fiECEI 7 ED,

JUN 3 ’?08

vr

o

ift

OF THE GRAY HERBARIUM

HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

THE GIFT OF

CAMBRIDGE BIOLOGICAL SERIES.

General Editor: — Arthur E. Shipley, M.A.

FELLOW AND TUTOR OF CHRIST’S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

FLOWERING PLANTS

AND

FERNS

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,
C. F. CLAY, Manager.

Hontron : FETTER LANE, E.C.

ffilasgofo: 50, WELLINGTON STREET.

ALSO

lUntJon: H. K. LEWIS, 136, GOWER STREET, W.C.
ILeip>tg: F. A. BROCKHAUS.
lork: G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS.

Bombay an b Calcutta : MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd.

\AU Rights reserved.']

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A MANUAL AND DICTIONARY

OF THE

FLOWERING PLANTS

AND

FERNS

BY

J. C. Willis, M.A., Sc.D.

Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon

THIRD EDITION

Cambridge :

at the University Press
1908

First Edition , 1897.
Second Edit ion , 1904.
Third Edition , 1908.

PREFACE.

HE following extracts from the preface to the first

X edition will serve to indicate the general inception
and the scope of the work.

“ The aim with which I commenced, nearly seven years
ago, to prepare this book, was to supply within a reasonable
compass, a summary of useful and scientific information
about the plants met with in a botanical garden or museum,
or in the field. The student, when placed before the
bewildering variety of forms in such a collection as that
at Kew, does not know where to begin or what to do.... The
available works of general reference are mostly very bulky
and often out of date, and as a rule refer only to systematic
or economic botany, and say nothing about morphology or
natural history. I have endeavoured to bring together in
this book as much information as is required by any but
specialists, upon all plants usually met with, and upon all
those points — morphology, classification, natural history,
economic botany, &c. — which do not require the use of a
microscope.

“ The principal part of the book consists of a dictionary
in which the whole of the families and the important genera
of flowering plants and ferns are dealt with. The families
are treated very fully, more so than in any ordinary text-

vi

PREFACE.

book of systematic botany, whereas the genera are treated
much more briefly unless they show some feature of special
interest that is not common to the family. This mode of
treatment has been adopted for two reasons — to prevent
the student from regarding the genera as isolated and un-
connected units, and to avoid repetition. To give the
generic characters in a work of this kind would... enor-
mously increase the bulk. The treatment adopted involves
a good deal of cross-reference, but will impress upon the
student the relationships of the members of the vegetable
kingdom to one another.

“ Finding that Part II was still wanting in co-ordination,
I wrote Part I to supplement it. . . . Our existing text-books of
morphology are mostly out of date and have little evolutionary
basis ; the principles of classification and evolution are not
explained in the elementary books, and the advanced books
take for granted that the reader is familiar with them ; no
good text-book of the natural history of plants or of their
geographical distribution is at present available in English.
I have therefore written Part I in such form that it makes
in itself a fairly complete treatise upon these subjects; at
the same time it is throughout designed for purposes of
cross-reference from Part II, and may be itself expanded to
almost any extent by reference to Part II for details. The
method of treatment adopted is novel, and is based on that
which I have employed for several years in my lectures.
The morphology of the vegetative organs is dealt with
generally in Chapter I, and in more detail in Chapter III
in connection with the natural history and geographical
distribution ;... the morphology of the flower is treated in
full in Chapter I, in connection with its natural history
and from an evolutionary standpoint. I have adopted this
method both because it seems to me to make more clear
the meaning of the morphological phenomena and the

PREFACE. .

Vll

connection between morphology and other branches of
botany, and because I have wished to place before the
student some of the general ideas underlying modern re-
search, with a view to suggesting directions in which further
research is desirable and likely to be profitable.

“ The second portion of this work is of course chiefly a
compilation ; a few original observations are inserted, but
none of any importance. I desire in the first place to
express my warmest thanks to Professor A. Engler, for his
kind permission to use the materials contained in Die ?icitiir-
lichen Pflanzenfamilien , a permission of which I have very
largely availed myself, the descriptions of many of the
families being almost entirely based upon that work. I am
also indebted to him and to Herr Engelmann for the use
of the late Professor Eichler’s figures. Many other books,
and hundreds of original papers have also been used in
preparing Part II ; the chief of these are mentioned on
a later page.”

The first edition was in two volumes. This was, I now
think, a mistake, for Part I is indispensable for purposes of
cross-reference from Part II by all but specialists. In this
edition the whole is combined into one volume, while Part I
is shortened as much as possible by the omission of contro-
versial matter, and by the use of smaller type for paragraphs
of descriptive terms and other articles not intended for
consecutive reading.

The former edition has been favourably received among
travellers, residents in outlying districts, schoolmasters, and
the considerable class of people who have an indirect in-
terest in botany and need some work of general reference
in that subject. Bearing in mind their requirements, and
those of botanical students, I have improved the present

PREFACE.

viii

edition by the incorporation of a large mass of new material.
Articles on outfit, on collecting and preserving material, on
observing and recording, and on general field work, have
been added to the introduction. The treatment of mor-
phology, ecology, and geographical distribution in Part I
has been made more categorical, and a large quantity of
new and important matter has been added. The bulk of
the technical terms in common use are now explained in
Part I, while a large number of others met with from time
to time in floras and similar works have been added to the
index (Part III). Part II has been revised, and consider-
able portions of it rewritten. Great additions have been
made to Part III, not only of technical terms and common
names, but also of the commoner Latin and Greek prefixes
and suffixes used in generic and specific names and technical
terms, together with the commoner specific names and their
English meanings. The tables of abbreviations have also
been incorporated with this part. In these and other ways
I have tried to render the work sufficiently complete for the
requirements of the readers indicated above, and a reliable
work of reference for all interested in botany. With this
work and a local flora of the district visited, the traveller or
student should be practically independent of other botanical
literature for all ordinary purposes. At the same time, for
the student at home, the work forms a treatise on general
morphology and ecology, geographical distribution, and
especially systematic botany, together with a very full dic-
tionary of technical terms and economic botany. Part I is
written so that it may be read consecutively by a student
who has a slight acquaintance with the rudiments of
botanical knowledge; the more difficult paragraphs may
be omitted at the first reading and read subsequently.

In preparing the first edition I was indebted for help
and advice to many friends, especially Professors Bower,

PREFACE.

IX

Marshall Ward, and Bayley Balfour, Sir William Thiselton-
Dyer, and Messrs Francis Darwin and I. H. Burkill, besides
Messrs Lang, Seward, Tansley, Lynch, Church, Moore,
Dewar and others. Since it appeared, I have received
many valuable suggestions from the above and other friends,
notably Drs Augustine Henry and A. J. Chalmers, Pro-
fessors G. L. Goodale and J. B. Farmer, and Mr R. H. Lock.
As with the former edition, so in this, I am indebted to
Mr A. E. Shipley for his kind cooperation in many ways.

JOHN C. WILLIS.

Royal Botanic Gardens,
Peradeniya, Ceylon,
November lyth) 1903.

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION.

In this edition Part II has been slightly enlarged and,
to a great extent, rewritten, while Part III has been largely
added to, with the view of bringing in all technical terms
likely to be met with, and colonial and American names of
plants. In addition to others already mentioned I am
much indebted to Mr A. M. Smith for revising proofs of
Part III and to Professors H. H. W. Pearson and
R. H. Yapp for corrections, etc.

J. C. W.

Peradeniya, Ceylon,

December , 1907.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Introductory Chapter ..... pp. i— 16.

I. The Science of Botany and its subdivisions, p. i ; II. Sugges-
tions to Students as to the method of using this book, p. 4;
III. Botanic Gardens, p. 6 ; IV. Botanical Museums, p. 8 ;
V. General Field Work, p. 9 ; VI. Notes for Field Botanists,
Travellers, and Collectors, p. 11.

PART I. Outlines of the Morphology, Natural His-
tory, Classification, Geographical Distribution
and Economic Uses of the Flowering Plants
and Ferns.

Chapter I. Outlines of the General Morphology, Physiology,
and Natural History of the Flowering Plants and Ferns

pp. 19—115-

General Principles, p. 19. Structure and Function, p. 19;
Variation, p. 21; Rate of Increase, p. 23; Struggle for Existence,
p. 24; Natural Selection, p. 24; Structural and Functional Cha-
racters, Ecology, Adaptation, p. 25; Comparison, p. 27; Position,
Mode of Origin, and Internal Structure, p. 28 ; Development,
p. 28; Seedling Stages, Reversions, Polymorphism, p. 29; Multiple
Origin and Parallel Descent, p. 29; Concrescence, p. 30; Abortion
and Suppression, p. 31 ; Symmetry, p. 31 ; Classification of Organs,
P- 3i-

Vegetative Organs, p. 32. Nutrition, Transpiration, Respira-
tion, Metabolism, p. 32; Growth, p. 34; Irritability, Movements,
Orientation, p. 3 6; The Root, p. 36; The Shoot, p. 40; The
Bud, p. 40 ; The Branches, p. 41 ; Growth in Thickness and
Habit of Stem, p. 43; Phyllotaxy, p. 45; The Leaf, p. 47; The
External Form of Leaves, p. 49.

TABLE OF CONTENTS .

xi

Reproductive Organs, p. 54. Cross- and Self-Fertilisation,
p. 56; Pollination, p. 58; The Inflorescence, p. 61 ; The Flower,
p. 66; Segregation of Sporophylls, p. 68; Reduction in number of
Sporophylls, and Arrangement of Floral Leaves in Whorls, p. 69;
Concrescence, Multiplication, Abortion, Suppression, p. 70 ;
Change of Form of the Receptacle, p. 71; Floral Symmetry,
p. 73; The Flower Bud, p. 74; The Perianth, p. 75; The
Stamens, p. 77; The Carpels, p. 79; The Floral Diagram, p. 83;
Floral Formulae, p. 84 ; Description of Flowers in technical
language, p. 84; Wind- Pollination or Anemophily, p. 85; Insect-
Pollination or Entomophily, p. 87; Floral Mechanisms, &c., p. 94;
Zoophily, p. 99; Colours of Flowers, &c., p. 100; Anthesis,
Protection, &c., p. 103; The Seed, p. 104; The Fruit, p. 106;
Distribution of Seeds, p. 109; Germination, p. in; Vegetative
Reproduction, p. 112; Appendix (Hairs, Emergences, Latex, &c.),
p. 1 14.

Chapter II. Classification of Plants . . pp. 115 — 139.

Evolution, p. 1 15; Principles of Classification, p. 120; Systems
of Classification, p. 123; Engler’s System, p. 124; Bentham and
Hooker’s System, p. 133 ; Eichler and Warming’s System, p. 138;
Identification of Natural Orders at sight, p. 139.

Chapter III. Forms of Vegetation, Geographical Distribution
of Plants, &c pp. 140 — 196.

Geographical Distribution of Plants, or Geographical Botany,
p. 140; Distribution of Species, Genera, &c., and limitation of
Area, p. 141; Discontinuous Distribution, Geological Influences,
p. 146; Island -Floras, p. 148; Mountain-Floras, p. 149; Forms
of Vegetation, p. 150; Herbs, p. 150; Shrubs and Trees, p. 154;
Water-Plants, p. 158; Xerophytes, p. 163; Sea-coast and Salt-
steppe Plants or Halophytes, p. 169; Mesophytes, p. 169; Climbing
Plants, p. 170; Epiphytes, p. 173; Parasites, p. 176; Saprophytes,
p. 177; Insectivorous Plants, p. 177; Zones of Vegetation, Plant-
Associations &c., p. 178; Northern Glacial Zone, p. 180; Northern
Zone of cold winters, p. 184; Northern Zone of hot summers,
p. 187; Tropical Zone, p. 189; Southern Temperate Zone with
hot summers, p. 19 1 ; Southern cold Zone, p. 192; Floral Regions,
p. 192.

Xll

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Chapter IV. Economic Botany . . . pp. 197 — 208.

I. Gums, Resins, Caoutchoucs, Guttaperchas, &c., p. 198;
II. Oils, p. 200; III. Dyes and Tanning-stufifs, p. 201 ; IV. Fibres,
p. 201 ; V. Drugs, p. 202 ; VI. Edible Products, p. 203; VII. Tim-
bers, p. 207; VIII. Miscellaneous useful plants and products,
p. 207.

PART II. The Classes, Cohorts, Orders, and Chief
Genera of the Flowering Plants and Ferns,
alphabetically arranged under their Latin names.

Explanatory Introduction, p. 21 1 ; Dictionary of Orders, Genera,
&c., pp. 215 — 634; Supplement, pp. 635 — 643; General Works of
Reference quoted, p. 648; Botanical Journals, p. 649.

PART III. Glossarial Index of English Names, Eco-
nomic Products, Technical Terms, Specific Names,
Abbreviations, Prefixes, &c.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

In Part I: Germination of Gourd, fig. 1, p. 37; | Phyllotaxy, fig. 2,
p. 45; Forms of Leaves, fig. 3, p. 52; Cymose Inflorescences, fig. 4,
p. 64 ; Types of Receptacle, &c., fig. 5, p. 72 ; Stamen Morphology,
fig- P- 78; Cross-sections of flowers, Myrtus, and Corydalis, figs. 7, 8,
p. 80; Longitudinal section of anatropous ovule, fig. 9, p. 81.

In Part II : Floral diagrams, &c. of Betulaceae, Boraginaceae,
Canna, Caryophyllaceae, Compositae, Cruciferae, Cyperaceae, Ericaceae,
Euphorbia, Fagaceae, Gesneraceae, Gramineae, Guttiferae, Labiatae,
Leguminosae, Liliaceae, Loranthaceae, Marantaceae, Myrtaceae, Or-
chidaceae, Palmae, Papaveraceae, Polygalaceae, Primulaceae, Ranuncu-
laceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Solanaceae,
Umbelliferae, Zingiberaceae.

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER

I. THE SCIENCE OF BOTANY AND
. ITS SUB-DIVISIONS.

The Vegetable Kingdom is composed of a vast number
of plants of different kinds and of various forms, growing
in greater or less abundance over most of the surface of the
globe, except where prevented by extreme drought, cold, or
darkness. The rocks contain great numbers of fossils,
representing, in a fragmentary way, some of the plants
which have occupied the earth in former ages. These
innumerable facts or phenomena, then, are the groundwork
or material with which the Science of Botany is concerned ;
it aims at knowing all about these plants, their life, their
structure, their relations to the physical environment and
to other forms of life, their functions and uses, their origin,
migrations, and distribution, and the laws which govern
all these, the past history of the vegetable kingdom from
the commencement of life on the earth, and the relationships
to one another of all plants, living or extinct.

The earlier students of plants occupied themselves
mainly with the detailed study of the external form and
structure of plants, a study which has gradually become
more and more comparative and now forms the science
of morphology , and with the investigation of their uses to
mankind — the science of economic botany . It was soon
realised that plants show greater or less degrees of mutual
similarity in structure, and that they can be arranged in
groups within groups accordingly : attempts at classifying

w.

i

2

INTRODUCTION

them in a satisfactory manner according to their structural
likenesses, or affinities, have continued with gradually increas-
ing success for many years ; this line of study constitutes the
science of systematic botany , classification , or taxonomy, and
is based on comparative morphology. This in turn has
itself been aided by the microscopic study of the internal
structure of plants — anatomy , and minute anatomy or
histology — especially in the earlier embryonic stages ( embry-
ology) of the life-history.

Mainly through the work of Charles Darwin, it has
in recent times been admitted that an evolution of the
vegetable kingdom from a few simple to many complex
forms has occurred and is still proceeding, and that struc-
tural affinity is really an expression of relationship by
descent. A complete revolution has thus taken place in
the science. Taxonomic study now aims not merely at
classification of now living forms, but also at tracing out
their past descent from other forms, or phytogeny . Hence
too, the study of fossil botany , or palceobotany , has of recent
years become of great importance.

Morphology has participated in the change of view,
though only within the last few years. It is now clearly
recognised that it too must be comparative, and based upon
phylogeny, and that the classification of the organs or parts
of plants is often almost as difficult as that of the plants
themselves and involves the same phylogenetic consider-
ations. At the same time it is recognised that the structure
of an organ is intimately related with its function, and that
change in the latter usually involves change in the former,
and vice versa. Hence the modern morphology is studied
largely in connection with physiology — the investigation of
the functions of plants and their constituent parts or organs.
Closely connected with physiology is ecology or natural
history , the study of the functional, competitive, and other
relationships of plants to their physical environment and
to one another, and this throws very great light upon
the meanings of the morphological features of plants.

A very important proximate cause or mechanism of
evolution is the variation which is so marked a feature
of all plants and parts of plants ; the study of this is now
coming into great prominence, as there are two rival theories

THE SCIENCE OF BOTANY

3

in the field as to the mechanism of evolution, based chiefly
on the two forms of variation which appear to characterise
living organisms.

Plants are not distributed at haphazard upon the surface
of the earth ; each kind occupies a definite area. The
study of the facts thus supplied by exploration and taxonomy
forms the science of geog?‘aphical distribution . The expla-
nation of the facts involves the study of physiological,
physical, and ecological conditions in all parts of the world,
the past geological history of the earth, the morphology and
phylogeny of the plants, their method of migration, their
variation, &c., and at the same time helps to throw light upon
all these subjects.

It is also becoming recognised that, since geological
evidence indicates that existing plants are descended from
plants of warm climates, it is very important that a close
study should be made of the existing tropical flora, and
especially from an ecological and physiological point of view
and in connection with fossil botany and morphology. Our
present generalisations are too largely based on the phe-
nomena of plants in cold countries, where the species are
fewer and where the effect of climate is so strongly marked
that it masks the individual peculiarities of plants. Many
of these generalisations are only special cases of wider ones
to be drawn from the study of tropical botany .

Other important lines of work are also arising from the
subdivision of those mentioned, eg. the study of the diseases
of plants, or vegetable pathology , which is an offshoot of
physiology and ecology.

All branches of Botany, then, are mutually interdepen-
dent, and also require the aid of physics, chemistry, zoology,
geology and other allied sciences. They must be studied
so as to throw light upon one another’s problems, not as if
they were independent sciences. It is from this point of
view that the following pages are written.

I 2

4

INTR OD UCTION

II. SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AS TO THE
METHOD OF USING THIS BOOK.

The present work is not intended as a mere dictionary
of miscellaneous information about plants, but also and in
an equal degree as a guide to the scientific study of mor-
phology, natural history, geographical distribution, classifica-
tion, economic botany &c. A few suggestions, therefore,
as to the mode of using the book may not be out of place.

While in Part II. no particular effort has been made
to avoid technical language, the terms and expressions
employed are so far explained in Part I. that it is hoped
that the book will be found available by any one, though
it is recommended that a preliminary study be made
of any of the small elementary treatises on Botany, e.g.
F. Darwin’s Elements of Botany in this series of Manuals.
An explanatory index will be found at the end of the book.

The student will do well to confine his attention during
the first summer and autumn to the elements of morphology
and natural history; these are dealt with in Chapter I.;
specimens should be obtained, dissected, and described in
technical language, and careful sketches made of points of
interest ; too great stress cannot be laid upon the importance
of careful description and drawing, which enforce attention
to essential and important features. The sections in Chap-
ter III. dealing with Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees should also
be read. During the winter he should study carefully the
various ways in which plants hibernate and store up reserves
for the growth of the next spring ; this will naturally lead to
a thorough study of the morphology of buds, and of tubers,
rhizomes and other underground parts.

As soon as a few flowers begin to appear out-of-doors,
the study of classification may be begun. At first no
attempt should be made to learn the characters of the
natural orders, nor to study the principles of classification,
but a thorough study should be made, with the aid of both
parts of this book, of all obtainable plants belonging to
about a dozen or twenty of the large orders, chosen as
representatives of the various sections of the natural system,
e.g. the following :

SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS

5

Compositae, Rubiaceae ; Labiatae, Primulaceae or Myr-
sinaceae, Ericaceae; Umbelliferae, Malvaceae, Leguminosae,
Rosaceae, Cruciferae, Ranunculaceae, Caryophyllaceae,
Betulaceae or Piperaceae ; Orchidaceae, Liliaceae, Grami-
neae ; Coniferae ; Selaginellaceae ; Polypodiaceae.

After a considerable number of plants and flowers of
these orders has been examined, dissected, described, and
sketched, the student will be able to refer to its relationships
any unknown plant of these orders that may be given to
him. He will now have a practical acquaintance with the
class of facts with which systematic botany deals, and should
study the principles of the subject (see Chapter II.) and
the different systems of classification in use. He should
not however be content with merely finding out the order to
which an unknown plant belongs, but should further study
the sub-division of these orders into their tribes ; this will
help him in grasping the principles of classification. Lastly,
with the aid of Hooker’s British Flora or the similar work
referring to his own district he should endeavour to identify
the genus and species of all wild plants which he recognises
as belonging to the orders he has studied. While he studies
the classificatory details of flowers &c., he should of course
pay attention to interesting features in their morphology or
natural history, and Part II. will aid him in this. The
various subjects treated in Chapter III. should also be
worked at one by one and studied in a botanic garden,
in museums, and in the field, with the aid of the details
given in Part II., and with reference to original papers for
further information. A third season may be employed in a
similar way by increasing the number of natural orders
studied ; the new ones will group themselves in the mind
round those already familiar. It is best not to attempt to
add too many new ones at once to the old ; about 40 — 501

1 These should at any rate include the following orders : Campanu-
laceae, Cucurbitaceae, Acanthaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Solanaceae,
Boraginaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Apocynaceae, Myrtaceae, Melastoma-
ceae, Cactaceae, Sapindaceae, Anacardiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rutaceae,
Podostemaceae, Saxifragaceae, Papaveraceae, Nymphaeaceae, Cheno-
podiaceae, Polygonaceae, Proteaceae, Moraceae, Fagaceae, Salicaceae,
Casuarinaceae ; Zingiberaceae, Iridaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Bromelia-
ceae, Araceae, Palmae, Cyperaceae, Potamogetonaceae ; Gnetaceae,
Cycadaceae ; Isoetaceae, Lycopodiaceae, Equisetaceae, Salviniaceae,

6

INTROD UCTION

is the most that should be attempted during a season. The
subjects of Chapter III. may now be further dealt with and
a commencement made upon Geographical Distribution or
upon the details of Economic Botany. A definite piece of
field work on the lines suggested in § V. below should also
be taken up at this stage.

III. BOTANIC GARDENS.

Most students have access to a Botanic Garden, and
should make a special point of visiting it regularly, and
working over definite groups of plants with the aid of this
book, but it is a great mistake to confine attention to the
named and labelled plants of a garden, and every opportu-
nity should be taken of doing real field work (cf. § V.). The
notes which follow are intended as suggestions for the use
of a botanic garden to good advantage.

The majority of such gardens in temperate climates are
arranged on similar lines ; they usually contain a Range of
Houses , representing tropical and warm temperate climates,
an Arboretum containing native trees and shrubs and others
from similar climates, a Herbaceous Ground for herbs and
small shrubs capable of outdoor cultivation, a Pond or
Tanks for water plants, often fed by a running stream in
which or on whose banks other plants may be grown, a Rock-
garden for alpine plants, succulents, and others that love dry
situations or stony soil, a Bog-garden for marsh and bog
plants, and so on. There are special beds set apart in many
gardens for Agricultural and Medicinal plants &c.

While in the outdoor beds the plants are usually always
arranged in the same places, this is not the case indoors.
In summer most of the specimens from the cooler houses
are carried out of doors and others from hot houses moved
into cool. In the houses themselves, with few exceptions,

Ophioglossaceae, Cyatheaceae, Hymenophyllaceae. The further orders
studied will depend upon the object the student has in view, whether a
general knowledge of botany, or a special knowledge of a particular
flora, or of economic botany, &c. The treatment given to the orders
in Part II. and the number of their genera and species will give a fair
index to their importance.

BOTANIC GARDENS

7

there is little attempt at any classification of the plants, whether
morphological or according to country of origin ; they are
put in the house best suited to their growth. Certain

general principles only can be given to guide a student,

and after a little practice, he will know fairly well where

to look for a particular plant he desires to see. He will

not, for instance, look for East Indian species on the Her-
baceous Ground, or for Crassulaceae in the Bog-garden.
He will know that few Australian plants, even from the
south, are hardy in Britain and will seek them in the
Temperate House, and so on.

The Range. Plant houses may be roughly classified into general
and special , and these again into tropical and temperate . The general
houses, such as the Stove or the Temperate House, contain plants of
every kind to which the climate of the particular house is suited. The
special houses contain representatives of special groups of plants with
certain features in common ; such as the Succulent House, Tropical
Orchid House, Water-lily House.

The list of houses at Kew, which has one of the most extensive and
specialised ranges, is as follows: (Tropical) Palm House, Tropical
Economics, Aroids, Begonias, Stove, Nepenthes, Water-lilies, Victoria
regia, Tropical Ferns, Tropical Orchids, Succulents; (Temperate)
Temperate House, Temperate Economics, South African, Conservatory,
Temperate Ferns, Filmy Ferns, Temperate Orchids, Alpines, Insecti-
vorous Plants.

In the Palm House , Aroid House , and Stove will be found tropical
plants, chiefly from climates where there is plenty of moisture, at least
during a large part of the year. Here are most of the Cycads, Palms,
Araceae, Bromeliaceae, Musaceae, Zingiberaceae, Marantaceae, Pipera-
ceae, Moraceae, tropical Lauraceae, Leguminosae and Euphorbiaceae,
Melastomaceae, Araliaceae, Sapotaceae, tropical Asclepiadaceae, Ges-
neraceae, Acanthaceae, tropical Rubiaceae and many smaller tropical
orders. The contents of Aroid , Begonia , Tropical Fern and Orchid
Houses are sufficiently indicated by their names. The Water-lily House
contains various Nymphaeaceae, Hydrocharitaceae, and other tropical
and sub-tropical water plants. In most gardens it is festooned with
climbing plants, such as Vitis, Cucurbitaceae, Passifloraceae, &c. The
Cactus and Succulent Houses contain xerophytes, chiefly succulent forms
from very dry climates, including Cactaceae, Euphorbiaceae, # Asclepia-
daceae, &c. with fleshy stems, and various Liliaceae, Amaryllidaceae,
Aizoaceae, Crassulaceae, Compositae, &c. with fleshy leaves (see
Chapter III.). In these houses the air is kept much drier than in
the preceding ones.

Among the cooler houses, the Temperate House corresponds to the
Palm House ; here will be found most Australian and other S.. Tem-
perate plants, the plants of the Mediterranean and warmer temperate
zones, and the plants of the middle zones of the Himalaya and other
tropical mountains. Most of the Proteaceae, Rutaceae, Thymelaeaceae,

8

INTRO I) UCTION

Myrtaceae, Acacias, &c. are to be seen here. The Heath House or
South African House contains Ericaceae, Epacridaceae, &c. from the
S. Temperate zone. The Consei-vatory is usually a show house, the
plants in which are perpetually changed to keep up a display of flowers
all the year round. The names of the other cool houses explain
themselves.

The Arboretum contains specimens of trees and shrubs, most of
which belong to the orders Coniferae, Juglandaceae, Salicaceae, Betu-
laceae, Fagaceae, Ulmaceae, Magnoliaceae, Saxifragaceae, Hamameli-
daceae, Piatanaceae, Rosaceae, Leguminosae, Buxaceae, Aceraceae,
Hippocastanaceae, Sapindaceae, Rhamnaceae, Vitaceae, Tiliaceae,
Cornaceae, Ericaceae, Oleaceae, Caprifoliaceae.

The Fond, Tanks, and Bog-garden contain the hardy water and
bog plants, especially those of the native flora. See Chapter III.

The Rock Garden contains most of the hardy alpine and rock
plants. Many alpines refuse to grow out-of-doors at low levels, on
account of the dampness of the winter, and must be cultivated under
glass in the Alpme House for a portion of the year. See Chapter III.

The Herbaceous Ground contains the smaller plants suited to
ordinary out-of-door culture other than those requiring specially dry or
wet situations. Here will be found representatives of most native plants,
and foreign plants belonging to the same orders, and also many Com-
melinaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Phytolaccaceae, Aizoaceae, Capparidaceae,
Zygophyllaceae, Rutaceae, Loasaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Polemoniaceae,
Hydrophyllaceae, Acanthaceae, &c. Each order has usually a bed to
itself, and the beds are grouped according to some system of classification
(that of Bentham and Hooker in several gardens).

Visitors are not allowed to pick or handle specimens in botanic
gardens, but in most of them specimens may be obtained for purposes
of study by application to the Curator or sometimes to the Professor of
Botany. At Kew there is a small Students’ Garden, where specimens
may be picked.

IV. BOTANICAL MUSEUMS.

These are usually designed to illustrate Systematic or
Economic Botany, or both ; in the former case, and often
also in the latter, they are arranged according to the natural
families of plants, but some of the best economic museums
are arranged by products, usually on a system like that in
Chapter IV. Many museums exhibit series of specimens
illustrating types of vegetation, morphology of organs, floras
of particular countries, &c.

The student will find this book useful in the museum ;
he should use the collections in connection with his general
Study and outdoor work, following up the various heads of

BOTANICAL MUSEUMS

9

work in Part I., tracing out illustrative specimens, and should
also study natural orders with the aid of Part II., in which
also details of every specimen studied should be looked out.

Most good museums also publish guide-books which will
supplement the information here given.

V. GENERAL FIELD WORK.

The student should begin field work on the wild flora
as soon as he has a good general acquaintance with the
elements of morphology and with plants of a few natural
orders (cf. § II. above). He will require a “ Flora ” which
will enable him to identify the local plants, in addition to
the present work.

While at first it is probably best only to dissect, describe,
and identify the plants met with, as suggested in § II., the
student, as soon as he feels at home with his work, should
undertake a definite piece of field work which will involve
the study of the plants in the light of all the various branches
of botanical science. He should begin with a definite area,
as uniform as he can find, e.g. a piece of moor, a sea-shore,
a sand-dune, a crag-face, a pond, a roadside bank, an old
building, the tops of a group of pollard willows, an oak, pine,
beech or mixed wood with its undergrowth, a field or a town-
garden with its weeds, a circumscribed plot upon a grass-
lawn, &c. This he should study at all times of year, and
answer in detail, in writing and with sketches, the following
among other questions.

What kind of soil, water-supply, drainage, elevation,
exposure to light, exposure to wind, shelter from particular
winds, and other physical features has the area in question ?
How do all these differ from those of the surrounding areas ?
What species of plants occur? What proportion do they
bear to the neighbouring flora ? How many other species
are there within a short distance? Why are certain species
present on the area, and the others of the neighbourhood
absent from it ? What is the means of dispersal (by seed
and vegetatively) of each species in both sets ? Is absence
of a good means of dispersal enough to account for the
absence, and presence of a good means for the presence, of

IO

INTR OD UCTION

the various species? Has dryness or wetness, the kind
of soil or any other physical agent, anything to do with
presence or absence of species (test by experiments in
planting, and by comparison with areas differing in one
of these characters) ? What are the relative numbers of
each species in a given small portion of the area, eg. in
4 square yards? Do the proportions differ on different
small portions, and if so, why? Why are some species
much more (less) numerous than others? Is this abundance
(rarity) general in the neighbourhood, or confined to the
area considered? What special advantages or disadvantages
in the general competition has each species, under each of
the following and other headings ? What are the polli-
nation-methods of the flowers, and how perfect are they ?
Do they lead mainly to cross- or to self-pollination ? What
insects visit the flowers, and of what kinds ; and what pro-
portion of the total insect-visits of each kind does each
flower get? How much seed does each species produce,
both actually and in proportion to the possible quantity
indicated by its flowers, and to that produced by other
species ? What are the germination phenomena, and does
the species gain any advantage in early, late, or rapid
germination ? Do any plants gain by early or late flowering,
by special arrangements for bud-protection, for wintering,
for storage of reserves, by annual or perennial habit, by
xerophytic, aquatic, climbing, parasitic, saprophytic, or other
peculiarities ? What is the exact life-history of each species ?
and so on.

Other areas, differing from the first, should be examined
in the same way, and compared with it, and an attempt
should be made to map the whole district into regions
characterised by definite vegetations; of course these will
shade into one another at their edges. The student will
soon find this kind of work fascinating, and it will tax his
knowledge of every branch of Botany and suggest innu-
merable problems for solution, besides supplying abundant
material for morphological, anatomical, or embryological
study. There is also ample opening for new research in this
direction, even in well-known floras like that of Britain,
when he becomes proficient.

NOTES FOR FIELD BOTANISTS , &>c.

1 1

VI. NOTES FOR FIELD BOTANISTS, TRAVELLERS,
AND COLLECTORS.

Outfit. Any or all of the following may be needed,
according to the places to be visited, and the kind of work
to be done. All that is needed should be taken from the
start, as it is usually difficult to get suitable things quickly
elsewhere ; extra supplies of paper, etc. may be sent to the
“ Poste restante ” at places to be visited en route.

Portfolios for pressing plants as collected, lightly made of two strong
cloth-covered pasteboards (17 in. x 1 1 in.) with encircling straps and
handle, and to contain 30 — 50 sheets of paper. Specimens as collected
are put at once into these and time is thus saved in making large
collections, eg. on a journey in new country.

Collecting tins or vasculums of various sizes for bringing plants home
for further study. When slung on the back, the hinges should be on the
lower side of the lid, and the bolt should slide downwards to fasten,
otherwise it is liable to work loose. Small specimens are best carried
in small round-cornered tobacco or tooth-powder tins , not among large
ones in a general vasculum.

Presses for drying plants ; each consists of two outer frames of \ inch
iron rod I7i x n£ inches,
tilled in with stout wire netting
soldered to the iron. The

papers lie between these fram es g

and the whole is strapped with
two stout straps to obtain the

pressure. r_ —

• 1

• 1

Lattices , 17x11 inches, for | j

admitting air between the 3 i 1 j 4

masses of plants in the press,

made of two sets of parallel ! :

thin laths fastened together at *

right angles.

Drying paper in sheets 2

17x11 inches in ample quan-
tity ; stout Manila is best,
blotting paper is too fragile.

Mounting paper in sheets

i6JxioJ inches (standard size of Kew herbarium) or sheets of
newspaper or other common paper for preservation of dry specimens
removed from the press. Unfolded envelopes of thin paper cut into the
shape shown, for seeds, flowers, &c. ; place the specimen on 1 and fold
over the wings 2, 3, 4, 5 in order. 2 must be the same size as 1.

12

INTR OB UCTION

Waxcloth for tying up bundles of dried and mounted specimens ;
waterproof canvas for covers for presses &c. in case of rain.

Corrosive sublimate (mercuric chloride) and alcohol for poisoning
specimens ; made up as required in the proportion of i part to 50.
Large dish for poisoning. Naphthalin for keeping away insects.

Kerosine tins or other square tins with large lids for preserving
specimens in alcohol (lids that push in airtight, as in many tobacco tins,
are the best) ; soldei'ing apparatus for fastening up when full.

Bottles with stoppers for preserving delicate specimens ; neckless
glass tubes , with corks, of various sizes. Bottles are easily packed in
joints of bamboo, tubes in small tins.

Muslin for wrapping alcohol specimens. Each should be wrapped
with its label (in Indian ink, or better on metal) in a piece of muslin and
packed in the tin ; specimens cannot then become mixed together, and
can be closely packed.

Alcohol for preserving; ordinary methylated spirit is best for most
things, but some require 70 °/0 alcohol, and some absolute alcohol.

Formalin , picric acid , chromic acid , glycerin , or other preservatives
for special work.

Butterfly-net, killing-bottle , insect boxes , entomological pins , if ecological
work is to be done.

Hunting-knife , cutlass, or kukri for lopping creepers &c. ; pruning
sheais for cutting branches ; sir ong pocket knives ; strong narrow-bladed
trowels ; geological hammer ; strong rope for climbing See.

Travelling microscope and lenses ; dissecting microscope ; pocket lenses;
microscope slides; cover-slips in alcohol or oil; scalpels; dissecting
needles; scissors large and small and with fine points; razors for
section-cutting ; forceps ; dishes ; watch-glasses ; camel-hair brushes .

Reagents and mountants for simple microscopic work, e.g. iodine,
glycerine, haematoxylin, gold-size, Canada balsam in xylol, alcohol, oil
of cloves.

Compass (prismatic by preference); spirit-level; aneroid barometer;
thermometers t(ordinary, maximum and minimum, wet and dry bulb) ;
field glass (very useful for studying cliffs, ravines, trees, &c.) ; maps
(geographical, geological, outlines for marking distribution, See.).

Photographic camera and lenses ; tripod ; films or plates in soldered
tins ; chemicals and dishes for developing, fixing, &c.

Drawing pencils (hard, medium, soft); drawing cards; sketch-block ;
colours ; brushes ; india-rubber ; ink; compasses ; ruler; scales in inches
and centimetres; gum and brush; pins ; pens; pencils ; stylograph .

Spirit-lamp; tape-measure ; string, twine and thread ; thin wire;
sheet -lead or zinc for labels (if latter, also solution of platinic chloride
for writing on it) ; glue-pot and glue for mounting.

NOTES FOR FIELD BOTANISTS, &c. 13

Note-books with numbered detachable pages, so that the description
of each specimen can be separated afterwards ; consecutively numbered
and perforated labels for specimens, the numbers to correspond to those
in note-book. The labels may be joined to the pages of the note-book
or in sheets like postage stamps. More than one label of each number
will usually be needed.

Collecting and Preserving. The following hints
will be found useful.

Decide the general object -of the work in advance, and collect
principally for the furtherance of that object.

In collecting for subsequent distribution, collect enough specimens
to go round easily, but do not in any case exterminate or seriously
diminish any plant in its native locality.

Do not collect immediately on arrival ; first become familiar with
the plants and their local features and distribution. Better results are
obtained by choosing certain localities as headquarters and working
these thoroughly, than by rushing through a large district and changing
headquarters frequently.

Do not collect herbarium material in wet weather.

Collect specimens which are as typical as possible, but also take
some illustrating the range of variation, the difference of habit and size
on different soils or situations, &c.

Collect entire plants where possible, including roots. In case of
shrubs or trees, collect twigs with leaves in all stages, portions of stem-
bark and anything else necessary to furnish a complete description. Do
not forget radical leaves, buds, flowers, ripe and unripe fruits, seeds.

If a large collection is being made, it is quicker to use the portfolio
than the vasculum, and to press each specimen as soon as obtained.

Large flowers or heads ( e.g . thistles), fruits, roots, tubers, &c. may
be sliced in half before pressing, or the surface only sliced off. Notes
and sketches should be made of the original appearance.

Leaves of Conifers, Heaths, small Succulents, &c. fall off when
dried, unless previously immersed for a few seconds in boiling water.

Thorny and prickly plants should first be placed between boards and
pressed down with the feet to crush the prickles, which would otherwise
tear the papers.

Delicate water plants should be arranged upon sheets of white paper
under water, and always remain on these sheets while drying.

It saves time in drying delicate specimens to keep each always in a
folded sheet of very thin paper.

Place extra flowers, small fragments, seeds, etc., in small envelopes,
numbered to correspond with the specimens ; do not have any small
parts loose, or confusion may result.

Place all specimens to be dried in the press the day they are
collected. Withered plants may be soaked in water ; if the stem be
cut about 2 — 3 inches above the former cut and under water it will
often revive quickly.

Label every specimen with its consecutive number in such a way
that the number cannot be lost. Punched labels are best, tied on with
thread. See that all envelopes &c. have the same number.

14

INTR 0DUCT10N

Spread out the specimens as naturally as possible. If many leaves
etc. overlap, place bits of drying paper between them. If stems have to
be cut, mark the corresponding ends by stars on the paper. Spread out
some flowers, leave others unspread, and divide some in the antero-
posterior plane. Divide some fruits lengthwise and crosswise.

Arrange the specimens on the sheets so that they form a steady pile
without lumps in the middle. Place a lattice upon every five inches of
specimens. When all are ready place in the press and draw the straps
as tight as possible, or better, place about 15 lbs. weight upon it.
Tighten the straps as the plants shrink.

Change the drying papers at least once daily : dry the used paper in
the sun or by the fire, and use warm driers where possible. See that
petals &c. do not stick to the paper : jf necessary put slips of tissue
paper under them.

In changing the papers, put the outer specimens inside, so that all
shall dry evenly. Drying should be as rapid as possible to prevent loss
of colour, blackening, &c.

Fully dried plants no longer feel cold on the cheek, and are stiff and
brittle.

Dried specimens should be poisoned by a brief immersion in 2 °/0
solution of mercuric chloride in alcohol. They should then be dried in
the air, mounted (with glue) or laid between sheets of paper, and tied
up in wax-cloth with a little naphthalin to keep out insects.

Material for subsequent microscopic examination or for museums
must usually be preserved in alcohol. Cut into small portions, attach label
(best of zinc written on with solution of platinic chloride, but paper and
pencil or Indian ink will do temporarily) ; place in methylated spirit for
a few days, wrapped in muslin, and finally preserve in large tin. A few
inches of spirit at the bottom, enough to keep all specimens moist when
the tin is soldered, will suffice for most material. Specimens for embryo-
logical, delicate histological, cytological, and other investigations, and
delicate plants or organs, must be separately preserved from the first in
absolute alcohol in bottles or tubes. Labels should be put inside these.
Contents of bottles may be written on the ground surface of the stoppers,
so as to be legible through the neck.

Museum material may also be preserved in formalin (1 part of
ordinary solution to 10 or more of water). Some special preservatives,
e.g. picric and chromic acids, are used in special cases.

Specimens illustrative of economic uses of plants and their products
should be collected in less known districts, e.g. samples of gums, resins,
caoutchoucs, oils, fibres, timbers (portions of trunks, or slabs 8x4x4
inches), food-products, drugs, dyes, tans, &c. In all cases the exact
origin of the product should be verified, and herbarium specimens
taken, bearing numbers to correspond with those placed on the
products.

From less known countries, endeavour to bring back living seeds
(ripe, well dried, packed in charcoal in tins if to be long kept), bulbs
(gathered when dry and with withered leaves), succulent plants (gathered
dry and loosely packed), living plants (planted in earth in Wardian
cases or sometimes in bamboo pots, if possible some weeks before
moving).

NOTES FOR FIELD BOTANISTS , &c. 15

Recording’. The following hints are worth noting.

Make all notes immediately upon observation of the facts ; never
trust to memory, nor delay recording.

Make all notes about individual specimens upon detachable sheets,
numbered to correspond with the specimens ; never describe two or
more on the same sheet ; never use the same number twice.

Make no record till satisfied of the truth and accuracy of the
observation.

Accompany all notes with maps, drawings, sketches, or photographs
so far as possible.

Sketch and photograph all peculiarities of habit, characteristic forms
of vegetation, and other features of interest. Mark all plants in such
pictures with numbers corresponding to their numbers in your collection,
and write a full description of each picture before leaving the spot. If
a photograph is taken, make a rough sketch (from the picture on the
focussing screen or finder) of the scene and put numbers to the plants.

Label all specimens as collected with consecutive numbers, and
subsequently with permanent labels (about 3x2 inches) giving name of
herbarium, collection, tour or district in which they were collected,
date, locality, and collector, as well as the number, e.g .

Herb. Peraden.

Willis, Podostemaceae Indicae, No. 55.

Hydrobryum sessile , Willis !

S. India, on rocks in river at Beltangadi,
South Kanara. 10 Nov. 1900.

Coll. C. A. Barber (No. 2520, S. Ind. Flora).

The ! following the name indicates personal verification of the
identity of the specimen.

As each specimen is gathered, record the date, exact . locality,
elevation above sea-level, habit, colour of flower and fruit, scent,
presence or absence of honey, floral mechanism, insect visits, and any
other features and facts that cannot be ascertained from the specimens
preserved.

Note the comparative frequency of each species, the kind of situation
and soil it affects, and the species with which it is found in association.

Endeavour to note the chief general forms of vegetation and the

i6

INTROD UCTION

local grouping of plants in the district studied. Pay special attention
to the ecological and geographical questions suggested above under
Field Work.

Record all native names (question several different individuals before
deciding), economic uses, and other points of general or ethnological
interest.

Further details of the subjects treated in this section may be found
in the Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry , Dammer’s Handbuch
fiir Pfiaiiztnsammler , Stuttgart, 1891, Asa Gray’s Structural Botany ,

&c.

PART I.

OUTLINES OF THE MORPHOLOGY, NATURAL
HISTORY, CLASSIFICATION, GEOGRAPHI-
CAL DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC USES
OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS

CHAPTER I.

OUTLINES OF THE GENERAL MORPHOLOGY,

PHYSIOLOGY, AND NATURAL HISTORY OF
FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS.

The following account is designed as a guide to the
systematic study of these subjects ; the examples quoted
are described at greater length in Part II., and the whole is
arranged for convenience of cross-reference. Further detail
may be found by advanced students in the various books
and papers mentioned. The beginner should omit the
section on general principles, except its first and last
paragraphs, at his first reading, and return to it when
he has worked through the other sections on Vegetative
and Reproductive Organs.

General Principles.

Structure and Function. There is reason to believe
that the great number and variety of plants now existing
have arisen by a process of evolution or gradual modifica-
tion from a few simpler forms. The great feature of this
evolution has been the increasing complexity of the in-
dividual plant, as ' of the whole vegetable kingdom ; in
place of simple often almost homogeneous organisms, any
part of which may perform any function that may be
required, there now exist also a great many complex
heterogeneous organisms, with many different parts or
organs performing different functions, a specialisation which

2 — 2

20

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

evidently tends to greater efficiency in the performance of
those functions. There is, in fact, a functional or physiologi-
cal divisio?i of labour , accompanied by a structural or 7norpho-
logical differentiation of organs. To investigate the functions
of plants and their gradual differentiation and perfection
is the province of physiology \ to do the same for the organs
that of morphology , which seeks to know and interpret the
structure and development of all organs, to trace and
explain their origin, descent and modifications (i.e. their
phylogeny) and to group them according to their natural
relationships to one another by descent.

Not only do differentiations of structure and function go
hand in hand, but also changes of these features, which
may be brought about, for example, by change of climate
or soil, or by other circumstances. In many cases we can
see this change of structure or metamorphosis actually
occurring in connection with a functional change, e.g. in
Astragalus, where a leaf changes to a thorn, in Geum, where
a style changes to a hook, and in the formation of fruits.
Mutilation may bring about metamorphosis, as in Abies,
or attacks of fungi, as in the formation of witches’ brooms on
trees (Chap. III.). In most trees in cold climates, the last-
formed exposed leaves in autumn are bud-scales, or leaves
whose peculiar form is due to enlargement of the base and
suppression of the blade of an ordinary leaf during its
growth ; the function of these scales is to protect the bud
during the winter. This leads on to the case of “successive ”
metamorphosis shown by such water plants as Littorella and
Polygonum, where if a plant become submerged which was
before exposed, it produces new leaves structurally and
functionally suited to the new conditions, but does not
alter the old ones. Here we can still see the change occur,
but there are also innumerable other cases where we cannot
do so, but where we find an organ performing a different
function and possessing a different structure from those
of the organ from which the general evidence shows it
to be descended ; thus an organ that is descended from
a true leaf may have the function and structure of a root,
as in Salvinia. Other instances are the leaf-like roots

Comparative physiology is as yet, however, in a very early stage.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 21

of many Podostemaceae, the leaf-like stems of Ruscus and
the root-like stems of Psilotum. Here we cannot absolutely
prove that a metamorphosis has occurred during or in
the phylogeny, but the general evidence favours such an
assumption. The important point now is that the actual
function performed by an organ is no proof of its phylo-
genetic structural nature. The majority of organs now
absorbing water from the soil are roots, in all probability
lineally descended from the original roots that were first
differentiated to perform the water-absorbing function ; but
other organs are at times found doing this work, with their
structure correspondingly changed.

While differentiation and change of function go hand
in hand with differentiation and change of structure, we do
not know which is cause and which effect. Most probably,
perhaps, neither is, but both are phenomena of some more
general law. They are however the great features of
evolution and should be studied together1.

We have now to consider how they work. If all organ-
isms of the same kind were alike in structure and function,
and offspring like their parents, progress would not be
possible, but this is not the case, and the variation that
exists forms the basis for change and evolution.

Variation. No two organisms or organs are exactly
alike, even though they be the offspring of the same parent.
Whatever character be chosen, examination of a large
number of cases will show that it varies in degree of
development in different individuals. The study of varia-
tion has received less attention than it deserves, considering
that upon it rests the whole theory of evolution ; recently
however important work has been done. To formulate laws
of variation in the present state of our knowledge is almost
impossible, but a few important generalisations have been
made.

In any character whose value can be numerically ex-
pressed, e.g. the height of the individual, it is found that

1 And see Goebel, Organography of Plants , Engl. ed. ; Asa Gray,
Structural Botany (formal non-evolutionary morphology) ; Sachs,
Lectures 07t Physiology , Engl. ed. (a rebound to the opposite extreme
of physiological morphology) ; Sachs, History of Botany .

22

VARIATION

if a sufficiently large number of individuals be measured,
and a sufficiently small unit of measurement be used,
the amount and nature of the variations can usually be
expressed by a simple curve, rising from zero to a maximum
and falling off again to zero on the other side. Thus the
lengths of the lowest fruits of 568 plants of CEnothera
lamarckiana were measured by De Vries with the following
result, the upper figures being the lengths in mm., the
lower the number of fruits of those lengths.

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

1 1 5 11 17 27 37 62 74 83 79 51 43 32 18 13 5 5 3 1

Thus the greatest number of fruits have the mean

length, and the figures are evenly grouped about this mean.

Such variation is called continuous, and the curve is known
as a binomial, Galtonian, or Newtonian curve, or curve
of Frequency of Error.

Frequently it happens that when a curve is plotted from
a given character, it shows two or more humps or maxima,
e.g. in a lot of Chrysanthemum segetum a counting of
numbers of ray-florets gave maxima at 1 3 and 2 1 with a fall
between. This is discontinuous variation, and indicates
a mixture of two races, each with its own mean for the
character in question. Seeds from n — 14-flowered forms
gave a set of plants whose rays varied simply about 13.
The important question now in dispute is whether this
discontinuity arises from continuity by continuous infinitesi-
mal stages, or by distinct steps. Such “step- variations,”
in which one or more individuals appear with a variation
not connected by continuous intermediate stages with the
other individuals of the species, are termed sports (or, on
one view, 7nutations\ and if they be of a very pronounced
nature may be monstrosities. Monstrosities graduate into
sports by easy stages and it is difficult sometimes to decide
under which head to class a given variation \

1 The study of monstrosities is termed teratology , and was formerly
much employed in the decision of morphological problems. Thus the
frequent occurrence of green leaves in place of carpels was regarded as
a proof of the derivation of the latter from leaves, the doubling of a
flower (i.e. the change of its stamens into petals) as a proof of the

VARIATION

23

It is evident, then, that in studying a plant or an organ,
we must examine a number of individuals to be sure that
we are dealing with an average form, not with extremes
or sports.

A very important factor in variation problems is what
is termed correlated variation. By this is meant that when
an organism varies in one part, the result is frequently a
variation in other parts as well, often such as have apparently
no direct relationship to the first. Very probably nutrition
has something to do with this; if an extra amount is
diverted into any channel, as will happen in many cases
of variation, the balance will have to be redressed else-
where, and this may be the cause of further variations.
No rules can be formulated about variation of this kind,
but there are many cases which seem only explicable by
assuming correlation.

As to the causes of variation, we know little. The
mixing of parental characters in generation, and change
of external conditions of life, are probably among the most
active. The extent of the permanent influence of the
external conditions upon plant-structure has yet to be
investigated. So far as we can judge, favourable, unfavour-
able, and indifferent variations appear. Variation thus
provides a basis for structural and functional change, and
we have now to consider how the latter may be effected1.

Rate of Increase. Every kind of animal and plant
produces so many offspring that if nothing interfered with
their growth and propagation they would soon cover the
globe. As the average number of representatives of each

derivation of stamens from petals and so on. Other common mon-
strosities are fasciation , often found in buttercups, &c. and hereditary in
the garden cockscomb (Celosia, q.v .), in which the stems and
branches are laterally united, forming a flat structure, peloria (see
Scrophulariaceae), and prolijication , or formation of buds in the axils
of floral leaves. The evidence of monstrosities can only be regarded
as useful in solving morphological problems when a series of stages can
be found between the monstrous and the normal forms.

1 And see Darwin, Origin of Species , Variation of Animals and
Plants , Descent of Man ; Wallace, Darwinism ; Bateson, Variation ;
Galton, Natural Inheritance ; De Vries, Die Mutations-theorie ; Daven-
port, Statistical Methods ; Vernon, Variation in Animals and Plants ;
&c.

24

RATE OF INCREASE

kind remains fairly constant from year to year, it is evident
that a vast amount of destruction must take place, and that
only a few of the offspring of each generation survive. The
destruction is effected by animal enemies, parasitic enemies,
competition with other individuals of the same or different
kinds, unfavourable conditions of climate or environment,
&c. When a species is transferred to a new country the
balance that existed in its former habitat between its rates
of increase and destruction is interfered with, often in a
favourable direction, as is illustrated by the multiplication
of rabbits in Australia, of Elodea in Britain, of cardoons on
the Pampas. On the other hand many species are unable
to establish themselves in new countries, even though, as
far as we can judge, the conditions of life are as favourable
as in their old localities.

Struggle for Existence. It follows that there must
be among plants and animals a continual struggle for
existence and propagation, both against one another and
against the external conditions of life, keener between in-
dividuals of the same kind than between those of different
kinds, but occurring wherever individuals are so close to-
gether as to compete for soil, light, air, or other necessaries.
There may even be competition between plants far apart,
for the services of insects. In deserts, arctic countries, and
similar situations, the struggle is rather between plant and
climate or environment, than between plant and plant, as
the individuals are not usually close together.

We have now to consider what determines which indi-
viduals are to succeed, and which to perish.

Natural Selection. If there were no variation among
the individuals of a species, there would be a ‘survival of
the accidentally favoured/ but when variation enters into
the problem the result is different. Those individuals which
are superior to their fellows in any character or sum of
characters (not necessarily all favourable) that is of im-
portance in the general conditions of life, eg. by giving
increased economy or efficiency, or by protecting against
risk or danger, will on the whole be the survivors, and there
will thus be a survival of the fittest , or a ?iatural selection ,
analogous to the artificial selection employed by breeders,
who select in each generation the finest and most suitable

NATURAL SELECTION

25

individuals to propagate their race. The survival of acci-
dentally favoured individuals will also occur, but in the long
run the effect of this factor will be nil , as it will sometimes
select better, sometimes worse, individuals. The importance
to an animal or plant of even a slight variation can only be
appreciated after considerable familiarity with outdoor natural
history has been attained, and even then only in a few cases.
The very delicate adjustment of the balance subsisting
between the various organisms of a district and between
them and their surroundings may be disturbed even by the
most apparently trivial causes. We know for instance that
the weight of the individual seeds in any given species is
variable ; now heavy seeds give stronger plants, and hence,
as offspring tend to inherit the parental characters, the
weight of the seed may tend to increase in each generation,
until further increase becomes disadvantageous, either di-
rectly or by producing correlated effects on some other
structure or function in the plant.

Many recent authors (cf. works mentioned under Varia-
tion) deny that continuous variations can be thus permanently
accumulated, and base evolution upon discontinuous varia-
tion, but for our purpose it is sufficient that variations can
be accumulated and in time produce such alteration in
structure and function that it may be extremely hard to
trace the phylogeny of an organ or plant (cf. Chap. II.).

Structural and Functional Characters ; Adap-
tation ; Ecology- It is evident that every existing plant
or species must be fairly well suited to its surroundings,
but not necessarily perfectly so ; if it be very well suited to
existence amid such environment, it will probably increase
in numbers, if not, it will probably decrease, and perhaps
ultimately become extinct. Its characters are, as we have
seen, derived from pre-existing forms, but a certain number
of them will have been recently acquired in the evolution
that has occurred. These will often be characters suiting
it more closely to the circumstances under which its life is
carried on, and if hereditary and of direct use in the life-
history, may be called adaptive characters, or adaptations
to the mode of life. As time goes on, if the descendants
continue to live in similar environments, the adaptive cha-
racters may become more and more pronounced. At the

26

ADAPTATION

same time it must be clearly recognized that while on the
whole disadvantageous characters tend to disappear, there
are probably great numbers of them in existence ; the plants
which possess them may overbalance them with advantageous
characters, or may be slowly dying out in consequence of
them. A plant or species will win or lose in the struggle
for existence on the total of all its characters. Correlation
may possibly produce disadvantageous characters at the
same time as advantageous, or a given cause acting on
different organs of the plant may possibly produce advan-
tageous variations in some, disadvantageous in others.

It is very difficult to decide which if any of the characters
of a plant or species are adaptations to its mode of life. A
species may possess some character admirably suiting it for
one mode of life, though acquired for some other, and if it
be found living in the former mode we shall be liable to
mistake this character for an adaptation to that mode of
life. Examples of this are given in Chap. III. under
Epiphytism. Or again, a species may possess some cha-
racter of little or no importance in its mode of life but which
may prove of great importance in some other environment,
should it happen to be placed there.

The study of adaptation is carried on by the comparison
of all forms living in similar surroundings, e.g. all water-
plants, or all parasites, &c. The members of these eco-
logical groups of plants belong usually to many distinct
families and their retained ancestral characters therefore
differ ; if now we find among such a group certain characters
in common, which are hereditary and are useful in the
particular mode of life characteristic of the group, we may
feel pretty sure that we are dealing with genuine adaptations.
In such comparative study too, it is brought out in a very
striking manner that the same end is attained in a great
variety of ways, e.g. different organs in different species
may be modified in their descendants in such a way as to
resemble one another in structure and function. Good ex-
amples of this may be found among xerophytes (Chap. III.),
e.g. by comparing the various ways in which storage of water,
or reduction of the transpiring surface, is effected.

The science of ecology has to deal with all the characters
of a plant, structural and functional, in relation to the

ADAPTATION

27

environment and the struggle for existence, and determine
which are helpful, which hurtful, and to what extent. It is
bound up with the study of geographical distribution, and
intimately related to morphology on the one hand, physio-
logy on the other1.

We have now to return to morphology and consider its
methods. The actual ancestral forms of any given plant
being lost, other ways of tracing the phylogeny must be
employed.

Comparison with related forms is the method chiefly
used in deducing phylogenies. If a given plant X be the
immediate parent of several plants A , B, C, D , we know
that these will resemble one another, as well as X , in detail,
allowing for variation ; they are exactly equivalent to one
another by descent. We now transfer this idea of equivalence
to their organs, and say that those of A are equivalent by
descent to the corresponding organs of B , C, D , or hotno-
logous with them, and we extend the idea to the ancestral
forms, and say that they are also homologous with the
corresponding organs of X , and with those of Y, a more
remote ancestor, but the further back we go, the more change
there may have been, and the less exact will the corre-
spondence be. Even between A and B, the homology must
not be pressed too closely into minute detail, e.g. while the
primary roots may be exactly homologous, the hairs on the
leaves will only be ‘generally' homologous.

If A , B , C , D are not the offspring of a single parent,
but agree closely in all characters, we yet assume, on the
general theory of descent, that they had a common ancestor,
Y, not very far back. We therefore regard them as equivalent,
and their corresponding organs as homologous. We further
assume that the characters in which they agree exactly are
characters derived from Y} and we can thus infer what Y
was like.

Now suppose that the lateral organs of the shoot in A
are tendrils, in B thorns, in C and D leaves, while in all
other characters the four agree. We may still say that the

1 And see books mentioned under Variation; Goebel, Organography
of Plants ; Warming, Oekologische Pflanzengeographie ; Willis, Podoste-
maceae , Ann. Perad. I. 1902, pp. 417, 444, &c.

28

COMPARISON

tendrils, thorns, and leaves, agreeing in position, mode of
origin, &c. upon closely related plants, are mutually homo-
logous. During the descent from Y change of structure
and function has gone on in at least two of the lines, as
there are now three types of structure and function. As C
and D have leaves, the probability is that Y had leaves also,
and that the organs of A and B are ‘ modified 1 leaves, but
to confirm this supposition we must examine other nearly
related forms E, F, G , AT, &c. If all these have leaves,
then probably Z, the common ancestor of these and of
A , B , C, D, had also leaves. Z may be the same as Y,
but probably is older ; in any case, however, the supposition
that Y had leaves is strengthened. The points in which
A, By Cy Dy Ey &c. all agree will in general be those handed
down from Z.

Evidently, then, the more that the plants examined
differ, the further back will be the ancestral form, the less
can we infer about that form, and the greater will be the
difficulty of tracing the phylogenies and the homologies.
We must also be careful in using such expressions as
‘modified leaf.’

Position, Mode of Origin, and Internal Structure

are characters of very great importance in morphological
comparisons, and are largely used in practice. Homologous
organs often agree in these characters, if in no others,
e.g. ‘ shoot-branches ’ usually arise in leaf-axils, exogenously,
and have ‘shoot’ anatomy, though they may actually be
tendrils or thorns.

Development of the individual organ from the
embryonic condition, i.e. its ontogeny, often affords useful
aid in tracing phylogenies and homologies. Such investi-
gations need the aid of the microscope, must be comparative,
and their results must be tested by those of other methods.
Speaking broadly, allowing for exceptions and variation in
detail, it may be said that the metamorphoses of the ontogeny
tend to recapitulate those of the phylogeny. The more
recent the latter, the more clearly they will show in the
former, while the earlier stages will tend to run rapidly
into one another. Suppose two organs of common
descent to have passed through phylogenetic changes
represented by ABCDEFGHKL and ABCBEMNOPQ,

MORPHOLOGICAL METHODS

29

then their ontogenetic phases will be represented roughly by
abcdeFG H K L and abode MN 0 P Q, the larger
type and spacing indicating greater distinctness and duration.
Like other methods, development is most valuable in the
investigation of recent phylogenetic changes1 *.

Seedling Stages : Reversions : Polymorphism.
In plants which when mature differ in morphological habit
from their related forms, interesting phases of successive
metamorphosis are often shown in the seedlings ; this is
simply a special case of the ontogenetic recapitulation above
mentioned. Good instances are Acacia, Bossiaea, Ulex,
Hakea, many succulents, water-plants, &c. ; see also
Retinispora, and cf. expanding buds of Acer, Aesculus,
Berberis. In many respects the characters of seedlings
are of special importance in comparative morphology.

Single branches of mature plants at times show similar
transitional or apparently ancestral phases of structure,
eg. in Acacia, Russellia, &c. Care must be taken, by
employment of comparison and other methods, to confirm
any deductions from such phenomena. If confirmed as
probably ancestral, we may call them reversions or 4 returns 3
to the ancestral type ( atavism ) ; if not confirmed by other
evidence, they may be sports or monstrosities (above), or
may be cases of dimorphism or polymorphism. Many organs
appear in two or many forms on the same plant or on
different plants of the same species ; instances are the
dimorphic shoots of Hedera and other climbers, leaves of
many epiphytes and water-plants (Chap. III.), unisexual
flowers, heterostyled (Lythrum) or right and left handed
(Saintpaulia, Exacum) flowers, the flowers of Catasetum, &c.

Multiple Origin and Parallel Descent are phe-
nomena which appear to have been common in plants, and
which increase the difficulties of morphological as of
taxonomic study. Organs may appear alike in position,
structure, function, and mode of origin, and yet not be
phylogenetically homologous. Thus the leaves of mosses
are not homologous with those of Selaginellas, having
a totally different ancestry. In the case of adventitious

1 And see Goebel, Organography of Plant sf and Entwickiungs -

geschichte der PJlanzenorgane (Schenk’s Handbuch der Bot.)*

3°

POLYPHYLY

roots (see below) organs similar in structure, function,
development, and position appear to have arisen in similar
ways in various groups of plants, i.e. in various lines of
descent or phyla ; in each group the roots are mutually
homologous, but the whole class of “adventitious roots ”
is polyphyletic , and the roots in different groups are only
homoplastic , i.e . equivalent in structure and mode of origin
on the plant, but not of common (though of parallel)
descent. If we can also prove common descent they are
of course homologous. Homoplastic organs must not be
confused with analogous organs, which agree in function but
not in descent nor mode of origin nor position, e.g. the
root-like leaves of Salvinia are analogous to roots.

As in taxonomic work (Chap. II.) so in morphological,
care must be taken to work with the aggregate of all the
characters of an organ and to use comparison extensively,
otherwise these phenomena of multiple origin ( polyphyly )
and parallel descent ( homoplasy ) are liable to cause error
and confusion1.

Concrescence, or union of originally distinct organs
by growth of the tissue beneath them, is a common
phenomenon of structure. Organs in their earliest stages
of development are usually separate, and most often remain
so, but frequently there is a subsequent uniform growth
of the tissue under them,

carrying them out upon —

a basal portion which leaf

most often (e.g. in sym-

petalous flowers) has a

similar structure to the ieaf

organs themselves, so

that they look as if
joined together by their bases. The diagram shows this
process on the right, but not on the left. It is common
in flowers, less so in other organs. It is not necessary for
the concrescent organs to be similar; e.g. stamens are often
united to petals, leaves to stems (cf. Solanaceae, &c.). The
phenomenon goes under many names — adnation, connation,
adhesion, cohesion, &c. (see below).

1 Bower, Presidential Address , Brit. Ass. Rep. 1898 ; Willis,
rodoste?naceae (§ on dorsiventrality), Ann. Perad. I. 1902, pp. 411, 446.

g 3

ri id

leaf

leaf

ABORTION

3i

Abortion and Suppression of organs are other
common phenomena. In a certain place in a certain plant,
comparison with related forms often shows that we should
expect to find a certain organ, say a stamen; instead
of this we find a small functionless rudiment due to arrested
development (abortion), or nothing at all ( suppression ).
These phenomena may be both onto- and phylo-genetic, i.e.
may occur in a single individual without being necessarily
hereditary, or regularly and hereditarily in all individuals
of a species. The importance of aborted (also called
vestigial or midimentary) organs in morphological and
taxonomic study is considerable, as affording useful clues
in phylogeny. The abortion or suppression may be due
to loss of function, disadvantageousness of the organ,
correlation, mutation, or other causes.

Symmetry. It rarely happens that an organ (or
plant) is asymmetrical , i.e. so constructed that it cannot be
divided in at least one direction into two halves one of
which is the counterpart or reflection of the other (cf. leaves
of Begonia, flowers of Valerianaceae). Complete spherical
symmetry is rare except among very lowly forms of life, but
what is termed radial (or better multilateral ) symmetry,
such that any plane passing through the axis of growth
of an organ and through one of the lateral branches of that
organ, divides it into complementary halves, is common,
e.g. in roots, erect stems, many flowers (actinomorphic, cf.
diagram in Rosaceae) &c. Another frequent type of sym-
metry is bilateral, in which only one axial plane divides
the organ evenly, e.g. in many flowers (zygomorphic, cf.
diagrams in Labiatae, Orchidaceae), leaves of Iris, &c.
A special case of this is dorsiventral symmetry, in which
the organ has an upper or ventral side different from the
lower or dorsal, as in most leaves, most zygomorphic flowers,
many horizontal shoots, &C.1

Classification of Organs. General comparison
shows that certain structural characters are almost universal
among the higher plants, and therefore to be regarded, on
the principles indicated above, as derived from a very

1 Goebel, Organography of Plants, Engl, ed., p. 65 ; Willis,
Podostemaceae (dorsiventrality) in Ann. Perad. I. 1902, p. 434,

32

CLASSIFICATION OF OR G A NS

distant ancestry. Almost all show distinction into root and
shoot ; the reproductive function accompanies the latter, the
former absorbs water from the soil. The shoot is nearly
always divided into a reproductive part or infloresce?ice , and
a non-reproductive part performing vegetative duties (see
below). It is also usually divided into stem and .leaf in
both parts. It is convenient and fairly accurate, therefore,

• to divide the organs of plants into reproductive , concerned
with the life of the race (inflorescence, flower, fruit, seed),
and vegetative , concerned with the life of the individual
(root, stem, foliage-leaf). Hard and fast lines cannot be
drawn. Vegetative reproduction (see below) is common,
and in many ferns &c. the reproductive and vegetative
functions are performed by the same leaves.

Vegetative Organs.

The distinctions between root, stem, and leaf are not
always easy to draw (cf. Anthurium, Neottia, Podostemaceae,
Utricularia). The two last may best be considered together
under the common term shoot, the distinction between which
and the root is usually clearly marked even in the embryo.
The root usually grows downwards into the substratum for
the purposes of absorbing food substances and of anchoring
the plant; does not bear leaves nor the true reproductive
organs, is endogenously branched, and usually bears a root-
cap (see below). The shoot on the other hand (or part of
it) usually grows above ground and consists in part of green
tissue performing assimilatory functions ; it often bears leaves,
and always the true reproductive organs, is exogenously
branched, and has no cap. We shall first deal briefly with
the vegetative functions, and then with the organs and their
structure.

Nutrition, Transpiration, Respiration, Meta-
bolism. Most plants have green shoots or leaves, and in
them the processes of nutrition are in general those described
below; the peculiarities of parasites &c. are described in
Chap. III.

Nearly all higher plants have roots or analogous organs in
the soil (cf. water-plants, epiphytes, parasites, in Chap. III.).
The water in the soil is held by capillary attraction, and

NUTRITION

33

dissolves carbonates, nitrates, and other salts. The dilute
solution is absorbed by the root, and the plant thus obtains
nine of the ten elements that it needs, viz. nitrogen, hydrogen,
oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, iron, magnesium, calcium,
potassium. Silicon, sodium, chlorine and others are usually
absorbed also, but though often incidentally useful (e.g. silica
in stiffening grass stems) are not absolutely necessary. The
tenth element, carbon, is obtained from the carbon dioxide
of the air. In presence of sufficiently bright light, this gas
is decomposed by aid of the green colouring matter ( chloro-
phyll) in the leaves &c. ; oxygen is given off, and the carbon
worked up into complex organic compounds, the process
being termed assimilation .

Water is continually evaporating from the subaerial
organs, especially the leaves. This transpiration is made
good by the current that flows from the root upwards,
bringing with it to the leaves the mineral salts absorbed
by the root. The current travels in the wood or xylem of
the vascular bundles of the plant; the bundles form the bulk
of most roots and stems, and appear in the leaves as veins
or nerves.

Respiration , or absorption of oxygen and evolution of
carbon dioxide, is carried on in living parts of plants, as in
animals.

Assimilation goes on in the leaves and new living sub-
stance, or protoplasm , is made, which as fast as it is formed
decomposes into simpler substances, chiefly sugar and amides,
which are carried away by the phloem or bast of the vascular
bundles to those parts of the plant where they are required.
This continual chemical change is termed metabolism, and
may be divided into anabolism , the building up, and
katabolism , the breaking down, of complex materials. The
materials carried away in the phloem are used at once at
the growing parts or as food by the living cells, or else
they are stored up as reserves for future use. All seeds
contain reserves and so do all plants which die down at
any period of the year or are arrested in their growth by
cold or drought. Reserves are also made in many cases
(Agave, many Palms, &c.) to enable the plant to produce a
great mass of flowers and seeds at some future time.

No accumulation of the products of the different steps

\7.

3

34

METABOLISM

in anabolism takes place, the upward progress to protoplasm
being gone through very rapidly, but with katabolism it is
different and accumulations of the products occur. The
first downward step is the decomposition of protoplasm into
pi'oteids (complex organic bodies containing carbon, hy-
drogen, oxygen, and nitrogen) ; the next is to amides
(crystallisable organic bodies, containing the same elements;
the commonest is asparagin); then, by elimination of nitrogen,
the carbohydrates (bodies containing carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen in the proportions C^Ho^O^; the chief are starch,
cane-sugar, grape-sugar or glucose, mannite, inulin, and
cellulose), the oils or fats (containing C, H, O), tannins , and
other bodies, are formed. A further decomposition may
take place, in respiration (which is the expression of kata-
bolism), giving as final products carbon dioxide and water.
All the products mentioned so far are capable of being used
again in the metabolism of the plant, but there are others
which are apparently waste-products. Only rarely are these
excreted at the surface ; usually they are stored in the cells
or in special cavities or passages. Some of these bodies
are of economic value, eg. resins, alkaloids, ethereal oils,
wax, &c.

In forming reserves the plant always stores up both
nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous materials. The former
take the shape of proteids in seeds ; in other places they
may be proteids or amides. In seeds the latter are usually
stored as starch or cellulose ( starchy seeds) or as oils (oily
seeds) ; in other places other forms occur. In germination
ferment-action causes the decomposition of the reserves and
their transmutation into sugar and amides, in which forms
they travel through the plant.

Growth, usually implying increase in size and weight,
but better defined as permanent change of form, is a feature
of all living plants and organs. In those with which we
have to deal, growth is only general in the whole plant in
the earlier embryonic condition, and subsequently becomes
localised in certain growing points , eg. at the tips of stems
and roots, and growing layers , eg. the cambium by whose
means stems and roots grow in thickness. The new tissues
and organs formed in these places expand to their full size
and then usually cease to grow.

GROWTH

35

Growth takes place only under suitable conditions, viz.
(i) a supply of material to the growing parts, (2) a supply
of energy, (3) an adequate temperature, and (4), in most
cases, a supply of sufficient water to the growing parts
to maintain the cells in a condition of great turgidity or
tension. The supply of material is brought from the leaves
or from storage places; the energy is obtained from this;
that an adequate temperature is necessary is a familiar
annual experience in temperate countries: and that turgidity
is needful is easily proved by simple experiments, and
indicated by the fact that a plant will not grow unless well
supplied with water.

The rapidity of growth depends on various factors,
external and internal. It used to be thought, because a
plant grew faster at night, that light had a strong retarding
influence upon growth, but Lock, working at Peradeniya
with giant bamboos, showed that light had no effect upon
the growth, which closely followed the humidity of the air.
This, with his own work on assimilation, &c., suggested to
Blackman the true explanation, which has been borne out
by experiments at Peradeniya by Smith1. Humidity, food-
supply, temperature, &c., have all an influence upon growth,
which increases as they increase, and is limited only, up to
the maximum at which it stops, by defects in these factors,
which should all increase together to give the maximum
growth. The factor which first runs short is called the
limiting factor. Thus in the growth of giant bamboos at
Peradeniya, the temperature is high enough, but the water
supply is limiting, while at Hakgala, a colder place, it is the
temperature which is limiting during the night, the air being
then saturated. When moisture is limiting, no increase of
food will increase the growth, and so for other factors.

Other functions seem to show similar results.

The direction of growth, unless influenced by greater
stimuli on one side of the organ, is usually straight forward,
but the tip commonly nutates , i.e. moves alternately from
side to side or round an elliptical or circular orbit, owing to
varying rate of growth of the tissues : as the growth becomes

1 Lock, Ann. Perad. II. 211, 1904; Blackman, Optima &>c.y Ann.
Bot. xix. 281, 1905; Smith, Ann. Perad. ill. 303, 1906.

3—2

36

GROWTH

complete the organ assumes the straight line. Nutation
is most marked in climbing plants (Chap. III.).

Irritability ; Movements ; Orientation. Living
protoplasm is sensitive or irritable to many stimuli. In
higher plants, this sensitiveness is chiefly shown in movements
of growing organs which tend to grow in such a way as
to take up definite positions (or orientate themselves) with
regard to the incidence of the stimuli acting upon them. The
orientation generally ‘depends on the symmetry; a radial
organ usually places itself in line with (or is orthotropic to)
a stimulus, a dorsiventral organ at right angles ( plagiotropic )
to it. If the direction of the stimulus change, the growing
point curves to reassume the proper orientation, as is seen
in plants curving towards light in a window. Two cases of
orthotropism must be distinguished, positive (growth towards)
and negative (growth away from the stimulus). The different
irritabilities have special names, viz. heliotropism (light),
geotropism (gravity), hydrotropism (moisture), chemotropism
or chemotaxis (chemical stimulus), rheotropism (water cur-
rent), &c. Sensitiveness to contact stimulus is found in
some cases, but almost solely in climbing plants, and there
more especially in tendrils (see Chap. III.).

An organ is described as helioiropic or positively heliotropic
if it grow directly towards light, negatively or apo-heliotropic
if directly away from it, plagio- or dia-heliotropic if at
right angles to it ; similar expressions are used for the other
irritabilities.

Movement of mature organs is found chiefly in leaves
(see below), and in some stamens, flowers, &c. (see Flower-
mechanisms, below).

The Root. The ‘true’ root of a higher plant is the
organ descended from the original absorptive organ first
differentiated from the shoot. In the vast majority of these
plants it is present in the embryo, starting at one pole while
the shoot starts at the other. Its structure may be studied
in seedlings of beans, gourds (fig. i), mustard, &c. The
embryo plant in the seed has a short shoot-axis or hypocotyl ’
at the upper end of which are two seed-leaves or cotyledons
and a small stem-bud or plumule , while at the lower end
there is a short radicle , which grows out to form the primary
root . In systematic descriptions the term radicle generally

THE ROOT

37

includes the hypocotyl; the two are often indistinguishable
except by the internal structure. The primary root is
strongly geotropic and hydrotropic, and negatively helio-

Fig. i. Germination of Gourd (Cucurbita, q.v.).

A , the seed. B , seed laid open, showing one veined cotyledon and
the hypocotyl- radicle. C , the radicle, by the growth of the hypocotyl,
has emerged from the seed-coat and is growing down geotropically.
D, the peg has caught on the seed- coat, while the growth of the arched
hypocotyl has nearly freed the cotyledons. E, the cotyledons are
freed and the hypocotyl has become straight. Fy the first foliage-leaf
has developed from the plumule.

tropic ; it therefore grows on the whole straight downwards,
but may curve towards moisture.

The tip of the growing point is covered by the root-cap ,
an organ peculiar to roots, consisting of a sheath of cells

33

THE ROOT

that is continually renewed from within as it wears away
outside, like the skin of the hand. It protects the delicate
growing point from injury as it is pushed through the soil.
Only rarely (cf. Pandanaceae, Lemna) is the cap distinguish-
able by the naked eye. It is absent in Azolla, Neottia, &c.
(adventitious roots).

From the main root of a gourd or bean there sprout
lateral roots arranged in three or four ranks. This is due to
the fact that they arise deep down in the main root, at points
opposite the xylem bundles, of which there are three or four
(in these plants). The young root burrows out into the
soil through the outer tissue of the parent root ; such
development is termed endogenous, in contrast to exogenous
development, from superficial tissue. The lateral roots are
arranged in a definite order of age, the youngest being
nearest to the apex of the main root; this is termed arrange-
ment in acropetal succession. They are but little sensitive
to gravity and grow more or less horizontally, but are
governed in their growth by definite though ill-understood
laws. If, for instance, the northward growth of one of them
be interrupted by a stone, the root, as soon as it has reached
the edge of the obstacle, tends to resume that direction of
growth. This tendency of lateral roots to grow away from
the main root is termed exotropism and is of importance to
the root by enabling it to spread in all directions through the
soil in which it is growing. The lateral roots may be again
branched and so on.

If, as in the bean, the main root grows to be much
longer than the branches, it is termed the tap-root.

The functions most characteristic of roots are the absorp-
tion of food-materials from the substratum, and the anchorage
of the plant therein. The former is generally effected by
the agency of the fine unicellular root-hairs which clothe
the tips of the roots a little way behind the actual apex
(easily seen in mustard seedlings or in many water roots).
The branching and mode of growth of the root admirably
fit it for the absorption of all the food-materials obtainable
in the soil in which it grows. In saprophytic plants (see
Chap. III.) the root absorbs the products of decaying organic
matter (humus) from the soil, as well as mineral salts. In
most of our forest trees and in many other plants, the root

THE ROOT

39

hairs are replaced by a fungus whose hyphae absorb in the
same way. This is termed a mycorhiza ; in the Fagaceae,
Betulaceae, Coniferae, &c. it is ectoiropic , i.e. the hyphae do
not enter the cells of the root but run between the epidermal
cells, whilst in Orchidaceae, Ericaceae, &c. it is endotropic,
the hyphae entering the cells. Mention may also be made
of the tubercles of the roots of Leguminosae (q.v.) and other
plants. In a few cases the roots are parasitic upon other
roots living in the same soil, and are modified in structure
to suit this modification of their absorptive functions (cf.
Chap. III.). The second function, anchorage of the plant, is
admirably effected by the branching and arrangement of the
roots, aided by their internal mechanical adaptation, the
vascular tissue being centrally placed so as best to resist
a longitudinal strain. The growth in thickness of the root
keeps pace with that of the stem. In many large trees the
growth in thickness of the lateral roots at the base of the
trunk is chiefly vertical, and ‘ buttress ’ roots are thus
formed, e.g. in Ficus.

A function often performed by roots, and one which is
accompanied by serious modifications in their structure, is
storage of reserve-materials to enable the plant to start
growth in the wet season, or in the next spring, &c. (p. 33,
and see Herbs in Chap. III.). The root is usually thickened
to contain the materials. (See Brassica, Daucus, Raphanus,
Taraxacum, &c.).

In nearly all cases true roots perform normal root-
functions and have normal structure, exhibiting little variety.
In a few plants, e.g. Utricularia, Aldrovanda, Psilotum,
Salvinia, there is no primary root, and its function (and
often structure) is found in analogous organs (p. 32). In
many other cases the primary root does not develope very
far, and its functions are discharged by organs having the
structure, physiology, and endogenous development of branch
roots, but developed from the stem or leaves. These organs
are not homologous by descent with true primary roots, and
are classed as adventitious roots. In dealing with the
homologies of these organs among themselves we can rarely
go beyond the immediate circle of relationship of the plants
in which they occur; the class is almost certainly poly-
phyletic (p. 30) ; e.g. we have no right to say that the

40

THE ROOT

adventitious roots of the Palms are homologous with those
of the Podostemaceae.

When they arise below ground, as in grasses, bulbs, &c.,
these roots generally have the structure and function of true
roots, but when they arise above ground ( aerial roots ) they
often perform new functions and have other structure.

Subterranean adventitious roots may be in tufts of uniform length,
as in grasses {fibrous roots) ; tuberous for storing reserves (Ranuncu-
laceae, Orchis) ; parasitic or saprophytic (Chap. III.) ; or may give off
subaerial aerating branches (mangroves, Chap. III., and cf. Rumex,
Jussieua, Sesbania). Aerial roots may form buttresses (Palmae, Panda-
naceae, Rhizophora, &c.) to support the stem, as well as absorbent
organs ; pillars (Araceae, Ficus, &c.) ; clasping and climbing organs
(Araceae, Hedera, Tecoma, Orchidaceae) ; water absorbing organs
(Orchidaceae, Velloziaceae) ; flattened green assimilating organs (Podo-
stemaceae, some Orchidaceae) ; thorns (Acanthorhiza, &c.) ; parasitic
suckers (Cuscuta, Viscum, &c.), &c. See Chap. III. and Part II.

The Shoot. The primary shoot developes from the
upper end of the seedling (cf. fig. i, p. 37). The plumule
or bud soon grows onwards and gives rise to a stem bearing
leaves at points called nodes , the spaces between being
internodes . Branches often form in the upper angles or
axils between the leaves and stem. The advantages of
this differentiation of the shoot into stem and leaf are great ;
the leaves require plenty of light and air to carry on assimi-
lation. The stem serves as a support to spread them out
for this purpose and to carry water to them, while they
themselves are thin, exposing a large surface to the air and
light. Often the shoot or part of it is used as a reservoir
for storage of reserves. Living as it does under every
variety of position, climate, and environment, the shoot
is far more varied in form than the root.

The symmetry of the mature shoot is very varied, and
the orientation of different shoots and organs to the stimuli
of light and gravity almost equally so. The ordinary erect
stem is heliotropic, and negatively geotropic ; its branches
and leaves, as well as creeping stems, generally plagiotropic
to these stimuli.

The Bud which crowns the tip of the stem is simply a
much-condensed shoot, a short stem with crowded nodes,
at which are borne young leaves. The tip of the stem

THE BUD

4i

is covered by the young leaves folded over it ; if they be
removed (as is easily done in Hippuris) the exposed apex
of the stem is seen, under the microscope, to consist of a
convex mass of embryonic tissue, on which lateral swellings
arise exogenously (i.e. from the external layers) in acropetal
succession (cf. Roots). At first all alike, these outgrowths
ultimately differentiate into leaves and branches. Branches
thus produced are termed lateral branches. Another type
of branching is common in lower plants, viz. dichotomy,
where the growing apex divides at the summit into two
equal halves, but this is practically unknown in the higher
plants.

The bud is very important, and from the young and
tender nature of its parts is very susceptible to injury. In
tropical climates with plenty of moisture it may be injured
by the intense radiation decomposing its chlorophyll, or by
heavy rain. In hot sun or very dry places it is further liable
to excessive evaporation. In temperate climates it is often
exposed to snow, rain and cold, and many buds have to
survive the winter. Against these dangers buds are protected
in various ways, by the older leaves, by scales, hairs, wax, &c.
(see Herbs, Trees, Xerophytes, &c. in Chap. III.). Buds
are often detached to start growth on their own account
(vegetative reproduction, see below).

The arrangement of the leaves in the bud is called their
vernation ; it is constant for each kind of plant, and is
described in the same terms as that of the flower bud (see
below, Aestivation).

The Branches . At the growing apex of the stem
exogenous outgrowths are formed, some of which usually
develope into branches. A stem is rarely quite unbranched ;
it usually branches in the flowering portion if not in the
vegetative. If we leave the former out of account we may
say that the stem is unbranched in most Palms and many
other Monocotyledons, and in a few Dicotyledons. The
branching is lateral, and commonly the position of the
branches bears some definite relation to that of the leaves.
In many ferns the branches appear on the leaf-bases, in
Equisetum they are axillary {i.e. in the angles between
leaves and stem), and the same is so generally the case in
flowering plants (except Pistia, &c.), that the usual mode of

42

THE BRANCHES

deciding whether a doubtful structure is of “leaf” or “stem”
nature, is by noticing whether it subtends an axil or stands
in one itself. In Selaginella and Lycopodium the branching
has little relation to the leaves. The number of branches
arising close together is usually small and most commonly
only one arises at one level.

Other branches than the usual one, arising in the same place, are
called accessory ; they may be collateral (side by side in the same axil)
as in species of Acer, Salix, &c., or serial (one above the other) as in
Calycanthus, Gleditschia, Cercis, Robinia, Colletia, Syringa, Aristolochia,
Fuchsia, &c.

Concrescence (p. 30) or adnation is common in shoots.
The most simple case is where a leaf is ‘ adnate J to its own
axillary shoot, so that the latter appears to spring from the
main stem without reference to any leaf, and the leaf looks
as if it belonged to the branch and not to the original stem.
A common case is that the axillary shoot is adnate for a
greater or less distance to the main shoot from which it
springs ; e.g. in Anthurium and other Araceae, Cyperaceae,
Potamogetonaceae (e.g. Zostera), Solanaceae, Cuphea, Ascle-
pias, &c. Some of these only show the phenomenon in the
floral portion of the shoot.

Frequently a plant has branches of two kinds — long and
short shoots or shoots of unlimited and limited growth. The
former grow indefinitely, whereas the latter remain short,
often resembling tufts of leaves. See Coniferae, Pinus,
Berberis, Spergula, Cactaceae, &c.

The branch buds formed near the apex of a stem do not
always develope at once. In perennials at any rate, many
of them usually remain as dormant buds , but may start into
active growth if the others are killed or injured. The
branches that appear later in life from the lower parts of
stems are sometimes formed from dormant buds, but often
are adventitious, developed from new buds formed without
reference to the old leaf-axils.

Lateral branching is generally of two types, the mono-
podium and the sympodium. In the former, e.g. Pinus and
other Coniferae, the same growing point continues in a
straight line from year to year and forms branches in regular
succession, which do not overtop the main axis. This type
is common in herbs with erect stems. The sympodium is

THE BRANCHES

43

found in most of our forest trees and in many shrubs,
rhizomes, &c. Here the successive lateral branches in turn
overtop and supersede the relatively main axis ; the growing
point, which for the time being is the main one, is pushed
aside by the growth of the branch, which thus comes into
line with the axis from which it sprang. The termination
of the old axis is thus made to look like a branch of the
straight stem. The second growing point is in turn pushed
aside and so on, so that the actual straight stem is formed
of a succession of pieces each added by a separate growing
point. This is roughly illustrated by the diagram,
each “| representing one limb of the sympodium, ~l
arising as a branch upon the one below it. Often -j
only one limb is formed each year, and during that
period branches monopodially ; the last lateral bud then
pushing the terminal one aside in the following year. Excel-
lent examples of sympodia are: beech (Fagus), Virginian
creeper and vine (Vitis), the rhizomes of Iris, Juncus, &c.,
the flowering shoot of Geranium pratense , &c.

Growth in Thickness and Habit of Stem . Most
erect stems elongate and branch; they thus increase their
leaf-surface, and hence also the strain to be borne and the
demand for water from the roots to supply the transpiration.
To meet this, they usually grow steadily in thickness, forming
new wood and bark. A large proportion of the new material
in erect stems consists of woody fibres or strengthening tissue.
This thickening process is rare in Monocotyledons and Pteri-
dophyta, but occurs in a very large proportion of Gymno-
sperms and Dicotyledons. It is less marked in climbers,
and rarer in creeping stems, small herbs, &c. (see Chap. III.).

The living cells of the stem need to respire ; so long as
the stem is green it has stomata in the epidermis (cf. Leaf,
below), but as it grows in thickness bark (cork) is formed,
and this is practically water- and air-tight. To provide for
respiration special organs (lenticels) are formed in the bark ;
these are portions of bark in which the cork is loose and
powdery so that air can pass. They appear upon the surface
as little eruptive craters full of a brown powder, specially
well seen in Elder (Sambucus) but easily distinguished upon
any young twig.

Storage of reserve-materials is a function very commonly

44

THE STEM

undertaken by the stem in perennial plants. In woody
plants the materials for subsequent growth are usually stored
in the wood of the stem, and only rarely does storage take
place to such an extent as to necessitate extra growth in
thickness beyond that necessary for the performance of the
functions already dealt with. Cases are found in Bombaca-
ceae, Jatropha sp., &c. Herbaceous stems above ground
are not usually suited to storage purposes, though some
cases occur (succulent Xerophytes, see Chap. III.), as they
die down in winter (or the dry season in warm countries)
and here storage is usually found below ground, in such
peculiar shoots as bulbs, corms, rhizomes, tubers, &c. (see
Chap. III., Herbs, Xerophytes, &c.). Such shoots also
lend themselves readily to vegetative reproduction.

Other types of stem are found in water-plants, climbing
plants, xerophytes, epiphytes, & c. (see Chap. III.). These
illustrate the modification of structure bound up with the
modification of certain functions due to varying climate
or situation.

Like roots, shoots are often adventitious (or secondary if
there are also primaries), arising by the budding out of
growing points on roots (e.g. Podostemaceae, Ailanthus,
Anthurium sp., and many trees), or on stems (many tropical
trees, Testudinaria, & c.). Account must always be taken of
such cases in dealing with homology of shoots.

The habit of the stem, i.e. its general external appearance
and impression, will be dealt with in Chap. III. A number
of descriptive terms, however, may conveniently be put
together here.

Most of these explain themselves or are explained above and in
Chap. III. Stem and leaf should always be described together for the
sake of accuracy and conciseness.

Stems may be annual , biennial , or perennial ; erect , climbing ,
twining , prostrate or procumbent, creeping , ascending or decumbent
(bending upwards from a prostrate base), floating, &c. ; they may be
unbratiched ( simple ) or branched (describe mode of branching) ; if
branched they may be caespitose (a tuft of shoots from the base, as in
many grasses), fastigiate (many branches parallel to the stem, as in
Lombardy poplar), or with fascicles (tufts) of lateral branches. The
stem or branches may be a conn, bulb , tuber , rhizome , runner, stolon ,
sucker , offset, phylloclade , tendril , &c. Adnation may occur, or long
and short shoots ; the stem may be a monopodiwn or a sympodium ; it
may be ‘ condensed ’ bearing ‘radical ’ leaves, and run out into a scape

THE STEM

45

bearing only the flowers, as in dandelion. It may be herbaceous (not
woody above ground), woody , succulent or fleshy ; solid , hollow ( fistular
if herbaceous) ; straight , flexuose (zigzag), &c. ; cylindrical \ terete
(cylindrical tapering), angular , ribbed , winged ; smooth , prickly , warty ,
hairy (for terms see Leaf, below). Polymorphism if any, form and texture
of bud and bud-scales, growth in thickness, size and habit, bark ( smooth ,
warty , &c.), colour, and other points must also be described.

Phyllotaxy, or the arrangement of the leaves upon the
stem, is according to definite rules, especially in flowering-
plants, though it varies within certain narrow limits.

Leaves may be several at each node, when they are said
to be in whorls , or two at each node (usually opposite ), or
one ( alternate ). When the stem is so short that the leaves,
as in the primrose or dandelion, are all crowded together
and spring from the level of the ground, they are said to be
4 radical l In the first two cases, as a rule, the leaves at
one node stand above the gaps between those at the node
below. In the case of alternate leaves there is found to be
a fairly constant angle between each leaf and the next one
above it, e.g. in Plantago (fig. 2) this angle is f- of the whole
circumference measured the nearest way. This fraction §
represents the phyllotaxy of the plantain. A little considera-
tion will show that (twisting of the stem excepted) the leaves
will stand in 8 vertical
rows, each divided
from the next by of
the circumference. For
if we start from any
leaf 1 and pass by the
nearest way through all
consecutive leaves till
we come to leaf 9, this
must be above 1 again.

Leaf 2 will be §, 3 will
be -f, 4 will be -S-, 5 will
be 6 will be 7
will be ^8-, 8 will be
and 9 will be of the
circumference from leaf fig. 3 phyllotaxy.

1, i.e. immediately over

it, and three turns of the spiral above it. Hence the rule for
determining phyllotaxy : start from any leaf A and draw a

46

PHYLLOTAXY

spiral round the stem, passing by the nearest way through
all consecutive leaves, to the leaf B exactly above A ; then
the number of leaves from A to B is the denominator, the
number of turns of the spiral the numerator, of the fraction
representing the phyllotaxy.

In Gramineae the phyllotaxy is i.e. leaves alternately
on opposite sides of the stem, in Cyperaceae Nearly all
other actual arrangements are terms of the continued fraction
starting from l, If we add the numerators together to
make a new numerator, and treat the denominators in the
same way, we get the next arrangement -f. This with \
gives -§, and then and so on. It is rare to find a stem
that shows the phyllotaxy very clearly ; usually in the course
of growth more or less twisting occurs (cf. Pandanaceae).
The benefit of the phyllotaxy is that the leaves are spread
out to occupy the available space to advantage ; the larger
the number of ranks the better this is effected, and the less
shading of the leaves by one another there is1.

The spreading out of the leaves is further assisted by the
formation of petioles or leaf-stalks which carry the blades
away from the stem and thus increase the space available.
The stalk also enables the leaf to move more readily in the
direction of the wind, so that the risk of tearing is lessened.
A large leaf is never without a petiole, although small ones
are commonly stalkless or sessile.

An examination of a branch, say of a Horse-chestnut
(Aesculus), from above shows that the leaves, owing to the
various lengths of stalk and other points, are arranged so
that there is but little shading of one another, and hardly
any space unoccupied. They form what has been termed a
leaf-mosaic. Such mosaics are common in plants of our cli-
mate2. In dry climates (see Xerophytes, Chap. III.) the case
is often different.

Phyllotaxies of these types give shoots of radial symme-
try (p. 31); there are also bilateral arrangements, especially

1 Asa Gray, Structural Botany ; Goebel, Organography of Plants ,
p. 74 (mechanical theory) ; Sachs, History of Botany, Bk. I. Chap. IV. ;
Schumann, Morphologische Studien ; De VrieS in Prings. Jahrb. f. wiss.
Bot. xxiii.

2 Kerner, Natural History of Plants, I. ; Lubbock, Flowers , Fruits ,
and Leaves.

PHYLLOTAXY

47

upon horizontal shoots, which would obviously be incon-
venienced by strict adhesion to the radial arrangement suited
to the erect shoot. Sometimes the dorsiventrality is attained
by the twisting of the leaf-stalks from the positions in which
they arose, but more commonly there is a more or less two-
ranked ( distichous ) phyllotaxy, the leaves arising upon the
sides of the axis, and merely having to twist at their bases
to place themselves horizontally. A further consequence of
this is that the axillary branches also stand much in one
plane. Good examples may be seen in the yew (Taxus),
lime (Tilia), Betulaceae, Abies, Pinus, Ulmus, Anona, &c.
In branches thus obliquely placed, a phenomenon termed
anisophylly may often be observed. The leaves borne on
the under side of the branch are larger than those on the
upper, while the lateral leaves are intermediate in this
respect. The difference is especially well seen in plants with
opposite leaves. The phenomenon is largely dependent on
external stimuli — gravity, light, &c. — but is hereditary or
habitual in a number of plants, e.g. Centradenia, many
Melastomaceae, Strobilanthes, Columnea, Tabernaemontana,
Gardenia, Philadelphus, Salvia, Sambucus, Ligustrum, &C.1

In other plants, again, alterations of phyllotaxy occur for
which no explanation can at present be given ; e.g. in Sola-
naceae, Thelygonum, Quisqualis, Eucalyptus, Baptisia, &c.

The Leaf in most cases is a thin green expanded organ
borne on the stem, and performing the great functions of
assimilation and transpiration, together with respiration and
more or less storage of materials. Details as to internal
structure must be sought elsewhere; here it will suffice to
say that the interior is usually made up of a spongy mass of
green cells (the mesophyll ), with intei'cellular air-spaces be-
tween them. These communicate with the outside air
through minute openings ( stomata ) in the outer covering
layer of cells or epidermis. The passage of gases for assimi-
lation and respiration is through the stomata, whereas water
also evaporates through the epidermis, the outer walls of
which are usually covered by a waxy or corky layer, the
cuticle . The cuticle is more or less resistent to the passage of

1 Wiesner, Anisotnorphie d. PJl Sitzb. k. Akad. Wien, Cl. 1892;
Stud. ii. d. Anisophyllie tropischer Gewachse, l.c. CIII. 1894; Goebel,
Organography of Plants, p. 65.

48

THE LEAF

water, thus preventing excessive evaporation from the cells.
Usually the cuticle is thicker, and the stomata fewer on the
upper side of the leaf, while the cells of the upper mesophyll
usually stand with their long axes vertical, forming a palisade
tissue ; this is most marked in leaves exposed to sunshine.

In the leaf the one or few vascular bundles that enter it
from the stem commonly branch out a great deal, forming
the veins or nerves . These, as may be seen in a skeletonised
leaf picked up in winter, branch and rejoin ( anastomose )
repeatedly, thus forming a fine network all over the leaf.
In the meshes of the network the final endings of the
bundles may be seen as little blind branches. These run
among the green cells and consist even at their smallest of
a xylem and a phloem portion ; the former supplies water to
the assimilating cells, the latter carries away the products
of assimilation to other parts of the plant. Except in the
finer ramifications they are usually accompanied by a certain
number of fibres whose function is primarily mechanical, the
bundles being rendered elastic and comparatively rigid by
their presence, so that the thin and delicate green parts
of the leaf are stretched out smoothly and are less liable to
injury by tearing.

The structure of a leaf is admirably suited to the per-
formance of the great functions of assimilation and transpi-
ration, the maximum of cell-surface being exposed to the air
with the minimum of waste or of mutual interference of
parts. Such, or something like it, is the structure of most
leaves growing in sunny places with a plentiful supply of
water from the roots. In very dry climates the transpiration
would be too great for the water supply and the structure
has to be modified to suit the new conditions (see Xero-
phytes, Chap. III.). Similar considerations explain the
other modifications of structure found in water-plants, &c.

Storage of reserve-materials is only performed to a slight
extent by such a leaf ; the rapidity of assimilation during the
day causes a temporary excess of the products, which are
stored in the cells till night, when they are carried away. In
many plants the systematic storage, for long periods, of large
quantities of stuff, is undertaken by the leaves, which ex-
hibit a more or less fleshy or succulent character (see Chap,
III., Herbs, Xerophytes, &c.).

THE LEAF

49

The access of air to the leaf-cells for assimilation favours
respiration also, and as far as the influence of function upon
structure is concerned we may neglect respiration.

The ordinary leaf described above has an upper or ventral and a
lower or dorsal surface ; the internal structure differs on the two sur-
faces, and such a leaf is termed dorsiventral. It reacts to gravity in a
slight degree but is chiefly sensitive to light, and tends to take up during
its growth a definite position with regard to the incident light (the fixed
light position) ; in temperate climates this is usually at right angles to
the brightest diffused light, i.e . approximately horizontal. Many leaves
exhibit symmetrical internal structure, and stomata equally on either
side, and place their edges to the light, eg. Iris, Narthecium, Eucalyp-
tus, etc. ; such leaves are termed isobilateral ; they may develope in this
position or attain it by twisting. Physiologically, the phyllodes of Acacia
((/•v.), &c. come under this head. In some species of Juncus, Allium,
&c., the leaf is circular in section, with the tissues evenly distributed all
round ; it stands erect, and is termed a centric leaf. The isobilateral
and centric types of leaf offer less surface to radiation and hence are less
liable to excessive transpiration by day or excessive cooling at night.
Many leaves obtain these advantages by movement, however, and yet
retain the chief value of dorsiventral structure, viz. the great amount of
assimilation due to the extent of surface exposed to light. Most Legu-
minosae execute sleep- movements with their leaves at night ; the blades
(in various ways in different plants) move so as to place their edges in-
stead of their surfaces upwards. Oxalis is also a good example and
there are countless others (see Darwin’s Movements of Plants). In the
tropics many leaves execute similar movements in the heat of the day,
so that the light shall strike their surfaces obliquely, and thus not cause
excessive decomposition of chlorophyll. The hanging of young leaves
and shoots (see Chap. III.) is a similar phenomenon. We may also
mention the ‘compass-plants’ Lactuca and Silphium. An exaggeration
of the ordinary sleep-movements (which are regulated by the stimuli of
light and temperature) is seen in Mimosa, Biophytum, Neptunia, &c.,
whose leaves take up the sleep position on being touched. Desmodium
gyrans exhibits spontaneous movement without any apparent stimulus
at all. The movements in all these cases take place by means of more
or less swollen joints or pulvini . The pulvinus is chiefly composed of
parenchymatous tissue, and the cells on one side gradually (or suddenly
in Mimosa, etc.) lose their turgidity under the influence of the stimulus,
while those on the other side retain theirs ; the result is a bending of the
joint. When the flaccid cells regain their water the joint straightens
once more.

The external form of leaves presents extraordinary
varieties in different groups of plants, even in nearly related
forms, and we are at present almost ignorant of the factors
determining it. The leaf commonly shows a distinction into
the leaf-base or portion abutting on the stem, the leafstalk

w.

4

THE LEAF

5°

or petiole , and the blade or lainina ; attached to the base are
often found a pair of stipules (usually blade-like outgrowths),
one on either side, e.g. in the rose.

Even on the same plant the form is not always the same ;
polymorphism (p. 29), here often called heterophylly , is fre-
quent. Often, as in Hedera and other climbers, water-
plants, epiphytes, insectivorous plants, Dischidia, &c. (see
Chap. III. and Pt. II.) it bears some relation to differences
in function, but in other cases, e.g. Capsella, Liriodendron,
Bryophyllum, we cannot at present explain it.

Many peculiarities of leaf-form are bound up with the
necessity for reduction of transpiration in certain climates,
soils, or positions (see Chap. III., Xerophytes, Epiphytes,
Shore-plants, Alpine plants) ; others with the acquisition
by the plant of a climbing habit or a water-habit. Others
occur in Insectivorous and Myrmecophilous plants, &c.
Others are connected with the storage of reserves for hiber-
nation or for vegetative reproduction, as in bulbs, &c., or
with the protection of delicate parts as in winter buds, where
the scales so commonly seen on the outside are leaves which
have abandoned their normal functions and normal structure
to take over the function of protection and with it a suitable
structure. Scale-leaves occur in other positions and may be
mere functionless relics or vestigial organs (p. 31), e.g. on
many plants whose stems have taken over the usual leaf-
functions, or in saprophytes or parasites where the changed
mode of nutrition deprives the leaves of their value as organs
of assimilation.

The acuminate apex so common in tropical leaves is
apparently an arrangement for rapid drying \cf. Ficus, and
Chap. III.). In many plants, e.g. Rutaceae, Guttiferae, the
leaves show pellucid dots when held up to the light ; these
are oil cavities in the tissue. Curious and often unexplained
features are the holes in the leaves of Monstera and Aponoge-
ton, the pockets of Xanthosoma, the blades in Codiaeum,
the grooved petioles of Fraxinus.

Like the leaf itself the stipules also show great variety
of form ; *in Lathy rus Aphaca they do the assimilating work,
whilst the rest of the leaf is transformed into a tendril,
and in Azara, Viola, Rubiaceae, &c. they do a great deal of
assimilation. Or they may be scaly and aid in bud-protec-

THE LEAF

5i

tion (Magnolia), or be represented by tendrils (Smilax),
thorns (Acacia, Paliurus, &c.), hairs (Anacampseros), and
so on.

Descriptive Terms. The student should practise describing leafy
shoots until expert in handling the terminology, but there is no need
to commit the terms to memory. At first he should describe in detail
in the order given below, but afterwards he should try to render his
descriptions short and pithy without sacrifice of essentials ; this of course
can only be well done by comparison with related forms to see what
points are common to all.

Leaves as to phyllotaxy (above) may be radical , or on the subaerial
stem ( cauline ) ; whorled ( verticillate ), opposite (and then decussate if each
pair is at right angles to the next, connate if the two are concrescent as
in Lonicera, anisophyllous if unequal in size or shape), or alternate (the
phyllotaxy fraction may be given, or the number of ranks described by
the terms di-9 tri-stichous, &c.). With regard to its insertion or mode of
union with the stem the leaf may be peiiolcUe or sessile (i.e. with or
without stalk respectively; the petiole is described like a stem), auricled
(with two lobes of the blade overlapping the stem), amplexicaiil (the
lobes clasping the stem), sheathing (as in Grasses, the leaf-base forming
a tube round the stem), perfoliate (the leaf united round the stem, as in
Bupleurum), decurrent (continued by a wing on the stem, as in thistles),
&c. It may bear a ligule or scale at the upper end of the leaf-base or
sheath, as in Grasses. It may be stipulate or exstipulate (with or without
stipules respectively) ; the shape, &c. of the stipules is described as if
they were leaves, and they may be free or adnate (F in fig. 3; concrescent
with the leaf-base or petiole, as in rose), united to other stipules, inter-
ox intra-petiolar , branched, &c. (see Rubiaceae), ochreate (sheathing, as
in Polygonaceae), or modified in various ways (above). The venation
(arrangement of the veins) may be pinnate or palmate ; in the former
case there is a midrib with lateral veins branching from it, in the latter
several equal veins spread out in the leaf like the ribs of a fan, from one
point. The further ramification of the veins is described by the terms
11 et-veined (irregular meshwork, as in most Dicotyledons), parallel-veined
(meshes more or less rectangular, as in most Monocotyledons) 9for^’v^ne^
(veins forking into two, as in Ferns).

Leaves are divided into simple and compound , according as the stalk
bears one or several separate leaflets . In the latter case the leaflet is
described as if it were a leaf, and the common stalk is often called the
rachis. If the leaflets spring from the sides of the rachis, as in the pea,
the leaf is pinnate (F), if all from one point palmate (E). If the leaflets
of a pinnate leaf, as in many Acacias, are again pinnately compound,
the leaf is bipinnate. A leaf with 3 leaflets (as in clover) is ternate or
trifloliolate9 with 3 ternate leaflets biternate. Pinnate leaves may be
equally ( pari -) pinnate (with an even number of leaflets), tmequally
( impari -) pinnate (with an odd leaflet at the end), or mterruptediy
pinnate (large and small leaflets alternately as in many Rosaceae). A
palmate leaf with 5 or 7 leaflets is often called digitate. The leaflet may
have stipule-like organs, or stipels (adjective stipellate ).

4—2

52

THE LEAF

The leaf may be dorsiventral , isobilateral , or centric , or replaced by
a phyllode, scale , pitcher , or other organ (see above).

The shape of the leaf-blade or leaflet itself, if simple, or the outline
of a compound leaf, may be needle-shaped or acicular as in Pinus, subu-
late or awl-shaped, tubular as in onion, linear (long and narrow as in
Grasses), lanceolate (about 3 times as long as broad, tapering gradually
towards the tip ; A in fig.), ovate (about twice as long as broad, and
tapering towards the tip ; B), cordate (similar, but heart-shaped at the
base ; C), elliptical (tapering equally to base and tip, and somewhat
narrow), oval (do. but wider), oblong (sides parallel for some distance,
the ends tapering rapidly; F), reniform (kidney-shaped), orbicular
(circular in outline ; if the petiole is inserted at the middle of the blade,
as in Tropaeolum, this leaf is termed peltate ), hastate (with two pointed
lobes sticking out horizontally at the base), sagittate (two lobes project-
ing towards the stem), spattdate (spoon-shaped, as in daisy), &c. If a
leaf be of lanceolate shape but the gentle tapering be towards the base,
it is called oblcinceolate (E), and so also leaves may be obovate or obcordate .
If wedge-shaped, tapering to the base, it is ctineate. The leaf may be
oblique or asymmetrical (F), when the midrib divides it into unequal
halves, as in Begonia.

The leaf (or leaflet) may be entire , i.e. without notches in the
margin (A), or incised ; the margin may also be fringed or fimbriate ,

Fig. 3. Forms of Leaves. A, subsessile, exstipulate, lanceolate
with cuneate base, entire, acute. B, sessile, exstipulate, ovate, serrate
below, entire above, acuminate. C, petioiate, exstipulate, cordate,
crenate, obtuse. D, sessile, exstipulate, somewhat obovate, pinnatifid
sinuate, obtuse. E, petioiate, exstipulate, palmate (digitate), with
obtuse oblanceolate leaflets. F, impari-pinnate with triangular adnate
stipules; leaflets shortly stalked, oblong, apiculate, the laterals oblique.
G, a , plicate leaf in cross section, b , mucronate apex, c , dentate spiny
margin, d , retuse apex, e> a common form of glandular hair.

