : Chin ; Kakhyen ; Manipuri ; Karen; Talaing ; Arakanese ; Burmese proper. Tai-Shan. Ahom; Khamti; Ngiou ; Lao; Siamese. Giao-Shi. Annamese; Cochin- Chinese. Chinese. Chinese proper ; Hakka : Hok-lo: Pun-ti. VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 171 In the Family Tree of HOMO MONGOLICUS' the common stem is seen to ramify into two main branches : the Afongolo-Tatar to the left, and the Tibeto- Indo-Chinese with a secondary branch, Oceanic Mongols, to the right. These two, that is, the main and secondary branch to the right, which jointly occupy the greater part of south-east Asia with most of Malaysia, Madagascar, the Philippines and Formosa, will form the subject of the present chapter. Allowing for encroachments goi°Domain011 and overlappings, especially in Manchuria and North Tibet, the northern " divide " towards the Mongolo-Tatar domain is roughly indicated by the Great Wall and the Kuen-lun range westwards to the Hindu-Kush, and towards the south-west by the Himalayas from the Hindu-Kush eastwards to Assam. The Continental section thus comprises the whole of China proper and Indo-China, together with a great part of Tibet with Little Tibet (Baltistan and Ladakh), and the Himalayan uplands includ- ing their southern slopes. This section is again separated from the Oceanic section by the Isthmus of Kra — the Malay Peninsula belonging ethnically to the insular Malay world. " I believe," writes Mr Warington Smyth, " that the Malay never really ex- tended further north than the Kra isthmus2." From the considerations advanced in Ethnology, Chap, xn., it seems a reasonable assumption that the lacustrine Tibetan tableland with its Himalayan escarpments, all standing in pleisto- cene times at a considerably lower level than at Tibet, the present, was the cradle of the Mongol division Mongol of mankind. Here were found all the natural conditions favourable to the development of a new variety of the species moving from the tropics northwards — ample space such as all areas of marked specialisation seem to require ; a different and cooler climate than that of the equatorial region, though, thanks to its then lower elevation, warmer than that of the bleak and now barely inhabitable Tibetan plateau ; extensive plains, nowhere perhaps too densely wooded, intersected by ridges of 1 Ethnology, p. 300. • Geograph. Jouni., May, 1898, p. 491. This statement must of course be taken as having reference only to the historical Malays and their comparatively late migrations. 172 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. moderate height, and diversified by a lacustrine system far more ex- tensive than that revealed by the explorations of modern travellers. Under these circumstances, which are not matter of mere speculation, but to be directly inferred from the observations of intelligent explorers and of trained Anglo-Indian surveyors, it would seem not only probable but inevitable that the pleistocene Indo-Malayan should become modified and improved in his new and more favourable Central Asiatic environment. Later, with the gradual upheaval of the land to a mean altitude of some 14,000 feet above sea-level, the climate deterio- rated, and the present somewhat rude and rugged inhabitants of Tibet are to be regarded as the outcome of slow adaptation to their slowly changing surroundings since the occupation of the country by the Indo-Malayan pleistocene precursor. To this precursor Tibet was accessible either from India inS/r°ibetAge or fr°m Indo-China, and although few of his imple- ments have yet been reported from the plateau, it is certain that Tibet has passed through the Stone as well as the Metal Ages. In Bogle's time " thunder-stones " were still used for tonsuring the lamas, and even now stone cooking-pots are found amongst the shepherds of the uplands, although they are acquainted both with copper and iron. In India also and Indo- China palseoliths of rude type occur at various points — Arcot, the Narbada gravels, Mirzapur1, the Irawadi Valley and the Shan territory — as if to indicate the routes followed by early man in his migrations from Indo-Malaysia northwards. Thus, where man is silent the stones speak, and so old are these links of past and present that amongst the Shans, as in ancient Greece, their origin being entirely forgotten, they are often mounted as jewellery and worn as charms against mishaps. Usually the Mongols proper, that is, the steppe nomads who have more than once overrun half the eastern hemisphere, are taken as the typical and original stem of Homo Mongolicus. But if Ch. de Ujfalvy's views can be accepted this The Pnmi- 3 tive Mongol honour will now have to be transferred to the Tibetans, who in any case still occupy the cradle 1 See Mr J. Cockburn's paper "On Palceolithic Implements, &c." in Journ. Anthrop. Inst., 1887, pp. 57 sq. ; and £//i. p. 424. VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 1/3 of the race. This veteran student of the Central Asiatic peoples describes two Mongol types, a northern round-headed and a southern long-headed, and thinks that the latter, which includes "the Ladakhi, the Champas and Tibetans proper," was "the primitive Mongol type1." Thus is transferred to Central Asia the burning question of the long-heads and the round-heads, which, as raised by M. de Lapouge, has for the moment plunged European ethnology into a state of chaos. But the discussion of this subject must be reserved for later treatment. Owing to the political seclusion of Tibet, the race has hitherto been studied chiefly in outlying provinces beyond the frontiers, such as Ladakh, Baltistan, and Sikkim2, that is, in districts where mixture with other races may be and suspected. Indeed de Ujfalvy, who has made a careful survey of Baltistan and Ladakh, assures us that, while the Ladakhi represent two varieties of Homo Asiaticus with ceph. index 77, the Balti are not Tibetans or Mongols at all, but descendants of the historical Sacae, although now of Tibetan speech and Moslem faith3. They are of the mean height or slightly above it, with rather low brow, very prominent superciliary arches, deep depression at and^rigin^ nasal root, thick curved eyebrows, long, straight or arched nose, thick lips, oval chin, small cheek-bones, small flat ears, straight eyes, very black and abundant ringletty (boncle] hair, full beard, usually black and silky, robust hairy body, small hands and feet, and long head (index 72). In such characters it is impossible to recognise the Mongol, and the contrast is most striking with the neighbouring Ladakhi, true Mongols, as shown by their slightly raised superciliary arches, spare and scarcely curved eyebrows, slant eyes, large prominent cheek-bones, lank and coarse hair, yellowish and nearly hairless body. 1 " Le type primitif des Mongols est pour nous dolichocephale" (Les Aryens an Nord et an Snd de V Hindoii-Kouch, 1896, p. 50). - Thus Risley's Tibetan measurements are all of subjects from Sikkim and Nepal (Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Calcutta, 1891, passim). In the East, however, Desgodins and other French missionaries have had better opportunities of studying true Tibetans amongst the Si-fan ("Western Strangers") as the frontier populations are called by the Chinese. :J Op. cit. p. 319. 1/4 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP Doubtless there has been a considerable intermingling of Baltis and Ladakhis, and in recent times still more of Baltis and Dards (Hindu-Kush "Aryans"), whence Leitner's view that the Baltis are Dards at a remote period conquered by the Bhots (Tibetans), losing their speech with their independence. But of all these peoples the Baltis were in former times the most civilised, as shown by the remarkable rock-carvings still found in the country, and attributed by the present inhabitants to a long vanished race. Some of these carvings represent warriors mounted and on foot, the resemblance being often very striking between them and the persons figured on the coins of the Sacae kings both in their physical appearance, attitudes, arms, and accoutrements. The Baltis are still famous horsemen, and with them is said to have originated the game of polo, which has thence spread to the surrounding peoples as far as Chitral and Irania. From all these considerations it is inferred that the Baltis are the direct descendants of the Sacae, who invaded India about 90 B.C., not from the west (the Kabul Valley) as generally stated, but from the north over the Karakorum Passes leading directly to Baltistan1. Thus lives again a name renowned in antiquity, and another of those links is established between the past and the present, which it is the province of the historical ethnologist to rescue from oblivion. In Tibet proper the ethnical relations have been confused by the loose way tribal and even national names are Proper ' referred to by Prjevalsky and some other modern explorers. It should therefore be explained that three somewhat distinct branches of the race have to be carefully distinguished: i. The Bod-pa1, "Bod-men," the settled and 1 Op, cit. p. 327. Here we are reminded that, though the Sacas are called " Scythians" by Herodotus and other ancient writers, under this vague expres- sion were comprised a multitude of heterogeneous peoples, amongst whom were types corresponding to both varieties of Homo Asiaticus, as well as homologues of //. Europicus and even of//. Mediterranensis. "Aujourd'hui 1'ancien type sace, adouci parmi les melanges, reparait et constitue le type si caracteristique, si complexe et si different de ses voisins que nous appelons le type balti" (p. 328). 2 Mr W. W. Rockhill, our best living authority, accepts none of the current explanations of the widely diffused term bod (bkot, bJiot], which appears to form the second element in the word Tibet (Stod-Bod, pronounced Teu-Bc^l, "Upper VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 1/5 more or less civilised section, who occupy most of the southern and more fertile provinces of which Lhasa is the Bod-pa, capital, who till the land, live in towns, and have Dru-pa, Tan passed from the tribal to the civic state. 2. The -pa*-, peaceful though semi-nomadic pastoral tribes, who live in tents on the northern plateaux, over 15,000 feet above sea-level. 3. The Tanguts*, restless, predatory tribes, who hover about the north-eastern borderland between Koko-nor and Kansu. All these are true Tibetans, speak the Tibetan language, and profess one or other of the two national religions, Bonbo and Lamaism (the Tibetan form of Buddhism). But the original type is best preserved, not amongst the cultured Bod-pa, who in many places betray a considerable admixture both of Chinese and Hindu elements, but amongst the Dru-pa, who on their bleak upland steppes have for ages had little contact with the surrounding Mongolo-Turki populations. They are described by Mr Rockhill from personal observation as about 5 feet 5 inches high, and round-headed, with wavy hair, clear-brown and even hazel eye, cheek-bone less high than the Mongol, thick nose, depressed at the root, but also prominent and even aquiline and narrow but with broad nostrils, large-lobed ears standing out to a less degree than the Mongol, broad mouth, long black hair, thin beard, generally hairless body, broad shoulders,, very small calves, large foot, coarse hand, skin coarse and greasy and of light brown colour, though "frequently nearly white, but Bod," i. e. the central and western parts in contradistinction to Man- Bod, " Lower Bod," the eastern provinces (Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet, Washington, 1895, p. 669). This writer finds the first mention of Tibet in the form Tobbat (there are many variants) in the Arab Istakhri's works, about 590 A.H. while the late T. de Lacouperie would connect it with the Tatar kingdom of Tu-bat (397 — 475 A.D.). This name might easily have been ex- tended by the Chinese from the Tatars of Kansu to the neighbouring Tanguts, and thus to all Tibetans. 1 Hbrog-pa, Drok-pa, pronounced Dru-pa. - The Mongols apply the name Tangnt to Tibet and call all Tibetans Tangutn, " which should be discarded as useless and misleading, as the people inhabiting this section of the country are pure Tibetans" (Rockhill, p. 670). It is curious to note that the Mongol Tangutu is balanced by the Tibetan Sok-pa, often applied to all Mongolians. MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. • when exposed to the weather a dark brown, nearly the colour of our American Indians. Rosy cheeks are quite common amongst the younger women1." Some of these characters — wavy hair, aquiline nose, hazel eye, rosy cheeks — are not Mongolic, and despite Mr Rockhill's certi- ficate of racial purity, one is led to suspect a Caucasic strain, perhaps through the neighbouring Salars. These are no doubt some- times called Kara-Tangutans, "Black Tangutans," from the colour of their tents, but we learn from Potanin, who visited them in i8852, that they are Muhammadans of Turki stock and speech, and we already know3 that from a remote period the Turki people were in close contact with Caucasians. The Salars pitch their tents on the banks of the Khitai and other Yang-tse-Kiang head streams. That the national name Bod-pa must be of considerable anti- quity is evident from the Sanskrit expression Bho- The Bhotiyas. . , . , ,- . , . ' . , , , tiya, derived from it, and long applied by the Hindus collectively to all southern Tibetans, but especially to those of the Himalayan slopes, such as the Rongs (Lepchas) of Sikkim and the Lho-pa dominant in Bhutan, properly B hot-ant, that is, "Land's End" -the extremity of Tibet. Eastwards also the Tibetan race stretches far beyond the political frontiers into the Koko-nor region (Tanguts), and the Chinese province of Se-chuan, where they are grouped with all the other Si-fan aborigines. To- wards the south-east are the kindred Tawangs, Mishmi, Miri, Padams (AborY, Daflas, and others about the Assam borderlands, all of whom may be regarded as true Bhotiyas in the wild state. Through these the primitive Tibetan race extends into. Burma, where however it has become greatly modified and Expansion^ again civilised under different climatic and cul- the Tibetan tural influences. Thus we see how, in the course D OQg of ages, the Bhot-pa have widened their domain, 1 Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet, 1895, p. 675. 2 Isvestia, XXI. 3. 3 Ethnology, p. 305. 4 Abor, i.e. "independent," is the name applied by the Assamese to the East Himalayan hill tribes who ca.ll themselves Padam and Hrasso, and are the Slo of the Tibetans. These are all affiliated by Desgodins to the Lho-pa of Bhutan (Bui. Sec. Geogr., October, 1877, p. 431), and are to be distinguished from the Bori (i.e. "dependent") tribes of the plains, all more or less Hinduized Bhotiyas (Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 22 sq.). VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 177 radiating in all directions from the central cradleland about the Upper Brahmaputra (San-po) valley westwards into Kashmir, eastwards into China, southwards down the Himalayan slopes to the Gangetic plains, south-eastwards to Indo-China. In some places they have come into contact with other races and disap- peared either by total extinction or by absorption (India, Hindu- Kush), or else preserved their type while accepting the speech, religion, and culture of later intruders. Such are the Garhwali, and many groups in Nepal, especially the dominant Gurkhas (Khas1), of whom there are twelve branches, all Aryanised and since the i2th century speaking the Parbattia Bhasha, a Prakrit or vulgar Sanskrit tongue current amongst an extremely mixed population of about 2,000,000. In other directions the migrations took place in remote pre- historic times, the primitive proto-Tibetan groups becoming more and more specialised as they receded farther and farther from the cradleland into Mongolia, Siberia, China, Farther India, and Malaysia. This is at least how I understand the peopling of a great part of the eastern hemisphere by an original nucleus of Mongolic type first differentiated from a pleistocene precursor on the Tibetan tableland. Strangely contradictory estimates have been formed of the temperament and mental characters of the Bod-pa, some, such as that of Turner', no doubt too favourable, while others err perhaps in the opposite direction. Thus mjntmpera" Desgodins, who nevertheless knew them well, de- scribes the cultured Tibetan of the south as " a slave towards the great, a despot towards the weak, knavish or treacherous according to circumstances, always on the look-out to defraud, and lying impudently to attain his end," and much more to the same effect3. 1 Not to be confused with the Khas, as the wild tribes of the Lao country (Siam) are collectively called. Capt. Eden Vansittart thinks in Nepal the term is an abbreviation of Kshatriya, or else means "fallen." This authority tells us that, although the Khas are true Gurkhas, it is not the Khas who enlist in our Gurkha regiments, but chiefly the Magars and Gurungs, who are of purer Bhotiya race and less completely Hinduized (" The Tribes, Clans, and Castes of Nepal," in Jonrn. As. Soc. Bengal, LXIII. i, No. 4). - Embassy to the Court of the Teshoo Lama, pp. 350 sq. 3 " Voila je crois, le vrai Tibetain des pays cultives du sud, qui se regarde K. 12 178 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Mr Rockhill, who is less severe, thinks that "the Tibetan's character is not as black as Horace della Penna and Desgodins have painted it. Intercourse with these people extending over six years leads me to believe that the Tibetan is kindhearted, affectionate, and law-abiding1." He concludes, however, with a not very flattering native estimate deduced from the curious national legend that " the earliest inhabitants of Tibet descended from a king of monkeys and a female hobgoblin, and the character of the race perhaps from those of its first parents. From the king of monkeys [he was an incarnate god] they have religious faith and kindheartedness, intelligence and application, devotion to religion and to religious debate ; from the hobgoblin they get cruelty, fondness for trade and money-making, great bodily strength, lust- fulness, fondness for gossip, and carnivorous instinct-." While they are cheerful under a depressing priestly regime, all allow that they are vindictive, superstitious, and cringing in the pre- sence of the lamas, who are at heart more dreaded Lamaism°on tnan revered. In fact the whole religious world *s one vast or§arnsecl system of hypocrisy, and above the old pagan beliefs common to all primitive peoples there is merely a veneer of Buddhism, above which follows another and most pernicious veneer of lamaism (priest- craft), under the yoke of which the natural development of the people has been almost completely arrested for several centuries. The burden is borne with surprising endurance, and would be intolerable but for the relief found in secret and occasionally even open revolt against the more oppressive ordinances of the eccle- siastical rule. Thus, despite the prescriptions regarding a strict vegetarian diet expressed in the formula " eat animal flesh eat thy brother," not only laymen but most of the lamas themselves supplement their frugal diet of milk, butter, barley-meal, and fruits with game, yak, and mutton — this last pronounced by Turner the comme bien plus civilise que les pasteurs ou bergers du nord " (Le Thibet, P- 253)- 1 Notes on the Ethnology, &.c. p. 677. It may here be remarked that the unfriendliness of which travellers often complain appears mainly inspired by the Buddhist theocracy, who rule the land and are jealous of all "interlopers." 2 Ibid. p. 678. VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 179 best in the world. The public conscience, however, is saved by a few extra turns of the prayer-wheel at such repasts, and by the general contempt in which is held the hereditary caste of butchers, who like the Jews in mediaeval times are still confined to a "ghetto " of their own in all the large towns. These remarks apply more particularly to the settled southern communities living in districts where a little agriculture is possible. Elsewhere the religious cloak is worn very loosely, and the nomad Horsoks of the northern steppes, although all nomi- i T* i 11 • i 11 The Horsoks. nal Buddhists, pay but scant respect to the decrees supposed to emanate from the Dalai Lama enshrined in Lhasa. Horsok is an almost unique ethnical term1, being a curious com- pound of the two names applied by the Tibetans to the Hor-pa and the Sok-pa who divide the steppe between them. The Hor-pa, who occupy the western parts, are of Turki stock, and are the only group of that race known to me who profess Buddhism 2, all the rest being Muhammadans with some Shamanists (Yakuts) in the Lena basin. The Sok-pa, who roam the eastern plains and valleys, although commonly called Mongols, are true Tibetans or more strictly speaking Tanguts, of whom there are here two branches, the Goliki and the Yegrai, all, like the Hor-pa, of Tibetan speech. The Yegrai, as described by Prjevalsky, closely resemble the other North Tibetan tribes, with their long, matted locks falling on their shoulders, their scanty whiskers and beard, angular head, dark complexion and dirty garb3. Besides stock-breeding and predatory warfare, all these groups follow the hunt, armed with darts, bows, and matchlock guns ; the musk-deer is ensnared, and the only animal spared is the stag, " Buddha's horse." The taste of these rude nomads for liquid blood is insatiable, and the surveyor, Nain Singh, often saw them fall prone on the ground to lick up the blood flowing from a wounded beast. As soon as weaned, the very children and even the horses are fed on a diet of cheese, butter, and blood, kneaded 1 With it may be compared the Chinese province of Kan-su, so named from its two chief towns Atf;z-chau and .Sw-chau (Yule's Marco Polo, I. p. 222). 2 "Buddhist Turks," says Sir H. H. Howorth (Geogr. Journ., 1887, p. 230). 3 E. Delmar Morgan, Geogr. Journ., 1887, p. 226. 12 2 l8o MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. together in a horrible mess, which is greedily devoured when the taste is' acquired. On the other hand alcoholic drinks are little consumed, the national beverage being coarse Chinese tea im- ported in the form of bricks and prepared with tsampa (barley- meal) and butter, and thus becoming a food as well as a drink. The lamas have a monopoly of this tea-trade, which could not stand the competition of the Indian growers ; hence arises the chief objection to removing the barriers of seclusion. Tibet is one of the few regions where polyandrous customs, intimately associated with the matriarchal state, Polyandry. still persist almost in their pristine vigour. The husbands are usually but not necessarily all brothers, and the bride is always obtained by purchase. Unless otherwise arranged, the oldest husband is the putative paterfamilias^ all the others being considered as " uncles." An inevitable result of the institution is to give woman a dominant position in society; hence the "queens" of certain tribes, referred to with so much astonish- ment by the early Chinese chroniclers. Survivals of this " petticoat government " have been noticed by travellers amongst the Lolos, Mossos, and other indigenous communities about the Indo- Chinese frontiers. But it does not follow that polyandry and a matriarchal state always and necessarily preceded polygamy and a patriarchal state. On the contrary, it would appear that polyandry never could have been universal, being the outcome of special conditions arising in particular regions, where the struggle for existence is severe, and the necessity of imposing limits to the increase of population more urgent than elsewhere1. Hence to me it seems as great a mistake to assume a matriarchate as it is to assume promiscuity as the universal antecedent of all later family relations. In Tibet itself polygamy exists side by side with polyandry amongst the wealthy classes, while monogamy is the rule amongst the poor pastoral nomads of the northern steppe. 1 " Whatever may have been the origin of polyandry, there can be no doubt that poverty, a desire to keep down population, and to keep property undivided in families, supply sufficient reason to justify its continuance. The same motives explain its existence among the lower castes of Malabar, among the Jat (Sikhs) of the Panjab, among the Todas, and probably in most other countries in which this custom prevails " (Rockhill, p. 726). VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. I Si Great ethnical importance has been attached by some distin- guished anthropologists to the treatment of the dead. But, as in the New Stone and Metal Ages crema- to^srial Cus" tion and burial were undoubtedly practised by the same race, so in Tibet the dead are now simultaneously disposed of in diverse ways. It is a question not so much of race as of caste or social classes, or of the lama's pleasure, who, when the head has been shaved to facilitate the transmigration of the soul, may order the body to be burnt, buried, cast into the river, or even thrown to carrion birds or beasts of prey. Strange to say, the last method, carried out with certain formalities, is one of the most honourable, although the lamas are generally buried in a seated posture, and high officials burnt, and (in Ladakh) the ashes, mixed with a little clay, kneaded into much venerated effigies — doubtless a survival of ancestry-worship. Reference was above made to the primitive Shamanistic ideas which still survive beneath the Buddhist and the later lamaistic systems. In the central and eastern provinces of Ui and Tsang this pre-Buddhist religion has again R^^O^ struggled to the surface, or rather persisted under the name of Bonbo (Boa-hd) side by side with the national creed, from which it has even borrowed many of its present rites. From the colour of the robes usually worn by its priests, it is known as the sect of the "Blacks," in contradistinction to the orthodox "Yel- low" and dissenting "Red" lamaists, and as now constituted, its origin is attributed to Shen-rab (Gsen-rabs), who flourished about the fifth century before the new era, and is venerated as the equal of Buddha himself. His followers, who were powerful enough to drive Buddhism from Tibet in the loth century, worship 18 chief deities, the best known being the red and black demons, the snake devil, and especially the fiery tiger-god, father of all the secondary members of this truly " diabolical pantheon." It is curious to note that the sacred symbol of the Bonbo sect is the ubiquitous svastika, only with the hooks of the cross reversed, j=| — » instead of ' I i. This change, which appears to have escaped the dili- gent research of Mr Thomas Wilson1, was caused by the practice 1 At least no reference is made to the Bonbo practice in his almost ex- haustive monograph on The Swastika, Washington, 1896. The reversed form, 1 82 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. of turning the prayer-wheel from right to left as the red lamas do, instead of from left to right as is the orthodox way. The common Buddhist formula of six syllables — om-ma-ni-pad-me-hum — is also replaced by one of seven syllables — ma-tri-mon-tre-sa-la-dzunl . Buddhism itself, introduced by Hindu missionaries, is more recent than is commonly supposed. Few conver- an^Lamaism. sions were made before the 5th century of our era, and the first temple dates only from the year 698. Reference is often made to the points of contact or "coincidences" which have been observed between this system and that of the Oriental and Latin Christian Churches. There is no question of a common dogma, and the numerous resemblances are con- cerned only with ritualistic details, such as the cross, the mitre, dalmatica, and other distinctive vestments, choir singing, exor- cisms, the thurible, benedictions with outstretched Buddhist and Christian hand, celibacy, the rosary, fasts, processions, litanies, Ritualism. . . , , , , , spiritual retreats, holy water, scapulars or other charms, prayer addressed to the saints, relics, pilgrimages, music and bells at the service, monasticism ; this last being developed to a far greater extent in Tibet than at any time in any Christian land, Egypt not excepted. The lamas, representing the regular clergy of the Roman Church, hold a monopoly of all " science," letters, and arts. The block printing-presses are all kept in the huge monasteries which cover the land, and from them are consequently issued only orthodox works and treatises on magic. Religion itself is little better than a system of magic, and the sole aim of all worship, reduced to a mere mechanical system of routine, is to baffle the machinations of the demons who at every turn beset the path of the wayfarer through this " vale of tears." For this purpose the prayer-wheels — an ingenious contri- vance by which innumerable supplications, not less wheeeL efficacious because vicarious, may be offered up night and day to the powers of darkness — are however, mentioned by Max Mu'ller and Burnouf, is figured at p. 767 and elsewhere. 1 Sarat-Chandra-Das, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, 1881-2. VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 183 incessantly kept going all over the land, some being so cleverly arranged that the sacred formula may be repeated as many as 40,000 times at each revolution of the cylinder. These machines, which have also been introduced into Korea and Japan, have been at work for several centuries without any appreciable results, although fitted up in all the houses, by the river banks or on the hill-side, and kept in motion by the hand, wind, and water; while others of huge size, 30 to 40 feet high and 15 to 20 in diameter, stand in the temples, and at each turn repeat the contents of whole volumes of liturgical essays stowed away in their capacious receptacles. But despite all these everlasting revolutions, stagnation reigns supreme throughout the most priest- ridden land under the sun. With its religion Tibet imported also its letters from India by the route of Nepal or Kashmir in the yth century. Since then the language has undergone great a^LetSs. changes always, like other members of the Indo- Chinese family, in the direction from agglutination towards monosyllabism1. But the orthography, apart from a few feeble efforts at reform, has remained stationary, so that words are still written as they were pronounced 1200 years ago. The result is a far greater discrepancy between the spoken and written tongue than in any other language, English not excepted. Thus the province of Ui has been identified by Sir A. Cunningham with Ptolemy's Debases, through its written form Dbus, though now always pronounced U2. This bears out de Lacouperie's view that all words were really uttered as originally spelt, although often beginning with as many as three consonants. Thus spra (monkey), is now pronounced deu in the Lhasa dialect, but still streu-go in that of the province of Kham. The phonetic dis- integration is still going on, so that, barring reform, the time must come when there will be no correspondence at all between sound and its graphic expression. This point, so important in the history of linguistic evolution, has I think been fairly established by T. de Lacouperie in a series of papers in the Oriental and Babylonian Record, 1888 — 90. 2 Ladak, London, 1854. 184 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. On the other hand it is a mistake to suppose that all languages in the Indo-Chinese linguistic zone have undergone gSst^Types. tms enormous extent of phonetic decay. The in- defatigable B. H. Hodgson has made us acquainted with several, especially in Nepal1, which are of a highly conserva- tive character. Farther east the Lepcha (properly Lepcha. Rong) of Sikkim presents the remarkable peculiarity of distinct agglutination of the Mongolo-Tiirki, or perhaps I should say of the Kuki-Lushai type, combined with numerous homo- phones and a total absence of tone. Thus pano-sa, of a king, pa7io-sang, kings, and pano-sang-sa, of kings, shows pure agglutina- tion, while mat yields no less than twenty-three distinct meanings", which should necessitate a series of discriminating tones, as in Chinese or Siamese. Their absence, however, is readily explained by the persistence of the agglutinative principle, which renders them unnecessary. A somewhat similar feature is presented by the Angami Naga, the chief language of the Naga Hills, of which NagaSs™i~ech. Mr R- R McCabe writes that it is " still in a very primitive stage of the agglutinating class," and "peculiarly rich in intonation," although "for one Naga who clearly marks these tonal distinctions twenty fail to do so3." It follows that it is mainly spoken without tones, and although said to be "distinctly monosyllabic4" it really abounds in polysyllables, such as merenama, orphan, kehutsaporimo, nowhere, dukriwdch'e, 1 Ethnology, p. 325. '2 Col. G. B. Main waring, A Grammar of the Rong (Lepcha) Language, &c., Calcutta, 1876, pp. 128, 9. 3 Outline Grammar of the Angami- Naga Language, Calcutta, 1887, pp. 4, •;. It may be mentioned that Khassi also, which may be regarded as a stock language with no clear affinities, structural or lexical, to any of the surrounding Assamese tongues, is an isolating form of speech with prefixed formative ele- ments and aspirates, but no tones. " The percentage of words common to the Khassi and the rest of these mountain dialects is extremely small," while "equally great is the dissimilarity in many other points of grammatical detail," says Mr H. Roberts, author of a good Grammar of the Khassi Language, Kegan Paul Series, 1893. On the astonishing number of distinct languages in the whole of this region see Gertrude M. Godden's paper " On the Naga and other Frontier Tribes of North-East India," in Jonrn. Anthrop.,L>ist. 1897, pp. 165, 6. 4 Ibid. p. 4. VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 185 to kill, &c. There are also numerous verbal formative elements given by Mr McCabe himself, so that Angami must clearly be included in the agglutinating order. To this order also belongs beyond all doubt the Kuki-Lushai of the neighbouring North Kachar Hills and parts of Nagaland itself, the common speech in fact of the RangkJiols, Jansens, "8 Lushai, Roeys and other hill peoples, collectively called Kuki by the lowlanders, and Dzo by themselves1. The highly agglutinating character of this language is evident from the numerous conjugations given by Mr Soppitt'2, for some of which he has no names, but which may be called Acceleratives, Retar datives, Complementatties, and so on. Thus with the root ahong, come, and infix jam, slow, is formed the retardative ndng ahongjdmrangmoh, " will-you-come-slowly ? " (rang, future, moh, interrogative particle). These Kuki people have a curious theory of the Creation, according to which the face of the earth was originally covered with one vast sea, inhabited by a gigantic worm. One day the Creator, passing over this worm, dropped a small piece of clay, saying, " Of this I mean to make a land and people it." The worm replied, " What ! you think to make a habitable land of a small piece like this ! Why, it is absurd. Look here, I can swallow it ! ': But the lump immediately passing out of his body grew and grew until it became the world we now see. Then man sprang out of the ground by the will of the gods, of whom there are three at the head of the Kuki pantheon, Lambra, the creator, without whose consent nothing can be done by the others ; Golarai, god of 1 Almost hopeless confusion continues to prevail in the tribal nomenclature of these multitudinous hill peoples. The official sanction given to the terms Kuki and Lushai as collective names may be regretted, but seems now past remedy. Kuki is unknown to the people themselves, while Lushai is only the name of a single group proud of their head-hunting proclivities, hence they call themselves, or perhaps are called Lu-Shai, "Head-Cutters," from lit head, sha to cut (G. H. Damant). Other explanations suggested by Mr C. A. Soppitt {Kuki-Lushai Tribes, with an Outline Grammar of the Rangkhol- Lushai Language, Shillong, 1887) cannot be accepted. '2 Op. cit. 1 86 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. death, and Dudukal, generally benevolent, operating through his wife Fapite. "The other Kuki tribes," writes Mr Soppitt, "have much the same religious belief, though the head gods are _ differently named. In fact in those of all the semi- liefs no Proof savage tribes a great similarity is invariably found of Affinity. . J 3 . . — a head god, his assistants, other powerful deities, working for the good and evil of mankind, and their aids minor gods ; means of propitiation, sacrifice. This similarity cannot be said to carry much weight in an argument in favour of a common origin of many of these tribes, for the reason that the beliefs and superstitions are those that would naturally be acquired by a people living in the same way, more or less in the same kind of country, and subject to the same diseases, epidemical visitations and calamities ____ A tribe settling in a new country would soon change its belief, especially when that belief was a crude and more or less unformed one. Thus removing to a part of a province where storms were unusually severe, a people would naturally adopt a 'god of storms'1." These views, confirming those advanced in Ethnology, p. 216 sq., may be recommended to those ethnologists who still contend for the common origin of widely separated branches of mankind, the American for instance and the Mongol or Japanese, on the ground of resemblances in their religious beliefs. All this will never prove anything but the common psychic unity of all members of the human family. Through these Naga and Kuki aborigines we pass without any break of continuity from the Bhotiya populations Himalayan slopes to those of Indo-China. tions in indo- Here also, as indeed in nearly all semi-civilised China. lands, peoples at various grades of culture are found dwelling for ages side by side — rude and savage groups on the uplands or in the more dense wooded tracts, settled communities with a large measure of political unity (in fact nations and peoples in the strict sense of those terms), on the lowlands, and especially along the rich alluvial riverine plains of this well watered region. The common theory is that the wild 1 Op. dt. p. 13. VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. tribes represent the true aborigines driven to the hills and wood- lands by civilised invaders from India and other lands, who are now represented by the settled communities. Whether such movements and locations have elsewhere taken place we need not here stop to inquire; indeed their probability, and in some instances their certainty may be frankly admitted. But I cannot think that the theory expresses the true relations in most parts of Farther India. Here the civilised peoples, and ex hypothesi the intruders, are the Manipuri, Burmese, Arakanese, and the nearly extinct or absorbed and cultured Talaings or Mons in the west ; the Siamese, Shans Jte0°c^les of one or Laos, and Khamti in the centre ; the Annamese (Tonkinese and Cochin-Chinese), Cambojans, and the almost extinct Champas in the east. Nearly all of these I hold to be quite as indigenous as the hillmen, the only difference being that, thanks to their more favourable environment, they emerged at an early date from the savage state and thus became more receptive to foreign civilising influences, mostly Hindu, but also Chinese (in Annam). All without exception are either of Mongolic or Indonesian type, and all speak toned Indo-Chinese languages, except the Cambojans and Champas, whose linguistic relations are with the Oceanic peoples, who are not here in question. The cultivated languages are no doubt full of Sanskrit or Prakrit terms in the West and Centre, and of Chinese in the East, and all, except Annamese, which uses a Chinese ideographic system, are written with alphabets derived through the square Pali characters from the Devanagari. It is also true that the vast monuments of Burma, Siam, and Camboja all betray Hindu influences, many of the temples being covered with Brahmanical or Buddhist sculptures and inscriptions. But precisely analogous phenomena are reproduced in Java, Sumatra, and other Malaysian lands, as well as in Japan and partly in China itself. Are we then to conclude that there have been Hindu invasions and settlements in all these regions, the most populous on the globe ? During the historic period a few Hinduized Dravidians, especially Telingas (Telugus) of the Coromandel coast, have from time to time emigrated to Indo- China (Pegu), where the name survives amongst 1 88 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. the " Talaings," that is, the Mons, by whom they were absorbed, just as the Mons themselves are now being absorbed by the Burmese. Others of the same connection have gained a footing here and there in Malaysia, especially the Malacca coastlands, where they are called "Klings1,'' t.e. Telings, Telingas. But beyond these partial movements, without any kind of influence on the general ethnical relations, I know of no Hindu (some have even used the term " Aryan," and have brought Aryans to Camboja) invasions except those of a moral order- the invasions of the zealous Hindu missionaries, both Brahman and Buddhist, which, however, amply suffice to account for all the above indicated points of contact between the Indian, the Indo-Chinese, and the Malayan populations. That the civilised lowlanders and rude Highlanders are gene- rally of the same aboriginal stocks is well seen in *T* Vi ^ Manipuri tne Manipur district with its fertile alluvial plains and encircling Naga and Lushai Hills on the north and south. The Hinduized Manipuri of the plains, that is, the politically dominant Meithis, as they call themselves, are con- sidered by Dr George Watt to be "a mixed race between the Kukies and the NagasV This observer aptly remarks that in this region the superiority of the rich bottom-lands over those laboriously formed by terracing the hill slopes, as in Angamiland, " must have been the reward ever kept in view by tribes rising into importance and power. The conquest of one race over another most probably led to the valleys passing time after time into new hands. Many of the hill tribes have traditions that they once held the great valley of Manipur. Modern history fully supports this also, for in perhaps no other part of India have greater or more cruel struggles taken place than amongst the tribes of Manipur." Memories even still survive of the head-hunting practices associated with those lawless times, as in the legend or tradition 1 It is a curious phonetic phenomenon that the combinations kl and tl are indistinguishable in utterance, so that it is immaterial whether this term be written Kling or Tling, though the latter form would be preferable, as shewing its origin from Tdinga. The Aboriginal Tribes of Manipur, in 'Joiirn. AntJirop., Inst. 1887, p. 350. VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 189 by which the Murrain Nagas explain the fact that they alone have two hereditary chiefs, a greater and a lesser. A former chief had two sons, the younger of whom, inj^Siends." being the greater warrior, wanted his father to give him the succession. But, being afraid of the younger and unable to deprive the elder of his birthright, the aged chief bethought him of a way out of the dilemma. Having first instructed the elder to go and secretly bring home the head of some foe, he summoned both and sent them on a similar expedition, on the understanding that he who brought in the first head should be heir. The elder of course came back first with the head he had already secured and hidden in the neighbouring bush. But the younger still insisting on his claim, a compromise had to be made by which both should succeed, one as the big, the other as the little chief and so it has been ever since. It is noteworthy that the Manipuri are also devoted to the game of polo, which Capt. R. C. Temple tells us they play much in the same way as do the Baltis and Ladakhis at the opposite extremity of the Himalayas. Another remarkable link with the " Far West " is the term A7/ cit. p. 328. - Temples and Elephants, p. 320. 3 " Der Gesichtsausdruck uberhaupt nahert sich der Kaukasischen Race " (Imfernen Os/en, p. 959). 2O2 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Hindu educators, this radical mother-tongue comprises about 1860 distinct words or rather sounds, which have been reduced by phonetic decay to so many monosyllables, each uttered with five tones, the natural tone, two higher tones, and two lower1. Each term thus acquires five distinct meanings, and in fact represents five different words, which were phonetically distinct dissyllables, or even polysyllables in the primitive language. The same process of disintegration has been at work through- out the whole of the Indo-Chinese linguistic area, where all the leading tongues — Chinese, Annamese, Tai-Shan, Burmese — be- long to the same isolating form of speech, which, as explained in Ethnology, Chap, ix., is not a primitive condition, but a later development, the outcome of profound phonetic corruption. The remarkable uniformity of the Tai-Shan member of this Shan and order of speech may be in part due to the con- other indo- servative effects of the literary standard. Probably Chinese J writing over 2ooo years ago most of the Shan groups were brought under Hindu influences by the Brahman, and later by the Buddhist missionaries, who reduced their rude speech to written form, while introducing a large number of Sanskrit terms inseparable from the new religious ideas. The writing systems, all based on the square Pali form of the De- vanagari syllabic characters, were adapted to the phonetic requirements of the various dialects, with the result that the Tai-Shan linguistic family is encumbered with four different scripts. "The Western Shans use one very like the Burmese; the Siamese have a character of their own, which is very like Pali ; the Shans called Lii have another character of their own ; and to the north of Siam the Lao Shans have another2." These Shan alphabets of Hindu origin are supposed by de Lacouperie to be connected with the writing-systems which have been credited to the Mossos, Lolos, and some other hill peoples about the Chinese and Indo-Chinese borderlands. At Lan-Chu in the Lolo country Prince Henri found that MSS. were very numerous, and he was shown some very fine specimens 1 Low's Siamese Grammar, p. 14. - Col. R. G. Woodthorpe, The Shans and Hill Tribes of the Mekong, in Journ. Anthrop., lust. 1897, p. 16. VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 203 " enlumine^." Here, he tells us, the script is still in use, being employed jointly with Chinese in drawing up legal dpcuments connected with property. He was informed that this Lolo script comprised 300 characters, read from top to bottom and from left to right1, although other authorities say from right to left. Of the Lolo he gives no specimens2, but reproduces two or three pages of a Mosso book with transliteration and translation. Other specimens, but without explanation, were already known through Gill and Desgodins, and their decipherment had exercised the ingenuity of several Chinese scholars. Their failure to interpret them is now accounted for by Prince Henri, who declares that, "strictly speaking the Mossos have no writing- system. The magicians keep and still make copy-books full of hieroglyphics ; each page is divided into little sections (cahiers) following hori- zontally from left to right, in which are inscribed one or more somewhat rough figures, heads of animals, men, houses, con- ventional signs representing the sky or lightning, and so on." Some of the magicians expounded two of the books, which contained invocations, beginning with the creation of the world, and winding up with a catalogue of all the evils threatening mortals, but to be averted by being pious, that is, by making gifts to the magicians. The same ideas are always expressed by the same signs; yet the magicians declared that there was no 1 Op. cit. p. 55. 2 This omission, however, is partly supplied by T. de Lacouperie, who gives us an account of a wonderful Lolo MS. on satin, red on one side, blue on the other, containing nearly 5750 words written in black, " apparently with the Chinese brush." The MS. was obtained by Mr E. Colborne Baber from a Lolo chief, forwarded to Europe in 1881, and described by de Lacouperie Journ. R.As.Soc., Vol. XIV. Part i. "The writing runs in lines from top to bottom and from left to right, as in Chinese" (p. i), and this authority regards it as the link that was wanting to connect the various members of a widely diffused family radiating from India (Harapa seal, Indo-Pali, Vatteluttu) to Malaysia (Batta, Rejang, Lampong, Bugis, Makassar, Tagal), to Indo-China (Lao, Siamese, Lolo), Korea and Japan, and also including the Siao-chuen Chinese system " in use a few centuries B.C." (p. 5). It would be premature to say that all these connections are established ; but the Indian origin and affinities of all the members of the Malayan branch are now placed beyond doubt (see next Chapter). 204 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. alphabet, the hieroglyphs being handed down bodily from one expert to another. Nevertheless Prince Henri looks on this as one of the first steps in the history of writing ; " originally many of the Chinese characters were simply pictorial, and if the Mossos, instead of being hemmed in, had acquired a large expansion, their sacred books might also perhaps have given birth to true characters1." Although now "hemmed in," the Mossos are a historical and somewhat cultured people, belonging to the same Origins? §rouP as tne lung* (NJungs\ wn° came from the regions north-east of Tibet, and appeared on the Chinese frontiers about 600 B.C. They are referred to in the Chinese records of 796 A.D. when they were reduced by the king of Nanchao. After various vicissitudes they recognised the Chinese suzerainty in the i4th century, and were finally subdued in the i8th. De Lacouperie2 thinks they are probably of the same origin as the Lolos, the two languages having much in common, and the names of both being Chinese, while the Lolos and the Mossos call themselves respectively Nossu (Nesu) and Nashi (Nashri). Everywhere amongst these border tribes are met groups of Abori in < aborigines, who present more or less regular features of South china which are described by various travellers as ''Cau- and Annam. ... _. casic or " European. 1 hus the Kiu-tse, who are the Khanungs of the English maps, and are akin to the large Lu-tse family (Me/am, Ami, Diasu &c.), reminded Prince Henri of some Europeans of his acquaintance3, and he speaks of the light colour, straight nose and eyes, and generally fine type of the Yayo (Yao), as the Chinese call them, but whose real name is Lin-tin-yu. The same Caucasic element reappears in a pronounced form amongst the indigenous populations of Tonking, to whom Dr A. Billet has devoted an instructive monograph4. This 1 Op. cit. p. 193. - Beginnings of Writing in Central and Eastern Asia, passim. 3 " Quelques-uns de ces Kiou-tses me rappellent des Europeans que je connais " (Op. cit. p. 252). 4 Deux Ans dans le Haul-Tonkin^ etc., Paris, 1896. VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 2O5 observer, who declares that these aborigines are quite distinct both from the Chinese and the Annamese, groups them in three main divisions — Tho, Along, and Man1 — all collectively called Moi, Muong, and Myong by the Annamese. The Thos, who are the most numerous, are agriculturists, holding all the upland valleys and thinning off towards the wooded heights. They are tall com- pared to the Mongols (5 ft. 6 or 7 in.), lighter than the Annamese, round-headed, with oval face, deep-set straight eyes, low cheek- bones, straight and even slightly aquiline nose not depressed at root, and muscular frames. They are a patient, industrious, and frugal people, now mainly subject to Chinese and Annamese in- fluences in their social usages and religion. Very peculiar never- theless are some of their surviving customs, such as the feast of youth, the pastime of swinging, and especially chess played with living pieces, whose movements are directed by two players. The language appears to be a Shan dialect, and to this family the writer affiliates both the Thos and the Nongs. The latter are a much more mixed people, now largely assimilated to the Chinese, although the primitive type still persists, especially amongst the women, as is so often the case. Dr Billet tells us that he often met Nong women "with light and sometimes even red hair2." It is extremely interesting to learn that the Mans came tra- ditionally "from a far-off western land where their * Man-tse forefathers were said to have lived in contact with Origins and -,.,.,, i r jj Affinities. peoples of white blood thousands of years ago. 1 With regard to Man {Man-tse) it should be explained that in Chinese it means "untameable worms," that is, wild or barbarous, and we are warned by Desgodins that " il ne faut pas prendre ces mots comme des noms propres de tribus" (Bui. Soc. Geogr., xn. p. 410). In 1877 Capt. W. Gill visited a large nation of Man-tse with 18 tribal divisions, reaching from West Yunnan to the extreme north of Sechuen, a sort of federacy recognising a king, with Chinese habits and dress, but speaking a language resembling Sanskrit (?). These were the Sttwii, or "White Man-tse," apparently the same as those visited in 1896 by Mrs Bishop, and by her described as semi-independent, ruled by their own chiefs, and in appearance " quite Caucasian, both men and women being very handsome," strict Buddhists, friendly and hospitable, and living in large stone houses (Letter to Times, Aug. 18, 1896). 2 " Des paysannes nongs dont les cheveux etaient blonds, quelquefois meme roux" (Op. cit.}. 2O6 MAN I PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. This tradition, which would identify them with the above-men- tioned Man-tse, is supported by their physical appearance — long head, oval face, small cheek-bones, eyes without the Mongol fold, skin not yellowish but rather "browned by the sun," regular features — in nothing recalling the traits of the yellow races. Let us now turn to M. R. Verneau's comments on the rich materials brought together by Dr Billet, in whom, Aborigines in "being not only a medical man, but also a graduate A°"a in the natural sciences, absolute confidence may be placed1." "The Mans-Tien, the Mans-Coc, the Mans-Meo (Miao, Miao- tse, or Mieu) present a pretty complete identity with the Pan-y and the Pan-yao of South Kwang-si; they are the debris of a very ancient race, which with T. de Lacouperie may be called pre- Chinese. This early race, which bore the name of Pan-hu or Ngao, occupied Central China before the arrival of the Chinese. Accord- ing to M. d'Hervey de Saint-Denys, the mountains and valleys of Kwei-chau where these Miao-tse still survive were the cradle of the Pan-hu. In any case it seems certain that the T'hai and the Man race came from Central Asia, and that, from the anthropo- logical standpoint, they differ altogether from the Mongol group represented by the Chinese and the Annamese. The Man especi- ally presents striking affinities with the Aryan type." Thus is again confirmed by the latest investigations, and by the conclusions of some of the leading members of the French school of anthropology, the view first advanced by me in 1879, that peoples of the Caucasic (here called "Aryan") division had already spread to the utmost confines of south-east Asia in remote prehistoric times, and had in this region even preceded the first waves of Mongolic migration radiating from their cradle- land on the Tibetan plateau2. Reference was above made to the singular lack of political The Siamese cohesion at all times betrayed by the Tai-Shan Shans. peoples. The only noteworthy exception is the 1 L? Anthropologie^ 1896, p. 602 sq. 2 On the Relations of the Indo-Chinese and Inter-Oceanic Races and Lan- guages, Paper read at the Meeting of the Brit. Association, Sheffield, 1879, ancl printed in the Jonrn, Anthrop. Inst. February, 1880. See also Eth. p. 326. VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 2OJ Siamese branch, which forms the bulk of the population in the Menam basin. In this highly favoured region of vast hill- encircled alluvial plains of inexhaustible fertility, traversed by numerous streams navigable for light craft, and giving direct access to the inland waters of Malaysia, the Southern Shans were able at an early date to merge the primitive tribal groups in a great nationality, and found a powerful empire, which at one time dominated most of Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula. Siam, alone of all the Shan states, even still maintains a pre- carious independence, although now again reduced by European aggression to little more than the natural limits of the fluvial valley, which is usually regarded by the Southern Shans as the home of their race. Yet they appear to have been here pre- ceded by the Caucasic Khmers (Carnbojans), whose advent is referred in the national chronicles to the year 543 B.C. and who, according to the Hindu records, were expelled about 443 A.D. It was through these Khmers, and not directly from India, that the "Sayamas" received their Hindu culture, and the Siamese annals, mingling fact with fiction, refer to the miraculous birth of the national hero, Phra-Ruang, who threw off the foreign yoke, declared the people henceforth Thai, "Freemen," invented the present Siamese alphabet, and ordered the Khom (Cambojan) to be reserved in future for copying the sacred writings. The introduction of Buddhism is assigned to the year 638 A.D., one of the first authentic dates in the native records. The ancient city of Labong had already been founded (575), and other settle- ments now followed rapidly, always in the direction of the south, according as the Shan race steadily advanced towards the sea- board, driving before them or mingling with Khmers, Lawas, Karens, and other aborigines, some now extinct, some still sur- viving on the wooded uplands and plateaux encircling the Menam valley. Ayuthia, the great centre of national life in later times, dates only from the year 1350. when the empire had received its greatest expansion, comprising the whole of Camboja, Pegu, Tenasserim, and the Malay Peninsula, and extending its conquer- ing arms across the inland waters as far as Java1. Then followed In the Javanese annals the invaders are called " Cambojans," but at this time (about 1340) Camboja had already been reduced, and the Siamese conquerors 208 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. the disastrous wars with Burma, which twice captured and finally destroyed Ayuthia (1767), now a picturesque elephant-park visited by tourists from the present capital, Bangkok, founded in 1772 a little lower down the Menam. But the elements of decay existed from the first in the institu- tion of slavery or serfdom, which was not restricted s Chin, and the Arabo-Persian £)*?&, Sin, which gives the classical Sinae. s The most common national name is Chung-kue, "middle kingdom" (presumably the centre of the universe), whence Chting-kue-Jin, the Chinese people. Some have referred China to the Chin (Tsin) dynasty (909 B.C.), while Marco Polo's Kataia (Russian Kitai] is the Khata (North China) of the Mongol period, from the Manchu K'i-tan, founders of the Liao dynasty, which was overthrown VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 215 the field. What may be called the old, but by no means the obsolete school, regards the Chinese populations as the direct descendants of the aborigines who during the Stone Ages entered the Hoang-ho valley probably from the Tibetan plateau, there developed their peculiar culture independently of foreign in- fluences, and thence spread gradually southwards to the whole of China proper, extirpating, absorbing, or driving to the encircling western and southern uplands the ruder aborigines of the Yang- tse-Kiang and Si-Kiang basins. In direct opposition to this view the new school, championed especially by the late T. de Lacouperie1, holds that the present inhabitants of China are late intruders ionian theory. from south-western Asia, and that they arrived, not as rude aborigines, but as a cultured people with a considerable knowledge of letters, science, and the arts, all of which they acquired either directly or indirectly from the civilised Akkado- Sumerian inhabitants of Babylonia. Not merely analogies and resemblances, but what are called actual identities, are pointed out between the two cultures, and even between the two languages, sufficient to establish a common origin of both, Mesopotamia being the fountain-head, whence the stream flowed by channels not clearly defined to the Hoang-ho valley. Thus the Chin, yit, originally go, is equated with Akkad gu, to speak; ye with ge, night, and so on. Then the astronomic and chronologic systems are compared, Berosus and the cunei- form tablets dividing the prehistoric Akkad epoch into 10 periods of 10 kings, lasting 120 Sari, or 432,000 years, while the corre- sponding Chinese astronomic myth also comprises 10 kings (or dynasties) covering the same period of 432,000 years. The astronomic system credited to the emperor Yao (2000 B.C.) similarly corresponds with the Akkadian, both having the same 1115 A.D. by the Nti-Chan Tatars. Ptolemy's Thinae is rightly regarded by Edkins as the same word as Sinae, the substitution of t for s being normal in Annam, whence this form may have reached the west through the southern seaport of Kattigara. Western Origin of the Early Chinese Civilization , from 2300 B.C. to 200 A.D. , or Chapters on the Elements Derived from the Old Civilizations of West Asia in the Formation of the Ancient Chinese Culture, London, 1894. 2l6 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. five planets with names of like meaning, and a year of 12 months and 30 days, with the same cycle of intercalated days, while several of the now obsolete names of the Chinese months answer to those of the Babylonians. Even the name of the first Chinese emperor who built an observatory, Nai-Kwang-ti, some- what resembles that of the Elamite king, Kuder-na-hangti, who conquered Chaldaea about 2280 B.C. All this can hardly be explained away as a mere series of coincidences ; nevertheless neither Sinologues nor Akkadists are quite convinced, and it is obvious that many of the resemblances may be due to trade or intercourse both by the old overland caravan routes, and by the seaborne traffic from Eridu at the head of the Persian Gulf, which was a flourishing emporium 4000 or 5000 years ago. But, despite some verbal analogies, an almost insurmountable difficulty is presented by the Akkadian and Chinese languages, which no philological ingenuity can bring into such relation as is required by the hypothesis. Mr T. G. Pinches has shown that at a very early period, say some 5000 years ago, Akkadian already consisted, "for the greater part, of words of one syllable," and was "greatly affected by phonetic decay, the result being that an enormous number of homophones were developed out of roots originally quite distinct1." This Akkadian scholar sends me a number of instances, such as tu for tnra, to enter; ti for tila, to live ; du for dumu, son ; du for dugu, good, as in Eridu, for Gurudugu, "the good city," adding that "the list could be ex- tended indefinitely2." But de Lacouperie's Bak tribes, that is, the first immigrants from south-west Asia, are not supposed to have reached North China till about 2500 or 3000 B.C., at which time the Chinese language was still in the untoned agglutinating state, with but few monosyllabic homophones, and consequently quite distinct from the Akkadian, as known to us from the Assyrian syllabaries, bilingual lists, and earlier tablets from Nippur or Lagash. Hence the linguistic argument seems to fail completely, while 1 " Observations upon the Languages of the Early Inhabitants of Mesopo- tamia," in Journ. R. As. Soc. xvi. Part 2. 2 MS. note, May 7, 1896. VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 2 1/ the Babylonian origin of the Chinese writing-system, strenuously advocated by the Rev. C. J. Ball, has not been accepted by those specialists who are most competent to judge. Many of the Chinese and Akkadian "line forms" collated by Mr Ball are so simple and, one might say, obvious, that they seem to prove nothing. They may be compared with such infantile utterances as pa, ma, da, ta, occurring in half the languages of the world, without proving a connection or affinity between any of them. But even were the common origin of the two scripts established, it would prove nothing as to the common origin of the two peoples, but only show cultural influences, which need not be denied. But if Chinese origins cannot be clearly traced back to Babylonia, Chinese culture may still, in a sense, . . . Chinese claim to be the oldest in the world, inasmuch as culture and it has persisted with little change from its rise some 4,500 years ago down to present times. All other early civilisations — Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Hel- lenic— have perished, or live only in their monuments, traditions, oral or written records. But the Chinese, despite repeated political and social convulsions, is still as deeply rooted in the past as ever, showing no break of continuity from the dim echoes of remote prehistoric ages down to the last Taiping rebellion, or the last disastrous foreign war. These things touch the surface only of the great ocean of Chinese humanity, which is held together, not by any general spirit of national sentiment (all sentiment is alien from the Chinese temperament), nor by any community of speech, for many of the provincial dialects differ profoundly from each other, but by a prodigious power of inertia, which has hitherto resisted all attempts at change either by pressure from without, or by spontaneous impulse from within. What they were thousands of years ago, the Chinese still are, a frugal, peace-loving, hard-working people, occupied mainly with tillage and trade, cultivating few arts beyond weaving, porce- lain and metal work, but with a widely diffused knowledge of letters, and a writing system which eaHy^Tcords. still remains at the cumbrous ideographic stage, needing as many different symbols as there are distinct concepts 2l8 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. to be expressed. Yet the system has one advantage, enabling those who speak mutually unintelligible idioms to converse together, using the pencil instead of the tongue. For this very reason the attempts made centuries ago by the government to substitute a phonetic script had to be abandoned. It was found that imperial edicts and other documents so written could not be understood by the populations speaking dialects different from the literary standard, whereas the hieroglyphs, like our ciphers i, 2, 3..., could be read by all educated persons of whatever allied form of speech. Originally the Chinese system, whether developed on the spot or derived from Akkadian or any other foreign source, was of course pictographic or ideographic, and it is commonly supposed to have remained at that stage ever since, the only material changes being of a graphic nature. The pictographs were conventionalised and reduced to their present form, but still remained ideograms supplemented by a limited number of phonetic determinants. But de Lacouperie has shown that this view is a mistake, and that the evolution from the pictograph to the phonetic symbol had been practically completed in China many centuries before the new era. The Ku-wen style current before the Qth century B.C. "was really the phonetic expression of speech1." But for the reason stated it had to be discontinued, and a return made to the earlier ideographic style. The change was effected about 820 B.C. by She Chou, minister of the Emperor Siien Wang, who introduced the Ta-chuen style, in which " he tried to speak to the eye and no longer to the ear," that is, he reverted to the earlier ideographic process, which has since prevailed. It was simplified about 227 B.C. (Siao Chuen style), and after some other modifi- cations the present caligraphic form (Kiai Shii) was introduced by Wang Hi in 350 A.D. Thus one consequence of the "Expan- sion of China" was a reversion to barbarism, in respect at least of the national graphic system, by which Chinese thought and literature have been hampered for nearly 3000 years. Written records, though at first mainly of a mythical character, date from about 3000 B.C.2 Reference is made in the early 1 History of the Archaic Chinese Writing and Texts, 1882, p. 5. 2 The first actual date given is that of Tai Hao (Fu Hi), 2953 B.C., but this VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 219 documents to the rude and savage times, which in China as elsewhere certainly preceded the historic period. Three different prehistoric ages are even discriminated, and tradition relates how Fu-hi introduced wooden, Thin-ming stone, and Shi-yu metal implements1. Later, when their origin and use were forgotten, the jade axes, like those from Yunnan, were looked on as bolts hurled to the earth by the god of thunder, while the arrow-heads, supposed to be also of divine origin, were endowed in the popular fancy with special virtues and even regarded as emblems of sovereignty. Thus may perhaps be explained the curious fact that in early times, before the i2th century B.C., tribute in flint weapons was paid to the imperial government by some of the reduced wild tribes of the western uplands. These men of the Stone and Metal Ages are no doubt still largely represented, not only amongst the rude hill tribes of the southern and western borderlands, but Early Migra- tions. also amongst the settled and cultured lowlanders of the great fluvial valleys. The "Hundred Families," as the first immigrants called themselves, came traditionally from the north-western regions beyond the Hoang-ho. According to the ruler belongs to the fabulous period, and is stated to have reigned 115 years. The first certain date would appear to be that of Yau, first of the Chinese sages and reformer of the calendar (2357 B.C.). The date 2254 B.C. for Confucius's model king Shun seems also established. But of course all this is modern history compared with the now determined Babylonian and Egyptian records. 1 Amongst the metals reference is made to iron so early as the time of the Emperor Ta Yii (2200 B.C.), when it is mentioned as an article of tribute in the Shu-King. Prof. F. Hirth, who states this fact, adds that during the same period, if not even earlier, iron was already a flourishing industry in the Liang district (Paper on the History of Chinese Culture, Munich Anthropological Society, April, 1898). At the discussion which followed the reading of this paper Prof. Montelius argued that iron was unknown in Western Asia and Egypt before 1500 B.C., although the point was contested by Prof. Hommel, who quoted a word for iron in the earliest Egyptian texts. Montelius, however, explained that terms originally meaning "ore" or "metal" were afterwards used for " iron." Such was certainly the case with the Gk xa\/cos, at first "copper," then metal in general, and used still later for aLd-rjpos, "iron"; hence %a\Kei5s = coppersmith, blacksmith, and even goldsmith. So also with the Lat. aes (Sanskrit ay as, akin to aurora, with simple idea of brightness), used first especially for copper (aes cyprtuw, cupnun}, and then for bronze (Lewis and Short). 220 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Yu-kung their original home lay in the south-western part of Eastern Turkestan, whence they first migrated east to the oases north of the Nan-Shan range, and then, in the fourth millennium before the new era, to the fertile valleys of the Hoang-ho and its Hoei-ho tributary. Thence they spread slowly along the other great river valleys, partly expelling, partly intermingling with the aborigines, but so late as the 7th century B.C. were Absorption J of the still mainly confined to the region between the Pei'-ho and the lower Yang-tse-kiang. Even here several indigenous groups, such as the Hoei, whose name sur- vives in that of the Hoei' river, and the Lai of the Shantong Peninsula, long held their ground, but all were ultimately absorbed or assimilated throughout the northern lands as far south as the left bank of the Yang-tse-kiang. Beyond this river many were also merged in the dominant people continually advancing southwards \ but others, collectively or vaguely known as Sifans, Mans, Miao-tse, Pa-i, Tho, Y-jen1, Lolo, etc., were driven to the south-western highlands which they still occupy. Even some of the populations in the settled districts, such as the Hok-los^ and ffakkas3 of Kwang-tung, and the Pun-ti^ of the Canton district, are scarcely yet thoroughly assimilated. They differ greatly in temperament, usages, appearance, and speech from the typical Chinese of the Central and Northern provinces, whom in fact they look upon as "foreigners," and with whom they 1 This term Y-jen ( Yi-jen) meaning much the same as Jlfan, Man-tse, savage, rude, untameable, has acquired a sort of diplomatic distinction. In the treaty of Tien-tsin (1858) it was stipulated that it should no longer, as hereto- fore, be applied in official documents to the English or to any subjects of the Queen. 2 See Rev. J. Edkins, China's Place in Philology, p. 117. The Hok-los were originally from Fo-kien, whence their alternative name, Fo-lo. The lo appears to be the same word as in the reduplicated Lo-lo, meaning something like the Greek and Latin Bar-bar, stammerers, rude, uncultured. 3 The Hakkas, i.e. " strangers," speak a well-marked dialect current on the uplands between Kwang-tung, Kiang-si, and Fo-kien (Dyer Ball, Easy Lessons in the Hakka Dialect, 1884). 4 Numerous in the western parts of Kwang-tung and in the Canton district (Dyer Ball, Cantonese Made Easy, Hongkong, 1884). VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 221 hold intercourse through "Pidgin English1,'' the lingua franca of the Chinese seaboard. Nevertheless a general homogeneous character is imparted to the whole people by their common political, social, and religious institutions, and by that principle of convergence in virtue of which different ethnical groups, thrown together in the same area and brought under a single administration, tend to merge in a uni- form new national type. This general uniformity is conspicuous especially in the religious ideas which, except in the sceptical lettered circles, everywhere underlie the three recognised national religions, or " State Churches," as they might almost be called : ju-kiao, Confucianism ; tao-kiao, Taoism, and fo-kiao, Buddhism (Fo = Buddha). The first, confined mainly to the educated upper classes, is not so much a religion as a philosophic system, a frigid ethical code based on the moral and matter-of-fact teachings of Confucius2. Confucius was essentially ism°nfucian" a social and political reformer, who taught by ex- ample and precept ; the main inducement to virtue being, not rewards or penalties in the after-life, but well or ill-being in the present. His system is summed up in the expression " worldly wisdom," as embodied in such popular sayings as : A friend is hardly made in a year, but unmade in a moment ; When safe remember danger, in peace forget not war ; Filial father, filial son, unfilial father, unfilial son ; In washing up, plates and dishes may get broken; Don't do what you would not have known; Thatch your roof before the rain, dig the well before you thirst; The gambler's success is his ruin ; Money goes to the gambling den as the criminal to execution (never returns) ; Money hides many faults ; Stop the hand, stop the mouth (stop work and starve) ; To open a shop is easy, to keep it open hard ; Win your lawsuit and lose your money. 1 In this expression " Pidgin " appears to be a corruption of the word business taken in a very wide sense, as in such terms as talkee pidgin — a con- versation, discussion; singsong pidgin = a concert, &c. It is no unusual occur- rence for persons from widely separated Chinese provinces meeting in England to be obliged to use this common jargon in conversation. 2 Kung-tse, "Teacher Kung," or more fully ftiing-ftt-tse, "the eminent teacher Kung," which gives the Latinised form Confucius. 222 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Although he instituted no religious system, Confucius never- theless enjoined the observance of the already existing forms of worship, and after death became himself the object of a wide- spread cult, which still persists. "In every city there is a temple, built at the public expense, containing either a statue of the philosopher, or a tablet inscribed with his titles. Every spring and autumn worship is paid him in these temples by the chief official personages of the city. In the schools also, on the first and fifteenth of each month, his title being written on red paper and affixed to a tablet, worship is performed in a special room by burning incense and candles, and by prostrations1." Taoism, a sort of pantheistic mysticism, called by its founder, Taoism Lao-tse (600 B.C. ), the Tao, or ' ' way of salvation," was embodied in the formula "matter and the visible world are merely manifestations of a sublime, eternal, incom- prehensible principle." It taught, in anticipation of Sakya-Muni, that by controlling his passions man may escape or cut short an endless series of transmigrations, and thus arrive by the Tao at everlasting bliss — sleep? unconscious rest or absorption in the eternal essence? Nirvana? It is impossible to tell from the lofty but absolutely unintelligible language in which the master's teach- ings are wrapped. But it matters little, because his disciples have long forgotten the principles they never understood, and Taoism has almost everywhere been transformed to a system of magic associated with the never-dying primeval superstitions. Originally there was no hierarchy of priests, the only specially religious class being the Ascetics, who passed their lives absorbed in the contemplation of the eternal verities. But out of this class, drawn together by their common interests, was developed a kind of monasticism, with an organised brotherhood of astrologers, magicians, Shamanists, somnambulists, "mediums," "thought-readers," charlatans and 1 Kivong Ki Chin, 1881, p. 875. Confucius was born in 550 and died in 477 B.C., and to him are at present dedicated as many as 1560 temples, in which are observed real sacrificial rites. For these sacrifices the State yearly supplies 26,606 sheep, pigs, rabbits and other animals, besides 27,000 pieces of silk, most of which things, however, become the " perquisites" of the attendants in the sanctuaries. VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 223 impostors of all sorts, sheltered under a threadbare garb of religion. Buddhism also, although of foreign origin, has completely conformed to the national spirit, and is now a Buddhism. curious blend of Hindu metaphysics with the primitive Chinese belief in spirits and a deified ancestry. In every district are practised diverse forms of worship between which no clear dividing line can be drawn, and, as in Annam, the same persons may be at once followers of Confucius, Lao-tse, and Buddha. In fact such is the position of the Emperor, who belongs ex qfficio to all three of these State religions, and scrupu- lously takes part in their various observances. There is even some truth in the Chinese view that "all three make but one religion," the first appealing to man's moral nature, the second to the instinct of self-preservation, the third to the higher sphere of thought and contemplation. But behind, one might say above it all, the old animism still prevails, manifested in a multitude of superstitious . practices, whose purport is to appease the evil and and ancestry secure the favour of the good spirits, the Feng- s /mi or Fung-shuit "air and water" genii, who have to be reckoned with in all the weightiest as well as the most trivial occurrences of daily life. These with the ghosts of their ancestors, by whom the whole land is haunted, are the bane of the Chinaman's existence. Everything depends on maintaining a perfect balance between the Fung-shui, that is, the two principles represented by the "White Tiger" and the "Azure Dragon," who guard the ap- proaches of every dwelling, and whose opposing influences have to be nicely adjusted by the well-paid professors of the magic arts. At the death of the late emperor Tung Chih (1875) a great difficulty was raised by the State astrologers, who found that the realm would be endangered if he were buried, according to rule, in the imperial cemetery 100 miles west of Pekin, as his father reposed in the other imperial cemetery situated the same distance east of the capital. For some subtle reason the balance would have been disturbed between Tiger and Dragon, and it took nine months to settle the point, during which, as reported by the American Legation, the whole empire was stirred, councils of 224 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. State agitated, and ^50,000 expended to decide where the remains of a worthless and vicious young man should be interred. Owing to the necessary disturbance of the ancestral burial places, much trouble has been anticipated in the construction of the railways, for which concessions have now been granted to European syndicates. But an Englishman long resident in the country has declared that there will be no resistance on the part of the people. " The dead can be removed with due regard to Fung Shui ; a few dollars will make that all right." This is fully in accordance with the thrifty character of the Chinese, which over- rides all other considerations, as expressed in the popular saying: "With money you may move the gods; without it you cannot move men." But the gods may even be moved without money, or at least with spurious paper money, for it is a fixed belief of their votaries that, like mortals, they may be outwitted by such devices. When rallied for burning flash notes at a popular shrine, since no spirit-bank would cash them, a Chinaman retorted: "Why me burn good note? Joss no can savvy." In a similar spirit the god of war is hoodwinked by wooden boards hung on the ramparts of Pekin and painted to look like heavy ordnance. In fact appearance, outward show, observance of the "eleventh commandment," in a word "face," as it is called, is everything in China. "To understand, however imperfectly, what is meant by 'face,' we must take account of the fact that as a race the Chinese have a strong dramatic instinct. Upon very slight provocation any Chinese regards himself in the light of an actor in a drama. A Chinese thinks in theatrical terms. If his troubles are adjusted he speaks of himself as having 'got off the stage' with credit, and if they are not adjusted he finds no way to 'retire from the stage.' The question is never of facts, but always of form. Once rightly apprehended, 'face' will be found to be in itself a key to the combination-lock of many of the most important characteristics of the Chinese1/' 1 Arthur H. Smith, Chinese Characteristics, New York, 1895. The good, or at least the useful, qualities of the Chinese are stated by this shrewd observer to be a love of industry, peace, and social order, a matchless patience and for- bearance under wrongs and evils beyond cure, a happy temperament, no nerves, and " a digestion like that of an ostrich." VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 225 Of foreign religions Islam, next to Buddhism, has made most progress. Introduced by the early Arab and Persian traders, and zealously preached throughout the Christianity. Jagatai empire in the i2th century, it has secured a firm footing especially in Kan-su, Shen-si, and Yunnan, and is of course dominant in Eastern (Chinese) Turkestan. Despite the wholesale butcheries that followed the repeated insurrections between 1855 and 1877, the Hoei-Hoe'i, Pant hays, or Dungans, as the Muhammadans are variously called, were still estimated, in 1898, at about 22,000,000 in the whole empire. Islam was preceded by Christianity, which, as attested by the authentic inscription of Si-ngan-fu, penetrated into the western provinces under the form of Nestorianism about the 7th century. The famous Roman Catholic missions with headquarters at Pekin date from the close of the i6th century, and despite internal dis- sensions have had a fair measure of success, the congregations numbering (1898) altogether over one million. This contrasts favourably with the 30,000 to 50,000 Protestants of all denomi- nations claimed collectively by the London Missionary Society, the China Inland Mission, and the A merican Methodist Episcopal Society. Indeed the Protestant propaganda is almost an admitted failure. The above-mentioned dissensions arose out of the practices associated with ancestry-worship, offerings of flowers, fruits and so forth, which the Jesuits regarded merely as proofs of filial devotion, but were denounced by the Dominicans as acts of idolatry. After many years of idle controversy, the question was at last decided against the Jesuits by Clement XL in the famous Bull, Ex ilia die (1715), and since then, neophytes having to renounce the national cult of their forefathers, conversions have mainly been confined to the lower classes, too humble to boast of any family tree, or too poor to commemorate the dead by ever- recurring costly sepulchral rites. In China there are no hereditary nobles, indeed no nobles at all, unless it be the rather numerous descendants of Confucius who dwell together and enjoy certain social privileges, in this somewhat resembling the Shorfa (descendants of the Prophet) in Muhammadan lands. If any titles have to be awarded for great deeds they fall, not on the hero, but on his forefathers, and thus K. 15 226 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. at a stroke of the vermilion pencil are ennobled countless past generations, while the last of the line remains unhonoured until he goes over to the majority. Between the Emperor, "patriarch of his people," and the people themselves, however, riJc1a^anda~ tnere stands an aristocracy of talent, or at least of Chinese scholarship, the governing Mandarin1 class, which is open to the highest and the lowest alike. All nominations to office are conferred exclusively on the successful competitors at the public examinations, so that, like the French conscript with the hypothetical Marshal's baton in his knapsack, every Chinese citizen carries the buttoned cap of official rank in his capacious sleeve. Of these there are nine grades, indicated re- spectively in descending order by the ruby, red coral, sapphire, opaque blue, crystal, white shell, gold (two), and silver button, or rather little globe, on the cap of office, with which correspond the nine birds — manchu crane, golden pheasant, peacock, wild goose, silver pheasant, egret, mandarin duck, quail, and jay — embroidered on the breast and back of the State robe. Theoretically the system is admirable, and at all events is better than appointments by Court favour. But in practice it is vitiated, first by the narrow, antiquated course of studies in the dry Chinese classics, calculated to produce pedants rather than statesmen, and secondly by the monopoly of preference which it confers on a lettered caste to the exclusion of men of action, vigour, and enterprise. Moreover, appointments being made for life, barring crime or blunder, the Mandarins, as long as they approve themselves zealous supporters of the reigning dynasty, enjoy a free hand in amassing wealth by plunder, and the wealth thus acquired is used to purchase further promotion and advancement, rather than to improve the welfare of the people. They have the reputation of being a courteous people, as punctilious as the Malays themselves ; and they are so amongst each other. But their attitude towards strangers is the embodiment 1 A happy Portuguese coinage from the Malay mantri, a state minister, which is the Sanskrit mantrin, a counsellor, from mantra, a sacred text, a counsel, from Aryan root man, to think, know, whence also the English mind. VI.] THE SOUTHERN MONGOLS. 22/ of aggressive self-righteousness, a complacent feeling of superiority which nothing can disturb. Even the upper classes, with all their efforts to be at least polite, often betray the feeling in a subdued arrogance which is not always to be distinguished from vulgar insolence. "After the courteous, kindly Japanese, the Chinese seem indifferent, rough, and disagreeable, except the well-to-do merchants in the shops, who are bland, complacent, and courteous. Their rude stare, and the way they hustle you in the streets and shout their ' pidjun ' English at you is not attractive1.' Miss Bird (Mrs Bishop), The Golden Chersonese, 1883, p. 37. 15—2 CHAPTER VII. THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. Range of the Oceanic Mongols — The term " Malay " -The Historical Malays — Malay Cradle — Migrations and present Range — The Malayans — The Javanese — Balinese and Sassaks — Hindu Legends in Bali — The Malayan Seafarers and Rovers — Malaysia and Pelasgia : a Historical Parallel — Malayan Folklore — Malayans in Borneo — The Dyak Aborigines — Head- hunting— Cannibalism — Human Sacrifices — Indonesian Elements in Borneo -Early Man and his Works in Sumatra — The Mentawi Islanders- Javanese and Hindu Influences — The Malaysian Alphabets — The Battas : Cultured Cannibals — Hindu and Primitive Survivals — The Achinese — Early Records — Islam and Hindu Reminiscences — Ethnical Relations in Madagascar — Oceanic Immigrants — Malagasy Speech — The Negro Element — Hova Type — Mental Qualities of the Malagasy — Spread of Christianity — Malagasy Folklore — The Philippine Natives — Effects of a Christian Theocratic Government on the National Character — Social Groups : the Indios, the Infieles, and the Moros — Malayans and Indone- sians in Formosa — The Chinese Settlers — Racial and Linguistic Affinities —Formosa a Connecting Link between the Continental and Oceanic Popu- lations— The Nicobarese. CONSPECTUS. Distribu- Primeval Home. Lido-China and Malay Penin- tion in 7 Past and SUla. Times! Present Range. Malaysia, Philippines, Formosa, Nicobar Is,, Madagascar. Physical Hair, same as Southern Mongols, scant or no beard. ters. Colour, yellowish or olive brown, yellow tint sometimes very faint or absent, light leathery hue common in Mada- gascar. Skull, brachy or snb-brachy (78° to 85°). Jaws slightly projecting. Cheek-bones, prominent, but less so CH. VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 22Q than true Mongol. Nose, rather small, often straight with widish nostrils (mesorrhine}. Eyes, black, medium size, horizontal or slightly oblique, with the Mongol fold. Sta- ture, undersized, from 5 ft. to 5 //. 4 or 5 /;/. Lips, thickish, slightly protruding, and kept a little apart in repose. Arms and legs, rather small, slender and deli- cate; feet small. Temperament. Normally quiet, reserved and tad- ^f^!. turn, but under excitement subject to fits of blind fury ; ters- fairly intelligent, polite and ceremonious, but uncertain, un- trustworthy, and even treacherous ; daring, adventurous and reckless ; musical; not distinctly cruel, though indifferent to physical suffering in others. Speech. Various branches of a single stock language -the Oceanic or Malayo-Polynesian, at different stages of agglutination. Religion, of the primitive Malayans somewhat unde- veloped— a vague dread of ghosts and other spirits, but rites and ceremonies mainly absent, although human sacrifices to the departed common in Borneo ; the cultured Malayans formerly Hindus (Brahman and Buddhist], now mostly Moslem, but in the Philippines and Madagascar Christian; gross superstitions, belief in witchcraft, charms, and spells everywhere prevalent. Culture, of the primitive Malayans very low — head- hunting, cannibalism, mutilation common in Borneo; hunting and fishing ; no agriculture, arts, or industries ; the Moslem and Christian Malayans semi-civilized ; the industrial arts — weaving, dyeing, pottery, metal-work, also trade, navigation, house and boat-building — well developed; architecture formerly flourishing in Java under Hindu influences ; letters wide- spread even amongst some of the rude Malayans, but literature and science rudimentary; rich oral folklore in Madagascar and perhaps elsewhere. Malayans (Proto-Malays) : Lampongs, Rejangs, Main_ Battas, Achinese, and Palembangs in Sumatra ; Sun- danese, Javanese proper, and Madurese in Java; Dyaks in Borneo ; B alines e ; Sassaks (Lombok) ; Bugis and 230 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Mangkdssaras in Celebes; Tagalas, Bisayans, Bicols, llocanos and Pangasinanes in Philippines ; Aborigines of Formosa; Nicobar Islanders; Hovas, Betsimisarakas, and Sakalavas in Madagascar. Malays Proper (Historical Malays}: Menangkabau (Sumatra]; Malay Peninsula; Pinang, Singapore, Lingga, Bangka ; Borneo Coastlands ; Tidor, Ternate ; Amboina; Parts of the Sulla Archipelago. IN the Oceanic domain, which for ethnical purposes begins Ran e of he ^ t^ie neck °^ ^e Malay Peninsula, the Mongol Oceanic peoples range from Madagascar eastwards to For- mosa and Mikronesia, but are found in compact masses chiefly on the mainland, in the Sunda Islands (Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Borneo, Celebes) and in the Philippines. Even here they have mingled in many places with other popula- tions, forming fresh ethnical groups, in which the Mongol element is not always conspicuous. Such fusions have taken place with the Negrito aborigines in the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines; with Papuans in Mikronesia, Flores, and other islands east of Lombok; with Caucasic Indonesians in Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, Halmahera (Jilolo), parts of the Philippines1, and perhaps also Timor and Ceram ; and with African negroes (Bantus) in Mada- gascar. To unravel some of these racial entanglements is one of the most difficult tasks in anthropology, and in the absence of detailed information cannot yet be everywhere attempted with any prospect of success. The problem has been greatly, though perhaps inevitably complicated by the indiscriminate extension of the term "Malay" to all tnese and even to other mixed Oceanic populations farther east, as, for instance, in the expression " Malayo-Polynesian," applied by many writers not only in a linguistic, but also in an ethnical 1 Here Dr E. T. Hamy finds connecting links between the true Malays and the Indonesians in the Bicols of Albay and the Bisayas of Panay (Les Races JMalaiques et Americaines, in L'Anthropologie, 1896, p. 136). Used in this extended sense, Hamy's Malaiqne corresponds generally to our Malayan, as defined presently. VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 231 sense, to most of the insular peoples from Madagascar to Easter Island, and from Hawaii to New Zealand. It is now of course too late to hope to remedy this misuse of terms by proposing a fresh nomenclature. But much of the consequent confusion will be avoided by restricting Malayo-Polynesian* altogether to linguistic matters, and carefully distinguishing between Indonesian, the pre-Malay Caucasic element in Oceania, Malayan or Proto- Malayan, collective name of all the Oceanic Mongols, and Malay, a particular branch of the Malayan family, as fully explained in Ethnology, pp. 326-30. The essential point to remember is that the true Malays — who call themselves Orang-Maldyu, speak the standard but quite modern Malay language, and are all cai Malays" Muhammadans — are a historical people who appear on the scene in relatively recent times, ages after the insular world had been occupied by the Mongol peoples to whom their name has been extended, but who never call themselves Malays. The Orang-Malayu, who have acquired such an astonishing pre- dominance in the Eastern Archipelago, were originally an obscure tribe who rose to power in the Menangkabau district, Sumatra, not before the i2th century, and whose migrations date only from about the year 1160 A.D. At this time, according to the native records2, was founded the first foreign settlement, Singapore, a pure Sanskrit name meaning the " Lion City," from which it might be inferred that these first settlers were not Muhammadans, as is commonly assumed, but Brahmans or Buddhists, both these forms of Hinduism having been propagated throughout Sumatra and the other Sunda Islands centuries before this time. It is also noteworthy that the early settlers on the main- Migrations land are stated to have been pagans, or to have and present professed some corrupt form of Hindu idolatry, till their conversion to Islam by the renowned Sultan Mahmud 1 Ethnically Malayo-Polynesian is an impossible expression, because it links together the Malays, who belong to the Mongol, and the Polynesians, who belong to the Caucasic division. But as both undoubtedly speak lan- guages of the same linguistic stock the expression is justified in philology, although even here Indo-Pacific or Inter-Oceanic might be preferable terms. 2 Dr J. Leyden, Malay Annals, 1821, p. 44. 232 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Shah about the middle of the i3th century. It is therefore probable enough that the earlier movements were carried out under Hindu influences, and may have begun long before the historical date 1160. Menangkabau, however, was the first Mussulman State that acquired political s.upremacy in Sumatra, and this district thus became the chief centre for the later diffusion of the cultured Malays, their language, usages, and religion, throughout the Peninsula and the Archipelago. Here they are now found in compact masses chiefly in south Sumatra (Menangkabau, Palembang, the Lampongs) ; in all the insular groups between Sumatra and Borneo ; in the Malay Peninsula as far north as the Kra Isthmus, here intermingling with the Siamese as "Sam-Sams," partly Buddhists, partly Muhammadans; round the coast of Borneo and about the estuaries of that island ; in Tidor, Ternate, and the adjacent coast of Jilolo ; in the Banda, Sula, and Sulu groups ; in Batavia, Singapore, and all the other large seaports of the Archipelago. In all these lands beyond Sumatra the Orang-Malayu are thus seen to be comparatively recent arrivals1, and in fact intruders on the other Malayan populations, with whom they collectively constitute the Oceanic branch of the Mongol division. Their diffusion was everywhere brought about much in the same way as in Ternate, where Mr Wallace tells us that the ruling people " are an intrusive Malay race somewhat allied to the Macassar people, who settled in the country at a very early epoch, drove out the indigenes, who were no doubt the same as those of the adjacent island of Gilolo, and established a monarchy. They perhaps obtained many of their wives from the natives, which will account for the extraordinary language they speak — in some respects closely allied to that of the natives of Gilolo, while it contains much that points to a Malayan [Malay] origin. To most of these people the Malay language is quite unintelligible2." 1 In some places quite recent, as in Rembau, Malay Peninsula, whose inhabitants are mainly immigrants from Sumatra in the i;th century; and in the neighbouring group of petty Negri Sembilan States, where the very tribal names, such as Anak Acheh, and Sri Lemak Menangkabau, betray their late arrival from the Sumatran districts of Achin and Menangkabau. 2 The Malay Archipelago, p. 310. PLATE III. i. JAVANESE GIRL. (Malayan Type.) 2. BUGIS, CELEBES I. (Malayan Type.) 3. XlCORARESE. (Sub-Malayan Type.) 4. XlCullARESE. (Sub-Malayan Type.) To face page 232] VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 233 The Malayan populations, as distinguished from the Malays proper, form socially two very distinct classes — the Orang Benua, " Men of the Soil," rude aborigines, Malayans- numerous especially in the interior of the Malay j^e anT Peninsula, Borneo, Celebes, Jilolo, Timor, Ceram, Cultured- the Philippines, Formosa, and Madagascar; and the cultured peoples, formerly Hindus but now mostly Muhammadans, who have long been constituted in large communities and nation- alities with historical records, and flourishing arts and industries. They speak cultivated languages of the Malayo-Polynesian family, generally much better preserved and of richer grammatical struc- ture than the simplified modern speech of the Orang-Malayu. Such are the Achinese, Rejangs, and Passumahs of Sumatra ; the Bugis, Mangkassaras and some Minahasans of Celebes ; the Tagalas and Bisayas of the Philippines ; the Sassaks and Balinese of Lombok and Bali (most of these still Hindus) ; the Madurese and Javanese proper of Java ; and the Hovas of Madagascar. To call any of these " Malays *," is hke calling the Italians "French," or the Germans "English," because of their respec- tive Romance and Teutonic connections. Preeminent in many respects amongst all the Malayan peoples are the Javanese — Sundanese in the west, Javanese rr\ * proper in the centre, Madurese in the east — who javanese. were a highly civilised nation while the Sumatran Malays were still savages, perhaps head-hunters and cannibals like the neighbouring Battas. Although now almost exclusively Muhammadans, they had already adopted some form of Hinduism probably over 2000 years ago, and under the guidance of their 1 In 1898 a troop of Javanese minstrels visited London, and one of them, whom I addressed in a few broken Malay sentences, resented in his sleepy way the imputation that he was an Orang Malayu, explaining that he was Orang Java, a Javanese, and (when further questioned) Orang Solo, a native of the Solo district, East Java. It was interesting to notice the very marked Mongolia features of these natives, vividly recalling the remark of Mr A. R. Wallace, on the difficulty of distinguishing between a Javanese and a Chinaman when both are dressed alike. The resemblance may to a small extent be due to " mixture with Chinese blood " (Dr B. Hagen, Jour. Anthrop. Soc. Vienna, 1889); but occurs over such a wide area that it- must mainly be attributed to the common origin of the Chinese and Javanese peoples. 234 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Indian teachers had rapidly developed a very advanced state of culture. " Under a completely organised although despotic government, the arts of peace and war were brought to consider- able perfection, and the natives of Java became famous throughout the East as accomplished musicians and workers in gold, iron and copper, none of which metals were found in the island itself. They possessed a regular calendar with astronomical eras, and a metrical literature, in which, however, history was inextricably blended with romance. Bronze and stone inscriptions in the Kavi, or old Javanese language, still survive from the nth or 1 2th century, and to the same dates may be referred the vast ruins of Brambanam and the stupendous temple of Boro-budor in the centre of the island. There are few statues of Hindu divinities in this temple, but many are found in its immediate vicinity, and from the various archaeological objects collected in the district it is evident that both the Buddhist and Brahmanical forms of Hinduism were introduced at an early date. But all came to an end by the overthrow of the chief Hindu power in 1478, after which event Islam rapidly spread over the whole of Java and Madura. Brahmanism, however, still holds its ground in Bali and Lombok, the last strongholds of Hinduism in the Eastern Archipelago1." On the obscure religious and social relations in these Lesser Sundanese Islands much light has been thrown by Capt. W. Cool, an English translation of whose work With the Dutch in the East was issued by Mr E. J. Taylor in 1897. Here it is shown how Hinduism, formerly dominant throughout a great part of Malaysia, gradually yielded in some places to a revival of the never extinct primitive nature-worship, in others to the spread of Islam, which in Bali alone failed to gain a footing. In this island a curious mingling of Buddhist and Brahmanical forms with the primordial heathen- dom not only persisted, but was strong enough to acquire the political ascendancy over the Mussulman Sassaks and'tater"* °^ tne neighbouring island of Lombok. Thus while Religions and Islam reigns exclusively in Java — formerly the chief domain of Hinduism in the Archipelago — Bali, 1 A. H. Keane, Eastern Geography, 2nd ed. 1892, p. 121. VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 235 Lombok, and even Sumbawa, present the strange spectacle of large communities professing every form of belief, from the grossest heathendom to pure monotheism. As I have elsewhere pointed out1, it is the same with the cultures and general social conditions, which show an almost unbroken transition from the savagery of Sumbawa to the relative degrees of refinement reached by the natives of Lombok and especially of Bali. Here, however, owing to the unfavourable political relations, a retrograde movement is perceptible in the crumbling temples, grass-grown highways, and neglected home- steads. But it is everywhere evident enough that "just as Hinduism has only touched the outer surface of their religion, it has failed to penetrate into their social institutions, which, like their gods, originate from the time when Polynesian heathendom was all powerful2." A striking illustration of the vitality of the early beliefs is presented by the local traditions, which relate how Hindu these foreign gods installed themselves in the Lesser Legends in Sundanese Islands after their expulsion from Java by the Muhammadans in the i5th century. Being greatly incensed at the introduction of the Koran, and also anxious to avoid contact with the " foreign devils, '; the Hindu deities moved eastwards with the intention of setting up their throne in Bali. But Bali already possessed its own gods, the wicked Rakshasas, who fiercely resented the intrusion, but in the struggle that ensued were annihilated, all but the still reigning Mraya Dewana. Then the new thrones had to be erected on heights, as in Java ; but at that time there were no mountains in Bali, which was a very flat country. So the difficulty was overcome by bodily transferring the four hills at the eastern extremity of Java to the neighbouring- island. Gunong Agong, highest of the four, was set down in the east, and became the Olympus of Bali, while the other three were planted in the west, south, and north, and assigned to the different gods according to their respective ranks. Thus were at once explained the local theogony and the present physical features of the island. 1 Academy, May i, 1897, p. 469. 2 Cool, p. 139. 236 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Despite their generally quiet, taciturn demeanour, all these Sundanese peoples are just as liable as the Orang- Amok.n Malayu himself, to those sudden outbursts of demoniacal frenzy and homicidal mania called by them meng-dmok, and by us "running amok." Indeed Mr Wallace tells us that such wild outbreaks occur more frequently (about one or two every month) amongst the civilised Mangkassaras and Bugis of south Celebes than elsewhere in the archipelago. " It is the national and therefore the honourable mode of committing suicide among the natives of Celebes, and is the fashionable way of escaping from their difficulties. A Roman fell upon his sword, a Japanese rips up his stomach, and an Englishman blows out his brains with a pistol. The Bugis mode has many advantages to one suicidically inclined. A man thinks himself wronged by society — he is in debt and cannot pay — he is taken for a slave or has gambled away his wife or child into slavery — he sees no way of recovering what he has lost, and becomes desperate. He will not put up with such cruel wrongs, but will be revenged on man- kind and die like a hero. He grasps his kris-handle, and the next moment draws out the weapon and stabs a man to the heart. He runs on, with bloody kris in his hand, stabbing at everyone he meets. ' Amok ! Amok ! ' then resounds through the streets. Spears, krisses, knives and guns are brought out against him. He rushes madly forward, kills all he can — men, women, and children — and dies overwhelmed by numbers amid all the excite- ment of a battle1." Possibly -connected with this blind impulse may be the strange nervous affection called Idtah, which is also pre- Maiady. ta valent amongst the Malayans, although only now first clearly described by the distinguished Malay scholar, Mr Frank Athelstane Swettenham2. No attempt has yet been made thoroughly to diagnose this uncanny disorder, which would seem so much more characteristic of the high-strung or shattered nervous system of ultra-refined European society, than of that artless unsophisticated child of nature, the Orang-Malayu. Its effects on the mental state are such as to disturb all normal 1 The Malay Archipelago^ p. 175. 2 In Malay Sketches, 1895. VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 237 cerebration, and Mr Swettenham mentions two latah-struck Malays, who would make admirable " subjects " at a se'ance of theosophic psychists. Any simple device served to attract their attention, when by merely looking them hard in the face they fell helplessly in the hands of the operator, instantly lost all self-control, and went passively through any performance either verbally imposed or even merely suggested by a sign. Herein may perhaps be recognised a manifestation of that peculiar feminine strain, which has so often been imputed to the Malay temperament. Yet, as if to confound the speculations of the rising school of German psychological anthropologists, this same Oceanic people displays in many respects a curiously kindred spirit with the nerveless Englishman, as, for instance, in his love of gambling, boxing, cock-fighting, field sports', and adventure. No more fearless explorers of the high seas, for- merly rovers and corsairs, at all times enterprising traders, are anywhere to be found than the Menangkabau Ma- The Malayan lays and their near kinsmen, the renowned Bugis seafarers and " Merchant Adventurers " of south Celebes. Their clumsy but seaworthy praus are met in every seaport from Sumatra to the Arti Islands, and they have established permanent trading stations and even settlements in Borneo, the Philippines, Timor, and as far east as New Guinea. On one occasion Wallace sailed from Dobbo in company with fifteen large Makassar praus, each with a cargo worth about ^1000, and as many of the Bugis settle amongst the rude aborigines of the eastern isles, they thus cooperate with the Sumatran Malays in extending the area of civilising influences throughout Papuasia. Formerly they combined piracy with legitimate trade, and long after the suppression of the North Bornean corsairs by Sir James Brooke, the inland waters continued to be infested especially by the Bajau rovers of Celebes, and by the Balagnini of the Sulu Archipelago, most dreaded of all the orang-laut, "Men of the Sea," the "Sea Gypsies," of the English. These were the "Cellates" (Omng-Selat, "Men of the Straits") of the 1 On these national pastimes see Mr Hugh Clifford, In Court and Kampong, 1897, p. 46 sq. 238 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. early Portuguese writers, who described them as from time immemorial engaged in fishing and plundering on the high seas1. In those days, and even in comparatively late times, the relations in the Eastern Archipelago greatly re- and Peiasgia— sembled those prevailing in the ^Egean Sea at the a Historic dawn of Greek history, while the restless seafaring Parallel. J\ populations were still in a state of flux, passing from island to island in quest of booty or barter before perma- nently settling down in favourable sites2. With the Greek historian's philosophic disquisition on these Pelasgian and proto- Hellenic relations may be compared Mr Wallace's account of the Batjan coastlands when visited by him in the late fifties. " Opposite us, and all along this coast of Batchian, stretches a row of fine islands completely uninhabited. Whenever I asked the reason why no one goes to live in them, the answer always was, 'For fear of the Magindano pirates3.' Every year these scourges of the Archipelago wander in one direction or another, making their rendezvous on some uninhabited island, and carrying devastation to all the small settlements around ; robbing, destroy- ing, killing, or taking captive all they meet with. Their long, well-manned praus escape from the pursuit of any sailing vessel by pulling away right in the wind's eye, and the warning smoke of a steamer generally enables them to hide in some shallow bay, or narrow river, or forest-covered inlet, till the danger is passed4." Thus, like geographical surroundings, with corresponding social conditions, produce like results in all times amongst all peoples. 1 Ciijo officio he rubar e pescar, "whose business it is to rob and fish" (Barros). Many of the Bajaus lived entirely afloat, passing their lives in boats from the cradle to the grave, and praying Allah that they might die at sea. Thucydides, Pel. War, 1. 1-16. These are the noted Jllamms, who occupy the south side of the large Philippine island of Mindanao, but many of whom, like the Bajaus of Celebes and the Sulu Islanders, have formed settlements on the north-east coast of Borneo. "Long ago their warfare against the Spaniards degenerated into general piracy. Their usual practice was not to take captives, but to murder all on board any boat they took. Those with us [British North Borneo] have all settled down to a more orderly way of life" (W. B. Pryer, Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1886, p. 231). 4 The Malay Archipelago, p. 341. VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 239 This fundamental truth receives further illustration from the ideas prevalent amongst the Malayans regarding witchcraft, the magic arts, charms and spells, and Folklore— The especially the belief in the power of certain male- volent human beings to transform themselves into wild beasts and prey upon their fellow-creatures. Such superstitions girdle the globe, taking their local colouring from the fauna of the different regions, so that the were-wolf of medieval Europe finds its counterpart in the human jaguar of South America, the human lion or leopard of Africa1, and the human tiger of the Malay Peninsula. Mr H. Clifford, who relates an occurrence known to himself in connection with a " were-tiger " story of the Perak district, aptly remarks that " the white man and the brown, the yellow and the black, independently, and without receiving the idea from one another, have all found the same explanation for the like phenomena, all apparently recognising the truth of the Malay proverb, that we are like unto the tdman fish that preys upon its own kind2." The story in question turns upon a young bride, whose husband comes home late three nights following, and the third time, being watched, is discovered by her in the form of a full-grown tiger stretched on the ladder, which, as in all Malay houses, leads from the ground to the threshold of the door. " Patimah gazed at the tiger from the distance of only a foot or two, for she was too paralysed with fear to move or cry out, and as she looked a gradual transformation took place in the creature at her feet. Slowly, as one sees a ripple of wind pass over the surface of still water, the tiger's features palpitated and were changed, until the horrified girl saw the face of her husband come up through that of the beast, much as the face of a diver comes up to the surface of a pool. In another moment Patimah saw that it was Haji Ali who was ascending the ladder of his house, and the spell that had hitherto bound her was snapped." 1 In Central Africa " the belief in ' were ' animals, that is to say in human beings who have changed themselves into lions or leopards or some such harmful beasts, is nearly universal. Moreover there are individuals who imagine they possess this power of assuming the form of an animal and killing human beings in that shape " (Sir H. H. Johnston, British Central Africa, P- 439)- - In Court and Kampong, p. 63. See also Eth. p. 216. 240 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. These same Malays of Perak, H. H. Rajah Dris tells us, are still specially noted for many strange customs and superstitions "utterly opposed to Muhammadan teaching, and savouring strongly of devil-worship. This enormous belief in the super- natural is possibly a relic of the pre-Islam State1." In Borneo, which has been denned as " 300,000 square miles of savagery," worse practices prevail even than this Bo™nioyanS in " devil-worship." The periphery of the island has for many centuries been occupied by true Malays from Sumatra, especially along the north-western seaboard (Brunei, Sarawak, Pontianak) ; by Javanese on the south coast (Bangir- masin), who here introduced Hinduism at an early date, but are now mostly assimilated to the Orang-Malayu ; by other Malays on the east side (Kutai); by the already mentioned Bajaus, Sulus, and Illanuns in the north-east ; and by Chinese in large numbers almost everywhere2. Later came the Dutch in the south, and in the north the English, who despite their quite recent arrival (Sarawak, 1842; British North Borneo and Brunei, 1881-8), have already effected a great improvement in the rude manners of the natives under their jurisdiction. But within this variegated fringe of culture and semi-barbarism, the great mass of the aborigines is still emphatically *n tne w^ state. Whether grouped as Dyaks (Dayaks)3, the most general name, Dusuns in British North Borneo, Kayans farther south, or other conventional 1 Jour. Anthrop. hist. 1886, p. 227. The Rajah gives the leading features of the character of his countrymen as "pride of race and birth, extraordinary observance of punctilio, and a bigoted adherence to ancient custom and tradi- tion." '2 Too much influence, however, must not be credited to the Chinese element, and M. L. Rousselet points out that the North Bornean Dusuns, for instance, " ne sont nullement melanges aux Chinois, comme on 1'a cru jusqu'a ces derniers temps" (Nouv. Diet. Supplement, 1897, Art. DayaK). '•'' Dayak, unheard of before about 1780, is a term of unknown origin or meaning, though by some referred to a Sarawak word dayah, a tribal name meaning " Man." The final k is often dropped in Malay words, as in Perak, pronounced Ferah ; Sulu and Solo for Sulitk, Solok, &c. But " es bleibt die Herkunft dieses Wortes bis jetzt unklarer als diejenige von 'Papua' und ' Alfuren ' (A. B. Meyer, Ueber die Namen Papua, Dajak und Alfuren, Vienna, 1882, p. 18). VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 241 collective designations mostly unknown to the tribes themselves, all stand very near the lowest rung of the social ladder, practising various forms of self-mutilation, distending the ear-lobes often down to the shoulders1, plucking customs, out the eyebrows, filing or perforating the teeth, exposing the dead on trees or platforms, or smoking them dry, or else burying and then disinterring the bones to be pre- served near the haunts of the living. Head-hunting has always been a standing institution, introduced with the first Malayan arrivals from the mainland, and most houses of the forest and up-river Dyaks are adorned with the ghastly trophies furnished by the victims of this immemorial custom. Cannibalism, also, and human sacrifices to the ancestral shades are far more common than is generally supposed. Mr Bock describes and figures a "priestess." who informed him that the palms, the knees, and brains "are considered the best eating." He also visited a cannibal chief of the comparatively settled Tring district, "an utter incarnation of all that is most repulsive and horrible in the human form," who " had fresh upon his head the blood of no less than seventy victims, men, women, and children, whom he and his followers had just slaughtered, and whose hands and brains he had eaten2." "Surmungup," as the custom of human sacrifice is called, must have formerly ranged over most of the island, for it has ceased to be practised even amongst the sacrifices. Dusuns only since the British occupation of the northern districts. The ostensible reason seems to have been to send messages to dead relatives, and to this end a slave was procured, tied up, and bound round with cloths, and then " after some preliminary dancing and singing, one after another they would stick a spear a little way — an inch or so — into his body, each one sending a message to his deceased friend as he did so3." 1 "The lobes of the ears were pierced sometimes in no less than three places, in addition to the large central slit, the principal holes being enor- mously enlarged by the weighty tin rings hanging in them " (Carl Bock, Headhunters of Borneo, p. 133). 2 Ibid. pp. 134-5. 3 W. B. Pryer, Jour. Anthi-op. Inst. 1886, p. 234. Elsewhere the victim K. l6 242 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Most of the aborigines dispense with all clothing except the universal sarong, which amongst some of the east coast Dusuns bears a curious resemblance to the Scotch kilt, both in its pattern and the way it is worn. All, even the inland river and forest tribes, live in pile dwellings often of picturesque design, the space underneath serving as pigstyes. The balai, or Council-house, occupied by the young men at night, is generally of immense size, several hundred feet long or round, for both forms are affected. Even the bejiatong, or ordinary dwelling of long shape, will often accommodate twenty or more families, " each family having its separate apartments, the doors opening on to a sort of covered corridor." Mr Pryer finds that it is difficult to say where Dusun ends and Dyak proper begins, adding that as we pene- Indonesian . . , , _ .. Element in trate from the east coast inland the first tribe met is the Buludupi, many of whom have "strangely Cau- casian features, or at all events departing largely from the ordinary Mongolian type1." This points at the presence of an Indonesian element, which is supported by other evidence, such as the account given us by Mr Creagh of the so-called "Dusuns" of Banguey Island, visited by him in 1892, and described as differing widely in speech, religion, and customs from all other Dusun tribes. Like others met by Mr Bock in the interior, these is- landers have a priestess, who is able to keep the numerous spirits in Banguey in order, " for she is acquainted with their ways and knows the future as well as the past." She nominates and trains her successors, but all must be widows, and wear black robes, and wooden knives, these last being used for making the incisions in the calves of bride and bridegroom, when a drop of blood has to be transferred from one to the other at the wedding ceremony2. Amongst the tribes of the neighbouring mainland the notion of the after-life is that the dead have to clamber up the rugged slopes of Kina Balu, highest peak in Borneo (nearly 14,000 feet), so high is despatched more expeditiously, all subscribers to the purchase grasping a long spear simultaneously, and thrusting it through him at once (ib.). 1 Pryer, p. 232. 2 British North Borneo Herald, Dec. 1892. VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 243 in fact that "it is said to be within a trifle of reaching heaven." The good people have little difficulty in getting to the top, from which they are ushered into heaven, while the wicked are doomed, somewhat like Sisyphus, to be for ever hopelessly struggling and scrambling up the rocky sides of the mountain1. The good of course are those who have collected most human heads in this world for provision in the next ; but in other parts of the island, where the mountains are not so high, even the elect have to undergo many adventures during their long peregrinations up hill and down dale, across rivers, through fire and water, in one place meeting a woman with ears large enough to shelter them from the rain, until " at last they are safely landed in the heaven of their tribe2." Some of these fancies are so full of horrors, and at the same time so widely diffused, that they may well be regarded as reminiscences of the early Javanese missionaries, whose presence in Borneo is attested by the Hindu ruins still to be seen in some of the southern districts. In Sumatra also occur some remains of Hindu temples3, as well as other mysterious monuments in the Passumah lands inland from Benkulen, relics of a former culture, which goes back to prehistoric times. They take the form of huge Early Man monoliths, which are roughly shaped to the likeness and his works .. ,.,-,- in Sumatra. of human figures, with strange features very different from the Malay or Hindu types. The present Sarawi natives of the district, who would be quite incapable of executing such works, know nothing of their origin, and attribute them to certain legendary beings who formerly wandered over the land, turning all their enemies into stone. Further research may possibly discover some connection between these relics of a forgotten past 1 Pryer, p. 233. 2 Bock, p. 223. 3 Not only in the southern districts for centuries subject to Javanese influences, but also in Battaland, where they were first discovered by H. von Rosenberg in 1853, and figured and described in Der Malay ische Archipel, Leipzig, 1878, vol. i. p. 27 sq. " Nach ihrer Form und ihren Bildwerken zu urtheilen, waren die Gebaude Tempel, worin der Buddha- Kultus gefeiert wurde" (p. 28). These are all the more interesting since Hindu ruins are otherwise rare in Sumatra, where there is nothing comparable to the stupendous monuments of Central and East Java. 16 — 2 244 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. and the numerous prehistoric monuments of Easter Island and other places in the Pacific Ocean. Of all the Indonesian peoples still surviving in Malaysia, none present so many Mentawi points of contact with the Eastern Polynesians, as do the natives of the Mentawi Islands which skirt the south-west coast of Sumatra. "On a closer inspection of the inhabitants the attentive observer at once perceives that the Mentawi natives have but little in common with the peoples and tribes of the neighbouring islands, and that as regards physical appearance, speech, customs, and usages they stand almost entirely apart. They bear such a decided stamp of a Polynesian tribe that one feels far more inclined to compare them with the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands1." The survival of an Indonesian group on the western verge of Malaysia is all the more remarkable since the Nias islanders, a little farther north, are of Mongol stock, like most if not all of the inhabitants of the Sumatran mainland. Here the typical Malays of the central districts (Menangkabau, Korinchi, and Javanese . v and Hindu Siak) merge southwards in the mixed Malayo-Java- nese peoples of the Rejang, Palembang, and Lampong districts. Although Muhammadans probably since the thirteenth century, all these peoples had been early brought under Hindu influences by missionaries and even settlers from Java, and these influences are still apparent in many of the customs, popular traditions, languages, and letters of the South Sumatran settled communities. Thus the Lampongs, despite their profession of Islam, employ, not the Arabic characters, like the Malays of theai proper, but a script derived from the peculiar Java- Maiaysian nese writing-system. This system itself, originally introduced from India probably over 2000 years ago, 1 Von Rosenberg, op. cit. vol. I. p. 189. Amongst the points of close resemblance may be mentioned the outriggers, for which Mentawi has the same word (abak} as the Samoan (va*a=vak(i)\ the funeral rites; taboo; the facial expression ; and the language, in which the numeral systems are identical; cf. Ment. limongapula with Sam. limagafulu, the Malay being limapulah (fifty), where the Sam. infix ga (absent in Malay) is pronounced gna, exactly as in Ment. Here is a case of cumulative evidence, which should establish not merely contact and resemblance but true affinity, the vast liquid inter- vening area presenting no obstacle. VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 245 is based on some early forms of the Devanagari, such as those occurring in the rock inscriptions of the famous Buddhist king As'oka (third century B.C.)1. From Java, which is now shown beyond doubt to be the true centre of dispersion-, the parent alphabet was under Hindu influences diffused in pre-Muhammadan times throughout Malaysia, from Sumatra to the Philippines. But the thinly-spread Indo-Javanese culture, in few places penetrating much below the surface, received a rude shock from the Muhammadan irruption, its natural development being almost everywhere arrested, or else either effaced or displaced by Islam. No trace can any longer be detected of graphic signs in Borneo, whose Dyak aborigines have reverted to the savage state even in those southern districts where Buddhism or Brahmanism had certainly been propagated long before the arrival of the Muham- madan Malays. But elsewhere the Javanese stock alphabet has shown extraordinary vitality, persisting under diverse forms down to the present day, not only amongst the semi-civilised Mussul- man peoples, such as the Sumatran Rejangs3, Korinchi, and Lampongs, the Bugis and Mangkassaras of Celebes, and the (now Christian) Tagals and Bisayans of the Philippines, but even amongst the somewhat rude and pagan Palawan natives, the wild Manguianes of Mindoro, and the cannibal Battas4 of North Sumatra. 1 See Fr. Muller, Ueber den Ursprung der Schrift der Malaiischen Volker, Vienna, 1865; and my Appendix to Stanford's Australasia, First Series, 1879, p. 624. - Die Mangianenschrift von Mindoro^ heransgegebcn von A. B. Meyer 21, A. Schadenberg, speciell bearbeitet von W. Foy, Dresden, 1895; see also my remarks in Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1896, p. 277 sq. 3 The Rejang, which certainly belongs to the same Indo-Javanese system as all the other Malaysian alphabets, has been regarded by Sayce and Renan as "pure Phoenician," while Dr Neubauer has compared it with that current in the 4th and 5th centuries B.C. The suggestion that it may have been intro- duced by the Phoenician crews of Alexander's admiral, Nearchus (ArcJuzol. Oxon. 189;, No. 6), could not have been made by anyone aware of its close connection with the Lampong of South, and the Batta of North Sumatra (see also Prof. Kern, Globus 70, p. 1 16). 1 Sing. Batta, pi. Battak, hence the current form Battaks is a solecism, and we should write either Battas or Battak. Lassen derives the word from the Sanskrit b'hiita, "savage." 246 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. These Battas, however, despite their undoubted cannibalism1, cannot be called savages, at least without some The Battas- cuitured reserve. They are skilful stock-breeders and agri- culturists, raising fine crops of maize and rice ; they dwell together in large, settled communities with an organised government, hereditary chiefs, popular assemblies, and a written civil and penal code. There is even an effective postal system, which utilises for letter-boxes the hollow tree-trunks at all the cross-roads, and is largely patronised by the young men and women, all of whom read and write, and carry on an animated correspondence in their degraded Devanagari script, which is written on palm-leaves in vertical lines running upwards and from right to left. The Battas also excel in several industries, such as pottery, weaving, jewellery, iron work, and house-building, their picturesque dwellings, which resemble Swiss chalets, rising to two stories above the ground-floor reserved for the live stock. For these arts they are no doubt largely indebted to their Hindu teachers, from whom also they have inherited some of their religious ideas, such as the triune deity — Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer — besides other inferior divinities collectively called diebata, a modified form of the Indian devate^. 1 Again confirmed by Dr Volz and H. von Autenrieth, who explored Battaland early in 1898, and penetrated to the territory of the "Cannibal Pakpaks " (Geogr. your. June 1898, p. 672); not however "for the first time," as here stated. The Pakpaks had already been visited in 1853 by Von Rosenberg, who found cannibalism so prevalent that " Niemand Anstand nimmt das essen von Menschenfleisch einzugestehen " (op. cit. I. p. 59). - It is interesting to note that by the aid of the Lampongs alphabet, South Sumatra, the Rev. John Mathew reads the word Daibattah in the legend on the head-dress of a gigantic figure seen by Sir George Grey on the roof of a cave on the Glenelg River, North-west Australia (The Cave Paintings of Australia, &c. in your. Anthrop. Inst. 1894, p. 44 sq.). He quotes from Coleman's Mythology of the Hindus the statement that "the Battas of Sumatra believe in the existence of one supreme being, whom they name Debati Hasi Asi. Since completing the work of creation they suppose him to have remained perfectly quiescent, having wholly committed the government to his three sons, who do not govern in person, but by vakeels or proxies." Here is possibly another confirmation of the view that early Malayan migrations or expeditions, some even to Australia, took place in pre-Muhammadan times, long before the rise and diffusion of the Orang Malayu in the Archipelago. VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 247 In the strangest contrast to these survivals of a foreign culture which had probably never struck very deep roots, stand the savage survivals from still more ancient times. Conspicuous amongst these are the cannibal practices, which if not now universal still take some peculiarly revolting forms. Thus captives and criminals are, under certain circumstances, condemned to be eaten alive, and the same fate is or was reserved for . . . , . _ . . Cannibalism. those incapacitated for work by age or infirmities. When the time came, we are told by the early European observers and by the reports of the Arabs, the "grandfathers" voluntarily suspended themselves by their arms from an overhanging branch, while friends and neighbours danced round and round, shouting, " when the fruit is ripe it falls." And when it did fall, that is, as soon as it could hold on no longer, the company fell upon it with their krisses, hacking it to pieces, and devouring the remains seasoned with lime-juice, for such feasts were generally held when the limes were ripe1. Grouped chiefly round about Lake Toba, the Battas occupy a very wide domain, stretching south to about the TV* _ parallel of Mount Ophir, and bordering northwards Achinese. on the territory of the Achin people. These valiant natives, who have hitherto so stoutly maintained their political independence against the Dutch, were also at one time Hinduized, as is evident from many of their traditions, their Malayan language largely charged with Sanskrit terms, and even their physical appearance, suggesting a considerable admixture of Hindu as well as of Arab blood. With the Arab traders and settlers came the Koran, and the Achinese people R^ords have been not over-zealous followers of the Prophet since the close of the i2th century. The Muhammadan State, founded in 1205, acquired a dominant position in the Archipelago early in the i6th century, when it ruled over about half of Sumatra, exacted tribute from many vassal princes, maintained powerful armaments by land and sea, and entered into political and commercial relations with Egypt, Japan, and several European States. There are two somewhat distinct ethnical groups, the Orang- 1 Memoir of the Life &~Y. of Sir T. S. Raffles, by his widow, 1830. 248 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Tunong of the uplands, a comparatively homogeneous Malayan people, and the mixed Orang-Baruh of the lowlands, who are described by Dr A. Lubbers1 as taller than the average Malay (5 feet 5 or 6 in.), also less round-headed (index 80-5), with prominent nose, rather regular features, and muscular frames ; but the complexion is darker than that of the Orang-Malayu, a trait which has been attributed to a larger infusion of Dravidian blood (Klings and Tamuls) from southern India. The charge of cruelty and treachery brought against them by the Dutch may be received with some reserve, such terms as " patriot " and "rebel" being interchangeable according to the standpoints from which they are considered. In any case no one denies them the virtues of valour and love of freedom, with which are associated industrious habits and a remarkable aptitude for such handi- crafts as metal work, jewellery, weaving, and ship-building. The Achinese do not appear to be very strict Muhammadans ; poly- gamy is little practised, their women are free to 20 Islam and Hindu re- abroad unveiled, nor are they condemned to the miniscences. , r .-, •, -, , • , seclusion of the harem, and a pleasing survival from Buddhist times is the Kanduri, a solemn feast, in which the poor are permitted to share. Another reminiscence of Hindu philosophy may perhaps have been an outburst of religious fervour, which took the form of a pantheistic creed, and was so zealously preached, that it had to be stamped out with fire and sword by the dominant Moslem monotheists. Since the French occupation of Madagascar, the Malagasy problem has naturally been revived. But it may be Relations in regretted that so much time and talent has been spent on a somewhat thrashed-out question by a number of writers, who did not first take the trouble to read up the literature of the subject. Had they done so, they must have seen that most of the factors in the problem are really known quantities, and that it is at this date somewhat of an anachronism to suggest, for instance, that the Malayan migrations to Mada- gascar are quite recent'2, or that the migrations were not from 1 Anthropologie des Atjehs, in Rev. Med. Batavia, XXX. 6, 1890. 2 A. Oppel, Globus, 70, p. 384. This writer, who scarcely understands the elementary conditions of the question, thinks that "der Zeitpunkt der VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 249 Malaysia at all, but from Melanesia, that the Hovas were all originally black, that their olive colour is due to the environment1, that the points of resemblance between the Malayan and Malagasy languages may be due to the influence of Arab (sic) traders, and that the North African Libyans may be the remote ancestors of the Hovas, whose type in more than one respect resembles that of the present Kopts2. The extent to which Malagasy ethnology has lapsed into chaos may be judged from the contradictory views now current on the origin, type, and affinities of the dominant and presumably well-known Hovas, as, for example :- Collignon. Bloch. The Hovas differ in no* The Hovas appear to repre- important re.spect from the sent a now extinct red race, true Malays ; showing close who were originally Melanesians affinity to the Javanese and or Oceanic Negritoes ; are quite Madurese, most typical of Ma- distinct from the Malays ; their layans. common speech proves nothing, as it is common also to the Melanesians. Malayenauswanderung als etwa um das Jahr 1000 n. Chr. vollig ausreichend ist etc. etc." 1 Dr Adolphe Bloch, Bid. Soc. cTAnthrop. 1896, p. 498 sq. Here it is argued that all the Hovas " sont issus de cette race primitive [les Negres oceaniens], comme toutes les autres populations de Madagascar," and that " les Malegaches jaunes out du se former comme se forment toutes les varietes de 1'espece humaine, c'est a dire sous 1'influence de la variabilite qui caracterise tous les etres vivants " (p. 511). But the prototypes of these Hovas are already found in Malaysia ; consequently they did not need to be again specialised in Madagascar from a black precursor, an evolution which, as I hold, never took place. At all events it should not be assumed without necessity, and here there is no necessity. 2 M. Ch. Letourneau in Bid. Soc. cCAnthrop. 1896, p. 521 sq. This case is characteristic, the source appealed to for some very rash statements, as, for instance, that the linguistic analogies between Malay and Malagasy are " aussi peu frappantes que possible," being the antiquated History of Madagascar by W. Ellis, with J. J. Freeman's Appendix, 1838. M. Letourneau, who has done such excellent work in other fields, might surely have reflected that the Malagasy question was scarcely understood in the thirties, and that since then the "analogies" so far from being slight, have been proved to be identities by Marre, Last, Dahle, Richardson, Cousins, and in fact all philologists who have given serious attention to the subject. 250 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. By what race Madagascar was first peopled it is no longer possible to say. The local reports or traditions of Peoples*0"0 primitive peoples, either extinct or still surviving in the interior, belong rather to the sphere of Malagasy folklore than to that of ethnological research. In these reports mention is frequently made of the Kimos, said to be now or formerly living in the Bara country, and of the Vazimbas, who are by some supposed to have been Gallas (Ba-Simbd) — though they had no knowledge of iron — whose graves are supposed to be certain monolithic monuments which take the form of menhirs disposed in circles, and are believed by the present inhabitants of the land to be still haunted by evil spirits, that is, the ghosts of the long extinct Vazimbas. Much of the confusion prevalent regarding the present ethnical relations is due to the failure to distinguish immigrants™ between the historic Malays of Menangkabau and Malayans ^e Malayan aborigines of the Eastern Archipelago. That some of the historic Malays (the Orang- Malayu) have found their way to the island from time to time need not be denied. But it may now be asserted with some confidence that they could never have been very numerous, that they may almost be regarded in the present connection as une quantite negligeable, and that the Malayan settlement of Mada- gascar took place in remote prehistoric times, not only long Mala as before the diffusion of the Sumatran Malays over Speech not the Archipelago, but also long before the appear- Malay, but * ° . . .F Maiayo- ance of Hindu missionaries or colonists in the ) ynesian. same region. This is no matter of speculation, but a direct and necessary inference from facts now established, such as the total absence of Sanskrit and largely of late Arabic terms in Malagasy, and the general structure of that language, which is not a Malay dialect, but very much older than Malay -in fact an independent and somewhat archaic member of the Malayo-Polynesian (Oceanic) linguistic family. There is a con- siderable percentage of Sanskrit words in Malay, Javanese, and Bugis, in fact in all the cultivated, and in many even of the uncultivated languages of Malaysia, introduced with Hinduism probably some two or three centuries before the new era. But VII.] THE OCEANIC MONGOLS. 251 these words, many of them quite ordinary terms in daily use, could not all have been left behind by the Malayan settlers in Madagascar had the migrations taken place within the last 2000 years or so. But none, absolutely none, are found in Malagasy, which language must therefore have crossed the Indian Ocean in pre-Hindu, that is, remote prehistoric times. The same inference follows from a critical study of the Arabic elements in Malagasy, which have misled so many J\ m The Arabic observers, and even given rise to the theory that Elements , , , , . • r ^i Prehistoric. the Madagascar tongue is a corruption ot the Arabic1." A less extravagant, but no less mistaken view, still prevailing in some quarters, assumes that the Arabic words were all introduced either directly through the Muhammadan Arabs, or indirectly through the Muhammadan Malays, from which it would follow that the immigrants from Malaysia were after all the historical Malays arriving since 1000 B.C. (Oppel), or even "probably not over 200 years ago2." But Mr J. T. Last, who, I think rightly, identifies Madagascar with the island of Menuthias described by Arrian in the third century A.D.3, suggests the " possibility that Madagascar may have been reached by Arabs before the Christian era." This " possibility " is converted almost into a certainty by the analysis of the Arabo- Malagasy terms made by Dahle, who clearly shows that such terms " are comparatively very few," and also " very ancient," in fact that, as already suggested by Prof. Fleischer of Leipzig, many, perhaps the majority of them, " may be traced back to Himyaritic influence4," that is, not merely to pre- Muhammadan, but to 1 Dr Vanderkamp quoted by the Rev. L. Dahle, Antananarivo Annual, 1876, p. 75. 2 Col. Maude, Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1896, p. 71. 3 "His remarks would scarcely apply to any other island off the East African coast, his description of the rivers, crocodiles, land-tortoises, canoes, sea-turtles, and wicker-work weirs for catching fish, apply exactly to Mada- gascar of the present day, but to none of the other islands " (Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1896, p. 47). 4 Loc. tit. p. 77. Thus, to take the days of the week, we have: — Malagasy alahady, alatsinainy ; old Arab. (Himyar.) al-ahadu, al-itsndni ; modern Arab, el-dhad, el-etnen (Sunday, Monday), where the Mai. forms are obviously derived not from the present, but from the ancient Arabic. From all this it seems reasonable to infer that the early Semitic influences in Madagascar may 252 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. pre-Christian times, just like the Sanskritic elements in the Oceanic tongues. The evidence that Malagasy is itself one of these Oceanic Uniformit tongues, and not an offshoot of the comparatively of the lan- recent standard Malay is overwhelming, and need pri] o O'p not here detain us1. The diffusion of this Malayo- Polynesian language over the whole island — even amongst dis- tinctly Negroid Bantu populations, such as the Betsileos and Tanalas — to the absolute exclusion of all other forms of speech, is an almost unique linguistic phenomenon more easily proved than explained. There are, of course, provincialisms and even what may be called local dialects, such as that of the Antan- karana people at the northern extremity of the island who, although commonly included in the large division of the western Sakalavas, really form a separate ethnical group, speaking a some- what marked variety of Malagasy. But even this differs much less from the normal form than might be supposed by comparing, for instance, such a term as maso-mahamay^ sun, with the Hova maso-andrO) where maso in both means " eye," mahamay in both = " burning," and andro in both = "day." Thus the only difference is that one calls the sun "burning eye," while the Hovas call it the "day's eye," as do so many peoples in Malaysia". So also the fish-eating Anorohoro people, a branch of the Sihanakas in the Alaotra valley, are said to have " quite a different dialect from them3." But the statement need not Gothamltes. ^e taken too seriously, because these rustic fisherfolk, who may be called the Gothamites of Madagascar, are supposed, by their scornful neighbours, to do everything be due to the same Sabaean or Mincean peoples of South Arabia, to whom the Zimbabwe monuments in the auriferous region south of the Zambesi have been accredited by the late Theodore Bent. 1 Those who may still doubt should consult M. Aristide Marre, Les Affinites de la Langue Malgache, Leyden, 1884; Mr Last's above quoted Paper in theycwr. Anthrop. Inst. and Dr R. H. Codrington's Melanesian Languages, Oxford, 1885. See also Eth. pp. 331-2. - Malay, mata-ari; Bajau, uiata-lon; Menado mata-roir, Salayer, mato-allo, all meaning literally "day's eye" (inafa, ))iato = Malagasy uiaso — eye; ', //), and neutral (generally e, /), these last being so called because they occur indifferently with the two other classes. Thus, if the determining root vowel is a (strong), that of the postfixes may be either a (strong), e or / (neutral); if a (weak), that of the postfixes may be either a (weak), or e or z as before. The postfixes themselves no doubt were originally notional terms worn down in form and meaning, so as to express mere abstract relation, as in the Magyar vel -- with, from veli— companion. Tacked on to the root fa = tree, this will give the ablative case, first unharmonised: fa-rel ; then harmonised: fa-val = tree-with, with a tree. In the early Magyar texts of the 1 2th century inharmonic compounds, such as haldl-nek, later haldl-nak — at death, are numerous, from which it has been inferred that the principle of vowel harmony is not an original feature of the Ural-Altaic languages, but a later development, due in fact to phonetic decay, and still scarcely known in some members of the group, such as Votyak and Highland Cheremissian (Volga Finn). But M. Lucien Adam holds that these idioms have lost the principle VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 295 through foreign (Russian) influence, and that the few traces still perceptible are survivals from a time when all the Ural-Altaic tongues were subject to progressive vowel harmony1. But however this be, Dean Byrne is disposed to regard the alternating energetic utterance of the hard, and Lan indolent utterance of the soft vowel series, as an and Racial , . . . Characters. expression of the alternating active and lethargic temperament of the race, such alternations being themselves due to the climatic conditions of their environment. " Certainly the life of the great nomadic races involves a twofold experience of this kind, as they must during their abundant summer provide for their rigorous winter, when little can be done. Their character, too, involves a striking combination of intermittent indolence and energy ; and it is very remarkable that this distinction of roots is peculiar to the languages spoken originally where this great dis- tinction of seasons exists. The fact that the distinction [between hard and soft] is imparted to all the suffixes of a root proves that the radical characteristic which it expresses is thought with these ; and consequently that the radical idea is retained in the con- sciousness while these are added to it2." This is a highly characteristic instance of the methods followed by Dean Byrne in his ingenious but hopeless attempt to explain the subtle structure of speech by the still more subtle temperament of the speaker, taken in connection with the alternating nature of the climate. The feature in question cannot be due to such alternation of mood and climate, because it is persistent through- out all seasons, while the hard and soft elements occur simulta- neously, one might say, promiscuously, in conversation under all mental states of those conversing. The true explanation is given by Schleicher, who points out that progressive vocal assimilation is the necessary result of 1 De r Harmonic des Voyelles dans les Langucs Uralo-Altaiques, 1874. p. 67 sq. - General Principles of the Structure of Language, 1885, Vol. I. p. 357. The evidence here chiefly relied upon is that afforded by the Yakutic, a pure Turki idiom, which is spoken in the region of extremes! heat and cold (Middle and Lower Lena basin), and in which the principle of progressive assonance attains its greatest development. 296 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. agglutination, which by this means binds together the idea and its relations in their outward expression, just as they are already inseparately associated in the mind of the speaker. Hence it is that such assonance is not confined to the Ural-Altaic group, analogous processes occurring at certain stages of their growth in all forms of speech, as in Wolof, Zulu-Xosa, Keltic (expressed by the formula of Irish grammarians : " broad to broad, slender to slender "), and even in Latin, as in such vocalic concordance as : annus, perennis ; ars, iners ; lego, diligo. In these examples the root vowel is influenced by that of the prefix, while in the Mongolo-Turki family the root vowel, coming first, is unchange- able, but, as explained, influences the vowels of the postfixes, the phonetic principle being the same in both systems. Both Mongol and Manchu are cultivated languages, employ- Mon oi and *n& mo<^me<^ forms of the Uiguric (Turki) script, Manchu which is based on the Syriac introduced by the Christian (Nestorian) missionaries in the yth cen- tury. It was first adopted by the Mongols about 1280, and perfected by the scribe Tsorji Osir under Jenezek Khan (1307- 1311). The letters, connected together by continuous strokes, and slightly modified, as in Syriac, according to their position at the beginning, middle, or end of the word, are disposed in ver- tical columns from left to right, an arrangement due no doubt to Chinese influence. This is the more probable since the Manchus, before the introduction of the Mongol system in the i6th century, employed the Chinese characters ever since the time of the Kin dynasty. None of the other Tungusic or north-east Siberian peoples possess any writing system except the Yukaghirs of *T*I» Yukaghirs tne Yasachnaya affluent of the Kolyma river, who were visited in 1892 by the Russian traveller, S. Shargorodsky. From his report1, it appears that this symbolic writing is carved with a sharp knife out of soft fresh birch-bark, these simple materials sufficing to describe the tracks followed on hunting and fishing expeditions, as well as the sentiments of the young women in their correspondence with their sweethearts. 1 Explained and illustrated by General Krahmer in Globits, 1896, p. 208 sq. VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 297 Specimens are given of these curious documents, some of which are touching and even pathetic. "Thou goest hence, and I bide alone, for thy sake still to weep and moan," writes one discon- solate maiden to her parting lover. Another with a touch of jealousy : " Thou goest forth thy Russian flame to seek, who stands 'twixt thee and me, thy heart from me apart to keep. In a new home joy wilt thou find, while I must ever grieve, as thee I bear in mind, though another yet there be who loveth me." Or again : " Each youth his mate doth find ; my fate alone it is of him to dream, who to another wedded is, and I must fain contented be, if only he forget not me." And with a note of wail : " Thou hast gone hence, and of late it seems this place for me is desolate ; and I too forth must fare, that so the memories old I may forget, and from the pangs thus flee of those bright days, which here I once enjoyed with thee." Details of domestic life may even be given, and one accom- plished maiden is able to make a record in her note-book of the combs, shawls, needles, thimble, cake of soap, lollipops, skeins of wool, and other sundries, which she has received from a Yakut packman, in exchange for some clothes she has made him. Without illustrations no description of the process would be intelligible. Indeed it would seem these primitive documents are not always understood by the young folks themselves. They gather at times in groups to watch the process of composition by some expert damsel, the village "notary," and much merriment, we are told, is caused by the blunders of those who fail to read the text aright. It is not stated whether the system is current amongst the other Yukaghir tribes, who dwell on the banks of the Indigirka, Yana, Kerkodona, and neighbouring districts. They thus skirt the Frozen Ocean from near the Lena delta to and beyond the Kolyma, and are conterminous landwards with the Yakuts on the south-west and the Chukchi on the north-east. With the Chukchi, the Koryaks, the Kamchadales, and the Gilyaks they form a separate branch of the Mongolic division sometimes grouped together as " Hyperboreans." but distinguished from other Ural- Altaic peoples perhaps strictly on linguistic grounds. Although now reduced to scarcely 1500, the Yukaghirs were formerly a 298 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. numerous people, and the popular saying that their hearths on the banks of the Kolyma at one time outnumbered the stars in the sky seems a reminiscence of more prosperous days. But great inroads have been made by epidemics, tribal wars, the excessive use of coarse Ukraine tobacco and of bad spirits, indulged in even by the women and children. " A Yukaghir, it is said, never intoxicates himself alone, but calls upon his family to share the drink, even children in arms being supplied with a portion1." Their language, which A. Schiefner regards as radically distinct from all others2, is disappearing even more rapidly than the people themselves, if it be not already quite ex- tinct. In the eighties it was spoken only by about a dozen old persons, its place being taken almost everywhere by the Turki dialect of the Yakuts. There appears to be a curious interchange of tribal names between the Chukchi and their Koryak neighbours, an^Ko^yaks. the term ^ryak being the Chukchi Khorana, " Reindeer," while the Koryaks are said to call themselves Chauchau, whence some derive the word Chukchi. Hooper, however, tells us that the proper form of Chukchi is Tuski, "Brothers," or ''Confederates3,'7 and in any case the point is of little consequence, as Dittmar is probably right in regarding both groups as closely related, and sprung originally from one stock4. Jointly they occupy the north-east extremity of the continent between the Kolyma and Bering Strait, together with the northern parts of Kamchatka ; the Chukchi lying to the north, the Koryaks to the south, mainly round about the north- eastern inlets of the Sea of Okhotsk. Reasons have already been advanced for supposing that the Chukchi were a Tungus people who came originally from the Amur basin. In their arctic homes they appear to have waged long wars with the Onkilon (Ang-kali) aborigines, gradually merging with the survivors and 1 Lansdell, I. p. 299. Ueber die Sprache der Jukagiren in Melanges Asiatiqucs, 1859, in. p. 595 -sq. 3 Ten Months among the Tents of the Tuski. 4 Ueber die Koriaken 11. iJinen nahe verwandten Tchouktthen, in Bui. Acad. Sc. St Petersburg, XII. p. 99. VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 299 also mingling both with the Koryaks and Chuklukmiut Eskimo settled on the Asiatic side of Bering Strait. But their relations to all these peoples are involved in great obscurity, and while some connect them with the /5 Chukchi and Itelmes of Kamchatka1, by others they have been Eskimo affiliated to the Eskimo, owing to the Eskimo dialect said to be spoken by them. But this " dialect " is only a trading jargon, a sort of "pidgin Eskimo" current all round the coast, and consisting of Chukchi, Innuit, Koryak, English, and even Hawaii elements, mingled together in varying proportions. The true Chukchi language, of which Nordenskiold collected 1000 words, is quite distinct from Eskimo, and probably akin to Koryak'2, and the Swedish explorer aptly remarks that "this race, settled on the primeval route between the Old and New World, bears an unmistakable stamp of the Mongols of Asia and the Eskimo and Indians of America." He was much struck by the great resemblance of the Chukchi weapons and household utensils to those of the Greenland Eskimo, while Signe Rink shows that even popular legends have been diffused amongst the populations on both sides of Bering Strait3. Such common elements, how- ever, prove little for racial affinity, which seems excluded by the extremely round shape of the Chukchi skull, as compared with the long-headed Eskimo. But the type varies considerably both amongst the so-called " Fishing socSTstate. Chukchi," who occupy permanent stations along the seaboard, and the " Reindeer Chukchi," who roam the inland districts, shifting their camping-grounds with the seasons. There are no hereditary chiefs, and little deference is paid to the authority even of the owner of the largest reindeer herds, on whom the Russians have conferred the title of Jerema, regarding him as the head of the Chukchi nation, and holding him re- sponsible for the good conduct of his rude subjects. Although nominal Christians, they continue to sacrifice animals to the 1 Peschel, Races of J\ fan, p. 391, who says the Chukchi are "as closely related to the Itelmes in speech as are Spaniards to Portuguese." 2 Petcrmami's Mitt., Vol. 25, 1879, p. 138. 3 The Girl and the Dogs, an Eskimo Folk-talc, A/ner. Anthropologist, June, 1898, p. 181 sq. 30O MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. spirits of the rivers and mountains, and also to practise Shamanist rites. They believe in an after life, but only for those who die a violent death. Hence the resignation and even alacrity with which the hopelessly infirm and the aged submit, when the time comes, to be despatched by their kinsfolk, in accordance with the tribal custom of kamitok, which still survives in full vigour amongst the Chukchi, as amongst the Sumatran Battas, and formerly pre- vailed even amongst our Aryan forefathers. "The doomed one," writes Mr Harry de Windt, "takes a lively interest in the proceedings, and often assists in the prepara- tion for his own death. The execution is always preceded by a feast, where seal and walrus meat are greedily devoured, and whisky consumed till all are intoxicated. A spontaneous burst of singing and the muffled roll of walrus-hide drums then herald the fatal moment. At a given signal a ring is formed by the relations and friends, the entire settlement looking on from the background. The executioner (usually the victim's son or brother) then steps forward, and placing his right foot behind the back of the condemned, slowly strangles him to death with a walrus- thong. A kamitok took place during the latter part of our stay1." This traveller also fully confirms previous accounts of the indescribable moral and bodily filth in which these debased aborigines are content to welter through their lives. But those who care for such nauseous details must be referred to the work just quoted. Most recent observers have come to look upon the Chukchi and Koryaks as essentially one and the same Kfmchadaiesd peoplej tne cmef difference being that the latter are if possible even more degraded than their northern neighbours2. Like them they are classed as sedentary fisher- folk or nomad reindeer-owners, the latter, who call themselves Tumugulu, " Wanderers," roaming chiefly between Ghiyiginsk Bay and the Anadyr river. Through them the Chukchi merge 1 Through the Gold Fields of Alaska to Bering Strait, 1898. 2 This, however, applies only to the fishing Koryaks, for Mr Kennan speaks highly of the domestic virtues, hospitality, and other good qualities of the nomad groups (Tent Life in Siberia, 1871). VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 301 gradually in the Itelmes, who are better known as Kamchadales, from the Kamchatka river, where they are now chiefly concen- trated. Most of the Itelmes are already Russified in speech and — outwardly at least — in religion ; but they still secretly immolate a dog now and then, to propitiate the malevolent beings who throw obstacles in the way of their hunting and fishing expeditions. Yet their very existence depends on their canine associates, who are of a stout, almost wolfish breed, inured to hunger and hardships, and excellent for sledge work. Somewhat distinct both from all these Hyperboreans and from their neighbours, the Orochons, Golds, Manegrs and other Tungus peoples, are the Gilyaks, formerly wide -spread, but now confined to the Amur delta and the northern parts of Sakhalin. Some observers have connected them with the Ainu and the Korean aborigines, while Dr A. Anuchin detects two types — a Mongoloid with sparse beard, high cheek- bones, and flat face, and a Caucasic with bushy beard and more- regular features1. The latter traits have been attributed to- Russian mixture, but, as conjectured by H. von Siebold, are more probably due to a fundamental connection with their Ainu neighbours2. Mentally the Gilyaks take a low position — Mr Lansdell thought the lowest of any people he had met in Siberia3. Despite the zeal of the Russian missionaries, and the inducements to join the fold, they remain obdurate Shamanists, and even fatalists, so that "if one falls into the water the others will not help him out, on the plea that they would thus be opposing a higher power, who wills that he should perish The soul of the Gilyak is supposed to pass at death into his favourite dog, which is accordingly fed with choice food ; and when the spirit has been prayed by the shamans out of the dog, the animal is sacrificed on his master's grave. The soul is then represented as passing underground, lighted and guided by its own sun and 1 Mem. Imp. Soc. Nat. Sc. XX. Supplement, Moscow, 1877. ; " Scheinen grosse Aenlichkeit in Sprache, Gesichtsbildung und Sitten mit den Aino zu haben " (Ueber die Aino, Berlin, 1881, p. 12). s Through Siberia, u. p. 2-27. 302 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. moon, and continuing to lead there, in its spiritual abode, the same manner of life and pursuits as in the flesh1." A speciality of the Gilyaks, as well as of their Gold neighbours, is the fish-skin costume, made from the skins of two kinds of salmon, and from this all these aborigines are known to the Chinese as Yupitatse, "Fish-skin-clad People." "They strip it off with great dexterity, and by beating with a mallet remove the scales, and so render it supple. Clothes thus made are waterproof. I saw a travelling-bag, and even the sail of a boat, made of this material2." Like the Ainu, the Gilyaks may be called bear-worshippers. At least this animal is supposed to be one of their chief gods, although they ensnare him in winter, keep him in confinement, and when well fattened tear him to pieces, devouring his mangled remains with much feasting and jubilation. Since the opening up of Korea, some fresh light has been thrown upon the origins and ethnical relations of Koreans its Present inhabitants. In his monograph on the Yellow Races3 Dr Hamy had included them in the Mongol division, but not without reserve, adding that " while some might be taken for Tibetans, others look like an Oceanic cross ; hence the contradictory reports and theories of modern travellers." Since then the study of some skulls forwarded to Paris has enabled him to clear up some of the confusion, which is obviously due to interminglings of different elements dating from remote (neolithic) times. On the data supplied by these skulls Hamy classes the Koreans in three groups: — i. The natives of the northern provinces (Ping-ngan-tao and Hien-king-tao), strikingly like their Mongol [Tungus] neighbours ; 2. Those Elements1 °^ tne Southern provinces (Kling-chang-tao and Thsiusan-lo-tao), descendants of the ancient Chin- hans and Pien-hans, showing Japanese affinities ; 3. Those of the inner provinces (Hoang-hae-tao and Ching-tsing-tao), who present a transitional form between the northerns and southerns, both in their physical type and geographical position4. 1 Through Siberia, II. p. 235. ! Ibid. p. 221. 3 UAnthropologie, vi. No. 3. 4 Bui. du Mushini d'Hist. Nat. 1896, No. 4. All the skulls were brachy PLATE V * * •7 A * ' i. GOLD OF AMUR RIVER. (South Tungus Type.) 2. GILYAK WOMAN. (X.E. Mongol Type.) 3. KOREAN. (East Mongoloid Type.) 4. LlU-KlUAN. (Sub-Japanese Type.) To face page 302] VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 303 On the whole he considers that, as at present constituted, their affinities are less with the Continental than with the Oceanic Mongols, meaning by this expression Lesson's "Pelasgo-Mongols," that is, both the Malayan and the Polynesian groups of the Oceanic peoples. As the true Polynesians, i.e. the Indonesians, belong physically to the Caucasic division, Hamy's view accords very well with the now established fact that Caucasic features- light eyes, large nose, hair often brown, full beard, fair and even white skin, tall stature — are conspicuous, especially amongst the upper classes and many of the southern Koreans1. The round form of Ur Hamy's skulls no longer presents any difficulty, since multitudes of other Caucasic peoples — the Slavs, the South Germans, the Swiss and Tyrolese for instance — are also charac- terised by distinctly round heads ; and if it be said that this is due to mixture in the West, the same cause applies with equal force in the East, where the Koreans are now shown to be a mixed race, the Mongol element dominating in the north, as might be expected, and the Caucasic in the south. These conclusions seem to be confirmed by what is known of the early movements, migrations, and dis- Korean placements of the populations in North-east Asia origins and about the dawn of history. In these vicissitudes the Koreans, as they are now called2, appear to have first taken or sub-brachy, varying from 81 to 83 '8 and 84*8. The author remarks generally that " photographes et cranes different, du tout au tout, des choses similaires venues jusqu'a present de Mongolia et de Chine, et font plutot penser au Japon, a Formose, et d'une maniere plus generale a ce vaste ensemble de peuples maritimes que Lesson designait jadis sous le nom de ' Mongols-pelasgiens ' ' p. 3. 1 On this juxtaposition of the yellow and blond types in Korea V. de Saint- Martin's language is highly significative: " Cette dualite de type, un type tout a fait caucasique a cote du type mongol, est un fait commun a toute la ceinture d'iles qui couvre les cotes orientales de 1'Asie, depuis les Kouriles jusqu'a Formose, et meme jusqu'a la zone orientale de 1'Indo-Chine " (Art. Coree, p. 800). 2 From Kora'i, in Japanese Kome (Chinese Kaoli), name of a petty state, which enjoyed political predominance in the peninsula for about 500 years (loth to 1 4th century A.D.). An older designation still in official use is Tsio-sien, that is, the Chinese Chao-sien, "Bright Dawn" (Klaproth, Asia Polyglotta, p. 334 sq.). 304 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. part in the i2th century B.C., when the peninsula was already occupied, as it still is, by Mongols, the Sien-pi, in the north, and in the south by several branches of the Hans (San- San), of whom it is recorded that they spoke a language unintelligible to the Sien-pi, and resembled the Japanese in appearance, manners, and customs. From this it may be inferred that the Hans were the true aborigines, probably direct descendants of the Caucasic peoples of the New Stone Age, while the Sien-pi were Mongolic (Tungusic) intruders from the present Manchuria. For some time these Sien-pi played a leading part in the political convul- sions prior and subsequent to the erection of the Great Wall by Shih Hwang Ti, founder of the Tsin dynasty (221-209 B.C.)1. Soon after the completion of this barrier, the Hiung-nu, no longer able to scour the fertile plains of the Middle Kingdom, turned their arms against the neighbouring Yue-cJii, whom they drove westwards to the Zungarian valleys. Here they were soon dis- placed by the Usuns ( Wu-suji), a fair, blue-eyed people of unknown origin, who have been called "Aryans," and even "Teutons," and whom Ch. de Ujfalvy identifies with the tall long-headed western blonds (de Lapouge's Homo Europceus), mixed with brown round-headed hordes of white complexion2. 1 This stupendous work, on which about 1,000,000 hands are said to have been engaged for five years, possesses great ethnical as well as political import- ance. Running for over 1500 miles across hills, valleys, and rivers along the northern frontier of China proper, it long arrested the southern movements of the restless Mongolo-Turki hordes, and thus gave a westerly direction to their incursions many centuries before the great invasions of Jenghiz-Khan and his successors. It is strange to reflect that the ethnological relations were thus profoundly disturbed throughout the eastern hemisphere by the work of a ruthless despot who reigned only twelve years, and in that time waged war against all the best traditions of the empire, destroying the books of Confucius and the other sages, and burying alive 460 men of letters for their efforts to rescue those writings from total extinction. 2 Les Aryens au Nord et an Slid de F Hindou-KoucJi, 1896, p. 25. This writer does not think that the Usuns should be identified with the tall race of horse-like face, large nose, and deep-set eyes mentioned in the early Chinese records, because no reference is made to "blue eyes," which would not have been omitted had they existed. But, if I remember, "green eyes" are spoken of, and we know that none of the early writers use colour terms with strict accuracy. VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 305 Accepting this view, we may go further, and identify the Usuns, as well as the other white peoples of the early Chinese records, with the already described Central Asiatic Caucasians of the Stone Ages, whose osseous remains we now possess, and who come to the surface in the very first Chinese documents dealing with the turbulent populations beyond the Great Wall. The white element, with all the correlated characters, existed beyond all question, for it is continuously referred to in those documents. How is its presence in East Central Asia, including Manchuria and Korea, to be explained? Only on two assumptions — proto- historic migrations from the Far West, barred by the proto-historic migrations from the Far East, as largely determined by the erection of the Great Wall ; or pre-historic (neolithic) migrations, also from the Far West, but barred by no serious obstacle, because antecedent to the arrival of the proto-Mongolic tribes from the Tibetan plateau. The true solution of the endless ethnical complications in the extreme East, as in the Oceanic world, will still be found in the now-demonstrated presence of a Caucasic element antecedent to the Mongol in those regions. When the Hiung-nu1 power was weakened by their westerly migrations to Zungaria and South-west Siberia (Upper Irtish and Lake Balkash depression), and broken into two sections during their wars with the two Han dynasties (201 B.C. — 220 A.D.), the Korean Sien-pi became the dominant nation north of the Great Wall. After destroying the last vestiges of the unstable Hiung-nu empire, and driving the Mongolo-Turki hordes still westwards, the Yuan-yuans, most powerful of all the Sien-pi tribes, remained I have not thought it desirable to touch on the interminable controversy respecting the ethnical relations of the Hiung-nu, regarding them, not as a distinct ethnical group, but like the Huns, their later western representatives, as a heterogeneous collection of Mongol, Tungus, Turki, and perhaps even Finnish hordes under a Mongol military caste. At the same time I have little doubt that Mongolo-Tungus elements greatly predominated in the eastern regions (Mongolia proper, Manchuria) both amongst the Hiung-nu and their Yuan-Yuan (Sien-pi) successors, and that all the founders of the first great empires prior to that of the Turki Assena in the Altai region (6th century A.D.) were full-blood Mongols, as indeed recognised by Jenghiz-Khan himself. This seems also the view of Sir H. H. Howorth, who returned to the subject at the 6th Congress of Orientalists, Leyden, 1883 (Actes, Part iv, p. 1/7-95). K. 20 3O6 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. masters of East Central Asia for about 400 years and then dis- appeared from history1. At least after the 6th century A.D. no further mention is made of the Sien-pi principalities either in Manchuria or in Korea. Here, however, they appear still to form a dominant element in the northern (Mongol) provinces, calling themselves Ghirin (Khirin), from the Khirin (Sungari) valley of the Amur, where they once held sway. Since those days Korea has been alternately a vassal State and a province of the Middle Kingdom, with interludes of Japanese ascendancy, interrupted only by the four centuries of Korai ascendancy (934 — 1368). This was the most brilliant epoch in the national records, when Korea was rather the ally than the vassal of China, and when trade, industry, and the arts, especially porcelain and bronze work, flourished in the land. But by centuries of subsequent misrule, a people endowed with excellent natural qualities have been reduced to the lowest state of degradation. Before the reforms introduced by the political events of 1895-96, "the country was eaten up by officialism. It is not only that abuses without number prevailed, but the whole system of government was an abuse, a sea of corruption, with- out a bottom or a shore, an engine of robbery, crushing the life out of all industry2." But an improvement is already per- ceptible. "The air of the men has undergone a subtle and real change, and the women, though they nominally keep up their habits by seclusion, have lost the hang-dog air which distinguishes them at home. The alacrity of movement is a change also, and has replaced the conceited swing of the yang-ban [nobles] and the 1 On the authority of the Wei-Shu documents contained in the Wei-Chi, Mr E. H. Parker gives (in the China Revieiv and A Thousand Years of the Tartars, Shanghai, 1895) the dates 386-556 A.D. as the period covered by the "Sien-pi Tartar dynasty of Wei." This is not to be confused with the Chinese dynasty of Wei (224-264, or according to Kwong Ki-Chiu 234-274 A.D.). The term "Tartar" (Ta-Ta), it may be explained, is used by Mr Parker, as well as by the Chinese historians generally, in a somewhat wide sense, so as to include all the nomad populations north of the Great Wall, whether of Tungus (Manchu), Mongol, or even Turki stock. The original tribes bearing the name were Mongols, and Jenghiz-Khan himself was a Tata on his mother's side (Eth. p. 303). 