THE LEAF

53

cartilaginous , membranous , wavy or undulate (as in holly), curled or
crisped (as in sea-kale), spiny (Gr), glandular (with sticky hairs or
glands ; Ge), ciliate (with fine projecting hairs), &c. If the margin has
small teeth pointing forwards, it is serrate (B), if pointing outwards,
dentate (Gr) ; if the teeth are rounded but the notches sharp, the margin
is crenate (C), if both teeth and notches are rounded, it is sinuate (D).
If the depth of the divisions is equal to J the distance from midrib to
margin, i.e. if the incisions are conspicuous in proportion to the size of
the blade, other terms come into use. If the notching is from J to \
the depth, the leaf is fid (D), if J to f, - partite , if over f , -sect. Prefixes
of pinnati- or palmati - are always used before these terms to express
the particular form of notching, which depends upon the venation. The
portions into which the leaf is thus divided are termed lobes or segments.
Special terms are sometimes employed for such leaves as mustard ( lyrate ,
the end lobe very large), dandelion (runcinate, the lobes pointing back-
wards), hellebore ( pedate ), &c.

The apex of the leaf may be acute (pointed ; A), obtuse (blunt ; C),
acuminate (tapering in hollow curves to a long fine point ; B), emar-
ginate (notched), retuse (broadly notched ; G d), mucronate (with a large
stiff point on a nearly straight edge ; G b), apiculate (do. with small
point ; F), truncate or praemorse (with broad, straight end, as if bitten
off), cirrhose (tendrilled), &c.

The surface of the leaf, as of other parts, may be glabrous (without
hairs), pilose (soft, scattered hairs), downy or ptibescent (fine, soft hairs),
hairy (coarser hairs), hispid (rough, bristly hairs), tomentose (with a
cottony felt of hairs), woolly, glandular- hairy \ scabrous (rough), smooth ,
prickly , glaucous (with blueish waxy gloss), reticulate (netted), rugose
(ridged or wrinkled), squarrose (roughly scurfy), &c. Hairs may be
spreading or appressed (flattened down), simple (unbranched), glandular
{Ge), bifid , stellate (like a starfish), squai?iate (scaly), &c. ; prickles may
be straight or curved, bent backwards (retrorse), &c. The leaf may be
dotted with oil-glands, or variegated in colour, green, red, &c. ; frequently
occurring shades are fulvous (tawny), rubiginose (rust-coloured), &c.
The texture may be thin or herbaceous , coriaceous (leathery), succulent or
fleshy , 7?iembranous or scarious (thin, dry, not green, and flexible or stiff
respectively), &c.

Leaves may further be evergreen or deciduous (falling in winter) ; in
the latter case they may be articulate (cut off by a special absciss layer
and falling early in winter), or non-articulate (hanging on to the stem,
though dead, for an indefinite period, as in beech hedges, oak, &c.).
The vernation , or folding of the leaves in the bud, is described like the
aestivation of flower-buds (q.v.) ; the following terms are also used to
describe the folding of the individual leaf, conduplicate (folded length-
wise as in oak), plicate (folded several times; G a), involute (margins
rolled inwards), revolute (outwards), reclinate (apex bent down to base),
convolute (leaf rolled spirally, as in Musa) ; conduplicate leaves over-
lapping younger ones thus < < > > , as in Iris, are called equitant.

When a character is not accurately described by one of the terms
given, but is rather half-way beween two, both are used ; thus a leaf
may be linear-lanceolate or ovate-cordate. Sub-, meaning ‘ nearly,’ is
often used as a prefix to adjectives, eg. subsessile, subacute. As an

54

THE LEAF

example of the use of these technical terms, we quote from Lindley the
descriptions of two leaves :

Lilac: leaves opposite, exstipulate, roundish-cordate, very acute,
thin, smooth, rather longer than the linear channelled petiole.

Garden Strawberry : leaves all radical, ternate, dark-green, some-
what shining, very coarsely serrated ; with strong parallel oblique veins,
silky beneath ; leaflets nearly sessile, roundish oblong, entire towards the
base, shorter than the semi-cylindrical hairy petioles ; stipules mem-
branous, lanceolate, acuminate, half adnate.

Reproductive Organs.

The chief feature in the life-history of a plant is its
reproduction, and it should be borne in mind that the
preservation of the individual is of less importance than the
preservation of the species. It is customary to distinguish
between vegetative and true methods of reproduction. The
former is the detachment of portions of the vegetative
system — specialised for the purpose or not — which may
grow into new plants without any further reproductive
phenomena. 4 True ; reproduction, on the other hand, is
propagation by special cells set apart for the purpose.
These may be able to form new organisms without any
sexual process, or they may require, as a preliminary to
further growth, to fuse together (or portions of them) in
pairs, male and female. In the first case we speak of
asexual reproductive cells, or spores , in the second of sexual
reproductive cells, or gametes , which by their union produce
a new cell, the zygote , capable of further development into
a new individual. The spores are contained in little capsules
or sporangia , seen in typical forms on the back of a fern-leaf,
or in the pollen-sac of a flower (fig. 6). The leaves on
which they are borne are termed the sporophylls , and in
this connection the plant bearing them is called the sporo -
phyte or asexual plant. The sporangia often form groups
called sori.

The spores may be of one kind or of two. In the former
case (most Filicineae, Equisetum, Lycopodineae, except
Selaginella and Isoetes) the plant is homo- or isosporous ,
in the latter (all other Pteridophyta and all Spermaphyta)
heterosporous , with small and numerous microspores in micro-
sporangia on microsporophylls , and fewer larger mac?'o- or

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

55

megaspores in megasporangia on megasporophylls. Only
rarely do both kinds occur on one leaf, e.g. in Marsiliaceae.

In the ferns proper the sporophylls are not usually
differentiated from the foliage-leaves ; the same leaf usually
both assimilates and bears the sporangia. In other Pterido-
phyta there is a differentiation of the reproductive part of
the shoot ( inflorescence or strobilus) from the rest, and the
same is the case in the Spermaphyta. In Equisetum and
in Lycopodium there is a cone of sporophylls, all of one
kind in Selaginella the cone consists of micro- and mega-
sporophylls. The same is the case in the Gymnosperms
and Angiosperms, stamens and carpels corresponding to
micro- and mega-sporophylls, polle?i-sacs and ovules to micro-
and mega-sporangia.

There is good reason for believing that the structural
separation of the reproductive and vegetative functions took
place at least as early as the separation of the vegetative
functions from one another; hence it is evident that we
must be careful in comparing the organs of reproduction
with the vegetative organs. We have no right to say, for
example, that a sporophyll is a modified vegetative leaf ;
perhaps we should be nearer the truth if we said that a
vegetative leaf was a modified sporophyll, for the sporophyte
was probably reproductive before it was vegetative. It is
convenient and justifiable to speak of the sporophylls as the
leaves of the reproductive shoot, as their mode of arrange-
ment, development, &c., correspond closely with those of
the leaves of the vegetative shoot, but we must beware of
assuming that the structural phenomena of the one shoot
must necessarily have their counterparts in the other.

The spores of ferns and other Pteridophyta are shed
upon the ground and there germinate, giving rise to little
sexual plants, usually green, termed prothalli , entirely
different in habit and structure from the asexual leafy
plants. On these the male and female cells or gametes,
called spermatozoids ( antherozoids ) and ova respectively, are
borne in receptacles called antheridia and archegonia. The
prothallus in this connection is called the gametophyte ; in
homosporous forms (except Equisetum) it usually bears both
sexes, while in Equisetum and the heterosporous forms there
are male and female prothalli.

56

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

The spermatozoids escape from the antheridium when
ripe and swim to the archegonia (chemotropism or chemo-
taxis ; p. 36) ; one of them unites with the ovum in an
archegonium, the process being termed fertilisation. The
resulting cell or zygote soon germinates and grows into a
new leafy asexual plant. It is at first attached to the
prothallus by an organ termed the foot, until it can feed
itself. The life-history may be graphically represented thus
(fern) :

Leafy Plant or
Sporophvte

t

Zygote

Sporophylls Sporangia Spores

jSpermatozoid-
I Ovum -<

-Antheridia) Prothallus or
-Archegonia \ Gametophyte.

It will be seen that there is an Alternation of Generations,
sexual and asexual. This is a general feature of all the
plants with which we have to deal, but in the Spermaphyta
the gametophyte stage is much reduced and is no longer
on the ground. The megaspore germinates in the ovule or
megasporangium ; the microspore or pollen-grain is carried
to its neighbourhood by wind, insects, or otherwise. This
preliminary operation is called pollination ; the microspore
germinates, and gives rise to a spermatozoid (Cycadaceae
&c.) or to a tube ( pollen-tube ) which burrows to the ovum.

For further details of these phenomena see articles
Pteridophyta, Filicineae, Gymnospermae, Angiospermae,
Chalazogamae, &c.

Cross- and Self-Fertilisation. If, of the ova of a

plant A, some be fertilised by male cells of A, some by
male cells of a different plant of the same kind, B, will
there be any difference between the offspring of self-fertilisa-
tion (A x A) and that of cross-fertilisation (B x A)? The
answer to this question is supplied by the experiments of
Darwin, detailed in Cross- and Self Fertilisation of Plants.
In each species seeds obtained by self-fertilisation (AA),
and by fertilisation with pollen from a distinct plant (BA),
were planted in pairs, one of each kind, in pots, and thus
brought into competition. When fully grown the heights
and weights were measured, and also the number and
weight of seed produced. AA were again self-fertilised, BA

CROSS - AND SELF-FERTILISATION 57

again crossed, and so on for a number of years. The results
were surprising. Even in one generation the offspring of
cross- were superior in height, weight and fertility to the off-
spring of self-fertilisation ; only a few exceptions occurred.
In the succeeding generations the result became more and
more marked. We may thus conclude, not, as has been so
often done, that self-fertilisation is necessarily or in itself
harmful, but that in general the offspring of cross-fertilisation
will vanquish that of self-fertilisation in the struggle for
existence, if the two be brought into direct competition,
other things being equal, and that in general cross-fertilisa-
tion is much to be preferred, though self-fertilisation is
better than none.

The advantage due to crossing shown in Darwin’s results
is compounded of several factors, fertility of the parent
plant, strength of constitution of the offspring, and fertility
of the offspring. Besides the advantages thus measured, it
is probable that an important gain is made in the increased
variability of the offspring resulting from cross-fertilisation.

On the other hand as compared with self-fertilisation
crossing has certain drawbacks. It is (1) much less easy
to ensure fertilisation when the pollen has to come from a
distinct plant, and (2) fertilisation tends to be delayed (a
point of importance in the short summer of alpine and
arctic regions, where seed must be ripened before winter).

The advantages of cross-fertilisation are often great, and
frequently enormous, and as at the first glance they appear
to be obtained at little or no cost, we are inclined to expect
this method of propagation to prove almost universal, and
in fact it is extremely common. Self-fertilisation, however,
is certainly the rule in many plants, although as the flowers
are open there is a remote chance of a cross ; in a few cases,
so far as we know, the flowers never open, and crossing is
absolutely prevented.

An important conclusion easily drawn from the facts is
that cross-fertilisation costs the plant a certain price. If
self-fertilisation be the rule, there is no necessity for any
further complexity of flower beyond the organs bearing
pollen grains and ovules (i.e. stamens and carpels), except
something to ensure that the pollen shall reach the stigma,
and be protected from injury by rain, &c. No more pollen

58 CROSS - AND SELF-FERTILISATION

than is absolutely necessary for fertilisation need be pro-
duced. If, however, the flower is to be crossed, extra
expenditure must be made. If the carrying agent for
pollen be wind or water, a vast amount of pollen must be
wasted; if it be insects, though there is less waste, there
must be brightly coloured organs, scent, honey, &c., to
attract them. Thus it is that the plant has to pay a certain
price for its cross-fertilisation (this price being affected by
many factors, as we shall afterwards see), and only when the
gain resulting from crossing is greater than the price to be
paid for it will cross-fertilisation prove an advantage to the
plant1.

The advantages of fertilisation seem to rest upon the
fact of the two parents having grown under slightly different
conditions of life. The effect of a cross between two separate
flowers on a plant A is but little if any better than that of
the purest self-fertilisation within one flower, and the good
effect of a cross A x B is greater if A and B have been grown
at a distance apart than if grown near together. This is
expressed in Nageli’s law that “ the consequences of fertili-
sation reach their optimum when a certain mean difference
in the origin of the sexual cells is attained.” Varieties are
frequently even more fertile together than plants of the same
form, but when we go further and cross different species the
value of fertilisation decreases again, sterility becoming a
more or less marked feature in such unions.

Pollination. In all the higher flowering plants there
must be, before fertilisation can take place, a preliminary
operation — pollination — consisting in the transport of the
pollen-grains to the ovules (Gymnospermae) or to the
carpels (Angiospermae) : a few general principles of this
subject call for consideration here, and details are given
below2.

The general agents , external to the flower, effecting pol-
lination are wind, animals, and water. The flower may

1 MacLeod in Bot . Jaarboek , Gent, v. 1893 (review by Willis in
Science- Progress, Nov. 1895); Muller’s Fertilisation of Flowers \ Sach’s
History of Botany \ F. Darwin in Nature , Oct., 1898, p. 630.

2 And see Darwin’s Cross - and Self- Fertilisation , Fertilisation of
Orchids, Forms of Flowers ; Muller, Fertilisation of Flowers, Alpen -
blnmen\ MacLeod in Bot.Jaarb . v. 1893 (Dutch); Knuth, Handbuch
der Bliitenbiologie , &c.

POLLINATION

59

effect its own (self-) pollination without assistance from any
of them, but is dependent upon their help for cross-pollina-
tion. Of existing flowers a small number are only cross-
pollinated (if pollinated at all), having by mechanical or
physiological means lost all power of self-pollination ( auto-
gamy). Others again are solely self-pollinated, having no
arrangements for utilising in their service either wind or
insects. The majority of flowers occupy an intermediate
position between these two extremes; they have arrange-
ments, more or less perfect, for obtaining cross-pollination
by external agents, while at the same time they are not so
constructed as to be unable to perform self-pollination.

There is reason for supposing the primeval angiosper-
mous flowers to have been cross-pollinated. There are
many purely self-pollinated flowers now existing, but it is
more easy to explain their features on the supposition of
their descent from cross-pollinated ancestry than to suppose
them primitively autogamous. Most of the striking examples
occur in families or even in genera most of whose members
are cross-pollinated. There is a price to be paid for cross-
pollination, and if the gain from the process should by any
means become less than the cost, the plant may perhaps
revert to self-pollination. It is easy to imagine cases in
which this might occur. Suppose an insect-pollinated
species, A, in a certain district and suppose a new and
attractive flower, B, to arrive from another district and
establish itself ; this will draw off some of the visitors of A
and perhaps upset the balance of gain and loss, causing the
latter to exceed the former. We shall then perhaps find A
tending in the direction of increased autogamy ; the result
will probably be the gradual reduction of those characters
by which its visitors were attracted, and it may gradually
almost entirely lose them.

Suppose, however, that the introduction of B merely
reduced A’s profit but did not destroy it, then we might
imagine A increasing its expenditure, so to speak, upon
attractive characters, so as if possible to regain its former
predominance. This will perhaps only be possible in
plants which have stores of reserve-materials to draw upon,
capitalists , as they have been termed, in contrast to annuals,
&c. which have no reserves ( proletarians ). The balance

6o

POLLINATION

between gain and loss may be affected in many ways, owing
to the exceedingly delicate adjustment of the inter-relation-
ships of the life of plants and animals in any district.
Darwin’s example of the effect of cats upon clover ( Origin
of Species , p. 57) illustrates this. The introduction of
cultivation and therefore of new forms of plants into a
district may produce serious effects upon the general
balance of life there, even in the parts of the district most
removed from the cultivated area ; e.g. a field of clover may
draw off most of the bees from the wild flowers.

Some plants can risk more for cross-pollination than
others ; e.g. an annual plant must set seed well, and so we
find most annuals fully capable of autogamy. Long-lived
perennials on the other hand can afford to try mainly for
cross-pollination, and may even become incapable of auto-
gamy altogether. The factors which have produced the
particular phenomena seen in the pollination of any given
flower are very numerous, and the problem to be solved
before we can fully explain the phenomena is of a most
complex description. Account has to be taken of vegeta-
tive reproduction, amount of storage of material carried on
by the plant, climate, competition with other plants and so
on. On comparing the floral phenomena of the same plant
in different countries, we find a remarkable amount of
variety, and this is no doubt largely correlated with the
variety in the general conditions of life, & c. In this
connection it is of great interest to study the floral mechan-
isms and insect visitors of the different species of such
genera as Epilobium, Phacelia, Geranium, Gentiana (see
Pt. II. and Muller’s Fertilisation of Flowers) or such families
as Caryophyllaceae, where within a small circle of related
forms every stage may be seen, from high types with
complex mechanisms and cross-pollination -down to low
types with simple mechanisms and self-pollination.

The earliest flowers must have depended upon the wind
for pollen transport, and were therefore anemophilous or
wind-fertilised (better wind-pollinated). This mode of polli-
nation is not economical ; vast quantities of pollen must be
produced to ensure that some shall reach the ovules.
Comparatively few flowering plants retain the anemophilous
condition of their ancestry, and these have mostly acquired

POLLINATION

6 1

other characters which increase the chance of successful
pollination. There is much risk of damage to pollen from
rain, for it is necessary to expose it to ensure its being
carried away by wind. Sporangia as a rule only open in
dry air, and thus the risk is lessened. The close packing
of the sporophylls upon the axis also helps to keep water
from reaching the pollen.

At a very early period, perhaps, the transition from
wind-pollination to insect-pollination ( entomophily ) began,
and from this period the evolution of most flowers went on
hand in hand with that of insects, and is best studied in
connection therewith. It is not difficult to imagine how the
transition may have begun. Pollen is formed in great
quantities in anemophilous flowers and is a very nutritious
food. The earliest flying insects would only have very
short lips, but finding the pollen freely exposed would be
able to feed on it, and in this way might get into a regular
habit of flower visiting. Pollen adhering to their bodies
might thus be carried from flower to flower, and self-pollina-
tion also might occur.

Water-pollinated ( hydrophilous ) plants are few, and are
all probably derived from land-plants (see Chap. III.).

The Inflorescence. In some of the older types of
plants with which we have to deal, e.g. in the cones of some
Lycopodineae, Equisetineae, and Gymnosperms, there is
simply an axis bearing an indefinite number of sporophylls,
of one or two kinds. This is a most primitive type of repro-
ductive shoot, and we can perhaps hardly call it a flower,
but it is no great stretch of a term to apply to it the name
inflorescence , as we have already done. In the vast majority
of cases, however, the reproductive shoot or inflorescence is
differentiated into, or is composed of, or bears, a number of
shoots of limited growth (p. 42) termed flowers . It may be
that from each of the numerous cones of the primitive forms
one flower was derived, and that the flowers tended to
become aggregated together, or it may be that from each
cone a number of flowers were derived (see Coniferae) ; we
have at present no means of drawing a definite conclusion,
but it would seem probable that the former view is nearer
to the truth.

Very commonly a plant has only one inflorescence, but

62

THE INFLORESCENCE

most often the reproductive shoots are several in number,
divided by portions of the vegetative shoot.

The construction of the inflorescence depends chiefly on
the mode of branching, whether monopodial or sympodial,
but also on the varying rate of growth of its different parts,
variation in symmetry, adnation, &c.

The flowers may be sessile or on stalks ( pedicels of single
flowers in a group, peduncles of groups of flowers or solitary
flowers). Each flower arises, as a rule, in the axil of a leaf,
which is termed its bract ; and any leaves on the same axis
as the flower itself, between it and its bract, are termed the
bracteoles of the flower. The lowest bracteole is often
termed a, the next above /?, and so on (cf. floral diagrams).
These terms merely express the relative positions of the
parts ; the same leaf may obviously be the bracteole of one
flower and the bract of another. Bracts are absent in a few
cases; e.g. most Cruciferae, many Umbelliferae and Compo-
sitae are ebracteate\ the bracteoles also are frequently
missing. In Dicotyledons there are usually two bracteoles,
placed transversely (i.e. if the bract face S. they face E. and
W.), in Monocotyledons commonly one, on the side opposite
to the bract. In condensed inflorescences the bracts are
often collected together into whorls or what look like them;
such involucres may be seen on the heads of Compositae, &c.,
the umbels of many Umbelliferae, and so on. The term
involucre is also given to a whorl of leaves below a single
flower and upon the same axis, as in Anemone and its
allies.

In general the bracts resemble the foliage -leaves but are usually
smaller and more simple in construction. In some cases, e.g. Euphor-
bia sp., Salvia sp., Castilleja, Amherstia, Bougainvillea, they are
brightly coloured, aiding in the attraction of insects to the flowers.
They may also exhibit modification into thorns, &c., like foliage-leaves.
In many Monocotyledons, e.g. Palms, Araceae, &c., there is a large
leaf borne at the base of the inflorescence and on the same axis; this is
termed the spathe, and usually encloses the whole inflorescence when
young ; the latter, if of the spike pattern, is then usually termed a spadix.
The spathe is brightly coloured in many Araceae, e.g. Anthurium,
Richard ia.

The typical monopodial inflorescence is the raceme , in
which the main shoot grows steadily onwards, bearing
lateral branches in acropetal succession; each branch ter-

THE INFLORESCENCE

63

minates in a flower. The oldest flowers are thus those
furthest away from the apex of the main shoot, and the
order of opening of the flowers is centripetal. This inflo-
rescence is also frequently called indefinite or indeterminate ,
because the first axis does not, as a rule, end in a flower;
exceptions occur however in Aconitum and other Ranun-
culaceae, &c. Good examples of the simple raceme occur
in Ribes, Cruciferae, Berberis, Prunus sp., &c.

If instead of each branch bearing but a single flower, it bear another
raceme, we get a compound raceme or panicle , as seen in oats and
many other grasses; the terms applied to inflorescences are, however,
very loosely used, and the name panicle is given to any inflorescence
presenting this loosely branched appearance, whether the branching be
racemose or cymose, or both. If in the simple raceme the flowers be
imagined all sessile, we get the simple spike , as in Plantago. This also
may be compounded ; true compound spikes occur in wheat and other
grasses, &c. ; often, however, the secondary branching is cymose. In
.practice the name spike is given to all elongated inflorescences of sessile
flowers, whatever the branching. A variety of the spike is the catkin ,
amentum , or pendulous spike, seen in hazel, oak, chestnut, &c. If we
imagine the stalks of all the lateral flowers of a raceme to grow as fast
as the main axis, we get a simple corymb , with all the flowers at one
level, as in candytuft (Iberis) and other Cruciferae. The name is also
given to all branched inflorescences whose flowers stand at about the
same level. If we imagine the corymb to have its main axis ‘condensed*
so that all the stalks of the individual flowers spring from one point —
its summit — we get the umbel . This is usually compound, as seen in
Umbelliferae, and may be cymose (see below). Lastly, if the flowers
of the umbel be imagined sessile, the summit of the stalk being enlarged
into a common receptacle to bear them, we get the head or capitulum , as
seen in Compositae; this too may be compound, as in Echinops, &c.

In the sympodial or cymose inflorescences, the general
principle underlying their variety is that each branch, when
formed, ends in a flower after bearing a few leaves (brac-
teoles), usually one or two in number. From the axils of
these leaves the branching is continued. The term definite
or determinate is often applied to inflorescences of this type,
to indicate this peculiarity of the branching. The inflor-
escence (termed generally a cyme) is built up of a number
of ‘short shoots,’ which frequently form a true straight
sympodium (p. 42), especially in the older (fruiting) part
of the inflorescence. If each successive branch bear upon
itself one new branch only, the cyme is termed monochasial ,
if two, dichasial , if more, pleiochasial.

64

THE INFLORESCENCE

Typical dichasial cymes occur in Caryophyllaceae, Gentianaceae, &c.
(A in figure) ; they are usually found with opposite leaves, but some-
times with alternate. From the axils of the bracteoles b.2 of the flower
i spring shoots, each bearing two bracteoles (b3) and a flbwer (2), and
so on. Commonly, of the two shoots one is more strongly developed
than the other, and the difference often becomes more strongly marked
at each branching, and the cyme may thus even become monochasial
in its later formed parts (by preference, as it is termed, of one or other
bracteole). The figure represents all the shoots in one plane, but usually
the plane of each successive pair of branches is at right angles to that
of the preceding pair ; in other words, the plane of the shoots 3, 3, 3,
is at right angles to the plane of the paper.

Fig. 4. Diagrams of cymose inflorescences (partly after Eichler,
but modified). A, dichasial cyme ; E, bostryx ; C, cincinnus; D, rhipi-
dium; E, drepanium. The figures 1, 2, 3, &c. mark the flowers and
their order of age (also indicated by the size of the circles) ; the letters
b2, b3, &c. mark the bracts, in whose axils the flowers 2, 3, &c. respec-
tively arise. A is a side view, all the shoots being represented in one
plane; the rest are ground-plans.

THE INFLORESCENCE

65

Monochasial cymes are of four types, the ground-plans of which are
represented in the figure. If each successive lateral branch fall upon
the same side of the relatively main axis, we get the two cases repre-
sented by B and E ; the former is termed a bostryx (Schraubel), and is
found in Hemerocallis, Hypericum, &c. ; the latter is termed a dre-
panium (Sichel), and occurs in Juncaceae, &c. If each successive
lateral branch fall in turn on one side and on the other of the relatively
main axis, we get the cases represented by C and D. The former is
termed a cincinnus (Wickel) ; it occurs in Helianthemum, Boraginaceae,
Hydrophyllaceae, Pentaphragma, Tradescantia, &c., and is coiled up
in the bud like a crosier. The latter is similar but has all the flowers
in one plane instead of two ; it is termed a rhipidium (Fachel) and is
found in Iris, &C.1

Most monochasial inflorescences straighten out more or less into
sympodia, which have the appearance of racemes, but are distinguished
by the fact that the apparent lateral branches of the raceme are not in
the axils of the leaves, but usually opposite to these organs.

A considerable number of the flowering plants possess
mixed inflorescences, in which some of the branchings are
cymose, some racemose.

E.g. in Aesculus the primary branching is racemose, but the lateral
shoots each form a cincinnus (this inflorescence is usually termed
a panicle; see above). In Labiatae the primary branching is racemose,
the lateral shoots are dichasial. Other examples are Betulaceae,
Verbascum, Morina, Ceratostigma. In Statice the primary branching
is racemose, but the lateral shoots are drepania. In Iiaemanthus and
many other Amaryllidaceae the apparent umbel is really made up of
‘ condensed ’ bostryx-cymes. In Allium and others the ‘ condensation ’
is greater and cymose heads are formed. Some species of Juncus have
heads of drepania, and so on. Many Umbelliferae have cymose heads
or umbels, also Sparmannia, Armeria, Dipsaceae, &c. These inflo-
rescences are distinguished from true heads, &c. , by the fact that the
order of opening of the flowers is not centripetal.

The simplicity of the morphology of the inflorescence is
interfered with by adnation (p. 42) even more often than
that of the vegetative shoot. Cf. Solanaceae, Samolus,
Cuphea, Tilia, Erythrochiton, Chailletia, Spathicarpa, Spathi-
phyllum, &c.

Another peculiar case is the reduction of a complex
inflorescence to a simple one by suppression (p. 31) of its

1 The terms scorpioid cyme and helicoid cyme are avoided, on
account of the hopeless confusion of their definitions in the various
text-books. The student may familiarise himself with these forms of
cymes by constructing models out of matches with sharpened lower
ends (the head representing the flower).

w.

5

66

THE INFLORESCENCE

flowers. Thus the umbels of Xanthosia and Chorizanthe,
the dichasia of Mirabilis, the heads of Echinops, are each
one-flowered ; the female head of Xanthium two-flowered.
In these cases comparison with the related forms, and the
frequent possession of an involucre by the one flower, leaves
no doubt as to the explanation. An immense number of
plants have true solitary flowers, i.e. usually one flower in
each leaf-axil, loosely arranged on the main axis. These
may be reduced inflorescences, but in most cases, probably,
are not so.

One of the most interesting cases of reduction is the cyathium of
Euphorbia (q.v.), in which a whole inflorescence is reduced in such
a way as to look like a single flower, whilst really composed of many
individual flowers. This inflorescence has separate male and female
flowers, arranged in a definite way with regard to one another ; similar
phenomena occur in many Moraceae ( e.g . Brosimum), Begonia, Echino-
phora, Ficus, Cyclanthus, &c. All these have inflorescences of peculiar
types; cf. Part II. for details; see also Urticaceae, Triumfetta, Spiran-
thes, Acroglochin, Rhus, &c.

One advantage, underlying the differentiation of the
shoot into vegetative and reproductive parts, seems to be
the formation of many spores near together on the shoot.
In Cryptogams this is useful because the prothalli will tend
to be nearer together upon the soil, thus favouring fertilisa-
tion. In flowering plants the microspores (pollen) have to
be carried to the ovules or carpels, generally by the aid of
wind or insects. The massing together of the flowers tends
to free them from the vegetative leaves, which interfere with
wind-transport by interposing obstacles, and with insect-
transport by rendering the flowers less conspicuous. The
more the flowers are massed together the more conspicuous
do they become, the more quickly can they be visited by
insects, and the smaller the size of the individual flower
may be. The highest degree of perfection in this way is
found in the Compositae (q.v.). Conspicuousness is often
gained in other ways, e.g. by ray flowers, as in Compositae,
&c., coloured bracts (see above), unilateral arrangement of
the flowers (Digitalis, Mitella, Boraginaceae, &c.), and so on.

The Flower may be defined as a reproductive short
shoot. It consists essentially of an axis ( receptacle , thalamus ,
or torus) bearing sporophylls ( stamens and carpels). These
are the essential organs , and there are usually also some

THE FLOWER

67

accessory organs , or non-spore-bearing leaves, forming a
perianth , which is most often in two series, the outer leaves
( sepals ) forming a protective calyx, the inner {petals) a
coloured corolla.

We shall deal with the morphology from a phylogenetic
and ecological point of view, endeavouring to trace the
gradual evolution and differentiation of the various parts
in the light of the principle of the physiological division of
labour. It is necessary to keep clearly in mind what has
been said above about cross- and self-fertilisation and polli-
nation. The primary object of the flower, to speak in
a figurative manner, is to set seed with as much economy
as possible. A saving of material in the flower may be
applied to increasing the weight or number of the seeds.
A great number of plants are adapted chiefly to cross-
pollination and this introduces numerous complications into
their morphology. Others again have, in the course of ages,
become adapted to self-fertilisation, but previous adaptations
for crossing may still remain in a more or less imperfect
condition. Other important points are protection of the
essential organs from the weather, economy of pollen and
ovules, improvement of mechanisms for pollination, attrac-
tion of more and cleverer insects, exclusion of less desirable
insects, and so on. All of these specialisations are reflected
in floral morphology.

It is not altogether improbable that at a very early
period the ancestors of the present flowering plants had
simple cone-like flowers, each composed of an axis bearing
micro- and mega-sporophylls. Such a flower is approxi-
mately represented by the cone of Selaginella, and by
comparing with it the flowers of to-day in all their variety
we can trace the corresponding organs throughout, and infer
what new organs have arisen and what changes have oc-
curred. Comparative study of floral structure shows that
the seeming infinite variety can be largely brought under
a few heads which apparently represent lines upon which
evolution has progressed in connection with the specialis-
ations outlined above. With these features we shall now
deal in order, and afterwards with the special morphology
of the floral organs, and their natural history.

Descriptive Terms and further details are given after

5 -2

68 THE FLOWER (DICLINISM, ETC.)

each section of floral morphology dealt with. The beginner
should work through each section with flowers in hand,
dissecting, describing, and sketching ; after he has had some
practice in this work he should go on to describe the flower
as a whole1.

Segregation of Sporophylls or grouping of each kind
by itself, is characteristic of nearly all existing flowers except
Selaginella &c. and must have occurred very early in the
evolution. The sporophylls may be all in the same herma-
phrodite2 or bisexual ( $ ) flower, or may be in separate
unisexual 2 flowers, the microsporophylls or stamens in male 2
or staminate ( $ ), the megasporophylls or carpels in female 2
or pistillate ( 5 ) flowers. In hermaphrodite flowers the
carpels occupy the summit of the axis, and the stamens
stand below them.

Unisexual flowers occur in a number of Phanerogams,
but in all but the Gymnosperms, the catkinate families, and
perhaps a few others, they are probably derived from herma-
phrodite ancestors, as is indicated by the male flower usually
possessing rudimentary carpels, the female rudimentary
stamens. Examples occur in Sagittaria, Rhamnus, Begonia,
Aucuba, Bryonia, Petasites, Tussilago, &c. Other “distri-
butions of sex ” are also found.

Descriptive Terms, <S rV. Plant with both stamens and carpels in
one £ flower, monoclinous , in separate S and ? flowers, diclinous ; S and
? flowers on the same plant, monoecious , on separate plants, dioecious.
Other complications are gynomonaecism ( $ and ? on the same plant, as
in some Labiatae, Compositae, &c.), gynodicecism ( £ and ? on separate
plants, as in Nepeta, Thymus, and other Labiatae, Plantago, many
Caryophyllaceae, &c.), andromoncecism ( $ and S' on one plant, as in
Veratrum), androdioecism ( $ and <? on separate plants, as in Dryas),
tricecism ( $ , S , ? , each on its own plant, as in Silene sp.), polygamy
( £ , S , ? , in various combinations on one or more plants, as in Rhus,
Fraxinus, &c.). All these phenomena, except monoecism and dioecism

1 The following works may be consulted with advantage: ( Morpho-
logical) Goebel, Organography of Plants , Entwicklungsgeschichte der
Pflatizenorgane (in Schenk’s Handbuch der Botanik) ; Eichler, Bliithen -
diagrammed Schumann, Morphologische Studien , Neue Untersuchungen
iiber die Bliitenansckluss ; Payer, Organogenie de la Fleur ; Bower,
Studies in the Morphology of Spore-producing Members (Phil. Trans.,
recent years) ; (. Ecological ) the books mentioned under Pollination
on p. 58.

2 These sex terms ought not to be applied to parts of the sporophyte,
but are firmly established in botanical literature.

THE FLOWER (. REDUCTION, ETC) 69

(and even then perhaps in the derived cases) are probably largely
connected with nutrition and correlated variation, and their value to
the plants possessing them is problematical1.

Reduction in number of Sporophylls, and Ar-
rangement of Floral Leaves in Whorls, are two widely
spread features of the more highly evolved flowers. The
aggregation of sporophylls to form flowers causes many
spores to be formed near together; the advantages of this
were pointed out on p. 66. As means of pollination
improve in flowers, the number of sporophylls and sporangia
need not be so great as in the more primitive forms, and in
general we find it smallest in the most highly specialised
flowers. Many of the lower types of flower now existing,
e.g. in Ranunculaceae and other orders of the Ranales, have
their sporophylls, and often their perianth-leaves, spirally
arranged on the axis, but in most flowers they are in whorls
and the axis is correspondingly shorter. The members of
any whorl usually alternate with those of the next, but
sometimes are opposite to them, or of different number.

The lower existing types of flowers have many stamens
and carpels, the higher have generally two whorls of the
former and one of the latter, and this whorl, too, is usually
reduced in number. A very common case is for the outer
whorls to be of 5 members each, the carpellary whorl of
3 members or even fewer. In the Sympetalae all but the
lowest have only one whorl of stamens, and usually only two
carpels, or even one. The number of ovules is commonly
reduced also in the highest types of entomophilous flowers ;
the Compositae, for instance, show only one in each flower.
In anemophilous flowers the number of ovules is usually
small, perhaps because of difficulty in pollination. Other
plants of high type, again, e.g. Orchids, find an advantage
in numerous ovules (and compare Labiatae with Scrophu-
lariaceae).

Descriptive Terms , <5rY. Flower with leaves all spirally arranged,
acyclic , all in whorls, cyclic , part in spirals, part in whorls, hemicyclic ;
whorled, with the same number of organs in every whorl, encyclic (the
whorls, or flower, isojnerous ), with different numbers, heterocyclic
(whorls, or flower, hetero- or aniso-merous , the whorls with fewer organs

1 Willis, On Gynodicecism &c. 3 papers in Proc. Camb. Phil.

Soc., 1892-3.

70 THE FLOWER ( CONCRESCENCE )

oligomerous , with more members, pleomerous). Flower with 2, 3, 4, 5
whorls di-, tri -, tetra -, penta-cyclic ; with 2, 3, 4, 5 members in each
whorl di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-merous. The number of organs in each
whorl is given if the flower is heteromerous ; if over 10 and variable
it is usually termed indefitiite , e.g. stamens and carpels of Ranunculus.
Members of one whorl are usually alternate to those of the next outer
whorl, but may be opposite (superposed, anteposed) to them ; this is
usually described as 4 Stamens antepetalous * and so on (see stamens,
below, and diagrams of Caryophyllaceae, Primulaceae).

Concrescence (p. 30) of organs is a common and
important phenomenon. When it takes place between
similar organs, e.g. in the corolla of the Sympetalae, it is
commonly termed cohesion , when between dissimilar organs,
e.g. between stamens and petals, as in thyme or mint,
adhesion . The latter rarely occurs without the former.
Concrescence of sporophylls, especially of carpels, probably
effects great economy in fertilisation, by making only one
track for the pollen-tubes to all the ovules ; in the perianth
it often saves material and helps to narrow the entrance to
the honey (see below).

Descriptive Ter?)is. Perianth, calyx, corolla, stamens, carpels, of
organs free from one another, polyphyllous, polysepalous , polypetalous ,
polyandrous , apocarpous ; of concrescent (‘coherent’) organs, gamo -
phyllous , gamosepalous , gatno - or sym-petalous , monadelphous (if all
stamens concrescent ; see below under stamens), syncarpous . Stamens
concrescent with (‘adherent to’) carpels, corolla, calyx, perianth,
gynandrous , epipetalous , episepalous, epiphyllous . The concrescent por-
tion is termed the tube, the free part the limb ; the latter is divided
into lobes, teeth , or seg?nents.

Multiplication of organs, or the presence of more than
one in a place where comparison (p. 27) shows that there
was probably only one in an ancestral form, is not infrequent.
It is usually due to branching ( chorisis , dedouble ment), and is
especially common in stamens, e.g. in some Myrtaceae
(Calothamnus, &c.), Papaveraceae (Fumaria, &c.), Ricinus,
Polygonaceae, Malvaceae, Cruciferae, Capparidaceae, Gutti-
ferae, &c. It occurs in the carpels of Nolanaceae and many
Malvaceae, &c.

Abortion and Suppression (p. 31) are also common.
Reduction of number of sporophylls and oligomery of the
carpels are mentioned above. Abortion is very common in
stamens, small functionless statninodes being left, e.g. in
Scrophularia ; it also occurs in the petals of Aconitum, the

THE FL O WER (. SUPPRESSION, ETC.) 71

carpels of male flowers (above), &c. Suppression of a whole
whorl has probably occurred in the evolution of many flowers
with only one whorl of stamens, in the petals of apetalous
flowers, eg. many Caryophyllaceae, in the perianth of such
naked flowers as Achlys, and so on.

Change of Form of the Receptacle is a frequent
case. In primitive flowers, and in many now existing, the
axis is more or less elongated, with the carpels at the top
or superior , and the other organs arranged below them or
hypogynous (A in fig. 5). In Fragaria, Potentilla, &c. the
receptacle in its development becomes flattened on the top
by the more rapid growth of the sides, so that in section it
has a kind of v shape. In Acer, Ruta, and many other
plants of the orders placed in Disciflorae by Bentham and
Hooker (see Chap. II.) the flattening is above the calyx,
so that a disc is formed in the base of the flower, bearing
corolla, stamens and carpels. In Rosaceae, Crassulaceae,
&c. (most of the Calyciflorae of Bentham and Hooker),
however, the calyx also is borne on the edge of the flattened
receptacle. Usually the growth of the sides goes on so far
as to make the upper surface concave, so that a shallow or
deep cup is formed, with the calyx springing from its margin
(B in fig. 5). The texture of the cup is usually similar to
that of the calyx, often to such an extent that it is impossible
to point out by mere inspection of the outside where one
ends and the other begins, and we may if we please regard
the phenomenon as one of concrescence of the calyx, with
the corolla and stamens also taking part. This is partially
the older view expressed in the term “ Calyciflorae. ^ The
corolla usually springs from the margin of the cup, and the
stamens lower down in it. In these flowers, while the carpels
or gynoeceum are still superior, the other organs, springing
around them, are termed perigy nous, even if the tube of the
flower be so deep that they spring above the carpels.

Epigyny is another line along which evolution seems to
have proceeded. The genus Saxifraga may perhaps serve
as an illustration. In it there are some species with almost
hypogynous flowers ; others have a more cup-like receptacle,
but the carpels are united at the sides to the cup. Some
show this phenomenon to a very slight extent, others to
such a degree that only the styles remain free, the ovary

7*

THE FLOWER (EPIGVNV).

being completely immersed in the hollow receptacle (C in
fig. 5 ). Such an ovary is termed inferior , and the other parts
of the flower are epigynous. It seems probable enough that

Fig. 5. Diagrammatic longitudinal Sections of Flowers,
to show types of receptacle, ovary, stigma, &c. A, hypogynous flower
with unilocular ovary, parietal placentation, and numerous ascending
anatropous ovules with raphe downwards ; stigma sessile, bilobed. B,
perigynous flower with multi-locular ovary, axile placentation, and
numerous horizontal anatropous ovules with raphe upwards ; style with
bifid stigma. C, epigynous flower with multi-locular ovary, apical
placentation, and solitary pendulous anatropous ovules with ventral
raphe ; style long with capitate stigma, r , receptacle, k , calyx, c,
corolla, a, stamens, 0, ovary, st , stigma.

such a series of stages may have occurred in the original
evolution of epigynous flowers ; it is at any rate improbable
that many were derived from perigynous flowers with any
important depth of tube. Epigyny is found in Umbelliferae,
Compositae, Rubiaceae, Iridaceae, Begoniaceae, and else-
where.

Descriptive Terms , &c. Flowers, or perianth, calyx, corolla,
stamens, may be hypo -, peri- or epi-gynous (above) ; the gynoeceum
superior or inferior. Perigynous flowers may be shallowly or deeply
perigynous ; in the latter case the tube is described as to length,
texture, &c. There may be a disc in the flower (see above). Sometimes
outgrowths (< figurations ) of the receptacle are seen, e.g. in Passiflora,
Capparidaceae, Orchidaceae, &c. Sometimes the receptacle elongates
between the whorls of floral members, e.g. in Lychnis between calyx
and corolla, in Passiflora and in many Capparidaceae between corolla
and stamens, in Capparis between stamens and carpels. If the elongated
portion bears the stamens it is termed an androphore, if only the carpels,
a gynophore. Other receptacular outgrowths are seen in epigynous
flowers, e.g. the wings on the inferior ovary of Begonia, the thorns
(which sometimes bear flowers) on that of Tetragonia, the nectariferous
disc of Umbelliferae, Compositae, &c., and so on.

73

THE FLOWER (. SYMMETRY)

Floral Symmetry is another feature that shows much
variety in its evolution. In a good many flowers the
number of members in each whorl is the same, and each
member of any whorl is like every other member of the same
whorl in size, shape, texture, &c. The symmetry is radial
(p. 31) or acti?iomorphic , and the flower is regular , e.g. in
the Ranunculaceae, Rosaceae (see diagrams in Part II.),
Crassulaceae, Ericaceae, &c. It more frequently happens
than not that the symmetry, perfect in the outer whorls, is
disturbed by the fact of the gynoeceum possessing too few
carpels, as in most Sympetalae. Such flowers, however, are
generally termed actinomorphic also. But if one or more
members be missing from any of the outer whorls, or if in
any whorl all the members are not exactly alike, then the
flower is irregular. If it can be divided symmetrically
in any plane, it is zygomorphic (see floral diagrams of
Papaveraceae, Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae, &c.) ; if it cannot
be so divided it is asymmetrical as in Valerianaceae.

The flower usually stands in the axil of a bract and as a
rule the same side of each flower on any plant faces the
bract. The side facing the bract is anterior , that facing
away from it, i.e. towards the original stem, is posterior.
The upper side of a floral leaf, as of a vegetative leaf, is
ventral , the lower dorsal.

A great many families, e.g. Ranunculaceae, contain both
regular and irregular flowers, whilst others, e.g. Labiatae,
contain only the latter. The change from regularity to
irregularity is then one which has begun independently in
many branches of the phanerogamic tree (p. 29). Of the
determining and active causes we know little, but we may
easily see the advantages of the change. Irregular flowers
usually stand more or less horizontally, whereas regular ones
are most often, perhaps, erect. A flower that stands
horizontally will obviously protect its pollen better, at least
in those stamens that are uppermost. Further, the only
convenient track for the entering insect is by the lower
side. We can easily imagine the evolution of such a flower
into a zygomorphic one. The lower stamens and the style
might bend over to come under the upper side of the flower,
and this might develope into a protective hood, whilst the
lower half of the flower (usually only the corolla) might

74

THE FLOWER {SYMMETRY)

enlarge into a conspicuous lower lip, forming the landing-
place for insects, as in most Labiatae and allied orders,
Orchidaceae, &c. If the lower half of the corolla, on the
other hand, assumed the protective duties, we should get
such a case as seen in the Leguminosae. This fact, that
the flower has now only one track to the honey instead of
many, is probably one of the chief advantages of zygo-
morphism, as it enables the anthers and stigmas to be kept
in the one place only and thus favours economy of pollen, &c.

The two-lipped condition, however, is not the only form
of irregularity. Very often one petal differs from the rest in
shape, e.g. the lower petal of Viola is drawn out into a spur
in which the honey is protected from short-lipped insects.
Similar phenomena occur in Delphinium, many Orchids
(Angraecum is the most remarkable), and many Sympetalae,
e.g. Centranthus, Linaria. In the irregular outer flowers of
the condensed inflorescences of many Cruciferae, Umbelli-
ferae, Compositae, Dipsaceae, &c., the advantage seems to
lie chiefly in greater conspicuousness.

Gravity and other causes seem to have had a good deal
to do with the determination of zygomorphism, and it must
not be regarded without further proof as entirely an adapta-
tion to insect-pollination. It occurs in the wind-pollinated
Podostemaceae1.

Descriptive Terms , &*c. Flowers may be regular or irregular ,
actinomorphic , zygomorphic , or asymmetrical (see above). In zygo-
morphic flowers the plane of symmetry is usually the antero-posterior
plane. Transverse zygomorphism occurs in some Papaveraceae (y.z/.),
Haemodoraceae, Anigozanthos, &c., diagonal in Solanaceae, &c., right-
and left-handed in Exacum, Saintpaulia, Cassia, &c. Twisting of the
stalk of the flower sometimes alters the plane of the symmetry, as in
Lobelia, Orchidaceae, Fumaria, Impatiens, &c. The terminal flower
of an inflorescence has sometimes a different symmetry from the laterals,
e.g. in Ruta, Acer, Adoxa, Acalypha, &c. (cf. also the peloria of
Linaria). In Ariopsis, Cyclanthus, Morinda, Lonicera, &c. more or
less union of different flowers occurs. Mention may also be made of
the polymorphism of the flowers of some Orchids, e.g. Catasetum.

Irregularity is most common in the perianth, and the terms used are
given below.

The Flower Bud. In the young bud the floral organs

1 Goebel, Organography of Plants ; Vochting in Pringsh. Jahrb. f.
wiss. Bot. xvn, 1886; Robertson in Bot. Gaz. 1888; Willis (dorsiven-
trality of Podostemaceae) in Ann. Perad. I, 1902, pp. 426, 434.

THE FLOWER (AESTIVATION)

75

are closely packed in a definite way which is always the
same for the same flower and often for a whole family ; so
that this aestivation (ef. vernation, p. 41) is a character of
importance in classification. Only the perianth is con-
sidered, as a rule, and the aestivation is easily seen in a cross
section (cf. floral diagrams in Part II).

Descriptive Terms, <Srv. Leaves or segments not even meeting at
edges, the aestivation is open (corolla of Cruciferae), touching but not
overlapping, valvate (corolla of Compositae), overlapping, imbricate
(calyx of Leguminosae). Special cases of imbricate are convolute or
contorted (each leaf overlapping with the same right or left edge, so that
the corolla looks twisted, as in Malva, Gentiana, &c.) and quincuncial
(two leaves overlapping with both edges, two underlapping with both,
one over- and under-lapping, as in calyx of Caryophyllaceae). Each
leaf overlapping the one posterior to it, ascending (calyx of Vicia in
Leguminosae), anterior to it, descending (corolla of Vicia). Leaf
margins turned inwards, induplicate (corolla of many Compositae),
outwards, reduplicate. Leaves rolled up inwards like watch springs,
cuxinate (petals of Hamamelidaceae).

Most commonly all the flowers on a plant show the same aestivation
in detail, or are homodromous, as opposed to the heterodromous flowers
of Marantaceae, Exacum, Saintpaulia &c., in which a right-hand
flower is arranged the opposite way to a left-hand flower, so that a
particular organ twisted to the right in one is twisted to the left in the
other.

The Perianth , or outer covering of the flower, Com-
posed of non-reproductive leaves, is an organ that dates its
origin very far back, as it now occurs in the vast majority
of flowers ; a few naked flowers exist, but in studying them
we are at once met with the question, “ Are they primitively
naked (i.e. have all their ancestral forms, however far they
be traced, also been naked) or are they naked by reduction,
i.e. by the loss of a perianth possessed at some period by
their ancestry ? ” Those naked flowers which occur among
the Chalazogamae are probably primitively so, their other
characters attesting their antiquity, and perhaps the Gra-
mineae and some of the lower Dicotyledons may also be
included here, but such flowers as Achlys, Euphorbia,
Altinga, &c. are certainly naked by suppression, occurring
as they do in families most of whose flowers are not naked.

The origin of the perianth is a subject beset with
difficulty ; there are various explanations possible. It may
have been derived from true vegetative leaves which gradu-
ally grew closer to the stamens and carpels, or from

76

THE PERIANTH

sporophylls (probably stamens) which gave up their spore-
producing function, and in consequence probably became
larger by the diversion of the food materials formerly given
to the spores ; or again, it is possible that both these views
have some truth in them. However it may be, it is
probable that the perianth first appeared as a few greenish
or brownish coloured leaves at the base of the flower, and,
by covering the stamens and carpels in the bud, performed
for them the important function of protection from the
weather. True simple perianths of this type occur in some
of the lower cohorts both of Monocotyledons and Dicotyle-
dons. We have again to be on our guard against cases in
which abortion of part of a double perianth has occurred,
i.e. against true apetalous flowers.

With the advance of insect-pollination, specialisation is
shown in the perianth, and in most flowers now existing
there is an outer series or whorl of greenish or brownish
protective sepals forming a calyx , and an inner series or
whorl of more or less brightly coloured petals forming a
corolla , which aids in the attraction of insects. Most
probably this inner series of leaves has been derived from
the stamens ; when the latter lose their sporophyll function,
as in double flowers, they readily become transformed into
petals. Transition forms occur in Nymphaea ; and are
sometimes quoted as proofs of the origin of stamens from
petals ; the argument is equally good if reversed, and it is
also a priori far more probable in this form, as a moment’s
consideration of the intermediate forms will show.

Concrescence is frequent in the perianth, e.g. in Sym-
petalae, and between perianth and stamens. Irregularity is
also common.

Descriptive Terms , &c. Flower with perianth, chlamydeous ,
without, naked or achlamydeons ; with one whorl of perianth, haplo -
or mono-chlamydeous or ‘ incomplete 1 ( apetalous if the phenomenon is
due to suppression of corolla), with two whorls, di - or diplo-chla??iydeous
or 4 complete l Perianth with leaves of one kind only (tepals) homo -
chlamydeous, of two kinds ( sepals forming a calyx , and petals a corolla ),
heterochlamydeous.

The perianth (calyx, corolla) may be hypo-, peri-, or epi-gynous ; of
free organs (poly-phyllous, - sepalous , -petalous) or concrescent (gamo-
phyllous , - sepalous , gatno- or sym-petalous) ; in the latter case the con-
crescent part or tube bears the free lobes, teeth , or segments together
forming the limb . It may also be regular (actinom orphic) or irregular

THE PERIANTH

77

( zygom orphic , or asymmetrical ). If it fall as the bud opens, it is
caducous, just after fertilisation, deciduous , if it remain unwithered
round the fruit, persistent , withered, marcescent , enlarged, as in
Physalis, accrescent.

A homochlamydeous perianth may be sepaloid (looking like a calyx
in colour and texture) or petaloid (like a corolla).

The aestivation is described in the terms given above.

The sepals are commonly leafy and green, but sometimes more or
less woody (some Myrtaceae, &c.), or brightly coloured (Clerodendron,
some Ranunculaceae, &c.). In many epigynous flowers they are much
reduced, e.g. in Umbelliferae and Rubiaceae. In Compositae they are
frequently represented by a pappus of hairs or bristles. If concrescent,
the calyx is described by the terms given for the corolla, below. In
Malvaceae, some Rosaceae {e.g. Potentilla) and Lythraceae there is an
epicalyx of apparent stipular nature (see also Dipsaceae).

The petals are usually of some other colour than green, and of
delicate texture. They may be narrowed at the base, as in wallflower,
into a claw (; unguiculate ), fringed with hair- like teeth, as in pinks
( fimbriate ), bifid, tri-fid , &c. (cf. leaves) or divided into several long
segments (laciniate) ; they may be spurred (with long hollow projection,
as in Viola), saccate or gibbous (with projecting broad pouch), scaphoid
(boat-shaped, as in Loasa), &c. The general form of the sympetalous
corolla may be tubular , funnel-shaped ', urceolate (urn-shaped), ca?n-
panulate (bell-shaped as in Canterbury bells), rotate (wheel-shaped
with little or no tube, as in Veronica), salver-shaped (ditto, but with
long tubular portion, as in primrose), spurred , saccate , gibbous , ventricose
(swollen out all round in the basal part) ; if irregular, it may be labiate
or bilabiate (with two projecting lips, as in Labiatae), personate (labiate,
mouth closed by projecting lobe, as in Antirrhinum, &c.), helmet- shaped,
ligulate (strap-shaped, as in dandelion, &c.), &c.

The shape, texture, &c. of the individual sepals, petals, calyx-lobes,
corolla- lobes, is described as if they were leaves.

The Stamens or microsporophylls of a flower, taken
together, are termed the androeceum. In flowering plants
the microspores and microsporangi are termed pollen-grains
and pollen-sacs , but otherwise differ little in essentials from
those of Pteridophyta.

The stamen (Fig. 6) is usually a stalked organ composed
of a filament bearing an anther , the latter usually of two
chief lobes or thecae united by a prolongation of the filament
( connective ). Each lobe usually contains two pollen-sacs,
which split along definite lines of dehiscence to allow the
pollen to escape.

Descriptive Terms. The androeceum or stamens may be hypo-,
peri-, or epi-gynous ; epi-phyllous , -peialous, or -sepa 'lous (concrescent
with perianth, corolla, or calyx) ; diplostemonous (in two whorls, the
outer alternating with the corolla, and equally numerous with it),

THE STAMENS

78

obdiploste?nonous (in two whorls, the outer opposite or anteposed to
the petals, see Caryophyllaceae), haplo- or iso-stemonous (in one whorl,
alternate to the corolla, or anteposed to it, as in Primulaceae), or in more
than two whorls (Rosaceae). The stamens may be few and definite

Fig. 6. Stamen Morphology. A, stamen with adnate anther from
the front, B, the same from the back. C, stamen with versatile anther.
D, tip of an anther with porous dehiscence. E, cross section of a ripe
adnate anther to show pollen-sacs ; the two sacs in the right-hand lobe
have just opened, a, anther, c , connective, d , line of dehiscence, f,
filament, /, anther-lobe,/, pore, p.s. pollen-sac, v.b. vascular bundle.

(usually under 20, often described as /non-, di-androtts , &c. according to
the number) or indefinite (over 20, see Ranunculaceae, Rosaceae, &c.);
they may be all free ( monandrons ,... polyandrous) or concrescent in
1, 2, 3, many bundles ( mon -, di-, tri-, poly- adelphous) with free anthers,
or including the anthers into one mass ( synandrous , noun synandrium)
as in many Araceae, Cyclanthera, Phyllanthus sp., Cucurbitaceae, &c.;
they may be concrescent also with the gynoeceum ( synandrous , Orchi-
daceae), or have the anthers only united ( syngenesious, Compositae).
There may be 2 stamens longer than the rest ( didynamous , Labiatae) or
4 ( tetradyna/nous , Cruciferae).

The anther may be sessile or on a filament ; may be joined to the
filament by its whole length ( adnate , dorsifixed', A in Fig.), or by its
base (innate, basifixed), or balanced on it, forming a T (versatile ; C) ;
may be extrorse or introrse (opening away from, or towards, the centre
of the flower). Its dehiscence may also be longitudinal (A) or trans-
verse, valvular (by lids, Berberidaceae, Lauraceae), or by pores
(Ericaceae, Gentianaceae, &c. ; D). The thecae may be twisted as in
Columelliaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Cochliostema, &c. The pollen-sacs may
be numerous, as in Viscum, &c., septate or chambered (Mimoseae, some
Onagraceae, &c.). There may be appendages on the filaments (Zygo-
phyllum, Amaryllidaceae, Hydrophyllaceae) or anthers (Ericaceae,

THE CARPELS

79

Melastomaceae). The pollen may be smooth or warty , powdery or
coherent, waxy , &c. ; it may be united into groups of 4 grains ( tetrads ,
Ericaceae, &c.) or masses (potlinia, Orchidaceae, Asclepiadaceae).

Vestigial stamens or staminodes may be small and papilla-like, or
may be petaloid as in Marantaceae, Canna, &c., or may form nectaries
as in Loasaceae.

The Carpels or megasporophylls of the flower, taken
together, form its gynceceum. The megaspores and sporangia
of Pteridophyta are represented by the embryo-sacs and
ovules of flowering plants. The gynoeceum shows much
variety in structure, but there is an essential homology
running through it.

The simple leaf-like sporophyll now only occurs in
Selaginella and a few other forms. In the higher plants the
megasporangia are replaced by ovules, usually borne on the
upper edges of the carpels. The ovule contains a spore or
spores (embryo-sacs). This germinates in situ and forms the
female prothallus, and when the ovum is fertilised the ovule
ripens to a seed. In Gymnospermae, as the name implies,
the ovule (or seed) is exposed on the surface of the sporophyll,
but in Angiospermae the sporophyll is folded inwards to form
a hollow chamber or ovary , the ovules being borne on the
margins (exc. Butomaceae, Nymphaeaceae, & c.) on thickened
placentae or cushions. The tip of the carpel in the line of the
midrib is now the style, ending in a receptive organ or stigma
(usually sticky or hairy) for the pollen-grains. The grains,
brought by wind or other agency, germinate on the stigma, and
form tubes which penetrate to the ovules, carrying the male
nuclei for fertilisation. Simple free ( apocarpous ) carpels of
this kind are well seen in many Ranunculaceae, eg. hellebore
or monkshood, and in Crassulaceae, Alismaceae, &c. More
commonly the carpels are concrescent or coherent ( syncar -
pous). In this case several types occur; there may be as
many cavities or loculi in the ovary as there are carpels, or
there may be only one. The former case (e.g. Myrtus,
Fig. 7) may be imagined as carpels folded in and joined,
the latter (eg. Corydalis, Fig. 8) as carpels meeting by their
margins. Most commonly in the multi-locular (many-
chambered) ovary the placentae are axile , i.e. on the inner
walls (Figs. 5 B , 7), and in the unilocular (one-chambered)
ovary parietal , i.e. on the outer walls (Figs. 5 A, 8), but the
placentae may also be at the top (apical, Fig. 5 C) or bottom

8o

THE OVULE

(basal). In the unilocular ovary of Caryophyllaceae, Primu-
laceae (Figs, in Pt II), &c. a peculiar free-central placenta
runs up through the middle, the ovary looking like a multi-
locular ovary that has lost its partitions or septa .

6

Fig. 8.

Fig. 7*

Fig. 7. Cross section of flower of Myrtus communis , showing
tricarpellary, trilocular ovary, with axile placentae.

Fig. 8. Cross section of flower of Corydalis cava , showing
bicarpellary, unilocular ovary, with parietal placentae.

The concrescence of carpels may also include the styles,
or the styles and stigmas. Branching or multiplication
(p. 70), the formation of false septa (below), epigyny (p. 72),
and other phenomena, often further complicate the morpho-

logy-

Details of the internal structure of the ovule must be
sought elsewhere ; a few notes must suffice here. The ovule
(Fig. 9) is borne by a stalk or fwiicle (f) upon a more or
less swollen placenta (pi.), and consists of a mass of tissue,
the nucellus (nu), enclosed in one or two coats (integument,
ii, oi) which spring from the base (chalaza, cJi) of the ovule
and leave a narrow opening (micropyle, m) at the apex.
The nucellus contains one (or sometimes more than one)
large cell, the megaspore or embryo-sac (e). This germinates
in situ and in most Gymnospermae produces a mass of
tissue (endosperm) filling up the interior of the sac and
bearing archegonia near the micropyle. In Angiospermae
there are usually only a few nuclei or cells produced, as in
Fig. 9. The original spore nucleus divides to form eight, of
which two unite to form a new central nucleus (n)} while

THE OVULE

81

three at the micropylar end form the egg-apparatus , three at
the other end the antipodal cells (a). The egg-apparatus is
composed of three cells, an ovum (o) and two infertile
synergidae ; the antipodal cells appear to be usually function-
less. The pollen tube (/) passes from the stigma down the
style, carrying the male cell-nuclei. It may enter the ovary
and pass into the micropyle ( micropylar , porogamic , or
acrogamic fertilisation) or burrow in the carpel wall and
through the funicle and chalaza to the embryo-sac ( chalazo -
gamic fertilisation, see Chalazogamae).

Fig. 9. Diagrammatic longitudinal Section of an anatro-
pous Ovule. //, the placenta,/; funicle, united to side of ovule forming
the raphe, (r); v.b ., vascular bundle, ch, chalaza of ovule, ii and oi9 inner
and outer integuments, my micropyle ; nu, nucellus, containing e ,
embryo-sac, in which are o, the ovum with the two synergidae, ny the
central nucleus, and a , the antipodal cells. A pollen-tube, t , is
approaching the micropyle.

One of the male nuclei fertilises the ovum, forming the
zygote; the other in many cases (and perhaps usually) unites
with the central nucleus, which then divides rapidly to form
a mass of endosperm cells tilling up the embryo-sac. This
endosperm is thus not homologous with that of the
Gymnospermae. The zygote grows into the embryo, and
feeds upon the stores made by the parent plant in the
endosperm ; the ovule ripens to a seed.

w. 6

82 THE GYNCECEUM (. DESCRIPTION )

Descriptive terms , &*c. The gynceceum (often called ovary, though
this name belongs strictly to the hollow portion1) or carpels may be
superior (occupying apex of torus above androeceum) or inferior (sunk
in torus, with epigynous stamens) ; apocarpotis (if free), or syncarpous
(if concrescent carpels); of i, 2, 3, ... 00 carpels {mono-, di-, tri -,
...poly car pellary) ; in spirals or whorled ; isomer ous or oligomerous (p. 70) ;
radial or zygomorphic in symmetry (p. 31).

In single carpels the placentation is usually marginal (cf Ranuncu-
laceae, Leguminosae) ; in a concrescent gynoeceum it may be axile,
parietal, free-central, apical , basal (see above).

The ovary may be unilocular or 1 -celled (with one chamber, cell, or
loculus), bi-locular or 2 -celled (with two), tri-locular, &c., to multi-
locular (with many cavities ; often used for ovaries with more than one
cavity). The imaginary inner join of the edges of the carpels in a
concrescent ovary is called the ventral suture , the seam at the midrib
the dorsal suture . In a unilocular ovary there are sutures at the junctions
of the carpels.

The placenta may bear one or many rows of ovules, or a single row,
or one {solitary) or two ovules ; these points are important in taxonomy.

The partitions chambering the ovary are called septa or dissepifnents.
False septa {spurious dissepiments) or outgrowths of tissue chambering
the ovary into more loculi than are customary with its particular
number of carpels and style of concrescence, occur in Cruciferae,
Linum, Astragalus, Gaylussacia, &c. Cf also Labiatae, Nolanaceae,
and note the peculiar morphology of Punica and Mesembryanthemum.

The general shape of the gynceceum as seen in silhouette, and its
texture, &c. are described as for a leaf.

The style if present may be long or short, cylindrical, terete,
filiform (thread-like), ribbed, curved, &c. It is usually terminal
(springing from the summit of the ovary) but may be lateral, or
gynobasic (see Labiatae). It may be single, or there may be as many,
or twice as many, styles as carpels.

The stigma or stigmas may be sessile (fig. 5 A, p. 72) or on a style ;
terminal or lateral on the style ; simple (unbranched) and then often
capitate (head-like, fig. 5 C) ; lobed (branched into large branches with
but small bays or sinuses between them, fig. 5 A), bi -, tri-... multi-fid
(with 2, 3. ..many longer branches, fig. 5 B), radiate (as in poppy);
sticky, hairy, smooth, &c. When branched, the branches are usually as
many as the carpels, but in Euphorbiaceae, &c. they are more.

The ovule may be sessile or stalked {funiculate ; the funicle is
described if of special interest) ; erect, ascending , horizontal, or pen-
dulous, according to the angle it makes with the horizon when on the
placenta, the flower held erect (fig. 5, A, B, C, p. 72). It may be
orthotropous (or atropous), when continuing in a line with the funicle
so that the micropyle is away from the latter, as in Polygonaceae,
anatropous (fig. 9) when reversed and attached at the side to the
funicle, the latter then forming a ridge {raphe) on the side of the ovule

1 The term pistil, nominally equivalent to gynoeceum, is generally
used as meaning the whole gynceceum if syncarpous, the single carpel
if apocarpous.

THE GYNCECEUM (. DESCRIPTION ) 83

(this is the most common case), amphitropous , when the funicle is
attached to the middle of the ovule, forming a T, also a common case,
ca?7ipylotropous , when the ovule itself is curved into a U shape so as to
bring micropyle and chalaza side by side, as in Cruciferae, & c. Whether
the raphe is upwards or downwards (Fig. 5, A, B), dorsal (away from the
centre) or ventral (on the side next the centre of the flower, Fig. 5, C), is
often of much taxonomic importance.

The Floral Diagram is a most useful method of
expressing many of the important features in the morphology
of the flower. It represents an imaginary section through
the bud, taken (if such were possible) so as to pass through
the ovary and anthers, and through the parts of the perianth
where the aestivation is most clearly shown. With the
exception of the hypogyny or epigyny, the diagram shows
most of the characters that are usually necessary for identi-
fying the natural order, and hence is of much use in
classification. A number of diagrams are given in Part II.
and should be carefully compared with the flowers them-
selves. The diagram may also be used ( cf. Polygonaceae in
Part II.) to express theoretical views as to multiplication or
suppression of organs, &c.

In drawing a floral diagram we put in at the top the
original stem upon which the flower is a branch, and at the
bottom the bract, to mark the orientation. Upon the axis
of the flower itself there are usually one or two bracteoles,
as we have seen. The parts of the flower usually follow
certain definite rules in their orientation to the bracts and
bracteoles. Only the calyx need be considered, as the inner
whorls have their arrangement determined by the outer.
Whilst, as we have seen, the parts of the flower are usually
condensed into whorls, the calyx most commonly develops
in a spiral way, the sepals appearing in consecutive order
rather than simultaneously. The general rule, to which
however there are frequent exceptions, in the formation
of new organs at the growing point, is that each organ
develops in the widest space left between its immediate
predecessors. The position of the bracteoles illustrates this.
When there is one posterior bracteole the parts of the flower
are usually three in each whorl and the odd (first) sepal is
anterior, as e.g. in Zingiberaceae ( q.v .). With two bracteoles
and three sepals the first sepal lies nearly opposite the upper
bracteole and the odd sepal is median (either anterior or

6 — 2

84

THE FLORAL D LAG RAM

posterior). With two bracteoles and five sepals the same is
the case (see Caryophyllaceae and Leguminosae). The
arrangement is the same if the sepals appear simultaneously.
If only two sepals occur they are placed antero-posteriorly
(e.g. Cruciferae).

We now put in the other parts in their exact relation-
ships. When cohesion of parts occurs, they are joined by
lines, as in the calyx of Silene (Caryophyllaceae, Part II.) ;
sometimes this is omitted, e.g. in the corolla of the diagram
of Compositae, but it is best at first to be strictly exact.
The anthers are drawn in section, showing the lobes and
the extrorse or introrse opening. The ovary and ovules are
also drawn in section to show the placentation, &c. When
the stigmas are over the placentae, as in Cruciferae, they may
be marked as is there done, and in cases like Compositae
or Gramineae, where the ovarial structure does not show
their position, this should also be done. The aestivation
must also be attended to. For floral diagrams of many
orders see Eichler’s Bliithendiagravime.

Floral Formulae afford a convenient mode of express-
ing the number of parts of the flower and some of the chief
features in their arrangement, and are largely used in
Part II. The calyx, corolla, andrceceum and gynoeceum
are represented by the symbols K, C, A, G, respectively
(perianth by P). After the symbol follows the number of
parts ; if the number be enclosed in a bracket it means that
the parts are united, if not, that they are free. Thus, K
(5) means “calyx of 5 sepals, gamosepalous,” A 3 means
“androeceum of 3 stamens, polyandrous.” If there are two
numbers with a + sign between them, two alternating
whorls are signified, e.g. A 3 + 3 means that the androeceum
is of two whorls of 3 stamens each. The ovary if inferior
is represented by the symbol G, if superior by G.

Description of Flowers in technical language.
The student should describe every flower he dissects, and
draw its floral diagram. At first it will be well to select
flowers whose diagrams are given in Part II. The de-
scriptive terms used are given above.

The following short descriptions of common flowers will
serve to show the order in which the parts are described,
and the general form of a description.

FLO WER-DESCRIPTION

85

Ranunculus bulbosus (buttercup).

Flowers terminal, solitary, on long angular and furrowed peduncles,
regular, hermaphrodite, hypogynous. Sepals 5, polysepalous, oval,
coloured at the edge, reflexed, with shaggy hairs. Petals 5, poly-
petalous, roundish, concave, with wedge-shaped basal nectaries, bright
yellow. Stamens 00 , polyandrous, spiral ; filament yellow, slender ;
anther linear, adnate, extrorse. Carpels 00 , apocarpous, superior,
collected into a nearly spherical head, greenish ; stigmas sessile,
recurved ; ovules solitary, ascending, anatropous.

Taraxacum dens-leonis (dandelion).

Flower-heads on long scapes, involucrate ; the outer leaves of the
involucre linear, acute, recurved, in several rows ; the inner erect, in
one row. Common receptacle flat, naked. Flowers all ligulate,
hermaphrodite, epigynous with pappose calyx. Corolla sympetalous,
ligulate, with 5 teeth, bright yellow. Stamens 5, epipetalous, with
yellow introrse syngenesious anthers. Ovary inferior, compressed,
unilocular; ovule 1, basal, erect, anatropous; style filiform, bifid at
apex ; stigmas upon the inner surfaces of the branches.

For further details see such books as Lindley’s Descriptive
Botany.

We pass on to deal with the special ecology of the
flower, the general principles of which have already been set
forth.

Wind-Pollination or Anemophily , as we have seen
(p. 60), was probably the earliest method of pollen trans-
port from flower to flower. Many anemophilous flowers
exist at the present day, and in considering them we are
met with the usual difficulty of deciding whether they are
primitively so (p. 75) or have become so by degeneration
from entomophilous forms. When in a family whose mem-
bers are mostly insect-pollinated we meet with one or two
anemophilous forms we are fairly safe in calling these
degenerate; such cases are Artemisia in Compositae, Pringlea
in Cruciferae, Poterium in Rosaceae, and probably Thalic-
trum in Ranunculaceae (see Part II.); intermediate cases
of more doubtful nature are seen in Plantaginaceae, Poly-
gonaceae (Rheum and Rumex), Salicaceae, &c. With the
exception of the Gymnosperms and the catkinate families
(Betulaceae, Fagaceae, Juglandaceae, &c.), which we know
from other evidence to be of a very ancient type, we cannot
say with any certainty that any anemophilous flower now
existing is really primitively so. Hence we can only point
out the general characters of anemophilous flowers without
being sure in every case whether they are true anemophilous

86

ANEMOPHILOUS FLOWERS

characters, evolved entirely in anemophilous plants, or are
secondary, derived from characters of an entomophilous
ancestry. The most striking feature is perhaps the absence
of the entomophilous characters ; the flowers are usually
inconspicuous (most often without a corolla), scentless and
honeyless, and have rarely any tube-formation or irregularity.
The chief positive characters are an abundance of freely
exposed powdery pollen, and large stigmas to catch it.

An abundance of pollen, to compensate for the enormous waste in
transport, is a prime necessity. This in the existing Gymnosperms and
catkinate orders, is effected by the presence of a great number of
stamens ; in Gramineae, Cyperaceae, Potamogeton, Empetrum, Littorella,
Urticaceae, &c. there are few stamens, but very large anthers; in
Ricinus the stamens are branched (this is distinctly a recently acquired
character, for it is not found in others of the order). The stamens all
ripen at the same time, instead of successively as in entomophilous
flowers (see Thalictrum). The pollen is dry and incoherent so that it
blows about easily. It must be as far as possible protected from rain ;
in most cases this is partly effected by the fact that the anthers only
open in dry air ; in the catkins the bract forms a pent-house over the
stamens, in Urticaceae the stamens are folded inwards until the moment
of dehiscence, in Gramineae they are protected by the glumes and only
emerge from them in dry air, and so on. The pollen must be freely
accessible to the wind ; in the catkin orders, Platanus, &c. the pendulous
inflorescence is easily moved by wind, and the pollen, which often
collects on the upper surfaces of the bracts, is shaken out. In the
flowers with few stamens, the filaments are usually long and projecting,
the anthers usually versatile. In Grasses, &c. the stamens are pendu-
lous, the flower itself in Rumex. In Urticaceae the pollen is expelled
from the anthers by an explosion. In the gynoeceum, most anemo-
philous flowers have large bush-like stigmas, much larger and rougher
than those of entomophilous flowers, and freely exposed so as to have
the best chance of catching the floating pollen grains. The most
remarkable is perhaps the stigma of Zea. Many, e.g. the catkin
families, flower before the leaves appear ; others, e.g . Grasses, &c.,
have the inflorescence well above the vegetative shoot, and are often
of social habit. Both these facts tend to economical pollination. The
number of ovules is generally very small, often only one. This may be
correlated with the fact that there is little chance of sufficient pollen
reaching the stigma to fertilise many ovules, whereas in entomophilous
flowers the pollen clings together in masses. The most notable
exceptions are Juncus and Populus. Dichogamy (see below) is
common in anemophilous flowers, and, for some unknown reason, it
is nearly always protogynous. For further details see the orders and
genera mentioned, also Sparganium, Triglochin, Ulmaceae, Elaeag-
naceae, &c.

INSECT-POLLINATION OR ENTOMOPIIILY 87

Insect-Pollination or Entomophily is found in a
majority of flowers, and adaptation to it has apparently been
very important in the evolution of most of the higher groups.
The evolution of the insects apparently went hand-in-hand
with that of the flowers and it is best to deal with both to-
gether. The highest types of flower on the whole are suited
to the highest types of insect, but lower types of both exist
in profusion. Hermann Muller has divided flowers into a
number of classes according to their degrees of specialisa-
tion in this respect. Anemophilous flowers are grouped
together in a class W, while entomophilous flowers are
mainly placed in seven other classes, Po, A, AB, B, B', F,
H, considered below.

The insects which visit flowers belong to various groups, of which
the most important are :

(1) Hemipiera (bugs, &c.) : no special adaptations to floral diet ; few
flower-visiting species.

(2) Coleoptera (beetles) : many flower-visiting species. The beetles
are as a rule only able to lick freely-exposed honey, their tongues being
very short ; a few have tongues 3 to 6 mm. long. The commonest flower-
visiting genus in Britain is the small bronze-black Meligethes.

(3) Liptera (flies) : very numerous flower-visiting species. The
mouth-parts are often highly modified for feeding on honey and pollen.
For our purpose we may divide the flies into long-tongued and short-
tongued. The former include the Syrphidae (drone- or hover-flies) and
a few others, the latter all the remaining forms. The former confine
themselves to a floral diet and are clever in finding concealed honey ;
their tongues vary in length from 4 to 12 mm. Many flowers are
specially adapted to, and visited by, them. The most common genera
in Britain are Eristalis, Platychirus, Syrphus, Rhingia, &c. The short-
tongued flies are much less highly adapted to floral diet ; many feed
also on carrion, &c. (some flowers, eg. Arum, Rafflesia, Stapelia, &c.,
avail themselves of this habit by a carrion-like smell) ; their tongues are
short (less than 4 mm.) and they are rarely skilful in finding concealed
honey. The commonest flower- visiting genera in Britain are Lucilia
(small blue-bottle), Anthomyia, Scatophaga (dung-fly), &c.

(4) Hymenoptera (ants, sawflies, ichneumons, bees, wasps, &c.) :
mostly flower-visiting species. They are all short-tongued except the
bees, which are the most important group of insects in relation to the
evolution of flowers. They collect both pollen and honey ; the former
is usually carried in the brushes of hairs on the hind-legs, into which
it is brushed by the hairs on the tarsi. We may divide bees, for our
purposes, into short- and long-tongued, according as the tongue is
shorter or longer than 6 mm. To the former group belong such small
bees as Halictus, Andrena, &c. ; to the latter chiefly the hive-bee (Apis)
and the humble-bee (Bombus). There are a great number of flowers
adapted to pollination by bees, especially the long-tongued forms.

88

FLOWERS AND INSECTS

(5) Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) : most species flower-visiting.
Their tongues are on the whole about as long as those of bees, but
some species, mostly Sphingidae (hawk-moths), have them of extra-
ordinary lengths, eg. in Britain that of Sphinx convolvuli is 80 mm.
long, whilst some forms even reach 300 mm.

For further details see Muller’s Fertilisation of Flowers and entomo-
logical text-books.

Insects have to be attracted to the flower and paid in
useful material — honey, pollen, &c. — if they are to be
regular visitors of any real use. When insect-pollination
began, the attraction of insects from a distance, and their
remuneration on arrival, were probably both functions of
the androeceum. Afterwards differentiation began, and
other modes of attraction and remuneration appeared.
Pollen is an important part of the food of many insects ;
many flowers depend largely upon it as an attraction.
There exists a class of flowers, Po in Muller’s classification,
which only furnishes pollen to visitors, having no honey.
Such flowers are Hypericum sp., Spiraea sp. (e.g. common
meadow-sweet), Helianthemum, Cytisus sp., Clematis sp.,
Rosa canina , &c. It is highly improbable that any of these
are primitive pollen-flowers ; they are probably mostly
flowers which have gradually lost their honey-secreting
functions. They belong, structurally, to various groups of
the honey-flowers, e.g. AB and H. They are always, however,
in ecological work, retained as a separate class ; their visitors
are mostly flies and pollen-collecting bees. Interesting cases
of division of labour among the stamens of a single flower,
some providing pollen for insects, some for pollination, occur
in Cassia, Heeria, Commelina, &c.

The secretion of honey , by special organs termed nectaries ,
is almost universal in entomophilous flowers. The nectaries
are usually at the base of the flower. They may be upon
the receptacle as in Malva, Compositae, &c., calyx as in
Coronilla, petals as in Ranunculus, Swertia, &c., stamens as
in Cruciferae and Caryophyllaceae, or carpels as in Caltha,
Allium, &c. Sometimes they are themselves modified
flower-leaves as in Nigella, Aconitum, &c., or parts of them
as in Viola. The honey is protected from rain in many
ways; we shall consider the chief of these in dealing with
the gradual evolution of tubes in flowers. Hairs often serve

THE FLOWER (SCENT)

89

as extra protections, eg. in Geranium sylvaticum , Malva,
Swertia, &c. The stamens, or parts of them, cover the
honey in Campanulaceae, &c., and so on. In many plants
there is no free honey, but insects (especially bees) bore into
certain succulent tissues and suck the sap. Interesting
examples are found in Orchis and many other Orchidaceae,
Liliaceae (eg. Brodiaea), &c.

A few flowers, eg. Dalechampia, attract insects by
providing resin or other useful substances.

Attraction of insects from a distance is largely, so far as
we can tell, the function of the brightly coloured corolla
(see Colours of Flowers, below) ; in some cases there is a
coloured calyx or bracts, or the stamens are exposed, as in
many Acacias, Callistemon, &c. The conspicuousness
is often increased by massing of the flowers (p. 66).

Whilst conspicuousness and colour are doubtless great
attractions to insects, scent is even more powerful, as a
consideration of such cases as Convolvulus arvensis and
Calystegia sepium will show, and as is evidenced also by the
great number of visitors received by many sweetly-scented
and inconspicuous flowers. It is necessary to remember
the limitation of our own sense of smell, and not to con-
clude that because we cannot smell it, a flower has no scent.
There are several experiments tending to show that bees
can smell flowers which to us seem scentless. The carrion
smell of such flowers as Arum, Stapelia, &c. repels all
visitors but the carrion-loving flies, by which alone these
flowers are visited and pollinated.

Insects, especially small flies, often visit flowers for
shelter, chiefly such as hang downwards or have hooded
corollas, and in this way a certain amount of pollination is
probably effected.

One great direction followed in evolution has been
the formation of tubular structures in flowers, narrowing the
entrance to the honey. A simple flower, hypo-, peri-, or epi-
gynous with a convex or flat torus, and without concrescence
of its organs, usually has its honey freely exposed, so that
it may be licked by the shortest-tongued insects. Many
flowers of this kind exist, and form a biological class, “flowers
with freely exposed honey.” It is termed for brevity class A,
and contains such flowers as those of species of Saxifraga,

9o

FLOWERS AND INSECTS

Parnassia, Galium, most Umbelliferae, Hedera, &c. Obser-
vation shows that the insect visitors to flowers of this
class are chiefly short-tongued ; bees and Lepidoptera rarely
visit them1. They are exposed to the risk of having the
honey spoiled by rain. The upward evolution of flower-
visiting insects seems to have proceeded in the direction of
longer-and-longer-tongued forms. Their cleverness, too, in
finding concealed honey, or in dealing with hanging or
irregular flowers, is largely correlated with the length of their
tongues. The concealment and protection of the honey,
by the formation of a tubular structure in the flower, seems
to have kept pace with the lengthening of the insects’ tongues.
The next stage is represented in existing flowers by those
which form the class AB, “flowers with partially concealed
honey.” Such are Ranunculus, Sedum, Cruciferae, Fragaria,
Potentilla, &c. The visitors require tongues of 2 to 6 mm.
or more in length. Observation shows that the actual
visitors are mainly those whose tongues are long enough to
fit the flowers. Bees and Lepidoptera visit flowers of this
class more often than those of class A, but the bulk of the
visitors are the short-tongued Hymenoptera, and the longer-
tongued flies. From a morphological point of view the
chief interest is to notice the ways in which concealment of
the honey is effected. In Ranunculus, &c. it is merely by the
position of the stamens, &c., a method which does not admit
of much further elaboration. In Cruciferae the sepals stand
stiffly erect, thus making the lower part of the flower a
narrow tube, as is well seen in wallflower. In Fragaria,
Potentilla, &c. we see the beginnings of perigyny of the
flower.

Following any of the evolutionary lines we have thus
indicated, many flowers probably arrived at the further
condition represented in the existing flowers of class B,
“with fully concealed honey.” Such are Anemone § Pulsatilla,

1 The student should spend a few fine afternoons in observing the
insect visitors to flowers of the various classes. Even if unable to
recognize the insects he will be able to observe their length of tongue,
size of body, &c., and compare these observations with those made on
the depth of tube in the flower and so on. He should also notice the
numbers of visitors of each kind that visit the flowers and compare the
proportions with the class of flower; see below and refer to Annals of
Bol., June 1895, and books mentioned above.

FLOWERS AND INSECTS

9i

the Silenoideae (Caryophyllaceae) with shorter tubes (such
as Gypsophila), Geranium, Epilobium, Rubus, Polemonium,
Veronica, Mentha, Calluna, &c. Some of these attain their
purpose by concealing the honey with the stamens, &c.,
others by aid of the calyx, which shows a further advance in
being gamosepalous. Others again are more deeply peri-
gynous, the receptacle becoming more deeply hollowed and
tubular, whilst in the four genera last mentioned we find the
new and important phenomenon of a sympetalous corolla.
The visitors to flowers of this type are the smaller bees,
many Lepidoptera, and the long-tongued flies, with a few of
the larger bees. Comparing the flowers of class B with
those of class A, we see that they have gained in the pro-
tection of the honey, pollen, carpels, &c., but at the expense
of losing the visits of the shorter-tongued insects. This loss,
however, is more than compensated for by the superior
cleverness and activity of the longer-tongued visitors ; the
latter, too, are usually found to confine their visits during one
flight to few or even to one species of flower, so that much
less pollen is wasted by them than by the more stupid insects
which visit flowers more indiscriminately. The advantage
to an insect of keeping (as bees largely do) to one kind of
flower as long as possible, is evident, for the insect will, so
to speak, ‘get its hand in5 for the particular flower, and be
able to visit far more flowers in a given time than if it
frequently changed from one species to another.

A few of the Campanulaceae, most Dipsaceae, and the
Compositae have flowers with depth of tube, &c. as in class B,
but as they have aggregated inflorescences and are thus more
attractive to insects, besides being on a higher level in other
biological features, they are grouped together as a class B'
(“ flowers with fully concealed honey, in aggregated in-
florescences ”).

A further lengthening of the tube of the flower, beyond
the stage we have considered, will exclude the shorter-
tongued insects and allow only bees and Lepidoptera to get
the honey. The highest stage in this line of evolution is seen
in many flowers of class F (Lepidoptera flowers). Silene
(the longest-tubed forms, like S. inflata , nutans , &c.), Lychnis,
&c., have a gamosepalous calyx, Oenothera, Daphne sp.,
Cuphea, &c., a long tubular receptacle, some Rubiaceae,

92

FLOWERS AND INSECTS

Gentians, Ericas, Primulas, &c., a long tubular gamopetalous
corolla.

Most of the flowers so far considered have radial symmetry,
and stand more or less erect. When zygomorphism occurs,
or a hanging or horizontal position of the flower, or special
concealment of the honey in any way, as in many Legumi-
nosae, Orchidaceae, &c., it is found that the flowers are
chiefly visited by long-tongued bees, which are almost the
only insects clever enough to obtain the honey in such cases.
The length of tube is usually 6 — 15 mm., or that of bees’
tongues ; the flowers are visited chiefly by long-tongued bees
and form the class H (“bee-flowers”).

Whilst, as we have said, most flowers are visited by all
the insects best suited to them and have therefore a consi-
derable variety of visitors, there are numerous cases of more
special restriction. Thus the carrion smell and appearance
of the flowers of Rafflesia, Stapelia, Ceropegia, Aristolochia,
Arum, Helicodiceros and many others cause them to be
visited only by carrion-loving (short-tongued) flies ; they form
a sub-class “carrion-fly flowers.” The flowers of Epipactis,
Scrophularia, Symphoricarpus, Cotoneaster, &c. are “wasp-
flowers.” A number of flowers of class F, e.g. Silene nodiflora ,
Oenothera binnis , Nicotiana tabacurn , &c., emit their scent
only at night, thus attracting night-flying moths. Some of
these, and Cereus, &c. only open at night. Such flowers have
usually light yellow or white colours. Lastly, mention may
be made of the very special mutual adaptation seen in Yucca,
Ficus, Angraecum, &c.

Many flowers of high type, with honey at the base of the
tube, have their arrangements vitiated by the habit which
certain humble-bees (especially Bombus terrestris) have of
boring holes in the tube, and thus obtaining the honey
without pollinating the flowers. Most flowers of the common
bell-heathers (Erica) show a perforation at the base of the
corolla thus made. If only humble-bees used it, the loss
would not be so great, but it is used by hive-bees and wasps
also, which do not bore the flowers themselves or only rarely.
Other flowers that are often bored by Bombus are Aconitum,
Dicentra, Lamium, Linaria, Nepeta, Salvia, &c.

If in any locality the insect visitors to all the flowers be observed,
and the number of species of each group visiting all the flowers of each

FLOWERS AND INSECTS

93

class be recorded, a test of the general flower theory is obtained. A
few examples may be quoted from a paper on the British flora (Ann. of
Bot. 1895).

For each flower the number of species of insect- visitors of each class
is recorded, and the totals thus obtained are p-iven here :

in

.4>

(/>

V

m

V

<U

«

<8

g*

■g

tA

G

rt

G

tJ3

5b

Cj

QJ

CJ

ft

O

0

O.

>

O

too

£

JD

6

G

O

0

X

*3.

fa

fc

►4

to

►3

A

12

4

7

7

B'

12

43

16

49

II

*5

49

7

21

in

fa

fa

in

4J

'■O

<D

<y

m

U)

3)

HH

G

O

G

O

u

<U

<u 0*

bJO

0

*c3

G

0

> *

2

in

?

H

37

130

90

275

23-0

90

120

59

377

3i*5

28

30

20

i55

6*2

This shows clearly, especially if calculated as percentages, the
preferences exhibited by the various insect groups for the flowers whose
tube-depths are best suited to them. The visitors to the flowers of class
H are few in number, but by far more industrious than most of the
visitors to class A. Class B' in Britain obtains the lion’s share of visits
— this is explained by the abundance of Compositae in the flora. Many
authors class together as allotropous all the shortest-tongued insects (i.e.
short-tongued flies and all miscellaneous insects) and the corresponding
flowers (classes Po, A, AB), as hemitropous those insects of medium-
length tongues (short-tongued bees, long-tongued flies and all Lepi-
doptera but the hawk-moths) and the flowers of classes B and B', and
as eutropous the long-tongued bees and hawk-moths, and the flower-
classes H and F. For a number of flowers observed in Britain the
percentages were as follows :

Class of

p.c. of total

p.c. of Eutr.

p.c. of Hemitr.

p.c. of Allotr.

Flower

insect- visits

insect-visits

insect- visits

insect-visits

Allotropous

34*7

5*4

21*4

487

Hemitropous

5°*8

546

62 7

43‘°

Eutropous

r4*4

40*0

i5*9

8-3

These percentage numbers give a measure (for the particular region
and period of the year) of the attractiveness to insects of the different
sorts of flowers. The first column shows the attractiveness to insects
in general, the others the attractiveness to different groups. When a
number in one of the latter columns exceeds the one in the first column,
it shows a preference by that kind of insect for that kind of flower ; thus
the hemitropous insects show a great preference for hemitropous flowers
(627 — 50*8) and eutropous for eutropous flowers (^.o’o — 14*4).

When a comparison is made, upon the lines just indicated, between
the floras of different countries, it is found that the proportions of the
various classes differ a good deal. Thus in the extreme North of
Europe eutropous insects are wanting, and there are few eutropous
flowers. Those flowers that do occur are found either to have increased

94

FLOWERS AND INSECTS

vegetative reproduction, or to have shorter tubes enabling the hemitro-
pous visitors to obtain the honey. Thus the insect fauna and its
distribution are important factors in determining the geographical
distribution of plants. Usually the number of species visiting any one
flower that is regularly insect-pollinated is at least two or three and
often very many ; if this flower be studied in different countries it will
be found visited by different species, but of the same biological class,
as regards length of tongue, &c. ( e.g . short-tongued bees may be
replaced by long-tongued flies). There are however a number of cases
of mutual adaptation of one particular flower and one particular insect,
and in these cases the distribution of the latter regulates that of the
former. The best known case is that of Bombus and Aconitum (q.v.,
and see Bryonia, Angraecum, Yucca, &c.).

Floral Mechanisms etc. It is evident, that if a
visiting insect is to be of any use, that part of its body
which touches the pollen must also be the part to touch
the stigma. In a diclinous plant this is easily enough
managed, but difficulties arise when the flower is herma-
phrodite. So long as insects merely sprawled about flowers,
feeding on pollen, it would not, perhaps, be much disad-
vantage to have the stigmas at a distance from the anthers,
as insects would probably touch them sooner or later ; there
would however probably be at least as much self- as cross-
pollination, even with insect visits. When nectaries and
perianth were more fully evolved, the track taken by the
insect visitors would be more definite ; the same species of
insect would visit the same species of flower always in the
same manner. It would now become a necessity to place
anthers and stigmas so as to touch the same part of the
insect, i.e. they must generally be close together, and so
cause difficulty in avoiding pure autogamy. The ways in
which this is effected present a bewildering variety, but all
have the same general underlying principle, to ensure cross-
pollination as far as may be done without seriously affecting
the certainty of setting seed.

The most certain mode of avoiding autogamy, while
keeping anthers and stigmas in positions to touch the same
portion of an insect visitor, is of course diclinism. This was
perhaps common among the early flowering plants, but is
not so now; it is found in a number of cases, however,
most of them apparently derived from hermaphrodite an-
cestry (see p. 68).

FLORAL MECHANISM ETC .

95

Dioecism has the serious disadvantage of requiring a
number of male plants whose sole function is to produce pol-
len ; the chance of pollination, too, is less than in monoecism,
and here again less than in cases of hermaphroditism.

Another condition preventing autogamy is self-sterility ,
i.e. incapability of a flower to be fertilised by its own pollen.
This condition is little understood ; the same flower varies
in this respect in different countries. Corydalis sp., Abutilon
sp., Passiflora sp., and others may serve as examples. It is
very improbable that this character has been acquired as a
preventive of autogamy.

A phenomenon of the same kind is pollen-prepotency .
If a stigma on a plant A be pollinated from the stamens of
A and from those of another plant of the same species, B,
in many cases the ovules will be fertilised by the tubes of B,
not of A, even if A has had a start (provided of course that
the tubes of A have not reached the ovules).

Allied to these is the remarkable phenomenon of hetero-
stylism\ seen in a typical condition in the primrose or cow-
slip (Primula) and in Ly thrum (q.v.). In the former two
kinds of flowers are found ( dimorphism ), in the latter three
(trimorphism), each on a separate plant ; they are distin-
guished by the different lengths of the stamens and styles.
One flower of Primula has a long style and short stamens,
the other a short style and long stamens. Complete fertility
(i.e. a full yield of fertile seed) is only obtained when pollen
is taken from long stamen to long style or from short to
short, which of course involves cross-fertilisation. It is
evident that this legitimate pollination will tend to be regu-
larly effected by the visiting insects, which behave always
in the same way upon the flowers. Illegitunate pollination
(short and long) results in few seeds and these are more or
less sterile. This is a remarkable fact, for it is exactly the
phenomenon seen in hybridisation, i.e. in crossing of two
distinct species. For further details see Lythrum ; cf. also
Pontederia, Fagopyrum, Linum, Erythroxylon, Oxalis, Sta-
tice, Hottonia, Menyanthes, Pulmonaria, Faramea, Bou-
vardia, Mitchella, and many others. In Nolana, &c. the
length of the stamens and styles is very variable.

1 Darwin, Forms of Flowers.

96

FLORAL MECHANISM ETC.

A widespread phenomenon in hermaphrodite flowers is
dichogamy or sex- separation in time; the pollen is ripe
before the stigma, protandry , or the reverse, protogyny. A
flower in which stamens and stigmas ripen together is termed
homogamous , but true homogamy is rare. If the dichogamy
be complete, i.e. if the first stage be over before the second
begins, the result will be the complete prevention of self-
pollination, while at the same time the anthers and stigmas
may occupy positions as close as possible to one another, or
even, by aid of movement, occupy the same position, at
different times. Completely dichogamous flowers are rare,
and are usually such as are so attractive to insects as to
ensure being sufficiently visited for cross-pollination, eg.
Aeschynanthus, Canna, Clerodendron sp., and some wind-
pollinated flowers, eg. Parietaria. Nearly all flowrers are
more or less dichogamous, but there is generally a consider-
able period of overlap of the male and female stages, during
which self-pollination is frequently possible. This is more
or less guarded against by numerous mechanical arrange-
ments, to be dealt with below. Dichogamy is a variable
phenomenon, the same species showing different degrees of
it in different localities, and at different periods of the year.
Protandry is most common in insect-visited flowers (good
examples of simple protandry are found in Umbelliferae
and Caryophyllaceae), protogyny in wind-pollinated flowers ;
the latter also occurs in a considerable number of entomo-
philous forms, eg. many Araceae, Paris, Colchicum, Asarum,
Chimonanthus, Amorpha, Goethea, Aesculus, &c.

Simple dichogamy with movement of the essential organs
so as to place first one and then the other in the track of an
entering insect, is very common. Extreme cases occur in
Aeschynanthus, some Clerodendrons, &c. Others, in which
there is more or less possibility of autogamy, may be seen
in Scabiosa, Lonicera, Scrophularia, Teucrium, Umbelliferae,
Caryophyllaceae, Delphinium, Aconitum, Geranium, Ruta,
Epilobium, Malva, and hundreds more.

Passing on to the more purely mechanical arrangements
for regulating pollination, we find in the Orchids (< q.v .) one
which in nearly all cases renders the flowers incapable of
pollinating themselves. These plants are perennials with
much vegetative reproduction ; this obviates the risk of

FLORAL MECHANISM, ETC .

97

extinction in bad seasons ; they also set a vast number of
seeds in every pollinated ovary. It is instructive to compare
this order with the Compositae (see Part II.).

A somewhat similar state of things is found in the
Asclepiadaceae, but these flowers are more visited by insects
and do not set so many seeds. There are also other
flowers in which self-pollination is fully prevented, but such
cases are rare, and autogamy may occur if an insect visit
the same flower twice. Such are Mimulus, Martynia, &c.
(sensitive stigmas), Iris, Viola sp. (the open flowers), &c.,
and the fully dichogamous flowers above mentioned.

The most simple and successful mode of ensuring the
best chance of a cross for the longest time, with the cer-
tainty (in most cases) of autogamy if the cross fails, is the
pision-mechanism found in Compositae and some Campanu-
laceae, where the style acts as pollen-presenter with closed
stigmas, and afterwards the latter open out. An instructive
series of flowers is found in Campanulaceae, leading up to
the perfected mechanism of Compositae (see Part II.).
A second type of the piston-mechanism is that seen in
Leguminosae (q.v.). Here autogamy is prevented in many
cases by the fact of the stigma only becoming receptive
when rubbed, so that no fertilisation can take place till the
flower has been visited by an insect. We may also mention
here the lever-mechanisms of Salvia and Roscoea, the pollen-
cup of Goodeniaceae, &c. The mechanism of Leguminosae
is curiously repeated in Collinsia, Schizanthus, Phlomis, &c.
The style also acts as pollen-presenter in many Proteaceae.
Many of the Compositae (Cynareae) have the mechanism
varied in detail by a sort of explosive arrangement, and
this is even more marked in many Leguminosae, e.g. Genista.
Similar phenomena are seen in some Orchids, e.g. Ptero-
stylis, in Caladenia sp., Candollea, Kalmia, Posoqueria, &c.
This leads naturally to the mention of such other cases
of sensitive and motile organs in flowers as the stamens
of Berberis, Sparmannia, Portulaca, &c. (see also above,
Mimulus, &c.).

A very common arrangement is for the style to project
a little beyond the anthers, so as to be touched first by the
insect visitor. The flower in these cases is usually nearly
homogamous. Of course autogamy is nearly certain to

w.

7

98

FLORAL MECHANISM, ETC.

occur, but as it will not usually occur before the cross-
pollination it is likely that prepotency of the latter is the
rule. Such flowers are Lamium and many other Labiatae
and allied orders, many Cruciferae, Ranunculaceae, &c., and
many of the ‘ loose-pollen ’ flowers mentioned below. Every
gradation is found from those in which cross-pollination is
the rule to those in which it rarely occurs.

The loose-polle7i mechanism is found in the Rhinanthus
group of Scrophulariaceae (Euphrasia, Bartsia, &c.), Acan-
thus, &c. The pollen is dry and powdery as in wind-pol-
linated forms. It is held loosely in a box formed by the
stamens under the upper lip of the flower, so arranged that
the entering insect shall open the box and receive a shower
of pollen. Some of these forms are dichogamous (protan-
drous), others merely have the stigma projecting beyond
the stamens. Transition forms occur in Euphrasia, &c.
A second type of this mechanism, usually with porous
opening of the anthers, is found in the hanging flowers of
Borago, Solanum sp., Erica, Calluna, Cyclamen, Soldanella,
Galanthus, &c.

In the trap-flowers the visitors are entrapped and are
either suffered to depart at once by another road past the
essential organs, or are captured in the female stage of the
dichogamy and held until the pollen is shed. To the first
class belong Cypripedium, Coryanthes, Stanhopea, and other
orchids, &c., to the second Arum and other Araceae,
Aristolochia1, Ceropegia, Aspidistra, Magnolia and others.

So far we have dealt with mechanisms in regard to the
favouring of cross-pollination. Arrangements for autogamy
are equally common, even in most of the highest types of
flowers. Thus in Compositae the final curling up of the
stigmas, in a very great number of flowers the withering of
the corolla, in others merely the movements of insects in
visiting, bring pollen and stigma into contact with one an-
other. Details will be found in Part II.

The most interesting mechanism of this class is the pro-
duction of a second type of flower which does not open and
in which therefore only self-pollination can occur. Such
cleistogamic flowers are well seen in Viola (^.#.), Oxalis,

1 Note that here a tube occurs in the flower, without any apparent
reference to insects’ tongues.

FLORAL MECHANISM, ETC .

99

Lamium amplexicaule , Salvia verbenaca, many Leguminosae
and others. They are usually produced either on shaded
parts of the plants, or in the colder and darker seasons of
the year. Vochting1 has shown that in plants that normally
produce both open and cleistogamic flowers a reduction of
the amount of light results in the production of the latter
kind only. Other observers have shown that temperature
and other conditions (those in general which reduce nutrition)
are determining factors also. Though these are determining
factors, and their effect in any plant is to check the formation
of open flowers, cleistogamy is not a phenomenon to be put
on the same level with gynodioecism, for it is hereditary, as
well as advantageous to the plant possessing it, and cannot
be artificially produced in plants not showing a tendency to-
wards it. In chick-weed ( Stellaria media) the winter flowers
tend to cleistogamy, and in water-plants the flowers when
submerged are often pollinated in the bud. In Myrmecodia,
&c. only cleistogamic flowers are produced. These show by
various characters that they have been derived, comparatively
recently, from open flowers, and may be compared with
the reduced autogamous flowers of such plants as Senecio
vulgaris , &c.

Many of the regularly self-pollinating flowers, such as
Senecio vulgaris , Capsella, &c., have a very wide distribution.
This is explained by Wallace by the supposition that small
changes of climate, tSz:c. react upon the organism in the same
way as cross-fertilisation, increasing its fertility, strength of
constitution, variability and so on. The wide distribution of
many cross-pollinated flowers is prevented by the circum-
stances of insect distribution. Many wind-pollinated flowers,
however, are widely distributed.

Zoophily, or pollination by animals other than insects,
seems to occur in a number of plants; e.g. the flowers of
Alocasia, Rohdea, &c. are “ snail-flowers ” (malacophilous) ;
those of Freycinetia “ bat-flowers 55 ; those of Marcgraviaceae,
Erythrina, Salvia splendens, Passiflora sp. , Abutilon sp. and
many more in the tropics of America are “ humming-bird
flowers ” ( ornithophilous ). Most of the last-named are bright

1 Vochting, U . d . Einfl . d. Lichtes a. d. Gest...d. Bliiten , Prings.
Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. 1893 ; Willis in Linn. Soc. Journ. xxx. 1893, p. 295,
and Sci. Progr. Nov. 1895.

7-2

IOO

THE COLOURS OF FLOWERS

red flowers, more or less inclined downwards with long tubes,
and no landing-places such as occur in insect-flowers, the birds
hovering before the flowers. In the Indo-Malayan region
many flowers are visited by sun-birds, but whether they are
specially adapted to them is not known. These birds often
spoil the flowers by pecking through the tube.

Colours of flowers , &c. The subject of the colours of
flowers — and indeed of colour in plants generally — is one of
considerable difficulty; we shall only attempt a sketch of
some of the outstanding facts. The green colour of the
vegetative organs is due to the presence of chlorophyll in
certain specialised parts of the cell-protoplasm, known as
chloroplastids. Green is rarely seen in corollas though there
are several cases, e.g. Deherainea. The colours most often
seen are yellowish-green, yellow, red, white, blue, and shades
of these or intermediate colours ; yellow and white are the
most common, blue the least so. Yellow flowers nearly
always possess chromoplastids , protoplasmic bodies containing
the yellow colouring matter. Some red flowers, and a very
few blue ones have chromoplastids also. Most red and
nearly all blue, purple, and violet flowers have the colouring
matter dissolved in the cell-sap. White flowers have colour-
less sap and plastids. This difference explains the fact
that in the variations of colour so often seen, it is exceedingly
rare for a green or yellow to pass to blue, or the reverse.
All flowers, whatever their colour, seem to vary most easily
towards white, and this is not difficult to understand.

This subject of colour-variation shows many points of interest.
In the same individual flower, most Boraginaceae vary from red to blue
as the age of the flower increases; the spots in Aesculus vary from
yellow to red, the corolla of Myosotis sp. from white or yellow to blue,
and so on (see Ribes, Fumaria, Diervilla, Arnebia, Cobaea, &c.). In
some cases the flowers of a given plant differ in colour in different
years. There are many species which show different colours in different
flowers ; sometimes these are special varieties or races, sometimes, as in
Polygala, merely individuals otherwise exactly alike. The most striking
varieties in colour may be seen in the cultivated forms, but they follow
the same rules as the wild ; it is found that for each species there is a
certain range of colour beyond which it cannot be made to go in
cultivation, and does not go in nature. By hybridisation and in otherhvays
mixtures of colours may be produced, and every variety of shade and
sometimes of variegation, but beyond certain limits the species cannot
be made to pass. These limits are found to be as a rule the colours

THE COLOURS OF FLOWERS

IOI

found in the genus to which the species belongs. E.g. in Dianthus,
some species show red, some white, some yellowish or purple-violet
corollas, but none blue. Now in the cultivated pinks and carnations
( D . Caryophyllus ) red, white, yellowish, and violet colours are known
in every shade, mixture and variegation, but no efforts of horticul-
turists can produce a blue carnation. Other examples are found in the
stock (Matthiola), wall-flower (Cheiranthus), aster (Callistephus) and
most other cultivated flowers. Sometimes the range of colour in the
species is that defined by the order rather than by the genus. A great
many flowers do not normally vary in colour at all, and horticulturists
sometimes find considerable difficulty in starting the variation necessary
before new races can be obtained. The most common method is change
of soil, manure, light, heat, &c. All these conditions have in nature certain
influences on the colour of flowers (no definite rules can be framed, as
two flowers of the same colour but of different species are often affected
in opposite ways by the same agent), and when all are changed together,
the plant seems as if it received some kind of a shock which may cause
variation. Once variation in a hitherto fixed colour can be started it
often continues for a long time, keeping, however, within certain
limits, as we have explained. It is to be noted that, with the excep-
tion of the long cultivated hyacinth, blue flowers do not vary to
yellow, even if there be yellow species in the genus. Red varies
towards yellow rather than towards blue. All colours vary readily to
white.

As regards the question of the meaning and function of
colour in flowers there can be no doubt that it is largely
bound up with pollination by insects. If however we set out
only from the higher plants, we shall as usual come across
cases that cannot be explained in the light of the information
there obtained. The spores of Cryptogams are generally
coloured, yellow or brown, less often red or green. What
the meaning of this fact is, we do not know. Colours are
well known to appear in many chemical reactions and it is
quite likely that many colours are of this accidental kind
without any particular significance in the life-history. Or it
may be that the colour of spores protects them from the
action of light (which is very fatal, for example, to the spores
of bacteria). However this may be, yellow is prevalent in
spores and pollen grains, and the conspicuous colour of
many anemophilous flowers, e.g. Abies and other Conifers,
Corylus, &c., some Grasses, and so on, is no longer a sur-
prising exception, as it is if colours are regarded as only
concerned with insect visits. If the corolla was derived from
stamens, it would seem possible that its colour was yellow at
first and that all the other colours are subsequent derivatives.

102

THE COLOURS OF FLOWERS

Of these, red and blue are probably the highest types, and
are found chiefly in flowers of high organisation.

In dealing with the question of the colour-sensitiveness
of the eyes of insects we must remember the limitations of
our own. There is good reason to believe that many insects,
and especially bees, see as colours the ultra-violet rays of the
spectrum which are invisible to us. Bees show a decided pre-
ference for blue colours, butterflies for red and white (the
only blue Lepidoptera-flower known is Globularia), but be-
yond this there is but little colour-preference in insects.
Carrion flies go to meat-coloured flowers, but probably be-
cause of their carrion smell. We shall probably not be far
from the mark if we say that the only preference shown by
insects of low organisation is for bright rather than dull
colours (they visit many dull flowers, e.g. Adoxa, but it is
doubtless the smell that attracts). This being so, it is impro-
bable that the earliest flower-visiting insects had much influ-
ence upon the colours of flowers ; they would select the most
conspicuous but would not necessarily produce any direct
effect on colours. We may therefore probably assume that
the early flowers were yellow and white, with perhaps a few
orange or red species. When the higher forms of insects
appeared, there would be a colour-selection and now we can
imagine red and blue flowers appearing by the selective action
of insects. It may be noted that most blue flowers belong to
class H, the rest chiefly to classes B and B' ; these are the
classes visited by bees. Most red flowers are found in
class F, and many in B, B' and H.