2 Mrs Bishop, Korea and Her Neighbours, 1898. VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 307 heartless lounge of the peasant." It should also be mentioned to their credit that, amid much moral and material squalor, coarse and repulsive habits, they at least possess the sterling quality of honesty. Baron von Griinau tells us that in the villages along his route his effects had to remain on the highway for want of room in the wretched hovels, but he never lost anything, and his watch, after passing from hand to hand for general inspection, was always returned to the owner1. The religious sentiment is perhaps less developed than among any other Asiatic people. Buddhism, introduced Religion. about 380 A.D., never took root, and while the literati are satisfied with the moral precepts of Confucius, the lower classes seem to live in a state of complete religious indiffer- ence. Some make offerings to the spirits of the forests and mountains, and there is a " Children's Feast/' when all put on new clothes, probably a reminiscence of Buddhism. Seul, the capital, is perhaps the only city in the world outside Korea which possesses neither temple nor church of any kind. Philologists now recognise some affinity between the Korean and Japanese languages, both of which appear to be remotely connected with the Ural-Altaic family, Sc™petKo1 The Koreans possess a true alphabet of 28 letters, which, however, is not a local invention, as is sometimes asserted. It appears to have been introduced by the Buddhist monks about or before the icth century, and to be based on some cursive form of the Indian (Devanagari) system2, although scarcely any re- semblance can now be traced between the two alphabets. This script is little used except by the lower classes and the women, the literati preferring to write either in Chinese, or else in the so-called nido, that is, an adaptation of the Chinese symbols to the phonetic expression of the Korean syllables. The nido is exactly analogous to the Japanese Katakana script, in which modified forms of Chinese ideographs are used phonetically to 1 Globus, Nov. 27, 1897, p. 322. 2 T. de Lacouperie says on "a Tiheto-Indian base" (Beginnings of Writing in Central and Eastern Asia, 1894, p. 148); and Mr E. H. Parker: "It is demonstrable that the Korean letters are an adaptation from the Sanskrit," i.e. the Devanagari (Academy, Dec. 21, 1895, p. 550). 2O — 2 308 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. express 47 syllables (the so-called I-ro-fa syllabary), raised to 73 b> the nigori and maru diacritical marks. Passing to Japan, we find that to Chinese influence is also due the present national name Nippon, which was Japanese adopted about the 7th century A.D., and is etymo- logically the same word as Japan \ After the first settlement by neolithic Caucasians, now represented by the "hairy Ainu " of Yezo, the archipelago was occupied at long intervals both by Continental Mongols from Korea, and by Origins— . . Constituent Oceanic Mongols and Indonesians from Malaysia. From the fact that the Japanese language shows radical affinities with Korean, but none with Malayo-Polynesian, it may perhaps be inferred that the Korean element arrived first, and also outnumbered the later Malayan intruders sufficiently to impose their Mongol speech on them, and gradually merge with them in the present composite Japanese nationality. This ethnical fusion must have taken place long before the establishment of po- litical unity, which is, comparatively speaking, quite a recent event. Even for the legendary Jimmu Tenno, reputed founder of the empire, no greater antiquity is claimed than 660 B.C. No doubt he is represented as being fifth in descent from Amaterasu, the Sun-Goddess, and the great divinity of the Shinto religion'2. But even were his predecessors endowed with the longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs, they would not require the beginnings 1 Both forms come from the Chinese Nit-pon, the " Rising Sun" (Nit, sun, pon, origin), from which the Chinese made first Ni-pen, then through Mongol influence Ji-pen, whence Marco Polo's Zipangu, and the European variants (Giappone, Japon, Japan, etc.). But in Japan, by assimilation of /, Nit-pon became Nippon (Nip-hon, Nif-hon], the name, not merely of the large island of Hondo, as shown on some maps, but of the whole archipelago. Thus Chin. Ji-pen = Jap. Nippon = Japan. There is also a fanciful national name, Akizu- no-Sima, " Mermaid Isle." 2 "The reigning House of Japan descends from the Sun-Goddess Amate- rasu" (J. J. Rein, Japan nach Reisen it. Studien, 1881, p. 245). The veracious native chroniclers made out that the present Mikado is the i2ist in direct descent from Jimmu Tenno. In any case the contrast is striking between the impassive Chinese with their 28 or 30 dynasties, and the mercurial Japanese, who have been contented to live under a single dynasty since the appearance of the "Sun-Goddess" on earth. VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 309 of terrestrial rule in Japan to be set so far back by one or two millenniums as in Babylonia or Egypt. After the formation of the Japanese people and the establish- ment of orderly government, apparently first in the smaller southern islands1, the Ebisu (Ainu) Abo^g^s" aborigines of Hondo had still to be dealt with. It is now generally admitted that the Ainu formerly dwelt in those districts where shell-mounds and other remains like those of Yezo are still found. And this is confirmed by tradition and history, according to which the present Japanese, on arriving in Nippon, "found it tenanted by Ebisu or barbarians, whom they recognise as the ancestors of the modern Ainus. Year by year the aborigines were driven step by step towards the north. About the year 800 they were struggling near Morioka, and by the year 1200 they seem to have been practically exterminated from Nippon, and those who remained or had taken refuge farther to the north of Yezo were completely subjugated2." Apart from some exceptionally tall and robust persons amongst the upper classes, and the famous athletes, acrobats, and wrestlers, the general impression that the Japanese are on the whole a short race with rather weak frames is fully borne out by the now regularly recorded military measurements of recruits, showing for height an average of 5 ft. 4^ in., for chest 33 in., and dispro- portionately short legs. Other distinctive characters, all tending to stamp a certain individuality on the people, taken as a whole and irrespective of local peculiarities, are a flat forehead, great distance between the eyebrows, a very small nose with raised nostrils, no glabella, no perceptible nasal root;5 ; an active, wiry figure ; the exposed skin less yellow than the Chinese, and rather inclining to a light fawn, but the covered parts very light, some 1 So Prof. Basil Hall Chamberlain; who thinks "the common ancestors of the present Japanese and Luchuan [Liu-kiuan] nations entered Japan from the South-west, crossing the Korean Channel with the island of Tsushima as a stepping-stone, and landing in Kyushu, the southernmost great island of Japan. This is rendered probable, alike by geography, by the trend of legend, and by the grammatical affinities connecting Japanese and Luchuan with Korean and Mongol" (Geogr. Jonrii. 1895, p. 316). - Prof. J. Milne, quoted in Asia, Vol. I. p. 474. ' G. Baudens, But. Soc. Geogr. x. p. 419. 310 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. say even white ; the eyes also less oblique, and all other character- istically Mongol features generally softened, except the black lank hair, which in transverse section is perhaps even rounder than that of most other Mongol peoples'. With this it will be instructive to compare Dr Guillemard's graphic account of the Liu-Kiu islanders, whose Koreo-Japanese affinities are now placed beyond all doubt : " They are a short race, probably even shorter than the Japanese, but much better proportioned, being without the long bodies and short legs of the latter people, and having as a rule extremely well-developed chests. The colour of the skin varies of course with the social position of the individual. Those who work in the fields, clad only in a waist-cloth, are nearly as dark as a Malay, but the upper classes are much fairer, and are at the same time devoid of any of the yellow tint of the Chinaman. To the latter race indeed they cannot be said to bear any resemblance, and though the type is much closer to the Japanese, it is nevertheless very distinct. ...In Liu-Kiu the Japanese and natives were easily recognised by us from the first, and must therefore be possessed Japanese and Liu-Kiu of very considerable differences. The Liu-Kiuan has the face less flattened, the eyes are more deeply set, and the nose more prominent at its origin. The forehead is high and the cheek-bones somewhat less marked than in the Japanese ; the eyebrows are arched and thick, and the eyelashes long. The expression is gentle and pleasing, though somewhat sad, and is apparently a true index of their character2." This description is not accepted without some reserve by Mr Chamberlain, who in fact holds that "the physical type of the Luchuans resembles that of the Japanese almost to identity3." In explanation however of the singularly mild, inoffensive, and "even timid disposition" of the Liu-Kiuans, this observer suggests "the probable absence of any admixture of Malay blood in the race4." But everybody admits a Malay element in Japan. It 1 See especially Dr E. Balz, Die korperlichen Eigenschaften der Japaner, in Mitt, der Deutschen Ges. f. Natnr. u. Volkerkunde Ostasiens, 28 and 32. ' Cruise of the Marchesa, 1886, I. p. 36. 3 Geogr. Jonrn. 1895, II. p. 318. 4 Ibid. p. 460. VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 311 would therefore appear that Guillemard must be right, and that, as even shown by all good photographs, differences do exist, due in fact to the presence of this very Malay strain in the Japanese race. Elsewhere1 Mr Chamberlain has given us a scholarly account of the Liu-Kiu language, which is not merely a J The Lan- " sister," as he says, but obviously an elder sister, guages and more archaic in structure and partly in its pho- netics, than the oldest known form of Japanese. In the verb, for instance, Japanese retains only one past tense of the indicative, with but one grammatical form, whereas Liu-Kiuan preserves the three original past tenses, each of which possesses a five-fold inflection. All these racial, linguistic, and even mental resem- blances, such as the fundamental similarity of many of their customs and ways of thought, he would explain with much probability by the routes followed by the first emigrants from the mainland. While the great bulk spread east and north over the great archipelago, everywhere " driving the aborigines before them," a smaller stream may have trended southwards to the little southern group, whose islets stretch like stepping-stones the whole way from Japan to Great Liu-Kiu ". Amongst the common mental traits, mention is made of the Shinto religion, "the simplest and most rustic form" of which still survives in Liu-Kiu. Here, as in Japan, it was originally a rude system of nature- worship, the normal development of which was arrested by Chinese and Buddhist influences. Later it became associated with spirit-worship, the spirits being at first the souls of the dead, and although there is at present no cult of the dead, in the strict sense of the expression, the Liu-Kiu islanders probably pay more respect to the departed than any other people in the world. In Japan, Shintoism, as reformed in recent times, has become much more a political institution than a religious _, _, . . . _ Shintoism. system. The Kami-no-unchi, that is, the Japanese form of the Chinese Shin-to, "way of the Gods," or "spirits," is Jour. Anthrop. Soc. 1897, p. 47 sq. - Ibid. p. 58. 312 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. not merely the national faith, but is inseparably bound up with the interests of the reigning dynasty, holding the Mikado to be the direct descendant of the Sun-goddess. Hence its three cardinal precepts now are: — i. Honour the Kami (spirits), of whom the emperor is the chief representative on earth ; 2. Revere him as thy sovereign ; 3. Obey the will of his Court, and that is the whole duty of man. There is no moral code, and loyal expo- sitors have declared that the Mikado's will is the only test of right and wrong. But apart from this political exegesis, Shintoism in its higher form may be called a cultured deism, in its lower a "blind obedience to governmental and priestly dictates1." There are dim notions about a supreme creator, immortality, and even rewards and penalties in the after-life. Some also talk vaguely, as a pantheist might, of a sublime being or essence pervading all nature, too vast and ethereal to be personified or addressed in prayer, identified with the tenka^ "heavens," from which all things emanate, _ to which all return. Yet, although a personal deity seems thus excluded, there are Shinto temples, apparently for the worship of the heavenly bodies and powers of nature, conceived as self-existing personalities — the so-called Kami, "spirits," "gods," of which there are "eight millions," that is, they are countless. One cannot but suspect that some of these notions have been grafted on the old national faith by Buddhism, which Buddhism. was introduced about 550 A.D. and for a time had great vogue. It was encouraged especially by the Shoguns, or military usurpers of the Mikado's2 functions, obviously as a set-off against the Shinto theocracy. During their tenure of power (1192-1868 A.D.) the land was covered with Buddhist shrines and temples, some of vast size and quaint design, filled with hideous idols, huge bells, and colossal statues of Buddha. But with the fall of the Shogun the little prestige still enjoyed by Buddhism came to an end, and the temples, spoiled of their 1 Ripley and Dana, Awcr. Cyc. ix. 538. 1 Shogun from S/w = general and giin = army, hence Commander-in-chief; Mikado from mi= sublime, and kado = gate, with which cf. the "Sublime Porte" (Rein, op. cit. i. p. 245). But Mikado has become somewhat anti- quated, being now generally replaced by the title Kotci, "Emperor." VIII.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 313 treasures, have more than ever become the resort of pleasure- seekers rather than of pious worshippers. "To all the larger temples are attached regular spectacles, playhouses, panoramas, . besides lotteries, games of various sorts, including the famous 'fan-throwing,' and shooting-galleries, where the bow and arrow and the blow-pipe take the place of the rifle. The accumulated wealth of the priests has been confiscated, the monks driven from their monasteries, and many of these buildings converted into profane uses. Countless temple bells have already found their way to America, or have been sold for old metal1." Besides these forms of belief, there is a third religious, or rather philosophic system, the so-called Siza, based on the ethical teachings of Confucius, a sort of refined materialism, such as underlies the whole religious thought of the nation. Siza, always confined to the literati, has in recent years found a formidable rival in the "English Philosophy," represented by such writers as Buckle, Mill, Herbert Spencer, Darwin, and Huxley, most of whose works have already been translated into Japanese. Thus this highly gifted people, whose best qualities may perhaps be traced back to the Caucasic substratum dating from the Stone Ages, are being rapidly — some fear too rapidly — assimilated to the western world in their social and religious, as well as their political institutions. Their intellectual powers, already tested in the fields of war, science, diplomacy, and self-government, are certainly superior to those of all other Asiatic peoples, and this is perhaps the best guarantee for the stability of the stupendous transformation that a single generation has witnessed from an exaggerated form of mediaeval feudalism to a political and social system in harmony with the most advanced phases of modern thought. The system has doubtless not yet penetrated to the lower strata, especially amongst the rural populations. But their natural receptivity, combined with a singular freedom from "insular prejudice," must ensure the ultimate acceptance of the new order by all classes of the community. 1 Keane's Asia, 1. p. 487. CHAPTER IX. THE NORTHERN MONGOLS (continued). The Finno-Turki Peoples — Assimilation to the Caucasic Type — Turki Cradle —Origins and early Records — The Scythians — Parthians and Turkomans— Massagetffi and Yue-chi — Indo-Scythians and Gneco-Baktrians — Dahae, Jat, and Rajput Origins — The "White Huns" -The Uigurs — Orkhon Inscriptions — The Assena Turki Dynasty— Toghuz- Uigur Empire — Kash- garian and Zungarian Populations — The Oghuz Turks and their Migrations — Seljuks and Osmanli — The Yakuts — The Kirghiz — Kazak and Kossack -The Kara-Kirghiz — The Finnish Peoples — Former and Present Domain —Late Westward Spread of the Finns — The Bronze and Iron Ages in the Finnish lands — The Baltic Finns — Relations to Goths, Letts, and Slavs— Finno-Russ Origins — Tavastian and Karelian Finns — The Kwsens — The Lapps — Samoyads and Permian Finns — Lapp Origins and Migrations- Temperament — Religion — The Volga Finns --The Votyak Pagans - Human Sacrifices — The Bulgars — Origins and Migrations — An Ethnical Transformation — Great and Little Bulgaria — Avars and Magyars — Magyar Origins and early Records — -Present Position of the Magyars — Ethnical and Linguistic Relations in Eastern Europe. IN a very broad way all the western branches of the North Mongol division may be comprised under the Turiti Peoples collective designation of Finno-Turki Mongols. Jointly they constitute a well-marked section of the family, being distinguished from the eastern section by several features which they have in common, and the most important of which is unquestionably a much larger infusion of Caucasic blood than is seen in any of the Mongolo-Tungusic groups. So pro- nounced is this feature amongst many Finnish as well as Turkish peoples, that some anthropologists have felt inclined to deny any direct connection between the eastern and western divisions of Homo Mongolicits, and to regard the Baltic Finns, for instance, CHAP. IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 315 rather as "Allophylian Whites" than as original members of the yellow race. Prichard, to whom we owe this now Assimilation nearly obsolete term "Allophylian," held this view1, totheCaucasic and even Prof. Sayce is "more than doubtful whether we can class the Mongols physiologically with the Turkish-Tatars [the Turki peoples], or the Ugro-Finns V It may, indeed, be allowed that at present the great majority of the Finno-Turki populations occupy a position amongst the varieties of mankind which is extremely perplexing for the strict systematise When the whole division is brought under survey, every shade of transition is observed between the Siberian Sa- moyads of the Finnic branch and the steppe Kirghiz of the Turki branch on the one hand, both of whom show Mongol characters in an exaggerated form, and on the other the Osmanli Turks and Hungarian Magyars, most of whom may be regarded as typical Caucasians. Moreover, the difficulty is increased by the fact, already pointed out, that these mixed Mongolo-Caucasic charac- ters occur not only amongst the late historic groups, but also amongst the earliest known groups — " Chudes," Usuns, Uigurs and others — who may be called Proto- Finnish and Proto-Turki peoples. But precisely herein lies the solution of the problem. Most of the region now held by Turki and Finnish nations was originally occupied by long-headed Caucasic men of the late Stone Ages (see above). Then followed the Proto-Mongol intruders from the Tibetan tableland, who partly submerged, partly intermingled with their Neolithic forerunners, many thus acquiring those mixed characters by which they have been distinguished from the earliest historic times. Later, further interminglings took place according as the Finno-Turki hordes, leaving their original seats in the Altai and surrounding regions, advanced westwards and came more and more into contact with the European populations of Caucasic type. We may therefore conclude that the majority of the Finno- Turks were almost from the first a somewhat mixed race, and that during historic times the original Mongol element has gradually yielded to the Caucasic in the direction from east to west. Such is the picture now presented by these heterogeneous populations, 1 Natural History of Man, 1865 ed. pp. 185-6. - Science of Language ) 11. p. 190. 316 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. who in their primeval eastern seats are still mostly typical Mon- gols, but have been more and more assimilated to the European type in their new Anatolian, Baltic, Danubian, and Balkan homes. Observant travellers have often been impressed by this pro- gressive conformity of the Mongolo-Turks to Europeans. During his westward journey through central Asia Capt. Younghusband, on passing from Mongolia to Eastern Turkestan, found that the people, though tall and fine-looking, had at first more of the Mongol caste of feature than he had expected. "Their faces, however, though somewhat round, were slightly more elongated than the Mongol, and there was considerably more intelligence about them. But there was more roundness, less intelligence, less sharpness in the outlines than is seen in the inhabitants of Kashgar and Yarkand." Then he adds : "As I proceeded westwards I noticed a gradual, scarcely perceptible, change from the round of a Mongolian type to a sharper and yet more sharp type of feature. ...As we get farther away from Mongolia, we notice that the faces become gradually longer and narrower; and farther west still, among some of the inhabitants of Afghan Turkestan, we see that the Tartar or Mongol type of feature is almost entirely lost1." To complete the picture it need only be added that still further west, in Asia Minor, the Balkan Peninsula, Hungary, and Finland, the Mongol features are often entirely lost. "The Turks of the west have so much Aryan and Semitic blood in them, that the last vestiges of their original physical characters have been lost, and their language alone indicates their previous descent2." Before they were broken up and dispersed over half the northern hemisphere by Mongol pressure from the Turki Cradle. , ...—,..., east, the primitive lurki tribes dwelt, according to Howorth, mainly between the Ulugh-dagh mountains and the Orkhon river in Mongolia, that is, along the southern slopes and spurs of the Altai-Sayan system from the headwaters of the Irtysh to the valleys draining north to Lake Baikal. But the Turki cradle is shifted farther east by Richthofen, who thinks that their true home lay between the Amur, the Lena, and the Selenga, where at one time they had their camping-grounds in close proximity 1 The Heart of a Continent, 1896, p. 118. 2 O. Peschel, Races of Man, p. 380. IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 317 to their Mongol and Tungus kinsmen. There is nothing to show that the Yakuts, who are admittedly of Turki stock, ever migrated to their present northern homes in the Lena basin, which has more probably always been their native land1. But when they come within the horizon of history the Turks are already a numerous nation, with a north-western and south- eastern division2, which may well have jointly occupied the whole region from the Irtysh to the Lena, and both views may thus be reconciled. In any case the Turki domain lay west of the Mongol, and the Altai uplands, taken in the widest sense, may still be regarded as the most probable zone of specialisation for the Turki physical type, which in the new nomenclature intro- duced or revived by De Lapouge, was formed by a fusion of Homo Asiaticus and If. Europeans with his ubiquitous H. Acrogonus. Of these elements is constituted the characteristic Turki head, which is noted for its cuboid aspect, due to the parieto-occipital flattening, as observed especially among the Yakuts, and some Turkomans (Yomuds, Goklans). Intermediate between these typical Turks and the Mongols Dr Hamy places the Usbegs, Kirghiz, Bashkirs, and Nogais; and between the Turks and Finns those extremely mixed groups of East Russia commonly but wrongly called " Tartars," as well as other transitions between Turk, Slav, Greek, Arab, Osmanli of Constantinople, Kurugli of Algeria and others, whose study shows the extreme difficulty of accurately determining the limits of the Yellow and the White races3. Analogous difficulties recur in the study of the Northern (Siberian) groups — Samoyads, Ostyaks, Voguls and other Ugrians -who present great individual variations, leading almost without a break from the Mongol to the Lapp, from the Lapp to the Finn, 1 See Ch. de Ujfalvy, Les Aryens &c. 1896, p. 25. Reference should per- haps be also made to Mr E. H. Parker's theory {Academy, Dec. 21, 1895) that the Turki cradle lay, not in the Altai or Altun-dagh ("Golden Mountains") of North Mongolia, but 1000 miles farther south in the "Golden Mountains" {Kin-shan} of the present Chinese province of Kansu. But the evidence relied on is not satisfactory, and indeed in one or two important instances not evidence at all. 2 Prof. Bury, English Historical Rev. July 1897. 3 I? Anthropologie^ vi. No. 3. 318 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. from Finn to Slav and Teuton. Thus may be shown a series of observations continuous between the most typical Mongol, and those aberrant Mongolo-Caucasic groups which answer to Prichard's " Allophylian races." Thus also is confirmed by a study of details the above broad generalisation in which I have endeavoured to determine the relation of the Finno-Turki peoples to the primary Mongol and Caucasic divisions. Gibbon has shrewdly remarked that " the savage tribes of mankind, as they approach nearer to the condition Origins and Early of animals, preserve a stronger resemblance to themselves and to each other. The uniform sta- bility of their manners is the natural consequence of the imper- fection of their faculties. Reduced to a similar situation, their wants, their desires, their enjoyments, still continue the same... and the banks of the Borysthenes [Dnieper], of the Volga, or of the Selenga [in Mongolia], will indifferently present the same uniform spectacle of similar and native manners-1." To this general uniformity in their social usages and institutions, com- bined with an almost complete ignorance of their speech and largely of their physical appearance, is unquestionably due the still prevailing confusion regarding the earliest known Central Asiatic populations and their first westward migrations. In the popular estimation the countless hordes vaguely comprised by the ancients under the general designation of Scythians2, are regarded as rude nomads of true Mongol stock, to T* 1-» o Scythians. ^e identified with the Hiung-nu of the Chinese records and the historical Huns (Attila's Huns), now best represented in the Far East by the Sharra Mongols and farther west by the Zungarian and Volga Kalmaks. But there is good reason to believe that many, perhaps the majority of those early Scythians were not Mongols at all, but Finns and Turks, whose domain had already extended from the Altai uplands to the confines of Europe many centuries before the new era. 1 Decline and Fall, Ch. xxvi. They distinguished, to be sure, between the Scythians intra Imaum and those extra Imaum. But this was merely a convenient geographical division, and if the Imaus is to be identified with the Altai, no ethnical distinction is drawn between the nomad tribes on either side of that range. IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 319 Mr E. H. Parker has unfortunately lent the weight of his authority to the statement that the word "Tiirko" [Turki] "goes no farther back than the fifth century of our era," and that "so far as recorded history is concerned the name of Turk dates from this time1." But Turki tribes bearing this national name had penetrated into East Europe hundreds of years before that time, and were already seated on the Tanais (Don) about the new era. They are mentioned by name both by Pomponius Mela2 and by Pliny3, and to the same connection belonged, beyond all doubt, the warlike Parthians. who -*oo years earlier were Parthians already seated on the confines of Iran and Turan, and Turko- routed the legions of Crassus and Anthony, and for five centuries (250 £.0-229 A.D.) usurped the throne of the " King of Kings," holding sway from the Euphrates to the Ganges, and from the Caspian to the Indian Ocean. Direct descendants of the Parthians are the fierce Turkoman nomads, who for ages terrorised over all the settled populations encircling the Aralo-Caspian depression. Their power has at last been broken by the Russians, but they are still politically dominant in Persia4. They have thus been for many ages in the closest contact with the Caucasic Iranians, with the result that the present Turkoman type is shown by J. L. Yavorsky's observations to be extremely variable5. 1 Academy, Dec. 21, 1895, p. 548. 2 "Budini Gelonion urbem ligneam habitant ; juxta Thyssagetas Turcceyue vastas silvas occupant, alunturque venando" (i. 19, p. 27 of Leipzig ed. 1880). 3 "Dein Tanain amnem gemino ore influentem incolunt Sarmatae...Tindari. Thussagetae, Tyrar, usque ad solitudines saltuosis convallibus asperas &c." (Bk. vm. 7, Vol. I. p. 234 of Berlin ed. 1886). The variants Turc p. 14). K. 22 338 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. the Norwegians still do), and that early navigator already noticed that these " Finns " seemed to speak the same Tavastian and Karelian language as the Beormas, who were true Finns1. Nor do the present inhabitants of Finland, taken as a whole, differ more in outward appearance and temperament from their Lapp neighbours than do the Tavastians and the Karelians, that is, their western and eastern sections, from each other. The Tavastians, who call themselves Hemelaiset, " Lake People," have rather broad, heavy frames, small and oblique blue or grey eyes, towy hair and white complexion, without the clear florid colour of the North Germanic and English peoples. The temperament is somewhat sluggish, passive and enduring, morose and vindictive, but honest and trustworthy. Very different are the tall, slim, active Karelians (Karialaiset, "Cowherds," from Kari, "Cow"), with more regular features, straight grey eyes, brown complexion, and chestnut hair, like that of the hero of the Kalevala, hanging in ringlets down the shoulders. Many of the Karelians, and most of the neighbouring Ingrians about the head of the Gulf of Finland, as well as the Votes and Vepses of the great lakes, have been assimilated in speech, religion, and usages to the surrounding. Russian popula- tions. But the more conservative Tavastians have hitherto tenaciously preserved the national sentiment, language, and tradi- tions. Despite the pressure of Sweden on the west, and of Russia on the east, the Finns still stand out as a distinct Euro- pean nationality, and continue to cultivate with success their harmonious and highly poetical language. Since the i2th century they have been Christians, converted to the Catholic faith by " Saint " Eric, King of Sweden, and later to Lutheranism, again by the Swedes2. The national university, removed in 1827 from Abo to Helsingfors, is a centre of much scientific and literary work, and here E. Lonnrot, father of Finnish literature, brought out his various editions of the Kalevala, that of 1849 consisting of some 50,000 strophes. A kind of transition from these settled and cultured Finns 1 ")>a Finnas, him J?uhte, and )>a Beormas sprcecon neah an gefteode" (Orosius I. 14). 2 See my paper on the Finns in Cassell's Storehoiise of Information, p. 296. IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 339 to the Lapps of Scandinavia and Russia is formed by the still almost nomad, or at least restless Kzvcens, who for- .... The Kwsens. merly roamed as far as the White Sea, which in Alfred's time was known as the Given See (Kwaen Sea). These Kwaens, who still number nearly 300,000, are even called nomads by Prof. j. A. Friis, who tells us that there is a continual move- ment of small bands between Finland and Scandinavia. " The wandering Kwaens pass round the Gulf of Bothnia and up through Lappmarken to Kittala, where they separate, some going to Varanger, and others to Alten. They follow the same route as that which, according to historians, some of the Norsemen followed in their wanderings from Finland1." The references of the Sagas are mostly to these primitive Bothnian Finns, with whom the Norsemen first came in contact, and who in the 6th and following centuries were still in a rude state not greatly removed from that of their Ugrian forefathers. As shown by Almqvist's researches, they lived almost exclusively by hunting and fishing, had scarcely a rudimentary knowledge of agriculture, and could prepare neither butter nor cheese from the milk of their half-wild reindeer herds. Such were also, and in some measure still are, the kindred Lapps, who with the allied Yurak Samoyads of Arctic Russia are the only true nomads still sur- vivinsj in Europe. Mr A. H. Cocks, who travelled Permian Finns. amongst all these rude aborigines in 1888, describes the Kwaens who range north to Lake Enara, as "for the most part of a very rough class," and found that the Russian Lapps of the Kola Peninsula, " except as to their clothing and the addition of coffee and sugar to their food supply, are living now much the same life as their ancestors probably lived 2000 or more years ago, a far more primitive life, in fact, than the Reindeer Lapps [of Scandinavia]. They have not yet begun to use tobacco, and reading and writing are entirely unknown among them. Unlike the three other divisions of the race [the Norwegian, Swedish, and Finnish Lapps], they are a very cheerful, light-hearted people, 1 Laila, Earl of Ducie's English ed. p. 58. The Swedish Bothnia is stated to be a translation of Kiucen, meaning low-lying coastlands ; hence Kaimtlaiset, as they call themselves, would mean " Coastlanders." 22 - 2 340 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. and have the curious habit of expressing their thoughts aloud in extempore sing-song1." Similar traits have been noticed in the Samoyads, whom Mr F. G. Jackson describes as an extremely sociable and hos- pitable people, delighting in gossip, and much given to laughter and merriment2. He gives their mean height as nearly 5 ft. 2 in., which is about the same as that of the Lapps (Von Diiben, 5 ft. 2 in., others rather less), while that of the Finns averages 5 ft. 5 in. (Topinard). Although the general Mongol appearance is much less pronounced in the Lapps than in the Samoyads, in some respects — low stature, flat face with peculiar round outline- the latter reminded Mr Jackson of the Ziryanians, who are a branch of the Beormas (Permian Finns), though like them now much mixed with the Russians. The so-called prehistoric " Lapp Graves," occurring throughout the southern parts of Scandinavia, are now known from their contents to have belonged to the Norse race, who appear to have occupied this region since the New Stone Age, while the Lapp domain seems never to have reached very much farther south than Trondhjem. All these facts, taken especially in connection with the late arrival of the Finns themselves in Finland, lend Lapp Origins and support to the view that the Lapps are a branch, not of the Suomalaiset, but of the Permian Finns, and reached their present homes, not from Finland, but from North Russia through the Kanin and Kola Peninsulas, if not round the shores of the White Sea, at some remote period prior to the occupation of Finland by its present inhabitants. This assumption would also explain Ohthere's statement that Lapps and Permians seemed to speak nearly the same language. The resemblance is still close, though I am not competent to say to which branch of the Finno-Ugrian family Lapp is most nearly allied. Of the Mongol physical characters the Lapp still retains the round low skull (index 83), the prominent cheek- ment— bones, somewhat flat features, and ungainly figure. The temperament, also, is still perhaps more Asiatic 1 A Boat Journey to Inari, Viking Club, Feb. i, 1895. 77/i? Great Frozen Land, 1895, p. 61. IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 341 than European, although since the i8th century they have been Christians — Lutherans in Scandinavia, Orthodox in Russia. In pagan times Shamanism had nowhere acquired a greater develop- ment than among the Lapps. A great feature of the system were the " rune-trees," made of pine or birch bark, inscribed with figures of gods, men, or animals, which were consulted on all important occasions, and their mysterious signs interpreted by the Shamans. Even foreign potentates hearkened to the voice of these renowned magicians, and in England the expression " Lap- land witches " became proverbial, although it appears that there never were any witches, but only wizards, in Lapland. Such rites have long ceased to be practised, although some of the crude ideas of a material after-life still linger on. Money and other treasures are often buried or hid away, the owners dying without revealing the secret, either through forgetfulness, or more probably of set purpose in the hope of thus making provision for the other world. Amongst the kindred Samoyads, despite their Russian ortho- doxy, the old pagan beliefs enjoy a still more vigorous existence. "As long as things go well with him, he is a Christian; but should his reindeer die, or other catastrophe happen, he imme- diately returns to his old god Num or Chaddi... ^o. conducts his heathen services by night and in secret, and carefully screens from sight any image of Chaddi1." Mr Jackson noticed several instances of this compromise between the old and the new, such as the wooden cross supplemented on the Samoyad graves by an overturned sledge to convey the dead safely over the snows of the under-world, and the rings of stones, within which the human sacrifices were perhaps formerly offered to propitiate Chaddi ; and although these things have ceased, "it is only a few years ago that a Samoyad living on Novaia Zemlia sacrificed a young girl." Similar beliefs and practices still prevail not only amongst the Siberian Finns — Ostyaks of the Yenisei and Obi rivers, Voguls of the Urals — but even amongst Finns, the Votyaks, Mordvinians, Cheremisses and other scattered groups still surviving in the Volga basin. So recently as 1 The Great Frozen Land, p. 84. 342 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. the year 1896 a number of Votyaks were tried and convicted for the murder of a passing mendicant, whom they had beheaded to appease the wrath of Kiremet, Spirit of Evil and author of the famine raging at that time in Central Russia. Besides Kiremet, the Votyaks — who appear to have migrated from the Urals to their present homes between the Kama and the Viatka rivers about 400 A.D., and are mostly heathens — also worship Inmar, God of Heaven, to whom they sacrifice animals as well as human beings whenever it can be safely done. We are assured by Baron de Baye that even the few who are baptized take part secretly in these unhallowed rites1. To the Ugrian branch, rudest and most savage of all the Finnish peoples, belong these now moribund Volga groups, as well as the fierce Bulgar and Magyar hordes, if not also their precursors, the Jazyges and Rhoxolani, who in the 2nd century A.D. swarmed into Pannonia from the Russian steppe, and in company with the Germanic Quadi and Marcomanni twice (168 and 172) advanced to the walls of Aquileia, and were twice arrested by the legions of Marcus Aurelius and Verus. Of the once numerous Jazyges, whom Pliny calls Sarmates, there were several branches —Mceotce, Metanastcz, Basilii ("Royal") — who were first reduced by the Goths spreading from the Baltic to the Euxine and Lower Danube, and then overwhelmed with the Dacians, Getae, Bastarnae, and a hundred other ancient peoples in the great deluge of the Hunnish invasion. From the same South Russian steppe — the plains watered by the Lower Don and Dnieper — came the Bulgars, The Bulgars —Origins and first in association with the Huns, from whom they are scarcely distinguished by the early Byzantine writers, and then as a separate people, who, after throwing off the yoke of the Avars (635 A.D.), withdrew before the pressure of the Khazars westwards to the Lower Danube (678). But their records go much farther back than these dates, and while philologists and archaeologists are able to trace their wanderings step by step north to the Middle Volga and the Ural Mountains, authentic Armenian 1 Notes stir les Votiaks payms des Gonvernements de Kazan et Viatka, Paris. 1897. They are still numerous, especially in Yiatka, where they numbered 240,000 in 1897. IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 343 documents carry their history back to the 2nd century B.C. Under the Arsacides numerous bands of Bulgars, driven from their homes about the Kama confluence by civil strife, settled on the banks of the Aras, and since that time (150 — 114 B.C.) the Bulgars were known to the Armenians as a great nation dwelling away to the north far beyond the Caucasus. Originally the name, which afterwards acquired such an odious notoriety amongst the European peoples, may have been more geographical than ethnical, implying not so much a particular nation as all the inhabitants of the Bulga (Volga) between the Kama and the Caspian. But at that time this section of the great river seems to have been mainly held by more or less homo- geneous branches of the Finno-Ugrian family, and palethnologists have now shown that to this connection beyond all question belonged in physical appearance, speech, and usages those bands known as Bulgars, who formed permanent settlements in Mcesia south of the Lower Danube towards the close of the yth century1. Here "these bold and dexterous archers, who drank the milk and feasted on the flesh of their fleet and indefatigable horses ; whose flocks and herds followed, or rather guided, the motions of their roving camps ; to whose inroads no country was remote or imper- vious, and who were practised in flight, though incapable of fear2," established a powerful state, which maintained its independence for over seven hundred years (678 — 1392). Acting at first in association with the Slavs, and then assuming " a vague dominion " over their restless Sarmatian allies, the Bulgars spread the terror of their hated name throughout the Balkan lands, and were prevented only by the skill of Belisarius from anticipating their Turki kinsmen in the overthrow of the Byzantine Empire itself. Procopius and Jornandes have left terrible pictures of the ferocity, debasement, and utter savagery, both of the Bulgars and of their Slav confederates during the period preceding the foundation of the Bulgar dynasty in Moesia. Wherever the Slavs (Antes, Slavini) passed, no soul was left 1 See especially Schafarik's classical work Slavische Alterthiiiner, II. p. 159 sq. and V. de Saint- Martin, Etudes de Geographic Ancienne et d 'Ethnographic asiatique, n. p. 10 sq., also the still indispensable Gibbon, Ch. XLII. &c. : Decline and Fall, XLII. 344 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. alive ; Thrace and Illyria were strewn with unburied corpses ; captives were shut up with horse and cattle in stables, and all consumed together, while the brutal hordes danced to the music of their shrieks and groans. Indescribable was the horror inspired by the Bulgars, who killed for killing's sake, wasted for sheer love of destruction, swept away all works of the human hand, burnt, razed cities, left in their wake nought but a picture of their own cheerless native steppes. Of all the barbarians that harried the Empire, the Bulgars have left the most detested name, although closely rivalled by the Slavs. To the ethnologist the later history of the Bulgarians is of exceptional interest. They entered the Danubian lands in the seventh century as typical Ugro-Finns, repulsive alike in physical appearance and mental characters. Their dreaded chief, Krum, celebrated hiS triumphs with sanguinary rites, and his followers yielded in no respects to the Huns themselves in coarseness and brutality. Yet an almost complete moral if not physical trans- formation had been effected by the middle of the 9th century, when the Bulgars were evangelised by Cyril and Methodius, exchanged their rude Ugrian speech for a Slavonic tongue, the so-called "Church Slav," or even "Old Bulgarian," and became henceforth merged in the surrounding Slav populations. The national name "Bulgar" alone survives, as that of a somewhat peaceful southern " Slav " people, who have in our time again acquired the political independence of which they had been de- prived by Bajazet I. in 1392. Nor did this name disappear from the Volga lands after the great migration of Bulgar hordes to the Don basin Great and ° Little Bui- during the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. On the contrary, here arose another and a greater Bulgar empire, which was known to the Byzantines of the zoth century as " Black Bulgaria," and later to the Arabs and Western peoples as " Great Bulgaria," in contradistinction to the " Little Bulgaria " south of the Danube1. It fell to pieces during the later "Tatar" 1 Rubruquis (i3th century) : "We came to the Etil, a very large and deep river four times wider than the Seine, flowing from 'Great Bulgaria,' which lies to the north." Farther on he adds: "It is from this Great Bulgaria that IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 345 wars, and nothing now remains of the Volga Bulgars, except the Volga itself from which they were named. In the same region, but farther north1, lay also a "Great Hungary," the original seat of those other Ugrian Finns known as Hungarians and Magyars, who Magyars!" followed later in the track of the Bulgars, and like them formed permanent settlements in the Danube basin, but higher up in Pannonia, the present kingdom of Hungary. Here, however, the Magyars had been preceded by the kindred (or at least distantly connected) Avars, the dominant people in the Middle Danube lands for a great part of the period between the departure of the Huns and the arrival of the Magyars2. Rolling up like a storm cloud from the depths of Siberia to the Volga and Euxine, sweeping everything before them, reducing Kutigurs, Utigurs, Bulgars, and Slavs, the Avars presented themselves in the 6th century on the frontiers of the empire as the unwelcome allies of Justinian. Arrested at the Elbe by the Austrasian Franks, and hard pressed by the Gepidae, they withdrew to the Lower Danube under the ferocious Khagan Bayan, who, before his over- throw by the Emperor Mauritius and death in 602, had crossed the Danube, captured Sirmium, and reduced the whole region bordering on the Byzantine empire. Later the still powerful Avars with their Slav followers, "the Avar viper and the Slav locust," overran the Balkan lands, and in 625 nearly captured Constantinople. They were at last crushed by Pepin, king of issued those Bulgarians who are beyond the Danube, on the Constantinople side" (quoted by V. de Saint-Martin). 1 Evidently much nearer to the Ural Mountains, for Jean du Plan Carpin says this "Great Hungary was the land of Bascart" that is, Bashkir, a large Finno-Turki people, who still occupy a considerable territory in the Orenburg Government about the southern slopes of the Urals. - With them were associated many of the surviving fugitive On- Uigurs (Gibbon's "Ogors or Varchonites"), whence the report that they were not true Avars. But the Turki genealogies would appear to admit their claim to the name, and in any case the Uigurs and Avars of those times cannot now be ethnically distinguished. Kandish, one of their envoys to Justinian, is clearly a Turki name, and Varchonites seems to point to the Warkhon (Orkhon), seat in successive ages of the eastern Turks, the Uigurs, and the true Mongols. 346 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Italy, who reoccupied Sirmium in 799, and brought back such treasure that the value of gold was for a time enormously reduced. Then came the opportunity of the Hitnagars (Hungarians), who, after advancing from the Urals to the Volga (550 A.D.), had reached the Danube about 886. Here they were invited to the aid of the Germanic king Arnulf, threatened by a formidable Ma ar coalition of the western Slavs under the redoubtable Origins and Zventibolg, a nominal Christian who would enter the church on horseback followed by his wild re- tainers, and threaten the priest at the altar with the lash. In the upland Transylvanian valleys the Hunagars had been joined by eight of the derelict Khazar tribes, amongst whom were the Megers or Mogers, whose name under the form of Magyar was eventually extended to the united Hunagar-Khazar nation. Under their renowned king Arpad, son of Almuth, they first overthrew Zventibolg, and then with the help of the surviving Avars reduced the surrounding Slav populations. Thus towards the close of the 9th century was founded in Pannonia the present kingdom of Hungary, in which were absorbed all the kindred Mongol and Finno-Turki elements that still survived from the two previous Mongolo-Turki empires, established in the same region by the Huns under Attila (430-453), and by the Avars under Khagan Bayan (562-602). After reducing the whole of Pannonia and ravaging Cannthia and Friuli, the Hungars raided Bavaria and Italy (899-900), imposed a tribute on the feeble successor of Arnulf (910), and pushed their plundering expeditions as far west as Alsace, Lorraine, and Burgundy, everywhere committing atrocities that recalled the memory of Attila's savage hordes. They were reported to drink the blood of their captives, so that in medieval legends the term hungar, ongar (the ogre of our fairy tales), indicated a man-eating monster who devoured the flesh and drank the blood of children. Later the same word seems to have been revived and associated with the Uigur Turks who, as above seen, took part in the Mongol invasions of Europe under Jenghiz-Khan and his suc- cessors. This period of lawlessness and savagery was closed by the IX.] THE NORTHERN MONGOLS. 347 conversion of Saint Stephen I. (997-1038), after which the Magyars became gradually assimilated in type and general culture, but not in speech, to the western nations1. Their harmonious and highly cultivated language still remains a typical member of the Ural-Altaic family, reflecting in its somewhat composite vocabulary the various Finno-Ugric and Turki elements (Ugrians and Permians from the Urals, Volga Finns, Turki Avars and Khazars), of which the substratum of the Magyar nation is con- stituted2. Politically the Magyars continue to occupy a position of vital importance in Eastern Europe, wedged in between the northern and southern Slav peoples, and thus presenting an insurmount- able obstacle to the aspirations of the Panslavist dreamers. The fiery and vigorous Magyar nationality, a compact body of about 8,000,000 (1898), holds the boundless plains watered by the Middle Danube and the Theiss, and thus permanently separates the Chekhs, Moravians, and Slovaks of Bohemia and the northern Carpathians from their kinsmen, the Yugo-Slavs ("Southern Slavs ") of Servia and the other now Slavonized Balkan lands. These Yugo-Slavs are in their turn severed by the Rumanians of Neo- Latin speech from their northern and eastern brethren, the Ruth- enians, Poles, Great and Little Russians. Had the Magyars and Rumanians adopted any of the neighbouring Slav idioms, it is safe to say that, like the Ugrian Bulgarians, they must have long ago been absorbed in the surrounding Panslav world, with con- sequences to the central European nations which it would not be difficult to forecast. Here we have a striking illustration of the influence of language in developing and preserving the national sentiment, analogous in many respects to that now witnessed on a larger scale amongst the English-speaking populations on both 1 Ethnology, p. 309. - Yambery, perhaps the best authority on this point, holds that in its structure Magyar leans more to the Finno-Ugric, and in its vocabulary to the Turki branch of the Ural-Altaic linguistic family. He attributes the efface- ment of the physical type partly to the effects of the environment, partly to the continuous interminglings of the Ugric, Turki, Slav, and Germanic peoples in Pannonia (Ueber den Ursprung der Magyaren, in Mitt. d. K. K. Geograph. Ges., Vienna, 1897, XL. Nos. 3 and 4). 348 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. IX. sides of the Atlantic and in the Austral lands. From this point of view the ethnologist may unreservedly accept Ehrenreich's trenchant remark that "the nation stands and falls with its speech1." 1 "Das Volk steht und fallt mit der Sprache" (Urbewohner Brasiliens, 1897, p. 14). CHAPTER X. THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. Origin and Cultural Evolution — Two Primitive Types : Long-heads from Europe ; Round-heads from Asia — Mongolo-Caucasic Relations — The American specialised in America — Palaeolithic Man in America — Inde- pendent Evolution of Speech in America — Stock Languages — Distribution of the Original Ethnical Elements — Cranial Deformation — The "Toltecs" -Type of North-west Coast Indians — Contrasts and Transitions between British Columbians and Eskimoans — Eskimo Origins and Migrations— Skrdllinger and Norsemen — Eskimo and Aleut Cradleland — Tribal Organization — Variable Type — Uniform Character of Eskimo Speech- Cultural Systems — Shamanism — Thlinkit and Haida Heraldic Posts- Folklore — Range of the Athabascans — Navajos and Apaches — The Indian Reservations — The Mound-Builders — The "Six Nations" -The Chero- kees — The Cherokee Writing System — The Muskhogeans — Primitive Man in Florida — The Siouans : Origins and Migrations — The Biloxi : Migra- tions and Displacements — Cosmogonies — The Dakotas— —Dakota Social System — The Totem : — Clan, Gens, and Phratry — The Pueblo Indians and Cliff-Dwellers — Their Cultural Relations — The Pueblo Clan System- Symbolism and Snake Dances. CONSPECTUS. Primeval Home. North and South America, . Distribu- tion in Present Range. N. W. Pacific Coastlands ; the £ast and Present shores of the Arctic Ocean, Labrador, and Greenland : the Times. unsettled parts of Alaska and the Dominion; Reservations and Agencies in the Dominion and the United States ; parts of Florida, Arizona, and New Mexico ; most of Central and South America with Fuegia either wild and full-blood, or semi-civilized half-breeds. Hair, black, lank, coarse, often very long, nearly Physical round in transverse section ; face and body hairless ; ters. Colour, normally coppery or yellowish-brown, but dark brown on the itplands, and light brown in the Amazonian and other woodlands ; Skull, generally mesaticephalous 350 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. (79°), but with wide range from 65 (some Eskimo] to 89 or 90 (some British Columbians, Peruvians); the os Incae more frequently present than amongst other races, but the os linguae (hyoid bone} often imperfectly de- veloped ; Jaws, massive, but moderately projecting (meso- gnathous, 72); Cheek-bone, rather prominent laterally, and also high, but often of normal Caucasic form ; Nose, generally large, straight or even aquiline, and mesorrhine (50); Eyes, nearly always black, round, and straight, but small, rather deep-set, and sometimes slightly oblique; Stature, usually above the medium ($ft. 8 or 10 /;/.), but variable — under 5 ft. 6 in. on the western plateaux (Peruvians, &*c.], also in Fuegia and Alaska; 6ft. and upwards in Patagonia (Tehuelches), Central Brazil (Boro?-os] and Prairie (Algonquians, Iroquoians] ; Lips, Arms, Legs, and Feet, of normal (European] type. Mental Temperament, moody, reserved, and wary; out- C ri 3. r etc — ters. wardly impassive and capable of enduring extreme physical pain ; considerate towards each other, kind and gentle towards their women and children, but not in a demon- strative manner ; keen sense of justice, hence easily offended, but also easily pacified. The outward show of dignity and a lofty air assumed by many seems due more to vanity or ostentation than to a feeling of true pride. Mental capacity considerable, much higher than the Negro, but on the whole inferior to the Mongol. Speech, exclusively polysynthetic, a type unknown elsewhere ; is not a primitive condition, but a highly specialised form of agglutination, in which all the terms of the sentence tend to coalesce in a single polysyllabic word ; stock languages very numerous, perhaps more so than all the stock languages of all the other orders of speech in the rest of the world. Religion, various grades of spirit and nature wor- ship, corresponding to the various cultural grades; a crude form of shamanism prevalent amongst most of the North American aborigines, polytheism with sacrifice and priestcraft amongst the cultured peoples (Aztecs, Mayas, X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 351 .)/ the monotheistic concept nowhere clearly evolved ; belief in a natural afterlife very prevalent, if not uni- versal. Culture, highly diversified, ranging from the lowest stages of savagery through various deg?-ees of barbarism to the advanced social state of the more or less civilised Mayas, Aztecs, Chibchas, Yuncas, Qidchuas, and Aymaras; amongst these pottery, weaving, metal-work, agriculture, and especially architecture fairly well developed ; letters less so, although the Maya script seems to have reached the true phonetic state : navigation and science rudi- mentary or absent ; in general savagery far more prevalent and intense in South than in North America, but the tribal state almost everywhere persistent. North America : Eskimauan (Innuit, Aleut, Kara- .M.ain Divisions. lit); Athapascan (Kuchin, Chippewyan, Apache, Navajo); Kolushan; Algonquian (Delaware, Abenaki, Chippevvay, Shawnee, Arapaho, Sac and Fox, Blackfoot); Iroquoian (Huron, Mohawk, Tuscarora, Seneca, Cayuga, Onon- daga); Siouan (Dakota, Omaha, Crow, Iowa, Osage, Assiniboin); Shoshonean (Comanche, Ute); Salishan ; Sahaptian ; Caddoan ; Muskhogean (Creek, Choctaw, Chicasa, Seminole) ; Pueblo (Zuni, Tegua, Jemez, Moqui). Central America : Opatan ; Nahuatlan (Aztec, Pipil); Huaxtecan (Maya, Quiche', Pocoman); Miztecan ; Zapotecan ; Charotegan ; Otomitlan ; Talamancan. South America: Muyscan (Chibcha); Quechuan (Quitu, Chincha, Inca, Aymara) ; Yuncan (Chimu) ; Antisan ; Jivaran ; Zaparan ; Betoyan ; Warrauan ; Panoan ; Ticunan ; Lecan ; Bar?-ean ; Tacanan ; Chi- quitan ; Mojan: Arawakan (Atorai, Maypure, Wapiana, Vaura, Mahinacu, Layana); Cariban (Bakairi, Nahuqua, Pamella, Galibi, Calina, Arecuna, Macusi, Ackawoi) ; Guaranian (Tembo, Tupi, Omagua, ]\Iundrucu) ; Gesan (Botocudo, Camacan); Charruan; Mataguayan; Lulean ; Toban ; Mocobian ; Araucan ; Puelchean (Pampas); Tehuelchean ; Fuegian (Yahgan, Alacaluf). 352 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. No serious inquiry into the ethnical relations of the primitive inhabitants of the New World can avoid the discussion of such Origin and Primar7 questions as their origin and cultural evolu- Cuiturai tion. Are they indigenous in the absolute sense of Evolution. the word ? It not, from what quarter or quarters of the Eastern Hemisphere did they reach their present habitat ? Or, what is practically the same thing, from what other division or divisions of mankind did they branch off? When did the segmentation take place ? How far, if at all, was their subsequent physical and cultural development influenced by the peoples of the Old World ? My own views on these fundamental questions, elsewhere given in some detail1, may here be briefly re -stated. The abun- dant traces of primitive man — both the works of his hand, and in some places even his osseous remains themselves — strewn over the continent from Alaska to Fuegia, show that America forms no exception to the general statement that all the habitable parts of the globe were occupied by man in pleistocene times, that is, during the early Stone Ages. But at that period the works of man, as well as man himself, were still but slightly specialised, everywhere presenting the same generalised and uniform types2. Consequently the American pleistocene man was not greatly to be distinguished from his fellows in other regions of the world. But this generalised precursor originated, not independently in several zoological zones from several independent pliocene and miocene ancestors, but in one zoological zone — Indo- Malaysia — from one pliocene ancestor, perhaps best represented by Dubois' Pithecanthropus erectus, and spread by migration thence over the globe3. It follows that the American aborigines are not in- digenous in the absolute sense, but reached the Western from the Eastern Hemisphere in the primitive state, prior to all strictly cultural developments. A study of their physical constitution, substantially but not wholly uniform — with indeed two marked sub-varieties, respectively 1 American Indians, Encyclopedia Britannica New (ixth) edition; Ethno- logy, Chap. xni. 2 See pp. 8-9. 3 PP- 3-8- X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 353 represented in the north by the Eskimo long-heads and the Mexican round-heads, in the south by the Botocudo . , " . Two primi- long-heads and the Andean round-heads — points at tive Types : two streams of immigrants from the Old World. £°mgEhue*0dpse • The Eskimo-Botocudo section has been traced to Round-heads from Asia. the long-headed palaeolithic man of Europe1, which continent geology has shown to have been connected with North America through the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Greenland down to post-glacial times. The other section, which probably greatly outnumbered the first, came apparently later (during the New Stone Age) from Eastern Asia by the Bering waters, and are now represented, allowing for great intermixture, by the still prevalent round-headed element. Since then till late historic times there were no further arrivals by the European route, the land connection having been sub- merged ; nor by the Asiatic to any appreciable extent, no clear evidence being forthcoming of the presence of early historic, that is, highly specialised Asiatic peoples in the New World. On like negative grounds, which have here the force of the strongest positive arguments, early immigrants numerous enough to affect the questions at issue are also excluded both from Africa and Australasia. The constituent elements of our aborigines would therefore appear to be proto-Europeans of the First Stone Age, a somewhat generalised primitive Caucasic type, and proto-Asiatics, a some- what generalised primitive Mongolo-American type, both Euro- pean and Asiatic still preserving many common features of the common pleistocene precursors. Is it surprising that, under such conditions, opinions should differ as to the actual relations of the Americans to the great ethnical groups in the Old World ; some insisting upon, others vehemently denying, all Mongol kinship, some emphasising a European connection, some with Ehrenreich 1 G. de Mortillet amongst others suggests that at the close of the Solutrian and Madelenian epochs some of the primitive inhabitants of France migrated northwards with the reindeer, and passing by the then existing land bridge into America became the ancestors of the Eskimo, the earliest "French Colonists" in that part of the world (Formation de la Nation Fran<;aise, 1897). This view is anticipated by Topinard on anatomical grounds (Eth, p. 364). K. 23 354 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. maintaining that they are sui generis, products of the soil, to be considered as much or as little a distinct race as those of other parts of the world, in any case differing no more from Europeans than from Asiatics ? This is precisely what we should expect, if the American division, with its undeniable general family likeness and substantial uniformity, combined with two rather strongly marked types, were really constituted in the way here set forth. Ehrenreich winds up a lengthy discussion of the whole question with the remark that "if the Caucasic race is to be regarded as one, there is no reason for treating the American differently. It were strange were it not subject to variation like the other main divisions. In fact the American shows considerably more uniformity when compared with the whole Caucasic division, which taken in its widest sense comprises the Aryan, Semitic, and Hamitic stocks, whose colour ranges from an albino white through all transitional shades to the deepest black, and whose skulls show every degree of dolicho- and brachycephaly. Such differences also as occur in Africa amongst the Bantu negroes, Hottentots, and Bushmen are not found amongst the Americans, whose variability is scarcely greater than that of the Malay and Mongol peoples." To me it is specially gratifying to find that this careful observer of the American aborigines in almost every part of the continent closes the discussion with the frank accept- ance of my general conclusion that " without denying a common origin of both groups [Mongol and American] it may still be argued that the American offshoot has diverged sufficiently to be regarded as a distinct variety in the same sense that the Mongol is itself taken as a distinct variety1." 1 Eth, p. 222, quoted by Ehrenreich in Anthropologische Studien, &c., p. 44. Indications of such divergence are afforded by the five anatomical peculiarities of the American aborigines described by Dr Hermann Ten Kate, the most characteristic of which is perhaps the form of the hyoid bone (os lingua sup- porting the tongue). This observer finds that the large cornua, nearly always soldered to the body of the bone in Europeans, remains distinct in the Ameri- cans, as in 17 old Zuiiis, y moundbuilders, one Yahgan, a mummy from north- west Argentina, another from a Patagonian cave near Lake Argentin, 3 old Patagonians from the Rio Chubut, and one Brazilian. He regards the character as a case of arrested development which he considers himself justified in dis- tinguishing as "American" (Sur qnelques points tfosteologie ethnique, &c., in X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 355 The question of origins thus disposed of, that of cultural development is settled a priori. It must be ob- i-r American vious that if the American race starts on its life culture history from the Stone Ages, and receives no later accessions from abroad, whatever degree of culture it ultimately reached, whatever stage of progress the arts, in- dustries, science, and letters may have acquired in Mexico, Yucatan, Peru, or any other centre of civilisation, they must all have been independent local growths, owing absolutely nothing to foreign influences. To this logical position the only possible reply might be an a posteriori argument based on facts at variance with the a priori assumption. Such facts, if forthcoming, might, for instance, be the presence in some part or parts of the continent of some language or languages clearly traceable to an eastern source; or some ancient buildings unmistakably designed on Egyptian, Babylonian, Hindu, or other foreign prototypes; or any inscrip- tions on such monuments either explicable by the aid of Asiatic or other languages, or carved in some script whose foreign origin could not be denied ; or any sailing craft built on the lines of the Greek trireme, the Venetian galley, the Chinese junk, the Malay prau, or even the more primitive Polynesian outrigger or Indian catamaran ; or oil lamps of some familiar type l ; or some such economic plants as wheat and rice, which, not being indigenous, might be found cultivated in suitable localities, and thus supply an argument at least for later intercourse. But nothing of all this Revisla del Museo dc la Plata, vn. 1896). Here may be quoted Virchow's weighty words on the general uniformity of the American type in connection with the seven Patagonians (Piyoche tribe) brought to Europe in 1879: " Wir haben fast nichts in der alten Welt dieser Homogeneitat an die Seite zu stellen. Die Massenhaftigkeit der Knochenentwickelung...die bei den Gronlandern anfangt, und sich durch fast alle altern Vb'lkerschichten Amerikas bis zur Magelhaensstrasse verfolgen lasst, tritt hier so auffallend vor, class der Kopf, in Verhaltniss zu dem Gesammtkorper, nahezu so gewaltig erscheint wie der Kopf eines Lowen" (Zeitsc/i.f. Ethnol. 1879, P- Z99)- 1 Except amongst the Eskimo, who might have borrowed the idea from the Norsemen, "no lamps at all were known to the indigenes of America, not even to the comparatively cultured Mexicans and Peruvians" (E. B. Tylor, Jonrn. Anthrop. Inst. 1884, P- 35 2)- 23—2 356 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. has ever been found, and the list might be prolonged indefinitely without discovering any cultural links between the two hemi- spheres beyond such as may be traced to the Stone Ages, or to the common psychic unity of the human family. Proofs need not here be advanced of this sweeping statement, because it will find its confirmation in the details that are to follow. One point only need detain us — the complete absence in America of any sailing vessels or other navigable appliances, whether for inland or marine waters, at all comparable to those of the eastern peoples. The Algonquians had their birch-bark canoes, in the calm Peruvian waters rafts drifted with the tides and currents, and it is somewhere mentioned that in the West Indies the roving Caribs hoisted a rudimentary sail on their frail craft when venturing from island to island. Can any more vio- lent contrast be imagined than that presented by Prof. Flinders Petrie's "New Race" already 5000 years ago decorating their fictile vases with the device of "a long boat with two cabins, an ensign pole, and many oars," and the rude representations of the Eskimo, who despite their vicinity to Asia have still nothing to show except the open skin kayak with its double paddle, or at most the larger skin-covered umiak, or " woman's boat," with which oars and sail may be used, but in which "the natives sit with the face toward the bow, using the paddle and not an oar1." In fact all the American boats were mainly propelled by the paddle, which replaced oar, rudder, and true sails, the rare refer- ences to such contrivances occurring for the most part in later times some years after contact with Europeans. On his fourth voyage, however, Columbus met some fine canoes with room for 150 persons off the coast of Cuba; Pizarro also captured a large vessel at Tumbez, which was said to have a sail and rudder, and one or two other allusions are made by the early writers to canoes with sail and rudder, or with sail and oars'2. If these statements can be trusted, it may be inferred that in pre-Columbian times the art of navigation had at least made a beginning amongst the Mayas, 1 Dr W. J. Hoffman. The Graphic Art of the Eskimos, Washington, 1897, p. 847. 2 Fr. Ratzel, The History of Mankind, Eng. ed. 1896, I. p. 41 sq. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 357 Peruvians, and one or two other cultured peoples. But this very beginning was clearly local, as shown by the fact that the Aztecs, most advanced of all in so many respects, had not even got beyond the raft, so that the sails hoisted by Cortez on their lagoons terrified them as an unknown wonder. But in historic times America could be reached only by more or less civilised peoples of specialised type, possessing, not merely crazy junks, but real seaworthy vessels capable of long oceanic voyages, and freighted with useful commodities to sustain life on the journey and open trading relations on arrival. Moreover, one or two casual trips would be useless in the present connection. To produce any general effect such intercourse must have been maintained for a considerable period of time, that is, the ocean route to America must have become a beaten track in pre-Norse and pre-Columbian days. Who is bold enough to associate his name with such an assumption as that ? Again, these early navigators — Phoenicians, Egyptians, Arabs, Malays, Chinese, Japanese, Pelasgians, Mykenaeans — wherever they landed must have found the country either uninhabited, or already occupied by the American aborigines ; or, is there any other alternative? If uninhabited, then they took possession, formed permanent settlements, and perpetuated their race and culture. Or did they burn their ships behind them, like Caesar's legionaries, and voluntarily relapse into savagery, beginning again with the birch-bark canoe or coracle? But even so, the racial type must have persisted, and one asks, where in America are these early Phoenician, Egyptian, or other civilised and specialised settlers ? If, on the other hand, the country was already held by. the present natives did these learn nothing from their foreign friends or foes ? And if anything what has become of it ? Where before the discovery was the wheat or rice1, which could scarcely help running wild in many places ? Where the dog, sheep, horse, ox, pig, poultry, which once introduced must have thriven then as 1 That is the true Asiatic cereal, not the "wild rice," or "Canada rice ;' (Zizania aquatica}, which is known to many North American tribes, and an account of which is given by Mr Gardiner P. Stickney in the Amer. Anthropo- logist for April, 1896. 358 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. well as now ? Where the linguistic affinities, the inevitable loan words, the Egyptian or Chinese hieroglyphs, the Phoenician alphabet, the Babylonian cuneiforms, or other eastern scripts ? Of such things there are frauds, enough and to spare, but not a single genuine document in stone, bronze, or durable material has ever been found anywhere between the two oceans. Not one link, not one tangible link, has ever come to light to connect the cultures of the Old and New Worlds. Yet how many links would be needed for a chain long enough to stretch across Atlantic or Pacific ! The a priori assumption therefore stands, and, pending further research, those ethnologists are fully justified who maintain the absolutely independent evolution of post-neolithic culture in the New World. Amongst them it is satisfactory to be able now to include Mr J. W. Powell, who has rendered such inestimable ser- vices to American anthropology, of which he may claim to be the first living exponent. In the paper already referred to1 Mr Powell affirms that " the aboriginal peoples of America cannot be allied preferentially to any one branch of the human race in the Old World"; that "there is no evidence that any of the arts of the American Indians were borrowed from the Orient " : that " stone implements and many other things are found in the latest pleisto- cene deposits of valleys and plains everywhere throughout America," although "nothing has been discovered which antedates the glacial epoch"; that "the industrial arts of America were born in America, America was inhabited by tribes at the time of the beginning of industrial arts. They left the Old World before they had learned to make knives, spear and arrowheads, or at least when they knew the art only in its crudest state. Thus primitive man has been here ever since the invention of the stone knife and the stone hammer." He further contends that "the American Indian did not derive his forms of government, his industrial or decorative arts, his languages, or his mythological opinions from the Old World, but developed them in the New"; and that "in the demotic characteristics of the American Indians, all that is common to tribes of the Orient is universal, all that distinguishes 1 Whence came the American Indians? Forum, Feb. 1898. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 359 one group of tribes from another in America distinguishes them from all other tribes of the world1." These general conclusions, however, leave untouched the question of palaeolithic man in the New World, on paiaeoiithi which opinion continues to be divided, especially in Man in the United States. Some confusion has certainly been caused by the failure to distinguish carefully between time and cultural sequences. It is not denied that multitudes of stone implements occur in many parts of America which closely resemble those of the palaeolithic age in Europe. Nevertheless their value as evidence of a corresponding palaeolithic age in the New World is denied, because here they represent, or may repre- sent, merely a low stage of culture which still continues, and has no necessary reference to time. The European objects occur in undisturbed glacial and even pre-glacial deposits, in caves under thick stalagmite floors, in association with long extinct faunas, and under other circumstances, by all of which their pleistocene age and absolute antiquity are established. But in America, it is argued, they are mostly surface finds, and when occurring in situ, doubts are raised on the geological age of the beds, or on their condition (whether disturbed or not), or even on the good faith of the finders. Hence in his Primitive Industry'2, Dr Thomas Wilson, who favours antiquity, claimed for the objects in question no more than that they were "to be taken as serious evidence in favour of Palaeolithic Man in America," just as they have "proved him to have existed in Europe," and this "under all reserve, and subject to future discoveries." Since then such a discovery would appear to have been made in 1897 by the party of experts who undertook by independent inquiry to sift the much contested evidence from the Delaware gravels at Trenton, where Dr C. C. Abbott had been at work for 1 The same position is taken by others, among them being Prof. Edward S. Morse, who opened a discussion on the subject at the meeting of the Amer. Assoc. Detroit, 1897, and insisted upon the essential unity of the American race, both in its physical characters and cultural developments, noting especially the absence from America of tea, silk, and other useful and easily transported Asiatic commodities, as already pointed out in Eth. Ch. XIII. 2 Washington, 1894, p. 534 of the Smithsonian Report for 1892. 360 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. years. Mr Mercer, while suggesting possible intrusions from above, "when all was considered felt forced to conclude that a significant number1 of artificial chips rested in situ in the sand, and hence were of an age indicating its deposition." On this question of age, Prof. Hollick reported that " the undisturbed sand was found to be distinctly stratified and evidently a water deposit" He "accepts the conclusions of competent authorities that the so-called palaeoliths are of human manufacture, and that the sand in which they occur is of glacial age.... The only con- troversy which seems possible is over the question of intrusion from above and, in view of the facts now adduced, the burden of proof should in fairness rest with those who hold this view2." Unless, therefore, intrusion is proved, of which there seems to be no evidence, the question would appear to be settled in favour of Palaeolithic Man in North America. Further evidence in the same direction has been adduced for South America by Prof. A. Nehring, who describes a skull from a sambaqui (shell-mound) at Santos, on the south coast of Brazil, which presents many characters like those of the Javanese Pithec- anthropus erectus*. There is the same marked constriction of the frontal behind the orbital region, a trait highly characteristic of old and late South American skulls, some being not merely relatively, but absolutely not broader than the Java skull. The orbital region of the frontal is somewhat like the Neanderthal, with low retreating forehead and well-developed glabella and orbital ridges; cephalic index 77-6, but height and consequent cranial capacity much greater than the Java, so far as this can be conjectured. The face also is strongly prognathous, a feature enhanced perhaps by the abnormal dental development, the pre- molars and molars being very like those of the Spy, No. i, cranium. Dr H. Meyer's explorations in 1896 of the huge Laguna sambaquis in the same region, some quite 50 feet high and 1 About fifty mostly man-made argillite, chert, jasper, and quartz flakes. 1 An Investigation of Man's Antiquity at Trenton, by Prof. G. F. Wright, Prof. Arthur Hollick, Messrs H. B. Kiimmel, G. N. Knapp, and H. C. Mercer {Science, Nov. 5, 1897). Verhandl. Berliner Anthrop. Ges. 1896, p. 710. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 361 • of vast extent, have brought to light further remains of primitive man, including as many as seven skeletons found at different levels1. Thus are greatly strengthened the views which were already entertained regarding the presence of Pleistocene Man in South America, and were based on the researches of Ameghino, Lund, Moreno, Burmeister, Hudson, Lovisato and others in the now classical Lagoa Santa caves of Minas Geraes, in the Parana basin (Rio Carcarana\ in the Buenos Ayres district (Sambo- rombon), in Patagonia (Rio Negro Valley), and in Tierra del Fuego (Elizabeth Island)2. It may be incidentally mentioned that, from a thorough study of the fossil remains, especially of Lagoa Santa, the Danish anthropologist, Herluf Winge, infers that man is more closely allied to the gibbon than to the other simians — a conclusion also pointed at by the Java skull — and that the cradle of mankind is to be sought in the Old World, whence primitive man migrated to America at a remote period3. These independent inferences harmonise completely with the views here advocated on the origin and dispersion of the human race, and on the peopling of America during the Stone Ages. They are also confirmed by the linguistic relations in the New World. These are such as can be explained only on the assumption that the early settlers possessed some agglutinatine form of speech at a low stage of Speech in America. of development, and that its further development took place on American soil during an immense period of com- plete isolation unaffected in any way by extraneous influences. The freedom from extraneous influences is shown by the entirely independent character of the American languages, not one of which, after many years of patient comparative study, has yet been traced to a foreign source. It is not merely that they differ from other forms of speech in their general phonetic, structural, and 1 Fully described in Globus, LXIX. p. 338 sq. 2 EtJi. p. 96 sq. :5 Jordf undue og nulevende Aber (Primates) fra Lagoa Santa, &c. Copen- hagen, 1895. The migration from the Old to the New World is, of course, necessitated by the absence of all traces of the Simiictoe from America, as this naturalist insists upon. On this point see Eth. p. 157. 362 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. ^CHAP. lexical features ; they differ from them in their very morphology, as much, for instance, as in the zoological world class differs from class, order from order. They have all of them developed on the same polysynthetic lines, from which if a few here and there now appear to depart, it is only because in the course of their further evolution they have, so to say, broken away from that prototype1. Take the rudest or the most highly cultivated anywhere from Alaska to Fuegia — Eskimo, Iroquois, Algonquin, Aztec, Tarascan, Ipurina, Peruvian, Yahgan — and you will find each and all giving abundant evidence of this universal polysynthetic character,, not one true instance of which can be found anywhere in the eastern hemisphere. There is incorporation with the verb, as in Basque, many of the Caucasus tongues, and the Ural-Altaic group ; but it is everywhere limited to pronominal and purely relational elements. But in the American order of speech there is no such limita- tion, and not merely the pronouns, which are restricted in number, but the nouns with their attributes, which are practically number- less, all enter necessarily into the verbal paradigm. Thus in Tarascan (Mexico): hopocuni=\Q wash the hands; hopodini =• \a wash the ears, from hoponi^to wash, which cannot be used alone2. So in Ipurina (Amazonia): nicucacat<;aurumatinii = \ draw the cord tight round your waist, from m\ I ; cucaca, to draw tight ; tea, cord ; turuma, waist ; tint, characteristic verbal affix ; 2, thy, referring to waist3. 1 Such disintegration is clearly seen in the Carib still surviving in Dominica, of which Mr J. Numa Rat has contributed a somewhat full account to the Jour. Anthrop. fnst. for Nov. 1897, p. 293 sq. Here the broken form arame- taknahdtina bitka appears to represent the polysynthetic arametakuanientibu- buka (root arameta, to hide), as in Pere Breton's Granimaire Caraibe, p. 45, where we have also the form Arametakualubatibubasubutuiruni = know that he will conceal thee (p. 48). It may at the same time be allowed that great inroads have been made on the principle of polysynthesis even in the continental (South American) Carib, as well as in the Colombian Chibcha, the Mexican Otomi and Pima, and no doubt in some other linguistic groups. But that the system must have formerly been continuous over the whole of America seems proved by the persistence of extremely polysynthetic tongues in such widely separated regions as Greenland (Eskimo), Mexico (Aztec), Peru (Quechuan), and Chili (Araucanian). 2 R. de la Grasserie and N. Leon, Langue Tarasqne, Paris, 1896. 3 Rev. J. E. R. Polak, Ipurina Grammar, &c., London, 1894. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 363 We see from such examples that polysynthesis is not a primitive condition of speech, as is often asserted, but on the contrary a highly developed system, in which the original aggluti- native process has gone so far as to attract all the elements of the sentence to the verb, round which they cluster like swarming bees round their queen. In Eskimo the tendency is shown in the construction of nouns and verbs, by which other classes of words are made almost unnecessary, and one word, sometimes of interminable length, is able to express a whole sentence with its subordinate clauses. Dr H. Rink, one of the first Eskimo scholars of modern times, gives the instance : " Sue'rukame- autdlasassoq-tusaramiuk-tuningingmago-iluaringilat = they did not approve that he (a) had omitted to give him ($) something, as he (a) heard that he (b) was going to depart on account of being destitute of everything1." Such monstrosities "are so complicated that in daily speech they could hardly ever occur ; but still they are correct and can be understood by intelligent people2." He gives another and much longer example, which the reader may be spared, adding that there are altogether about 200 particles, as many as ten of which may be piled up on any given stem. The process also often involves great phonetic changes, by which the original form of the elements becomes disguised, as, for instance, in the English hafoth = half-pennyworth. The attempt to deter- mine the number of words that might be formed in this way on a single stem, such as igdlo, a house, had to be given up after getting as far as the compound igdlorssualiortugssarsiumavoq = he wants to find one who will build a large house. It is clear that such a linguistic evolution implies both the postulated isolation from other influences, which must have dis- turbed and broken up the cumbrous process, and also the postulated long period of time to develop and consolidate the 1 The Eskimo Tribes, their Distribution and Characteristics, Copenhagen, 1887, I. p. 62 sq. 2 In fact this very word was first given "as an ordinary example" by Klein- schmidt, Gram. d. Gronlandischen Sprache, Sect. 99, and is also quoted by Byrne, who translates: "They disapproved of him, because he did not give to him, when he heard that he would go off, because he had nothing" (Principles, etc. i. p. 140). 364 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. system throughout the New World. But time is still more imperiously demanded by the vast number of stock Languages, languages, many already extinct, many still current all over the continent, all of which differ profoundly in their vocabulary, often also in their phonesis, and in fact have nothing in common except this extraordinary polysynthetic groove in which they are cast. The most moderate calculations allow at least 150 such stock languages for the whole region, probably as many as in all the rest of the world. But even that conveys but a faint idea of the astonishing diversity of speech prevailing in this truly linguistic Babel. Prof. Powell, who has himself determined as many as 58 stock languages for North America alone1, points out that the practically distinct idioms are far more numerous than might be inferred even from such a large number of mother tongues. Thus, in the Algon- quian2 linguistic family he tells us there are about forty, no one of which could be understood by a people speaking another ; in Athapascan from 30 to 40 ; in Siouan over 20 ; and in Shoshonean a still greater number3. It is the same, or perhaps even worse, in Central and in South America, where the linguistic confusion is so great that no complete classification of the native tongues seems possible. Sir Clements R. Markham has given a tolerably full list of the Amazonian tribes, with altogether 905 entries4, and even after allowing for a large number of synonyms and sub- branches, there still remain some 625 tribal groups, each with at least a distinct dialect. Indeed, but for such linguistic differences, large numbers of these groups would be quite indistinguishable from each other, so great is the prevailing similarity in physical appearance and usages in many districts. Thus Ehrenreich tells us that, " despite their ethnico-linguistic differences, the tribes about the head-waters of the Xingu present complete uniformity • 1 Indian Linguistic Families of America north of Mexico, Washington, 1891. 2 Following this ethnologist's convenient precedent, I use both in Ethnology and here the final syllable an to indicate stock races and languages in America. Thus Algonquin — \h& particular tribe and language of that name; Algonqiiiau — the whole family ; Iroquois, Iroquoian ; Carib, Cariban, etc. 3 Forum, Feb. 1898, p. 683. 4 Joitr. Anthrop. Inst, 1895, p. 236 sq. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 365 in their daily habits, in the conditions of their existence, and their general culture V Yet amongst them are represented three of the radically distinct linguistic groups of Brazil, some (Bakairi and Nahugua) belonging to the Carib, some (Aneto and Kamayura) to the Guarani-Tupi, and some (Mehinaku and Vaura) to the Arawak family. Obviously these could not be so discrimi- nated but for their linguistic differences. On the other hand the opposite phenomenon is occasionally presented of tribes differing considerably in their social relations, which are nevertheless of the same origin, or, what is regarded by Ehrenreich as the same thing, belong to the same linguistic group. Such are the Ipurinas, the Paumari and the Yamamadi of the Purus valley, all grouped as Arawaks because they speak dialects of the Arawakan stock language. At the same time it should be noted that the social differences observed by some modern travellers are often due to the ever-increasing contact with the whites, who are now encroaching on the Gran Chaco plains, and ascending every Amazonian tribu- tary in quest of rubber and the other natural produce abounding in these regions. In the introduction to his valuable list Sir Clements Markham observes that the evidence of language favours the theory that the Amazonian tribes, ''now like the sands on the sea-shore for number, originally sprang from two or at most three parent stocks. Dialects of the Tupi language extend from the roots of the Andes to the Atlantic and southwards into Paraguay... and it is established that the differences in the roots between the numerous Amazonian languages are not so great as was generally supposed." This no doubt is true, and will account for much. But when we see it here recorded that of the Carabuyanas (Japura river) there are or were 16 branches, that the Chiquito group (Bolivia) comprises forty tribes speaking " seven different lan- guages"; that of the Juris (Upper Amazons) there are ten divisions; of the Moxos (Beni and Mamore rivers) 26 branches, "speaking nine, or according to Southey, thirteen languages"; of the Uaupes (Rio Negro) 28 divisions, and so on, we feel how much there is still left to be accounted for. Attempts have been made to weaken 1 Urbewohner Brasiliens, p. 46. 366 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. the force of the linguistic argument by the assumption, at one time much in favour, that the American tongues are of a some- what evanescent nature, in an unstable condition, often changing their form and structure within a few generations. But, says Prof. Powell, " this widely spread opinion does not find warrant in the facts discovered in the course of this research. The author has everywhere been impressed with the fact that savage tongues are singularly persistent, and that a language which is dependent for its existence upon oral tradition is not easily modified1." A test case is the Delaware (Leni Lenape), an Algonquian tongue which, judging from the specimens collected by the Rev. Th. Campanius about 1645, has undergone but slight modification during the last 250 years. In this connection the important point to be noticed is the fact that some of the stock languages have an immense range, while others are crowded together in indescribable confusion in rugged upland valleys, or about river estuaries, or in the recesses of track- less woodlands, and this strangely irregular distribution prevails in all the main divisions of the continent. Thus of Prof. Powell's 58 linguistic families in North America as many as forty are restricted to the relatively narrow strip of coast-land between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, ten are dotted round the Gulf of Mexico from Florida to the Rio Grande, and two disposed round the Gulf of California, while nearly all the rest of the land — some six million square miles— is occupied by the six widely diffused Eskimauan, Athapascan, Algonquian, Iroquoian, Siouan, and Shoshonean families. The same phenomenon is presented by Central and South America, where less than a dozen stock lan- guages— Opatan, Nahuatlan, Huastecan, Chorotegan, Quechuan, Arawakan, Gesan (Tapuyan), Tupi-Guaranian, Cariban, Tacanan -are spread over millions of square miles, while many scores of others are restricted to extremely narrow areas. Here the crowding is largely determined, as in Caucasia, by the altitude (Andes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia ; Sierras in Mexico). But in the United States the chief resort of the "feeble folk" have been the fjord-like formations and estuaries with their rich fishing- 1 Indian Linguistic Families, p. 141. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 367 grounds along the Pacific seaboard. The theory advanced by some leading American anthropologists that these fishing-grounds were first occupied by primitive man, who thence radiated along the lines of least resistance over the continent, has not been generally accepted. However plausible in itself, it seemed difficult to harmonise it with some of the ascertained data, not the least important of which was the discovery that the great Siouan family had their original seats not on the Pacific but on the Atlantic slope (Virginia, the Carolinas). Hence in this instance at least the early migrations were not from the west to the Missouri, but from the east apparently to and up the Mississippi to their later prairie homes. The extraordinary abundance of nutritious and easily captured food yielded by the Pacific estuaries need not be over- looked as a determining cause. But a more potent one was pro- bably the scouring action of fierce predatory steppe nomads, so that here, as in Central Asia, most of the heterogeneous groups huddled together in contracted areas may still be regarded as the " sweepings of the plains." It was inevitable that such dislocations, which have occurred everywhere in the New as well as in the Old World, should give rise to endless interminglings of the two primary elements, causing that great variability Ethnical within certain narrow limits which justifies Dr Hamy's view regarding the diversity of the present American ethnical groups1. First comes the distinctly round-headed type, which comprises the mound-builders, the cliff-dwellers, and the " pueblo Indians ' who belong to one and the same race. Systematic research in the old graves and ruins invariably brings to light the remains of a short, stout, round-headed people with strong jaws, thin nose, and large cheek-bones, resembling the Attacapans, the Uchies, and other survivors of several tribes in the south-east. True brachycephaly increases southwards, as amongst the Mayas, Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and others of Central America, perhaps also the old Chiriquis of Costa Rica, and "Ces divers groupes se comportent a peu pres de la meme maniere que les Malaiques, et 1'on trouve, en Amerique comme en Oceanic, des types humainsbien divers" (Les Races Mala'iques et Amtricaines, in 1} Anthropologie, 1896, p. 140). 368 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. beyond doubt the Chimus, Quechuas, and Aymaras of Peru and Bolivia. Still farther south it recurs in the Rio Negro valley, where d'Orbigny's Puelches are as round-headed as the Mayas of Yucatan (84°), with equally short but narrower face and moderate prognathism. These Puelches form with the Arauca- nians of Chili a separate group, perhaps to some extent con- nected with the Yuncas of the Pacific Coast. On the other hand the Tehuelches, whose cradle appears to have been the Sumadouro district in Central Brazil, are cha- racterised by long heads of archaic type. It was in the Lagoa Santa caves of this district that Lund found the very old, long, high and prognathous skulls, which best represent the primitive long-headed race in South America. From this region it radiated in all directions, north to Guiana, east to the San Francisco basin, west to Ancon, south to the Pampas. Its living representatives are the Botocudos, many Guarani, the Paraguayos, and probably the long-headed Fuegians. The long-heads appear to have arrived first, and to have been followed much later and partly submerged by the round-heads. But in North America the round-headed mound-builders and others were encroached upon by populations of increasingly dolichocephalic type — Redskins and Cherokis, Chichimecs, Tepa- necs, Acolhuas. Even still dolichocephaly is characteristic of Iroquois, Coahuilas, Sonorans, while the intermediate indices met with on the prairies and plateaux undoubtedly indicate the mixture between the long-headed invaders and the round-heads whom they swept aside as they advanced southwards. Thus the Minnetaris are highly dolicho; the Ponkas and Osages sub- brachy; the Algonquians variable, while the Siouans oscillate widely round a mesaticephalous mean. The Athapascans alone are homogeneous, and their sub- brachycephaly recurs amongst the Apaches and Deformation, their other southern kindred, who have given it an exaggerated form by the widespread practice of artificial deformation, which dates from remote times. The most typical cases both of brachy and dolicho deformation are from the Cerro de las Palmas graves in south-west Mexico. Defor- mation prevails also in Peru and Bolivia, as well as in Ceara and X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 369 the Rio Negro on the Atlantic side. The flat-head form, so common from the Columbia estuary to Peru, is found amongst the broad-faced Huaxtecs, their near relations the Maya-Quiches, and the Nahuatlans. It was also in use amongst the extinct Cebunys of Cuba, Hayti, and Jamaica, and the T*t- _ so-called "Toltecs," that is, the people of Tollan "Toitecs" (Tula), who first founded a civilised state on the Mexican table-land (6th and yth centuries A.D.), and whose name afterwards became associated with every ancient monument throughout Central America. On this "Toltec question" the most contradictory theories are current, and while some hold that the Toltecs were a great and powerful nation, who after the overthrow of their empire migrated southwards, everywhere spreading their culture throughout Central America, others regard their empire as '{ fabulous," and the Toltecs themselves as a myth, or at all events " nothing more than a sept of the Nahuas themselves, the ancestors of those Mexicans who built Tenochtitlan," i.e. the present city of Mexico. A third view, that of Dr Valentini, that the Toltecs were not Nahuas but Mayas, is now supported both by E. P. Dieseldorf1 and by Dr Forstermann2. It is argued that the Mayas formerly ranged north to lat. 23° N., but that all were driven south by Aztec tribes from the north and west, the Huaxtecs of Vera Cruz alone excepted. Tula and Cholula were Maya settlements, and their culture generally was adopted by the Aztecs, whence the similarity between the two in many points. On the North-west Pacific Coast the same ethnical inter- minglings recur, and Dr Franz Boas3 here distin- guishes as many as four types, the Northern (Tsim- North-wes -west shian and others), the Kwakiutl, the Harrison Lake, Coast In<*ians ' . Variable. and the inland Salishan (Flat-heads, Shuswaps, £c.). All are round-headed, but while the Tsimshians are of medium height, with low, concave nose, very large head, and enormously broad face, exceeding the average for North America by 6 mm., 1 Bastian- Festschrift, 1896 (Who were the Toltecs?}. ! Globus, LXX. No. 3. The Social Organization etc. of the Kwakiutl Indians, Washington, 1897, p. 321 sq. K. 24 37O MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. the Kwakiutls are shorter, with very high and relatively narrow hooked nose, and quite exceptionally high face ; the Harrison Lake very short, with exceedingly short and broad head, " sur- passing in this respect all other forms known to exist in North America"; lastly, the inland Salish rather tall (5 ft. 8 in.), with high and wide nose of the characteristic Indian form. It would be difficult to find anywhere a greater contrast than that which is presented by some of these British Columbian natives, those, for instance, of Harrison Lake with almost circular heads (88-8), and some of the Labrador Eskimos with a degree of dolichocephaly not exceeded even by the Fijian Kai-Colos (65) *. But this violent contrast is somewhat toned by the intermediate forms, such as those of the Thlinkits, the Aleutian islanders, and the western (Alaskan) Eskimo, by which the transition is effected between the Arctic and the more southern populations. It is also to be noticed that the skulls brought in 1869 from North-east Greenland by A. Pansch, of the 2nd German North Polar Expe- dition, and studied by Soren Hansen, show a medium cephalic index as high as 75, with an extreme range from 71-3 to 8i'i~. Assuming that the Skrdllinger of the early Norse records were Eskimo ancestors of the present Greenland Eskimo, about Origins and which there is not much room for doubt, the eastern Migrations. 1-1 • r \ • and many think purest section of this race has been in touch with Europeans ever since the discovery of the New World by Eric the Red about 980 A.D. They appear to have formerly ranged as far south as Massachusetts, where they were again met in 1004 by Thorvald about Kjalarnes (Keel-ness), which has been identified with the present Cape Cod. The Norse account applies badly or not at all to the Algonquians or any other Indians, but quite well to the Eskimos, described as of small size, dark colour, and broad features, using skin canoes 1 W. L. H. Duckworth, Jour. Anthrop. Inst. August, 1895. 2 Centralblattf. Anthropologie, etc., 1896, pp. 137-8. Amongst these skulls, which despite considerable variations present all the recognised features of the Eskimo type and especially the characteristic high pyramidal form, Mr Hansen found one, "an welchem die Schlafenlinien beiderseits sehr hoch lagen, und nur durch einen etwa 2 cm. breiten aufgetriebenen Scheitelkamm getrennt waren, ganz wie bei den menschenahnlichen Affen,'"1 Another (from North-west Greenland) presented the lowest nasal index yet measured (33*9). X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 3/1 (hudh-keipr] and harpoons unknown to the other natives, and eating a mixture of marrow and blood, and what looked like raw-meat, whence the name Eskimantsic, " raw-flesh eaters " given them by the Abenaki Algonquians, and corrupted by the French to Esquimaux*. The most general national name is Innuit^ "Men," in the west (Alaska); Yuit, of same meaning, on the Asiatic side of Bering Strait ; and in the east (Greenland) Karalit, which Cranz thinks may be a native form of Skrallmg*. It is important to notice, in connection with their costume, some usages, implements, myths, and even physical traits, that the two peoples dwelt side by side for several hundred years till the 1 5th century, when the Norsemen withdrew, and that contact was resumed and continued down to the present time early in the 1 8th century, when the Danes reoccupied Greenland. To these protracted relations Prof. Tylor attributes the many striking coin- cidences between the two cultures, mentioning especially the dress, the curious habit of rival parties reciting satirical verses against each other, stone lamps and kettles. " It is thus likely that the Greenlanders may have learnt from the Scandinavians the art of working potstone both into kettles and lamps. If so, the use of these would spread from Greenland over the whole Esquimaux district3." But against this view has to be put the theory strenuously advocated by Dr H. Rink4, that the Eskimo cradle was in the 1 The Abbe E. Petitot, who takes Eskimo from the Kree dialect, gives the form lViyas-ki-mowok="M.angewK de chair crue" (wiyas = chair, arki=cru, mowew = manger). He adds that the collective Mackenzie name is Chiglerk, pi. Chiglit; and the Hudson Bay Aggnt or Axiit, pi. Agittit, while the western tribes call themselves Tachut or Tagut, pi. Chukchit, all these terms meaning "Man," "Men" (Bui. Soc. Geogr. x. 1875, p. 256 sq.) 2 Quoted by Prof. E. B. Tylor, Joiirn. Anthrop. Inst. 1884, p. 349. Others suggest that Skrallmg may be a Norse form of Karalit. The term Ovarian introduced by W. H. Ball (Alaska and its Resources, Boston, 1870; Distribution of the Native Tribes of Alaska, etc., in Proc. Amer. Ass. 1870, vol. 1 8) as a collective designation of all the Eskimo, Aleutian, and Chukchi peoples has not met with general acceptance. 3 Old Scandinavian Civilization among the Modern Esquimaux, Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1884, p. 353. 4 The Eskimo Tribes, their Distribution and Characteristics, 2 vols., Copen- hagen, 1887. 24—2 372 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. interior of the continent, whence they moved down the Yukon, and perhaps other rivers, to the coast. Here (in Eskimo and Aleut Cradle- Alaska) they must have dwelt some considerable time about the lower fluvial reaches and estuaries, developing a "culture home," and gradually adapting themselves to an Arctic environment before a second dispersion took place along the lines of least resistance, over the 5000 miles of sea- board from Bering Strait to Greenland and Labrador. All the conditions accord with the view that the original stock inhabited the interior of Alaska ; that, apart from the true Eskimo, a side branch in the earliest period peopled the Aleutian Islands, while the main stream settled later at the river-mouths, spreading north along Bering Strait, hiving off some colonies to the Asiatic side, passing round to the Mackenzie river, then over the Arctic archi- pelago to Labrador and Greenland. This dispersion may have taken thousands of years, as they can have advanced only in small bands, very much as to this day they are wont to move about during certain seasons. This view is supported by many facts drawn from social usages and speech, but not from their physique. Thus " the kayak does not attain its highest perfection except in Greenland." Again the labret or lip ornament, obviously adopted from the Thlinkits in a reduced form due to climatic influence, ranges only to the Mackenzie. Here two smaller labrets under the corners of the mouth replace the large Thlinkit and Aleutian disk, which, as remarked by Dall, "no hunter exposed to the icy blasts and cold waters could have worn " ; it would have exposed " the extended strip of flesh to freezing and been an insufferable annoyance otherwise." Reference is also made to the ruins on the banks of the Yukon, where Lieut. Ray of the Point Barrow Expedition brought to light "a pair of wooden goggles' from a depth of 26 feet below the surface. It has also been remarked that the Eskimo could only have followed this line of migration by the help of their stone lamps, without whose light and heat life would be impossible in those high latitudes. " Since it is true that the Eskimo is dependent upon his lamp for his very existence, it seems safe to bring forward as a corollary that his migration into his present home was subsequent to the invention of the X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 373 lamp. Further, the lamp seems to have determined the distribu- tion of the Eskimo race1." Although there are no "gentes" in the strict sense, as amongst the Indians, the social organization being on the whole but feebly developed, and although the exist- organization. ence of a tribal system has been denied because the final syllable inut (iniut, mute) of the group-names means " inhabitants " of such districts or stations, nevertheless "the term tribe is undoubtedly the most correct in this case." Recent investigation shows that " each larger household comprising several families has a chief as conscientiously venerated and obeyed as heads of communities or magistrates elsewhere2." It is also a mistake to suppose that all the Eskimos dwell on or near the coast, within 50 miles of the shore, and are seafarers. There are several inland tribes who 1' live by hunting, and have largely intermingled with the Indians, the fusion with the Thlinkits and Athapascans being complete in some districts. The Nushegagmuts of the Nushegak basin "are hunters of considerable skill on both land and water. The natives inhabiting the head-waters of the river and the lake region of the interior are in constant communication with the Athapascan tribes," while others "have been strangely mixed by immigration from the westward and the northward3." To this intermingling must partly be attributed the physical variability in Alaska, where Rink recognises three distinct types: — (i) the tall, cadaverous natives of Kotzebue Sound, who live on fish, ptarmigan and marmots, and always have a hungry look ; (2) the tall, strongly-knit, gigantic Nualoks of splendid physique, who occupy the inland uplands, and feed on the reindeer, mountain sheep, birds and fish ; (3) the short, stumpy people, who pro- bably represent the old Eskimos before contact with southern 1 Walter Hough, The Origin and Range of the Eskimo La/tip, in Amer. Ant /tropology, April, 1898, p. 118. - Rink, i. p. 24. Hence we cannot accept as applicable to the whole nation Ivan Petroff's statement that "there seems to be no recognised chief- tainship, each isolated settlement generally containing one man who makes himself prominent by superintending all intercourse and traffic with visitors" (Report on the Population etc. of Alaska, Washington, 1884, p. 125). 3 Petroff, p. 135. 3/4 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. tribes, and are now found chiefly on the Arctic coast, where whale, seal, and reindeer are the staple food1. Reference has already been made to the variable character of the people of East Greenland, where the only known group at present are the Anmagsaliks. These derelicts, who have their stations on the coast district over against Iceland, were visited for the first time by the Danish expedition of 1884-5, and at that date comprised 413 souls distributed in eleven stations over a tract of about 80 miles. Each station had but one house, and one of these was as large as the Kashga, or " Council-house," which is found in every Alaskan village. It accommodated 58 inmates, being 28 feet long, 15 wide, and 6^ high, and was divided off into eight "stalls," varying in size with the number of persons in each family. And here they lived all together during the long Arctic winters, cooking, sleeping, working, merrymaking, dancing, singing, perhaps gorging now and then, but never wrangling. " No quarrel disturbs the peace, there is no dispute about the use of the narrow space ; scolding, or even unkind words are considered a misdemeanour2," as indeed amongst most Eskimo peoples. A marvellous linguistic phenomenon is presented by the Eskimo language, which, despite its exceedingly involved structure (see above), is spoken with Eskimo surprising uniformity from Bering Strait to East Greenland. It is as if the Aryan mother tongue were still current in all its fulness, with but slight dialectic variation, from Ceylon to Iceland. This persistence for thousands of years in such an exceedingly extenuated domain is partly due to the migrations ranging everywhere over previously uninhabited regions, so that no disintegrating effects were produced by contact with other tongues. The dialectic differences, which Rink calls "comparatively insignificant," are no greater than between English and broad Scotch. On several grounds Rink argues that the language was fully developed, as we now know it, before the first dispersion from the culture home. Thus the names of nearly all 1 Op. dt. n. p. n6. 2 Rink, I. p. 26. The language itself is said to contain not a single abusive term, so that it is impossible to swear in Eskimo. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 3/5 the Arctic marine fauna — bearded seal, walrus, Greenland whale, narwhal, swordfish, polar bear, are everywhere the same. So also the kayak and all its belongings are identically named in the eastern and western dialects, showing that not only the language, but the industries, usages, and it may be added many myths and beliefs, were much the same as at present1. Yet, according to Fru Signe Rink, some of the national folklore would carry us back to an immensely remote epoch, when the Eskimo people, already fully specialised, were still in direct relation not only with the Siberian aborigines, but even with the " Hairy Ainu " them- selves2. Here is again raised the whole question of racial affinities, or at least close contact and direct intercourse, based on the evidence of like usages, arts, religious sy£em*. notions, traditions, legendary matter and everything comprised under the expression folklore. That great similarities, and even identities, do exist in all these respects between the North American, the Siberian, and other aborigines is undeniable. Cases in point are the vapour-baths produced by red-hot stones, which follow the Arctic circle with much southing from Lapland round to Alaska and down the north-west coast ; several creation and procreation myths ; a common belief in good and bad spirits, with a vague conception, and that borrowed, of a really Supreme being ; religion mostly at the shamanistic stage, though with considerable differences ; magic practices and jugglery associated with sickness and witchcraft. But when all this, and much more of a like order, is carefully analysed, it is found to establish little beyond the psychic unity of man, with the accepted fact that America received some of its primitive inhabitants from Asia during the New Stone Age, that is, when the migrating peoples had already reached a certain degree of mental culture. It will never prove, for instance, that the Aleuts are Japanese, the Thlinkits Yakuts, the Eskimauans Tunguses, the Kwakiutls Gilyaks, or that there has been any direct contact between these several groups since the New Stone Age. It is a 1 Op. dt. ii. p. 10. '2 The Girl and the Dogs, an Eskimo Folk-tale, Amer. Anthropologist, June and July, 1898. 376 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. vast subject, and can here be merely touched upon, especially with a view to the removal of some current misconceptions and exaggerations, and thus reduce the question to its due pro- portions. We are assured by the editor of Rufinesque's Walam Olum that " the notion of a bad spirit, a ' Devil,' was wholly unknown to the aborigines, and entirely borrowed from the whites1,'' and authorities are quoted. Nevertheless the evidence of a general belief in evil spirits is overwhelming2, and even in this book itself reference is made to the "Evil Manito3," who "made evil beings only4,'' and again to "an evil being, a mighty magician," who "came on earth, and with him brought badness... sickness... death5." Here is the Evil One playing an important part in the legend itself, the text of which the editor thinks " is a genuine native production6." So far then the American and Siberian beliefs are in accord. But such notions are well-nigh universal, and would therefore supply no argument for common origin or contact, but for the shamanistic element more or less common to both. The term " shaman," which of course nowhere occurs in Shamanism. ......... America, is so freely used by writers on the native religions, that the identity of these and the Asiatic primitive systems is tacitly assumed, with all the above indicated corollaries. But the American tungaks, as the Alaskan Eskimos call them7, stand for the most part at a much lower level than the true Siberian shamans. They are little more than conjurers, or medi- cine-men, like those who in Africa " smell out " the witches and other evil-doers. Although sometimes looked upon as mediators 1 The Lenape and their Legends, etc., Philadelphia, 1885, p. 68. 2 Thus the Eskimo say there is a good spirit who taught them to use kayaks, and a bad spirit how to spoil and destroy them (Shelikhof, quoted by Petroff, p. 137). Cf. also Niblack's statement that amongst the North-west Coast Indians the sway of the shamans "depends largely upon the fear and respect excited by belief in their influence and power ov&c good and evil spirits" (The Coast Indians, p. 348). J p. 166. 4 p. r73- 5 pp. 175-7. 6 P- 158- 7 To the western tnngak corresponds the Greenland angakok, who is now little heard of, but figures largely in the records of the early missionaries, Hans Egede and others. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 377 with the invisible world, it is impossible to say whether or not the natives " believe in the actual control of spirits by the con- jurers V about which the Siberians have no doubt. Among the North-west Coast natives they are credited with "the power of charming away life by incantations and the use of certain charms," although one of their duties is also " to drive out the evil spirit which haunts the sick man2." They are also expected to perform other duties, such as removing the scalps of the slain in battle, or even carrying out the death-sentence, when "the shaman bewitches the condemned person by throwing disease into him, or by poisoning him in some other (supernatural?) way3." Most of the tungaks are clever conjurers, yet " do not seem to enjoy much respect, unless they combine with the business of conjuring the qualities of an expert trader and skilled hunter4." In a few districts the office appears to be inherited5, and cases are reported of shamans so thoroughly ashamed of their equivocal position as to warn their sons from accepting the damnosa here- ditas. On the other hand observers are unanimous in declaring that they never take part in, conduct, or preside at sacrificial rites to gods or ancestors, or venture to propitiate evil spirits, whereas this, as we have seen, is one of the most important functions of the Siberian shaman. Perhaps the ground on which both agree best are the con- juring tricks, which are often of a strikingly similar character. With those of the Samoyads witnessed by the old traveller Richard Johnson6 may be compared the scene described by Franz Boas, in which a female performer (a shamanka?) invites the people 1 Petroff, p. 130. 2 Niblack, The Coast Indians, etc., p. 349. ' Boas, Social Organization, etc., p. 650. 4 Petroff, p. 130. 5 Thus a chief of the Niska tribe, Naas River, told Franz Boas that "only a man whose father was a halait (shaman) can become a shaman." He added that "many who pretend to be shamans have no supernatural helpers at all," but that when he himself was called to cure disease, " four supernatural men appeared to him and helped him. They pointed out witches to him, and enabled him to see ghosts, etc." (Tenth Report of the North- Western Tribes of Canada, 1895, pp. 59-60.) 6 p. 289. 3/8 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. to kill her, when " she is placed on a seat behind the fire, and one of her attendants complies with her request. He will appear to drive a wedge through her head from one temple to the other. The wedge is first shown to the people, and then secretly ex- changed for another, which consists of two parts attached to a wooden band that is slipped over her head and covered with hair. Thus it seems that the butt is standing out on one side, the point having passed through her skull. At the same time bladders containing blood, which are attached to the band, are burst, and the blood is seen to flow down her face1 ' and so on. Many of these pretended supernatural performances were associated with the " medical profession," as almost everywhere amongst primitive peoples. But the American medicine-man resembled the African witch-doctor far more than the Siberian sharnan, because amongst the Americans sickness was as uni- versally attributed to sorcery and other malign influences as amongst the Bantu Negroes themselves. "The Indians had no reasonable or efficacious system of medicine. They believed that diseases were caused by unseen evil beings and by witch- craft, and every cough, every toothache, every headache, every chill, every fever, every boil, and every wound, in fact, all their ailments, were attributed to such cause. Their so-called medical practice was a horrible system of sorcery, and to such superstition human life was sacrificed on an enormous scale. The sufferers were given over to priest doctors to be tormented, bedeviled, and destroyed ; and a universal and profound belief in witchcraft made them suspicious, and led to the killing of all suspected and obnoxious people, and engendered blood feuds on a gigantic scale.... In fact, a natural death in a savage tent is a com- paratively rare phenomenon ; but death by sorcery, medicine, and blood feud arising from a belief in witchcraft is exceedingly common2.' In the treatment of ailments the medicine-men were left very much to their own devices ; nor were the shamanistic functions anywhere very clearly defined. On the whole the American tungak, to generalise the word, may be regarded as a sort of 1 Social Organization, etc. , p. 489. 2 Powell, Indian Linguistic Families, p. 39. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 379 Asiatic shaman in embryo, arriving in the late Stone Age, and afterwards diverging in various directions from his Siberian proto- type. More striking perhaps than these resemblances are those of an aesthetic order, which are found to prevail be- tween the British Columbian Indians and the South Totenf Posts Sea Islanders, and which are well illustrated by and Maori the rich symbolic carvings of the Haida totem or heraldic posts, and the tiki, or carved pillars, often set up at the tombs of the Maori chiefs and others in New Zealand. The best reply to the still current daring speculations based on the simi- larity in form and design presented by some of these objects will be found in the remarks of Mr Niblack, who has made a special study of the subject, and contrasts the famous tiki near the grave of Te Whero-Whero's daughter with several sculptured columns of the Thlinkits and Haidas : "Many resemblances of the Haida * to widely remote stocks have been pointed out by writers ; but to illustrate how futile such clues are in tracing the origin and relationship of the tribes of the world, a parallel is here briefly drawn between the Maori of New Zealand and the Haida. The political organization of the tribe, their ownership of land, and their laws of blood-revenge are similar. The men tattoo with designs intended to identify them with their sub-tribe or house- hold, and they ornament their canoes, paddles, house-fronts, etc., in somewhat the same manner.... The carved wooden mortuary columns erected in front of the Maori houses are also suggestive ; but it is safe to say that while all this is not in one sense acci- dental, yet the resemblances and similarities are as likely to have arisen from the like tendencies of the human mind under the same external conditions, or environment, to develop along parallel lines as through contact of these tribes or through a common origin." Here it may be added that if the Thlinkits and Maori are one in virtue of their common door-posts, the Thlinkits and Yakuts must also be one in virtue of their common shamanism, and as things equal to the same are equal to one another, we arrive at the conclusion that the Turki Yakuts and the Polynesian Maori are also one, which nobody has yet ventured to assert. 380 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Mr Niblack's reasoning applies with equal force to common popular beliefs and practices, a notable instance of Folklore. which is the wide-spread couvade, and generally to myths and folklore in the strict sense of the word. Thus the European were-wolf and Malayan were-tiger1 are matched by the South-American were-jaguar, as amongst the Minuana Indians, who speak of a good man formerly dwelling on the Rio Gualeguay who was one night murdered by a gang of brigands. Soon after some men, including one of the murderers, were passing along the sedgy river-bank when a black jaguar sprang out and struck down the assassin. This jaguar was often seen afterwards, but never hurt anybody unless he happened to be one of the gang, and when all were killed he was seen no more. A story, which despite its Christian colouring is undoubtedly of native origin, is current in Paraguay about Yaguarete'-Aba, a baptized Indian, who changes at night to a jaguar in order to feed on human flesh. Withdrawing to a thicket, he falls prone on the ground and is thus transformed. Then to become man again he repeats the process in reverse order. He differs from a real jaguar by his very short tail (a mere stump) and hairless forehead. At last he is wounded by a daring youth and vanishes, but the hunter fol- lowing up the trail of blood comes to a cave strewn with human bones, renews the fight, and slays the ghoul'. More striking still is the story current in the province of Tucuman about two brothers, who formerly lived in a hut in a wood infested by a man-eating jaguar. All attempts to hunt him down had failed, as at every shot his hair merely bristled up, causing the bullet to rebound. Now one of the men, noticing that whenever the jaguar appeared his brother was never at home, sat a-watching, and one day followed stealthily after him into the woods, till they reached a tree on which hung a flask of coarse salt and a jaguar skin rolled up in a bundle. Here the suspected brother, taking three grains of salt and spreading the skin on the ground, danced round and round until he became a jaguar. Horrified at the sight, the watcher went home, and presently 1 See p. 239. - J. B. Ambrosetti, La Legenda del Yaguarete-Aba, in Anales de la Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, 1896, vol. 41, p. 321. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 381 stealing back to the tree, kindled a fire into which he thre\v the charmed bundle. On his return to the hut, there was his dying brother, who knew what had happened, and said he must die unless there was time to get him a bit of the skin. So his pitying companion was off and back in all haste with an unburnt scrap snatched from the embers, which the moribund eagerly seizing threw over his shoulders and was in a flash again a jaguar, which with a mighty bound sprang from the hut and was seen no more1. Returning to the north, Franz Boas2 shows that the folklore of the North-west Indians has spread over wide spaces by borrow- ings and migrations. Thus a group of myths, in which the raven plays the chief part as creator, etc., was originally confined to the Thlinkits and neighbouring Haidas and Tsimshians, but spread later to the Columbia river peoples, though picking up foreign elements on the way. By following the track of such myths, light may often be thrown on the migrations of the tribes them- selves, as in the case of the Tsimshians, who have so little influenced their present neighbours that their arrival on the coast must be regarded as of relatively recent date. On the Atlantic side of the continent we seem to enter a different mythological world, and here it may be readily admitted that Mr Charles G. Leland has shown direct contact between the Norse legends and those of the East Algonquian tribes (Micmacs, Penobscots, Passamaquoddies)3. " Lox," the wolverine, may not be an Indian word, but his misdeeds bear too great a resemblance to those of Loki to be explained away as mere coincidences. To account, however, for these and many other identities of thought and sentiment we need but recall what has been stated of the long sojourn of the Norsemen in Greenland, of their southern expedi- tions to Hvitramannaland, and of the former range of the Eskimos as far as New England, overlapping and undoubtedly intermingling 1 J. B. Ambrosetti, La Legenda del Yagiiarete-Aba, in Anales de la Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, 1896, vol. 41, p. 321. VerhandL Berlin. Ges.f. Anthrop. etc. 1895, p. 487 sq. ; also Indianische Sagen vonder Nord-Pacifischen Kiiste Amerika's, Berlin, 1895, p. 329 sq. ; and Social Organization, etc., p. 660 sq. 3 The Algonquian Legends of New England, etc. 1884. 382 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. with the Eastern Algonquians, as they now do with the North- western Athapascans. These two great families of Athapascans and Algonquians, with their endless ramifications, jointly occupy, or Athapascans, rather occupied in pre-Columbian times, consider- ably more than half of the northern Continent. The Athapascans, so named from the Athapascan waters in their domain, but also collectively called Tinneh, " Men," occupy a divided territory, compact in the north from the Eskimo fringe in Alaska nearly to Port Nelson on Hudson Bay, and from this point west to the Rocky Mountains along a curved line, mostly conterminous with the Algonquians, rising midway to 60° N., and dipping westwards nearly to 50° N. Then follow at intervals along the west coast a few small enclaves, which seem to indicate the track taken during their southern migrations to the North Mexican borderlands, where they roamed till lately over another wide tract comprising portions of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and the Rio Grande basin. So marked is the contrast between the northern groups, mostly peaceful and even timid hunters or trappers long in the service of the Hudson Bay Company, and the southern tribes- fierce predatory Apache, Lipan, and Navajo hordes — that their kinship might have perhaps escaped detection but for their common Athapascan speech. The northern, Pacific Coast, and southern sections have a joint population of scarcely 33,000, the southern being by far the most numerous (23,000), but now mostly reduced and settled in various reservations, while the northerners (Ah-tenas, Kuchins, Chippewyans, i.e. "Yellow Knives," Dog Ribs, Hares, Slaves, Nahanies, etc.) still enjoy the free life of hunters and traders under the protection of the Dominion Government. Despite several centuries of a lawless existence as plundering steppe tribes, the Navajos have preserved careful Aplches°S ar anc* apparently correct oral traditions of their first arrival in the San Juan valley before the end of the 1 4th century, where they were probably cliff-dwellers. According to Mr F. W. Hodge the Apaches — who are not the parent stem of the Navajos, as commonly supposed — were at that time already X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 383 settled in the north-western and south-western parts of New Mexico. Before the i8th century the Navajos had been joined by various fragments of Athapascans, Tanoas, Tauras, Keresas, Zuni, Shoshons, Yumas and others, and by the acquisition of domestic animals soon after the first Spanish expedition (1542) their social state underwent a complete change. Before the 1 7th century none of these marauders were strong enough to molest the Pueblo communities, which afterwards suffered so much from their depredations1. But these faint reminiscences of the past are the mere echoes of history compared with those of the eastern families — Algon- quians, Iroquoians, Muskhogeans — all of whom have been in the closest contact with the European settlers for about 300 years, while some had probably come under Norse influences as early as the nth century. Originally the Algonquian domain was even more extensive than the Athapascan, forming a vast but irregular triangular space, whose northern base, indented by Hudson Bay, stretched from Labrador to the Rockies, so that they were almost everywhere conterminous on the north with the Athapascans, and round the Labrador seaboard with the Eskimos. Southwards the two sides were roughly enclosed by the Mississippi valley and the Atlantic shore line, reaching on the one hand as far as central Tennessee, on the other to and perhaps a little beyond Pamlico Sound, North Carolina2. Between these two points, that is, towards its apex, the triangle was truncated, and the Algonquian territory arrested and even encroached upon by the Muskhogean domain in the west, by a detached southern section of the Iroquoians in the centre, and by Siouan and other Iroquoian enclaves towards the Atlantic. In the Laurentian basin the northern and chief section of the 1 77/6' Early Navajo and Apache in Ainer. Anthropologist, 1895, p. 233 sq. It should be stated, however, that Mr Hodge's views are questioned by Capt. J. Bourke. - Some of the Shawnees had even penetrated from Tennessee into South Carolina, where they were known as Savannahs — a name still surviving in the river so called. Others (Cheyennes and Arapahoes) had pushed westwards beyond the Missouri to South Dakota, Wyoming, and Colorado, here forming the extreme westerly range of the Algonquian peoples. 384 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Iroquoian family was completely enclosed by Algonquian tribes, so that it formed a great ethnical island, which itself completely enclosed Lakes Erie and Ontario, extended along both banks of the St Lawrence nearly to the head of the estuary1, and also comprised the whole of the present State of New York, with a great part of Pennsylvania and Maryland, here terminating at the head of Chesapeake Bay. These limits, which scarcely anywhere coincided with the geographical features of the land, were subject to continual fluctuations, first during the inter-tribal wars of these two rival nations, and then during the protracted struggles of the French and English for supremacy, in which struggles the Algon- quians generally sided with the former, the Iroquoians with the latter. Although greatly reduced, broken up, dispersed or brought into reservations chiefly about the United States and Dominion borderlands, the Algonquians still greatly outnumber all other North American family groups. In fact over one-fourth of all the aborigines belong to this division, which has a total popula- tion of at least 95,000 (60,000 in Canada, 35,000 in the States). Of the particular Algonquian tribe, whence the family takes its name, less than 5000 still survive, all located in the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. But of the Ojibwas (Chippewas) there remain as many as 32,000 round about all the Great Lakes, while of the Crees, the next most numerous, there are reckoned over 17,000, all in Manitoba and the region between Lake Winnipeg and Hudson Bay. The Cree language is a typical Algonquian idiom, perhaps approaching nearer to the original mother tongue than any other, whence it has been inferred that the cradle of the race lay north of the Laurentian basin, probably round about the shores of Lake Winnipeg. Against this assumption, however, 1 The estuary, the islands of the Gulf, and surrounding land all formed part of the Algonquian area, except the Labrador coast and the northern extremity of Newfoundland, which were still occupied by the Eskimos, and a considerable district in central Newfoundland, which was originally held by the long-extinct Beothukans. These are shown by A. S. Gatschet to have been a people of unknown origin, but of non- Algonquian speech. (The Beothnk Indians, Proc. Anier. Philos. Soc. June 19, 1885, and May 7, 1886.) All the rest of the island belonged to, or was constantly visited by the Algonquian Micmacs of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 385 has to be weighed the fact that the central tribes — Abenaki, Mohigan, Delaware and Naticoke — whose territory lay between the St Lawrence and Chesapeake Bay, regarded themselves as one people, and were conceded by the others to be the <; grand- fathers," that is, the progenitors of the whole stock. From this region, " as their numbers increased, they sent colonies northward along the coast, driving back the Eskimo, and probably the Beothuk, westward and north-westward up the valley of the St Lawrence and the lakes, and southward to occupy the coast of Virginia and a part of Carolina, where, in conjunction with the Iroquoian tribes, they expelled the Cherokies from the upper waters of the Ohio, and compelled them to take refuge in the mountain fastnesses to the south. Most of these movements, although the subject of well-supported tradition, belong to pre- historic times, but the advance of the Algonquian tribes into the north-west is comparatively modern1." Nor are the renowned Delawares (Leni Lenape), Sac and Foxes and Shawnees yet extinct, although jointly numbering little over 4000, all collected in agencies and reservations in Indian territory, New York and other places. Of the Massa- chusetts, for whom Eliot translated the first Bible in any native tongue, the Narragansets, the Long Island Montauks3, the Man- hattans, the Powhatans3, the Panticos, and other Atlantic coast 1 James Mooney, The Siouan Tribes of the East, Washington, 1894, p. 12. 3 A last echo of the Montauk Indians was heard in the Civil Courts of Long Island in 1896, when documents of the ijth century signed by their chiefs were produced and accepted as valid title-deeds to certain lands and fishing rights about East Island, Glen Cove. The Montauks proper, a few of whom are said still to survive about Montauk Point, only held the section of the island north from East Hampton ; but the authority of their Sachem (Grand Chief) appears to have been acknowledged by the Rockaways, the Matinecocks and the numerous other tribal groups in the southern section, all of whom will be found in B. F. Thompson's History of Long Island, New York, 1843, pp. 93—96. 3 There still survives, however, a group of about 100 half-breeds, descendants of the Pamunkeys, who were members of the Algonquian Confederacy founded by the renowned chief Powhatan, and associated with the romantic adventures of Capt. John Smith and Pocahontas. They are settled in the district of Indian- town on the Pamunkey River (so named from them) some 20 miles east of Richmond, and are now of English speech, though still proud of their descent K. 25 386 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. tribes, with whom the English settlers had first to do, none have survived the " wreck of nations." Chicago, which has a white population probably four times as numerous as all the North American aborigines, occupies the site of Fort Dearborn, which was founded in 1804 to overawe the turbulent prairie Indians, and was in 1833 the scene of a memorable gathering of the Pottawatomis, a numerous branch of the formerly wide-spread Algonquian Miamis. At this gathering they ceded to the United States Government, for very much less than "prairie value," a vast domain of some 20 million acres constituting the present States of Illinois and Wisconsin. Over this tract are now thickly strewn thriving agricultural and industrial settlements of the white intruders, while the original owners of the land are reduced to about 1500 souls, distributed in small groups among the Indian Territory, Kansas, and other Agencies. But even the most maudlin of sentimental philanthropists will scarcely venture to affirm that from the humani- R^rvations! tarian point of view there is any serious ground for regretting the transformation. In these Reserva- tions, when honestly administered, as always in the Dominion and now also for the most part in the States, there is little cause to regret an inevitable change, by which the aborigines may possibly be doomed to ultimate extinction or absorption in the higher race, but by which they are in the meantime afforded every opportunity of becoming peaceful and even useful citizens. Many, such as the Chikasaws and Cherokis in Indian Territory, the Six Nations in New York, the Ojibwas and others in Canada, and these Pottawatomis themselves, have accepted their new destinies with a sort of philosophic resignation, and have already made considerable progress in the arts and industries of civilised man. Even letters have not been neglected, and a pleasant surprise was afforded to thoughtful observers by a welt-considered paper on Indian legends and superstitions contributed to the Forum for July 1898, by the Pottawatomi chief, Simon Pokagon. and of being the only Virginia tribe still occupying a corner of "the original hunting ground '; (J. Garland Pollard, The Panntnkey Indians of Virginia, Washington, 1894). X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 387 There is a good deal of what may be called mysticism in the article, which contains a curious account of certain processes by which the natives communicate with the spiritual world, as witnessed by the writer himself: "Poles 10 to 12 feet high are set in the ground in the form of a circle from 6 to 8 feet in diameter. The top of the lodge is left open ; the sides are tightly covered with birch-bark or the skins of animals. A fire is built close to the lodge, for the purpose of enabling the spectators to light their pipes, as they generally smoke during the strange performance. All being ready, a low, tinkling sound is heard, like several small bells at a distance. With a rush, on comes the leading performer, carrying a magician's little flat rattle-box like a tambourine. He sits down by the fire, and begins by telling his audience how he can call up spirits of the dead, as well as of those yet living in the world, and that any present can ask them questions and receive true answers thereto. He next sings a true song which can scarcely be understood. He then either goes into the lodge by crawling under, or sits outside with the audience ; throwing his blanket or some other clothing over the top of it. Immediately the lodge begins to shake, like a creature of life with an ague chill. Then is heard in the lodge a sound, like that of a distant strong wind sweeping through leafless trees, and intermingled with strange noises. When questions are asked by anyone present they are always answered in an unknown tongue ; but, luckily, among the spirits there is always a special interpreter to explain what the spirits say." This, at all events, is as good as the seances of our modern theosophists with their paid mediums, mahatmas and other ex- travagances, and a great deal better than the scalpings, lingering tortures, and other nameless horrors of Indian warfare. What are the relations of these Algonquian tribes to those strange monuments of an unknown past, the earth- works and sepulchral mounds which are strewn BJiideJlOUnd~ over the Mississippi basin and some adjacent lands, but thickly crowded especially in the Ohio valley, which at all times formed part of the Algonquian domain ? Few now believe that their builders were a different race from the present Indians, and the majority of antiquaries agree with Dr Cyrus Thomas, who 2:;— 2 388 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. has dealt exhaustively with the subject1, that there is nothing in these monuments that the Indians could not have done, that many have been erected or continued in post-Columbian times, consequently by the present aborigines, and that there is therefore no reason for ascribing them to any other race of which we have no knowledge. This general conclusion is in no way opposed to M. de Nadaillac's suggestion that the mounds were certainly the work of Indians, but of more civilised tribes than the present Algon- quians, by whom they were driven south to Florida, and there found with their towns, council-houses, and other structures by the first white settlers2. It would appear, however, from Mr F. H. Cushing's investigations, that these tribal council- houses of the Seminole Indians were a local development, growing up on the spot under conditions quite different from those prevailing in the north. Many of the vast shell-mounds, especially between Tampa and Cape Sable, are clearly of artificial structure, that is, made with definite purpose, and carried up symmetrically into large mounds comparable in dimensions with the Indian mounds of the interior. They originated with pile dwellings in shallow water, where the kitchen refuse, chiefly shells, accumulates and rises above the surface, when the building appears to stand on posts in a low mound. Then this type of structure comes to be regarded as the normal for house-building everywhere. " Through this natural series of changes in type there is a tendency to the development of mounds as sites for habitations and for the council-house of the clan or tribe, the sites being either separate mounds or single large mounds, accord- ing to circumstances. Thus the study of the living Seminole Indians and of the shell-mounds in the same vicinity... suggests a possible origin for a custom of mound-building at one time so prevalent among the North American Indians3." But if this be the genesis of such structures, the custom must have spread from the shores of the Gulf inland, and not from the Ohio valley south- wards to Florida. 1 Twelfth Annual Report of tJie Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1894. 2 L? Anthropologies 1897, p. 702 sq. 3 Sixteenth An. Report Bur. Ethnology, Washington, 1897, p. Ivi sq. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 389 Problems of a different order are presented by the Algon- quians' great rivals, the Iroquoians, whose social HP !•» & and political organization has been made the subject iroquoians. of profound studies by several eminent American and European ethnologists. Noted at all times for their proud bearing, warlike spirit, and highly developed military system, they have been called the " Romans of the New World," and despite their limited numbers and long-standing inter-tribal feuds, such was their superiority over the surrounding populations that a great Iroquoian empire might have been established between the Atlantic and the Mississippi had the advent of the Whites been delayed a few generations longer. In the Laurentian region, probably their cradle1, they formed originally two hostile sections, the Huron-Erics ( Wyandots} and the Iroquois', that is, the histo- rical "Five Nations" -Mohawks, Oneidas, Cayugas, Onondagoes, and Senecas — who became the "Six Nations" when joined by the kindred Tuscaroras from North Carolina in 1712. After the destruction or dispersion of the Eries by the Iroquois in 1656, all the Wyandots disappear from history, and survive now only in the names of the two great lakes Huron and Erie, so called from these aborigines. In the south the chief member of the family are the Cherokis, whose connection with the Iroquois, first suggested by Barton (1798), has now been placed beyond doubt by Horatio Hale and Gatschet. Much interest attaches also to this southern branch, for the Cherokis, although they have made no name in history, are recognised as amongst the most intelligent of all the North American Indians. It was a Cheroki, Segwoya, better known as George Guest, who in 1824 performed the re- Thg markable intellectual feat of analysing the sounds Cheroki r , . . . . ,. Script. or his intricate polysynthetic tongue, and providing "A tradition of the Iroquois points to the St Lawrence region as the early home of the Iroquoian tribes, whence they gradually moved down to the south- west along the shores of the Great Lakes " (Powell, Indian Linguistic Families, P- 77)- ' Iroquois, for which strained etymologies have been proposed, was the common French name of the famous league known to the English as that of the "Five," later "Six Nations," while they called themselves " Ongivehomve" or "Superior Men." 390 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. symbols for a complete syllabic system by various ingenious modifications of the letters in an English book. He could him- self neither read nor write, nor speak any language but his own, his only notion of writing being derived from hearsay and printed books. The syllabary, which is still in use and serves its purpose well, comprises 85 signs, of which one only, s, is a true letter, all the rest being full syllables made up of 15 consonants generally in combination with six vowels, as, ka, ke, ki, kv, ku^ kc. The Cherokis, who have not met with over-generous treatment at the hands of the authorities, have all been removed from their original homes in Virginia and the Carolinas to Indian Territory, where they hold the most important of all the Reservations with a present population, including the Choktaws, of a little over 27,000. All the rest of the once powerful Iroquoians number probably less than 20,000, distributed in about equal parts between United States and Dominion Agencies. • The just mentioned Choktaws were at one time a leading branch of the Muskhogean family, the other chief members of which were the Muskhogis (Maskoki) proper, generally known as "Creeks" from the numerous inlets or coast streams in their territory on the Gulf of Mexico ; the Seminoles of Florida ; the Chicasaws, Alibamus, Apalachi, and a few others, whose collective domain comprised nearly the whole region between Tennessee and the Gulf, and between the Lower Mississippi and the Atlantic. Florida, later occupied by the Seminoles, did not originally belong to this family, but to the now extinct Timuquanans, who spoke a distinct, though not necessarily a stock, language. In fact Gatschet has suggested Carib affinities, and although the Caribs are now be- lieved to have had their cradle, not in North America but in Central Brazil, it is likely enough that these rovers may in prehistoric times have passed from the Antilles to Florida, whence they were later driven out by the Seminoles. Pourtales, and later Heilprin, have shown that Florida has been inhabited from remote times, and it appears from Mr C. B. Moore's researches1 that the skulls from the old burial-mounds and earthworks are 1 Certain Sand- Mounds of Dwal Country, Florida, &c., Jour. A cad. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia, x 1895. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 391 round like those of Ehrenreich's Bakairi and other Brazilian Caribs (Index 79° to So0)1. But the Timuquanans themselves, if they were round-heads of Carib stock, must have been preceded by a still Primitive more ancient long-headed race possibly dating from Man in the Stone Ages. " The oldest perfect skull known from Florida is extremely dolichocephalic and entirely different from the mound type ; it was found by Wyman at the bottom of the great shell-heap near Hawkingsville on the St Johns. This heap was so old that its lower layers of the shells had become decomposed and transformed into a limestone in which this skull and other bones of the skeleton are firmly imbedded. We naturally question if this skeleton is not that of a survivor of the earlier people who were on the peninsula before the short- heads came2." Next to the Athapascans and Algonquians, the most wide- spread North American nation were the Siouans3, *Tpl^ whose territory is now known to have been even siouans. more extensive than it was lately supposed to be. So far from being confined to the plains west of the Mississippi, which they were supposed to have reached from the Pacific seaboard, they ranged south to the Gulf of Mexico and east to the Atlantic, and occupied wide tracts in Virginia and the Carolinas, where in fact is now sought their primeval home. When the English began the settlement of Virginia, a term at that time of much wider meaning than now, the whole region between the Appalachians and the coast was occupied by a large number of heterogeneous groups in a state of extreme instability, and so great was the ethnical confusion that their descendants have only now succeeded in clearing it up. Besides the Powhatan (Algonquian) confederates, there were numerous Iroquoian and Muskhogean tribes, together with the 1 Urbeivohner Brasiliens, pp. 120-2 7. 2 F. W. Putnam, Science, Feb. 7, 1896 (Reprint, p. 4). 3 Siouan is the form adopted by Mr Powell for the whole family, of which the Dakotas ("Allies") are the chief division. It is an extension of Sioux, a French corruption of " Nadowe-ssi-wag" (Snakes or Enemies), an abusive term applied by the Algonquins to some of the northern members of the family. 392 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. independent Ucheans ( Yuchi) of distinct speech, and several other groups whose hitherto unsuspected Siouan affinities have now been placed beyond reasonable doubt on linguistic and historic evidence. These were the Monacan confederates, with the Saponi, Tutelo1, Catawba, Woccon and some other tribes, who were centred chiefly on the James River above the falls at Richmond, and were at constant war with the neighbouring Powhatans, while hard pressed by the surrounding Iroquoians, by whom most of them appear to have been eventually exterminated or driven with the Algonquians beyond the Appalachians to the plains of the Mississippi basin. The survivors may thus have again been united with the kindred Dakotans and other western Siouans after a separation which Mr Dorsey has estimated at about 1500 years, basing his calculation on the highly archaic character of the Siouan tongues spoken by the Appalachian tribes. " All the statements and traditions concerning the eastern Siouan tribes, taken in connection with what we know of the history and traditions of the western tribes of the same stock, seem to indicate the upper region of the Ohio — the Alleghany, Monongahela and Kanawha country — as their original home, from which one branch crossed the mountains to the waters of Virginia and Carolina, while the other followed along the Ohio and the lakes toward the west. Linguistic evidence indicates that the eastern tribes of the Siouan family were established upon the Atlantic slope long before the western tribes of that stock had reached the plains2." That the Siouan family ranged also in former times to the Gulf of Mexico is shown by the late survival in Louisiana of the Biloxi (JB'luksi], i.e. "trifling or worthless," as they were called by the Choktaws, though they called themselves Taneks-haya. Their original home was in the present State of Mississippi about Biloxi Bay, named from them, where they were first met by Iberville in 1699, but whence they migrated about 1760 across the great river to Louisiana. From the specimens of their language collected 1 It was from the last full-blood Tutelo (Totero) chief that Horatio Hale obtained the linguistic materials which enabled him to make the important announcement that the Tutelo must have been a Siouan tongue. (Proc. Amer. Philosoph. Soc. 1883.) ' Mooney, The Siouan Tribes, etc. p. 29. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 393 by Gatschet and Dorsey it is clearly shown that " the Biloxi are the remnant of an isolated Siouan tribe1." It may be conjectured that the whole seaboard from the Mississippi delta to the Caro- linas and Virginia was at one time continuously occupied by tribes of Siouan stock, of whom the Biloxi are a fragment sepa- rated from their Atlantic kinsmen by the irruption of the Musk- hogeans from the west into -the south-eastern States of Alabama and Georgia. " The Muskhogean tribes all claim M. rations to have come into the Gulf States from beyond the and Dispiace- , ...... . , ... . , ments. Mississippi, and the tradition is clearest among those of them — the Choktaw and Chikasaw — who may be sup- posed to have crossed last. As they advanced they came at last into collision with the Timuquarian and Uchean tribes of Florida and Georgia, and then began the long struggle which ended only with the destruction of the Timukua and the incorporation by the Creek, within the historic period, of the last of the Uchi, leaving the Muskhogean race supreme from Florida Cape to the Com- bahee River in South Carolina. This wave of invasion must necessarily have had its effect on the Carolina tribes towards the north2," and, it may be added, on the Siouan (Biloxi) tribes of the Gulf Coast. In some of their customs and religious ideas, though not in their speech, the eastern Siouans must have differed considerably from their Missouri kinsmen. A Saponi chief told W. Byrd that " he believ'd there was one supreme God, who had several subaltern deities under him. And that this master-God made the world a long time ago. That he told the sun, the moon, and stars their business in the beginning, which they, with good looking after, have faithfully perform'd ever since — After death both good and bad people are conducted by a strong guard into a great road, in which departed souls travel together for some time, till at a certain distance this road forks into two paths, the one extremely level, and the other stony and mountainous. Here the good are parted from the bad by a flash of lightning, the first being hurry'd away to the right, the other to the left. The right-hand road leads to a charming 1 Mooney, op. cit., p. 16. ; Ibid., op. cit.t p. 12. 394 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. warm country, where the spring is everlasting, and every month is May ; and as the year is always in its youth, so are the people, and particularly the women are bright as stars, and never scold. That in this happy climate there are deer, turkeys, elks, and buffaloes innumerable, perpetually fat and gentle, while the trees are loaded with delicious fruit quite throughout the four seasons.... The left-hand path is very rugged and uneven, leading to a dark and barren country, where it is always winter. The ground is the whole year round cover'd with snow, and nothing is to be seen upon the trees but icicles — Here, after they [the wicked] have been tormented a certain number of years, according to their several degrees of guilt, they are again driven back into this world, to try if they will mend their manners, and merit a place the next time in the regions of bliss1." A curious illustration of the universality of certain practices, which from their very nature might be supposed restricted in time and place, is afforded by the " fire dance " found flourishing in an aggravated form amongst the Catawbas, as amongst the ancient Sabines, the Fijians, and so many other peoples : "These miserable wretches are strangely infatuated with illness of the devil ; it caused no small horror in me to see one of them wrythe his neck all on one side, foam at the mouth, stand barefoot upon burning coal for near one hour, and then, recovering his senses, leap out of the fire without hurt or sign of any2." Although shorn of their Gulf and Atlantic territories, the Siouans still occupied till lately a vast if somewhat fluctuating domain in the heart of the continent, where the Dakota division thought themselves strong enough to raise the standard of revolt against the United States Government more than once in the second half of the ipth century. Before their final reduction, followed by the usual distribution amongst the Indian Territory, Dakota, Montana, Nebraska, and other Agencies, these typical prairie nomads roamed from the Saskatchewan basin south to Arkansas, and from the Mississippi west to Montana and Wyoming. A distinction, however, should be drawn between the true predatory hordes banded together in the famous " Seven 1 Quoted by Mooney, p. 48. 2 Leclerer, ib. p. i\. PLATE VI. i. " SITTING BULL/' (Dakotan Type.) 2. "SCORCHED LIGHTNING." (Dakotan Type.) 3. YANKTON CHIEF. (Dakotan Type.) 4. ELIZABETH WYNAN. (Dakotan Type.) To face page 394] X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 395 Council Fires," and constituting the formidable confederacy of the Dakotas, " Friendlies," i.e. "Allies' (of which the chief members were the Santees, Sissetons, Wahpetons, Yanktons, Yanktonnais and Tetons), and the other branches of the Siouan family — Assinaboins, Omahas, Ponkas, Kaws, Osages, Quapaws, lowas, Otoes, Missouris, Winnebagos, Mandans, Minnetaris, Crows (Absarokas) — who formed independent national groups often hostile to the Dakotas, and presenting many distinct features in their speech, tribal organisation, religious beliefs, social usages, and even in their physical appearance. So marked are some of these characters, as amongst the Assinaboins, Omahas, Osages, and Mandans, that the Siouan family may be regarded as a wide-spread people who, in pre-Columbian times, were already undergoing a process of disintegration which, if left to themselves, must in course of time have resulted in the development of several distinct nationalities. But exceptional interest attaches to all the Siouan peoples, thanks to the light which their social systems throw upon the origin of the family, clan and tribe, the totem, early religious conceptions, and the other primitive elements of human society. Hence the importance of the bulky memoirs devoted to the Siouan Indians by Mr W. J. McGee and the late Rev. James Owen Dorsey in the fifteenth Annual Report (1893-4) of the Washington Bureau of Ethnology (1897). Thus Mr McGee clearly shows that the current conception of the Dakotan Wakanda, as well as that of the Algonquian Manito (" Manito the Mighty " of Hiawatha), as the Supreme or Great Spirit, Creator and so on, is a delusion, Wakanda being rather a quality than an entity, and in any case only a material substance or being, and in no sense a spirit, much less "Great Spirit." Thus among many tribes "the sun is wakanda — not the wakanda or a wakanda, but simply wakanda ; and among the same tribes the moon is wakanda, and so are thunder, lightning, the stars, the winds, the cedar; even a man, especially a shaman, might be wakanda or a wakanda. In addition the term was applied to mythic monsters of the earth, air, and waters. So, too, the fetishes and the ceremonial objects and decorations... various animals, the horse among the prairie 396 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. tribes, many natural objects and places of striking character... though it is easy to understand how the superficial inquirer, dominated by definite spiritual concepts, perhaps deceived by crafty native informants, came to adopt and perpetuate the erroneous interpretation. The term may be translated into ' mystery ' perhaps more satisfactorily than into any other single English word, yet this rendering is at the same time too limited, as wakanda vaguely connotes also power, sacred, ancient, grandeur, animate, immortal, etc. ' A closer study of the tribal system has also dissipated another widespread fallacy, that of the cattle horde theory, Socfai°System. -universal chaos and promiscuity as the starting point of all human society : " The social organi- zations of the lower grade are no less definite, perhaps more definite, than those pertaining to the higher grade ; so that when the history of demotic growth among the American Indians is traced backward, the organizations are found on the whole to grow more definite, albeit more simple. When the lines of development revealed through research are projected still farther toward their origin, they indicate an initial condition, directly antithetic to the postulated horde, in which the scant population was segregated in small discrete bodies, probably family groups ; and that in each of these bodies there was a definite organization, while each group was practically independent of, and probably inimical to, all other groups2." And thus the family, the initial unit, segments into a number of clans, each distinguished by its totem, its name, its heraldic badge, which badge, becoming more and more venerated from age to age, acquires inherited privileges, becomes the object of endless superstitious practices and is ultimately almost deified. Miss Fletcher, who has made a special study of the The Totem. totemic concept as prevalent amongst some of the Siouan tribes, may be right in regarding the totem as the personal fetish grown hereditary. But it is difficult to follow her when she speaks of the origin of this personal totem through a puberty rite involving a trance or vision. ''Those who had seen the Bear • 1 Op. cit., pp. 182-3. ; Op. cit., p. 200. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 397 made up the Bear society ; those to whom the Thunder or Water beings had come formed the Thunder or the Pebble society. The membership came from every kinship group in the tribe, blood relationship was ignored, the bond of union being a common right in a common vision1." The system may have been later influenced and modified by visions and other shaman- istic practices ; but its origin lies behind all such developments, behind all strictly religious notions, and it was at first a mere device for distinguishing one individual from another, one family or clan group from another. Thus amongst the Piaroas of the Orinoco below San Fernando de Atabapo, the belief holds that the tapir, originally the totem of the clan, has become their ancestor, and that after death the spirit of every Piaroa passes into a tapir ; hence they never hunt or eat this animal, and they also think all the surrounding tribes are in the same way each provided with their special animal forefather2. It is easy to see how such ideas tend to cluster round the clan or family totem, at first a distinguishing badge, later a protecting or tutelar deity of Protean form. It should be remembered that the personal or family name precedes the totem, which grows out of it, as seen by the conditions still prevailing amongst the very lowest peoples (Fuegians, Papuans of Torres Strait3). Students of the Siouan social system distinguish carefully between the clan, the gens, and the phratry, and base their theories of the matriarchate and patri- archate (descent through the female and the male line) on this distinction, the assumption being that in all cases the former preceded the latter. " The difference between the clan of savagery and the gens of barbarism is important and fundamental. The clan is a group of people reckoning kinship in the female line, while the gens is a group of people reckoning kinship in the male line. In barbarism patriarchies are found as concomitant with nomadic tribes, but in savagery the patriarchy does not exist. Hence the first great revolution in tribal society is the transition from the clan to the gens, the consolidation of 1 The Import of the Totem. Amer. Ass. Detroit, 1897. 2 M. Chaffanjon, Tour du Monde, 1888, LVI. p. 348. 3 Ethnology, pp. 9, n. MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. power in the hands of the few, and the organization of the gentile family1." Then the phratry is described as a system of groups sometimes found in savagery (a group of clans), and always in barbarism (a group of gentes). "There may be many clans or many gentes in a tribe, and two or more clans or gentes may constitute an intervening unit which we call the phratry." With the Muskhogean there are four phratries, one each for the east, west, north and south ; with the Zunis there are six, that is, besides the above, one for the zenith and nadir. " Thus the phratries are organized by mythologic regions ; and this method of regimentation finds expression in the construction of the Council Chamber, in the plaza, and in the plan of the village. Here in the phratry we have the beginning of district regimenta- tion, which ultimately prevails in civilization2." Such are the now current views resulting from almost ex- haustive studies of the tribal systems prevalent amongst the North American Indians. As the views of serious and perfectly competent observers, they are entitled to every consideration, and to adequate presentation in all ethnological treatises. They may even be accepted as perhaps approximately correct for the ethnical groups in question ; but they cannot be taken as of universal application, and we have already seen" that matriarchal have not necessarily preceded patriarchal institutions everywhere. Consequently the distinction here insisted upon between the clan and the gens is purely local, while for practical purposes the phratry may for the most part be taken as identical with the tribe or group of clans. Even in North America there would seem to be some hesitation about clan and gens, and Mr McGee writes that "at the time of the discovery most of the Siouan tribes had apparently passed into gentile organization, though vestiges of clan organization were found4 "; and again : — "Like the other aborigines north of Mexico, the Siouan Indians were organized on the basis of kinship, and were thus in the stage of tribal society. All of the best known tribes had reached that 1 Fifteenth An. Report, Introduction. • Ibid. Introduction, passim. :J p. 180, supra. 4 Fifteenth An. Repoit, p. 177. X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 399 plane of organization characterized by descent in the male line, though many vestiges and some relatively unimportant examples of descent in the female line have been discovered. Thus the clan system was obsolescent, and the gentile system fairly de- veloped ; i.e. the people were practically out of the stage of savagery and well advanced in the stage of barbarism1." So Dorsey: — "Among the Dakota... and other groups the man is the head of the family2." It is too soon to criticise further, but enough has been said to show that the clan as here defined is still on its defence even in North America, while in most other regions matriarchal institutions, except as purely local phenomena, have already shared the fate of the group-marriage and promis- cuity theories of Australian ethnologists. From the Spanish word Pueblo, " town," " village," are named and partly characterised a considerable group of J The Pueblo natives, who from remote times have dwelt and Indians and j 11 • /• j i , .. Cliff Dwellers. continue to dwell in fixed settlements of a peculiar type scattered over the mesas ("tables" or flat rocky heights), of the present states of New Mexico and Arizona. They do not form a single ethnical or linguistic family, but rather a number of heterogeneous communities speaking several stock languages, and in one instance (Moqui) a dialect of the widely-diffused Shoshonean (Snake) family. A certain uniformity is, however, imparted to the whole group by their common usages, traditions, religious rites, habitations, and general culture. In this respect they stand on a much higher level than any of the other North American aborigines, whence the theory often advanced that the Pueblos represent an intermediate stage in a continuously progressive cultural zone beginning with the northern mound-builders and culminating with the Aztec, Maya, and Peruvian civilizations of Central and South America. That there is a steady rise of the culture -grades in the direc- tion from north to south is undoubted, and it may not be without significance that the round-headed mound-builders, Pueblos, and neighbouring Cliff-dwellers are now commonly regarded as all originally of one stock. " There is no warrant whatever for the 1 Fifteenth An. Report, p. 187. - Ibid. p. 213. 