In this connection mention must be made of the honey-
guides or pathfinders seen in so many flowers — lines, streaks,
or spots pointing to the entrance to the honey, and differently
coloured from the rest of the corolla. In Myosotis sp. there
is a yellow ring at the mouth of the tube, the rest of the
corolla being blue1, in Pelargonium there are reddish streaks
on a pink ground, in Viola light streaks on a deep blue, and
so on. These markings as a rule show the way to the honey,
and are doubtless useful to visiting insects, and hence, by
increasing the rate at which they work, to the flowers them-

1 A classic example, for it was one of C. K. Sprengel’s first
discoveries ; see liis Entdecktes Geheimniss d. Natur , or biography in
Nat. Science, April, 1893.

THE COLOURS OF FLOWERS

103

selves, but they have yet to be proved to be adaptations for
this purpose; they may be phenomena accompanying changes
of colour in flowers which have been retained as useful
characters \

Anthesis, Protection , &c. The bud gradually increases
in size to a certain point, after which, given the necessary
warmth, turgidity, &c., it opens, or anthesis occurs. The
period during which the flower remains open is usually
roughly constant for the same species within certain limits,
but different species differ enormously in this respect.
Flowers usually wither as soon as fertilisation (or even pol-
lination) occurs ; flowers like those of orchids, in which auto-
gamy is impossible, may remain open a very long time if not
pollinated.

If the time of opening of the flowers of any species be watched, it
will be observed that a few only are open at first, then the number
increases to a maximum, and gradually decreases again. In the flower-
ing of a whole genus, more than one maximum is very commonly
observed {cf p. 22). In a single district the flowering of any ecological
class, e.g. A or H, tends to show a single period of greatest vigour, and
this is often found to correspond approximately with the time of greatest
abundance of the most suitable insects, e.g. short-tongued flies for class
A, bees for H.

The bulk of the flowers of the North temperate zone open in summer
(maximum in July), but there are many that flower in autumn or early
in spring. It is an advantage to plants to flower at different periods,
especially if they are nearly allied, for the competition for insect-visits
is thereby lessened. It must not however be assumed that the phe-
nomenon is an adaptation to this end ; many factors influence the
flowering of a plant, e.g. a check to the vegetative growth. A richly
fed plant tends to vegetation rather than to flowering, and the signi-
ficance of pruning, &c. rests largely on this fact. Plants that are to
flower in early spring in temperate climates must have flower-buds laid
down the preceding year and also a store of reserve food-materials with
which to start growth. Such are Rhododendron, Eranthis, most of
our trees, &c. The buds are usually protected by outer scaly leaves,
hairs, or other arrangements. A few autumn-flowering plants show
similar protections, e.g. Hedera, Hamamelis, &c., hence it is possible
that these were once spring-flowerers, but have gradually taken to
developing their buds more early.

In these spring-flowering plants we have cases, otherwise rare, of
protection of flower-buds such as is seen in winter buds of leaves.
Xerophytes (see Chap. III.) often show protection of flower-buds

1 Hildebrand, Die Farben d. Bliithen , Leipzig, 1879, Muller’s
Fertilisation of Flowers , Wallace’s Darwinism , &c.

104

THE FLOWER (. PROTECTION )

against the drought of the dry season. As a rule however the calyx and
corolla afford enough protection to prevent injury by cold, wet, &c. to
the more delicate stamens and carpels. In hot tropical regions many
flowers are protected against the heat.

Many flowers execute protective movements after they have
opened ; these are chiefly such as expose their pollen very freely to the
weather. E.g. in Linum, Fragaria, Daucus, Papaver, Anemone,
Beilis, &c. the flowers (or heads) curve downwards at night and in wet
weather, returning to the erect position in the morning or when it is
fine. The flowers (or heads) often close in dull weather or at night,
e.g. in Anagallis, Beilis, Tragopogon, Calandrinia, and numerous others.
Besides these movements there are others which only take place once.
The flower-stalks often stand in different positions whilst the flower is
in bud to those they occupy when it opens or while the fruit is ripening.
Hansgirg divides movements of this kind ( gamo - and carpo-tropic , i.e.
before and after fertilisation) into seven types, viz . (i) the Oxalis type,
as seen in Oxalis, Geranium sp., &c. (see Part II.), (2) the Primula
type, as in Primula, many Umbelliferae, &c., (3) the Coronilla type, as
in many Papilionate Leguminosae, (4) the Veronica type, as in
Veronica, Cardamine, Reseda, Epilobium, &c., (5) the Aloe type, as in
Muscari, Funkia, Vicia, Aloe, &c., (6) the Fragaria type, as in
Fragaria, Anagallis, Aristolochia, Tussilago, &c., (7) the Aquilegia
type, as in Delphinium, Aconitum, Aquilegia, Solanu?n nigrum , &c.

The Seed. In the lower classes of plants the spore
(or megaspore) falls out of the sporangium and germinates
upon the soil. In the flowering plants proper it remains in
the ovule, and the latter ripens into a seed after its ovum has
been fertilised. In lower plants the fertilised ovum de-
velops into a new plant by continuous growth ; in Sperma-
phytes there is a resting period when the seed is ripe, and
growth does not continue until the seed is placed under
suitable conditions ; given these, it germinates or sprouts
and the growth into a new plant continues. Most plants are
incapable of movement in their ordinary condition and must
live out their life upon the spot where they began it. It is
not however advantageous that the offspring should com-
mence life in the immediate shadow of the parent, and at
one period of the life-history, every plant is capable of
movement from one place to another, occupying so small
a bulk that it can be transported by wind or other agency.
In the lower forms this 4 condensed plant J is the spore, in
higher forms the seed. The spore, being of one cell only
and thus small and light, is ideally adapted to transport by
wind; the seed being necessarily of many cells loses this

THE SEED

io5

advantage, but is more suited to withstand unfavourable
conditions of climate, temperature, drought, &c. Many
seeds have additional mechanical arrangements facilitating
transport.

The fertilised ovum gives rise to the embryo or young
plant contained in the seed. This (Fig. 1, p. 37) consists of
a short axis, the hypocotyl \ bearing at its upper end the apical
bud of leaves {plumule) and one or more seed-leaves or
cotyledons which do not form part of the bud, but are already
comparatively well-developed. At the lower end the hypo-
cotyl bears the radicle or apex of the future root, which
usually faces and is close to the micropyle of the seed. The
embryo-sac with its contained endosperm usually increases
at the expense of the nucellus and consumes the whole
of the latter tissue. The embryo, meanwhile, treats the
endosperm in the same way. The integuments ripen into
the seed-coat or testa. Two cases are to be distinguished in
the ripe seed. If the embryo in its growth consumes all
the tissue within the seed-coat and comes into uninterrupted
contact with it, the seed is exalbuminous , or has no endo-
sperm (‘albumen’), as inCruciferae, Compositae, Leguminosae,
&c. If there is any tissue within the testa not forming part
of the embryo, the seed is albuminous . The tissue may be
endosperm only, as in Ranunculaceae, Liliaceae, &c. ; this is
the most common case ; or it may be perisperm (the nu-
cellar tissue, usually increased by subsequent growth), as in
Nymphaeaceae, Piperaceae, &c. Usually there is endosperm
as well as perisperm, when the latter is present. The seed-
ling must at first depend upon stored food-materials for its
growth, until its own vegetative organs are in active order,
and so there is always a store of reserves in a seed, either in
the embryo (chiefly the cotyledons) or outside it, or both.

Descriptive Terms, &*c. The seed is usually mentioned after the
fruit in technical descriptions. In form, &c. it may be large or small ;
spherical, ellipsoidal, &c. ; anatropous, amphitropous, &c. like the
original ovule. The testa may be smooth, or covered with small or
large tubercles, papillae, granules, ribs, &c. ; green, brown, or of other
colours; thin or thick, woody (as in Bertholletia), with a fleshy outer
layer (as in Bixa, Magnolia, Moraea, Cycas, &c.j, hooked or winged
(see below), or provided with hairs. It is usually firm and tough,
allowing very little evaporation of water from the seed. Its outer cells
sometimes have mucilaginous walls and swell when wetted, as in Linum,

io 6

THE SEED

Plantago, Collomia, Brassica, &c.; sometimes there are scales or hairs
upon it and these swell, as in many Acanthaceae. This is usually
regarded as a mechanism for attaching the seed to favourable spots for
germination. The testa is usually marked with a scar, the hilum , where
the stalk separated from the seed.

Many seeds are covered by an extra coat (aril) that is developed
like the original integuments, i.e. by a cup-like growth of tissue around
the seed from the top of the stalk or rarely from the micropyle. Its
development may be studied in fruits of Euonymus. Arillate seeds
occur in Taxus, many Commelinaceae, &c., Dilleniaceae, Celastraceae,
Sapindaceae, Passiflora, Nymphaeaceae, Myristica, &c. In Euphor-
biaceae, &c. the aril remains small and hard and is called a caruncle ,
but usually it is fleshy.

The seed may be albuminous or exalbuminous (above), in the former
case with endosperm or perisperm or both ; the endosperm may be
starchy , farinaceous , floury , or mealy (the cells containing starch and
when powdered forming a floury dust) as in Triticum, oily as in
Papaver, Ricinus, See., fleshy as in Berberis, horny as in Coffea, bony
as in Phoenix and Phytelephas, ruminate (marked by wavy transverse
lines which give it a marbled look) as in Anonaceae, mucilaginous , &c.

The embryo (rarely embryos) may be straight, curved, twisted, &c.
(and cf Cruciferae). It may have one, two, or several cotyledons (this
is an important point in classification), or rarely none, as in Cuscuta, &c.

Mention must be made, lastly, of the adventitious embryos of
Funkia, Nothoscordum, Alchornea, &c. and of the peculiar cases of
Ginkgo, and Gnetum, where the seed c ripens ’ before fertilisation ; see
Part II.

The Fruit. The ovule is usually enclosed in an ovary,
or protected by scales as in Coniferae, and these parts are
stimulated to further growth by the act of fertilisation, and
develope together with the ripening seed, finally forming a
covering or protection to it, known as the fruit . The fruit
may be defined as ‘the product of that process of growth
which is initiated by the act of fertilisation.’ This of course
includes the seed, and in Cycas, Taxus, &c. fruit and seed
are the same. Usually, however, the seed is enclosed in an
envelope or pericarp , developed from the gynceceum, &c.
Many writers lay stress on the difference between true fruits
and false fruits (pseudo carp s'), the former being defined as
the product of the ovary only, the latter as the product of
the ovary together with any other organ that developes, such
as the axis (as in apple or rose) or perianth. The terms,
however, are inconsistently used, and are better avoided.

Other changes often occur in the change of an ovary to
a fruit ; a very common one is the suppression of some (or

THE FRUIT

107

all but one) of the loculi or the seeds, e.g. in oak, Betulaceae,
&c. The calyx (or bracts) often persist and surround the
fruit (cfl Physalis, Fagaceae, Corylaceae, &c.).

Fruits may be divided first of all into simple , aggregate ,
and multiple . Where a flower gives one indivisible fruit, the
fruit is simple, as in cherry or oak; where it gives several
similar fruits, independent of one another, as in raspberry,
buttercup, Ochna, &c. the fruit is aggregate; where several
flowers combine to give one fruit, as in mulberry, fig, plane,
the fruit is multiple (or collective). In description, mention
is made of the multiple or aggregate nature of the fruit
and then one of the units is described as if it were a simple
fruit.

Fruits may be dry or fleshy ; they may open to allow the
seeds to escape (i.e. may be dehiscent ) or may remain closed
{indehiscent). Indehiscent dry fruits are usually one-seeded;
it would be a disadvantage to have many seeds germinating
near together. Fleshy fruits rarely dehisce ; they are eaten
by animals and the seeds are thus separated. Some dry
fruits, termed schizocarps , break up into one-seeded portions,
or me?'icarps , usually corresponding to the individual
carpels.

Fruits usually only open in dry air, and remain closed,
protecting the seeds, in moist air. Exceptions occur in
xerophytes (Chap. III.), where protection is rather needed
against drought. Colchicum and other autumnal plants
protect their fruit during the winter by keeping it below the
soil. I11 Arachis, Voandzeia, Trigonella sp., Amphicarpaea,
Cardamine sp., &c., the {geocarpic) plant produces subter-
ranean fruits, either from subterranean or subaerial flowers.
In Erodium, Stipa, &c., the fruit has a self-burying me-
chanism. Reference may also be made to Linaria, Cyclamen,
&c. The fruit of Anthemis sp. has an outer mucilaginous
layer, like that of many seeds.

Classification , Descriptive Terms , &c. Dry indehiscent fruits are
divided into two main groups, achenes and nuts. The achene is usually
defined as the product of one carpel, the nut as that of more than one,
but in practice all small seed-like one-seeded dry indehiscent fruits are
achenes, all large ones nuts. True achenes are found in Ranunculus,
Potentilla, &c. but the name is also given to the fruit of Compositae,

io8

THE FRUIT

Gramineae (this variety, with pericarp and testa united, is sometimes
called a caryopsis ), Labiatae, &c. True nuts, from superior ovaries,
occur in Betulaceae, but the term is applied to the large one-carpelled
fruit of Anacardium, &c. A variety of achene or nut is the winged
one-seeded indehiscent samara of ash, elm, Banisteria, Liriodendron,
Ptelea, Ventilago, Seguieria, &c.

Schizocarps are of various kinds, e.g. the lomentum of many Legu-
minosae (a pod that is constricted between the seeds and breaks into
one- seeded portions), the schizocarps of Euphorbiaceae, Geraniaceae,
Malpighiaceae, Umbelliferae, many Malvaceae, and Sapindaceae, &c.
(see Part II.).

Dry dehiscent fruits are of several kinds ; the most common are
the follicle , legume, and capsule . The follicle consists of one carpel,
and dehisces along the ventral side only, as in Aconitum, Asclepia-
daceae, Apocynaceae, Crassulaceae. The legume is similar but dehisces
along both sides, as in most Leguminosae, e.g . a pea-pod. All dry fruits
of more than one carpel are grouped under the general name of capsule,
but special forms have special names, e.g . the pod-like siliqua of
Cruciferae, the pyxis of Anagallis, &c. (capsule opening by a lid split
off by circumscissile dehiscence), and others. The way in which the
capsule dehisces is of systematic importance. The general method is
by splitting from the apex downwards. If the splits, as in Iris, Epi-
lobium, &c., run down the midrib of each carpel, the dehiscence is
loculicidal : if, as in Hypericum, the fruit breaks into its component
carpels, leaving the placental axis standing, it is septicidal ; if the outer
wall of the fruit breaks away, leaving the septa standing, it is septifragal .
The portions into which the fruit splits are termed valves. In Papaver,
some Campanulas, &c., the dehiscence is porous , little openings forming
in the pericarp.

The commonest fleshy fruits are the berry and drupe. The
former contains no hard part but the seeds ; these are surrounded by
fleshy tissue and there is a firmer skin ( epicarp ) on the outside. Berries
may be derived from superior ovaries, as in Berberis, Vitis, Solanum, &c.
or from inferior, as in Ribes, Vaccinium, &c. In rare cases the berry
dehisces, as in Myristica and Akebia, or is constricted between the
seeds, as in Unona and Maerua. The drupe [e.g. cherry) has a skin
(epicarp) on the surface, then a fleshy mass of tissue (mesocarp) and
a hard shell or stone (endocarp), all forming part of the pericarp ; within
the stone is the seed or kernel, usually without a hard coat. Drupes
from superior ovaries occur in Prunus, &c., from inferior in Cornaceae,
Juglans, &c. There may be one stone or pyrene (Prunus) or several
(Cornus).

Other fleshy fruits are the pome of Pyrus, &c. in which the fleshy
receptacle encloses, and is united to, the core or product of the gynce-
ceum proper ; the pepo or gourd of Cucurbitaceae, e.g. cucumber (a
variety of the berry with hard epicarp), the peculiar pseudo-berry of
Juniperus (q.v.), &c., the fruit of strawberry (large fleshy receptacle
bearing achenes), rose (fleshy receptacle enclosing achenes), Anacardium
(fleshy receptacle bearing a nut), Gaultheria (a capsule enclosed in the
fleshy calyx), Urera, &c. (achene in fleshy perianth), and so on.

THE FRUIT

109

Aggregate fleshy fruits occur in Rubus (drupes), Anonaceae (berries),
&c. Multiple fleshy fruits are frequent in Moraceae [eg. mulberry, fig,
bread-fruit), Ananas, Carludovica, Anona, &c.

The style and stigma often fall away as the fruit ripens, but frequently
remain in a more or less shrivelled or in an enlarged condition.
Sometimes the style forms a hook, as in Geum, a plume, as in Clematis,
or an awn, as in Geraniaceae (this name is applied to any long thread-
like organ on a fruit ; cf. Gramineae).

Other interesting morphological features in fruits are mentioned
below and in Part II. ; besides the families and genera mentioned see
Aesculus, Bertholletia, Chenopodium, Leontodon, Nymphaeaceae, Nyc-
taginaceae, Palmae [eg. Phytelephas, Lodoicea, &c.), Pandanaceae, &c.

Distribution of Seeds to a distance from the parent
plant is of importance in two ways. It helps us to under-
stand many questions in the geographical distribution of
plants, such as the planting of oceanic islands, the presence
of stray plants from one flora in the midst of an alien flora,
and so on, and it is a very important factor in the life-history
of an individual plant or species. It is evidently advan-
tageous that the seeds should be carried to a little distance
from the parent plant and from one another, so as to avoid
shading and excessive competition. From the first considera-
tion it behoves us to examine all occasional means by which
seeds can by any possibility be dispersed. To the individual,
on the other hand, only regular means of transport, taking
place by aid of special mechanisms in the seed or plant
itself, are of importance.

One great obstacle to migration is a wide extent of ocean.
Many seeds however are able to withstand sea-water for
sufficient periods to be carried long distances. Trunks of
trees may be floated away, carrying earth and seeds with
them. Numbers of seeds, capable of germination, are
brought by the Gulf Stream from the West Indies to
Europe. Floating ice, especially river-ice, may also carry
seeds. Tornados frequently carry seeds, &c. to great dis-
tances, though they may not be adapted to ordinary wind-
carriage. The balls of mud on the feet of water-birds,
partridges, &c., often contain seeds in good condition.
Carnivorous birds sometimes swallow their prey and after-
wards void the contents of their crops, containing seeds
capable of germination. Locusts carry grass-seeds with
them, and so on (see Origin of Species , Chap. XII.).

I IO

DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS

In the regular methods of seed-dispersal, we find four
agents that may be employed — wind, water, animals, and
propulsive mechanisms upon the parent plant itself.

The unicellular spores of ferns, &c. float in the air like dust. The
nearest approach to this in seed-plants is in the Orchidaceae, whose
seeds are extremely small and light. Pyrola and many Caryophyllaceae,
&c. have also very light seeds. A number of plants with dry fruits
have what may be termed ‘censer’ mechanisms. The fruit opens so
far as to leave the seeds room to escape, but in such a way that they can
only escape when the fruit is violently shaken, i.e. as a rule, only when
a strong wind is blowing; thus they have a good chance of being carried
some distance. Such fruits are the capsules of most Liliaceae, Iridaceae,
Caryophyllaceae, &c., the fruits of Aconitum, Helianthus, &c. The
seeds are liable to damage from rain in an open fruit of this kind ; some
close when it rains, others only open by narrow protected openings,
e.g. Papaver, Campanula. In Tulipa, Iris, &c., the seeds are flattened,
thus increasing the surface exposed to the air without increasing their
weight. In Pinus, Deutzia, Gordonia, Zanonia, Millingtonia, &c., the
seed is winged as well as more or less flattened, and may be carried to
some distance before reaching the ground. In Fraxinus, Liriodendron,
Acer, many Malpighiaceae, Serjania, Seguieria, Ptelea, Ulmus, Paliu-
rus, Ventilago, Abronia, Tripteris, Terminalia, Pterocarpus, Centrolo-
bium, &c. , the wings are on the fruit, outgrowths of the pericarp. In
Bougainvillea, Spinacia, Mirabilis, Carpinus, &c., the bracts or brac-
teoles form the wings, in Triplaris, Armeria, Davilla, Rumex, Diptero-
carpaceae, Trifolium sp., &c., the perianth, or part of it. In Rhus
Cotinus , Spinifex, &c., the fruit-head is rolled bodily about by the wind
(cf. Selaginella sp., Anastatica). A great number of seeds and fruits
exhibit very perfect ‘ parachute * mechanisms in the form of tufts or
coverings of hairs, e.g. the seeds of Salix, Gossypium, Epilobium, many
Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae, Aeschynanthus, &c. ; the achene
fruits of Eriophorum, Typha, Anemone, Compositae, &c. ; in Clematis
the style becomes hairy alter fertilisation.

Adaptations to water-carriage are found in a few water-plants
(Chap. III.), and in Veronica sp., & c.

Animal distribution is of two kinds — inside or outside the animal.
To the former class belong all fleshy fruits; these are eaten and the
seeds afterwards dropped. The seeds must be able to pass uninjured
through the alimentary canal. This is usually effected by means of
a hard covering, the seed-coat in berries, the endocarp in drupes. In
some cases the seed is sticky, e.g. in Viscum, and is ejected by the
bird ; in Strychnos, &c., it is poisonous. Most fleshy fruits are dis-
tributed by birds and are found on shrubs and trees; comparatively few
are eaten by other animals. They are commonly brightly coloured
when ripe, and so attract notice (cf. flowers). In Anthurium, Magnolia,
Acacia sp., &c., special arrangements increasing the conspicuousness
are found. The seeds of Abrus, Adenanthera, Ricinus, &c., and the
fruits of Scorpiurus, Biserrula, &c., resemble beetles or caterpillars, and
it is often suggested that birds are deceived by them and carry them to

DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS

hi

a distance before finding out the mistake. Carriage of seeds or fruits
by the outer surface of the animal’s body is usually effected by hooks.
Hooked seeds are very rare ; they occur in Villarsia, &c. Hooked
fruits (burs) are common ; the hooks may be on any part of the fruit
proper or on the accessory organs — receptacle, corolla, &c. (e.g. cf.
Bidens, Tragoceros, and Xanthium, in Compositae). Examples are
Triglochin, Uncinia, Cenchrus, Emex, Triumfetta, Bunias, Agrimonia,
Acaena, Geum, Medicago, Circaea, Blumenbachia, Sanicula, Daucus,
Galium, Asperula, Cynoglossum, Martynia, Harpagophytum, &c. In
Tribulus, &c. , the fruit has hard spines and lies upon the soil till trodden
on by an animal and is then carried away sticking in its foot. In Arc-
tium the hooks cling to passing animals and finally let go their hold
and the plant swings back jerking out the fruits. In Allionia, Pisonia,
Plumbago, Siegesbeckia, &c., the fruit clings by glandular hairs.

Propulsive mechanisms in the fruit itself may be of two kinds. In
Dorstenia, Oxalis, Impatiens, Cyclanthera, Ecballium, &c., the pro-
pulsion depends upon extreme turgidity in some part of the fruit. In
Lupinus, Ulex, Eschscholtzia, Scandix, Euphorbia, Ricinus, Hura,
Acanthaceae, Alstroemeria, Cardamine, Buxus, Claytonia, Viola, Gera-
nium, &c., tensions are set up by the drying of certain parts of the
fruit-tissue when exposed to the air.

Observation shows that as a rule none of the mechanisms transport
seeds or fruits to great distances ; a few hundred yards is usually the
maximum. This, however, is probably sufficient to gain all the advan-
tages of seed-dispersal.

In studying the mechanisms of seed-dispersal, the morphology of the
various fruits should be compared, so as to notice how in different fruits
the same end is attained in different ways; e.g . how the testa, aril,
gynoeceum wall, receptacle, corolla or perianth may be fleshy, or
hooked, &c. It should also be noted that there is much greater variety
in this respect among nearly allied forms than there is in the general
floral mechanism. This goes to show that the seed-dispersal methods
are of recent acquirement. Such orders as Cruciferae, Compositae,
Leguminosae, Rosaceae, Umbelliferae, and such genera as Trifolium,
Valerianella, &c., are of special interest in this connection. See Part
II., and Chap. III. (especially under Epiphytes)1.

Germination. Placed under suitable conditions —
darkness, moisture, supply of oxygen, and suitable tem-
perature— the seed germinates (Fig. i, p. 37). The testa is
burst by the swelling of the seed, the radicle is pushed out,
at or near the micropyle, by the lengthening of the hypo-
cotyl, and grows down into the soil as the root. The
plumule presently comes above ground, often bent back
on itself like a hook, and begins to develope into the young

1 Hildebrand, Verbreitungsmittel der Pjlanzen, Leipzig, 1873 ;
Darwin, Origin of Species ; Kerner, Natural History of Plants .
Literature to 1890 indexed by MacLeod in Bot. Jaarb., Gent 1891.

1 1 2

GERMINATION

shoot. The cotyledons as a rule come up too, turn green,
and act as the first foliage leaves, but if there is any endo-
sperm they first of all absorb the reserves it contains. In a
few exalbuminous seeds, e.g. pea, the cotyledons are so full
of reserves that by the time they are exhausted the young
plant is well enough grown to be independent, and there is
no need for them to turn green, nor do they. Such also is
the case in a few albuminous seeds, eg. the Gramineae.

Observations made by Detmer1 on the heights, weights,
&c., of plants grown from heavy and light seeds show
that, other things being equal, the former are as superior to
the latter as the offspring of cross- to that of self-fertilisation,
so that this is an important factor in the life-history. It
might pay a plant to give up cross-fertilisation and expend
the saving on heavier or more numerous seed. As usual, a
balance must be struck between opposing necessities; the
heavier the seed the less its chance of distribution.

An interesting point seen in some seedlings is the tran-
sitional stages towards the mature state (p. 29). Good
examples are Acacia, Bossiaea, Ulex, Hakea, succulents, &c.

Vegetative Reproduction. Frequently portions of
the vegetative organs, specialised or not, are detached and
grow into new plants. The detachment need not precede
the growth of the new plant, but may follow it, as in the
case of young strawberry-plants formed upon the runners.
It is of interest to notice the ways in which the young
daughter-plants are nourished. If the detached portion be
not green, e.g. a potato tuber, reserve materials must be
stored in it to start its growth and keep it growing until it
can assimilate, so that it is the physiological though not the
morphological equivalent of a seed (gardeners speak of
‘ seed-potatoes ’). If the young plant, as in the strawberry,
remain in connection with the parent, no reserves are needed,
the parent feeding it till it is capable of independent growth.

Vegetative reproduction is certain, effective, and econo-
mical ; the profusion of such plants as daisies, buttercups,
raspberries, hyacinths, is largely due to it. Its chief disad-
vantage is the loss of the benefits of fertilisation.

1 Detmer, Keimungsphysiologie ; Lubbock, Seedlings ; Goebel,
Organography of Plants ; Vandevelde, De Kie?ning der Zaadplanten,
in Bot. Jaarb., Gent, 1897 (literature list).

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION

113

It is well-known that in a sense the vegetative and ‘true’
reproductive activities of a plant are antagonistic (see p. 103).
If a plant is growing in rich soil or in the shade, the vege-
tative activity is favoured, whereas when vegetative growth
is checked, the plant tends to flower more. Excessive
vegetative activity tends to favour vegetative reproduction
at the expense of sexual. Vochting has shown by experi-
ment that reduced light favours vegetative multiplication.

It is rare for the root to give rise to a shoot ; vegetative
reproduction generally consists in the detachment of a shoot-
structure, with or without roots. It is almost confined to
herbaceous plants ; few trees are thus propagated.

The simple detachment of a branch, not in any way modified in
structure, is common in water-plants, and in plants with rhizomes.
Special branches for vegetative propagation are the runners of Fragaria,
Ranunculus, Agropyron, Ajuga, Nephrolepis, &c., the suckers of
Gesneriaceae, Epilobium, Rubus, Agave, Sempervivum, Salicaceae, &c.
Bulbs, corms, tubers, &c. (Chap. III.) all lend themselves readily to
this mode of propagation. Similar structures appear above ground in
many plants, and are then primarily reproductive ; such are the bulbils
or little bulbs of Lycopodium, Agave, Lilium, Allium, Remusatia,
Gagea, Oxalis, &c., which usually appear in place of flowers, in the
inflorescence, the tubers of Begonia, Globba, Polygonum, &c., the
young plants that appear by budding of tissues in Asplenium, Cardamine,
Bertolonia, Begonia, Rubus, Chlorophytum, Crassula, &c.

The disadvantage in vegetative multiplication is that the offspring
shall be so closely crowded together as to cause a severe competition
between themselves and between them and the parent. To avoid this
danger there are several methods, as seen in seed-reproduction. In
water-plants the detached branches or buds are carried away by the water.
Many detached parts are carried off by birds for nest-making, e.g. in Til-
landsia usneoides ; others can adhere to animals, e.g. the hooked bulbils
of Remusatia, the branches of Mammillaria, &c. The nodes of Panicum
and other grasses pass through the alimentary canals of animals and
subsequently germinate. The tubers of Senecio articulala may be rolled
along the ground by the wind, like the plants of Selaginella lepidophylla.
The bulbils so frequent in inflorescences may be jerked away when the
plant is shaken. In reproduction by suckers, runners, or similar methods,
the length of these is usually sufficient to ensure separation.

Appendix. Hairs, Emergences, Latex, &c. A
few minor anatomical features remain to be mentioned, as
they are of importance in classification, natural history, &c.

Hairs are cellular outgrowths from the epidermal tissue, branched
or unbranched, of the most various shapes, and are exceedingly common
on all parts of plants (for descriptive terms see p. 53). Their use is

8

W.

HAIRS ETC .

114

often doubtful. The dense hairy covering of many xerophytes checks
transpiration, the stinging hairs of Urticaceae, Loasaceae, &c. are pro-
tective, the barbed hairs of the fruits of Galium, Blumenbachia, &c. serve
for animal distribution, and so on.

Emergences are outgrowths of the surface which arise from other
tissues as well as the epidermis, e.g. the tentacles of Drosera, which
contain vascular bundles, the prickles of Rosa and Ribes, &c.

Latex is a milky fluid, usually white or yellow, contained in special
laticiferous vessels or cells which run through the tissues of certain plants,
e.g. Euphorbia, Cichorieae (Compositae), many Papaveraceae, Apocyna-
ceae, Asclepiadaceae, Sapotaceae, &c. The fluid contains substances
of various kinds ; some are of use in nutrition, and to some extent the
laticiferous tissue therefore replaces the phloem ; others, e.g. caoutchouc,
are apparently excretory products of little or no use to the plant.

Raphides are needle-shaped crystals of calcium oxalate, contained in
the cells, especially in young growing parts and in Monocotyledons. The
painful effects of chewing a piece of the leaf of Arum maculatum are
due to the raphides sticking into the mucous membrane.

Water-pores or hydathodes are openings like stomata upon leaves or
elsewhere, through which the plant excretes water, often containing
other substances, e.g. chalk, in solution. During the day evaporation
carries off the water, but at night it often accumulates and is mistaken
for dew. The drops of water so commonly seen in the morning on the
tips of grass blades have been thus formed. Water-pores are also found
in many species of Saxifraga, Tropaeolum, Fuchsia, Caladium, &c.
When the water contains sugar in solution, a nectary (p. 88) is formed1.
These are usually in flowers, but there are many cases of extra-floral
nectaries, e.g. on the leaves of the cherry-laurel (Prunus), stipules of
Vicia, Viola, &c. Extra-floral nectaries usually attract ants and this
brings to the plant a certain advantage by keeping off caterpillars, &c.
Several tropical plants show extreme cases of adaptation in this direction,
by housing and feeding standing armies of fighting ants. Such plants
are said to be myrmecophilous (see Acacia, Cecropia, &c.). In this
connection mention may be made of the honey-dew so common on leaves
(see Acer, Pithecolobium, &c.), and of the domatia or little dwellings
inhabited by mites, usually constructed of hairs, or sometimes in little
hollows or grooves of the leaf (see Fraxinus, Anamirta).

Resin-passages are large canal-like intercellular spaces in the tissues of
certain plants, e.g. Coniferae. Into them the plant secretes resin ; this
appears to be a waste-product, though it may have an incidental value
in protecting the wood from decay, or in other ways.

Oil-cavities containing oils of various sorts, are frequent in various
plants, especially in the leaves, where they show as translucent dots when
held up to the light. They occur in Rutaceae, Guttiferae, &c.

Glands are organs secreting fluids upon the surface of a plant (or
sometimes internally). Water-pores and nectaries may be included under
this head, and other glands secrete oils, &c.

1 Usually there is no pore in a nectary, the fluid being excreted by
the superficial cells.

CHAPTER II.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.

Classification of plants, like that of their organs, is
based upon phylogeny, itself investigated by the comparative
method described in Chap. I. We have seen (pp. 21 — 25)
that accumulation of variations leads to the modification of
organs ; we may now go a stage further and apply it to species.

Evolution1. The diagram here given is intended to
roughly illustrate the origin of new forms from pre-existing

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1 See works mentioned in footnote to p. 23.
See also Note on p. 208*.

8—2

1 16

CLASSIFICATION OF FI A NTS

forms by aid of natural selection of continuous variations.
Let us suppose that at a certain period there are five species,
represented by the letters A to E, living in a given region,
and that A and D are represented by many, B, C, and E by
few, individuals. Take first the case of A. The offspring of
the various individuals will form a large number, represented
by the letters a1...h1. They will vary in their characters.
Suppose a1 to represent those individuals which possess in
the most marked degree a certain character or (more usually)
sum of characters which in the struggle for existence will be
advantageous to them. Suppose kx to represent another
group possessing in a high degree some other beneficial
character ; the intermediate groups possess these characters
in a less marked degree. Then, in the struggle for existence,
the tendency will be for the groups a1 and kx to defeat the
intermediate groups and also the parent form . Probably the
groups al kx will not be the only survivors, but they will pro-
duce most offspring. In the next generation the offspring
will again vary in the same characters and those that vary
furthest in favourable directions, i.e. the groups a2 k2, will
tend to produce most offspring. The same process may be
repeated in every generation, and thus the original species
will give rise to steadily diverging lines of offspring (the
divergence is not shown in the diagram beyond the second
generation). After many generations, the differences between
the group a and the group k , at first infinitesimal, will
become obvious, and we may now say that the species A
has two varieties , a and k. The type form A itself will per-
haps usually have ceased to exist in this locality, but if one
of the varieties to which it has given rise be much commoner
than the others, naturalists generally, though incorrectly, term
this the ‘type’ of the species, unless, as probably often
happens, the new variety or varieties have arisen on the
margin of the area of the earth’s surface occupied by the
parent species, which may then continue to exist side by side
with the variety.

Varieties are common in most of the larger genera and
species, e.g. Rosa, Rubus, Hieracium, Salix. They differ
from one another chiefly in small and variable characters,
especially of the vegetative organs ; e.g. there are two

E VOLUTION

117

varieties of the common buttercup (. Ranunculus acris ), one
of which, var. Steven i Reich., has the stem slightly hairy at
the base and the segments of the radical leaves not over-
lapping; while the other, var. vnlgatus Jord., has the stem
densely hairy at the base and the leaf-segments overlapping.
The student should work through Hooker’s British Flora
and note the divergences of character usually considered as
sufficient to mark varieties. He can hardly fail to be struck
by the apparently trivial nature of the differences, and will
often be at a loss to understand what value they can possess
in the struggle for existence. This point cannot be discussed
here ; we can only refer to what has been said above as to
the possible value of any variation, and as to correlated
variation. On the theory of mutation, varieties or “ elemen-
tary species” may arise at one step, and it is perhaps
somewhat less difficult to account for varietal characters
being so often of no apparent value to the plants.

It is by no means easy to decide when two forms are
sufficiently separated to be ranked as varieties ; it is essential
that in several characters their variation should be discon-
tinuous, yielding a two-humped curve (p. 22), though in
actual systematic practice this criterion of definite measure-
ment is seldom employed ; examination of a large number
of specimens is usually sufficient to enable a judgment to be
formed as to the continuity or discontinuity of the variation
of the characters.

To return to the diagram, imagine the original species A
now represented by the two varieties al and kt. The latter
may diverge again into two new varieties, t and u, and
afterwards a into v and w, and at the stage marked by q the
species will thus have four varieties. The differences be-
tween v and w will be slight, most of their characters being
the same as those of the parent form a ; t and u will be
rather more widely separated in character. The differences
between the two pairs, on the other hand, will be consider-
able, as they are separated by so many generations from the
common ancestor A.

The divergence of the four varieties continuing, will
ultimately become so considerable that the forms must be
ranked as species . To define exactly what is meant by this

1 18

EVOLUTION

term is as yet impossible. Most of the great systematists,
e.g. Sir Joseph Hooker, use rather comprehensive species,
often including many varieties ; such species are now often
called “Linnean species,” in contradistinction to the ele-
mentary or “Jordan’s species,” which are considered as
varieties by Hooker. Botanists who work mainly at the
flora of a limited region, or at single groups of plants, usually
tend to make small species. The balance of opinion at
present favours the use of large species, and this course is
followed in the present work, and in the vast majority of
botanical books. The student will find it of interest in this
connection to study such genera as Rubus, Salix, Hieracium,
&c. with the different British Floras of Hooker, Bentham,
Babington, &c.

Two nearly allied species will have many characters in
common derived from the common ancestor, but will show
more differences, and those more clearly marked, than
varieties. The latter when crossed usually yield fertile
offspring, whereas the offspring ( hybrids ) of two species are
usually comparatively sterile (but cf. the case of heterostyled
flowers, p. 95). The student should work at the determina-
tion of species until familiar with the kind of characters that
mark specific distinction ; he will note that they are chiefly
characters of the vegetative organs, and minor characters of
flowers, fruits, &c.

The original species A has thus, after a considerable
lapse of time, given rise to four new species, T, U, V, W, by
which it is now represented on the earth. Now consider the
case of B, a species nearly allied to A and represented by
few individuals. The chance of a favourable variation
appearing in a number of the offspring is smaller; let us
suppose that none appears, and that B continues unchanged,
until the general ecological conditions change, or an un-
favourable variation occurs, or other forms come into closer
competition with it. It may then gradually dwindle in
numbers and finally die out. Extinction of species is a
common occurrence, as geology teaches. Now take the
case of C, also a species of few individuals. This we may
suppose not to become extinct during the period under
consideration, because it has had a favourable situation,

EVOLUTION

119

little competition, a very peculiar mode of life, or some other
advantage. It therefore appears in the top line, represent-
ing the later period. D is supposed to be a species with
many individuals, and therefore one in which favourable
variations are more likely to arise. It gives rise to four
varieties, but ultimately only to two species, X and Z. E is
supposed to die out like B.

The four species T, U, V, W are nearly allied. After a
long period they will again give rise to new species, repre-
sented by the letters in the top row. The species K, L, M
derived from W will be nearly allied in character, but will
differ much from U and still more from C, from X, and from
the two species H and I (derived from Z). The divergence
between these various groups will now be so great that they
will be regarded as genera , one with three species, one with
two, and the rest each with one species. The common an-
cestor of the species of a genus is far back, but the common
ancestor of two allied genera farther still. Genera agree in
fewer characters than do species. The characters that mark
genera should be studied in a flora (see also Coniferae in
Pt. II.); it will be noticed that floral characters enter more
largely into the diagnoses than in the case of species. The
genus represented by the one species C will be what is
called an archaic genus, a type belonging to a former age.
Several examples of this kind may be met with, e.g. Casua-
rina, Isoetes, Phylloglossum, &c.

Just as varieties gradually diverge into species and these
into genera, so these again form groups of genera, or natural
orders. The characters of all the natural orders are given in
full in Part II. and should be studied there, especially by the
method of comparison of allied orders. The orders may be
grouped into cohorts, these into series , and so on.

It is necessary to keep clearly in mind the fact that the
ancestral forms die out as species diverge, and can only be
found, if at all, as fossils. The archaic forms of vegetation
now existing are of special interest as types of a preexisting
flora, but they must not be regarded as representing the
ancestral forms from which our existing vegetation of higher
types is derived, though very possibly often nearly related to
them. The study of fossil botany has brought to light

120

EVOLUTION

many interesting relics of past vegetation, but probably few,
if any, of these are direct ancestors of now existing forms.
Those plants which are of woody nature are most likely to
be preserved, while the general upward evolution to the
highest flowering plants appears to have taken place chiefly
in herbaceous plants. In these, generation succeeds genera-
tion rapidly, and thus evolution can go on more quickly than
in trees or shrubs.

Principles of Classification. On the theory of de-
scent, the vegetable kingdom may be represented by a tree,
the existing species being the tips of the branches, and the
older parts of the stems representing forms now extinct.
Plants then can be arranged in groups under groups.
Species are grouped into genera, these into orders, and so
on. If our museums of fossils could supply us with all the
forms of vegetable life that have existed on the earth
classification would be an easy task. As it is, however, we
possess only the tips of the twigs, so to speak, and have to
reconstruct the tree and fit them into their proper places on
it. This is done by careful and detailed comparison of all
the characters of the various organisms ; those which agree
in a large number of characters are considered as nearly re-
lated, those which agree in few as more distantly related, to
one another. The ideal to be aimed at in classification is a
systematic arrangement of all known forms, existing or
fossil, to show their mutual relationships, and grouped into
genera, orders, &c. An ordinary written scheme of classifi-
cation can never completely fulfil this object, for it
endeavours to represent on a plane surface what can only be
accurately shown in the solid.

Plants show, as we have seen, varying degrees of resem-
blance, or affi7iities ; Darwin first showed that affinity meant
relationship. The natural system of classification, which
tries to group plants according to their affinities, was already
well advanced before 1859, and has since been brought
nearer to perfection, though there is yet a very great deal of
work to be done.

A classification which only takes account of a few
characters is found not to show relationships truly; such is
the famous artificial system of Linnaeus, a convenient

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION 121

arrangement for practical use, but now superseded by the
natural system. We must always work with the aggregate of
characters of every species ; this is easily understood after
what we have said above. Very often, indeed, a single
character or combination of characters enables us to recog-
nise the approximate relationship of a species very easily,
but its exact relationship can only be determined by a study
of all its characters.

The larger the aggregate of characters we can use the
more certain the results. There is good reason to believe
that polyphyly (p. 29) is extremely common in the evolution
of plants ; if we use one character only as a diagnostic we
shall be certain often to go astray in this respect (cf. remarks
on adaptation, p. 25), and even it is probable that at times
several distinct characters may be correlated and accompany
one another, but if we use large aggregates of characters we
shall usually be comparatively safe.

Careful and extensive comparison of characters is then the
method mainly in use for determining the relationships
and phylogeny of plants. The remarks on p. 27 should be
carefully read in this connection. A character which is
nearly uniform and common to a large number of species is
regarded as of high importance, it being, upon the theory of
descent, one which has been handed down unaltered from
very ancient times. It may thus be used as a diagnostic
character of a large group, but it must always be remembered
that unless it is usually accompanied by other widely spread
characters, we may be dealing with a case of polyphyly.
To take a concrete instance, Angiosperms are divided into
two groups mainly upon the possession of one or two coty-
ledons, but these characters are usually accompanied by
others of almost equal persistence, such as the “ scattered ”
vascular bundles of Monocotyledons. Characters of more
inconstant nature, and common to fewer species mark smaller
groups, and so on. But there must always be a considerable
individual equation in the definition of groups of plants,
because one individual will regard one character, another
another, as of more importance in doubtful cases.

Now consider the kind of characters used. “ The less
any part of the organism is concerned with special habits the

i22 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION

more important it is for classification.” Such a part will be
less liable to rapid variation and modification. The vegeta-
tive organs, therefore, are comparatively useless in diagnosing
the larger groups. There are, however, vegetative characters
which are not so liable to modification and are therefore
useful; such are the alternate or opposite arrangement of
the leaves, their veining, &c. The embryonic characters of
the vegetative organs, e.g the number of cotyledons, are
very important. Vestigial organs are often of great import-
ance in classification. The characters of flower and fruit
are the most important for diagnosis of large groups. It is
necessary to recognise, however, the kind of floral character
to use. We have seen (p. 70) the importance of cohesion of
parts. Once acquired, it is not likely to be lost and may be
handed down to a large number of descendants , the amount
of cohesion, on the other hand, is a very variable character.
In the same way, the existence or non-existence of adhesion,
the shape of the receptacle, irregularity, number of members
in a whorl, introrse or extrorse opening of anthers, &c. are
all important. The characters of the gynoeceum are very
useful, e.g. the placentation, the position of the raphe of the
ovule, the anatropy, &c. of the ovules, and so on. The
number of cotyledons, the shape of the embryo, and the
presence or absence of endosperm in the seed, are also good
characters. All these are largely used for the diagnosis of
the larger groups, as will be seen by a study of the tables
below and of the characters of the orders in Part II. The
characters of vegetative organs and the more easily modified
floral characters are chiefly used in the diagnosis of genera
and species.

A very important point to recognise is this, that a given
character may be good in one group of plants, and in
another may be nearly useless and exhibit a great deal of
variation ; this is easily understood on the theory of descent.
For example, whether a flower is perigynous, epigynous or
hypogynous is usually an important character, used in
diagnosing natural orders, but in the genus Saxifraga all
three conditions may be found. Other illustrations are
Nigella in Ranunculaceae with its syncarpous gynoeceum,
Vaccinium in Ericaceae, and so on.

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION

123

Systems of Classification. It is evident that in any
written system of classification there must be a considerable
element of artificial grouping. For practical purposes this
matters little, and when once a system has been adopted for
use it is well to adhere to it ; in large herbaria, for example,
it is impossible to make frequent changes of arrangement to
suit the progress of knowledge. Students should be trained
in the system which offers the closest approach to the
representation of the knowledge of the day. The system
of Bentham and Hooker, proposed in their Genera Planta-
rum , has remained the standard one in Britain for a long
time, but on the Continent has long been superseded by
the more natural system based on that of Brongniart. The
latest exposition of this system is that of Engler in the
Syllabus der Vorlesungen , and in Die natiir lichen Pflanzen-
familien . We have therefore adopted this system for the
flowering plants, but a key is also given to the system of
Bentham and Hooker, so that those who prefer may use
the latter. The natural orders given in Part II. are those
of Engler, but their place in the other systems is always
indicated. A third system, outlined below, is that of
Eichler, adopted by Warming (, Systematic Botany , English
ed.) ; it resembles that of Engler very closely. The ferns
and their allies are classified according to the most recent
views upon the subject.

The Vegetable Kingdom is primarily divided into four
groups :

Thallophyta — Algae and Fungi.

Bryophyta — Mosses and Liverworts.

Pteridophyta or Vascular Cryptogams — Ferns, Lycopods,
Equisetums, &c.

Spermaphyta or Phanerogams — Seed-plants or so-called
flowering plants (see Part II.).

With the first two groups we are not concerned in this
work. The classification of the Ferns, &c. is given in
Part II. (art. Pteridophyta, &c.). We shall deal here with
the last and highest group.

The primary division of the Spermaphytes in all systems
is into Gymnosperms and Angiosperms, but it is probable
that this is very artificial — that the former are really three

124

ENGLER'S SYSTEM

classes derived from separate stocks of the early Pterido-
phyta, and the latter really two or more classes derived
possibly from primitive Gymnosperms. The Angiosperms
are divided into Mono- and Di-cotyledons in all systems,
but the further subdivisions vary. We give below the
characters of the groups as far as the cohorts : for orders
see Pt. II.

SYSTEM OF ENGLE R, 1903.

SPERMAPHYTA.

Gymnospermae.

(Ovules before pollination not enclosed in ovary formed of united
or infolded carpels; endosperm formed before fertilisation; see G. in
Pt. II.)

Class I. Cycadales (stem with little branching; leaves pinnately
divided, forming rosette at end of stem; firs, dioecious, not massed in
infl.; no perianth):

N. O. 1. Cycadaceae.

Class II. Ginkgoales (stem branched, with long and short shoots ;
leaves fan shaped ; firs, dioecious ; sta. with 2 pollensacs ; ovules 1 or 2
at end of rudimentary carpel).

N. O. 2. Ginkgoaceae.

Class III. Coniferae (stem branched ; leaves usually narrow, often
linear; firs, unisexual; no perianth).

N. O. 3. Taxaceae. 4. Araucariaceae.

Class IV. Gnetales (stem simple or branched ; leaves in pairs,
undivided; firs, unisexual or g , with perianth, and more or less enclosed
in bracts).

N. O. 5. Gnetaceae.

Angiospermae.

(Ovules produced in an ovary formed of coherent carpels or of one
carpel with coherent margins ; endosperm formed after fertilisation ; see
A. and Chalazogamae in Pt. II.)

Class I. Monocotyledones (embryo with one cotyledon ; stem with
closed vascular bundles, “scattered” as seen in cross-section; leaves
usually parallel veined; firs, usually 3-merous ; see M. in Pt. II.);

ENGLER'S SYSTEM

I25

A. Cohorts with marked inequality in no. of flower parts.

Cohort i. Pcindanales (flr. naked, or with homochlam., bract-like

perianth, unisexual ; sta. i — oo ; cpls. i — oo ; endosperm ; infl. compound,
spherical or cylindrical ; marsh-herbs or trees with linear leaves) :

N. O. 6. Typhaceae. 7. Pandanaceae. 8. Sparganiaceae.
Cohort 2. Helobieae (flr. cyclic or hemicyclic ; perianth o or in 1 or 2
whorls, homo- or hetero-chlam., hypo- or epi-gynous; sta. 1 — co ; cpls.

1 — oo, or (1 — 00); endosperm little or none; water or marsh plants):
N. O. 9. Potamogetonaceae. 10. Naiadaceae. 11. Aponogeton-

aceae. 12. Juncaginaceae. 13. Alismaceae. 14. Butomaceae. 15.
Hydrocharitaceae.

Cohort 3. Trinridciles (flrs. polygamous, homochlam. ; P. 3 — 8,
petaloid; sta. 3, 4, or 6; cpls. oo , each with 1 basal ovule;
saprophytes) :

N. O. 16. Triuridaceae.

Cohort 4. Glu??iiflorae (flr. naked, rarely with hair-like or true
perianth, covered by glumes; ovary i-loc. with 1 ovule):

N. O. 17. Gramineae. 18. Cyperaceae.

Cohort 5. Principes (flr. usually cyclic, homochlam., 3-merous,
hypogynous, regular or rarely zygomorphic; sta. usually 6; cpls. 3,
usually each with 1 fleshy ovule; stem monopodial with fan-like or
pinnate leaves; infl. a simple or compound spadix):

N. O. 19. Palmae.

Cohort 6. Synanthae (flr. always unisexual; $ naked or with thick
shortly toothed perianth, and 6 — 00 sta. ; ? naked or with 4 fleshy scale-
like leaves, before each of which is a long thread-like staminode ; cpls.
(2) or (4), with 2 or 4 placentae and 00 ovules, sunk in axis of spadix):
N. O. 20. Cyclanthaceae.

Cohort 7. Spathijiorae (flr. cyclic, with o, 1, or 2 homochlam.
whorls of perianth, 3- or 2-merous, $ or unisexual, often much reduced,
even to 1 sta. or cpl.; spadices simple, enclosed in spathes, with no
bracts; sympodial plants, rarely with well developed stems):

N. O. 21. Araceae. 22. Lemnaceae.

B. Cohorts with typically 5-whorled flrs., whorls typically isomerous
usually 3-merous, rarely more or 2-merous.

Cohort 8. Farinosae (flr. cyclic, homo- or hetero-chlam., 3- or

2- merous, usually P 3 + 3, A 3 + 3, G (3) ; one whorl of sta. is sometimes
wanting, or all sta. but 1 ; ovules often orthotropous ; endosperm mealy):

N. O. 23. Flagellariaceae. 24. Restionaceae. 25. Centrolepi-
daceae. 26. Mayacaceae. 27. Xyridaceae. 28. Eriocaulaceae.
29. Rapateaceae. 30. Bromeliaceae. 31. Commelinaceae. 32.
Pontederiaceae. 33. Philydraceae.

Cohort 9. Liliiflorae (like 8, but endosperm fleshy or cartilaginous
ovules usually anatropous ; flrs. sometimes 4- or 5-merous) :

N. O. 34. Juncaceae. 35. Stemonaceae. 36. Liliaceae. 37.
Plaemodoraceae. 38. Amaryllidaceae. 39. Velloziaceae. 40.
Taccaceae. 41. Dioscoreaceae. 42. Iridaceae.

Cohort 10. Scitamineae (flr. cyclic, homo- or hetero-chlam. , 3-merous,
typically diplostemonous but often with reduction of androeceum even
to 1 sta., usually epigynous and zygomorphic; ovary usually 3-loc.

126

ENGLER'S SYSTEM

with large ovules; seeds usually with arils and with endo- and peri-
sperm; tropical plants):

N. O. 43. Musaceae. 44. Zingiberaceae. 45. Cannaceae.
46. Marantaceae.

Cohort 11. Microspermae (fir. cyclic, homo- or hetero-chlam.,
3-merous, typically diplostemonous, but often with important reduction ;
ovary inferior, 3- or i-loc. with 00 small ovules; endosperm or none):

N. O. 47. Burmanniaceae. 48. Orchidaceae.

Class II. Dicotyledones (embryo with two cotyledons; stem with
open vascular bundles usually in a single ring; leaf net-veined; fir.
usually 5-, 4-, or 2-merous; see D. in Pt. II.):

SERIES I. ARCHICHLAMYDEAE . Perianth in lower stages
of development, i.e. either (1) absent, (2) simple, in one whorl, petaloid
or sepaloid, (3) in two whorls, the inner polyphyllous, (4) in two whorls,
the inner gamophyllous (rare; in forms whose nearest relatives are
polyphyllous, e.g. Correa in Rutaceae), or (5) in one whorl, in conse-
quence of the abortion of the inner whorl (apetalous).

Cohort 1. Verticillatae (firs, unisexual; <? in spikes, with 2 peri-
anth-leaves and 1 sta. ; ? in heads, naked, of (2) cpls.; ovules 2, in
anterior loc. only, orthotropous, basal ; nut enclosed in woody bracteole ;
seed exalbuminous) :

N. O. 49. Casuarinaceae.

Cohort 2. Piperales (firs, very small, in spikes, naked or homochlam.,
$ or unisexual; sta. 1 — 10, cpls. 1 — 4, or (1 — 4); leaves simple with
stipules or o):

N. O. 50. Saururaceae. 51. Piperaceae. 52. Chloranthaceae.
53. Lacistemaceae.

Cohort 3. Salicales (fir. naked, dioecious, with cup-like disc, some-
times reduced to tooth-like scales; sta. 2 — 00, cpls. (2); G i-loc. with
00 anatropous ovules on parietal placentae ; capsule with 00 seeds ; seed
small, exalbuminous, with basal tuft of hairs; woody plants with undi-
vided, rarely lobed, alternate, stipulate leaves, and spikes of firs.):

N. O. 54. Salicaceae.

Cohort 4. Myricales (firs, naked, monoecious, $ with 2 — 16 sta., $
with (2) cpls.; G i-loc. with 1 basal orthotropous ovule; stigmas 2;
herbs or undershrubs with usually simple leaves, and spikes of firs.):

N. O. 55. Myricaceae.

Cohort 5. Balanopsidales (firs, dioecious, c? monochlam., $ sur-
rounded by 00 bracts; cpls. (2) each with 2 erect ovules; drupe; trees
or shrubs, <? firs, in spikes, ? solitary) :

N. O. 56. Balanopsidaceae.

Cohort 6. Leitneriales (firs, dioecious, <? naked with 3—12 sta. ; ?
with scaly perianth; cpl. 1 with long style and 1 ventral amphitropous
ovule ; drupe ; endosperm thin ; shrubs with alt. leaves) :

N. O. 57. Leitneriaceae.

Cohort 7. Juglandales (fir. unisexual, naked or with sepaloid peri-
anth; sta. 3 — 40; cpls. (2); ovary i-loc. with 1 basal orthotropous
ovule with 1 integument; drupe or nut; no stipules):

N. O. 58. Juglandaceae.

Cohort 8. Fagales (fir. cyclic, homochlam., rarely naked, generally

ENGLER'S SYSTEM

127

unisexual, monoecious; sta. often anteposed to perianth-leaves; cpls.
(2 — 6) each with 1 — 2 ovules; G; fruit usually nut-like, i-seeded; no
endosperm; firs, in simple or compound spikes; trees or shrubs):

N. O. 59. Betulaceae. 60. Fagaceae.

Cohort 9. Urticales (fir. cyclic, homochlam., rarely naked, usually

2- merous, rarely 2 + 3, generally regular; sta. anteposed to perianth-
leaves; cpls. 2 — 1; G with 1 ovule; drupe or nut; firs, usually in
cymose panicles):

N. O. 61. Ulmaceae. 62. Moraceae. 63. Urticaceae.

Cohort 10. Proteales (fir. cyclic, homochlam., usually 2-merous with
sta. anteposed to perianth-leaves, hypogynous, £ or unisexual, regular
or not; perianth petaloid; sta. rarely quite free, usually united to perianth
all but the anthers; G 1) :

N. O. 64. Proteaceae.

Cohort 11. Santalales (fir. cyclic, homochlam., with sta. anteposed
to perianth-leaves, rarely heterochlam., and haplo- or diplo-stemonous;
G (2 — 3), rarely 1, each cpl. with 1 ovule pendulous from apex of loc.
or from free-central placenta; sometimes — in order 70 — the ovules and
placentae are not differentiated, but the embryo-sacs are in the tissue
filling the interior of the ovary) :

N. O. 65. Myzodendraceae. 66. Santalaceae. 67. Opiliaceae.
68. Grubbiaceae. 69. Olacaceae. 70. Loranthaceae. 71. Balano-
phoraceae.

Cohort 12. Aristolochiales (fir. cyclic, homochlam., epigynous,
regular, or zygomorphic ; perianth petaloid ; ovary usually inferior,

3 — 6-loc. with axile, or i-loc. with parietal, placentae and 00’ ovules):
N. O. 72. Aristolochiaceae. 73. Rafflesiaceae. 74. Hydnoraceae.
Cohort 13. Polygonales (fir. homo- or hetero-chlam., regular; G i-loc.

with 1 erect rarely anatropous ovule, with 2 integuments ; leaves usually
with ocreate stipules) :

N. O. 75. Polygonaceae.

Cohort 14. Centrospermae (fir. acyclic or cyclic, homo- or hetero-
chlam. , sta. often as many as and opposite to the perianth-leaves, but
also 00 — 1; cpls. 1 — co usually united ; G (or rarely G) rarely multi-loc.,
generally i-loc. with 1 — 00 campy lotropous ovules; perisperm; embryo
curved ; mostly herbs) :

N. O. 76. Chenopodiaceae. 77. Amarantaceae. 78. Nycta-
ginaceae. 79. Batidaceae. 80. Cynocrambaceae. 81. Phytolaccaceae.
82. Aizoaceae. 83. Portulacaceae. 84. Basellaceae. 85. Caryo-
phyllaceae.

Cohort 15. Ranales (fir. spiral to cyclic, regular or not, homo- to
hetero-chlam., epi- to hypo-gynous, usually with 00 sta.; cpls. 00 — 1,
usually free, rarely united):

N. O. 86. Nymphaeaceae. 87. Ceratophyllaceae. 88. Tro-
chodendraceae. 89. Ranunculaceae. 90. Lardizabalaceae. 91.
Berberidaceae. 92. Menispermaceae. 93. Magnoliaceae. 94.
Calycanthaceae. 95. Lactoridaceae. 96. Anonaceae. 97. Myristi-
caceae. 98. Gomortegaceae. 99. Monimiaceae. 100. Lauraceae.
101. Hernandiaceac.

Cohort 16. Rhoeadales (fir. cyclic, except sometimes the sta., helero-

128

ENGLER'S SYSTEM

chlam., rarely apetalous or homochlam. (order 107), hypogynous, regular
or not; cpls. (00 — 2), ovules with 2 integuments, ovary superior):

N. O. 102. Papaveraceae. 103. Capparidaceae. 104. Cru-
ciferae. 105. Tovariaceae. 106. Resedaceae. 107. Moringaceae.

Cohort 17. Sarraceniales (fir. hemicyclic to cyclic, homo- or hetero-
chlam., hypogynous, regular; G (3 — 5) with parietal or axile placentae
and 00 ovules; seed small with endosperm; herbs, usually with alt.
entire, insect-catching leaves) :

N. O. 108. Sarraceniaceae. 109. Nepenthaceae. no. Droseraceae.

Cohort 18. Rosales (fir. cyclic or rarely hemicyclic, heterochlam.
or apetalous, hypo- to epi-gynous, regular or zygomorphic ; cpls. free or
united ; boundaries of orders badly defined) :

N. O. in. Podostemaceae. 112. Hydrostachyaceae. 113.
Crassulaceae. 114. Cephalotaceae. 115. Saxifragaceae. 116. Pitto-
sporaceae. 117. Brunelliaceae. 118. Cunoniaceae. 119. Myro-
thamnaceae. 120. Bruniaceae. 121. Hamamelidaceae. 122.
Platanaceae. 123. Crossosomataceae. 124. Rosaceae. 125. Conna-
raceae. 126. Leguminosae.

Cohort 19. Gera7iiales (fir. cyclic, heterochlam. or apetalous, rarely
naked, usually 5-merous; androeceum various; G (5 — 2), rarely more,
in 1 whorl, often separated from one another again when ripe, usually
with 2 — 1 rarely 00 ovules; ovule with ventral raphe and micropyle
facing upwards, or, if > 1 ovule present, some sometimes with dorsal
raphe and micropyle facing downwards):

A. Fir. heterochlam., rarely apetalous, usually regular; sta. gene-
rally obdiplostemonous, rarely haplostemonous ; in the zygomorphic
flowers single sta. often aborted ; anthers opening by longitudinal slits ;
G iso- or oligo-merous.

A. No secretory cells or passages present.

N. O. 127. Geraniaceae. 128. Oxalidaceae. 129. Tropaeolaceae.
130. Linaceae. 13 1. Humiriaceae. 132. Erythroxylaceae. 133.
Zygophyllaceae.

B. As A, but secretory cells, cavities, or passages present; in order
136 only sometimes in pith and cortex.

N. O. 134. Cneoraceae. 135. Rutaceae. 136. Simarubaceae.
137. Burseraceae. 138. Meliaceae.

B. As A , but firs., at least in gynoeceum, obliquely zygomorphic;
leaves often opposite.

N. O. 139. Malpighiaceae. 140. Trigoniaceae. 14 1. Vochysiaceae.

C. Fir. regular or zygomorphic with 2 whorls of sta. ; anthers
opening by pores; cpls. (2), median:

N. O. 142. Tremandraceae. 143. Polygalaceae.

D. Fir. regular or zygomorphic with 1 whorl of sta. ; petals free or
united ; seed sometimes with caruncle.

N. O. 144. Chailletiaceae (Dichapetalaceae).

E. Fir. regular, unisexual, often much reduced; cpls. usually (3),
each with 2 — 1 ovules with 2 integuments.

N. O. 145. Euphorbiaceae.

Order of doubtful position.

N. O. 146. Callitrichaceae.

ENGLERS SYSTEM

129

Cohort 20. Sapindales (as 19, but ovules in the reverse position,
either pendulous with dorsal raphe and micropyle facing upwards, or
ascending with ventral raphe and micropyle facing downwards):

A. Fir. haplochlam; ovule with 2 integuments.

N. O. 147. Buxaceae.

B. Fir. heterochlam. ; cpls. each with 1 ascending ovule, united till
ripe, with 1 integument. Shrubs.

N. O. 148. Empetraceae.

C. Fir. heterochlam. ; cpls. each with 1 hanging ovule, with 2
integuments, finally separate. Shrubs.

N. O. 149. Coriariaceae.

D. Fir. heterochlam. ; cpls. each with 1 ascending ovule with
1 integument, finally separate. Herbs.

N. O. 150. Limnanthaceae.

E. Fir. heterochlam., sometimes apetalous, always regular; gynoe-
ceum rarely isomerous, tending to oligoinery; shrubs or trees, with
resin.

N. O. 15 1. Anacardiaceae.

E. Fir. heterochlam., regular, with 2 or 1 whorls of sta., G rarely
isomerous, tending to oligomery.

N. O. 152. Cyrillaceae. 153. Pentaphylacaceae. 154. Cory-
nocarpaceae. 155. Aquifoliaceae. 156. Celastraceae. 157. Hippo-
crateaceae. 158. Stackhousiaceae. 159. Staphyleaceae.

G. Firs, heterochlam., regular, haplostemonous, G usually reduced
to 1 fertile cpl. Ovule with 1 integument. Fruit 1 seeded.

N. O. 160. Icacinaceae.

H. Fir. heterochlam., typically diplostemonous, but with abortion
of some sta. or cpls., regular or obliquely zygomorphic ; 2 integuments.

N. O. 161. Aceraceae. 162. Hippocastanaceae. 163. Sapindaceae.

/. Fir. heterochlam., sta. opp. petals.

N. O. 164. Sabiaceae.

J. Fir. heterochlam., regular, haplostemonous, rarely diplostemo-
nous, with free anthers.

N. O. 165. Melianthaceae.

K. As last but with united anthers.

N. O. 166. Balsaminaceae.

Cohort 21. Rhamnales (fir. cyclic, diplochlam., sometimes apetalous,
haplostemonous with sta. opp. to petals, regular; cpls. (5 — 2) each with
1 — 2 ascending ovules with dorsal, lateral, or ventral raphe);

N. O. 167. Rhamnaceae. 168. Vitaceae.

Cohort 22. Malvales (fir. cyclic, but not always in sta., heterochlam.,
rarely apetalous, $ or rarely unisexual, usually regular; K and C usually
5-merous; K usually valvate; sta. 00 or in 2 whorls with the inner
divided ; cpls. (2 — 00 ) each with 1 — 00 anatropous ovules) :

A. Sepals ± free; anthers dithecous, with pores; mucilage tubes
wanting.

N. O. 169. Elaeocarpaceae.

B. Sepals free, overlapping; sta. enclosed in a cup; anthers
dithecous with slits; mucilage tubes often present.

N. O. 170. Chlaenaceae.

W.

9

1 3o ENGLER'S SYSTEM

C. Sepals free, seldom overlapping, usually valvate; mucilage
tubes present.

N. O. 171. Gonystilaceae. 172. Tiliaceae. 173. Malvaceae.
174. Bombacaceae. 175. Sterculiaceae.

D. Sepals united into a dish-like calyx.

N. O. 176. Scytopetalaceae.

Cohort 23. Parietales (Hr. cyclic or hemicyclic with often 00 sta. and
cpls., heterochlam., rarely apetalous, hypo- to epi-gynous; cpls. ± united,
often with parietal placentae) :

A. Gynoeceum free on convex or flat axis. Endosperm with oil
and proteid bodies.

N. O. 177. Dilleniaceae. 178. Eucryphiaceae. 179. Ochnaceae.
180. Caryocaraceae. 181. Marcgraviaceae. 182. Quiinaceae. 183.
Theaceae. 184. Guttiferae. 185. Dipterocarpaceae.

B. Gynoeceum free on flat axis ; endosperm starchy or none ; petals
free; sta. in whorls, or if 00 in bundles.

N. O. 186. Elatinaceae. 187. Frankeniaceae. 188. Tamaricaceae.

C. Gynoeceum free on flat axis; endosperm oily; petals united.

N. O. 189. Fouquieraceae.

D. Gynoeceum free on flat or convex axis; endosperm starchy;
petals free; sta. 00 not in bundles.

N. O. 190. Cistaceae. 191. Bixaceae.

E. As last but endosperm oily.

N. O. 192. Cochlospermaceae. 193. Koeberliniaceae.

F. Gynoeceum free on convex or in tubular axis, rarely united
laterally; endosperm rich, containing oil and proteid grains.

N. O. 194. Canellaceae. 195. Violaceae. 196. Flacourtiaceae.
197. Stachyuraceae. 198. Turneraceae. 199. Malesherbiaceae.
200. Passifloraceae. 201. Achariaceae.

G. Gynoeceum free in tubular or bell-shaped axis; endosperm with
oil and proteid grains ; richly branched milk-tube system in all parts.

N. O. 202. Caricaceae.

H. Gynoeceum sunk in axis and united with it; endosperm with
oil and proteid grains, or none.

N. O. 203. Loasaceae.

7. Gynoeceum sunk in axis and united with it; endosperm very
sparing, with oil and proteid grains; firs, in racemes.

N. O. 204. Datiscaceae.

J . As last, but no endosperm ; firs, in dichasia or wickels.

N. O. 205. Begoniaceae.

K. Gynoeceum sunk in the axis and united with it, i-loc. with 1
basal ovule; endosperm ruminate, starchy.

N. O. 206. Ancistrocladaceae.

Cohort 24. Opuntiales (flr. hemicyclic, heterochlam., with 00 spiral
K, C, A, on tubular axis, and 4 — 00 cpls. forming an inferior ovary) :

N. O. 207. Cactaceae.

Cohort 25. Myrtijiorae (flr. cyclic, heterochlam., rarely apetalous,
haplo- or diplo-stemonous, usually regular; axis tubular; G (2 — 00)
rarely free, usually united to axis; herbs and woody plants with
alternate or more often opposite or whorled leaves);

ENGLER'S SYSTEM

131

A. Firs, with cup-shaped tubular axis, at least in $ and ? firs, and
2 — 4 cpls. united to a free gynoeceum, regular; mostly woody plants.

N. O. 208. Geissolomataceae. 209. Penaeaceae. 210. Olinia-
ceae. 21 1. Thymelaeaceae. 212. Elaeagnaceae.

B. Firs, with tubular axis and 2 — 00 cpls. united to a gynoeceum
rarely free, but united to axis; ovule with 2 integuments; herbs or
shrubs.

N. O. 213. Lythraceae. 214. Sonneratiaceae. 214. Punicaceae.
215. Lecythidaceae. 216. Rhizophoraceae. 217. Combretaceae.
218. Myrtaceae. 219. Melastomaceae. 220. Oenotheraceae.

C. Fir. ahvays epigynous; cpl. with 1 ovule, with 1 integument.

N. O. 221. Halorrhagidaceae.

D. Fir. epigynous with 1 sta. ; cpl. 1 with 1 ovule and 1 integument.
Root parasites.

N. O. 222. Cynomoriaceae.

Cohort 26. Umbellijlorae (fir. cyclic, heterochlam., usually haploste-
monous, epigynous, 5 — 4- rarely oo-merous, usually $, regular; cpls.
(5 — 1) or (00), each with 1 or rarely 2 pendulous anatropous ovules,
with 1 integument; rich endosperm; firs, usually in umbels):

N. O. 223. Araliaceae. 224. Umbelliferae. 225. Cornaceae.

SERIES II. SYMPETALAE. Perianth in higher stage of
development, always originally in 2 whorls, the inner gamophyllous
(in a few’’ cases polyphyllous or absent, though normal in closely
related forms).

A. Polypetalous corollas, as well as sympetalous, occur, 2 whorls
of sta. or one. Hypogyny the rule, rarely epigyny.

Cohort 1. Ericales (fir. 5 — 4-merous, obdiplostemonous, or the sta.
before the petals absent, $, usually regular; C or (C); sta. hypo- or
epi-gynous, rarely united to C at base; cpls. (2 — 00) when isomerous
usually opposite to petals; ovary superior to inferior):

N. O. 226. Clethraceae. 227. Pirolaceae. 228. Lennoaceae.
229. Ericaceae. 230. Epacridaceae.

Cohort 2. Primulales (fir. 5- or rarely 4 — 00 -merous, typically
diplostemonous, but usually haplostemonous with sta. opposite to petals
and epipetalous, $ or unisexual, usually regular; petals rarely free,
ovary superior to inferior, i-loc. with co — 1 ovules on basal or
free-central placenta) :

N. O. 231. Theophrastaceae. 232. Myrsinaceae. 233. Pri-
mulaceae. 234. Plumbaginaceae.

B . Sympetaly only; but no. of sta. sometimes very large; usually
3 or 2 w'horls, sometimes only 1. Hypogyny the rule.

Cohort 3. Ebenales (fir. diplo- or triplo-stemonous, or haploste-
monous by abortion, rarely with 00 sta.; petals united; ovary multi-loc.
with axile placentae, and 1 or fewr ovules in each loc.) :

N. O. 235. Sapotaceae. 236. Ebenaceae. 237. Symplocaceae.
238. Styracaceae.

C. Sympetaly the rule, occasionally polypetaly or even apetaly;
always only 1 whorl of sta.; union of carpels sometimes small;
hypogyny the rule.

9—2

132

ENGLERS SYSTEM

Cohort 4. Contortae (fir. usually 5-, rarely 2 — 6-merous, usually
sympetalous; sta. usually as many as petals, sometimes fewer, rarely
hypogynous, usually united at base to corolla; cpls. (2); corolla usually
convolute, sometimes valvate; leaves usually opposite, undivided and
exstipulate) :

N. O. 239. Oleaceae. 240. Salvadoraceae. 241. Loganiaceae.
242. Gentianaceae. 243. Apocynaceae. 244. Asclepiadaceae.

Cohort 5. Tubiflorae (fir. typically with 4 isomerous whorls, or
more often with reduction in gynoeceum, or if zygomorphic also in
androeceum; sta. epipetalous; ovule with 1 integument):

A. Firs, usually regular; cpls. with few or 2 seeds with micropyle
directed downwards; fruit seldom splitting into 4 nutlets; leaves
usually alternate.

N. O. 245. Convolvulaceae. 246. Polemoniaceae.

B . As last, but micropyle directed upwards. Capsule or drupe, or
splitting into nutlets.

N. O. 247. Hydrophyllaceae. 248. Boraginaceae.

C. Firs, usually zygomorphic; cpls. usually with 2, rarely 1 ovule;
leaves usually opposite or in whorls; drupe, or drupe- or nut-like
mericarps.

N. O. 249. Verbenaceae. 250. Labiatae.

D. Fir. regular or more often zygomorphic, typically 5-merous;
sta. 5, 4 or 2; cpls. rarely (5), usually (2), with mostly 00, rarely 2 — 1
ovules; fruit usually a capsule, sometimes berry or drupe; capsule
loculicidal only nearly to the base) :

N. O. 251. Nolanaceae. 252. Solanaceae. 253. Scrophu-

lariaceae. 254. Bignoniaceae. 255. Pedaliaceae. 256. Martyni-

aceae. 257. Orobanchaceae. 258. Gesneraceae. 259. Columelli-
aceae. 260. Lentibulariaceae. 261. Globulariaceae.

E. Firs, usually zygomorphic, typically 5-merous; sta. 4 or 2;
cpls. (2) with usually co seeds; capsule loculicidal to very base:

N. O. 262. Acanthaceae.

F. Fir. 5-merous, regular or zygomorphic; cpls. (2), each with
2 — 4 — 8 ovules, or (2 — 00 ), each with 1 pendulous ovule with micropyle
facing upwards; drupe, with chambered endocarp or 2 — 00 stones.

N. O. 263. Myoporaceae.

G. Fir. zygomorphic; 1 cpl. with 1 orthotropous ovule directed
upwards.

N. O. 264. Phrymaceae.

Cohort 6. Plantaginales (flr. 4-merous, isomerous except in cpls.,
£ or unisexual, regular; leaves alternate; mostly herbs).

N. O. 265. Plantaginaceae.

D. Sympetaly : epigyny the rule.

A. Sta. free.

Cohort 7. Rubiales (fir. typically 5 — 4-merous with isomerous or
oligomerous sta. and cpls., regular or zygomorphic or irregular; G
multi-loc. or i-loc. with 00 — 1 anatropous ovules in each loc.; leaves
usually opposite).

N. O. 2 66. Rubiaceae. 267. Caprifoliaceae. 268. Adoxaceae.
269. Valerianaceae. 270. Dipsacaceae.

BENTHAM AND HOOKERS SYSTEM 133

B. Sta. close together or partly united.

Cohort 8. Campanulatae (fir. typically 5-merous, with isomerous
sta. and usually oligomerous cpls.; anthers close together and often
more or less united; G multi-loc. with 00 — 1 ovules, or i-loc. with
1 ovule.

N. O. 271. Cucurbitaceae. 272. Campanulaceae. 273. Goodenia-
ceae. 274. Candolleaceae. 275. Calyceraceae. 276. Compositae.

SYSTEM OF BENTHAM AND HOOKER,

1862 — 93.

PHANEROGAMAE.

I. Dicotyledones (as above).

I. Polypetalae (fir. usually with two whorls of perianth, the inner
polyphyllous : exceptions as in Engler’s system) :

SERIES /. THALAMIFLORAE. Sepals usually distinct and
separate, free from ovary; petals 1-, 2- to 00 -seriate, hypogynous; sta.
hypogynous, rarely inserted on a short or long torus or on a disc ; ovary
superior.

Cohort 1. Ranales (sta. rarely definite ; cpls. free or immersed in
torus, very rarely united ; micropyle usually inferior ; embryo minute in
fleshy albumen) :

N. O. 1. Ranunculaceae. 2. Dilleniaceae. 3. Calycanthaceae.
4. Magnoliaceae. 5. Anonaceae. 6. Menispermaceae. 7. Berbe-
rideae. 8. Nymphaeaceae.

Cohort 2. Parietales (sta. definite or 00 ; cpls. united into a i-loc.
ovary with parietal placentae, rarely spuriously 2- or more-loc. by pro-
longation of placentae) :

N. O. 9. Sarraceniaceae. 10. Papaveraceae. 11. Cruciferae. 12.
Capparideae. 13. Resedaceae. 14. Cistineae. 15. Violarieae. 16.
Canellaceae. 17. Bixineae.

Cohort 3. Polygalinae (K and C 5, rarely 4 or 3; sta. as many or
twice as many as petals; ovary 2-, rarely 1- or more-loc.; endosperm
fleshy, rarely absent; herbs or shrubs with exstip. leaves) :

N. O. 18. Pittosporeae. 19. Tremandreae. 20. Polygaleae. 21.
Vochysiaceae.

Cohort 4. Cciryophyllinae (flr. regular ; K 2 — 5, rarely 6 ; petals
usually as many; sta. as many or twice as many, rarely more or fewer;
ovary i-loc. or imperfectly 2 — 5-loc. ; placenta free-central, rarely
parietal; embryo usually curved in floury albumen) :

N.O. 22. Frankeniaceae. 23. Caryophylleae. 24. Portulaceae.
25. Tamariscineae.

Cohort 5. Giittiferales (flr. regular; K and C usually 4 — 5, imbri-
cate; sta. usually 00 ; ovary 3 — 00 -loc., rarely 2-loc. or of 1 cpl. ; pla-
centae on inner angles of loculi) :

N. O. 26. Elatineae. 27. Hypericineae. 28. Guttiferae. 29.
Ternstrcemiaceae. 30. Dipterocarpeae. 31. Chlaenaceae.

134 BE NTH AM AND HOOKE NS SYSTEM.

Cohort 6. Malvales (fir. rarely irregular; K 5, rarely 2 — 4, free or
united, valvate or imbricate; petals as many or o; sta. usually 00,
monadelphous; ovary 3 — 00 -loc., rarely of 1 cpl. ; ovules in inner angles
of loculi) :

N.O. 32. Malvaceae. 33. Sterculiaceae. 34. Tiliaceae.

SERIES II. DISCIFLORAE. Sepals distinct or united, free
or adnate to ovary ; disc usually conspicuous as a ring or cushion, or
spread over the base of the calyx -tube, or confluent with the base of
the ovary, or broken up into glands; sta. usually definite, inserted upon
or at the outer or inner base of the disc ; ovary superior.

Cohort 7. Gera7iiales (firs, often irregular; disc usually annular,
adnate to the sta. or reduced to glands, rarely o ; ovary of several cpls. ,
syncarpous or sub-apocarpous; ovules 1 — 2, rarely 00, ascending or
pendulous ; raphe usually ventral) :

N. O. 35. Lineae. 36. Humiriaceae. 37. Malpighiaceae. 38.
Zygophylleae. 39. Geraniaceae. 40. Rutaceae. 41. Simarubeae. 42.
Ochnaceae. 43. Burseraceae. 44. Meliaceae. 45. Chailletiaceae.

Cohoi't 8. Olacales (flr. regular, $ or unisexual ; calyx small ; disc
free, cupular or annular, rarely glandular or o; ovary entire, 1 — 00 -loc. ;
ovules 1 — 3 in each loc., pendulous; raphe dorsal, integuments con-
fluent with the nucellus; endosperm usually copious, fleshy; embryo
small; shrubs or trees; leaves alt., simple, exstip.) :

N. O. 46. Olacineae. 47. Ilicineae. 48. Cyrilleae.

Cohort 9. Celastrales (flr. regular, $ ; corolla hypo- or peri-gynous;
disc tumid, adnate to base of calyx-tube or lining it ; sta. = petals or
fewer, rarely twice as many, perigynous or inserted outside the disc or
on its edge; ovary usually entire; ovules 1 — 2 in each loc., erect with
ventral raphe; leaves simple, except in order 52):

N.O. 49. Celastrineae. 50. Stackhousieae. 51. Rhamneae. 52.
Ampelideae.

Cohort 10. Sapindales (flr. often irregular and unisexual; disc
tumid, adnate to base of calyx or lining its tube; sta. perigynous or
inserted upon the disc or between it and the ovary, usually definite ;
ovary entire, lobed or apocarpous; ovules 1 — 2 in each loc. usually
ascending with a ventral raphe, or reversed, or pendulous from a basal
funicle, rarely 00 horizontal ; seed usually exalbuminous ; embryo often
curved or crumpled ; shrubs or trees, leaves usually compound) :

N. O. 53. Sapindaceae. 54. Sabiaceae. 55. Anacardiaceae.

A nomalous orders or rather genera :

N.O. 56. Coriarieae. 57. Moringeae.

SERIES III. CALYCIFLORAE . Sepals united, rarely free,
often adnate to ovary; petals 1 -seriate, peri- or epi-gynous; disc adnate
to base of calyx, rarely tumid or raised into a torus or gynophore; sta.
perigynous, usually inserted on or beneath the outer margin of the disc :
ovary often inferior.

Cohort 1 1. Rosales (flr. usually $ , regular or irregular; cpls. 1 or
more, usually quite free in bud, sometimes variously united afterwards
with the calyx-tube or enclosed in the swollen top of the peduncle;
styles usually distinct) :

N.O. 58. Connaraceae. 59. Leguminosae. 60. Rosaceae. 61.

BENTHAM AND HOOKER'S SYSTEM. 135

Saxifrageae. 62. Crassulaceae. 63. Droseraceae. 64. Hamamelideae.
65. Bruniaceae. 66. Halorageae.

Cohort 12. Myrtales (fir. regular or sub-regular, usually $ ; ovary
syncarpous, usually inferior; style undivided, or very rarely styles free;
placentae axile or apical, rarely basal; leaves simple, usually quite
entire, rarely 3-foliolate in order 68):

N.O. 67. Rhizophoraceae. 68. Combretaceae. 69. Myrtaceae.
70. Melastomaceae. 71. Lythrarieae. 72. Onagrarieae.

Cohort 13. Passijiorales (fir. usually regular, 5 or unisexual; ovary
usually inferior, syncarpous, i-loc. with parietal placentae, sometimes
3- or more-loc. by the produced placentae; styles free or connate):

N.O. 73. Samydaceae. 74. Loaseae. 75. Turneraceae. 76.
Passifloreae. 77. Cucurbitaceae. 78. Begoniaceae. 79. Datisceae.

Cohort 14. Ficoicia les (flr. regular or sub-regular ; ovary syncarpous,
inferior to superior, i-loc. with parietal, or 2 — 00 -loc. with axile or
basal placentae ; embryo curved, with endosperm, or cyclical, or oblique
with no endosperm) :

N.O. 80. Cacteae. 81. Ficoideae.

Cohort 15. U7nbellales (fir. regular, usually g ; sta. usually definite;
ovary inferior, 1 — 2 — 00 -loc.; ovules solitary, pendulous in each loc.
from its apex; styles free or united at base; seeds with endosperm;
embryo usually minute) :

N.O. 82. Umbelliferae. 83. Araliaceae. 84. Cornaceae.

II. Gamopetalae (fir. usually with two whorls of perianth, the inner
gamophyllous ; exceptions as in Engler’s system) :

SERIES I. INFERAE. Ovary inferior; sta. usually as many
as corolla- lobes.

Cohort 1. Rubiciles (fir. regular or irregular; sta. epipetalous; ovary
2 — 00 -loc., with 1 — 00 ovules in each loc.):

N.O. 85. Caprifoliaceae. 86. Rubiaceae.

Cohort 2. Asterales (fir. regular or irregular; sta. epipetalous; ovary
i-loc., i-ovuled, sometimes >i-loc. but with only 1 ovule):

N. O. 87. Valerianeae. 88. Dipsaceae. 89. Calycereae. 90. Com-
positae.

Cohort 3. Campanales (fir. usually irregular; sta. usually epigynous;
ovary 2 — 6-loc., with usually 00 ovules in each loc.) :

N.O. 91. Stylidieae. 92. Goodenovieae. 93. Campanulaceae.

SERIES II. HETEROMERAE . Ovary usually superior; sta.
epipetalous or free from corolla, opposite or alternate to its segments, or
twice as many, or 00 ; cpls. > 2.

Cohort 4. Ericales (fir. usually regular and hypogynous; sta. as
many or twice as many as petals; ovary 1 — 00 -loc. with 1 — 00 ovules in
each loc. ; seeds minute) :

N.O. 94. Ericaceae. 95. Vaccinieae. 96. Monotropeae. 97.
Epacrideae. 98. Diapensiaceae. 99. Lennoaceae.

Cohort 5. Primulales (corolla usually regular and hypogynous, sta.
usually = and opposite to corolla-lobes; ovary i-loc. with free-central or
basal placenta and 1 — 00 ovules) :

N.O. 100. Plumbagineae. 101. Primulaceae. 102. Myrsineae.

Cohort 6. Ebenales (corolla usually hypogynous; sta. usually more

136 BENTHAM AND HOOKERS SYSTEM.

than corolla-lobes, or if as many, then opposite to them, except in 103,
often co ; ovary 2 — oo-loc. ; ovules usually few; trees or shrubs) :

N.O. 103. Sapotaceae. 104. Ebenaceae. 105. Styraceae.

SERIES III. BICARPELLATAE. Ovary usually superior;
sta. as many as or fewer than corolla-lobes, alternate to them; cpls. 2,
rarely 1 or 3.

Cohort 7. Gentianales (corolla regular, hypogynous; sta. epipetalous ;
leaves generally opposite) :

N.O. 106. Oleaceae. 107. Salvadoraceae. 108. Apocynaceae.
109. Asclepiadaceae. no. Loganiaceae. hi. Gentianaceae.

Cohort 8. Polemoniales (corolla regular, hypogynous; sta. = corolla-
lobes, epipetalous; ovary 1 — 5-loc. ; leaves generally alternate):

N.O. 1 12. Polemoniaceae. 113. Hydrophyllaceae. 114. Boragi-
neae. 115. Convolvulaceae. 116. Solanaceae.

Cohort 9. Personates (fir. usually very irregular ; corolla hypogynous,
often 2-lipped; sta. generally fewer than corolla-lobes, usually 4, didyna-
mous, or 2; ovary 1 — 2- or rarely 4-loc. ; ovules usually co):

N.O. 1 1 7. Scrophularineae. 118. Orobanchaceae. 119. Lenti-
buiarieae. 120. Columelliaceae. 121. Gesneraceae. 122. Bignoniaceae.
123. Pedalineae. 124. Acanthaceae.

Cohort 10. Laitiiales (corolla usually 2 -lipped, hypogynous, rarely
regular; sta. as in preceding; ovary 2 — 4-loc. ; ovules solitary in loc., or
rarely > 1 in orders 125 and 127 ; fruit a drupe or nutlets) :

N.O. 125. Myoporineae. 126. Selagineae. 127. Verbenaceae.
128. Labiatae.

Anotnalous Order:

N.O. 129. Plantagineae.

III. Monochlamydeae or Incompletae (flr. usually with one whorl
of perianth, commonly sepaloid, or none):

SERIES I. CURVEMBRYAE . Terrestrial plants with usually
$ firs. ; sta. generally = perianth-segments; ovule usually solitary;
embryo curved in floury endosperm.

N.O. 130. Nyctagineae. 131. Illecebraceae. 132. Amarantaceae.
133. Chenopodiaceae. 134. Phytolaccaceae. 135. Batideae. 136.
Polygonaceae.

SERIES II. MULTIOVULATAE AQUATICAE. Aquatic
plants with syncarpous ovary and 00 ovules.

N.O. 137. Podostemaceae.

SERIES III. MULTIOVULATAE TERRESTRES. Terres-
trial plants with syncarpous ovary and co ovules.

N.O. 138. Nepenthaceae. 139. Cytinaceae. 140. Aristolochieae.

SERIES IV. MICREMBRYAE. Ovary syn- or apo-carpous;
ovules usually solitary; embryo very small, surrounded by endosperm.

N.O. 141. Piperaceae. 142. Chloranthaceae. 143. Myristiceae.
144. Monimiaceae.

SERIES V. DAPHNALES. Ovary usually of 1 cpl.; ovules
solitary or few ; perianth perfect, sepaloid, in 1 or 2 whorls ; sta. peri-
gynous.

N. O. 145. Laurineae. 146. Proteaceae. 147. Thymelaeaceae.
148. Penaeaceae. 149. Elaeagnaceae.

BENTHAM AND HO O KENS SYSTEM 137

SERIES VI ACHLAMYDOSPOREAE . Ovary i-loc., 1—3-
ovuled; ovules not apparent till after fertilisation; seed with endosperm,
but no testa, adnate to receptacle or pericarp.

N. O. 150. Loranthaceae. 15 1. Santalaceae. 152. Balanophoreae.

SERIES VII UNISEX U ALES. Firs, unisexual; ovary syn-
carpous or of 1 cpl. ; ovules solitary or 2 per cpl. ; endosperm or none;
perianth sepaloid or much reduced or absent.

N. O. 153. Euphorbiaceae. 154. Balanopseae. 155. Urticaceae.
156. Platanaceae. 157. Leitnerieae. 158. Juglandeae. 159. Myricaceae.
160. Casuarineae. 161. Cupuliferae.

SERIES VIII ANOAIAIOUS ORDERS . Unisexual orders
of doubtful or unknown affinities.

N. O. 162. Salicaceae. 163. Lacistemaceae. 164. Empetraceae.
165. Ceratophylleae.

II. Gymnospermae (as in Engler).

N. O. 166. Gnetaceae. 167. Coniferae. 168. Cycadeae.

III. Monocotyledones (as in Engler).

SERIES I. MICROSPERMAE, Inner perianth petaloid;
ovary inferior with 3 parietal or rarely axile placentae; seeds minute,
exalbuminous.

N. O. 169. Hydrocharideae. 170. Burmanniaceae. 171. Orchideae.

SERIES II EPIG YNAE. Perianth partly petaloid ; ovary
usually inferior; endosperm abundant.

N. O. 172. Scitamineae. 173. Bromeliaceae. 174. Haemodora-
ceae. 175. Irideae. 176. Amaryllideae. 177. Taccaceae. 178.
Dioscoreaceae.

SERIES III. CORONA RIEAE. Inner perianth petaloid;
ovary usually free, superior; endosperm abundant.

N.O. 179. Roxburghiaceae. 180. Liliaceae. 181. Pontederiaceae.
182. Philydraceae. 183. Xyrideae. 184. Mayacaceae. 185. Comme-
linaceae. 186. Rapateaceae.

SERIES IV. CALYCINAE. Perianth sepaloid, herbaceous
or membranous; ovary &c. as in III.

N. O. 187. Flagellarieae. 188. Juncaceae. 189. Palmae.

SERIES V. N UDIFIORAE. Perianth none, or represented by
hairs or scales; cpl. 1 or several syncarpous; ovary superior; ovules
1 — 00 ; endosperm usually present.

N.O. 190. Pandaneae. 191. Cyclanthaceae. 192. Typhaceae.
193. Aroideae. 194. Lemnaceae.

SERIES VI. APOCARPAE. Perianth in 1 or 2 whorls, or
none; ovary superior, apocarpous; no endosperm.

N. O. 195. Triurideae. 196. Alismaceae. 197. Naiadaceae.

SERIES VII. GLUM ACE AE. Firs, solitary, sessile in the axils
of bracts and arranged in heads or spikelets with bracts; perianth of
scales, or none ; ovary usually i-loc., i-ovuled; endosperm.

N.O. 198. Eriocauleae. 199. Centrolepideae. 200. Restiaceae.
201. Cyperaceae. 202. Gramineae.

EICHLER'S SYSTEM.

138

SYSTEM OF EICHLER {AND WARMING).

Angiospermae.

I. Monocotyledones.

Cohort 1. Helobieae=- coh. 2 of Engler.

2. Glumijlorae=- coh. 4 + order 34.

3. Spadiciflorae= coh. 1, 5, 6 and 7.

4. EnantiobZastae= orders 24 — 28 and 31.

5. LiliiJlorae= coh. 9 and orders 23, 29, 30, 32, 33.

6. Scitamineae = coh. 9.

7. Gy nandrae— coh. 10.

II. Dicotyledones.

SERIES I.
Cohort 1.

2.

3-

4-

5-
6.

7-

8.

9-

10.

11.

12.
13-
14.
15-
1 6.
17-

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.
23-
24.

CHORIPETALAE ( = Archichlamydeae).
SaliciJlorae = coh. 3 of Engler.

Querciflorae = coh. 8.

Juglandiflorae= coh. 4, 6 and 7.

Urticiflorae— coh. 9 and 1.

Polygoniflorae— coh. 2 and 13.

Curvembryae — coh. 14.

Cactiflorae = coh. 24.

Polycarpicae = coh . 15.

Rhceadinae— coh. 16 (part).

Cistiflorae — coh. 17 and parts of 16 and 23.
Gruinales = Y>a.xts of coh. 19 and 20.
Columniferae= coh. 22.

Tricoccae — parts of coh. 15 and 16.
Terebinthinae=^3xX.^ of coh. 19 and 20.
Aesculinae= parts of coh. 19 and 20.
Frangulinae= coh. 21 and part of 20.
Thymelaeinae = coh. 25 (part) and 10.
Saxifraginae=- coh. 18 (except orders 124, 126).
Rosiflorae=-QX&zx 124.

Leguminosae^ order 126.

PassiJtorinae=\)2LXt of coh. 23 and order 270.
Myrtiflorae=co\\. 25 (part).

Umbelliftorae — coh. 26.

Hysterophyta^o. oh. 11 and 12.

SERIES II.
Cohort 1.

2.

3*

4-

5-
6.

7*

8.

9-

10.

SYMPETALAE.

Bicornes=co\i. 1 of Engler.
Diospyrinae — coh. 3 .

Prim ulinae = coh. 2 .

Tubiflorae=ox&zxs 245 — 247.
Perso7iatae= part of coh. 5 and coh. 6.
Nuculiferae^ part of coh. 5.

Contortae — coh. 4.

Rubia/es= coh. 7.

Campanulinae=- part of coh. 8.
Aggregatae— orders 270, 275 and 276.

CLASSIFICA TION

*39

The two German systems agree in making only two chief
groups of Dicotyledons ; the English system makes a third
group, the Incompletae, which is decidedly artificial,
separating for instance the Chenopodiaceae, &c. far from
the Caryophyllaceae to which they are closely allied. In
general, the composition of the smaller groups of orders
is much the same in all systems. The elementary
student should not concern himself with any system until
he is well acquainted with a number of orders (see p. 5) :
he should then study the systems and try to discover why
their authors have placed such and such orders in the places
assigned to them. In this way he will gain an insight into
the principles of classification. The relationships of
many of the orders are discussed in Pt. II. When the
student is familiar with 40 or 50 orders, he will be able to
classify approximately any new order by determining its
affinities to those he already knows. The attempt to use
the system to determine the order to which a plant belongs
will only lead to difficulties unless the student is already
familiar with typical orders from many parts of it.

Identification of Natural Orders at sight. After
a time, the student will find himself becoming able in many
cases to recognise at a glance the natural order to which a
plant belongs, and after a few years’ practice, he should be
able in this way to classify most plants met with.

Thus the Ferns, Equisetaceae, Selaginellas, Cycads, Coni-
fers, Palms, most Araceae, Pandanaceae, Bromeliaceae, Musa-
ceae, Sarraceniaceae, Droseraceae, Cactaceae, Lentibularia-
ceae, &c. are recognisable by their general habit; Cannaceae,
Marantaceae, Zingiberaceae, most Polygonaceae, many Ru-
taceae, Melastomaceae, &c. by their habit taken together
with some peculiarity of the vegetative organs ; the inflores-
cence enables one to recognise Typhaceae, Piperaceae,
Salicaceae, Betulaceae, Fagaceae, Umbelliferae and their
allies, Boraginaceae and allied orders, Dipsaceae and Com-
positae ; obvious floral characters point out such families as
Gramineae, Cyperaceae, Liliaceae, Orchidaceae, Proteaceae,
Ranunculaceae, Cruciferae, Leguminosae, most Rosaceae,
Polygalaceae, Malvaceae and their allies, Melastomaceae,
Umbelliferae, Ericaceae, Primulaceae, Asclepiadaceae,
Boraginaceae, Labiatae, Rubiaceae, Compositae, &c.

CHAPTER III.

FORMS OF VEGETATION, GEOGRAPHICAL
DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS, &c.

In dealing with general morphology we have seen that
the reproductive organs are subject to modification chiefly
in accordance with the necessities of the pollination
processes. The vegetative organs on the other hand are
intimately related in their structural and other features to
the conditions of climate and habitat under which they
exist, and in comparing plants from different regions we
often find great dissimilarity of the vegetative together with
great similarity of the reproductive systems. It is with this
side of the subject that we have now to deal, considering
the vegetation of different regions and habitats both from
the morphological and physiological points of view; we shall
thus endeavour to gain an insight at the same time into the
subjects of morphology, natural history, and geographical
distribution of plants. Thus the various forms of stems
usually described together in morphological works as modi-
fied stems will be found treated here, but their structure is
dealt with in connection with their functions, so as to
emphasise the important fact that modification of the
former accompanies modification of the latter.

Geographical Distribution of Plants, or Geo-
graphical Botany1, deals with problems connected with

1 A. de Candolle, Geographie botanique raisonnee , 1855 >

J. D. Hooker, Flora of Australia (Introductory Essay to Flora of
Tasmania, in Botany of Antarctic Exp., 1859), Introductory Essay to
Flora of New Zealand , 1st Ed., 1853; Grisebach, Die Vegetation der
Erde , 1872 ; Drude, Handbuch der Pflanzengeographie, 1890 (or French
translation by Poirault), Atlas der Pflanzenverbreitung ; Warming,
Oekologische Pflanzengeographie (German by Knoblauch), Schimper,
Pflanzengeographie auf physiologiscker Grundlage, 1898; Darwin,
Origin of Species, & c. ; Koppen, Versuch einer Klassifikation d. Klunate .
Geog. Zeitschr. Leipzig, 1901.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 14 1

the distribution of plants over the surface of the globe.
The first groundwork necessarily is the preparation of
floras , i.e. accurate lists of the various species of plants
growing in the different regions to be dealt with. At the
same time the exact boundaries of the distribution of the
various species must be determined, and the same for the
genera and the natural orders. Given these preliminary
facts we may then go on to deal with such questions as the
following. Why is the flora of a given country composed of
certain species and no others ? How did these species get
into the country, from what place, and at what time ? Did
they originate in the country where they are now found, or
somewhere else, and if so where? Into what associations
are the plants of a given flora grouped, and what is the
cause of their grouping ? What is the general physiognomy
and ecology of these groups ? Why is the flora of Europe
different from that of similar areas in North America or
elsewhere? Why is any given species, genus, or family
confined to a certain area and not found elsewhere, though
the conditions of life be favourable ? Why is the area
occupied by a species (or genus or family) usually con-
tinuous, but frequently disjointed or broken up into separate
areas? Why are there so many species or genera which
occur solely in one spot, most often one island or one
mountain chain (such a species or genus is termed endemic),
and why are such areas characterised by the possession of
endemic forms ? Why do certain species occur only on the
various mountain-ranges (e.g. on the Alps, Pyrenees, and
Carpathians) and not in the intervening lowlands? Why
are some species common to Europe and New Zealand?
Such questions and many others require solution; it is
evident that to deal properly with them we require an
extended knowledge of the general ecology of the plants, as
well as of their phylogeny. At the same time, the study of
geographical botany throws light on these subjects in turn.

Distribution of Species , Genera , &c., and limita-
tion of Area . A species probably arises in a certain
limited area of the earth’s surface, and spreads from this
point by aid of the seed-dispersal methods and by veget-
ative reproduction. We can see this process of spreading
actually going on in the case of such plants as Lespedeza,

142

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Salsola, Mimosa, Gomphocarpus, Galinsoga, Elodea, which
have been introduced by man into countries where they did
not previously exist. Their rapid spread shows that in long
periods any species, however poor its dispersal mechanism,
might cover a large part of the earth, if no other cause
prevented this result. How far the species spreads will
evidently depend upon its general ecology ; it may be
admirably adapted to the circumstances of its original
environment, but when its dispersal mechanisms carry it
into different climatic circumstances, or different associations
of competing plants, it may be unable to hold its own. If
very adaptable or very well equipped it may continue to
spread, diverging into new species or varieties as it goes, till
the genus thus formed may cover an immense area. The
causes which limit the area occupied by a species are many.
They may be divided into the geographical agents, those
which vary with locality, e.g. light, heat and moisture, the
topographical agents, e.g . mountains, rivers, seas, the consti-
tution of the soil, &c., the biological agents, e.g. the distribu-
tion of insects and other animals, the mutual competition of
organisms, the dependence of one organism upon another,
and so on. Last but not least, account has to be taken of
the conclusions of geology with regard to alterations in the
configuration and climate of the earth’s surface, for most of
our existing species are descended from forms that existed
under different environments.

Light varies much in different latitudes. In the tropics
the day is always about 12 hours long, the light nearly
vertical at midday, wrhile in the arctic regions there is
long-continued darkness in winter, and almost continuous
iight in summer, falling from every side in turn as the sun
describes its daily course. The amount of assimilation
depends largely upon the amount and intensity of the light.
Plants of high latitudes go through their vegetative period
more rapidly than those of low. Many plants require
brilliant light for full success, others prefer weak light or
shade ; this difference comes out in their structure, e.g. in
the sunplants the stems are often short, light retarding
growth, the leaves often turned edgewise (p. 49), the
palisade-tissue more developed.

Heat also depends largely on the latitude, but shows

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 143

more local variation than light. Plant functions depend on
temperature (p. 35), and thus the range of temperature in a
locality becomes an important factor in determining the
species of plants inhabiting it, for some can stand high,
some low, temperatures best ; others prefer uniformity of
temperature rather than great range. Plants which contain
much water are less able to stand extreme cold than those
which contain little. High temperatures increase transpira-
tion, and plants with insufficient protection against this will
only be able to live in hot countries where there is plenty of
moisture.

Atmospheric Moisture, Rain, Snow, &c. Of the
three geographical agents in determining distribution, this
is perhaps the chief, water being of such very great import-
ance in plant life. The effects of variation in the degree of
saturation of the air are chiefly visible in the transpiration
(p. 33) ; plants transpire the more the drier the air is. A plant
must also regulate its transpiration according to the amount
of water available for absorption by the roots. Plants show
extreme structural variety corresponding to their rates of
transpiration ; those living in very dry climates often differ
extremely from those in wet (see below, Xerophytes, Shore-
plants, Epiphytes, Water-plants, &c.).

If the temperature of the air sink sufficiently, precipita-
tion of some of the vapour occurs, as clouds, mist, fog,
rain, hail, snow, dew, &c. Upon the form and amount of
this precipitation the flora of a region largely depends.
Plants living where there is long-continued mist, e.g. many
alpines, must be able to do without direct sunlight, and to
stand a saturated atmosphere. Wiesner divides plants into
ombrophiles , which can undergo without injury long-continued
rain, and ombrophobes , whose leaves soon decay or fall off
under such circumstances; the plants of the wet tropics
belong mostly to the former, those of deserts to the latter,
group. A leaf, for the proper performance of its functions,
must keep its surface dry. In wet regions adaptations for
this purpose occur ; the most frequent is the drip-tip
(Traufelspitze) or acuminate leaf-apex, a long fine point
from which water rapidly drips off. It only occurs on leaves
whose surfaces are easily wetted ; many leaves of wret climates
have polished surfaces from wffiich water at once runs off, e.g.

*44

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Ficus elastica . The most remarkable drip-tip is that of
Ficus religiosa ; others occur in Acer, Artocarpus, Begonia,
Boehmeria, Theobroma, &c. Many tropical fruits exhibit
similar apices, eg. Kigelia, Mucuna. These leaves are
generally pendulous with the point downwards, and have
usually entire margins ; they form the class of leaves
termed by Jungner rain-leaves. He proposes a second class
of dew-leaves , occurring chiefly at the boundaries of deserts
and steppes ; they slope upwards so that water flows from
them towards the stem, are obovate, and sessile or shortly
stalked. A third class is the snow-leaves (see Alpine plants,
below) l.

Wind tends to increase transpiration and in very windy
places plants occur with a certain amount of extra protect-
ion against evaporation. Wind also dries the soil and thus
tends to check absorption of water by the roots.

All these agents are more or less markedly periodic in
their action, and in nearly all plants there is a periodicity in
the life history corresponding to that of the geographical
agents. In temperate climates this is chiefly determined by
the temperature, vegetative activity ceasing in autumn to
be resumed in spring. In sub tropical climates (e.g. that of
the Mediterranean coasts, &c.) the interruption of vegetative
activity occurs in summer when the heat is great and the
drought extreme. Even in tropical climates proper, with
comparatively uniform weather, most plants show a periodi-
city in the formation of new leaves, flowers, &c. The study
of the periodic phenomena of vegetation — dates of flowering,
fruiting, &c. — is termed phaenology. The periodicity is not
merely annual but also daily, as instanced by the phenomena
of growth, &c. Removal of a plant to a region of different
climate does not at once or necessarily destroy the periodi-
city, which is hereditary and ingrained ; this is illustrated by
the way in which plants from the southern hemisphere
continue to flower in our conservatories during the winter
months of our year, corresponding to the southern summer.
At the same time the periodicity is not as a rule unalterable,
and acclimatisation of plants, or alteration of their periodi-

1 Stahl, Regenfall und Blattgestalt , Ann. Buitenz. 1893 ; Jungner,
Klima und Blatt in der Regio Alpinay Flora 1894; Wiesner in Sitzb.
k. k. Akad. Wien, 1893, 1894.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION *

*4 5

city to suit other climates, is largely practised, and with
success in many cases, especially if the change be not too
marked.

Physical Barriers. Of the topographical agents in
determining the distribution of species, the natural physical
barriers are very important, e.g. seas, oceans, deserts, moun-
tain-chains, &c. At the same time many plants are able to
pass over wide expanses of water or over ranges of moun-
tains (p. 109); these however are but few in proportion to the
whole flora, and generally the floras on opposite sides of a
great natural barrier are almost completely different. Ranges
of mountains also act as pathways of migration by reason of
the new soil frequently exposed in landslips or otherwise ;
thus species with good dispersal mechanisms may travel
along the whole range and get into new countries.

The actual elevation of the mountains has also an
important effect, for the temperature decreases with increase
of elevation, while the humidity often increases, and the air
is less dense. The steepness of slopes, and their exposure,
are also important factors, regulating drainage and exposure
to the sun ( insolation ). In Europe a southern slope is
warmer than a northern, in the tropics an eastern than a
western, because the sky is usually clearer in the morning.

Soil. The nature of the soil has a great effect upon the
composition of the flora growing upon it ( edaphic influence).
Probably the chemical composition of the soil produces
more effect than the physical. Thus we have a group of
plants which grow by preference on soils with much silica
(sand), another on chalky soils, and a third on salt soil
(halophytes, see below). The amount of water the soil is
able to retain is a factor of much importance ; so also is
the proportion of humus, for if there be very much only
true saprophytes (see below) or plants with mycorhiza are
able to do well on it. The depth of the soil and its con-
ductivity to heat, and many other factors, also take part in
the problem.

Biological Agents are those causes of limitation of
specific areas which depend upon the interaction of living
organisms with one another. Parasites can only spread
with their hosts, saprophytes only where there is plenty of
suitable humus, i.e. usually only where there are woods of

w.

10

146

SPECIFIC AREAS

certain kinds of trees ; climbers with a few exceptions can
only go where there are erect plants or other supports;
many plants depend upon insects to a greater or less extent,
and the distribution of the latter affects that of the plants
(see p. 94), and so on.

Discontinuous Distribution ; Geological Influ-
ences. A species having arisen upon any area will tend to
spread over that area, but whether it ultimately covers it all
or not will depend upon the various agents enumerated
above. Many species have an enormous range, e.g. from
Britain to Kamtschatka, others only a restricted one. A
species becomes rarer and rarer towards the limit of its area,
if this be determined by general climatic conditions, but
may be as numerous at the limit as within the area if the
limit be a natural barrier. As it spreads over a large area a
species will often give rise to new varieties or to new species,
and thus a genus will be formed, occupying a larger area
than any one of its species, but nevertheless a continuous
area. The same reasoning applies to a group of genera,
or a natural order. How then does it come about that so
many species, genera, and orders occupy disjointed areas at
the present time, e.g. the Canellaceae, Hamamelidaceae,
Styracaceae, Angelica, Bystropogon, Cedronella, Cedrus,
Chiogenes, Desmanthus, Epigaea, Eriocaulon, Neotinea,
Pachysandra, Shortia, &c. (see Part II.)? Again, how does
it happen that many species are common to the various
ranges of mountains in each temperate zone, yet do not
occur in the intervening lowlands? and how is it that certain
forms occur in temperate regions of both Europe and North
America, though the bulk of the flora is so unlike in the
two cases, and there is no possibility of an 4 accidental'
transport over such a distance ? Accidental transport may
account for a few cases in which the species-area is not very
much disjointed, but will not explain the occurrence of
many Japanese genera in atlantic America, or other such
cases. It is possible that in some cases the group or genus
under consideration is polyphyletic (p. 29), the different
phyla having arisen in different regions from species already
separated in space1. Again, as a species or family passes
its zenith and begins to dwindle, the area occupied by it will
1 Willis, Podostemaceae , Ann. Perad. I, 1902, p. 4 j.8.