400 MAN I PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. old assumption that the Cliff-dwellers were a separate race, and the cliff dwellings must be regarded as only a phase of Pueblo architecture1." But the connection is not at all obvious either between the mounds and the Pueblo structures, or between these and the Maya-Aztec monuments, while there are good reasons for regarding all alike as independent local developments. That Their Cui ^s was ^ case w^k tne m°unds Mr Gushing ture a Local has shown to be more than probable (see above), Development. , , .. ,.,. , . „ and Mr Mmdelen now proves convincingly that the Pueblo casas grandes — huge stone buildings or fortresses large enough to accommodate the whole community — grew out of the local conditions, and had no prototypes elsewhere. On this question of the close relation of primitive man to his physical environment Mr MindelefFs remarks are highly instructive. "The complete adaptation of Pueblo architecture to the country in which it is found has been commented on. If the architecture did not originate in the country where it is found, it would almost certainly bear traces of former conditions. Such survivals are common in all arts, and instances of it are so common in archi- tecture that no examples need be cited. Only one of these survivals has been found in Pueblo architecture, but that one is very instructive ; it is the presence of circular chambers in groups of rectangular rooms, which occur in certain regions. These chambers are called estufas or kivas, and are the council houses and temples of the people [the medicine lodges] in which the government and religious affairs of the tribe are transacted. It is owing to their religious connection that the form has been preserved to the present day, carrying with it the record of the time when the people lived in round chambers or huts.... The whole Pueblo country is covered with the remains in single rooms and groups of rooms, put up to meet some immediate necessity. Some of these may have been built centuries ago, some are only a few years or a few months old, yet the structures do not differ 1 Cosmos Mindeleff, The Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly, in i6th An. Report, Bureau of Ethnology, Washington 1897, p. 191. And Dr Hamy is inclined to regard the old quaternary skull from Calaveras as perhaps the proto- type of the mound-builders, cliff-dwellers and Pueblos, who "appartenaient a une seule et meme race" (L? Anthropologie^ 1896, p. 140). X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 40 1 from one another ; nor, on the other hand, does the similarity imply that the builder of the oldest example knew less or more than his descendant to-day — both utilized the material at hand and each accomplished his purpose in the easiest way. In both cases the result is so rude that no sound inference of sequence can be drawn from the study of individual examples, but in the study of large aggregations of rooms we find some clues. It must not be forgotten that the unit of Pueblo construction is the single room, even in the large many-storied villages. This unit is often quite as rude in modern as in ancient work, and both are very close to the result which would be produced by any Indian tribe who came into the country and were left free to work out their own ideas. Starting with this unit the whole system of Pueblo architecture is a natural product of the country and of the conditions of life known to have affected the people by whom it was practised1." In a word it is not necessary to invent a new race different from the present aborigines to account for the Pueblo structures any more than it is to account for the mounds. This inference becomes self-evident when we find that one of the Pueblo divisions — the Mogul or Hopi* — are actually a branch of the nomad Shoshonean family, who differ in no essential respect from the Siouans and all the prairie Indians. Besides these Moqui, who occupy six pueblos in North-east Arizona, there are three other nations, as they may be called— Tanoan, Keresan and Znnian — each speaking a stock language of the usual polysynthetic type, and occupying collectively nearly 30 pueblos with a total population of about 10,300. Each nation, except the Zuni who hold a solitary pueblo in New Mexico, comprises a number of tribal or dialectic divisions, and it is now known from the researches of Gushing, Bandelier, Hodge and 1 PP- i92~3- 2 Hopi, "People," is the proper tribal name; Moqui (pronounced Moki) is a vile abusive term imposed on them by their neighbours, and ought to be repressed. They occupy the seven pueblos of the Tusayan district, Arizona, towards the Utah frontier, "each built upon the crest of a precipice of sand- stone, impregnable to any assault to be expected from aboriginal foes" (J. G. Bourke, The Snake Dance of the Moqui s of Arizona, 1884, p. 226). K. 26 402 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. others, that the clanship system prevails everywhere. So nume- rous are these groups that in some divisions they Claris ysteem0 include not more than 20, 10, or even 5 members, and Mr F. W. Hodge1 gives a table of the 80 clans in the Tanoan, Keresan, and Zunian nations, showing in a collective population of 8,666 an average membership of about 108 for each clan. The clan names, of which translations are here given, comprise such things as the calabash, various kinds of maize, the dance-kilt, grass, salt, the swallow, ant, humming-bird, etc., from which it may again be inferred that such totems were originally merely distinctive badges which only later acquired genealogical or religious significance. It seems impossible to suppose that any aborigines could at any time be at once so intelligent as to group themselves in a really intricate system of clanship, and so stupid as to think themselves of grass, calabash, or salt lineage. These ideas obviously came afterwards by the usual processes of analogy and germinal growth. But, we are told, these Pueblo Indians are specially noted for a highly elaborate symbolism, manifested in their Symbolism. . r . . . recurrent seasonal festivities, snake dances and other religious ceremonies, so elaborate indeed that some of this symbolism is said to throw light on the intricate carvings of the Aztec and Maya monuments2. All this may be so, but if anybody fancies that such ceremonial forms were an initial condition of Pueblo society, let him study the " social systems " still prevalent amongst the Mexican Seres, the Fuegians, Bushmen, Australians or New Guinea Papuans ; and let him remember that even these are later developments compared with the crude beginnings of all human society. 1 American Anthropologist, Oct. 1896, p. 345 sq. - "The revolting ceremonials of Tusayan [Hopi] fall into position in a series of observances and ceremonials connected with the serpent extending from the plains of the Mississippi to the ancient cities of Mexico, Central America, and even unto Peru, and some of the most puzzling sculptures, paint- ings and inscriptions of the ancient cities, as well as the curious regard for snakes among our north-eastern Indians can be interpreted fully only in the light of the Tusayan researches" (\6th Ann. Report (1894-5) finr. Ethnology, Wash- ington, 1897, p. xcviii). X.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 403 In reference to Dr J. Walter Fewkes' account of the "Tusayan Snake Ceremonies," it is pointed out that "the Pueblo Indians adore a plurality of deities, to Dances6, which various potencies are ascribed. These zoic deities, or beast gods, are worshipped by means of ceremonies which are sometimes highly elaborate ; and, so far as practicable, the mystic zoic potency is represented in the ceremony by a living animal of similar species or by an artificial symbol. Prominent among the animate representatives of the zoic pantheon through- out the arid region is the serpent, especially the venomous and hence mysteriously potent rattlesnake. To the primitive mind there is intimate association, too, between the swift-striking and deadly viper and the lightning, with its attendant rain and thunder; there is intimate association, too, between the moisture-loving reptile of the subdeserts and the life-giving storms and freshets • and so the native rattlesnake plays an important role in the cere- monies, especially in the invocations for rain, which characterize the entire arid region1." Mr Fewkes pursues the same fruitful line of thought in his monograph on The Feather Symbol in Ancient Hopi Designs'-, showing how amongst the Tusayan Pueblos, although they have left no written records, there survives an elaborate paleography, the feather motif in the pottery found in the old ruins, which is in fact " a picture writing often highly symbolic and compli- cated," revealing certain phases of Hopi thought in remote times. " Thus we come back to a belief, taught by other reasoning, that ornamentation of ancient pottery was something higher than simple effort to beautify ceramic wares. The ruling motive was a religious one, for in their system everything was under the same sway. Esthetic and religious feelings were not differentiated, the one implied the other, and to elaborately decorate a vessel without introducing a religious symbol was to the ancient potter an impossibility3." So it was with the Van Eycks, the Giottos and others before pictorial art became divorced from religion in Italy and the Low Countries. 1 p. xcvii. 2 Amer. Anthropologist, Jan. 1898. 26 — 2 3 P- 13 404 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. X. With regard to the cliff dwellings, it is explained that the district is one of arid plateaus, separated and dissected by deep canons, frequently composed of flat-lying rock strata forming ledge-marked cliffs by the erosive action of the rare storms. " Only along the fe\v streams heading in the mountains does permanent water exist, and along the cliff lines slabs of rock suitable for building abound ; and the primitive ancients, de- pendent as they were on environment, naturally produced the cliff dwellings. The tendency toward this type was strengthened by intertribal relations ; the cliff dwellers were probably descended from agricultural or semi-agricultural villagers who sought protec- tion against enemies, and the control of land and water through aggregation in communities.... Locally the ancient villages of Canyon de Chelly are known as Aztec ruins, and this designation is just so far as it implies relationship with the aborigines of moderately advanced culture in Mexico and Central America, though it would be misleading if regarded as indicating essential difference between the ancient villagers and their modern descend- ants and neighbours still occupying the pueblos1." 1 i6th Ann. Report, p. xciv. CHAPTER XL THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES (continued}. The Central American Civilized Peoples: Nahuatlans and Huaxtecans', l\Iaya- Aztcc Origins and Relations — Aztec and Maya Scripts and Calendars— Nahuas and Shoshones — Chichimec and Aztec Empires — Miztecs and Zapotecs — Ruins of Mitla— Uncultured Mexican Peoples: Otomi ; Seri— Cavemen in Yucatan — The Maya-Quiches — Transitions from North to South America — The Cebunys — "Early Man in the Bahamas — The Luca- yans — Chontals, Chocos, and Cunas — The South American Aborigines— The Catio Savages — The Cultural Zone in S. America — The Columbian Chibchas — Peruvian Culture — Empire of the Incas — Quechua Race and Language — Quechua- Aymara Origins and Cultural Relations — The Tia- huanaco Monuments — Ckimu Culture — Huacas and Pyramids — Peruvian Politico-Social System — The Araitcanians — The Pampas Indians — The Gauchos—Patagonians and Fuegians — Patagonians and Bororos : Migra- tions— Linguistic Relations South of the Plate River — The Yahgans— Brazilian Aborigines — The Cashibos — The Pano Family — Ethnical Re- lations in Amazonia — The Cariban Family — Carib Cradle — Arawakan Family — Migrations — -The Ges (Tapuyari) Family— The Botocitdos — The Tupi-Guaranian Family — Tacunas and Tacanas — The Chiquitos— Matacos and Tobas — Caucasic Type in S. America. IN Mexico and Central America interest is centred chiefly in two great ethnical groups — the Nahuatlan and Huaxtecan — whose cultural, historical, and even a^ central geographical relations are so intimately interwoven American Cultures. that they can scarcely be treated apart. Thus, although their civilizations are concentrated respectively in the Anahuac (Mexican) plateau and Yucatan and Guatemala, the two domains overlap completely at both ends, so that there are isolated branches of the Huaxtecan family in Mexico (the Huaxtecs (Totonacs) of Vera Cruz, from whom the whole group 406 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. is named), and of the Nahuatlan in Nicaragua (Pipils, Niquirans, and others)1. This very circumstance has no doubt tended to increase the difficulties connected with the questions of their origins, migrations, and mutual cultural influences. Some of these difficulties have disappeared by the removal of the " Toltecs " (see above), who had hitherto been a great disturbing element in this connection, and all the rest have in my opinion been satisfactorily disposed of by E. Forstermann, a leading authority on all Aztec-Maya questions2. This eminent archaeologist refers first to the views of Dr Seler^, who assumes a southern movement of Maya tribes from Yucatan, and a like movement of Aztecs from Tabasco to Nicaragua, and even to Yucatan. On the other hand Dieseldorff holds that Maya art was independently developed, while the links between it and the Aztec show that an interchange took place, in which process the Maya was the giver, the Aztec the recipient. He further attributes the overthrow of the Maya power 100 or 200 years before the discovery to the Aztecs, and thinks the Aztecs or Nahuas took their god Quetzalcoatl from the "Toltecs," who were a Maya people. Ph. J. Valentini also infers that the Mayas were the original people, the Aztecs " mere parasites4." Now Forstermann lays down the principle that any theory, to be satisfactory, should fit in with such facts as : — (i) the agreement and diversity of both cultures ; (2) the antiquity and disappear- ance of the mysterious Toltecs ; (3) the complete isolation of the Huaxtecs from the other Maya tribes, and their difference from them ; (4) the equally complete isolation of the Guatemalan Pipils, and of the other southern (Nicaraguan) Aztec groups from the rest of the Nahua peoples; (5) the remarkable absence of Aztec local names in Yucatan, while they occur in hundreds in 1 Some Nahuas, whom the Spaniards called "Mexicans" or "Chichimecs," were met by Vasquez de Coronado even as far south as the Chiriqui lagoon, Panama. These Seguas, as they called themselves, have since disappeared, and it is no longer possible to say how they strayed so far from their northern homes. - Nene Mayaforschungen, in Globus LXX. p. 37 sq. 3 Alterthumer atts Guatemala, p. 24. 4 Analysis of the Pictorial Text inscribed on two Palenqne Tablets, N. York, 1896. XI.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 407 Chiapas, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua, where scarcely any trace is met of Maya names. To account for these facts he assumes that in the earliest known times Central America from about 23° to 10° N. was mainly inhabited by Maya tribes, who had even reached Cuba. These Mayas, while still at a somewhat low stage of culture, were invaded by the Aztecs advancing from as far north as at least 26° N. but only on the Pacific side, thus leaving the eastern Huaxtecs untouched. The Mayas, coming thus in contact with the Nahuas first in the north naturally called them "Toltecs" from the settlers in the northern district of Tola. But when all the relations became clearer, the Toltecs fell gradually into the background, and at last entered the domain of the fabulous. Now the Aztecs borrowed much from the Mayas, especially gods, whose names they simply translated. A typical case is that of Cuculan, which becomes Quetzalcoatl, where cuc = quezal— the bird Trogon resplendens, and can -coatl^ snake1. That the Mayas had already developed their writing system is unthinkable ; this took place first amongst the Quiches of Guatemala, the central point of their domain. With the higher culture here developed the Aztecs came first in contact after passing through Mixtec and Zapotec territory, not long before Columbian times, so that they had no time here to consolidate their empire and assimilate the Mayas. On the contrary the Aztecs were themselves merged in these, all but the Pipils and the settlements on Lake Nicaragua, which retained their national peculiarities. But whence came the hundreds of Aztec names in the lands between Chiapas and Nicaragua? Here it should be noted that these names are almost exclusively confined to the more important stations, while the less prominent places have everywhere names taken from the tongues of the local tribes. But even the Aztec names themselves occur properly only in official use, hence also on the charts, and are not current to-day amongst the natives who have kept aloof from the Spanish-speaking populations. 1 Quetzalcoatl, the "Bright-feathered Snake," \A~as the supreme god of the Nahuan pantheon, the incarnation of Tonacateatl, the "Serpent-Sun," creator of all things, round whom clusters most of the mythology, and of the pictorial and plastic art of the Mexicans. 408 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Hence the inference that such names were mainly introduced by the Spaniards and their Mexican troops during the conquest of those lands, say, up to about 1535, and do not appear in Yucatan which was not conquered from Mexico. Forstermann reluctantly accepts this view, advanced by Sapper, having nothing better to suggest. The higher Maya culture had not fully spread from Guatemala to Yucatan, when its further development was arrested in the south by the Spaniards ; nor had it lasted very long if the hypo- thesis that the memorial columns of Copan were not erected before the i5th century be right. On this theory, which certainly harmonises best with most of the conditions, the Mayas would appear to have stood on a higher plane of culture than their Aztec rivals, and the same conclusion may be drawn from their respective writing systems. Of all the aborigines these two alone had developed what may fairly be called a script in the strict sense of the term, although neither of them had reached the same level of efficiency as the Babylonian cuneiforms, the Chinese or the Egyptian hieroglyphs, not to speak of the syllabic and alphabetic systems of the Old World. Some even of the barbaric peoples, such as most of the prairie Indians, had reached the stage of graphic symbolism, and were thus on the threshold of writing at the discovery. " The art was rudimentary and limited to crude pictography. The pictographs were painted or sculptured on cliff-faces, boulders, the walls of caverns, and even on trees, as well as on skins, bark, and various artificial objects. Among certain Mexican tribes, also, autographic records were in use, and some of them were much better ivit^scripts differentiated than any within the present area of the United States. The records were not only painted and sculptured on stone and moulded in stucco, but were inscribed in books or codices of native parchment and paper: while the characters were measurably arbitrary, i.e. ideographic rather than pictographic1." Perhaps the difference between the Aztec and Maya methods is best denned by stating that the former is more purely pictorial 1 \6th Ann. Report, p. xcv. XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 409 and ideographic, the latter more ideographic and phonetic, and consequently approximates nearer to a true phonetic system. No doubt much diversity of opinion prevails regarding the real nature of the Maya symbols, and it is a fact that no single text, how- ever short, has yet been satisfactorily deciphered. Nevertheless Dr Cyrus Thomas, than whom no greater authority can be quoted, does not hesitate to say that many of the symbols possessed true phonetic value and were used to express sounds and syllables. " He does not claim that the Maya scribes had reached that ad- vanced stage where they could indicate each letter sound by a glyph or symbol. On the contrary, he thinks a symbol was selected because the name or word it represented had as its chief phonetic element a certain consonant sound or syllable. If this were b the symbol would be used where b was the prominent element of the word to be indicated, no reference, however, to its original signification being necessarily retained. Thus the symbol for cab, "earth," might be used in writing caban, a day name, or cabil, u honey," because cab is their chief phonetic element... One reason why attempts at decipherment have failed is a misconception of the peculiar character of the writing, which is in a transition stage from the purely ideographic to the pho- netic1." From the example here given, the Maya script would appear to have in fact reached the rebus stage, which also plays so large a part in the Egyptian hieroglyphic system. Cab is obviously a rebus, and the transition from the rebus to true syllabic and alphabetic systems has already been explained'2. But not only were the Maya day characters phonetic ; the Maya calendar itself, afterwards borrowed by the . , , , ., , and Calendars. Aztecs, has been described as even more accurate than the Julian itself. "Among the plains Indians the calendars are simple, consisting commonly of a record of winters (' winter counts,') and of notable events occurring either during the winter or during some other season ; while the shorter time divisions are reckoned by ' nights ' (days), ' dead moons ' (lunations), and seasons of leafing, flowering, or fruiting of plants, migrating of animals, etc., and there is no definite system of reducing days 1 Day Symbols of the Maya Year in i6th Ann. Report, p. 205. - p. 27. 410 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. to lunations or lunations to years. Among the Pueblo Indians calendric records are inconspicuous or absent, though there is a much more definite calendric system which is fixed and per- petuated by religious ceremonies ; while among some of the Mexican tribes there are elaborate calendric systems combined with complete calendric records. The perfection of the calendar among the Maya and Nahua Indians is indicated by the fact that not only were 365 days reckoned as a year, but the bissextile was recognized1." In another important respect the superiority of the Maya- Quiche peoples over the northern Nahuans is shoshones*1 incontestable. When their religious systems are compared, it is at once seen that at the time of the discovery the Mexican Aztecs were little better than ruthless barbarians newly clothed in the borrowed robes of an advanced culture, to which they had not time to properly adapt themselves, 1 \6th Ann. Report, p. xcvi. In "The Maya Year" (1894) Dr Cyrus Thomas shows that "the year recorded in the Dresden codex consisted of 18 months of 20 days each, with 5 supplemental days, or of 365 days" (ib.). Those who have persistently appealed to these Maya- Aztec calendric systems as convincing proofs of Asiatic influences in the evolution of American cultures will now have to show where these influences come in. As a matter of fact the systems are fundamentally distinct, the American showing the clearest indi- cations of local development, as seen in the mere fact, proved by Dr Thomas, that the day characters of the Maya codices were phonetic, i.e. largely rebuses explicable only in the Maya language, which has no affinities out of America. The Aztec month of 20 days is also clearly indicated by the 20 corresponding signs on the great Calendar Stone made by king Axayacatl in 1479 and now fixed in the wall of the Cathedral tower of Mexico. The best account of this basalt stone, which weighs 25 tons and has a diameter of n feet, is that given in the Anales del Mnseo National de Mexico by Seflor Alfredo Chavero, who ascribes the astronomic system here perpetuated to the unaided efforts of the American aborigines, so profoundly does it differ from the Babylonian, Egyptian, and all other Old World systems. Or, he says, if indeed derived from an Asiatic source, then only from such data as might have been brought over by rude tribes from lands or islands now covered by the Pacific Ocean. See an excel- lent reproduction of the Calendar Stone in T. U. Brocklehurst's Mexico To-Day, 1883, p. 1 86 ; also Zelia Nutall's study of the "Mexican Calendar System," Tenth Internal. Congress of Americanists, Stockholm, 1894. "The regular rotation of market-days and the day of enforced rest every 20 days were the prominent and permanent features of the civil solar year" (//>.). XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 411 and in which they could but masquerade after their own savage fashion. It has to be remembered that the Aztecs were but one branch of the Nahuatlan family, whose affinities Buschmann1 has traced northwards to the rude Shoshonean aborigines who roamed from the present States of Montana, Idaho, and Oregon down into Utah, Texas, and California. Possibly to this Shoshonean stock belonged the barbaric hordes who overthrew the civilization which flourished on the Anahuac (Mexican) tableland about the 6th century A.D. and is associated with the ruins of Tula and Cholula. In any case it seems now clear that the so-called "Toltecs," the "Pyramid-builders," founders of this earliest Central American culture, were not Nahuatlans but Huaxtecans, who thence migrated southwards and formed fresh settlements in Guatemala and Yucatan. After their withdrawal barbarism would appear to have re- sumed its sway in Anahuac, where it was later J Chichimec represented by the rude Chichimec tribes merged and Aztec , .... , • , i- •/• i • Empires. in a loose political system which was dignified in the local traditions by the name of the " Chichimec Empire.'7 In all probability these Chichimecs were true Nahuas2, whose 1 Spuren der Aztek. Sfrac/ie, 1859, passim. - "Chiefly of the Nahuatl race'' (De Nadaillac, p. 279). It should, how- ever, be noted that under this general and abusive name of "Dogs" (Chichi, dog) were comprised a large number of savage tribes — Otomis, Fames, Pintos, etc. — who are described as wandering about naked or wearing only the skins of beasts, living in caves or rock-shelters, armed with bows, slings, and clubs, constantly at war amongst themselves or with the surrounding peoples, eating raw flesh, drinking the blood of their captives or treating them with unheard-of cruelty, altogether a horror and terror to all the more civilised communities. "Chichimec Empire" may therefore be taken merely as a euphemistic expres- sion for the reign of barbarism raised up on the ruins of the early Toltec (Totonac or Huaxtecan) civilization. Yet it has its dynasties and dates and legendary sequence of events, and we are told by the veracious native historian, Ixtlilxochitl, himself of royal lineage, that Xolotl, founder of the empire, had under orders 3,202,000 men and women, that his decisive victory over the Toltecs took place in 1015, that he assumed the title of "Chichimecatl Tecuhti," Great Chief of the Chichimecs, and that after a succession of revolts, wars, conspiracies, and revolutions, Maxtla, last of the dynasty, was over- thrown in 1431 by the Aztecs and their allies. 412 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. ascendancy lasted from about the nth to the i5th century, when they were in their turn overthrown and absorbed by the historical Nahuan confederacy of the Aztecs1 whose capital was Tenochtitlan (the present city of Mexico), the Acolhuas (capital Tezcuco), and the Tepanecs (capital Tlacopan). Thus* the Aztec Empire reduced by the Conquistadores in 1520 had but a brief record, although the Aztecs themselves as well as many other tribes of Nahuatl speech, must have been in contact with the more civilised Huaxtecan peoples for centuries before the appearance of the Spaniards on the scene. It was during these ages that the Nahuas " borrowed much from the Mayas," as Forstermann puts it, without greatly benefiting by the process. Thus the Maya gods, for the most part of a relatively mild type like the Mayas themselves, become in the hideous Aztec pantheon ferocious demons with an insatiable thirst for blood, so that the teocalli, " gods' houses," were transformed to human shambles, where on solemn occasions the victims were said to have numbered tens of thousands'2. Besides the Aztecs and their allies, the elevated Mexican Uncultured plateaux were occupied by several other relatively Mexican civilized nations, such as the Miztecs and Zapotccs Peoples. f /-\ • m -11 • x JT oi Oajaca, the Tarascos and neighbouring Matlalt- zincas of Michoacan, all of whom spoke independent stock lan- guages, and the Totonacs of Vera Cruz, who were of Huaxtecan speech, and were probably the earliest representatives of the 1 Named from the shadowy land of Aztlan away to the north, where they long dwelt in the seven legendary caves of Chicomoztoc, whence they migrated at some unknown period to the lacustrine region, where they founded Tenoch- titlan, seat of their empire. - "The gods of the Mayas appear to have been less sanguinary than those of the Nahuas. The immolation of a dog was with them enough for an occa- sion that would have been celebrated by the Nahuas with hecatombs of victims. Human sacrifices did however take place" (De Nadaillac, p. •266), though they were as nothing compared with the countless victims demanded by the Aztec gods. "The dedication by Ahuizotl of the great temple of Huitzilopochtli in 1487 is alleged to have been celebrated by the butchery of 72,344 victims," and "under Montezuma II. 12,000 captives are said to have perished" on one occa- sion (if), p. 297); all no doubt gross exaggerations, but leaving a large margin for perhaps the most terrrible chapter of horrors in the records of natural religions. XI.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 413 Maya-Quiche race and culture. The high degree of civilization attained by some of these nations before their reduction by the Aztecs is attested by the magnificent ruins of Mitla, capital of the Zapotecs, which was captured and destroyed by the Mexicans in 1494. Of the royal palace Viollet-le-Duc speaks in enthusiastic terms, declaring that "the monuments of the golden age of Greece and Rome alone equal the beauty of the masonry of this great building1." In general their usages and religious rites resembled those of the Aztecs, although the Zapotecs, besides the civil ruler, had a High Priest who took part in the government. " His feet were never allowed to touch the ground ; he was carried on the shoulders of his attendants; and when he appeared all, even the chiefs themselves, had to fall prostrate before him, and none dared to raise their eyes in his presence2." The Zapotec language is still spoken by about 260 natives in the State of Oajaca. Farther north the plains and uplands continued to be inhabited by a multitude of wild tribes speaking an unknown number of stock languages, and thus presenting a chaos of ethnical and linguistic elements comparable to that which prevails along the north-west coast. Of these rude populations one of the most widespread are the Otomi of the central region, 11 i • i r i Otomi — Seri. noted for the monosyllabic tendencies of their language, which Najera, a native grammarian, has on this ground compared with Chinese, from which, however, it is fundamentally distinct. Still more primitive are the Seri Indians of Sonora, who were visited in 1895 by Mr McGee, and found to be "probably more savage than any other tribe remaining on the North American Continent. Most of their food is eaten raw, they have no domestic animals save dogs, they are totally without agriculture, and their industrial arts are few and rude3." It is noteworthy that but few traces of such savagery have yet been discovered in Yucatan. The investigations of Mr Henry Mercer4 in this region lend strong support to Forstermann's views regarding the early Huaxtecan migrations and the general ' l Quoted by De Nadaillac, p. 365. ~ p. 363. 3 i6th Ann. Report, p. Ixiii. 4 The Hill Caves of Yucatan, Philadelphia, 1896. 414 MAN ' PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. southward spread of Maya culture from the Mexican tableland. Nearly thirty caves examined by this explorer failed to yield any remains either of the mastodon, mam- moth, or horse, or of early man, elsewhere so often associated with these animals. Hence Mr Mercer infers that the Mayas reached Yucatan already in an advanced state of culture, which consequently was not developed on the spot, but remained unchanged till the conquest. In the caves were found great quantities of good pottery, generally well baked and of sym- metrical form, the oldest quite as good as the latest where they occur in stratified beds, showing no progress anywhere. Yet the first arrivals had no metals or domestic animals, not even the dog, while the fractured bones occurring at Loltun, Sabaka and some other places, raise suspicions of cannibalism. Mr Edward H. Thompson, however, who has also examined some of these caves, declares that "none of the human bones showed any trace of being charred by fire, or any other evidence of cannibalism." In other respects he agrees with Mr Mercer, and expresses his conviction that " no people or race of so-called cave-people ever existed in Yucatan, and that while these caves of the Loltun type were undoubtedly inhabited, it was by the same race that built the great stone structures now in ruins. And I furthermore believe that the caves were only temporary places of refuge and not permanent habitations1." Since the conquest the Aztecs, as well as the other cultured nations of Anahuac, have yielded to European influences to a far greater extent than the Maya-Quiche's of Yucatan and Guatemala. In the city of Mexico the last echoes of the rich Nahuatl tongue have almost died out, and this place, although formerly the chief seat of Aztec culture, has long been one of the leading centres of Spanish arts and letters in the New World2. But Merida, standing on the site of the ancient Ti-hoo, has almost again become a Maya town, where the white settlers themselves have been largely 1 Cave of Loltun, Yucatan, Report of Explorations by the Peabody Cambridge, Mass. 1897. - "In the city of Mexico everything has a Spanish look" (Brocklehurst, p. 15). The Aztec language however is still current in the surrounding districts and generally in the provinces forming part of the former Aztec empire. XI.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 415 assimilated in speech and usages to the natives. The very streets are still indicated by the carved images of the hawk, flamingo, or other tutelar deities, while the houses toTdhaeyMayas of the suburbs continue to be built in the old Maya style, two or three feet above the street level, with a walled porch and stone bench running round the enclosure. One reason for this remarkable contrast may be that the Nahua culture, as above seen, was to a great extent borrowed in relatively recent times, whereas the Maya civilization is now shown to date from the epoch of the Tolan and Cholulan pyramid-builders. Hence the former yielded to the first shock, while the latter persists to such an extent that Yucatan, from the ethnical standpoint, may still be called Mayapan, as in the days of the great Xibalba confederacy, whose splendour is attested by the astonishing monuments of Palenque, Copan, Chichen-Itza, Uxmal, and the not yet fully described ruins of Quiriqua, Lake Itzal, and other places in Guatemala, Honduras, and Salvador. Despite their more gentle disposition, as expressed in the softer and almost feminine lines of their features, the Mayas held out more valiantly than the Aztecs against the Spaniards, and a section of the nation occupying a strip of territory between Yucatan and British Hon- duras, still maintains its independence. The " barbarians," as the inhabitants of this district are called, would appear to be scarcely less civilised than their neighbours, although they have forgotten the teachings of the padres, and transformed the Catholic churches to wayside inns. Were Yucatan by any political convul- sion detached from the central government, all its inhabitants, together with most of those south of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, would probably in a few generations revert under modified con- ditions to the old Maya culture. Even as it is the descendants of the Spaniards have to a great extent forgotten their mother- tongue, and Maya- Quiche dialects are almost everywhere current except in the Campeachy district. Those also who call themselves Catholics preserve and practise many of the old rites. After burial the track from the grave to the house is carefully chalked, so that the soul of the departed may know the way back when the time comes to enter the body of some new-born babe. The descendants of the national astrologers everywhere pursue their 416 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. arts, determining events, forecasting the harvests and so on by the conjunctions of the stars, and every village has its native " Zadkiel ' who reads the future in the ubiquitous crystal globe. Even certain priests continue to celebrate the "Field Mass," at which a cock is sacrificed to the Mayan Aesculapius, with invoca- tions to the Trinity and their associates, the four genii of the rain and crops. " These tutelar deities, however, have taken Christian names, the Red, or God of the East, having become St Domenic ; the White, or God of the North, St Gabriel ; the Black, or God of the West, St James; and the Yellow Goddess of the South, Mary Magdalene1." To the observer passing from the northern to the southern division of the New World no marked contrasts are at first perceptible, either in the physical appear- to South ance, or in the social condition of the aborigines. America. The substantial uniformity, which in these respects prevails from the Arctic to the Austral waters, is in fact well illustrated by the comparatively slight differences presented by the primitive populations dwelling north and south of the Isthmus of Panama. Most of the insular connecting links, such as those offered by the Cebunys of Cuba2, the nearly extinct Caribs of an^Lucayans. t^ie ^est Indies, and the entirely extinct Lucayans of the Bahamas, have no doubt disappeared with all the other aborigines of the Antilles. But the chain of native populations would appear to have been formerly continuous from the Timuquanans of Florida through the Windward and Leeward 1 Reclus, Vol. xix. p. 156. 2 The rapid disappearance of these Cuban aborigines has been the subject of much comment. Between the years 1512-32 all but some 4000 had perished, although they are supposed to have originally numbered about a million, distri- buted in 30 tribal groups, whose names and territories have all been carefully preserved. But they practically offered no resistance to the ruthless Conquista- dores, and it was a Cuban chief who even under torture refused to be baptised, declaring that he would never enter the same heaven as the Spaniard. One is reminded of the analogous cases of Jarl Hakon, the Norseman, and the Saxon Witikind, who rejected Christianity, preferring to share the lot of their pagan forefathers in the next world. I 'LATE VII. i. CREE OF HUDSON BAY. (North Algonquian Type.) 2. SPOKAN WARRIOR. (Selishan Type.) 3. GUATUSO. (Costa Rican Type.) To face page 416] XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 417 Islands to the Caribs of the Guianas, and similarly from the Bahamas and the Greater Antilles to the Arawakan groups of Venezuela and surrounding lands. The statement of Columbus that the Lucayans were "of good size, with large eyes and broader foreheads than he had ever seen in any other race of men " is fully borne out by the character of some old skulls from the Bahamas measured by Mr \V. K. Brooks, who unhesitatingly declares that "they are the remains of the people who inhabited the islands at the time of their discovery, and that these people were a well-marked type of the North American Indian race which was at that time distributed over the Bahama Islands, Hayti, and the greater part of Cuba. As these islands are only a few miles from the peninsula of Florida, this race must at some time have inhabited at least the so.uth-eastern extremity of the continent, and it is therefore extremely interesting to note that the North American crania which exhibit the closest resemblance to those from the Bahama Islands have been obtained from Florida1." This observer dwells on the solidity and massiveness of the Lucayan skulls, which brings them into direct relation with the races both of the Mississippi plains and of the Brazilian and Venezuelan coast-lands. Equally close is the connection established between the surviving Isthmian and Colombian peoples of the Chontals, Atrato and Magdalena basins. The Chontals of Chocos and Nicaragua are scarcely to be distinguished from some of the Santa Marta hillmen, while the Chocos and perhaps the Cunas of Panama have been affiliated to the Chocos of the Atrato and San Juan rivers. Attempts, which however can hardly be regarded as successful, have even been made to estab- lish linguistic relations between the Costa Rican Guatusos and the Timotes of the Merida uplands of Venezuela, who are them- selves a branch of the formerly wide-spread Muyscan family. But with these Muyscans we at once enter a new ethnical and cultural domain, in which may be studied the resemblances due to the common origin of all the American aborigines, and the divergences due obviously to long isolation and independent 1 Paper read before the National Academy of Sciences, America, 1890. K. 27 41 8 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. local developments in the two continental divisions. In general the southern populations present more violent contrasts than the northern in their social and intellectual developments, so that while the wild tribes touch a lower depth of savagery, some at least of the civilised peoples rise to a higher degree of excellence, if not in letters— where the inferiority is manifest — certainly in the arts of engineering, architecture, agriculture, and political organi- zation. Thus we need not travel many miles inland from the Isthmus without meeting the Catios, a wild tribe The Catios. between the Atrato and the Cauca, far more de- graded even than the Seri of Sonora, most debased of all North American hordes. These Catios, a now nearly extinct branch of the Choco stock, were said to dwell like the anthropoid apes, in the branches of trees ; they mostly went naked, and were reported, like the Mangbattus and other Congo negroes, to " fatten their captives for the table." Their Darien neighbours of the Nore valley, who gave an alternative name to the Panama peninsula, were accustomed to steal the women of hostile tribes, cohabit with them, and carefully bring up the children till their four- teenth year, when they were eaten with much rejoicing, the mothers ultimately sharing the same fate1; and the Cocomas of the Marafion " were in the habit of eating their own dead relations, and grinding their bones to drink in their fermented liquor. They said it was better to be inside a friend than to be swallowed up by the cold earth2." In fact of the Colombian aborigines Herrera tells us that " the living are the grave of the dead ; for the husband has been seen to eat his wife, the brother his brother or sister, the son his father ; captives also are eaten roasted3." Thus is raised the question of cannibalism in the New World, where at the discovery it was incomparably more prevalent south than north of the equator. Compare the Eskimo and the Fuegians at the two extremes, the former practically exonerated of the 1 The Travels of P. de Cieza de Leon (Hakluyt Soc. 1864, P- 5° scl-)- 2 Sir C. R. Markham, List of Tribes, &c. Jour. Anthrop. Inst. 1895, p. 253. "This idea was widespread, and many Amazonian peoples declared they pre- ferred to be eaten by their friends than by worms." 3 Quoted by Steinmetz, Endokanmbalismtts, p. 19. XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 419 charge, and in distress sparing wives and children, and eating their dogs ; the latter sparing their dogs because useful for catching otters, and smoking and eating their old women because useless for further purposes1. In the north the taste for human flesh had declined, and the practice survived only as a ceremonial rite, chiefly amongst the British Columbians and the Aztecs, except of course in case of famine, when even the highest races are capable of devouring their fellows. But in the south cannibalism in some of its most repulsive forms was common enough almost everywhere. Killing and eating feeble and aged members of the tribe in kindness is still general ; but the Mayorunas of the Upper Amazon waters do not wait till they have grown lean with years or wasted with disease2 ; and it was a baptized member of the same tribe who complained on his death-bed that he would not now provide a meal for his Christian friends, but must be devoured by worms3. But the lowest depths of the horrible are perhaps reached by what J. Nieuwhof relates of the Tapuyas, a wide- spread family which includes the Botocudos, and is the same as that to which Von Martius has given the collective name of Ges4. In the southern continent the social conditions illustrated by these practices prevailed everywhere, except on the elevated plateaux of the western Cordilleras, which zjn^e Cu for many ages before the discovery had been the seats of several successive cultures, in some respects rivalling, but in others much inferior to those of Central America. When the Conquistadores reached this part of the New World, to which 1 C. Darwin, Journal of Researches, 1889, p. 155. Thanks to their frequent contact with Europeans .since the expeditions of Fitzroy and Darwin, the Fuegians have given up the practice, hence the doubts or denials of Brydges, Hyades, and other later observers 2 V. Martius, Zur Ethnographic Brasiliens, 1867, p. 430. 3 Herbert Spencer, The Principles of Ethics, 1892, I. p. 330. 4 "Von den Tapuyas sagt er dass die todte Frucht sogleich von der Mutter verschlungen wird, da sie nicht besser bewahrt warden konne, als in den Eingeweiden der Gebarerin; auch der Nabelstrang und die Nachgeburt (sic) •\verden gleich gekocht von der Mutter in ihrer Waldeinsamkeit gegessen" (Steinmetz, p. 17). Something similar is related by Dobrizhoffer even of the Guarani, who were not usually regarded as bestial savages (ib. p. 18). 27 2 42O MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. they were attracted by the not altogether groundless reports of fabulous wealth embodied in the legend of El Dorado, the " Man of Gold," they found it occupied by a cultural zone which extended almost continuously from the present republic of Colombia through Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia right into Chili. In the THf* chibchas north the dominant people were the semi-civilised Chibchas, already mentioned under the name of Muyscas1, who had developed an organized system of government on the Bogota tableland, and had succeeded in extending their some- what more refined social institutions to some of the other aborigines of Colombia, though not to many of the outlying members of their own race. As in Mexico many of the Nahuatlan tribes remained little better than savages to the last, so in Colombia the civilised Muy scans were surrounded by numerous kindred tribes — Coyaima,. Natagaima, Tocaima and others, collectively known as Panches— who were real savages with scarcely any tribal organisation, wear- ing no clothes, and according to the early accounts still addicted to cannibalism. The Muyscas proper had a tradition that they owed their superiority to a certain Bochica, half human, half divine, who came from the east a long time ago, taught them everything, and then became the head of their pantheon, worshipped with solemn rites and even human sacrifices. Amongst the arts thus acquired was that of the goldsmith, in which they surpassed all other peoples of the New World. The precious metal was even said to be minted in the shape of discs, which formed an almost solitary instance of a true metal currency amongst the American aborigines2. Many of the European cabinets are enriched with these and other gold objects — brooches, pendants, and especially grotesque little figures of men and animals — which have been 1 The national name was Miiysca, "Men," " Human Body," and the number twenty (in reference to the ten fingers and ten toes making up that score). Chibcha was a mimetic name having allusion to the sound ch (as in Charles), which is of frequent recurrence in the Muysca language. With man — 20, cf. the Ballacula (British Columbia) 19=1 man- i ; IQ— i man, etc. ; and this again with Lat. undeviginti. 2 W. Bollaert, Antiqtiarian, Ethnological, and other Researches in New Granada, etc. 1860, passim. XI.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 421 found in great numbers and still occasionally turn up on the plateau. These finds are partly accounted for by the practice of offering such objects at the altars erected everywhere in the open air to the personified constellations and forces of nature, which were constantly increasing in number according to the whim or fancy of their votaries. Any mysterious sound emanating from a forest, a rock, a mountain pass, or gloomy gorge, was accepted as a manifestation of some divine presence ; a shrine was raised to the embodied spirit, and so the whole land became literally crowded with local deities, all subservient to Bochica, sovereign lord of the Muysca world. This world itself was up- borne on the shoulders of Chibchicum, a national Atlas, who now and then eased himself by shifting the burden, and thus caused earthquakes. In most lands subject to underground disturbances analogous ideas prevail, and when their source is so obvious, it seems unreasonable to seek for explanations in racial affinities, contacts, foreign influences, and so forth. It has often been remarked that at the advent of the whites the native civilisations seemed generally stricken as if by the hand of death, so that even if not suddenly arrested by the intruders they must sooner or later have perished of themselves. Such speculations are seldom convincing, because we never know what recuperative forces may be at work to ward off the evil day. But so much may be admitted, that the symptoms of decay were everywhere more in evidence than the prospects of stability. Such was certainly the case in Muyscaland, where the national life and all hopes of healthy development had been stifled by an oppressive system of exclusive social castes headed, as in India, and with like baneful results, by the priestly class. Although the High Priest — who like the Tibetan Dalai Lama, dwelt in some sanctuary inaccessible to the public — was chosen by election, the sacerdotal hierarchy inherited their offices through the female line, doubtless a reminiscence of matriarchal customs. These xeques, as they were called, obtruded themselves everywhere, and exercised such diverse functions as those of the shaman, the medicine man, judge, and executioner. Then followed, in exactly the same order as in India, the warrior caste, utilised also as police and tax-gatherers, the traders, 422 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. craftsmen, and peasants, beyond whom were the tributary popula- tions, nomads and others hovering on the skirts of this feebly organized political system. It broke to pieces at the first shock from without, and so disheartened had the people become under their half theocratic rulers, that they scarcely raised a hand in defence of a government which in their minds was associated only with tyranny and oppression. The conquest was in any case facilitated by the civil war at the time raging between the northern and southern kingdoms which with several other semi- independent states constituted the Muyscan empire. This empire was almost conterminous southwards with that of the Incas. At least the numerous terms occurring in the dialects of the Paes, Coconucos, and other South Colombian tribes, show that Peruvian influences had spread beyond the political frontiers far to the north, without, however, quite reaching the confines of the Muyscan domain. But, for an unknown period prior to the discovery, the sway of the Peruvian Incas had been established throughout the'irfcas C nearly the whole of the Andean lands, and the terri- tory directly ruled by them extended from the Quito district about the equator for some 2500 miles southwards to the Rio Maule in Chili, with an average breadth of 400 miles between the Pacific and the eastern slopes of the Cordilleras. Their dominion thus comprised a considerable part of the present republics of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, and Argentina, with a roughly estimated area of 1,000,000 square miles, and a popula- tion of over 10,000,000. Here the ruling race were the Quechuas o hu (Quichuas) , whose speech, the "Language of the Race and Incas," is still current in several well-marked dialec- tic varieties throughout all the provinces of the old empire. In Lima and all the seaports and inland towns Spanish prevails, but in the rural districts Quechuan remains the mother- tongue of over 2,000,000 natives, and has even become the lingua franca of the western regions, just as Tupi-Guarani is the lingoa gera/, "general language," of the eastern section of South America. The attempts to find affinities with Aryan (especially Sanskrit), and other linguistic families of the Eastern Hemisphere, have broken down before the application of sound philological principles XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 423 to these studies, and Quechuan is now recognised as a stock language of the usual American type, unconnected with any other except that of the Bolivian Aymaras. Even this connection is regarded by some students as verbal rather than structural, an interchange of a considerable number of terms being easily ex- plained by the close contact in which the two peoples have dwelt since prehistoric times. But on the other hand one of the national traditions of the Quechuas themselves traces their cradle to the southern shores and islands of Lake Titicaca, that _ Quecnua- is, the hallowed region which is intimately asso- Aymara ciated with the earliest reminiscences of both races. The very island which gives its name to the lake is the "Tiger Rock1,'' the former abode of a huge jaguar who, like the dragon of the Pamir, wore in his head a great jewel which illumined the whole lake. Later, when the tiger had disappeared from the sacred islet, there emerged from its cavernous recesses the sun- born Manco-Capac, first of the Incas, bearing a golden bough which he had received from the divine orb, with the injunction to walk on and on till he reached a spot where the emblem of the Incas' future glories would take root in the ground. Here was founded the renowned city of Cuzco, first seat of the dynasty and capital of the Tavantisuyan (Peruvian)2 monarchy. Apart from the supernatural elements, what weight can be attached to these traditions on the Titicaca origin of the Incas and their people? On the authority of Garcilaso de la Vega, himself of Inca lineage, they are accepted by most inquirers into Peruvian origins, who fail to perceive that, if true, then the Quechuas must be of Aymara stock, the Titicaca lands being beyond all question within the domain of the Aymara race. But the general assumption is that the Quechuas are and always have been the dominant people, and that they were the builders of the stupendous Tiahuanaco monuments on the southern shores of the lake, and not far from the holy island in the very heart of Aymaraland. Now it is this very assumption, involving the transfer of a whole culture 1 Titi, "tiger," i.e. jaguar; caca, "rock." 2 Pent, a term introduced by the Spaniards, is unknown to the natives, who call the land Tavantisuyn, i.e. "The Four Quarters" (of the world). 424 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. with its myths, monuments, and traditions from one nation to another, that has obscured the relations of both, and surrounded the inquiry into Peruvian origins with endless difficulties and contradictions. The credit of having cleared up most of these obscurities, and placed the whole question on a satisfactory footing, is due to the patient researches of Herren A. Stiibel and M. Uhle1, who make it evident that the megalithic structures of Tiahuanaco, including the wonderful doorway of Akkapana2, perhaps the greatest architectural triumph of the New World, were the work neither of " Toltecs " from Central America, nor of Quechuas from Peru, nor of any other people but the Aymaras, in whose territory they were raised. It should be remembered that this territory was not even included in the Incas' empire till the reign of Yupanqui, scarcely 130 years before the arrival of the Spaniards, that is, at a time when the very builders themselves had already passed into the world of legend, and become divine beings associated with the pre-Inca cult of Viracocha, " creator of all things." Garcilaso himself tells us that when the fourth Inca, Mayta-Capac, first penetrated to the lake district, the sight of these structures struck his Quechuan followers with such amaze- 1 Die Ruinmsttitte von Tiahuanaco ini Hochlande des alien Peru, Breslau, 1893. Since the appearance of this monumental work E. W. Middendorf has returned to the subject, and in his Pem: Beobachtungen n. Stndien &c. 1895, vol. III. denies that the Tiahuanaco monuments were associated with the cull of Viracocha, while admitting with our authors that they are not Quechuan, and in fact differ fundamentally from all others in South America. The founders of this civilization were connected with the now degraded Aymaras, and came from some foreign land, as indicated by their name, Tiahiianaco-haque, which he interprets " Wanderers from Foreign Lands." This, however, was not a national name, and whatever its meaning, appears to be of Quechuan origin. For our purpose it is enough that Middendorf now recognises the non-Inca character of the monuments and their connection with the Aymara race. 2 The still standing monolithic uprights in this district are specially interest- ing to English archaeologists, owing to their likeness to Stonehenge : "Ak- kapana macht durch seine Aenhchkeit mit den Stonehenges Englands im Aeusseren allerdings einen besonders alterthlimlichen Eindruck. Allein diese Aenlichkeit betrifft nur seinen gegemvartigen Zustand, und es erscheint sehr fraglich, ob das unverletzte Werk die gleiche Uebereinstimmung im Aeusseren mit den alten megalitischen Steinbauten Englands hatte erkennen lassen" (Ruinenstatte, p. 46). XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 425 ment that they were unable to understand by what processes such buildings had been erected, proof enough that they were not the builders. It is here made abundantly evident that the great temple and surrounding edifices, which were never completed, date from pre-Inca times, that they were dedicated to Viracocha, tutelar deity of the Aymaras, and that the building operations were arrested by the Incas, who regarded Tiahuanaco, seat of this cult, as the rival of Paccaritambo, near Cuzco, centre of the Quechua sun-worship. But after the complete conquest of Aymaraland the original hostility between the two religious centres disappeared, international jealousies, based more on political than religious grounds, died out, and Viracocha himself was adopted into the Quechuan pantheon. His name was even borne by one of the Incas (Viracocha, son of Yahuar-Huacac) ; in the esoteric teach- ings of the Peruvian priests he was identified with the " Unknown God," said to have been worshipped under the name of Pacha- camac in Upper Peru and of Viracocha at Cuzco1; lastly this Aymara deity's name became in later times a general title of honour, and at present all Europeans are greeted by the natives as Viracocha-tatai) "Our father Viracocha." With the Aymara tutelar divinity were naturally appropriated the above described myths and traditions, until Titicaca, home of the Aymaras, became the mystic cradle of the sun-descended Incas, and thus in the early writers (Piedro de Cieza de Leon, Garcilaso, etc.) the Aymaras and all their works were merged in the dominant Peruvian nationality-. Such would appear to be the solution of perhaps the most interesting, certainly one of the most obscure ethnico-historical problems in the New World. 1 Cieza, however, the ''Herodotus of the New World," had his doubts, for he writes: "V assi se tiene, que antes que los Ingas reynassen non muchos tiempos, estavan hechos algunos edificios destos: porque yo he oydo afirmar a Indies que los Ingas hizieron los edificios grandes del Cuzco, por la forma que vieron tener la muralla o pared que se vee en este Tiaguanaco" (Chronica, I. ch. 105). - It is very significant in this connection that, as Garcilaso himself confesses (Bk. vi. ch. 21), the term Viracocha had no meaning at all in the Quechuan language of his Inca forefathers. 426 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Here is not the place to enter into the details of the astonish- ing architectural, engineering, and artistic remains, The Chimus. now generally assigned to the Incas, who have in this respect become the " Toltecs " of the Southern Continent, but were here preceded, not only by the Aymaras, but also by the Chimus, perhaps by the Atacamefws, and other cultured peoples whose very names have perished. Doubts attach even to the name of the Chimus themselves, whose dominion before their overthrow by the Inca Yupanqui extended from their capital, Grand Chimu, where is now Truxillo, for 625 miles along the coast nearly to the Chilian frontier. The ruins of Chimu cover a vast area, nearly 15 miles by 6, which is everywhere strewn with the remains of palaces, reservoirs, aqueducts, ramparts, and especially huacas, that is, truncated pyramids not unlike those of Mexico, whence the theory that the Chimus, of unknown origin, were " Toltecs " from Central America. One of these huacas is described by Squier as 150 feet high with a base 580 feet square, and an area of 8 acres, present- ing from a distance the appearance of a huge crater1. Still larger is the so-called "Temple of the Sun," 800 by 470 feet, 200 feet high, and covering an area of 7 acres. An immense population of hundreds of thousands was assigned to this place in pre-Inca times; but from some rough surveys made in 1897 it would appear that much of the space within the enclosures consists of waste lands, which had never been built over, and it is calculated that at no time could the number of inhabitants have greatly exceeded 50,000. We need not stop to describe the peculiar civil and social institutions of the Peruvians, which are of common Peruvian Political knowledge. Enough to say that here everything was planned in the interests of the theocratic and all-powerful Incas, who were more than obeyed, almost honoured with divine worship by their much bethralled and priestridden subjects. "The despotic authority of the Incas was the basis of government ; that authority was founded on the religious respect yielded to the descendant of the sun, and supported by 1 Pern, p. i 20. XI.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 42/ a skilfully combined hierarchy. The population was divided into decuries, and amongst the ten individuals who formed each decury, the Inca or his representatives chose one, who became the chief over the nine others. Five decuries had at their head a decurion of superior rank ; fifty decuries a chief, who thus commanded 500 men. Lastly, 100 decuries obeyed a supreme chief, who received orders direct from the Inca1." It was a kind of communism, half religious, half military, in which everything was artificial, nature stamped out, and the individual reduced to a cipher, a numbered member of a clan or group, to which he was tied for life, in which he could neither rise nor sink, hope nor fear. The system was outwardly perfect, but soulless, and so. like that of the Cundinamarcan Muyscas, collapsed at the first clash with a handful of mounted Spanish brigands. Beyond the Maule, southernmost limits of all these effete civilisations, man reasserted himself in the " South TH f> American Iroquois," as those Chilian aborigines Araucanians have been called who called themselves Molu-che, "Warriors," but are better known by their Quechuan designation of Aucaes, "Rebels," whence the Spanish Aucans (Araucan, Araucanian). These " Rebels," who have never hitherto been overcome by the arms of any people, and whose heroic deeds in the long wars Avaged by the white intruders against their freedom form the topic of a noble Spanish epic poem", still maintain a measure of national autonomy, as the friends and faithful allies of the Chilian republic. Probably no people have ever carried the sense of personal independence to greater lengths, and the sentiment embodied with us in the half-jocular expression, " I'm as good as my neighbour," would seem to be taken quite seriously in Araucania. Here there never has been a central authority of any kind ; not only are all the tribes absolutely free, but the same is true of every clan, sept, and family group, which recognise no masters, scarcely the paterfamilias himself, who does not even venture to chastise his children or control his household. Need- less to say, there are no slaves or serfs, no tribal laws or penal 1 De Nadaillac, p. 438. - Alonzo de Ercilla'.s Araucana. 428 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. code, no hereditary chiefs, nothing but custom and a strong sense of duty, or national spirit, in virtue of which the tribal groups act voluntarily in concert, come together and elect their temporary toqiti (dictator) in time of war, and the danger over, disperse again to their isolated homes and farmsteads, for they lack even sufficient cohesion to dwell together in small village communities. There was, however, one controlling or binding force, a kind of ancestry worship, or at least a profound veneration for their forefathers, who after death went to people the Milky Way, and from that vantage-ground continued to watch over the conduct of their children. And this simple belief is almost the only substitute for the rewards and punishments which supply the motive for the observance of an artificial ethical code in so many more developed religious systems. In the sonorous Araucanian language, which is still spoken by about 40,000 full-blood natives, the term che, meaning " people," occurs as the postfix of several ethnical groups, which, however, are not tribal but purely territorial divisions. Thus, while Molit- che is the collective name of the whole nation, the Picun-che, Huilli-che, and Puel-che are simply the North, South, and East men respectively. The Central and most numerous division are the Pehuen-che^ that is, people of the Pehuen district, who are both the most typical and most intelligent of all the Araucanian family. Ehrenreich's remark that many of the American aborigines re- semble Europeans as much as or even more than the Asiatic Mongols, is certainly borne out by the facial expression of these Pehuen-ches. The resemblance is even extended to the mental characters, as reflected in their oral literature. Amongst the specimens of the national folklore preserved in the Pehuen-che dialect and edited with Spanish translations by Dr Rodolfo Lenz1, is the story of a departed lover, who returns from the other world to demand his betrothed and carries her off to his grave. Al- though this might seem an adaptation of Burger's Lenore, Dr Lenz is of opinion that it is a genuine Araucanian legend. Of the above-mentioned groups the Puel-ches are now included 1 In the Anales de la Universidad de Chile for 1897. XI.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 429 politically in Argentina. They are, however, true Molu-ches, al- though sometimes confused with the neighbouring aborigines of Patagonia and the Pampas, to whom the Chilian postfix che has also been extended. This very term Puel-che, meaning simply " Easterns," is applied not only to the Argentine Molu-ches, whose territory stretches east of the Cordilleras as far as Mendoza in Cuyo, but also to all the aborigines commonly called Pampeans (Pampas Indians] by the Europeans and Penek by the Patagonians. Under the de- signation of Puel-ches would therefore be comprised the now extinct Ranqual-ches (Ranqueles), who formerly raided up to Buenos-Ayres and the other Spanish settlements on the Plate River ; the Mapo-ches of the Lower Salado, and generally all the nomads as far south as the Rio Negro. These aborigines are now best represented by the Gauchos, who are mostly Spaniards on the father's side and Indians on the mother's, and reflect this double descent in their half-nomadic, half-civilised life. These Gauchos, who are now also disappearing before the encroachments of the "Gringos1,'' i-e- the white immigrants from almost every country in Europe, have been enveloped in an ill-deserved halo of romance, thanks mainly to their roving habits, splendid horsemanship, love of finery, and genial disposition combined with that innate grace and courtesy which belongs to all of Spanish blood. But those who knew them best described them as of sordid nature, cruel to their womenkind, reckless gamblers and libertines, ruthless political partisans, at times even religious fanatics without a spark of true religion, and at heart little better than bloodthirsty savages. Beyond the Rio Negro follow the gigantic Patagonians, that is, the Tehuel-ches or Chuel-ches of the Araucanians, who have no true collective name unless it be g0nians.a Tsoneca, a word of uncertain use and origin. Most of the tribal groups — Yacana, Pilma, Chao and others — are broken up, and the former division between the Northern Tehuelches (Tehuelhet), comprising the Callilchet (Serranos or Highlanders) of the Upper Chupat, with the Calilan between the 1 Properly Griegos, "Greeks, " so called because supposed to speak ' ' Greek," i.e. any language other than Spanish. 430 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Rios Chupat and Negro, and the Southern Tehuelches (Yacana, Sehuan, etc.), south to Fuegia, no longer holds good since the general displacement of all these fluctuating nomad hordes. A branch of the Tehuelches are unquestionably the Onas of the eastern parts of Fuegia, the true aborigines of which are the Yahgans of the central and the Alakalufs of the western islands. Hitherto to the question whence came these tall Patagonians, no answer could be given beyond the suggestion that they may have been specialised in their present habitat, where nevertheless they seem to be obviously intruders. Now, however, one may perhaps venture to look for their original home amongst the Bororos of the region south of Goyaz, between the head-waters of the Rios Parana and Paraguay. These Bororos, who had been heard of by Martius, but whose very existence had been doubted, have long been known to the Portuguese settlers, and have also lately been interviewed by Ehrenreich, who found them to be a very numerous and powerful nation (as in fact already stated by Milliet de Saint-Adolphe1), ranging over a territory as large as Germany. Their physical characters, as described by this ob- server, correspond closely with those of the Patagonians: "An exceptionally tall race rivalling the Polynesians, Patagonians, and Redskins ; by far the tallest Indians hitherto discovered within the tropics, some being 6 ft. 4 in. high, although the tallest were not measured; head very large and round (men 8i'2; women 77-4)"." With this should be compared the very large round old Patagonian skull from the Rio Negro, measured by Rudolf Martin, as described in the Quarterly Journal of Swiss Naturalists3. The account reads like the description of some forerunner of a pre- historic Bororo irruption into the Patagonian steppe lands. To the perplexing use of the term Puelche above referred to is perhaps due the difference of opinion still prevailing on the number of stock languages in this southern section of the Con- tinent. D'Orbigny's emphatic statement4 that the Puelches spoke ] "Nacao de Indies poderosa...dominando sobre um vasto territorio etc.," (Diccionario Gcographico do Brazil, 1863, I. p. 160). - Urbewohner Brasiliens, 121, 125. :5 Zurich, 1896, p. 496 sq. 4 ISHomnie Ainericain, II. p. 70. XI.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 431 a language fundamentally distinct both from the Araucanian and the Patagonian has been questioned on the strength of some Puelche words, which were collected by Returns*10 Hale at Carmen on the Rio Negro, and differ but slightly from Patagonian. But the Rio Negro lies on the ethnical divide between the two races, which sufficiently accounts for the resemblances, while the words are too few to prove anything. Hale calls them " Southern Puelche," but they were in fact Tehuelche (Patagonian), the true Pampean Puelches having dis- appeared from that region before Hale's time1. I have now the unimpeachable authority of the Rev. T. P. Schmid, for many years a missionary amongst these aborigines, for asserting that d'Orbigny's statement is absolutely correct. His Puelches were the Pampeans, because he locates them in the region between the Rios Negro and Colorado, that is, north of Patagonian and east of Araucanian territory, and Mr Schmid assures me that all three — Araucanian, Pampean, and Patagonian — are undoubtedly stock languages, distinct both in their vocabulary and structure, with nothing in common except their common polysynthetic form. In a list of 2000 Patagonian and Araucanian words he found only two alike, patac— 100, and huarunc-— 1000, numerals obviously borrowed by the rude Tehuelches from the more cultured Moluches. In Fuegia there is at least one radically distinct tongue, the Yahgan, studied by the Rev. Mr Brydges. Here the Ona is probably a Patagonian dialect, and Alakaluf perhaps remotely allied to Araucanian. Thus in the whole region south of the Plate River the stock languages are not known to exceed four: — Araucanian; Pampean (Puelche); Patagonian (Tehuelche) ; and Yahgan. Few aboriginal peoples have been the subject of more glaringly discrepant statements than the Yahgans, to whom nrvt P several lengthy monographs have been devoted Yahgans during the last few decades. How contradictory are the statements of intelligent and even trained observers, 1 They were replaced or absorbed partly by the Patagonians, but chiefly by the Araucanian Puelches, who many years ago migrated down the Rio Negro as far as El Carmen and even to the coast at Bahia Blanca. Hence Hale's Puelches were in fact Araucanians with a Patagonian strain. 432 MAN I PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. whose good faith is beyond suspicion and who have no cause to serve except the truth, will best be seen by placing in juxtaposi- tion the accounts of the family relations by Lieut. Bove, a well- known Italian observer, and Dr P. Hyades of the French Cape Horn Expedition, both summarised1 :- Bove. Hyades. The women are treated as slaves. Both girls and married women The greater the number of wives or expect to be treated with proper slaves a man has the easier he finds a respect and deference, living; hence polygamy is deep-rooted Some men have two or more and four wives common. Owing to wives, but monogamy is the rule, the rigid climate and bad treatment the mortality of children under 10 Children are tenderly cared for by years is excessive; the mother's love their parents, who in return are lasts till the child is weaned, after treated by them with affection and which it rapidly wanes, and is com- deference, pletely gone when the child attains the age of 7 or 8 years. The Fuegian's The Fuegians are of a generous only lasting love is the love of self. disposition and like to share their As there are no family ties, the word pleasures with others. The husbands 'authority' is devoid of meaning. exercise due control, and punish severely any act of infidelity. These seeming contradictions may be partly explained by the general improvement in manners due to the beneficent action of the English missionaries in recent years, and great progress has certainly been made since the expeditions of Fitzroy and Darwin. But it is to be feared that these influences are mainly confined to the vicinity of the stations, beyond which the darker pictures presented by the early observers and later by Bove, Lovisato and others, still hold good. But even in the more favoured regions of the Parana and Amazon basins many tribes are met which yield little if at all to the Fuegians of the early writers in sheer savagery and debasement. Thus the Cashibos or Carapaches of the Ucayali, Cashtbos wno are described as resembling the Fuegians even in appearance", may be said to answer almost 1 Mission Scientijique de Cap Horn, vol. VII., par P. Hyades et J. Deniker, 1891. - "Les Kassivos cannibales du haul Ucayali qui ressemblent aux Fuegiens" (L. Rousselet, Art. Aweriqne, 1895). Others, however, tell us they are "white XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 433 better than any other human group to the old saying, homo homini lupus. They roam the forests like wild beasts, living almost entirely upon game, in which is included man himself. " When one of them is pursuing the chase in the woods and hears another hunter imitating the cry of an animal, he imme- diately makes the same cry to entice him nearer, and if he is of another tribe kills him if he can and (as is alleged) eats him." Hence they are naturally " in a state of hostility with all their neighbours1." These Cashibos, i.e. " Bats," are members of a widespread linguistic family which in ethnological writings bears the name of Pano, from the Panos of the Huallaga FamHy!* and Maranon, who are now broken up or greatly reduced, but whose language is current amongst the Cashibos, the Conibos, the Karipunas, the Pacaouaras, the Setebos, the Sipivios (Shipibos) and others about the head-waters of the Amazons in Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil, as far east as the Madeira. Amongst these, as amongst the Moxos and so many other riverine tribes in Amazonia, a slow transformation is in progress. Some have been baptized, and while still occupying their old haunts and keeping up the tribal organization, have been induced to forego their savage ways and turn to peaceful pursuits. They are beginning to wear clothes, usually cotton robes of some vivid colour, to till the soil, take service with the white traders, or even trade themselves in their canoes up and down the tributaries of the Amazons. In this boundless Amazonian region of moist sunless wood- lands, fringed north and east by Atlantic coast Ethnical ranges, diversified by the open Venezuelan llanos, Relations in , . . ' . 11 • i i • Amazonia. and merging southwards in the vast alluvial plains of the Parana-Paraguay basin, much light has been brought to bear on the obscure ethnical relations by the recent explorations especially of Dr Paul Ehrenreich and Karl von den Steinen about the Xingu, Purus, Madeira and other southern affluents of the great artery. Excluding several isolated — that is, not yet as Germans, with long beards," while "the missionary Girbal was astonished at the beauty of their women" (Markham, List of Tribes etc., p. 249). 1 Markham, ib. K. 28 434 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. classified — groups such as the Bororo and Caraya, these observers comprise the countless Brazilian aborigines in four main divi- sions, which in conformity with Powell's terminology may here be named the CARIBAN, ARAWAKAN, GESAN and TUPI-GUARANIAN families. Hitherto the Caribs were commonly supposed to have had their original homes far to the north, possibly in The Caribs. , . . r the Alleghany uplands, or in Honda, where they have been doubtfully identified with the extinct Timuquanans, and whence they spread through the Antilles southwards to Venezuela, the Guianas, and north-east Brazil, beyond which they were not known to have ranged anywhere south of the Amazons. But this view is now shown to be untenable, and several Carib tribes, such as the Bakairi1 and Nahuquas1 of the Upper Xingu, all speaking archaic forms of the Carib stock language, have been met by the German explorers in the very heart of Brazil ; whence the inference that the cradle of this race is to be sought rather in the centre of South America, perhaps on the Goyaz and Matto Grosso tablelands, from which region they moved north- wards, if not to Florida, at least to the Caribbean Sea which is named from them2. A connecting link is formed by the Apiacas of the Lower Tocantins between the Amazonian section and that of the Guianas, where the chief groups are the Venezuelan Makirifares. the Ma- cusi, Kalinas, and Galibi of British, Dutch, and French Guiana respectively. In general all the Caribs present much the same physical characters, although the southerners are rather taller (5ft. 4 in.) with less round heads (index 79° -6) than the Guiana Caribs (5 ft. 2 in., and 8i°'5). Perhaps even a greater extension has been given by the German explorers to the Arawakan family, which, Arawakan like the Cariban, was hitherto supposed to be mainly confined to the region north of the Amazons, but is now known to range as far south as the Upper Paraguay, about 1 Ehrenreich, Urbewohner Brasiliens, p. 45 sq. - It should be stated that a like conclusion has been reached by M. Lucien Adam from the vocabularies brought by Crevaux from the Upper Yapura tribes — Witotos, Corequajes, Kariginas and others — all of Carib speech. PLATE VIII. i. CARIB. (Guiana Type.) 2. CARIB. (Guiana Type.) 3. TEHUELCHE. (Patagonian Type.) 4. TEHUELCHE. (Patagonian Type.) To face page 434] XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 435 20° S. lat. (Layanas, Kwanas, etc.), east to the Amazons estuary (Aritan], and north-west to the Goajira peninsula. To this great family — which von den Steinen proposes to call Nu-Aruak from the pronominal prefix nu - I, common to most of the tribes- belong also the Maypures of the Orinoco ; the Atarais and Vapisianas of British Guiana ; the Manaos of the Rio Negro ; the Yumanas ; the Paumarys and Ipurinas of the Ipuri basin, and the Mokos of the Upper Mamore. Physically the Arawaks differ from the Caribs scarcely, if at all more than their Amazonian and Guiana sections differ from each other. In fact, but for their radically distinct speech it would be impossible to constitute these two ethnical divisions, which are admittedly based on linguistic grounds. But while the Caribs had their cradle in Central Brazil and migrated northwards, the Arawaks would on the contrary now appear to have originated in the north (Guiana, Antilles), and spread thence southwards beyond the Amazons-Parana watershed into the Paraguay basin. Our third great Brazilian division, the Gesan family, takes its name from the syllable ges1 which, like the Araucan che, forms the final element of several tribal names Family & in East Brazil. Of these the most characteristic are the Aimores of the Serra dos Aimores coast-range, who are better known as Botocudos, and it was to the kindred tribes of the province of Goyaz that the arbitrary collective name of " Ges " was first applied by Martius. A better general designation would perhaps have been Tapuya^ " Strangers," " Enemies," a term by which the Tupi people called all other natives of that region who were not of their race or speech, or rather who were not "Tupi," that is, "Allies " or "Associates." Tapuya had been adopted some- what in this sense by the early Portuguese writers, who however applied it somewhat loosely not only to the Aimores, but also to a large number of kindred and other tribes as far north as the Amazons estuary2. 1 An alternative which met with little favour, was cran, "chief," also a tribal ending of frequent occurrence, as in Macamecran, of the Tocantins. 2 "Tapuyas, nacao d' Indies, tronco de numerosas tribus derramadas por varias provincias do Brazil, principalmente pelas do Maranhao e do Ceara.. Havia tambem algumas tribus d' esta nacao no maritime de Pernambuco... 28—2 436 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. To the same connection belong several groups in Goyaz already described by Milliet and Martius, and again lately visited by Ehrenreich and von den Steinen. Such are the Kayapos or Suyas, a large nation with several divisions between the Araguaya and Xingu rivers ; and the Akuas, better known as Cherentes, about the upper course of the Tocantins. Isolated Tapuyan tribes, such as the Kame's or Kaingangs, wrongly called " Coro- ados," and the Choglengs of Santa Catharina and Rio Grand do Sul, are scattered over the southern provinces of Brazil. The Tapuyas would thus appear to have formerly occupied the whole of East Brazil from the Amazons to the Plate River for an unknown distance inland. Here they must be regarded as the true aborigines, who were in remote times already encroached upon, and broken into isolated fragments, by tribes of the Tupi- Guarani stock spreading from the interior seawards1. Both in their physical characters and extremely low cultural state, or rather the almost total absence of anything that can be called "culture," the Tapuyas are the nearest representatives and probably the direct descendants of the primitive race, whose osseous remains have been found in the Lagoa Santa caves, and the Santa Catharina shell-mounds. On anatomic grounds the Botocudos are allied both to the Lagoa Santa fossil Thp Botocudos. man and to the Sambaqui race by J. R. Peixoto, who describes the skull as marked by prominent glabella and superciliary arches, keel or roof-shaped vault, vertical lateral walls, simple sutures, receding brow, deeply depressed nasal root, high prognathism, massive lower jaw, and long head (index 73°'3o) with cranial capacity 1,480 cc. for men, and 1,212 for women2. It is also noteworthy that some of the Botocudos3 Traziao mettidas em buracos que faziao nas orelhas e no beico inferior, rodellas de madeira (Milliet de Saint-Adolphe, vol. 1 1. p. 689). 1 " D'apres Goncales Dias les tribus bresiliennes descendraient de deux races absolument distinctes : la race conquerante des Tupi, et la race vaincue, pourchassee, des Tapuya" (V. de Saint-Martin, VII. p. 517). 2 Novos Estudios Craniologicos sobre os Botocndos, Rio Janeiro, 1882, passim. 3 Possibly so called from the Portuguese botoque, a barrel plug, from the wooden plug or disc formerly worn by all the tribes both as a lip ornament and an ear-plug, distending the lobes like great leathern bat's-wings down to the shoulders. But this embellishment is called tcinbeitera by the Brazilians, and XI.] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 437 call themselves Nac-nanuk, Nac-pomc, "Sons of the Soil," and they have no traditions of ever having migrated from any other land. All their implements — spears, bow and arrows, mortars, water-vessels, bags — are of wood or vegetable fibre, so that they may be said not to have yet reached even the stone age. They are not, however, in the promiscuous state, as has been asserted, for the unions, though temporary, are jealously guarded while they last, and, as amongst the Fuegians whom they resemble in so many respects, the women are constantly subject to the most barbarous treatment, beaten with clubs or hacked about with bamboo knives. One of those in Ribeiro's party, who visited London in 1883, had her arms, legs, and whole body covered with scars and gashes inflicted during momentary fits of brutal rage by her ephemeral partner. Their dwellings are mere branches stuck in the ground, bound together with bast, and though seldom over 4 ft. in height accommodating two or more families. The Botocudos are pure nomads, roaming naked in the woods in quest of the roots, berries, honey, frogs, snakes, grubs, man, and other larger game which form their diet, and are eaten raw or else cooked in huge bamboo canes. Formerly they had no hammocks, but slept without any covering, either on the ground strewn with bast, or in the ashes of the fire kindled for the evening meal. About their cannibalism, which has been doubted, there is really no question. They wore the teeth of those they had eaten strung together as necklaces, and ate not only the foe slain in battle, but members of kindred tribes, all but the heads, which were stuck as trophies on stakes and used as butts for the practice of archery. At the graves of the dead fires are kept up for some time to scare away the bad spirits, from which custom the Botocudos might be credited with some notions of the supernatural. But perhaps it would be more correct to say that at this low stage of their evolution they have not yet realised the distinction between the natural and the supernatural. We are too apt to read such ele- vated ideas into the savage mind, which is essentially anthropo- morphic, attributing all mysterious manifestations to perhaps invisible, but still human or quasi-human agencies. All good Botocudo may perhaps be connected with bcto-apoc, the native name of the ear-plug. Milliet gives quite a fantastic derivation (i. p. 162). 438 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. influences are attributed by the Botocudos to the " day-fire " (sun), all bad things to the " night-fire " (moon), which causes the thunderstorm, and is supposed itself at times to fall on the earth, crushing the hill-tops, flooding the plains and destroying multitudes of people. During storms and eclipses arrows are shot up to scare away the demons or devouring dragons, as amongst so many Indo-Chinese peoples. But beyond this there is no conception of a supreme being, or creative force, the terms yanchong) tapan, said to mean "God," standing merely for spirit, demon, thunder, or at most the thunder-god. Owing to the choice made by the missionaries of the Tupi Th . language as the lingoa geral, or common medium of Guaranian intercourse amongst the multitudinous populations of Brazil and Paraguay, a somewhat exaggerated idea has been formed of the range of the Tupi-Guarani family. Many of the tribes about the stations, after being induced by the padres to learn this convenient lingua franca, were apt in course of time to forget their own mother-tongue, and thus came to be accounted members of this family. But allowing for such a source of error, there can be no doubt that at the discovery the Tupi or Eastern, and the Guarani or Western, section occupied jointly an immense area, which may perhaps be estimated at about one-fourth of the southern continent. Tupi tribes were met all along the main stream as far as Peru, where they were represented by the Omaguas (" Flatheads1"), about whom so many fables were circulated. Formerly they roamed the left bank of the Upper Amazons for 200 leagues between the rivers Tamburagua and Putumayo, waging incessant war with the Curinas on the south and the Tacunas on the north side ; and they are still numerous towards the sources of the Japura and Uaupes. These Tacunas (Ticunas, Jumanas) who, like the Araucanians and many other South American peoples, believe Tacanas*8 *" *n a §oo<^ an(^ ev^ principle, one continually un- doing the work of the other, and both contending 1 They are the Cambebus of the Tupi, a term also meaning Flatheads, and they are so called because "apertao aos recemnacidos as cabe£as entre duas taboas afim de achatal-as, costume que actualmente han perdido (Milliet, II. p. 174). XL] THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 439 for the final possession of man, are not to be confounded with the Tacanas (Arao/ias] a widely ramifying nation about the Beni and Madre de Dios, head streams of the Madeira1. Some atten- tion has been paid to their sonorous speech, which appears to be a stock language with strong Pano and weak Aymara2 affinities. Although its numeral system stops at 2, it is still in advance of a neighbouring C/iiquito tongue, which is said to have no numerals at all, etama, supposed to be i, really meaning "alone." Yet it would be a mistake to infer that these Bolivian Chiqui- tos, who occupy the southernmost headstreams of the Madeira, are a particularly stupid people. On qu™esch the contrary, the Naquinoneis, "Men," as they call themselves, are in some respects remarkably clever, and, strange to say, their otherwise rich and harmonious language (presumably the dominant Moncoca dialect is meant) has terms to express such various distinctions as the height of a tree, of a house, or a tower, and other subtle shades of difference disregarded in more cultured tongues3. But it is to be considered that, pace Prof. Max Miiller, the range of thought and of speech is not the same, and all peoples have no doubt many notions for which they have no equivalents in their necessarily defective languages. The Chiquitos, i.e. "Little Folks," were so named because, "when the country was first invaded, the Indians fled to the forests; and the Spaniards came to their abandoned huts, where the doorways were so exceedingly 1 D'Orbigny, in. p. 364 sq. 1 Such "identities" as Tac. drefa = A.ym.. chacha (man); etai=utax (house) etc., are not convincing, especially in the absence of any scientific study of the laws of Laiitverschiebung, if any exist between the Aymara-Tacana phonetic systems. And then the question of loan words has to be settled before any safe conclusions can be drawn from such assumed resemblances. The point is important in the present connection, because current statements regarding the supposed reduction of the number of stock languages in South America are largely based on the unscientific comparison of lists of words, which may have nothing in common except perhaps a letter or two like the ;;/ in Macedon and Monmouth. Two languages (cf. Turkish and Arabic) may have hundreds or thousands of words in common, and yet belong to fundamentally different linguistic families. 3 A. Balbi, Atlas Ethnographiqut dit Globe, XXVII. With regard to the numerals this authority tells us that "il a emprunte a 1'espagnol ses noms de nombres" (ib.}. 440 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. XI. low that the Indians who had fled were supposed to be dwarfs1." They are a peaceful industrious nation, who ply several trades, manufacture their own copper boilers for making sugar, weave ponchos and straw hats, and when they want blue trousers they plant a row of indigo, and rows of white and yellow cotton when striped trousers are in fashion. Hence the question arises, whether these clever little people may not after all have originally pos- sessed some defective numeral system, (such as that of their ruder Mataco neighbours who count up to 4), which was merely superseded by the Spanish numbers. These Matacos (Mataguayos) of the Bermejo, with the savage Tobas between that river and the Pilcomayo, were 3' tne orjly tribes of the Gran Chaco region visited by Ehrenreich, who notices their disproportionately short arms and legs, and excessive development of the thorax2. To judge from the photographs taken by this observer the expression especially of the Tobas is strikingly European, although crossings can hardly be suspected amongst a people who have hitherto maintained their independence, and kept aloof from the few white intruders in their secluded domain. They would thus seem to afford strong support to Ehrenreich's remarks on the general resemblance of so many South American aborigines to the Caucasic type (see above). 1 Markham, J.istofthe Tribes, p. 251. 2 Urbewohncr Brasiliens, p. 101. CHAPTER XII. THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. General Considerations — Constituent Elements of the Caucasic Division- Past and Present Range — Cradleland : Africa north of Sudan — The Quaternary " Sahara " — North Africa Home of the Mediterranean Races- Early Long-heads and Round-heads — The Migrations northwards from Africa — The Three Great European Ethnical Groups : Tall, blond Long- heads; Short, dark Long-heads; Brown Round-heads — The Canary Islanders — The MEDITERRANEANS: Iberians; Ligurians ; Pelasgians— Type and Origins — Iberian and Hamitic Languages fundamentally one— The Ligurians — Former Range to Rhineland — and to Italy from Africa— Sicilian Origins — Sicani: Siciili — Sard and Corsican Origins — Ethnical Relations in Italy— Sergi's Mediterranean Domain — Range of the Medi- terraneans in Africa — 77/6' Eastern Hatnitcs—J^he Western Hamites : Berbers and " Moors " —General Hamitic Type — Berber and Arab Con- trasts— The Tilnts — The Egyptian Hamites — Origins — The Stone Ages in Egypt — The Egyptians indigenous in the Nile Valley — Neolithic and Bronze Culture — Egyptian Language and Type specialised in Remote Times — Physical Characters persistent — Social Condition of the Ancient and Later Egyptians — Other Eastern Hamites — Hadendoioas — Sonials and Gal las. CONSPECTUS. Primeval Home, Africa north of Sudan. Distribu- tion in Present Range, all the extra-tropical habitable lands, Past and Present except Chinese empire, Japan, and the Arctic zone ; inter- Times. tropical America, Arabia, India, and Indonesia ; spora- dically everywhere. Three types : — i. Homo europaeus (North Euro- Physical Charac- pean or Teutonic]; 2. H. alpinus (Central and East ters. European, Iranic, Oceanic}: 3. H. mediterranensis ( Afro- En rope a n ) . Hair, i . very light brown, flaxen or red, rather long, 442 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. straight or wavy, smooth and glossy, 2. light chestnut or reddish brown, wavy, rather short and dull. 3. very dark brown or black, wiry, curly or ringletty. All oval in section ; beard of all full, bushy, straight, or wavy, often lighter than hair of head, sometimes very long. Colour: i. florid. 2. pale white, swarthy or very light brown. 3. very variable — white, light olive, all shades of brown and even blackish (Eastern Hamites and others}. Skull: T and 3 long (69° to 75°); 2. round (87° to 90° and upwards] ; all orthognathous (76°). Cheek-bone of all small, never projecting laterally, sometimes rather high (some Berbers and Scotch]. Nose, mostly large, narroiv, straight, arched or hooked (46°), sometimes rather broad, heavy, concave and short. Eyes, i. mainly blue; 2. brown, hazel-grey and black ; 3. black or deep brown, but also blue (many Hamites]. Stature, i. tall (mean 5 ft. 8 or 9 in.}; 2. medium (mean $ft. 6 in.}, but also very tall (Indonesians 5 ft. 9 to 6ft.}. 3. under- sized (mean 5 ft. 4 ///.), but variable (some Hamites, Hindus, and others medium or tall}. Lips, mostly rather full and well-shaped, but sometimes thin, or upper lip very long (many Irish}, and under lip pendulous (many Jews}. Arms, rather short as compared with Negro. Legs, shapely, with calves usually well de- veloped. Feet, i. rather large ; 2 and 3, small with high instep. ^ Mental Temperament, i. earnest, energetic, and enterprising ; \_. O3.r3.C - ters. steadfast, solid, and stolid ; outwardly reserved, thoughtful, and deeply religious ; humane, firm, but not wantonly cruel. 2 and 3, brilliant, quick-witted, excitable and impulsive ; sociable and courteous, but fickle, unt?-ust- worthy, and even treacherous (Iberian, South Italian}; often atrociously cruel (many Slavs, Persians, Semites, Indonesians and even SoutJi Europeans] ; aesthetic sense highly, ethic slightly developed. All brave, imaginative, musical, and richly endowed intellectually. Speech, mostly of the inflecting order with strong tendency towards analytical forms ; very few stock Ian- XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 443 guages (Aryan, Ibero-Hamito-Semitic, Tibii ? Masai?}, except in the Caucasus, where stock languages of highly agglutinating types are numerous, and in Indonesia, where one agglutinating stock language prei'ails. Religion, mainly Monotheistic, with or without priest- hood and sacrifice (Jewish, Christian, Muhammadan} ; polytheistic and animistic in parts of Caucasus, India, Indonesia, and Africa. Gross superstitions, and even fetish-worship, still prevalent in many places. Culture, generally high — all arts, industries, science, philosophy and letters in a flourishing state now almost everywhere except in Africa and Indonesia, and still pro- gressive. In some regions civilization dates from the remotest times (Egypt, South Arabia) : in others from 2000 to 3000 years B.C. (pre-Mykaenean, Mykaenean, Hellenic, Hittite, and Italic cultures]. Indonesians and many Hamites still rude, with primitive usages, few arts, no science or letters, and cannibalism prevalent in some places (Gallaland\ Homo europaeus: Scandinavians, North Germans, Main Dutch, Flemings, most English, Scotch and Irish, Anglo- Americans, Anglo- Australasians, English and Dutch of S. Africa; Thrako- Hellenes, some Kurds, most West Persians, Afghans, Dards and Siah-post Kafirs, many Hindus. Homo alpinus : most French and Welsh, South Germans, Swiss and Tyrolese ; Russians, Poles, Chekhs, Yu go- Slavs ; some Albanians and Rumanians; Arme- nians, many Kurds, Tajiks (East Persians], Galchas, Indonesians. Homo mediterranensis : most Iberians, Corsicans, Sards, Sicilians, Italians ; Greeks; Berbers and other Hamites ; Arabs and other Semites ; some Hindus : Dravidas, To das, Ainus. 444 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. IT is a remarkable fact that the Caucasic division of the human family, of which nearly all students of the subject are members, with which we are in any case, so to say, on the most intimate terms, and with the con- stituent elements of which we might consequently be supposed to be best acquainted, is in point of fact the most debatable field in the whole range of anthropological studies. Why this should be so is not at first sight quite apparent, though the phenomenon may perhaps be partly explained by the consideration that the component parts are really of a more complex character, and thus present more intricate problems for solution, than those of any other division. But to some extent this would also seem to be one of those cases in which we fail to see the wood for the trees. To put it plainly, few will venture to deny that the inherent diffi- culties of the subject have in recent times been rather increased than diminished by the bold and often mutually destructive theories, and, in some instances one might add, the really wild speculations put forward in the earnest desire to remove the end- less obscurities in which the more fundamental questions are undoubtedly still involved. Controversial matter which seemed thrashed out has been reopened, several fresh factors have been brought into play, and the warfare connected with such burning topics as Aryan origins, Ibero-Pelasgic relations, European round- heads and long-heads, has acquired renewed intensity amid the rival theories of the Penkas, Schraders, de Lapouges, Sergis, and other eminent champions of the new ideas. A return to chaos is even threatened by the needless attacks that have been directed from more than one quarter against the long-established Caucasic terminology, and the right of citizenship is to be withdrawn from such time-honoured names as "Hamitic," "Semitic," even "Caucasic" itself, in favour of "Mediterranean1,'' "Eurafrican2," and other upstarts, which while lacking the valuable 1 That is, of course, when taken as the substitute for Caucasic. In the restricted geographical sense its use is not only legitimate but indispensable. 2 Eurafrican seems specially objectionable, being in ethnology the analogue of Eurasian, and therefore meaning a mulatto or some such half-breed. In Geology it has a very definite sense, as in the expression "Eurafrican Miocene Continent" (Eth. p. 230). To indicate the common origin of the populations on XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 445 quality of prestige, offer no compensating advantages in respect of clearness and scientific accuracy. It would be well if innova- tors in these matters were to take to heart the sober language of Dr Ehrenreich, who reminds us that the accepted names are, what they ought to be, "purely conventional," and "historically justified," and "should be held as valid until something better can be found to take their place1." Meanwhile can anything more illogical be imagined than, for instance, the fierce objections to "Caucasic" by the very writers who meekly accept "Hamitic" and "Semitic"? Doubtless, as we all know, the multitudinous populations covered by the symbol "Caucasic" did not originate in the Caucasus; but, on the other hand are the objectors pre- pared to assert that "Shem" or "Ham" had ever any ethnic origin at all, were ever even so much as mythical eponymous heroes, such as "Hellen," "Italus," "Brutus" and the rest of them? It was considerations such as these, weighing so strongly in favour of current usage, that induced me stare per vias anti- quas in the Ethnology, and consequently also in the present work. Hence, here as there, the Caucasic Division retains its title, together with those of its main subdivisions — Hamitic, Semitic, Keltic, Slavic, Hellenic, Teutonic, Iranic, Galchic and so on. The chief exception is "Aryan," a linguistic expression forced by the philologists into the domain of Ethnology, where it has no place or meaning2. There was of course a time when a com- munity, or group of communities, existed probably in the steppe region between the Carpathians and the Hindu-Kush, by whom the Aryan mother-tongue was evolved, and who still for a time presented a certain uniformity in their physical characters, were, in fact, of Aryan speech and type. But while their Aryan speech both sides of the Mediterranean, I proposed the form "Afro-European" (Eth. p. 409). Hence it was with some surprise that I found myself charged with plagiarism by the originator of Eurafrican in its objectionable sense, a sense in which I have never used it, and which I hold in the strongest aversion. Nor is Eurafrican a proper substitute for Caucasic, because it leaves out the vast Asiatic and wide-spread Indonesian sections of this division. 1 "Diese Namen sind natiirlich rein conventionell. Sie sind historisch berechtigt...und mogen Geltung behalten, so lange wir keine zutrefferenden an ihre Stelle setzen konnen" (Anthropologische Studien etc., p. 15). 2 Eth. p. 395 sq. 446 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. persists in endlessly modified forms, they have themselves long disappeared as a distinct race, merged in the countless other races on whom they, perhaps as conquerors, imposed their Aryan lan- guage. Hence we can and must speak of Aryan tongues, and of an Aryan linguistic family, which continues to flourish and spread over the globe. But of an Aryan race there can be no further question since the absorption of the original stock in a hundred other races in remote pre-historic times. Where comprehensive references have to be made, I therefore substitute for Aryans and Aryan race the expression peoples of Aryan speech, at least wherever the unqualified term Aryan might lead to misunder- standings. This way of looking at the question, which has now become more thorny than ever, has the signal advantage of being indiffer- ent to any preconceived theories regarding the physical characters of that long vanished proto-Aryan race. How great this advantage is may be judged from the mere statement that, while German anthropologists are still almost to a man loyal to the traditional view that the first Aryans were best represented by the tall, long- headed, tawny-haired, blue-eyed Teutonic barbarians of Tacitus— who, Virchow tells us, have completely disappeared from sight in the present population — the Italian school, or at least its chief exponent, Prof. Sergi, now assures us that the picture is a myth, that such Aryans never existed, that "the true primitive Aryans were not long, but round-headed, not fair but dark, not tall but short, and are in fact to-day best represented by the round-headed Kelts, Slavs, and South Germans1. The fact is that the Aryan prototype has vanished as com- pletely as has the Aryan mother-tongue, and can be conjecturally restored only by processes analogous to those by which Schleicher and other philologists have endeavoured with dubious success to restore the organic Aryan speech as constituted before the disper- sion. At the same time one may perhaps venture to say that the weight of evidence seems rather in favour of the German view that the first Aryans answered better than any other race to the 1 "Io non dubito di denominare aria questa stirpe etc. " (Uinbri, Italici, Arii, Bologna, 1897, p. 14, and elsewhere). XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 447 general North European type, as described by Linne and Tacitus'. Hence M. G. de Lapouge, leader of the new French school of anthropologists, returns to Linne's terminology2, and substitutes his Homo Europeans for "Aryan" as understood by Penka, that is, the northern of the three divisions into which he divides the present European peoples. Referring to these divisions, which he adopts and brilliantly illustrates, Dr W. Z. Ripley remarks that " instead of a single European type, there is indubitable evidence of at least three distinct races, each possessed of a history of its own, and each contributing something to the common product, population as we see it to-day." Then he adds : — " If this be established, it does away at one fell swoop with most of the current mouthings about Aryans and pre-Aryans ; and especially with such appellations as the ' Caucasian,' or the ' Indo-Germanic ' race3." Aryan, for the reasons stated, is to be deprecated. But Caucasic when properly understood — not as the equivalent of " Indo-Germanic," as here apparently suggested, but as the col- lective designation of one of the four main divisions of mankind— cannot be dispensed with until a more suitable general term be discovered. It need not interfere in the least with Dr Ripley's three races, or with any number of such sub-varieties, for it covers them all, just as analogous general terms cover any number of genera, species, and varieties in zoology or botany. Those who object to "Caucasic" are apt to forget the vast field that has to be embraced by this single collective term ; a field comprising not peoples of Aryan speech alone, not the tribes of the Caucasus alone, but all these and many more — Semites, Hamites, Eastern Polynesians, all of whom belong anthropologically to the same division of mankind. 1 "Homo EnropceMs: Albus, sanguineus, torosus, pilis flavescentibus, pro- lixis; oculis caeruleis etc." (Sy sterna Natunz}. 2 "Zoologiste avant tout, je m'en tiens a la terminologie linneenne," giving as his reason that the confusion is thus avoided which arises from the use of national names to designate types often forming a minority in the nation itself (Les Selections Societies, Paris, 1896). 3 The Racial Geography of Europe, in Popular Science Monthly, June, 1897, p. 192. 448 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. And here arises the more important question, by what right are so many and such diverse peoples grouped E£™es*£;ent together and ticketed "Caucasians"? Are they to be really taken as objectively one, or are they merely artificial groupings, arbitrarily arranged abstractions ? Cer- tainly this Caucasic Division consists apparently of the most heterogeneous elements, more so than perhaps any other except the Ethiopic. Hence it seems to require a strong mental effort to sweep into a single category, however elastic, so many different peoples — Europeans, North Africans, West Asiatics, Iranians and others all the way to the Indo-Gangetic plains and uplands, whose complexion presents every shade of colour, except yellow, from white to the deepest brown or even black. But they are grouped together in a single division, because their essential properties are one, and because, as pointed out by Ehrenreich, who himself emphasises these objections, their sub- stantial uniformity speaks to the eye that sees below the surface. At the first glance, except perhaps in a few extreme cases for which it would be futile to create independent categories, we recognise a common racial stamp in the facial expression, the structure of the hair, partly also the bodily proportions, in all of which points they agree more with each other than with the other main divisions. Even in the case of certain black or very dark races, such as the Bejas, Somali, and a few other Eastern Hamites, we are reminded instinctively more of Europeans or Berbers than of negroes, thanks to their more regular features and brighter expression. "Those who will accept nothing unless it can be measured, weighed, and numbered, may think perhaps that accord- ing to modern notions this appeal to the outward expression is unscientific. Nevertheless nobody can deny the evidence of the obvious physical differences between Caucasians, African Negroes, Mongols, Australians and so on. After all, physical anthropology itself dates only from the moment when we became conscious of these differences, even before we were able to give them exact expression by measurements. It was precisely the general picture that spoke powerfully and directly to the eye1." The argument 1 Anthrop. Studien, p. 15, "Deise Gemeinsamkeit der Charakteren beweist uns die Blutverwandtschaft" (ib.). XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 449 need not here be pursued farther, as it will receive abundant illustration in the details to follow. Since the discovery of the New and the Austral Worlds, the Caucasic division as represented by the chief European nations has received an enormous expansion. Here of course it is neces- sary to distinguish between political and ethnical conquests, as, for instance, those of India, held by military tenure, and of Australia by actual settlement. Politically the whole world has become Caucasic with the exception of half-a-dozen states such as China, Turkey, Japan, Siam, Marocco, still enjoying a real or fic- titious autonomy. But, from the ethnical standpoint, those regions in which the Caucasic peoples can establish themselves and per- petuate their race as colonists are alone to be regarded as fresh accessions to the original and later (historical) Caucasic domains. Such fresh accessions are however of vast extent, including the greater part of Siberia and much of Caucasia, where the Slav branch of the Aryan-speaking peoples are now founding per- manent new homes ; the whole of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, which have become the inheritance of the Caucasic inhabitants of the British Isles ; large tracts in South Africa, already occupied by settlers chiefly from Holland and Great Britain ; lastly the New World, where most of the northern con- tinent is settled by full-blood Europeans, mainly British, French and German, while in the rest (Central and South America) the Caucasic immigrants (chiefly from the Iberian peninsula) have formed new ethnical groups by fusion with the aborigines. These new accessions, all acquired within the last 400 pastand years, may be rousrhly estimated at about 28 million Present . . Range. square miles, which with some 12 millions held throughout the historic period (Africa north of Sudan, most of Europe, South-West and parts of Central and South Asia, Indo- nesia) gives an extent of 40 million square miles to the present Caucasic domain, either actually occupied or in process of settle- ment. As the whole of the dry land scarcely exceeds 52 millions, this leaves not more than about 12 millions for the now reduced domains of all the other divisions, and even of this a great part (e.g. Tibetan tableland, Gobi, tundras, Greenland) is barely or not at all inhabitable. This, it may be incidentally remarked, is K. 29 450 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. perhaps the best reply to those who have in late years given expression to gloomy forebodings regarding the ultimate fate of the Caucasic races. The "yellow scare" may be dismissed with the reflection that the Caucasian populations, who have inherited or acquired nearly four-fifths of the earth's surface besides the absolute dominion of the high seas, is not destined to be sub- merged by any conceivable combination of all the other elements, still less by the Mongol alone1. Where have we to seek the primeval home of this most Caucasic vigorous and dominant branch of the human family? Cradle— North On the assumption that all the primary divisions have been evolved independently in separate zoo- logical zones, each from its own pleistocene precursor2, the question may be thus formulated, in what zone was our genera- lised pleistocene ancestor specialised ? Where was the Caucasic type constituted in all its essential features? No final answer can yet be given, but this much may be said, that Africa north of Sudan corresponds best with all the known conditions. Here were found in quaternary times all the physical elements which zoologists demand for great specialisations— ample space, a favour- able climate and abundance of food, besides continuous land con- nection at two or three points across the Mediterranean, by which the pliocene and early pleistocene faunas moved freely between the two continents. Former speculations on the subject failed to convince, largely because the writers took, so to say, the ground X llC v_/ H d ~ ternary from under their own feet, by submerging most of the land under a vast " Quaternary Sahara Sea," which had no existence, and which, moreover, reduced the whole of North Africa to a Mauritanian island, a mere "appendix of Europe," as it is in one place expressly called. Then this incon- venient inland basin was got rid of, not by an outflow — being on the same level as the Atlantic, of which it was, in fact figured as 1 Sir W. Crooke's anticipation of a possible future failure of the wheat supply as affecting the destinies of the Caucasic peoples (Presidential Address at Meeting Br. Assoc. Bristol, 1898) is an economic question which cannot here be discussed. 2 p. 2 sq. . XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 451 an inlet — but by "evaporation," which process is however somehow confined to this inlet, and does not affect either the Mediterranean or the Atlantic itself. Nor is it explained how the oceanic waters were prevented from rushing in according " as the Sahara sea evaporated to become a desert." The attempt to evolve a " Eurafrican race " in such an impossible area necessarily broke down, other endless perplexities being involved in the initial geological misconception. Not only was the Sahara dry land in pleistocene times, but it stood then at a considerably higher altitude than at present, although its mean elevation is still estimated by Chavanne at 1500 feet above sea-level. "Quaternary deposits cover wide areas, and were at one time supposed to be of marine origin. It was even held that the great sand dunes must have been formed under the sea ; but at this date it is scarcely necessary to discuss such a view. The advocates of a Quaternary Sahara Sea argued chiefly from the discovery of marine shells at several points in the middle of the Sahara. But Tournouer has shown that to call in the aid of a great ocean in order to explain the presence of one or two shells is a needless expenditure of energy1." At an altitude of probably over 2000 feet the Sahara must have enjoyed an almost ideal climate during late pliocene and pleistocene times, when Europe was exposed to more than one glacial invasion, and to a large extent covered at long intervals by a succession of solid ice-caps. We now know that these stony and sandy wastes were traversed in all directions by great rivers, such as the Massarawa trending south to the Niger, or the Igharghar'2 flowing north to the Mediterranean, and that these now dry beds may still be traced for hundreds of miles by chains 1 Ph. Lake, The Geology of the Sahara, in Science Progress, July, 1895. - This name, meaning in Berber "running water," has been handed down from a time when the Igharghar was still a mighty stream with a northerly course of some 800 miles, draining an area of many thousand square miles, in which there is not at present a single perennial brooklet. It would appear that even crocodiles still survive from those remote times in the so-called Lake Miharo of the Tassili district, where von Bary detected very distinct traces of their presence in 1876. Mr A. E. Pease also refers to a Frenchman "who had satisfied himself of the existence of crocodiles cut off in ages long ago from watercourses that have disappeared" (Contemp. Review, July, 1896). 29 — 2 452 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. of pools or lakelets, by long eroded valleys and by other indica- tions of the action of running waters. Nor could there be any lack of vegetable or animal life in a favoured region, which was thus abundantly supplied with natural irrigation arteries, while the tropical heats were tempered by great elevation and at times by the refreshing breezes from sub-arctic Europe. From these well-watered and fertile lands, some of which continued even in Roman times to be the granary of the empire, came that succession of southern animals — hippopotamus, hyaena, rhinoceros, elephant, cave-lion — which made Europe seem like a "zoological appendix of Africa." In association with this fauna came primitive man himself, whose remains from the Neanderthal, Spy, La Naulette, La Denise, Briix, Podbaba, Mentone, perhaps Galley Hill (Kent), show that the substratum of the European populations was of North African origin. So far, indeed, there is scarcely room for much discussion, especially since in recent years such abundant evidence has been brought to light of the presence of early man all over North Africa from the shores of the Mediterranean through Egypt to Somaliland. Thus one of M. J. de Morgan's momentous conclusions is that the existence of civi- lized men in Egypt may be reckoned by thousands, and of the aborigines by myriads of years. These aborigines are identified with the men of the Old Stone Age, of whom he believes four stations have been discovered — Dahshur, Abydos, Tukh, and Thebes1. Of Tunisia the same story is told by M. Arsene Dumont, who emphatically declares that "the immense period of time during which man made use of stone implements is nowhere so strikingly shown as in Tunisia." Here some of the flints were found in abundance under a thick bed of quaternary limestone deposited by the waters of a stream that has disappeared. Hence " the origin of man in Mauritania must be set back to a remote age which deranges all chronology and confounds the very fables of the mythologies2." 1 Recherches stir les Origines de P Egypt e: L*Age de la Pierre et des Melaux, 1897. '' Bui. Soc. d? Anthrop. 1896, p. 394. This indefatigable explorer remarks, XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 453 Of course it is open to anyone to say with M. de Mortillet that the men of the later Palaeolithic period re- Precursors of presented in France by the Laugerie race, whose the European , , , , , . Aborigines. remains occur in the Madeleman deposits at Laugerie-Basse and at Chancellade, both in Dordogne, were de- veloped in situ from the older race, and were not a foreign invading type1. But even so Mauritania would remain the qfficlna gentium for the first arrivals in Europe, where they were thus afterwards specialised into men of the normal European (Cau- casic) type. But no such specialisation on the spot was needed, for it was continually going on in North Africa, whence the stream of migration set steadily and uninterruptedly into Europe through- out both Stone Ages. This doctrine of the specialisation of the fundamental European types in Africa, before their migrations northwards, lies at the base of Prof. Sergi's views regarding the African origin of those types. Arguing against the Asiatic origin of the Hamites, as held by Prichard, Virchow, Sayce and others, he points out that this race, scarcely if at all represented in Asia, has an immense range in Africa, where its several sub-varieties must have been evolved before their dispersion over a great part of that continent and of Europe. Then, regarding Hamites and Semites as essentially one, he concludes that Africa is the cradle whence this primitive stock "spread northwards to Europe, where it still persists, espe- cially in the Mediterranean and its three principal peninsulas, and eastwards to West Asia2." Here is proclaimed in unqualified language the essential unity of the three main divisions of the Caucasic family, and the North- African origin of the European branch. The evidence, anatomical, archaeological, and linguistic, in support of this conclusion is rapidly accumulating, and daily making converts even amongst some of those anthropologists who are strongly opposed to Sergi's generali- in reference to the continuity of human culture in Tunisia throughout the Old and New Stone Ages, that "ces populations fortement melangees d'elements neanderthaloides de la Kromirie fabriquent encore des vases de tous points analogues a la poterie neolithique" (ib.}. 1 Formation de la ATation Francaise, 1897. - Africa, Antropologia della Stirpe Ca/nitica, Turin, 1897, p. 404 sq. 454 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. sation in all its fulness and to many of his details. To constitute a distinct race, says M. Zahorowski, a wide geographical area is needed, such as is presented by both shores of the Mediterranean " with the whole of North Africa including the Sahara, which was till lately still thickly peopled"1. Then to the question by whom has this North African and Mediterranean region been inhabited since quaternary times, he answers "by the ancestors of our Libyans, Egyptians, Pelasgtans, Iberians"; and after rejecting the Asiatic theory, he elsewhere arrives at " the grand generalisation that the whole of North Africa, connected by land with Europe in the Quaternary epoch, formed part of the geographical area of the ancient white race, of which the Egyptians, so far from being the parent stem, would appear to be merely a branch2." Coming to details, Dr Bertholon3, from the human remains found by M. Carton at Bulla-Regia, determines for Early Euro- . . peanandMau- lunisia and surrounding lands two mam long- neaded types, one like the Neanderthal (occurring both in Khumeria, and in the stations abounding in palseoliths), the other like the later Cro-Magnon dolmen-builders, whom De Quatrefages had already identified with the tall, long- headed, fair, and even blue-eyed Berbers still met in various parts of Mauritania, and formerly represented in the Canary Islands4. Bertholon agrees with Dr Collignon that the Mauritanian megalith- builders are of the same race as those of Europe, and besides the two long-headed races describes (i) a short round-headed type in Gerba Island and East Tunisia5 representing the Libyans proper, 1 " Le nord de 1'Afrique entiere, y comprls le Sahara naguere encore fort peuple," i.e. of course relatively speaking (Du Dniester a la Caspienne, in Bid. Soc. d' Anthrop. 1896, p. 81 sq. 2 Ibid. p. 654 sq. 3 Resume de V Anthropologie de la Tunisie, 1896, p. 4 sq. 1 Ethnology, p. 376. This identity is confirmed by the characters of three skulls from the dolmens of Madracen near Batna, Algeria, now in the Con- stantine Museum, found by MM. Letourneau and Papillaut to present striking affinities with the long-headed Cro-Magnon race (Ceph. Index 70, 74, 78) ; leptoprosope with prominent glabella, notable alveolar prognathism, and sub- occipital bone projecting chignon-fashion at the back (Bid. Soc. (PAnthrop. 1896, p. 347). 5 He shows (Exploration Anlhropologique de rile de Gerba, in VAnthropo- XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 455 and (2) a blond type of the Sahel, Khumeria, and other parts, whom he identifies with the Mazices of Herodotus, with the " Afri," whose name has been extended to the whole continent, and the blond Getulians of the Aures Mts. Bertholon still holds to the old view that these may all have been immigrants from Europe during the Stone Ages. But at that time the stream of migration for all the fauna set the other way, and it is noteworthy that the horse which belongs to the Asiatic zoological world does not appear in Africa till quite recent (historic) times, although it had already ranged into Europe in the Old Stone (Solutrian) epoch. Such an animal could scarcely fail to have accompanied the men of the Stone Ages into North Africa had their movements been in that direction, and would thus have been known to those Libyans of the " New Race " who soon after the 6th dynasty formed permanent settlements in Upper Egypt, and also to the Egyptians themselves at the very dawn of their history. Yet M. Pietrement has conclusively shown that the horse is nowhere figured on any of the Egyptian monuments before the Hyksos irruption at the close of the Middle Empire1. Thus, the migrations were from Africa, and in this favourable en- vironment, rather than in the periodically ice-clad Europe, took place those slow differentiations by which the pleistocene man of the Neanderthal type gradually became the Afro-European whom we now call Caucasian. logic, 1897. p. 424 sq.) that the North African brown brachycephalics, forming the substratum in Mauritania, and very pure in Gerba, resemble the European populations the more they have avoided contact with foreign races. He quotes H. Martin: "Le type brun qui domine dans la Grande Kabylie du Jurjura ressemble singulierement en majorite au type francais brun. Si 1'on habillait ces hommes de vetements europeens, vous ne les distingueriez pas de paysans ou de soldats francais." He compares them especially to the Bretons, and agrees with Martin that "il y a parmi les Berberes bruns des brachycepha- les ; je croirais volontiers que les brachycephales bruns sont des Ligures. Libyens et Ligures paraissent avoir ete originairement de la meme race." He thinks the very names are the same: "At/Sues est exactement le meme mot que Aiyves ; rien n'etait plus frequent dans les dialectes primitifs que la mutation du b en g." 1 Les Ckevaux dans les Temps Prehistoriques, etc. in BnL Soc. tT'Anthrop. 1896, p. 657 sq. 456 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. But it may be objected that, as established by de Lapouge and Ripley, there are three distinct ethnical zones The Three Great Euro- in Europe : — (i) The tall, fair, long-headed northern Groups. type, commonly identified by the Germans with the race represented by the osseous remains from the " Reihengraber," i.e. the "Germanic," which the French call Kymric or Aryan, for which de Lapouge reserves Linne's Homo Europczus, and to which Ripley applies the term " Teutonic," because the whole combination of characters "accords exactly with the descriptions handed down to us by the ancients. Such were the Goths, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Vandals, Lombards, to- gether with the Danes, Norsemen, Saxons... History is thus corroborated by natural science." (2) The southern (Mediter- ranean) zone of short, dark long-heads, i.e. the primitive element in Iberia, Italy, South France, Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, and Greece, called Iberians by the English, and identified by many with the Ligurians, Pelasgians, and even Hittites, but grouped together by Ripley as Mediterraneans1. (3) The Central (Alpine) zone of short, medium -sized round-heads with light or chestnut hair, and gray or hazel eye, de Lapouge's and Ripley 's Homo alpinus, the Kelts or Kelto-Slavs of the French, the Ligurians or Arvernians of Beddoe and other English writers. The question is, Can all these have come from North Africa? We have seen that this region has yielded the remains of one round-headed and two long-headed prehistoric types. Dr Henri Malbot now points out that, as far back as we can go, we meet the two quite distinct long-headed Berber types, and that this racial duality is proved especially by the megalithic tombs (dolmens) of Roknia between Jemmapes and Guelma, which are some 4000 or 5000 years old. The remains here found by General Faidherbe belong to two different races, both dolichocephalic, but one tall, with prominent zygomatic arches and very strong nasal spine (it reads almost like the description of a brawny Caledonian), the other short, with well-balanced skull and small nasal spine2. When it is added that the earliest (Egyptian) records refer to brown and blond populations living in North Africa some 5000 years ago, 1 Racial Geography of Europe, passim. 1 Les Chaouias, etc. in L1 Anthropologie, 1897, p. i sq. XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 457 it would almost seem as if the raw materials, so to say, were here to hand both of the fair northern and dark southern European long-heads. Then we have Bertholon's round-heads from East Tunisia (see above), who may similarly be taken as the prototypes of de Lapouge's much contested Homo alpinus. These different races were represented even amongst the extinct Guanches of the Canary Islands, as shown by a study of the 52 heads procured in 1894 by Guanches— Dr H. Meyer from caves in the archipelago1. Three distinct types are determined : (i) Guanche, akin to the Cro-Magnon, tall (5ft. Sin. to 6ft. 2 in.), robust, dolicho (78°), low, broad face; large eyes, rather short nose; fair, reddish or light chestnut hair ; skin and eyes light ; ranged through- out the islands, but centred chiefly in Tenerife ; (2) "Semitic? short (5 ft. 4 or 5 in.), slim, narrow mesocephalic head (81°), narrow, long face, black hair, light brown skin, dark eyes ; range, Grand Canary, Palma, and Hierro ; (3) Armenoid, akin to von Luschan's pre-Semitic of Asia Minor ; shorter than i and 2 ; very short, broad, and high skull (hyperbrachy, 84"), hair, skin and eyes very probably of the West Asiatic brunette type ; range, mainly in Gomera, but met everywhere. Many of the skulls had been tre- panned, and these are brought into direct association with the full-blood Berber, of the Aures Mts. in Algeria, who still practise trepanning for wounds, headaches, and other reasons. The Arme- noid type is not to be distinguished from Lapouge's short brown Homo alpinus, which dates from the Stone Ages, and is found in densest masses in the Central Alpine regions, eastern plains of Europe, and, as we shall see, in Anatolia and Irania. Here again we see how unnecessary it is to go to Asia for the early European round-heads, who are generally introduced from the 1 Ueber eine Schadelsammlung von den Kanarischen Inseln, with Dr F. von Luschan's appendix ; also Ueber die Urbewuhner der Kanarischen Inseln, in Bastian- Festschrift, 1896, p. 63. The inferences here drawn are in sub- stantial agreement with those of Mr Henry Wallack, in his paper on The Guanches, in Journ. Anthrop. Inst. June, 1887, p. 158 sq.; and also with Mr J. C. Shrubsall, who, however, distinguishes four pre-Spanish types from a study of numerous skulls and other remains from Tenerife in Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. IX. 154-78. MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. east in the Bronze Age, although it is clear that large numbers had already established themselves in Central and West Europe during the New Stone Age. This point, although of extreme im- portance, has been strangely overlooked by Sergi and others, who have built up their theories without taking this factor into account. How numerous were the inhabitants of France at that time may be inferred from the long list of no less than 4000 Neolithic stations given for that region by M. Ph. Salmon. Of the 688 skulls from those stations measured by him, 577 per cent, are classed as dolicho, 21 '2 as brachycephalic, and 21*1 as intermediate. This distinguished palethnologist regards the intermediates as the result of crossings between the two others, and of head groups— these he thinks the first arrivals were the round- 2ndflfr Anthrop. iv. 1896). It should be stated that Herve traces the Cro-Magnon race from the Quaternary through the whole of the Neolithic period, when it was identical with that of the dolicho Baumes-Chaudes, and when the Neolithic brachy race of Crenelle arrived. In the Bronze period this brachy element abounds, and to it he applies 464 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. a section of the long-headed Mediterranean (Afro-European) stock. From prehistoric stations in the valley of the Po he collected 59 skulls, all of this type, and all Ligurian ; history and tradition being of accord that before the arrival of the Kelts this region belonged to the Ligurian domain. "If it be true that prehistoric Italy was occupied by the Mediterranean race and by two branches — Ligurian and Pelasgian — of that race, the ancient inhabitants of the Po valley, now exhumed in those 59 skulls, were Ligurian1." These Ligurians may now be traced from their homes on the Mediterranean into Central Europe. From a study Ligurians in Rhineiand and of the Neolithic finds made in recent years in the district between Neustadt and Worms Dr C. Mehlis2 infers that here the first settlers were Ligurians, who had penetrated up the Rhone and Saone into Rhineiand. In the Kircherian Museum in Rome he was surprised to find a marked analogy between objects from the Riviera and from the Rhine ; skulls (both dolicho), vases, stone implements, mill-stones, etc., all alike. Such Ligurian objects, found everywhere in North Italy, occur in the Rhine lands chiefly along the left bank of the main stream between Basel and Mainz, and farther north in the Rheingau at Wiesbaden, and in the Lahn valley. These Ligurian migrations so far north are confirmed not only by geographical, anthropological, and archaeological data, but also by linguistic proofs, as shown by Prof. W. Deecke3. The Ligurians may of course have reached the Riviera round the coast from Illiberis and Iberia ; but the same race is found as the aboriginal element also at the "heel of the boot," and in fact throughout the whole of Italy and all the adjacent islands. This the name of "race des Ligures, ou, ce qui revient au meme, celle des Celtes, au sens que les anthropologistes [fra^ais] out accoutume d'attacher depuis Broca a ce dernier terme" (ib.}. The one reply to this and to many volumes written from the same standpoint is that the true Ligurians were not brachy- but dolichocephalic. 1 Arii e Italici, p. 60. 1 Corresbl. d. d. Ges.f. Anthrop. Feb. 1898, p. 12. 3 This last statement I have to take on trust, not having seen the work referred to, vol. x. of the Jahrbiich fiir Geschichte, Sprache it. Literatiir Elsass-Lothringens. XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 465 point is now firmly established, and not only Sergi, but several other leading Italian authorities hold that the early inhabitants of the peninsula and islands were Ligurians and Pelasgians, whom they look upon as of the same stock, all of whom came from North Africa, and that, despite subsequent invasions and crossings, this Mediterranean stock still persists, especially in the southern pro- vinces and in the islands — Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Hence it seems more reasonable to bring this aboriginal element straight from Africa by the stepping stones of Pantellaria, Malta, and Gozzo (formerly more extensive than at present, and still strewn with megalithic remains comparable to those of both continents), than by the roundabout route of Iberia and Southern Gaul1. For Sicily, with which may practically be included the south of Italy, we have the conclusions of Signer G. Patroni ' . Sicilian based on years of intelligent and patient labours2. Origins- To Africa this archaeologist traces the palaeolithic men of the west coast of Sicily and of the caves near Syracuse explored by Von Adrian3. " We are forced to conclude that man arrived in Sicily from Africa at a time when the isthmus connect- ing the island with that Continent still stood above sea-level. He made his appearance about the same time as the elephant, whose remains are associated with human bones especially in the west. He followed the sea coasts, the shells of which offered him sufficient food4." He was followed by the Neolithic man, whose presence has been revealed by the researches of Signer Orsi at the station of Stentinello on the coast north of Syracuse. To Orsi is also due the discovery of what he calls the " ^Eneolithic Epoch5,'' represented by the bronzes of the Girgenti district. Orsi assigns this culture to the Siculi, and divides it into three periods, while regarding the Neolithic men of Stentinello as pre-Siculi. But Patroni holds that the ^neolithic peoples have a right to the historic name of Sicani, and that the true 1 Yet Ligurians are actually planted on the North Atlantic coast of Spain by S. Sempere y Miguel (Revista de Ciencias Historicas, I. v. 1887). 2 La Civilisation Primitive dans la Sicilie Orientate, in UAnthropologie, 1897, p. 130 sq. ; and 295 sq. J Prtehistorische Sttidien atis Sicilien^ quoted by Patroni. 4 p. 130. 5 See p. 17. K. 30 466 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Siculi were those that arrived from Italy in Orsi's second period. It seems no longer possible to determine the true relations of these two peoples, who stand out as distinct throughout early historic times, and can in no way be regarded as of one race, although both (2t/cavo5, 2tKeA.o's) are already mentioned in the Odyssey. But all the evidence tends to show that the Sicani represent the oldest element which came direct from Africa in the Stone Age, while the Siculi were a branch of the Ligurians driven in the Metal Age from Italy to the island, which was already occu- pied by the Sicani1, as related by Dionysius Halicarnassus2. In fact this migration of the Siculi may be regarded as almost an his- torical event, which according to Thucydides took place "about 300 years before the Hellenes came to Sicily3." The Siculi bore this national name on the mainland, so that the modern expression "Kingdom of the Two Sicilies" (the late Kingdom of Naples) has its justification in the earliest traditions of the people. Later, both races were merged in one, and the present Sicilian nation gradually constituted by further accessions of Phoenician (Cartha- ginian), Greek, Roman, Vandal, Arab, Norman, French and Spanish elements. Very remarkable is the contrast presented by the conditions prevailing in this ethnical microcosm and those of Sardinia, inhabited since the Stone Ages by one of the most homogeneous groups in the world. From the statistics embodied Corsicans"' *n Dr R. Livi's Antropologici Militare*, the Sards would almost seem to be cast all in one mould, the great bulk of the natives having the shortest stature, the 1 It may be mentioned that while Penka makes the Siculi Illyrians from Upper Italy (Zur Paltioethnologie Mittcl- it. Siideitropas, in Wiener Anthrop. Ges. 1897, p. 18), E. A. Freeman holds that they were not only Aryans, but closely akin to the Romans, speaking "an undeveloped Latin," or "something which did not differ more widely from Latin than one dialect of Greek differed from another" (The History of Sicily etc., I. p. 488). But ethnology was not Freeman's strong point, and for this assumption there is no kind of proof. Besides names, such as Motyca, Acis, Hybla which are not Latin, there survive only two Sicul words which are also not Latin: cottabos, a game, and zanclon, a reaping-hook. 2 I. 22. 3 vi. 2. 4 Parte L Dati Antropologici ed Etnologici, Rome, 1896. XIJ.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 467 brownest eyes and hair, the longest heads, the swarthiest com- plexion of all the Italian populations. "They consequently form quite a distinct variety amongst the Italian races, which is natural enough when we remember the seclusion in which this island has remained for so many ages1." They seem to have been preserved as if in some natural museum to show us what the Ligurian branch of the Mediterranean stock may have been in Neolithic times. Yet they were probably preceded by the microcephalous dwarfish race described by Sergi as one of the early Mediterranean stocks. Their presence in Sardinia has now been determined by A. Xiceforo and E. A. Onnis, who find that of about 130 skulls from old graves thirty have a capacity of only 1150 c.c. or under, while several living persons range in height from 4 ft. 2 in. to 4 ft. ii in. Niceforo agrees with Sergi in bringing this dwarfish race also from North Africa2. Despite greater cranial variability", similar phenomena are presented by the Corsicans who show " the same exaggerated length of face and narrowness of the forehead. The Cephalic Index drops from 87 and above in the Alps to about 75 all along the line. Comcidently the colour of hair and eyes becomes very dark, almost black. The figure is less amply proportioned, the people become light and rather agile. It is certain that the stature at the same time falls to an exceedingly low level : fully 9 inches below the average for Teutonic Europe," although " the people of Northern Africa, pure Mediterranean Europeans, are of medium size4." In the Italian peninsula Sergi holds not only that the aborigines were exclusively of Ligurian, i.e. Mediterranean stock, but that this stock still persists in the whole of the region south of the Tiber, although here and there mixed with Aryan elements. North of that river these elements increase gradually up to the Italian Alps, and at present are dominant in the valley of the Po5. In this way he would explain the rising percentage of 1 p. 182. - Atti Soc. Rom. cC Antrop. 1896, pp. 179 and 201. 3 Range of cephalic index of four Corsican heads studied by Ripley 72'3 to 80*8 (Racial Geography of Europe}. 4 Ib. 5 Arii e Italici, p. 188. Hence for these Italian Ligurians he claims the name of ''Italici," which he refuses to extend to the Aryan intruders in the 30—2 468 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. round-heads in that direction, the Ligurians being for him, as stated, long-headed, the Aryans round-headed. Similarly Dr Beddoe, commenting on Livi's statistics, showing predominance of tall stature, round heads, and fair complexion in North Italy, infers "that a type, the one we usually call the Mediterranean, does really predominate in the south, and exists in a state of comparative purity in Sardinia and Calabria ; while in the north the broad-headed Alpine type is powerful, but is almost everywhere more or less modified by, or interspersed with other types — Germanic, Slavic, or of doubtful origin — to which the variations of stature and complexion may probably be, at least in part, attributed1." Similar relations prevail in the Balkan peninsula, where the Mediterranean stock is represented by the Pelassric Range of the Mediter- substratum, the Aryan by the Slav intruders. Thus the Hamitic race still persists all along the northern shores of the Mediterranean from Spain (Iberians) through Italy and the islands (Ligurians) to Greece (Pelasgians), and passes with these Pelasgians into Asia Minor. Moreover the same stock ranges according to Sergi westwards to the British Isles, north- wards through central Europe to Scandinavia, and eastwards into Russia, everywhere forming the true aboriginal or pre-Aryan peninsula. "A questi primi abitatori spetta legittimamente il nome di Italic!, non a popolazioni successive [Aryan Umbrians], che avrebbero sloggiato i primi abitanti" (p. 60). The result is a little confusing, "Italic" being now the accepted name of the Italian branch of the Aryan linguistic family, and also commonly applied to the Aryans of this Italic speech, although the word Italia itself was undoubtedly indigenous (Ligurian) and not introduced by the Aryans. It would perhaps be better to regard "Italia" as a "geographical expression" applicable to all its inhabitants, whatever their origin or speech. 1 Science Progress, July 1894. It will be noticed that the facts, accepted by all, are differently interpreted by Beddoe and Sergi, the latter taking the long-headed element in North Italy as the aboriginal (Ligurian), modified by the later intrusion of round-headed Aryan Slavs, Teutons, and especially Kelts, while Beddoe seems to regard the broad-headed Alpine as the original, after- wards modified by intrusive long-headed types "Germanic, Slavic, or of doubt- ful origin." Either view would no doubt account for the present relations; but Sergi's study of the prehistoric remains (see above) seems to compel acceptance of his explanation. From the statistics an average height of not more than 5 ft. 4 in. results for the whole of Italy. PLATE IX. i. BOHEMIAN. (West Slav Type.) 2. EGYPTIAN DANCING DERWISH. (Hamito-Semitic Type.) 3. EGYPTIAN BEDOUIN. (Arab Type.) To face page 468] XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 469 element, and is consequently represented by the dolicho skulls from the British long barrows, from the German Reihengraber, and from the Kurgans of the Russian steppe. While this bril- liant generalisation, based on solid anatomical studies, may be accepted without reserve for the Mediterranean and British lands', it seems beset with grave, perhaps insurmountable, difficulties when applied to central and east Europe, as will be seen when we come to deal with Germanic and Slav origins. Meanwhile, returning to the African home of these Hamites, we find them still forming not merely the substratum, J Range of the but the great bulk of the inhabitants throughout all Hamites in recorded time from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, and from the Mediterranean to Sudan, although since Muham- madan times largely intermingled with the kindred Semitic stock (mainly Arabs) in the north and west, and in the east (Abyssinia) with the same stock since prehistoric times. All are comprised by Sergi2 in two main divisions : — 1. EASTERN HAMITES, answering to the Ethiopic Branch of some writers, of somewhat variable type, comprising the Old and Modern Egyptians now mixed with Semitic (Arab) elements ; the Nubians (excluded by me for reasons stated at p. 74) ; the Bejas, the Abyssinians^ collective name of all the peoples between Khor Barka and Shoa (with, in some places, a considerable in- fusion of Himyaritic or early Semitic blood from South Arabia) ; the Gallas (Gallas proper, Somals, and Afars or Danakils) ; the Masai and Wahnma. 2. NORTHERN HAMITES, answering to the Berber (Western] Branch of some writers, comprising the Mediterranean Berbers of Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli ; the Atlantic Berbers (Shluhs and others) of Marocco ; the West Saharan Berbers commonly called Tuaregs • the Tibus of the East Sahara ; the Fulahs, dispersed 1 Referring to one characteristic form of skull from Novilara, which he calls "Pelasgic," Sergi says that its African origin "non e a mettersi in dubbio, dopo che ho scoperto le stesse forme nell' Africa orientale, e la cui diffusione e grande e antichissima, avendone trovato di tale tipo nella antica Troade a Troia, e nei tumuli neolitici della Gran Brettagna" (Arii e Italici, p. 1-21). - In his already quoted monumental work, Africa: Antropofagia della Stirpe Camitica, Turin, 1897. 470 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. amongst the Sudanese Negroes ; the Guanches of the Canary Islands. Of the Eastern Hamites he remarks generally that they do not form a homogeneous division, but rather a number of different peoples either crowded together in separate areas, or dispersed in the territories of other peoples. They agree more in their inner than in their outer characters, without constituting a single ethnical type. The cranial forms are variable, though converging, and evidently to be regarded as very old varieties of an original stock. The features are also variable, converging and characteristic, with straight or arched (aquiloid) nose quite different from the Negro ; lips rather thick, but never everted as in the Negro ; hair usually frizzled, not wavy ; beard thin ; skin very variable, brown, red- brown, black-brown, ruddy black, chocolate and coffee-brown, reddish or yellowish, these variations being due to crossings and the outward physical conditions. In this assumption Sergi is supported by the analogous case of the western Berbers between the Senegal and Marocco, to whom Collignon and Deniker1 restrict the term "Moor," ., Moors'."81 "m as an ethnical name. The chief groups, which range from the Atlantic coast east to the camping grounds of the true Tuaregs2 are the Trarsas and Braknas of the Senegal river, and farther north the Dwai'sh (Idoesh), Uled-Bella, Uled-Embark, and Uled-en-Nasur. From a study of four of these Moors, who visited Paris in 1895, it appears that they are not an Arabo-Berber cross, as commonly supposed, but true Hamites, with a distinct Negro strain, shown especially in their frizzly hair, bronze colour, short broad nose, and thickish lips, their general appearance showing an astonishing likeness to the Bejas, Afars, Somals, Abyssinians, and other Eastern Hamites. This is not due to direct descent, and it is more reasonable to suppose " that at the two extremities of the continent the same 1 Les Manres du Senegal, in L? Anthropologie 1896, p. 258 sq. That is, the Sanhaja-an Lithain, those who wear the lithatn or veil, which is needed to protect them from the sand, but has now acquired religious signi- ficance, and is never worn by the "Moors."' Cf. the totem, originally a badge, now often a god. PLATE X. i. TURCO, ALGERIA. (Hamitic Type.) 2. TURCO, ALGERIA. (Hamitic Type.) 3. WOMAN OF BISKRA. (Mediterranean Type.) To face page 470] XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 471 causes have produced the same effects, and that from the infusion of a certain proportion of black blood in the Egyptian [eastern] and Berber branches of the Hamites, there have sprung closely analogous mixed groups1." From the true Negro they are also distinguished by their grave and dignified bearing, and still more by their far greater intelligence. One of the visitors to Paris taught himself enough French to expound such abstruse terms as doctrine, which was the chemin droit "right road," his hand pointing from earth to heaven, and substance, which was explained by a walking-stick " heavy, black, hard," the rest substance, thus plunging into the subtleties of the Schoolmen with their distinc- tions between substantia and accidentalia. Both divisions of the Hamite, continues Sergi, agree sub- stantially in their bony structure, and thus form a single anthropological group with variable skull- Harnitk^Type pentagonoid, ovoid, ellipsoid, sphenoid, etc., as ex- pressed in his new terminology — but constant, that is, each variety recurring in all the branches ; face also variable (tetragonal, ellipsoid, etc.), but similarly identical in all the branches ; profile non-prognathous ; eyes dark, straight, not prominent; nose straight or arched ; hair smooth, curly, long, black or chestnut ; beard full, also scant; lips thin or slightly tumid, never protruding; skin of various brown shades; stature medium or tall. Such is the great anthropological division, which was diffused continuously over a vast area in North Africa, Europe, and Asia ; differing however with the different physical environments in its secondary characters, which appear not as individual variations, but as inherited varieties, persisting through all time, in fact behaving like the varieties of a well established zoological species. Nothing is more astonishing than this strange persistence not merely of the Berber type, but of the Berber temperament and nationality since the Stone Ages, despite the successive invasions of foreign peoples during the historic period. First came the Sidonian Phoenicians, founders of Carthage and Utica probably about 1500 B.C. The Greek occupation of Cyrenaica (628 B.C.) 1 p. 269. 4/2 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. was followed by the advent of the Romans on the ruins of the Carthaginian empire. The Romans have certainly Elements in left distinct traces of their presence, and some of the Aures highlanders still proudly call themselves Rumaniya. These Shawias (" Pastors ") form a numerous group, all claiming Roman descent, and even still keeping certain Roman and Christian feasts, such as Bu Ini, i.e. Christmas ; lunar or January (New Year's Day) ; Spring (Easter), &c. A few Latin words also survive such as urtho — hortus ; kern'ish = quercus (evergreen oak); milli = milliarium (milestone). After the temporary Vandal occupation came the great Arab invasions of the yth and later centuries, and even these had been preceded by the kindred Ruadites, who had in pre-Moslem times already reached Mauritania from Arabia. With the Jews, some of whom had also reached Tripolitana before the New Era, a steady infiltration of Negroes from Sudan, and the recent French, Spanish, Italian, and Maltese settlers, we have all the elements that go to make up the cosmopolitan population of Mauritania. But amid them all the Berbers and the Arabs stand out as the immensely predominant factors, still distinct despite Arab and . . . Berber Con- their common Hamito-Semitic origin and later inter- +• t*o cfc minglings. The Arab remains above all a nomad herdsman, dwelling in tents, without house or hamlet, a good stock-breeder, but a bad husbandman, and that only on com- pulsion. "The ploughshare and shame enter hand in hand into the family," says the national proverb. To find space for his flocks and herds he continues the destructive work of Carthaginian and Roman, who ages ago cleared vast wooded tracts for their fleets and commercial navies, and thus helped to deteriorate the North African climate. The Berber on the contrary loves the sheltering woodlands ; he is essentially a highlander who carefully tills the forest glades, settles in permanent homes, and often develops flourishing in- dustries. Arab society is feudal and theocratic, ruled by a despotic Sheikh, while the Berber with his Jemaa, or " Witenage- mot," and his Kanun or unwritten code, feels himself a freeman ; and it may well have been this democratic spirit, inherited by his European descendants, that enabled the western nations to take XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 473 the lead in the onward movement of humanity. The Arab again is a fanatic, ever to be feared, because he blindly obeys the will of Allah proclaimed by his prophets, marabouts, and mahdis1. But the Berber, a born sceptic, looks askance at theological dogmas : an unconscious philosopher, he is far less of a fatalist than his Semitic neighbour, who associates with Allah countless demons and jins in the government of the world. In their physical characters the two races also present some striking contrasts, the Arab having the regular oval brain-cap and face of the true Semite, whereas the Berber head is more angular, less finely moulded, with more prominent cheek bones, shorter and less aquiline nose, which combined with a slight degree of sub-nasal prognathism, imparts to the features coarser and less harmonious outlines. He is at the same time distinctly taller and more muscular, with less uniformity in the colour of the eye and the hair, as might be expected from the numerous elements entering into the constitution of the present Berber populations. In the social conflict between the Arab and Berber races, the almost unique spectacle is presented of two nearly equal elements (same origin, same religion, same government, same or analogous tribal groupings, at about the same cultural development) refusing to amalgamate to any great extent, although living in the closest proximity for over a thousand years. In this struggle the Arab seems so far to have had the advantage. Instances of Berberised Arabs occur, but are extremely rare, whereas the Berbers have not only everywhere accepted the Koran, but whole tribes have become assimilated in speech, costume, and usages to the Semitic intruders. It might therefore seem as if the Arab must ultimately prevail. But we are assured by the French observers that in Algeria and Tunisia appearances are fallacious, however the case may stand in Marocco and the Sahara. "The Arab," writes Dr Malbot, to whom I am indebted for some of these details, " an alien in Mauritania, transported to a soil which does not always suit him, so far from thriving tends to disappear, whereas 1 The Kababish and Baggara tribes, chief mainstays of the late Sudanese revolt, claim to be of unsullied Arab descent with long pedigrees going back to early Muhammadan times. 474 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. the Berber, especially under the shield of France, becomes more and more aggressive, and yearly increases in numbers. At present he forms at least three- fifths of the population in Algeria, and in Marocco the proportion is greater. He is the race of the future as of the past1." This however would seem to apply only to the races, not to their languages, for we are elsewhere told that Arabic is encroach- ing steadily on the somewhat ruder Berber dialects2. Considering the enormous space over which they are diffused, and the thou- sands of years that some of the groups have ceased to be in contact, these dialects show remarkably slight divergence from the long extinct proto-Hamitic speech from which all have sprung. Whatever it be called — Kabyle, Zenatia, Shawia, Tamashek, Shluh — the Berber language is still essentially one, and the likeness between the forms current in Marocco, Algeria, the Sahara, and the remote Siwah Oasis on the confines of Egypt, is much closer, for instance, than between Norse and English in the sub- Aryan Teutonic group3. But when we cross the conventional frontier between the contiguous Tuareg and Tibu domains in the central The Tibus. Sahara the divergence is so great that philolo- gists are still doubtful whether the two languages are even re- motely or at all connected. My own impression is that Tibu stands to Berber as Berber to Semitic on the one hand and to Basque on the other — all disjecta membra of a primeval mother- tongue, extinct for many thousands of years, and no more or even less capable of reconstruction than the organic Aryan mother- . tongue on which so much unprofitable labour has been lavished. The Tibus themselves, apparently direct descendants of the ancient Garamantes, have their primeval home in the Tibesti range, i.e. the " Rocky Mountains," whence they take their 1 Les Chaouias etc., in U Anthropologie^ 1897, p. 14. • p. 17. 3 The words collected by Sir H. H. Johnston at Dwirat in Tunis show a great resemblance with the language of the Saharan Tuaregs, and the sheikh of that place "admitted that his people could understand and make themselves understood by those fierce nomads, who range between the southern frontier of Algeria and Tunis and the Sudan" (Geogr. Jour., June, 1898, p. 590). XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 475 name1. There are two distinct sections, the northern Tedas, a name recalling the Tedamansii^ a branch of the Garamantes located by Ptolemy somewhere between Tripolitana and Phazania (Fezzan), and the Southern Dazas, through whom the Tibus merge gradually in the negroid populations of central Sudan. This intermingling with the blacks dates from remote times, whence Ptolemy's remark that the Garamantes seemed rather more " Ethiopians " than Libyans'. But there can be no doubt that the full-blood Tibus, as represented by the northern section, are true Hamites, and although the type of the men is somewhat coarser than that of their Tuareg neighbours, that of the women is almost the finest in Africa. " Their women are charming while still in the bloom of youth, unrivalled amongst their sisters of North Africa for their physical beauty, pliant and graceful figures3." It is interesting to notice amongst these somewhat secluded Saharan nomads the slow growth of culture, and the curious survival of usages which have their explanation in primitive social conditions. " The Tibu is always distrustful ; hence, meeting a fellow-countryman in the desert, he is careful not to draw near without due precaution. At sight of each other both generally stop suddenly ; then crouching and throwing the litham over the lower part of the face in Tuareg fashion, they grasp the insepar- able spear in their right and the shangermangor, or bill-hook, in their left. After these preliminaries they begin to interchange compliments, inquiring after each other's health and family con- nections, receiving every answer with expressions of thanksgiving to Allah. These formalities usually last some minutes4." Ob- viously all this means nothing more than a doffing of the hat or a shake-hands amongst more advanced peoples ; but it points to times when every stranger was a hostis, who later became the hospes (host, guest). 1 Ti-bu— "Rock People''; cf. Kaneni-bu=lt1&xs\sa\. People," southern- most branch of the family on north side of Lake Chad. - "OVTUV 5e /cat avrwv 77577 fj.d\\ov Xidioiruv (i. 8). I take 77^77, which has caused some trouble to commentators, here to mean that, as you advance south- wards from the Mediterranean seaboard, you find yourself on entering Gara- mantian territory already rather amongst Ethiopians than Libyans. 1 Reclus, Eng. ed. vol. xi. p. 429. 4 Ib. p. 430. 4/6 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. It will be noticed that the Tibu domain, with the now absolutely impassable Libyan desert1, almost corn- Egyptian pletely separates the western from the eastern section of the Hamites proper. Continuity, how- ever, is afforded, both on the north along the shores of the Mediterranean to the Nile Delta (Lower Egypt), and on the south through Darfur and Kordofan to the White Nile, and thence down the main stream to Upper Egypt, and through Abyssinia, Galla and Somali lands to the Indian Ocean. Between the Nile and the east coast the domain of the Eastern Hamites stretches from the equator northwards to Egypt and the Mediterranean. It appears therefore that Egypt, occupied for many thousands of years by an admittedly Hamitic people, might have been reached either by the Western Hamites by the Mediterranean route, or by the Eastern Hamites down the Nile. But it may be suggested that the Hamites were specialised in the Nile valley itself, and spread thence over North Africa, in which case Egypt need not, so to say, have been reached at all, but should be regarded as the cradle of the race. The point is insoluble, because, when appeal is made to the evidence of the Stone Ages, we find nothing to choose between such widely separated regions as Somaliland, Upper Egypt, and Mauritania, all of which have yielded super- abundant proofs of the presence of man for incalculable ages, estimated by some palethnologists at several hundred thousand years. When the Nile flowed in a bed 400 or 500 feet higher than its present level it was inhabited by men who can scarcely be called primitive, for they were able to manufacture those won- derful stone implements discovered by Burton, de Morgan, Petrie, and others, to reproduce which would baffle the skill of hundreds of rude tribes still living in Africa, Australia, and South America. If it be asked, were these men Hamites ? we can but answer, yes, Hamites /;;/ Werden, Hamites in process of specialisation, a process, it must be inferred, going on simultaneously in Somali- land, in Upper Egypt, and Mauritania, in fact, in the whole of 1 From the enormous sheets of tuffs near the Khargheh Oasis Dr Zettel, geologist of G. Rohlfs expedition in 1876, thinks that even this sandy waste may have supported a rich vegetation in Quaternary times. XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 477 North Africa since pleistocene man wandered from Indo- Malaysia into that region. It might seem therefore that the question of Egyptian origins was settled by the mere statement of the case, and ... Origins. that there could be no hesitation in saying that the Egyptian Hamites were evolved on Egyptian soil, consequently are the true autochthones in the Nile valley. Yet there is no ethnological question more hotly discussed than this of Egyptian origins and culture, for the two seem inseparable. There are broadly speaking two schools : the African, whose fundamental views are above briefly set forth, and the Asiatic, which brings the Egyptians with all their works from the neighbouring con- tinent. But, seeing that the Egyptians are now admitted to be Hamites, that there are no Hamites to speak of (let it be frankly said, none at all) in Asia1, and that they have for untold ages occupied many millions of square miles in Africa, the more moderate members of the Asiatic school now allow that, not the people themselves, but their culture only came from western Asia (Mesopotamia). If so, this culture would of course have its roots in the delta, which is first reached by the Isthmus of Suez from Asia, and spread thence, say, from Memphis up the Nile to Thebes and Upper Egypt, and that is the assumption. But at 1 The Kushite ghost should have been laid after Sir R. Burton wrote that to postulate a Kushite immigration to account for the Caucasian type and the Aryan 'miscegenation' in the races and languages of Egypt, was "one of the wildest theories ever propounded by mortal man." The Egyptologist of the Asiatic school, who holds, despite Herodotus, that art had no infancy in Egypt, and has a personal aversion to a prehistoric Stone Age (which he denies a priori), "begins by inventing a people settled somewhere near India. Having passed through the preliminary stages and reached the 'apogee of its civilization,' this people emigrates bodily westward, leaving no trace of itself in the old home, no signs of its exodus, no notice in history. It reaches Egypt, and falls to making pyramids and other masterpieces of the highest art, which afterwards begin to decay and become Egyptian. Marvellous to relate, this is the belief of sound and ripe scholars ;' (Stones and Bones from Egypt and Midian, in Jour. Anthrop. Inst. Nov. 1878, p. 296). The case is per- fectly analogous to that of the American "Asiatics," who in the same wild way refuse an indigenous culture to the New World, and bring everything bodily from the Old. MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. that time there was no delta1, or at least it was only in process of formation, a kind of debatable region between land and water, inhabitable mainly by crocodiles, and utterly unsuited to become the seat of a culture whose characteristic features are huge stone monuments, amongst the largest ever erected by man, and consequently needing solid foundations, on terra fir ma. It further appears that although Memphis is very old, Thebes is much older, in other words, that Egyptian culture began in Upper Egypt, and spread not up but down the Nile. Thus all Asiatic claims are again excluded, unless indeed South Arabia formed part of the land of Punt (Somaliland?) from which Petrie is in- clined to bring the Retu. But South Arabia is not Babylonia, so this will not help the '• Asiatics " who with Hommel will have everything from Mesopotamia". In a question of origins going back to such a prodigious antiquity, almost the first consideration is the climate, of which Dr Eberhard Fraas3 has made a special study. That the abori- gines were not, as at present, so closely hemmed in- by the desert sands, is evident, he says, from the fabulous development of the stone industry during the Neolithic period in a region which is now a wilderness, where scarcely a few bedouins can find j 1 The Egyptians themselves had a tradition that when Menes moved north he found the Delta still under water. The sea reached almost as far as the Fayyum, and the whole valley, except the Thebais, was a malarious swamp (Herod. II. 4). Thus late into historic times memories still survived that the delta was of relatively recent formation, and that the J\etu (Romitu of the Pyramid texts, later Rotu, Komi etc.) had already developed their social system before the Lower Nile valley was inhabitable. Hence whether the Nile took -20,000 years (Schweinfurth) or over 70,000, as others hold, to fill in its estuary, the beginning of the Egyptian prehistoric period must still be set back many millenniums before the new era. "Ce que nous savons du Sahara, lui-meme alors sillonne de rivieres, atteste qu'il [the Delta] ne devait pas etre habitable, pas etre constitue a 1'epoque quaternaire" (M. Zaborowski, Bid. Soc. d' ' AntJirop. 1896, p. 655). 2 As shown by G. Bertin, "no Egyptian tradition, either on the monuments, or on papyri, or preserved by classical writers, ever points to Asia as their first country," and he refers to Dr S. Birch's remark at the First Congress of Orientalists that "no evidence whatever supported the hypothesis of the emigra- tion of the Egyptians from Asia" (Jour. Anthrop. Inst. xi. p. 436). 3 Corresp. BL d. d. Ges. f. Anthrop. Feb. 1898, p. 10 sq. XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 479 sustenance for themselves and their wretched flocks. A moister climate must have prevailed, with springs and running waters, and the extensive terraces flanking the mouths of the mountain streams between Keneh and Kosseir, the well rolled pebbles, the beds 15 or 16 feet thick of calc-sinter (incrustations of carbonate of lime) in the now dry gorges of the Hammamat, undoubtedly deposited by springs, all sho\v the former abundance of moisture in quite recent geological times. The same conclusion results from a study of the coral barrier-reefs skirting the shores of the Red Sea, with gaps at intervals opposite the wadi mouths, where the freshwater from the torrents prevented the polyps from build- ing. We may therefore conclude that parts of the present wastes were inhabitable, and this solves the question where that magni- ficent Neolithic culture of the first dynasties originated, and whence the early Pharaohs drew those countless hosts for which the narrow Nile valley could never have afforded sustenance. Thus also are explained the numerous ancient settlements, the extensive quarries and mining operations, whose debris amid the now waterless up- lands seem such an inexplicable puzzle. The more moist and tem- perate climate may be connected with the Ice Age farther north, as already suggested by Lepsius, who thought that to the glacial epoch of Europe corresponded a genial climate with a sufficient rainfall in the now overheated southern zones, and that in such an environment alone could be found the conditions needed for the development of a cultured people. In such a climate great progress was made, especially in the New Stone Age, which, as shown by M. J. de Morgan1, New gtone must have been of very long duration. It has yielded and Bronze r . i • j r • i Ages in Upper a profusion of every imaginary kind or implements Egypt also adapted to all the wants and usages of daily life. indi&enous- As elsewhere, this Age lingered on well into the Metal period, as seen in a beautiful flint knife plated with gold on which are carved animal figures. The flints come not only from ordinary stations, but also from very old graves and dwellings, such as the necropolis of El-Amrah, four or five miles from Abydos. Here 1 Recherches des Origines de FEgypte: PAge de la Pierre et des Metaiix, 1896. 