SPECIFIC AREAS

M7

be quite likely to become broken into separate portions,
but this too is not an explanation of many of the cases
quoted. The results of geological science must be sum-
moned to our aid. By their help many of the problems can
be solved, and botanical geography can in its turn render
useful assistance to the geologist, by pointing out former
connecting lines, along which species were formerly con-
tinuous or were at least able to migrate. Subsidence may
break a continent up into islands, and thus a species that
formerly occupied the large area may become disconnected
and form the starting point of new species, which taken
together form a genus. Or again, elevation may unite islands
to continents and cause a mingling of floras, or may form
mountain-ranges, which act as barriers. Smaller geological
changes than these are sufficient to cause changes of the
climate, and thus of the flora, of a region.

The higher groups of plants appear to have developed
in comparatively recent times — during the Tertiary period
of the earths history. At first the climate seems to have
been warm, and subtropical forms extended even into the
northern polar regions. Gradually the climate grew colder,
and species suited to these conditions appeared in the north
and gradually followed the tropical plants southwards, ulti-
mately giving rise to our present temperate flora ; as the cold
increased, actual arctic species appeared. In the far north
the land is continuous or nearly so right round the globe,
and many arctic species are circumpolar in distribution at
the present day. The similarity of the floras of temperate
Europe and North America above-mentioned is usually
ascribed to the earlier period when these plants were cir-
cumpolar ; they were then gradually driven south and gave
rise there to new forms. Later in the Tertiary period came
the Glacial Era; the cold spread southwards, driving the
tropical plants mostly into the southern hemisphere; in
what is now the northern torrid zone a subtropical flora
probably occurred, whilst arctic species came southwards
over America and Europe to the latitude of the Pyrenees.
Afterwards, as the cold retreated, these various northern
plants were driven back again by the advance of the southern
vegetation, but besides going northwards they would also
go up the mountains as new and suitable territory became

10 — 2

148

ISLAND-FLORAS

available at higher and higher levels. This explains how so
many northern forms occur on the mountains of the tropics,
and so many arctic genera on those of Europe, and also
why there are so many species identical on the different
European and even American mountain-ranges, these being
in fact species derived from the arctic region in the glacial
period.

Island- Floras1. The flora of such an island as Great
Britain, recently detached from a continent, is much like
that of the continent ; but in true oceanic islands, such as
the Sandwich Islands, the Canaries, the Azores, St Helena,
&c., the flora is peculiar, containing a considerable propor-
tion of endemic forms; a study of these floras has led to
many important conclusions upon migration, distribution,
&c. The endemic forms are sometimes of specific rank
only, in which case it seems probable that the isolation of
the island cannot have lasted very long, or that it cannot
have been long inhabited by plants ; sometimes of generic
rank {e.g. see Bencomia, Brexia, Commidendron, Lodoicea,
&c.), and in one case ( Lac/oris fernandeziana from Juan
Fernandez) even of ordinal rank. They illustrate the
important conclusion that geographical isolation involves
the production of new forms. The most striking examples
of this are seen in such archipelagos as the Galapagos
Islands, where almost every island has its own endemic
species.

The flora of an island may be derived from many
sources ; islands detached from continents begin with a
flora like that of the continent, whilst islands formed by
volcanic agencies or coral-animals begin with no flora and
become gradually occupied by plants with dispersal-methods
capable of transporting their seeds to it. Thus in the island
of Krakatoa, which was completely denuded of vegetation
by the eruption of 1883, small algae and ferns were first to
arrive, and then coast-plants and those distributed by birds.
Besides the more modern forms, such islands as the Azores
possess many plants whose presence probably dates from far

1 Wallace, Island Life ; Hemsley, Botany of Challenger Expedition ,
vol. I, 1885 ; Schimper, Die indomalayische Strand-flora ; Treub in Ann.
Buitenz. 1, vii. Penzig in do., 2, III. on Flora of Krakatau ; Willis and
Gardiner, Botany of the Maldives , Ann. Perad. J, 1902, p. 45.

MO UNTAIN-FL OR AS

149

back in Tertiary times ; these have been able to survive on
the islands with little or no modification, whilst they have
disappeared from the continental areas. The number of
species in island-floras is usually small and the struggle for
existence among them probably less keen and complex, and
thus not merely have old forms been enabled to survive, but
the adaptation of the various plants to their environment is
not very perfect. This is shown by the way in which
introduced species from large continental areas spread over
islands at the expense of the indigenous flora. A large
number of European plants are naturalised in most oceanic
islands, and many of the native forms have become rare or
extinct, e.g. in St Helena and even in such large islands as
Australia and New Zealand.

The floras of oceanic islands generally show a large
proportionate representation of orders and genera. Woody
or subarboreal habit is common ; also the possession of
small, narrow leaves. Flowers are commonly small and
inconspicuous (see Pringlea).

Mountain- Floras1. Mountain regions may be com-
pared with islands, the higher parts differing so much in
climate &c. from the lower parts and the lowlands from
which they rise as to form isolated regions in which new
forms may be evolved. With few exceptions all the higher
mountain ranges are characterised by the possession of
numerous endemic species and genera. The mountains of
Britain, Scandinavia, Kamtschatka, &c. do not show this
character. Their flora resembles that of the arctic regions,
having been derived from it during the glacial period. In
the Pyrenees, Alps, &c., though there are many arctic forms,
there are many endemic genera and species.

We have already pointed out that mountain chains act
as highways of migration (as do railway-embankments on a
small scale). The universally American character of the
floras of the different parts of America from north to south
is probably in part to be ascribed to the long chain of the
Rocky Mountains and the Andes, which has formed a

1 Engler, Die Pfianzenformationen..,d . Alpenkette , Notizbl. k. Bot.
Gtns., Berlin, Appendix vn, 1901 ; Jaccard, Gesetze d. PJlanzen-
vertheilung in d. alpiner Region , Flora, '90, p. 349 ; and see Alpine
Plants, below.

FORMS OF VEGETATION

i5°

highway for migration. The general characters of Alpine
plants are dealt with below.

Forms of Vegetation. We shall now deal briefly
with the morphology and natural history of a number of
important for??is of vegetation. By this term we understand
groups of plants, belonging to various natural orders, but
presenting a general resemblance in their external habit,
often correlated with resemblance in the conditions of life.

According to the particular ecological character upon
which we lay most stress, we may divide plants into groups
in various ways, e.g. by differences in habit into trees, shrubs,
and herbs; by different relations to water supply into hydro-,
meso- and xero-phytes ; into erect plants, creepers, climbers,
and epiphytes, and so on.

Herbs1. According to their general habit plants may
be roughly divided into trees , shrubs , and herbs ; the last are
plants which do not possess any woody stem above ground,
but are made up of softer tissues, and usually die down to
the soil in autumn or after flowering. It is difficult to draw
the line between herbs and shrubs ; such plants as the wall-
flower, the base of whose stem is woody and persistent, may
be termed suffruticose herbs. Many herbs are of great size,
e.g. the agave, the banana (Musa), Amorphophallus, &c.
All the Thallophyta and Bryophyta are herbaceous, and most
existing Pteridophyta, though many fossil trees are known.
In the Angiosperms the majority of species are herbaceous,
and especially those of the higher orders (p. 120).

Herbs may be annual , biemiial or perennial ; in the first
case the entire life-history from germination to the ripening
of the seed is carried out in one year. Some, e.g. Stellana
7nedia , go through several generations in one year, and may
be termed ephemeral. In an annual plant there is no need
for any storage of reserves except in the seeds ; the materials
formed in the leaves are used directly in growth, flower-
formation, &c. Correlated with this is the fact that the
flowers are not as a rule very large or conspicuous (such
flowers require much material for their formation) ; most

1 Goebel, Organography of Plants ; Areschoug ( Geophile Pflanzen)
in Acta Reg. Soc. Phys., Lund 1896; Vochting ( Knollengewcichse ) in
Prings. Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. 32, 1899; Freidenfelt ( Wnrzeln krautiger
FJlanzen) in Flora, 91, 1902.

HERBS (BIENNIALS) 15 1

annuals are proletarians (p. 59). It is absolutely essential
to the continuance of the race that plenty of seed should be
set, and as a rule the flowers do not possess such mechanisms
as risk in any degree the fulfilment of this end ; most are
capable of self-fertilisation, and many are rarely if ever
crossed. Vegetative reproduction is rare.

In biennials, e.g. the carrot (Daucus), turnip, cabbage,
kohl-rabi (Brassica), beetroot (Beta), parsnip (Peucedanum),
&c., the case is different, and much storage of reserves takes
place. During the first year the plant does not as a rule
produce a tali stem or an inflorescence, but has usually a
rosette of large radical leaves. The food-materials produced
in these exceed the immediate requirements of the plant and
the balance is stored up in the root, stem, or leaves which
become thick and fleshy. The plant remains quiescent
(hibernates) during the winter. Next spring a tall stem is
produced, consisting chiefly of an inflorescence, and when
the seeds are ripe the plant dies. Practically all the food
required during the second year is derived from the reserve-
stores, which become completely exhausted. An exaggera-
tion of this feature of biennials — the storage of reserves to
be used in a single flowering — leads to the peculiar cases
of Agave and Furcraea, &c., which save up materials for
many years and use them all in one great burst of flowers at
the end.

In perennial herbs, which live for several or many years,
and usually flower each year, the vegetative period is gene-
rally interrupted at regular intervals, either by winter, or by
the dry season in hot countries; the plant then as a rule
dies down. Hence there must be a storage of reserves, to
enable the plant to recommence its growth upon the return
of spring (or the rainy season). This storage is usually
made below ground, where it is well protected, and may be
in the root, stem, or leaves. The part in which storage is
made is more or less swollen, and if it include a bud is
nearly always made to subserve the process of vegetative
reproduction (p. 112). In many cases the original plant
does not reappear in the second season, but a number of
new plants formed from it by vegetative methods appear in
its place.

152 HERBS {BULBS, CO RMS, TUBERS)

In many Liliaceae, e.g. onion or lily, and other plants, there is a
modified shoot termed a bulb. It consists of a small disc-like stem at
the base, bearing a more or less spherical mass of leaves above, these
being closely folded over one another and swollen with reserves ; the
leaves in an onion or hyacinth completely enwrap the bulb, which is
said to be tunicated , whereas in the lily they merely overlap one another
and the bulb is scaly. The outermost leaves of a tunicated bulb are
usually thin, dry, and membranous, protecting the fleshy leaves. In
the centre of the bulb the discoid stem is prolonged into the short
inflorescence-axis. Roots are developed adventitiously from the lower
side of the stem. It is evident that a bulb is simply a large bud with
fleshy leaves. When it sprouts in spring or in the rainy season, it
produces an inflorescence and some green leaves (borne on the same
axis as the flowers, or springing from the tops of the bulb-leaves) at
the expense of its reserves. After the seeding is over the leaves
continue to assimilate, and new reserve-stores are formed, but not
in the original bulb. In the axils of the leaves buds are formed,
and into these the reserves are carried, and the buds gradually enlarge
into ‘daughter-bulbs’ within the parent-bulb. Then when the latter
dies down the new bulbs remain in its place.

Another type of shoot is the corm or ‘solid bulb,* as seen in Crocus,
Cyclamen, Colchicum, Eranthis, Bowiea, Testudinaria, &c. The lower
part of the stem, at or below the level of the soil, is swollen out into a
more or less spherical shape to contain reserve materials. At the top
is the bud, which in the vegetative period forms the leafy shoot at the
expense of the reserves. In many cases new corms are formed as
branches on the old ones and the latter have usually only one year’s
activity ; the branches may be on top of the old corm (Crocus) or at
the side (Eranthis, Colchicum). In other cases (Bowiea, Hablitzia,
Testudinaria, &c.), the corm is perennial, and a new leafy shoot arises
each year from the top of it, usually in the axil of a leaf of the preceding
year. The corm is often {e.g. in Crocus) covered outside by a few
membranous leaves, so that it looks like a true bulb till cut in section.
The corm is simply a variety of the stem-tuber. The name tuber is
given to any swollen part of a plant in which reserves are stored up,
except bulbs or leaves. The tuber may be of stem or root nature. In
the former case it usually forms the termination of a special lateral
branch, which grows out horizontally and swells up at the end. Under-
ground tubers occur in potato (Solanum), artichoke (Helianthus),
Ullucus, &c. ; they betray their stem nature by their axillary origin
(p. 41), and by bearing leaves reduced to scales, in whose axils buds
(‘eyes’) are formed. These tubers subserve vegetative reproduction;
the connecting branches die away and the eyes sprout out into new
plants at the expense of the reserves. The main stem forms tubers in
the cases of corms already mentioned, and in Dioscorea, Basellaceae,
Tamus, epiphytic Orchidaceae, &c. Roots swollen into tubers occur in
Dahlia, Thladiantha, Dioscorea, Bravoa, Paeonia, Uragoga, &c. In
Orchis and other terrestrial orchids a bud forms in the axil of one
of the lowest leaves ; upon it is developed an adventitious root which
grows into a tuber with the bud at its apex ; this hibernates and grows
out next year into a new plant, and so on. In dandelion (Taraxacum),

i53

HERBS {RHIZOMES)

Monotropa, Linaria, &c., the main root is fleshy and each new annual
shoot arises at its summit, sometimes in the axil of one of the leaves of
the preceding year, sometimes as an adventitious bud.

Other plants store reserves in underground creeping stems or
rhizomes . These are usually thickened ; their leaves are reduced to
scales, being useless for assimilation purposes. In a few cases the
rhizome is monopodial (p. 42) and the leaves appear above ground, the
stem remaining below, as in Pteris, but as a rule the rhizome is
sympodial and each year’s shoot is of an L shape, its upper end
appearing above ground and producing green leaves. Rhizomes often
branch largely, and as the older parts decay the branches are set free
and thus vegetative multiplication occurs. Good examples are seen in
Iridaceae, Juncus, Musa, Dioscorea, Cyperaceae, Oxalis, Helleborus,
Sanguinaria, and many other plants. In some cases the rhizome
instead of creeping horizontally stands more or less erect and resembles
a tuber ; in such cases it is usually termed a root-stock, e.g. Aspidium
(monopodial), Primula (sympodial). All these types graduate into one
another imperceptibly.

Other shoots occur whose chief or sole function is vegetative"^
reproduction, rather than hibernation. In Gesneraceae, short rhizomes
or suckers are formed as branches which turn up at the end and form
new plants ; these ultimately become detached from the parent plant.
Creeping stems {runners or stolons) occur above ground in many plants ;
they are usually formed as axillary branches on the main stem near the
base ; they grow along the soil and take root at the nodes, and the
axillary buds at the nodes form new plants, e.g. in the strawberry
(Fragaria), Ranunculus sp., Agrostis, Agropyron sp., Epilobium sp.,
Nephrolepis, Ajuga, and others. In Glaux, Samolus, Nasturtium, & c.,
new shoots are formed and take root, but can hardly be called runners.

The short runners of Sempervivum, Agave, &c., which bend up at the
ends into new plants, are called offsets . Vegetative reproduction is also
common in the upper part of the stem, especially in the inflorescence
portion, where some or even all of the flowers are replaced by
bulbils, &c. (see p. 113).

Bud-protection (p. 41) is exhibited in many forms in
herbs. Those which have to survive a winter usually have
their buds, as we have just seen, upon underground parts,
and thus little further protection is required; this is given
by the formation of scales (modified leaves or stipules) on
the outside of the bud. Xerophytes and tropical plants,
which require protection against drought and heat, are dealt
with below.

Protection against grazing animals is obtained in many
herbs by aid of stinging hairs (Urticaceae, Loasaceae, &c.),
prickles, spines, &c., or by the presence in the tissues of
poisonous or distasteful substances. These also act as pro-

*54

SHRUBS AND TREES

tection against snails, caterpillars, &C.1 Glandular hairs
also probably act as protections of this nature.

Shrubs and Trees2 are perennial plants with woody
stems above ground, and do not entirely die down during
the period when vegetation is interrupted. Shrubs are
described as woody plants of not more than about 30 feet
high, and much branched down to the level of the ground,
whereas trees have usually one stem at the base which
branches out above, and generally grow to more than 30 feet
in height. A sharp demarcation cannot be made, all kinds
of intermediate forms existing. Similarly between shrubs
and herbs there occur intermediate forms ; low-growing
shrubby plants like heather (Calluna) are termed under -
shrubs , and below these are suffruticose herbs (above).

A large proportion of the earth is covered with trees and
shrubs ; in the colder parts of the north temperate zone
these are mostly Conifers, elsewhere Angiosperms, or some-
times Ferns. Forests grow best where there is plenty of
moisture, as in the tropical monsoon region, the Amazon
valley, and the lower slopes of mountains.

The majority of trees and shrubs are evergreen , retaining
their foliage throughout the year; others are deciduous ,
dropping their leaves in autumn or at the beginning of
the dry season. In temperate climates the evergreens are
chiefly Conifers, and the other woody plants are deciduous.
The former are of monopodial growth, and when growing
apart from other trees are of more or less conical shape,
with branches from top to bottom ; in forests the lower
shaded branches die and fall away and the tree spreads
out at the top only. The deciduous trees usually show
a more rounded shape when growing separately ( e.g . elm
or oak), and they do not generally show a single straight
main stem reaching right to the top ( excurrent ) as in pines,
but their stems are more or less broken up into branches
( deliquescent ) at some height from the ground. Most of

1 Stahl, Pflanzen und Schnecken , Jena, 1889.

2 Areschong, Beitr . z. Biol . d. Holzgewachse , Lund, 1877; Goebel,
Organography of Plants ; Potter [Bud-protection) in Linn. Soc.J. , 1888;
Keeble [Hanging Foliage) in Ann. Bot., 1895 ; Stahl ( Regenfall u.
Blattgestalt) in Ann. Buitenz., 1893; Groom ( Bud-protection ) in Linn.
Soc. Trans., 1893, &c. ; and see below.

SHRUBS AND TREES

*55

them are of sympodial growth. In tropical regions most
trees are evei'green. Two chief types occur, those writh
branched stems and those with columnar usually unbranched
stems. The former branch in the ordinary way, but their
branches very often grow almost erect and parallel, instead
of spreading out in all directions, and the leaves are borne
in rosettes, or tufts at the ends of the twigs. The latter are
best illustrated by the Palms, many Araliaceae, Cycads, &c.,
with an erect trunk bearing a rosette of large leaves. Both
forms are excellently suited to growth in forests, their leaves
thus being all exposed to light at the top of the tree. In
the dry climates of the sub-tropical regions, many deciduous
trees and shrubs are found, the leaves falling at the beginning
of the dry period.

The woody plants of temperate climates form winter-
buds (often even when evergreen, as seen in Rhododendron,
&c.) at the ends of their branches in autumn ; these contain
all or part of the next year’s growth in a more or less
developed condition. The bud is exposed to evaporation,
cold, wet, and other dangers, but is protected in most cases
by scales ; these are sometimes modified leaves, as in Acer,
Aesculus, &c., sometimes the stipules of the outer leaves,
as in Magnolia, Bucklandia, &c. ; in some cases the scales
are hairy, in others glandular or resinous, so that they
form an efficient protection. In Juglandaceae, Viburnum,
Sophora, &c. the winter-buds are not protected by scales,
but their leaves themselves are more or less hairy or other-
wise protected. Many winter-buds are able to absorb
water from rain, and this helps them to recover their losses
by evaporation at a period when the roots are not active.

In spring the winter-buds elongate, casting off their
scales ; the large buds of horse-chestnuts, pines, and other
plants grow rapidly to their full elongation and then
stop, so that the growth is definite , while in Rosa, Salix,
Gleditschia and many other plants the growth continues
till checked by the cold (i.e. is indefinite ), the terminal part
of the shoot dying and the new growth in spring starting
from a lateral bud. In lilac (Syringa) and other plants the
terminal bud regularly aborts and growth starts from the
laterals in the succeeding year. The lateral buds in Robinia,
Platanus, &c. are protected in summer by the bases of the

156

SHI? UBS AMD TREES

leaf-stalks. Flower-buds also are often laid down in autumn,
as seen in Prunus or Rhododendron.

The same principles apply to the resting-bud formation
in desert plants, &c. The reserves necessary for the re-
starting of growth are usually stored in the living cells of
the stem.

The winter-buds of most trees and shrubs have cha-
racteristic sizes, shapes, colours, &c. ; tables have been
constructed for the determination of their genus and species
from these characters1.

The fall of the leaves is usually effected by the formation
of an absciss layer at the base of the stalk, cutting off the
leaf-tissues from those of the stem by a development of
cork (bark). This splits down the middle and leaves one
half upon the stem, where it forms the leaf-scar covering
the wound. Leaves thus cut off are termed articulate;
those not thus cut off are non-art iculate, as in the oak,
whose leaves remain hanging upon the twigs most of the
winter. The formation of the absciss layer is a definite
vital phenomenon ; broken branches, being deprived of
their water supply and thus killed, do not form absciss
layers.

Whilst in herbaceous plants all or most of the branch
buds usually develope at once, this is not the case in trees.
A number of the buds remain dormant and start into
growth if the others be injured. Adventitious buds are
often formed on the stems of trees and give rise to the
leafy twigs seen on the trunks of elms, &c., and to the
flowers borne on the trunks of many tropical trees, e.g.
Ficus, Theobroma, Averrhoa. The witches' brooms so often
seen in birch and other trees — bird’s-nest-like bunches of
twigs — are due to adventitious branching stimulated by the
growth of a parasitic fungus (Aecidium) in the stem. Simi-
larly the crown of branches of a pollard ash or willow arises
from adventitious buds formed at the cut surfaces. At a
wounded surface the cambium or formative tissue gives rise
to a mass of callus , new cellular tissue covering the wound,
and in this buds may develope.

1 Pliiss, Unsere Bawne nnd Straucher , Freiburg, 1894; Schneider,
Dendrologische Winter studien, Jena, 1903; Walser, Der Baum im
Winter , Bern, 1894; Foerste in Bot. Gazette, 1892.

SHRUBS AND TREES

*57

The evergreen trees and shrubs of the damper tropical
regions do not form true resting-buds but vegetate all the
year round, though commonly exhibiting a regular periodicity
in the unfolding of new leaves, flowers, &c. The buds of
young leaves require more or less protection from radiation
and the accompanying dangers of too rapid evaporation or
decomposition of the chlorophyll. A very frequent pro-
tective feature noticed in tropical plants is the red colour
of the young leaves, well seen in Cinnamomum, Haema-
toxylon, &c. ; as the leaves get to their full size the chloro-
phyll developes. The young leaves commonly hang down-
wards, so that they receive less radiation, and straighten up
as they become mature, eg. in Bauhinia, Dryobalanops,
Cinnamomum and many others ; this may also be seen
in Aesculus and other temperate plants. In Brownea,
Amherstia, &c., the whole young shoot droops. In Arto-
carpus, Dipterocarpus, Ficus, &c., the stipules protect the
bud; in Manihot the petioles of the young leaves curve
upwards and inwards over the bud ; in Tabernaemontana
the bud is protected by the bases of the older leaves, which
secrete a resinous substance, and so on.

Many trees flower only at intervals, when they have
saved enough reserve-materials to supply the flowers and
seeds ( cf Agave, above). The beech is an example among
deciduous trees; others are Bambusa, &c., and Corypha
and other palms which only flower once and then die.

As their height increases, most shrubs and trees grow
also in thickness, usually by means of the cambium layer
in the vascular bundles, which adds new wood to the outer
side of that already existing, and new phloem to the inner side
of the old phloem. In the great majority of trees, a cross
section of the trunk shows distinct rings of growth in the
wood, due to contrast of texture in the new wood formed at
different times. In temperate climates the contrast is
between autumn and spring wood, and the ring may be
termed an annual ring, ; one being formed each year of
the tree’s life. In tropical climates with two wet seasons
a year, many trees form two rings annually; others form
rings only when they drop their leaves and form new ones,
and so on. In dry subtropical climates, the contrast is
between early dry-season and early wet-season wood. The

WATER-PLANTS

158

phenomenon is correlated largely with contrasts in the
amount of transpiration going on.

Only the recent wood is employed in the carriage of
water up to the leaves; this, with the watery wood of the
year or two preceding it, is termed the sap-wood or
alburnum in contradistinction to the older heart-wood or
duramen . The outside of the stem is covered by the
bark , a corky layer formed by a special formative tissue
or phellogen ; between it and the wood lie the phloem and
cambium.

Water-Plants1, or hydrophytes , are a very well-marked
form of vegetation, contrasting with xero- and meso-phytes.
Close similarity in the conditions of life seems to have
determined, amongst plants belonging to various different
families, a remarkable resemblance in general habit and
structure. In few cases can we so satisfactorily determine
which of the peculiarities with which we have to deal are
really adaptations to the mode of life.

Primitive water-plants, i.e. those which have no land-
forms among their ancestry, probably do not occur in the
higher groups of plants with which this book deals; probably
these are almost undoubtedly descended from land-forms, as
is indicated by their possession of flowers adapted (in most
cases) for pollination by wind or insects, and by many facts
in their morphology and anatomy. They perhaps began
as marsh plants and were gradually driven into purely
aquatic existence by the necessities of the struggle for
existence. The date at which the ancestral forms became
aquatic may have been comparatively recent or very far
back In the latter case we find entire natural orders
composed of water-plants, as Ceratophyllaceae, Naiadaceae,
Podostemaceae. In the former, we have instances like
Hottonia in Primulaceae, of one or two aquatic genera in
a family, or the water Ranunculi, where it is one or two
species in a genus. The modification of structure to meet
the changed conditions of life seems also to have progressed,

1 Schenk, Die Wassergewdchse , Bonn, 1886 ; Anatomie der sub-
mersen Gewachse{ Bibl. Bot.); Goebel, Pflanzenbiolo^ische Schilderungen ;
Schimper, Pflanzengeographie ; Warming, Oekologische Pflanzengeo-
graphie ; Willis, Morphology and Ecology of the Podostemaceae , Ann.
Perac!. I., 1902, p. 267.

WATER-PLANTS

*59

as a rule, more or less far according to the presumable
length of time the plants have been aquatics. In the case
of the orders first mentioned, a study of the classificatory
details will show how hard it is even to decide upon their
approximate position in a natural scheme of classification.
In the case of Ranunculus, Potamogeton, and others, the
variability is enormous and leads to great difficulty in the
determination of species, comparable to the cases of Rubus,
Hieracium, &c. These plants having only recently com-
menced their evolution into aquatics, it has not yet, perhaps,
become complete.

In general the conditions of water life are far more
constant and uniform all over the world than those of
existence on land. Accordingly the few species of sperma-
phytic water-plants have a far wider distribution than land-
plants. Most of the British forms are found throughout
the north temperate zone. In the tropics other forms occur,
which vegetate continuously the year round. In the tem-
perate zones, on the other hand, hibernation is necessary,
and may occur in a variety of ways.

Ruppia, Zannichellia, Callitriche, Ceratophyllum and many others
remain unaltered, though often sinking to the bottom of the water.
Nymphaeaceae, Potamogeton natans , &c., hibernate in the form of
rhizomes, stored with reserves to start growth in spring. Potamogeton
pectinatus , Sagittaria, &c. form special tubers, something like the
potato. A large number form special winter-buds — large buds at the
ends of the stems, with a great number of closely packed green leaves
provided with reserve food-stuff's. These usually drop off and spend
the winter at the bottom of the pond, coming up and expanding in
spring. Such are Utricularia, Hottonia, Myriophyllum, Hydrocharis,
Potamogeton crispus and other species. More or less unique methods of
hibernation occur in Lemnaceae, &c. (q-v,).

Owing to the high specific and latent heat of water a
water-plant is less exposed to violent changes of temperature
than a land-plant, and if there be plenty of water is not
liable to be interrupted in its growth by a drought in
summer. These conditions favour its vegetative growth
considerably, and it is still more aided by the peculiar
conditions of nutrition. It takes in all or most of its food
in solution from the water, which contains, owing to the
difference in solubility of the two gases, more carbon dioxide
and less oxygen in proportion than does the air. As the

i6o

WATER-PLANTS

latter contains more oxygen than is needful, and less carbon
dioxide than would be most advantageous to vegetation, the
water-plant is highly favoured. Correlated with these things
is the rapid growth, frequent branching, and extensive
vegetative reproduction exhibited. This last occurs to some
extent in the formation of several winter-buds or tubers on
a single plant ; it happens also by the decaying away of the
older parts of stems and the consequent liberation of the
branches seen in so many water-plants, or even by the
breaking off of twigs by currents of water or otherwise (as
in Elodea), and in other ways.

Correlated with the fact that all submerged parts absorb
fluid directly is the absence of cuticle on the surface and
the branching of leaves to expose a large area, while owing
to this and to the fact that there is no transpiration in
submerged plants, there are few or no stomata and little
or no water-carrying xylem tissue present, and the root,
deprived of one of its great functions, is most often either
absent or much reduced, serving only for anchorage.

Again, mechanical influences come into play. An
ordinary stem or leaf requires a quantity of “ mechanical
tissue ” (fibres) so disposed as to resist the stresses caused
by weight, wind, and so on. In a water-plant the weight
is upheld by the water and there is no need for mechanical
tissue, nor do we find it. What little strain there is on the
stem or leaf is usually longitudinal, and the vascular bundle
(the strongest tissue of the plant) is axially placed, as in a
land-root, to resist it. The leaf exhibits four main types,
according to the conditions under which it lives, viz.
(i) the ribbon type, (2) the much-divided type, and (3) the
awl-shaped type in submerged leaves, and (4) the floating
type. The first is seen in most Monocotyledons, e.g.
Vallisneria, Glyceria, Potamogeton sp. &c. — the narrow
leaf drifting with the current in the form of a long ribbon.
The much-divided leaf, with linear segments, offering little
resistance to the movement of the water, is seen in
Ranunculus, Cabomba, Trapa, &c. ; special patterns that
also belong to this class are the leaves of Aponogeton
fenestralis and others. Hippuris may form a link between
this group and the preceding. The awl-shaped leaf is
found in Isoetes, Subularia, Lobelia, &c. ; most of these

WATER-PLANTS

161

plants are able to grow on dry land, usually in other forms
more suited to land-existence (p. 20). The floating leaf, as
seen in Nymphaeaceae, Trapa, Ranunculus sp., &c., is
usually large, entire or nearly so (a divided leaf would be
easily submerged, or at least wetted so as to interfere with
its functions), of leathery consistency and usually of oval
or circular outline. The stalk is capable of renewing its
growth should the leaf be submerged, so as to bring it back
to the surface. The upper surface of such a leaf is provided
with cuticle (often waxy), palisade-tissue and stomata, and
functions like a land-leaf.

Another determining factor is light. Water absorbs it
to such an extent that submerged plants are practically
shade-plants (p. 142) and exhibit similar features. The
internodes are long (etiolated ; cf climbing plants, below),
the leaves are usually thin and have no palisade-tissue, and
the cells of the epidermis contain chlorophyll.

A very characteristic feature is the presence of enormous
intercellular spaces, giving the tissues a spongy consistency
easily visible to the naked eye. They are full of air and
probably serve more than one function; they act as floats
to the plant, they probably aid in the assimilatory functions
by supplying gases to the cells, and they seem to act as
channels by which oxygen can reach those parts of the
plant which are in deep water or in mud, where there is
little or no oxygen for respiration. In Podostemaceae,
which live in rapids attached to rocks, and consequently
have all their parts exposed to well-aerated water, the large
air-spaces are entirely absent, while in marsh-plants they
are usually strongly marked. Secondary respiratory tissue
( aerenchyma ), formed by the phellogen layer, is frequently
found in plants growing in mud or nearly stagnant water,
e.g. in roots of Sesbania and Jussieua, stems of Neptunia, &c.
It is also said to occur on submerged parts of Lycopus,
Lythrum, and other mud-plants (cf. also Rumex). In
many mangroves, Taxodium, &c., special erect roots are
formed, with stout aerenchymatous tissue ; they appear to be
respiratory organs, and are sometimes termed pneumatophores.

One of the most common structural peculiarities of water-
plants, whether Algae or higher plants, is their sliminess.
In the flowering plants it is usually due to a secretion of

w.

n

162

WATER-PLANTS

mucilage by glands or hairs upon the surface. Its presence
renders diffusion more slow and is probably advantageous in
this way, by preventing the too rapid escape of the substances
dissolved in the cell-sap into the surrounding water.

Most water-plants are perennials ; annuals occur in the
genera Naias, Subularia, Marsilea. Many Podostemaceae,
though usually annual, may become perennial if not exposed
in the dry season.

The great vegetative growth and multiplication of water-
plants is accompanied as usual (p. 113) by a reduction of
the flowering activity (but cf. Podostemaceae which combine
the two). Many species flower rarely, and few flower as
profusely as land-plants. Most species display their flowers
above the water for pollination by wind or insects. The
mechanisms resemble those of ordinary land-plants, but the
flowers are rarely successful in setting much cross-fertilised
seed, for they are so close to the water that much of the
pollen of the anemophilous species falls into the water and
is wasted, and insects are few and far between so that the
entomophilous species are not much visited. A few plants,
e.g . Elodea and Vallisneria, display a modification of their
floral structure adapted to pollination at the surface of the
water, and in Ruppia, Zostera, &c., pollination takes place
under water and the floral structure is highly modified.

The fruits are usually achenes, nuts, or schizocarps, and
are nearly always ripened under water; some plants, e.g.
Vallisneria, have special arrangements for drawing them
down to ripen ( cf. Cyclamen). The seeds (or fruits) usually
sink in water, but some plants have arrangements by which
they may be kept afloat for a time .and thus dispersed to a
distance (see Nymphaeaceae, &c.). The germination of the
seeds often furnishes interesting features — leaves differing
from those of the mature plant, special adaptations, &c.

The same plant may often grow at different times under
different conditions and exhibit different structural features
and habit. Many plants which usually grow in marshy
places are able to grow submerged in water, and frequently
the land and water forms differ, e.g. in Littorella, Polygonum
sp., &c. Such plants may be termed amphibious. The
most fully adapted water-plants such as Myriophyllum,
Vallisneria, Zostera, &c., are not capable of living upon land.

WA TER-PLANTS

163

Heterophylly (p. 50) is a frequent phenomenon in water-
plants; the most common case is the production of swimming
and submerged leaves of different patterns, e.g. in Cabomba,
Callitriche, Potamogeton sp., Ranunculus sp., Sagittaria,
Salvinia, Trapa, &c.

Most water-plants live in comparatively quiet water, but
in the tropics there is a very interesting family, the Podo-
stemaceae, living in swiftly moving water, in rapids and
water-falls, where they cling to the rocks like seaweeds on a
rocky coast. As might be expected, they show a very
peculiar structure ; they differ from other water-plants in the
absence of intercellular spaces, and in their possession of a
thallus . The seeds lie about on the rocks in the dry season,
and germinate in the rainy season when submerged ; the
thallus arises from the primary axis and is sometimes of
shoot, sometimes of adventitious root nature. It is fastened
to the rocks by root-hairs and by special holdfasts or haptera ,
and upon it arise numerous secondary shoots, upon which
the flowers are ultimately developed, opening when the fall
of the water in the dry season exposes them to the air. The
exposed plants soon die. These plants show the most
remarkable structural dorsiventrality among the higher
plants.

For further details reference should be made to Part II.,
articles Aldrovanda, Alismaceae, Aponogeton, Azolla, Bi-
dens, Cabomba, Callitriche, Ceratophyllum, Eichhornia,
Elodea, Jussieua, Lemna, Littorella, Limnanthemum, Myrio-
phyllum, Naias, Nelumbium, Nuphar, Nymphaea, Nym-
phaeaceae, Peplis, Pistia, Podostemaceae, Potamogeton,
Potamogetonaceae, Ranunculus, Rumex, Ruppia, Sagittaria,
Salvinia, Sesbania, Stratiotes, Subularia, Trapa, Vallisneria,
Victoria, Zannichellia, Zostera, &c.

Xerophytes1. In such a climate as that of the low-
lands of western Europe, everything in the structure of the
leaf, the phyllotaxy, branching, &c., is so arranged as to
favour transpiration to the utmost, and thus to cause a
rapid current of water from the roots to the leaves. So
long as the roots can absorb plenty of water this form of

1 Schimper, Pflanzengeographie ; Warming, Oekologische Pjlanzen-
geographie ; Volkens, Flora der aegyptisch-arabischen Wiiste ; Goebel,
PJlanzenbiologische Sch ilder ungen .

IT 2

164

XEROPHYTES

plant-organisation is excellent, and favours rapid growth.
But if the roots are not able to absorb water at all times
fast enough for so much evaporation, it is evident that a
reduction of the transpiration is a prime necessity of life,
and that plants in which this is effected will be most
suitable to such a position or climate. These conditions
occur in many places — in countries with long dry seasons
when the water supply runs short, in arctic and high moun-
tain regions where everything favours transpiration (see
below) and the coldness of the soil checks absorption, in
sandy or rocky soils, upon sea-shores or in salt steppes where
the presence of salt in the soil renders absorption diffi-
cult, in epiphytic situations (see below) and also in winter
when the soil is too cold for absorption. In all such places
the plants show a remarkable general similarity, and agree
in having a lower rate of transpiration than plants living
where there is plenty of available water. Plants of this kind
are termed xerophytes .

As so often happens, a compromise has to be made
between opposing necessities — the need of reducing evapo-
ration, and the need of vigorous assimilation. The structural
features that favour transpiration favour assimilation also,
and the reduction of the former tends to be accompanied
by that of the latter function. Every possible compromise
may be seen in the variety of structure found in xero-
phytes.

All round the world, in the sub-tropical regions, there
are vast areas in which there is a long rainless season in the
year, e.g. the Mediterranean region, Arabia, the Steppes of
Asiatic Russia, the desert of Gobi, the southern prairies of
North America, Mexico, Peru, Chili, the Pampas, much of
South Africa and Australia. In all these regions xerophytes
occur, their degree of adaptation depending on the length
of the dry season. If the drought be not very prolonged,
many are able to survive by the mere reduction of the
transpiration, but if it be extreme, or last for a long period,
water is stored up to enable the plants to survive, and they
are more or less fleshy in structure. In this case other
materials are often stored also, and vegetation stops during
the drought, to be resumed with the wet season.

An almost universal feature in xerophytes is a thick

XEROPHYTES

i65

cuticle upon the epidermis of the leaf. The leathery texture
of the leaves of many xerophytes is partly due to the thick-
ness of their cuticle. The number of the stomata is
commonly much reduced, and also the size of the inter-
cellular air-spaces in the leaf ; therefore evaporation is
lessened. Instead of being flush with the surface the
stomata are commonly sunk at the base of small pits in the
leaf, into which the wind cannot enter, and which therefore
become filled with saturated air, thus reducing transpiration.
In Pinus, Aloe, and many xerophytes there is a separate
small pit for each stoma, but in Nerium and others the pits
are large and contain several stomata. A somewhat similar
arrangement on the large scale is seen in the grooves of
such leaves as those of Empetrum, Vaccinium sp., Phylica,
Cassiope, Rosmarinus, or such stems as those of Casuarina,
Spartium, Cacti, &c., the stomata being at the bottom of
the furrows. The grooves are more or less covered in in
the leaves mentioned, especially in Empetrum ; in many of
the grasses (e.g. Stipa) the leaf rolls up in dry air, completely
closing in the stomata, and exposing only the impervious
surface to the outer air.

The surface of xerophytes is often clothed with a thick
covering of hairs, which retard transpiration by preventing
the wind from reaching the stomata. This is well seen
in the Edelweiss, in many alpine willows, in Stachys sp.,
Alchemilla alpina , Helichrysum, &c. A covering of wax
occurs on the epidermis of many Liliaceae (e.g. Aloe),
Crassulaceae, &c., a covering of silica on that of Crassula
(. Rochea ) falcata. The thick sap of such plants as Aloe is
another preventive against excessive transpiration, for it only
evaporates very slowly.

Instead of being spread out to the utmost extent the
leaves of many xerophytes are closely placed and overlap
one another very much, e.g. in Gasteria, Aloe, many Crassu-
laceae, Calluna, &c. The plants often grow in dense tufts,
closely crowded together, and thus further reduce the free
access of air and check evaporation, e.g. in Raoulia and
Azorella ; this is especially frequent in alpine plants.

Further arrangements for reduction of transpiration
usually occur ; we shall deal first with evergreens, to which
group most xerophytes belong.

i66

XEROPHYTES

The most simple mode of reducing evaporation is a
reduction of the transpiring surface, which is very common.
The leaves of Hakea sp., Grevillea and other Proteaceae,
Rubus australis , Russelia, &c., are much branched into fine
segments which expose but little surface for evaporation.
Comparison with related forms or observation of seedlings
shows in most of these cases that a real reduction of leaf-
surface has occurred in the phylogeny. In many Ericaceae
the leaves are narrow and needle-like, and often more or less
rolled back, and this ericoid type of leaf is found in many
xerophytes, e.g. Aspalathus, Epacridaceae, Empetraceae,
many Rutaceae (e.g. Diosma), Rhamnaceae, &c. ; a some-
what similar form occurs in Ulex, and in Pinus and other
Conifers. The leaves of Cupressus and other Conifers are
reduced to small green scales closely pressed against the
stem ; this form occurs in many New Zealand alpine Vero-
nicas and in other xerophytes. In these cases the stem
usually does some of the assimilation, and a further progress
in this direction leads to cases in which all the green tissue
is found in the stem and the leaves are reduced to scales,
the stems retaining their more or less cylindrical form, e.g .
in Casuarina, Cytisus sp., Spartium, Baccharis, Restio,
Juncus, Ephedra, &c. They are usually grooved lengthwise,
and the green tissue and stomata occupy the bases of the
grooves. In some species of Baccharis, Genista, and others,
the green stems have their assimilating surface increased by
the presence of longitudinal wings; this leads on to such
cases as Bossiaea, Carmichaelia, Muehlenbeckia, Phyllan-
thus, &c., with long shoots transformed into flat green
expansions ( phylloclades ) which act as leaves, whilst the true
leaves are reduced to scales. They occur also in Ruscus,
Semele, &c., as short lateral branches, closely resembling
leaves (see also Colletia). Standing with their edges to the
sky they transpire less than a dorsiventral leaf of similar
size.

This advantage of phylloclades — the edgewise position —
is also obtained in many xerophytes which possess green
leaves. In many tropical Leguminosae, &c., the leaves (or
leaflets) move upwards or downwards when the radiation
becomes too intense, and thus expose only their edges or at
most sloping surfaces to it (p. 49). In Eucalyptus and many

XEROPHYTES

167

other xerophytes the leaves are more or less twisted at the
base, so as to place their edges upwards. The phyllodes of
Acacia (« q.v .), &c., attain the same end in a different way.
Another similar arrangement is seen in the isobilateral leaves
of Iris, Narthecium, Phormium, &c. (p. 49).

In addition to the reduction of transpiration obtained
by these methods many xerophytes store up water to last
them through the dry season, and thus become more or less
succulent. The water is usually stored in aqueous tissue ,
consisting of large colourless living cells, often below the
upper epidermis of the leaf, as in Aeschynanthus, Peperomia,
&c. More extreme development of the storage-function
leads to the true succulent plants. The storage may be in
the leaf, as in most Crassulaceae, many Liliaceae (e.g. Aloe,
Haworthia, Gasteria, &c.), Aizoaceae {e.g. Mesembry-
anthemum), Drymoglossum, Agave, Fourcroya, Sansevieria,
&c., or in the stem, as in Cactaceae, many Asclepiadaceae
{eg. Stapelia, Huernia, Sarcostemma, Ceropegia, &c.), Eu-
phorbia sp., Senecio sp., Sarcocaulon, Salicornia, &c. In the
leaf-succulents the leaves are thick and fleshy, are usually
closely packed, and provided with thick cuticle, sunk sto-
mata, &c. In the stem-succulents the leaves are reduced to
scales or thorns ; the stems are fleshy and of various shapes,
and are often grooved. Many succulents, especially the
Cacti, are able to survive very protracted drought. It is
difficult to dry specimens for the herbarium. They do not
resist long-continued wet weather easily, but soon decay.

Xerophytes show in general the characters of sun-plants,
eg. a very well-developed palisade-tissue, thick leaf, &c.
The wood is usually hard, dry, and brittle. Many, especially
the desert species, are thorny, eg. Alhagi, Acanthophyllum,
Acantholimon, Astragalus, Euphorbia, Cactaceae, &c. The
thorns are probably useful as protections against animals,
especially in the succulent species.

Bud-protection against extreme heat and excessive tran-
spiration is well marked in most xerophytes. In the succulent
forms, eg. Mesembryanthemum, Aloe, Agave, Cactaceae, the
bud is usually deeply sunk among the leaves or in a groove
or pit in the stem, so that it is almost completely covered.
Other protections, of the various kinds already described,
occur in other species. The dry-season buds of non-

i68

XEROPHYTES

evergreen species show protections like those of winter-
buds.

The flowers are often produced in the dry season, or at
the beginning of it, or during the drier parts of the wet
season, and many have bud-protections, e.g. Eucalyptus and
other Myrtaceae. The conspicuousness of the flower is
often aided by, or entirely due to, the stamens, as in Acacia,
Callistemon, &c.; there is not much risk of the pollen being
spoiled by rain, and hence the protections found in flowers
of wetter climates are not necessary here. Other flowers
that freely expose their pollen are Grevillea and most other
Proteaceae, &c.

The seeds of many xerophytes are exposed to severe
drought before the rains come on, and require good protec-
tion. Those of many Proteaceae {e.g. Banksia, Xylomelum),
of Eucalyptus, Casuarina, &c., are enclosed in hard, woody
fruits. Many are enclosed in fruits which only open when
wetted (the reverse of the usual behaviour, see p. 107); e.g.
Anastatica, Mesembryanthemum, Odontospermum. The
phenomena of germination are often interesting (p. 29).

There are a great many species which vegetate only
during the wet season and die down or drop their leaves in
the dry season. Schimper terms such plants tropophytes , as
being xerophytic at one period, and hygrophytic , i.e. living
with plentiful water-supply, at another. Annual species,
which exist only as seeds during the drought, are common.
Anastatica is one of the best known. Bulbous plants are
abundant in many of the regions mentioned above, e.g. in
California, South Africa, &c. Other perennials have under-
ground storage in tubers, e.g. Bowiea, Testudinaria, &c.;
when the tuber, as in the latter genus, projects above the
soil it is usually protected by a thick bark. Thick roots
occur in other xerophytes. Many shrubs and trees drop
their leaves in the dry season and store reserves to start
growth when the rains begin. The “Catinga” forests of
Brazil consist chiefly of species of this kind ; many Bomba-
caceae, Jatropha, &c., are examples. They are usually well
protected by thick bark and have deeply-penetrating roots.
It seems probable that the autumnal defoliation of most
trees in temperate climates is a similar case ; the soil is cold
in winter, checking absorption, and perennials must be xero-

HALOPHYTES 169

phytic during that season. Evergreens of cold climates, e.g.
the pines, have xerophytic leaves.

Further details will be found in Part II. ; see the orders
and genera mentioned above, and Velloziaceae, Cheilanthes,
Espeletia, Dasylirion, Lewisia, &c.

Sea-coast and Salt-steppe Plants, or halophytes \
exhibit xerophytic characters, but form so distinct a group
that it is convenient to deal with them separately. The
presence of salt renders absorption of water by the roots
slow, and thus there is less available for transpiration, and
at the same time its presence in the assimilating cells checks
the process of assimilation and may even stop it altogether
or kill the plant if the concentration become too great. A
reduction of transpiration is a primary necessity to such
plants. There are also many plants that grow on sand-dunes
a little way from the sea ; here there is less salt but the soil is
not retentive of water, and therefore there must be a reduc-
tion of transpiration. The group is composed of members
of many natural orders, e.g. Chenopodiaceae, Aizoaceae,
Plumbaginaceae. The Rhizophoraceae, Frankeniaceae, &c.,
consist chiefly of halophytes.

The structural characters of halophytes are described
below in dealing with the zones of vegetation. They show
in general a marked xerophytic structure, with a decided
tendency to succulence. Many have fruits or seeds specially
adapted to transport by marine currents.

Mesophytes2. Under this term Warming classes plants
occupying, in regard to dryness of the soil and air in which
they live, an intermediate position between hydrophytes and
xerophytes. They live chiefly in districts where the rainfall is
pretty evenly distributed through the year, e.g. in the colder
parts of the temperate zones, and in the equatorial regions.
They form meadows, evergreen or deciduous woods, coppices,
&c. Usually there are many species, and they cover the
ground very fully. Evidently the group shades into the
xerophytes, including a large part of the tropophytes above
mentioned.

1 Warming, Halofytstudier in ICgl. Dansk. Vid. Selsk. Skr. 6, vm.
1897 ; Oekologische Pflanzengeographie {cf. literature there quoted) ;
Schimper, Die Indovialayische Strandflora, Jena, 1890.

2 Warming and Schimper, op. cit.

MESOPHYTES

170

Structurally, mesophytes show few marked features, on
account of their intermediate position between the extremes.
Their leaf structure is usually well suited to rapid transpira-
tion, though in tropical forests a certain amount of protec-
tion against the great midday heat is found. The epidermis
is generally thin, the leaves dorsiventral, the stomata nume-
rous. The plants are freely branched and expose as much
surface to air and light as possible.

Climbing Plants1. We may divide plants according
to their habit and mode of growth into another series of
forms of vegetation including erect plants, creepers, climbers,
and epiphytes. Climbers form a group founded upon a
biological peculiarity and include plants of many different
families. They occur in most parts of the globe, abounding
in tropical forests, where they often grow very large and
woody and form a characteristic feature of the vegetation.
The climbing plant throws its weight upon an external
support, and thus evades the necessity of forming a rigid
stem capable of standing by itself. The great bulk of an
erect stem consists of fibres, whose function is mechanical.
Comparatively few of these are produced in a climbing
plant, and its growth in length is correspondingly more
rapid, so that it is able to reach the full daylight much
sooner than an erect plant. In a dense tropical forest this
is a point of great importance to the species, and even in
temperate climates many plants owe much of their success
to this habit.

Darwin divides these plants into four groups.

I. Twining Plants climb by twining round their supports.
These must not be very thick nor very smooth, and must
stand more or less upright, otherwise the stems are not able
to twine. Twiners exhibit many of the characters of etiolated
plants (p. 35); they have long thin stems, with nodes far
apart, and the growing and elongating part at the tip is very
long, and shows very marked nutation in consequence
(p. 35). The nutating tip may describe quite a large circle,
even several feet in diameter, thus having a better chance
of finding a support. Plants of this kind are often sup-
posed to have been evolved in the shade of forests or other

1 Darwin, Climbing Plants ; Schenk, Biologie und Anatomie der
Lianen , Jena, 1892.

CLIMBING PLANTS

i7 1

vegetation, the etiolation-characters thus produced gradually
leading to a twining habit and becoming hereditarily fixed.
The actual mechanism of twining is not clearly understood.
Nutation alone is not sufficient to account for it. The aid
of negative geotropism, which is strongly marked in many
twiners, is therefore invoked, but we cannot clearly explain
the exact mechanism.

The spiral may be right- or left-handed ; the same plant
or species usually twines throughout in the same way. The
direction may be defined as clockwise, i.e. in the direction
of the hands of a clock, or counter-clockwise ; the terms
right and left are used in opposite senses by different writers.
The stem usually becomes twisted upon its own axis, but
there is no relation between the number of turns of the spiral
and the number of twists. The length of the internodes is
usually sufficient to ensure the leaves not overlapping each
other, and no special forms of phyllotaxis are found.

In the British flora twiners occur in the genera Tamus,
Humulus, Aristolochia, Polygonum, Calystegia, Convol-
vulus, Cuscuta (this genus has sensitive stems, like tendrils),
Solanum, Lonicera. Other genera of interest are Lygodium
(fern with twining midrib of leaf), Ruscus, Cassytha, many
Lardizabalaceae, Menispermaceae, and Malpighiaceae, Wis-
taria, Phaseolus, many Loasaceae and Combretaceae, Plum-
bago, Dipladenia, Cynanchum, Ceropegia, Hoya, Ipomcea,
Thunbergia, Mikania, &c. Many of these have hooks on
the stem, aiding them in clinging to their supports, e.g.
Humulus, Dipladenia.

II. Climbers with sensitive organs. These possess
organs which are sensitive to continued contact and which
move in response to this stimulus. As in other cases of
adaptation, various parts have become adapted to this end.
In the majority of these plants the organs are te?idrils , long
thread-like structures with rapid growth and marked nuta-
tion. If one side of a tendril come into contact with a
support, it grows less rapidly than the other side, and thus
the tendril curves towards the support. This brings a new
surface into contact and the movement becomes more
marked, and so on until the free end of the tendril is all
wound round the support. Afterwards the free portion of
the tendril twists into a spiral and becomes woody, thus

172

CLIMBING PLANTS

forming a firm but elastic support, and at the same time
dragging the stem upwards and thus economising its
materials. The direction of the twist reverses at some
point in the spiral ; this is a mere mechanical result. To
twist a piece of wire, fast at both ends, into a spiral, it will
be found necessary to reverse the twist at the middle.

Some tendrils, e.g. in Vitis sp., have adhesive discs at
the end, others, e.g. in Cobaea, hooks.

Tendrils, morphologically considered, may be of various
nature — stems (usually modified inflorescence-axes), leaves
or parts of leaves, or even roots, e.g . the aerial roots of Vanilla
and perhaps other plants. Modified stipules form the tendrils
of Smilax, &c., modified leaves or parts of leaves those of
many Leguminosae (e.g. Lathyrus, Vicia, &c.), Bignoniaceae
(e.g. Bignonia) and Cucurbitaceae, Mutisia, Cobaea, Cory-
dalis, &c. ; modified stem-structures occur in Vitis, Passiflora,
Antigonon, Landolphia, &c. A special form of tendril is
the sensitive hook that occurs in so many tropical climbers.
Inflorescence-axes, modified in structure to form recurved
hooks, project from the stem ; when a hook catches a sup-
port, it clasps it tightly and becomes lignified, e.g. in Arta-
botrys, Hugonia, Uvaria, Ourouparia, Unona, Ancistrocladus,
Landolphia, Strychnos, Uncaria, &c. Sometimes they are
long, thin and flat, and are rolled up like watch-springs, as in
some Sapindaceae (Paullinia, &c.), Gouania, Bauhinia, &c.

Many plants climb by aid of sensitive leaves. In Glo-
riosa, Littonia, &c., the tip of the leaf is sensitive, acting
like a tendril. The petiole is often sensitive to contact,
usually clasping once round its support, and then frequently
becoming woody, e.g. in Tropaeolum, Clematis, Hablitzia,
Maurandia, Rhodochiton, &c. Cf also the leaf-climbers,
Fumaria, Adlumia, and Nepenthes (see Part II.).

Other plants climb by aid of sensitive lateral branches,
which bear ordinary leaves, e.g. Securidaca, Hippocratea,
Uvaria, Salacia, Machaerium, &c. Sometimes the branches
are leafless and tendril-like, but they are always capable of
producing leaves.

III. Hook-climbers sprawl over other vegetation, and
have hooks, usually recurved, which aid in their support.
The only British hook-climbers are Galium and Rubus,
both of them with small hooks arising as mere emergences

CLIMBING PLANTS

i73

(p. 1 1 4) ; in the tropics many hook-climbers grow to a great
size and have stem- or leaf-structures modified into hooks,
e.g. Calamus, Desmoncus, Caesalpinia. Cf. also Rosa,
Pereskia, Capparis, Lycium, &c. These hooks are not
sensitive to contact like those described in the preceding
section.

IV. Root-climbers climb by aid of special adventitious
roots upon the stems. These are not usually sensitive to
gravity but show a marked negative heliotropism, which
causes them to follow out all the crannies and irregularities
of the surface upon which they creep, and thus to firmly
attach themselves to it. Instances are ivy (Hedera), many
Araceae, Hoya, Tecoma, Norantea, Ficus sp., Piper sp.,
and many ferns. The aerial roots of Philodendron sp.
twine as they descend. Ivy and others have dimorphic
shoots (cf. Salacia, &c.).

Anatomically, climbing plants present many features of
interest. The stem is very thin compared to its length,
but grows slowly in thickness to supply the new leaves with
water. The growth is commonly ‘ abnormal ’ and results in
many cases of tropical climbers (Hanes) in stems of the most
remarkable shapes — flat, twisted, corrugated, &c. — which
may be seen in most museums.

Creeping plants, in which may be included those with
horizontal rhizomes (p. 153), are like climbers in throwing
the weight upon outside supports, and grow but little in
thickness. They are common in meadows, and in the
undergrowth of woods.

Epiphytes1 cling to other plants for support, but are
not parasitic upon them, and are not usually attached to
the soil. In the temperate zones they are rare — except
among Algae, Mosses and Liverworts — but in the wetter
forest regions of the tropics they abound, perched upon the
branches and even leaves of other trees and plants, forming
a marked feature in the vegetation. Being usually small
herbs they thus obtain favourable situations without the
expenditure on stems needed by erect plants and even by
climbers, but on the other hand the obtaining of food

1 Schimper, Die Epiphytische Vegetation Amerikas, Jena, 1888;
Goebel, Pflanzenbiologische Schilderungen ; Willis and Burkill, Flora
of Pollard Willows , Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 1893.

174

EPIPHYTES

(except carbon) becomes more difficult. Most of them are
excellently suited in structure and physiology to their mode
of life, and yet possess few or in some cases no true adapta-
tions to it. The group is made up of a number of genera
which happen to possess in common a number of charac-
ters— adaptations to various ends — which enable their pos-
sessors to become epiphytic. The ferns, Bromeliaceae,
Orchidaceae and Araceae are largely represented in the
group ; important genera of epiphytes, not belonging to
these families, are Piper, Clusia, Phyllocactus, Rhipsalis,
Columnea, Dischidia, Aeschynanthus, Hydnophytum, Myr-
mecodia, &c.

In the first place, no plant can become epiphytic unless
it has an excellent seed-dispersal mechanism. Wind and
birds are the only agents capable of regularly carrying the
seeds to sufficient heights. All epiphytes possess either
wind or bird mechanisms. Interesting observations may
be made on this part of the subject by studying the flora
of pollard trees in Europe ; many species occur in the bowls
of humus at the tops of willows, &c., almost all wind- and
animal-dispersed; about 15 °/o of the species (3% of the
individuals) have mechanisms incapable of transporting
their seeds to the requisite height, and of these many are
carried up, more or less accidentally, by birds in nest-
making.

In the second place, a species to become a successful
epiphyte must be able to fasten itself to its support, and
at once after germination. Just as in Europe plants with
good dispersal-methods may become epiphytes in willows,
where there is plenty of food and no difficulty in anchorage,
so in the tropics many become accidental epiphytes in the
leaf-sheaths of Palms, or in the pitchers of Bromeliaceae,
and so on. True epiphytes however are able to cling to
almost any support at any angle, usually by means of clasp-
ing roots of the kind found in root-climbers. Such roots
are always adventitious, developed from the stem ; thus we
can perhaps understand why Monocotyledons form so large
a proportion of the epiphytic flora. Tap-rooting plants,
as so many of the Dicotyledons are, would not be able
to cling to their supports in time to prevent falling off.
One group of epiphytes, the Araceae seems to have

EPIPHYTES

T75

been evolved from plants which originally climbed with
clasping roots.

In the third place, epiphytes are placed in conditions
where the water-supply is small and precarious and easily
runs away. No plants then can be regular epiphytes unless
they possess well-marked xerophytic characters, including
as a rule the capacity for water-storage. The Orchidaceae
collect water by their aerial roots and store it in tubers or
fleshy leaves ; Bromeliaceae have fleshy leaves and water-
collecting pitchers ; ferns have fleshy stems and also gather
much humus which retains water well ; ‘ aqueous tissue * in
which water is stored occurs in the leaves of Aeschynanthus,
Peperomia, &c. ; other arrangements occur in other species.
Peculiar semi-epiphytism occurs in many Araceae (q. v.)
which have long nutritive roots descending to the soil, and
in species of Clusia and Ficus.

Most epiphytes obtain the mineral substances required for
nutrition from decaying organic matter (humus), and many
have interesting arrangements for its collection. In most
forms a certain amount of dead leaves and other debris
collect at the base of the plant ; in many ferns the leaves
make niches against the support, e.g. in Polypodium sp. and
Platy cerium, or form nests, as in Asplenium nidus ; in Dis-
chidia the pitchers collect humus, and also in Bromeliaceae.
See Part II.

Moisture seems everywhere an important factor in regu-
lating the distribution of epiphytes. In deep ravines in
Europe the trees may be seen loaded with epiphytic ferns,
&c. Plants living on the soil in a tropical forest may
similarly become epiphytic to this extent if they possess the
necessary methods for seed-dispersal and anchorage of the
seedlings. They may then gradually work higher up the
trees, and thus get nearer to the light as they develope xero-
phytic characters to enable them to stand the increased
transpiration, and so on. In actual fact we find epiphytes
with very pronounced xerophily on the very tops of trees,
others with less marked characters lower down. On the
savannahs of America, where the climate is drier, the
species from the tops of the forest trees occur as epiphytes,
but no others. These well marked epiphytic species also
occur as alpine forms in neighbouring mountains, but not

176

PARASITES

in the intermediate zone; they are equally well adapted for
this form of life. So also they become shore-plants.

For further details see Part II., especially Polypodium,
Platycerium, Bromeliaceae, Tillandsia, Araceae, Orchid-
aceae, Vanilla, Oncidium, Bulbophyllum, Scuticaria, Phalae-
nopsis, Clusia, Ficus, Marcgravia, Dischidia, Rhododendron,
Myrmecodia.

Parasites1. We may again divide plants according to
their mode of nutrition into independent plants, which take
in all their food as simple inorganic compounds, parasites,
saprophytes, and insectivorous plants. Parasites draw the
whole or part of their food-materials from other plants (their
hosts) by means of special organs termed suckers or haustoria.
They are very numerous among the Fungi, and there are
many parasitic seed-plants, certain orders being entirely
composed of them, e.g. Loranthaceae, Rafflesiaceae, &c.
In most of these cases the suckers are modified roots,
developed from the parasite at points of close contact with
the host. The sucker penetrates the tissues of the host plant
and grows into organic union with them ; if the host grow in
thickness, the suckers grow in length to keep pace with it.
Some parasites are confined to one species of host, others
are more general in their attacks.

Parasites are classed as total or partial , according to
whether they take all or some of their nourishment from
the host. In the latter case they appear only to take raw
materials — the water and other substances absorbed by the
roots — and therefore require green tissue of their own. In
the former case chlorophyll is rendered useless, and they
possess none ; their leaves are reduced to a more or less
rudimentary condition or even the whole shoot, as in Raf-
flesiaceae, whose vegetative body is reduced to a mycelium
like that of a fungus. The inflorescence of parasites, on the
other hand, is comparatively little degraded in structure.

The simplest form of partial parasitism occurs in the
Rhinanthus group of Scrophulariaceae (< q.v .), and in Thesium
and some Santalaceae ; all are parasitic by their roots upon
the roots of grasses, &c. Viscum and other Loranthaceae,
Myzodendraceae, &c., are parasitic upon the stems of their
hosts, and may be mistaken for epiphytes.

1 Schimper, op. cit. ; Hemsley in Linn. Soc. Journ. XXXI.

SAPROPHYTES

177

Total parasitism is well shown in Cuscuta and Cassytha,
with their twining stems and absence of chlorophyll and of
leaves; these are both parasitic upon stems, while Orobanche,
Lathraea, &c., are total parasites upon roots. A further step
in the degradation of the vegetative system leads to the very
remarkable orders Balanophoraceae, Hydnoraceae, and Raf-
flesiaceae, above mentioned.

Saprophytes1 are plants which grow upon decaying
organic matter and absorb the products of decay. Such
are most of the Fungi, perhaps a few’ Mosses, &c., and a
few' flowering plants, e.g. the Orchidaceae Neottia, Epipogon,
and Corallorhiza, the Triuridaceae, the Burmanniaceae, and
Bartonia, Monotropa, &c. The prothallus of Ophioglossum
is also saprophytic.

It is probable that many plants are more or less sapro-
phytes in a sense. The complete saprophytes above men-
tioned have no green tissue at all, for they take in their
carbon from the soil in the form of complex organic com-
pounds. These bodies possess potential energy, and
therefore the absorption of light-energy becomes needless.
Chlorophyll is thus rendered useless and is no longer pro-
duced, while at the same time, as there is no absorption of
carbon dioxide from the air and the elaboration of new
protoplasm may go on anywhere in the plant, the leaves,
as in total parasites, are rendered useless also (being needed
neither for assimilation nor transpiration), and are reduced
to small scales. Many of these plants, e.g. Monotropa,
possess a mycorhiza (p. 39), and it is very likely that all
plants which have this symbiosis (or living together for
mutual benefit) with the fungus are to some extent sapro-
phytic, in that they take up more or less of the complex
products of decay from the soil.

Insectivorous Plants2 obtain more or less nourish-
ment from the dead bodies of small animals captured by
means of special apparatus. There are about 400 species
of these plants, belonging to 16 genera, in the orders Dro-
seraceae (Drosera, Drosophyllum, Dionaea, Aldrovanda,
&c.), Sarraceniaceae (Sarracenia, Heliamphora, Darling-

1 Schimper, op. cit. ; Johow in Fringe. Jahrb. xvi, xx.

2 Darwin, Insectivorous Plants ; Goebel, PJlanzenbiologische Schilder-
iingen.

W.

12

173

INSECTIVOROUS PI A NTS

tonia), Nepenthaceae (Nepenthes), Cephalotaceae (Cepha-
lotus), and Lentibulariaceae (Pinguicula, Utricularia, Gen-
lisea, &c.). Of these Drosera, Pinguicula and Utricularia
occur in Britain.

They may be divided in groups according to their mode
of catching their prey. Drosophyllum, Byblis, Roridula,
Pinguicula, Drosera have glandular hairs secreting a sticky
fluid to which insects, mistaking it for honey, adhere. In
the two last named movements of the leaf or tentacles occur
when stimulated by the presence of proteid bodies. All
these secrete a digestive fluid which dissolves the greater
part of the animal substance. Sensitive motile organs,
which close upon the prey, occur in Dionaea and Aldro-
vanda, in both of which part of the leaf is modified to form
the trap. Digestive fluids are secreted in these also. A
third group is the pitcher plants — Nepenthes, Cephalotus
and the Sarraceniaceae — in which the leaves or portions of
them form upright pitchers with hoods over their mouths.
The upper part of the pitcher secretes honey, which attracts
flies, and these gradually get further into the pitcher ; the
inner surface is slippery and they find it more easy to go
downwards than to return and are ultimately drowned in
the water at the bottom. It is doubtful whether the plant
in these cases secretes a digestive ferment, or whether it
merely absorbs the products of decay and is thus sapro-
phytic ; the water in the pitcher swarms with bacteria, which
rapidly decompose organic matter. Lastly there is the
group of ‘ eel-trap ’ plants — Utricularia, Biovularia, Polypom-
pholyx and Genlisea — in which animals are caught in traps
of various shapes, from which there is no escape. They
decay and the plant absorbs the products. Cf. details in
Pt. II.

Zones of Vegetation, Plant-Associations, 6cc P

The local distribution and the periodicity of the climatic
factors — light, heat, and moisture — are accompanied by a
corresponding division of the earth’s surface into zones of

1 Cf. Map of Floral Regions (frontispiece). Drude, Handbuch der
Pfanzen geographic ; Warming, Oekologische PJlanzengeographie ; Schim-
per, PJlanzengeographie ; Miall, A Yorkshire Moor , Nature, Aug. 1898;
Smith, Plant Associations, Nat. Science, 1898; and cf. subsequent foot-
notes.

ZONES OF VEGETATION , ETC .

179

vegetation , i.e. zones occupied by similar types of vegetation,
with the same periods of growth and with similar general
adaptation to their environment. These divisions are purely
climatic-ecological, and in dealing with them the systematic
relationships of the plants are neglected.

In a similar way the zones themselves may be divided
upon an ecological basis into smaller areas, possessing similar
soil, climate, and other conditions, and occupied by the
same kind of plants, grouped in the same general way.
Such grouping of plants as make up or occupy an alpine
meadow, a beechwood, a salt marsh, a cultivated meadow,
a heath, a peatmoor, forms the unit. It is sometimes called
a formation , but this word has been used in so many senses
that it is better avoided, and the term plant-association or
plant-society used. Given a certain combination of climatic
and other ecological factors, soil, &c. a given area will be
occupied by a definite association of certain plants, which
will bear a fairly definite numerical relationship to one
another. Some species will usually be very abundant, or
dominant , as for instance the heather, Calluna vulgaris , on
most dry moors or heaths in Scotland ; others will be sub-
dominant^ as the Ericas in the same association, while others
again will be comparatively rare, though usually occurring in
similar proportions in similar areas. If the conditions of
life change, as in passing from a level to a slope, from a
slope to a rocky precipice, from well drained to wet land,
or from one soil to another, the grouping of the plants
changes also, and the association is modified, or passes
over into another association more or less rapidly according
to the rate of change of the conditions. Or, without change
of locality, the conditions may be changed by the introduc-
tion of a new species of plant from abroad, which may prove
able to establish itself in the association and thus modify
the proportions and interrelationships of the other species.
Or again, the invasion of grazing animals may keep down
some species, and encourage others.

Many of the species in an association will compete
strenuously with one another, as they will be ecologically
similar, using the same food-stuffs in similar proportions, or
relying on the same insects for pollination. Others will be
dependent species, e.g. parasites upon their hosts, sapio-

12 — 2

180 NO RJ HERN GLACIAL ZONE

phytes or plants with mycorhiza on the humus formed by
particular species, and so on.

While in general a given species will be found only or
chiefly in a certain association, this is not always the case.
One ecological combination of factors may replace another ;
thus many alpine plants also occur in associations confined
to the seashore, others again as epiphytes in the lowland
forests.

The study of plant associations and their mutual com-
petition, and the effects produced by modifications of
conditions is already yielding much information of value
in geographical distribution, and throws much light on the
study of evolution, morphology, &c.

To describe the many associations occurring in the
different zones would far exceed the limits of this work;
but an indication is given of some of the more important
features of the vegetation of each zone.

Drude enumerates six zones of vegetation (see Map III.
of his Atlas), as follows :

/. Northern glacial zone \ This consists of the
arctic region (including the Tundras), and is limited on the
south by the northern limit of trees (i.e. the limit beyond
which they do not naturally occur). A corresponding region,
counted as part of this zone, occurs above 15,000 feet in
Thibet, and in other northern mountain regions at corre-
spondingly lower elevations ; e.g. in Britain the limit of trees
rarely lies above 2000 feet. The mountain zone above the
tree-limit is termed the alpine zone, and its characteristic
plants are termed alpine plants . The general habit and
structural features of alpine plants are much the same all
over the world and resemble those of arctic plants.

In the arctic regions the conditions of life are peculiar ;
the period during which growth can take place is very short
(1 — 4 months) ; the average temperature is low ; the light is
bright and long-continued, and the sun describes an almost
complete circle every day, so that the light falls upon the
plants from every side in turn at a comparatively low angle ;

1 Schimper, Warming, op.cit. ; Jungner, Wiesner, etc. cited on p. 143 ;
Jaccard, Gesetze der Pflanzenvertheilung in der alpine Region , Flora, 90,
p.349; Muller, Alpenblumen, Leipzig, 1881 ; Willis and Burkill in Trans.
Bot. Soc. Fdinb. LXVI, 1901, and Ann. of Bot. XVII, 1903.

ARCTIC PLANTS

181

the soil is thin, and liable to be very much heated at the
surface whilst it remains very cold at a little depth (thus
hindering absorption by the roots) ; insects are few and far
between, and belong chiefly to the lower classes, especially
the Diptera. It is evident therefore that xerophytic structure
is a necessity, and in fact it is very marked in the arctic flora.
The long-continued light retards growth and the plants show
a dwarfed and tufted habit, as may be seen in the common
genera Diapensia, Draba, Loiseleuria, Vaccinium, Saxifraga,
&c. They also exhibit many of the xerophytic characters
described above — reduced surface, closely-packed leaves,
inrolled leaves, fleshiness, thick cuticle, hairiness, sunk
stomata, and so on. The flowers show, as compared with
the same species in warmer regions, an increased tendency
to autogamy, and there is a marked increase of vegetative
propagation, especially in species that are not capable of
autogamy. Eutropous flowers are few, and often have
shorter tubes, which enable hemitropous insects to reach
the honey (p. 94). The genera above mentioned grow
chiefly in the more rocky or dry places ; the wetter moors
are occupied by such plants as Juncus, Scirpus, Carex, and
many grasses. Most of these are characterised by erect
centric stems or leaves, so that the green tissue is almost
or quite symmetrically arranged, facing to every quarter of the
compass. Jungner regards this as an adaptation to the pecu-
liar ‘ circumpolar ’ light that falls on every side of the plant
in turn. Annual plants are comparatively few in number, and
few woody species occur; the arctic species of Betula,
Salix, &c. are low-growing, almost herbaceous plants.

The resemblance of the flora of the Grampians or the
mountains of Norway or Germany to that of the arctic
regions is at once evident, most of the species being the
same. At low levels the flora is like that of the lowlands
from which the mountains rise, but marked by the absence
of many species and the presence of others (subalpine),
e.g. Meum, Viola lutea , &c. In ascending, the lowland
species gradually disappear ; very few of them reach above
1000 feet in the Grampians, and these mostly do not pass
above 3000 feet, while other species take their place and in
turn disappear at still higher levels. The upper limit of
trees (Coniferae and Betula) lies at about 2000 feet in the

182

NORTHERN GLACIAL ZONE

Grampians. The more strictly alpine plants do not descend
into the plains, though they often occur as sea-coast plants,
or (in the tropics) as epiphytes (see p. 175).

The conditions of life in this region resemble those of
the arctic regions sufficiently nearly to enable the same
species to live in both. The air is moister in the alpine
region, especially in the lower part, but the low barometric
pressure favours transpiration ; the light is more intense
than at low levels, and on high plateaux is more or less
circumpolar ; the vegetative season is short ; the soil is liable
to extremes of cold or heat ; there is much wind ; the fre-
quent presence of clouds diffuses the light and saturates the
air at certain times.

The composition of the flora depends upon the soil and
other conditions, though the plants themselves are all more
or less xerophytic. Upon the high-level plateaux where the
soil is cold and wet the dampest parts are occupied chiefly
by peat-forming mosses, but on the firmer parts of the
peaty soil occur species of Juncus, Eriophorum, Eleocharis,
Carex, Scirpus, Festuca, Nardus, &c. All these show a
more or less centric structure. Circumpolar light is very
marked in such localities, and some authors regard the form
of these plants as a direct result of its action ; whether this
be so or not they are well suited to make the best use of it.
Most of them contain large air-spaces, intercellular or
enclosed by the leaves ; these are sometimes regarded as
protections against cold (cf p. 161), the air they enclose being
warmer than the outside air. On the summits of the ridges,
where the soil is drier and more rocky, the vegetation con-
sists largely of such plants as Calluna, Loiseleuria,
Vaccinium, Arctostaphylos, Gnaphalium, Empetrum, Lyco-
podium, &c. All are pronounced xerophytes, usually
evergreen, and thus the winter’s cold becomes perhaps the
most important factor in their life. Most of them have
more or less inrolled leaves, which perhaps, as we have seen,
act as a protection against the cold ; at the same time these
leaves have palisade tissue almost all round and stand more
or less erect, so that they are well suited to the circumpolar
light. Such leaves are termed by Jungner cold-leaves .

There is no perpetual snow in the Grampians, but heaps
of snow lie until July or August in hollows on the mountains,

ALPINE PLANTS

183

and the plants growing near them are thus subjected in a
more marked degree than elsewhere to a cold wet soil and
atmosphere. In such places are found chiefly Salix herbacea
and reticulata , Oxyria digyna , Saxifraga stellar is, &c.
Most of these have thin round deciduous leaves, with serrated
edges. These are termed alpine s?iow-leaves by Jungner ;
they are well able to survive burial in snow.

The open slopes, where the ground is not very wet, are
chiefly covered by Alchemilla alpina , Erica, Calluna and
Vaccinium, with patches of grasses, Potentilla Tormentilla ,
Polygala, Trientalis, and other flowers. The wet places by
the sides of streams are occupied by mosses, liverworts,
and a few flowering plants, e.g. Saxifraga sp. (especially S.
stellaris and aizoides ), Chrysosplenium, Caltha, Geranium,
Geum rivale , &c. Many of these are lowland species which
in sheltered glens ascend to great heights and mingle with
the descending alpine forms.

Upon precipitous rocks a different flora appears. Here
the soil is even more shallow than on the gentler slopes,
and only those species with good tap-roots, or with rhizomes,
runners, or tufted growth are usually able to live in such
situations. The xerophytism is very marked, for the water
supply is very limited. Here occur Thalictrum alpinum ,
Silene acaulis , Arenaria Cherlena, Cerastium alpinum (hairy),
Sedum rhodiola (fleshy), Saxifraga oppositifolia (fleshy),
Saussurea (hairy), Hieracium sp., Juniperus, and others.
In wet places other forms occur, and many lowland species
also, such as Alchemilla vulgaris , Lychnis dioica , Oxalis,
Lotus corniculatus , &c.

All these alpine forms show more or less marked xero-
phytic characters — hairiness, fleshiness, reduction of surface,
tufted and compacted growth, &c. On the Alps and on
other mountains similar conditions of life occur at similar
distances below the snow line, and the flora, though differing
in composition, exhibits similar biological features. Details
must be sought elsewhere.

Many plants of the shore-flora occur at high levels in
the Grampians and other mountains, e.g. Armeria, Plantago
sp., Cochlearia sp. (see below).

In the mountains of Britain and Norway insects are
scarce at high levels, and are chiefly humble-bees and flies.

184 NORTHERN ZONE OF COLD WINTERS

Those flowers which like Vaccinium, Erica, Calluna, &c.,
or Alchemilla, Saxifraga, Potentilla, &c., are adapted to
one or other of these groups, form the chief features of the
entomophilous flora of these regions. Anemophilous flowers
(e.g. Thalictrum, Cyperaceae, Juncaceae, Gramineae) are very
abundant. Vegetative reproduction is common (especially
interesting cases are Polygonum viviparum , Saxifraga
cernua , &c.) and in general the floral features and
mechanisms resemble those of the arctic regions. In the
Alps it is different. At high levels butterflies and moths
abound, and the flowers adapted to them figure largely in
the flora, e.g. Gentiana, Viola, Silene, Dianthus, Daphne,
Primula, &c. Insect visitors are present in sufficient
numbers to enable most flowers to do without much self-
fertilisation or vegetative reproduction. They have appa-
rently determined the evolution of the endemic species into
butterfly-flowers, &c., for there are many cases where the
alpine species of a genus belongs to class F, the lowland to
classes with shorter tubes, e.g. H. The flowers of alpine
plants show, in general, brighter colours than those of low
levels ; this is apparently a direct effect of the brighter light.

II. Northern zone of cold winters \ This extends
from the northern limit of trees to the latitude in which
evergreen branched trees and shrubs begin to predominate,
and in which the country is parched in summer. It reaches
in Europe to the south of France and to Greece, and in
Asia to about 50° N. ; in North America it includes most of
Canada, the western United States as far south as Utah,
and the New England States. Corresponding areas occur
in the various mountain-ranges. The period of vegetation
lasts during 3 to 7 months, with its maximum in July; the

1 Schimper, Warming, etc., op. cit. ; Flahault, Essai Pune carte
botanique et forestiere de la France , Ann. de Geog., 1897; Graebner,
Studien iiber die norddeutsche Heide , Engl. Jahrb. xx, 1895 (and cf.
recent volumes of this journal) ; Sernander, Den Skandinaviska
vegetationens spridningsbiologi, Upsala, 1901 (cf. Bot. Centr. 88, 380) ;
Engler, Die pflanzengeographische Gliederung Nordatfierikas , Notizbl.
k. Bot. Gtns., Berlin, 1902 ; Pound and Clement, Vegetative Regions of
the Prairie Province, Bot. Gaz. xxv, 1898, p. 381, and many papers in
same journal in recent years by these authors, Cowles, Livingston, etc.;
Macmillan, Minnesota Plant Lifey St Paul, 1899; and cf. above,
Halophytes, Alpine Plants, etc.

NORTHERN ZONE OF COLD WINTERS 185

summers are not so dry as to parch the vegetation. The
plant-associations are very numerous, and may be grouped
into classes, e.g. forests, heaths, meadows, &c. They are
largely mesophytic.

The forests occupy vast areas in this zone, though much
reduced by man’s operations in modern times. The chief
elements are the Conifers (Abies, Pinus, Larix, &c.), mostly
with evergreen xerophytic leaves (Larix, the most northern
form, is deciduous), the catkinate families (Fagaceae,
Betulaceae), Acer, Tilia, Fraxinus, &c. Many of these are
of social habit, and form homogeneous forests, of one species
only, in certain regions, e.g. pine, birch, beech, &c. All but
the Conifers are deciduous. The undergrowth of such
forests consists of young trees of the same species, and of a
few shrubs and small woody climbers (e.g. Lonicera); on the
soil grow ferns (never arborescent), grasses, and various
herbs. The latter are characterised by their early develop-
ment in spring, before the trees are in full leaf, so that they
obtain the maximum of available light. Familiar instances
in Europe are the primrose, violet, hyacinth (Scilla), Adoxa,
Anemone, &c. Later in the year the saprophytic plants
(Monotropa, Neottia, &c.) appear. Epiphytic phanerogams
do not occur, but in very moist places ferns are often
epiphytic, and the tree-bark is usually covered with algae,
lichens, liverworts, &c. Other associations are the copses
of small trees and larger shrubs, such as willow (Salix), hazel
(Corylus), hawthorn (Crataegus), &c.

Another class of associations is that of the heaths,
which cover immense areas in some parts of this zone.
The chief plants are the Ericaceae, Calluna, Erica, and
Vaccinium ; others are gorse (Ulex), Ledum, Salix sp., &c. ;
among these occur grasses and other herbaceous plants.
Most of these plants are decidedly xerophytic. Hydro-
phytes, on the other hand (see above), are also common
in this zone, lakes, rivers, and marshes abounding.

This zone also contains numerous associations, in which
the Gramineae (or in wet ground the Cyperaceae) dominate,
forming a turf ; amongst them grow numerous herbaceous
plants, e.g. many Compositae, Campanulaceae, Labiatae,
Scrophulariaceae, Umbelliferae, Onagraceae, Leguminosae,
Geraniaceae, Cruciferae, Carophyllaceae, Ranunculaceae,

i86

COAST FLORA

Polygonaceae, Liliaceae, Juncaceae, &c. Examples are the
prairies of the northern United States and Canada, the
northern steppes of Russia and Siberia, meadows, moors,
pastures, etc. The plants occupying them are in general
mesophytic, but the grass-lands are usually drier than the
forest-lands.

The coasts exhibit many interesting plant-associations,
according to the nature of the soil, whether rock, sand,
or mud. The following remarks refer specially to Britain
and Western Europe. Upon rocks we find such plants as
Crithmum maritimum , Siletie maritima , &c. The flora of
a sandy coast varies according to the distance from the sea.
On the sandy shore itself, where the soil is saturated with
salt water at a small depth, but is liable to become very
hot and dry at the surface, occur such plants as Cakile
maritima , Salsola kali , species of Atriplex, Arenaria
peploides , Calystegia soldanella , Crambe, Mertensia, Glancium
flavum , Eryngium maritimum , &c. ; these are mostly
annuals, or perennials with creeping stems, or long tap-
roots by which they are firmly anchored to the soil. All
are more or less fleshy, and show other xerophytic characters
(sunk stomata, thick cuticle, wax, & c.) as well. A little
further back frdm the sea the region of sand-dunes begins ;
those close to the shore are always shifting under the action
of the wind, and only those plants occur upon them that
besides being xerophytes are able to come up again if
buried by the sand (the formation of dunes is chiefly due
to the growth of these plants) and which possess good
anchorage. Such are the grasses Ammophila arundinacea
and Elymus are?iaria , with long rhizomes and often with
leaves which roll up in dry air. Carex are?iaria , Hippophae
rhamnoides and other plants may also occur here. The
growth of these plants gradually binds the dunes together,
and further inland they form a sufficiently stable soil for the
growth of such plants as Carex arenaria , species of Festuca,
Ononis, Lotus corniculatus , Galium verum , Sedum acre ,
Antennaria dioica , Thymus, and frequently Erica and
Calluna. These also show more or less marked xerophily ;
the shore forms of Lotus and other inland species are
fleshy, and a few other succulents occur, but most of these
plants reduce transpiration in other ways. Where the

NORTHERN ZONE OF HOT SUMMERS 187

shore is muddy, as in estuaries, a somewhat different flora
appears. Farthest out occur masses of Zostera, then
Salicornia herbacea\ both are entirely submerged at high
water. Further inland, out of reach of most tides, where
the ground is firmer, occur Glyceria maritima , Triglochin
maritimum , Plantago maritima , Suaeda maritima, Glaux,
Statice, Cochlearia, Spergularia marina , Aster tripolium , &c.
Higher up still many of these disappear, their places being
taken by Armeria, Festuca, Erythrea, Juncus sp., &c.

Many shore plants in Europe are also found on moun-
tains, a fact easily understood after a comparison of the
general conditions of life. Thus in Britain, Armeria,
Plantago maritima , Silene maritima , Cochlearia maritima ,
&c., occur on the mountains at high levels as well as at the
coast, but are rare or unknown in the intermediate districts,
and in the same way, on the west coast of Scotland some
alpine forms, e.g. Saxifraga oppositifolia , occur at the sea-side.

In the more southern parts of this zone rain is rare in
summer, and the transition to the following zone is gradual.

HI. Northern zone of hot summers \ This
comprises the subtropical regions lying between zones II.
and IV., i.e. the basin of the Mediterranean (including
Spain and Italy), Asia south of zone II. (excepting India,
Indo-China, the Malay Archipelago, and the S.E. coast
of Arabia), North Africa, the Sahara, and the rest of the
United States and Mexico. The summer temperatures
are very high, higher than in the tropics ; at night it is
often cold. There is no real winter, but at most a slight
interruption of vegetation in January. The rainfall varies
considerably, and whilst the zone includes the driest parts
of the world, it also contains, in Florida, parts of Mexico,
South Japan, &c. comparatively wet regions, characterised
by dense forests not unlike those of the wet tropics, but less
rich in climbers and epiphytes, though in Tillandsia usneoides
the forests of the southern United States possess probably
the most dominant and striking of all epiphytes. In the
Mediterranean and Californian regions the rainy season is
in the winter, and there is less development of forest.

1 Schimper, etc., op. cit.\ cf Xerophytes, etc., above; Berger in
Bot. Gaz. xxxv, 1903, p. 350 (Macchie) ; Burtt Davy in Bull. Bureau
Plant Ind. U.S- Dept. Agr., Washington, 1902 (California).

i88

MAQUIS ; CHAPARRAL , ETC .

The vegetation of this zone is chiefly xerophytic. Coni-
ferae with needle leaves appear in large numbers in the
forests; most of the trees and shrubs are evergreen with
branched stems, but there are a number of deciduous forms
which are leafless in the dry season. The habit of many of
the trees is like that of the Mediterranean stone pine ( Pinus
pinea), which forms a kind of umbrella with almost flat top.
Epiphytic ferns occur in the wetter regions.

Copse-associations are common, e.g. the ‘maquis’ or
4 macchie ’ of the Mediterranean coasts, which are composed
of many shrubby forms, especially Leguminosae, Cistaceae,
Spartium juncewn , Myrtus communis , Erica arborea , Pistacia
lentiscus , Quercus Ilex , Arbutus Unedo , &c., among which
in the rainy weather great numbers of herbaceous forms,
including many annuals, are to be found. Another is the
4 chaparral ’ of California and the south-west United States,
the chief shrubs in which are Adenostoma fasciculatum
(chamise), Arctostaphylos sp. (manzanita), Quercus dumosa ,
and others, among which grows a scanty herbage of grasses,
&c. A third association of this sort is the Larrea scrub of
Mexico, which is still more xerophytic. Others of marked
xerophytic type are the Yuccas of Texas, &c., and the
larger Cacti of the Arizona deserts.

Large areas are occupied by grass-associations (steppes
and prairies), e.g, on the eastern side of the Rocky Mts.,
where Bouteloua and other grasses predominate. These
regions are usually much parched in summer. They pass
over into drier desert regions, eg. the cactus regions of
Arizona and New Mexico. There are also many salt
steppes and deserts occupied by halophytes, e.g. the genera
Haloxylon, Halimondendron, Anabasis, &c., in Asia, and
the sage-brush of the western United States ( Artemisia
trident at a and other species).

The coast flora is often shrubby, e.g. on the flatter shores
of the Mediterranean. The shrubs are generally low
growing and much branched, with xerophytic charac-
ters.

An outlying flora, similar to that of the wetter parts of
this zone in habit, ecology, and other characters, occurs in
the higher regions of many tropical mountains, e.g. in the
Himalayan foot-hills, and in Ceylon and Java.

TROPICAL ZONE

189

IV. Tropical Zone \ This includes most of the land
between the tropics, wherever the rainfall is sufficient to
prevent the formation of deserts. It passes gradually into
the desert regions of the preceding and the succeeding
zones. There is no interruption of vegetation by cold, but
in most of the continental parts, excepting the extreme north
of Australia, south of India, western equatorial Africa, and
the Amazon valley, there is a dry season of at least three
months in summer which necessitates a xerophytic character
in the vegetation. Part of these drier regions is covered
with forest ; often many of the trees have deciduous leaves,
e.g. in the ‘ Catinga ’ forests of Brazil. Lianes are less
common than in the wet regions described below, epiphytes
are few and of the most xerophytic kinds. Cacti, Euphor-
bias and other xerophytes are common in many parts, and
with a few Acacias, &c., may represent the copse vegetation
of this zone. Large open areas occur, covered with grasses
(Chlorideae, Festuceae, &c.), among which many flowering
herbs and undershrubs often occur. In most places these
areas are interrupted by patches of copse or forest, and are
then termed savannahs (America) or park-lands .

In the more strictly equatorial regions, i.e. in western
equatorial Africa, the extreme south of India, the Amazon
valley, the extreme north of Australia, and in the islands,
e.g. southern Ceylon, the Malay Archipelago, &c., there is
rain at almost all periods of the year, and especially at the
two seasons when the sun has just passed overhead. Here,
tropical vegetation is seen in its highest development. The
air is constantly warm and moist, the range of temperature
is small, there are no extremes of dryness, and everything
favours rapid and luxuriant growth.

The bulk of the lowland area is (or was formerly) covered

1 Schimper, Warming, &c., op. cit.\ Darwin, Naturalist's Voyage ;
Wallace, Malay Archipelago, Island Life, Tropical Nature, Naturalist
on the Amazon ; Rod way, In the Guiana Forest ; Kurz, Report on the
Forest and other Vegetation of Pegu, Calcutta, 1876; Haberlandt, Eine
Botanische Tropenreise ; Pearson, Botany of the Ceylon Patanas, Journ.
Linn. Soc. xxxiv, 1899, p. 300; Willis and Gardiner in Ann. Perad.
I. 1901 (shore plants); Keeble in Ann. of Bot. 1895 (hanging foliage) ;
Stahl in Ann. Buitenz. 1893 (leaf form) ; Potter in Journ. Linn. Soc.,
1888 (bud protection); and cf. Climbers, Epiphytes, Halophytes, &c.,
above.

190

TROPICAL ZONE

with mesophytic forest. The trees composing the forests
are of many species, and are very rarely of social habit ;
they are mostly evergreen and have either simple or branched
stems. The simple-stemmed evergreens are characteristic
of these regions ; they are chiefly Monocotyledons, eg. Palms,
Pandanaceae, Musaceae, Bamboos, &c. The trees mostly
have straight trunks reaching to a height of 50 — 150 feet or
more and bearing their leaves and branches (if any) at the
top, where they are exposed to the full sunlight. Buttress-
roots are very often found at the base of the trunk. The
leaves are mostly more or less leathery with thick cuticle (to
this is due the characteristic sharp rattle of the rain-drops in
a tropical forest, and the brightness of the light reflected
from the leaves) ; they are often corrugated {eg. in Palms)
or turned partly edgewise, or they stand with an upward
slope, or (as in some Leguminosae) move upwards as the
light becomes more intense, so that they obtain some
protection against the radiation. The young leaves in some
plants are produced at all periods of the year, in others
periodically (often this periodicity has no direct relation to
that of the climate) ; they have usually good arrangements
for their protection in the bud, and are very often red in
colour. Those trees which have not glossy leaves have
usually rain-leaves with drip-tips. The flowers and fruits are
very often borne on the older branches or even on the main
trunk; the reason for this is not known. Almost nothing
is known of the relations of flowers and insects in the
tropics. Many flowers are adapted to sun- or humming-birds.

Below the larger trees are the shade-loving trees with
thinner leaves, whose crowns reach a height of about 30 — 50
feet, and below these again occur large herbs and under-
shrubs, whilst on the ground are mosses, Selaginellas,
saprophytes, &c. Besides these, two forms of vegetation
especially characterise the wet tropical forest — lianes and
epiphytes, both of which occur in profusion in every
available space, so that the forest as a whole forms an
inextricable tangle of the most varied vegetation. Parasites,
myrmecophilous plants, and other interesting forms are
often found.

Grassy openings, except where produced by cultivation,
are rare in the wettest regions.

TROPICAL ZONE, MANGROVES, ETC, 191

Of the various associations which grow upon tropical
coasts the chief is the mangrove , found covering the muddy
swamps at the mouths of rivers and elsewhere, over which
the tide flows daily, leaving the mud bare at low water.
The plants found here present a great similarity in habit and
other features, though belonging to different families; the
association appears to be a very old one, and most of its
members are taxonomically much isolated. In the Old World
about 22 species occur, in America four. The chief genus
is Rhizophora ; Bruguiera (Rhizophoraceae), Avicennia (Ver-
benaceae), Aegiceras (Myrsinaceae), Sonneratia (Blattiaceae),
and Acanthus ilicifolius are other important members of the
group. In general these plants are much branched, with a
great development of aerial roots, both ‘ flying-buttress ’
roots from the main stem and supporting 4 pillar ’ roots from
the branches. In Sonneratia, Avicennia, and Bruguiera,
peculiar erect ‘aerating’ roots rise out of the mud (p. 161).

The seeds of many mangroves germinate in the fruit (so-
called viviparous germination) while still attached to the
tree, and develope long radicles, which hang down, often to
the length of a foot. When the seedling falls the root
sticks into the mud or floats tip downwards so that it catches
in holes, and thus the danger of being carried away by the
tide is lessened. The mangroves are xerophytic in structure
with thick fleshy or leathery leaves, thick cuticle, water-
tissue, &c.

In Asia and Australia there often occurs, further inland
than the mangroves, a vegetation composed chiefly of the
‘ stemless ’ palm, Nipa fruticans\ in America a somewhat
similar part is played by Bactris.

Another association in the Old World is the beach-jungle ,
characterised by Barringtonia sp., and by numerous shrubby
forms, e.g. species of Pandanus, Pemphis, Scaevola, Thes-
pesia, Sophora, Premna, &c. There are also herbaceous
associations, mostly on sandy beaches, characterised by
Ipomoea biloba ( pes-caprae ), Spinifex squarrosus , many
grasses, &c.

V. Southern temperate zone with hot summers

This includes all the land south of zone IV., except southern

1 Schimper, &c., op. cit. ; Hooker, Introductory Essays , see p. 140,
note ; and cf. Xerophytes, &c.

ig2

SOUTHERN TEMPERATE ZONE

Patagonia (and a corresponding belt in the Andes), Ker-
guelen Island, a belt in the mountains of Tasmania and
New Zealand, and the antarctic lands and islands. The
vegetative period is interrupted by more or less of winter
about July, and in the northern parts there is more or less
drought in summer. In Valdivia, Victoria, Tasmania, and
part of New Zealand, where there is plenty of rain at all
times of the year, there are forests of evergreen and
deciduous trees with many Conifers. In Paraguay, Natal
and eastern Australia, the forests contain few Conifers ; the
evergreen trees are mostly much branched. Other areas,
eg. in Chili, S.E. Cape Colony, and parts of Australia, are
covered by a ‘ scrub ’ or ‘ bush ’ of evergreen shrubs and
small trees, usually of pronounced xerophytic character.
The Pampas, the Kalahari desert and much of Australia are
covered with a turf of grasses and other xerophytic herbs,
which becomes very parched in the dry season.

VI. Southern cold zone1. This includes the areas
mentioned by name at the beginning of the last paragraph.
The vegetation is like that of zone I. — undershrubs, herbs,
mosses, lichens, &c.

Floral regions 2. In the earlier periods of the earth’s
history the climatic conditions appear to have been very
uniform, and the various plants that then existed appear to
have had almost universal distribution. This was facilitated
by their spores being light and easily carried by wind to
great distances (the Cryptogams are the most widely distri-
buted of existing species). Towards the end of the secondary
period the boundaries between the different regions of the
earth appear to have become more clearly marked, and with
them the climatic differences. At the same time the seed-
plants, with their less perfect means of dispersal, arose and
the flora of the different regions thus became gradually
different, the new plants evolved in various districts being
checked in their spread over the globe by the various agents
discussed above. This process continuing, it has gradually
come about that at present the floras of different regions of
the earth’s surface differ very much in their composition,
though they may agree in their general ecological characters ;

1 Schimper, Hooker, &c., op. cit.

2 Cf. Drude, op. cit. and other works mentioned above.

FLORAL REGIONS

*9.

the latter, as we have seen, are correlated with the climatal
conditions, whilst the composition of the flora is often quite
different in regions of similar climate and soil. Thus we are
able to divide the earth’s surface into a number of floral
regions , taking no account of ecological characters but only
of the relationships of the plants. It is evident from what
has been said that a floral region will be characterised by
the possession of endemic forms ; the greater the number of
these and the higher their systematic rank the more natural
is the region. Most of the natural orders have a very exten-
sive distribution, and occur in many of the floral regions ;
the possession of many endemic genera, tribes, and sub-
orders, more or less closely allied, is regarded as sufficient
to mark a floral region. The various regions graduate into
one another at their edges, and isolated districts belonging to
one region often occur in the midst of another (e.g. on the
mountains). The different regions form three chief divisions,
the boreal or northern extra-tropical, the tropical , and the
austral or southern extra-tropical. The mlrnber and extent
of the floral regions of the g obe are differently estimated by
different writers , we shall follow here the arrangement given
by Drude in his Atlas der Pfianzenverbreitung (see Map,
Frontispiece). Space will only permit of an enumeration of
the regions, with their chief characters (abridged from Drude).
Each is again subdivided into domains.

1. Boreal Group, i. The Northern Floral Region
corresponds very closely to the first and second zones of
vegetation described above. The general systematic features
of the flora resemble those of the British flora. There are
forests of Coniferae (Pinus, Picea, Abies, Larix, &c.),
Fagaceae (Fagus, Quercus), and Betulaceae (Betula) : other
common trees and shrubs are species of Acer, Salix, Tilia,
Fraxinus, Lonicera, Ilex, Elaeagnus, Crataegus, Prunus,
Pyrus, Sambucus, &c. Many Ericaceae, Caryophyllaceae,
Ranunculaceae, Compositae, Leguminosae (Papilionatae),
Cyperaceae, Gramineae, &c. occur abundantly.

2. The Central Asiatic Region includes Turkestan,
Mongolia, and Thibet. The district is very dry in summer,
and there is much salt in the soil in many parts. Trees are
very rare. Halophytes, e.g. many Chenopodiaceae, are
numerous ; other characteristic forms are shrubby species of

w.

13

194

FLORAL REGLONS

Astragalus, and other Leguminosae, Plumbaginaceae, Rheum
and other Polygonaceae, large Umbelliferae, &c.

3. The Mediterranean and Orient Region includes Spain,
southern France, Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, Persia, the
Punjab, and Africa and Arabia north of 240 N., together
with the Canaries, Azores, &c. It is very closely allied to
the preceding region, and possesses a very similar vegetation
( cf. Zone III. above). A few palms occur here, e.g.
Chamaerops and the date-palm (Phoenix). There are many
Cruciferae, Umbelliferae, Labiatae, Tamaricaceae, &c. : other
characteristic forms are Myrhis communis (myrtle), Oka
europaea (olive), Erica arbor ea ,• Quercus Llex , Pimis Pinea
and other Conifers, Platanus orientalis (plane), Lanrus
nobilis (bay), Pistacia Lentiscus (mastic), Arbutus unedo ,
Castanea vulgaris (chestnut), &c. Among genera with a
large proportion of their species endemic in this region are
Anthemis, Astragalus, Allium, Campanula, Centaurea, Cou
sinia, Hypericum, Salvia, Silene, Verbascum, &c.

4 The Eastern Asiatic Region includes the rest of
China, with Corea and Japan, and possesses many endemic
forms, e.g. the Conifers Cryptomeria, Ginkgo, Biota, &c.,
many Araliaceae, Lardizabalaceae, Menispermaceae, Magno-
liaceae, Sapotaceae, &c.

5. The Central North- American Region is the region
lying between region 1 and the tropical regions of Mexico
and the West Indies ; it includes the United States with the
exception of a part of New England, Washington State and
Oregon, and includes also a portion of Canada as far as the
Saskatchewan. The climatal conditions resemble those of
the Mediterranean region (cf. Zone III.). The flora includes
many Compositae, Hydrophyllaceae, Polemoniaceae, Nycta-
ginaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Polygonaceae (§ Eriogoneae), &c
Sequoia and other Coniferae (q.v.) characterise the Califor-
nian flora ; the drier States west of the Mississippi have a
xerophytic flora — Cacti or Yuccas in some parts, Artemisias
and other halophytes elsewhere (cf. above). Juglans, Carya,
and other trees mark the Eastern States.

II. T ropical Group. 6. The Tropical African
Region includes all Africa and Arabia south of region 3,
except the Cape-Colony region and the islands on the east
side. Palms (notably Elaeis guineensis , Raphia, Borassus),

FLORAL REGIONS

x95

Pandanaceae, &c., are common ; other characteristic plants
are Adansonia, Cola, Butyrospermum, &c. In the south-
western deserts occur Welwitschia, Acanthosicyos, and other
peculiar forms.

7. The East African Island Region . To this belong
Madagascar, Mauritius, the Seychelles, Mascarenes, &c.
The flora shows relationships to those of both India and
Africa. Many endemic forms occur, e.g. Lodoicea, Brexia,
Chlaenaceae, species of Pandanus, Ravenala, &c.

8. The Lndo-Malayan Region includes India (except the
Punjab), Ceylon, Burmah, Cochin-China, and the islands
from Formosa to New Guinea, Polynesia, and northern
Australia. Palms, Pandanaceae, Zingiberaceae, Musaceae,
Pedaliaceae, Moraceae, Dipterocarpaceae, and other forms
abound in this region. Among the characteristic genera are
Nepenthes, Tectona, Shorea, Corypha, Caryota, Imperata,
and most species of Ficus, Garcinia, Calotropis, Piper, Oryza
(rice), &c.

9. The 1 ropical American Region. Beginning in Florida
and Central Mexico, this extends over the West Indies,
Central America, the Amazon valley, Paraguay, Uruguay,
&c. Characteristic orders are the Cactaceae, Loasaceae,
Cyclanthaceae, Bromeliaceae, Velloziaceae, Marcgraviaceae,
Vochysiaceae, &c. and many genera, e.g. Agave, Dasylirion
and other Liliaceae, Zea (maize), Phytelephas, Sabal, Oreo-
doxa, Copernicia, Ceroxylon, Mauritia and other Palms,
Carica, Hevea, Theobroma, Victoria, Swietenia, many
Compositae, Couroupita, Bertholletia, &c.

III. Austral Group. 10. The South African Region.
Though small, including chiefly the area south of the Orange
River, this region is wonderfully rich in endemic forms and
contains a vast number of species. Among the character-
istic forms are many Iridaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Liliaceae,
Juncaceae (including Prionium), Restiaceae, Ericaceae,
Bruniaceae, Penaeaceae, Proteaceae (chiefly Protea and
Leucadendron), Selagineae (Scrophulariaceae), Diosmeae
(Rutaceae), Acacias, Mesembryanthemum, Helichrysum,
Pelargonium, Oxalis, Crassula, and many more.

11. The Australian Region includes Australia (except
the northern part belonging to region 8) and Tasmania.
There are many representative forms of Haemodoraceae,

13—2

196

FLORAL REG LONS

Candolleaceae, Goodeniaceae, Epacridaceae, Restiaceae,
Xyridaceae, Juncaceae, Liliaceae (Xanthorrhea, tS^c.), Myo-
poraceae, Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus, &c.), Proteaceae (Banksia,
Hakea, Grevillea, &c.), Acacia, Pimelea, Casuarina, Calli-
tris, &c.

12. The New Zealand Region comprises New Zealand
and a few outlying islands, and contains a very large pro-
portion of endemic species ; comparatively few genera are
endemic, and these are related to those of Australia, tropical
Asia, South America, or the Antarctic region. The ferns
form a very characteristic feature in the vegetation. Forests
were extensive when the islands were discovered. There are
many endemic Coniferae, Compositae, Scrophulariaceae, &c.
and the flora contains a small number of European forms.

13. The Andine Region. This includes South America
south of the Rio de la Plata (except the portion in region 14)
and Paraguay, together with the Andes and the coasts of
Chili and Peru. There are many shrubby Compositae, also
Calyceraceae, Plumbaginaceae, Nolanaceae, Solanaceae,
Scrophulariaceae, Escallonias, Tropaeolaceae, Oxalis, &c.

14. The Antarctic Region. This corresponds to the
sixth zone of vegetation described above. There are many
characteristic Gramineae, Juncaceae, Umbelliferae, &c., and
such genera as Bolax, Pringlea, Acaena, &c.

CHAPTER IV

ECONOMIC BOTANY.

Economic Botany1 is the study of plants from the point
of view of their uses in the arts, manufactures, or commerce.
It is largely bound up with agriculture, chemistry, political
economy, and other subjects. We shall deal with it here
almost solely from the botanical side. As yet the subject
is too much in the stage of a heterogeneous assemblage

1 The literature of Economic Botany is enormous, and the subject
is intimately connected with Agriculture, See. The following are
among the 'more important works of reference on the botanical side:
Wiesner, Die Rohstoffe aes Pflanzenreichs , 2nd ed. Vienna, 1903 ;
Watt, Dictionary of the Economic Products of India ; F. von Muller,
Select Extra-tropical Plants ; Willis and Wright, Handbook of Economic
Products of Ceylon, appearing as Supplements to Ann. Per ad. I, 1901- ;
Semler, Tropische Agrikultur ; Nicholls, Tropical Agriculture ; De
Candolle, Origin of Cultivated Plants ; Morris, Cantor Lectures on
Plants yielding Indiarubber , 1898; Obach, Cantor Lectures on Gutta-
percha, 1897; Seligmann, Lamy, et Falconnet, Le Caoutchouc et la
Guttapercha , Paris, 1896 ; Dodge, A descriptive Catalogue of Useful Fiber
Plants of the World, Washington (U.S. Dept. Agr.), 1897; Hannan,
Textile Fibres of Commerce, London, 1902; Dragendorff, Die Heilpflanzen
d. versch . Volker und Zeiten, Stuttgart, 1898; Gamble, A Manual of
Indian Timbers, 2nd ed. 1903 ; Bailey, Cyclopaedia of Horticulture ,
Plant-breeding', Nicholson, Dictionary of Gardening', Sorauer, Physio-
logy of Plants for Gardeners ; Bateson, MendeVs Principles of Heredity.
And see such journals as Kew Bulletin, Revue des Cultures Coloniales
(Paris), Tropenpflanzer (Berlin), Schim?nel dr3 Co.’s Reports (Leipzig ;
essential oils), Tropical Agriculturist (Colombo), Agricultural Ledger
(Calcutta), Mededeelingen uit’s Lands Plantentuin (Buitenzorg), Bulletins
of the Dept, of Agi'iculture (Washington), as well as agricultural and
technical journals.

igS

ECONOMIC BOTANY

of facts with but few general principles, but with the great
attention now being given to it in all parts of the world
this will probably soon be altered. We shall deal here
mainly with the various classes of vegetable products, their
sources, and methods of collection and preparation. For
this purpose it is most convenient for the present to use
an artificial grouping, chiefly according to the nature and
uses of the products, employing eight chief heads, the last
of which is a miscellaneous assemblage. For individual
products reference should be made to the general index.

I. Gums, Resins, Caoutchoucs, Guttaperchas,
6cc, These products arise from the drying or coagulation
of saps or other excretions, or are obtained from them by
distillation or otherwise.

Gums result from the disintegration of the internal
tissues, and exude from stems or elsewhere; they are
common in plants of dry countries, such as N. Africa or
Australia. They are collected from natural or artificial
wounds, and usually brought to market in the form assumed
by the exudations. They swell or dissolve in water, but
are insoluble in alcohol or ether. Chemically, gums may
be roughly divided into three classes, according to whether
they consist mainly of arabin, bassorin, or cerasin. Arabin
is fully soluble in water, and forms the best mucilage , good
gum-arabics (Acacia spp.) are almost entirely composed of
it. Bassorin, of which gum-tragacanth (Astragalus spp.)
almost entirely consists, is only slightly soluble. Cerasin,
which is largely found in cherry gum (Prunus), is insoluble,
merely swelling up in water. Gums are used for adhesive
purposes, and in calico-printing, sizing, colour-making,
confectionery, and pharmacy. Innumerable plants yield
gums, but few are of commercial importance except those
mentioned.