480 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. were found quantities of very coarse earthenware, and also much finer pottery, embellished with geometrical tracings, figures of ani- mals, and even hieroglyphics, showing on the same spot the actual slow transition from rudimentary arts to a high level of culture. M. Morgan's view is that this Neolithic industry belonged to an indigenous race, later conquered by a foreign people who intro- duced metallurgy and the civilisation of the monuments. The illustrations seem to show a double overlapping of flints surviving amongst the intruders, and of animal designs figured by them on the native pottery. These first intruders M. Morgan brings from Asia, because they introduced bronze, which he supposes was invented in Central Asia or South China. But the argument is inconclusive, and in fact, considering the discordant views now current on the subject of bronze, is for the present of no weight. On the other hand, Maspero, Zaborowski, Mariette, Petrie and many other leading authorities now hold that the new comers, with whom the pre- historic metal period was ushered in, were, like the aborigines, of African origin. The earliest memories of the people were associated, not with Memphis, but with Abydos, where reigned Thoth and Osiris ; and throughout the Old and Middle Empires all the domestic and other animals figured on the monuments were members of the African fauna. Such was the dog, a large greyhound with straight ears like the caberu of Abyssinia, and the greyhound still surviving among the Saharan Tibus and Tuaregs • in Egypt he was sacred to Anubis, whose priests were figured with heads of the greyhound type. Such were also the cat, resembling the Upper Nile wild breed, trained for the chase and mummified in prodigious numbers; the ox, ass, gazelle, sheep, goat, duck, goose, all of true African species. Neither horse nor camel, Asiatic and not African animals, came in at first : the former did not arrive till the New Empire, the latter apparently not till the Ptolemaic period1. It is also noteworthy that of the 1 1 skulls from El-Amrah measured by M. Fouquet all but one were distinctly 1 Dr W. Cunningham says "unknown in the earliest period of Egyptian greatness" (Western Civilisation, etc., Cambridge University Press, 1898). But one might rather say in the very latest, for no reference appears to be made to the camel in any extant documents much before the New Era. XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 481 long-headed, of the type corresponding to Prichard's " Pelasgic," i.e. Sergi's Hamitic or Mediterranean. M. Zaborovvski points out1 that nobody has yet been able even to suggest any part of the world, or any people, who were in possession of these same elements of culture before the Egyptians. He had already remarked2 that there is absolutely no foundation for the view that the Retus arrived from Asia via the Isthmus of Suez. This was merely a reaction against those ancient and modern writers who traced Egyptian culture to Ethiopia, and the Egyptians to the Negroes. It was mainly based on the erroneous idea that there was no white race except those of Asiatic origin (Semites and Aryans). But we have now the Hamitic white race of African origin, located in Upper Egypt, home of Osiris3, land of Thebes, whose foundation is long prior to all history. This region was divided into a number of independent petty states, with an organisation recalling that of the Berber tribes, and they were first welded into a compact political body by Menes, king of Thini. By founding Memphis, and thus removing the centre of power for the first time to Lower Egypt, Menes merely shifted to this region the advanced bulwark of a civilization, which may have already been threatened by predatory hordes from Asia, but had in any case first taken root at some immensely remote epoch in Upper Egypt. Of course there are Asiatic elements even in the early Egyptian civilisation. Bronze art is very old, and two statuettes in this metal are attributed to the 5th or 6th dynasty, while in a tomb apparently earlier than the 4th Mariette found three wooden panels with bas-reliefs presenting the type of the Semitic race. From the 2nd or 3rd dynasty date other statues, such as that of Nefer, a young girl with ornaments in the Babylonian style. Bat all this merely proves that, as implied in the legendary Osirian wars, Egypt had relations with Asia in the very earliest historic, 1 BuL Soc. d'Anthrop. 1896, p. 654 sq. '- Les Peuples Priniitifs deV Afrique Septentrionale, in Nouvelle Revue, 1883. 3 Osiris already belongs to the mythical age, and before his time the Retus were a rude and savage people addicted to cannibalism, from which they were weaned by Isis and Osiris: — 'Eyw ^uera TOV d5eX0ou 'Qatpews ras dvdpWT (iravov (Kaibel, Epigram. Grceca, p. xxi). K. 3I 482 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. and probably even in prehistoric ages. Thus Snefru, last king of the 3rd dynasty, warred with the nomads of Arabia Petraea, and left records of his exploits on the rocks of Sinai. But such events are quite recent compared with the actual beginnings of Egyptian culture, which go back to an epoch twice as long as the historic period (Bunsen, Renan). Indications of a thoroughly established social and political organisation have been traced by Oppert back to 11,500 years B.C. Amongst the first cultivated plants were wheat, barley, sorghum, vetches, lupins, lentils, pease, most of which belong essentially to the African flora. Corresponding with this progress in agriculture is the progress in the arts, as revealed by the bas-reliefs and inscriptions carved by Snefru on the rocks of the Wady Magharah, which although some 6000 years old, show a state of culture as fully developed as that under the New Empire, with thoroughly original features, and all the marks of a long previous existence. At this remote period written form had been given to the Egyptian language, which had already been completely developed and differentiated from the allied Libyan (Berber), and from the still more remotely connected Semitic family. When we consider the amazing tenacity both of the Hamitic and Semitic sections of this linguistic stock, such a statement alone should satisfy the most sceptical as to the immense antiquity of civilised man in the Nile valley. And proofs are accumulating that this race was already highly specialised with features of European type. At the Deshasheh necropolis nearly opposite Beni Suef, Petrie found in 1897 the portrait statue of Prince Nenkheftka of the 5th dynasty (3700 B.C.), a man of pleasing expression and " European features1." M. Loret also describes several royal persons from the tomb of Amenophis II. (1500 B.C.) as distinguished by luxuriant hair and well-preserved features "to a marked degree like those of the present Fellahin2." Sergi tabulates eight primary varieties of old Egyptian skulls with several sub-varieties, all specified in his formidable (some have called it bewildering) nomen- clature, and all still persisting both in Egypt and amongst the 1 Deshasheh, \§th Mem. Egypt. Expl. Fund, 1898. 2 Nature, April 14, 1898, p. 566. XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 483 other Eastern Hamites : "The persistence of the race is therefore shown in this historical and most ancient people, which has had vicissitudes and interminglings enough to infer a complete change in its physical characters and the effacement of its old ethnic elements'." Thanks to this amazing stability of the early types, Egypt is a region of quite exceptional interest to the anthropo- logist. Owing to the remarkable continuity of its e^.PC now changeless climate, and of a historic record unbroken for over 7000 years, it affords a better illustration than most other lands of the still obscure principle of convergence in biological forms. That plants and animals should, under the environmental conditions, have undergone but slight change since Pharaonic days is perhaps no more than might be expected. But that the Retus type itself should have emerged in its integrity from such secular interminglings of peoples— the problematical Hyksos and Hittites, Petrie's "New Race," blue-eyed Libyans, continuous Ethiopic infiltrations, early and later Arabs and kindred Assyrian Semites, Persian, Greek, and Roman "Aryans," Levantines, Turks, Circassian Mamluks, Albanians, Franks and others — is indeed a wonder perhaps best explained on the assump- tion that in certain cases environment is an all-potent crucible, in which foreign ingredients are fused in the general amalgam. It is not to be supposed, for instance, that the Moslem Arab bedouins have ever formed unions with the native Christian Kopts, direct descendants of the old Egyptians. Yet when the wooden statue of an official under Khephren (4200 B.C.) was brought to light, it was at once named the "village Sheikh," because of its striking resemblance to the then living local headman2. "The Egyptians themselves have come down from the Old Empire through all the vicissitudes of conquests, mixtures of races, changes of religion and language, so little altered that the fellah of to-day is often the image of the Egyptians who built the 1 Africa, etc. p. 67. 2 Maspero also remarks that "the profile copied from a Theban mummy taken at hazard from a necropolis of the i8th dynasty, and compared with the likeness of a modern Luxor peasant, would almost pass for a family portrait" (Dawn of Civ. p. 48). 31 — 2 484 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. pyramids1." In most regions a general fusion of native and foreign peoples results in conformity to a new type different from the old ; but in Egypt the foreign elements, even without com- mingling, tend to conform, i.e. converge towards the old Retus prototype. It is clear therefore that the Retus themselves are the outcome of their environment, and to that extent true aborigines, and not Kushite immigrants from Asia at the close of the New Stone Age. Nor is it likely that any fresh discoveries can now be made which will invalidate this conclusion. Yet, except the priestly and military castes, on whom the king relied for support, the whole of the population, Condition. whether nominally free or slaves, were doomed to a life of incessant toil, relieved from monotony by the irregular visits of the taxgatherer, when there were meanings and weeping throughout the land. " Shall I tell thee of the mason, how he endures misery? exposed to all the winds, while he builds without any garment but a belt, and while the bunch of lotus flowers [which is fixed] on the [completed] houses, is still far out of his reach, his two arms are worn out with work, his provisions are placed higgledy-piggledy amongst his refuse... when the work is quite finished, if he has bread he returns home, and his children have been beaten unmercifully [during his absence].... The shoe- maker moans ceaselessly, and he gnaws the leather. The baker ...subjects the loaves to the fire... while his head is inside the oven his son holds him by the legs — if he slips he falls there into the flames'2." " The determination not to pay the taxes except under the stick was proverbial from ancient times. Whoever paid his dues before he had received a merciless beating would be overwhelmed with reproaches by his family, and jeered at without pity by his neighbours... When the tax fell due... for several days there was nothing to be heard but protestations, threats, beatings, cries of pain from the taxpayers, and piercing lamentations from women and children. The performance over, calm was reestablished, and the good people, binding up their wounds, resumed their 1 Laing, Hitman Origins, p. 399. 2 Sellier Papyrus, quoted by Maspero, p. 313. XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 485 round of daily life until the next taxgathering1." The bread above referred to was usually in the form of small round or oblong cakes about half-an-inch thick, and was so coarse and gritty that in the long run it ruined the strongest teetha. It is this dire misery which, combined with their unchangeable type, connects the pyramid-builders through the long ages with the modern fellahin, who have only now been relieved from hopeless oppression by British intervention in Egypt. A brighter if ruder social state is presented by the kindred Eastern Karaites, who form a continuous chain of other dark Caucasic peoples from the Mediterranean to Eastern Hamites— the equator, and whose ethnical unity is now Bejas— established by Sergi on anatomical grounds3. Bor- dering on Upper Egypt, and extending thence to the foot of the Abyssinian plateau, is the Beja section, whose chief divisions — Ababdeh, Hadendowa, Bishari, Beni-Amer — have from the earliest times occupied the whole region between the Nile and the Red Sea. Recent events have familiarised the English reader with many of their tribal names, and with some of their usages, notably that fondness for elaborate coiffures, which has earned for our late foes, now the friendly Hadendowas, the popular designation of " Fuzzy- Wuzzies." They never need have been foes, had our officials, at the time of the Mahdi's revolt, been able to under- stand that they were not " Arabs," but Hamites, whom a little diplomacy would have easily gained over to our side without any bloodshed4. In peaceful times many hours are daily given up to the toilet, and in Suakim " hair-dressing plays such an important part that a whole street is devoted to this business. I saw some twelve shops which dealt exclusively in the egg-shaped balls of mutton-fat, the favourite hair ointment. Close by were, perhaps, as many stores trading in various mineral powders in all colours of the rainbow, 1 Maspero, p. 314, where Am. Marcellinus is quoted : "Erubescit apud eos, siquis non infitiando tributa plurimas in corpore vibices ostendat, " xxn. ch. 16, 23. 2 Ibid. p. 320. 3 A fried) passim. 4 See on this point my Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan, p. 10. 486 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. which are dusted over the greasy superstructure and regarded as most effective. Here are also half-a-dozen tents of the native hairdressers, where the mysteries of the toilet receive the finishing touch. The style differs, as a rule, but little from that of the other Beja tribes or even of the Abyssinians. The black, kinky, and wavy hair, essentially different from the fine woolly hair of the Negro, is drawn out so as to completely cover the ear, and is then disposed in two main divisions by a horizontal parting. The upper mass is raised to a top-knot, while the rest is plaited in small tresses with their ends unravelled. But the whole is first saturated with mutton-fat which causes it to retain the shape given to it by the deft hand of the artist1.''' Through the Afars (Danakil) of the arid coastlands between Abyssinia and the sea, the Bejas are connected with the numerous Hamitic populations of the Somali and Galla lands. Genealogies. For the term "Somal," which is quite recent and of course unknown to the natives, Major H. M. Abud2 suggests an interesting and plausible explanation. Being a hos- pitable people, and milk their staple food, " the first word a stranger would hear on visiting their kraals would be 'So mal,' i.e. " Go and bring milk." Strangers may have named them from this circumstance, and other tribal names may certainly be traced to more improbable sources. The natives hold that two races inhabit the land : — (i) ASHA, true Somals, of whom there are two great divisions, Ddrbd and Ishdk, both claiming descent from certain noble Arab families, though no longer of Arab speech ; (2) HAWIYA, who are not counted by the others as true Somals, but only "pagans," and also comprise two main branches, Aysa and Gadabursi. In the national genealogies collected by Major Abud and Captain Cox, many of the mythical heroes are buried at or near Meit, which may thus be termed the cradle of the Somal race. From this point they spread in all directions, the Darods pushing south and driving the Gallas beyond the Webbe Shebel, and till lately raiding them as far as the Tana river. It should be noticed that 1 Von Maltzau, quoted by Junker, Travels, I. p. 55. - Genealogies of the Soinal, 1896. XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 487 these genealogical tables are far from complete, for they exclude most of the southern sections, notably the Rahanvvin who have a very wide range on both sides of the Jub. In the statements made by the natives about true Somals and "pagans," race and religion are confused, and the distinction between Asha and Hawiya is merely one between Moslem and infidel. The latter are probably of much purer stock than the former, whose very genealogies testify to interminglings of the Moslem Arab intruders with the heathen aborigines. Despite their dark colour Prof. C. Keller1 has no difficulty in regarding the Somali as members of the " Caucasic Race." The Semitic type crops out decidedly in several groups, and they are generally speaking of fine physique, well grown, with proud bearing and often with classic profile, though the type is very variable owing to Arab and Negro grafts on the Hamitic stock. The hair is never woolly, but, like that of the Bejas, ringletty and less thick than the Abyssinian and Galla, sometimes even quite straight. The forehead is finely rounded and prominent, eye moderately large and rather deep-set, nose straight, but also snub and aquiline, mouth regular, lips not too thick, head sub-dolicho. Great attention has been paid to all these Eastern Hamitic peoples by Ph. Paulitschke", who regards the Gallas as both intel- lectually and morally superior to the Somals and Afars, the chief reason being that the baneful influences exercised by the Arabs and Abyssinians affect to a far greater extent the two latter than the former group. He credits these primitive peoples originally (" urspriinglich ") with a monotheistic belief, or rather with "a monotheism disturbed by diverse superstitions." But this view, which rests on the assumption that the aborigines in question distinguish between a Supreme God and a large number of spirits under him, is unsupported by any solid proof. The characteristic feature in their religion is the predominance of animistic over natural mythological concepts. A great part is played by bodiless genii; even their animal and tree worship has its roots in animism, 1 " Reisestudien in den Somalilandern," Globus, LXX., p. 33 sq. 2 Ethnographic Nord-Ost-Afrikas: Die geistige Kultur der Danakil, Galla u. Somdl. Berlin, 1896, 2 vols. 488 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. while none of the Gallas or Somals unaffected by Islam are able to form any notion of a Supreme deity. But it is amongst the Abyssinian Hamites that are met the strangest interminglings of primitive and more advanced religious ideas. On a seething mass of African heathendom, already in prehistoric times affected by early Semitic ideas, introduced by the Himyarites from South Arabia, was somewhat suddenly im- posed an undeveloped form of Christianity by the preaching of Frumentius in the fourth century, with results that cannot be called satisfactory. While the heterogeneous ethnical elements have been merged in a composite Abyssinian nationality, the discordant religious ideas have never yet been fused in a con- sistent uniform system. Hence "Abyssinian Christianity" is a sort of by-word even amongst the Eastern Churches, while the social institutions are marked by elementary notions of justice and paradoxical " shamanistic " practices, interspersed with a few sublime moral precepts. Many things came as a surprise to the members of the Rennell Rodd Mission1, who could not under- stand such a strange mixture of savagery and lofty notions in a Christian community which, for instance, accounted accidental death as wilful murder. The case is mentioned of a man falling from a tree on a friend below and killing him. "He was adjudged to perish at the hands of the bereaved family, in the same manner as the corpse. But the family refused to sacrifice a second member, so the culprit escaped." Dreams also are resorted to, as in the days of the Pharaohs, for detecting crime. A priest is sent for, and if his prayers and curses fail, a small boy is drugged and told to dream. "Whatever person he dreams of is fixed on as the criminal; no further proof is needed... If the boy does not dream of the person whom the priest has determined on as the criminal, he is kept under drugs until he does what is required of him." To outsiders society seems to be a strange jumble of an iron despotism, which forbids the selling of a horse for over £10 under severe penalties, and a personal freedom or licence, which allows the labourer to claim his wages after a week's work and 1 Count Gleichen, Rennell Rodd's Mission to Menelik, 1897. XII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 489 forthwith decamp to spend them, returning next day or next month as the humour takes him. Yet somehow things hold together, and a few Semitic immigrants from South Arabia have for over 2000 years contrived to maintain some kind of control over the Hamitic aborigines who have always formed the bulk of the population in Abyssinia. CHAPTER XIII. THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES (contimied). THE SEMITES — Cradle, Origins, and Migrations — Divisions : Phcenicians ; Assyrians; Anwrites ; Canaanites ; Himyarites — Phoenician Cradle and Migration — The Phoenician Alphabet — Himyariles — Sabaan and Mincean Origins — The Amorites: Arameans, Syr o- Chaldeans — Later Syrians — Ansariehs ; Maronites ; Druzes — The jews — Origins — Early and Later Dispersions — Diverse Physical Types — Present Range and Population— THE HITTITES — Conflicting Theories — The Arabs — :Spread of the Arab Race and Language — Semitic Monotheism — Its Evolution — THE PELAS- GIANS, a wide-spread pre-Hellenic People of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages — Knowledge of Letters — The Cretan and other vEgean Scripts— ^Egean Culture a Local Development — Its Age and Westward Spread from Troy to Scandinavia and Britain. » THE Himyaritic immigrants, who thus still hold sway in a foreign land, have long ceased to exist as a distinct nationality in their own country, where they had nevertheless ages ago founded nourishing empires, centres of one of the very oldest civilizations of which there is any record. Should future research confirm the now generally received view that Hamites and Semites are fundamentally of one stock, a view based both on physical and linguistic data, the cradle of the Semitic branch will -Cradle?1 a^so probably be traced to South Arabia, and more Origins, and particularly to that south-western region known to Migrations. the ancients as Arabia Felix, i.e. the Yemen of the Arabs. While Asia and Africa were still partly separated in the north by a broad marine inlet before the formation of the Nile delta, easy communication was afforded between the two continents farther south at the head of the Gulf of Aden, where they are still almost contiguous. By this route the primitive Hamito-Semitic CHAP. XIII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 491 populations may have moved either westwards into Africa, or, as would seem more probable, eastwards into Asia, where in the course of ages the Semitic type became specialised. On this assumption South Arabia would necessarily be the first home of the Semites, who in later times spread thence north and east, and became further specialised as r-,/ • • i- Divisions. Phoenicians on the east coast of Arabia and the neighbouring Bahrein Islands ; as Assyrians in Mesopotamia ; as Arabs on the Nejd steppe ; as Canaanites^ Moabites and others in and about Palestine ; as Amorites (Aramceans, Syrians], possibly even Hittites, in Syria and Asia Minor. Against this broad view of Semitic origins and early migrations there appear to be no serious objections of any kind, while the hypothesis would seem to harmonise well with all the known conditions. In the first place is to be considered the very narrow area occupied by the Semites, both absolutely and relatively to the domains of the other fundamental ethnical groups. While the Mongols are found in possession of the greater part of Asia, and the Hamites with the Mediterraneans are diffused over the whole of north Africa, south and west Europe since the Stone Ages, the Semites, excluding later expansions — Himyarites to Abyssinia, Phoenicians to the shores of the Mediterranean, Moslem Arabs to Africa, Irania, and Transoxiana — have always been confined to the south-west corner of Asia, comprising very little more than the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia, Syria, and (doubtfully) parts of Asia Minor. From this may be drawn two important inferences — first that, as suggested, the early Hamito- Semitic migrations were not from east to west, but from the larger African to the singularly contracted Asiatic area, and secondly that these migrations were comparatively late, not earlier at all events than the Neolithic period. At that time Asia was already well peopled, so that the proto-Semites could extend their range only as conquerors, and as such the Assyrians seem to make their appearance amongst the Akkado-Sumerians of Mesopotamia, advancing, not from the north (the Kurdistan uplands), but from the south (Persian Gulf), as is now generally believed by the best authorities1. 1 Seep. 275. 492 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. It is the same with the Phoenicians, who, according to Phoenician Theodore Bent and others, had their first seats in Cradle and the Persian Gulf, whence they passed in quite late Migrations. times to the Mediterranean, at first as traders and seafarers (Byblos, Tyre, Sidon), then as colonists and founders of empires (Leptis Magna, Carthage, Gades). In the earliest references to the Syrian coast, a cylinder of Sargon I. (3800 B.C.), and another of his son Dungi from Cyprus, no allusion is made to the Phoenicians, who had probably at that time not yet reached the Mediterranean. Herodotus learnt from the priests of Baal Melkart, the great god of Tyre, that this place was founded about 2700 B.C., while Old Tyre on the mainland was much more ancient. Yet Tyre was still but an obscure fishing town, while Byblos, their oldest settlement, Sidon, and Beryta (Beyrout) were flourishing seaports, referred to in a papyrus of about 1320 B.C. Amongst the places captured by Thutmes III. (1600 B.C.) are mentioned both Beryta and Akko (Acre). Altogether Phoenician origins in their new seats on the Syrian seaboard cannot be carried back beyond about 3000 B.C. How long they may have dwelt in their first homes on the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf can only be conjectured from the immense extent of the burial grounds explored by Bent in the Bahrein Islands. Obviously these remains date back into Neolithic times, and make it probable that the eastern Phoenicians had taken a chief part in the active trade carried on by the Sumerian city of Eridhu with Sinai, possibly even with the far East, 4000 or 5000 years before the new era. Was the "Phoenician Alphabet" amongst the treasures intro- duced into Greece by these early distributors of Alphabet? eastern wares? Before Mr Evans's discovery of a pre-Phcenician syllabary in Crete, the story of Cadmus was accepted in its integrity, and must still be regarded as substantially true. It is possible that this syllabary of linear symbols, as has been suggested, may have been picked up by the Phoenician traders in the Archipelago, simplified by them in Tyre or Sidon, and then reintroduced into Hellas in the perfect form which it has since retained. But the suggestion, made apparently in order to transfer the credit of this stupendous invention from XIII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 493 the Semites to the "Aryans," is not necessary, and cannot be proved. The syllabary stands apart, as an independent or separate development, while the eastern origin of the "Alphabet" is for ever attested by the forms, the order, and very names of the letters, the Greek alpha, beta, gamma, delta, etc. being the Semitic aleph, ox ; beth, house ; gimel, camel ; dakth, door, names them- selves suggestive of the ultimate pictorial or hieroglyphic origin of the system1. Early forms or prototypes of these letters have been sought, with but partial success, amongst the Egyptian hieroglyphs, the Babylonian cuneiforms, and the rock-inscriptions of the Minaeans and Sabaeans in South Arabia. These rock-inscriptions, great numbers of which have been recovered in recent years by Halevy, Glaser and others, show that in very remote times South Arabia, presumable cradle of the Semitic race, " was a land of culture and literature, a seat of powerful kingdoms and wealthy commerce, which cannot fail to have exercised an influence upon the general history of the world2." Everything points to Sab a (Sabcea), i.e. Yemen, as the Sheba of Scripture, which, in the time of Solomon, had extensive trading relations with Tyre, probably also with India and the east coast of Africa from Abyssinia to Sofala beyond the Zambesi. That the gold brought by the Tyrians and the Queen of Sheba came through Sofala from the neighbouring mines worked by the Sabaean Semites has been all but proved by the investigations of Bent amid the ruins of Zimbabwe and other parts of Manica and Matabililand. Sabaea is shown by Assyrian inscriptions to have been a powerful state in the 8th century B.C., when it was conterminous northwards with the Ninevite empire under Tigleth-Pileser and Sargon III. Like the Egypt of Menes, it was formed by the fusion of several Himyarite principalities ruled by the so-called Makarib, " Blessed," or high-priest of Saba, who gave his name to the land, as Ashiir did to that of the kindred Assyrian Semites of Nineveh. 1 Cadmus also, despite the great authority of Aug. Fick (Die Griechischen Personennamen, 2nd ed. 1894), is a Phoenician name occurring in the form of Qadmu, with the sense of godlike, on a cuneiform tablet quoted by Sayce in Acad. Sept. 22, 1894, p. 217. - Sayce, quoted by S. Laing, to whom I am indebted for some of these data Human Origins, passim}. 494 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. But Saba itself was preceded by the much older empire of in, i.e. of the Minceans, whose very name had almost died out till rescued from oblivion by the recently discovered inscriptions1. These have already yielded a long list of 33 Minaean kings, whose sway extended over the whole of Arabia as far as Syria and Egypt, as shown by the references to Gaza and to Teima (the Tema of Scripture) on the route between Sinai and Damascus. Other inscriptions copied by Seetzen in 1810, and all grouped together as Himyaritic2, proved to be in an old Semitic tongue, and in a script which is often disposed in vertical lines, and is the parent of the system introduced in remote times into Abyssinia, where it is still current. These Himyaritic documents are now found to comprise two distinct groups, an early Minaean with fuller and more archaic Semitic forms, and a later Sabsean, though even this language is more primitive than that of the oldest Assyrian and Hebrew records. Now the later Sabaean empire goes back with certainty to the time of Solomon, so that the 33 kings, of the preceding Minaean dynasty, Sayce argues, may point to a past probably coeval with that of the earliest Egyptian and Akkadian records. When we remember that the Phoenicians looked to the Persian Gulf as their cradle, that they must have been settled in the Bahrein islands for long ages before their migration to the Mediterranean, and that Cannes, from whom the Akkado-Sumerians received the germs of their culture, had also traditionally come up from the sea, further research may yet show that South Arabia was the source whence the Chaldaeans derived their first knowledge of the arts and letters. In any case this region may well have been the first home of the Semites, for " in Arabia alone we find Semites, and Semites only, from the very beginning, 1 See Fritz Rommel's Siid-Arabische Chrestomathie, Munich, 1893. 2 From Himyar, land of the Homcrites, i.e. the "Red People," a term at one time applied to the South Arabian populations, and extended from them to the neighbouring Erythrean ("Red") Sea. It is interesting to note that the Egyptian artists also depicted the Retu men in red, but the women in yellow, in contradistinction to the black Ethiopians ; while the Pun, i.e. the people of Punt ("Red Land") on both sides of the Strait of Bab-el- Mandeb, are now believed to be the ancestors of the Puni, or Phoenicians. XIII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 495 and the peculiar language and character of the race must have been first developed in the growing civilization which preceded the ancient Minrean Empire, probably as the later Stone Age was passing into that of metal1." It should be mentioned that the Minaean script, often described as a modified form of Phoenician, reveals on the contrary a writing system more primitive than the oldest extant Phoenician letters. It is on this ground that Sayce asks whether the Phoenician itself may not be derived from the Minaean (rather than from the Egyptian hieroglyphs) as often assumed but never proved, or from the Cretan syllabary, as above suggested. The Minaean language is by far the most primitive member of the Semitic family, and Sayce shows that its characters afford a better explanation of the names of the Phoenician letters than do the hieroglyphs. Thus aleph, "ox," presents in Minasan the outlines of an ox's head, but bears no resemblance to any of the Egyptian symbols used for a2. Should this view be confirmed, Semitic origins must be set still further back to give time for the slow evolution of the Minasan script from the assumed pictorial prototypes to the already highly conventionalised forms of the oldest known inscriptions. It is noteworthy that the Amorites, unless they are to be identified with the Hittites, have always played a very subordinate part amongst the Semitic peoples. A^ites. Their territory was properly that part of Syria which lay north of what was afterwards Palestine, although the name was extended by the Babylonians to the whole of Canaan. At a very early date the Amorites had also, though apparently only as peaceful settlers, reached Babylonia, where they had a colony at Sippara, and were able to hold high offices in the state (Pinches). After the Hebrews had migrated from this region ("Ur of Chaldaea") to Canaan (South Syria), the two peoples were often at war, but were sometimes also allies, engaged in international courtesies and "covenants," as in i Kings xx. 34, where we read that the kings of Israel and Syria severally " made streets " for their subjects in 1 Human Origins, p. 94. 2 Later, rejecting Mr Evans's suggested Cretan theory, Sayce declares his present belief to be "that the Phoenician alphabet came from Arabia" (Academy, Aug. 29, 1896, p. 149). 496 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Damascus and Samaria. From Babylonia those early Amorites appear to have wandered up the Tigris to Kurdistan Chaidaeans anc^ *he Lake Urmia district, where they are now represented by a few groups of Christians commonly but wrongly called " Nestorians," being simply eastern Christians with a national rite1. They call themselves Kaldani (Chaidaeans) and still speak, besides Arabic, a Syro-Chaldaean (Aramaic) dialect written in a modified form of the Syriac (Estranghelo) script2. Strange to say some of these Kaldani are still in the tribal state3, unless we suppose that this is a case of reversion under the influence of the surrounding Kurdish tribes. In Syria the whole population has become Arabised in speech, while the majority (Maronites of the Lebanon and Syrians. others) have long been Christians of the Syrian rite. They possess a copious religious literature, adorned by the names of St Ephrem and John of Damascus, and enriched by a valuable version of Scripture (the Peshitto "correct")4 and some patristic writings still consulted by commentators. All these writings are in the Aramaic, a distinct branch of the Semitic family, which appears to hold a position somewhat intermediate between the Assyrian of the cuneiform documents and Phoenician. After the dispersion of the ten tribes and the Babylonian captivity a slightly modified form of Syriac, often called " Syro-Chaldaic," became the current speech of Palestine, where Hebrew, Phoenician, and the other closely related Canaanitish dialects have been extinct as vernaculars for quite 2000 years. 1 Max von Thielmann, Journey in the Caucasus etc., 1875, vol. 2, p. 72. 2 M. Rubens, Les Dialectes Neo-Arameens de Satamasetc., Paris, 1884; and Ignazio Guidi in Zeitschr. d. Morgen. Ges. xxxvi. p. 293 sq. 3 Such are the Kojamis about the source of the Tigris (1000 families), the Tiaris in the Salamas district (10,000) and the Tokdbis of the Upper Tigris (300). 4 This version is not to be confused with the very old text of the Penta- teuch in a Hebrew-Aramaic dialect, written in the original Hebrew character, which is jealously preserved at Nablus (Sichem) by a small "Samaritan" com- munity now dying out. They are an interesting link between present times and Palestine before the Captivity, living under a Sheikh, Jakub Shalaibi, whose subjects were reduced a few years ago to 133. XIII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 497 Other ethnical groups, such as the Druzes^ on the Lebanon and now also in the Hauran district, and the , c Ansarieh. Ansaneh of the mountain range named from them, still linger on, either as survivals of the old pagan and Christian times, or as Moslem sectaries with secret rites and observances surrounded by much mystery. Theodore Bent J connects the Ansarieh, whom he visited in the Tarsus district, with the Ali-Ullah-hi of north Persia, and thinks their occult religion is practised by many other scattered groups in Asia Minor. Their reputed founder, Barba Nasere, made the Godhead of Ali the basis of the system, and they also admit a Trinity — the Ain- Min-Sin. or Ali the Father, Muhammad the Son, and Salman el- Farsi the Holy Ghost — which, with the use of wine in their secret feasts, would seem to show that this cult is a graft of the Shiah Moslem sect on some early form of Christianity. The Ansarieh prayers are described as " very beautiful and impressive, and there are many curious points analogous to freemasonry in connection with the initiation of a new member2." With the Hebrew or Israelitish inhabitants of south Syria (Canaan, Palestine, "Land of Promise") we are here concerned only in so far as they form a distinct branch of the Semitic family. The term 'Jews3,' properly indicating the children L iiC I CvVS, of Judah, fourth son of Jacob, has long been applied generally to the whole people, who since the disappearance of the ten northern tribes have been mainly represented by the tribe of Judah, a remnant of Benjamin and a few Levites, i.e. the section of the nation which to the number of some 50,000 returned to south Palestine (kingdom of Judaea) after the Babylonian captivity. These were doubtless later joined by some of the dispersed northern tribes, who from Jacob's alternative name were commonly called the "ten tribes of Israel." But all such Israelites had lost their separate nationality, and were consequently absorbed in the royal tribe of Judah. Since the suppression of the various revolts 1 your. Anthrop. Inst. June, 1890, p. 225. - Ibid. 3 From Old French Jit is, Lat. Jud i.e. Sons of Jehudah (Judah). See my article, Jews, in CasselPs Storehouse of General Information, 1893, from which I take many of the following particulars. K. 32 49$ MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. under the Empire, the Judasi themselves have been a dispersed nationality, and even before those events numerous settlements had been made in different parts of the Greek and Roman worlds, as far west as Tripolitana, and also in Arabia and Abyssinia. But most of the present communities probably descend from those of the great dispersion after the fall of Jerusalem (70 A.D.), increased by considerable accessions of converted " Gentiles," for the assumption that they have made few or no converts is no longer tenable. In exile they have been far more a religious body than a broken nation, and as such they could not fail under favourable conditions to spread their teachings, not only amongst their Christian slaves, but also amongst peoples, such as the Abyssinian Falashas, of lower culture than themselves. In pre- Muhammadan times many Arabs of Yemen and other districts had conformed, and some of their Jewish kings (Asad Abu-Karib, Dhu Nowas, and others) are still remembered. About the yth century all the Khazars — a renowned Turki people of the Volga, the Crimea, and the Caspian — accepted Judaism, though they later conformed to Russian orthodoxy. The Visigoth persecution of the Spanish Jews (5th and 6th centuries) was largely due to their proselytising zeal, against which, as well as against Jewish and Christian mixed marriages, numerous papal decrees were issued in medieval times. To this process of miscegenation is attributed the great variety of physical features observed amongst the Jews of Diverse , l J Physical different countries, while the distinctly red type cropping out almost everywhere has been traced by Sayce and others to primordial interminglings with the Amorites (" Red People "). Dr Dalby declares that there are all kinds of Jews — brown, white, dark ; Jews with black and with blue eyes ; tall, short ; concluding that there is, therefore, no longer any question of a Jewish race at all1. Nevertheless certain marked 1 Felix von Luschan also finds that " of our modern Jews nearly 50% are brachy, 1 1 have fair complexion, and not more than 5 correspond to what we have learned to be the real old Semitic type" (Science, Jan. 12, 1894, p. 21). He thinks that the majority of living Jews have the short-headed Armenian or Hittite type, because "they are the descendants of an Armenoid population that had only accepted Semitic writing and language in about 1000 B.C." (ib.) XIII.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 499 characteristics — large hooked nose, prominent watery eyes, thick pendulous and almost everted under lip, rough frizzly lustreless hair — are sufficiently general to be regarded as racial traits. The race is richly endowed with the most varied qualities, as shown by the whole tenour of their history. Originally pure nomads, they became excellent agriculturists after the settlement in Canaan, and since then they have given proof of the highest capacity for science, letters, erudition of all kinds, finance, music, and diplomacy. The reputation of the medieval Arabs as restorers of learning is largely due to their wise tolerance of the enlightened Jewish communities in their midst, and on the other hand Spain and Portugal have never recovered from the national loss sustained by the expulsion of the Jews in the i4th and i5th centuries. In late years the persecutions, especially in Russia, have caused a fresh exodus from the east of Europe, and by the aid of philan- thropic capitalists flourishing agricultural settlements have been founded in Palestine and Argentina. From statistics taken in various places since 1880 the Jewish communities are at present estimated at about 6,500,000, of whom 5,500,000 are in Europe, 420,000 in Africa, 250,000 in Asia, the rest in America and Australia. Intimately associated with all these Aramaic and Canaanitic Semites were a mysterious people who have been . , . r , . . ,-_ . , - ~ The Hittites. identified with the H n fifes of Scripture, and to whom this name has been extended by common consent. They are also identified with the Kheta of the Egyptian monu- ments', as well as with the Khatti of the Assyrian cuneiform texts. Indeed all these are, without any clear proof, assumed to be the same people, and to them are ascribed a considerable number of stones, cylinders, and gems from time to time picked up at various points between the Middle Euphrates and the Mediter- ranean, engraved in a kind of hieroglyphic or rather pictorial 1 First mentioned in Gen. xxv. 9: "Zohar the Hittite." 2 This identification is based en "the casts of Hittite profiles made by Petrie from the Egyptian monuments. The profiles are peculiar, unlike those of any other people represented by the Egyptian artists, but they are identical with the profiles which occur among the Hittite hieroglyphs" (A. H. Sayce, Acad. Sept. 1894, p. 259). 32 2 5 EXXdSa Tracrav iireiroXaae (Strabo, V. 220). This might almost be translated, "they flooded the whole of Greece." 2 Acadetuy, July 13, 1895, p. 32; and elsewhere. 3 Od. xix. 4 Time. I. 3. 506 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. traced to Egypt, to Rhodes, Cyprus, Epirus — where Dodona was their ancient shrine — -and lastly to various parts of Italy. Moreover, the Pelasgians were traditionally the civilising element, who taught people to make bread, to yoke Culture" tne ox to tne pl°ugn> and to measure land. It would appear from these and other allusions that there were memories of still earlier aborigines, amongst whom the Pelasgians appear as a cultured people, introducing perhaps the arts and industries of the pre-Mykenasan Age. But the assumption, based on no known data, is unnecessary, and it seems more reasonable to look on this culture as locally developed, to some extent under eastern (Egyptian, Babylonian, Hittite?) influences1. Here it is important to note that the Pelasgians were credited with a knowledge of letters2, and all this may perhaps be taken as sufficient confirmation of our second postulate. At least if a writing system be regarded as the highest achievement of civilised man, there need no longer be any hesitation in ascribing all the other arts and industries of the "y£gean school" to our Pelasgians. That the Hellenes were at first, and probably long after their advent in Greece, an illiterate people, might almost be inferred from the solitary reference in Homer to writing of any kind3, the more so since the writer is a Pelasgian king of Argos. The reference thus shows that the Pelasgians were at that time a cultured people, who corresponded with each other on both sides of the .Egean, apparently in a script now revealed by the researches This idea of an independent evolution of western (European) culture is steadily gaining ground, and is strenuously advocated, amongst others, by M. Salomon Reinach, who has made a vigorous attack on what he calls the "oriental mirage," i.e. the delusion which sees nothing but Asiatic or Egyptian influences everywhere. Sergi of course goes further, regarding the Mediter- ranean (Iberian, Ligurian, Pelasgian) cultures not only as local growths, but as independent both of Asiatics and of the rude Aryan hordes, who came rather as destroyers than civilisers. This is one of the fundamental ideas pervading the whole of his Arii c Italici, and some earlier writings. 1 Pausanias, ill. 20, 5. 3 The famous ffrj/^ara \vypd "fatal signs" of //. VI. 168, called at 1. 178 • • name survives in Poitou, and its chief town Poitiers. The classical references show that in Roman times the Pictones were of Gaulish speech, but there is good reason to believe that their original language was Iberian, which, as above seen, was radically connected with the Berber (Hamitic) of North Africa. They may therefore be taken as Aryanised Mediterraneans, and the question will then arise, Were they Aryanised before or after the migration to Britain? If before, then the emigrants of Iberian speech must have been Aryanised in their new insular homes at an early date. It is remarkable that by the Irish the Picts were commonly called Cmithne, which answers etymologically to Pry dain ( Ynys Prydairi) a Welsh name for the " Island of Britain1." They were therefore, apparently, not distinguished by the Irish from the Kymry and other Britons, which could scarcely be the case had they, within the memory of man, spoken an Iberian or any other non-British tongue. Thus may, perhaps, be explained the faint (if any) traces of Iberian speech in Britain, where the Picts were, at least at first, more closely connected with the Kymry than with the Scots, that is, the Gaels from Ireland 2. Their association with these Scots, Lat. mar go, Goth, marka, Eng. mark, as in Denmark and Marcomanni, the "Men of the Marches," i.e. the southern Germans dwelling about the Kelto- Slav borderlands. The general equation is due to J. Kaspar Zeuss, whose great work, Grammaiica Celtica, 1853, introduced order into Keltic philology and ethnology. 1 This troublesome name, originally Brettdna, is connected by Rhys with Welsh brethyn, "cloth," so that Brettdni=\hz "cloth-clad," and is to be distinguished from Prydyn, the native name both for the Picts and for Scotland. 2 That the Scots were Gaels might perhaps be questioned ; but that they came over from the north of Ireland in comparatively recent times is beyond all doubt. In the very old, if not quite authentic, Confcssio of St Patrick occurs the expression "una benedicta Scota," and Ireland itself was called Scotia, later Scotia Major, to distinguish it from Scotia Minor, i.e. North Britain, to which the name was extended after the Scots had reduced the Picts. 526 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. first as allies against the Romans, and then as rivals for the supremacy in North Britain, came later, and explains the presence of Gaelic names in the Pictish Chronicle. This document, on which so much has been built, is of Gaelic origin, and, as many of the Pictish kings had Gaelic blood in their veins, it is not surprising to find in the Pictish lists those Gaelic names on which are based the views of Mr Skene and others regarding the Gaelic origin or affinities of the Picts. In my opinion the Picts were Iberians Aryanised either in Gaul or in Britain, not by Gaelic but by Kymric Kelts, and this seems to be borne out by the local geographical nomenclature, where the voicing of/ to ^, and other phonetic changes, may perhaps be due to Iberian influences. Thus of aber and the equivalent inver, a confluence, river-mouth, or estuary, the former alone occurs in Wales, the latter alone in Ireland1, but both somewhat irregularly and even confusedly in Scotland2, showing the presence and intermingling here of the two elements, as might be expected. But in Spain we have aber alone (Iberus, Ebro\ and no inver ^ from which, if the equation be allowed, it may be inferred that the Picts did not reach Ireland at all, and were Aryanised by the British if the assimilation took place after the migration from Gaul, and consequently that the Keltic language spoken by them was not Gaelic, but Kymric some- what modified phonetically in North Britain. This view accords completely with the anthropological and archaeological data supplied by such authorities as Drs Beddoe and Thurnam and Sir John Evans, and a-lso with the present ethnical relations in the British Isles, as set forth by Prof. Ripley3. Of these relations the most striking feature is the apparently inexplicable uniformity in the shape of the head, which is every- where rather long, more oval than round, with a Ethnic Re- lations in mean cephalic index of about 78°, but nowhere falling below 76° or rising above 79°. This is the more remarkable since Britain has been successively occupied by 1 Isaac Taylor, Names and their Histories, 1896, p. 37. • C. Elackie, A Dictionary of Place-Names^ 1887, p. 112, where it is pointed out that inver is "found sometimes at the mouth and aber farther up the same stream. Thus: Abergeldie and Invergeldie, Abernyte and Invernyte." 3 Popular Science Monthly, Dec. 1897, p. 145 sq. XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 527 a great number of peoples — primitive man in the Old Stone Age ; Picts, and perhaps others associated with the dolmens and other Megalithic monuments, in the New Stone Age; tribes of Keltic speech, commonly called Kelts, in the Bronze period, possibly as early as 2000 B.C. ; Belgas or proto-Teutons somewhat later ; Romans and their legionaries of diverse origins about the new era ; early and later Frisians, Saxons, Angles and others of Teu- tonic speech, say between 300 and 500 A.D. ; Scandinavians, chiefly Danes and Norwegians, of kindred speech, 8th to loth century ; Normans, mainly Norsemen Romanised in speech, nth century, with sporadic arrivals from the mainland down to the present time. But the first two strata, i.e. the men of the Stone Ages, were both lon«;-headed, the first exclusively so, the second in . ' . Long-heads great majority, our Picts being now identified with and Round - the Iberians who, as shown by Sergi, were a branch of the long-headed Mediterraneans from Africa. The identity indeed is placed beyond reasonable doubt by the fact that these Neolithic Picts belonged all to the so-called long-barrow period, and that these long barrows, egg-shaped and often several hundred feet in length, have yielded the remains of a singularly uniform type, extremely dolicho (nearly all well under 80° and even as low as 70°), and at the same time of rather low stature (5 ft. 5 in.), thus corresponding exactly with Sergi's Mediterraneans1. The barrows, occurring chiefly in the south-west (Wilts, Gloucestershire, the Cotswold Hills, and farther north), are shown to be of the Neo- lithic Age by their contents — polished stone implements, pottery, but no bronze. It is further shown by Dr Garson that the men of this period were spread over the whole of Britain as far as the extreme north of Scotland and the Orkneys2. They were succeeded in the Bronze Age by men of quite a 1 See especially his Ur sprung u. Verbreitung des Mittelldndischen Stammes, 1897, p. 76: "Ich hahe die Formen aus den britischen Hiigeln [long barrows] mil alten imd neuen mittellandischen verglichen, und habe die charakteris- tischen Formen Spaniens und Portugals gefunden, wie sie bei Mugem und in den Hohlen Italiens, Griechenlands, zu Hissarlik und in Ostafrika ausgegraben worden sind." - Nature, Nov. 15 and 22, 1894; see also Boyd Dawkins, Early Man in Britain, 1880, Chap. IX. "Historical Evidence of Iberic and Celtic Races in Spain and Gaul," Fig. 112, p. 318. 528 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. different type, tall (5 ft. 8 in.) and round-headed (83°), who also built round barrows, whence Thurnam's dictum: "long-barrow, long skull ; round-barrow, round skull." Later research has mainly confirmed this ethnic law, although it is not to be sup- posed that the Neolithic race had died out or been extirpated by their successors. Some are, on the contrary, found buried with them in the same barrows, and Dr Garson shows that the Neolithic element survives to this day in the British Isles1. In fact it would appear to have already largely absorbed the Bronze element before it was reinforced later by the historical long-heads : " This broad-headed invasion is the only case where such an ethnic element ever crossed the English Channel in numbers sufficient to affect the physical type of the aborigines. Even here its influence was but transitory ; the energy of the invasion speedily dissipated : for at the opening of the historic period, judged by the sepulchral remains, the earlier [dolichoj types had consider- ably absorbed the new-comers'2." Whence came these tall round-heads ? Some with Dr Rolleston3 would bring them from Scandinavia, where there is certainly a somewhat puzzling brachy element both along the south-west coast of Norway and in Denmark. But in that case they must have spoken some early Low German dialect, of which there are no clear traces in the tribal and place names of the Bronze Age. At that time Britain seems to have belonged entirely to the domain of Keltic speech4, nor could there be any hesitation in identifying 1 Nature, Nov. 15 and 22, 1894. ; Ripley, p. 153. :! T. V. Holmes describes them as "taller, stronger and much rougher in appearance, with large frontal sinuses and supra-orbital ridges, prominent cheek- bones and heavy jaws" (Notes on the Evidence bearing on British Ethnology, 1886), and he quotes Rolleston (British Barrows, p. 680) : "The Briton of the round-barrow period almost certainly presented much the same combination of physical peculiarities as the modern Finn and Dane"; hence the inference that the Bronze people were men from what is now Denmark, but "of Finnish and not Teutonic affinities" (p. 5). But we now know that there were no Finns west of the Gulf of Finland till quite late times (see Chap. IX. p. 334). Still the question is beset with difficulties, and the British round-heads seem undoubtedly to resemble those of the Danish Neolithic Age more than they do de Lapouge's H. Alpimis, and much more than those of the Disentis type. 4 Even the intruding Belgae, referred to by Caesar (B.C. v. 12), and no doubt originally of Teutonic speech, seem to have soon been Kelticised. XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 529 our round-heads with Broca's Kelts but for their stature. The simplest explanation seems to be that the Bronze people were really of Keltic speech, but came from the north of Gaul, where the average height has always been somewhat higher than in the south. After the passage of the Romans, who mingled little with the aborigines and left few traces of their presence in Formation of the speech or type of the British populations, a the English rr Nation. great transformation was effected in these respects by the arrival of the historical Teutonic tribes. The Ibero-Keltic substratum was perhaps nowhere effaced, but rather thinned out by the prolonged wars of conquest and all their attendant evils. Large numbers undoubtedly migrated beyond the seas, Kymry to Brittany, and to Ireland those Gaels who had still lingered on in Britain. The residue were now gradually merged with the in- truders in a common nationality of English speech, everywhere except in the Keltic fringe, which then, and long after, still in- cluded Cornwall and Cumberland. The Teutonic element was later strengthened by the arrival of the Scandinavians and Normans, all very much of the same physical type, after which no serious accessions were made to this composite ethnical group, which on the east side ranged uninterruptedly from the Channel to the Grampians. Later the expansion was continued northwards beyond the Grampians, and westwards through Strathclyde to Ireland, while now the spread of education and the development of the industries are already threatening to absorb the last strong- holds of Kymric and Gaelic speech in Wales, the Highlands, and Ireland. Thanks to its isolation in the extreme west, Ireland had been left untouched by some of the above described J Ethnic Re- ethnical movements. It is doubtful whether Palaso- lations in .... .. . .. Ireland. litnic man ever reached this region, and but few even of the round-heads ranged so far west during the Bronze Age. The prehistoric station explored by Mr F. J. Bigger at Portnafeady near Roundstone, Connemara, yielded several stone hammers, but neither worked flints nor metal-ware1, as if the 1 Proc. R. Ir. Acad. in. May 1896. K. 34 530 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. district had never been visited either in the Old Stone or the Bronze age. Nevertheless Mr W. J. Knowles1 suggests from the close resemblance — in fact identity — of a great number of Neolithic objects in Ireland with Palaeolithic forms in France (Saint- Acheul, Moustrier, Solutre, La Madeleine types), that the Irish objects bridge over the gap between the two ages, and were worked by tribes from the continent following the migration of the reindeer northwards. These peoples may have continued to make tools of palaeolithic types, while at the same time coming under the in- fluence of the Neolithic culture gradually arriving from some southern region. The astonishing development of this Neolithic culture in the remote island on the confines of the west, as illus- trated in Mr W. C. Borlase's sumptuous volumes2, is a perpetual wonder, and indeed would be inexplicable but for the now proved immense duration of the New Stone Age in the British Isles3. The Irish dolmen-builders were presumably of the same long- headed Iberian stock as those of Britain4, and they were followed by Kelts of the Gaelic branch, many of whom, however, may well have arrived before the close of the Neolithic Age. Of the Kymry there appear to be but slight if any traces, and since those prehistoric times the intruders have been almost exclusively Continental and British Teutons ; the former were chiefly Danes who formed settlements at such seaports as Dublin, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick, but were eventually all absorbed by the vigorous Gaelic aborigines5. And now all alike have in their turn 1 Survivals from the Paleolithic Age among Irish Neolithic Implements, 1897. '2 The Dolmens of Ireland, 3 vols., 1897. 3 See pp. 10- 1 1. 4 They need not, however, have come from Britain, and the allusions in Irish literature to direct immigration from Spain, probable enough in itself, are too numerous to be disregarded. Thus, Geoffrey of Monmouth :— " Hibernia Basclensibus [to the Basques] incolenda datur " (Hist. Reg. Brit. ill. § 12) ; and Giraldus Cambrensis: — -"De Gurguntio Brytonum Rege, qui Rasclenses [read Basclenses] in Hiberniam transmisit et eandem ipsis habitandara concessit. " I am indebted to Mr Wentworth Webster for these references (Academy, Oct. 19, 1895). 5 Not, however, always without a struggle, as in Dublin, where even after their acceptance of Christianity the Danes refused to worship at the same altars XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 531 been nearly absorbed by the British Teutons, that is to say, assimilated in speech to the English and Lowland Scotch in- truders, who began to arrive late in the i2th century, and are now chiefly massed in Ulster, Leinster, and all the large towns. The rich and highly poetic Irish language, which has a copious medieval literature deeply interesting to folklorists and even ethnologists, has not I believe been used for strictly literary pur poses since the translations of Homer and of Moore's Melodies by the late Archbishop McHale of Tuam. In Scotland few ethnical changes or displacements have occurred since the two great political settlements. first by the Scottish vanquishing of the Picts, and Sc^nd.nS '" then by the English (Angle) occupation of the Lothians. The Grampians have during historic times formed the main ethnical divide between the two elements, and brooklets which can be taken at a leap are shown where the opposite banks have for hundreds of years been respectively held by formerly hostile, but now friendly communities of Gaelic and broad Scotch speech. Here the chief intruders have been Norwegians, whose descendants may still be recognised in Caithness, the Hebrides, and the Orkney and Shetland groups. Faint echoes of the old Norrena tongue are said still to linger amongst the sturdy Shet- landers, whose assimilation to the dominant race began only after their transfer from Norway to the Crown of Scotland. We have now all the elements needed to unravel the ethnical tangle of the present inhabitants of the British Isles. The astonishing prevalence everywhere of the mode- stitution of rately dolicho heads is at once explained by the absence of brachy immigrants except in the Bronze period, and these could do no more than raise the cephalic index from about 70 or 72 to the present mean of about 78. With the other perhaps less stable characters the case is not always quite as the Irish. On appeal to Rome they received a bishop of their own race and also a Cathedral, whence the curious fact that to this day Dublin is almost the only city in Christendom blessed with two medieval Cathedrals, St Patrick's originally for the Irish and Christchurch for the Danes. These having both been "confiscated" at the Reformation, a third has had to be erected for the community that remained loyal to the old faith. 34—2 532 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. so simple. The brunettes, representing both Iberians and Kelts, certainly increase, as we should expect from north-east to south- west, though even here there is a considerable dark patch, due to local causes, in the home shires about London. But the stature, almost everywhere a troublesome factor, seems to wander some- what lawlessly over the land. The little people under 5 ft. 6 in. are perhaps more numerous than they ought to be ; nor are they always in evidence where we should look for them. In Ireland especially the positions are reversed, the tall being all in the west (Connaught and Munster), the less tall in the north and east (Ulster and Leinster), though the difference is but slight. For details on this and some other points, which become rather technical, I must refer the reader to Ripley, and especially to the Reports of the Anthropometric Committees appointed to deal with these matters systematically by the British Association in 1875. Strange to say, the element that appears to have undergone the least change is the racial temperament. The Kelt is still a Kelt, mercurial, passionate, vehement, impulsive, more courteous than sincere, voluble or eloquent, fanciful, if not imaginative, quick-witted and brilliant rather than profound, elated with success but easily depressed, hence lacking steadfastness, and still as of old novarum reruni cupidissimus. The Saxon also still remains a Saxon, stolid and solid, outwardly abrupt but warm-hearted and true, haughty and even overbearing through an innate sense of superiority, yet at heart sympathetic and always just, hence a ruler of men ; seemingly dull or slow, yet preeminent in the realms of philosophy and imagination (Newton, Shakespeare). While the Saxon prefers duty to glory, both are largely gifted with some of those qualities which make for empire — pluck1, or personal valour as distinguished from courage in the mass, the spirit of daring enterprise and a love of adventure for its own sake. Jointly they have struggled to the front, and secured for our people some 12 million square miles of habitable lands beyond 1 This quality is no monopoly of the Saxon, as has been contended. The Kelts, and especially the Irish and Scotch Gaels, possess it in large measure, as shown by the incidents recorded of Clontarf, Aughrim, Limerick, Cremona, Fontenoy, and by such names as Sarsfield, Dundonald, Kavanagh, O'Higgins, and a hundred others. XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 533 the seas. Here they already number, including other elements in process of assimilation to the dominant race, about 80 millions- 70 in the United States, 5 in the Canadian Dominion, and 5 in Australasia and South Africa. These with 40 millions in the home lands make collectively some 120 millions, enough perhaps to ensure the future control of human destinies to a composite people who may now be denned with some approach to accuracy as Ibero-Kelto-Teutons of Teuton (English) speech. This English tongue need not detain us long. Its qualities, illus- trated in the noblest of all literatures, are patent to i^ng^gf^Sh the world, indeed have earned for it from Jacob Grimm the title of Welt-Sprache, the "World Speech." It belongs, as might be anticipated from the northern origin of the Teutonic element in Britain, to the Low German division of the Teutonic branch of the Aryan family. Despite extreme pressure from Norman French, continued for over 200 years (1066 — 1300), it has remained faithful to this connection in its inner structure, which reveals not a trace of Neo-Latin influences. The phonetic system has undergone profound changes, which can be only in- directly and to a small extent due to French action. What English owes to French and Latin is a very large number, many thousands, of words, some superadded to, some superseding their Saxon equivalents, but altogether immensely increasing its wealth of expression, while giving it a transitional position between the somewhat sharply contrasted Germanic and Romance worlds. Amongst the Romance peoples, that is, the French, Spaniards, Portuguese, Italians, Rumanians, many Swiss and Belgians, who were entirely assimilated in speech NatkmF and largely in their civil institutions to their Roman masters, the paramount position, a sort of international hegemony, has been taken by the French nation since the decadence of Spain under the feeble successors of Philip II. The constituent elements of these Gallo-Romans, as they may be called, are much the same as those of the British peoples, but differ in their distribution and relative proportions. Thus the Iberians (Aquitani, Pictones, and later Vascones), who may be identified with the Neolithic long- heads, do not appear ever to have ranged much farther north than Brittany, and were Aryanised in pre- Roman times by the P-speaking 534 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Kelts everywhere north of the Garonne. The prehistoric Teutons again, who had advanced beyond the Rhine at an early period (Csesar says antiquitus) into the present Belgium, were mainly con- fined to the northern provinces. Even the historic Teutons (chiefly Franks and Burgundians) penetrated little beyond the Seine in the north and the present Burgundy in the east, while the Vandals, Visigoths and a few others passed rapidly through to Iberia beyond the Pyrenees. Thus the greater part of the land, say from the Seine-Marne basin to the Mediterranean, continued to be held by the Romanised Kelts of the Alpine type throughout all the central and most of the southern provinces, and elsewhere in the south by the Romanised long-headed Iberians and Ligurians. This great pre- ponderance of the Romanised Keltic masses explains the rapid absorption of the Teutonic intruders, who were all, except the Fleming section of the Belgas, completely assimilated to the Gallo- Romans before the close of the loth century. It also explains the perhaps still more remarkable fact that the Norsemen who settled (912) under Rollo in Normandy were all practically French- men when a few generations later they followed their Duke William to the conquest of Saxon England. Thus the only intractable groups have proved to be the un-Romanised Iberians (Basques) and Kelts (Bretons), both of whom to this day hold their ground in isolated corners of the country. With these exceptions the whole of France since the loss of Alsace-Lorraine (1871) presents in its speech a certain homogeneous character, the standard language (langue d'oil1} being current throughout all the northern and central provinces, while it is steadily gaining upon the southern form (langue d'oc1} still surviving in the rural districts of Limousin and Provence. 1 That is, the languages whose affirmatives were the Latin pronouns hoc illitd (oil] and hoc (oc), the former being more contracted, the latter more expanded, as we see in the very names of the respective Northern and Southern bards : Troitveres and Troubadours. It was customary in medieval times to name lan- guages in this way, Dante, for instance, calling Italian la lingua del si, "the language of yes" ; and, strange to say, the same usage prevails largely amongst the Australian aborigines, who, however, use both the affirmative and the negative particles, so that we have here no- as well asjjw-tribes. XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 535 But pending a more thorough fusion of such tenacious elements as Basques, Bretons, Auvergnats, and Savoyards, we can scarcely yet speak of a common French type, Traits.**1 but only of a common nationality. Tall stature, long skulls, fair or light brown colour, grey or blue eyes, still pre- vail, as might be expected, in the north, these being traits common alike to the prehistoric Belgae, the Franks of the Merovingian and Carlovingian empires, and Rollo's Norsemen. With these contrast the southern peoples of short stature, olive-brown skin, round heads, dark brown or black eyes and hair. The tendency towards uniformity has proceeded far more rapidly in the urban than in the rural districts. Hence the citizens of Paris, Lyons, Bordeaux, Marseilles and other large towns, present fewer and less striking contrasts than the natives of the old historical provinces, where are still distinguished the loquacious and mendacious Gascon, the pliant and versatile Basque, the slow and wary Norman, the dreamy and fanatical Breton, the quick and enter- prising Burgundian, and the bright, intelligent, more even-tempered native of Touraine, a typical Frenchman occupying the heart of the land, and holding, as it were, the balance between all the surrounding elements. Taken as a whole the modern Frenchman stands somewhat intermediate between the southern and northern peoples, less steadfast than the Teuton, more energetic than the Italian, less personally independent than the Briton. The moral sentiment is also defective, as seen in the love of show and glory, which is certainly stronger than the sense of duty. On the other hand, the artistic feeling is highly developed, while the purely intellectual qualities are far above the average, as reflected in the scientific and literary work of the nation, and in the cultivated language, which within certain limits is almost an ideally perfect instrument of human thought, although still suffering from the enfeebling effects of the drawing-room and academical refinements of Bourbon times. The French excel also in conversational powers, and in all matters pertaining to taste, etiquette, tact, and the social amenities, where brilliancy and esprit find freer scope than the more solid qualities of the reasoning faculty. It is note- worthy that France has produced few leaders of thought except MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Descartes and Pascal (and even he was wrecked on the shoals of religious polemics), whereas epigrammatists, essayists, writers of memoirs and correspondence, chemists, and pure mathematicians abound. With more outward polish French culture as a whole penetrates perhaps less deeply through the social strata than does the refinement of the English cultured classes. At the same time the substantial qualities of patience, economy, and love of labour cannot be denied to the French peasantry, who thus act as a counterpoise to the extravagance and frivolity of urban life. By hoarding their small savings, and by domestic thrift verging on the sordid, they have made France one of the richest countries in the world, better able than most others to survive tremendous catastrophes and rise buoyantly above apparently overwhelming disasters. Thanks to these qualities, combined with a pronounced military spirit and love of conquest, the French people have played a leading part in the world's history since remote times, and have become an almost necessary element in the general progress of humanity. Yet the future would seem to be for others, and although the present alarming arrest of the population and other symptoms of decadence may not be due to the absorption of the upper in the lower strata alluded to above, the effects must be far-reaching, and France would appear to have already been outstripped in the race for the future political predominance amongst the cultured peoples of the globe1. In Spain and Portugal we have again the same Ibero-Keltic Th elements, but also again in different proportions and Spaniards and differently distributed, with others superadded- proto-Phoenicians and later Phoenicians (Cartha- genians), Romans, Visigoths, Vandals, and still later Berbers and Arabs. Here the Keltic- speaking round-heads intermingled in prehistoric times with the long-headed Mediterraneans, an ethnical fusion known to the ancients, who labelled it " Keltiberian." But, as in Britain, the other intruders were mostly long-heads, with the striking result that the Peninsula presents to-day exactly the same uniform cranial type as the British Isles. Even the range (76 to 79) and the mean (78) of the cephalic index are the same, 1 See my article on the Ethnology of France in Cassell's Storehouse, iv. p. 359- XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 537 rising in Spain to 80 only in the Basque corner. In both regions the general rise from the original 70 or 72 is due to the same Keltic and Roman intrusion, acting on the Ibero-Teutons in Britain, and on the Hamito-Semitic aborigines crossed by Teutons in Spain, where it is to be noticed that while the round-headed Romans play a very small part in the insular domain, they are extensively represented in the Peninsula, the reverse being the case with the Teutons. An equilibrium and surface uniformity are thus established, and Ripley is right in stating that "the average cephalic index of 78 occurs nowhere else so uniformly distributed in Europe" except in Norway, and that this uniformity "is the concomitant and index of two relatively pure, albeit widely different, ethnic types — Mediterranean in Spain, Teutonic in Norway1." In other respects the social, one might almost say the national, groups are both more numerous and perhaps even more sharply discriminated in the Peninsula than Groups*1 in France. Besides the Basques and Portuguese, the latter with a considerable strain of negro blood8, we have such very distinct populations as the haughty and punctilious Castilians, who under an outward show of pride and honour, are capable of much meanness ; the sprightly and vainglorious An- dalusians, who have been called the Gascons of Spain, yet of graceful address and seductive manners ; the morose and im- passive Murcians, indolent because fatalists ; the gay Valencians given to much dancing and revelry, but also to sudden fits of murderous rage, holding life so cheap that they will hire them- selves out as assassins, and cut their bread with the blood-stained knife of their last victim ; the dull and superstitious Aragonese, also given to bloodshed, and so obdurate that they are said to " drive 1 Science Progress, p. 159. ! "The Portuguese are much mixed with Negroes more particularly in the south and along the coast. The slave trade existed long before the Negroes of Guinea were exported to the plantations of America. Damiao de Goes estimated the number of blacks imported into Lisbon alone during the i6th century at 10,000 or 12,000 per annum. If contemporary eye-witnesses can be trusted, the number of blacks met with in the streets of Lisbon equalled that of the whites. Not a house but had its negro servants, and the wealthy owned entire gangs of them" (Reclus, I. p. 471). 53$ MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. nails in with their heads" ; lastly the Catalans, noisy and quarrel- some, but brave, industrious, and enterprising, on the whole the best element in this motley aggregate of unbalanced temperaments. To the cold-blooded northerner the Spaniards often seem scarcely sane, and about as trustworthy as caged wild beasts, a people who had empire thrust upon them, but never understood the nature of the trust. Stripped of nearly all foreign dominion (1898) and thrown back upon themselves, they must either turn to the useful business of life and devote their energies to the development of their resourceful country, or else sever the ties by which the various ethnical groups are held loosely together. In Italy the past and present relations, as elucidated especially Ethnic Re ^v Levi and Sergi, may be thus briefly stated, lations in After the first Stone Age, of which there are fewer indications than might be expected, the whole land was thickly settled by long-headed Mediterranean Ligurians from Africa in Neolithic times. These were later joined by Pelasgians of like type from Greece, and by Illyrians of doubtful affinity from the Balkan Peninsula. Indeed K. Penka1, who has so many paradoxical theories, makes the Illyrians the first inhabitants of Italy, as shown by the striking resemblance of the terramara culture of ^Emilia with that of the Venetian and Laibach pile- dwellings. The recent finds in Bosnia also, besides the historically proved (?) migration of the Siculi from Upper Italy to Sicily, and their Illyrian origin, all point in the same direction. But the facts 1 Zitr Paldoethnologie I\Iittel- it. Sudeuropas in Mitt. Wiener Anthrop. Ges. 1897, p. 18. It should here be noted that in his History of the Greek Langitagc (1896) Dr Kretschmer connects the inscriptions of the Veneti in north Italy and of the Messapians in the south with the Illyrian linguistic family, which he regards as Aryan intermediate between the Greek and the Italic branches, the present Albanian being a surviving member of it. In the same Illyrian family Mr W. M. Lindsay would also include the "Old Sabellian" of Picenum, "believed to be the oldest inscriptions on Italian soil. The manifest identity of the name Aodatos and the word meititnon with the Illyrian names Avddra and Meitiina is almost sufficient of itself to prove these inscriptions to be Illyrian. Further the whole character of their language, with its Greek and its Italic features, corresponds with what we know and what we can safely infer about the Illyrian family of languages" (Academy, Oct. 24, 1896). A vista is here opened up which is likely to lead to good results. XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 539 are differently interpreted by Sergi1, who holds that the whole land was occupied by the Mediterraneans, because we find even in Switzerland pile-dwellers of the same type". Then came the peoples of Aryan speech, Kelts from the north- west and Slavs from the north-east, both round-heads, who raised the cephalic index in the north, where the brachy element, as already seen, still greatly predominates but diminishes steadily southwards3. They occupied the whole of Umbria, which at first stretched across the peninsula from the Adriatic to the Mediter- ranean, but was later encroached upon by the intruding Etruscans on the west side. Then also some of these Umbrians, migrating southwards to Latium beyond the Tiber, intermingled, says Sergi, with the Italic (Ligurian) aborigines, and became the founders of the Roman state. With the spread of the Roman arms the Latin language, which Sergi claims to be a kind of Aryanised Ligurian, but must be regarded as a true member of the Aryan family in the sense already explained (p. 513), was diffused throughout the whole of the peninsula and islands, sweeping away all traces not only of the original Ligurian and other Mediterranean tongues, but also of Etruscan and its own sister languages, such as Umbrian, Oscan, and Sabellian. At the fall of the empire the land was overrun by Ostrogoths, Heruli, and other Teutons, none of whom formed permanent settlements except the Longobards, who gave their name to the present Lombardy, but were themselves rapidly assimilated in speech and general culture to the surrounding populations, whom we may now call Italians in the modern sense of the term. When it is remembered that the yEgean culture had spread to Italy at an early date, that it was continued under Hellenic influences by Etruscans and Umbrians, Ethics.3 that Greek arts and letters were planted on Italian soil (Magna Gratia) before the foundation of Rome, that all these 1 Arii e It a lid, p. I58sq. - "Liguri e Pelasgi furono i primi abitatori d'ltalia; e Liguri sembra siano stati quelli che occupavano la Yalle del Po e costrussero le palaritte, e Liguri forse anche i costruttori delle palafitte svizzere: Mediterranei tutti" (Ib. p. 138). 3 Ripley's chart shows a range of from 87 in Piedmont to 76 and 77 in Calabria, Puglia, and Sardinia, and 75 and under in Corsica (77/6' Races of Eiiropc, 1899). 540 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. civilisations converged in Rome itself and were thence diffused throughout the West, that the traditions of previous cultural epochs never died out, acquired new life with the Renascence and were thus perpetuated to the present day, it may be claimed for the gifted Italian people that they have been for a longer period than any others under the unbroken sway of general humanising influences. The results, owing to the racial temperament, have not been entirely satisfactory, nor has complete harmony ever been established between the ethical sense, the feeling of Art, and the religious sentiment. The discordance culminated in the Renascence Age, when the great revival of Art and of letters left a degraded form of religion untouched and, as would seem, brought about, or at least was associated with, a distinct lowering of public morals. Hence pessimism, which has been called the mental disease of our times, has sounded perhaps a deeper note amongst the leaders of thought in Italy than elsewhere. These "Latin Peoples," as they are called because they all speak languages of the Latin stock, are not confined *ipt_ Rumanians. to tne West- To the Italian, French, Spanish,. Portuguese, with the less known and ruder Wallon of Belgium and Romansch of Switzerland, Tyrol, and Friuli, must be associated the Rumanian current amongst some 9 millions of so-called " Daco-Rumanians " in Moldavia and Wallachia, i.e. the modern kingdom of Rumania. The same Neo-Latin tongue is also spoken by the Tsintsars or Kutzo-Vlacks1 of the Mount Pindus districts in the Balkan Peninsula, and by numerous Rumanians who have in later times migrated into Hungary. They form a compact and vigorous nationality, who claim direct descent from the Roman military colonists settled north of the Lower Danube by Trajan after his conquest of the Dacians (107 A.D.). But great difficulties attach to this theory, which is rejected by many ethnologists, especially on the ground that, after Trajan's time, Dacia was repeatedly swept clean by the 1 The true name of these southern or Macedo-Rumanians, as pointed out by Gustav Weigland (Globus, LXXI. p. 54), is Aranuini or Armani, i.e. " Romans." Tsintsar, Kutzo- Vlack, etc. are mere nicknames, by which they are known to their Macedonian (Bulgar and Greek) neighbours. See also W. R. Morfill in Academy, July i, 1893. XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 541 Huns, the Finns, the Avars, Magyars and other rude Mongolo Turki hordes, besides many almost ruder Slavic peoples during the many centuries when the eastern populations were in a state of continual flux after the withdrawal of the Roman legionaries from the Lower Danube. Besides, it is shown by Roesler1 and others that under Aurelian (257 A.D.) Trajan's colonists withdrew bodily southwards to and beyond the Hemus to the territory of the old Bessi (Thracians), i.e. the district still occupied by the Macedo-Rumanians. But in the i3th century, during the break-up of the Byzantine empire, most of these fugitives were again driven north to their former seats beyond the Danube, where they have ever since held their ground, and constituted themselves a distinct and far from feeble branch of the Neo-Latin community. The Pindus, therefore, rather than the Carpathians, is to be taken as the last area of dispersion of these valiant and intelligent descendants of the Daco-Romans. This seems the most rational solution of what A. D. Xenopol calls "an historic enigma," although he himself rejects Roesler's conclusions in favour of the old view so dear to the national vanity of the present Rumanian people-. The composite character of the Rumanian language — fundamentally Neo-Latin or rather early Italian, with strong Illyrian (Albanian) and Slav affinities — would almost imply that Dacia had never been Romanised under the empire, and that in fact this region was for the first time occupied by its present Romance speaking inhabitants in the i3th century3. Sergi, who regards the proto-Aryans as round-headed bar- barians of Keltic, Slav, and Teutonic speech, makes Ethnic Re_ no exception in favour of the Hellenes. These also lations in .... , Greece. enter Greece not as civihsers, but rather as destroyers of the flourishing Mykenaean culture developed here, as in Italy, 1 Romanischc Studien, Leipzig, 1871. - Les Roumains ait May en Age, passim. Hunfalvy, quoted by A. J. Patter- son (Academy, Sept. 7, 1895) also shows that "for a thousand years there is no authentic mention of a Latin or Romance speaking population north of the Danube." 