Resins are the products of secretion or disintegration
of the cells or tissues; they are usually formed in special
cavities or passages (p. 115). They are commercially
collected on a large scale from wounds made in the bark,
and are brought to market in the forms assumed by the
exudation or in artificial masses. They are insoluble in
water, but dissolve in alcohol, ether, or carbon disulphide,
and burn with a sooty flame. They may be roughly

GUMS, RESINS , CAOUTCHOUCS

199

divided into resins proper, gum-resins which contain a
mixture of gum and resin, and balsams , which are more
or less fluid, either fluid resins, or resins dissolved in
ethereal oils. The chief balsams are those of the Coniferae
(Abies, Pinus, Larix, &c.), commonly known as turpentines.
When distilled, common resin or rosin is left, and oil of
turpentine (often known as, and confused with, true turpen-
tine) passes over. Many Burseraceae, especially Canarium,
yield good balsams (< elemis ), and others are given by species
of Toluifera, Liquidambar, Styrax, Pistacia, Commiphora,
Copaifera, Dipterocarpus, &c. Among the important gum-
resins are gamboge (Garcinia), frankincense (Boswellia),
and the resins of many species of Ferula, Dorema, Calo-
phyllum, Convolvulus, &c. Of true resins, common resin,
some forms of which are known as white pitch and colo-
phony, is obtained from turpentines by distillation, the
hard copals or animes are derived from species of Trachy-
lobium, Hymenaea, Agathis, &c., the dammars from Shorea
and other Dipterocarpaceae, Canarium and other Burse-
raceae, &c. ; other important resin-yielding genera are
Guaiacum, Xanthorrhea, Rhus (Japanese lacquer), &c.
In many species of Croton, Ficus, Butea, Schleichera, &c.,
a resin is formed as an excretion from the skin of the
lac insect, and forms the lac of East Indian commerce.
The chief use of resins is in the manufacture of varnishes,
i.e. solutions of resins in oil of turpentine, alcohol, or other
solvents. Many resins are used in medicine, in lacquer-
work, &c.

Kinos are resin-like substances in appearance, but
soluble in water, astringent, and used in medicine and in
tanning. The chief are yielded by species of Pterocarpus,
Butea, and Eucalyptus.

Caoutchouc occurs in suspension in the latex of many
trees, especially Euphorbiaceae and Moraceae. When the
bark is wounded the latex flows out and a mass of india-
rubber is formed by the union of the caoutchouc particles,
either by simple drying (with or without gentle heat) or by
the use of acetic acid or other coagulants. The most
important rubbers are Para (Hevea), Panama (Castilloa),
Ceara (Manihot), African (Landoiphia), and Lagos (Fun-

200

GUMS , GUTTA-PERCHA

tumia). Other genera yielding rubbers are Ficus, Hancornia,
Mascarenhasia, Urceola, Willughbeia, &c. On account of
its waterproof and extensible qualities, rubber is largely used
for tires, balls, shoes, and numerous other purposes ; it is
usually vulcanised by treatment with sulphur, making it
more durable.

Gutta-percha, a somewhat similar substance, but
harder when cool, not extensible, and softening with heat,
also occurs in latex, chiefly in the Sapotaceae. Species of
Palaquium and Payena are the chief sources. It is used
in large quantities as an insulator, in the manufacture of
golf-bails, and for many other purposes.

Batata, a substance intermediate in properties between
gutta-percha and rubber, is obtained from the latex of species
of Mimusops.

Camphor, an aromatic crystalline body, is obtained by
distillation from the wood or leaves of species of Cinna-
momum, Dryobalanops, and Blumea. It is used in the
manufacture of celluloid, smokeless powders, &c., and in
medicine.

II. Oils. In a vast number of seeds the non-
nitrogenous reserves occur as oils (p. 34) ; these are termed
fixed oils , and are obtained by pressure, or sometimes by
pounding and boiling Oils also occur in a few fruits or
other parts of plants. Ethereal or volatile oils are found
in many flowers and leaves, &c., often imparting characteristic
perfumes to the plants containing them ; they are usually
obtained by direct steam distillation, or by natural evapora-
tion into a layer of fine fat, which is afterwards treated with
alcohol or otherwise to extract the perfume.

Fixed oils are obtained from the following among other
genera : Aleurites, Arachis, Argania, Barringtonia, Brassica
(rape, colza), Calophyllum, Carya, Cocos (coconut), Corylus,
Croton, Elaeis (palm oil), Guizotia, Gossypium (cotton-seed),
Helianthus, Juglans, Linum (linseed), Melia, Moringa, Olea
(olive), Papaver, Polygala, Ricinus (castor-oil), Schleichera,
Sesamum (gingelly),Theobroma (cacao-butter), Tilia, Vateria,
&c. Some of these are drying oils, e.g. linseed, used in
painting ; others remain fluid, while others again are solid
at moderately high temperatures, e.g. coconut oil in Europe.

OILS

201

Still firmer fatty bodies, used as grease or butter, occur in
Bassia, Butyrospermum, Caryocar, Pentadesma, Sapium, &c.;
while wax is obtained from Ceroxylon, Copernicia, Myrica,
Rhus, &c.

Volatile oils are distilled from Andropogon (citronella,
lemon-grass, &c.), Calamintha, Cananga, Cinnamomum
(cinnamon, &c.), Citrus (lemon, &c.), Eucalyptus, Eugenia
(clove), Gaultheria, Jasminum, Lavandula (lavender), Lippia,
Melaleuca, Mentha, Moringa, Nardostachys, Origanum, Pelar-
gonium, Pogostemon (patchouli), Reseda, Rosa, Rosmarinus,
Santalum (sandalwood), Sassafras, Thymus, Viola, and many
others.

III. Dyes and Tanning-stuffs. Many vegetable
dyes are now superseded by artificial products, e.g. madder by
alizarin, but a large number are still in use. In some cases
the colouring matter exists in the plant as such, in other
cases it is prepared by oxidation or otherwise. Among the
more important plants yielding dyes are Alkanna, Bixa
(annatto), Carthamus (rouge), Chlorophora (fustic), Clad-
rastis, Crocus (saffron), Crozophora, Curcuma (turmeric),
Garcinia (gamboge, cf. resins), Haematoxylon (logwood),
Indigofera (indigo), Isatis (woad), Lawsonia, Madura (fustic),
Morinda, Nopalea (used for feeding cochineal insects),
Peganum (turkey red), Reseda, Rhamnus, Rhus, Rubia
(madder), &c.

* Tannin is contained in many plants and parts of plants ;
it often occurs in the cells of growing parts, and is then
apparently useful in the metabolism. It very often occurs
as an excretum in the bark and elsewhere, and it is such
parts that are chiefly used as sources of it for commercial
purposes. Among the more important genera yielding
tan-stuffs may be mentioned Acacia (cutch), Betula, Butea,
Byrsonima, Castanea (chestnut), Caesalpinia (dividivi),
Gordonia, Pterocarpus (Malabar kino), Eucalyptus, Quercus
(oak), Rhizophora, Rhus, Rumex, and many others.

IV. Fibres. Fibres are usually the mechanical
tissues of plants (pp. 43, 48), and are arranged at the
places where strains occur, the amount of the mechanical
tissue developed depending to a considerable extent upon
the strain to which the part is subjected. Superficial
fibres occur on seeds, leaves, &c.

202

FIBRES

In the case of stem fibres it is found that those of the
bast are longer and more useful than those of the wood,
and they alone are used for weaving. They are generally
obtained by retting or macerating the stems in water, and
afterwards beating out the fibres. The most important fibres
of this class are hemp (Cannabis), jute (Corchorus), flax
(Linum), sunn-hemp (Crotalaria), rhea or ramie (Boehmeria),
&c. In most Monocotyledons the entire vascular bundle is
removed by retting or beating of the leaf ; important fibres
of this class are sisal-hemp and other Agaves, Manila
hemp (Musa), Mauritius hemp (Furcraea), New Zealand
flax (Phormium), bowstring hemp (Sansevieria), Tillandsia,
&c. Many palms have masses of such fibres at the leaf-
bases or on the fruits, e.g. Cocos (coir), Arenga, Borassus,
Caryota, Copernicia, Jubaea, Leopoldinia (piassaba),
Raphia, &c. ; these are mainly used for brushes and
similar coarse work. The entire leaves of many grasses
and sedges, e.g . Stipa (esparto), Lygeum, Ampelodesma,
Cyperus, &c. are used as fibres in paper-making, basket-
weaving, mat-making, &c. ; the straw of many cereals, stems
of rushes, twigs of osiers and many other plants, the
stripped bark of Hibiscus &c., and strips cut from the
leaves of many palms, Carludovica, &c., are similarly used,
while enormous quantities of paper are made from wood
pulp, prepared by macerating the entire wood of stems of
conifers, birch, poplar, &c. The chief surface-fibre is cotton
(Gossypium) ; others are found in Eriodendron, Calotropis,
Bombax, &c. The entire mass of fibres in the bark of
such trees as Lagetta, Antiaris, Broussonetia, is sometimes
retted out by natives of tropical countries, and made into
rough sacks, dresses, &c. The long tough stems of many
lianes are used as ropes. The fibre of the fruit of Luffa
forms a scrubbing-brush, and is used for packing, air-
filters, &c.

V, Drugs. Innumerable plants are or have been
used in medicine, for the sake of the alkaloids and other
active principles contained in them. No attempt has been
made to mention all these cases nor even all the plants now
used. The most important vegetable drugs are probably
quinine and opium, but there are numerous others. Among
those described in Part II. are Aloe, Alstonia, Aniomum,

DRUGS

203

Anamirta, Aralia, Atropa, Cannabis (hemp), Carum, Casca-
rilla, Cassia (senna), Cinchona (quinine), Cinnamomum
(camphor, &c.), Citrullus, Coix, Cola, Colchicum, Colutea,
Commiphora, Convolvulus, Croton, Curcuma, Digitalis,
Dorema, Drimys, Elettaria (cardamom), Erythroxylon (co-
caine), Ferula, Gentiana, Glycyrrhiza (liquorice), Ipomoea,
Lewisia, Lindera, Menyanthes, Papaver (opium), Peucedanum,
Pilocarpus, Polygala, Pringlea, Rhamnus, Rheum (rhubarb),
Ricinus (castor-oil), Ruta, Santalina, Sassafras, Schoeno-
caulon, Smilax, Strophanthus, Strychnos, Styrax, Tama-
rindus, Toluifera, Trigonella, Uragoga (ipecacuanha),
Urginea, Veratrum, Verbascum, Zingiber (ginger), &c.

As an appendage to drugs may be mentioned poisons ,
e.g. Acokanthera, Aconitum, Antiaris, Erythrophloeum,
Physostigma, Strychnos, Toxicodendron, &c.; insect-powders,
e.g : Chenopodium, Cimicifuga, Chrysanthemum, &c. ; and
soaps , e.g. Chlorogalum, Quillaja, Sapindus, Saponaria.

VI. Edible Products. The life of all animals,
including man, depends ultimately upon the food provided
by the vegetable kingdom. Animals need proteid materials
in their food. Protoplasm of course occurs in all living
parts of plants, but is usually accompanied by a dispro-
portionate mass of cellulose, &c., though ruminant animals
are able to thrive on such food. The grasses (Gramineae)
form the staple food of grazing animals. Among the
most useful genera are Agrostis, Alopecurus, Andropogon,
Anthoxanthum, Aristida, Avena, Bouteloua, Briza, Bromus,
Chionachne, Chloris, Cynodon, Cynosurus, Dactylis, Des-
champsia, Eriochloa, Festuca, Holcus, Hordeum, Lolium,
Melica, Milium, Panicum, Phleum, Poa, Secale, Tripsacum,
Trisetum, Triticum, Zea, &c. Other useful fodder plants
are many of the Leguminosae, e.g. Acacia, Anthyllis,
Astragalus, Ervum, Hippocrepis, Lathyrus (vetch), Lotus,
Lupinus, Medicago (lucerne, &c.), Onobrychis (sainfoin),
Trifolium (clover), Vicia (vetch), &c., and Symphytum
(comfrey), Spergula (spurrey), Atriplex (salt bush, in salt
soils), &c.

The staple human food-stuffs, many of which are also
used for domestic animals, are obtained from those parts
in which the plant has made reserve stores, e.g. seeds,

204

EDIBLE PRODUCTS

tubers, bulbs, &c. The most important food-stuffs are the
fruits of the cereal grasses, whose seeds have a starchy
endosperm, yielding a flour when ground. The chief are
rice (Oryza), wheat (Triticum), oats (Avena), rye (Secale),
maize (Zea), barley (Hordeum), to which may be added
Coix, Eleusine, Euchlaena, Panicum, Pennisetum, Setaria,
Sorghum, Zizania, and others. The seeds of many Legumi-
nosae, which are rich in nitrogen, form valuable food-stuffs,
e.g, pea (Pisum), bean (Vicia), lentil (Lens), Arachis, Cajanus,
Cicer, Dolichos, Glycine, Lathy rus, Phaseolus, Voandzeia,
&c. Other important seeds are those of buckwheat (Fa-
gopyrum), coconut (Cocos), chestnut (Castanea), walnut
(Juglans), &c., and mention may be made of Araucaria,
Bertholletia, Brosimum, Carya, Caryocar, Castanospermum,
Corylus, Dioon, Lecythis, Nelumbium, Pistacia, Telfairia,
Trapa, &c.

Many fleshy fruits form valuable food-stuffs. Regarded
purely as foods probably the most important are the bread-
fruit and jak (Artocarpus), plantain and banana (Musa), and
date (Phoenix), but the following genera also yield fruits
of great value: Anona (custard-apple, &c.), Ananas (pine-
apple), Borassus (Palmyra-palm), Carica (papaw), Citrus
(orange, lemon, &c.), Cucumis (melon, cucumber), Cu-
curbita (pumpkin, marrow), Durio (durian), Eugenia (rose-
apple, &c.), Ficus (fig), Fragaria (strawberry), Garcinia
(mangosteen), Mangifera (mango), Morus (mulberry), Persea
(avocado), Prunus (plum, cherry, apricot, peach, &c.), Psidium
(guava), Punica (pomegranate), Pyrus (pear, apple, &c.),
Ribes (gooseberry, currant), Rubus (raspberry, blackberry),
Vitis (grape), &c. To these may be added a long list of
minor fruits, chiefly tropical, and most of which have not,
like the above, been improved by cultivation or selection,
e.g. Aberia, Achras, Anacardium, Artabotrys, Averrhoa,
Bactris, Benincasa, Blighia, Byrsonima, Celtis, Cereus,
Chrysobalanus, Chrysophyllum, Citrullus, Coccinia, Cocco-
loba, Debregeasia, Decaisnea, Dialium, Diospyros, Eriobo-
trya, Eugenia, Feronia, Garcinia, Gaylussacia, Glycosmis,
Hymenaea, Juniperus, Lantana, Lapageria, Litchi, Mac-
adamia, Maclura, Mammea, Mimusops, Monstera, Myrtus,
Nephelium, Opuntia, Osmanthus, Pappea, Passiflora, Pere-

EDIBLE PRODUCTS

205

skia, Peumus, Sechium, Spondias, Tamarindus, Vaccinium,
Vitellaria, Zanthoxylum, Zizyphus, &c.

Underground reserve stores are also an important source
of food. The chief are perhaps the tubers of potato (So-
lanum) and yam (Dioscorea), the rhizomes of arrowroot
(Maranta) and taro (Colocasia), the roots of cassava or
tapioca (Manihot), sweet potato (Ipomoea), turnip (Brassica),
beetroot (Beta), &c., the bulbs of onion, garlic, &c. (Allium),
and many more. To these may be added the genera Arum,
Alocasia, Canna, Commelina, Daucus, Helianthus, Oxalis,
Pachyrrhizus, Peucedanum, Plectranthus, Priva, Raphanus,
Scilla, Scorzonera, Selinum, Stachys, Tragopogon, Tropae-
olum, Ullucus, Xanthosoma, and others. There are many
plants with small tubers or other underground parts that
might be improved by cultivation and selection.

Reserves are commonly stored in stems, in trees and
shrubs. Starchy food products are obtained from the pith
of the stems of sago (Metroxylon) and other palms, Cycas,
Alsophila, &c., and sugar from Saccharum, Acer, &c., and
from many palms in which the upward current of sap from
the reserve stores is tapped for this purpose.

Reserves used' as food occur in leaves in cabbages, &c.
(Brassica) and in the inflorescences in cauliflower (Brassica).
The leaves of many other plants are eaten, but are of no
very high food value, e.g. celery (Apium), sea-kale (Crambe),
lettuce (Lactuca), cress (Lepidium), rhubarb (Rheum),
spinach (Spinacia), Ceratopteris, Chenopodium, Eremurus,
Foeniculum, Myrrhis, Scorzonera, Tetragonia, &c. The
young bud of Oreodoxa and other palms is eaten as cabbage ;
the young flower heads of the artichoke (Cynara), and the
young shoots of Asparagus and some bamboos are also use-
ful vegetables.

Several of these products are rather co?idiments or spices
than food. To them may be added many more, e.g. mustard
(seeds of Brassica), capers (buds of Capparis), cayenne
pepper and chillies (Capsicum), caraway (Carum), cinnamon
(bark of Cinnamomum), horse-radish (Cochlearia), cloves
(buds of Eugenia), cress (Lepidium), nutmeg and mace
(Myristica), watercress (Nasturtium), dill (Peucedanum),
anise (Pimpinella), pepper (Piper), vanilla (Vanilla), ginger

206

EDIBLE PRODUCTS

(Zingiber), Allium, Amomum, Archangelica, Carum, Cori-
andrum, Crithmum, Cucumis, Cuminum, Illicium, Mentha,
Monarda, Monodora, Myrrhis, Ocimum, Olea, Origa-
num, Pimenta, Salvia, Satureia, Smyrnium, Tropaeolum,
Thymus, &c.

Many drinks are prepared from plants. Intoxicating
liquors are in general prepared by fermentation of liquids
containing sugar, i.e. the form in which the non-nitrogenous
reserve materials are usually transferred from one part of the
plant to another (p. 34). When such a plant as Agave, or
one of the palms which only flowers once, is producing its
inflorescence, there is a great rush of sugar upwards in the
stem, and this may be tapped and fermented, e.g. in Agave,
Borassus, Caryota, Cocos, &c. Other drinks are prepared
by fermenting the sugar derived from the starch of seeds in
germination, e.g. sprouting barley, &c., from reserves in the
stems, as in the case of rum from sugar-cane, or from the
sugar in fruits, as with wines prepared from grapes (Vitis),
&c. Infusion drinks are prepared from the seeds of coffee
(Coffea), cacao or cocoa (Theobroma), kola (Cola), &c., and
from the leaves of tea (Thea), mate (Ilex), Catha, Priva,
Stachytarpheta, &c., and from the root of chicory (Cicho-
rium). The milk of young nuts of Cocos is a useful beverage
in the tropics. A milk (latex) is also obtained from Brosi-
mum, &c.

Stimulants and narcotics (see also under drugs) are
obtained from Areca, hemp (Cannabis), coca (Erythroxylon),
kola (Cola), opium (Papaver), tobacco (Nicotiana), &c.

Under this heading may also be mentioned the food
plants upon which silkworms are reared, especially the mul-
berry (Morus) ; others are Ailanthus, Lactuca, Maclura, &c.

Many plants, especially those belonging to the flower
classes, H, B' and B, and with tubes of about 6 mm. long
(i.e. corresponding to the length of a hive-bee’s tongue), are
useful for providing honey and pollen to bees, e.g., Acer,
Borago, Brassica, Calluna, Echium, Erica, Eucalyptus, Fago-
pyrum, Gossypium, Helianthus, Lupinus, Medicago, Meli-
lotus, Mentha, Nepeta, Onobrychis, Origanum, Prunus,
Pyrus, Reseda, Ribes, Rosa, Rubus, Salix, Salvia, Thymus,
Tilia, Trifolium, Vaccinium, Yicia, Viola, &c. Care has to

TIMBERS

207

be taken to avoid plants like Aconitum, with poisonous
honey.

VII. Timbers. Ferns and Monocotyledons, with
their scattered arrangement of vascular bundles and usual
absence of any regular growth in thickness, do not yield
much useful wood, or at any rate such as can be sawn into
planks, though the entire stems of bamboos, palms, &c. are
extensively used in building in the tropics, and split portions
are used in roofing, &c. The stems of Arundo, Calamus,
&c., furnish canes. The most generally useful timber plants
are the Coniferae, their wood being soft and their stems very
straight, while the resin acts as a preservative against decay ;
the chief genera used are Abies, Pinus, Larix, Sequoia,
Tsuga, Cedrus, Agathis, Picea, Chamaecyparis, Taxus, &c.
There are a vast number of trees of other families also used
for timber, some soft-wooded, some hard-wooded ; the latter
are usually trees of slow growth, and commonly more or less
xerophytic. Among the most important genera are Acacia,
Acer (maple, &c.), Ailanthus, Albizzia, Artocarpus, Betula
(birch), Brya, Bucklandia, Buxus (box), Caraipa, Casuarina,
Carya (hickory), Carpinus, Castanea (chestnut), Catalpa,
Cedrela, Celtis, Chloroxylon (satinwood), Chickrassia,
Corylus, Curtisia, Dalbergia, Diospyros (ebony, &c.),
Duguetia, Eucalyptus (gum, jarrah, &c.), Fagus, Flindersia,
Fraxinus, Gleditschia, Gmelina, Grevillea, Guaiacum, Hy-
menaea, Juglans, Liriodendron, Melia, Mesua, Metrosideros,
Michelia, Ocotea, Ostrya, Pericopsis, Platanus (plane),
Populus, Pterocarpus, Quercus (oak), Rhus, Robinia, Salix,
Sambucus, Santalum, Schleichera, Shorea (sal), Swietenia
(mahogany), Tectona (teak), Tilia, Tristania, Ulmus, Xylia,
Zelkova, &c.

VIII. Miscellaneous useful plants and pro-
ducts. Among products which can scarcely be classified
under any of the above heads may be mentioned, cork
(Quercus), vegetable ivory (Phytelephas, &c.), teasels (Dipsa-
cus), weights and beads (Abrus, &c.). Other miscellaneous
uses are made of plants in nearly all countries, especially in
the tropics.

Ornamental plants may also be mentioned here. Most
are cultivated for their flowers ; horticulturists endeavour by

208 miscellaneous useful plants

careful crossing, hybridising and selection to 4 improve ’ them,
making the flowers more numerous, the inflorescences more
crowded, the plants dwarf, the flowers double or of new
colours, and so on. Others, e.g. Coleus, Caladium, Co-
diaeum, are cultivated for their coloured or variegated
foliage, or for their handsome leaves

Many trees are cultivated for ornament or shade,
especially in the tropics, where many cultivations are carried
on in a partially shaded condition.

208*

NOTE.

Since the account of evolution given in Chapter II. was
printed, the writer has become a complete convert to the
theory of mutation, but as there is not time to rewrite this
chapter without indefinitely delaying the issue of the book, the
following note may serve to indicate the new position taken up.

On the summit of Ritigala, an isolated mountain in the
north of Ceylon, there exist, confined to the one spot, some 8 or
io plants of Coleus elongatus Trim., which differs widely from
all other Colei, and in particular from C. barbatus , its nearest
relative, which also occurs on Ritigala summit, in having
elongated cymes which look like racemes, as well as in other
minor characters. Now it is impossible to pass from the little
“false whorls” of the other Colei to an inflorescence of this
type by infinitesimal variation, and we cannot suppose that all
the other Colei, widely spread over Asia and Africa, came from
a common ancestor diverging from C. elongatus. Not only so,
but the characters of this species are of no special use to it,
and as there is only a very small area upon which it occurs,
and as it only occurs as about io plants, these characters
cannot have been due to stress of competition. Further, the
species is outnumbered even on Ritigala by its nearest relative
C. barbatus , a fact that is rather a difficulty if one imagine it to
have acquired its characters to suit its locality. Yet more,
there is no reason to suppose that the plants of C. elongatus can
be the only survivors of a formerly widely spreading species,
for if so, why do they not occur on some of the other isolated
hills of the island, or in some of the intermediate country ? It
would therefore seem certain that this species must have
acquired its characters by mutation. Similar arguments may
be applied to the other 800 Ceylon endemic species, or to the
innumerable endemic species of other countries, and then from
analogy to all or nearly all species.

Other Very strong evidence has been given by those who
make a statistical study of infinitesimal variation, for their
work in general tends to show that selection of such variation
can never lead one beyond a certain point.

A further argument in favour of mutation is that while the
characters that distinguish species and genera are mainly
characters of the reproductive organs, the struggle for existence

2o8**

NOTE

is almost entirely among the seedlings and young plants, in
which these characters are not yet present. In many genera in
the tropics, the young plants are almost exactly alike, and the
distinguishing characters may not appear till the plants are 20
to 40 years old, when the struggle for existence must be long
over, so far as concerns other members of the same species,
though there will still be a struggle with the immediate
neighbours, which in the tropics are usually of different species,
and only rarely of the same.

Again, any one plant can on the average only have six
competitors surrounding it, and the struggle, though it may be
very strenuous, cannot cover plants having a very wide range
of variation, so that any improvement due to selection of
variations must be almost indefinitely less than is often sup-
posed.

Or the new theory may be applied to such questions as
geographical distribution. In such a continent as Indo-malaya,
the general form of distribution is to have a few widely ranging
common species, with nearly allied forms scattered along their
range and endemic to one district. It is far more easy to get
such distribution by supposing the common species to mutate
off the others, than by any theory of infinitesimal variation upon
which a vast amount of destruction, for which we have no
warrant, is necessary. Further, the distribution of tlie whole
order can be more easily understood, for there is no need to
assume the destruction of ancestral types, but one may have the
whole tree of the order perhaps existing at present, eg. all the
Dilleniaceae may be supposed to have descended from Tetra-
cera, a genus still existing and very widely spread.

The following literature may be consulted ; in addition to
that already quoted :

de Vries, Species and Varieties , their origin by Mutation ;
trans. by Macdougall : London, 1905.

de Vries, Die Mutations-theorie : Leipzig, 1905.

de Vries, Plant Breeding : London, 1907.

Lock, Recent progress in Heredity and Evolution; London,
1907.

Gulick, Evolutio?i , Racial and Habitudinal : Washington,
1905.

Willis, Some evidence against the origin of species* by infini-
tesimal variation..., Ann. Perad. IV, 1907, p. 1 ; Further
evidence..., do. p. 17; The Geographical Distribution of
the Dilleniaceae..., do. p. 69.

PART II.

THE CLASSES, COHORTS, ORDERS, AND CHIEF
GENERA OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS AND
FERNS.

ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED UNDER THEIR
LATIN NAMES.

EXPLANATORY INTRODUCTION
TO PART II.

This part of the book is arranged in alphabetical order, under
Latin names. The whole of the classes, cohorts and natural orders are
included, as well as several thousand genera, including all the British
genera, most of the common European and American genera, and the
chief tropical and southern genera. Hardly any important genus has
been omitted, and even in studying such a collection as that at Kew,
the student will find the majority of the genera treated in this work.

The name of the genus is followed by the abbreviated name of the
botanist who so named it, e.g. Abelia R.Br. means that Robert Brown
was the author of this genus as thus constituted. The names adopted
in this work are in general those given in the Index Kewensis (Oxford,
1892-5), and a reference to that work will enable the original descrip-
tion of the genus to be found. A list of abbreviations of authors’ names
is given below. In several cases the name of the genus is due to a pre-
Linnaean botanist, eg. Toumefort, and is adopted by Linnaeus; this is
indicated thus: Acer (Tourn.) Linn. The same rules apply to the
names of the individual species mentioned. A species has always two
names, the generic and the specific; eg. Abies pectinata DC. means the
species pectinata of the genus Abies , and indicates at the same time that
this plant was so named by De Candolle.

The use of the authority after the name of a plant is rendered
necessary by the confusion of nomenclature that exists in Botany. The
same species or genus often has two or more names, given to it by
different authors or at different times. The usual rule in such cases is
to use the name that was first applied to the plant, and to regard the
others as synonyms', but if this rule be followed up too far, no stability
can be assured, and it is customary therefore not to give up a long
established name in favour of an older one that has been unearthed
by antiquarian research.

The study of systematic botany is rendered much more troublesome
than it need be by the number of synonyms that exist, and the same
cause has much increased the bulk of this work. An attempt has been
made to include the more common and important synonyms. E.g. under

14 — 2

2 1 2 EXPLAN A TOR Y INTR OD UCTION

Abies, there is a list of names frequently met with in gardens, and
opposite to each of these is given the name used in this work; thus
Abies alba Michx. must be looked for under Picea, Abies Douglasii
Lindl. under Tsuga, and so on. In the same way the genera are
often much confused by synonymy. We have seen (Ch. II.) that it is
very difficult to decide when the divergence of two forms is sufficient
to entitle them to rank as genera, and this difficulty is the cause of
much synonymy. A genus A is established by one author, and then it
is discovered not to differ sufficiently from another genus B , established
by the same or another author, to remain as an independent genus.
A is therefore merged in B and becomes a synonym. The species of A
retain as far as possible their old specific names when placed in B.
When an entry such as “Abelmoschus Medic. = Hibiscus Linn.” is
found, it means that the genus Abelmoschus as established by Medicus
is merged in Hibiscus of Linnaeus. In this case many of the species
have entirely changed their names, e.g. A . venustus to H. spectabilis ; but
some have retained their specific names, e.g. A. splendens has become
H. splendens. This latter case is often indicated by putting the name
of the old genus in brackets after that of the new, thus, H. (A.) splendens.
In many cases the names of some of the genera thus merged in other genera
are indicated thus : Apium (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Helosciadium Koch) ;
no attempt however has been made to give all such cases or even a fraction
of them, but only a few of the more important. In particular those have
been given where the genus as here defined differs from the definition in
Engler and Prantl’s Natiirliche Pflanze7tfamilien by the inclusion or
exclusion of other genera. [For further information as to nomenclature
see Asa Gray’s Structural Botany , ch. x.]

The name of the genus is followed by that of the natural order to
which it belongs, and after this is often a number (in brackets) indi-
cating the section of the order ; thus Abelia belongs to Section III of
Caprifoliaceae, Acaena to Section ill. 9 of Rosaceae. The general
plan upon which the book has been constructed, and the necessity for
condensation, render it essential, if the full advantage is to be derived
from its use, that the student should refer to the natural order as well as
the genus. There he will find the important general characters pos-
sessed by the members of the order, and should examine the genus to
see in what it agrees, and in what it disagrees, with these. A further
reference to the classification given at the end of the article upon the
order will point out the special characters to be looked for in the genus
as a member of some particular sub-order or tribe. In this way a large
amount of information about the particular plant in question may be
obtained, and at the same time the student will get into the way of
regarding plants not as so many independent and disconnected units,
but as related members of one great whole. In this way too he
will soon acquire an appreciation of the relative importance of the
different characters in classification (see Ch. II) and will learn to

EXPLANATORY INTRODUCTION

213

recognise the approximate relationships of most plants after a brief
inspection, or even at sight.

The natural orders are those given by Engler in his Syllabus and in
Die natiir lichen Pflanzen fa milieu (see Ch. II), but sufficient reference
is made to Bentham and Hooker’s system of classification to enable
any one who may prefer to use that system, or that of Eichler and
Warming, to do so.

The name of the natural order is followed by a statement of the
number of species in the genus, and its geographical distribution. The
number, unless very small, is always only an approximation; new
research is always bringing new species to light, splitting up older
ones, or combining two or more into one. This is all the information
that is given about a very large number of the genera; only when
a genus presents some character of interest which is not common to the
order or group, is any particular mention made of it. The biological
peculiarities of the most important genera are dealt with pretty fully,
but much has been omitted. Thus in dealing with the pollination-
methods of flowers a selection of important genera, illustrating the
various methods, has been made for description in this part ; so too with
epiphytes, xerophytes, the morphology of parts, and so on. General
discussions of all these subjects will be found in Part I. and numerous
examples are there quoted; these examples are mostly dealt with in
full in this part. Innumerable cross-references to other articles and to
Part I. are made, and should be looked up; those referring to Part II
always quote the article and never the page, whilst those referring to
Part I always quote the page, so that all references thus : p. 189,
refer to Part I.

While in the morphology &c. a selection has thus been made of
genera for treatment, this is not the case with economic botany. This has
been very fully treated, only a comparatively few genera being omitted.
Space, however, has not permitted of a detailed description of economic
products or the way in which they are obtained; for this reference
must be made to other works (see Ch. IV).

Turning now to the articles upon the natural orders, the same
general principles apply to them. After the name of the order is given
the cohort in Engler’s system to which it belongs. This should be
looked up in Ch. II; this will show the orders which are most nearly
related to the one under consideration, and the characters that dis-
tinguish one from the other can be made out by comparison of their
descriptions in Part II. The student should always endeavour to make
out why a given order is classified in the position assigned to it. When
the order as defined by Engler differs from that defined by Bentham
and Hooker, as is so often the case, an attempt should be made to
discover the reasons for the difference.

After the position of the order in the system follows the number
of its genera and species, the morphology and natural history of its

214 .EXPLANATORY INTRODUCTION

vegetative and reproductive organs, its economic products, and finally,
in the case of the more important orders, its classification into sub-orders
and tribes, with the more important genera belonging to each. The
student should work through this part and study as many of the genera
as possible before leaving the order. This is easily managed in dealing
with the outdoor collections in our botanic gardens.

No particular attempt is made in this part of the book to avoid
technical terms. When a term or abbreviation is used that the reader
does not understand he should refer to the Index, where an explanation
will be found or a reference made to Part I, in which the terms used are
explained.

PART II.

Abatia Ruiz et Pav. Flacourtiaceae (Samydaceae, Benth. -Hooker).
5 sp. trop. S. Am.

Abelia R.Br. Caprifoliaceae (hi), n sp. As., Mex. United to Lin-
naea in Nat . PJl.

Abelmoschus Medic. = Hibiscus Linn.

Aberia Hochst. Flacourtiaceae (Bixineae, Benth. -Hooker), n sp.
Afr., Ceylon. The fruits of A. caffra Harv. et Sond. (Kei apple), and
others, are edible. United to Doryalis in Nat . PJl.

Abies (Toum.) Linn. Synonymy : A. alba Michx. = Picea alba; A.
alba Mill. = A. pectinata DC. ; A. americana Mill. = Tsuga canadensis ;
A. californica Hort. = Tsuga Douglasii; A. canadensis Michx. =
Tsuga canadensis; A . canadensis Mill. = Picea alba; A. Cedrus
Poir. = Cedrus Libani ; A. Deodara Lindl. =C. Deodara ; A. Doug-
lasii Lindl. = Tsuga Douglasii; A. excelsa Link = A. pectinata; A.
excelsa Poir. =Picea excelsa; A. Kaempferi Lindl. = Pseudolarix
Kaempferi ; A. Larix Poir. = Larix europaea ; A. inontana Nym. =
Picea excelsa; A. mucronata Rafin. = Tsuga Douglasii; A. nigra
Desf. or Duroi = Picea nigra; A. Omorika Nym. = Picea Omorika;
A. orientalis Poir. = Picea orientalis ; A . pectinata Poir. = Picea
rubra; A. Picea Lindl. = A. pectinata DC.; A. Picea Mill. = Picea
excelsa; A. rubra Poir. = Picea rubra; A. vulgaris Poir. = A.
pectinata.

Coniferae (Arauc. i b ; see C. for genus characters). 20 sp. N.
temp. The firs are evergreen trees with needle leaves borne directly
on the stems. On the main stem the symmetry is radial, whilst on the
horizontal branches the leaves twist so as to get their surfaces all much
in one plane (p. 47). If the top bud or leader be destroyed, however,
a branch bud below it takes up the vertical growth and radial symmetry
(p. 20). The cones are large and arranged much like those of Pinus.
The female is often brightly coloured, though the C. are wind-fertilised
(p. 101). The carpel-scales are large and appear on the outside of the
cone between the ovuliferous scales. The cone ripens in one year.

A. pectinata DC. (silver-fir), common in the Mts. of S. Eur., yields
a valuable wood, “ Strasburg ” turpentine (p. 199), &c. A. balsa?nea
Mill. (E. N. Am.), the balsam fir, yields the pure form of turpentine
known as Canada balsam, used in optical and microscopical work. Many
other sp. also yield useful timbers and resins. The firs are handsome
trees; among those most commonly cultivated are A. concolor Lindl.
et Gord. (N. W. Am.), A. Jir??ia Sieb. et Zucc. (Japan), A. nobilis
Lindl. (N. W. Am.), A. Nordinanniana Spach (Caucasus), A. Pinsapo
Boiss. (Spain), A. Webbiana Lindl. (Himal.).

2 i6

A BILD G A AUDI A

Abildgaardia Vahl. = Fimbristylis Vahl.

Abobra Naud. Cucurbitaceae (m). i sp. temp. S. Am.

Abolboda Humb. et Bonpl. Xyridaceae. 7 sp. S. Am.

Abroma Jacq. Sterculiaceae. 9 sp. trop. As. to Austr. The bark of
A. augusta L. (Indo-Mal.) yields a good fibre.

Abronia Juss. Nyctaginaceae (1). 12 sp. N. Am. Anthocarp winged.

Abrotanella Cass. Compositae (vn). 12 sp. Rodriguez, Tierra del

Fuego, Austr., N. Z., Auckland Is.

Abrus Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 9). 6 sp. trop. A. precatorius L. has

hard red seeds with black tips (crab’s eyes), strung into necklaces,
rosaries, &c., and used as weights in India. Their colour is said to
attract birds, but they are quite inedible (cf. Adenanthera). See
Kew Bull . 1890, p. 1 (Weather Plant).

Absinthium Tourn. ex Linn. = Artemisia Tourn.

Abuta (Barr.) Aubl. Menispermaceae. 23 sp. trop. S. Am. A.
rufescens Aubl. (Guiana) yields white Pareira root ; others yield
poisons.

Abutilon Tourn. Malvaceae (11). 80 sp. trop. and warm temp. Many
are grown in hot-houses. There is no epicalyx. The mechanism of
the fir. is like that of Malva (esp. M. silvestris), but in some sp. the
firs, are quite self-sterile ; the sta. do not move downwards, but the
styles emerge through the mass of anthers, the pollination they thus
receive producing no effect. Many sp. are visited by humming-birds
(p. 99). A. Avicennae Gaertn. (N. temp.), cult, in China, yields the
fibre China jute.

Acacia (Tourn.) Linn. Leguminosae (1. 2). 450 sp. trop. and sub-
trop., mostly trees (wattles); the typical leaf-form is bipinnate
with 00 leaflets and small scaly stipules. About 300 sp. , forming
the section Phyllodineae (chiefly in Austr. and Polynes.), have simple
leaf-like phyllodes , i.e. petioles flattened so as to place their surfaces
vertically — this exposes less surface to radiation. A mere inspection,
though it shows the phyllode to be a leaf-structure (it has an axillary
bud), does not show that it is not a leaf turned edgewise, though it
shows no twist at the base. Occasionally however there are “ rever-
sions to type ” on the plant, some phyllodes occurring with
leaf-blades at their ends, of the ordinary bipinnate type. This is still
better seen in germinating seedlings (p. 29). The first leaves are
typical bipinnate leaves ; they are followed by others with slightly
flattened stalks and less blade, and so on, until finally only phyllodes
are produced. In A. alata R.Br. and others, the phyllodes are
decurrent on the stem, like the leaves of thistles. In many sp. the
stipules are represented by large thorns, swollen at the base. In
A. sphaerocephalci Cham, et Schlecht. (Cent. Am.), the thorns are
inhabited by colonies of ants, which bore into them and clear out the
internal tissue. The ants live only on the A. and are fed by it.
Extrafloral nectaries occur on the petioles, and curious yellow sausage-
shaped 1 food-bodies ’ on the tips of the leaflets. These consist of

ACANTHACEAE

217

parenchymatous cells containing food-stuffs, and are eaten by the ants
(cf. Cecropia). If any attempt be made to interfere with the tree
the ants rush out and attack the intruder. A most efficient protection
is thus afforded to this myrmecophilous A. (Cf. Cecropia, and
see Nature , Aug. 1893, for an account of the leaf-cutting ants, the
chief foes of the A.: and cf. Schimper, Pflanzengeog. pp. 147, 170.
This was the first case of myrmecophily discovered ; see Belt’s
Naturalist in Nicaragua .)

A few A. are twiners, others hook-climbers (p. 172). Most sp.
are xerophytes, often forming very characteristic features in the
vegetation and scenery, eg. the Babul (A. arabica Willd.) with its
low, spreading habit, is almost the only tree in many parts of the dry
plains of India, and others are common in S. Afr. &c.

The fir. (diagram, see order) has 00 long sta., affording little pro-
tection to the pollen. In A. homalophylla A. Cunn. (S. E. Austr. ; the
Myall) the seed hangs out on a long red funicle which may attract
birds.

Many A. yield valuable products. A. Senegal Willd. (Soudan;
yields gum-arabic ; the gum exudes from the branches “ principally
during the prevalence of the dry desert winds from the N. and E.
which blow in the winter after the rainy season.” Other species yield
inferior qualities of gum. A . catechu Willd. (E. Ind.) yields catechu
or cutch (used in tanning), by digestion of the wood in hot water.
A. decurrens Willd. (Austr.; black wattle) yields a good tan-bark;
inferior barks are yielded by A. pycnantha Benth. (S. E. Austr. ;
golden wattle), A. dealbata Link (Austr. ; silver wattle) and others.
The wood of many sp. is valuable, especially that of the Australian
black- wood, A. melanoxylon R.Br. Many have sweetly scented firs.;
those of A . Farnesiana Willd. (trop.) are the Cassie flowers of
perfumery. A. armata R.Br. (temp. Austr. ; kangaroo thorn).
A. horrida Willd. (S. Afr.) and others form good hedges or sand-
binding plants.

Acaena Linn. Rosaceae (ill. 9). 40 sp. S. Am., Mex., Polynes.

Frt. hooked. Some sp. bud from junction of leaf and stalk.

Acalypha Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 2). 225 sp. trop. The anther

lobes are curiously twisted. The stigmas are very large and branched.
In A. indica L. there are normal ? flowers at the base of the infl.,
then $ , and at the apex a single ? with only one ovule, whose seed
has the radicle facing downwards and has no caruncle (Clarke).
Several sp. are cultivated for their variegated leaves.

Acampe Lindl. Orchidaceae (31). 10 sp. E. Ind., China, Afr.

Acanthaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). 134 gen. with 1600
sp., chiefly trop. but also Medit., U.S., Austr., &c. Many biological
types occur — climbing plants, xerophytes, marsh plants, &c. — and
there is much variety in habit. Trees are rare, most A. being shrubs
or herbs with opp. exstip. leaves, usually thin and entire. Infl.
most commonly a dichasial cyme, in its ultimate branchings tending

ACANTHACEAE

218

to become monochasial, and frequently condensed in the leaf-axils as
in Labiatae. Racemose infls. also occur. Bracts and bracteoles
usually present, often coloured ; the latter frequently large, more or
less enclosing the fir.

Fir. 5 , hypogynous, zygomorphic, usually with a nectariferous
disc below the ovary. K (4 — 5), C (4 — 5), commonly two-lipped
(the upper lip sometimes not developed, eg. in Acanthus). Sta.
rarely 5, usually 4 or 2 epipetalous ; staminodes frequently represent
the rest of the whorl ; anthers often with one lobe smaller than the
other, or abortive ; connective often long ( cf \ Salvia). The pollen
exhibits a great variety of patterns (see Nat . PJi .). G (2), 2-loc.
wTith axile placentae each with 2 — 00 usually anatropous ovules in two
rows. Style usually long with two stigmas. The general arrangement
of the fir. for visits of insects, protection of pollen, &c. is like that of
Labiatae or Scrophulariaceae.

Frt. a bi-locular capsule (with few exceptions), usually more or
less stalked, and loculicidal to the very base. Seeds usually exalbu-
minous. Their modes of distribution are interesting (see Nat. PJi .).
The capsules of Acanthoideae explode and the seeds are thrown out,
largely by the aid of peculiar hook -like outgrowths from their stalks
( retinacula or jaculators). Many have superficial scales and hairs
which on jvetting become mucilaginous and may thus aid in animal-
distfibution or in anchorage of the seed to its place of germination
(cf. Linum, Collomia), eg. Crossandra, Ruellia, Blepharis.

Classification and chief genera (after Lindau) :

I. NELSONIOIDEAE (Ovules 00 ; jaculators papilla-shaped) :

N elsonia.

II. MENDONCIOIDEAE (Ov. 4, seeds not more than 2.

Drupe ; no jac.) : Mendoncia.

III. THUNBERGIOIDEAE (Ov. 4. Capsule; jac. papilla-

like) : Thunbergia.

IV. ACANTHIOIDEAE (Ov. 2 — 00. Capsule; jac. hook-

shaped) :

A. Contort ae (cor. convolute, or never ascendingly imbri-

cate) : Strobilanthes, Ruellia, Eranthemum, Barleria.

B. Imbricatae (cor. ascendingly imbricate, or with no upper

lip) : Blepharis, Acanthus, Crossandra, Aphelandra,

Justicia.

Acanthocarpus Lehm. Liliaceae (ill). (Juncaceae Benth. -Hooker).
3 sp. S.W. Austr.

Acantholepis Less. Compositae (xi). 1 sp. W. As.

Acantholimon Boiss. Plumbaginaceae. 80 sp. Orient. Mostly desert
plants with spiny leaves (see p. 167).

Acanthomintha A. Gray. Labiatae (vi. 5). 2 sp. Calif.

Acanthopanax Miq. Araliaceae. 6 sp. Ind., Chi., Japan.

Acanthophippium Blume. Orchidaceae (15). 4 sp. Indo-Mal. The

axial outgrowth from the base of the column, common in O., is here

ACER

219

very great and bends first downwards, then up, removing the insertion
of the lateral sepals and labellum to a distance from the column.

Acanthophoenix H. Wendl. Palmae (iv. 6). 3 sp. Mascarenes (p. 195).

Acanthophyllum C. A. Mey. Caryophyllaceae (1. 2). 18 sp. W. As.,

Siberia. Mostly desert xerophytes with prickly leaves (see p. 167).

Acanthorhiza H. Wendl. Palmae (1. 2). 4 sp. trop. Am. The

adventitious roots that spring from the lowest nodes grow normally
downwards into the soil, but those from the nodes above develope
into numerous thorny branches, and never reach the earth (pp. 39, 40).

Acanthosicyos Welw. Cucurbitaceae (111). 1 sp. S.W. Afr., A.horrida

Welw., the Narras, a remarkable plant growing on sand dunes (cf
Welwitschia, and see p. 195). The root, several inches thick, is very
long (up to 40 ft.). Above ground is a thorny shrub, about 3 ft. high,
with long tendrils; the thorns are modified twigs. The fruit is
eaten by Hottentots. (See Welwitsch, Trans . Linn. Soc. 27, 1869.)

Acanthospermum Schrank. Compositae (v). 3 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind.

Acanthostachys Link, Klotzsch, et Otto. Bromeliaceae (1). 1 sp. (A.

strobilacea L. K. et O.), Brazil, usually placed in Ananas.

Acanthus Tourn. ex Linn. Acanthaceae (iv. B). 20 sp. trop. and sub-

trop., As., Afr., Eur., mostly xerophytes with thorny leaves (those of A.
spinosns L. furnished, it is supposed, the pattern for the decoration of
the capitals of Corinthian columns). A. ilicifolius L. forms part of
the mangrove vegetation of trop. As., Afr., &c. (p. 19 1). FI. a large
bee-flower ; there is no upper lip to the corolla, and the protection of
.the pollen, &c. is undertaken by the calyx. The anthers form a box
by fitting closely together at the sides, and shed their pollen sideways
into it, where it is held by hairs till an insect probing for honey forces
the filaments of the sta. apart and receives a shower of pollen on its
head (cf. many Scrophulariaceae, Ericaceae, &c.). In the young flr.
the style is behind the anthers, later on it bends down so as to touch
a visiting insect. The frt. explodes and there are large ‘jaculators’
on the seeds.

Acer (Tourn.) Linn. Aceraceae. no sp. N. temp., esp. in mountain
of hill districts (A. psetidoplatanus L., the sycamore, and A. campcs-
tris L., the maple, in Brit., the latter native) and trop. mts. There
are many sp. in S.W. China and Japan. Trees and shrubs, with opp.
exstip. leaves, deciduous or evergreen. Leaf in some simple entire,
more commonly 3- or 5-lobed, occasionally compound. An interest-
ing exercise is to go through a collection of A. in an herbarium or
elsewhere, comparing the leaf- tips as to degree of development of the
acuminate “drip-tips” (cf. Ficus, and see p. 143) noting at the same
time the kind of climate from which each specimen has come. There
is a good general correlation between the length of tip and wetness
of climate.

Large winter buds are formed, covered by scale leaves. In many
sp. transitional forms may be seen as the bud elongates in spring (cf
p. 20), between the scales and the green leaves, showing that the

220

ACER

scale is the equivalent, not of the whole leaf, but of the leaf base.
In Negundo, often united to A., there are no scales, but the bud
is protected by the base of the petiole of the leaf in whose axil it
arises.

The leaves of the maple commonly exhibit varnish-like smears, of
sticky consistence, known as honey- dew. This is the excretion of the
aphides which live on the leaves; the insect bores holes into the
tissues, sucks their juices, and ejects a drop of honey-dew on an
average once in half-an-hour. In passing under a tree infested with
aphides one may sometimes feel the drops falling like a tine rain (see
Pithecolobium). The fluid is rich in sugar. When the dew falls the
hygroscopic honey-dew takes it up and spreads over the leaf ; then
later in the day evaporation reduces it to the state of a varnish on the
leaf surface, which aids in checking transpiration. Many other trees
exhibit this phenomenon, e.g. lime, beech, oak, &c. (see Biisgen, Der
Honigthau , Jena: Fischer).

Firs, in racemes, sometimes contracted to corymbs or umbels,
regular, polygamous, not very conspicuous. The formula is usually
K5, C5, A4 + 4, G (2). There is usually a well-marked honey-
secreting disc. Apetaly occurs in some sp. 3 cpls. are frequently
met with, especially in the end flr. of a raceme. The $ firs, are prot-
androus, but the fertilisation methods and still more the sex-distribu-
tions and their causes, deserve further investigation.

In germination, the long green cotyledons come above the soil
almost at once, and perform assimilatory duties.

A. saccharum Marshall (A. saccharinum Wangenh.) and other sp.
of the E. U. S. yield maple sugar, obtained by boring holes in the
tree in February and March and collecting and evaporating the
escaping juice. Many sp. yield good timber. A number of Japanese
sp., with prettily shaped or variegated leaves, are cultivated as orna-
mental shrubs.

Aceraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). 3 gen. (Acer, Ne-
gundo, Dipteronia) with 112 sp. N. temp. (esp. in hills) and trop.
mts. Trees and shrubs; leaves opp., petiolate, exstip., simple entire
or more often palmately lobed or compound. Infl. racemose, corym-
bose, or fasciculate.

Firs, regular, andromonoecious, androdioecious, dioecious, &c.,
5-4-merous, usually dichlamydeous. Disc annular or lobed or reduced
to teeth, rarely absent. A. 4 — 10, usually 8; $ flr. with rudimentary
G. G (2), 2-loc., laterally compressed; styles 2, free or joined below;
ovules 2 in each loc., orthotropous to anatropous, with dorsal raphe.
Fruit of 2 samaras, separating when ripe. Seeds usually solitary,
exalbuminous, the cotyledons irregularly folded. Many sp. yield
good timber, sugar, &c. (cf. Acer). Placed in Aesculinae by Warming,
united to Sapindaceae by Benth.- Hooker.

Aceranthus Morr. et Dene. Berberidaceae. 3 sp. Chi., Japan. United
to Epimedium in Nat. PJi.

ACOKANTHERA

221

Aceras R.Br. Orchidaceae (3). 1 sp. Eur. (incl. Brit.), A. anthro -

pophora R.Br., the man-orchis. Like Orchis.

Acetosa Tourn. ex Mill. = Rumex Linn.

Acetosella Moehr. = Oxalis Linn.

Acharia Thunb. Passifloraceae (cf. Achariaceae). 1 sp. S. Afr.

Achariaceae. A sub-order of Passifloraceae^ differing chiefly in the
slight development of the receptacle, and in possessing sympetalous
flrs. ; sometimes raised to ordinal rank.

Achillea Linn. Compositae (vit). 80 sp. N. temp. A. Millefolium
L. (yarrow or milfoil) common in Brit., A. Ptarmica L. (sneezewort)
frequent. The flrs. have very short tubes and are visited by less
highly specialised insects than most of the order.

Achimenes P.Br. Gesneraceae (11). 25 sp. trop. Am.

Achlamydosporeae (Benth. -Hooker). The sixth series of Monochlamy-
deae (p. 136).

Achlys DC. Berberidaceae. 2 sp. Japan and Pacif. N. Am. The
flrs. have no perianth; it aborts early in development.

Achras Linn. Sapotaceae (1). 1 sp., A. Sapota L., W. Ind., trop.

Am., cultivated, for its edible fruit, the Sapodilla plum. The
resinous latex, when coagulated, forms chicle gum, used in the U.S.
for making statuettes, and for other purposes.

Achyrachaena Schau. Compositae (v). 1 sp. N.W.U.S. Pappus of

broad, silvery scales ; fruit-heads used as “ everlastings.”

Achyranthes Linn. Amarantaceae (2). 15 sp. trop. and sub-trop.

Achyrocline Less. Compositae (iv). 25 sp. Madag., trop. Afr. and Am.

Achyrophorus Adans. = Hypochaeris Linn.

Achyrospermum Blume. Labiatae (vi, 4). 7 sp. trop. Afr. to Malay Is.

Aciachne Benth. Gramineae (vm). 1 sp. trop. S. Am.

Acianthus R.Br. Orchidaceae (4). 7 sp. Austr., N.Z., New Caled.

Eight pollinia.

Acicarpha Juss. Calyceraceae. 3 sp. temp. S. Am.

Acidanthera Hochst. Iridaceae (in). 16 sp. trop. and S. Afr.

Acineta Lindl. Orchidaceae (19). 10 sp. Cent. Am., Mexico, epiphytic.
There is an outgrowth of the axis carrying out the labellum and
2 sepals. The labellum is attached to the column.

Acinodendron Kuntze = Miconia Ruiz et Pav.

Aciotis D. Don. Melastomaceae (1). 30 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind.

Aciphylla Forst. Umbelliferae (6). 13 sp. Austr., N.Z.

Acisanthera P.Br. Melastomaceae (1). 20 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind.

Acleisanthes A. Gray. Nyctaginaceae (1). 5 sp. Mex., Texas.

Acmadenia Bartl. et Wendl. f. Rutaceae (iv). 14 sp. S. Afr.

Acmeila Rich. = Spilanthes Jacq.

Acnida Linn. Amarantaceae (2). 3 sp. U.S. Dioecious.

Acnistus Schott. Solanaceae (11). 14 sp. trop. Am.

Acokanthera G. Don. Apocynaceae (1. 1). 3 sp. Abyss., S. Afr.

The root and wood of A. venenata G. Don supply the Zulus with
their arrow- poison.

222

ACONITUM

Aconitum Tourn. ex Linn. Ranunculaceae (2). 60 sp. N. temp.

A . Napettus L. (aconite, monkshood) in Brit. Firs, in racemes (see
order). The posterior sepal forms a large hood, enclosing the two
“petals” which are represented by nectaries on long stalks. Fir.
protandrous, adapted, by its structure and its blue colour, to bees.
The distribution of A. is largely determined by that of the humble-
bee (Bombus), the limit of the former being within, but close to,
that of the latter, except in S. Am., where there are Bombi but
no A. (See Drude, Pflanzengeog.) Humble-bees often rob the fir.
of its honey by biting through the hood. The fruit consists of fol-
licles which only open so far as to expose the seeds, which escape
when shaken by wind or otherwise (censer-mechanism, p. no).
All sp. are poisonous ; the tuberous roots contain alkaloids of the
Aconitin group (used in medicine). The root of A. ferox Wall,
furnishes the Bikh poison of Nepal.

Acorus Linn. Araceae (1). 2 sp. N. temp, and S.E. As. A. Calamus
L. (sweet flag) in Brit. Rhizome sympodial; leaves isobilateral.
Fir. g , protogynous, with perianth. The plant has an aromatic
scent.

Acotyledones (Jussieu) = Cryptogamae.

Acranthera Arn. Rubiaceae (1, 7). 6 sp. Indo-Mal.

Acridocarpus Guill. et Perr. Malpighiaceae (1). 11 sp. Afr., Madag.,

N. Caled.

Acrocarpus Wight. Leguminosae (11, 7). 3 sp. Indo-Mal.

Acrocephalus Benth. Labiatae (vm). 30 sp. Malay Arch, to trop. Afr.

Acroclinium A. Gray = Helipterum DC.

Acrocomia Mart. Palmae (iv, 7). 10 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind.

Acrogamae = Porogamae. See Chalazogamae.

Acroglochin Schrad. Chenopodiaceae (A. 2). 1 sp. N. India, China.

The fruit mass is prickly, many of the twigs not ending in firs.

Acronychia Forst. Rutaceae (ix). 17 sp. trop. As., Austr.

Acropera Lindl. = Gongora Ruiz et Pav.

Acrostichum Linn. Polypodiaceae. About 150 sp. trop., mostly in
wet places.

Acrotrema Jack. Dilleniaceae. 12 sp. Ceylon, India.

Actaea (Tourn.) Linn. (excl. Cimicifuga Linn.). Ranunculaceae (2).
3 sp. N. temp. A spicata L., (bane-berry or herb-christopher) in
Brit. Firs, in racemes (cf. Aconitum). Cpl. r. Berry.

Actephila Blume. Euphorbiaceae (A. I. i). 10 sp. Indo-Mal., Austr.

Actinella Nutt. Compositae (vi). 17 sp. Am.

Actinidia Lindl. Dilleniaceae (Ternstroem. B. and H.). 8 sp. E. As.

Actiniopteris Link. Polypodiaceae. 1 sp. Ind., Ceylon, Afr., Masc.
It has the habit of a small palm with fan leaves.

Actinodaphne Nees. Lauraceae (1). 50 sp. E. Ind., Japan, N. Am.

Actinolepis DC. Compositae (vi). 9 sp. West U.S. Joined to Baeria

in Nat. Pfl.

Actinomeris Nutt. Compositae (v). 2 sp. Atl. U.S.

ADLUMIA

223

Actinostemma Griff. Cucurbitaceae. 4 sp. Ind. to Japan.

Actinostemon Mart, ex Klotzsch. Euphorbiaceae (A. II. 7). 24 sp.
trop. Am.

Actinostrobus Miq. Coniferae (Arauc. 2 a ; see C. for genus characters).

1 sp. A. pyramidalis Miq. in S.W. Austr.

Actinotus Labill. Umbelliferae (3). 9 sp. Austr.

Ada Lindl. Orchidaceae (28). 1 sp. Colombia.

Adamia Wall. = Dichroa Lour.

Adansonia Linn. Bombacaceae. 3 sp. Afr., Austr. A. digitata L. is
the Baobab, one of the largest trees known. Its height is not great,
but the trunk may reach 30 feet in thickness. Fruit woody, con-
taining a pulp in which lie the seeds. (Fig. Gard. Chr. 1900, 57.)

Adenandra Willd. Rutaceae (iv). 25 sp. S. Afr.

Adenanthera Royen. Leguminosae (1. 4). 3 sp. trop. As., Austr.

Seeds hard and bright red (cf. Abrus), or red and black.

Adelia Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. II. 2). 13 sp. trop. Am., Malaya.

Adenanthos Labill. Proteaceae (1). 15 sp. W. and S. Austr.

Adenia Forsk. = Modecca Linn.

Adenium Roem. et Schult. Apocynaceae (11. 4). 5 sp. Arabia,
E. Afr. They have thick stems, and rather fleshy leaves.

Adenocalymna Mart. Bignoniaceae (1). 50 sp. trop. S. Am.

Adenocarpus DC. Leguminosae (111. 3). 10 sp. Medit.

Adenocaulon Hook. Compositae (iv). 1 sp. Ind., Japan, U.S.,

1 temp. S. Am.

Adenochlaena Boiss. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 4). 2 sp. Madag.,

Ceylon, Ind.

Adenophora Fisch. Campanulaceae (1. 1). 10 sp. temp. Eur., As.

Adenosacme Wall. ( Mycetia Reinw.). Rubiaceae (1. 7). 5 sp.

Indo-mal.

Adenosma R. Br. Scrophulariaceae (11. 8). 9 sp. Indo-mal., Austr.

Adenostemma Forst. Compositae (11). 6 sp. trop. The pappus is

glandular and sticky, and the fruit is carried by animals.

Adenostoma Hook, et Arn. Rosaceae (ill. 7). 2 sp. Calif. A fascicu-
latum H. et A. is the shrub forming the chaparral or chamisal of the
Sierras (p. 188), so often mentioned in stories of adventure.

Adenostyles Cass. Compositae (11). 5 sp. alpine, Eur., As. minor.

Adenostylis Blume = Zeuxine Lindl.

Adesmia DC. (. Patagonium Schrank). Leguminosae (ill. 7). 90 sp.

S. Am. Leafstalks thorny, plants often with glandular hairs.

Adhatoda Tourn. ex Medic. Acanthaceae (iv. B.). 6 sp. trop.

A. Vasica Nees is used in Indian medicine.

Adiantum Linn. Polypodiaceae. 180 sp. cosmop., esp. trop. Am.
(maiden hair). A. Capillus -veneris L. in Brit. (rare). Many are
favourite hothouse plants. Some trop. sp. are climbing epiphytes.

Adina Salisb. Rubiaceae (1. 6). 7 sp. trop. As., Afr.

Adinandra Jack. Theaceae. 13 sp. trop. As., Afr.

Adlumia Rafin. Papaveraceae (ill). 1 sp. E.N. Am. A leaf-climber.

224

ADON/S

Adonis Dill, ex Linn. Ranunculaceae (3). 20 sp. N. temp. A. an -

tumnalis L., the pheasant’s eye, a rare cornfield weed in Brit.

Adoxa Linn. Adoxaceae. 1 sp., A. Moschatellina L., the moschatel,
N. temp., inch Brit. Rhizome creeping, monopodial, bearing a flower-
ing shoot with a few radical leaves, a pair of opposite cauline leaves,
and a small head of greenish flowers, usually 5 in number (a condensed
dichasial cyme). The terminal flower is usually 4-merous, the laterals
5-merous (cf. Ruta, &c.). Fir. $ , regular, greenish, inconspicuous.
Perianth of 2 whorls, the outer usually 3-merous ; it is sometimes
regarded as an involucre formed of bract and bracteoles, but is very
probably a calyx. Sta. alt. with petals, divided almost to the base.
Cpls. (3 — 5), rarely (2), ovary semi-inf. with one pendulous ovule in
each loc. Drupe with several stones.

Honey is secreted round the top of the ovary. The chief visitors
are small flies, attracted by the curious musky smell.

Adoxaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Rubiales). Only genus Adoxa
(q.v.). Bentham and Hooker unite the order to the Caprifoliaceae,
and other authors place it near to the Saxifragaceae, but it has no
very close relationships (see Schumann, Morph . Studien).

Aechmea Ruiz et Pav. Bromeliaceae (1). 50 sp. epiphytic, W. Ind.

and S. Am. Cf. Muller in Flora , 83, p. 454.

Aegiceras Gaertn. Myrsinaceae (iv). 1 sp. A. majus Gaertn. trop.

Old World. It grows in mangrove swamps together with Rhizo-
phora, &c., and exhibits a similar habit, vivipary, &c. (p. 191).

Aegilops Linn. =Triticum L.

Aeginetia Linn. Orobanchaceae. 2 sp. Himal. to Japan and Phil. Is.

Aegiphila Jacq. Verbenaceae (iv). 30 sp. trop. Am.

Aegle Correa. Rutaceae (x). 2 sp. Indo-mal. A. Marmelos Correa

is the bael fruit, a valuable remedy for dysentery, &c.

Aegopodium Knaut. Umbelliferae (5). 2 sp. Eur., As. A . Poda-

graria L. the goat, gout, or bishop’s weed, in Brit.

Aegopogon Beauv. Gramineae (in). 2 sp. Braz. to Calif.

Aeluropus Trin. Gramineae (x). 4 sp. Medit. to Ind.

Aeranthus Rchb. f. = Mystacidium Lindl.

Aerides Lour. Orchidaceae (31). 15 sp. E. As. Epiphytes; leaves

fleshy.

Aeschynanthus Jack. ( Trichosporum D. Don). Gesneraceae (1).
70 sp. Indo-mal., Chinn. Many are epiphytes with fleshy leaves.
The firs, show extreme protandry with movement of the sta. The
seeds are provided with long hairs.

Aerva Forsk. Amarantaceae (2). 10 sp. palaeotrop.

Aeschynomena Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 50 sp. trop. Herminiera

is often united to A., e.g. in Nat. PJl .

Aesculinae. The 15th cohort of Choripetalae (Warming).

Aesculus Linn. (incl. Pavia Boerh. and Billia Peyr.). The only genus
of Hippocastanaceae. 16 sp. N. temp, and S. Am. A . Hippo-
castannm L. (horse-chestnut) and several sp. of the subgenus Pavia

AGAVE

225

are commonly grown as ornamental trees. A. ohioensis Michx.

( = glabra Willd.) is the buckeye of the U. S. Trees with large winter
buds, covered with resinous scale leaves, and containing the next
year’s shoot and infl. in a very advanced state. The bud expands
very rapidly in spring. In A. parvijiora Walt, transitions from scale
to perfect leaves may be seen, showing the former to be the equiva-
lent of leaf bases. Leaves opp., exstip., palmate ; the blades when
young are hairy and hang downwards. Infl. mixed, the primary
structure racemose, the lateral branches cymose (cincinni). The
upper firs, are <? with rudimentary ovary, and open first. The $ firs,
are protogynous, and when they open the ripe stigma protrudes, whilst
. the sta. are bent down ; later on these move up to a level with the
style. Self-fertilisation may occur. The chief visitors are bees. On
the corolla when young are yellow spots, which later on turn red
(cf Fumaria, Diervilla, &c.). K (5) ; C 5 or 4 zygomorphic ; A 8—5
introrse; disc extrastaminal, often one-sided; G (3), 3-loc., with
2 ovules in each loc. Fruit a leathery capsule, usually 1 -seeded,
3-valved ; seed large, exalbuminous (cf this fruit with that of Castanea).

Aeiihionema R.Br. (incl. Eunomia DC.). Cruciferae (11. 6). 50 sp.

Medit. Fruit lomentose in some sp.; in others, e.g. A. heterocarpum
J. Gay, there are two kinds of fruit, one many-seeded and dehiscent,
the other one-seeded indehiscent. (Solms in Bot. Zeit. 1901, p. 61.)

Aethusa Linn. Umbelliferae (6). 1 sp., A. Cynapium L. (fool’s

parsley), Eur. (incl. Brit.).

Afzelia Sm. (Intsia Thou.). Leguminosae (11. 3). 8 sp. trop. As., Afr.

Aganosma G. Don. Apocynaceae (11. 4). 4 sp. Ind. to Phil. Is.

Agapanthus L’Herit. Liliaceae (iv). 3 sp. S. Afr. A . umbellatus

L’Herit. common in gardens. Umbel cymose. Seeds winged.

Agapetes G. Don (incl. Paphia Seem.). Ericaceae (ill. 8). 30 sp.

Nepal to Austr. and Fiji.

Agathis Salisb. {Dammar a Lam.). Coniferae (Arauc. 1 a; see C. for
genus characters). 4 sp. Malaya to N.Z. Evergreen dioecious trees;
the fruit takes two years to ripen. Several of these plants give copals
or animes, hard resins used in making varnish, &c. A . Davimara
Rich. ( D . orientalis Lamb.) in the Malay and Phil. Is., yields
Manila copal. A. australis Steud. in Austr. and N.Z., is the Kauri
or Cowrie pine, yielding a similar resin (kauri-copal) ; the best pieces
are dug out of the soil, often at a distance from any trees now living.
(Cf. Wiesner, Die Rohstoffe, 2nd ed. pp. 253, 264.)

Agathosma Willd. Rutaceae (iv). 100 sp. S. Afr.

Agave Linn. Amaryllidaceae (11). 100 sp. trop. Am. and S. U. S.

A. americana Linn. (Century plant, Maguey or American aloe) is the
most familiar sp. There is a short stem, which grows in thickness in
a similar manner to that of Yucca, bearing a rosette of large fleshy
leaves coated on the surface wdth wax ; only two or three leaves are
formed in a year. During a period of from 5 to perhaps 100 years
(hence the name Century plant), depending on climate, richness of

15

W.

226

AGAVE

soil, &c., the plant is purely vegetative, and stores up in these leaves
an enormous mass of reserve materials. At length it flowers, a
gigantic terminal infl. coming rapidly out, sometimes reaching
a height of 20 feet, and bearing many flowers. When the fruit
is ripe the plant dies ; it is thus in a sense an annual.

Vegetative reproduction occurs in two ways — by suckers from the
base of the stem, and by the formation of bulbils in the place of many
of the flowers (p. 113).

The rush of sap to so large and so rapidly developed an infl. is
of course very great ; the Mexicans utilise it by cutting off the young
flower head and collecting the sap. As much as 1000 litres are said
to have been got from one plant. The fermented juice is termed
pulque, and is a national drink ; from it they distil a strong spirit
termed mescal (cf. Cocos).

Many sp. yield useful fibres. The best is sisal hemp or henequen,
given by A. rigida Mill. var. sisalana , cultivated in Yucatan, the
Bahamas, India, &c. Others yield fibres variously known as pita,
istle, ixtle, lechuguilla, keratto, &c.

See Rep. Miss. Bot . Gdn. 1896, p. 47; Kew Bull. 1892, p. 21,
Tropenpfl. 1899, p. 337 ; Dodge, Useful Fiber Plants (Bull. U. S.
Dpt. Agr. ), &c.

Agdestis M05. et Sesse. Phytolaccaceae. 1 sp. Mexico, Guatemala.

Ageratum Linn. Compositae (11). 30 sp. trop. all but one Amer.

A. conyzoides L., locally known as goatweed, is the commonest weed
in Ceylon and other parts of the eastern tropics.

Aggregatae (Warming). The 10th cohort of Sympetalae (p. 138).

Aglaia Lour. Meliaceae. 60 sp. Ind. to Austr.

Aglaonema Schott. Araceae (v). 10 sp. E. Ind. There are several

infl. forming a sympodium. Fir. monoecious, naked.

Agonis Lindl. Myrtaceae (2). 13 sp. Austr.

Agrimonia Tourn. ex Linn. Rosaceae (111. 9). 10 sp. N. temp.

A. Eupatoria Linn, and A. odorata Mill, (agrimony) in Brit. The
receptacle encloses the two achenes in fruit, and is covered with hooks
enabling carriage by animals.

Agriophyllum Bieb. Chenopodiaceae (6). 5 sp. Centr. Asia.

Agropyron J. Gaertn. Gramineae (xn). 35 sp. temp. A. caninum

Beauv. (wheat-grass) and A. repens Beauv. (twitch or couch-grass)
in Brit. The couch-grass is a very troublesome weed in agriculture.
It has a long rhizome, rooting at the nodes, and if broken up by
plough or harrow each node gives rise to a new plant.

Agrostemma Linn. = Lychnis Linn.

Agrostis Linn. Gramineae (vm). 100 sp. chiefly N. temp., 4 in Brit,

incl. A. alba L., the white Bent or florin grass, a valuable pasture-
grass with a creeping stem that roots at the nodes.

Agrostistachys Dalz. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 2). 7 sp. trop. As., Afr.

Agrostophyllum Blume. Orchidaceae (11). 5 sp. Indo-mal.

Agyneia Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. 1. 1). 2 sp. Indo-mal., Masc.

ALBIZZIA

227

Ailanthus Desf. Simarubaceae. 4 sp. Ceylon, Ind., China, Austr.
A . glandulosa Desf. (tree of heaven) is a favourite in parks.
Absciss layers are formed at the base of the leaflets as well as of
the main petiole; the leaflets usually drop first (p. 156).

Ainsliaea DC. Compositae (xn). 16 sp. India to Japan.

Ainsworthia Boiss. = Tordylium Linn.

Aiouea Aubl. Lauraceae (11). 8 sp. trop. Am.

Aira Linn. Gramineae (ix). n sp. chiefly Eur., Afr. , 2 in Brit,
(hair-grass). For A. caespitosa Linn, and A. flexuosa Linn, of the
British flora, see Deschampsia, and for A. canescens Linn, see
Corynephorus.

Airopsis Desv. Gramineae (ix). 1 or more sp. S. Eur., Afr.

Aizoaceae ( Ficoideae of Bentham and Hooker). Dicotyledons (Archichl.
Centrospermae). 18 genera with 420 sp. chiefly S. Afr., but also in
Calif., S. Am., trop. Afr. and As., Austr. They are nearly allied to
the other Centrospermae, but have been placed in various other
relationships by different authors (near Cactaceae by Bentham and
Hooker). Xerophytic herbs with opp. or alt. exstip. leaves, often
fleshy, and with cymes of firs. The anatomy is of interest (see Nat.
Pfl •). Typical formula P 5 or (5) (odd leaf posterior); A 5; G (3),
3-loc. with 00 ovules in each loc. Dedoublement is very common in
the androeceum, and in these cases, e.g. Mesembryanthemum, the
outer sta. are frequently represented by petaloid staminodes. The
ovary is usually sup. with axile placentae, but in Mesembryanthemum
it is inf., multiloc. with parietal placentae, a very unusual feature
brought about during development (see M.). Fruit usually a capsule ;
seed albuminous with curved embryo.

Classification and chief genera (after Pax) :

I. MOLLUG1NOIDEAE (perianth deeply 5-lobed : “petals”
or not : ov. sup.) : Mollugo, Orygia.

IL FICOIDEAE (perianth tubular):

1. Sesuvieae (ov. sup.; capsule with lid): Sesuvium,

Trianthema.

2. Aizoeae (do. ; capsule splitting) : Galenia, Aizoon.

3. Mesembryaiithemeae (ov. inf.) : Tetragonia, Mesembry-

anthemum.

Aizoon Linn. Aizoaceae (11. 2). 10 sp. Afr., Medit. Sta. 00 in bundles.

Ajuga Linn. Labiatae (1. 1). 30 sp. temp., 3 in Brit., incl. A. rcptans
L., the bugle, and A. Chamaepitys Schreb., the yellow bugle or
ground-pine. The sta. are protected by a large bract, and the corolla
has no upper lip. Vegetative reproduction by runners.

Akefoia Dene. Lardizabalaceae. 2 sp. China, Japan. A. quinata
Dene, is often cultivated. Its firs, are monoecious, the lower in
the raceme usually ? . The ? is much larger than the c? , a very
unusual thing. The berries dehisce like follicles.

Alangium Lam. Cornaceae. 7 sp. palaeotrop.

Albizzia Durazz. Leguminosae (1, 1). 50 sp. trop. and subtrop. Old

I5— : 2

2 28

ALB1ZZ1A

World. A. Lebbek Benth. (siris) and others yield valuable timber.
Some, e.g. A. stipulata Boiv. (sau) and A. moluccana Miq., are
used as shade for other cultivations, such as tea. The last named
is probably the most rapidly growing large tree in the world ; in good
soil it grows on an average io feet in height, and i foot in girth,
every year.

Albuca Linn. Liliaceae (v). 30 sp. Afr. Outer sta. often staminodes.

Alchemilla Linn. Rosaceae (111. 9). 40 sp. temp., and trop. Mts.

Fir. inconspicuous, with epicalyx, apetalous ; sta. 2 or 4; cpls. 1 — 4,
each with 1 ovule. Achenes enclosed in dry receptacle. A. arvensis
Scop, (parsley piert), A. vulgaris L. (lady’s mantle), and A. alpina
L. in Brit. The last covers large areas in the Highlands; it has hairy
leaves, more divided than those of A. vulgaris , and the change from
one type to the other is very noticeable in ascending the hills. The
firs, of all Brit. sp. are visited by flies. Some sp. are parthenogenetic
{cf. Angiospermae), and some show a kind of chalazogamic fertilisa-
tion {cf. Chalazogamae).

Alchornea Sw. Euphorbiaceae (A. II. 2). 30 sp. trop. A. (Coelebogyne)
ilicifolia Mull.-Arg. is only cultivated in the female form, but
produces good seed. Adventitious embryos are produced by the
budding of the nucellus tissue round the embryo-sac {cf. Funkia, and
Angiospermae).

Aldrovanda Monti. Droseraceae. 1 sp., A. vesiculosa L., Eur., As.
It is a rootless swimming plant, with whorls of leaves. Each of these
has a stalk portion and at the end of this a few bristles and a blade
like that of Dionaea (q.v.) provided with glands and trigger hairs.
Mucilage is also secreted by stellate hairs on the leaf. Small water
animals are captured and digested as in Dionaea (see Darwin, Goebel,
&c. and p. 178). Winter buds (p. 159) are formed in colder climates.

Alectorolophus Hall. = Rhinanthus Linn.

Aletris Linn. Liliaceae (ix). 8 sp. E. As. and N. Am. (Haemodo-

raceae, Bentham and Hooker).

Aleurites Forst. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 3). 5 sp. trop. and subtrop.

Extrafloral nectaries occur on the petiole and at the ends of the large
leaf-veins {cf. Groom, Ann. of Bot. 1894). A. triloba Forst. (candle
nut) and others are cultivated for their oil.

Alfredia Cass. = Carduus Linn, (same specific names).

Alhagi Tourn. ex Adans. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 3 sp. Steppes and

Medit. Thorny xerophytes. In the dry season the rootstock is blown
about by the wind. A honey-like sap exudes from all sp. in hot
weather, hardening into brownish lumps during the night (manna).

Alibertia A. Rich. Rubiaceae (1. 8). 20 sp. trop. Am.

Alisma Linn. (incl. Caldesia Pari.). Alismaceae. 6 sp. cosmop.
A. Plantago L., the water-plantain, in Brit. Sta. 6, due to doubling
of outer whorl, coherent at the base, forming a nectary. For A. natans
L. see Elisma.

Alismaceae. Monocotyledons (Helobieae). 10 gen. with 50 sp. temp.

AL0CAS1A

229

and trop. Mostly water or marsh herbs with perennial rhizomes.
Leaves various, erect, floating, or submerged and exhibiting structure
corresponding to their conditions of life (see p. 160 and Sagittaria,
Elisma, &c.). In the leaf axils are small scales. Laticiferous ves-
sels occur. Infl. usually much branched, the primary branching race-
mose, the secondary often cymose. Fir. $ or 6 ? , regular, with
perianth of 6 leaves in two whorls, the outer sepaloid, the inner
petaloid. Sta. 6-00 , with extrorse anthers. Cpls. 6-00 , apocarpous,
superior, with 1 (rarely 2 or more) anatropous ovule in each. Fruit
a group of achenes ; seed exalbuminous : embryo horse-shoe shaped.

Chief genera : Alisma, Elisma, Damasonium, Sagittaria. [Benth.-
Hook. unite A. with Butomaceae, placing them in Apocarpae.]

Alkanna Tausch. Boraginaceae (iv. 3). 30 sp. Medit. &c. The

root of A. tinctoria T. furnishes the red dye, alkanet or alkannin.

Allamanda Linn. Apocynaceae (1. 1). 12 sp. trop. Am. and W. Ind.

Alliaria Marsh. = Sisymbrium L. ( A . ojfic. DC. —S. Alliaria Scop.).

Allionia Loefl. Nyctaginaceae (1). 1 sp. Am. Anthocarp glandular

(cf. Pisonia).

Allium (Tourn.) Linn. Liliaceae (iv). About 250 sp. N. temp. A. nr -
sinum L. (garlic), A. Schoenoprasiun L. (chives), and 6 others, in Brit.
A. Cepa L. (Persia, &c.) is the onion, A . Porrurn L. (Eur.) the leek,
A . ascalonicum L. (Orient) the shallot, A. sativum L. (S. Eur.) the
garlic. All are bulbous herbs with linear (or hollow centric) leaves
and cymose umbels of firs. In many sp. the firs, are replaced by
bulbils serving for vegetative reproduction (cf. Lilium). In A. ar -
smu?n , &c. honey is secreted by the septal glands of the ovary ; the
protandrous fir. is visited by bees and flies.

Alloplectus Mart. (Crantzia Scop.) Gesneraceae (1). 35 sp. trop. Am.

Allosorus Bernh. = Cryptogramme R. Br.

Almeidea St. Hil. Rutaceae (v). 10 sp. Brazil.

Alnus (Tourn.) Linn. Betulaceae. 14 sp. N. temp. (A. glutinosa
Medic., the alder, in Britain.) Like Betula in most features. In the
axil of each bract of the <f catkin are 3 flowers (see diagram of the
order, and cf. other genera) each with 4 stamens and 4 perianth

leaves. The bracteoles a, /3, /3', ft are present. Stem.

(See diagram.) All these leaves are united with fir. fir. fir.
one another. In the ? catkin only two, the ft ft'

lateral, flowers occur, and the same bracts. After a
fertilisation, the ovary gives a one-seeded nut, bract.

under which is found a 5-lobed scale, the product of subsequent .
growth of the 5 leaves. The flower is chalazogamic (see p. 81 and
art. Chalazoga?nae).

Alocasia Neck. Araceae (vi). 20 sp. E. Ind. Herbaceous. Monoe-

cious. “ A . odora , C. Koch, is supposed by Delpino to be fertilised
by snails. The spadix is covered in its whole length with normal
and abortive stamens and pistils ; only ? flowers occur in the lower

230

ALOCASIA

wider part of the spathe, and they only are mature in the first period.
From this chamber an attractive odour issues, and the snails are
admitted by a narrow entrance. In the second stage this entrance
closes and the anthers dehisce. Snails which creep on to flowers in
this stage seek vainly for the entrance, and dust themselves with
pollen, which they carry to the stigmas of younger plants” (Muller).

Aloe Tourn. Liliaceae (ill). About 85 sp., mostly in Cape Colony,
and especially on the dry Karroo desert. The plant is usually of
shrubby or arborescent habit, the stem growing in thickness and
branching. The leaves are borne in dense rosettes at the ends of the
branches, and are usually very fleshy, with thick epidermis and some-
times a waxy surface. From them the drug is obtained ; they are
cut across and the juice collected and evaporated to the necessary
stiffness.

Alonsoa Ruiz et Pav. Scrophulariaceae (11. 3). 6 sp. S. Am.

Alopecurus Linn. Gramineae (vm). 20 sp. temp. A. pratensis L. (fox-
tail, a valuable pasture grass) and 3 others in Brit. Fir. protogynous.

Alphitonia Reissek. Rhamnaceae. 6 sp. New Cal., Austr., Moluc.

Alphonsea Hook. f. Anonaceae (1). 9 sp. trop. As.

Alpinia Linn. Zingiberaceae. 40 sp. trop. sub-trop. As., Austr., &c. The
flr. has a small tubular calyx, a corolla with short tube and three large
teeth, and a big labellum; the lateral staminodes are much reduced
or wanting. Anther lobes divided by broad connective.

Alsine Scop. = Arenaria Linn.

Alsodeia Thou. (Rinorea Aubl.) Violaceae : 40 sp. trop.

Alsomitra M. Roem. Cucurbitaceae (1). 11 sp. Indo-mal., Austr.,

S. Am.

Alsophila Br. Cyatheaceae. About 70 sp. trop. They are mostly large
tree ferns with naked sori (the only genus of C. with no indusium).
The pith of some sp. is eaten by natives of Australia, &c.

Alstonia R. Br. Apocynaceae (1. 3). 30 sp. E. As., Austr., Polynes.

Leaves in whorls. The bark has tonic properties.

Alstroemeria Linn. Amaryllidaceae (ill). 40 sp. esp. S. Am. The
leaves are twisted at the base so that the true upper surfaces face
downwards (the internal structure is also reversed). The capsule
splits explosively.

Alternanthera Forsk. Amarantaceae (4). 20 sp. Am., Austr.

Althaea (Tourn.) Linn. Malvaceae (11). 15 sp. temp. Old World. A.

officinalis L. (marsh mallow) and A. hirsuta L. occur in Brit. A.
rosea Cav. is the holly-hock.

Altingia Noronha. Hamamelidaceae. 2 sp. China to Java. Like
Liquidambar. The male firs, are reduced to naked sta., with
basifixed anthers dehiscing laterally, so that only by comparison with
related forms can it be shown that the spike of sta. is really an infl.
and not a flr.

Alyssum Tourn. Cruciferae (iv. 17). 100 sp. Medit., Eur.

A MAR YLLIDA CEAE

231

Amanoa Aubl. Euphorbiaceae (A. 1. 1). 6 sp. trop. Am., Afr.

Amarantaceae. Dicotyledons ( Archichl. Centrospermae). An order
so closely allied to Chenopodiaceae, that it seems scarcely just to
separate them. They differ chiefly in habit, the Am. not as a rule
being halo- or xero-phytes, and having larger leaves, rarely succulent.
The flrs. are in cymes in the axils of the leaves, so that the total
infl. is generally racemose. The typical diagram is the same as that
of the C. Perianth membranous. [For details, see Nat . PH .]
Classification and chief genera (after Schinz) :

A. AMARANTOIDEAE (anther 4-locular).

1. Celosieae (ovules >1): Celosia.

2. Amaranteae (ovule 1): Amaranthus.

B. GOMPHRENOIDEAE (anther 2 -locular).

3. Guillemineae (sta. perigynous): Guilleminea.

4. Gomphreneae (sta. hypogynous) : Gomphrena, Iresine.

Amaranthus Linn. Amarantaceae (2). 45 sp. trop. and temp.

(“love-lies-bleeding”). The infl. is often made up of an enormous
number of flrs. , is very conspicuous, and probably insect-fertilised.

Amaryllidaceae. Monocotyledons (Liliiflorae). 75 gen. with about
700 sp. mostly trop. and sub-trop. They resemble Liliaceae in
most respects but have an inferior ovary. Living, as they chiefly
do, in dry climates, they are mostly xerophytes. Many are bulbous,
leafing only in the wet season, others, e.g. Agave, &c., have fleshy
leaves covered with wax. A few (§ in) have ordinary leafy stems;
many have rhizomes. The infl. is usually borne on a scape and has
the usual spathe seen in Monocotyledons. It is always cymose, but
often umbel- or head-like in form by condensation of the flrs. Fir.
5 , regular or zygomorphic (transversely so in Anigozanthos). It has
an inf. ovary of 3 cpls. with axile placentae and 00 anatropous
ovules, 6 sta. with introrse anthers, 6 petaloid perianth-segments, and
in some cases (Narcissus and its allies) a corona, looking like an
extra perianth whorl, between the normal perianth and the sta.
Eichler looks on this as the combined ligular outgrowths of the
perianth leaves, Pax (Aforphologie p. 227 or Nat. Pft.) as the stipules
of the sta., giving a series of flrs. showing transitions from simple
stipular outgrowths on each sta. to a full corona (Caliphruria,
Sprekelia, Eucharis, Narcissus). The fruit is usually a capsule,
sometimes a berry. [Placed in Epigynae by Benth. -Hooker.]
Classification and chief genera (after Pax) :

I. AMARYLLIDOIDEAE (bulbous, scapigerous) : Hae-
manthus, Galanthus, Amaryllis, Crinum, Eucharis, Narcissus.

II. AGAVOIDEAE (rhizome; leaves fleshy, in rosettes):
Agave, Fourcroya.

III. HYPOXIDOIDEAE { rhizome; stem with small ordinary
leaves): Alstroemeria, Bomarea, Anigozanthos.

I V. CA MP YNEMA TOIDEA E (anthers extrorse) : Campy nema.

232

AMARYLLIS

Amaryllis Linn. Amaryllidaceae (i). i sp. A. belladonna L.,
Cape Colony. The flr. is rendered zygomorphic by the upward
curve of the sta. ; the style projects above the anthers, favouring
cross-pollination.

Amasonia Linn. Verbenaceae (ii). 6 sp. trop. Am.

Ambora Juss. = Tambourissa Sonn.

Ambrosia Linn. Compositae (v). 15 sp., 1 Medit., 14 Am. Heads

unisexual, the ? one-flowered. Fruit enclosed in the involucre.

Ambrosinia Linn. Araceae (vn). 1 sp. Medit.

Amelanchier Medic. Rosaceae (11. 4). 10 sp. N. temp.

Amellus Linn. Compositae (11 1). 9 sp. S. Afr.

Amentaceae = orders in cohorts 3, 7, 8, of Archichlamydeae.

Amethystea Linn. Labiatae (1. 1). 1 sp. Siberia.

Amherstia Wall. Leguminosae (11. 3). 1 sp., A. nobilis W all. (India),
remarkable for its splendid firs. Stalk and bracts as well as petals are
bright pink. Sta. united in a tube. Young shoots pendulous (p. 157).

Amianthium A. Gray = Zygadenus Michx.

Amicia H. B. et K. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 5 sp. Andes. In A. Zygo -

meris DC. the big stipules protect the bud.

Ammannia (Houst.) Linn. Lythraceae. 18 sp., wet places, cosmop.

Amini (Tourn.) Linn. Umbelliferae (5). 6 sp. Old World.

Ammobium R. Br. Compositae (iv). 2 sp. New S. Wales. A. alatum
R. Br. is often cultivated for its flower-heads, which, when dried, form
one of the many “everlastings.”

Ammpphila Host. Gramineae (vm). 1 sp. N. temp. (incl. Brit.),

A. ( Psamma ) arundinacea Host., common on sandy coasts (marram
grass). It is largely used to bind sand dunes, possessing a long
rhizome. After some years a light soil is formed in which fescue
and other plants take root, and gradually the whole is covered with
vegetation. The leaves curl up inwards in dry air, thus avoiding
transpiration (see order). [See p. 186.]

Amomum Linn. Zingiberaceae. 50 sp. trop. As., Afr., Austr.,
Polynes. The leafy stems rarely bear flrs. ; these are borne on other
axes springing directly from the rhizome. Many sp. furnish forms of
Cardamoms. See Elettaria.

Amorpha Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 6). 10 sp. N. Am. A. fruticosa

L. is common in shrubberies. The small flrs. are arranged in a
dense spike. Wings and keel are absent, the standard only remain-
ing; it folds round the stamen-tube at the base. The flr. is
protogynous with persistent stigma.

Amorphophallus Blume. Araceae (iv). 15 sp. E. Ind. There

is a corm-like rhizome, giving rise yearly to one enormous leaf
(in some sp. the stalk 15 feet long and the leaf 10 feet across)
and an equally gigantic infl. (in A. Titanum Becc. 3 feet high)
with <? flrs. above and ? below. Its dirty red and yellow colour,
and foetid smell, attract numbers of carrion flies by which it

ANA CARDIA CEAE

233

is fertilised ; they are often so deceived as to lay their eggs on the
spadix.

Ampelidaceae (or Ampelideae) = Vitaceae.

Ampelodesma Beauv. Gramineae (x). 3 sp. Medit. and Afr. The

leaves of A . tenax Link. (Algiers) are used like Esparto (Stipa).

Ampelopsis (Rich, in) Michx. = Vitis Linn. (A. hederacea DC. = V. hed. ;

A. quinquefolia Michx. =V. hed. ; A. Veitchii Hort. = V. inconstans).

Amphicarpaea Ell. Leguminosae (in. 10). 15 sp. trop. and temp.

N. Am., Japan, Himalaya. A. monoica Ell. and others have cleisto-
gamic firs, below, which give subterranean fruits like Arachis.

Ampliicome Royle. Bignoniaceae (11). 2 sp. Himal.

Amsinckia Lehm. Boraginaceae (iv. 2). 8 sp. W. Am.

Amsonia Walt. Apocynaceae (1. 3). 7 sp. N. Am., Japan.

Amygdalus (Tourn. ) Linn. = Prunus Tourn. ( A . communis L. =P.

Amygd. A. Persica L. = P. Pers.)

Amyris P.Br. Rutaceae (ix). 12 sp. trop. Am.

Anabasis Linn. Chenopodiaceae (10). 17 sp. Medit., As.

Anacampseros. Portulacaceae. 9 sp. S. Afr. Xerophytes with fleshy
leaves ; stipules represented by bundles of hairs protecting the young
leaves in the bud.

Anacamptis Rich. = Orchis Linn.

Anacardiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). 59 gen. with
500 sp., chiefly found in the tropics, but occurring also in the
Medit., Chino-Jap., N. Amer., and Andine regions. In habit they
resemble plants of other families, e.g. Rutaceae, Leguminosae, Sa-
pindaceae, &c., but their floral characters mark them off as a distinct
order. They are trees or shrubs with alt. exstip. leaves and
panicles of flrs. Resin -passages occur, but the leaves are not
gland-dotted (hence they cannot be confounded with Rutaceae).

The receptacle may be convex, flat or concave, and a gynophore
or other axial outgrowth may occur. The flr. is typically 5-merous,
but usually with reduction in the essential organs. The sta. are
generally less than 10, the cpls. most commonly 3, rarely (3).
Very often only one of the three is fertile, and frequently only one
cpl. is found at all. Ovule solitary, anatropous with dorsal raphe.
Fruit various. Endosperm. [Placed in Sapindales by B.-H.]
Classification and chief genera (after Engler) :

A. 5 free cpls. or 1. Leaf simple, entire:

I. MANGIFEREAE : Mangifera, Anacardium.

B. Cpls. united. Lf. rarely simple:

II. SPONDIEAE (ovules in each cpl.) : Spondias.

III. RHOIDEAE (one ovule only, ovary free): Pistacia,

Rhus.

IV. SEMECARPEAE [ do., ovary sunk in axis) : Semeearpus.

C. Cpl. 1. $ flr. naked. Lf. simple, toothed:

V. EOBIAIEEAE: Dobinea (only genus).

234

ANACARD1UM

Anacardium Linn. Anacardiaceae (i). 8 sp. trop. Am. A. occu

dentale L. is the Cashew-nut, largely cultivated. Its stem yields
a gum. The firs, are polygamous. Each has one cpl. which
yields a kidney- shaped nut with a hard testa containing a black acrid
juice. The nut is edible if the testa be carefully removed. Under it
the axis of the fir. swells up into a large pear-like body, fleshy
and edible, and so the seeds are distributed by animal agency.

Anacharis Rich. = Elodea Michx.

Anacyclus Linn. Compositae (vn). 12 sp. Medit.

Anagallis (Tourn.) Linn. Primulaceae (in). 12 sp. Eur., As., Afr.,
S. Am. 2 sp. in Brit., the pimpernels. A . arvensis L. is often
called ‘poor man’s weather-glass,’ because the firs, close in dull
or cold weather.

Anagyris Linn. Leguminosae (in. 2). 2 sp. Medit.

Anamirta Colebr. Menispermaceae. 7 sp. Indo-malaya. The
achenes of A . Cocculus Wight et Am. are known as “Cocculus indi-
cus” and are sometimes used to adulterate porter, &c. though they
contain an irritant poison. In the angles between the big veins of
the leaves are acaro-domatia covered with hairs (see p. 115).

Ananas Tourn. Bromeliaceae (1). 6 sp. trop. Am.; of these the

best known is A . sativus Schult., the Pine-apple. The stem is short
(terrestrial) and leafy, bearing a terminal infl. of a mass of firs, in
the axils of bracts. These, together with the axis and the fruits,
form a general fleshy mass after fertilisation, and the main axis
usually goes on beyond it and produces more green leaves — the ‘crown’
of the pine-apple. Seeds are rarely formed. [See Treas . of Bot.]

Anaphalis DC. Compositae (iv). 30 sp. Eur., As.

Anastatica Linn. Cruciferae (iv. 18). 1 sp., A. hierochuntina L.,

the Rose of Jericho. This plant inhabits the regions from Syria
to Algeria, where a long dry season occurs every year. While
the seeds are ripening the leaves fall off and the branches fold
inwards until the whole is reduced to a dry ball of wicker-work. In
this state it is easily loosened from the dry ground and it may be
blown bodily along by the wind, the fruits remaining closed. If it be
driven into water or on to wet soil, or in any case when the wet
season comes on, the hygroscopic nature of the twigs causes their
unfolding, and at the same time the capsules open and shed their
seeds. [See pp. no, 168.]

Anaxagorea St Hil. Anonaceae (3). 20 sp. trop. As., Am.

Anchusa Linn. Boraginaceae (iv. 3). 40 sp. Old World. A. officinalis
L. was formerly officinal and is widely scattered, occurring as an
escape in Brit.

Ancistrocladaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). Only genus
Ancistrocladus (y.z>.). The order is united with Dipterocarpaceae by
Bentham and Hooker, but separated by Gilg (in Nat . Pfl . 1894),
on the ground of the 1 -locular ovary, endosperm, &c.

ANEMONE

235

Anclstrocladus Wall. Ancistrocladaceae. 8 sp. trop. Afr., As. They
are lianes, with sympodial stem-structure, each member ending in a
tendril of a watch-spring pattern. Leaves alt., lanceolate, entire,
with minute stipules. Racemose infl. of £ regular flowers. K 5 with
unequal teeth ; C (5) very slightly united, convolute ; A 5 or 10. G,

1 -locular, with 1 basal erect semi-anat. ovule. Nut. Endosperm.

Andersonia R. Br. Epacridaceae. 20 sp. W. Austr. Incl. in Spren-
gelia in Nat. Pfi.

Andira Lam. (Vouacapoua Aubl.) Leguminosae (in. 8). 20 sp. trop.
Am. A . inermis H. B. et K. is one of the ‘ rain-trees’ (see Pitheco-
lobium).

Andrachne Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. 1. 1). 8 sp. Medit., China,

Cape Col., Am.

Androcymbium Willd. Liliaceae (1). 13 sp. Medit., S. Afr.

Andrographis Wall. Acanthaceae (iv. b). 20 sp. trop. As.

Andromeda Linn. Ericaceae (11. 4). 6 sp. boreal. A. polifolia L. in

peat bogs in Brit.

Andropogon Linn. Gramineae (11). 180 sp. cosrnop. A . Schoenanthus
L. (trop. As., Afr.) is the Rusa grass of India ; when distilled it yields
an aromatic oil known as Rusa oil or geranium oil. A variety of it
is the lemon grass, yielding lemon-grass oil. A. Nardns L. (trop. As.,
Afr., Austr., cult, in Ceylon) yields citronella-oil (for a full account
see Semi-ann. Rep., Schimmel and Co., Oct. 1898). All are largely
used in perfumery. A . squarrosus Linn. f. (A. viuricatus Retz.)
is the khus-khus of India, the roots of which are woven into fragrant
mats, baskets, and fans, which give off scent when they are sprinkled
with water. [A. Sorghum Brot. = S. vulgare Pers.]

Androsace (Tourn.) Linn. Primulaceae (1). 50 sp. N. temp., chiefly

alpine. Tufted xerophytic plants, often heterostyled like Primula.

Androsaemum Tourn. = Hypericum Linn.

Andryala Linn. Compositae (xm). 12 sp. Medit.

Aneilema R. Br. Commelinaceae. 60 sp. trop.

Aneimia Sw. Schizaeaceae. About 30 sp. trop. Am. The leaf divides
at the base, in a way which has been compared with the behaviour
of the fronds of Ophioglossaceae, into a sterile and a fertile portion.
The two lowest pinnae form a pair of panicles bearing sori (cf.
Osmunda), and resembling the infl. of many Spermaphyta.

Anemarrhena Bunge. Liliaceae (in). 1 sp. China.

Anemone Linn. Ranunculaceae (3). 90 sp. N. and S. temp. A. ne-

morosa L. (wood anemone) and A . Pulsatilla L. (Pasque flower)
in Brit. Herbs with rhizomes and ‘radical’ leaves. Firs, solitary
or in cymes, apetalous ; the involucre of green leaves in the common
Hepatica (A. Hepatica L. ) is so close to the flr. as to resemble a
calyx. The flr. of the first named sp. contains no honey, is white,
and visited for pollen by insects of low type ; that of the third is
blue and bee-visited, whilst in Pulsatilla there is honey secreted by

236

ANEMONE

staminodes and the long-tubed blue fir. is visited almost solely by
bees. The achenes of many sp. have hairs aiding wind-dispersal.

Anemonopsis Sieb. et Zucc. Ranunculaceae (2). 1 sp. Japan.

Anemopaegma Mart. Bignoniaceae (1). 25 sp. Braz.

Anethum Tourn. = Peucedanum L.

Angadenia Miers. Apocynaceae (iv. 4). 20 sp. trop. Am.

Angelica (Riv.) Linn. Umbelliferae (6). 20 sp. N. temp, and N. Z.

(p. 146). A. sylvestris L. in Brit. See Archangelica.

Angelonia Humb. et Bonpl. Scrophulariaceae (11. 3). 24 sp. trop. Am.

Angianthus Wendl. Compositae (iv). 22 sp. temp. Austr. Pleads

united into dense spikes or compound heads ( cf Echinops).

Angiopteris Hoffm. Marattiaceae (1). 1 sp. in many vars., A. evecta

Hoffm., Madag., Indo-Mal. Large ferns with the sori not united
into synangia as in most of the order. There is an annulus like that
of Osmundaceae at the apex of the sporangium. The roots arise close
to the apex and burrow downwards and outwards through the stem
and the leaf-bases, emerging a good way down.

Angiospermae. One of the two great divisions of Phanerogams or
Spermaphytes, distinguished from the Gymnosperms by the fact that
the carpels are invariably so infolded or arranged as to form an ovary
in which the ovules are borne. Further, the endosperm is formed
after fertilisation, instead of before it as in G.

All A. possess true flowers, the essential parts of which are
stamens and carpels. The former bear pollen sacs ( = micro-sporangia
of Pteridophyta, q.v .), the latter ovules ( = mega-sporangia). [See
Gymnosperms.] The pollen, in structure and development, closely
resembles both the microspores of Pt. and the pollen of G. ; but in
the carpels we find important differences. The ovule is always
enclosed in the carpel; it (cf. fig. 9, p. 81) has 2 integuments (or 1)
and in the nucellus we find as a rule one embryo-sac (more in some
Chalazogams, Loranthaceae, &c.), in which is one ovum, at the
upper (micropylar) end, not enclosed in an archegonium. On either
side of it is another naked cell ; these two are usually regarded as
abortive ova (synergidae). At the other end of the embryo-sac are 3
cells (antipodal cells), commonly supposed to represent another egg-
apparatus (the name often given to the ovum and synergidae) which
is now entirely abortive. In the centre of the sac is the large central
nucleus, formed as described on p. 80. Fertilisation occurs on the
arrival of the pollen-tube, one of the male nuclei in it fertilising the
ovum, the other uniting with the central nucleus or sometimes with
the upper nucleus before it has fused with the lower. The zygote
now forms the embryo, the central nucleus the endosperm (p. 104).
Opinions differ as to the homologies of the cells in the embryo-sac,
but the most favoured view is that cells formed before fertilisation
together represent a ? prothallus (cf. Pteridophyta, Gymnospermae,
and p. 54), whose full development into a nutritive body for the

A NO GEISS US

237

embryo is delayed until the stimulus of union with the seeond male
nucleus (cf. Gymnospermae).

The pollen-tube may enter by the micropyle or by the chalaza
(p. 81 and cf. Chalazogamae).

Parthenogenesis, or development of the ovum into an embryo
without fertilisation, occurs in Antennaria, Alchemilla, &c., embryo
formation by adventitious budding in Alchornea, Funkia, &c., apo-
gamy (cf Filicineae) in Balanophora.

A. are divided into Mono- and Di-cotyledons (q.v. and see
p. 124). See also Part I. and articles above quoted.

Angolaea Wedd. Podostemaceae. 1 sp. Angola.

Angophora Cav. Myrtaceae (11. 2). 4 sp. Austr.

Angraecum Bory (incl. Maci'oplectrum Pfitz.). Orchidaceae (31).
About 25 sp. trop. Afr., Madag. &c. Epiphytes ; monopodial.
The most interesting sp. is A. sesquipedale Thou., the wax-flower.
At the base of the labellum is an enormous spur, 12 to 14 inches
long, at the bottom of which the honey is secreted. As Darwin
observed ( Orchids , p. 162, q.v.), this flr. must have a corresponding
large insect, with a tongue of the same length, as its fertiliser. This
idea was ridiculed at the time, but moths with almost as long tongues
have since been found. The flr. and moth afford an interesting
example of mutual adaptation (cf Yucca, Ficus, &c.).

Anguillaria R. Br. Liliaceae (1). 2 sp. Austr., Tasm.

Anguloa Ruiz et Pav. Orchidaceae (18). 3 sp. Andes; epiphytic.

Anguria (Tourn.) Linn. Cucurbitaceae (11). 17 sp. trop. Am.

Anhalonium Lem. = Mammillaria Haw. (same spec, names). A. Wil -
liamsii Lem.= Echinocactus Williamsii.

Anigozanthos Labill. Amaryllidaceae (ill). [Haemodoraceae Benth.-
Hooker.] 10 sp. Austr. Flr. transversely zygomorphic (pp. 31, 73).

Anisacantha R. Br. (Bassia All. in Nat. Pfl.) Chenopodiaceae (5).
6 sp. Austr.

Anisacanthus Nees. Acanthaceae (iv. B.). 5 sp. Mex., Texas.

Anisadenia Wall. Linaceae. 2 sp. Himal.

Aniseia Choisy = Ipomoea Linn.

Anisochilus Wall. Labiatae (vn). 15 sp. trop. As., W. Afr.

Anisodus Link et Otto. = Scopola Jacq.

Anisomeles R. Br. Labiatae (vi. 4). 6 sp. Mauritius, Indo-Mal.

Anisophyllea R. Br. Rhizophoraceae. 5 sp. palaeotrop. It differs
from other R. in its drupe fruit, exalbuminous seed, and alt. exstip.
leaves, which are dimorphic in some sp.

Anisophyllum Haw.= Euphorbia Linn.

Anisoptera Korth. Dipterocarpaceae. 16 sp. Indo-Mal.

Anisotoma Fenzl. Asclepiadaceae (11. 4). 2 sp. S. Afr.

Anoda Cav. Malvaceae (11). About 16 sp. trop. Am.

Anodendron A. DC. Apocynaceae (11. 4). 7 sp. Ceylon to China.

Ancectochilus Blume. Orchidaceae (4). 8 sp. Indo-Mal.

Anogeissus Wall. Combretaceae. 4 sp. trop. Afr. and As.

238

A NO IGA N THUS

Anoiganthus Baker. Amaryllidaceae (1). 1 sp. Natal.

Anomatheca Ker-Gawl. = Lapeirousia Pourr. (same spec, names).

Anona Linn. Anonaceae (6). 60 sp. trop. Am., Afr., As. Frt. com-

pound, often very large, made up of the individual berries derived
from the separate cpls., sunk in, and united with, the fleshy re-
ceptacle. That of some cult. sp. is edible, e.g. of A. Cherimolia
Mill, (cherimoyer; trop. Am.), A. squamosa L. (sweet sop or sugar
apple; E. Ind.), A. muricata L. (sour sop; trop. Am.) and A .
reticulata L. (custard-apple or bullock’s heart ; trop. Am.).

A. rhizantha Eichl. (Braz.) gives off, near the ground, shoots
which creep as rhizomes below the soil, bearing scale leaves only.
The firs, are borne on branches of these which come above the ground.

Anonaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Ranales). 46 gen. 620 sp. chiefly
trop. (esp. Old World). Trees and shrubs (exc. one sp.) with
usually two-ranked undivided exstip. leaves. The stem is sometimes
sympodial, at least in the infl. Oil passages are present.

Firs, regular, $ (rarely unisex.), solitary or in infl. of various
types. The usual formula is P 3 + 3 + 3 (one or two outer whorls
sepaloid); Aoo (rarely few), spiral, hypogynous; Goo (exc. Monodora).
Ovules usually 00, ventral or basal, anatropous. Fruit commonly an
aggregate of berries ; where these are many-seeded they are frequently
constricted between the seeds. In Anona, &c. the berries coalesce
with the receptacle. Seeds with ruminate endosperm (the chief
character that separates A. from Magnoliaceae). Many sp. yield
valuable edible fruits, eg. Anona, Artabotrys.

Classification and chief genera (after Prantl) :

A. Perianth present ; flr. hypogynous.

a. Apocarpous.

1. Miliuscae (sta. not broadened above anther) : Miliusa.

2. Uvarieae (sta. broadened above anther; corolla imbricate):

Uvaria, Asimina, Guatteria.

3. Unoneae (ditto but valvate ; pets, usually spreading) :

Unona.

4. Melodoreae (as 3, but pets, erect, touching at edges) : Oxy-

mitra, Melodorum.

5. Mitrephoreae (as 3, but inner pets, stalked) : Mitrephora.

6. Xylopieae (as 3, but pets, hollow at base, and constricted

above it) : Xylopia, Artabotrys, Anona.

b. Syncarpous; ov. uniloc. with parietal plac.

7. Monodoreae: Monodora (only genus).

B. No perianth; flr. perigynous.

8. Eupomatieae : Eupomatia (only genus).

[Placed in Ranales by Benth.-Hook., in Polycarpicae by Warming.]
Anopterus Labill. Saxifragaceae (v). 2 sp. Austr., Tasm.

Anotis DC. Rubiaceae (1. 2). 20 sp. Indo-Mal., 1 S. Am.

Anplectrum A. Gray. (Diplectria Rchb. ) Melastomaceae (1). 17 sp.

Malayan.

ANTHURIUM

239

Ansellia Lindl. Orchidaceae (9). 4 sp. trop. Afr.

Antennaria Gaertn. Compositae (iv). 15 sp. extra-trop., exc. Afr.

A . dioica Gaertn. (mountain everlasting or cat’s foot) occurs in Brit.
It is a small creeping dioecious perennial, hairy and semi-xerophytic.
It is found chiefly on hills and at the sea-shore, but is not common
in intermediate places (p. 186). In A. alpina (L.) R. Br. only ?
plants usually occur, and these show true parthenogenesis , the ovum
developing into an embryo without fertilisation (not to be confused
with the vegetative budding of Alchornea).

Anthacanthus Nees. Acanthaceae (iv. b). 6 sp. W. Ind.

Anthemis Mich, ex Linn. Compositae (vn). 100 sp. Eur., Medit.

(4 in Brit. — chamomile). The frt. of A. arvensis L. has papillae on
its upper surface which become sticky when wetted (see Linum).

Anthephora Schreb. Gramineae (in). 5 sp. trop. Am. , trop. and S. Afr.

Anthericum Linn. Liliaceae (ill). 60 sp. Afr., Eur., Am.

Anthistiria Linn. f. Gramineae (11). 9 sp. palaeotrop. A . vulgaris

Hack. (Kangaroo grass) covers large areas in Austr. and S. Afr.

Anthobolus R. Br. Santalaceae, 5 sp. Austr. Hypogynous.

Anthocephalus A. Rich. Rubiaceae (1. 6). 3 sp. Malayan.

Anthocercis Labill. Solanaceae (v). 20 sp. Austr.

Amthocleista Afzel. Loganiaceae. 5 sp. trop. Afr.

Antholyza Linn. Iridaceae (in). 20 sp. Afr.

Anthospermum Linn. Rubiaceae (11. 17). 25 sp. Afr., Madag.

Anthostema A. Juss. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 8). 3 sp. trop. Afr. The

firs, are in a cyathium like that of Euphorbia, but the c? , reduced as
in E. to a single sta., has a perianth at the place where in E.
there is only a joint. (See E.) The $ also has a perianth.

Anthoxanthum Linn. Gramineae (vn). 4 sp. N. temp, and Ind. ;

A. odoratum L. (sweet vernal grass) in Brit., common in pastures
(? valuable). The stems contain large quantities of coumarin, to
which the smell (so characteristic of newly mown hay) is due ; it
may be easily recognized by chewing a stalk. Fir. with 2 sta. only,
protogynous. The awns of the fruit are hygroscopic.

Anthriscus Bernh. Umbelliferae (5). 10 sp. Eur., As., Afr., 2 in

Brit. ; A. sylvestris Hoflm. (chervil) is a very common weed.
A. Cerefolium HofFm. is the cult, chervil of France &c.

Anthurium Schott. Araceae (1). 300 sp. trop. Am. (see BoL Jahrb .,

XXV. p. 352). Most are sympodial herbs, with an accessory bud
always formed beside the ‘continuation’ bud of the sympodium.
Axillary shoot often ‘adnate’ to the main one (cf. Solanaceae &c.).
Aerial roots are frequently formed at the base of the leaves. Some
sp. live as epiphytes. Firs. $ , with perianth, protogynous, and
visited by insects, arranged in a dense mass upon a spadix, at whose
base is a flat usually brightly coloured spathe. The fruit is a berry
and when ripe is forced out of the spadix and hangs by two
threads formed from the perianth, so that it is easily obtained by

240

ANTHURIUM

birds, and thus distributed. In A, longifolium G. Don the root apex
has been observed to develope into a shoot (Goebel; see p. 32).

AnthyUis Riv. Leguminosae (ill. 4). 20 sp. Eur., N. Afr., W. Asia.

( A . vulneraria L., lady’s fingers or kidney-vetch, in Brit.). The
floral mechanism resembles that of Lotus; the stigma only becomes
receptive when rubbed.

Antiaris Lesch. Moraceae (11). 5 sp. E. Ind. A. toxicaria Lesch. is

the famous Upas-tree of Java. The latex contains a virulent poison.
Extraordinary stories of the effects of this were spread abroad about a
century ago. The surroundings of the tree, within a radius of several
miles, were said to be a total desert, the poisonous influence ema-
nating from the tree being fatal to all other forms of life. The noxious
volcanic valleys, containing quantities of carbon dioxide, are probably
responsible for the origin of these legends (see Treas . of Bot.).

Antielea Kunth. =Zygadenus Michx. (same spec, names).

Antidesma Burm. Euphorbiaceae (A. 1. 1). 70 sp. Old World trop.

Antigonon Endl. Polygonaceae (hi. 5). 4 sp. trop. Am. A. Leptopus
Hook, et Arn. is a (stem) tendril climber.

Antirrhinum Tourn. Scrophulariaceae (II. 5). 32 sp. N. Hemisph.

A. majus L. the snapdragon, is found wild in some parts of Brit.,
but is probably an escape from cultivation. The mouth of the flr. is
closed and the honey is thus preserved for bees, which alone are
strong enough to force an entrance.

Anychia Michx. Caryophyllaceae (II. 4). 2 sp. N. Am.

Aotus Sm. Leguminosae (ill. 2). n sp. Austr., Tasm.

Apera Adans. Gramineae (vm). 2 sp. Eur., W. As. A . (Agrostis)

Spica- Venti , Beauv., the silky bent-grass, in Brit.

Apetalae = Monochlamydeae or Incompletae (see p. 136).

Aphelandra R. Br. Acanthaceae (iv. B). 60 sp. trop. Am. Several

are cultivated for their showy firs, and coloured bracts.

Aphyllanthes Tourn. Liliaceae (in). 1 sp. Medit., A. monspeliensis'L.
The solitary flr. is surrounded by an involucre of bracts, and is re-
garded as the only remaining flr. of a head ; the other firs, are only
represented by their bracts (Engler).

Apicra Willd. Liliaceae (ill). 7 sp. S. Afr. Xerophytes, nearly related to
Aloe and Gasteria. Some, e.g. A. foliolosa Willd., show an extreme
superposition of leaves, and form almost solid masses of fleshy tissue,
biologically though not morphologically equivalent to a cactus.

Apios Moench. Leguminosae (in. 10). 5 sp. N. Am., China.

A. tuberosa Moench. is a favourite climber, a perennial with tuberous
base to the stem. The flowers are peculiar, the keel forming a tube
which bends up and rests against a depression in the standard. When
liberated by insects or otherwise the tension of the keel makes it
spring downwards, coiling up more closely. This causes the essential
. organs to emerge at its apex.

Apium (Tourn.) Linn, (inch Helosciadium Koch). Umbelliferae (5)*

APOCYNACEAE

24

14 sp. cosmop. 3 in Brit, of which A. graveole7is L., found in marshy
places near the coast, is the celery. The wild plant is poisonous, but
cultivation and the blanching (etiolation) of the leafstalks by heaping
earth over them, renders the garden form innocuous. The two other
sp. are common in ditches.

Aplopappus Cass. (. Haplopappns Endl.). Compositae (ill). 100 sp.
W. Am.

Apocarpae (Benth. -Hooker). The 6th series of Monocotyledons (p. 136).

Apoeynaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Contortae). 130 gen. and abt.
1000 sp., mostly trop. A few are temp.; Vinca minor gives the N.
limit in Eur. Erect plants are rare, the order consisting mainly of
twining shrubs ; in the tropics many grow to large lianes. The stem
has bi-collateral bundles; latex is always present. The leaves are
simple, usually opp., entire, rarely with small interpetiolar stipules.
The primary type of infl. is a panicle, but in its later branchings
it sometimes goes over into a dichasial cyme or a cincinnus. Bracts
and bracteoles are both present.

Fir. regular, 5- or 4-merous. K (5), deeply lobed, quin-
cuncial with odd sepal posterior; C (5), usually salver- or funnel-
shaped, often hairy within, convolute (valvate in a few rare gen.);
A 5, alternate with pets., epipetalous, with short included filaments;
anther lobes full of pollen to the base, or empty at base and pro-
longed into rigid spines. Disc usually present. Cpls. (2) or 2
(united by style) or more, superior, 1- or 2-locular when syncarpous.
Ovules 00 , anatropous, pendulous. Style usually simple with thick-
ened head. Fruit a berry, or more often 2 follicles. Seeds usually
flat and often with a crown of hairs serving for wind distribution
Endosperm or none ; embryo straight.

In the common A. with a large stylar head the stigma is at the
edge or under surface of the head and self- fertilisation is almost im-
possible. A very interesting mechanism is found in Apocynum andro -
saemifolium .

Classification and chief genera (after K. Schumann) :

I. PLUMIEROIDEAE (sta. free or only loosely joined to stylar
head; thecae full of pollen, rarely with spines; seeds usually
without hairs) :

1. Arduineae (syncarpous; style not split at base): Arduina,
Allamanda, Landolphia.

2. Pleiocarpeae (apocarpous ; style split at base ; more than
2 cpls.) : Pleiocarpa.

3. Plumiereae (ditto; 2 cpls.): Plumiera, Amsonia, Vinca,
Tabernaemontana, Cerbera.

II. ECHITOIDEAE (sta. firmly joined to stylar head; thecae

empty at base, and with spines ; seeds hairy) :

4. Echitideae (anthers included): Apocynum, Nerium, Stro-
phanthus, Dipladenia.

16

w.

242

APOCYNACEAE

5. Parsonsieae { anthers excluded) : Parsonsia, Lyonsia.

[Placed in Gentianales by B. and H.; Contortae by Warming.]
Apocynum (Tourn.) Linn. Apocynaceae (11. 4). 3 sp. Eur., As.,

N. Am. Of these the most interesting is A . androsaemifolium L., a
shrub often found in gardens under the name “American fly-trap,”
given to it because large numbers of flies are caught by the firs. The
mechanism resembles that of Asclepiadaceae. The ovary is crowned
by a disc, stigmatic on the lower side and surrounded by the rigid
lignified stamens. Honey is secreted at the base of the stamens
and an insect in withdrawing its proboscis usually brings it up the
narrow slit between two stamens. At the base of this is a drop
of cement and higher up the anthers dehisce laterally; thus the insect
withdraws the pollen on its proboscis, but considerable strength is
required and small insects are usually held fast. On a second visit
the pollen is scraped off upon the stigmatic surface. The seeds are
crowned with hairs for wind carriage.

Aponogeton Linn. f. Aponogetonaceae. 15 sp. Afr., Madag., As.,
Austr. Water-plants with sympodial tuberous rhizomes. Leaves
usually floating, but submerged ones occur in some sp., e.g. A.
(Ouvirandra) fenestrale Hook. f. Here the whole tissue of the leaf
between the veins breaks up as the leaf grows, leaving a network of
veins with holes between them. Close round the veins is a little
green tissue serving assimilatory purposes. The interior tissue does
not contain the intercellular spaces characteristic of most water-plants,
and Goebel (. PflanzmbioL Schild. II. p. 319) suggests that this is
because the holes in the leaf render all parts of it easily accessible to
the water with its dissolved gases. Young leaves in the bud show no
trace of this phenomenon. [See p. 160.]

The firs, project above the water, and are arranged in spikes ; the
spathe is early thrown off. Some sp. have a perianth of 3 leaves, but
usually it is of only 2 leaves or even 1, as in the Cape pond-weed
(A. distachyum Thunb.) now so much cultivated for its sweet-scented
firs. The one leaf is attached to the axis of the spike by a broad
base and looks like a bract. In this sp. the sta. are 00 and cpls.
3 — 6, but in most we find A 3 + 3, G 3. Ovules 2 or 00 in each,
anatropous, erect. Fruit leathery. Embryo straight.

Aponogetonaceae. Monocotyledons (Helobieae). Only genus Apono-
geton (</•&.). They are distinguished from Potamogetonaceae by the
coloured perianth and straight embryo, from Juncaginaceae by the
perianth and the sympodial structure. Benth. -Hooker place them
in Naiadaceae with several other orders here treated separately.

Apostasia Blume. Orchidaceae (1). 4 sp. E. Ind. to Austr. Fir.

almost regular, diandrous; ovary 3-locular.

Aquifoliaceae Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). 5 gen. 180 sp.
chiefly Amer. Shrubs and trees with leathery alt. leaves and minute
stipules. Infl. cymose. Fir. regular, unisexual, 3 — 6-merous with no

ARACEAE

243

disc. Usual formula K4, C 4, A 4, 0(4), 4-locular, with 1 or 2
pendulous anatropous ovules in each. Drupe. Endosperm. Chief
genus: Ilex. [A. = Ilicineae B. and H. (coh. Olacales); placed in
Frangulinae by Warming.]

Aquilegia (Tourn.) Linn. Ranunculaceae (2). 50 sp. N. temp.

(A. vulgaris L., the columbine, in Brit.). The petals are prolonged
into long spurs (cf. Delphinium), secreting honey that is only ac-
cessible to long-tongued insects. Sta. often 50 or more, in whorls
of 5. Fir. protandrous, fertilised by humble-bees.

Arabis Linn. Cruciferae (iv. 15). 100 sp. N. temp., S. Am. 5 Brit,

(rock-cress).

Araceae ( = Aroideae Benth. -Hooker). Monocotyledons (Spathiflorae).
105 gen. with abt. 1000 sp. trop. and temp, but chiefly trop.
(92 °/0). Many types of vegetative habit occur in the order — herbs
large and small, with aerial stems, tubers or rhizomes, climbing
shrubs, climbing epiphytes, marsh plants, one water plant (Pistia) &c.
In a few Pothoideae (the oldest group) the stem is monopodial, but
in most A. it is sympodial. Each joint of the sympodium begins as
a rule with one or more scale leaves before bearing foliage leaves.
Accessory (collateral) buds are often found in the leaf axils. Some-
times, as in Anthurium, Philodendron &c., the axillary shoot is
‘ adnate ’ to the main axis for some distance (cf. Solanaceae, Zostera
&c.). The buds usually appear in the leaf axils, but often get
pushed to one side, and sometimes {e.g. Pothos) break through the
leaf-bases as in Equisetum.

The leaves show many types. Pinnately and palmately divided
leaves are frequent, but their development is not like that of such
leaves in Dicotyledons. Holes are present in the leaves of Monstera.
See Alai. PJl. for details, and genera Monstera, Rhaphidophora,
Philodendron, Helicodiceros, Dracontium, Zamioculcas &c.

The roots are adventitious and mostly formed above ground in
the larger forms. Two types of aerial root occur — climbing roots
and absorbent roots. The former, like those of ivy, are insensitive to
gravity but show great negative heliotropism ; they consequently
cling closely to the support and force their way into all the crevices
of its structure. The latter are insensitive to light, but respond
markedly to gravity ; they therefore grow down to the soil and enter
it, branching out below ground and taking up nourishment.

The larger tropical A. show interesting stages in the development
of epiphytism (see p. 173). The climbing forms grow to considerable
size and form longer and longer aerial roots as they grow upwards.
The original roots at the base of the stem thus become of less and
less importance and it not uncommonly happens that they die away
together with the lower end of the stem, so that the plant thus
becomes an epiphyte. Of course, as it still obtains its water <fcc.
from the soil, it is not an epiphyte in the sense that e.g. many

16 — 2

244

ARACEAE

Orchids or Bromeliaceae are such, and it is evident that if this
method of becoming epiphytic were the only one found in the order,
these plants could with no more justice be classed as true epiphytes
than the ivy which may often be seen in the ‘ bowls * of pollard
willows in Europe (see p. 174), and which has got there by climbing
up the trunk and dying away below. It is found however that some
sp. of Philodendron, Pothos &c. are able to commence life as epi-
phytes. The fleshy fruit is eaten by birds and the seed dropped on a
lofty branch. The seedling forms clasping roots and dangling aerial
roots which grow steadily down to the soil, even if it be 100 feet
or more away. It is hardly possible to suppose that these true
epiphytic sp. have been evolved in any other way than from former
climbing sp. The leaves of Philodendron cannifolium Schott have
swollen petioles full of large intercellular spaces lined with mucilage.
When rain falls these become filled with water and act as storage
reservoirs. Lastly, some sp. of Anthurium &c. are true epiphytes
without any connection with the soil (eg. A . Hiigelii Schott — A.
Hookeri Kunth.); they have clasping roots, and also absorbent roots
which ramify amongst the humus collected by the plant itself. The
aerial roots of some Araceae possess a velamen like that of Orchids.
[For further details see p. 173, and Schimper’s Epiph. Veg.
Amerihas.]

The firs, are without bracts and are usually massed together on a
cylindrical spadix enclosed in a large spathe; the spadix usually
terminates a joint of the sympodium (the ‘continuation’ bud is gene-
rally in the axil of the leaf next but one before the spathe), so that
there is only one formed each year. Fir. g or monoecious (dioecious
in Arisaema), with or without a perianth. Sta. typically 6 but
usually fewer (down to 1), often united into a synandrium (e.g.
Colocasia, Spathicarpa) ; in Ariopsis the synandria are again united
to one another. Staminodes are often present, and these also may be
fused into a synandrodium as in Colocasia. The gynoeceum shows
almost every possible variety of structure ; it is frequently reduced to
1 cpl. Fruit a berry. The outer integument of the seed is often
fleshy. Endosperm or none.

The firs, are usually protogynous (even when monoecious). In
many genera (incl. most in Eur.) the smell is disagreeable and
attracts carrion flies as pollen carriers (see Arum, Dracunculus,
Helicodiceros &c.).

Many A. contain latex, which is usually poisonous but is dis-
pelled by heat. The rhizomes of many sp. contain much starch and
are used as food (Caladium, Colocasia, Arum &c.).

Classification and chief genera (after Engler):

The grouping of the A. is very difficult and account has to be taken
of histological as well as external characters.

I. POTHOIDEAE (land pits.; no latex or raphides; leaves

ARALIA

245

2 -ranked or spiral ; lateral veins of 2nd and 3rd order netted ;
firs, usually 5): Pothos, Anthurium, Acorus.

II. MONSTEROID EAE (land pits.; no latex; raphides; lat.
veins of 3rd, 4th, and sometimes 2nd orders netted; fir. $,
usually naked ; ovule anatrop. or amphitrop.) : Rhaphido-
phora, Monstera, Spathiphyllum.

III. CALLOIDEAE (land or marsh pits.; latex ; fir. usually 9 ;

ovule anatrop. or orthotrop.; If. never sagittate, usually
net-veined): Symplocarpus, Calla.

IV. LASIOIDEAE (land or marsh pits.; latex; fir. g or 3 ? ;

ovule anatrop.; seed usually exalbum.; if. sagittate, often
much lobed, net-veined) : Dracontium, Amorphophallus.

V. PHILODENDROIDEAE (land or marsh pits.; latex; fir.

naked, unisex.; ovule anatrop. or orthotrop.; seed usually
album.; If. usually || -veined) : Philodendron, Zantedeschia.

VI. COLOCASIOIDEAE (land or marsh pits. ; latex ; fir. naked

unisex.; sta. in synandria; ovule orthotrop. or anatrop.;
seed album, or not; If. net-veined) : Remusatia, Colocasia.

VII. AROIDEAE (land or marsh pits.; latex; fir. unisex.,

usually naked ; sta. free or in synandria ; ovule anatrop.
or orthotrop. ; seed album. ; leaves various, net-veined ;
stems mostly tuberous) : Spathicarpa, Arum, Dracunculus,
Helicodiceros, Arisaema.

VIII. PISTIOIDEAE (swimming pits.; no latex; fir. unisex.,

naked ; 3 firs, in a whorl, ? solitary) : Pistia (only genus).
Engler gives a genealogical tree of these groups, showing also
their relation to Lemnaceae, thus
Monsteroideae

| ( Calloideae Philodendroideae.

Pothoideae J Lasioideae.

[ Aroideae ->■ Pistioideae LEMNACEAE.

\

Colocasioideae.

For further details of this most interesting order, see the account
in Nat. PJi . (by Engler), from which much of the above is abridged.
[Placed in Spadiciflorae (Eichl. Warm.), Nudiflorae (B. & H.).]
Arachis Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 7 sp. Braz. A . hypogaea L. is

the earth-, ground-, or pea-nut, largely cultivated in warm regions for
its seeds, which are edible and which when pressed yield one of the
many oils used in place of, or to adulterate, olive oil. The fir.
after fertilisation bends downwards (cf. Linaria) and the elongation
of its stalk forces the young pod under ground, where it ripens.
Aralia Tourn. Araliaceae. 30 sp. N. Hemisph. The root of A .
Ginseng Baill. ( A . qninquefolia auct.) is the source of the famous
Chinese medicine Ginseng. It is much valued in China as a tonic

A R ALIA

246

and stimulant, but is said to be devoid of medicinal value. For
A. papyrif era Hook, see Fatsia.

Araliaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Umbelliflorae). 51 gen. 400 sp.
mostly trop., the chief centres being the Indo-mal. region and trop.
Am. Mostly trees and shrubs ; some are almost like palms in habit
(p. 155). Many twine, others (e.g. Hedera) climb by aid of roots.
Leaves usually alt., often large and compound, with small stipules.
Firs, small, in umbels which are frequently massed into large com-
pound infls. Fir. $, regular, epigynous, usually 5 (3-00 )-merous.
K5, very small; C5; A 5; 0(5), 5-locular, with 1 anatrop. pendulous
ovule in each, the micropyle facing outwards. Styles free or united.
Fruit usually a drupe with as many stones as cpls. Embryo small in
rich endosperm. Chief genera: Fatsia, Hedera, Aralia, Panax.

[Placed in Umbelliflorae (Eichl. Warm.), Umbellales (B. and H.)]
Araucaria Juss. Coniferae (Arauc. ib; see C. for genus characters).
10 sp. S. Am., Austr., divided into 2 sections. To § 1, Colymbea
(leaves broad, fruiting cpls. not winged), belongs A . imbricata Pav.
(Chili), the monkey-puzzle of our shrubberies. Its seeds are edible
and the wood is useful. A . Bidwilli Hook. (Austr.), the Bunya-
Bunya pine, also belongs to this section. To § 2, Eatacta (needle
leaves, scales winged), belong A . excelsa R. Br., the Norfolk I. pine,
and others.

Araucariaceae. An order of Coniferae (y. v.).

Araujia Brot. Asclepiadaceae (11. 2). 10 sp. S. Am.

Arbutus (Tourn.) Linn. Ericaceae (n. 6). 20 sp. Medit., Orient.,

N. Am. A. Unedo L., the strawberry tree, is abundant at Killarney.
The frt. (a dry berry) resembles a strawberry at a distance. It ripens
in the second year, so that fir. and frt. occur together on a tree.
Arceuthobium Bieb. Loranthaceae (2). 9 sp. N. temp. See Nat.

Pft. and Johnson in Ann. of Bot. II., p. 137.

Archangelica Hoffm. Umbelliferae (6). 7 sp. N. temp. The petioles
of A . officinalis Hoffm. are used in confectionery (angelica).
Archegoniatae. A term used to designate that division of the Veg.
Kingdom in which the ? cell (ovum) is contained in an archegonium ,
i.e. a flask-shaped organ with a neck formed of one layer of cells. It
includes the Bryophyta and Pteridophyta.

Archichlamydeae. One of the two primary divisions of Dicotyledons
(p. 126).

Archontoplioenix H. Wendl. et Drude. Palmae (iv. 6). 3 sp.

E. Austr.

Arctium Linn. Compositae (xi). 1 sp., A . Lappa L., the burdock,

often split into 4 sp., Eur. (incl. Brit.), As. The involucral bracts
become hooked and woody after the firs, wither, and aid in seed
distribution. They adhere to the fur or clothes, but are soon torn
from their hold and the plant springs back again without parting from
them, jerking out the fruits.

ARG YROLOBIUM

247

Arctostaphylcs Adans. Ericaceae (11. 6). 18 sp. chiefly N. Am.
Two are circumpolar and occur in Brit, (alpine). A. Uva-ursi
Spreng., the red bearberry, is common in the Highlands, especially
on wind-swept ridges and dry places. A. alpina Spreng., the black
bearberry, is rarer. The former is evergreen, the latter not. On
this account and because of its soft berry it is sometimes placed in a
separate genus Arc tons Niedz. The berries form one of the principal
foods of grouse &c. The firs, appear as soon as the snow melts;
they resemble those of Erica in structure and mechanism.

Arctotis Linn. Compositae (x). 58 sp. Afr., Austr.

Arctous Niedz. See Arctostaphylos.

Ardisia Sw. Myrsinaceae (11). 200 sp. Some show ‘vivipary’ like

Rhizophora (y. v.).

Arduina Mill. =Carissa Linn.

Areca Linn. Palmae (iv. 6). About 15 sp. Malacca to New Guinea.
A. Catechu L. is largely cultivated in trop. As. for its seeds (Areca
or Betel nuts). The infl. is below the oldest living leaves, monoecious,
with the ? firs, at the bases of the twigs, the $ above. The seed
is about as big as a damson ; it is cut into slices and rolled up
in a leaf of Betel pepper ( Piper Betle) with a little lime. When
chewed, it turns the saliva bright red ; it acts as a stimulus upon
the digestive organs, and is supposed by the natives (who use it
habitually) to be a preventive of dysentery. For A . oleracea Jacq.
see Oreodoxa.

Arenaria Linn. (incl. Alsine Scop., Cherleria Hall., Honckenya Ehrh.,
Moehringia L.). About 150 sp. cosmop. 8 in Brit, (sandworts), of
which the most noteworthy is A. ( Honck .) peploides L. the sea-
purslane, common on sandy coasts. It has long creeping stems below
the sand, bearing scale leaves ; the green leaves are fleshy with water
storage tissue (p. 186). A . Cherleria Hook. (C. sedoides L.), the
cyphel, is a tufted alpine plant (p. 183) common in the Highlands.

Arenga Labill. Palmae (iv. 6). About 8 sp. E. Ind. Like Caryota,
but the spadix unisexual. Sta. 00, cpls. 3. A. saccharifera Labill.,
the Gomuti palm, is largely cultivated as a source of palm sugar
(jaggery), obtained by evaporation of the sap that flows from wounds
made in the young infl. The tree only flowers once. A variety of
sago is obtained by washing and granulating the pith.

Arethusa Gronov. Orchidaceae (4). 2 sp. Japan and N. Am.

Aretia Hall. Merged in Androsace L. (12 sp. Eur., Siber.).

Argania Roem. et Schult. Sapotaceae (1). 1 sp. A . Sideroxylon R.

& S., in Morocco. The fruit is eaten by cattle ; the pressed seeds yield
Argan oil, used instead of olive oil.

Argemone Toum. Papaveraceae (11). 6 sp. trop. Am.

Argyreia Lour. Convolvulaceae (1. 4). 25 sp. trop. As., Afr.

Argyrolobium Eckl. et Zeyh. Leguminosae (in. 3). 40 sp. Afr., Medit.,
Ind. Mostly xerophytes.

ARIOPSIS

248

Ariopsis T* Grah. Araceae (vi). 1 sp. E. Ind., A . pcltata J. G.,

a small tuberous herb with hood -like spathes whose openings face
downwards so that the firs, are protected from rain &c. The
few ? firs, are at the base of the spadix, the <f above. This part
is full of round holes leading into pear-shaped cavities surrounded
each by a synandrium of 6-8 sta. The synandria are fused to each
other so that the surface of the spadix is continuous from the opening
of one fir. to that of the next.

Arisaema Mart. Araceae (vii). 50 sp. As., Abyss., N. Am. Like
Arum, but dioecious. It is said to be fertilised by snails (ct,
Alocasia).

Arisarum (Tourn.) Targ. Araceae (vii). 3 sp. Medit.

Aristea Soland. Iridaceae (11). 14 sp. S. Afr., Madag.

Aristida Linn. Gramineae (vm). 100 sp. temp, and sub-trop.

Aristolochia Tourn. Aristolochiaceae. 180 sp. trop. and temp. They
are herbs with rhizomes, or twining lianes. Of the latter A. Gigas
Lindl., the pelican flower, is often grown in hot-houses for the sake
of its enormous firs. Many trop. sp. have a small leaf surrounding the
stem at the base of each ordinary leaf, and looking like a stipule. This
is really the first leaf of the axillary shoot, which grows very rapidly
at first. In other cases this leaf remains small and its shoot does not
develope, so that it looks like an interpetiolar stipule. In most sp.
several buds are formed in each leaf axil ; the firs, usually come from
the upper ones.

A. Cleviatitis L. (birthwort) occurs as an escape in Brit. The
perianth is tubular, hooded at top, and enlarged below round the
gynostemium; this has 6 sessile extrorse anthers below and as many
stigmatic lobes above (these are really not the true stigmas, but the
connectives of the anthers, which have assumed stigmatic functions).
The young fir. stands erect and the perianth-tube contains numerous
hairs, which are jointed at the base in such a way that they can easily
be bent downwards but not upwards. There is no honey. Small
flies enter the fir. at this stage and find the stigmas ’ripe, so that
if they bear pollen from other firs, fertilisation takes place. They are
unable to escape until in the course of a day or two the pollen is shed,
and then the hairs wither, the fir. at the same time bending down-
wards (cf. Arum). In A. Sipho L’Herit. (Dutchman’s pipe) ,the
perianth is bent like a siphon and has a polished interior surface.
The mechanism of all A. wants further investigation. It seems
probable that there is a large amount of self-fertilisation.

Aristolochiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Aristolochiales). 5 gen.
with 200 sp., trop. and warm temp., except Austr. Herbs or shrubs,
in the latter case usually twining lianes. Leaves alt., stalked, often
cordate, usually simple, exstipulate. Fir. $ , epigynous, regular or
zygomorphic. P. usually (3), petaloid. Sta. 6 — 36, free, or united
with the style into a gynostemium (cf. Asclepiads, Orchids &c.).

AR THR O PODIUM

249

Ovary 4 — 6-loc. ; ovules 00 in each loc., anatropous, horizontal or
pendulous. Capsule. Embryo small in rich endosperm. The A.
are difficult to place in the natural system. They have been put near
Dioscoreaceae, though they are not monocotyledonous. Benth. -Hooker
place them in Multiovulatae Terrestres, Eichler (Warming) in Hyste-
rophyta. Chief genera: Asarum, Aristolochia.

Aristolochiales. The 8th cohort of Dicot. Archichl. (see p. 127).

Aristotelia L’Herit. Elaeocarpaceae. 10 sp. S. temp.

ArmeriaLinn. Plumbaginaceae. sosp.N. temp, and andine. A . vulgaris
Willd., the thrift or sea pink, is common on the coast of Brit, and in
high mountain regions of Scotland (see p. 187). The primary root is
perennial; each year’s shoot dies down all but a short piece, on which
the following year’s shoot arises as an axillary branch. The infl.
is a capitulum of cincinni, surrounded by a whorl of bracts, the
outer ones forming a sheath round the top of the peduncle. After
fertilisation the calyx becomes a membranous funnel-like organ aiding
seed-distribution by wind.

Arnebia Forsk. Boraginaceae (iv. 4). 12 sp. Medit. , Himal. .Some

have black spots on the corolla, which fade out as it grows older (see
order, and cf. Diervilla, Fumaria &c.).

Arnica Rupp. Compositae (vm). 18 sp. N. temp, and arctic.

Arnoseris Gaertn. Compositae (xm). 1 sp., A . pusilla Gaertn., in

Eur. (incl. Brit.). The bases of the involucral bracts enclose the ripe
fruits (cf. Rhagadiolus).

Aroideae (Benth. -Hook. ) = Araceae.

Arrhenatherum Beauv. Gramineae (ix). 3 sp. Eur., Medit. A.avena-
ceum Beauv., the false oat-grass or French rye-grass, in Brit.

Artabotrys R. Br. Anonaceae (6). 23 sp. Old World trop. They are

cultivated for their sweetly scented firs, and edible fruit. They
usually climb by aid of recurved hooks, which are modified inflo-
rescence-axes.

Artanthe Miq. = Piper Linn, (usually same spec, names; A . elongata
Miq. =P. angustifolium).

Artemisia Linn. Compositae (vn). 200 sp. N. Hemisph., very

common on the arid soil of the western U.S., the Steppes &c.
4 in Brit, (wormwood). Fir. -heads small, inconspicuous, and wind
fertilised (cf. Poterium, Rheum and Rumex, Plantago, Thalictrum,
&c.). In A. vulgaris L. the marginal florets are ? , the rest g . The
head is pendulous ; the anther-tube projects beyond the corolla, so
that the dry powdery pollen is exposed to the wind. On the tips of
the anthers are long bristles which together form a temporary pollen-
holder. Afterwards the style emerges and the large hairy stigmas
spread out. The flr. affords a very interesting case of reacquisition of
a character not found in most higher flowering plants.

Arthraxon Beauv. Gramineae (11). 9 sp. trop. Old World.

Arthropodium R. Br. Liliaceae (hi). 8 sp. Austr., N.Z., New Caled.

250

ARTHR0TAX1S

Arthrotaxis Endl. = Athrotaxis D. Don.

Artocarpus Forst. Moraceae (n). 40 sp. Ceylon to China and Malay

Arch. Many sp. show good bud-protection (p. 157) by the stipules.
A . laciniata Hort. has large drip-tips (p. 143 and art. Ficus). Firs,
monoecious, the S in pseudo-catkins, the ? in pseudo-heads. A
multiple fruit is formed, the achenes being surrounded by the fleshy
perianth and the common receptacle also becoming fleshy. The fruit
contains much starch &c. and is a valuable food-stuff. Several sp.
are cultivated all over the Trop., e.g. A. incisa L. (Bread-fruit tree)
and A. integrifolia L. (Jack tree). The flesh has the texture of
bread and is roasted before being eaten. The best cultivated forms
(cf. pear, banana &c.) produce no seeds.

Arum (Tourn.) Linn. Araceae (vn). 15 sp. Eur., Medit. A. macu -

latum L. (cuckoo-pint, wake-robin, or lords and ladies) in Brit. It
is a perennial, tuberous plant with monoecious firs.; ? firs, at base
of spadix (each of 1 cpl., naked) and S above (each of 2 — 4 sta.), and
above these again rudimentary d firs, represented by hairs which pro-
ject outwards and close the mouth of the spathe. The foetid smell
attracts small flies, which enter the spathe, find the stigmas ripe, and
are kept prisoners till the pollen is shed ; then the hairs wither and
escape is possible (cf. Aristolochia). Fruit a berry. The starch of the
tubers was formerly used as food under the name Portland arrow-
root, but it is very difficult to get rid of the poisonous juices accompany-
ing it. Other species are similarly used in Eur.

Arundinaria Michx. Gramineae (xm). 25 sp. As., Am. Like Bam-
busa.

Arundo Tourn. Gramineae (x). 3 sp. trop. and temp. For A.

Phragmites L. (Brit.) see P. communis. The stems of A. Donax L.
are used for sticks, fishing-rods &c.

Asarum (Tourn.) Linn. Aristolochiaceae. 13 sp. N. temp. A.
etiropaeum L., the asarabacca, is wild in Brit. , but only as an escape
from cultivation, it having been formerly medicinal. There is a
rhizome below ground and creeping shoots above; the latter are
sympodial, each annual joint bearing several scale leaves below,
then two green leaves and a terminal fir. Fir. regular; P (3), some-
times with 3 small teeth between the segments (perhaps remnants of
a former inner whorl); A 12; G(6). The dark-brown, resinously
scented fir. is visited by flies, and is very protogynous; when the
stigmas are ripe the sta. are all bent away, but later on they move up
to the centre and dehisce extrorsely. The perianth lobes are bent in
at first towards the centre of the fir. and form a sort of prison of it,
but afterwards gradually straighten themselves. Muller regards the
fir. as representing a stage in the development of the Aristolochia
prison.

Asclepiadaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Contortae). 218 genera with
over 1300 sp. They are mostly confined to the Tropics (esp. Afr.),

ASCLEPIADA CEAE

251

but there are a few in temp, regions. In vegetative habit they
resemble Apocynaceae ; some are perennial herbs, but the most are
climbing shrubs or lianes, with simple, entire, opposite, exstipulate
leaves. Latex is present. A large number, especially of the S. Afr.
sp., are xerophytic ; some, e.g. Periploca, with much reduced leaves,
others, e.g . Hoya, and still more, Stapelia, with fleshy stems. Epi-
phytes also occur, of which the most interesting is Dischidia.

The infl. usually includes many firs, and may be cymose or
racemose (raceme or umbel). In the former case it is a dichasium,
but as in Caryophyllaceae the one branch tends to outgrow the other,
and a monochasial (cincinnus) arrangement may arise in the later
branchings. When the infl. is axillary, there is usually only one at
each node; in the axil of the other leaf there is a vegetative shoot, or
nothing. In some of the genera (see Asclepias) the infl. is extra-
axillary. The flr. is $, regular, 5-merous, usually small. K5,
quincuncial, the odd sepal posterior; C(5) usually rotate or cam-
panulate, with convolute or valvate aestivation. The essential organs
(5 sta., 2 cpls.) form a complex structure. The sta. and style are
usually united to form a gynostegium. The cpls. are free below as in
Apocynaceae, but united at the tip with a common style ; the ovary
is superior. The head of the style is large and variously shaped, and
the stigmatic surface is usually upon the edge or under side of it.
To its margin are united the anthers of the 5 epipetalous sta.; the
filaments of these are short or non-existent. The pollen in the lower
group of A. (see below) is united merely in tetrads, in the higher
group, comprising the bulk of the order, into pollinia, as in Orchi-
daceae. Usually each anther contains two. In this group also there
are curtain-like projections at the sides of the anthers, leaving a narrow
slit between each pair of anthers.

The pollen is removed from the anthers by a curious mechanism —
the translator , to borrow the new word introduced by Schumann.
This differs in the two suborders and so also does the fertilisation
method. The translator always stands between two anthers and
serves to carry away half the pollen from each of them. In the
Periplocoideae it is a spoon- or funnel-like body with a sticky disc at
the narrow end. Into it is shed the pollen from the two half anthers
next to it, and as the sticky disc projects outwards in the male stage
of the flower an insect will be likely to get it attached to its head,
and carry it about like the pollinia of an orchid. In visiting a second
flower the pollen may be placed on the stigmatic surface. In the
Cynanchoideae , on the other hand, there are pollinia, and the trans-
lator has a different structure. It forms an inverted ^-shaped organ,
the foot of the Y being formed by the adhesive body (or corpusculum
as it is sometimes called) ; from this diverge the threads (retinacula)
which are attached to the pollinia, one in each anther. An insect in
obtaining honey catches its leg in the slit between the anthers, and in

252

ASCLEPIADA CEAE

drawing it up removes the pair of pollinia. The threads as they dry
contract on the inner side till the pollinia meet, thus closely clasping
the insect’s leg. In drawing the leg through a similar slit in another
fir. the pollinia catch on the stigmatic under-surface of the stylar head.
(Cf. Apocynum, which shows an approach to this mechanism.)

The backs of the anthers bear as a rule curious appendages
(cuculli) forming a corona . In some cases the corona springs from
the corolla. It may consist simply of small teeth, or be more complex
in structure, as in Asclepias and Ceropegia. It often takes up the
functions of secreting and storing the honey.

The ovary is bilocular, superior, with oo anatropous ovules, pen-
dulous from the ventral placentae. The fruit consists of a pair of
follicles ; the seeds are usually crowned by a tuft of hairs for wind-
carriage. Endosperm slight, cartilaginous.

Classification and chief genera (after K. Schumann) :

I. PERIPLOCOIDEAE (pollen in tetrads; translator spoon-

like).

1. Periploceae : Streptocaulon, Periploca.

II. CYNANCHOIDEAE (pollinia; corpusculum &c.).

2. Asclepiadeae (pollinia pendulous on threads): Asclepias,

Cynanchum.

3. Seca7?ioneae (pollinia erect or horizontal, 4 in each anther):

Secamone (only genus).

4. Tylophoreae (do. but 2 in each, erect) : Ceropegia, Stapelia,

Stephanotis, Hoya.

5. Gonolobeae (do. but 2 in each, horiz.) : Gonolobus.

The order is closely related to Apocynaceae, the only absolute
character of distinction being the presence of translators in Ascl.;
otherwise the two sub-orders of each form a corresponding series, and
the lower one in each is almost as nearly related to the corresponding
one in the other order as to the higher group in its own order. A.
are placed in Contortae by Eichler (Warming), and in Gentianales by
Benth. -Hooker.

Asclepias Linn. Asclepiadaceae (11. 2). 80 sp. Am., Afr., chiefly in

the U. S. (silk- weeds). Erect herbs with umbellate infls. which
spring from the stem between the petioles of the opposite leaves
(cf. Cuphea), or above or below this point. Two explanations are
forthcoming, but which is right the evidence at present available does
not show. Either the infl. is really axillary to the leaf below it
and is ‘adnate’ to the stem (as in Cuphea), or it is the termination
of a shoot, and the stem is really a sympodium.

The cuculli of the anthers form little pockets, into which honey is
poured by the horn-like nectaries that project from them. Insects
walking over the flowers and sipping honey frequently slip their legs
down the sides of the gynostegium, and in drawing them up catch in
the slit between two anthers and remove the pollinia (see order for

A SPLENI UM

253

details). The process may be watched on A. Cornuti Dene, in
gardens.

Asimina Adans. Anonaceae (2). 6 sp. East. U.S.

Aspalathus Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 3). 150 sp. S. Afr. Many are

xerophytes with a heath-like habit.

Asparagus Tourn. (incl. Myrsiphyllum Willd.). Liliaceae (vn). 100 sp.
Old World, mostly in dry places. Rhizome with aerial shoots; leaves
reduced to scales with linear green shoots in their axils, usually
in tufts. These are small condensed cymes, of the type stem
shown in the diagram (figs, represent the branches of sue- i
cessive orders). The number of shoots that develope varies. 2 2

In the infl. the same construction holds, the shoots 2, 2, 33

bearing the firs. In the sub-genus M. there are fiat phyllo- 4 4

clades (cf. Ruscus). Fruit a berry. A. officinalis L. is leaf
largely cultivated as a vegetable; the young shoots are
eaten.

Aspasia Lindl. Orchidaceae (28). 8 sp. trop. Am.

Asperifoliae = Boraginaceae.

Asperugo (Tourn.) Linn. Boraginaceae (iv. 2). 1 sp. Eur., As.

Asperula Linn. Rubiaceae (11. 21). 80 sp. Eur., As., Austr. &c., chiefly
Medit. A. odorata L. (woodruff) and A. cynanchica L. (squinancy-
wort), in Brit. Firs, homogamous. Those of the latter sp. show two
forms, one with smooth white obtuse petals, one with rough reddish
acute petals. The fruit of woodruff is hooked.

Asphodeline Rchb. Liliaceae (ill). 14 sp. Medit.

Aspliodelus (Tourn.) Linn. Liliaceae (ill). 7 sp. Medit. (the Asphodel).
Its leaves are isobilateral and firs, protogynous.

Aspicarpa Rich. Malpighiaceae. 5 sp. Texas to Argentina.

Aspidistra Ker-Gawl. Liliaceae (vn). 3 sp. E. As. A. elatior Blume
is often cultivated. The large flat style forms a lid to the cavity of
the fir. made by the 8 perianth-leaves. Into this the pollen is shed,
and it is supposed that the mechanism is like that of Arum. Others
suggest that it is snail-fertilised.

Aspidium Sw. Synonymy: A . aemulum Sw., cristatum Sw., dilatatum
Willd., Filix-nias Sw., Oreopteris Sw., rigidum Sw., spinulosum Sw.,
Thelypteris Sw. =Nephrodium (same spec, names); A. Filix-foemina
Sw. = Asplenium F.-f.

Polypodiaceae 60 sp. cosmop. A. aculeatum Sw. (prickly
shield-fern) and A. Lonchitis Sw. (holly-fern) in Brit.

Asplenium Linn. Polypodiaceae. About 300 sp. cosmop. 11 sp. in
Brit., including A. Filix-foemina Bernh. (lady-fern), A. Ruta-muraria
L. (wall-spleen wort), A. Trichomanes L. (spleen wort) and A. Adian-
tum-nigrum (black spleen wort). The var. clarissima of the lady-fern
shows apogamy (see Filicineae, Lepto.). A. bulbiferum Forst. and
other sp. are ‘ viviparous,’ producing young plants on their leaves by
vegetative budding (not to be confounded with apospory). A. Nidus

254

ASPLENIUM

L. (the bird’s nest fern) is an interesting epiphyte of the Old World
tropics. It bears a rosette of leaves forming a nest in which humus
collects ; the roots ramify in this and obtain food and water. A. rhi-
zophyllum Kunze is the walking fern, so-called because the leaf-tips
when they touch the soil bud into new individuals, and thus the plant
spreads to some distance.

Astelia Banks et Soland. Liliaceae (vi). 9 sp. Polynes. Dioecious.

Astephanus R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (11. 2). 12 sp. Madag., E. Afr.,

trop. and subtrop. Am.

Aster Tourn. ex Linn. Compositae (in). 200 sp. Am., As., Afr.,

Eur., 2 sp. on the Brit, coast (Michaelmas daisy), both, like so many
shore plants (p. 186), somewhat fleshy. The China aster of gardens
(A. chinensis L.) is a species of Callistephus.

Asterales (Benth.-Hook.). The 2nd cohort of Dicotyledons (Gamopet.).

Asteriscium Cham, et Schlecht. Umbelliferae (2). 17 sp. Mex., S. Am.

Asteriscus Moench. = Odontospermum Neck.

Astilbe Buch.-Ham. Saxifragaceae (1). 6 sp. As., N. Am.

Astragalus Tourn. ex. Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 6). About 1200 sp.
cosmop. except Austr., 3 in Brit, (milk- vetch). The majority are
N. temp, plants living on steppes, prairies, &c. and are more or less
xerophytic. A great number are thorny ; the thorns commonly form
by the stiffening of the petiole or midrib of the leaf when the blade
falls off (p. 20). A. gummifer Labill. and others yield gum-
tragacanth, obtained by wounding the stem, and allowing the gum
to exude and harden (p. 198).

Astrantia (Tourn.) Linn. Umbelliferae (3). 5 sp. Eur., As.

Astrocarpus Neck. Resedaceae. 1 variable sp. S-W. Eur.

Astrocaryum G. F. W. Mey. Palmae (iv. 7). 30 sp. trop. Am.

Astroloma R. Br. Epacridaceae (incl. in Styphelia in Nat . Pfl .).
25 sp. Austr.

Astronia Noronha. Melastomaceae (11). 20 sp. Malay Arch., Polynes.

Asystasia Blume. Acanthaceae (iv. B). 20 sp. palaeotrop.

Atalantia Correa. Rutaceae (x). 12 sp. trop. As., China, Austr.

Athamanta Linn. Umbelliferae (6). 3 sp. Eur., W. As.

Atbanasia Linn. Compositae (vn). 40 sp. S. Afr.

Atherosperma Labill. Monimiaceae. 1 sp. Victoria, Tasmania.

Athrixia Ker-Gawl. Compositae (iv). 15 sp. Austr., Afr.

Atbrotaxis D. Don. Coniferae (Arauc. ic; see C. for genus
characters). 4 sp. Tasmania.

Athyrium Roth = Asplenium Linn.

Atractylis Linn. Compositae (xi). 15 sp. Medit. to Japan.

Atragene Linn. = Clematis Linn.

Atraphaxis Linn. Polygonaceae (11. 3). 17 sp. Cent. As., N. Afr.,

Greece.

Atriplex (Tourn.) Linn. Chenopodiaceae (4). 120 sp. temp, and sub-

trop., 6 in Brit, (orache). Firs, unisexual, naked or with perianth.

Atropa Linn. Solanaceae (11). 2 sp. Eur., Medit., As. A . Belladonna

AZOLLA

255

L. is the deadly nightshade. It contains the alkaloid atropin, the
basis of the drug belladonna used in medicine.

Attalea H. B. et K. Palmae (iv. 7). 25 sp. S. Am. A.funifera Mart,

yields the Bahia Piassaba fibre of commerce (fiew Bull . 1889, P* 237) .

Atylosia Wight et Arn. Leguminosae (in. 10). 20 sp. trop. As.,

Austr., Madag., Mascarenes.

Aucuba Thunb. Cornaceae. 3 sp. Himal. to Japan. A. japonica
Thunb. is the Japan laurel of our shrubberies; it is dioecious.

Augusta Leandr. = Stifftia Mikan.

Auricula Tourn. ex Spach = Primula Tourn.

Avellinia Pari. Gramineae (x). 1 sp. Medit.

Avena Linn. Gramineae (ix). 50 sp. temp, and Mts. of trop., 2 in

Brit, (oat-grass). A. saliva L., the cultivated oat, is perhaps derived
from A. fatua L. It is cultivated in Eur. to 69 N. and forms the
staple of the food of a large population. [See De Candolle’s Orig. 0/
Cult. Pits. p. 373.] The 2 — 6-flowered spikelets form a loose panicle.
The paleae are awned, the awn of the inf. palea being usually twisted
and hygroscopic. In A. sterilis L. the awns cross, and when wetted
try to uncurl and thus press on one another till a sort of explosion
occurs jerking away the fruits.

Averrhoa Linn. Oxalidaceae. 3 or 4 sp. trop. As. (?; so long cultivated
that their origin is uncertain). A . Bilimbi L., the blimbing, and
A. Carambola L. are cultivated for the fruit, which is borne on the
older stems (p. 156), and has a pleasantly acid flavour.

Avicennia Linn. Verbenaceae (vn). 3 sp. trop., forming one of the

constituents of the mangrove vegetation (p. 191). Their seeds
germinate in the fruit, and they have aerial roots projecting upwards
out of the mud like those of Sonneratia.

Axinandra Thw. (incl. Naxiandra Krasser). Melastomaceae (hi).
4 sp. Ceylon, Malaya (. Lythraceae , Bentham- Hooker).

Aydendron Nees. Lauraceae (11). 45 sp. trop. Am.

Ayenia Loefl. Sterculiaceae. 15 sp. trop. and subtrop. Am.

Azadirachta A. Juss. = MeliaLinn. A. indica A. Juss. = M. Azadirachta.

Azalea Gaertn. = Loiseleuria Desv.

Azalea Linn. = Rhododendron Linn., from the type form of which it is
chiefly distinguished by its 5 sta. and annual leaves.

Azara Ruiz et Pav. Flacourtiaceae. 22 sp. Mex. and S. Am., chiefly
Chili. Shrubs with alt. leaves ; one stipule is frequently almost as
large as the leaf to which it belongs, giving the appearance of a pair
of leaves not opposite to one another. The flr. is apetalous and the
outer sta. often without anthers.

Azedarach Tourn. ex Linn. = Melia Linn.

Azima Lam. Salvadoraceae. 2 sp. trop., Afr., As., Polyn. In the
leaf axils are thorns (the leaves of an undeveloped shoot, cf. Cac-
taceae). Fir. polypetalous.

Azolla Lam. Salviniaceae. 4 sp. trop. and sub-trop. The general
structure is like that of Salvinia. Two leaves are formed at each

AZOLLA

256

node, from the dorsal half of a segment of the apical cell ; from the
ventral half are formed roots and branches, but not. at every node.
The leaves are all alike ; each is bilobed and has a small cavity near
the base, opening to the outside by a small pore, and inhabited by
the Alga Anabaena . The roots hang freely down in the water;
usually the root cap is thrown off after a short time and the root
comes almost exactly to resemble the submerged leaf of Salvinia.
The sporocarps are formed in pairs (4 in A. nilotica ) on the ventral
lobes of the first leaves of the branches. Each contains one sorus.
The microspores are joined together into several masses in each
sporangium by the hardened frothy mucilage (epispore, cf. Salvinia).
Each of these massulae has its outer surface provided with curious
barbed hairs ( glochidia ), and escapes from the sporangium on its own
account. The megasporangium contains one spore. It sinks to the
bottom and at length decay of the indusium frees the spore and it ger-
minates, giving rise to a female prothallus which floats about on the
water and may be anchored to a floating massula by the barbs.

Azorella Lam. Umbelliferae (1). 35 sp. S. temp. Densely tufted

xerophytes. A. caespitosa Vahl. is the balsam-bog of the Falklands,
forming tufts like Raoulia (cf. Ternetz, Bot. Z., 1902, p. 1).

Babiana Ker-Gawl. Iridaceae (hi). 30 sp. S. Afr. , Socotra.

Baccaurea Lour. Euphorbiaceae (A. 1. 1). 50 sp. W. Afr., E. Ind.,

Polynesia.

Baccharis Linn. Compositae (ill). 300 sp. Am. Some are leafless
xerophytes with winged or cylindrical green stems (Bot. Jb. 27, 446).

Backhousia Hook, et Harv. Myrtaceae (2). 5 sp. Austr. B. citriodora
F. Muell. gives an essential oil consisting almost entirely of citral,
the valuable ingredient in citronella oil.

Bactris Jacq. Palmae (iv. 7). 90 sp. S. and Cent. Am. Firs, in

groups of 3, one ? between two <? . B. minor Jacq. is the pupunha
or peach palm, grown in Brazil for its edible fruit.

Baeckia Linn. Myrtaceae (2). 60 sp. Austr. to China.

Baeria Fisch. et Mey. (excl. Actinolepis DC.) Compositae (vi).
20 sp. Calif.

Bahia Lag. Compositae (vi). 12 sp. W. Am.

Balanophora Forst. Balanophoraceae. 11 sp. Indo-mal. Some are
apogamous (cf. Filicineae, Angiospermae, and see Treub in Ann .
Buitenz. xv).

Balanophoraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Santalales). 15 gen. with
40 sp., all but one trop. Parasites on tree roots, to which the tuberous
rhizome is attached by suckers (p. 176). From it springs the infl.
(sometimes developed within the rhizome and breaking through it),
which comes above ground as a spike or head with scaly leaves and
small unisexual firs. For details and figures see Nat . Pfi ., or Kerner’s
Nat. Hist, of PL Chief genera: Scybalium, Balanophora, Langs-
dorffia. [Placed in Achlamydosporeae by Benth.-Hook., in Hystero-
phyta by Eichler (Warming).]

BA MB USA

257

Balanops Baill. Balanopsidaceae. 7 sp. New Caled.

Balanopseae (Bentham-Hooker) = Balanopsidaceae.

Balanopsidaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Balanopsidales). An
anomalous order placed in Monochlamydeae Unisexuales by Bentham-
Hooker. For details see cohort (p. 126).

Balanopsidales (Engler). The 5th cohort of Archichlamydeae (p. 126).

Balbisia Cav. Geraniaceae. 3 sp. Chili, Peru.

Baldwinia Nutt. ( Balduina ). Compositae (v). 4 sp. N. Am.

Ballota Linn. Labiatae (v. 2). 25 sp. Eur., Medit. B. nigra L., the

foetid horehound, is a common weed in Brit.

Baloghia Endl. Euphorbiaceae (A. II. 5). 14 sp. E. Ind. to New

Caled.

Balsamea Gled. = Commiphora Jacq.

Balsamina Tourn. ex Scop. = Impatiens Linn.

Balsaminaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). 2 gen. with 230
sp., As., Afr., Eur., N. Am. Herbs with watery translucent stems
and alt. leaves, usually exstip. Fir. g , zygomorphic. K 5 (the 2
anterior small or aborted, the posterior one spurred), petaloid ; C 5
(the lateral petals united in pairs) ; A 5, the anthers adhering
to one another and forming a cap over the ovary, whose growth
ultimately breaks the sta. at their bases ; G (5), 5-loc., with 00
ovules, anatropous, pendulous with dorsal raphe. Fruit an ex-
plosive capsule. Seed exalb. Chief genus : Impatiens. Benth.-
Hooker unite B. with Geraniaceae (q. v.), but the arrangement
of the ovule does not agree with that of G., being that of coh.
Sapindales. Eichler and Warming place B. as an independent
order in Gruinales.

Balsamodendrum Kunth = Commiphora Jacq.

Balsamorhiza Hook. Compositae (v). 8 sp. W. N. Am.

Bambusa Schreb. Gramineae (xm). 70 sp. trop. and subtrop. As.,

Afr., Am. The typical genus of bamboos, which are gigantic grasses,
with much branched rhizomes below ground, and erect perennial woody
stems above, reaching in some sp. of Denarocalamus and Giganto-
chloa a height of 120 feet and a thickness of 10 inches. The bamboos
grow in clumps, and during the rainy season a number of the young
shoots spring up round the margin, and grow rapidly, even as much
as 41 cm. a day, up to their full height, when they spread out their
leaves, and drop the large papery scales which represent the leaves
on the lower part of the shoots.

Some sp. flower annually, others at longer intervals, and some
are like Agave and Corypha, flowering only once, all together, and
then dying down. The seedling plants grow for several years with-
out forming tall shoots, expending their energies on the production
of large well stored rhizomes. They then begin to send up shoots,
at first but short, but increasing in length from year to year, till at
last they reach the full height. Spikelets 2—00 -flowered in racemes
or panicles. Sta. usually 6.

W.

17

258

BA MB USA

The economic uses of bamboos are very numerous, especially in
Asia. The stems are hollow, with cross partitions at the nodes, and
the wood is elastic and very hard, owing to the deposition of silica in
the cell walls. The stems are consequently very light and strong,
and are also easily split. They are largely used in building, entire
as posts, and split as roofing tiles, while the houses in Assam, Burma,
and Malaya are often made of bamboo split finely, and woven into a
kind of mat, which are fastened upon bamboo posts. Bridges are
often made of them, and they furnish water-pipes, water-vessels, gutters,
floats, beehives, walking sticks, pipes, flutes, masts, furniture, house-
hold utensils, agricultural tools, &c. The distichous bamboo shoot,
with the side branches cut down to about 6 inches, is used as a ladder.
Split bamboos, with the edges trimmed sharp, are used as grass cutters,
and will keep lawns in good order. Finely split bamboos are made
into mats, blinds, rigging, baskets, fans, hats, coarse clothing,
umbrellas, ropes, brushes, &c. Paper is made from bamboos in
China and elsewhere. The stout stems of the male bamboo
(. Dendrocalamus strictus Nees) are used for the handles of lances.
The stems cut into lengths form very useful flower pots, largely
employed in tropical gardens. The young shoots are eaten like
asparagus, and the poorer natives also use the seeds as food. In
the stems of B . arundinacea Willd. curious concretions of silica are
found, known as tabashir, used in the East as a medicine in many
diseases. (See Kurz, Bamboo and its uses, Ind. Forester , 1876, and
art. in Nat. PJl. by Sir D. Brandis; Lock, on growth, in Ann. Perad .
II. 21 1 ; Freeman-Mitford, The Bamboo Garden .)

Banisteria Linn. Malpighiaceae. 70 sp. trop. S. Am. The fruit is
remarkably like that of Acer.

Banksia Linn. f. Proteaceae (11). 50 sp. Austr. Shrubs and trees with
the usual xerophytic habit of the order. Firs, in dense spikes. Fruit
a hard woody follicle enclosed in a number of woody twigs derived
from the bract and bracteoles. Seeds winged.

Baphia Afzel. Leguminosae (in. 1). 12 sp. trop. Afr., Madag.

B. nitida Afzel gives cam-wood, used for its red dye ; the wood
when first cut is white, but turns red in the air.

Baptisia Vent. Leguminosae (in. 2). 15 sp. N. Am. In B. perfoliata
R. Br. there are perfoliate leaves which are really in two vertical
ranks, but become one-ranked by twisting of the internodes alter-
nately right and left.

Barbacenia Vand. Velloziaceae ( A7naryllidaceae , Bentham- Hooker).
30 sp. Brazil, Afr.

Barbarea R.Br. Cruciferae (11. n). 15 sp. Eur., Medit., As., N. Am.,
2 in Brit, (yellow rocket or winter-cress).

Barclaya Wall. Nymphaeaceae (ill). 3 sp. Indo-mal. K 5 hypogy-
nous ; C up to (21), epigynous, tubular; A 00 ; G (10 — 12) with
projections forming a tube above the stigmatic disc.

Barkhausia Moench = Crepis Linn.

BATSCHIA

259

Barklya F. Muell. Leguminosae (in. 1). 1 sp. Queensland.

Barleria Linn. Acanthaceae (iv. A). 100 sp. trop. largely on steppes.
The bracteoles are frequently represented by thorns. The seeds have
surface hairs which swell when wetted and help to anchor them to
suitable places for germination (p. 106).

Bamadesia Mutis. Compositae (xn). 12 sp. S. Am. Shrubs.

Barosma Willd. Rutaceae (iv). 15 sp. S. Afr.

Barringtonia Forst. Lecythidaceae. 30 sp. E. Afr. to Samoa. The
wood of some sp. is useful and the seeds yield oil, used for lamps.

Bartholina R. Br. Orchidaceae (3). 1 sp. S. Afr.

Bartonia Muhl. Gentianaceae (1. 2). 3 sp. N. Am. Saprophytes

with a little chlorophyll and leaves reduced to scales.

Bartonia Sims. (Loasaceae) = Mentzelia Linn.

Bartramia Linn. =Triumfetta Linn.

Bartsia Linn. (incl. Odontites Hall.). Scrophulariaceae (ill. 12). 60 sp.
N. temp., trop. Mts., and S. Am. B. Odontites Huds. and 2 others,
in Brit. Mostly herbs, semi-parasitic (on grass-roots, see order). Fir.
with loose-pollen mechanism (see order).

Basella (Rheede) Linn. Basellaceae. 1 sp. trop. As. A climbing herb
whose firs, remain closed. The fruit is enclosed in the perianth.

Basellaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Centrospermae). A small family
united with Chenopodiaceae by Benth. -Hooker and Warming, but
differing in their internal anatomy as well as in morphology. They
possess an underground rhizome or tuber, giving off annually a
climbing shoot, often with fleshy leaves, and racemes or panicles
of firs. These are stalked and often conspicuously coloured. Each
has 2 bracteoles, 2 sepals, and 5 petals. Opposite these are 5 sta.
Ovary superior, of 3 cpls., with terminal style and 3 stigmas, uni-
locular. Ovule 1, basal, campylotropous. Fruit usually a berry.
Chief genera : Basella, Ullucus, Boussingaultia.

Baskervilla Lindl. Orchidaceae (4). 1 sp. Peru.

Bassia All. = Anisacantha R. Br. (Chenopodiaceae).

Bassia Koenig ex Linn. ( Illipe F. Muell.). Sapotaceae (1). 30 sp.

Indo-mal. &c. B. pallida Burck yields a gutta-percha. The seeds
of B. bntyracea Roxb. (Indian butter tree) yield a butter-like substance,
used for soap-making &c. The firs, of B. latifolia Roxb., the mahua,
mahwa, or mowa, are edible, and the wood useful.

Bassovia Aubl. Solanaceae (11). 12 sp. Cent, and S. Am.

Bastardia H. B. et K. Malvaceae (11). 2 sp. W. Ind. and S. Am.

Batatas Choisy=Ipomaea Linn. ( B . edulis Choisy = I. Batatas).

Batemannia Lindl. Orchidaceae (18). 1 sp. Brit. Guiana.

Batidaceae ( Batideae , Bentham- Hooker). Dicotyledons (Archichl.
Centrospermae). Only genus Batis (q.v.). See Nat. PJl . Placed
in Curvembryae by Benth. -Hooker and Warming.

Batis Linn. Batidaceae. 1 (or more?) sp., coasts N. Am.

Batrachium S. F. Gray = Ranunculus Tourn. (the aquatic sp.).

Batschia Vahl. = Humboldtia Vahl. (Leguminosae).

17—2

260

BA UERA

Bauera Banks. Saxifragaceae (vn). 3 sp. temp. E. Austr. Shrubs.

Firs, solitary, axillary, 4 — io-merous. Sta. = pet. or oo .

Bauhinia Linn. Leguminosae (11. 4). 150 sp. trop. Many are lianes

(p. 173). Their stems are curiously shaped, flattened or corrugated
and twisted in various ways (figs, in Kerner’s Nat . Hist . of PI.).
“ One is the most extraordinary among the climbers of the forest,
its broad flattened woody stems being twisted in and out in a most
singular manner, mounting to the summits of the very loftiest forest
trees and hanging from their branches in gigantic festoons many
hundred feet in length’5 (Wallace, Amaz.). Some sp. have tendrils
(branches). The stem of the climbing sp. has a peculiar mode of
growth in thickness (cf. other lianes and see De Bary’s Anat . or
Nat. Pflf In some the young leaves droop like those of other trop.
plants (p. 157). In the axils of the stipules are usually found small
linear trichome structures ; in some sp. they form stout interstipular
thorns. Great variety occurs in the floral structure (see Nat . Pfl.).

Beaucarnea Lem. = Nolina Michx.

Beaufortia R. Br. Myrtaceae (2). 13 sp. W. Austr. Some sp. are

cultivated in greenhouses for their showy firs.

Beaumontia Wall. Apocynaceae (11. 4). 4 sp. E. Ind.

Beckera Fresen. Gramineae (iv). 3 sp. Abyss.

Beckmannia Host. Gramineae (xi). 1 sp. N. temp.

Befaria Mutis. ( Bejaria ). Ericaceae (1. 1). 30 sp. trop. and subtrop.
Am. B. racemosa Vent, and others, under the name Andes rose, form
a conspicuous feature in the vegetation, taking the place of Rhodo-
dendrons.

Begonia (Toum.) Linn. Begoniaceae. Over 400 sp. trop., especially
in Am. Many are cultivated in our greenhouses for their handsome
firs, and foliage. Most are perennial herbs with thick rhizomes or
tubers. Several climb by aid of roots like ivy. Leaves radical or
alt., in two ranks, with large stipules. One side of the leaf is larger
than the other, whence the name * elephant’s ear,’ by which they are
sometimes known. The surface of the leaf is easily wetted, and drip-
tips are frequent (p. 143 and art. Ficus). In the leaf axils groups of
little tubers are frequently found ; these are not axillary branches,
but are borne upon the true axillary branch, which does not lengthen.
Begonias also reproduce very easily by means of adventitious buds
(p. 1 13). These readily form on pieces of leaves cut off and placed
on the soil under suitable conditions of moisture &c. (this is the
common mode of multiplication used in horticulture). A callus forms
over the wound, and in it there develops a meristem which gives
rise to one or more buds.

The infl. is axillary, dichasial with a bostryx tendency (p. 64).
The first axes usually end in <?, the last and sometimes the last but
one in ? , firs. In the c? , perianth 2, valvate, or 4, decussate,
corolline ; sta. 00 , free or not, the connective often elongated and
the anthers variously shaped. In the ? , perianth 2 — 5; ovary inf.,

BERBERIS

261

usually (2 — 3), with 2 — 3 loculi, and axile placentae often projecting far
into them ; ovules 00 , anatropous ; styles more or less free. The ovary
is usually winged and the wings are persistent upon the capsular frt.
Seeds without endosperm.

Begoniaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 4 gen. with the
characters of Begonia (y.z\). Placed in Passiflorinae by Warming,
in Passiflorales by Benth. -Hooker.

Beilschmiedia Nees. Lauraceae (11). 30 sp. trop., and Austr., and N.Z.

Belamcanda Adans. Iridaceae (11). 1 sp. trop. E. As., Japan.

Belle valia Lapeyr. = Hyacinthus Tourn.

Beilis (Tourn.) Linn. Compositae (ill). 15 sp. Eur., Medit. B.perennis
L. is the common daisy. It multiplies largely, and also hibernates,
by means of short rhizomes. The ray florets are ? . The head closes
at night and in wet weather.

Bellium Linn. Compositae (ill). 6 sp. Medit.

Bellucia Neck. Melastomaceae (1). 10 sp. trop. Am. Fruit edible.

Belmontia E. Mey. Gentianaceae (1. 1). 15 sp. Afr., Madag.

Beloperone Nees. Acanthaceae (iv. B). 45 sp. trop. Am., many in

cultivation.

Bencomia Webb, et Berth. Rosaceae (in. 9). 2 sp. Canaries, Madeira

(p. 148).

Benincasa Savi. Cucurbitaceae (111) . 2 sp. trop. As. The frt. of

B. cerifera Savi. is eaten in curries. It has a thick coating of wax.

Benthamia Lindl. (i83o) = Amsinckia Lehm.; (1833) = Cornus Tourn.

Bentinckia Berry. Palmae (iv. 6). 2 sp. Ind.

Benzoin Nees = Lindera Thunb. do. Hayne = Styrax Linn.

Berberidaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Ranales). 11 gen. with 135
sp., N. temp. (Berberis in trop. Mts. and S. Am.). Perennial herbs
or shrubs, in the former case usually with sympodial rhizome. Firs,
in racemes, g , regular. The typical formula is P3 + 3 + 3 + 3* A 3 + 3,
G 1 ; the flr. is sometimes 2-merous. Of the 4 outer whorls, the two
outer are perianth proper, the two inner ‘ 4 honey-leaves ” usually with
nectaries at the base (see Ranunculaceae). The former are often
termed the calyx, the latter the corolla. The anthers are introrse,
but in most cases open by two valves (cf. Lauraceae) at the back ; the
valve with the pollen on it moves upwards and turns round so that
the pollen faces towards the centre of the flr. Cpl. always 1, with
one or many ovules, in the former case usually basal, in the latter
ventral. Fruit a berry, or a dry fruit opening in various ways.
Embryo straight in rich endosperm. Chief genera: Podophyllum,
Epimedium, Leontice, Berberis. Placed in Polycarpicae by Eichler
(Warming). See next art. [Monograph by Tischler in Engl . Bot .
Jahrb . 31, p. 596.]

Berberideae (Benth. -Hook.) includes preceding order and Lardiza-
balaceae. Placed in coh. Ranales.

Berberis (Tourn.) Linn. Berberidaceae. 100 sp. N. temp.,trops. Mts.
S. Am. B. vulgaris L. (the barberry) in Brit. Shrubs. The genus is

262

BERBERIS

divided into two sections. In § 1, Mahonia (Nutt.), the leaves are
pinnate ; many sp. are cultivated in shrubberies. In § 2, Euberberis .
the leaves are simple, but usually show a joint where the blade meets
the petiole, seeming to indicate a derivation from a compound leaf.
There are also ‘short’ and ‘long’ shoots (cf. Coniferae) in this section,
to which B. vulgaris belongs. The latter have their leaves meta-
morphosed into spines (usually tripartite) ; transitions may often be
seen. The former stand in the axils of the spines and bear green
leaves and racemes of firs, (afterwards sometimes elongating to ‘long’
shoots). The fir. has the structure typical of the order; its pollination
mechanism is interesting. The upper surface of the base of each sta.
is sensitive to contact, and when it is touched by an insect in search
of honey (secreted by the nectaries upon the bases of the inner
perianth leaves) the sta. springs violently upwards, covering the side
of the visitor’s head with pollen, which it may place on the stigma in
the next fir. visited. The fruit is sometimes made into preserves.
[Monograph of § Mahonia by Fedde, in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 31, p. 30.]
A very interesting point about the common barberry is its connec-
tion with the disease known as rust , which occurs on wheat and other
Gramineae. The fungus (. Puccinia graminis or Aecidium berberidis)
passes through two alternating stages in its life history, one on the
grass, the other on the barberry, so that if there are no barberry plants
in a district, it is to a large extent, though by no means absolutely,
insured against rust. See text-books, or Ward’s Diseases of Plants.

Berchemia Neck. Rhamnaceae. 15 sp. E. and S.E. As., N. Am.,
trop. Afr.

Bergenia Moench. = Saxifraga Tourn. (7 sp. As.).

Bergia Linn. Elatinaceae. 20 sp. trop. and temp.

Berkkeya Ehrh. Compositae (x). 80 sp. Afr.

Berlandiera DC. Compositae (v). 4 sp. S. and E. U.S.

Bernardia Roust, ex. P. Br. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 2). 24 sp. Brazil

to W. Ind. and S. U.S.

Bernoullia Oliv. Bombacaceae ( Sterculiaceae B. H.). 1 sp. C. Am.

Berria Roxb. ( Berrya ). Tiliaceae. 2 sp. Indo-Mal. , Tahiti.

Berteroa DC. = Alyssum Tourn. (5 sp. Eur. As., Medit.).

Bertholletia Humb. et Bonpl. Lecythidaceae. 2 sp. trop. S. Am.
The frt. is a large woody capsule, containing seeds with hard woody
testa and oily endosperm — the Brazil nuts of commerce. “This
tree takes more than a year to produce and ripen its fruits. In...
January I observed the trees loaded at the same time with flowers
and ripe fruits... .The fruits, nearly as hard and heavy as cannon-balls,
fall with tremendous force from the height of 100 feet.... Persons are
sometimes killed by them” (Wallace). The fruit is indehiscent and
the seeds are procured by opening it with an axe. It is closed by a
plug formed of the hardened calyx, and in germination the seedlings
escape here (Watson, Ann. Bot. xv. 1901, p. 99).

B ETUI. A

263

Bertiera Aubl. Rubiaceae (1. B. 8). 15 sp. trop. Am., Afr., Madag.,

Masc.

Bertiera Blume = Adenosacme Wall.

Bertolonia Raddi. Melastomaceae (1). 10 sp. Brazil. Young plants

form readily at cuts across the midrib of a leaf placed on damp soil

(p- 113)-

Bertya Planch. Euphorbiaceae (B. 11). 12 sp. Austr., Tasm.

Berula Hoffm. ex Bess. = Sium Tourn.

Berzelia Brongn. Bruniaceae. 7 sp. S. Afr.

Beschorneria Kunth. Amaryllidaceae (11). 13 sp. Mex. Like Agave.

Besleria Plum, ex Linn. Gesneraceae (1). 60 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Am.

Bessera Schult. f. (excl. Androstephium Torr.). Liliaceae (iv). 1 sp.

Mex.

Beta (Tourn.) Linn. Chenopodiaceae (2). 6 sp. Eur., Medit. ; 1 in

Brit., B. vulgaris L. or B. ?na?'itima L. the sea-beet, from which are
derived the garden beetroot, the sugar-beet (var. Rapa Dumort.), and
the mangold- wurzel. The plant is a biennial (p. 151) and stores
reserves in the root, the non-nitrogenous materials taking the form
of sugar.

The sugar-beet is largely cultivated in Western Europe for the
sake of its sugar, which has proved a very formidable rival to the
older industry of cane sugar. The sugar-contents of the roots have
been continually improved by selection, and now frequently represent
over 20 °/o of the total weight. Germany grows ij million tons of
beet sugar annually, and other countries about another 3 millions.
[Herzog, Monographic der Zncker-riibe , Hamburg, 1899.]

The garden beet is a favourite vegetable ; the mangold is valuable
for feeding cattle, &c. The leaves of the beet are sometimes eaten
like spinach.

Betckea DC. = Plectritis DC.

Betonica (Tourn.) Linn. = Stachys Tourn.

Betula (Tourn.) Linn. Betulaceae. 35 sp. N. temp. B. alba L., the
birch, is common in Brit, and reaches to the N. limit of trees (p. 180).
The winter buds are scaly, the scales representing stipules : the outer
two or three pairs of them have no leaves. The tree is of a singularly
graceful habit. Witches’ brooms (p. 156) are very commonly to be
seen as dense tufts of twigs.

Trees with catkins of firs. The catkins are laid down in autumn
as large buds at the end of the year’s growth, the ? further back, on
leafy branches. In the axil of each leaf of the catkin there are 3 firs.
(cf. other genera of the order). The bracts of the lateral firs, occur
(a, /3) but no bracteoles. In the S the bracteoles a /3 are joined to
the bract itself. Each fir. has two sta. and a perianth, often
reduced from the typical 4 leaves to the 2 median leaves, or even to
the single anterior leaf. The sta. are divided into halves nearly to
the base ; the lateral ones are absent. In the $ the bracteoles a ft

264 BE TULA

are free from the bract at the time of fertilisation, but afterwards they
unite with it to form the 3-lobed woody scale (F in figure) under the

B. alba. A , bract, bracteoles, and perianth, of $ , from within, with sta. re-
moved; B , a stamen; Cy floral diagram of A ; D , bract, bracteoles and firs, of $
from within ; E , the same with firs, removed ; Fy the same at ripeness of seed ; G,
floral diagram ofZ>. £=bract; a, = bracteoles offlr. 1, or bracts of firs. 2, 3. After
Eichler.

fruit (or rather the tissue beneath them grows up, carrying all up
together; see p. 30). The 2-locular ovary gives rise to a i-seeded
nut, attached to the scale. There is no perianth.

Birch-wood is tough and is used for various purposes, e.g. for
wooden shoes and for charcoal. The oil prepared from the bark is
used in tanning Russia leather, to which it gives its peculiar fragrance.
The bark of B. papyracea Ait. (N. Am.) is used in making canoes.
Betulaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Fagales). 6 gen. with 75 sp.,
chiefly N. temp. Shrubs or trees with undivided stipulate leaves.
The seedling stems are radial in symmetry, but in the old branches
the leaves are often 2-ranked and face upwards (p. 47). The mem-
branous stipules soon drop off. Firs, monoecious, in terminal catkins ;
the stem is thus sympodial. In the axils of the leaves of the catkins
are small dichasial cymes, typically of 3 firs, (see Betula, &c.). The
central fir. is often absent, and some of the bracteoles also. The S
flr. is united to the bract and may have a perianth; sta. 2 — 10. The
$ may have an epigynous perianth. Cpls. (2). Ovary inferior,
2-loc. with 1 pendulous ovule in each loc. Some genera are chala-
zogamic; see Chalazogamae. Nut 1 -seeded; seed exalbuminous.
After fertilisation the bract and bracteoles grow into a scale- or cup-
like organ which may remain attached to the fruit. Genera : Ostry-
opsis, Carpinus, Ostrya, Corylus, Betula, Alnus. The order is
placed in Querciflorae by Eichler, and united to Fagaceae (Cupu-
liferae) by Benth. -Hooker.

Biaxum Schott. Araceae (vn). 7 sp. Medit.

Bicarpellatae (Benth. -Hooker). The 3rd series of Gamopetalae (p. 136),

BTGNONIA CEAE

265

Bicornes (Warming). The 1st cohort of Sympetalae (p. 138).

Bidens (Tourn.) Linn. Compositae (v). 90 sp. cosmop. 2 in Brit,

(bur-marigold). The fruit is animal-distributed by aid of the 2-6
barbed bristles of the pappus. B. Beckii Torr. (N. Am.) is a water-
plant with two kinds of leaves (p. 163).

Biebersteinia Steph. Geraniaceae. 4 sp. Orient.

Bifrenaria Lindl. Orchidaceae (18). 10 sp. trop. S. Am.

Bigelowia DC. Compositae (ill). 34 sp. N. Am.

Bignonia (Toum.) Linn. (incl. Cremastus Miers, Cydista Miers, Dox-
ant ha Miers, Paragonia Bur., Phaedranihus Miers, Pleonotoma
Miers, Pyrostegia Presl., Stizophyllum Miers, all regarded as in-
dependent genera by Schumann in Nat . PJi)> Bignoniaceae (1).
150 sp. Am., mostly lianes. In B. Tweediana Lindl. the tendril is
grapnel-like with three sharp claws. The stem twines, and both
petioles and tendrils are sensitive to contact. When either curves
round the support, the claws catch hold of their own stalk or the
stem as they come round. After clasping the tendril thickens and
becomes woody. In B. capreolata L. the tendrils are bluntly hooked
and show great negative heliotropism. When the tip enters a crevice
it forms a ball of parenchyma, secreting cement (cf. Vitis). Then
the free part contracts spirally and becomes woody. Several sp. are
cultivated for their showy protandrous firs.

Bignoniaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). About 60 gen.
with 500 sp. trop. There are no sp. and only one genus (Catalpa)
common to the old and new worlds. Most occur in Brazil ; a few
are found in temp, regions. They are trees and shrubs, most com-
monly lianes, with opp. usually compound exstip. leaves. A con-
siderable number are xerophytic shrubs with condensed stems, but
the chief interest of the order centres in the climbers, which form a
very important feature in the forest vegetation of S. Am. There are
twiners ( e.g . Tecomaria, Pandorea), root-climbers (Tecoma radicans ),
and tendril climbers (most B.). In Eccremocarpus &c. the inter-
nodes and petioles are sensitive, but in most B. the tendrils are at
the ends of the leaves (in place of leaflets, as in Yicia). The tendrils
are frequently branched : in some cases, eg. Bignonia, the branched
tendril occupies the place of one leaflet. Three types of tendril are
found — simple twiners, tendrils provided with adhesive discs (as in
Virginia creeper), and hooked tendrils. See Glaziovia, Bignonia &c.
The climbing stems exhibit many features of anatomical interest,
owing to their peculiar growth in thickness (p. 173).

Infl. usually dichasial with cincinnal tendency (p. 64); bracts
and bracteoles present. Fir. g , zygomorphic, hypogynous. K (5) :
C (5), usually bell- or funnel-shaped, descendingly imbricate; A 4,
epipetalous, didynamous, the anther-lobes usually one above the
other, the posterior staminode always present; G (2) on hypogynous
disc, 2- (or rarely 1-) loc., with 00 erect anatropous ovules on axile

266

B1GN0NIA CEAE

placentae. Capsule septifragal or loculicidal : seed usually flattened
and with large membranous wing, exalbuminous.

Classification and chief genera (after Schumann) :

I. BIGNONIEAE (ovary completely 2-loc., compressed || sep-

tum, or cylindrical; capsule septifragal, with winged seeds;
usually tendrillate) : Glaziovia, Bignonia.

II. TECOMEAE (ovary 2-loc., compressed _L septum or cylin-

drical; capsule loculicidal with winged seeds; rarely ten-
drillate): Incarvillea, Jacaranda, Catalpa, Tecoma.

III. ECCREMOCARPEAE (ovary i-loc. ; capsule splits from
below upwards; seeds winged; tendrils): Eccremocarpus
(only gen.).

IV. CRESCENT/E AE (ovary i- or 2-loc.; fruit berry or dry
indehiscent ; seeds not winged ; usually erect plants) :
Crescentia, Phyllarthron.

V. TO UR RE TTIEAE (ovary 4-loc. ; hooked capsule) : Tour-

rettia (only gen.).

The order is placed in Personales by Benth. -Hooker, in Personatae
by Eichler (Warming).

Billardiera Sm. Pittosporaceae. 8 sp. Austr.

Billbergia Thunb. Bromeliaceae (1). 40 sp. trop. Am. Epiphytes.

Biophytum DC. Oxalidaceae. 20 sp. trop. B. sensitivum DC. has
pinnate leaves, sensitive to contact (cf. Mimosa). When touched the
leaflets bend downwards. The seed has an explosive aril (cf. Oxalis);
the capsule spreads out flat when it dehisces and thus allows the seeds
to escape easily.

Biota D. Don. = Thuja Linn, (all sp. of B. =T. orientalis).

Biscutella Linn. Cruciferae (11. 5). 12 sp. Eur.

Biserrula Linn. Leguminosae (in. 6). 1 sp. Medit. The frt. is very

like a centipede, and it has been suggested that birds are deceived by
it and carry it to a distance before discovering their mistake.

Bismarckia Hildebr. et H. Wendl. Palmae (11. 3). 1 sp. Madag.

Included in Medemia in Nat. Pfl.

Bixa Linn. Bixaceae. 1 sp., B. Orellana L., trop. Am. Cultivated
all over the Tropics for its seed. The outer layer of the testa is red
and fleshy; the orange-yellow colouring matter (annatto, arnotto, &c.)
is used in dyeing sweetmeats &c.

Bixaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 4 gen. with 19 sp.,
trop. Small trees or shrubs, sometimes with tuberous underground
stem; leaves alt., stipulate, usually large and lobed. Schizogenous
mucilage canals are present in the tissues, and resin cells in the leaf
parenchyma in most sp. Firs, in panicles, £ , regular. K 4 — 5,
imbricate; C 4 — 5, imbricate or convolute; A 00, sometimes united at
base, the anthers usually opening by short slits or pores; G (2 — 5),
i-loc. with parietal placentae, or more or less completely multi-loc. by
union of the placentae in the centre. Ovules os, anatropous. Style

BOBARTIA

267

simple. Fruit a capsule; seeds 00 with rich endosperm; embryo usually
curved. As defined by Warburg in Nat. PJi . this order consists of
the 4 gen. Bixa, Cochlospermum, Amoreuxia, and Sphaerosepalum.
The latter was formerly placed in Guttiferae. B. are placed in Cisti-
florae by Warming (Eichler), and in Parietales by Bentham- Hooker.
These authors all include in B. the Flacourtiaceae, treated as a separate
order by Engler.

Bixineae (Bentham-Hooker). Bixaceae (in wide sense ; see above).

Blachia Baill. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 5). 6 sp. Indo-mal.

Blackstonia Huds. = Chlora Ren.

Blaeria Linn. Ericaceae (iv. 9). 20 sp. Afr.

Blainvillea Cass. Compositae (v). 10 sp. trop.

Blakea P. Br. Melastomaceae (1). 36 sp. S. Am., W. Ind.

Blandfordia Sm. Liliaceae (in). 4 sp. E. Austr.

Blatti Adans. =Sonneratia Linn. f.

Blattiaceae = Sonneratiaceae.

Blechnum Linn. Polypodiaceae. 20 sp. trop. and temp. For the
Brit. sp. B. boreale Sw. or B. Spicant Roth, see Lomaria.

Blechum P. Br. Acanthaceae (iv. A). 6 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind.

Blepharipappus Hook. Compositae (v). 1 sp. W. N. Am.

Blepharis Juss. Acanthaceae (iv. B). 40 sp. Old World, trop. and

subtrop. Thistle-like plants with the characters of Acanthus. The
seeds have hairs which swell up when wetted.

Blepharispermum Wight ex DC. Compositae (iv). 4 sp. trop. As., Afr.

Blepharodon Dene. Asclepiadaceae (11. 2). 20 sp. trop. Am.

Blephilia Rafin. Labiatae (vi. 8). 2 sp. N. Am.

Bletia Ruiz et Pav. Orchidaceae (15). 20 sp. trop. Am. Epiphytes.

For B. hyacinthina R. Br. see Bletilla.

Bletilla Reichb. f. Orchidaceae (5). 1 sp. China, Japan.

Blighia Kon. Sapindaceae (1). 1 sp. trop. Afr., B. sapida Kon. the

akee or vegetable marrow, commonly cultivated in the West Indies
for its edible fruit ; the edible part is the fleshy arillate seed-stalk.

Blitum (Tourn.) Linn. =Chenopodium Linn.

Bloomeria Kellogg. Liliaceae (iv). 2 sp. Calif.

Blumea DC. Compositae (iv). 60 sp. trop. and subtrop. Old World.

Very variable plants (cf. Hieracium). B. balsamifera DC. of SW.
China, &c. is the ai- or ngai-camphor. Camphor is distilled from it,
and exported in small quantity.

Blumenhachia Schrad. (incl. Caiophora Presl.). Loasaceae (in). 55 sp.
S. Am. The flr. is like that of Loasa. The fruit is twisted and is
very light ; it is covered with grapnel hairs and clings closely to fur.
As it is carried about the seeds are gradually shaken out.

Blysmus Panz. = Scirpus Tourn.

Blyxa Noronha. Hydrocharidaceae. 15 sp. trop. Afr., As., Japan.

Bobartia Linn. Iridaceae (11). 6 sp. S. Afr. Leaves sword-like, or

centric like those of onions.

268

BO CAGE A

Bocagea St. Hil. Anonaceae (i). 8 sp. trop. Am., As.

Bccconia Plum, ex Linn. (incl. Macleya Reichb.). Papaveraceae (u).
3 sp., 2 in trop. Am., the other, B. (M.) cordcila Willd., in China and
Japan. Shrubby plants with apetalous flowers.

Boea Comm, ex Lam. Gesneraceae (i). 15 sp. Chi., Indo-mal., Austr.

Boehmeria Jacq. Urticaceae (3). 45 sp. trop. and N. temp. B. nivea
Gaudich. has good “drip-tips” on its leaves (cf. Ficus). It is largely
cultivated in China for the excellent fibre (rhea, ramie, Chinese grass-
cloth) obtained from the inner bark (cf. Linum). This fibre is perhaps
the longest and strongest of all fibres, and articles made from it will
hardly wear out ; but it is very difficult to get rid of a gummy substance
that accompanies it in the bark, and hitherto no attempt at cultivating
it in British colonies has been successful, though at any time success
may be attained.

Boerhaavia Vaill. ex Linn. Nyctaginaceae (1). 30 sp. Afr., trop. As.,

Am. Anthocarp often glandular, aiding in seed dispersal.

Bolandra A. Gray. Saxifragaceae (1). 2 sp. W. N. Am.

Bolax Comm, ex Juss. = Azorella Lam.

Bolbophyllum Spreng. = Bulbophyllum Thou.

Boldoa Endl. = Peumus Molina.

Boltonia L’Herit. Compositae (ill). 3 sp. U. S.

Bomarea Mirb. Amaryllidaceae (in). 60 sp. S. Am. Like Alstroe-

meria in leaf and flr., but often climbing. Umbels cymose.

Bombacaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Malvales). 20 gen. with no
sp. trop. (chiefly Am.). Trees, often very large, with thick stems,
sometimes egg-shaped, owing to a great development of water-
storage tissue (see figs, in Kerner, Nat. Hist . of Pits . 1). Firs. $ ,
usually regular. K (5), valvate, often with epicalyx; C 5, convolute,
the pets, asymmetric ; A 5 — 00 , free or united into a tube, the pollen
smooth; G (2 — 5), in the latter case the cpls. opposite the pets., multi-
loc.; style simple, lobed or capitate; ovules 2 — go in each loc., erect,
anatropous. Seeds smooth, but often embedded in hairs springing
from the capsule wall, with little or no endosperm.

The Adansonieae are practically all myrmecophilous (p. 114,
Acacia , Cecropia) to some extent, extrafloral nectaries being formed
on the leaf, the calyx, or the flower stalk.

United to Malvaceae by Eichler (Warming) and by Bentham and
Plooker.

Chief genera : Adansonia, Bombax, Eriodendron, Durio.

Bombax Linn. (excl. Pachira Aubl.). Bombacaceae. 60 sp. trop.
B. malabaricum DC. is the cotton tree of Ceylon and India; it drops
its leaves in December, and remains naked for some months, but
flowers during that time, thus forming a very noticeable object in
a land of mostly evergreen trees. Pillows, &c. are sometimes made
of the cotton ( cf. Eriodendron), but it is very little used.

Bonatea Willd. = Habenaria Willd.

BORAGINACEAE

269

Bongardia C.A. Mey. Berberidaceae. 1 sp. Greece to Cent. As.

Bonnaya Link et Otto. Scrophulariaceae (11. 8). 3 sp. China, Indo-

mal., Austr. United to Ilysanthes Rafin. in Nat. PJL .

Bonnetia Mart, et Zucc. Theaceae (Ternstroemiaceae, Bentham and
Hooker). 5 sp. trop. Am.

Bonplandia Cav. Polemoniaceae. 1 sp. Mexico.

Bontia Linn. Myoporaceae. 1 sp. W. Ind.

Bcopis Juss. Calyceraceae. 10 sp. S. Am.

Boottia Wall. Hydrocharitaceae. 10 sp. trop. Afr., As.

Boquila Dene. Berberidaceae. 2 sp. Chili.

Boraginaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). About 85 gen.
with 1200 sp., trop. and temp., esp. Medit. Most are herbs, perennial
by fleshy roots, rhizomes, &c. ; a few shrubs and trees. Leaves
usually alt., exstip., generally, as well as the rest of the plant, covered
with stout hairs (hence the name Asperifolieae, by which the B. are
sometimes known). The infl. is a coiled cincinnus, sometimes double,
with a marked dorsiventrality. As the firs, open it uncoils, so that the
newly opened firs, face always in the same direction. The morphology
of this infl. is but imperfectly understood ; adnation or concrescence
occurs (p. 30), and apparently dichotomy at the growing apex. The
general agreement is, however, in favour of the view that the
“boragoid,” as it is sometimes called, is composed of dorsi-ventral
monopodia. Cf. Nat. Pfl.y Muller in Flora , 94, Schumann, Morphol .
Studien , II.

Fir. g » usually regular, hypogynous, and 5-merous. K (5), imbri-
cate or open, rarely valvate, the odd sepal
posterior; C (5), funnel-shaped or tubular,
the limb usually flat ; A 5, epipetalous,
alternate to petals, anthers introrse ; G (2),
on hypogynous disc, usually 4-locular by
‘false* septum (see Labiatae), usually with
gynobasic style ; ovules 1 in each loc.,
erect, anatropous. Fruit a drupe or 4
achenes. Seed with straight or curved
embryo in usually slight endosperm ; the
radicle directed upwards.

The floral arrangements are interesting.

Most B. have a short tube, partly conceal-
ing the honey; many (esp. iv. 1 and 3) have
scales projecting inwards from the throat
of the corolla, thus fully concealing the
honey, protecting it from robbery and narrowing the entrance, so
that visiting insects must take a definite track. “The lower forms
( e.g . Myosotis) are visited by flies (esp. Syrphidae), bees, and Le-
pidoptera, and are adorned with red, violet and blue colours

Floral diagram of Anchusa ;
after Eichler.

270

BORAGTNACEAE

...Many sp., in the course of their individual development, seem to
recapitulate to us the evolution of their colours — white, rosy, blue in
several sp. of Myosotis; yellow, bluish, violet in M. versicolor ; and
red, violet, blue in Pulmonaria, Echium &c. Here, white and yellow
seem to have been the primitive colours; and, at least in many cases,
violet and blue seem to have been preceded by red — an assumption
which is strengthened by the fact that many blue and violet sp.
(Myosotis, Anchusa, Symphytum) give us white and rose-red varieties,
apparently by reversion to more primitive characters.” (Miiller.)

Many B. are heterostyled, e.g. Pulmonaria. The firs, of many sp.
are pendulous (and thus bee-flowers), e.g. Borago, Symphytum.
Echium is gynodioecious.

Classification and chief genera (after Giirke) :

A. Style terminal : drupe.

I. CORDIOIDEA E (style twice bi-lobed) : Cordia.

II. EHRET10IDEAE (style simple or bi-lobed or double; no
ring of hairs) : Ehretia.

III. HELIOTROPIOIDEAE (ditto, but ring of hairs near tip of

style): Tournefortia, Heliotropium.

B. Style gynobasic : achenes.

IV. B ORA GINOIDEA E :

a. Achenes 4.

1. Cynoglosseae (flr. reg. ; base of style more or less conical;

tips of achenes not projecting above pt. of attachment) :
Omphalodes, Cynoglossum, Rindera.

2. Eritrichieae (do., but tips projecting above pt. of attach-

ment) : Echinospermum, Eritrichium, Cryptanthe.

3. Anchuseae (flr. reg.; base of style flat or slightly convex;

achenes with concave attachment surface) : Symphytum,
Borago, Anchusa, Alkanna, Pulmonaria.

4. Lithospermeae (do., but surface of attachment flat) : Myo-

sotis, Lithospermum, Arnebia, Cerinthe.

5. Echieae (flr. zygomorphic) : Echium.

b. Achenes more or less than 4.

6. Harpagonelleae (ach. 2) : Harpagonella, Rochclia (only

gen.).

7. Zoellerieae { ach. 10): Zoelleria (only gen.).

[Placed in Nuculiferae by Eichler (Warming), in Polemoniales by
Benth. -Hooker.]

Boragineae (Benth. -Hooker) = Boraginaceae.

Borago Linn. Boraginaceae (iv. 3). 3 sp. Medit., Eur., As. B. offici-
nalis L. in Brit. The borage is largely cultivated for bee feeding.
It has a typical bee-flower. The blue pendulous flr. secretes honey
below the ovary; the elastic sta. form a cone and dehisce introrsely
from apex to base, the pollen ripening gradually and trickling into
the tip of the cone. Insects probing for honey dislocate the sta.,

BOUCEROSIA

271

receiving a shower of pollen (cf. Erica, Galanthus, Cyclamen). In
older flowers the stigma, now ripe, projects beyond the sta. so as to
be touched first.

Borassus Linn. Palmae (it. 3). 1 sp. B. flabellifer L., the Palmyra

or Palmirah palm, trop. Afr. and As. Extensively cultivated in north
Ceylon and along the west coast of India, where it to a large extent
replaces the coconut. Dioecious. Its uses are legion; an old Tamil
song enumerates 801. The wood of the trunk is very hard and
durable, and resists salt water: it is also used for rafters, well-sweeps,
&c. The large fanshaped leaves are used as thatch, and made into
olas or writing “paper5’ sheets, the writing being done upon them
with a stylus. From the base of the leaves Palmyra fibre is collected,
and used for making brushes, &c. The split leaves are woven into
mats, baskets, &c. The fruit is eaten roasted, and the infl. is tapped
for toddy (cf. Cocos, Agave) from which sugar or jaggery is made, as
well as vinegar, &c. The young seedlings are also eaten, and there
are many other uses.

Borbonia Linn. Leguminosae (in. 3). 13 sp. S. Afr.

Boretta Neck. = Daboecia D. Don.

Boronia Sm. Rutaceae (ill). 60 sp. Austr.

Borreria G. F. W. Mey. = Spermacoce Linn.

Boscia Lam. Capparidaceae (ill). 10 sp. trop. Afr.

Bossiaea Vent. Leguminosae (ill. 3). 35 sp. Austr. Several xero-

phytic sp. have flattened green stems (phylloclades) with minute scaly
leaves. As in Acacia, &c., seedlings show transitions from leaves.

3oswelIia Roxb. ex Colebr. 10 sp. India and Afr. B. Carteri Birdw.
(Somali-land, &c.) and other sp. are supposed to yield the resin known
as frankincense or gum-olibanum, obtained by notching the stem, but
there is still some doubt as to its origin. It was formerly officinal,
but is now chiefly used in incense. Other sp. also yield fragrant
resins.

Botrychium Sw. Ophioglossaceae. 25 or 30 sp. temp, and trop.
B. Lunaria Sw., the moonwort, is found in many places in Brit.,
and other vars. or perhaps sp., also occur. The general habit re-
sembles that of Ophioglossum, but the sterile as well as the fertile
part of the leaf is usually branched. The roots appear one at the
base of each leaf, and branch monopodially. The spike is usually
much branched, the ultimate twigs being the sporangia.

B . Lunaria has no vegetative reproduction like Ophioglossum,
and each new plant comes from a prothallus. The prothalli are very
small, not>i or 2 mm. long, oval, saprophytic, buried to a depth of
1 — 10 cm. In B. virginianum Sw. the prothallus is as much as
20 mm. long, and seems to remain attached to the sporophyte for
5 or 6 years. The prothallus has a mycorhiza. (Jeffrey, Univ. of
Toronto Studies , 1898; Bruchmann in Flora , 96, 1906, p. 203.)

Boucerosia Wight et Am. Asclepiadaceae (11. 4). 20 sp. Medit., trop.

272

BOUCEROSIA

Afr. and As. Like Stapelia. Included in Caralluma R. Er. in
Nat. PJl.

Bouchea Cham. Verbenaceae (il. 2). 20 sp. trop.

Bouea Meissn. Anacardiaceae (1). 4 sp. Malaya.

Bougainvillaea Comm. ex. Juss. Nyctaginaceae (1). 7 sp. S. Am. The
group of 3 firs, is surrounded by 3 lilac or red bracts, which persist,
and to some degree act as wings for the fruit. B. spectabilis Willd.
is one of the most splendid flowering creepers in the tropics, but its
lilac colour is difficult to harmonise with other things.

Bourreria P Br. {Beureria P. Br. in Nat . PJl.) Boraginaceae (11).
30 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind.

Boussingaultia H. B. et K. Basellaceae (Chenopodiaceae, Bentham-
Hooker). 10 sp. trop. Am. The tubers are eaten.

Bouteloua Lag Gramineae (xi). 40 sp. Canada to S. Am., mainly

in SW. U. S. (mesquit grasses, grama, side-oats). They form a large
proportion of the herbage of the prairie, and are valuable as fodder.

Bouvardia Salisb. Rubiaceae (1. 4). 30 sp. trop. Am. Some are

heterostyled like Primula. Often cultivated for their firs.

Bowenia Hook. Cycadaceae. 1 sp. Queensland, B. spectabilis Plook.,
easily recognised by the bipinnate leaf (see order). The upper part
of the main root gives rise to curiously branched apogeotropic roots,
which contain Anabaena (an alga) living in symbiosis with them, and
branch exogenously {Ann. Bot., 1898).

Bowiea Harv. Liliaceae (in). 1 sp. Cape Col., B. volubilis Harv.

It is a xerophyte like Testudinaria, with a large partly underground
stock (corm), giving off each year a much-branched climbing stem.
This bears small leaves, but they soon drop off, and assimilation is
carried on by the green tissue of the stem.

Bowlesia Ruiz, et Pav. Umbelliferae (2). 20 sp. Am., Canary Is.

Boykinia Nutt. Saxifragaceae (1). 7 sp. N. Am., Japan.

Brachistus Miers. Solanaceae (11). 12 sp. Cent, and S. Am.

Brachycome Cass. Compositae (ill). 50 sp. Austr., N. Z., N. Am.,
Afr.

Brachycorythis Lindl. Orchidaceae (3). 4 sp. W. and S. Afr.

Brachyglottis Forst. Compositae (vm). 1 sp. N.Z.

Brachylaena R. Br. Compositae (iv). 6 sp. S. Afr. Shrubs.

Brachyotum Triana. Melastomaceae (1). 30 sp. S. Am.

Brachypodium Beauv. Gramineae (x). 10 sp. temp., and Mts. of

trop. 2 in Brit, (false brome grass). Leaf reversed (cf. Alstroemeria).

Brachysema R. Br. Leguminosae (ill. 2). 15 sp. Austr.

Brachystelma R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (11. 4). 40 sp. palaeotrop.

B. Bingeri A. Chev. has an edible tuber.

Bradburia Torr. et Gray. Compositae (ill). 1 sp. Texas.

Bradburya Rafin. = Wistaria Nutt, and Centrosema Benth.

Bragantia Lour. {Apama Lamk.) Aristolochiaceae. 1 sp. Malaya.

Brahea Mart. Palmae (1. 2). 2 sp. Mexico, Texas.

BRICKELLIA

273

Brainea Hk. Polypodiaceae. i sp. Hong-kong and Khasia, B. insig -
nis Hk., a dwarf tree-fern. The primary veins branch and rejoin
repeatedly, forming small areas in the leaf ; the veinlets run parallel
and distinct.

Brasenia Schreb. Nymphaeaceae (n). i sp. cosmop., except Eur.
Sta. 12 or more.

Brassaiopsis Dene, et Planch. Araliaceae. io sp. Indo-mal.

Brassavola R. Br. Orchidaceae (13). 20 sp. trop. Am.

Brassia R. Br. Orchidaceae (28). 30 sp. trop. Am.

Brassica (Tourn.) Linn, (inch Erucastrum Presl. and Sinapis L.).
Cruciferae (11. 10). 85 sp. Eur., Medit., As. 7 in Brit. Many forms
of this genus are cultivated, some for the fir., others for the stem,
root, leaf, or seed. B. (.S’.) nigra Koch is the black mustard, whose
ground seeds form the familiar condiment ; B . (S.) alba Boiss.
is the white mustard, used when young in salads, &c. ; B, sinapis
Vis. (6*. arvensis L.) is the charlock, one of the most abundant
weeds of cultivation (in summer our corn-fields are yellow with it).
B. oleracea L. is the cabbage, with the various races derived from
it, such as cauliflower and brocoli (fleshy infh), kale or curly greens
or borecole, brussels-sprouts (a form in which miniature cabbages are
produced in all the leaf-axils on the main stem), kohl-rabi or knol-
kohl (trop.) (a thickened stem, or corm, showing leaf scars on its
surface), &c. B. campestris L. is the turnip, a biennial with
thickened root, and a variety of it — B, Napus L. — is the rape,
used in salads and in the preparation of rape- or colza-oil, expressed
from the seeds. [See De Candolle’s Orig. of Cultiv . Pits.] It is of
interest to notice here the great variety of morphology in the vegetative
organs, correlated with the different ways in which storage of reserve
materials is effected, in the root, stem, leaf, flowerstalk, &c.

Sauer-kraut, or salted cabbage, made by packing cabbage shreds
in barrels with salt and pepper, and slightly fermenting, is a favourite
food in Germany, especially for winter use.

The outer coat of the seed has mucilaginous cell-walls which swell
when wetted and help to fasten the seed to its place of germination
(cf. Linum).

Bravoa Lex. Amaryllidaceae (11). 3 sp. Mexico. Rhizome with

tuberous roots. Fir. zygomorphic by bending.

Braya Sternb. et Hoppe. Cruciferae (iv. 18). 8 sp. Mts. of Eur., As.

Brayera Kunth. ( Hagenia Willd.) Rosaceae (in. 9). 1 sp. Abyssinia.
The dried ? firs. (Koso) are used as a remedy for tapeworm.

Bredemeyera Willd. Polygalaceae. 50 sp. S. Am., Austr.

Brevoortia Wood. Liliaceae (iv). 1 sp. Calif.

Breweria R. Br. Convolvulaceae (1. 2). 50 sp. trop.

Brexia Noronha. Saxifragaceae (v). 1 sp. Madag., Seychelles.

Breynia Forst. Euphorbiaceae (a, 1. 1). 15 sp. trop. As., Austr.

Brickellia Ell. Compositae (11). 60 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Am.

18

W.

274

BRIDELIA

3ridelia Willd. Euphorbiaceae (a, I. 2). 40 sp. trop., W. Afr. to

New Caled.

Bridgesia Hook, et Am. = Ercilla A. Juss.

Briza Linn. Gramineae (x). 12 sp. temp. 2 in Brit. ( B . media L.,

and B. minor L. , quake-grasses).

Brocchinia Schult. f. Bromeliaceae (2). 3 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind.

Brodiaea Sm. (incl. Calliprora Lindl.). Liliaceae (iv). 30 sp. Am.

(west of Mts.). Firs, in cymose umbels. The sta. have curious pro-
jecting appendages; in B. ixioides S. Wats. (C. Intea Lindl. or fiava
Hort.) these are covered with turgid cells, which rupture when
touched by any hard body, allowing a honey-like fluid to escape
{Linn. Soc. Journ. XXX. p. 285).

Bromelia Plum. Bromeliaceae (1). 4 sp. W. Ind. and Brazil.

Bromeliaceae. Monocotyledons (Farinosae). 40 gen. with 400 sp.
trop. Am. Many are terrestrial plants (xerophytes, living on rocks
&c.), but the bulk of the sp., by virtue of their good seed-distribution
and their xerophytic habit, have become epiphytes, forming a very
characteristic feature in the vegetation of the forests of the Amazon
&c., more so in fact than the orchids, which they surpass in number
of individuals though not of sp. Most of them have a very reduced
stem, bearing a rosette of fleshy leaves channelled on the upper sur-
face and fitting closely together by their bases, so that the whole
plant forms a kind of funnel, which is usually full of water. In this
are to be found dead leaves, decaying animal matter and other debris
(in Venezuela certain sp. of Utricularia live only in these pitchers).
There are a number of adventitious roots which fasten the plant to its
support, but which do not aid in its nutrition, or at least very little.
The bases of the leaves are covered with peculiar scaly hairs by which
the water in the pitcher is absorbed. Water is stored in the leaves,
whose bulk consists largely of water-tissue. They have a thick
cuticle and often bear scaly hairs that aid in reducing transpiration.
Some sp. show a totally different habit to this, e.g . Tillandsia
usneoides (y.z/.). [See p. 173 and paper by Schimper there
referred to.]

The infl. usually rises out of the centre of the pitcher and has as a
rule brightly coloured bracts adding to the conspicuousness of the
firs. Fir. usually 5 , regular, 3-merous. Perianth 3 + 3 or (3) + (3)1
the outer whorl sepaloid, persistent, the inner petaloid ; A 6, introrse,
often epipet. ; G (3), inf., semi-inf., or sup., 3-loc., with 00 anatro-
pous ovules on the axile placentae in each. Style 1, with 3 stigmas.
Frt. a berry or capsule; seeds in the latter case very light, or winged.
Embryo small, in mealy endosperm.

Classification and chief genera (after Wittmack) :

1. Bromelieae (berry; ovary inf.; leaf with thorny teeth);

Bromelia, Ananas, Billbergia, Aechmea.

BROWNLOWIA 275

2. Pitcairnieae (capsule ; ovary semi-inf. or almost sup. ; leaf

entire, or toothed at base, rarely at top) : Pitcairnia.

3. Puyeae (capsule ; ovary sup. ; leaf thorny ; usually large

stem) : Puya, Dyckia.

4. Tillandsieae (do., but leaf entire ; seed hairy): Tillandsia.

[Placed in Epigynae by Benth. -Hooker, in Liliiflorae by Eichler

(Warming).]

Bromus Dill, ex Linn. Gramineae (x). 60 sp. temp., and trop. Mts.

7 in Brit, (brome-grass). Though so common, they are of little or
no value as pasture grasses.

Brongniartia H. B. et Iv. Leguminosae (ill. 6). 20 sp. trop. Am.

Brosimum Sw. Moraceae (11). 10 sp. trop. Am. The infl. is remark-

able (fig. in Nat . Pfl>), consisting of a spherical pseudo-head com-
posed of one ? fir. and many S firs. The former is sunk into the
centre of the common receptacle, and its style projects at the top,
whilst the latter occupy the whole of the outer surface. Each <? fir.
has a rudimentary perianth and one sta., whose versatile anther
dehisces in a curious way, passing from a shape somewhat like T to
one like ?. The achene is embedded in the fleshy receptacle.

The achene of B. Alicasirum Sw. is the bread-nut (not to be con-
fused with Artocarpus, the bread-fruit), which is cooked and eaten in
the W. Ind., &c. [The bread-nut of Barbados is, however, a seeded
var. of the bread-fruit.] B. Galactodendron D. Don. is the cow’-tree
or milk-tree of Venezuela. When a notch is cut in the stem, the
milky latex flows out in considerable quantities ; it tastes very like
ordinary milk and is used for the same purposes. The wood of
several sp. is useful, though liable to split.

Broughtonia R. Br. (incl. in Epidendrum in Nat. Pfl>). Orchidaceae
(13). 2 sp. W. Ind.

Broussonetia L’Herit. Moraceae (1). 3 sp. E. As., Polynes. Dioecious;
S firs, in pseudo-racemes with explosive sta. like those of Urtica
(unusual in this order) ; ? firs, in pseudo-heads. Multiple fruit

(cf. Morus, &c.). B. papyrifera Vent, is the paper-mulberry of
Japan. A good fibre, used for paper, &c., is obtained from the
inner bark ; in Polynes. the natives make tapa or kapa cloth from
it. The leaves double upwards during the heat of the day.

Browallia Linn. Solanaceae (v). 6 sp. trop. Am.

Brownea Jacq. (Hermesias Loefl.). Leguminosae (11. 3). 10 sp. trop.