3 This view is held by Dr L. Re'thy, also quoted by Patterson, and the term Vlack ( Welsch, whence Wallachia) applied to the Rumanians by all their Slav and Greek neighbours points in the same direction. 542 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. by the Mediterranean aborigines. But in course of time the in- truders become absorbed in the Pelasgic or eastern branch of the Mediterraneans, and what we call Hellenism is really Pelasgianism revived, and to some extent modified by the Aryan (Hellenic) element. Thus, even the Greek language itself, generally accepted as a typical member of the Aryan linguistic family, is not strictly speaking an Aryan, but rather a Mediterranean form of speech locally developed under Aryan influences. I have tried hard to understand this part of Prof. Sergi's theory and hope I do not wrong him. But to me he seems to completely lop off two great branches of the Aryan linguistic tree, the Italic and the Hellenic, as if they had never existed, and to reconstitute the corresponding old Mediterranean tongues in Italy and Greece by means of Aryan elements drawn he does not say from what source ; but in his view it must be either Keltic, Slavic, or Teutonic, for in his scheme there are no others1. I do not read the facts in this way, but would rather reverse the process, and regard the Greek language as distinctly Aryan locally developed, but modified by Pelasgic influences to a far less extent than the sister tongue has been modified in Italy by Ligurian influences. Hence it is that Latin, Umbrian, and Oscan have diverged much farther than has classical Greek from the parent Aryan stem. It may, on the other hand, be allowed that at their advent the Hellenes were less civilised than the Pelasgians, on *"PV» ^ Hellenes. whom they imposed their Aryan speech. Whence and when came they? By Penka-, for whom the Baltic lands would be the original home not merely of the Germanic branch but of all the Aryans, the Hellenic cradle is located in the Oder basin between the Elbe and the Vistula. As the Doric, doubtless the last Greek irruption into Hellas, 1 He says, for instance, "dass die wahren Ur-Arier von drei Hauptvolkern, von Kelten, Slaven und Siiddeutschen dargestellt \verden ; und dass es unter den Ariernkein italisches und kein hellenisches Volk gab, wie von Archseologen und Linguisten angenommen wird...Die beiden grossen klassischen Kulturen, die lateinische und die griechische, sind eine spatere Erscheinung, durch das Hinzu- treten des mittellandischen Elementes hervorgebracht " (L/rsprung, p. 160). 2 Mitt. Wiener Anthrop. Ges. 1897, p. 18. XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 543 is chronologically fixed at 1149 B.C.; the beginning of the Hellenic migrations may be dated back to the i3th century. When the Hellenes migrated from Central Europe to Greece, the period of the general ethnic dispersion was already closed, and the migratory period which next followed began with the Hellenes, and was continued by the Itali, Gauls, Germans, etc. The difficulties created by this view are insurmountable. Thus we should have to suppose that from this relatively contracted Aryan cradle countless tribes swarmed over Europe since the i3th century B.C., speaking profoundly different languages (Greek, Keltic, Latin, etc.), all differentiated since that time on the shores of the Baltic. The proto-Aryans with their already specialised tongues had reached the shores of the Mediterranean long before that time, and according to Maspero1, were known to the Egyptians of the 5th dynasty (3990 — 3804 B.C.) if not earlier. Allowing that these may have rather been pre-Hellenes (Pelasgians), we still know that the Achseans had traditionally arrived about 1250 B.C. and they were already speaking the language of Homer. As far as can be judged from their respective languages, a most valuable criterion in questions of origins, the proto-Hellenes were in closer contact with the proto-Iranians before the dispersion than with the European Aryans. Hence they probably reached the Balkan peninsula and Greece, not from North or Central Europe, but from the Iranian uplands through Asia Minor, where Hommel finds blond and blue-eyed Aryans referred to in the Tell el- Amarna tablets. Indeed I think we may safely say that no Acheeans, or any other proto-Hellenes, could have come from the Baltic lands. The farther back the migration is dated, the nearer will their speech approximate to the Aryan mother tongue, and consequently be the farther removed from the Teutonic, which nevertheless according to Mullenhoff was already highly specialised about 1000 B.C. Hence the Greek of that period must have differed profoundly from the Germanic. And even if we go further back to the migration period (i3th century B.C. as is assumed), then the difference will still be great, the two branches having all along 1 Dawn of Civilization, p. 391. 544 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. followed different and extremely divergent lines of evolution1. Yet both are brought at or about the same time from the same area, the district west of the Vistula, which is impossible. The difficulty is intensified when we throw in the Keltic and Italic groups, also assumed to have been specialised in the same region and about the same time. There is, to be anTa^6 Factor. SLire' tne Lithuanian factor, of which so much has been made, and which certainly cannot be over- looked. But the archaic character of this language, which still survives in two forms (Lithuanian proper and Lettic) in the Wilna and neighbouring districts, is distinctly of a proto-Slavic type, and has no particular bearing on the question at issue. It can prove nothing except that, owing to local conditions, a very early form of Slavonic speech has persisted in the region where one might almost expect to find it. I cannot see that it throws much light on Aryan and still less on Hellenic origins, but is rather connected with Slav migrations, of which presently. It is evident from the national traditions that the proto-Greeks did not arrive en bloc, but rather at intervals in separate and often hostile bands bearing different names. But all these groups— Achaeans, Danai, Argians, Dolopes, Myrmidons, Leleges and many others, some of which were also found in Asia Minor, but not in the Baltic lands — retained a strong sense of their common origin. The sentiment, which may be called racial rather than national, received ultimate expression when to all of them was extended the collective name of Hellenes (Sellenes originally), that is, descendants of Deucalion's son Hellen, whose two sons zEolus and Dorus, and grandson Ion, were supposed to be the progenitors of the ^Eolians, Dorians, and lonians. But such traditions are merely reminiscences of times when the tribal 1 For instance, the two phonetic systems differed toto ccelo, and while proto- Teutonic had a well-developed scale of sound-shifting peculiar to itself, Hellenic leaned on the contrary towards the Keltic P and Q with T superadded, as we see in such variants as reacrapes, iriffvpts; TTUJS, KUS, etc., where all the initials (r, TT, K) represent an organic q. But the shift in Greek was very irregular and undeveloped, all the changes occurring even within the same dialect, as if not so much by normal internal evolution, as by outward influences — contact, for instance, with proto- Gaels and proto-Kymry in Asia Minor or the Balkan peninsula (see above). XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 545 groupings still prevailed, and it may be taken for granted that the three main branches of the Hellenic stock did not spring from a particular family that rose to power in comparatively recent times in the Thessalian district of Phthiotis. Whatever truth may lie behind the Hellenic legend, it is highly probable that, at the time when Hellen is said to have flourished (about 1500 B.C.), the ^Eolic-speaking communities of Thessaly, Arcadia, Boeotia, the closely-allied Dorians of Phocaea, Argos, and Laconia, and the lonians of Attica, had already been clearly specialised, had in fact formed special groups before entering Greece. Later their dialects, after acquiring a certain polish Lan^ua^e^ and leaving some imperishable records of the many-sided Greek genius, were gradually merged in the literary Neo-Ionic or Attic, which thus became the Koivq SiaAeKTos, or current speech of the Greek world. Admirable alike for its manifold aptitudes and surprising vitality, the language of Aeschylus, Thucydides, and the other great Athenians outlived all the vicissitudes of the Byzantine empire, during which it was for a time banished from southern Greece, and even still survives, although in a somewhat degraded form, in the Romaic or Neo-Hellenic tongue of modern Hellas. Romaic, a name which recalls a time when the Byzantines were known as " Romans " throughout the East, differs far less from the classical standard than do any of the Romance tongues from Latin. Since the restoration of Greek independence great efforts have been made to revive the old language in all its purity, and some modern writers now compose in a style differing little from that of the classic period. Yet the Hellenic race itself has almost perished on the main- land. Traces of the old Greek type have been detected by Lenormant and others, especially amongst the women of Patras and Missolonghi. But within living memory Attica was still an Albanian land, and Fallmerayer has conclusively shown that the Peloponnesus and adjacent districts had become thoroughly Slavonised during the 6th and yth centuries1. "For many cen- turies," writes the careful Roesler, "the Greek peninsula served 1 Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea, Stuttgart 1830. See also G. Finlay's Mediaeval Greece, and the Anthrop. Rev. 1868, VI. p. 154. K. 35 546 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. as a colonial domain for the Slavs, receiving the overflow of their population from the Sarmatian lowlands1." Their presence is betrayed in numerous geographical terms, such as Varsova in Arcadia, Glogova, Tsilikhova etc. Nevertheless, since the revival of the Hellenic sentiment there has been a steady flow of Greek immigration from the Archipelago and Anatolia; and the Alba- nian, Slav, Italian, Turkish, Rumanian, and Norman elements have in modern Greece already become almost completely Hel- lenised, at least in speech. Of the old dialects Doric alone appears to have survived in the Tsaconic of the Laconian hills. The Greek language has, however, disappeared from Southern Italy, Sicily, Syria, and the greater part of Egypt and Asia Minor, where it was long dominant. To understand the appearance of SLAVS in the Peloponnesus we must go back to the Eurasian steppe, the pro- The Slavs. . bable cradle of these multitudinous populations. Here they are generally identified with the ancient Sarmatse, who already before the dawn of history were in possession of the South Russian plains between the Scythians towards the east and the proto-Germanic tribes before their migration to the Baltic lands. But even at that time, before the close of the Neolithic Age, there must have been interminglings, if not with the western Teutons, almost certainly with the eastern Scythians, which helps to explain the generally vague character of the references made by classical writers both to the Sarmatians and the Scythians, who sometimes seem to be indistinguishable from savage Mongol hordes, and at others are represented as semi-cultured peoples, such as the Aryans of the Bronze period might have been round about the district of Olbia and the other early Miletian settlements on the northern shores of the Euxine. Owing to these early crossings Andre Lefevre goes so far as to say that "there is no Slav race2," but only nations of divers more or less pure types, more or less crossed, speaking dialects of the same language, who later received the name of Slavs, borne by a prehistoric tribe of Sarmatians, and meaning "renowned," 1 Romdnische Studien. 2 Bui. Soc. d'Anthrop. 1896, p. 351 sq. XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 547 "illustrious1." Both their language and mythologies, continues M. Lefevre, point to the vast region near Irania as the primeval home of the Slav, as of the Keltic and Germanic populations. The Sauromatas or Sarmatae of Herodotus2, who had given their name to the mass of Slav or Slavonised peoples, still dwelt north of the Caucasus and south of the Budini between the Caspian, the Don and Sea of Azov: "after crossing the Tanais (Don) we are no longer in Scythia; we begin to enter the lands of the Sauromatae, who, starting from the angle of matiansa the Palus Mceotis (Sea of Azov), occupy a space of 15 days' march, where are neither trees, fruit-trees, nor savages. Above the tract fallen to them the Budini occupy another district, which is overgrown with all kinds of trees3." Then Herodotus seems to identify these Sarmatians with the Scythians, whence all the subsequent doubts and confusion. Both spoke the same language, of which seven distinct dialects are mentioned, yet a number of personal names preserved by the Greeks have a certain Iranic look, so that these Scythian tongues seem to have been really Aryan, forming a transition between the Asiatic and the European branches of the family. It could scarcely be other- wise, for the Scythians, that is, the still generalised Teuto-Slav stock, had about IOOD years (probably we should now say 3000 or 4000) before the invasion of Darius been driven by the Massagetae from the Oxus basin, where some place the home of Aryan culture4. They claimed to be the youngest of nations, says 1 Cf. Sanskrit fravas, Gr. /cAe'os (root kin, cm). By a sort of grim irony the word has come to mean "slave" in the West, owing to the multi- tudes of Slavs captured and enslaved during the medieval border warfare. But the term is by many referred to the root slovo, word, speech, implying a people of intelligible utterance, and this is supported by the form Slovene occurring in Nestor and still borne by a southern Slav group. 2 IV. 21. 3 These Budini are described as a large nation with "remarkably blue eyes and red hair," on which account Zaborowski thinks they may have been ancestors of the present Finns. But they may also very well have been belated proto-Germani left behind by the body of the nation en route for their new Baltic homes. 4 See especially R. von Ihring, The Evolution of the Aryan, 1897, on this point. 35—2 548 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Herodotus, and remembered their exodus, their wanderings round the Caspian, and down the great river valleys to the Euxine. Both Slav and Germanic tribes had probably in remote times penetrated up the Danube and the Volga, while some of the former under the name of Wends (Venedi, Heneti, Eneti) appear to have reached the Adriatic and the present Venetia on the one hand, and on the other the Baltic shores down the Vistula, thus enveloping and pressing westward their Keltic and Germanic forerunners. The movement was continued far into medieval times, when great overlappings took place, and when numerous Slav tribes, some still known as Wends, others as Sorbs, Croats, or Chekhs, ranged over central Europe to Pomerania and beyond the Upper Elbe to Suabia. Most of these have long been Teu- tonised, but a few of the Polabs1 survive as Wends in Prussian and Saxon Lausatz, while the Chekhs and Slovaks still hold their ground in Bohemia and Moravia, as the Poles do in Posen and the Vistula valley, and the Rusniaks or Ruthenes with the closely allied "Little Russians," in the Carpathians, Galicia, and Ukrania. It was from the Carpathian2 lands that came those Yugo- Slavs ("Southern Slavs") who, under the collective The Southern name of Sorbs (Serbs, Servians), moved southwards Slavs. beyond the Danube, and overran a great part of the Balkan peninsula and nearly the whole of Greece in the 6th and yth centuries. They were the Khorvats2 or Khrobats2 from the upland valleys of the Oder and Vistula, whom, after his Persian wars, Heraclius invited to settle in the wasted provinces south of the Danube, hoping, as Nadir Shah did later with the Kurds in Khorasan, to make them a northern bulwark of the empire against the incursions of the Avars and other Mongolo-Turki hordes. Thus was formed the first permanent settlement of the Yugo- slavs in Croatia, Istria, Dalmatia, Bosnia, and the Narenta valley 1 That is, the Elbe Slaves, from/ scopt as in cr/roTreXo?, scopulus, cliff, crag). Thus the very nomenclature shows Italo-Hellenic and even Keltic (alb] relations. 2 There are about twenty of these phis or phar (phratries) amongst the Ghegs, and the practice of exogamous marriage still survives amongst the Mir- dites south of the Drin, who, although Catholics, seek their wives amongst the surrounding hostile Turkish and Muhammadan Gheg populations. 550 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. Catholics of the Latin rite. From this section came chiefly those Albanians who, after the death (1467) of their valiant champion, George Castriota (Scanderbeg, ''Alexander the Great"), fled from Turkish oppression and formed numerous settlements, especially in Calabria and Sicily, and still retain their national tradi- tions. In their original homes, located by some between the Bug and the Dnieper, the Slavs have not only recovered R^ from the fierce Mongolo-Turki and Finn tornadoes, by which the eastern steppes were repeatedly swept for over 1500 years after the building of the Great Wall, but have in recent historic times displayed a prodigious power of expansion second only to that of the British peoples. The Russians (Great, Little, and White Russians), whose political empire now stretches continuously from the Baltic to the Pacific, have already absorbed nearly all the Mongol elements in East Europe, have founded compact settlements in Caucasia and West Siberia, and have thrown off numerous pioneer groups of colonists along all the highways of trade and migration, and down the great fluvial arteries between the Ob and the Amur estuary. They number collectively over 100 millions, and as their domain of some 9 million square miles is more compact than that of the English peoples, while they are themselves apparently more aggressive, some thoughtful observers have feared lest an exploded "Yellow Scare " may be followed by a very real Panslav terror. The " terror " may come, but will subside, because, for political and economic reasons which cannot here be discussed, it will be found raised on a baseless fabric. Nor need we be detained by the controversy now in progress between Sergi and Zaborowski regarding a pre- historic spread of the Mediterranean race to Russia1. The skulls from several of the old Kurgans, identified by Sergi with his Mediterranean type, have not been sufficiently determined as to date or cultural periods to decide the question, while their dolicho shape is common both to the Mediterraneans and to the proto-Aryans of the North 1 Bui. Soc. d'Anthrop. VH. 1896. XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 551 European type1. To this stock the proto-Slavs are affiliated by Zaborowski and many others2, although the present Slavs are all distinctly round-headed. Ripley asks, almost in despair, what is to be done with the present Slav element, and decides to apply " the term Homo Alpinus to this broad-headed group wherever it occurs, whether on mountains or plains, in the west or in the east3.' We are beset by the same difficulties as we pass with the Ossets of the Caucasus into the Iranian and Indian The Ossets. domains of the proto-Aryan peoples. These Ossets, who are the only aborigines of Aryan speech in Caucasia, are by Zaborowski4 identified with the Alans, who are already mentioned in the ist century A.D. and were Scythians of Iranian speech, blonds, mixed with Medes, and perhaps descendants of the Massa- getae. We know from history that the Goths and Alans became closely united, and it may be from the Goths that the Osset descendants of the Alans (some still call themselves Alans) learned to brew beer. Elsewhere3 Zaborowski represents the Ossets as of European origin, till lately for the most part blonds, though now showing many Scythian traits. But they are not physically Iranians " despite the Iranian and Asiatic origin of their language," as shown by Max Kowalewsky6. On the whole, therefore, the Ossets may be taken as originally blond Europeans, closely blended with Scythians, and later with the other modern Caucasus peoples, who are mostly brown brachys. But Ernest Chantre7 allies these groups to their brown and brachy Tatar 1 Hence Virchow (Meeting Ger. Anthrop. Soc. 1897) declared that the extent and duration of the Slav encroachments in German territory could not be determined by the old skulls, because it is impossible to say whether a given skull is Slav or not. 2 Especially Lubor Niederle, for whom the proto-Slavs are unquestionably long-headed blonds like the Teutons, although he admits that round skulls occur even of old date, and practically gives up the attempt to account for the transition to the modern Slav. Have we here a physiological phenomenon on a very large scale, such as that indicated by Prof. Macalister? 3 The Racial Geography of Europe, in Popular Science Monthly, June, 1897. 4 Bui. Soc. (f Anthrop. 1896, p. 81 sq. 5 Bui. Soc. d' Anthrop. 1894, p. 36. 6 Droit Coutumier Ossethien, 1893. 7 Quoted by Ujfalvy, Les Aryens etc. p. n. 552 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. neighbours, and denies that the Ossets are the last remnants of Germanic immigrants into Caucasia. We have therefore in the Caucasus a very curious and puzzling phenomenon — several somewhat distinct groups of Aborigines^ aborigines, mainly of de Lapouge's Alpine type, but all except the Ossets speaking an amazing number of non-Aryan stock-languages. Philologists have been for some time hard at work in this linguistic wilderness, the " Mountain of Languages " of the early Arabo-Persian writers, without greatly reducing the number of independent groups, while many idioms traceable to a single stem still differ so profoundly from each other that they are practically so many stocks. Of the really distinct families the more important are : — the Kartwcli of the southern slopes, comprising the historical Georgian, cultivated since the 5th century, the Mingrelian, Imeritian, Laz of Lazistan, and many others ; the Cherkess (Circassian), the Abkhazian and Kabard of the Western and Central Caucasus ; the Cheche?iz and Lesghian, the Andi, the Ude^ the Kubachi and Duodez of Daghestan, i.e. the Eastern Caucasus. Where did this babel of tongues come from? We know that 2500 years ago the relations were much the same as at present, because the Greeks speak of scores of languages current in the port of Dioscurias in their time. If therefore the aborigines are the "sweepings of the plains," they must have been swept up long before the historic period. Did they bring their different languages with them, or were these specialised in their new upland homes? The con- sideration that an open environment makes for uniformity, secluded upland valleys for diversity, seems greatly to favour the latter assumption, which is further strengthened by the now established fact that, although there are few traces of the Palaeo- lithic epoch, the Caucasus was somewhat thickly inhabited in the New Stone Age. These highlanders need not therefore be regarded as sweepings, but rather as true aborigines, the direct descendants of the round-headed race of Alpine Caucasic type, who had spread from North Africa in Neolithic times into Europe and Western Asia. Bearing in mind the immensely long duration of the New Stone Age. we see at once that this would give ample time for the development of these non-Aryan agglutinating forms XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 553 of speech in a region so favourable to such specialisation as the Caucasus'. Crossing into Irania we are at once confronted with totally different conditions. For the ethnologist this region TVi o comprises, besides the tableland between the Tigris iranians and Indus, both slopes of the Hindu-Kush, and the Pamir, with the uplands bounded south and north by the upper courses of the Oxus and the Sir-darya. Overlooking later Mongolo-Turki encroachments, a general survey will, I think, show that from the earliest times the whole of this region has formed part of the Caucasic domain ; that the bulk of the indi- genous populations must have belonged to the dark, round-headed Alpine type ; that these, still found in compact masses in many places, were apparently conquered, but certainly Aryanised in speech, in very remote prehistoric times by long-headed blond Aryans of the IRANIC and GALCHIC branches, who arrived in large numbers from the contiguous Eurasian steppe, mingled generally with the brachy aborigines, but also kept aloof in several districts, where they still survive with more or less modified proto-Aryan features. Thus we are at once struck by the remarkable fact that absolute uniformity of speech, always apart from late Mongol intrusions, has prevailed during the historic period throughout Irania, which has been in this respect as completely Aryanised as Europe itself ; and further, that all current Aryan tongues, with perhaps one trifling exception2, are members either of the Iranic 1 It should perhaps be stated that R. von Erckert (Die Sprachen des Kau- kasischen Stammes, Vienna, 1895) claims to have reduced all the non- Aryan tongues of the Caucasus to one stock with 3 main divisions : Georgian ; Cher- kess with Abkhasian; and Lesghian with Chechenz. "Es ergiebt sich eine einheitliche Ursprung aller dtesen Sprachen." But this does not help us much, because the divergences are so great as to leave the primordial unity little more than a hypothesis, possible in itself, but no longer capable of philo- logical proof. Nobody can be convinced by the author's processes. 2 The Yagnobi of the river of like name, an affluent of the Zerafshan ; yet even this shows lexical affinities with Iranic, while its structure seems to connect it with Leitner's Kajuna and Biddulph's Burish, a non-Aryan tongue current in Ghilghit, Vasin, Hunza and Nagar, whose inhabitants are regarded by Biddulph as descendants of the Yue-chi. The Yagnobi themselves, however, are dis- tinctly Alpines, somewhat short, very hirsute and brown, with broad face, large head, and a Savoyard expression. They have the curious custom of never 554 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. or the Galchic branch of the family. Both Iranic and Galchic are thus rather linguistic than ethnic terms, and so true is this that a philologist always knows what is meant by an Iranic language, while the anthropologist is unable to define or form any clear conception of an Iranian, who may be either a long-headed Aryan or a round-headed Alpine. Here confusion may be avoided by reserving the historic name of PERSIAN for the former, and com- prising all the Alpines under the also time-honoured though less known name of TAJIKS. Khanikoff has shown that these Tajiks constitute the primitive element in ancient Iran. To the true Persians of the west, as well as to the kindred Afghans in the east, both of dolicho type, the term is rarely applied. But almost everywhere the sedentary and agricultural aborigines are called Tajiks, and are spoken of as Parsivdn, that is, Parsi- zabdn1, "of Persian speech," or else Dihkdn*, that is, "Peasants," all being mainly husbandmen " of Persian race and tongue3." They form endless tribal, or at least social, groups, who keep somewhat aloof from their proto-Aryan conquerors, so that, in the east especially, the ethnic fusion is far from complete, the various sections of the community being still rather juxtaposed than fused in a single nationality. When to these primeval differences is added the tribal system still surviving in full vigour amongst the intruding Afghans themselves, we see Afghans. ..... . - . r , how impossible it is yet to speak of an Afghan nation, but only of heterogeneous masses loosely held together by the paramount tribe — at present the Durani of Kabul. The Tajiks are first mentioned by Herodotus, whose Dadikes* are identified by Hammer and Khanikoff with them5. They are cutting but always breaking their bread, the use of the knife being sure to raise the price of flour. 1 Zabdn, tongue, language. 2 Di/i, deh, village. 3 H. Walter, From Indus to Tigris, p. 16. Of course this traveller refers only to the Tajiks of the plateau (Persia, Afghanistan). Of the Galchic Tajiks he knew nothing; nor indeed is the distinction even yet quite understood by European ethnologists. 4 in. 91. 5 Even Ptolemy's Tracrtxat appear to be the same people, TT being an error PLATE XI. i. PERSIAN OF SHIRAZ. (Iranian Type.) 2. BALUCHI. (Lowland Tajik Type.) 3. KLING WOMAN. (Dravidian Type.) 4. IGORROTE, LUZON I. (Indonesian Type.) To face page 554] XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 555 now commonly divided into Lowland, and Highland or Hill Tajiks, of whom the former were always Parsivan, whereas the Hill Tajiks did not originally speak Persian at all, but, as many still do, an independent sister language called Galchic, current in the Pamir, Zerafshan and Sir-darya uplands, and holding a somewhat inter- mediate position between the Iranic and Indie branches. This term Galcha, although new to science, has long been applied to the Aryans of the Pamir valleys, being , * J TheGalchas. identified with the Calcienses populi of the lay Jesuit Benedict Goez, who crossed the Pamir in 1603, and describes them as " of light hair and beard like the Belgians." Meyendorff also calls those of Zerafshan " Eastern Persians, Galchi, Galenas." The word has been explained to mean "the hungry raven who has withdrawn to the mountains," probably in reference to those Lowland Tajiks who took refuge in the uplands from the pre- datory Turki hordes. But it is no doubt the Persian galcha, a peasant or clown, then a vagabond, etc., whence galchagi, rudeness. As shown by J. Biddulph1, the tribes of Galchic speech range over both slopes of the Hindu-Kush, comprising the natives of Sarakol, Wakhan, Shignan, Munjan (with the Yidoks of the Upper Lud-kho or Chitral river), Sanglich, and Ishkashim. To these he is inclined to add the Pakhpus and the Shakshus of the Upper Yarkand-darya, as well as those of the Kocha valley, with whom must now also be included the Zerafshan Galchas (Maghians, Kshtuts, Falghars, Machas and Fans), but not the Yagnobis. All these form also one ethnic group of Alpine type, with whom on linguistic grounds Biddulph also includes two other groups, the Khos of Chitral with the Siah Posh of Kafiristan, and the Shins (Dards), G6rs, Chilasi and other small tribes of the Upper Indus and side valleys, all these apparently being long-heads of the blond Aryan type. Keeping this distinction in view, Biddulph's valuable treatise on the Hindu-Kush populations may be followed with for T, so that TCUTIKCU would be the nearest possible Greek transcription of Tajik. Major Raverty (Kafiristan and elsewhere) writes Tajzik, which comes very near to Da-zhik, the old sound of the Chinese Tiao-chi or Ta-shih given by Chang Kiao, who visited the West in 122 B.C. (Desguignes). 1 Tribes of the Hindoo-Koosh, passim. 556 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. safety. He traces the Galcha idioms generally to the old Baktrian (East Persian, so-called "Zend Avesta"), the Shin however lean- ing closely to Sanskrit, while Khowar, the speech of the Chitrali (Khos), is intermediate between Baktrian and Sanskrit. But differences prevail on these details, which will give occupation to philologists for some time to come. Speaking generally, all the Galchas of the northern slopes (most of Biddulph's first group) are physically con- nected with all the other Lowland and Hill Tajiks, with whom should also probably be included Elphinstone's1 southern Tajiks dwelling south of the Hindu-Kush (Kohistani, Berrakis, Purmuli or Fermuli, Sirdehis, Sistani, and others scattered over Afghanistan and northern Baluchistan). Their type is pronouncedly Alpine, so much so that they have been spoken of by French anthropologists as " those belated Savoyards of Kohistan-." De Ujfalvy, who has studied them carefully, describes them as tall, brown or bronzed and even white, with ruddy cheeks recalling the Englishman, black or chestnut hair, sometimes red and even light, smooth, wavy or curly, full beard, brown, ruddy or blond (he met two brothers near Penjakend with hair " blanc comme du lin ") ; brown, blue, or grey eyes, never oblique, long, shapely nose slightly curved, thin, straight lips, oval face, stout, vigorous frame, and round heads with cephalic index as high as 86*50. This description, which is confirmed by Bonvalot and other recent observers, applies to the Darwazi, Wakhi, Badakhshi, and in fact all the groups, so that we have beyond all doubt an eastern extension of the Alpine brachy zone through Armenia and the Bakhtiari uplands to the Central Asiatic high- lands. In this description we also see obvious traces of the blond type grafted on these pre- Aryan Neolithic Tajiks by their Iranic Aryan conquerors, just as the Kelts and other pre-Aryan round- heads were Aryanised farther west. We can now, perhaps for the first time, grasp the picture as a whole, and realise the marvellous uniformity of the ethnical and linguistic relations of two great sections of mankind — Linne's 1 An Account of the Kingdom of Caubtil, 1815. 2 "Ces Savoyards attardes du Kohistan" (Ujfalvy, Les Aryeus etc.). XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 557 Homo europceus and H. alpinus, as they may now he called — who have been in the closest contact for thousands of years all along the borderlands from the heart of Asia to the shores of the Atlantic. But the eventful drama is not yet closed. Arrested perhaps for a time by the barrier of the Hindu-Kush and Suliman ranges, these wonderful proto-Aryan conquerors burst at Ethnic Re_ last, probably through the Kabul river gorges, on lations in to the plains of India, and thereby added another world to the Caucasic domain. Here they were brought face to face with new conditions, which gave rise to fresh changes and adaptations resulting in the present ethnical relations in the peninsula. There is good reason to think that in this region the leavening Aryan element never was numerous, while even on their first arrival the Aryan invaders found the land already somewhat thickly peopled by the aborigines. These formed at least three, and most probably four distinct ethnical groups — a black substratum forming a section of the primitive Indo-Malaysian populations; tribes of Kolarian speech probably from the north-east, or from the Himalayan slopes ; tribes of Dravidian speech almost certainly from the north-west through the Suliman passes ; lastly, Mongoloid peoples from the Tibetan plateau, all arriving apparently in the order named. Of the cha- racteristic woolly hair, by which the first might best be recognised, few distinct traces have yet been detected ; nor are the features anywhere sufficiently negroid to remove all doubts as to their presence1. Hence we may perhaps infer that little remains of this substratum except a general deepening of the colour of the skin, if it is to be traced to this source rather than to environ- mental influences. The fourth or Mongoloid element has also mainly disappeared from India proper, and is found now only on the northern and north-eastern uplands near their original Tibetan homes, beyond 1 Negroid or Negrito traits are however shown in the nose, mouth, and hair of the Paniyan woman figured in the Madras Govt. Museum Series, vol. 1 1. No. i, Madras, 1897, p. 25. 558 MAN: PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. which they may have never ranged very far into the plains. Even the KOLS or KOLARIANS', who formerly over- The Kols. . spread the plains of Bengal, are now restricted to the hilly and jungly tracts between Upper and Lower Bengal, the Chota Nagpore plateau, and generally from the Ganges to about 18° N. lat. Their chief divisions are the Santals, Mundas, Kharias, Korwas, Kurkus, Mehtos, Mal-Paharias2, and Savaras, each speaking a distinct dialect of the common Kolarian speech, which seems to show affinities with the Kiranti of Nepal, but none with the Mon of Pegu, as has been suggested by Dr Mason and others3. In features, says Dalton, the Kols show "much variety, and I think in a great many families there is a considerable admixture of Aryan blood. Many have high noses and oval faces, and young girls are at times met with who have delicate and regular features, finely-chiselled straight noses, and perfectly formed mouths and chins. The eyes, however, are seldom so large, so bright, and gazelle-like as those of pure Hindu maidens, and I have met strongly marked Mongolian features. In colour they vary greatly, the copper tints being about the most common [though the Mir/apur Kols are very dark]. Eyes dark brown, hair black, straight or wavy [as all over India]. Both men and women are noticeable for their fine, erect carriage and long, free stride4." All this, taken in connection with the affinities of their speech to some of the Nepalese idioms, points to a proto-Mongoloid people, who arrived in remote times, intermingled with the black aborigines, and afterwards crossed with Aryans. There remain the DRAVIDIANS, to whom the same remark may apply, with this difference, that both the black and the Mongol 1 The term Kol, which occurs as an element in a great many tribal names, and was first introduced by Campbell in a collective sense (1866), is of unknown origin, but probably connected with a root meaning "Man" (W. Crooke, Tribes and Castes, III. p. 294). 2 Bishop Caldwell, The Languages of India, 1875. At the census of 1891 about 3 millions were returned as of Kolarian speech. 3 Capt. Forbes, Paper read at the Asiat. Soc. Nov. 1877. 4 Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, p. 190. PLATE XII. — ^. i. TODA MAX, S. INDIA. (Caucasic Type.) TUDA MAN, S. INDIA. (Caucasic Type.) 3. AINU, SAKHALIN I. (Caucasic Type.) 4. AINU, VEZO 1. (Caucasic Type.) To face page 558 XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 559 traits are more effaced, and the Aryan more accentuated. But,, as should be expected, there are many aberrant *T*V» *» groups showing divergences in all directions, as Dravidians amongst the Kurumbas and Todas of the Nilgiris, the former approximating to the Mongol, the latter to the Aryan standard. The Rev. W. Sikemeier, who has lived amongst them for years, writes to me that " many of the Kurumbas have decided Mongoloid face and stature, and appear to be the aborigines of that region1." My correspondent adds that much nonsense has been written about the Todas, who have become the trump card of popular ethnographists. "Being ransacked by European visitors they invent all kinds of traditions, which they found out their questioners liked to get, and for which they were paid." Still the type is remarkable and strikingly European, "well pro- portioned and stalwart, with straight nose, regular features and perfect teeth," the chief characteristic being the development of the hairy system, less however than amongst the Ainu, whom they so closely resemble2. From the illustrations given in Mr Thurston's valuable series one might be tempted to infer that a group of proto-Aryans had reached this extreme limit of their Asiatic domain and here for untold ages preserved their original type in almost unsullied purity. The Dravidians occupy the greater part of the Dekkan, where they are constituted in a few great nations- -Telugus (Telingas); Tamils (numbers of whom have crossed into Ceylon and occupied the northern and central parts of that island, working in the coffee districts), Kanarese, and the Malayalim of the west coast. These with some others were brought at an early date under Aryan (Hindu) influences, but have preserved their highly agglutinating Dravidian speech, which has no known affinities elsewhere, unless perhaps with the language of the Brahuis, who are regarded by many as belated Dravidians left behind in East Baluchistan. But for this very old, but highly cultivated Dravidian language, which is still spoken by about 54 millions between J Dravidian the Ganges and Ceylon, it would no longer be and Aryan possible to distinguish these southern Hindus from 1 Letter, June 18, 1895. 2 Edgar Thurston, Anthropology etc., Bui. 4, Madras, 1896, pp. 147-8- 560 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CHAP. those of Aryan speech who occupy all the rest of the peninsula together with the southern slopes of the Hindu-Kush and parts of the western Himalayas. Their main divisions are the Kashmiri, many of whom might be called typical Aryans; the Punjabis with several sub-groups, amongst which are the Sikhs, religious sec- taries half Moslem half Hindu, also of magnificent physique ; the Gujaratis, Mahratis, Hindis, Bengalis, Assamis, and Oraons of Orissa, all speaking Neo-Sanskritic idioms, which collectively constitute the Indie branch of the Aryan family. Hindustani or Urdu, a simplified form of Hindi current especially in the Doab, or "Two waters," the region between the Ganges and Jumna above Allahabad, has become a sort of lingua franca, the chief medium of intercourse throughout the peninsula, and is understood by certainly over 100 millions, while all the popula- tions of Neo-Sanskritic speech numbered in 1898 considerably over 200 millions. Perhaps the most surprising feature of these teeming multi- tudes is the remarkable uniformity of their physical characters, as indicated especially by the prevailing dolicho shape of the head everywhere in the peninsula. Thus in Mr Risley's tables1 the averages of cephalic indices for Bengal, Oudh, the North-west Provinces and the north generally, range from 71 to about 77, rising of course much higher (84). on the Himalayan slopes, that is, the Mongoloid Tibetan territory. In the extreme south also Mr Thurston's averages are 72, 74, and 76 for the Madras Pre- sidency2. It is- difficult to explain this phenomenon on the assumption that the proto-Dravidians were of brachy Mongol stock, as the Kols almost certainly were, if not also the later Jat and Rajput intruders. These, one would suppose, must have sufficed to have swamped both the dolicho black aborigines and the comparatively recent Aryan invaders, or at least to raise the indices everywhere above their actual low averages.. Are we driven to infer with de Lapouge that the form of the head is not so much a racial as a social question? If so, we should have to infer further that, while the inferior round-heads are gaining on the superior long-heads in Europe, the reverse 1 Quoted by Crooke, I. p. cxxix. ! Madras Govt. Mus. Series, passim. XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 561 process is going on in the Indian peninsula. Are the racial con- ditions of the two regions such as to warrant this conclusion ? Surely not, so long as nearly 300 million natives are held in political subjection and administered by 200 or 300 thousand Europeans from a base 6000 or 7000 miles away. Ethnology is, like a two-edged sword, an extremely dangerous weapon to be introduced into the discussion of social questions, until the whole field is thoroughly surveyed and the broad results clearly coordi- nated. Here we derive little help from the consideration of caste, whatever view be taken of the origin of this institu- tion. The rather obvious theory that it was intro- castesf duced by the handful of Aryan conquerors to prevent the submergence of the race in the great ocean of black or dark aborigines, is now rejected by Mr Nesfield1 and others, who hold that its origin is occupational, a question rather of social pursuits becoming hereditary in family groups, rather than of race distinctions sanctioned by religion. They point out that the commentator's interpretation of the Pancha Ksitaya, " Five Classes," as Brdhmans (priests), Kshatriyas (fighters), Vaisya (traders), Sudra (peasants and craftsmen of all kinds) and Nishdda (savages or outcasts) is recent, and conveys only the current senti- ment of the age. It never had any substantial base, and even in the comparatively late Institutes of Maim " the rules of food, connubium and intercourse between the various castes are very different from what we find at present"; also that, far from being eternal and changeless, caste has been subject to endless modifications throughout the whole range of Hindu myth and history. Nor is it an institution peculiar to India, while even here the stereotyped four or five divisions neither accord with existing facts, nor correspond to so many distinct ethnical groups. All this is perfectly true, and it is also true that for generations the recognised castes, say, social pursuits, have been in a state of constant flux, incessantly undergoing processes of segmentation, so that their number is at present past counting. Nevertheless, the system may have been, and probably was, first inspired by 1 Quoted by Crooke, I. p. xx. sq. K. 36 562 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. fCHAP. racial motives, an instinctive sense of self-preservation, which expressed itself in an informal way by local class distinctions which were afterwards sanctioned by religion, but eventually broke down or degenerated into the present relations under the outward pressure of imperious social necessities. Beyond the mainland and Ceylon no Caucasic peoples of Aryan speech are known to have ranged in neo- C ^tn^c or prehistoric times. But we have already followed the early migrations of the proto-Caucasic race, here called INDONESIANS, into Malaysia, the Philippines, Formosa and the Japanese Archipelago, which they must have occupied in the New Stone Age. Here there occurs a great break, for they are not again met till we reach Micronesia and the still more remote insular groups beyond Melanesia. In Micronesia the relations are extremely confused, Micronesians. . . . . . . . .. because, as it seems, this group had already been occupied by the Melanesians from New Guinea before the arrival of the Indonesians, while after their arrival they were followed at intervals by Malays perhaps from the Philippines and Formosa, and still later by Japanese, if not also by Chinese from the mainland. Hence the types are here as varied as the colour, which appears, going eastwards, to shade off from the dark brown of the Pelevv and Caroline Islanders to the light brown of the Marshall and Gilbert groups, where we already touch upon the skirts of the true Indonesian domain. A line drawn athwart the Pacific from New Zealand through Fiji to Hawaii will roughly cut off this domain from Polynesians. . the rest of the Oceanic world, where all to the west is Melanesian, Papuan or mixed, while all to the right- Maori, some of the eastern Fijians, Tongans, Samoans, Tahitians, Marquesans, Hawaiians and Easter Islanders — constitute the purest and most interesting section of the Caucasic Indonesians. Their claim to belong to this connection can no longer be seriously questioned, since, as now firmly established, there have been from the remotest times both a dolicho and a brachy section of the Caucasic division. To the former section XIV.] THE CAUCASIC PEOPLES. 563 belong our EASTERN POLYNESIANS, who are mostly long-heads1 with remarkably regular features often of a distinctly European stamp, and other characters of a pronouncedly Caucasic type. The hair is mostly black and straight, but also wavy, though never frizzly or even kinky. The colour also is of a light brown compared to cinnamon or cafe-au-lait, and sometimes approaching an almost white shade, while the tall stature averaging 5 ft. 1 1 in. or 6 ft. slightly exceeds that of several European groups in Sweden, Norway, North Britain and Ireland. But the language, it is objected, is not Aryan or European. No doubt this is so, but the Caucasic peoples of the New Stone Age spread over North Africa, Europe, and Asia, and most of them spoke non-Aryan idioms, as we see very well from the Hamito-Semitic and the allied Basque, besides those of the Caucasus, and Yagnobi, which in its remarkable survival may be called the "Basque of Central Asia." Malayo-Polynesian also, of which Eastern Polynesian is a very pure member, has its roots on the Asiatic mainland, whence it was diffused over the Oceanic world by our Indonesians in prehistoric times. The problems associated with this position are intricate, but have already been dealt with in the seventh chapter of this volume. Migrating at an unknown date eastwards from Malaysia, the Indonesians appear to have first formed permanent . ..... Migrations. settlements in Samoa, and more particularly in the island of Savaii, originally Savaiki, which name under divers forms and still more divers meanings accompanied all their subse- quent migrations over the Pacific waters. Thus we have in Tahiti Jfavaii'2, the "universe," and the old capital of Raiatea; in Raro- tonga Avaiki, "the land under the wind"; in New Zealand Jfawaikit "the land whence came the Maori"; in the Marquesas Havaiki, "the lower regions of the dead," as in to fenua Havaiki, 1 I make this statement on the authority of Dr Hamy, who, against the current opinion, finds from fresh measurements that "dans 1'est, dans le nord, et dans le sud ils presentent une dolichocephalic fort prononcee" (Hawaii 75'5; Taiti 74*1; Maori 73*2), rising only in the west to 80 (Les Races Malaiques, V Anlhropologie^ 1896, p. 137). 2 H everywhere takes the place of .5", which is preserved only in the Samoan mother-tongue; cf. Gr. eirra. with Lat. septem, Eng. seven. ^6 — 2 564 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. [CH. XIV. " return to the land of thy forefathers," the words with which the victims in human sacrifices were speeded to the other world ; lastly in Hawaii, the name of the chief island of the Sandwich group. That such reminiscences should be preserved for long ages is characteristic of these Indonesians, whose myths and legends, sometimes unexpectedly verified in surprising ways, show that they were gifted with very long memories. Some of their poetic and even sublime cosmogonies would almost seem to have ac- companied all their wanderings from their Central Asiatic cradle through Malaysia to their present eastern homes. More than one of these cosmogonies starts with Chaos, Immensity, Gloomy Night — not so much concrete as abstract concepts. Almost purely subjective notions, these entities, writes Dr Tautain1, must have been preceded by more material beings, by simpler and more tangible deities. In all the Polynesian cosmogonies, of which there is great store, we find Heaven, Earth, the Universe, the After- World, recurring under diverse names and forms, per- sonified by language, embodied in animistic and anthropomorphic philosophies — echoes, as it were, of the Vedic hymns reverberating from isle to isle over the broad Pacific waters. 1 L' Anthropologie^ 1896, p. 542. INDEX. Ababdehs, 485 Abakas, 76 Abbot, W. J. L., on the works of early man, 9 Abenaki, 385 Abkhasians, 552 Abors, 176 Abos, 113, 200 Absarokas, 395 Abyssinians, 469, 488 Achajans, 543 — 4 Achinese, 233, 247 Acclimatisation, 1 3 Acolhuas, 412 Adam, L., on vowel harmony, 294 .^gean culture, 506 — 9 - script, 507 /Eneolithic Age, 17, 511 - in Sicily, 465 — 6 .-Eolians, 544 Aetas, 165 — 68 Afars, 469, 486 Afghans, 554 Afilos, 89 Afri, 455 Afro-European, 445, 455, 464 Ahoms, 200 Aimores, 435 — 8 Ainus, 286 Akkads, Akkado-Sumerians, 273 sq. Akkado-Chinese relations, 215 — 16 Akkas, 118 Akuas, 436 Alakalufs, 430 Alans, 551 Albanians, 521, 549 — 50 Aleuts, 372 Algonquians, 383 sq. Alibamus, 390 Allobroges, 524 Alphabet, evolution of, 26 — Malaysian, 244 — 5 Ambrosetti, J. B., on S. American folklore, 380 — i American aborigines, 349 sq. - origin of race and culture, 352 - two types, 353—4 - speech, 361 - stock languages, number and distribution of, 364 — 7 - distribution of the brachys and dolichos, 367 — 8 - cranial deformation, 368 cultural resemblances with the Old World, 379—80 Reservations, 386 Amias, 262 Ammon, Dr, on the brachy and dolicho types, 520 Amok, 236 Amorites, 274, 491, 495, 500 Anatolian Turks, 327 Ancestry-worship, Ashanti, 58 Wagiryama, 95 Bantu, 1 14 — 15 - Celebes, 116 - Chinese, 223 Andalusians, 537 Andamanese, 158 — 62 - speech, 160 — 2 - numeral system, 161 Andi, 552 Angami speech, 184 Angles, 518, 527 Angoni, 99 Annamese, 205, 211 sq. — speech, 213 Anorohoros, 252 — 3 Ansariehs, 497 Anus, 294 566 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. Apaches, 382 Apalachi, 390 Apiacas, 434 Aquitani, 463 Arabs, 472—4, 491, 501—3 Aragonese, 537 Aramaeans, 274, 491 Araonas, 439 Araucanians, 427 sq. Arawaks, 434 — 5 Arboreal dwellings, Africa, 67 - New Guinea, 134 - Philippines, 166 Archaeology, an aid to ethnology, 16 Armenians, 500 — i Armenoid type, 457, 514 Aruans, 435 "Aryan," 445 - race and speech, 445—6, 512 - prototypes, 511 — 12 Ashas, 486 Aspelin, J. R., on Finnish origins, 335. Assami, 200, 560 Assena Turks, 325 Assinaboins, 395 Assyrians, 274, 491, 502 Atacamenos, 426 Athapascans, 382 sq. Atorais, 435 Attila, 346 Australians, 145 — 56 - speech, 147 - numeral system, 148 gesture language, 149 - class and group marriages, 153—5 pictorial art, 150 Avars, 345 Ayamats, 48 Aymaras, 423 sq. Aysas, 486 Aztecs, 406 sq. - calendar, 410 Babirs, 67 Badakhshi, 556 Baeles, 71 Ba-Fiot, 109 Baggaras, 72, 473 Baghirmi, 66, 69 Bajaus, 237 Bakairi, 365, 391, 434 Bakalai, 112 Bakhtiari, 279 Bakish, 114 Bakundu, 113 Bakwiri, 113 Balinese, 234 Ball, Rev. C. J., on Akkado-Chinese relations, 217 Ball, D., on the Hakkas and Pun-ti, 220 Balolo, 107, no Balongs, 1 1 3 Balti, 173 Baltic Finns, 336 Baluba, no Ba'lz, Dr G., on the Japanese type, Bamangwato, 106 Bambaras, 45 Bambas, 109 Banjars, 48 Bantu Negro, 39 - contrasts, 39 - languages, 41 prefixes, 78 - domain, 85 - constituent elements, 87 — 8, 90 migrations, 114 Banyuns, 48 Barabra, 73 Bari, 76 Barotse empire, 103 Barrows, British, 527 Barth, H., on the Sonrhays, 63 - on the Hausas and Kanuri, 69 - on the Mosgus, 68 Basange, no Basas, r 1 3 Bashilange, no Bashkirs, 335, 345 Bashukulumbe, 105 Basonge, no Basque and Berber speech, 459 — -60 Basques, 459 French, 535 Bastarnae, 5 1 6 — 1 7 Batanga, 113 Batekes, 112 Bateman, S. L., on the Tushilanges, no Batoka, 105 Batonga, 105 Battas, 245— 7 Batwas, 1 20 Bayas, 86 Baye, Baron de, on the Votyaks, 342 Bayongs, 113 Bayots, 48 Bechuanas, 103 Beddoe, Dr, on the proto- Italians, 46N INDEX. 567 Bedes, 67 Bedouins, 502 Bejas, 74, 469, 485 Belgce, 527 — 8 Bengalis, 560 Beni-Amers, 485 Benin bronzes, 58 Bent, T., on Zimbabwe, 102 Bentley, Rev. W., on the Kongo language, 1 08 Beothuks, 384 Berber and Basque speech, 460 — 2 Berberi, 73 Berbers, 75, 454, 455, 469 Berbers and Arabs, 472 — 4 Bernard, A., on the New Caledo- nians, 140 Berthelot, M., on the Copper Age, 18 Berlin, G., on the Bushmen, 124 - on Egyptian origins, 478 Bessi, 541 Betsileos, 254 Betsimisarakas, 253 Bhotiyas, 176 Bicols, 258 Biddulph, J., on the Galchas, 555 Bigger, F. J., on the Portnafeady finds, 529 Billet, Dr A., on the Tonking abori- gines, 204—5 Biloxi, 392 Binger, Capt., on the Mandingans, 46 Birch, S., on Egyptian origins, 478 Bird, G. W., on Burmese myths, 196 Bisayans, 258 Bishari, 485 Bishop, Mrs, on the Chinese, 227 "Black Jews," 109 Bloch, A., on the Malagasy, 249 Blumentritt, F., on the Philippine natives, 258 Boas, F., on the Kwakiutl Indians, 369—70 Bock, C., on the Shans, 199 sq. Bod-pa, 175 Bonbo religion, 181 Bongos, 76 Bonjos, 85 Borgus, 59 Bori, 176 Borneans, 240 sq. Bororos, 430, 434 Botocudos, 419, 435 — 8 Brahui, 559 Braknas, 470 Bretons, 455, 523 British barrows, 528 British types, 526 — 8 Britons, 525 — 7 Bronze Age, 19, 20, 479, 507 Bronze alloys, 19 Brooks, W. K., on early man in the Bahamas, 417 Buddhism, Tibetan, 178, 182 Burmese, 196 - Siamese, 209 - Annamese, 214 - Chinese, 223 Mongol, 285 Korean, 307 Japanese, 307, 312 - and Christian ritualism, 182 Budini, 547 Buganda, v. Waganda Bugis, 233 Bulalas, 71 Bulams, 49 Bulgaria, Great, 344 Little, 344 Bulgars, 342 sq. - speech, 344 Buquitnons, 259 Burgunds, 515, 535 Burish language, 553 Burmese, 195 sq. Burton, R., on the Kushites, 477 Buryats, 284 Bushmen, 121 — 25 - domain, 121 — 2 - speech, 124 Bwais, 194 Byrne, Dean, his theory of vowel harmony, 295 Cagayanes, 258 Calendar, Mexican, 410 Callilehets, 429 Cambojans, 207 Canaanites, 491, 502 Canary natives, 454, 457 Cannibal zone, Africa, 78 Cannibalism, Welle basin, 78 - Gallaland, 79 Bonjo, 85 Fan, 112 New Guinea, 133 Melanesia, 137 - New Caledonia, 142 Borneo, 241 - Sumatra, 246 Batta, 247 - South America, 418—19 Cappadocians, 503 568 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. Carapaches, 432 Carey, S., on the Chins, 190 sq. Carians, 503 Caribs, 390, 434 sq. Cashibos, 432 — 3 Castes, Hindu, 561 Castilians, 537 Catalans, 538 Catawbas, 392 Catios, 418 Cattle Damaras, 107 Caucasian elements in Indo-China, 193, 201 - South-east Asia, 206 Borneo, 242 - Central Asia, 268 East Asia, 305 - Japan, 313 West Asia, 315 - America, 353 sq. Caucasic peoples, 444 sq. - terminology, 444—5 - constituent elements of, 448 - range and population, 449 - cradle, 450 Caucasus, aborigines of, 552 - languages of, 552—3 Cayugas, 389 Chagatais, 330 Chaldasans, 496 Chalmers, Rev. J., on the Papuan cannibals, 133 Chamberlain, B. H., on Japanese origins, 309 - on the Liu-Kiu language, 3 1 1 Chanler, W. A., on the Wando- robbos, 1 1 9 Chantre, E., on the Armenoids, 514 Chavero, A., on the Mexican Calen- dar, 410 Chechenzes, 552 Chedorlaomer, 277 Chekhs, 548 Cheremisses, 341 Cherentes, 436 Cheroki script, 26 Cherokis, 385 Chess, with living pieces, in Annam, 205 Chibchas, 420 sq. Chicasaws, 390 Chichimecs, 411 — 12 Chilasi, 555 Chimus, 426 China, prehistoric ages in, 24 Chinese, 214 sq. - script, 217 — 1 8 Chingpaws, 193 Chinhwans, 261 Chins, 189 — 93 Chippeways, 384 Chiquitos, 439 Chocos, 417 — 18 Choctaws, 390 Chontals, 417 Chudes, 315, 335 Chuelches, 429 Chukchi, 286, 298 — 9 Cimbri, 516, 524 Circassians, 552 Clan, theory of, 397 — 8 Pueblo system, 402 Clark, C. U., on Magyar and Finn ^ relations, 333 Classification, elements of, 33 Clicks, Bushman, 1 24 Cliff-dwellers, 399 — 401 Cliff-dwellings, genesis of, 404 Clifford, H., on the Semangs, 162 — 4 - on Malay folklore, 239 Clozel, F. J., on the Bayas, 86 Cocomas, 418 Coconucos, 422 Codex Argenteiis, 518 Codrington, R., on the Angoni, 99 Codrington, Rev. R. H., on Melan- esian religion, 136 — 7 Collignon, Dr, on the Malagasy, 249 - on the Afro-Europeans, 454 - on the Basques, 459 Colquhoun, A. R., on the Shans, 200 - on Siamese Buddhism, 210 Colville, Z., on the Malagasy, 254 Communal dwellings, New Guinea, 134 Borneo, 242 Communal marriages, 155 Conant, L. L., on numeral systems, 148 Conder, C. R., on the Hittites, ;oo Confucianism, 221 Conibos, 433 Conspectus of Sudanese Negro, 35 Bantus, Negritoes, Bushmen and Hottentots, 82 - Oceanic Negroes, 126 - Southern Mongols, 169 - Oceanic Mongols, 228 Northern Mongols, 265 - American Aborigines, 349 the Caucasic peoples, 441 L M. Convergence, theory of, 483 Cool, Capt. W., on the Balinese and Sassaks, 234 — 5 INDEX. 569 Cope, E. D., on Babylonian origins, 275 Copper Age, 17 Corequajes, 434 Coroados, 436 Corsicans, 467 Couvade, 263 Cowan, Rev. W. D., on the Malagasy, -H Craniology, theories of, 519 — 20 Creeks, 390 Crees, 384 Cretan script, 495, 506 — 7 Croatians, 548 Crooke, W., on the Jats and Rajputs, 321—3 Crow Indians, 395 Cultural resemblances, their ethnic value, 379 — 80 Cunas, 417 Cuneiforms, evolution of, 28, 29 Curr, E. M., on Australian class and group marriages, 153- — 5 Cashing. F. H., on the Florida Mounds, 388 Customs, v. Usages Cymry, 524 Cypriote script, 507 Daco-Romans, 541 Dadikes, 554 Daflas, 1 76 Dahas, 320 — i Dahie, Rev. L., on the Malagasy, 251 - on Malagasy folklore, 256 Dahomi, 55 Dakotas, 395 sq. Damaras, 106 Danakils, 469, 486 Danes, 527 - in Ireland, 530 Dards, 174, 555 Darods, 486 Darwazi, 556 Dauri, 292 Dayaks, 240 Dazas, 475 Decle, L., on the Wahumas, 89- — 90 Delawares, 385 Deniker, J., on Lapouge's cranio- logical theory, 520 Desgodins, Abbe, on the Tibetans, 177—8 Diaramocks, 262 Diasus, 204 Dinkas, 76 Disentis type, 521, 528 Dokos, 119 Dolmen builders, Afro-European, 454 Dolopes, 544 Dongolawi, 73 Dorians. 544 Dors, 76 Dravidians, 557 — 9 - language, 559 Drum language, 42 Dru-pa, 175 Druzes, 497 Dubois, F., on Sonrhay origins, 62 Duckworth, W. L. H., on the Mala- gasy, 255 - on the Eskimo type, 370 Dumes, 119 Dungans, 225, 326 Duodez, 552 Durani, 554 Dusuns, 240 Dwai'sh, 470 Dwalas, 1 1 3 Dwarfs, 117 sq. Dyaks, 240 Early man, characters of, 5, 6 works of, 8, 9 - in Burma, 5 - New Caledonia, 141 - Malay penins, 165 Tibet, 172 - Siberia, 268 Japan, 271 — 2 Korea, 271 Mongolia, 271 Babylonia, 273 East Europe, 273 Finland, 273 United States, 359 Brazil, 360 Florida, 390 — i Yucatan, 414 Bahamas, 417 North Africa, 452 Tunis, 452 Algeria, 454 Sicily, 465 - Sardinia, 467 Britain, 468 — 9, 527 - Germany, 469 Russia, 469 Egypt, 476—7 - Arabia, 490 — i - Scandinavia, 5 1 5 Easter Islanders, 562 Ebisu, 272, 309 5/o MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. Edkins, Rev. J., on the Hok-los, 220 Egyptians, 469, 476 — 82 - origins, 477—82 - type, persistence of, 483 - social state, 484 Ehrenreich, Dr, on polygenism, 2, 3 - on the American aborigines, 354 - on the Caucasic peoples, 448 Elamites, 277 — 8 Elbing Museum, bronze objects in, J9 Ellis, A. B., on the drum language, 43 — on the Guinea peoples, 55— 57' "6 on fetishism, =,6 — 7 Fetishism, theory of, 56, 57 Fewkes, J. W., on Pueblo symbolism, English nation, 529 sq. - character, 532 - language, 533 Environment, influence of, 12 — 14, 404 Ephthalites, 322 Eponymous heroes, Hausa, 65 - Australian, 151 Eries, 389 Eshi- Kongo, 107 Eskimo, 299, 370 sq. - migrations, 371 - speech, 374 Esthonians, 336 Etruscans, 521 — -2, 539 Eudusi, 516 Europeeus, E. D., on Finnish migra- tions, 335 " Eurafrican," 444 European aborigines, cradle of, 453 - types, 453, 458 Evans, Sir J., on the works of early man, 9 Evans, A. J., on the Cretan scripts, 507 - on .Egean and Mykensean culture, 507 — 8 Evil eye, 193 Ewe Negroes, 54 Ealashas, 498 Falghars, 555 Family, the Social Unit, 154 — 5, 167 -8 Fans, African, 112 - Asiatic, 555 Fanti, 55 Felups, 48 Fermuli, 556 . Fijians, 562 Finland, first peopled by Teutons, 334 Metal Ages in, 335 Finno-Turki peoples, 314 sq. Finns, 332 sq. Danubian, 333 Ugrian, 333 Volga, 333 - Baltic and Lake, 334 - domain, 334 Fire dance, 394 Fire myth, 156 Fison, Rev. L., on Australian class marriages, 154—5 Fitzgerald, W. A., on the Wagiryama, 94—6 Five Nations, 389 Flatheads, 369 Fletcher, Miss, on the totem, 396 — 7 Folklore, its ethnic value, 375, 380 - Ashanti, 56 Hausa, 65 — 6 Uganda, 91 Pygmy, 118 Bushman, 123 Papuan, 132, 135 - Melanesian, 136 — Australian, 151 Tasmanian, 156 - Andamanese, 160 - Semang, 162 - Kuki, 184 Manipuri, 189 - Chin, 191 Burmese, 196 Malayan, 230 Balinese, 235 - Malagasi, 256 - Ainu, 375 Eskimo, 375 Saponi, 393 Piaroa, 397 - Muysca, 421 - Quechua-Aymara, 424 — 5 - Araucanian, 428 Forbes, Capt., on the Burmese, 195 Foreman, J., on the Philippine natives, 257 sq. Formosans, 260 - speech, 262 Forstermann, E., on the Aztec-Maya question, 406 sq. Fortwangler, Dr, on the Bastarnre, 516 INDEX. 571 Fouillee, A., on the brachy and dolicho types, 519 Fraas, E., on the former climate of Egypt, 478— 9 Franks, 518, 533—4 Freeman, E. A., on the Siculi. 466 Freemasonry, African, 50 - Melanesian, 139 French, 524, 533—6 ' - language, 53-f— r Frisians, 527 Fuegians, 430 Fulahs, 70, 72 — 3, 469 Fuluns, 48 Fung-shui, 223 Funj, 76 Furs, 73 Ga tribe, 55 Gabelenz, G. v. der, on the Basque and Berber languages, 460 — 2 Gadabursi, 486 Gaelic language, 523 Gaels, 524 Gait, E., on the Ahoms, 200 Galatie, 524 Galchas, 553 — 56 - language, 556 Galibi, 434 Gallas, 469, 486 — 7 Galli, 524 Gallinas, 49 Gallo-Romans, 533 Gamergus, 67 Garamantes, 475 Garhwali, 177 Garson, Dr, on the early Britons, 5^-7—8 Gascons, 535 Gatschet, A. S., on the Beothuks, 384 ( rauchos, 429 Gauls, 524 Gens, theory of, 397 — 8 Georgians, 552 Gepidre, 345 Germans, v. Teutons Ges, Gesans, 419, 435 sq. Getse, 516 Getulians, 455 Geze, M., on the Basque and Berber languages, 462 Ghegs, 549 Giao-shi, 211 Giles, E., on Australian art, 150 Gill, Capt. W., on the Man-tse, 205 Gilyaks, 286, 301 Gladstone, J. H., on the early use of copper, 1 8 - on Bronze Age in Egypt, 20 Gleichen. Count, on the Abyssinians. 488 God, primitive concepts of: - Akkad, 279 — 81 - Ansarieh, 407 - Australian, 151 - Aztec, 412 Babylonian, 280 — i Bantu, 115, 116 Botocudos, 438 Dakotan, 395 Felup, 49 - Galla, 487 Karen, 194 Kirghiz, 330 Kuki-Lushai, 186 Maya, 412, 416 - Muyscan, 421 Papuan, 132 - Semitic, 502 - Serer, 45 - Somal, 487 Tibetan, 178 Wagiryama, 96 Godden, G. M., on the Nagas, 184 Goklans, 317 Golas, 49 Golds, 286 Goliki, 179 Golos, 76 Gors, 555 Gothamites, Malagasy, 252 — 3 Goths, 336. 515, 551 Gowland, W., on the Korean and Japanese dolmens, 271 Grassiere, R. de la, on the Tarascan language, 362 Graeco-Baktrians, 320 Greeks, v. Hellenes Ground Landlordism in Babylonia, 281 Group marriages, 155 Guanches, 457, 470 Guarami, 438 sq. Guatusos, 417 Guillemard, F. H. H., on the Liu- Kiu natives, 310 Guine empire, 47 Guinea Negroes, table of, 55 Gujaratis, 560 Guppy, H. B., on the Solomon natives, 138 Gura'ans, 7 1 5/2 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. Gurkhas, 177 Gyarung, 262 — 3 Hackman, A., on early man in Fin- land, 273, 334 Hadendowas, 485 Haida totem-posts and Maori tiki, 379 Hakas, 325 Hakkas, 220, 260 Hallett, H. S., on the Burmese, 197 - on Siamese, 209 Halstatt culture, 21 Hamitic elements in Bantuland, 889 - speech, 460 — 2 - race, range of, 468 — 70 - divisions, 469, 485 — 89 - type, 471—2 Hamito-Iberian mother-tongue, 462 Hampel, J., on the Copper Age, 18 Hamy, E. T., on Wolof pottery, 44 - on the Melanesians, 131 - on the Turki type, 287 - on Korean types, 302 — 3 Hans, 304 Hardinge, Sir A., on the N.E. Bantus, 94 Harudi, 516 Kansas, 64, 69 Hawaiians, 562 Hawiyas, 486 Head-hunting, Melanesia, 137 Philippines, 166 Manipur, 189 Borneo, 241 - Formosa, 261 Healy, B. A., on Papuan myths, 132 Hebrews, 495 Hellenes, 503—4, 542—5 Hellenic language, 545 Helm, O., on Bronze alloys, 19 Henri d'Orleans, on the Thais, 193 - on the Pa'i, 199 Hepburn, D., on Pithec. erectus, 5 Hermann, K. A., on Akkado-Turki relations, 273 Heruli, 516, 539 Herve, G., on Kelto-Ligurian rela- tions, 463 - on Keltic origins, 515 Hickson, S. J., on the bodily and psychic unity of man, 116 - on the Malays, 144 Hieroglyphs, evolution of, 26, 27 Hill Damaras, 106 Hilprecht, Dr, on the age of Nippur, ^77 Himyarites, 88, 103, 493 — 4 - script, 494 Hindis, 560 Hindu castes, 561 Hindustani language, 560 Hirth, F., on the Iron Age in China, 219 Hittites, 491, 499—501 Hiung-nu, 304, 305, 318 - empire, 305 Hodge, F. W., on the Pueblo clans, 402 Hodgson, B. H., on Nepalese lan- guages, 184 Hoffman, W. J., on Eskimo art, 356 Hoklos, 220, 260 Holmes, T. V., on the Britons, 528 Homerites, 494 Hommel, Dr, on Akkad Origins, -273 Homo Javanensis, 3 - Asiaticus, 173, 174, 317 Mediterranensis, 174 Europseus, 174, 3°4. 3r7> 45^, 511, 521, 557 - Mongolicus, 172 - Acrogonus, 317 - Alpinus, 456, 457, 521, 557 Horn rans, 72 Hopin, 401 .Hor-pa, 179 Horse, the, late in N. Africa and Egypt, 455 Horsoks, 179 Hottentots, 106, 121 — 25 - domain, 1 2 1 — 2 - speech, 124 Hough, W., on Eskimo migrations, 372 flovas, 249, 254 Howitt, A. W., on Australian Origins, 146 - on class marriages, 154 — 5 Howorth, Sir H. H., on the Horpas, 179 - on the Hiung-nu, 305 Hrasso, 176 Huaxtecans, 405 sq. Hubus, 49 Huilliches, 428 Hungary, Great, 345 Hungary, Copper Age in, 18 Hungarians, v. Magyars Huns, 305, 318 Huron-Eries, 389 "Hyperboreans," 297 INDEX. 573 Ibaras, 254 Iberians, 459 — 62 Ibero-Hamitic speech, 460—2 Igorrotes, 259 Hiring, H. V., on Babylonian origins. 274 Illanuns, 238 Illiberis, 462 Illyri, 503, 538, 549 Lllyrian language, 538, 549 Ilocanos, 258 Incas, 422 sq. Indo-Chinese natives, 186 — 7 - tribal nomenclature, 190, 195 Indo-Malaysia, cradle of mankind, 5 Indonesians, 143, 230 — i, 242, 259, 262, 562 — 4 Indo-Scythians, 320 lonians, 544 lowas. 395 Ipurinas, 435 Iranians, 553—5 Irish language, 523, 531 - race, 529— 31 - dolmen-builders, 530 - character, 532 Iron Age, 21, 22, 221, 335 Iroquoians, 389 — 90 Ishaks, 486 Ishogos, 112 Italians, 467 — 8, 538 — 9 Italic speech, 513 Ivanovski, Dr A., on the Kirghiz and Usuns, 332 Jaalins, 72 Jackson, F. G., on the Samoyads and Lapps, 340 — i Jagatais; 330 Jallonkes, 45 Japanese, 308 sq. - speech, 311 Javanese, 233 Jazyges, 342 Jensen, P., on the Hittites, 500 Jews, 497—9 Jigushes, 48 Joats, 48 Johnston, Sir H. H., on the Negro temperament, 40 on former range of the Bush- men, 121 - on the Camerun Negros, 113 on Bantu migrations, 102 Junker, Dr \V., on the Nile-Congo Negros, 77 - on the Negro sense of art and humour, 79 — -80 - on Negrito mimics, 120 Jolas, 48 Jumanas, 438 Kababish, 72, 473 Ka bards, 552 Kabindas, 107, 109 Kachins, 190 Kafir, meaning of the term, 98 Kafirs, v. Zulu-Xosas Kaingangs, 436 Kakhyens, 182 — -90, 193 Kalinas, 434 Kalmuks, 284 Kamassintzi, 332 Kamchadales, 286, 300 — i Kames, 436 Kanarese, 559 Kanembu, 66, 69 Kanuri, 66, 69 Karagasses, 332 Kara-Kalpaks, 327 Kara-Kirghiz, 331 Karelians, 336, 338 Karens, 190, 194 Kargos, 73 Karigmas, 434 Karipunas, 433 Kartweli, 552 Kashgarians, 326 Kassonkes, 45 Kaws, 395 Kayans, 240 Kayapos, 436 Kazaks, 331 Kazan Tatars, 327 Keller, C., on the Somals, 487 Keltic speech, 523 — 4 Kelto-Ligurian relations. 463 Kelto- Slavs, 521 Kelts, 463, 523—28 - of P. and Q. speech, 523 Kenus, 73 Keresans, 383, 401 Keribinas, 67 Kerrikerri, 67 Khagan Bayan, 345 — 6 Khalkas, 284 Khamti, 200 Khanungs, 204 Kharias, 558 Khas, 177 Khassi speech, 184 Khazars, 498 Khemis, 195 574 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. Khmers, 207 Rhos, 555 Khyengs, 195 Khyungthas, 195 Kimmerians, 279 Kimos, 250 Kin-tse, 204 Kintu legend, 91 — 2 Kipchaks, 327, 330 Kirghiz, 325, 330—2 Kitwara empire, 91 Knowles, W. J., on the Stone Ages in Ireland, 530 Kobito, 272 Kohistani, 556 Roibals, 332 Kols, Kolarians, 557 — 8 Kolaji, 73 Romans, 327 Rongo empire, 107 - language, 108 - aborigines, 109 Ronos, 49 Ropts, 483 Koreans, 302 sq. Korinchi, 245 Koro-pok-guru, 272 Rorwas, 558 Roryaks, 286, 298 — 9, 300 Rossacks, 331 Rrej, 76 Rrumen, 53 Rshtuts, 555 Rubachi, 552 Ruki-Lushai, 185, 190 Rulfans, 73 Rumi, 195 Rumuks, 327 Runjaras, 73 Kurankos, 49 Rurds, 280 Ruri, 66 Kurkus, 558 Rurumbas, 559 Rush, 278 Rushites, 477, 484 Russas, 49 Rutigurs, 345 Rutzo-Vlacks, 540 Ruznesov, S. R., on early man in Siberia, 269 Rwoens, 338 R wan as, 435 Rymry, 529 Lacouperie, T. de, on the Tibetan language, 183 Lacouperie, T. de, on E. Asiatic scripts, 203 - on Chinese script, 215, 218 Lacustrian Bantus, 79 — 94 Ladakhi, 173 — 4 Lahse, ornamental vases found at, 23 Lamaism, 182 Lampong, 245 Lamuts, 286 Landins, 99 Lang, Andrew, on primitive revela- tions, 280 - on Papuan religion, 135 Language, and racial characters, 295 - its ethnic value, 74 Lansdell, Rev. H., on the Manchus, 292—3 - on the Yukaghirs, 298 - on the Gilyaks, 301 — 2 Laos, 199 Laotians, 200 Lapouge, de, his craniology, 33 ; his three European types, 447, 456 - on the brachy and dolicho types, 519 his pessimistic views, 519 — 20 Lapps, 337, sq. Last, J. T., on the Malagasy, 251 Latah malady, 236 La Tene culture, 22 Latin speech, 513, 539, 542 Latin Peoples, 540 Lay an as, 435 Leder, H., his palaeo finds in Siberia, 269 — 70 - in Mongolia, 271 Legends v. Folklore Leland, C. G., on Algonquin legends, 38i Leleges, 503, 544 Lenz, O., on the Fans, 113 Lenz, R., on Chilian folklore, 428 Lepchas, 184 Lepsius, R., on the Nubians, 74 Lesghians, 552 Letourneau, Ch., on the Malagasy, 249 Lettic language, 544 Letts, 336 Lho-pa, 176 Liberians, 52 Libyans, 75, 455 Lichtenstein, H., on the Bechuanas, 103; on the Hottentot domain, 122 Ligurians, 33, 455, 459, 463-6 Limbas, 49 Lin-tin-zu, 204 Lithuanians, 334, 524 INDEX. 575 Lithuanian language, 544 Liu-Kiu Islanders, 310 - speech, 311 Livi, R., on the Sardinians, 466 Livonians, 336 Logons, 67 Lokkos, 49 Lolos, 203 Loltun caves, 414 Longobards, 539 Loria, L., on the Papuans, 133 Lucretius, on primitive man, 8 ; on the Bronze and Iron Ages, 17 Lumholtz, C., on Australian religion, Lurs, 279 Luschan, F. v., on the Guanches, 457 - on the Jews, 498 - on the Hittites, 500 - on the Arabs, 501 - on the Armenoids, 514 Lushai, 184 Lu-tse, 204 Lycians, 503 Lydians, 503 Mabas, 71 Macalister, A., on the causes of brachycephaly, 520 McCabe, R. B., on the Angami lan- guage, 184 Macdonald, Rev. J., on the Kafirs, 101, 105 Macedo-Romans, 541 Macgregor, Sir W., on the Papuans, Machas, 555 Macusi, 434 Madagascar v. Malagasi Madis, 76 Madurese, 233 Maghians, 555 Maghs, 195 Magyars, 345—7 Mahai, 73 Mahratis, 560 Mainwaring, G. B., on the Rong lan- guage, 184 Makalakas, 101 Makarakas, 76 Makari, 66 Makirifares, 434 Makololos, 103 Malagasi, 248 sq. - speech, 250 Malay and Papuan contrasts, 144 Malays and Malayans, 231 Malays proper, 231, 236 - migrations of, 231 Malayans, 233 sq. Malayo-Polynesian, 231 — 33 - speech, 233, 250, 563 Malaysia, East, ethnical elements in, H3 Mali empire, 47 Mal-Paharias, 558 Maltese, 502 Man, E. H., on the Andamanese, 159 — 60 - on the Nicobarese, 263 — 4 Man, cradle of, 5 — Primary Divisions of specia- lised in pre- Neolithic times, 10 varieties of, the outcome of the environment, 12 — 13; see also Early Man Mana, theory of the Melanesian, 136 Manchus, 286, 290 sq. Mandans, 395 Mandaras, 66 Mandas, 278 • Mandingans, 45 Mandos, 435 Mangbattus, 76 Mangkassaras, 233, 245 Mangoni, 99 Manguangas, 259 Manhattans, 385 Manipuri, 187 — 8 Manito, concept of, 395 Manouvrier, on Pithec. erectus, 3 Man-tse, 205 Manx language, 523 Maori, 562 Maori, tiki, v. Haida Mapoches, 429 Marcomanni, 525 Margis, 67 Marisi, 73 Maronites, 496 Marquesans, 562 Marriage, class, a food question, 155 - group, a myth, 154 — 5 Marsh. O. C., on Pithec. erectus, 3 Masai, 469 Mashonas, 101 Maspero, M. . on the Metal Ages, 20 - on Sumerian origins, 274 - on Egyptians, 284 — 5 Massachusetts, 385 Massagetse, 320, 551 Matacos, 440 Mataguayos, 440 Matlaltzincas, 412 5/6 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. Matokki, 73 Matores, 332 Matriarchal usages of the Felups, 49 Tibetans, 180 - Dakotans, 399 Matriarchate, a local institution, 180 Mauritania!! types, 454 — 5 Maviti, 99 Mayas, 406 sq. Maya-Quiches, 410 Mayorunas, 419 Maypures, 435 Maz-d' Azil script, 21, 28 Mazitu, 99 Mbengas, 112 Medes, 278 — 9 Mediterraneans, 459, 468, 511 — 13 Mehlos, 558 Melams, 204 Melanesians, 130 sq. ; 562 Menangkabau, Malay cradle, 232 Mendis, 49 Mentawi, 244 Mercer, H. C. , on the Loltun Cave, 414 Messapians, 459, 538 Metal Ages, 16 sq. - in the Finnish lands, 335 Mexicans, v. Aztecs Meyer, A. B., on the Aetas. 168 Miamis, 386 Miao-tse, 206 Micronesians, 260, 562 Mies, Dr, on the Wasandawi, 121 — 2 Mikhailovskii, V. M., on Shama- nism, 288 sqq. Miklukho-Maclay, on the Papuans, i3f Minseans, 88, 493 — 4 - script, 494—5 Minahasans, 233 Mindeleff, C., on the Cliff dwellings, 400 Minnetaris, 395 Miri, 176 Mishmi, 176 Missouris, 395 Mitla, ruins of, 413 Mittus, 76 Miztecs, 412 Moabites, 491 Mceso-Goths, 517 — 18 Mohawks, 389 Mohigans, 385 Moi, 205 Mokos, 435 Moluches, 427 Mombuttus, 76 Mongolo-Tatar, 267 Mongolo-Turki, 267, 286 - speech, 243 — 6 Mongols, South, 171 sq. - cradle, 171 Oceanic, 230 sq. domain, 230 - Northern, 266 sq. domain, 267 Mongols proper, 282 sq. Monogenism, 2 Monomotapa, 101 Monotheism, v. God Mons, 1 88 Montano, J., on the Aetas, 167 Montauks, 385 Montelius, O., on the Etruscans 521 2 Mooney, J., on Siouan origins, 365. 392 Moore, C. B., on early man in Florida, 39 r Moqui, 401 Mordvinians, 341 Morgan, J. de, on Metal Ages in Egypt, 20, 479—80 Morgan, L. H., on class marriages, 154 Moros, 259 Mosgus, 66, 68 Mossi, 59 Mossos, 203 Mounds, genesis of, 387 — 8 Mound-builders, 387 Moxos, 433 Mpangwe, 1 1 2 Mpongwe, 112 Much, Dr M., on the Copper Age, 18 Mugs, 195 Mundas, 558 Mundus, 76 Munkulunkulu, 115 Munro, Dr R., on Quaternary man, 2, 6, 7 Muongs, 205 Murcians, 537 Muskhogeans, 390 Muyscas, 417, 420 sq. Mykaenean origins and culture, 20, 505—9, 541 Myongs, 205 Myrmidons, 544 Myths, v. Folklore Nachtigal, G., on arboreal fortresses, 68 INDEX. 577 Nachtigal, G., on the Welle natives, 77 Nagas, 184, 1 86 Nahuas, 406 sq. Nahuatlans, 405 sq. Nahuguas, 434 Narragansets, 385 Naticokes, 385 Nature-worship, 116 Navajos, 382 Negress, classical description of, 37 Negritoes, African, 117 sq. - Oceanic, 158 sq. Negro, African, domain, 37 - origins, 38 - type, persistent, 38 - arts, 79 - sense of humour, 80 — Oceanic, 129 sq. - divisions, 129 — 30 - element in Madagascar, 253, 255 Nehring, A., on early man in Brazil, 360 ' Neolithic Age, see New Stone Age Neolithic script, 30 Nestorians, 496 New Caledonians, 140 — 43 New Stone Age, duration of, 10, \2 See also Stone Ages Ngaos, 206 Ngious, 199 Ngisems, 67 Niam-Niams, 76 Nias natives, 244 Nihlack, A. P., on the N. W. Coast Indians, 376 — 7 - on the ethnic value of like arts, 379 Nickas, 262 Nicobarese, 263 Niederle, L., on Slav origins, 551 Nile Delta, Age of, 478 Nippur, 276 — 7 Niqtiirans, 406 Noetling, Dr, on pliocene finds in Burma, 5 Norse and Eskimo contacts, 370 — i, 38r Nogais, 327 Normans, 527—535 Norsemen, 527 North African types, 456 Norwegians, 527 - in Scotland, 531 Nubas, Nubians, 72 — 5 Nuers, 76, 77 K. Nuesch, J., on the Schweizersbild station, 12 Numeral systems, 148, i6r, 439 Nutall, Z., on the Mexican Calendar, 410 Nzambi, 115 Oghams, 26 Oghuz Turks, 322, 326 Ogre, 346 Ojibwas, 384 Okandas, 112 Oldham, R. D. , on pliocene finds in Burma, 5 Old Stone Age, duration of, 9, 12 See also Stone Ages Omaguas, 438 Omahas, 395 Onas, 430 Oneidas, 389 Onondagas, 389 Oraons, 560 Orsi, S., on Sicilian Origins, 465 Orang-Malayu, 232—3 - -Selah, 237 - -Laut, 337 Benua, 233 Tunong, 247 — 8 Baruk, 248 Origins, Achinese, 247 - American, 352 - Andamanese, 158 - Annamese, 210 - Aryan, 445 sq. - Ashanti, 56 Australian, 146 - Aztec, 4o5 Babylonian, 274 — 7 Balti, 173 Balolo, no Bantu, 87—8 Bulgar, 342 - Caucasic, 450 — 4 - Chinese, 215, 219 - Corsican, 467 Egyptian, 477—81 Elamite, 277 - English, 529 - Eskimo, 370 Etruscan, 521 — 2 European, 453 Fan, 113 Finn, 332 Finno-Russ, 337 - Greek, 542 Hausa, 67 Hebrew, 495 37 578 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. Origins, Himyarite, 494 - Iberian, 459 - Irish, 529—31 Italian, 538 — 9 Japanese, 308 - Jat, 320—3 Keltic, 523 — 4 — Korean, 303 - Lapp, 310 Ligurian, 459, 463 - Malagasy, 250 - Malay, 231 — 2 - Manchu, 290 - Man-tse, 205 Mauritanian, 454 - Maya-Aztec, 406 — Mede, 278 - Mongol, North, 268 Mongol, South, 171 Mosso, 204 - Mykenrean, 505 — 7 - Negro, 38 - New Caledonian, 141 Nubian, 73 - Oghuz, 326 Pelasgian, 459, 503 Phoenician, 492 Pictish, 525 - Quechua-Aymara, 423 — 5 Rajput, 320—3 Rumanian, 540 Russian, 550 - Sabrean, 493 - Sard, 466 - Scotch, 531 - Semite, 490 — i - Shan, 200 - Siamese, 207 - Sicilian, 465 - Siouan, 391—3 Slav, 546 - Sonrhay, 62 Tasmanian, 146 Teutonic, 515 — 16 Tibetan, 172 Tungus, 287 Turki, 316—18 r «^ Orkhon inscriptions, 323 — 4 Orochons, 286 Osages, 395 Oscan language, 513, 539, 542 Oshyebas, 1 1 2 Osmanli Turks, 328 Ossets, 551 Ostrogoths, 539 Ostyaks, 341 Otoes, 395 Otomis, 411, 413 Ova-Herero, 106 Ova-Mpo, 106 Ova-Zorotu, 107 Pacaouaras, 433 Padams, 176, 200 Padao, 200 Pceones, 503 Paiwans, 262 Pakhpus, 555 Palaeolithic Age, see Old Stone Age Palawan Islanders, 245 Pames, 411 Pampangos, 258 Pampas Indians, 429 Pamunkeys, 385 Pangasinanes, 258 Panos, 435 Panthays, 225 Panticos, 385 Papuan terminology, 1 30 Papuans, 130 Papuasians, 130 - domain, 130 Western, 142 Parker, E. H., on Wei dynasty, 306 - on the Korean script, 307 - on Turki origins, 317, 319 Parthians, 319 Passumahs, -233 Patagonians, 429 Patroni, G. , on Sicilian Origins, 465—6 Patterson, A. J., on the Rumanians, Pauli, C., on the Etruscan language, 522 Paulitschke, Ph., on the Gallas and Somals, 487 Pehuenches, 428 Pelasgians, 459, 464, 503—6 Penka, Prof., on Aryan origins, 518 - on Greek oi'igins, 542 - on Italian origins, 538 People and Race, 32, 33 Pepohwans, 260 Permians, 339 Peroche, J., on the duration of the Stone Ages, 9 Persians, 279, 554 Peters, Dr J. P., on Babylonian chronology, 276 Philippine natives, 256 sq. Phoenicians, 491, 492 — 3 - alphabet, 492 Phratry, theory of, 397 — 8 INDEX. 579 Phrygians, 503, 516 Piaroas, 397 Pictavi, 525 Pictones, 463, 525 Picts, 463, 525 Pictographs, 25 Pictorial Art, prehistoric, 23 Picunches, 428 Pidgin English, 220 — i, 227 Eskimo, 299 Piette, E., on the Maz-d' Azil script, 21, 28 Pinches, T. G., on the Akkad lan- guage, 216 Pintos, 411 Pipils, 406 Pithecanthropus erectus, 3 — 6 Pleistocene Man, 2, 6, 7 - Migrations of, 8 Pliocene Man, 3, 5 — 7 Polabs, 548 Poles, 548 Polo, game of, 174, 189 Polyandry, theory of, 180 Polygenism, 2 Polynesians, 447, 562 — 4 Polysynthesis, 362 sq. Polytheism, v. God Ponkas, 395 Portuguese, 537 Pottawatomies, 386 Powell, J. W., on the evolution of American culture, 358 - on the American languages, 364 Powhatans, 385 Prehistoric Age, 24 - in China, 24 — 5 Promiscuity, 155 Pryer, W. B., on the Bajaus, 238 Pueblo Indians, 399 sq. Puelches, 428 Pun, Punt, 494 Punjabi, 560 Pun-ti, 220 Purmuli, 556 Pwos, 194 Pygmies, 117 sq. - at the Courts of the Pharaohs, 117—18 Quadi, 342 Quapaws, 395 Quaternary, see Pleistocene "Quaternary Sahara Sea," 451 Quechuas, 422 sq. Quetzalcoatl, 406 — 7 Quiches, 407 Race and People, Concept of, 31, 32 - and religion, 285 — 6 Rahawins, 487 Ranqueles, 429 Rasenes, 521 Rat, J. N. , on the Carib language, 362 Reihengraber, ts 1 3 Reinach, S., on the " oriental mirage," 506 Remisch, L., on the Welle-Congo languages, 77 — 8 Rejangs, 233, 245 Religion and race, 285 — 6 Religious ideas, common, their ethnic value, 1 86, 379 Religious ideas of the Andamanese, 1 60 - Annamese, 214 - Araucanians, 428 - Australians, 150 - Aztecs, 412 Babylonians, 279 Balinese, 235 Bantus, 115 — 16 Battas, 246 Botocudos, 437 - Chinese, 221 — 3 - Chins, 192 Dakotas, 395 Dyaks, 242 — 3 - Egyptians, 280 - Eshi-Kongo, 109 Felups, 49 - Gallas, 487 Japanese, 311 Karens, 194 Koreans, 307 Kuki-Lushai, 185 — 6 Lapps, 340—1 Liu-Kiu, 311 Mayas, 412, 415 Melanesians, 136 Muyscas, 420 — i Papuans, 132—135 Polynesians, 564 - Samoyads, 341 - Saponi, 393 Serers, 45 - Somals, 487 Tibetans, 181 — 3 Timni, 50 Tunguses, 288 Wagiryama, 95, 96 58o MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. Religious ideas of the Wolofs, 45 Renascence culture, 540 Rethy, L. , on the Rumanians, 541 Retu, v. Egyptians Rhaetians, 521 Rhoxolani, 342 Rialle, G. de, on the Formosans, 260 Ridgeway, W., on the Pelasgians, 505 - on the Iron Age, 22 Rink, Dr H., on the Eskimo, 371 — 4 Fru Signe, on Eskimo folk- lore, 375 Ripley, W. Z., on Acclimatization, 13 - on the European races, 447 - on Lapouge's three types, 456 - on British origins, 526 Ritter, K., on Galla migrations, 90 Roberts, H., on the Khassi language, 184 Robinson, Rev. C. H., on the Hausas, 64—5 Rockhill, W. W., on the Tibetans, 174—6, 178 - on polyandry, 180 Roesler, Prof., on the Rumanians, on the Southern Slavs, 545 — 6 Rolleston, Dr, on the early Britons, 528 Romaic language, 545 Romance Peoples, 533 sq. Romans, 539 Romansch, 540 Romilly, H. H., on the Papuans, 134 Rongs, 184 Roth, W. E., on Australian class marriages, 153 Rumanians, 327, 540 — i Runic script, 517 Rusniaks, 548 Russ, meaning of, 337 Russians, Great, 327, 550 Little, 327, 550 White, 550 Ruthenes, 548 Sabaeans, 88, 493 Sabellian language, 538 — 9 Sacae, 173—4 Sacs and Foxes, 385 Sahara, dry land in quaternary times, 45i Sakais, 162 Sakalavas, 253 Salars, 176 Salishans, 369 Salmon, P., on Neolithic types, 458 Salt, its ethnical associations, 163 — 4 Samaritans, 496 Samoans, 562 Samoyads, 337 Sam-Sams, 232 Santals, 558 Saponi, 392 Sardinians, 466 — 7 Sarmatians, 546 — 7 Sartes, 327 Sassaks, 234 Savaras, 558 Saxons, 527 Sayce, Rev. A. II., on the Libyans, 75 - on the Minsean Script, 495 - on Assyrian origins, 274 — 5 - on the Medes and Kimmerians, 279 — 80 Scandinavians, 527 Schetelig, A., on Oceanic relations, 262 Schott, H., on the Uigurs, 326 Schweinfurth, G., on the Welle na- tives, 77 - on the Cannibal Fans, 1 1 3 Schweizersbild, 12 Scots, 525, 531 Scripts, v. Writing Systems Scythians, 318, 546 Sekhwans, 260 Seljuks, 328 — 9 Semangs, 162 — 65 Seminoles, 390 Senecas, 389 Serbs, 548 Serers, 43 Sergi, G., on the /Eneolithic Age, 1 7 - on de Lapouge's Craniology, 33 on the Proto-Aryans, 446 on the European Cradle, 453 on the Mediterraneans, 459, on Kelts and Ligurians, 463 — 4 on the Proto-Italians, 467 — 8 on the Hamites, 469 — 71 on the Germans, 513 on the Latin language, 539 on the Etruscans, 522 on early British types, 527 on the Aryan languages, 542 Seri, 413 Servians, 548 Setebos, 433 INDEX. 58l Severenses, 549 Shamanism, Siberian, 288, 341 - American, 376 — 9 Shakshus, 555 Shans, 198 sq. Shargorodsky, S., on the Yukaghir Script, 296 Sharras, 284, 318 Shaw, Rev. J. A., on the Malagasy, 254 Shawnees, 383, 385 Shendus, 190 Sheyantes, 190 Shilluks, 76 Shintoism, 311 — 12 Shipibos, 433 Shluhs, 469 Shom-pen, 263 Shoshones, 383, 410 Shrubsall, J. C., on the Guanches, 457 Shukriehs, 72 Siah-posh Kafirs, 98, 55=, Siamese, 206 sq. Sibree, Rev. J., on the Malagasy, 252 Sicani, 465 — 6 Sicilians, 466 Siculi, 465 — 6 Sien-pi, 304 Sierra Leonese, 50 Sihanakas, 252, 253 Sikhs, 560 Silurians, 511 Simon, R., on the Australians, 148 Singphos, 193 Siouans, 391 sq. Sipivios, 433 Sistani, 556 Six Nations, 389 Siyirs, 190 Slavo-Kelts, 521 Slavs, 546—50 Slovaks, 548 Smeaton, D. M., on the Karens, 194 Smith, Dr D., on the Dumes, 119 Snellman, A. H., on Finnish origins, 336 So tribe, 67 Sok-pa, 179 Soktes, 190 Somals, 469, 486 — 7 Sommier, S., on the Guides, 269 Soninkes, 45 Sonrhays, 61 — 4 Soppitt, C. A., on the Kuki-Lushai, 185-6 Sorbs, 548 Soyotes, 332 Spaniards, 536—8 Steinmetz, R. S., on Cannibalism, 79, 419 Stone Ages, New Caledonia, 141 - America, 359 - Andaman Is., 158 Egypt, 452, 479 Ireland, 529 — 30 Japan, 271 — 2 Korea, 271 Malay peninsula, 165 Mongolia, 271 - N. Africa, 452 - Siberia, 268 — 9 - Sicily, 465 - Somaliland, 452 Tibet, 172 Tunis, 452 See also New Stone Age and Old Stone Age Sudanese Negro, 35, 39 - languages, 41 Sumerians, v. Akkads Sundanese, 233 Supreme Being, v. God Svastika, Tibetan, 181 — 2 Swettenham, F. A., on the latah malady, 236 Swiss, 521 Symbolism in early Art, 403 Syrians, 274 — 491 Syro-Chaldoeans, 496 Taboo, a food question, 141 Tacunas, 438 Tagals, 257—8 Ta-Hia, 320 Tai-Shans, 198 sq. - speech, 201 Tahitians, 562 TaJiks, 554—5 Takings, 187 Tamalas, 254 Tamils, 559 Tanaos, 383 Tanguts, 175, 179 Tanoans, 401 Taoism, 221 Tappeiner, F., on the Tyrolese, 521 Tapuyas, 419, 435 Taranchi, 326 Tarascos, 412 Tashons, 190 Tasmanians, 145, 156 — 8 Tatar, Tartar, v. Turki 582 MAN : PAST AND PRESENT. Tattooing processes, Burma, 198 - Melanesian, 138 - Shan, 199 Tauras, 383 Tautes, 190 Tavastians, 336, 338 Tawangs, 176 Taylor, Rev. W. E., on the Wagir- yama, 94 — 6 Taylor, G., on the Formosans, 260 —