Am., W. Ind. The young shoots emerge very rapidly from the bud
and hang downwards on flaccid stalks, the leaflets at first rolled up,
and later spread out, and pink or red speckled with white. After
a time they turn green and stiffen up and spread out in the normal
position. The plant being a shade-loving tree, like Amherstia, which
behaves in the same way, this phenomenon is supposed to be pro-
tective. B. grandiceps Jacq. and others have fine bunches of flowers.

Brownlowia Roxb. Tiliaceae. 1 sp. Indo-mal.

18 — 2

27 6

BRUCE A

Bracea J. S. Mull. Simarubaceae. 5 sp. palaeotrop. Very astringent.
The seeds of B, sumatrana Roxb. and other sp. are old native
remedies in dysentery.

Bruckenthalia Reichb. Ericaceae (iv. 9). 1 sp. S.E. Eur.

Brugmansia Blume. Rafflesiaceae. 3 sp. Malay Arch.

Brugmansia Pers. = Datura Linn.

Bruguiera Lam. Rhizophoraceae. 5 sp. palaeotrop. One of the trees
of the mangrove formation (p. 19 1). Like Rhizophora, but without
the aerial roots from the higher branches. The roots in the mud give
off erect aerating branches, as in Sonneratia, &c.

Brunella Tourn. ex Linn. = Prunella Linn.

Brunellia Ruiz et Pav. Brunelliaceae. 10 sp. Peru to Mexico.

Brunelliaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). Only genus Bru-
nellia, placed in Simarubaceae by Bentham-Hooker. Fir. monochlam.,
unisexual, 4-5-7-merous, diplostemonous. Cpls. 5-2, each with 2
pendulous ovules. Capsule. Endosperm. Leaves opp. or in whorls.

Brunfelsia Plum, ex Linn. Solanaceae (v). 25 sp. trop. Am. Several
are in cultivation in the tropics, and have flowers that change colour
as they grow older (cf. Ribes, Fumaria, and see p. 100).

Brunia Linn. Bruniaceae. 5 sp. S. Afr.

Bruniaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). ' 12 gen. with 50 sp.
S. Afr. Heath-like shrubs, with alt. exstip. leaves, and racemose
infl. Fir. g , usually regular, 5-merous, generally perigynous. Sta.
in one whorl. Cpls. (3 — 2) each with 3 or 4 ovules, or 1 with 1 ovule.
Capsule with 2, or nut with 1, seeds. Aril. Endosperm. Placed in
Rosales by Bentham-Hooker. Chief genera: Brunia, Berzelia.
Rarely seen in Europe. See Nat . PJi .

Brunonia Sm. Goodeniaceae. 1 sp. Austr., Tasm. It differs from the
other G. very much (see order), and is sometimes placed in a separate
order.

Brunsvigia Pleist. Amaryllidaceae (1). 9 sp. S. Afr.

Brya P. Br. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 3 sp. Cent. Am., W. Ind. B.

Ebenus DC. yields the wood known as Jamaica or American ebony,
cocus or cocos wood, the heart wood turning black with age, just as
in the true ebony (Diospyros).

Bryanthus S. G. Gmel. Ericaceae (1. 3). 6 sp. N.W. Am., one of

which, B. taxifolius A. Gray, is circumpolar, incl. Brit.

Bryonia Linn. Cucurbitaceae (in). 8 sp. Eur., As., Afr. B. dioica

Jacq. is our common white bryony, which marks the N. limit of the
order in Eur. The <? fir. is about twice as large as the ? . Honey is
secreted at the base of the perianth and protected in the male by the
bases of the filaments. The fir. is visited in Low Germany chiefly
by short tongued bees, and especially by Andrena fiorea F., which
appears to confine itself to this plant (Muller). In Britain we have
very few of these insects (in proportion), at any rate in the north and
in Wales, and it is noteworthy that the bryony does not occur in

BUNCHOSIA

877

Scotland and is rare in Wales. It would probably prove of interest
to investigate its mechanism and insect-visitors in various parts of
England. Being dioecious, it is dependent upon insects for fertili-
sation, and it is possible that its distribution is largely determined by
that of the insects suited to it (cf. Aconitum, Calystegia, &c.). This
plant is said to be parthenogenetic.

Bryophyllum Salisb. Crassulaceae. 4 sp. S. Afr., Madag. B. caly -
cinum Salisb. in trop. of both worlds. In the notches on the leaves
of this sp. adventitious buds develope, giving rise to new plants
(p. 1 1 3). In B, proliferum Bowie there are simple and compound
leaves on the same plant. Calyx and corolla are both gamophyllous.

Euchanania Spreng. Anacardiaceae (1). 20 sp. trop. As.

Buchenroedera Eckl. et Zeyh. Leguminosae (in. 3). 8 sp. S. Afr.

Buchloe Engelm. {Bulbilis Rafin.) Gramineae (xi). 1 sp. B. dacly-

loides Engelm., the buffalo-grass of the western prairies of the U. S.,
a good fodder. It is a small creeping grass.

Buchnera Linn. Scrophulariaceae (in. 11). 30 sp. trop.

Buckinghamia F. Muell. Proteaceae (11). 1 sp. Queensland.

Bucklandia R. Br. Hamamelidaceae. 1 sp. B. populnea R. Br.,
Himal. to Java. The large stipules are folded against one another,
enclosing and protecting the young axillary bud or infl. The firs,
are in heads which stand in groups of 4. They are polygamous or
monoecious, and are sunk in the axis. The “calyx-tube5’ becomes
visible as a ring after flowering. The wood is valued in the arts.

Buckleya Torr. Santalaceae. 4 sp. N. Am., China, Japan.

Buda Adans. = Spergularia Presl.

Buddleia Houst. Loganiaceae. 70 sp. trop. and subtrop. This genus
and its allies are sometimes placed in Scrophulariaceae, but possess
stipules (though sometimes reduced to mere interpetiolar lines).

Buettneria Loefl. Sterculiaceae. 50 sp. trop.

Bufonia Sauv. ex Linn. Caryophyllaceae (11. 1). 15 sp. Medit. and

1 Switz. Not unlike Juncus bufonius in habit.

Buforrestia C. B. Clarke. Commelinaceae. 4 sp. trop. W. Afr.

Bulbilis Rafin. = Buchloe Engelm.

Bulbine Linn. Liliaceae (in). 25 sp. S. Afr.

Bulbinella Kunth. Liliaceae (ill). 15 sp. .S. Afr., N. Z,, &c.

Bulbocodium Linn. Liliaceae (1). 1 sp. Eur.

Bulbophyllum Thou. Orchidaceae (22). 100 sp. trop., and S. temp.

Epiphytes with great reduction of leaf surface. The leaves are often
mere scales and the assimilation is performed by the tubers. In B.
minutissimum F. Muell. and other sp., the tubers are hollow with the
stomata on the inner surface (cf. the leaf of Empeirum). For the fir.
see Darwin’s Orchids , p. 137.

Bulbostylis DC. = Brickellia Ell.

Bulliarda DC. = Tillaea Michx.

Bumelia Sw. Sapotaceae (1). 20 sp. Am.

Bunchosia Rich, ex Juss. Malpighiaceae (11). 30 sp. trop. Am.

278

BUNGE A

Bungea C. A. Mey. Scrophulariaceae (ill. 12). 3 sp. As. Min. to

China.

Bunias (Tourn.) Linn. Cruciferae (iv. 19). 5 sp. Medit., As. In

some sp. the fruit is provided with hooks.

Bunium Linn. = Carum Linn, and Conopodium Koch (in part).

Buphane Herb. Amaryllidaceae (1). 2 sp. S. and trop. Afr.

Buphthalmum Linn. Compositae (iv). 4 sp. Eur., As. minor.

Bupleurum (Tourn.) Linn. Umbelliferae (5). 90 sp. Eur., As., Afr.,

N. Am. 4 Brit. sp. (buplever or hare’s ear), of which B. rotundifolium
L. is most common ; it has perfoliate leaves, whence the name throw-
wax (thorow-wax) by which it is sometimes known. All sp. have
entire leaves, an unusual thing in this order.

Burbidgea Hook. f. Zingiberaceae. 1 sp. Borneo (p. 148). The corolla
segments are large, the lateral staminodes absent. The small labellum
and petaloid sta. stand up in the centre of the flr.

Burchellia R. Br. Rubiaceae (8). 1 sp. Cape Col.

Burlingtonia Lindl. = Rodriguezia Ruiz et Pav.

Burmannia Linn. Burmanniaceae. 30 sp. trop.

Burmanniaceae. Monocotyledons (Microspermae). A small order of
tropical forest plants, chiefly “colourless” saprophytes. Chief genera:
Burmannia, Thismia. (See Nat. PJl., and Ann. of Bot. 1895.)

Burmeistera Karst, et Triana. Campanulaceae (ill). 10 sp. trop.
S. Am.

Burnettia Lindl. Orchidaceae (4). 1 sp. Tasmania.

Burrielia DC. Compositae (vi). 1 sp. Calif.

Bursa Wigg. = Capsella Medic.

Bursaria Cav. Pittosporaceae. 1 sp. Austr.

Bursera ‘ Jacq.5 ex Linn. Burseraceae. 45 sp. trop. Am. B. gurnmifera
L. (birch tree, gommier, turpentine tree) furnishes the balsam resin
known as American elemi, chibou, cachibou, or gomart.

Burseraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). 13 gen. with 300
sp. trop. Shrubs and trees with alt., usually compound, dotted
leaves. Balsams and resins occur, in lysigenous or schizogenous
passages. Firs, small, generally unisexual, with disc like Rutaceae,
5- or 4-merous, obdiplostemonous when both whorls of sta. are
present. Cpls (5 — 3). Ovules usually 2 in each. Ovary multiloc.
with one style. Drupe or capsule. Seed exalbuminous. Many of
the order are useful on account of their resins, &c.

Chief genera: Commiphora, Boswellia, Bursera, Canarium.
[Placed by Benth.-Hook. in Geraniales, by Warming in Terebinthinae.]

Burtonia R. Br. Leguminosae (ill. 2). 8 sp. Austr.

Butea Koen. ex Roxb. Leguminosae (in. 10). 4 sp. Ind., China.

B. frondosa Roxb. is the dhak or palas tree of Bengal, or bastard
teak, one of the handsomest of trees when in flower. A red juice
flows from incisions in the bark ; when dried it is known as Bengal
kino and used as an astringent. The flrs. yield a fugitive orange-red
dye. The tree also yields lac (see Ficus).

CABRALEA

2 79

Butomaceae. Monocotyledons (Helobieae). 4 gen. with 5 sp ., trop.
and temp. Water and marsh herbs with leaves of various types.
Infl. usually a cymose umbel. Fir. $ , regular, 2- or 3-merous, hypo-
gynous. Perianth 6, in two whorls, the outer sepaloid, the inner
petaloid (exc. Butomus). Sta. 9-00, with introrse anthers. Cpls.
6 - 00 , apocarpous, with 00 anatropous ovules scattered over their
inner walls [cf. Nymphaea), except on midrib and edges. Follicles;
seed ex-albuminous ; embryo straight or horse-shoe shaped. The
order is united to Alismaceae by Warming, and by Benth.-Hooker.
Chief genera : Butomus, Hydrocleis.

Butomus Linn. Butomaceae. 1 sp., B. umbellatus L., the flowering
rush, in temp. As., Eur. (incl. Brit.). The infl. consists of a terminal
fir. surrounded by 3 bostryx-cymes.

Butyrospermum Kotschy. Sapotaceae (1). 2 sp. Afr. The oily seeds

of B. Parkii Kotschy when pressed yield shea butter.

Buxaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). 6 gen. with 30 sp.
temp, and trop. Evergreen shrubs with exstip. leathery leaves, and
no latex. Firs, in heads or spikes, unisexual, regular, apetalous or
naked. Sta. 4-00. G usually (3), 3-locular, with 3 styles which
are persistent on the fruit. Ovules 2 - 1 in each loc., pendulous,
anat., with dorsal raphe. Loculicidal capsule, or drupe. Seed
with caruncle or none. Endosperm. United to Euphorbiaceae by
Benth.-Hooker, but the dorsal raphe places it in Sapindales and
it differs in the dehiscence of the fruit ; placed in Tricoccae by
Eichler (Warming). Chief genera : Buxus, Pachysandra.

Buxus Linn. Buxaceae. 19 sp., 8 in Old World, 11 in W. Ind. B.
sempervirens L. is the box, common in gardens. The firs, are in
heads, a terminal ? flr. surrounded by a number of $ firs. The
fruit dehisces explosively, the inner layer of the pericarp separating
from the outer and shooting out the seeds by folding into a U-shape
(cf. Viola). The wood of the box is exceedingly firm and close-grained,
and is largely used in turning, wood-engraving &c.

Byblis Salisb. Lentibulariaceae (usually in Droseraceae, but cf Lang
in Flora 88, p. 179). 2 sp. Austr. Insectivorous undershrubs, with

stalked and sessile glands like Pinguicula.

Byrsonima Rich. Malpighiaceae. 90 sp. Cent, and S. Am., W. Ind.
Fruit a drupe, edible. The bark of some sp. is used in tanning.

Bystropogon L’Herit. Labiatae (vi. 11). 14 sp. Andes, Canary Is.

Cabomba Aubl. Nymphaeaceae (11). 4 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Am.

Water plants with peltate floating leaves and much-divided submerged
leaves (see p. 163 and cf. Ranunculus, Trapa). The flr. is 3-merous
(P 3 -P 3, A. 3 — 6, G- usually 3) and fully apocarpous (thus forming a
link to the other Ranales, with which the gynoeceum of most N. does
not agree). Fruit of closed follicles. Seed without aril, with endo-
and peri-sperm. Ovules sometimes attached to the cpl. midrib .

Cabralea A. Juss. Meliaceae. 25 sp. trop. Am.

28o

C. AC ALIA

Cacalia Linn. = Senecio Toum. (usually same spec, names).

Caccinia Savi. Boraginaceae (iv. i). 7 sp. W. and Cent. As.

Cachrys Linn. Umbelliferae (6). 8 sp. Medit., W. and Cent. As.

Cactaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Opuntiales). 15 gen. with abt.
900 sp. The order is chiefly localised in the dry regions of trop.
Am., but it spreads to a considerable distance N. and S. ( Opuntia
missouriensis is found as far as 590 N.). The cacti are able to stand
winter frost very well (as the splendid open-air collection at Cambridge
testifies) and so are found far up the mountains (to 12000 ft. and even
higher). Even in the damp forest regions some sp. appear as epi-
phytes. The only representative of the order in the Old World is
Rhipsalis, found in Afr., Mauritius &c., but several sp. of Opuntia &c.
are now naturalised in S. Afr., Austr., &c. and are becoming as trouble-
some as the thistles of the Pampas or Elodea in Europe.

The C. are xerophytes of the most pronounced type, exhibiting
not merely reduction of the transpiring surface, but also storage of
water, often in very great quantity. The vegetative organs show
great variety of type ; the C. afford an interesting case of a family in
which the classification is better based upon them than upon the
reproductive organs (see below). The root is generally long and
well-developed (in cultivation it is liable to decay). The stem is
fleshy, of various shapes, rarely bearing green leaves, and usually
provided with sharp barbed thorns, which give a most efficient pro-
tection against animals. We shall now consider briefly some of the
more important types of shoot found in C. (refer to genera for further
details). The nearest approach to the ordinary plant-type is found in
Pereskia, which has large green leaves, somewhat fleshy, in whose
axils are groups of thorns mixed with hairs ; the space occupied by
these is termed the areole . About the morphology of the spines there
has been much dispute; most authors regard them as representing
the leaves of the axillary shoot, whose stem is undeveloped, but there
is also good evidence in favour of the view that they are ‘emergences’
(p. 1 14). In some genera they are provided with barbs. The next
stage is found in Opuntia, where the stem has taken over the water-
storing and assimilating functions, but still bears leaves ; in some sp.
these aid the stem functions throughout life, but in most they fall off
very early, and the stem is usually flattened to expose more surface to
air and light. Then we come to Leuchtenbergia, which has an aloe-
like habit with the areoles on the tips of the apparent leaves; the fir.
arises either in the axil of the ‘leaf’ or on the areole. Development
shows that the apparent leaf is really a compound structure. The
bud stands, not exactly in the axil, but on the base of the leaf, and
the two grow out together to form a leaf-cushion or mammilla , at the
outer end of which is the growing point and the rest of the leaf itself;
the latter is represented by a small scale (often microscopic) and the
former gives rise to the thorns &c. on the areole. The same pheno-

CACTACEAE

281

menon is seen in Mammillaria, Cereus sp. &c. In some cases the
growing point divides, during the growth of the mammilla, into two,
one on the tip, the other in the axil, of the cushion. The latter gives
rise to the flr. In Cereus, Echinocactus, &c. the stem is more or less
cylindrical, bearing ribs on which are the areoles at regular intervals ;
the rib is formed by the ‘fusion’ of mammillae, i.e. by the growth of
the tissue under them during their development (cf. formation of sym-
petalous corolla). In Phyllocactus, Epiphyllum, and. sp. of Rhipsalis
some or all of the shoots exhibit a flattened leafy form with areoles in
notches on their edges. This form appears to be derived from the
preceding by abortion of some of the ridges, and reversions are often
seen (they appear if access of light be prevented). Lastly, other sp.
of Rhipsalis show perfectly cylindrical stems.

The bulk of the internal tissue consists of parenchyma in which
water is stored ; the cell-sap is commonly mucilaginous, thus further
obstructing evaporation. The cuticle is thick, and the ridges of the
stem are usually occupied by mechanical tissue, whilst the stomata
are in the furrows. Everything thus goes to check transpiration to
the utmost extent ; it is very difficult to dry a cactus for the herbarium,
and its vitality is very great. Its growth is slow, but sp. of Cereus &c.
reach a great size. Vegetative reproduction is frequent in the mam-
millate forms, and occurs to some extent in others. In garden
practice, cacti are often multiplied by cuttings, for a piece cut off
and stuck into the soil will usually grow. Grafting is also largely
resorted to.

The firs, are usually solitary (exc. Pereskia), borne upon or near
the areoles or in the axils of mammillae, large and brightly coloured,
5 , regular or zygomorphic. Perianth (00), showing gradual transition
from sepaloid to petaloid leaves, spirally arranged, often up the side
of the ovary (cf. Nymphaea). Sta. 00, epipetalous. G (4 — 00 ), uniloc.
with parietal placentae and 00 anatropous ovules; style simple. Fruit
a berry, the flesh derived from the funicles. Endosperm or none.

The fruit of many sp. is edible (e.g. Opuntia, &c.). Several sp.
are commonly used in making hedges. The Cochineal insect is culti-
vated on sp. of Nopalea, Opuntia, &c.

Classification and chief genera (after K. Schumann) :

I. CEREOIDEAE (succulents; leaves reduced to scales, often
very minute ; no barbed thorns) :

1. Echinocacteae (flr. funnel- or salver-shaped, in or near the

areole) : Cereus, Phyllocactus, Epiphyllum, Echino-
cactus, Melocactus, Leuchtenbergia.

2. Mammillarieae (do., but in axil of mammilla): Mammil-

laria, Pelecyphora.

3. Rhipsalideae (flr. rotate) : Rhipsalis.

II. OPUNTIOIDEAE (succulents with round or flat leaf-like
joints; leaves cylindrical, usually falling very early; barbed

282

CACTACEAE

thorns present ; flr. rotate) : Opuntia, Nopalea (only
genera).

III. PERESKIOIDEAE (habit of ordinary plant, with flat
leaves and panicles of firs. ; no barbed thorns) : Pereskia
(only genus).

[Placed in Ficoidales by Benth.-Hook.; Cactiflorae by Warming.]

For further details of this interesting order see pp. 167, 188, and
refer to genera. See also Goebel, Pflanzenb. Sch. and in Flora 1895,
Ganong in Flora 1894, Bot. Gaz . 1895, Ann . Bot. 1898, Schumann
in Nat. PJl. and Gesa m mtbesch reibung der Kakteen , 1897-99, and
Vochting in Pringsh. Jahrb. 1894. Euphorbia and Stapelia should
also be carefully compared with the Cacti.

Cactiflorae. The 7th cohort of Choripetalae (Eichler, Warming, p. 138).

Cadaba Forsk. Capparidaceae (ill). 14 sp. palaeotrop. The disc is
prolonged posteriorly into a long tube, and both androphore and
gynophore are present.

Cadia Forsk. Leguminosae (ill. 1). 4 sp. E. Afr., Madag., Arabia.

Fir. almost reg. with free sta.

Caesalpinia Linn. Leguminosae (n. 7). 40 sp. trop. and subtrop.,

often hook climbers. The pods of C. bondncella Fleming (nickar)
are frequently brought to Europe by the Gulf Stream. Those of
C. coriaria Willd. (divi-divi) are imported from S. Am. and W. Ind.
for tanning. C. sappan L. (Indo-mal., cultivated for the purpose in
Ceylon, &c.) and several Brazilian sp. yield a red dye from the wood
(sappan, Brazil, or peach wood). C. pule her rima Sw. (peacock flr.,
Barbados pride) is cultivated for its showy firs.

Caesia R. Br. Liliaceae (in). 10 sp. Austr., S. Afr.

Caiophora Presl. = Blumenbachia Schrad.

Cajanus DC. Leguminosae (hi. 10). 1 sp. trop. Afr., As. C. indiens
Spreng. the dhal, pigeon pea, or Congo pea, very extensively cultivated
in India and other warm countries for its seeds or pods, used like
ordinary peas.

Cakile Linn. Cruciferae (n. 8). 4 sp. Eur., N. Am., Medit., W. Ind.
C. maritima Scop., the sea-rocket, in Brit. It has fleshy leaves, and
the shoots are prostrate (p. 186). The tap root is very long.

Caladenia R. Br. Orchidaceae (4). 30 sp. Austr., N. Z. The la-

bellum in some sp. is irritable (cf. Pterostylis, and see Darwin,
Orchids , p. 90).

Caladium Vent. Araceae (vi). 10 sp. trop. S. Am., often cultivated

for their large variegated leaves.

Calamagrostis Adans. Gramineae (vin). 130 sp. temp., 3 in Brit.

Calamintlia (Tourn.) Lam. Labiatae (vi. n). 40 sp. N. temp., and

trop. Mts., 3 in Brit, (basil, calamint). Firs, often gynodioecious.

Calamus Linn. Palmae (in). 200 sp. trop. As., Air., Austr. They

are mostly leaf-climbers with thin reedy stems. In some sp. there
are hooks on the back of the mid-rib, but the more common type of

CALL! LEPIS

2 b

leaf is one in which the pinnae at the outer end of the leaf are repre-
sented by stout spines pointing backwards (cf. Desmoncus). The
leaf shoots almost vertically out of the bud up among the surrounding
vegetation, and the hooks take hold. The stem often grows to
immense lengths (500 — 600 ft.) ; the plants are very troublesome in
tropical forests because the hooks catch in clothes, &c. The stripped
stems are largely used, under the name of rattan canes, for making
chair bottoms, baskets, cables, &c. Other genera of rattans are
Daemonorops, Korthalsia, Plectocomia (Ridley in Straits Bull. 11.
1903, 129).

Calandrinia H. B. et K. Portulacaceae. 80 sp. Chili to Vancouver, and
Austr. The firs, close very quickly in absence of sunlight.

C3danthe R. Br. Orchidaceae (15). 80 sp. trop. There are 8 pollinia,
which if removed and re-introduced, strike the sloping sides of the
rostellum and diverge into the stigmas.

Calathea G. F. W. Mey. Marantaceae. 60 sp. trop. Am., and 2
W. Afr. The staminode (3 (see order) is present in most sp. The
tubers of C. Allouia Lindl. (topee tampo) are eaten like potatoes in
the W. Ind.

Calceolaria Linn. Scrophulariaceae (11. 4). 130 sp. S. Am., Mexico,

N. Z. Many forms and hybrids are cultivated.

Calcitrapa Hall. = Centaurea Linn.

Caldesia Pari. =Alisma Linn.

Calea Linn. Compositae (v). 65 sp. Am.

Calendula Linn. Compositae (ix). 15 sp. Medit. C. officinalis L.

(marigold) is commonly cultivated in gardens. An interesting “ hen-
and-chickens ” variety is sometimes seen, in which each principal
head is surrounded by a number of others, springing from the axils
of the involucral bracts. The disc florets are c? , ray florets ? . Three
kinds of fruit occur ; many biological meanings have been forced into
this fact, but in reality nothing is known as to its meaning.

Calepina Adans. Cruciferae (8). 1 sp. Eur., Medit.

Calibanus Rose. Liliaceae. I sp. Cent. Am. A xerophyte with
remarkable tuber and a few grass-like leaves.

Caliphruria Herb. Amaryllidaceae (1). 4 sp. S. Am. Sta. with

stipular appendages (see order).

Calla Linn. Araceae (ill) . 1 sp. C. palustris L., N. Eur. Firs. £

with perianth, borne once in two years. For C . aethiopica L. see
Richardia africana.

Calliandra Benth. Leguminosae (1. 1). 100 sp. trop. and subtrop.

Am., As.

Calliantliemum C. A. Mey. Ranunculaceae (2). 1 sp. Mts. of Eur.,

and Cent. As. See Bot. Mag. t. 7603, 1898.

Callicarpa Linn. Verbenaceae (iv). 30 sp. trop. and subtrop.

Callicoma Andr. Cunoniaceae. 2 sp. E. Austr.

Calligonum Linn. Polygonaceae (11. 3). 20 sp. N. Afr., W. As.

Callilepis DC. Compositae (iv). 3 sp. S. Afr.

284

CALL1PEL T1S

Callipeltis Stev. Rubiaceae (11. -21). 3 sp. Medit.

Calliprora Lindl. = Brodiaea Sm.

Callirhoe Nutt. Malvaceae (11). 7 sp. N. Am., often placed in Malva.

Callisia Linn. Commelinaceae. 4 sp. trop. Am.

Callistachys Vent. = Oxylobium Andr.

Callistemon R. Br. Myrtaceae (11. 2). 12 sp. Austr., often cultivated

(bottle-brushes). Shrubs. The axis of the infl. grows on beyond the
firs, and continues to produce leaves (cf. Eucomis). The sta. form
the conspicuous part of the fir., as is often the case in the dry climate
of Austr. (cf. Acacia).

Callistephus Cass. Compositae (ill). 1 sp. China, Japan C. hortensis
Cass., often cultivated under the name of China aster. See Bot. Mag.,
1898, t. 7616.

Callisthene Mart. Vochysiaceae. 10 sp. S. Am.

Callitrichaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). Only genus
Callitriche ( q.v .). As usual in such cases of water plants (see p. 158
and Ceratophyllaceae), the systematic position is doubtful. Bentham-
Hooker unite C. with Haloragidaceae, but the differences between
the two are considerable. They have also been placed near Caryo-
phyllaceae, Verbenaceae, Boraginaceae, &c., but seem on the whole
nearest to Euphorbiaceae, where they are placed by Engler and by
Eichler and Warming (Tricoccae).

Callitriclie Linn. Callitrichaceae. 25 sp. (probably only varieties of
1 or 2), cosmop. (exc. S. Afr.). Several forms of water star-wort are
common in Brit. The submerged leaves are longer and narrower
than the floating, and the more so the deeper they are below the
surface. Land forms also occur. Fir. unisexual, naked, commonly
with 2 horn-like bracteoles, protogynous ; $ of 1 sta. ; $ of (2) cpls.,
transversely placed, 4-loc. by ‘false* septum (cf. Labiatae), with 2
styles. 1 ovule in each loc., pendulous, anatropous with ventral
raphe. Schizocarp. Seed with fleshy endosperm. The modes of
fertilisation of the firs, are not very clearly made out.

Callitris Vent. Coniferae (Arauc. 2 a; see C. for genus characters).
15 sp. Afr., Madag., Austr., New Caled. Leaves and cone-scales
in whorls. The cone ripens in 1 or 2 years. C. quadrivalvis Vent.
(N. Afr.) yields Arar wood and Sandarach resin or pounce.

Callixene Comm, ex Juss. = Luzuriaga Ruiz et Pav.

Calluna Salisb. Ericaceae (iv. 9). 1 sp., C. vulgaris Salisb., the

heather or ling, widely distributed over Eur. and found in Greenland,
and from Newfoundland to Massachusetts (the only representative of
Ericoideae in Am.). It covers large areas in these regions, together
with sp. of Erica and Vaccinium. It is a low evergreen shrub, with
linear closely crowded wiry leaves and racemes of firs. The calyx is
coloured like the corolla and the latter is almost polypetalous. The
honey is much more easily accessible than in Erica and there is a
larger circle of visiting insects, including however many bees (heather
honey is the most valuable of all kinds). The stigma projects beyond

CAL YCERACEAE

285

the mouth of the flr. ; insects touch it first and in probing for honey
jostle the anthers. The flr. is also wind pollinated ; the loose powdery
pollen blows about very easily and the stigma is not covered by the
corolla.

Calocephalus R. Br. Compositae (iv). 12 sp. temp. Austr.

Calochilus R. Br. Orchidaceae (4). 3 sp. E. Austr.

Calochortus Pursh. Liliaceae (v). 30 sp. W. N. Am.

Calodendrum Thunb. Rutaceae (iv). 1 sp. S. Afr.

Calogyne R. Br. Goodeniaceae. 3 sp. China, Austr.

Calonyction Choisy. = Ipomaea Linn.

Calophaca Fisch. Leguminosae (ill. 6). 10 sp. S. Russia to Burma.

Calophanes D. Don. Acanthaceae (iv. a). 40 sp. trop.

Calophyllum Linn. Guttiferae (ill). 60 sp. trop. chiefly Old World.
C. tacamahaca Willd. and other sp. yield resins known as Tacamahac.
(See Populus.) The young leaves are usually prettily coloured.

Calopogon R. Br. Orchidaceae (14). 4 sp. U. S.

Calopogonium Desv. Leguminosae (ill. 10). 4 sp. Am.

Calostemma R. Br. Amaryllidaceae (1). 3 sp. E. Austr. There is
no embryo, but bulbils are said to be formed in the embryo sac.

Calotliamnus Labill. Myrtaceae (11. 2). 25 sp. W. Austr. The axis

goes on bearing leaves beyond the firs. (cf. Callistemon). Sta. in
bundles before the petals, the common axis of the bundle very large.

Calotis R. Br. Compositae (ill). 20 sp. Austr.

Calotropis R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (11. 2). 3 sp. trop. As., Afr.

C, gigantea Ait., the madar, mudar, or wara, yields a fibre from
the bark, and a floss, used like kapok (Eriodendron) from the seeds.

Calpumia E. Mey. Leguminosae (ill. 1). 6 sp. Afr.

Caltha (Rupp.) Linn. Ranunculaceae (2). 16 sp. temp. C. palustris L.
in Brit, is the marsh-marigold or king-cup. Honey is secreted by
the cpls., and the flrs. have no “ honey-leaves,” the calyx being
coloured.

Calvoa Hook. f. Melastomaceae (1). 6 sp. trop. W. Afr.

Calycanthaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Ranales). 2 gen. with few
sp. N. Am. and China. Shrubs, usually aromatic, with opp., simple
leaves and terminal acyclic flrs. on short shoots. Perianth 00 , peri-
gynous, spiral, showing gradual transition from sepaloid to petaloid
leaves. Sta. 5 — 30. Cpls. 00 , in hollowed axis; 2 anatropous ovules in
each. Achenes enclosed in axis. Embryo large with spirally wound
cotyledons, in slight endosperm. Genera. Calycanthus, Chimonanthus.
[Placed in Ranales by Benth.-Hooker, in Polycarpicae by Warming.]

Calycanthus Linn. Calycanthaceae. 3 sp. N. Am. C. Jioridus L. is
the Carolina allspice, a favourite garden shrub.

Calycera Cav. Calyceraceae. 10 sp. S. Am.

Calyceraceae Dicotyledons (Sympet. Campanulatae). 3 gen. with 23
sp., S. Am. Closely allied to Compositae. Herbs with alt. exstip.
leaves. Firs, in heads with involucre of bracts, £ or cf ? , epigynous,

286

CALYCERACEAE

4 — 6-merous. Calyx leafy. Filaments of sta. united, anthers free
or slightly coherent at base. Ovary i-loc. ; ovule i, pendulous, ana-
tropous; stigma capitate. Embryo straight in slight endosperm.
Genera: Boopis, Calycera, Acicarpha. [Placed in Asterales by
Benth.-Hooker, in Dipsacales by Warming.]

Calyciflorae (Benth.-Hooker). The 3rd series of Polypetalae (p. 134).
Calycinae (Benth.-Hooker). The 4th series of Monocotyledons (p. 137).
Calycocarpum Nutt. Menispermaceae. 1 sp. atl. N. Am.
Calycogonium DC. Melastomaceae (1). 20 sp. W. Ind.

Calycolpus Berg. Myrtaceae (1. 1). 10 sp. W. Ind., S. Am.

Calycophyllum DC. Rubiaceae (1. A. 4). 3 sp. W. Ind., S. Am.

Calycorectes Berg. Myrtaceae (1. 1). 12 sp. S. Am.

Calycoseris A. Gray. Compositae (xm). 2 sp. Calif, to Mexico.

Calycotome Link. Leguminosae (ill. 3). 4 sp. Medit.

Calydorea Herb. Iridaceae (11). 4 sp. Texas to S. Am.

Calypso Salisb. Orchidaceae (8). 1 sp. cold N. temp.

Calyptranthes Sw. Myrtaceae (1). 70 sp. trop. Am.

Calyptrocalyx Blume. Palmae (iv. 6). 2 sp. Austr., Moluccas.

Calystegia R. Br. Convolvulaceae (1. 4). 7 sp. temp, and sub-trop.

2 in Brit., C. Soldanella R. Br. on the coasts, and C. sepmm R. Br.,
the large convolvulus of our hedges. The fertilisation of this sp.
depends largely on the visits of a particular hawk-moth ( Sphinx
convolvuli ) and the distribution areas of the two correspond to some
extent (cf. Aconitum). Often united to Convolvulus (q-v.).

Calyfchrix Labill. (Calycothrix). Myrtaceae (11. 3). 40 sp. Austr.

Camarea St. Hil. Malpighiaceae (1). 10 sp. S. Am.

Camaridium Lindl. Orchidaceae (27). 15 sp. trop. S. Am., W. Ind.

Camassia Lindl. Liliaceae (v). 2 sp. N. Am. The bulbs (quamash)

form a food for the Indians of N.W. Am.

Cambessedesia DC. Melastomaceae (1). 15 sp. S. Brazil.

Cambogia Linn. =Garcinia Linn.

Camelina Crantz. Cruciferae (iv. 14). 8 sp. Eur., Medit. C. saliva

(gold of pleasure) in Brit. This sp. is used as a source of fibre in

S. Eur.

Camellia Linn. Theaceae. 8 sp. Ind., China, Japan. C.japonica L.
and others are largely cultivated for ornament, and many varieties
and double flowered forms exist. The genus is often united to Thea
(q*v.). C. Thea Link., C, viridis Link., and C. Bohea Lindl. =

T. sinensis.

Cameraria (Plum.) Linn. Apocynaceae (1). 2 sp. W. Ind.

Camoensia Welw. ex B. and H. Leguminosae (in. 1). 2 sp. W. trop.

Afr. C. 7tiaxhna Welw. is a magnificent flowering creeper.
Campanales (Benth.-Hooker). The 3rd cohort of Gamopetalae (p. 135).
Campanula (Tourn.) Linn. Campanulaceae (1. 1). 250 sp. N. temp,

and trop. Mts., esp. Medit. 8 in Brit. The commonest sp. is C. ro-
tundifolia L. the blue-bell of Scotland (in England the harebell). The

CA M PAKULA CEAE

287

pollen is shed in the bud, the sta. standing closely round the style
and depositing their pollen upon the hairs. As the fir. opens the sta.
wither, with the exception of their triangular bases that protect the
honey, and the style presents the pollen to insects visiting the fir.
After a time the stigmas separate and the fir. is now female, and
finally the stigmas curl right back on themselves and so effect self-
fertilisation. (See order, and cf. Phyteuma and Jasione.) The seeds
are light and are contained in a capsule, which if erect dehisces at
the apex, if pendulous at the base, so that the seeds, as is so often
the case (cf. Papaver), can only escape when the plant is shaken, eg.
in strong winds. Several sp. are cultivated (Canterbury bells &c.).

Campanulaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Campanulatae). 59 gen.
with abt. 1000 sp., temp, and sub-trop. They are mostly perennial
herbs (a few trees and shrubs), with alt., exstip. leaves, and usually
with latex. The infl. may terminate the primary axis, or one of the
second order. It is generally racemose, ending with a terminal fir.
in Campanuloideae. In some cases, instead of single firs, in the axils
of the bracts of the raceme, small dichasia occur (cf. Labiatae).
Others have the whole infl. cymose (Canarina, Pentaphragma &c.).

The fir. is usually g » regular or zygomorphic, epigynous, • gene-
rally 5-merous. The odd sepal is posterior in Campanuloideae, but
anterior in the other groups. In these, however, a twisting of the
axis through 1800 takes place before the fir. opens (cf. Orchids), so
that the odd sepal is finally posterior. K5, open; C(5) valvate; A 5
epigynous; anthers introrse, sometimes united ; G(5), (3) or (2), multi-
loc. with axile placentae bearing 00 anatropous ovules. Style simple;
stigmas as many as cpls. Fruit a capsule, dehiscing in various ways
in different genera, or a berry. Seeds with fleshy endosperm.

The natural history of the fir. in this order is of interest, both in
itself and as exhibiting transitions to the Composite type. Honey is
secreted by a disc at the base of the style and is covered in most
cases by the triangular bases of the sta., which fit closely together
and only allow of the insertion of a proboscis between them. This,
taken together with the size of the firs., their frequently blue colour
and pendulous position, points to their being best adapted to the
visits of bees. Observation shows this to be the case, but there are
also many other visitors of various insect classes, so that this order
cannot be placed in the flower class H (see p. 92) but must be
placed in class B. A few exceptions occur however; the bulk of the
order has large firs., conspicuous by themselves, but Phyteuma and
Jasione have small firs, massed together in heads, and therefore come
into class B' along with the Compositae.

The general principle of the floral mechanism is the same throughout
the order (so far as is known) and agrees with that of the Compositae.
The fir. is very protandrous, and the style (with its stigmas closed up
against one another) has the pollen shed upon it by the anthers,

288

CAMPANULA CEAE

either in the bud or later. Usually there is a bunch of hairs upon
the style to hold the pollen. For some
time the style acts as pollen-presenter
to insects visiting the fir. ; after a time
the stigmas separate and the female
stage sets in, and finally, in many cases
the stigmas curl back so far that they
touch the pollen still clinging to their
own style, and thus effect self-fertilisa-
tion, so that seed is sure to be set one
way or other. For details see genera,
especially Campanula, Phyteuma, Ja-
sione, Lobelia, and cf. Compositae.

Classification and chief genera (after
Schonland) :

I. CA MPANUL OIDEA E (fir.
actinomorphic, rarely slightly zygomorphic ; anthers usually free):

1. Campanuleae (cor. valvate; fir. symmetrical): Campanula,
Phyteuma, Wahlenbergia, Platycodon, Jasione.

2. Pentaphragmeae (cor. valvate; firs, asymmetric, in cincinni):
Pentaphragma (only genus).

3. Sphenocleae (cor. imbricate) : Sphenoclea (only genus).

II. CYPHIOIDEAE (fir. zygomorphic; sta. sometimes united;
anthers free): Cyphia, Nemacladus.

III. LOBELIOIDEAE (fir. zygomorphic, rarely almost actino-
morphic ; anthers united) : Centropogon, Siphocampylus, Lobelia.

Campanulatae. The 8th cohort of Dicotyledons (Sympet.). See p. 133.

Campanulinae (Warming). The 9th cohort of Sympetalae (p. 139).

Campanumoea Blume. Campanulaceae (1. 1). 5 sp. Indo-mal.

Campbellia Wight = Christisonia Gardn.

Campelia Rich. Commelinaceae. 1 sp. trop. Am. with edible fruit.

Camphora (Bauh.) Linn. = Cinnamomum Tourn.

Camphorosma Linn. Chenopodiaceae (a. 5). 8 sp. E. Medit., Cent. As.

Campnosperma Thw. Anacardiaceae (ill). 8 sp. trop.

Campomanesia Ruiz et Pav. Myrtaceae (1. 1). 80 sp. S. Am. Many

have edible fruit, and C. lineatifolia Ruiz et Pav. (Peru) is cultivated
in Peru on this account.

Camptosema Hook, et Am. Leguminosae (ill. 10). 12 sp. S. Am.

Campylanthus Roth. Scrophulariaceae (in. 10). 5 sp. Afr., Arabia, &c.

Campylobotrys Lem. = Hoffmannia Sw.

Campynema Labill. Amaryllidaceae (iv). 2 sp. Austr. Tasm. See order.

Cananga Rumph. ex Hook. f. et Thoms. Anonaceae (3). 3 sp. trop.

E. As. to Austr. C, odorata Hook. f. is cultivated for its firs., which
yield the perfume known as ylang-ylang or Macassar oil.

Canarina Linn. Campanulaceae (1. 1). 3 sp. Canary Is., trop. Afr.,

Moluccas. One of the most prominent instances of disjointed range

o

Floral diagram of Campanula ;
after Eichler.

CANELLACEAE

289

(see Engler in Ann . Bot. t8, T904, p. 539, and cf. p. 146). Like
Campanula, but usually 6-merous, and with edible berry fruit.

Canarium (Rumph.) Linn. Burseraceae. 80 sp. trop. As., Afr.
C, commune L. is said to furnish the resin known as Manila Elemi
(see Bursera). C. strictum Roxb. (Malabar) and other sp. furnish
some of the black dammar of commerce (cf. Agathis).

Canavalia DC. Leguminosae (ill. 10). 12 sp. trop. C. ensiformis DC.
the sword or sabre bean of Ind. and Ceylon, or overlook of the
W. Ind., is cultivated and eaten like scarlet runners. C. obtusifolia
DC. is a common shore plant of the tropics (pp. 169, 191).

Candollea Labill. in Ann. Mus. Par. 1805 ( — Stylidium Sw. ; for C. of
Labill. in Nov. Holl. PI. 1806, see Hibbertia). Candolleaceae.
85 sp. Austr., N. Z., E. As. C. adnata F. Muell. is often found in
greenhouses. It has an irritable gynostemium. Upon the smallest
of the corolla segments is a swollen nectary. In the newly opened
fir. the gynostemium stands erect. Then it bends downwards till it
lies upon the nectary, and the anthers dehisce ; the stigma faces
upwards. The tension of the tissues (the phenomenon is a case of
strongly marked nutation) now changes sides, but the gynostemium
is prevented from moving by the sticky nectary, until a considerable
strain is set up. In this condition a slight touch, e.g. by an insect,
suffices to free it and it springs violently over, striking the visitor with
the stigma and also throwing over it a shower of pollen. The peri-
odic movements go on for some time and may be compared to those
of the leaflets of Desmodium.

Candolleaceae ( Stylidiaceae ). Dicotyledons (Sympet. Campanulatae).

3 gen. with 100 sp. Austr., N. Z., trop. As., S. Am. Small herbs or
undershrubs, more or less xerophytic, without latex. Leaves simple,
exstip., almost grass-like, often forming a radical rosette with firs, on
a scape. Successive rosettes may be separated by a very slightly
leafy piece of stem. Rosettes sometimes almost bulbous, with aerial
roots. Firs, in racemes or cymes, g or unisexual, usually zygo-
morphic. K 5 or (5), the odd sepal posterior; C (5), the anterior
petal ( labellum ) often different from the rest. Of the 5 sta. only the
2 posterior lateral ones are developed, and these are united with the
style to form a gynostemium (cf. Orchids, Asclepiads, &c.); anthers
extrorse. G (2), usually 2-loc., but occasionally the posterior loc. is
aborted. Fruit a capsule. Seed with fleshy endosperm. Genera:
Phyllachne, Levenhookia, Candollea. [Placed in Campanales by
Benth.- Hooker, in Campanulinae by Warming.]

Canella P. Br. ( Winterana L.). 2 sp. W. Ind., trop. Am. C, alba

Murr. yields Canella bark, used as a tonic and stimulant.

Canellaceae ( Winteranaceae). Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales).

4 gen. with 7 sp. “ One of the best examples of discontinuous
distribution of old families” (p. 146). 2 gen. with a few sp. in S. Am.
and W. Ind., 1 (monotypic) in Madag. and 1 (also monolypic) in

V/. 1 9

290

CANELLACEAE

E. Afr.” (Warburg). Trees with alt., leathery, entire, exstip., gland-
dotted leaves. Firs, solitary or in racemes or cymes, $ , regular,
K 3, imbricate; C 4 — 12 free or united; Ago, hypogynous, com-
pletely united into a tube, with extrorse anthers; G (2 — 6), 1 loc.,
with 2 -go semi-anatropous ovules on each parietal placenta. Berry.
Embryo straight or slightly curved in rich endosperm. Genera :
Canella, Cinnamodendron, Warburgia, Cinnamosma. [Placed in
Parietales by Benth. -Hooker, in Cistiflorae by Eichler.]

Canephora Juss. Rubiaceae (1. b. 8). 1 sp. Madagascar. Firs, in

clusters at the top of a phyllodineous stalk with a 2-lobed calyculus.

Canna Linn. Cannaceae. Over 40 sp. mostly trop. and subtrop. Am. ,
but C. indica L. cosmopolitan trop. Many species, in variously
coloured handsome varieties and hybrids, are in cultivation, the
plant being very popular. C. indica (Indian shot) is the basis of
most of these. The habit is like that of Zingiberaceae or Maranta-
ceae, but C. can be distinguished even when not in fir. by their
possessing neither the ligule of the former nor the pulvinus of the
latter. The infl. is terminal, and usually composed of 2-flowered
cincinni. The two firs, are homodromous, but the bracteole is to the
right in one and to the left in the other (behind one or other of the
two lateral sepals in the diagram). Fir. $ , asymmetric, epigynous.
K 3, C (3). The androeceum is the most conspicuous part of the
fir. There is a leafy sta. bearing half an anther on one edge, and
a number of petaloid structures round it, usually 3 but sometimes 1
or 4. One of these is the labellum (not equivalent to that of
Zingiberaceae), and is rolled back on itself outwards. The other
two are often termed the wings (a £ in diagram). When a fourth
staminode (7, cf \ Marantaceae) is present it
stands behind the fertile sta. Other sp. have
only the labellum. The ovary is inferior, of
3 cpls. with a petaloid style, 3-loc. ; ovules in
2 rows in each loc., anatropous. Fruit a
capsule, usually warty. Seed with perisperm
and straight embryo.

As to the morphological explanation of the
androeceum, there are two views. Eichler
(Bliitendiag. I. p. 174) regards the labellum as
a lateral sta. of the inner whorl, and the fertile
sta. together with all the staminodes as the
posterior sta. of the same whorl ; the other sta.
of the inner, and all the sta. of the outer,
wdiorl are wanting. The older view looks upon
/3, 7, as the 2 posterior sta. of the outer whorl,
and the labellum, a, and the fertile sta. as the 3 sta. of the inner
whorl. (Cf. this fir. with those of Musaceae, Zingiberaceae and
Marantaceae.)

Floral diagram of
Canna indica (after
Eichler). The bracteole
is omitted. S= petaloid
style; L = labellum; a/3
= staminodes.

CAPNOPHYLL UM

291

The pol.en is shed upon the style in the bud ; insects alight on
the labellum, touch first the terminal stigma and then the pollen.
The rhizome of C. edulis Ker-Gawl. is edible, containing large
quantities of starch.

Cannabaceae (Warming) = § IV. of Moraceae {q-v.).

Cannabis (Tourn.) Linn. Moraceae (iv). 1 sp. Cent. As., C. sativa

L., the hemp. Infl. like that of Humulus <? , dioecious. The hemp
is largely cultivated both in temperate and tropical regions, in the
former for the fibre, in the latter for the drug. A valuable fibre,
used for ropes and other purposes, is obtained from the inner bark
of the stem, in much the same way as flax is prepared from that of
Linum, and for this purpose the plant is cultivated in S. Europe, the
eastern U. S., and other countries. In the tropics, on the other hand,
and more especially in India, the plant is cultivated for the sake of
the narcotic resin which exudes from it, and which is used in a some-
what similar way to opium, both as a drug and as a stimulant. The
drug occurs in three common forms, ganja, charas, and bhang. The
first is the ? flowering tops with the resin on them, packed together,
the second, which comes from rather cooler climates, is the resin
knocked off the leaves, twigs, bark, &c., and the third, which is
largely obtained from the wild plants, is the mature leaves, with
their resinous deposit, packed together. Asiatics are much addicted
to the use of hemp as a narcotic. It is smoked, with or without
tobacco, and an intoxicating liquor, hashish, is made from it. The
resin has an intoxicating stimulant effect. In small quantities it
produces pleasant excitement, passing into delirium and catalepsy
if the quantity be increased. The names given to the plant among
them indicate this use of it, e.g . leaf of delusion, increaser of pleasure,
cementer of friendship. The sale of ganja and charas is kept in check
in India by a stringent licensing system, but that of bhang, which is
collected from the wild plants, is not so easy to control.

Cannaceae. Monocotyledons (Scitamineae). Only genus Canna ( q.v ).
Often united to Marantaceae.

Cannomois Beauv. Restiaceae. 8 sp. S. Afr.

Canotia Torr. 1 sp. Calif., New Mexico, doubtfully placed in
Rutaceae, but perhaps belonging to Celastraceae.

Canscora Lam. Gentianaceae (1. 2). 18 sp. Indo-mal., trop. Afr.

Austr.

Cansjera Juss. Olacaceae. 4 sp. trop. As., Austr.

Canthium Lam. = Plectronia Linn.

Cantuajuss. Polemoniaceae. 8 sp. Peru, Bolivia.

Caopia Adans. = Vismia Vand.

Caperonia St. Hil. Euphorbiaceae (a. ii. 2). 20 sp. trop. Am., Afr.

Capirona Spruce. Rubiaceae (1. A. 4). 1 sp. S. Am. K like Mussaenda.

Capnodes Adans. = Corydalis Vent.

Capnophyllum Gaertn. Umbelliferae (7). 4 sp. Medit., S. Afr.

19 — 2

CAPPARIDA CEAE

292

Capparidaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rhoeadales). 35 gen. with
300 sp., trop. and warm temp. Many are xerophytes, with reduced,
often with inrolled, leaves (cf. Empetrum). Herbs or shrubs, with
alt. simple or palmate leaves, often with stipules (these are frequently
represented by thorns or glands). Firs. $ , regular, usually in ra-
cemes, bracteate but without bracteoles. The perianth resembles
that of Cruciferae (K 2 + 2, C 4 diagonal), but great variety occurs in
the androeceum. In some sp. of Cleome there are 4 sta. in two
whcrls, but elsewhere there are more. Some sp. of Cleome &c. show
tetradynamous sta. In others, still further branching of the median
sta. occurs and usually the posterior sta. is more branched than the
anterior. Staminody of some of the branches is frequent. Cpls.
typically (2), transverse as in Cruciferae, with parietal placentae but
without a replum. In many sp. of sub-order III the number rises to
10 or 12 by the addition of a second whorl of cpls. and by dedouble-
ment. Ovules 00, campylotropous.

A further complication is introduced by the presence of axial
effigurations &c. in the firs. Thus a disc may occur between perianth
and sta. (usually thicker at the posterior side), or a gynophore between
sta. and ovary, or both may occur. Or the disc may grow up in the
centre to form an androphore on which the sta. are borne and above
them there may be a gynophore also. From the disc there often
grow out structures of various shapes and sizes ; these may be scales
quite free from one another, or, as in Cadaba &c., may be united
into a tubular structure. Or the scales may, as in Steriphoma &c.,
alternate with and be joined to the sepals.

The fruit is a siliqua (with replum), nut, berry or drupe. Seed
exalbuminous with embryo folded in various ways as in Cruciferae.
The floral mechanisms are much in want of study. Few of the order
are useful: see Capparis &c. For further details see Pax in Nat. PJi.
from which the above account is condensed.

Classification and chief genera (after Pax):

A. Glandular annuals. Siliqua with replum.

I. CLEOMOIDEAE : Cleome, Polanisia.

B. Mostly shrubs, with hairs or scales, rarely glandular. No

replum.

II. DIETER YGIOIDEAE (samara): Dipterygium (only

genus).

III. CAPPARIDOIDEAE (berry) : Capparis, Cadaba,

Maerua.

IV. R 0 YDSIOIDEA E (drupe) : Roydsia.

C. Prostrate undershrubs. Calyx tube present. Petals (2). Nut.

V. EMBLINGIOIDEAE: Emblingia (only genus).

[Placed in Parietales by Benth. -Hooker, Rhoeadinae by Warming.]

Capparis (Tourn.) Linn. Capparidaceae (ill). 150 sp. trop. and sub-
trop. (exc. N. Am.). Many sp. climb by aid of recurved stipular

CARA IP A

293

thorns. The fir. -buds of C . spinosa L. (Medit.) are well known as
capers (cf. Eugenia).

Capraria (Tourn.) Linn. Scrophulariaceae (ill. 10). 4 sp. trop. and

sub-trop. Am.

Caprificus Gasp. = Ficus Tourn.

Caprifoliaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Rubiales). 11 gen. with 230
sp. temp, (chiefly N.) and on trop. Mts. Mostly trees and shrubs with
decussate usually exstip. leaves (see Sambucus). Firs, g , regular or
zygomorphic, in cymes, usually 5 -merous with the odd sepal posterior.
Sta. in one whorl, epipetalous. G (2 — 5), multiloc. with 1 — 00 pen-
dulous ovules in each loc. Fruit usually a berry or drupe (capsule in
Diervilla). Embryo small in fleshy endosperm.

Classification and genera (after Fritsch): The C. were separated
from Rubiaceae, before the tropical forms of R. were well known,
chiefly on the ground of their different habit and their want of stipules.
The former distinction only divides the C. from the European R. and
the latter is vitiated by the fact that Sambucus possesses stipules. It
has lately been proposed to split off this genus (y.z>.) as an inde-
pendent order, and to unite the remaining C. to Rubiaceae. The
genus Adoxa, placed in C. by Benth. -Hooker, is now erected into an
independent order Adoxaceae (< q.v .).

1. Sambuceae (leaf pinnate; anthers extrorse): Sambucus.

2. Viburneae (leaf simple or lobed ; anther introrse ; all loc.
i-ovuled) : Viburnum, Triosteum.

3. Linnaeeae (do., but 2 loc. many-ovuled): Symphoricarpus,
Abelia, Dipelta, Linnaea.

4. Lonicereae (do., but all loc. many-ovuled) : Alseuosmia, Loni-
cera, Diervilla, Leycesteria.

[Placed in Rubiales by Benth. -Hooker and Warming.]

Caprifolium Tourn. ex Linn. =Lonicera Linn.

CapseUa Medic. Cruciferae (iv. 14). 4 sp. N. temp. C. Bursa-pas (oris
Medic, (shepherd’s purse) abounds in Brit, and is established as a
weed all over the world. The small firs, fertilise themselves. In
early spring and late autumn the sta. are often more or less aborted.
The leaves vary much in shape and degree of division in various
situations. Solms (Bot. Zeit . 1900, p. 167) describes C. Heegeri ,
a new form which has an elongated fruit, but which has arisen from
the shepherd’s purse, and is almost generically distinct.

Capsicum (Tourn.) Linn. Solanaceae (11. 4). 30 sp. Cent, and S. Am.,
1 in Japan. C . annuum L. is largely cultivated ; its fruits are the
familiar chillies or red peppers, and when dried and ground they form
Cayenne pepper. Other sp. are used in the same way. (See Irish
in Rep. Miss. Bot. Gdn ., 1898, for revision of cultivated forms.)

Caragana Lam. Leguminosae (in. 6). 20 sp. Cent. As., China.

Caraguata (Plum.) Lindl. Bromeliaceae (4). 25 sp. S. Am.

Caraipa Aubl. Guttiferae (1). 12 sp. trop. S. Am. They yield a

294

CARAIPA

useful timber (tamacoari), and a valued medicinal balsam. Placed in
Ternstroemiaceae by Bentham and Hooker.

Carallia Roxb. ex R. Br. Rhizophoraceae. io sp. Madag., trop. As.,
Austr. The disc is usually double.

Caralluma R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (n. 4). 60 sp. Medit. to E. Ind.

Carapa Aubl. Meliaceae. 6 sp. trop. C. procera DC. and C. guian-
ensis Aubl. yield a good oil from the seed (carapa, touloucouna,
andiroba, tallicona, coondi). C. moliiccensis Lam. occurs among
the mangroves (p. 19 1).

Cardamine (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Dentaria Linn.). Cruciferae (11. n).
70 sp. , chiefly temp. C. pratensis L. (cuckoo-flower) and others in
Brit. C. impatiens L. has an explosive fruit like that of Eschscholtzia.
C. chenopodiifolia Pers. (S. Am.) possesses two kinds of fruit. Those
formed on the upper part of the plant are normal siliquae ; at the base,
in the axils of the leaves of the rosette cleistogamic firs, are formed
which burrow into the soil and produce fruit there (cf. Arachis, Tri-
folium, &c.). In C. pratensis there is extensive vegetative reproduction
by the formation of adventitious buds on the radical leaves (p. 113)
and in C. (D.) bulbifera R. Br. by means of axillary bulbils. See
Schulz, Monograph in Engl. Jb. 32, p. 280.

Cardanthera Buch.-Ham. (Synnema Benth.). Acanthaceae (iv. A.).
10 sp. palaeotrop.

Cardiopteris Wall. Icacinaceae (Olacineae B.-H.). 2 sp. Indo-mal.

Cardiospermum Linn. Sapindaceae (1). 15 sp. trop., esp. Am.

Cardopatium Juss. (Broteroa W.). Compositae (xi). 10 sp. Medit.

Carduncellus Adans. Compositae (xi). 25 sp. Medit.

Carduus (Tourn.) Linn. Synonymy: C. acaulis Linn., arvensis Robs.,
ferox Vill., heterophyllus Linn., lanceolatus Linn., 7nontanus Pers.,
palustris Linn., pratensis Huds. = Cnicus (same sp. names); C .
Marianus Linn. = Silybum M. ; C. mollis Linn. =Jurinea m. ; C .
tuberosus L. = Cnicus pratensis. The genera Carduus, Cnicus and
Cirsium are very nearly allied, and scarcely any two floras agree in
the sp. assigned to them. See Index Kewensis.

Compositae (xi). 80 sp. Eur., N. Afr., As. (thistles). C. nutans
L. and others in Brit.

Carex (Dill.) Linn. Cyperaceae (11). Over 500 sp. N. and S.

temp., in marshes, &c. About 60 in Brit, (sedges). Grass-like
plants. Pseudo-spikelets 1 -flowered, arranged in long spikes, which
are sometimes unisexual, sometimes with both S and ? firs. The ? fir.
has a second glume (see order). The firs, are protogynous and wind-
fertilised. There is considerable vegetative reproduction by offshoots.
Many of the Brit. sp. are alpine plants ; others, e.g. C. arenaria L.
grow on sand-dunes and have the habit of Ammophila (p. 186).

Careya Roxb. Lecythidaceae (Myrtaceae, Bentham-Hooker). 4 sp.
Indo-mal., Austr. C. arborea Roxb. (patana oak) is almost the only
tree on the great grassy expanses known as patanas in Ceylon.

CARLUDOVICA

295

Carica Linn. Caricaceae. 35 sp. trop. and subtrop. Am. C. Papaya
L., the papaw, is universally cultivated in the tropics for its fruit,
which is not unlike a melon. The leaves and the unripe fruit con-
tain a milky juice in which is the proteid-ferment papain, and in
Ceylon and elsewhere it is collected for use in digestive salts, &c.
Meat wrapped in the leaves and buried becomes tender through a
partial digestion of the fibres (see Umney in Kew Bull. 1897).
C. candamarcensis Hook. f. is also cultivated in trop. mountains
for its edible fruit, but it is the seeds of this which are eaten.

Caricaceae {Papayaceae Warming). Dicotyledons (Archichl. Pane-
tales). 2 gen. with 40 sp. trop. Am. Small trees, branched or not,
with a terminal crown of leaves, and milky juice. Firs, in loose
infls., unisexual 5-merous, corolla twisted in bud ; $ with long
corolla tube and 2 whorls of introrse epipetalous sta. ; ? with short
tube, 1- or 5-loc. ovary, short style, and 5 stigmas : ovules 00 ana-
tropous, on parietal placentae. Berry. Endosperm. United to
Passifloraceae by B. and H. ; placed in Passiflorinae by Warming.

Carissa Linn. ( Arduina Mill.). Apocynaceae (1. 1). 20 sp. W. Afr.

to Austr. Shrubs with branch thorns. C. Carandas L. has an edible
fruit.

Carlina Linn. Compositae (xi). 17 sp. Eur., and Canary Is. to mid-

As. C. vulgaris L. (carline-thistle) is common in Brit. C. acaulis
L. is the weather-thistle of the Alps, &c. The outer bracts of the
involucre are prickly, the inner membranous and shining. They
spread out like a star in dry air, but in damp weather bend inwards.

Carlowrightia A. Gray. Acanthaceae (iv. b). 15 sp. S.W. U. S.,

Mex., N. Z.

Carludovica Ruiz et Pav. Cyclanthaceae. 40 sp. trop. Am. The habit
is that of a small palm (a few are climbers) with short stem and fan
leaves, in whose axils arise the infls. Each is a cylindrical spadix, en-
closed at first in a number of bracts, which fall off and leave it naked.
Its surface is covered with firs, arranged as in the diagram (after Drude

in Nat. Pfl. ; F = ? , m = $ ,

fir.). The $ fir. has a rudi- m m

mentary perianth, and go sta., m m F m m

united below. The? is sunk 111 m m

in and united with the tissue F m m F

of the spadix. It has 4 very m m m

long staminodes and 4 stig- m m F m m

mas corresponding to the 4 m m

placentae in the i-loc. ovary.

When the spadix opens the ? firs, are ripe and the long staminodes
give a tangled appearance to the whole. After a few days the stigmas
cease to be receptive and the anthers open. Afterwards the 3 firs,
drop off and a multiple fruit is formed, composed of berries.

The leaves of C. pal mat a R. and P., gathered young, cut into

296

CARLUDOVICA

thin strips and bleached, form the material of which Panama hats are
made.

Carmichaelia R. Br. Leguminosae (in. 6). 20 sp. N. Z. and 1 on

Lord Howe's I. Xerophytes with flattened green stems (phylloclades,
see p. 166) and no green leaves (cf. Bossiaea).

Carolinea Linn. f. = Pachira Aubl.

Caroxylon Thunb. = Salsola Linn.

Carpacoce Sond. Rubiaceae (11. 17). 4 sp. S. Afr.

Carpentaria Torr. Saxifragaceae (hi). 1 sp. Calif. Like Philadelphia,
but ovary superior; sta. 00, cpls. 5 — 7.

Carpesium Linn. Compositae (iv). 8 sp. S. Eur., As.

Carpha Banks et Soland. Cyperaceae (1). 4 sp. Austr., S. Am.,
S. Afr., N. Z.

Carphephorus Cass. Compositae (11). 5 sp. E. U. S.

Carpinus Linn. Betulaceae. 12 sp. N. temp. C. Betulus L. in Brit,
(hornbeam). The young leaves hang downwards as the young shoot
expands. The ? catkins are terminal on long shoots, the c? are them-
selves short shoots. In the axil of each scale of the latter are 4 — 10
sta. each split almost to the base. No bracteoles are present, so that
it is doubtful how many firs, of the possible 3 (see order) are repre-
sented. In the ? there are the 2 lateral firs, with all 6 bracteoles.
On the top of the 2-loc. ovary is a small perianth. The fruit is a
1 -seeded nut with a 3-lobed leafy wing on one side, whose centre
lobe corresponds to the bract a or j3, the lateral lobes to the bracteoles
a', fi'; these unite and grow large after fertilisation. The hornbeam is
very like the beech in habit, but the leaves are not shiny. The
timber is not much used.

Carpoceras Link. =Thlaspi Tourn.

Carpodinus R. Br. ex Sabine. Apocynaceae (1. 1). 50 sp. trop. Afr.

Rubber is obtained by grating and boiling from the rhizomes of
C. lanceolatus K. Sch. or other sp. (cf. Clitandra and see Bot.
Centr . 72, p. 116).

Carpolobia G. Don. Polygalaceae. 6 sp. trop. W. Afr.

Carpolyza Salisb. (Hessea Berg.). Amaryllidaceae (1). 4 sp. S. Afr.

Carponema Eckl. et Zeyh. Cruciferae (1. 3). 4 sp. S. Afr.

Carpopogon Roxb. = Mucuna Adans.

Carrichtera Adans. Cruciferae (11. 9). 1 sp. Medit.

Carthamus (Tourn.) Linn. Compositae (xi). 20 sp. Medit., Afr., As.
C. tinctorius L. is the safflower, largely cultivated in Asia, &c. ; its
firs, are used in dyeing ; powdered and mixed with talc they form rouge.

Cartonema R. Br. Commelinaceae. 6 sp. trop. Austr.

Carum Rupp, ex Linn. (incl. Bunium Linn., Petroselinum Iloffm.).
Umbelliferae (5). 60 sp. temp, and sub-trop. 3 in Brit., of which

C. Carvi L. is cultivated for its fruits (caraway seeds). C. Petrose -
linum Benth. and Hook. f. (P. sativum Iloffm.) is the common
parsley.

CAR YOPHYLLA CEAE

297

Carya Nutt. Juglandaceae. 10 sp. N. Am , the hickory trees, culti-
vated for their wood, which is very tough and elastic, and for the
edible fruit (pecans, like walnuts).

Caryocar Linn. Caryocaraceae. 10 sp. trop. Am. The wood is very
durable and is used in ship-building. The fruit is a large 4-seeded
drupe; the seeds are the Souari- or Butter-nuts of commerce,

Caryocaraceae [Rhizoboleae). Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 2
gen. with 13 sp. trop. Am. Trees and shrubs with ternate opp. or
alt. leaves with deciduous stipules. Firs. 2 in racemes. K (5 — 6),
C (5 — 6), A 00, united into a ring or in 5 bundles. Ovary free,
superior, 4- or 8 — 20-loc. with as many styles. 1 ovule in each loc.
Fruit usually a drupe with oily mesocarp, and woody endocarp which
splits into 4 mericarps ; sometimes a leathery schizocarp. Little or
no endosperm. Getzera: Anthodiscus, Caryocar. Placed in Tern-
stroemiaceae by Benth.- Hooker.

Caryophyllaceae (incl. Illecebraceae or Paronychiaceae , and Scleranth -
aceae). Dicotyledons (Archichl. Centrospermae). About 60 gen.
with 1300 sp. cosmop. Many in Brit. Most are herbs, a few under-
shrubs, with opposite simple usually entire leaves, often stipulate ; the
stem often swollen at the nodes, the branching dichasial. The
infl. usually terminates the main axis and is typically a dichasial
cyme, but both in the vegetative region and in the infl., of the two
branches arising at any node, one (that in the axil of /3) tends to out-
grow the other and after two or three branchings the weaker one
often does not develope at all, so that a cincinnus arises. The whole
infl. is very characteristic, and such an one is often called a caryo-
phyllaceous infl. (p. 64).

The firs, are $ and regular, but often not isomerous. As a type,
the formula of Lychnis may serve : K (5), C 5, A 5 + 5, G (5), with
free central placenta, unilocular. Ovules usually 00, in double

Floral diagrams of (1) S He tie injlata and (2) Paronychia sp. (after Eichler),
showing the ordinary type of flr. in Silenoideae and the most reduced type of
Alsinoideae ; a/3 = bracteoles.

rows corresponding to the cpls., rarely few or 1 (Paronychieae),
usually campylotropous. In most cases the flr. is obdiplostemonous
as may be recognised by the cpls. (when 5) being opposite the petals.

298

CAR YOPHYLLA GEAR

Frequently, reduction of the number of parts occurs, e.g. we may
have G (3) or (2) or rarely (4); A 4 + 4, or 5, 3, 2, or 1, and in other
cases the corolla may abort (Sagina sp., Herniaria, &c.). The
ovary, sta., and corolla are sometimes borne on an androphore (e.g.
Lychnis), an elongation of the axis between calyx and corolla. The
petals are sometimes provided with a lignle (e.g. Lychnis), and are
often bifid. At the base of the ovary are often seen traces of the
septa, which in the upper part do not develope ; in some cases the
placenta is basal.

Biologically, as well as morphologically, the order separates into
two distinct groups, a higher type, the Silenoideae , and a lower, the
Alsinoideae. All secrete honey at the base of the sta., but while
in the A. the flr. is wide open, so that short-tongued insects can
reach the honey, in the S. a tube is formed by the gamosepalous
calyx; in this stand the claws of the petals and the sta., partly filling
it up, and rendering the honey inaccessible to any but long-tongued
insects, especially bees and Lepidoptera. The latter class, especially
in the Alps (see Muller’s Alpenblumen ), are the chief visitors, and
many of the S. are adapted to them — by length of tube, red and white
colours, night-flowering in many sp., or emission of scent only at night,
&c. The firs, are commonly protandrous. Many A. are gynodioecious
(cf. Labiatae).

The fruit is usually a capsule, containing several or very many
seeds. It opens in nearly all cases by splitting from the apex into a
certain number of teeth which bend outwards, leaving an opening at
the top. The splitting may take place in as many, or in twice as
many lines as there are cpls. The seeds cannot escape from the
capsule unless it be shaken, e.g. by wind or animals, and as they are
small and light they thus have a good chance of distribution. The
embryo is usually curved round the perisperm (in a few cases it
is nearly straight).

Classification and chief genera (after Pax) :

I. SILENOIDEAE (flr. gamosepalous, hypogynous):

1. Lychnideae (calyx with commissural ribs) : Silene, Lychnis.

2. Diantheae (no commissural ribs) : Gypsophila, Dianthus.

II. ALSINOIDEAE (flr. polysepalous ; sta. often perigynous).

a. Fruit a capsule opening by teeth.

1. Alsineae (styles free to base; leaf exstip.): Stellaria,

Cerastium, Sagina, Arenaria.

2. Sperguleae ( do., but leaf stip.) : Spergula, Spergularia.

3. Polycarpeae (styles joined at base) : Drymaria, Polycarpon.

b. Fruit an achene or nut.

4. Paronychieae (flrs. all alike; stipules): Corrigiola, Paro-

nychia, Illecebrum, Herniaria.

5. Dysphanieae (do. but leaves exstip. alt.) : Dysphania.

6. Sclerantheae ( do.; leaves exstip. opp.) : Scleranthus.

CASSIA

299

7. Pterantheae (firs, in 3’s, the 2 laterals more or less
aborted) : Pteranthus.

Benth.- Hooker separate off the last 4 of these groups as an
independent order under the name lllecebraceae , which they place
in Monochlamydeae Curvembryae, whilst retaining the rest of the
order ( Caryophylleae ) in Polypetalae Caryophyllinae. This is an
unnatural separation of closely allied groups, Eichler and Warming
retain the order in the wider sense, placing it in Curvembryae. See
discussion of relationships of these orders in Nat. Pfl. (Caryophylla-
ceae, p. 68). The relationships are thus given by Pax :

Caryophyllaceae

Amarantaceae ) f ( Aizoaceae

V Phytolaccaceae ->> •<

Chenopodiaceae ) { ( Nyctaginaceae

Portulacaceae

Caryophylleae (Benth. -Hooker). See above.

Caryophyllinae (Benth. -Hooker). The 4th cohort of Polypetalae

(P. 132).

Caryophyllus Linn. = Eugenia Linn. C. aromaticus L. = E. caryophyl-
lata.

Caryopteris Bunge. Verbenaceae (v). 5 sp. Himal. to Japan.

Caryota Linn. Palmae (iv. 6). iosp. E. Ind. Stem columnar; leaves
bipinnate. The infl. is composed of a number of equal branches
hanging down like a brush. They appear on the stem in descending
order, the oldest in the crown, the younger lower down in the axils
of the old leaf-sheaths. Firs, in groups of 3, one ? between two
$ . Sta. 9 — 00 . Cpl. 1. Fruit a berry. C. urens L. is largely culti-
vated; it yields palm sugar (see Arenga), sago (see Metroxylon),
fibre, wood, &c.

Cascarilla Wedd. Rubiaceae (1. 4). 20 sp. S. Am. United to
Ladenbergia in Nat. Pfl. The bark of some sp. resembles that of
Cinchona (see also Croton), but the amount of alkaloid is very small.

Casearia Jacq. Flacourtiaceae (Samydaceae Benth. -Hooker). 120 sp.
trop.

Casimiroa La Llave. Rutaceae (ix). 2 sp. Cent. Am.

Cassebeera Kaulf. Polypodiaceae. 3 sp. Brazil.

Cassia Linn. Leguminosae (11. 5). About 400 sp. trop. and warm
temp, (except Eur.). Trees, shrubs and herbs with paripinnate leaves
and stipules of various types. Fir. zygomorphic, but with petals almost
equal in size. The sta. may be 10, but the 3 upper ones are usually
reduced to staminodes or absent. The anthers usually open by pores.
The 5 upper sta. are generally short, whilst the 2 lower are long and
project outwards. In many sp. two forms of fir. occur, one in which
the lower sta. project to the left, the other in which they project to the
right. It was once thought that this was a kind of heterostylism, but
both types of fir. occur on one plant, and self-fertilisation is common.

3°°

CASS/A

It would appear to be simply another case of variation in symmetry,
like Exacum or Saintpaulia. In many sp. a division of labour takes
place among the sta. (cf. Heeria) ; the insect visitors eat the pollen of
the short sta. and carry away on their bodies that of the long sta.
There is no honey in the fir. The fruit is often chambered up by
‘ false ’ septa running across it — outgrowths from the placenta.

Many sp. of C. are cultivated for their leaves, which when dried
form the drug senna. Alexandrian senna is the product of C . acutifolia
Delile, Italian of C. obovata Collad., Arabian of C. angustifolia Vahl.
C. Fistula L., the purging Cassia or pudding-pipe tree, has its seeds
embedded in pulp, which is used as a laxative.

Cassine Linn. Celastraceae. 20 sp. S. Afr., Austr., Polynes., trop.
Am. See Elaeodendron.

Cassinia R. Br. Compositae (iv). 18 sp. S. Afr., Austr. N. Z.

Cassiope D. Don. Ericaceae (11. 4). 7 sp. boreal. The leaf is very

much rolled back (see order and cf. Empetrum) ; in C. Redowskii
G. Don it is actually hollow.

Cassytha Linn. Lauraceae (11). 15 sp. trop., esp. Austr. Parasites

with the habit of Cuscuta.

Castalia Salisb. = Nymphaea Linn. ( C . speciosa Salisb. =N. alba.)

Castanea Tourn. ex Linn. (excl. Castanopsis Spach). Fagaceae. 3
or 4 sp. N. Hemisph. C. vulgaris Lam. (saliva Mill.) is the Chestnut.
The c? firs, are in dichasia of 3 — 7 firs., the ? in groups of 3, yielding
3 nuts, enclosed in the prickly cupule (cf. others of order and Aesculus).
The fruit is edible and the tree also yields useful wood and bark (used
in tanning). See order for floral diagram.

Castanopsis Spach. Fagaceae. 25 sp. trop. India. United to Castanea
in Nat. PJl.

Castanospermum A. Cunn. Leguminosae (in. 1). 1 sp. sub -trop. Austr.,
Cm australe A. Cunn., the Australian chestnut, so called because its
seeds, when roasted, taste like chestnuts.

Castilleja Mutis. Scrophulariaceae (ill. 12). 31 sp. N. Am., As.,

S. Am. (the painted lady or paint-brush). The upper leaves, or
sometimes only their outer ends, are brightly coloured, adding to
the conspicuousness of the firs. (cf. Cornus, Poinsettia, &c.).

CastiUoa Cervant. Moraceae (11). 2 or 3 sp. Cent. Am., Cuba. The

latex of C . elastica Cerv. yields caoutchouc (see Hevea, &c.).

Casuarina Linn. Casuarinaceae. About 25 sp. Austr., Polynes., &c.
Trees, often of weeping habit, wdth long slender green branches,
cylindrical and deeply grooved. At the nodes are borne whorls of
scale-leaves like those of Equisetum. The stomata and green tissue
are at the bases of the grooves, whilst the ridges are formed of scleren-
chyma, so that the plant is markedly xerophytic. Firs, unisexual. The
$ are borne in terminal spikes on short lateral branches. Theintemodes
are short and at every node is a cup (formed of the combined bracts)
with several sta. hanging out over the edge. Each represents a <? fir.

CATTLEYA

3°i

and has a 2 -leaved perianth and 2 bracteoles. The ? firs, are borne
in dense spherical heads. Each is naked in the axil of a bract, has 2
bracteoles, and consists of 2 cpls., syncarpous, the posterior loc. empty,
the anterior containing 2 or more ovules. The long styles hang out
beyond the bracts and wind-fertilisation occurs. Afterwards the whole
head becomes woody (bracts as well) enclosing the ripening seeds and
protecting them from drought, &c. The seed is winged and is enclosed
in the woody bracteoles. For further details see order. The wood
of these plants (beef- wood) is valued for its extreme hardness; several
sp. are used, known in Austr. as she-oak, forest-oak, &c. The green
shoots are used as fodder for cattle.

Casuarinaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Verticil). Only genus Casu-
arina (y.z/.). The place to be assigned to this order in the natural
system has been much disputed. Its nearest allies seem to be the
Betulaceae. In 1891 Treub discovered the chalazogamic fertilisation
(see art. Chalazogamae ) and proposed to remove it from its place near
the B. Later discoveries however show that these plants too are cha-
lazogamic, as also Juglans, and thus C. may still be kept beside them
until further study shows whether the classification of the more pri-
mitive Dicotyledons must be entirely altered.

Casuarineae (Benth. -Hooker) = preceding. Placed in Unisexuales.

Casuariniflorae (Warming). The 2nd cohort of Choripetalae (p. 138).

Catabrosa Beauv. Gramineae (x). About 7 sp. temp. (1 Brit.).

Catalpa Scop. Bignoniaceae (11). 10 sp. Am., E. As. C. bigno -

nioides Walt, is often grown in parks. It yields a very durable
timber.

Catananche Linn. Compositae (xm). 5 sp. Medit.

Catasetum Rich. Orchidaceae (17). 30 sp. trop. Am. Epiphytes.

The firs, show an extraordinary polymorphism, 3 widely different forms
occurring on different (or sometimes on the same) stocks. For a
long time these were regarded as separate genera, but it is now
known that they are all forms of C. The old genus C. is the $ form,
Myanthus Lindl. the $ and Monachanihus Lindl. the ? . The labellum
is uppermost in the fir. The pollinia are ejected with great violence
when one of the horns of the column is touched. For details see
Darwin’s Orchids , p. 178; Rolfe in Linn. Soc. Journ ., 27, 1890, &c.

Catesbaea Linn. Rubiaceae (1. 8). 6 sp. W. Ind.

Catha Forsk. Celastraceae. 1 sp., C. edulis Forsk., trop. Afr. The
leaves are used by Arabs in the same way as tea, under the names
Khat or Cafta.

Cathcartia Hook. f. Papaveraceae (11). 2 sp. Himal., China.

Cattleya Lindl. Orchidaceae (13). 20 sp. trop. Am., largely cultivated
for their showy firs. The labellum encloses the column but is not
united to it. From its base a nectary runs down into the ovary, The
action of the parts of the fir. is like that of Epipactis (Darwin, Orchids ,

p- 143)-

302

CA UCALIS

Caucalis Linn. (incl. Torilis Adans). Umbelliferae (8). 18 sp. N.

Hemisph., S. Afr. 5 in Brit, (hedge-parsley, &c.).

Cayaponia Silva Manso. Cucurbitaceae (in). 70 sp. trop. Am., 1 Afr.

Ceanothus Linn. Rhamnaceae. 40 sp. Am., often cultivated as orna-
mental shrubs.

Cecropia Linn. Moraceae (in). 30 — 40 sp. trop. Am. Trees of rapid

growth, with very light wood, used for floats, &c. The infl. is a very
complex cyme (see Bot. Centr. 57, p. 6). C. peltata L. is the trumpet
tree, so called from the use made of its hollow stems by the Uaupes
Indians (Wallace, Amaz. ch. xn). The hollows are inhabited by
fierce ants ( Azteca sp.) which rush out if the tree be shaken, and attack
the intruder. Schimper has made a thorough investigation of this
symbiosis (or living together for mutual benefit) of plant and animal,
showing that there is here a true case of myrmecophily as in Acacia
sphaerocephala (q.v.). These ants protect the C. from the formidable
leaf-cutter ants. Several adaptations are to be seen in the tree.
The intemodes are hollow but do not communicate directly with the
air. Near the top of each however is a thin place in the wall. A
gravid female ant burrows through this and brings up her brood
inside the stem. The base of the leaf-stalk is swollen and bears food
bodies (cf. Acacia) on the lower side, upon which the ants feed.
New ones form as the old ones are eaten. Several other sp.
show similar features. A very interesting point, that goes to show
the true adaptive nature of these phenomena, is that in one sp. the
stem is covered with wax which prevents the leaf-cutting ants from
climbing up, and in this sp. there are neither food-bodies nor the thin
places in the walls of the internodes. Cecropia trees that are not
inhabited by ants fall an easy prey to the leaf-cutters. Miiller once
observed a tree stripped by them whilst still inhabited by Azteca;
investigation showed that it was because the cold had rendered the
latter incapable of fighting.

Cedrela P. Br. Meliaceae. 20 sp. trop. Many yield valuable timber,
e.g. C. odorata L., the West Indian Cedar, used in making cigar-
boxes, &c., C. Toona Roxb., the Cedar- wood of S. India, C. australis
F. von Muell, the Australian red Cedar, &c.

Cedronella Riv. Labiatae(vi. 3). 9 sp. N. Am., Japan, Canaries.

Cedrus (Tourn.) Mill. Coniferae (Arauc. 1 b; see C. for genus charac-
ters). 3 sp., C. Libani Barrel. (Cedar of Lebanon), C. atlantica
Manetti (Atlantic Cedar; Algeria) and C. Deodar a Loud. (Deodar;
Himalaya); all are probably varieties of one sp. whose distribution has
become discontinuous (p. 146). They are handsome evergreen trees
(often planted for ornament in Brit.) with needle leaves and both long
and short shoots ; the latter may continue to grow for several years
and may even develope into long shoots. Firs, solitary, in the
position of short shoots. The cone ripens in 2 — 3 years. The wood
is very durable and is highly valued for building, &c.

CENT A UREA

3°3

Celba Medic. = Eriodendron DC. ( C . pentandra Gaertn. = E. anfractuo-
sum; C. Casearia Medic. =E. orientale).

Celastraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). About 38 gen.
with 280 sp., trop. and temp. Trees or shrubs with simple, often
leathery, leaves andcymose (rarely racemose) infl. Fir. small, regular,
usually ^ . K 4 — 5, free or united, C 4 — 5. There is usually a well
marked disc, on the upper side or edge of which are borne 4 — 5 sta.
Ovary superior, of 2 — 5 cpls., usually with as many loculi, sometimes
partly sunk in the disc. Ovules generally 2 in each loc., usually erect,
anatropous or apotropous. Fruit a loculicidal capsule, samara, drupe,
berry or indehiscent capsule. Seed usually with brightly coloured
aril. Endosperm usually present. Chief genera: Euonymus, Celas-
trus, Cassine. Placed in Celastrales by Benth. -Hooker, in Frangu-
linae by Warming.

Celastrales (Benth. -Hooker). The 9th cohort of Polypetalae (p. 134).

Celastrineae (Benth. -Hooker) = Celastraceae.

Celastrus Linn. Celastraceae. Over 40 sp. As., Austr., Polynes., N.
Am. Climbing shrubs with fruit like Euonymus.

Celmisia Cass. Compositae (iv). 27 sp. N. Z., &c.

Celosia Linn. Amarantaceae (1). 35 sp. trop. and temp. The most

interesting is C. cidstata L., the Cock’s-comb, a cultivated (but now
hereditary) monstrosity, in which fasciation (p. 23) of the firs, of the
infl. occurs.

Celsia Linn. Scrophulariaceae (1. 1). 37 sp. Medit., Afr., As.

Celtis Tourn. Ulmaceae. 60 sp. N. temp, and trop. Like Ulmus,
but with introrse anthers, a drupe fruit, and a curved embryo. The
fruit of the nettle-tree ( C . australis L.) is eaten in Spain, &c. The
wood of this sp. is useful for turning, and the tree is also used as a
fodder-plant in India.

Cenchrus Linn. Gramineae (v). 12 sp. trop. and warm temp. The

spikelet is surrounded by an involucre of sterile spikelets, which in
some sp. become hard and prickly, surrounding the fruit and acting
as a means of distribution by animals (cf. Tribulus, &c.). C. tribti-
loides L. is a very troublesome pest in the wool-growing districts of
N. Am.

Cenia Comm, ex Juss. Compositae (vn). 9 sp. S. Afr. Included in

Cotula Linn, in A7 at. PJl.

Centaurea Linn. Compositae (xi). 470 sp. chiefly Medit. ; a few in

Eur., As., trop. Afr., Am., Austr. Several in Brit. e.g. C. nigra
L. (knapweed), C. Scabiosa L., C. Cyanus L. (blue-bottle or corn-
flower). In the last two the outer firs, are neuter with enlarged
corolla (cf. Hydrangea). C. Calcitrapa L. (star-thistle) has long
spiny involucral bracts. The flr. of C. shows the usual construction
but the sta. are sensitive to contact and when touched [e.g. by insects
probing for honey) contract, thus forcing out the pollen at the top of
tube. In C. montana L. and other sp. there is a nectary on each

3°4

CENTAUREA

bract of the involucre. Numbers of ants are thus attracted, which
may perhaps frighten away other harmful insects (p. 114). The
secretion only goes on whilst the firs, are open and may also be ex-
plained as serving to keep the ants away from the firs., whose honey
they would steal without making any return.

Centradenia G. Don. Melastomaceae (1). 4 sp. Mexico, Cent. Am.

C. rosea Lindl. shows habitual anisophylly (p. 47).

Centrantlius DC. Valerianaceae. 12 sp. Medit., Eur. C. ruber DC.
is the red spur-valerian of gardens. The corolla is spurred at the
base, and at the end of the spur honey is secreted. The tube of the
corolla has a longitudinal partition dividing it into two narrow tubes,
one containing the style, the other, lined with downward-pointing
hairs, leading to the spur. The fir. is protandrous, and the long
narrow tube prevents any but long-tongued insects obtaining the
honey.

Centrolepidaceae. Monocotyledons (Farinosae). 6 gen. with 32 sp.
Austr., N. Z., S. Am., Polynes., S. E. As. Small grass-like herbs
with spikes of small firs. , which are g or unisexual, naked or with
1 — 3 hair-structures round them. Sta. 1 — 2, Cpls. 1 — 00, superior,
each with one pendulous orthotropous ovule. Chief genus: Centro-
Iepis. See Nat . Pfl. for details. Placed in Glumaceae by Benth. -
Hooker, in Enantioblastae by Warming.

Centrolepis Labill. Centrolepidaceae. 20 sp. Austr., E. As.

Centrolobium Mart. Leguminosae (in. 8). 3 sp. trop. Am. The pod
is winged for winged-carriage and is very spiny.

Centropogon Presl. Campanulaceae (ill). 90 sp. trop. Am.

Centrosema Benth. (Bradburya Rafin. of Nat. Pfl.) Leguminosae
(ill. 10). 30 sp. Am.

Centrospermae. The 14th cohort of Dicotyledons (Archichl.). See
p. 127, and refer to art. Caryophyllaceae for relationships.

Centunculus Dill. Primulaceae (in). 3 sp. temp, and sub-trop. (1 in

Brit.).

Cephaelis Sw. = Uragoga Linn. The boundaries of these two genera
and the nearly related Psychotria Linn, are very ill-defined. The
grouping used in this work is that of Schumann in Nat. Pfl.

Cephalanthera Rich. Orchidaceae (4). 10 sp. N. temp. 3 in Brit.

There is no rostellum and the pollen germinates in situ , fertilising its
own stigma (Darwin, Orchids, p. 80). The lateral staminodes (see
order) are easily seen upon the column. Darwin regards C. as a

, degraded Epipactis.

Cephalaria Schrad. Dipsacaceae. 30 sp. Medit., S. Afr.

Cephalocereus Pfeiff. = Cereus Haw.

Cephalotaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). Only genus
Cephalotus (y.z>.). Placed in Saxifraginae by Warming. Benth. -
Hooker include C. in Saxifragaceae, from which it differs in having a
fully free and apocarpous ovary and basal ovules.

CERA TO PH YLL UM

3°5

Cephalotaxus Sieb. et Zucc. Coniferae (Taxaceae, 4; see C. for genus
characters). 4 sp. Japan, China. C. Fortunei Hook, is commonly
grown in shrubberies. All the shoots are of unlimited growth. Firs,
dioecious, the $ in heads in the axils of the leaves of the preceding
year, the ? stalked, of several pairs of leaves each with a short axillary
shoot bearing two ovules. Seeds 1 — 2, with fleshy aril.

Cephalotus Labill. Cephalotaceae. 1 sp., C. follicularis Labill., in
marshes at King George’s Sound, W. Austr. A most interesting
plant, having pitchers like those of Nepenthes or Sarracenia, though
it is not nearly related to either. The lower leaves of the rosette form
pitchers, the upper are flat and green (cf. this division of labour with
that found in N. and S.). The pitcher has much the same structure
as that of N. and catches insects in the same way. [See p. 178.]
Fir. 5 , apetalous. Perianth 6, valvate. Sta. 6 + 6. Cpls. 6, free,
standing round the apex of the axis, each with 1 (rarely 2) basal erect
anatropous ovule with dorsal raphe. Follicle with 1 seed; embryo
small in fleshy endosperm.

Cerastium Linn. (incl. Moenchia Ehrh.). Caryophyllaceae (11. 1). 50

to 100 sp. N. temp. 5 or more in Brit, (mouse-ear chickweed).

Cerasus (Tourn.) Linn. = Prunus Linn. C. Avium Moench., Lauroce-
rasus Loisel., lusitanicus Loisel., Padus Delarb. = P. Avium, &c. ;
C. vulgaris Mill. = P. Cerasus.

Ceratolobus Blume. Palmae (ill. 5). 2 sp. Malay Arch.

Ceratonia Linn. Leguminosae (11. 5). 1 sp. Medit., C. Siliqua L. the
carob-tree. The pods (Algaroba or St John’s bread) are full of a
juicy pulp containing sugar and gum, and are largely used for feeding
domestic animals. The seeds are said to have been the original of the
carat weights of jewellers.

Ceratophyllaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Ranales). Only genus
Ceratophyllum ( q.v .). As is usually the case with highly adapted
water-plants (see p. 158) it is very difficult to decide upon a position
for the C. in the scheme of classification. The one free cpl. and
several perianth leaves seem to place them in Ranales, and they are
distinguished from Nymphaeaceae by the orthotropous ovule, whorled
leaves, &c. Eichler placed them in Urticinae, Benth. -Hooker as an
anomalous order of Monochlamydeae. Warming places them in
Polycarpicae ( = Ranales).

Ceratophylleae (Benth. - Hooker) = preceding.

Ceratophyllum Linn. Ceratophyllaceae. 3 sp. cosmop., of which
C. denier sum L. and C. submersum L. occur in Brit, (horn worts).
Water-plants, rootless, with thin stems and whorls of much-divided
submerged leaves. The plant decays away behind as it grows in
front, so that vegetative multiplication occurs by the setting free of
the branches. The old leaves are translucent and horny, whence the
common name. Winter buds are not formed, the plant merely
sinking to the bottom in autumn and rising again in spring.

\V.

20

3°6

CERA TOPHYLLUM

Firs. monoecious, axillary, sessile, with sepaloid perianth. In
the $ , P about (12), hypogynous; A 12 — 16 on convex recept., with
oval non-cutinised pollen. In the ? , P (9 — 10), hypogynous; G 1,
the midrib anterior; ovule 1, orthotropous, pendulous. Achene
crowned by the persistent style, which in C. demersum is hooked.
Seed albuminous. The fir. is water-pollinated ; the anthers break off
and float up through the water (each has a sort of float at top of
theca) ; the pollen is of the same specific gravity as water (cf. Zostera)
and thus drifts about till it comes in contact with a stigma.

Ceratopteris Brong. Polypodiaceae. Only sp. C. thcilictroides Brong.,
an aquatic fern (floating or rooted in shallow water) found through-
out the Tropics. The succulent fronds are eaten as a vegetable in the
Indian Archipelago.

Ceratostema Juss. Ericaceae (ill. 8). 20 sp. S. Am. Included in

Thibaudia H. B. et K. in Nat. Pfl.

Ceratostigma Bunge. Plumbaginaceae. 4. sp. Abyss., Himal., China.
The total infl. is racemose, the partials dichasial.

Ceratozamia Brongn. Cycadaceae. 6 sp. Mexico.

Cerbera Linn. (incl. Tanghinia Thou.). Apocynaceae (1. 3). 6 sp.

Cey. to New Caled., Madag.

Cercis Linn. Leguminosae (11. 4). 5 sp. S. Eur., As., N. Am.

C. Siliquastrum L., the Judas-tree, flowers in the open in Brit.
(Judas is said to have hanged himself on one.) The firs, appear
before the leaves, in little bunches on the older twigs, and have a
very papilionaceous look, the two lower petals enclosing the essential
organs. Serial buds are formed in the leaf axils.

Cereus Mill. (incl. Ccphalocereus Pfeiff., Echinocereus Engelm., Echi-
nopsis Zucc., Pilocereus Lem.). Cactaceae (1). 220 sp. Am., W. Ind.
Most are erect cylindrical forms, rarely branched, with ribs or less
often mammillae (see order). A few of the more interesting sp. may
be mentioned. C. gigantens Engelm. (Texas) is the largest of the
cacti ; it grows to 70 ft. high and 2 ft. thick with candelabra-like
branching (figs, in Treas. of Bot. and other books). C . grandifiorus
Mill, is the night-flowering cactus, whose magnificent and sweetly-
scented firs, open in the evening and wither before morning. Other
sp., e.g. C. triangularis Mill., behave in the same way. These
sp. are mostly trailing forms with adventitious roots upon the stems.
C. (P.) se?iilis Salm-Dyck. is the old-man cactus, so called because
of the long white hairs with which it is covered. A number of cases
of close resemblance may be found between sp. of C. and sp. of
Euphorbia. The fruit of most sp. is edible, and is often made into
preserves.

Cerinthe Linn. Boraginaceae (iv. 4). 7 sp. Eur., Medit.

Ceropegia Linn. Asclepiadaceae (11. 4). 80 sp. Afr., As., Austr.

Erect or twining herbs or undershrubs, more or less xerophytic.
Many have tuberous rootstocks, others are leafless and sometimes

CIIALAZOGAMAE

3^7

have fleshy Stapelia-like stems. The flrs. form a trap like those
of Aristolochia Clematitis. The corolla tube widens at the base and
at the top the teeth spread out, but in some sp. they hold together
at the tips, making a sort of umbrella. The tube is lined with down-
ward pointing hairs, and small flies, attracted by the colour and smell,
creep into the fir. and cannot escape till the hairs wither, when they
emerge with pollinia on their proboscides.

Ceroxylon Humb. et Bonpl. Palmae (iv. 6). 5 sp. N. Andes. C.

andicoltim H. and B. and other sp. yield a wax (secreted on the
stems), used for making candles, &c. One tree yields about 25 lbs.

Cestichis Thou. = Liparis Rich.

Cestrum Linn. ( Habrothamnus Endl.) Solanaceae (iv. 7). 140 sp.

trop. and sub-trop. Am. Some are greenhouse plants.

Ceteracli Willd. = Asplenium Linn. C. officinaru?n Willd. (ceterach,
Brit.) = ^4. Ceterach Linn.

Chaenostoma Benth. Scrophulariaceae (11. 7). 62 sp. S. Afr., 1 in

Canary Is., 1 in Somaliland.

Chaerophyllum Linn. Umbelliferae (5). 36 sp. N. temp. C. temulum
L. is a common weed in Brit. (Chervil).

Chaetanthera Ruiz et Pav. Compositae (xn). 30 sp. Chili, Peru.

Chailletia DC. {Dichapetalum Thou.) Chailletiaceae. 45 sp. trop.
Several sp. have epiphyllous infl. (cf. Erythrochiton) ; this has pro-
bably arisen by a development similar to what is seen in the infl. of
Solanaceae, or in the cushions of Cactaceae.

Chailletiaceae {Dichapetalaceae) . Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales).
3 gen. with 60 sp. trop. Woody plants with entire, stip. leaves. Firs,
in cymose umbels, &c., sometimes epiphyllous, usually regular, £ or
unisexual, typically 5-merous. Sepals and petals free or united, the
latter often bifid. Axis continued into a cup-like disc or scales. Sta.
5, sometimes epipetalous. Cpls. (2 — 3) each with 2 ovules. Drupe
with 1- or 2-locular stone. No endosperm; seed sometimes with
caruncle. Chief genus: Chailletia. Placed in Geraniales by Benth.-
Hooker, in Frangulinae by Eichler.

Chalazogamae. A division of Angiospermae, proposed by Treub as
the outcome of his work upon Casuarina (A?in. Buitenzorg , X. 1891,
reviewed in Nat. Science , Apr. 1892, and in Beih. z . bot. Central -
blatt , 1892, p. 28). The ovules are developed in a somewhat peculiar
way, and in each a number of embryo-sacs (macrospores) form,
many of which elongate downwards right into the base (chalaza) of
the ovule. Usually only one of these is fertile. At its upper end
is a single cell which divides vertically into two and one of these may
again divide; the latter is regarded as the equivalent of the canal cell
in the archegonium of Pteridophyta, the former is the ovum, which is
peculiar among Phanerogams in having a cell- wall. There are also
several free nuclei in the embryo-sac, but there are no antipodal cells.
The pollen tube passes through the style and the ovarial tissues,

20 — 2

CHALAZOGAMAE

308

never emerging from them , to the stalk of the ovule, which it thus
enters from the chalazal end. It passes upwards inside a sterile
macrospore and finally enters the fertile one and fertilises the ovum.
The endosperm is formed by the free nuclei in the embryo-sac, in
the usual maimer.

Both in the development of the macrospores and in the process of
fertilisation, the difference between Casuarina and all other known
Angiosperms (except to some degree the Loranthaceae) was so
marked, and seemed to place Casuarina so much nearer to the
Gymnospermae (q.v.), that Treub proposed to rearrange the Angio-
sperms thus :

r rorogamae

Angiospermae ■

Chalazogamae

This proposition has not met with general acceptance. The phe-
nomenon has since been observed in various plants of the allied
orders Betulaceae, &c. In Carpinus Betulus there are several
embryo-sacs with tubes (caeca) running down into the chalaza, and
the pollen tube enters the base of one of these and passes up to the
ovum, which is of the ordinary type with synergidae, &c. In Corylus
Avellana there are several embryo-sacs, but only one sends down a
caecum. In Alnus glutinosa there is one embryo-sac deep in the
nucellus, with no caecum, and Betula alba is somewhat similar.
Some of the Fagaceae also show signs of this peculiar embryo -sac
development but are fertilised by way of the micropyle. In Corylus
and in Juglans regia the embryo-sac at the time of fertilisation
contains the 3 antipodal cells and 5 free nuclei, with one of which
the male nucleus coalesces, so that a relationship to Gnetum (see art.
Gymnospermae) is perhaps indicated. Ulmus shows signs of chalazo-
gamic fertilisation, though the pollen tube finally reaches the apex of
the nucellus, and Plantago also is said to exhibit somewhat similar
phenomena, while in Alchemilla sp. the tube enters by the funicle
and afterwards runs up through the integument and enters the
embryo-sac at the level of the ovum.

We may perhaps accept the view that chalazogamic fertilisation
is one of the phenomena attending the passage from gymnospermy to
angiospermy, but to base any classification upon it would be pre-
mature. [See Nawaschin, Bull. Ac. St. Petersb. 1899, Bot. Zeit. 1900,
p. 38; Murbeck, Lunds Univ. Arskr. 36, Bot. Centr. 86, p. 121.]
Chamaecyparis Spach. Coniferae (Arauc. 2 c ; see C. for genus
characters). 4 sp. N. Am., Japan. C. nutkaensis Spach. (Thuya
excelsa Bong.) is the Sitka cypiess or yellow cedar; C. sphaeroidea
Spach ( Thuya sphaeroidalis Rich.) is the white cedar of N. Am. ; C.
(Th.) pisifera Sieb. et Zucc. and C. (Th.) obtusa Sieb. et Zucc. are
Japanese. All yield useful timber, especially the first two. The
genus is much confused with Thuya and Cupressus (in nomenclature).

\Dicotyledones.

\ Monocotyledones.

CHENOPODIA CEAE

3°9

Chamaedorea Willd. Palmae (iv. 6). 60 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Am.

Small reedy palms, often forming suckers. Dioecious.

Chamaelaucium Desf. Myrtaceae (3). 11 sp. W. Austr.

Chamaeorcliis Koch. = Herminium Willd. [1 sp. Mts. of Eur., C. ( H .)
alpina Rich. See Muller’s Alpenblumen , p. 73.]

Chamaerops Linn. Palmae (1. 2). 2 sp. Medit. C, humilis L. is the

only sp. of palm found in Eur.

Chavica Miq.= Piper Linn.

Cheilanthes Sw. Polypodiaceae. 55 sp. trop. and temp., esp. on
Mts. They are mostly xerophytic and often have the pinnae in-
curved and the stomata protected by hairs (cf. Empetrum).

Cheiranthus Linn. Cruciferae (iv. 16). 10 sp. Medit. and N. temp.

C. Cheiri L., the wall-flower, in Brit.

Cheirostemon Humb. et Bonpl. (Chiranthodendron Cerv.) Ster-
culiaceae. 1 sp. Mexico, C. plaianoides H. et B., the Macpalxo-
chitlquahuitl. Firs, large ; petals o ; sta. 5, united below.

Chelidonium Linn. Papaveraceae (11). 1 sp. Brit, to E. As., C,

majus L., the greater celandine.

Chelone Linn. Scrophulariaceae (11. 6). 4 sp. N. Am.

Chenopodiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Centrospermae). About 75
gen. with 500 sp. with a peculiar and interesting geographical distri-
bution, determined by the fact that they are nearly all salt-loving
(halophilous) plants (p. 169). The 10 chief districts characterised by
their presence are (according to Bunge), (1) Austr., (2) the Pampas,
(3) the Prairies, (4) and (5) the Medit. coasts, (6) the Karroo (S. Afr.),
(7) the Red Sea shores, (8) the S.W. Caspian coast, (9) Centr. As.
(Caspian to Himalayas — deserts), (10) the salt steppes of E. As. [For
full discussion see Volkens in Nat. PJI.'] As Schimper and others
have shown, the presence of large quantities of salt in the soil necessi-
tates the reduction of the transpiration, so that the plants which grow
in such situations will exhibit the characters of xerophytes, and such
is the case with this order. They are mostly herbaceous plants (a few
shrubs or small trees), with roots which penetrate deeply into the
soil, and with leaves of various types, usually not large, often fleshy,
and often covered with hairs. These hairs frequently give a curious
and very characteristic mealy feeling to the plant. In some halophytes
of this order, the leaves are altogether suppressed, and the plant has
curious jointed succulent stems like a miniature cactus (e.g. Sali-
cornia). Each ‘ ‘ limb” embraces the next succeeding one by a sort
of cup at its apex. Even more than in their external form, the C.
show xerophytic structure in their internal anatomy, for an account of
which, as well as the peculiar mode of growth in thickness, see
Volkens in Nat. Pfl.

The infl. is often primarily upon the racemose type, but the partial
infls. are always cymose, at first often dichasial, but with a tendency
to the cincinnus form, by preference of the /3-bracteole. The firs, are

3ro

CHENOPODTA CEAE

regular, small and inconspicuous, ? or unisexual ; their mode of ferti-
lisation is not quite clearly understood. Perianth simple, rarely
absent, persistent after flowering, of 5, 3, 2 (rarely 1 or 4) leaves, more
or less united, imbricate, sepaloid. Sta. as many as or fewer than
the perianth segments, opp. to them, hypogynous or on a disc ;
anthers bent inwards in bud. Ovary superior (semi-inferior in Beta),
i-loc. with 2 (rarely more) stigmas. Ovule 1, basal, campylotropous.
Fruit usually a small round nut or achene. Embryo usually sur-
rounding the endosperm, either simply bent or spirally twisted. Few
of the order are useful plants ; see Beta, Spinacia, Chenopodium, &c.

Classificatio?t and chief genera (after Volkens). The grouping
depends on numerous characters and would occupy too much space ;
the names of the tribes only are therefore given.

A. C YCLOLOBEAE. Embryo ring-shaped, horseshoe-like, con-
duplicate or semi-circular, wholly or partially enclosing the endosperm.

1. Polycnemeae. Polycnemum.

2. Bcteae : Beta.

3. Chenopodieae : Chenopodium.

4. Atriplicieae . Spinacia, Atriplex.

5. Carnphorosmeae . Camphorosma, ICochia.

6. Corispermeae: Corispermum.

7. Salicornieae : Salicornia.

B. SPIROLOBEAE. Embryo spirally twisted: endosperm
wanting or divided into two masses by the embryo.

8. Sarcobatideae : Sarcobatus.

9. Suaedeae: Suaeda.

10. Salsoleae : Salsola, Haloxylon, Halimocnemis.

Benth. -Hooker and Warming include Basellaceae in C., and place
the order in Curvembryae.

Chenopodium (Tourn.) Linn. Chenopodiaceae (3). 60 sp. temp. 9 in

Brit, (goosefoot, lamb’s-quarters, Good King Henry, &c.). The fruit
in many sp. is dimorphic ; some have horizontal seeds, some vertical
(esp. on the terminal twigs of the cymes). C. anthelminticum ( am -
brosioides ) L. is the worm-seed or Mexican tea, whose essential oil is
used as a vermifuge in the U. S. C. Quinoa Willd. is an important
food plant in S. Am.; its seeds are boiled like rice. It is also recom-
mended as a substitute for spinach.

Cherleria Hall. = Arenaria Linn.

Chickrassia A. Juss. Meliaceae. r sp. India, Ceylon, C. tabularis
A. fuss., which yields a good and durable timber, known as Indian
red wood, Chittagong wood, or white cedar.

Chilocarpus Blume. Apocynaceae (1. 1). 10 sp. Indo-mal.

Chimaphila Pursh. Pyrolaceae. 4 sp. N. temp.

Chimonanthus Lindl. Calycanthaceae. 2 sp., China, C. fragrans
Lindl., often cultivated, being a shrub with very fragrant firs, which
come out early in the year before the leaves and show marked

CHLOROPHORA

1 1

protogyny with movement of the sta., and C. nitens Oliv. (Hooker,
Ic. PI. t. 1600), a very distinct evergreen sp. found in S.W. China.

Chiococca P. Br. ex Linn. Rubiaceae (11. 13). 7 SP* troP* Am.

Chiogenes Salisb. Ericaceae (11. 5). 1 sp. E. N. Am., 1 Japan (cf.

Epigaea).

Chionaclme R. Br. Gramineae (1). 2 sp. Indo-mal., and 1 Austr.

(C. cyathopoda F. von Muell., a valuable fodder-grass).

Chionanthus Gaertn. = Linociera Sw. (Oleaceae).

Chionanthus Royen. Oleaceae (1. 3). 2 sp. N. Am., China. C. vir-

ginica Linn, (snowdrop tree) is often grown in shrubberies for its firs.

Chione DC. Rubiaceae (11. 13). 4 sp. W. Ind.

Chionodoxa Boiss. Liliaceae (v). 4 sp. Crete and As. Minor. C.

luciliae Boiss. (glory of the snow) is a favourite border plant.

Chionolaena DC. Compositae (iv). 8 sp. Mexico, S. Am. Shrubs

with the leaves rolled back.

CMonophila Benth. Scrophulariaceae (11. 6). 1 sp. Rocky Mts.

Chirita Buch.-Ham. Gesneraceae (1). 45 sp. Indo-mal., some with

epiphyllous infl. (cf. B. Centr. 74, p. 128). United to Didymocarpus
in Nat. PJl ., under Roettlera.

Chironia Linn. Gentianaceae (1. 2). 15 sp. Afr.

Chisochetori Blume. Meliaceae. 30 sp. Indo-mal.

Chlaenaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 7 gen. with about
20 sp. Madagascar (p. 148) closely allied to Theaceae. See Nat. PJl.

Chlidanthus Herb. Amaryllidaceae (1). 4 sp. S. Am. Sta. with

lateral appendages (see order).

Chloanthes R. Br. Verbenaceae (ill). 10 sp. Austr.

Chlora Ren. ex Adans. ( Blackstonia Huds.) Gentianaceae (1. 2).
3 sp. Eur., Medit. C. perfoliata L. (yellow-wort) on chalk in Brit.

Chloraea Lindl. Orchidaceae (4). 80 sp. Chili.

Chloranthaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Piperales). 3 gen. with 35
sp., trop. and sub-trop. Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with opp. stip.
leaves. Firs, small, in spikes or cymes, $ or unisexual, sometimes
with sepaloid perianth. Sta. 1 — 3, united to one another and to the
ovary. Cpl. 1 ; ovules few, pendulous, orthotropous. Endosperm
oily ; no perisperm ; embryo minute. Chief genera : Chloranthus,
Hedyosmum. Placed in Micrembryae by Benth. -Hooker, in Poly-
goniflorae by Warming.

CMorantlius Sw. Chloranthaceae. 10 sp. E. As., E. Ind. Perianth
of one leaf, anterior ; the centre sta. has a complete anther, the laterals
each half an anther (cf. Fumaria). [Armour in New Phytol. v. 49.]

Chloris Sw. Gramineae (xi). 40 sp. trop. and warm temp. Several

are useful pasture-grasses in Austr. , &c.

Chlorogalum Kunth. Liliaceae (ill). 3 sp. Calif. C. pomeridianum
Kunth has a large bulb whose inner parts are used as a substitute for
soap (cf. Saponaria). The outer layers yield a quantity of fibre.

Chloropiiora Gaudich. Moraceae (1). i sp. W. Afr. and 1 (C. tinaoria

3 1 2 CHL OR OPHORA

Gaudich.) trop. Am. The wood of this sp. forms the yellow dye-
stuff known as fustic.

Chlorophytum Ker-Gawl. Liliaceae (ill). 50 sp. trop. In C. comosum
Baker the infl. is often replaced by a vegetative mode of propagation,
long shoots developing in the axils of the bracts ; these weigh the
stem down to the soil and take root there.

Chloroxylon Rumph. Rutaceae (vn). (Meliaceae, Benth.- Hooker).
1 sp. E. Ind., C. Swietenia DC., the satinwood. The timber is
very pretty in colour and takes a fine polish. It is very lasting, and
is largely used in veneering, but is too heavy for general use alone.
The tree also yields a gum.

Choisya H. B. et K. Rutaceae (1). 1 sp. Mexico.

Chomelia Jacq. Rubiaceae (1. B. 8). 30 sp. trop. As., Afr.

Chondodendron Ruiz et Pav. Menispermaceae. 8 sp. Brazil, Peru.
C. tomentosum R. P. furnishes Radix Pareirae bravae.

Chondrilla (Toum.) Linn. Compositae (xm). 20 sp. N. temp.

Chonemorpha G. Don. Apocynaceae (11. 4). 2 sp. Indo-mal.

Choretrum R. Br. Santalaceae. 5 sp. Austr.

Chorilaena Endl. Rutaceae (111). 2 sp. Austr.

Choripetalae (Warming) = Archichlamydeae.

Chorispora R. Br. Cruciferae (iv. 19). 12 sp. E. Medit., Centr. As.

Choristylis Harv. Saxifragaceae (v). 1 sp. S. Afr.

Chorizanthe R. Br. Polygonaceae (1. 1). 35 sp. Am. Some possess

an ochrea, usually absent in this group. Firs, usually single inside
the involucre (cf. Eriogonum).

Chorizema Labill. Leguminosae (ill. 2). 15 sp. Austr.

Christisonia Gardn. Orobanchaceae. 10 sp. trop. As., esp. Ceylon.
The roots are parasitic on those of bamboos or Acanthaceae, and
unite to a dense meshwork underground. The flowering shoots
spring up, die, and decay, in a fortnight.

Chrozophora Neck. Euphorbiaceae (a. ii. 2). 10 sp. Medit., As.

C. tinctoria A. Juss. was formerly medicinal, but is now used as the
source of the dye turn-sole or tournesol. The juice stains a fabric
green, and when acted on with ammonia vapour turns red.

Chrysalidocarpus H. Wendl. Palmae (iv. 6). 1 sp. Madag., C.

lutescens H. Wendl. a favourite ornamental palm, branching at the
root and forming tufts of stems. Included in Hyophorbe in Nat. PJi .

Chrysanthemum (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Pyrethrnm Hall.). Compositae
(vii). 100 sp. Eur., As., Afr., Am. C . segetum L. (corn-marigold)
and C. Leucanthemum L. (ox-eye or dog daisy) in Brit. The autumn-
flowering C., now so fashionable, are cultivated forms of C. indicum
L. and C. sinense Sabine (China, Japan). As in the Dahlia, all the
florets have become ligulate (see Hemsley in Gard. Chron. 1889,
p. 521, &c.; Henry in Gard. Chron., 1902, p. 301, and discussion
by Hooker in Curtis, Bot. Mag. t. 7874). C. Parthenium Bernh.
(Eur.) is the feverfew, a popular remedy against slight fevers ; C .

CIM T Cl FUG A

3i3

cincmriaefolium Vis. yields Dalmatian, and C. roseum Adam.
Persian, insect powder, which consists of the dried and powdered
firs. ( Kew Bull . 1898, p. 297).

Chrysobalanaceae (Warming) = Rosaceae (suborder vi).

Chrysobalanus Linn. Rosaceae (vi. 13). 3 sp. W. Afr., Am. The

style is basal, so that the fir. is slightly zygomorphic. C. Icaco L. is
the coco plum, the fruit of which is eaten in the W. Ind., &c.

Chrysocoma Linn. Compositae (ill). 8 sp. S. Afr. For C. Linosyris
L. see Aster.

Chrysogonum Linn, (inch Moonia Arn.). Compositae (v). 6 sp.

As., Am. Disc florets barren.

Chrysophyllum Linn. Sapotaceae (1). 60 sp. trop., esp. Am. Several
serial bifis are formed in each leaf- axil in some sp. and the un-
developed ones subsequently give rise to firs, borne on the old wood
(p. 156). C . Cainito L. is the star-apple, cult, in the W. Ind. for its
edible fruit.

Chrysopogon Trin. = Andropogon Linn.

Chrysopsis Ell. Compositae (111). 15 sp. N. Am.

Chrysosplenium Toum. ex Linn. Saxifragaceae (1). 40 sp. N. temp.

2 in Brit, (golden saxifrage). Small herbs with rhizomes bearing both
vegetative and floral shoots. Infl. cymose. The small greenish firs,
are perigynous and apetalous ; they are homogamous and visited by
various small insects. Cf. Adoxa.

Chukrasia A. Juss. = Chickrassia A. Juss.

Chuquiraga Juss. Compositae (xn). 40 sp. S. Am. In each leaf-axil
are thorns, probably representing the leaves of an undeveloped axillary
shoot; above them is a normal branch.

Chusquea Kunth. Gramineae (xm). 35 sp. Am. Like Bambusa (q.v.).

Chysis Lindl. Orchidaceae (15). 6 sp. trop. Am.

Cibotium Kaulf. = Dicksonia L’Herit.

Cicca Linn. = Phyllanthus Linn.

Cicendia Adans. Gentianaceae (1. 2). 1 sp., C. pusilla Griseb., S. W.
Eur. and Channel Is. (For C.filiforjnis Delarb. see Microcala.)

Cicer (Tourn.) Linn. Leguminosae (in. 9). 15 sp. W. As., Medit.

Accessory buds occur in the leaf axils in some sp. C. arietinum L.
is the chick-pea or gram, cultivated for food in S. Eur. and India.

Cichorium (Tourn.) Linn. Compositae (xm). 8 sp. Medit., Eur.

C. Intybus L. , the chicory, occurs in Brit. The roots, roasted and
ground, are mixed with coffee. C. Endivia L. is the endive, used as
a pot-herb. The leaves are partly blanched by tying them together.

Cicuta (Tourn.) Linn. Umbelliferae (5). 6 sp. N. Hemisph. C. virosa
L. (cow-bane or water-hemlock) in Brit. Highly poisonous.

Cimicifuga Linn. Ranunculaceae (2). 9 sp. N. temp. C. foetida L.

(bugbane, Eur.) is used as a preventive against vermin. The root of
C. racemosa Nutt, (black snake-root, N. Am.) is used as an emetic
in Am. United to Actaea in Nat. Pfl.

3T4

CINCHONA

Cinchona Linn. Rubiaceae (i. 4). 40 sp. Andes. Trees. Firs, hetero-
styled in some sp. Important as the source of Peruvian bark, from
which are extracted the valuable drugs (alkaloids) quinine, cinchoni-
dine, &c. The tree used to be cut down to obtain the bark and
there was danger of its extinction until its cultivation was started on
a large scale. An expedition sent to the Andes brought the plant to
the east, where Ceylon soon took up its cultivation, and grew it upon
so large a scale as to reduce the price of quinine from 12 s. to is. an
ounce. The decrease in price, and the lack of any improvement in
the barks made the cultivation die out in Ceylon, and Java, where
the improvement of the bark was taken in hand, now monopolises
it. India grows a good deal for supply to the poorer natives through
the post offices. Several sp. are used, e.g. C. Calisaya Wefid. (yellow,
and some crown, bark), C. Ledgeriana Moens (yellow bark, the richest
in alkaloid), C. cor difolia Mutis (Cartagena bark), C. officinalis L.
( conda??iinea H. & B.) (crown or brown bark). C. siiccirnbra Pav.
(red bark). (See Markham, Travels in Peru and India ; Reimers,
Les quinquinas de culture , 1900.)

Cineraria Linn. Compositae (vm). 25 sp. S. Afr. Many sp. of

Senecio are often included in this genus.

Cinna Linn. Gramineae (vm). 2 sp. N. temp.

Cinnamodendron Endl. Canellaceae. 3 sp. Brazil, W. Ind.

Cinnamomum (Tourn.) Linn. Lauraceae (1). 120 sp. Indo-mal.

Young leaves often red (p. 157). C. zeylanicum Nees (Ceylon) is
the cinnamon. The plant is coppiced in cultivation, and the bark
of the twigs peeled off and rolled up is the spice of commerce.
C. Cassia Blume (China, Japan) yields Cassia bark, often used to
adulterate cinnamon. Its fir. buds are used as a spice (cf. Eugenia).
C. Camphora T. Nees & Eberm. (China, Japan, Formosa) is the
camphor tree. In the Japanese way of treatment, the old trees in
the forest are felled, and the wood cut into chips and distilled with
steam, but in cultivation in Ceylon and elsewhere, the camphor is
distilled from young shoots.

Cinnamosma Baill. Canellaceae. 1 sp. Madag.

Cipadessa Blume. Meliaceae. 4 sp. Indo-mal., Madag.

Circaea Tourn. Onagraceae (vm). 7 sp. N. temp, and arctic. 2 in

Brit, (enchanter’s nightshade). Fir. dimerous throughout with one
whorl of sta. Fertilisation method like that of Veronica. Fruit hooked.

Circaeaster Maxim. 1 sp. Ilimal., China. Position doubtful, perhaps
near Chloranthaceae or Ranunculaceae (Hooker, leones Pl.} t. 2366).
K 2 — 3, C o, A 1 — 2, G 1 — 4; fruits hooked.

Cirrhopetalum Lindl. Orchidaceae (22). 30 sp. Indo-mal., Masc.

Cirsium (Tourn.) Adans. = Cnicus Tourn.

Cissampelos Linn. Menispermaceae. 70 sp. trop. S infl. cymose.
? flr. with peculiar zygomorphic structure ; cpl. one, with one sepal
and two petals at one side of it. Petals often united.

CITRUS

3i5

Cissus Linn.=Vitis Tourn.

Cistaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 4 gen. with 160 sp.
They grow in dry sunny places, especially on chalky or sandy soil.
3 sp. in S. Am., the rest N. temp. (esp. Medit.). Shrubs and herbs
with opp. leaves, often inrolled (cf. Ericaceae), with or without
stipules. Glandular hairs are usually present. Firs, solitary or in
cymose infh, $ , regular. K 5, the two outer ones usually smaller than
the inner (they have sometimes been regarded as bracteoles, but these
organs are found lower down) ; C 5 or 3 or o, convolute (the petals .
overlap to right or left according as the 3 inner sepals overlap to left
or right respectively) ; A co on a sub-ovarial disc (sta. developed in
descending order) ; G (5 — 10 or 3) i-loc. with parietal (often pro-
jecting) placentae. Ovules 00 or 2 on each, ascending, orthotropous.
Styles free. Capsule loculicidal. Endosperm; curved embryo.
Genera: Cistus (ovules 00, capsule 5-valved), Helianthemum (do.,
3-valved), Hudsonia (ovules 2, pets. 5), Lechea (ovules 2, pets. 3 or o).
Placed in Parietales by Benth.- Hooker,' in Cistiflorae by Warming.

Cistiflorae (Warming). The 10th cohort of Choripetalae (p. 138).

Cistineae ( Benth. - Hooker) = Cistaceae.

Cistus (Toum.) Linn. Cistaceae. 30 sp. Medit. C. creticus L. and
C. ladaniferus L. yield the resin ladanum (not to be confused with
laudanum), obtained by whipping the leaves with leather thongs.
The drug w7as largely used in the plague and in nervous diseases, but
is now little employed. Many sp. are favourite shrubs (gum-cistus).

Citharexylum Mill. Verbenaceae (11). 20 sp. trop. Am. The com-

mon name fiddle-Avood is a corruption of Bois-fidele.

Citriobatus A. Cunn. Pittosporaceae. 2 sp. S. W. Austr.

Citrullus Forsk. Cucurbitaceae (ill). 4 sp. Afr. , Medit., As. C.
vulgaris Schrad. is the water-melon, C. Colocynthis Schrad. the
colocynth, whose fruit furnishes the cathartic drug of the same name.

Citrus Linn. Rutaceae (x). 30 sp. trop. Old World. Shrubs and

trees with usually simple leaves, which show a joint at the meeting
place of blade and stalk, indicating their derivation from compound
leaves like those of most of the order (cf. Berberis). Axillary thorns
occur in some sp. ( = metamorphosed leaves of the branch shoot).
Firs, in corymbs, g . K and C 4 — 8. Sta. 00 in irregular bundles,
corresponding to an outer whorl only. Cpls. 00 (6 or more), syncar-
pous. A second whorl sometimes appears. Frt. a berry with leathery
epicarp. The flesh is made up of large cells which grow out from
the inner layer of the pericarp.

Many sp. are cultivated in warm countries, for their fruit. C .
Medica L., the citron, is the parent sp. of several varieties, e.g . var.
Litnonum the lemon, var. acida the lime, var. Limetta the sweet lime.
C. Aurantium L. is the orange, wdth its varieties Bergamia , the
Bergamot orange (from wLich the perfume is obtained), and Bigaradia
the Seville or bitter orange. C. dectanana Murr. is the shaddock,

316

CITRUS

pomelo, or grape-fruit (the last a variety). For details see De
Candolle’s Orig. of Cult. Pits. p. 176, or Treas. of Bot.

Cladium P. Br. Cyperaceae (11). 40 sp. trop. and temp., esp. Austr.

C. Mariscus R. Br. (germanicum Schrad.), the only Brit, sp., is still
abundant in Wicken Fen near Cambridge (the only bit of true fen
now left), where it is cut as a crop. Formerly it abounded in the
Fens and “ was largely used for lighting fires at Cambridge and other
places ” (Babington).

Cladrastis Rafin. Leguminosae (in. 1). 1 sp. Japan, &c., and 1 sp.

E. N. Am. (cf. Epigaea). The wood of the latter {C. tinctoria Rafin.,
the yellow-wood) yields a yellow dye.

Claoxylon A. Juss. Euphorbiaceae (a. II. 2). 40 sp. trop. Old World.

Clarkia Pursh. Onagraceae (iv). 5 sp. W. N. Am. Favourite border
plants. Mechanism of fir. as in Epilobium.

Clausena Burm. f. Rutaceae (x). 15 sp. trop. Afr., Ind., Austr.

Clavija Ruiz et Pav. Myrsinaceae (1). 22 sp. trop. Am. Trees of

palm-like habit (p. 155), often with firs, on the old wood (p. 156).

Claytonia Gronov. ex Linn. Portulacaceae. 20 sp. N. temp, and
arctic. Two have become naturalised in Brit. There are no stipules.
Firs, in sympodial cymes. Before pollination the flower-stalk is
erect ; the fir. is protandrous, with outward movement of the sta.
after dehiscence. Honey, secreted at the base of each petal, is ac-
cessible to short-tongued insects. After pollination, the stalk bends
downwards through 180°, to return once more to the erect position
when the fruit is ripe. The capsule contains 3 seeds and splits into
3 valves, the seeds lying across the lines of splitting. The inner
surfaces of the valves contract as they dry and shoot out the seeds
(cf. Buxus, Viola; fig. in Ann. of Bot. 1892).

Cleisostoma Blume. Orchidaceae (31). 15 sp. Indo-mal.

Cleistanthus Hook. f. ex Planch. Euphorbiaceae (a. i. 2). 30 sp.

palaeotrop.

Clematis Dill, ex Linn. (incl. Atragenc L.). Ranunculaceae (3). 170

sp. cosmop. C. vitalba L. (traveller’s joy) in Brit. Mostly climbing
shrubs with opp., usually compound, leaves. The lower sides of the
petioles are sensitive to contact. The petiole bends once round the
supporting object, then thickens and becomes lignificd (see p. 172).
Firs, in cymes ; calyx coloured ; no petals or honey secretion. The
style often remains persistent upon the fruit and becomes hairy, thus
forming a mechanism for wind-distribution.

Cleome Linn. Capparidaceae (1). 90 sp. trop. and warm temp. The
disc is usually more developed on the posterior side and may bear
scales. The gynophore varies much in length.

Cleomella DC. Capparidaceae (1). 5 sp. W. N. Am.

Clerodendron Linn. Verbenaceae (iv). 90 sp. trop. and warm temp.

C. Thompsonae Balf. is a favourite hot-house plant. It has a red
calyx and white corolla. The sta. project so as to form the landing

COBAEA

3i7

place for insects, and when they are ripe the style is bent down.
Afterwards the sta. roll up and the style takes their place. C.fisiu-
losum Becc. has hollow internodes inhabited by ants (see Cecropia
and Myrmecodia).

Clethra Gronov. Clethraceae. 25 sp. Canaries, N. Am., E. As.

Clethraceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Ericales). An order composed
of the single genus Clethra, often considered, e.g. by Benth. -Hooker,
as an anomalous member of Ericaceae. Shrubs and trees with alter-
nate leaves; firs, in racemes or panicles, without bracteoles, $ > regular.
K 5, C 5 , polypetalous-, A 5 + 5, hypogynous; no disc . Anthers bent
outwards in bud: pollen in single grains. Ovary 3-loc.; style with 3
stigmas . Capsular fruit. Seed with endosperm. The characters
given in italics are those in which C. differ from Ericaceae, and taken
together fairly justify the separation.

Clianthus Banks et Soland. {Donia Don.) Leguminosae (in. 6). 2

sp. Austr., N. Z. Favourite greenhouse plants.

Clidemia D. Don. Melastomaceae (1). 100 sp. trop. Am.

Cliffortia Linn. Rosaceae (ill. 9). 40 sp. S. Afr.

Clinopodium Linn. =Calamintha Tourn.

Clintonia Dougl. = Downingia Torr.

Clitoria Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 10). 30 sp. trop. and sub-trop. The
firs, are inverted and the essential organs therefore touch the insect’s
back, if it alight on the standard.

Olivia Lindl. Amaryllidaceae (1). 3 sp. Cape Col.

Clusia Linn. Guttiferae (iv). 80 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Am. They

are mostly climbing epiphytes, clasping the host by anastomosing
aerial roots, and frequently strangling it altogether (cf. Ficus Ben -
jamina , &c.). The fleshy fruit is probably carried from tree to tree by
birds.

Clusiaceae (Warming) r= Guttiferae.

Cluytia Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 5). 28 sp. Afr.

Clypeola Linn. Cruciferae (iv. 17). 12 sp. Medit.

Cneoraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). Only genus Cneo-
rum. Placed in Simarubaceae by Benth. -Hooker. Nearly allied to
Zygophyllaceae, but separated because they have only one whorl of
sta. with no ligules, and have no stipules, but possess oil-glands in
the leaves.

Cneorum Linn. Cneoraceae. 12 sp. Medit., Canaries.

Cnestis Juss. Connaraceae. 9 sp. trop. Afr., As.

Cnicus Linn, [inch Cirsium (Tourn.) Adans.]. Compositae (xi). 120
sp. N. Hemisph. Several in Brit, (thistles). The genus is much con-
fused with Carduus.

Cobaea Cav. Polemoniaceae. 6 sp. trop. Am. C. scandens Cav. is a
favourite greenhouse climber of very rapid growth. It climbs by aid
of tendrils (leaf-structures) which are much branched, the branches
ending in sharp hooks. The tendril nutates with great rapidity and

COBAEA

3*8

is highly sensitive to contact (as may be seen by rubbing one side and'
watching it for 5 minutes) ; the hooks prevent the nutation from
dragging away a branch before it has had time to clasp its support
(Darwin, Climbers , p. 106). The fir. presents interesting features.
The closed bud stands erect on an erect stalk, but when it is going to
open, the tip of the stalk bends over. The flower is very pro-
tandrous with movement of sta. and styles. At first it is greenish
with an unpleasant smell, thus presenting the characters of a fly-
flower (p. 92), but afterwards it becomes purple with a pleasant
honey-like smell (bee-flower). Afterwards the stalk goes through
several . contortions (cf. Linaria, and see Scholtz in Cohn’s Bei-
trdge , VI.).

Coccinia Wight et Am. Cucurbitaceae (iv). 14 sp. trop. As., Afr.

The fruit of C. indica W. and A. is largely eaten as a vegetable
in India.

Coccocypselum P. Br. Rubiaceae (1. 7). 8 sp. trop. Am. Hetero-

styled.

Coccoloba Linn. Polygonaceae (in. 5). 125 sp. trop. and sub-trop.

C. uvifei'a L., and others, produce edible fruit (seaside grape). For
C. platyclada F. Muell. see Muehlenbeckia.

Cocculus DC. Menispermaceae. About 25 sp. trop. and sub-trop.
[The grains known as Cocculus are those of Anamirta.]

Cochlearia Tourn. (incl. Ionopsidium DC., q.v.9 and Kernera Medic.).
Cruciferae (11. 6). 21 sp. Eur., As. Minor. C . officinalis Linn,

(scurvy-grass) occurs in Brit, in various forms with more or less
fleshy leaves, chiefly at the sea-side and on mts. (p. 187); other sp.
also occur, including C. Armoracia L. (horse-radish) as an escape.
The thick root of this sp. is esteemed as a condiment.

Cochliostema Lem. Commelinaceae. 1 sp. Ecuador, C. odoratissima
Lem., a favourite greenhouse plant. The filaments of the fertile
sta. develope both laterally and beyond the anthers into large wings.
Anther-loculi spiral. See Nat. PJl ., or Masters in Linn . Soc.
Journ. xiii.

Cochlospermaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). An order
including Cochlospermum, &c., sometimes separated from Bixaceae
on the ground of oily endosperm, the other B. being starchy.

CocMospermum Kunth. Bixaceae. 13 sp. trop. Mostly xerophytes;
some have stout tuberous underground stems ; many drop their leaves
in the dry season (p. 168).

Cocos Linn. Palmae (iv. 7). 30 sp. trop. The best known is C.

nucifera L., the coconut palm, cult, throughout the tropics. It
grows especially well near to the sea, and its fibrous and woody
fruit is capable of floating long distances uninjured, hence it forms
a characteristic feature of marine island vegetation, and indeed
probably became very widely distributed in early times by this
means. It is a tall palm with large pinnate leaves and a dense

COELOGLOSSUM

3T9

moncecious infl. The stem almost never stands straight upwards,
but makes a gradual curve ; this would appear to be due to helio-
tropism (p. 36). The fruit is large, and one-seeded. The outer
layer of the pericarp is fibrous, the inner very hard (the shell of
the coconuts sold in shops). At the base are three marks, corre-
sponding to the three loculi of the ovary, two of which have become
obliterated. Under one of these marks is the embryo. The thin
testa is lined with white endosperm, enclosing a large cavity, partly
filled with a milky fluid which may serve as a water supply in germi-
nation. This palm furnishes many of the necessaries of life to the
inhabitants of the tropics, and its products are largely exported from
Ceylon, the Philippines, &c. The large leaves are woven into
cadjans for thatching, into mats, baskets, &c. ; their stalks and
midribs make fences, brooms, yokes, and many other articles of
furniture. The bud or “cabbage” at the apex of the stem makes
an excellent vegetable and is made into pickles and preserves. When
the palm is flowering the infl. -axis is tapped for toddy, a drink like
the Mexican pulque (cf. Agave), containing a lot of sugar. Evapora-
tion of the toddy furnishes a coarse sugar known as jaggery; its
fermentation gives an alcoholic drink, from which distillation
produces the strong spirit known as arrack, while further fermen-
tation gives vinegar. The fruits while young contain a pint or more
of a sweetish water fluid, which furnishes a refreshing drink ; it decreases
as the nut ripens. The kernels are eaten raw, or in curries, milk is
expressed from them for flavouring, and oil is extracted by boiling or
by pressure, in the latter case the kernels being first dried into what
is known as copra. The refuse cake or poonac left after the ex-
pression of the oil, is a valuable fattening food for cattle. The great
use of the oil is for soapmaking. In recent years, again, a large
industry has sprung up in desiccated coconut, the kernel, after having
some of the oil expressed, being sliced and dried in special desiccators.
It is largely used in confectionery. Lastly, the thick outer husk,
rarely seen in Europe upon the nut, contains a large number of long
stout fibres running lengthwise. The nut is placed in water till the
soft tissues between these fibres decay, and the fibre (coir) is then
beaten out; or sometimes the fibre is obtained by special machinery.

Codiaeum Rumph. ex A. Juss. Euphorbiaceae (a. ii. 5). 4sp. Polynes.,
Austr. C. variegatum Blume is cultivated, especially in the tropics,
for its prettily coloured leaves; they are generally known as Crotons,
and are also used as hedges, &c. Some have very curious leaves,
often twisted, or with two blades separated by a length of petiole.

Codonopsis Wall. Campanulaceae (1. 1). 13 sp. As.

Coelebogyne J. Sm. = Alchornea Sw.

Coelachne R. Br. Gramineae (ix). 3 sp. Indo-mal., Chi., Austr.

Coelia Lindl. Orchidaceae (13). 5 sp. trop. Am.

Coeloglossum Hartm. = Habenaria Willd. [ C . ( H .) viride Hartm.]

32°

COELOG YNE

Coelogyne Lindl. (incl. Pleione I). Don). Orchidaceae (7). 60 sp.

Indo-mal. S. China.

Coffea Linn. Rubiaceae (11. 14). 40 sp. palaeotrop, esp. Afr. C.

arabica L. is the Arabian coffee, largely cult, in Brazil, Java,
Jamaica, and elsewhere, usually under the shade of large trees.
C. liberica Hiem is the Liberian coffee, a larger stouter bush than
the other, and cultivated usually at lower elevations ; its produce is
not so good. Other sp. are occasionally used. The fruit is a
2-seeded drupe, resembling a cherry. The pulp and the endocarp
(which covers the two seeds like a layer of parchment) are me-
chanically removed. The seed, or coffee-bean, has a deep groove
on the ventral side; by soaking it in water the endosperm is softened
and the embryo may be dissected out. Coffee cultivation was from
1850 to 1880 the mainstay of Ceylon agriculture, but was killed out
by the attacks of a fungus (. Hemileia vastatrix) and the green bug.
(Raoul, Culture du Cafeier , Paris).

Coix Linn. Gramineae (1). 4 sp. India, China. The best known is

C. Lachryma L., Job’s tears, distinguished by the curious inverted
pear-shaped body at the base of each infl. This is the sheath of the
bract of the infl., hollowed out and containing the i-fld. ? spikelet ;
the <? spikelets project beyond the mouth. It grows from the Punjab
to Burma, and is largely cult, for food in the Khasia Hills and Burma ;
it is used in medicine in China.

Cola Schott et Endl. Sterculiaceae. 20 sp. Afr. C. vera K. Schumann
and C. acuminata Schott et Endl. (possibly identical) are the source
of the kola nuts which form a principal article of trade in West Africa.
The. nuts contain much caffein, and when chewed confer considerable
power of sustaining fatigue; they are consequently a staple in the diet
of the negroes of tropical Africa (cf. Erythroxylon). The tree is as
yet but rarely cultivated, but is very common in W. Afr. The nuts
are skinned after keeping for a tew days, and packed between leaves
to keep them damp.

Colchicaceae (Warming) = Liliaceae (suborder 1).

Colchicum Linn. Liliaceae (1). 30 sp. Eur. , W. As., N. Afr. C.

autumnale L., autumn crocus or meadow saffron, in Brit. Below
the soil is a large corm (fig. and description in most text-books). In
autumn the fir. projects out of the soil. The perianth tube is long,
and the ovary remains below ground, protected from cold, &c. The
protogynous flr. is visited by bees. In spring the leaves appear and
the capsule is brought above ground by the lengthening of its stalk.
The seeds and corms are used in medicine, in gout.

Coldenia Linn. Boraginaceae (11). 15 sp. trop.

Colea Boj. Bignoniaceae (iv). 15 sp. Madag., Masc.

Colebrookea Sm. Labiatae (vi. 12). 1 sp. India.

Coleonema Bartl. et Wendl. Rutaceae (iv). 4 sp. S. Afr.

Coleus Lour. Labiatae (vn). 60 sp. trop. exc. Am. Several hybrid

COL VILLEA

321

forms with variegated and coloured leaves, are in cultivation. C.
elongatus Trimen is a peculiar sp. found only on the top of one moun-
tain in Ceylon, and must have arisen by mutation (Ann. Perad. iv. i).

Colletia Comm. Rhamnaceae. 13 sp. S. Am. The habit is very
peculiar ; in each axil are two serial buds, of which the upper gives
rise to a triangular thorn, while the lower forms firs, or a branch of
unlimited growth.

Collinsia Nutt. Scrophulariaceae (11. 6). 17 sp. N. Am., often culti-

vated as border-plants. The flr. exhibits a close resemblance, both
in shape and mechanism, to that of many Leguminosae.

Collomia Nutt. Polemoniaceae. 18 sp. N. W. Am. and Chili. The
seed coat has an outer covering of cells with mucilaginous walls which
swell rapidly when wetted, thus anchoring the seed to a suitable
place for germination (cf. Brassica, Linum, &c.).

Colobanthus Bartl. Caryophyllaceae (11. 1). 10 sp. S. Am., Austr.,

N. Z. Petals o. Sta. in one whorl.

Colocasia Schott. Araceae (vi). 6 sp. E. Ind. Tuberous herbs or

small shrubs. Monoecious. Sta. in synandria. C. antiquorum
Schott, the taro, eddoes, coco, or scratch-coco, is largely cultivated
in the tropics for its rhizomes, which when boiled lose their poisonous
nature and form a valuable food stuff.

Colpodium Trin. Gramineae (x). 12 sp. Medit., Centr. As., Arctic.

Colquhounia Wall. Labiatae (vi. 4). 4 sp. Indo-mal.

Colubrina Rich, ex Brongn. Rhamnaceae. 15 sp. trop., subtrop.

Columellia Ruiz et Pav. Columelliaceae. 2 sp. Peru, Ecuador. Shrubs
with evergreen opp. exstip. leaves. Firs, in cymes, $ , nearly regular.
K5, C (5), A 2. Sta. short and thick with irregular broad connective
and 1 twisted pollen sac. No disc. G (2), imperfectly 2-loc. Ovules
00 , anatropous. Style short and thick with broad 2 — 4-lobed stigma.
Capsule, enclosed in calyx. Endosperm.

Columelliaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). Only genus Co-
lumellia (q.v.). This order represents an old and now isolated type
(p. 120) and has been placed in many positions. It is placed in
Personales by Benth. -Hooker. [Cf. Van Tieghem, Ann. Sc. Nat. 8.
xviii. 155.]

Columnea Linn. Gesneraceae (1). 70 sp. trop. Am. Several are

climbers and epiphytes. Anisophylly is frequent (p. 47).

Columniferae (Warming). The 12th cohort of Choripetalae (p. 138).

Colutea (Tourn.) Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 6). 10 sp. S. Eur. to

Himal. C. arbor escens (L. bladder-senna) is frequently cultivated.
Its leaves have similar properties to those of senna (Cassia) and
are used to adulterate the latter. The pods are inflated and burst on
being squeezed. They may break off and blow about and thus scatter
the seeds, or may catch the wind while still on the plant, and jerk
out the seeds as they sway.

Colvillea Boj. ex Hook. Leguminosae (11. 7). 1 sp. Madag.

W.

21

322

COM ARUM

Comarum Linn. = Potentilla Linn. ( C . palustre L. =P. Com.).

Combretaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Myrtiflorae). 1 6 gen. with
2 40 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Trees and shrubs with alt. or opp. simple
leaves and no stipules. Many are climbers, some twining, some with
hooks formed of the persistent bases of the petioles. Firs, usually
sessile in racemose infls., g , regular. Typical formula : K 5, C 5,
A 5 + 5. Ovary inferior, i-loc.; ovules 2 — 5, anatropous, pendulous.
Style simple. There is a disc on the summit of the ovary, sometimes with
various outgrowths. Fruit dry, 1 -seeded, often winged at the angles.
Seed exalbuminous ; cotyledons usually twisted spirally. See Nat .
PJi. for details. Chief genera: Terminalia, Combretum, Quisqualis.
Placed in Myrtales by Benth. -Hooker, in Myrtiflorae by Warming.

Combretum Linn. Combretaceae. 125 sp. trop. and sub-trop., exc.
Austr. and Polynes. The fruit of C. butyrosum Tal. (trop. Afr.) yields
a butter-like substance known in Caffraria as Chiquito, and used by
the natives in place of butter.

Commelina Linn. Commelinaceae. About 90 sp. trop. C. coelestis
Willd. is often cultivated. The rhizome of some sp. is edible. The
chief interest centres in the flr., where there is division of labour
between the sta. (cf. Heeria). The flr. stands out horizontally and
the sta. and style project beyond the corolla. The upper 3 sta.
(in many sp.) are almost sterile, but the lobes are juicy. The two
lateral lower sta. and the median one are fully fertile, the latter
bending up so that the anther is opposite the centre of the flr. Bees
visiting the flr. alight on the lower petals; in so doing they touch the
stigma, and are dusted by the two lower lateral anthers; they then
collect pollen from the median anther, and often climb higher up and
pierce the upper anthers for honey. In some sp. self-fertilisation
occurs as the style and sta. crumple up in withering. [See Macleod
in Bot. Jaarb., Gent, II. 1890.] C. benghalensis L. has subterranean
cleistogamic flrs. (see Nat. Pf.).

Commelinaceae. Monocotyledons (Farinosae). 25 gen. with 300 sp.,
mostly trop. and sub-trop. Herbs with jointed stems and alt. sheathing
leaves. Infl. usually a cincinnus of the type seen in Boraginaceae.
Flr. 5 , usually regular, commonly blue. The typical formula is K 3,
C3, A 3 + 3, G (3), but some of the sta. are commonly absent or
staminodial. Calyx and corolla differ in colour and texture. Ovary
3-loc., with a few orthotropous ovules in each loc. Capsule loculi-
cidal or indehiscent. Endosperm fleshy ; seed often arillate. Chief
genera: Commelina, Tradescantia. Placed in Coronarieae by Benth. -
Hooker, in Enantioblastae by Warming.

Commersonia Forst. Sterculiaceae. 10 sp. trop. As., Austr.

Commidendron Burch. Compositae (111). 3 sp. St Helena (p. 148).

Commiphora Jacq. ( Bcdsamodendron Kunth). Burseraceae. 50 sp.
trop. As., Afr. C. Myrrha Engl., and other sp., yield myrrh. The
resin exudes from the tree and collects in lumps. It is used in

COMPOSITAE

323

medicine and as a component of incense, &c. C. opobalsamum Engl,
is said to yield the resin known as Balm of Gilead. Other sp. yield
Bdellium and other resins.

Comparettia Poepp. et Endl. Orchidaceae (28). 4 sp. trop. Am.

Compositae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Campanulatae). The largest order
of flowering plants, comprising about 810 genera, with over iioco sp.
— more than 10 % of the total number of sp. of Phanerogams. They
are distributed over the greater part of the earth. Although so large
an order, the C. are well marked in their characters and cannot be
confounded with any other order, though they have a superficial
likeness to Dipsaceae and Calyceraceae. [For a genealogical tree of
the sympetalous orders with inferior ovary, and their relationships to
Umbelliferae, &c., see Hock in Bot . Centralbl. 51, 1892, p. 233, and
art. Sambucus .]

Living as they do in almost every conceivable situation, the C.
present great variety in vegetative habit, often within the boundary
of a single genus. Of this, Senecio (q.v .) is a noteworthy example.
Water and marsh plants and climbers are rare in the order, and so
also are epiphytes. This latter is an interesting point, for the distri-
bution mechanism of these plants is admirably suited to an epiphytic
existence, and xerophily is not uncommon in the order (see p. 174).
Another feature of interest is that the enormous majority of this most
successful order are herbaceous plants; trees and shrubs are com-
paratively rare. It is worthy of note that the latter form an important
feature in the Composite flora of oceanic islands, the reason for which
is not very obvious (see Wallace’s Island Life).

The leaves are usually alt., frequently radical, opp. in Heliantheae,
whorled in a few cases, e.g. Zinnia verticillata . Stipules are rarely
present. The root is usually a tap-root, sometimes tuberous as
in Dahlia, &c., often thickened like that of a carrot, e.g. Taraxacum,
Cichorium, &c. For further details of vegetative organs reference
must be made to individual genera; e.g. Aster, Barnadesia, Beilis,
Bidens, Cichorium, Dahlia, Espeletia, Gnaphalium, Helianthus,
Helichrysum, Lactuca, Mutisia, Petasites, Senecio, Silphium, Ta-
raxacum, &c.

All the tribes with the exception of XII and XIII contain oil-
passages in the root, stem, &c. In xm (Cichorieae), laticiferous
vessels are present, commonly containing a milky white latex (e.g.
lettuce, dandelion).

The infl. is of racemose type, the firs, being arranged in heads
(capitula), or rarely in spikes. These heads are again arranged in
many cases into larger infls. — racemes, corymbs, &c., or even into
compound heads (Echinops, &c.). In this last case, however, the
smaller heads contain only one flr. each. The head is surrounded by
an involucre of bracts, usually green, which performs for all the firs,
of the head the functions that in most plants are performed by the

21 — 2

324

COMPOSITAE

calices of the individual firs., viz. protection of the bud and of the
young fruit. The firs, are arranged upon a common receptacle,
— the enlarged end of the axis — which may be of various shapes,
but is most frequently flat, slightly convex or even spindle-shaped.
The shape and the surface-condition of the receptacle are characters
of importance in the classification of the order. It may be smooth or
hairy, &c.; there may (Iielianthus, &c.) or may not (Calendula, &c.)
be, upon it, scaly bracts belonging to the individual flrs. In Cynareae
these bracts are divided so as to form numerous bristles.

In the simplest case the flrs. of a single head are all alike and $ ,
but there are many deviations from this type. The flrs. may be all
actinomorphic ( tubular ) or all zygomorphic (, ligulate ); see below.
Very commonly however, as in the daisy or sunflower, there is a
distinction into a disc of actinomorphic flrs., and a marginal ray of
zygomorphic flrs. Or, as in Centaurea sp. the outer florets may
be actinomorphic but different in size from the central ones. The
number of ray-florets varies in different sp., but always according
to definite rules (see p. 22).

The distribution of sexes among the flrs. of a head is another
feature which varies much (for details see Hildebrand, Geschlechter-
vertheilung bei den C., or Muller, Fert . of Firs.). The most common
case is gynomonoecism, the ray-florets being ? , the disc 5 . This
would appear to be a mere correlation due to exigencies of nutrition,
and not an “ adaptation” (see p. 25); it can hardly be looked upon
as advantageous in the direction of cross-fertilisation, in view of the
fact that in many sp. the ray-florets are rarely fertilised at all. It
seems probable that the extra material in the large corolla is supplied
at the expense of the androeceum. The very large ray-florets of
Centaurea sp. and others are completely sterile (cf. Hydrangea,
Viburnum, &c.). Other interesting sex-distributions are found in
Tussilago, Petasites, &c. (q-v.).

The flower is fully epigynous, usually 5-merous. The calyx is
absent in Ambrosia and its allies, Siegesbeckia,

&c. ; in some cases it appears only as a slightly
5-lobed rim upon the top of the inferior
ovary (cf. Rubiaceae and Umbelliferae); usually
it takes the form of hairs or bristles — the pap-
pus— and enlarges after fertilisation into a
parachute (Dandelion) or into hooked bristles
(Bidens) to aid in distribution (see below).

Corolla (5), valvate in bud. It may be acti-
nomorphic (tubular) or zygomorphic. Of the
latter form there are two varieties, labiate
(lipped) and ligulate (strap-shaped). The puSm^?teJeEichkr).n The
latter term, strictly speaking, should be applied small outer lines repre-
to those corollas which are strap-shaped in form senL the PaPPus*brisUes.

Floral Diagram of

C0MP0S1TAE

325

with 5 teeth at the end representing the petals, but is usually also
given to those lipped forms where the lower lip is strap-shaped
and ends in 3 teeth. Sta. 5, epipetalous with short filaments,
alternating with the petals. Anthers introrse, cohering by their
edges [syngenesious) , forming a tube around the style (cf. Lobelia).
Ovary inferior, of (2) cpls., with a simple style that forks at the end
into two stigmas, an anterior and a posterior (see diagram). The
construction of the style and stigma is of importance in the classifica-
tion of the order. There is often a brush of hairs on the style below
the stigmas. Only the inner (upper) surfaces of the stigmas are as a
rule receptive to pollen. Ovary i-loc. with 1 erect, basal, anatropous
ovule, which gives an exalbum inous seed with straight embryo, en-
closed in the dry indehiscent pericarp. This fruit is usually termed
an achene, but of course is, if one adheres strictly to the usual defini-
tions, a pseudo-nut, as its pericarp is partly of axial nature, and there
is more than one cpl. It is often crowned with a pappus (see
below).

Natural History of the Flower . Being massed together in heads,
the individual firs, may be, and usually are, comparatively very small.
By this means this advantage is gained that a single insect visitor
may fertilise many firs, in a short time without having to fly from one
to the other, while at the same time there is no loss of conspicuous-
ness, and of course a considerable saving of corolla-material, &c.
The various sex-distributions occurring in the order have been men-
tioned above. Coming now to the mechanism of the individual fir.,
we find, throughout the order, the same type, the differences between
the different genera being in slight and unimportant details. The
mechanism itself is simple, but effective. Honey is secreted by a
ring-shaped nectary round the base of the style, and is protected from
rain and from short-lipped insects by the tube of the corolla. The
depth of the tube varies within fairly wide limits, but is never so
small as to permit the shortest-lipped insects to obtain the honey.
As an order the C. all belong to Muller’s floral class B' (see p. 91),
but there is considerable variety in the depth of tube &c., and
therefore also in the composition of the group of visiting insects
to each. Thus the long-tubed purple-flowered Centaureas &c. are
mainly visited by bees and Lepidoptera, while the short-tubed yellow
Leontodons or white Achilleas are visited mainly by flies (see Muller’s
Fert. of Firs,, or Ann. of Bot. June 1895).

At the time when the fir. opens, the style, with its stigmas tightly
closed against one another, is comparatively short, reaching up to, or
projecting a small distance into, the anther tube. The pollen is shed
into this and as the style grows it presses the pollen little by little
out at the upper end of the tube where it will come into contact with
visiting insects. At last the style itself emerges and the stigmas
separate. The fir. is now in its female stage. Finally, in a great

326

COMPOSITAE

many cases, the stigmas curl so far back that they touch the pollen
upon their own style, so that every fir. is certain to set seed, even
though it be by self-fertilisation. In a few cases, eg. Senecio vul-
garis, insect visitors are very rare, and the fir. depends entirely on
self-fertilisation. The mechanism is about the simplest and most perfect
that exists for attaining the desired ends. A striking contrast is seen
in the orchids. Here we have bizarre flowers with most elaborate
mechanisms, which yet so rarely effect their purpose that an enormous
number of seeds have to be developed in every capsule; in the C.
on the other hand, we have a simple mechanism, yet so effective
that the number of seeds can be reduced to one. An interesting
modification of the mechanism is found in Cynareae (see Centaurea)
where the stamens are irritable. See also Artemisia (wind-fertilised).

The involucral bracts, or ray-florets, or both, often close up over
the central firs, in cold or wet weather, thus protecting the firs.

Natural History of the Fruit. The ripening fruit-head is gene-
rally protected from injury by the involucral bracts, which bend
inwards over it, performing the function of a calyx. The calices
of the individual firs, are thus rendered useless in this respect and are,
in most C., used for purposes of distribution of the fruit. In the
majority of cases, the calyx, after the fertilisation of the fir., grows
into the familiar pappus, as seen in dandelions or thistles. This
is usually composed of fine hairs, often branched, but in some cases,
e.g. Achyrachaena, is leafy and membranous. The hairs are hygroscopic
and spread out in dry air; this helps in many cases to lever the fruits
off the receptacle. In Bidens and others the pappus is formed of
stout barbed bristles, serving to cause the fruit to adhere to animals.
In Arctium the involucral bracts become hooked at the tips and cling to
animals. In Xanthium the receptacle is provided with hooks. In Sieges-
beckia the bracts are sticky. A few genera, e.g. Helianthus, Beilis, &c.,
have no special arrangements at all, and the fruits remain upon the
common receptacle till jerked off by wind or otherwise. [For other
points and for details see genera, and Taliew in Bot . Cetitr . 63,
p. 320.]

General Considerations. The C. are generally regarded as occupy-
ing the highest position in the Vegetable Kingdom, and are certainly
about the most dominant and aggressive order that it contains. Some
of the genera, e.g . Hieracium, vary so much as almost to defy classi-
fication. The success of the order may be put down perhaps to the
concurrence of several useful peculiarities, viz.

(1) the massing of the firs, in heads, surrounded by involucral
bracts : from this there results

(a) greater conspicuousness, especially when ray-florets are
developed; ( b ) a saving of material in the corollas, &c.;
(c) the fact that one insect visitor may fertilise many firs, in a
short time without having to fly from one to another :

COMPOSITAE

327

(2) the very simple and effective floral mechanism, which ensures

(d) protection of honey and pollen ; (e) exclusion of the vei;y

short-lipped (allotropous) insects, but not too great specialisa-
tion for a very narrow circle of visitors; (/) prevention of
self- and chance of cross-fertilisation till the last possible
moment; (^) certainty of self-fertilisation if the cross fails;

(3) the use of the calices of individual firs, for purposes of seed-
distribution, and the very perfect character of the mechanism.

Taking together all these considerations, and comparing them
with the features of rival orders, e.g. Cruciferae, Gramineae, Rubia-
ceae, Leguminosae, none of which have so perfect an “outfit,” it is
not surprising that the Compositae have been so successful.

Economic uses . The C. furnish but few useful plants (other than
border or greenhouse plants). See Lactuca, Cichorium, Cynara,
Helianthus, Carthamus, Chrysanthemum, Tanacetum, &c.

Classification and chief genera (after Hoffmann). As might be
expected from what has been said in the last paragraph, and from
what we see in other large and dominant orders such as Cruciferae,
Umbelliferae, &c., the classification of the C. and the determination of
their genera is a matter of no small difficulty. For the purposes of
this work it would be useless to enter into details ; we shall therefore
give only the primary groupings and their chief genera. [There are
several exceptions to the characters given below.]

[. Abbreviations : cap. = capitulum ; tub. = tubular ; lig. =ligulate;
homog. =flrs. in head all similar as to sex; heterog.=flrs. of different
sex in one head, e.g. ray ? and disc $ .]

A. TUBULIFLORAE. Firs, of disc not ligulate. No latex.

I. Vernonieae (cap. homog.; firs, tub., never yellow; anthers

arrow-shaped at base, pointed or rarely tailed, with
filaments inserted high above the base; stigmas semi-
cylindrical, long, pointed, hairy outside) ; stigmatic
papillae all over inner surface : Vernonia.

II. Eupatorieae (cap. homog.; firs, tub., never pure yellow ;

anthers blunt at base, with filaments inserted at base ;
stigmas long, but blunt or flattened at tip, with very
short hairs ; stigmatic papillae in marginal rows) : Age-
ratum, Eupatorium, Mikania.

III. Astereae (cap. heterog. or homog. ; all or only central firs.

tub. ; anthers as in II ; stigmas flattened with marginal
rows of papillae, and terminal hairy unreceptive por-
tions) : Solidago, Beilis, Aster, Erigeron, Baccharis.

IV. Inuleae (as IV ; corolla in tub. firs, with 4 — 5-toothed

limb ; anthers tailed at base ; styles various) : Filago,
Antennaria, Gnaphalium, Helichrysum, Inula.

V. Heliantheae (style with crown of long hairs above the

division; anthers usually rounded at base with basally

3 23

C0MP0S1TAE

inserted filaments ; corolla of disc firs, actinomorphic ;
pappus not hairy; involucral bracts not membranous at
margins ; receptacle with scaly bracts) : Espeletia,
Silphium, Xanthium, Zinnia, Siegesbeckia, Helianthus,
Dahlia, Bidens.

VI. Helenieae (as V, but receptacle without scaly bracts) :

Helenium, Tagetes.

VII. Anthemideae (as VI, but involucral bracts with membra-

nous tip and edges ; pappus O or abortive) : Achillea,
Anthemis, Chrysanthemum, Matricaria, Tanacetum,
Artemisia.

VIII. Senecioneae (as V and VI, but pappus hairy) : Tussilago,
Petasites, Senecio.

IX. Calenduleae (cap. with $ ray firs., and usually $ disc firs.,

with undivided style ; anthers pointed at base ; receptacle
not scaly ; no pappus) : Calendula.

X. Arctoiideae (style, below or at point of division, thickened

or with circle of hairs ; cap. with lig. ray firs. ; anthers
acute at base or with longer or shorter point and with
filaments inserted above the base) : Arctotis.

XI. Cytiareae (style as in X; cap. homog. or with neuter,

rarely ? , not ligulate, ray firs.; anthers usually tailed;
receptacle usually bristly) : Echinops, Carlina, Arctium,
Carduus, Cnicus, Cynara, Centaurea.

XII. Mutisieae (cap. homog. or heterog. ; ray firs, when pre-

sent usually 2-lipped; disc firs, actinomorphic with
deeply-divided limb, or 2-lipped) : Barnadesia, Mutisia,
Stifftia, Gerbera.

B. LIG ULIFL ORA E. All firs, ligulate. Latex.

XIII. Cichorieae\ Cichorium, Rhagadiolus, Picris, Crepis, Hie-
racium, Leontodon, Taraxacum, Lactuca, Tragopogon.

[The C. are placed in Asterales by Benth.- Hooker, in Aggregatae
by Warming.]

Conchopliyllum Blume. = Dischidia R. Br.

Coniferae. The most important class of the Gymnosperms, though,
like the other classes, better represented in former ages than now.
They form 2 orders with 34 genera and 350 sp. Like their past
history, their present geographical distribution is of great interest (see
Nat. PJi . or Drude’s PJianzengeog. , from which the following account
is condensed). Most C. are evergreen trees of erect habit, and grow
in dense forests, forming one of the characteristic features of the
vegetation in many parts of the globe (esp. temp, and sub-trop. and
mountains). Beginning in the north we find Juniperus nana beyond
the limit of trees. This limit is largely marked by the C., passed
here and there only by the birch. Within it, in the N. temp, zone
ai e broad areas covered with C. (Larix, Abies, Pinus, &c.). Going S.,

CONIFERAE

329

their importance decreases and at about 40° N. the C. become prac-
tically confined to the mountains. Here we find in Japan and China
a region of development characterised by Cephalotaxus, Pseudolarix,
Cryptomeria, Cunninghamia, Sciadopitys, Chamaecyparis, Ginkgo,
&c., mostly endemic genera. In Pacific N. Am. is another region, with
Pseudotsuga Douglas ii, Sequoia, Cupressus Lawsoniana, Thuja giga ri-
te a, and Libocedrus decurrens , together with endemic sp. of Abies,
Tsuga, Pinus, &c. The Himalaya forms another great centre, with
many peculiar sp. , e.g. Cedrus Deodara , Pinus excelsa and other sp.,
Picea sp. Tsuga sp. &c. The C. of the N. hemisphere are separated
from those of the S. by a broad band of tropical forests, &c., only
partially broken by groups of C. on the Mts. of the Indo-mal. region
and America. In Australia we find Araucaria, Agathis, Podocarpus,
&c. In Tasmania, New Zealand and Chili appear Phyllocladus,
Fitzroya, &c. S. America has Araucaria sp. Podocarpus sp., and
others. Few genera and no sp. of C. appear in both N. and S.
hemispheres; each sp. is limited to a well-defined area.

The C. are trees or shrubs, usually of monopodial growth, often
reaching considerable or even (Sequoia) gigantic size. Typically, as
may be seen at a glance in a fir or larch plantation, a certain amount
of growth is made each year and a number of branches are also
formed much at the same level, so that in trees of moderate size the
number of ‘whorls’ of branches is an index of the age. Later on the
lower branches usually die off and the branching near the apex
becomes less regular. The main stem is radially symmetrical, but
the branches, which often grow almost horizontally, have a tendency
to dorsiventrality ; this is expressed in a two-ranked arrangement of
the leaves, twisting of the leaves on their stalks, and so on. Many
C. show a difference in their shoots; some (tong shoots, or shoots of
unlimited growth) grow continuously onwards, except for the periodi-
cal interruption in winter ; others (short shoots , shoots of limited
growth, or spurs) grow only to a definite size, usually very small, and
bear a few leaves. Intermediate conditions occur in Ginkgo, Larix,
Cedrus, Taxodium, &c. When both kinds occur the foliage leaves
are often borne on the short shoots only (see Pinus &c. for details).
The green leaves are usually entire and are either linear or take the
form of closely appressed scales (Cupressus, &c.). The only exception
is the curious genus Ginkgo, the sole surviving relic of an extinct
type now usually placed in a separate class, Ginkgoales. Mention
may also be made of the curious ‘ double-needles ’ of Sciadopitys and
the flat green short shoots of Phyllocladus (q-vl).

Anatomically, the C. resemble Dicotyledons in all important
points. A very general feature of the class (exc. Taxus) is the pre-
sence of resin passages in all parts of the plant. The leaves exhibit
a somewhat peculiar internal structure (see text-books), which how-
ever is admirably suited to xerophytic plants, under which class most

330

CONIFERAE

C. come. Living in cold soil, as most of them do, and often with
evergreen leaves, it is obviously a necessity to reduce transpiration
(see p. 164).

When we turn to the fir., we are met with great difficulties.
There are two great rival theories about its morphology, those of
Eichler (Bluthendiag. or Nat . PJl.) and of Celakovsky (see Warming’s
System. Bot. or Bot . Jahresb. 1890, p. 324, also Noll in Bot. Centr.
60, p. 131). It would be inconsistent with the plan of this work to
enter into a discussion of these; we shall merely state both of them.
As the order is usually classified according to the Eichlerian view,
we have adopted his theory in the classification and in the details of
the genera, without however intending thereby to express any judg-
ment upon its correctness.

The firs, of C. appear as a rule in the form of cones, and are always
unisexual, mon- or di- oecious. They are never terminal on the main
stem as in Cycads, but are usually borne laterally near to its apex.
Sometimes (as in Pinus <? ) the cones are massed together in spikes or
heads.

Both theories above mentioned agree about the male fir., which is
usually a cone or catkin of sta. borne on a central axis. The sta.
may be flat, but is commonly more or less peltate, and bears a num-
ber of pollen -sacs (not more than 9 as a rule) on its lower surface
(see Pinus, Taxus &c.). Turning now to the female, the cone (to
avoid for the present the word flower) consists typically of an axis
bearing leaf-like organs. The most familiar case is that of Pinus
(q.v>), where each leaf borne on the axis is a small scale, bearing on
its upper surface a very large scale (these latter show on the outside
of the cone) on the upper side of which, again, are the two ovules.
We may diagrammatically represent it thus, using
‘‘cover-scale” to express the lower, “ovuliferous
scale” to express the upper, of the two scales. Turn-
ing to Cryptomeria etc. we find a large scale borne
directly on the axis, with a little flap on its upper side
near the outer end, and the ovules at the base. The
flap is, by both theorists, supposed to represent the
ovuliferous scale and so we have what is illustrated by the second
diagram. Then in Cupressineae etc. we find only one
scale, and here the two theorists differ. In the other
order, Taxaceae , still further difficulties meet us. In
Microcachrys the ovule is borne upon a leaf of the
cone, but in Phyllocladus it is axillary and in Taxus
terminal (see these genera and Ginkgo). In most C.
there is only one integument, but in Taxaceae a
second commonly appears, forming an aril, more or less fleshy, round
the seed as it ripens.

Now as to the explanation of the facts. Eichler regards the whole

ovulif. sc\
cover-scalej

ovules

ovulif. sc\
cover- scale J

ovules

cover-scale

ovules
ovulif. scale
cover-scale

ovules

CONIFERAE

331

cone as one female fir. with a number of cpls. (the ‘cover-scales’).
The cpl. may bear the ovule directly, as in the latter cases above
mentioned, or may develope upon its upper surface a placenta (ovulif.
scale) which bears the ovules. Cryptomeria thus represents a stage in
this evolution, and the whole may be compared with the division of a
leaf into a sterile and fertile part, as in Ophioglossum. The rival
theory of Celakovsky regards each ovule or pair of ovules with its ap-
purtenances as a female fir. (one cpl. to each ovule) so that the cone is
a spike of firs. A series may be thus drawn : Ginkgo ( $ fir. of two
cpls. each with one ovule) ; Podocarpus (one cpl. , one ovule with
two integuments, the whole in the axil of a cover-scale, which is
therefore to be regarded as a bract), Taxus (fir. reduced to ovule, aril
= outer integument; then in the Araucariaceae we have spikes of
firs, (cones), the cover-scale being the bract, the ovuliferous scale the
combined outer integuments of the ovules of two cpls. (or three, the
keel on the middle of the scale in Pinus etc. representing the third) :
a fusion of the bract with the fir. in its axil is supposed to have
gone on, and we get next the Cryptomeria type, and finally that of
Cupressineae .

The ovules are orthotropous, except in Podocarpus. The processes
of development of the ovule, fertilisation, &c., must be studied else-
where (see arts. Pinus , Gymnospermae). The cone often becomes hard
and woody as the seeds ripen, whilst in other cases it becomes fleshy.
The seeds contain an embryo with 2 — 15 cotyledons, and rich endo-
sperm.

Natural History. The C. are entirely wind-fertilised; the pollen
is light and powdery, sometimes provided with air-bladders ( e.g .
Pinus), and is produced in enormous quantities. About the time
it is shed the scales of the female cones open to receive it and
the grains adhere to the sticky fluid at the apex of the ovule. Ferti-
lisation often does not take place for a long time afterwards (see Pinus
and Ginkgo).

The seeds in many genera with woody cones [e.g. Pinus) are
winged for wind-carriage; in other genera they are animal -distributed,
e.g. Juniperus (cone fleshy), Taxus (fleshy aril), &c.

Further details of the morphology, life histoiy, &c. will be found
under the headings Gymnospermae , Pinus and others of the genera.
See also art. Retinospora , where the peculiar case of plants retaining
the ‘ seedling * form throughout life is dealt with.

Economically the C. are a most important class, furnishing a large
proportion of our timber, as well as resins, tars, turpentines, &c. See
genera, especially Abies, Pinus, Larix, Tsuga, Libocedrus, Juniperus,
Taxus, &c.

Classification and Key to Genera (after Eichler and Engler) :

N. O I. Araucariaceae (Pinoideae). Cones perfect; seeds
concealed between scales ; testa woody or leathery ; no aril.

332

CONIFERAE

1. ABIETINEAE . Leaves spirally arranged. Ovule usually

reversed (micropyle facing axis),
i a. Araucariinae (cpl. simple ; i ovule, reversed, on middle line),
i b. Abietinae (cpl. -povulif. scale, the latter large; ovules
2, reversed).

1 c. Taxodiinae (cpl. + ovulif. scale, or with swelling on inner

side; ovules 2 — 8, axillary and erect (i.e. with micropyle
away from axis), or on surface of cpl. and reversed).

2. CUPRESSINEAE . Leaves (incl. those of cone) opp. or

whorled, rarely alt. Ovules erect.

2a. Actinoslrobinae (cone woody when ripe; cpls. valvate).

2 b. Thujopsidinae (cone woody when ripe ; cpls. imbricate ;

whorls of all firs. 2-merous).

2 c. Cnpressinae (cone woody when ripe ; cpl. peltate ; whorls
of all firs. 2-merous).

2 d. Juniperinae (cone berry- or drupe -like when ripe).

N. O. II. Taxaceae (Taxoideae). Cone-formation imperfect ;
seeds projecting beyond cpls. or even naked. Seed with fleshy aril
or drupaceous testa.

3. PODOCARPEAE. Seeds more or less reversed. Cpls. always

present, 1 -seeded.

4. TAXEAE . Seeds erect. Cpls. sometimes wanting.

Key to Genera .

1. ABIETINEAE:

1 a. A raucariinae :

Seeds free from cpl. 1. Agathis.

,, united to ,, 2. Araucaria.

1 b. Abietinae :

A. Long and short shoots both present.

a. Long shoots with scale leaves only; the green (needle)

leaves on the short shoots. 3. Pinus.

b. Needle leaves on both shoots :

a. Needles evergreen: fruit 2 — 3 years in ripening.

f. Cedrus.

/3. Deciduous: fruit 1 year in ripening.

I. Cone-scales persistent. 5. Larix.

II. ,, deciduous. 6. Pseudolarix.

B. Shoots of one kind only (long) :

a. Needles 4-angled. Cone pendulous. Scales persistent.

7. Picea.

b. ,, flat. Otherwise as a. 8- Tsuga.

c. ,, ,, Cone erect with deciduous scales.

9. Abies.

1 c. Taxodiinae :

A. Long shoots with scale-leaves, and short shoots = double
needles. 10. Sciadopitys.

CONIFERAE

333

B. Long shoots only.

a. Seed reversed.

a. Cpl. with narrow scale, transverse, above seed.

11. Cunninghamia.

Cpl. with ridge-like inner scale. Tasmania.

12. Arthrotaxis.

7. Cpl. shield-shaped, no distinct scale. N. Am.

13. Sequoia.

b. Seed erect.

a. Cpl. with toothed scale. 14. Cryptomeria.

/3. Cpl. shield-shaped, no distinct scale.

I. Cone-scales persistent. N. Am. 15. Taxodium.

II. „ deciduous. China. 16. Glyptostrobus.
C UPRESSINEAE :

2a. A ctinostrobinae :

A. Cone with involucre of several

Whorls 3-merous.

B. No involucre. 2- 3- or 4-merous.

C.

whorls of scale-leaves.

17. Actinostrobus.
Valvate.

18. Callitris.

Cpls. slightly imbricate.

19. Fitzroya.

20. Thujopsis.

Transition form to preceding
2- 3-merous.

2 b. Thujopsidinae :

A. Cpl. with 4 — 5 seeds.

B. „ ,, 2 (1—3) seeds.

a. Cpls. 4, the upper pair fertile. 21. Libocedrus.

b. „ 6 — 8, both upper pairs fertile. 22. Thuja.

2 c. Cupressinae :

A. Cpls. many-seeded. 23. Cupressus.

B. ,, 2-seeded. 24. Chamaecyparis.

2 d . Juniper inae :

Only genus. 25. Juniperus.

. PODOCARPEAE:

A. Seeds quite reversed, almost or quite concealed between the

scales of the (when ripe) fleshy cone. Aril short.

a. Cpls. united when ripe. Monoecious. Needle leaves.

26. Saxegothsea.

b. Cpls. free. Dioecious. Leaves scale-like.

27. Microcachrys.

B. Seeds anatropous, projecting beyond cpls. Aril developed

as a complete outer integument. 28. Podocarpus.

C. Transition to preceding. Seeds inserted on lower half or in

angle of cpl., little or not at all reversed.

29. Dacrydium.

. TAXEAE :

A. Long and short shoots, the latter phylloclades.

30. Phyllocladus.

334

CONIFERAE

B. [Long and short shoots, of usual form. Leaf like that of

maiden-hair fern. 31. Ginkgo.]

C. Long shoots only.

a. Cpls. present, but aborting as they ripen, each with 2 ovules.

32. Cephalotaxus.

b. Cpls. absent; ? flower reduced to a naked ovule.

a. Fir. shoots with 2 ovules. Sta. with 4 pollen sacs.

33. Torreya.

(3. ,, ,, 1 ovule. Sta. with 6 — 8 pollen sacs.

34. Taxus.

Conium Linn. Umbelliferae (5). 2 sp. Eur., As., Afr. C. maculatum
L. (hemlock) in Brit. It is very poisonous.

Connaraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). 16 gen. with 160 sp.,
tropical ; closely allied to Leguminosae, being chiefly distinguished by
the absence of stipules and the (usual) presence of more than two free
cpls. They are mostly twining shrubs with alt. exstip. leaves and
panicles of regular firs. K5, imbricate or valvate; C 5 ; A 10 some-
times joined below; G5 or 1 or 4, each with 2 erect orthotropous
ovules. Fruit usually one follicle with one seed, albuminous or
not, arillate. Chief genera: Connarus, Rourea, Cnestis. Placed in
Rosales by Benth. -Hooker, in Terebinthinae by Warming.

Connarus Linn. Connaraceae. 50 sp. trop. Am., Afr., As.

Conoceplialus Blume. Moraceae (ill). 10 sp. Indo-mal. The leaves
of C. suaveolens Blume possess water-secreting glands (p. 114).

Conopodium Koch. Umbelliferae (5). 12 sp. Eur., As., N. Afr.

C. denudatuin Koch (. Bunium flexnosum With.) in Brit, (earth nut).
The tuberous roots are edible when roasted.

Conospermum Sm. Proteaceae (1). 33 sp. Austr. C . Stoechadis

Endl. has been suggested as a useful plant to introduce into desert
regions. “All kinds of pasture animals browse with avidity on the
long, tender, and downy flower-stalks and spikes, without touching
the foliage” (F. von Mueller).

Conostylis R.Br. Amaryllidaceae (in). 32 sp. W. Austr. [Haemo-

doraceae, Benth. -Hooker.]

Convallaria Linn. Liliaceae (vn). 1 sp. N. temp. (incl. Brit.),

C. majalis L., the lily of the valley, which occurs in woods. The
stock developes a few scales and two green leaves annually. The
firs, are homogamous and fertilise themselves in absence of insects.

Convallariaceae (Warming) = Liliaceae (suborders vi — xi).

Convolvulaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). About 40 gen.
with 1000 sp. trop. and temp. Many are annual herbs, others shrubs
or (rarely) trees. Several are thorny xerophytes, many are climbing
herbs or lianes, and one (Cuscuta) is a climbing parasite. Some have
tuberous roots (e.g. Ipomoea Batatas) , others rhizomes or tuberous
stems. Latex is often present. Leaves alt., usually petiolate, rarely
with stipules. Accessory buds are often found in the leaf-axils.

COPAIFERA 335

Infl. dichasial with tendency to cincinnus or bostryx; bracts and
bracteoles present.

Fir. g , regular, hypogynous, usually 5-merous. K usually poly-
sepalous, imbricate, the odd sepal posterior ; C sympetalous, of various
shapes, usually induplicate-valvate, sometimes convolute; sta. 5,
alternating with pets., epipetalous, on base of corolla, with usually
introrse anthers. Ovary on a honey-secreting disc, of 2 cpls. (rarely
3 — 5)> syncarpous with axile placentae; ovules 2 in each loc. (rarely 4),
erect, anatropous or semi-anatropous, the micropyle facing outwards
and downwards; one integument. Berry, nut or capsule; seeds
albuminous.

The firs, are usually large and brightly coloured and are visited by
insects. Extra-floral nectaries are found in many sp. on the petiole.
Few are of economic value except for their handsome firs, (see Ipomoea).

The C. are closely related to Solanaceae, Boraginaceae and other
Tubiflorae. See Nat . PJl. and esp. note by Engler at p. 1 of art. C.

Classification and Chief Genera (after Peter) :

I. CONVOLVULOIDEAE (independent green plants) :

1. Dicho7idreae (ovary usually divided, with 2 gynobasic styles ;
fruit like Labiatae): Dichondra, Falkia (only genera).

2. Dicranostyleae (ovary not divided; styles 2, or 1 bifid; flr.
5-merous) : Dicranostyles, Evolvulus.

3. Hildebrandtieat (as 2, but 4-merous; 2 outer sepals large in
fruit, united to peduncle) : Hildebrandtia (only gen.).

4. Convolvuleae (as 2, but style undivided) : Porana, Ipomoea,
Convolvulus.

5. Erycibeae (style very short; corolla lobes deeply bifid;
berry; one seed): Erycibe (only genus).

II. CUSCUTOIDEAE (leafless saprophytes; embryo without

cotyledons): Cuscuta (only genus).

[Placed in Polemoniales by Benth. -Hooker, in Tubiflorae by
Warming.]

Convolvulus (Tourn.) Linn. Convolvulaceae (1. 4). 160 sp. chiefly

temp. C. arvensis L. in Brit, (bindweed). It has sweetly scented
firs, which are much more often visited by insects than the large but
scentless firs, of Calystegia sepiurn . Smaller firs, with short sta.
appear on some stocks; these appear to be due to the action of a
fungus (cf. Lychnis and see Beih. z. Bot . Centr ., 1893, p. 447). The
root produces adventitious stem buds, by which vegetative multipli-
cation takes place to a large extent. From incisions made in the
rhizome of C . scammonia L. a resinous juice flows, which is used in
medicine as a purgative (Scammony).

Conyza Linn. Compositae (ill). 50 sp. temp, and subtrop.

Cooperia Herb. Amaryliidaceae (1). 2 sp. Mexico, Texas.

Copaiba Adans. = Copaifera Linn.

Copaifera Linn. Leguminosae (11. 2). 16 sp. trop. Am., Afr. Several

336

COPAIFERA

S. Am. sp. yield the resin known as Balsam of Copaiba, and resins
(copals) are also obtained from the Afr. sp.

Copernicia Mart. Palmae (i. 2). 6 sp. Am. C. cerifera Mart, is the

wax- or Camauba-palm of Brazil. Its leaves are coated with wax,
which can be removed by shaking; it is used in making candles and
is largely imported into Brit. The wood, leaves, &c., are also useful.

Coprosma Forst. Rubiaceae (11. 17). 40 sp. N. Z., Austr., Malaya,

Chili. The stipules of some sp. are glandular, and some have
peculiar openings (? domatia) on the backs of the leaves.

Coptis Salisb. Ranunculaceae (2). 8 sp. N. temp, and arctic.

Corallorhiza Hall. Orchidaceae (8). 12 sp. N. temp. C. innata R.

Br. (coral- root) in Brit. Saprophytes with much branched fleshy
rhizome, no roots, and scaly leaves. [See p. 177, and cf. Epipogum.]

Corchorus (Tourn.) Linn. Tiliaceae. 30 sp. trop. C. capsularis L.
and C. olitorius L. (India &c.) furnish the chief supply of the valuable
fibre jute or gunny (obtained by steeping the full-grown stems in
water; cf. Linum). Annual plants about 12 feet high, little branched.

Cordia Linn. Boraginaceae (1). 250 sp. trop. Trees or shrubs. The

fruit is edible; that of C. Myxa L. (Egypt to Austr.) was formerly
used in medicine. [See Mez in Englcr' s Jahrb. xn.]

Cordiaceae (Warming) = Boraginaceae (suborder 1).

Cordyline Royen. Liliaceae (vi). 10 sp. trop. and warm temp.

Favourite decorative plants with the habit of Dracaena. The leaves
of some sp. yield fibre.

Coreopsis Linn. Compositae (v). 70 sp. Am., trop. Afr., Sandw. Is.

Corethrogyne DC. Compositae (ill). 3 sp. Calif.

Coriandrum (Tourn.) Linn. Umbelliferae (8). 3 sp. Medit. The

fruits (Coriander-seeds) of C. sativwn L. are used in flavouring.

Coriaria Niss. ex Linn. The only genus of Coriariaceae. 8 sp. Medit.,
India to Japan, N. Z., Chili to Mexico. The genus is thus probably
one which was formerly very widely spread over the globe (p. 146).
They are mostly shrubs with opp. or whorled leaves, sometimes be-
coming alt. at the ends of the shoots. The inconspicuous protogynous
firs, are borne in racemose infls. K 5, C 5, A 5 + 5, G 5. The petals
are keeled on the inner side, and after fertilisation of the fir. grow
fleshy and enclose the cpls. forming a pseudo-drupe. Ovules 1 in
each loc., pendulous, anatropous ; raphe dorsal. Endosperm thin.

Coriareae (Benth.-Hooker) = Coriariaceae.

Coriariaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). Only genus
Coriaria {q*v.). The only nearly related order is Empetraceae.
Placed as anomalous order at end of Disciflorae by Benth.-Hooker.

Coris Tourn. Primulaceae (v). 2 sp. Medit.

Corispermum B. Juss. ex Linn. Chenopodiaceae (6). 10 sp. N. temp.

Cornaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Umbelliflorae). 16 gen. with
80 sp., cosmop., but chiefly N. temp. Shrubs with opp. or rarely
alt. leaves, usually entire, exstip. Infl. dichasial, usually condensed

COR YANTHES

337

into corymb or umbel form, or even (Cornus) into heads with
involucres. Firs, usually $ > regular, 4 — 5 — 00 -merous. Typical
formula K 4, C 4, A 4, G (2). There is an epigynous disc, and a
simple style with lobed stigma. Ovary multi-loc., with usually 1
pendulous ovule in each loc., the raphe of the ovule dorsal. Fruit a
berry or more often a drupe, with a 1 — 4-loc. stone or 2 separate
stones. Chief genera: Cornus, Garrya, Aucuba.

Cornucopiae Linn. Gramineae (vm). 1 sp. Orient., C. cucullatum

L. Firs, in small heads; when the fruit is ripe these bend over and
break off with a sharp point. They adhere to animals and are also
said to burrow into the soil (cf. Stipa).

Cornus (Tourn.) Linn. Cornaceae. 25 sp. Eur., As., Am. 2 in Brit.,
C. sanguinea L. the cornel or dogwood, and C. suecica L. The. fir.
of the former is biologically like that of an Umbeilifer, but is homo-
gamous. Its berry fruits are eaten by thrushes. The latter is a
dwarf herbaceous perennial, common in the Highlands. Annual
stems are given off from the creeping perennial stems. Firs, in
umbels with involucres of 4 large white bracts. C. Jiorida L. (N.
Am.) and others yield useful wood. C. mas ( mascula ) L., the
Cornelian cherry (Eur., As. Minor), yields a fruit which makes good
preserves. Its firs, appear in spring before the leaves (p. 103).

Coronarieae (Benth. -Hooker). The 3rd series of Monocotyledons.

Coronilla Tourn. ex Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 20 sp. Eur., Medit.,

W. As. The fir. resembles that of Lotus, but the honey (at least in
C. varia L. and others) is secreted by the outer surface of the calyx,
and insects poke their tongues through between the claws of the
petals, which are longer than usual. The buds are bent downwards,
the open firs, project horizontally, the ripening fruits downwards and
the ripe fruits usually upwards (p. 104).

Coronopus Rupp, ex Linn. = Senebiera DC.

Correa Andr. Rutaceae (ill). 5 sp. temp. Austr. Favourite green-
house shrubs. Fir. sympetalous.

Corrigiola Linn. Caryophyllaceae (11. 4). 6 sp. Medit., Eur. C\

liitoralis L. on coasts of Devon and Cornwall.

Cortusa Linn. Primulaceae (1). 1 sp. Mts. of Eur. and As.

Coryanthes Hook. Orchidaceae (19). 4 sp. trop. S. Am., epiphytic.

One of the most remarkable firs, in existence. The fir. is pendu-
lous ; the sepals are bent back and fairly large, the petals small. The
labellum is of a most complex shape ; projecting horizontally from
the base of the column is a bar bearing a dome on the end, from
which is suspended a bucket-like organ; the mouth of the bucket
faces upwards, and the edges are incurved ; there is also an overflow
pipe projecting towards the sepals and closely covered in by the bent
end of the column, with the stigma and anther. From the base of
the column project two horns which secrete a thin watery fluid that
drips into the bucket, keeping it full to the level of the overflow pipe.

W. 2 2

CORYANTHES

33§

The dome (above) is composed of succulent tissue very attractive to
bees ; these fight for places on it whence to drill the tissue ; every now
and then one of them gets pushed off and falls into the bucket. It can
neither fly nor climb out, and so has to squeeze through the overflow
pipe. In so doing it first passes the stigma, fertilising it if it bears
any pollen, and then, passing the anther, is loaded with new pollinia
to be transferred to other firs. “I have often seen this, and some-
times there are so many of these humble bees assembled that there is
a continual procession of them through the passage ” (Criiger). [See
Darwin’s Orchids , p. 173, and cf. Stanhopea.]

Corydalis Vent. Papaveraceae (in). 90 sp. Medit., Eur., As. C.

claviculaia DC. in Brit., a (leaf) tendril-climbing annual. Most are
perennial herbs with underground tubers. In C. cava Schweigg. et
Kort., and other sp. the main axis forms a tuber, which dies away
below, each annual shoot arising from the axil of a scale-leaf of older
date. In C. solida Sw., and others, the tuber is a swollen root-
structure belonging to the current annual shoot. Fir. transversely
zygomorphic (see order for diagram); only one petal is spurred and
contains the honey secreted by a staminal outgrowth. Twisting of
the axis through 90° brings the flr. into a vertical position. Its
mechanism resembles that of many Leguminosae. The inner petals,
united at the tip, enclose the stigma and anthers; the upper petal
covers the flr. Bees alighting push down the inner petal and cause
the essential organs to emerge. In some sp., e.g. C . ochroleuca Koch
and C, lutea DC., the emergence is explosive (cf. Genista). The
flrs. of C . cava are self-sterile (p. 95).

Corylopsis Sieb. et Zucc. Hamamelidaceae. 10 sp. China, Japan.
Firs. g , in spikes with coloured bracts at base.

Corylus (Tourn.) Linn. Betulaceae. 7 sp. N. temp. C. Avellana L.,
the Hazel-nut (Brit.) is the most familiar. The general habit is
shrubby (largely owing to the extensive formation of suckers), with
catkinate flrs. (the ? catkin sessile and elliptical in outline, rather
resembling a bud). Both are laid down in autumn; the 3 catkins
are visible all winter on the bushes, but the $ are not obvious until
the red stigmas come out early in the year. Like other catkinate
plants they are anemophilous, and the fact of flowering before the
appearance of the leaves renders their chance of fertilisation much
greater. On the inner side of the bract in the 3 catkin are found
2 scales and, adnate to these, 4 sta., each branched nearly to the
base. There is present here only the central flr. of the possible 3
(cf. diagram of order), with its bracteoles a, /3. In
the ? catkin, on the other hand, we have the two stem

laterals and not the central flr. as shown in the diagram # c? flr. #
overleaf (* = missing flr.). At the time of fertilisation, a p
the ovary is very minute, but the long red stigmas are bract

easily identified. After fertilisation, the ovary (2-loc.

COUROUPITA

339

at first) gives a one-seeded nut, enclosed in a cup of green leafy
nature, which is really the combined bract and
bracteoles a, a', /3', very much developed. The stem

fir. is chalazogamic (see art. Chalazogamae ). a! a!

The nuts of this and other sp. are valuable as a ? fir. # ? fir. /3

dessert fruit &c. (hazel-nut, cob-nut, filbert). /3' ft

The wood is elastic, but cannot be obtained in bract

large boards. Oil is expressed from the seeds.

Corynephorus Beauv. ( Wemgaertneria Bernh.). Gramineae (ix).
3 sp. Eur. C. canescens Beauv. (IV. or Air a canescens) in Brit.

Corypha Linn. Palmae (i. 2). 6 sp. Ceylon, Indo-mal. The infl.

terminates the life of the tree and is of gigantic size. C. umbraculi -
fera L. is the Talipot palm of Ceylon; it grows to a great size (up to
100 feet in height). The leaves are used as umbrellas, and for
thatching, also as writing material (a metal stylus being used).

Cosmanthus Nolte = Phacelia Juss.

Cosmibuena Ruiz et Pav. (1802). Rubiaceae (r. 4). 6 sp. trop. Am.

There is good bud-protection by means of the stipules of the last-
opened leaves.

Cosmibuena Ruiz et Pav. (i794) = Hirtella Linn. (Rosaceae.)

Cosmos Cav. ( Cosmea Willd.). Compositae (v). 20 sp. Am.

Costus Linn. Zingiberaceae. 25 sp. trop. Am., W. Afr., As., Austr.
The labellum is very large, the lateral staminodes wanting, the sepals
and petals comparatively small. Projecting in the centre of the fir.
is the fertile petaloid sta. with the anther on its anterior face; the
style reaches just above this. The floral mechanism thus resembles
that of Iris.

Cotinus (Tourn.) Linn. = Rhus Linn. C. coggygria Scop. = P. Cotinus.

Cotoneaster Rupp. Rosaceae (11. 4). 30 sp. N. temp. C. vulgaris

Lindl. was till lately found on the Great Orme’s Head near Llandudno,
but is now extinct in Brit. In the Alps the fir. is visited solely by a
wasp (Polistes gallica) whose nests are often found attached to the
rocks where the plant is growing. The fir. is protogynous with self-
fertilisation in default of insect visits. Several sp. are favourites in
shrubberies &c.

Cotula (Tourn.) Linn. (excl. Cenia Juss.). Compositae (vil). 50 sp.
S. Hemisph., Medit., As., N. Am.

Cotyledon Tourn. ex Linn. (incl. Echeveria DC.). Crassulaceae. 90 sp.
Afr., Eur., As., Mexico, S. Am. C . Umbilicus Linn, (penny-wort) in
Brit. Petals united into a tube. Leaves succulent. [Linn. Soc.
Journ. xxx. p. 292.]

Coumarouna Aubl. = Dipteryx Schreb.

Couratari Aubl. Lecythidaceae. 8 sp. S. Am. The bark yields a
soft fibre used for making clothing.

Couroupita Aubl. Lecythidaceae. 9 sp. trop. S. Am. The firs, of
C. guianensis Aubl., the commonest sp., are borne on the old stems

22 2

340

C0UR0UPITA

(p. 156), and followed by large spherical woody capsules (whence
the name of cannon-ball tree).

Cousinia Cass. Compositae (xi). 210 sp. Orient, (p. 194).

Crambe Tourn. ex Linn. Cruciferae (11. 10). 20 sp. Eur., Medit., As.,
Polynes., Patagonia. C . maritima L. (sea-kale) on the coast of Brit.
Its leaves are fleshy and coated with wax (p. 186). The young leaves,
blanched by tying them together, form a favourite vegetable.

Crantzia Scop. = Alloplectus Mart.

Crassula Dill, ex Linn. (excl. Dinacria Harv., and Tillaea Michx.).
Crassulaceae. 150 sp. S. Afr., a few Abyss, and Himal. Chiefly
succulent-leaved xerophytes. In C. lycopodioides Lam. the leaves are
narrow and closely packed, giving to the plant the habit of a
Lycopodium. In C.falcata Wendl. (Rochea falcata DC.) the connate
decussate leaves stand almost edgewise. They are very fleshy and
have a peculiar covering upon the surface; some of the epidermal cells
are swollen above the rest into large bladders which meet one another
over the whole surface. At first these are living and contain water,
but when the leaf is mature they are dead and full of air, whilst their
walls are infiltrated with quantities of silica. An effective protection
against excessive evaporation is thus afforded. In C. nemorosa Endl.
there is vegetative reproduction (p. 113) by the formation of young
plants in the infl. in place of firs.

Crassulaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). 15 gen. with 450 sp.
cosmop., but chiefly in S. Afr. They form a very natural group.
Most are perennials living in dry (especially rocky) places and exhibit
xerophytic characters, fleshy leaves and stem, often tufted growth,
close packing of leaves upon one another, waxy surface, sunk sto-
mata, &c. (see p. 165). Vegetative reproduction is frequent; it is
usually effected by means of rhizomes or offsets; some sp. form
bulbils, &c. (e.g. Crassula), others form adventitious buds upon the
leaves (e.g. Bryophyllum). Firs, usually in cymes (cincinni), $ or
rarely unisexual, actinomorphic with very regular construction. The
formula may be thus given, Kn, Cn, An + n , G where n represents
any number from 3 to 30. Calyx persistent. Corolla sometimes
(e.g. Cotyledon) gamopetalous. Sta. frequently obdiplostemonous.
The insertion of parts is usually perigynous, but the receptacle is not
deeply hollowed. Cpls. frequently slightly united at the base. At
the base of each there is commonly a honey-secreting scale. Ovules
usually 00. Fruit usually a group of follicles with very small seeds.
Endosperm none or very little. The firs, are mostly protandrous and
chiefly visited by flies, &c., their honey being easily obtainable. The
chief genera are thus grouped by Schonland (in Nat, Pfi.) around Sedum :
f Sempervivum

Sedum -j Cotyledon Bryophyllum
Crassula

[Placed in Rosales (Benth.- Hooker); Saxifraginae (Warming).]

CROSSANDRA

34i

Crataegus Tourn. ex Linn. [United to Mespilus in Nat . Pfl, The
boundaries of these two genera and of Pyrus are ill-defined.] Rosa-
ceae (11. 4). About 100 sp. N. temp. C. Oxyacantha L. (hawthorn
or may) in Brit. The thorns are modified branches. The wood is
regarded as a good substitute for that of box in engraving, &c.

Crataeva Linn. Capparidaceae (ill). 10 sp. trop.

Cratoxylon Blume. Guttiferae (11). 12 sp. Indo-mal.

Crepis (Vaill.) Linn. (incl. Barkhausia Moench). Compositae (xm).
220 sp. N. Hemisph. 6 in Brit, (hawk’s beard). Like Hieracium.

Crescentia Linn. Bignoniaceae (iv). 5 sp. trop. Am. The firs, are

borne on old stems (p. 156) and are succeeded by the gourd-like
berries. The epicarp is woody and after removal of the pulp forms
a useful calabash (C. Cnjete L., the calabash tree, is most used).

Criirnm Linn. Amaryllidaceae (1). 70 sp. trop. and sub-trop., chiefly

on sea-coasts. Large and handsome bulbous plants with showy firs.
(? visited by humming-birds). The seed of C. asiaticum L., accord-
ing to Goebel ( Pflanzenbiol . Schild. 1. p. 128), has only a very thin
corky covering and is adapted to distribution by water and early
germination. The ovule has no integuments, and the want of a testa
is replaced by a formation of cork at the outside of the endosperm.

Cristaria (Heist.) Cav. Malvaceae (11). 25 sp. Chili, Peru.

Crithmum Linn. Umbelliferae (6). 1 sp., C. maritimum L., the

samphire, on rocky coasts, Medit., Eur. (incl. Brit.). It has much
divided and very fleshy leaves (p. 186). It is used for making
pickles.

Crocosmia Planch. Iridaceae (in). 1 sp., C. aurea Planch., trop. and

S. Afr. United to Tritonia in Nat. PJl .

Crocus (Tourn.) Linn. Iridaceae (1). 60 sp. Medit., Eur., 2 sp.

naturalised in Brit. Below ground is a corm, covered with a few
scaly leaves, in whose axils may arise one or more buds, giving rise
to new corms on the top of the old. The leaves are dorsiventral, and
curiously grooved on the back. The flr. is often single and terminal ;
in some sp. there is a small cyme of firs. The tube of the perianth
is so long that the ovary remains below the soil and is thus protected
from the weather (cf. Colchicum). The flr. is protandrous and visited
by bees and Lepidoptera. Honey is secreted by the ovary, and the
anthers face outwards so as to touch any insect alighting on the
petals and seeking honey. The stigmas are branched. Birds often
bite off the firs, in gardens (? for honey); they seem to prefer the
yellow firs., leaving the blue and white alone. [See Schumann in
Bot. Zeit. 1894.]

The dried stigmas of C. sativus L. form saffron, once largely used
as an orange-yellow dye, but now chiefly employed in flavouring
and colouring dishes, liqueurs, &c. [See Kronfeld’s Geschichte des
Safrans & c., Wien 1892, or Beih . z. Bot. Centr ., 1893, p. 71.]

Crossandra Salisb. Acanthaceae (iv. b). 17 sp. trop. As., Afr.,

342

CROSSANDRA

Madag. The seeds of many sp. are covered with scales which spread
out and become sticky when wetted, thus anchoring them to suitable
places for germination (cf. Linum).

Crotalaria Dill, ex Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 3). 250 sp. trop. and

sub-trop. C. juncea L. (India, Austr.), an annual plant growing about
8 ft. high, is largely cultivated for the fibre obtained from its stems
by maceration in water (cf. Linum), and known as Sunn-hemp,
Bombay or Madras hemp, &c. C. retusa L. (trop. ) is also employed
and probably other sp. would be found useful.

Croton Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 1). 600 sp. trop. Firs, mon- or

di-oecious, comparatively little reduced in structure from the primary
type of the order. C. Tiglium L. (trop. As.) is the source of croton
oil (a very powerful purgative drug, expressed from the seeds). C. Cas-
carilla Benn. yields Cascarilla bark, used as a tonic (see Cascarilla).
C. lacciferus L. (India, Ceylon), yields a lac-resin, used in varnish-
making.

Crucianella Linn. Rubiaceae (11. 21). 4 sp. Eur., Medit. For

C. stylosa of gardens see Phuopsis.

Cruciferae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rhoeadales). About 200 gen.
with 1200 sp., cosmop., but chiefly N. temp, and esp. Medit. They
form a very natural family, well marked off from all others, though
approaching nearly to Papaveraceae and Capparidaceae. Most are
herbs, a few undershrubs; some annuals, many perennials, forming
each year a new shoot terminating in the infl. Leaves usually alt.,
exstip., with unicellular simple or branched hairs. For other pecu-
liarities of the vegetative organs see genera, eg. Brassica, Anastatica,
Subularia, Vella, &c. The infl. is usually a raceme or corymb, and
nearly always without either bracts or bracteoles.

Fir. usually g , regular, hypogynous, with typical formula K2 + 2,
C4, A 6, G (2). The calyx has two whorls,
the corolla only one, alternating with the
calyx as a whole. The petals usually spread
out in the form of a cross and are often
clawed. The sta. are in two whorls, an outer
of 2 short, an inner of 4 long, sta. (tetra-
dynamous) ; anthers introrse. The two cpls.
are placed transversely, and have parietal
placentae, but the ovary is 2-loc. on account
of the presence of an antero-posterior parti-
tion, the replum or so-called spurious septum,
an outgrowth of the placentae. Stigmas 2,
on short style, above the placentae (cf. Papa-
veraceae). Ovules anatropous or campylotropous.

The explanation of the morphology of this flr. has given rise to
much dispute and no agreement has been arrived at. It is often
regarded as a typically 2-merous flr. (cf. Papaveraceae), and the 4

Floral Diagram
(after Eichler).

CRUCIFERAE

343

petals and 4 inner sta. are supposed to be due to branching. Others
again regard it as 4-merous (see e.g. Klein in Bot . Centr. 58, p. 197).
A full discussion of the point may be found in Eichler’s Bluthendiagr.
or in Asa Gray’s Struct. Bot . p. 206.

On the bases of the sta. are the nectaries, the honey being secreted
into the often gibbous bases of the inner sepals. The sepals often
stand almost straight up, and the petals are then provided with claws
and spread out horizontally beyond the sepals. The honey is thus
concealed to some extent and protected from rain. The majority of
the order exhibit this construction more or less, thus coming into the
biological group of flowers AB (see p. 90). In many genera the firs,
are arranged in corymbs, thus getting the advantage of many firs,
being massed together on one level (cf. Umbelliferae and Compositae).
Insects visiting the firs, touch the anthers with one side of their bodies
and the stigma with the other, and may in this way effect cross-fertili-
sation, as they go sometimes to one, sometimes to the other, side of the
fir. Dichogamy is frequent, but not well marked, and in almost all
cases self-fertilisation ultimately occurs. [For details see Muller, Fert.
of Firs.]

The fruit is a capsule of pod-like form ; if it be at least three times
as long as it is broad it is called a siliqua , if shorter it is called a
silicula. It is divided into two by the replum and is usually thin and
membranous. Dehiscence occurs by the valves breaking away from
below upwards, leaving the replum with the seeds pressed against it
and adhering. The fruit may be flattened in two ways, either parallel
to or at right angles to the replum; this character is of systematic
importance. It may also be jointed between the seeds as in a lomen-
tum (Leguminosae). Achene-like one seeded fruits occur in a few
genera. Others have subterranean fruits (Cardamine sp. &c.).

The characters of the seed are also of great importance in the
classification of the order. The seed is exalbuminous : the testa is
very often mucilaginous, swelling up when wetted (e.g. the familiar
case of mustard seed) ; this property is valuable for fixing the seed in
a favourable spot for germination. The ovules being campylotropous,
the embryo sacs, and thus the embryos, are curved, usually with
the radicle in one half of the seed, the cotyledons in the other. The
shape of the embryo and the position of the radicle with regard to
the cotyledons are of much importance. The chief cases are :
(r) radicle incumbent (or embryo notorhizal ) i.e. lying on the
back of one cotyledon, the cotyledons not being folded on them-
selves; this may be shown thus o||, the o representing the radicle;
(2) accumbent (or embryo pleurorhizal ), o = , the radicle against the
edges of the cotyledons; (3) orthoplocous (cotyledons conduplicate)>
o>>; (4) spirolobous , as in (1) but cotyledons once folded, o||||;
(5) diplecolobous , ditto twice or more folded, o||||||||.

For plants of economic value see especially Brassica, Nasturtium,

3 44

CRUCIFERAE

Lepidium, &c. All C. are harmless, and most are rich in sulphur
compounds (to which the smell of boiling cabbages is due), and are
thus useful in scurvy &c.

Classification and chief genera (after Prantl) :

The grouping of the smaller divisions of the order and the defining
of the genera is a most difficult task. Many classifications have been
devised. Prantl (in Nat. Pfi. ) bases his largely upon the hairs borne
on the leaves. Others rely on characters of fruit and embryo &c. In
any case the identification of a cruciferous genus is a difficult matter;
we shall not here go into the details of the classification, but merely
give PrantPs groups and the chief genera belonging to them.

A. Hairs simple or none : no glandular hairs.

I. Thelypodieae (stigma equally developed all round; style un-
divided or prolonged above middle of cpls., or turned back).

1. Stanleyinae: Pringlea, Thelypodium.

2. Cremolobinae : Cremolobus.

3. Heliophilinae : Heliophila.

4. Chamirinae: Chamira.

II. Sinapeae (stigma better developed over placentae).

5. Lepidiinae: Subularia, Lepidium.

6. Cochleariinae : Iberis, Cochlearia.

7. Alliariinae: Alliaria.

8. Sisymbriinae : Sisymbrium, Cakile, Isatis.

9. Vellinae: Vella.

10. Brassicinae: Sinapis, Brassica, Crambe.

11. Cardamininae: Nasturtium, Cardamine.

B. Hairs branched (a few exceptions): sometimes also glandular
hairs.

III. Schizopetaleae (stigma equal all round).

12. Schizopetalinae : Schizopetalum.

13. Physariinae: Physaria.

IV. Hesperideae (stigma better developed over placentae).

14. Capsellinae ; Capsella, Draba.

15. Turritinae: Arabis.

16. Erysiminae: Erysimum, Cheiranthus.

17. Alyssinae: Alyssum.

18. Malcolmiinae : Anastatica, Malcolmia.

19. Hesperidinae : Hesperis, Matthiola.

20. Moricandiinae : Conringia.

[Placed in Parietales by Benth.-Hooker, in Rhceadinae by Warming.]
Cryptadenia Meissn. Thymelaeaceae. 5 sp. Cape Col.

Cryptanthus Otto et Dietr. Bromeliaceae (1). 6 sp. Brazil. Cultivated
for their variegated leaves.

Cryptocarya R. Br. Lauraceae (11). 40 sp. trop. and subtrop. The

fruits of C . moschata Nees et Mart, are known as Brazilian nutmegs,
and used as spice.

CUCURBITA

345

Cryptocoryne Fisch. Araceae (vn). 20 sp. Indo-mal. Marsh plants.

Some sp. are apparently ‘viviparous’ in their germination, like
mangroves (p. 19 1, and see Goebel’s Pf^anzenbiol. Schild. 1. p.

132).

Cryptogamae. A term used to distinguish those plants which are not
Phanerogams, or in other words do not produce seeds. All the
higher C. exhibit Alternation of Generations (see art. Pteridophyta :),
and the distinction between them and P. depends on the fact that in
C. the macrospore or spore falls out of its sporangium , germinates upon
the ground or in water and gives rise to an independent ? (or 5 ) pro-
thallus; in the P. (p. 56) on the other hand, the macrospore (embryo-
sac) does not fall out of its sporangium (ovule) nor become indepen-
dent. The result is the formation of a seed.

The C. are fertilised by aid of usually motile $ cells (anthero- or
spermato-zoids) instead of the pollen-tubes of P.

The C. are divided into 3 great groups, Thallophyta, Bryo-
phyta, and Pteridophyta, each usually regarded as equivalent to
Phanerogams (see p. 123J. With the first two groups this book does
not deal. For further details of C. see Pteridophyta (where further
references will be found) and Campbell’s Mosses and Ferns .

Cryptogamae Vasculares = Pteridophyta.

Cryptogramme R. Br. (Allosorus Bernh.). Polypodiaceae. 1 sp. N.
temp., esp. Alpine, C. crispa R. Br. , the parsley fern or curled rock-
brake, common in some districts of Brit.

Cryptomeria D. Don. Coniferae (Arauc. 1 c; see C. for genus charac-
ters). 1 sp., C. japonica D. Don (Japan, China), the Japanese cedar,
often cultivated. The timber is valuable.

Ctenanthe Eichl. Marantaceae. 7 sp. trop. Am.

Cucubalus (Toum.) Linn. Caryophyllaceae (1. 1). 1 sp. C . baccifer

L., N. temp, (introd. in Brit.). Fruit a berry.

Cucumis (Tourn.) Linn. Cucurbitaceae (ill). 26 sp. trop. and subtrop.
C. Melo L. is the melon, C. sativus L. the cucumber, both cultivated
from the earliest times. The tendrils are simple and are regarded as
of leaf nature (see order), the stem portion being suppressed.

Cucurbita (Tourn.) Linn. Cucurbitaceae (ill). 10 sp. Am., but many
have been so long cultivated that their origin is doubtful. For the
tendrils see order. Firs, monoecious. The germination is interesting.
On the lower side of the hypocotyl a peg is formed which holds one
side of the testa firmly while the expansion of the plumule splits off
the other side. The position of the peg is determined by gravity ; if
the seed be revolved on a klinostat during germination a ridge is
formed all round the hypocotyl. Hence these seeds should always
be sown with the flat surfaces horizontal.

C. Pepo L. is the pumpkin, with its varieties the vegetable marrow
and squash ; C. maxima Duchesne the giant pumpkin, largely culti-
vated in N. Am,

CUCURBITA CEAE

346

Cucurbitaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Campanulatae). 87 genera with
about 650 sp. found in most parts of the world, but wanting in the
colder regions and most abundant in the tropics. They are chiefly
climbing annual herbs with very rapid growth and great abundance
of sap in their stems and other tissues. They climb by tendrils, about
whose morphological nature there has been much discussion ; for they
have been considered by various authors as “roots, stems, leaves, stip-
ules, shoots, flower-stalks or organs sui generis. ” According to Muller
(Nat. Pfl.) the tendrils of Cucurbita Pepo , with their frequent abnor-
malities, give a proof of their true nature. Every variety is found,
from simple threads to long leafy tendrils, in which the leaves show
all transitions to tendrils. Muller, therefore, considers the twining
portion of the tendril to be a metamorphosed leaf, the lower stiff
portion a stem. The tendrils of C. are very sensitive and show very
well all the phenomena of tendril-climbing.

The firs, are diclinous, rarely g , in infls. of various types (see
Nat. PJi ., or Eichler, Bliithendiagr.) .

The calyx and corolla are typically 5-merous, regular, with cohesion
in both whorls. The sta. are typically 5, but great variety is intro-
duced into the androeceum by cohesions &c. ; it is almost always
zygomorphic. In Fevillea we find 5 sta. with bilocular anthers, the
simplest type ; it is noteworthy that the usual 4-locular anther never
occurs in C., and no trace of the missing loculus is to be found in
either lobe of the anther of Fevillea. In the rest of the order the
androeceum is more complex. In Thladiantha two pairs of sta. stand
apart from the fifth sta. In Sicydium these pairs show union of their
members at the base, and in others of the order the union is more
complete, until, as in Bryonia &c., the androeceum apparently has
only 3 sta., of which 2 have 4-locular anthers. The more the sta.
depart from the simple type the more curved do the loculi of the
anthers become, till in Cucurbita &c. the pollen-sacs are twisted in a
most extraordinary manner (cf. Columellia). In Cyclanthera the sta.
are all united into a column with two ring-shaped pollen chambers
running round the top (cf. the flowers of Cyclanthus).

The ovary is inferior, 1 — io-loc., with 1 — 00 anatropous ovules in
each loc. ; the most common type is, however, a 3-loc. ovary with
axile placentae projecting deep into the cavity. Stigmas as many as
cpls., usually forked.

Fruit nearly always fleshy, of the type exhibited in the melon or
cucumber — a berry-like fruit, sometimes called a pepo. The seeds
are exalbuminous. In Zanonia, Ecballium, Cyclanthera, &c. (q. v.),
the mode of seed-dispersal is interesting.

The relationships of this order have been much disputed. Benth.-
Hooker place it near Passifloraceae, Baillon near Loasaceae and
Begoniaceae. It is now pretty generally accepted however that
it comes near to the Campanulaceae, as here placed.

C UP.RESS US

347

Many are valuable on account of their fruits, e.g. Cucurbita,
Sechium, Luffa, Lagenaria, &c.

Classification and chief genera (after Pax) :

A. Pollen-sacs not fused into a ring.

a. Sta. free or only united at base.

I. Fevilleeae (sta. 5, rarely 4) : Fevillea, Zanonia, Thladiantha.

II. Melothrieae (sta. 3, rarely 2 or 4; pollen-sacs straight or
slightly curved): Melothria, Telfairia.

III. Cucurbiteae (do., but pollen-sacs S or U shaped): Acan-
thosicyos, Momordica, Luffa, Bryonia, Ecballium, Cucumis,
Lagenaria, Trichosanthes, Cucurbita.

b. Sta. united into a column.

IV. Sicyoideae: Echinocystis, Sechium, Sicyos.

B. Pollen-sacs fused into a ring.

V. Cyclanthereae: Cyclanthera (only genus).

Culcitium Humb. et Bonpl. Compositae (vm). 14 sp. Andes. Like

Espeletia (q. v.).

Cullenia Wight. Bombacaceae. 1 sp. India, Ceylon.

Cuminum (Toum.) Linn. Umbelliferae (7). 1 sp., C. Cyminuin L.,

Medit. The fruits are known as Cumin seeds, and are sometimes
used like Caraway seeds.

Cunninghamia R. Br. Coniferae (Arauc. 1 c; see C. for genus charac-
ters). C. sinensis R. Br. the only sp., in S. China and Cochin-China.

Cunonia Linn. Cunoniaceae. 5 sp. New Caled., and C. capensis L.
S. Afr. It shows good bud-protection by stipules (p. 155).

Cunoniaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). 21 gen. with 120 sp.,
chiefly found between 130 and 35°S. Shrubs and trees with opp. or
whorled leathery leaves, stipulate (the stipules often united in pairs as
in Rubiaceae). Fir. small, usually $ . Receptacle usually flat. K
4 — 5; C 4 — 5, usually smaller than calyx, often absent; A 8 — 10 or
00 or 4 — 5; G usually (2), rarely 2. Ovary usually 2-loc., generally
with 00 — 2 ovules in 2 rows in each loc. Fruit usually a capsule,
rarely drupe or nut. Endosperm. Chief genera: Cunonia, Wein-
mannia. United to Saxifragaceae by Benth.-Hooker; placed in
Saxifraginae by Warming.

Cupania Linn. Sapindaceae (1). 32 sp. trop. and subtrop. Am. The

wood of some sp. is useful. For C. sapida Voigt (= C. editlis Schum.
et Thonn.) see Blighia.

Cuphea P. Br. Lythraceae. 160 sp. Am. The leaves are decussate
and in most sp. there is one flr. at each node, standing between the
two leaves. This is really the axillary flr. of the leaf below, and its
peduncle is ‘adnate’ to the main stem. Many sp. are covered with
exceedingly sticky glandular hairs.

Cupressaceae (Warming) =Araucariaceae § Cupressineae.

Cupressus Tourn. ex Linn. [Synonymy: C.fastigiaiaY>C. — C. semper-
virens L. ; C. pendula Staunt.= C. funebris Endl. ; C. nootkatensis

343

C (/PRESS US

Lamb. = Chamaecyparis nutkatensis Spach. ; C. thujoides L. = Ch ,
sphaeroidea Spach. ; C. juniperoides L. = Callitris arborea Schrad.
C. japonica L. = C?yptomeria jap. Don. See Index Kewensis for
further synonyms.]

Coniferae (Arauc. 2 c; see C. for genus characters). 12 sp.
Medit., As., N.Am. The general habit is xerophytic, the leaves
being much reduced and closely appressed to the stems. C. semper -
virens L. is the cypress of the Medit. region: C.funebris Endl. the
funereal cypress of China and Thibet, with ‘weeping’ branches.
Several sp. yield useful timber, e.g. C, Lawsoniana Murr. (Calif.,
Oregon), C. Lindleyi Klotzsch (Mexico), C. se/npervirens, &c.

Cupuliferae. (Of Benth. -Hooker) = Betulaceae + Fagaceae; (of Warm-
ing) =Fagaceae.

Curculigo Gaertn. Amaryllidaceae (ill). 12 sp. Indo-mal., N. Austr.

Curcuma Linn. Zingiberaceae. 30 sp. trop. Afr., As., Austr. C.
angustifolia Roxb. furnishes east indian arrowroot from its tubers.
C. longa L. yields the yellow dye turmeric, consisting of the dried
and ground rhizome. The tubers of C. Zedoaria Rose, yield Zedoary,
used in the East as a tonic and perfume.

Curtisia Ait. Cornaceae. 1 sp. S. Afr., C . faginea Ait., yielding a
hard and useful timber (assegai-wood) .

Curvembryae. The 1st series (Benth.-Hooker) of Monochlamydeae.
The 7th cohort (Warming) of Choripetalae.

Cuscuta (Toum.) Linn. Convolvulaceae (11). 90 sp. trop. and temp.

Many sp. have largely extended their boundaries through being
carried about with their host plants. Leafless and rootless total
parasites. The stem twines and is sensitive to contact like a tendril
so that it clasps the support tightly; it rarely makes more than three
turns about the same branch of the host. At the points in close con-
tact with the host suckers are developed which penetrate the tissues of
the host, growing into organic union with them and drawing off all
the food materials required by the parasite, which has no green tissue
of its own. The seeds of C. germinate later than those of the host
plant ; a very short anchorage root is formed and the stem nutates in
search of a host ; as soon as it has clasped one the root dies away.
Much damage is often done by these plants: most of the sp. that
occur in Brit, (known as dodder, scald, &c.) confine themselves to
particular host plants, but others attack a variety of plants. For
details see Kerner’s Nat. Hist . of Plants , vol. 1., and papers by
Peirce in Ann. of Bot. 1893 — 4; see also p. 176.

Cusparia Humb. Rutaceae (v). 22 sp. S. Am. C. febrifuga Humb.

( C . trifoliata Engl.) yields Angostura or Cusparia bark, sometimes
used in place of cinchona bark.

Cuviera DC. Rubiaceae (11. 11). 6 sp. W. trop. Afr. Several are

ant-inhabited (p. 114) with hollow swellings of the stem above the
nodes (see Schumann in Ber. d. bot, Ges. IX. 1891, p. 55).

CYCADACEAE

349

Cyamopsis DC. Leguminosae (ill. 6). 3 sp. trop. Afr., As. C. psora *
loides DC. is largely cultivated in India as fodder (Guar).

Cyananthus Wall. Campanulaceae (1. 1). 10 sp. Mts. of mid- and E.

As. Ovary superior.

Cyanotis D. Don. Commelinaceae. 35 sp. Old World, trop.

Cyathea Sm. Cyatheaceae. About 60 sp. trop. and subtrop. Tree
ferns, forming a very characteristic feature in the scenery of various
regions. C. medullaris Sw. (N. Z.) is well known, also C. dealbata
Sw. from the same region. Their pulpy pith is eaten by the natives.

Cyatheaceae. Filicineae Leptosporangiatae (Homosporous). 9 gen. with
200 sp. chiefly trop. and subtrop. They are mostly tree ferns with
stout erect stems, covered with adventitious roots and a palm-like
crown of leaves at the top. These show the circinate vernation, &c.,
very well. The sori are marginal or on the under side of the leaves,
naked or with a cup-shaped indusium; the sporangia are shortly
stalked and have a complete excentric annulus. Chief genera:
Cyathea, Alsophila, Dicksonia, Hemitelia.

Cyathodes Labill. = Styphelia Sm.

Cybianthus Mart. Myrsinaceae (n). 30 sp. trop. Am., Philipp. Is.

Cybistax Mart. Bignoniaceae (11). 3 sp. S. Am. The leaves of C.

Sprucei K. Sch. are used as a blue dye, by simply boiling them with
the cloth.

Cycadaceae. Gymnospermae. 9 genera with about 75 sp. The sur-
vivors of a group of plants which in past ages figured largely in the
composition of the flora of the earth. They reached their maximum
about the end of the Triassic and beginning of the Jurassic period.
The C. represent the lowest type of living Phanerogams and remind
us, in their appearance and habit, of the tree-ferns. The stem is
usually short and stout, only growing to any noteworthy height in
Cycas itself, and is often tuberously swollen. It has a long primary
tap root. In some sp. a sort of felt-work of roots is formed at the
base of the stem, and a number of short lateral branches of these
stand erect and may emerge from the soil (see Nat. Pfl .) . At the end
of the stem there is usually a crown of leaves, and its lower portion is
covered with scales. There are, in all C. except a few sp. of Macro-
zamia, two sorts of leaves, foliage- and scale-leaves. They are borne
spirally upon the stem, and alternately with one another, as a rule
several circles of scales before each circle of foliage leaves, which they
protect in the bud. The scales are really leaf bases whose blades
abort. The foliage leaves are very characteristic. They possess
usually a thickened, woody, more or less sheathing base, which often
persists after the fall of the rest of the leaf. There is a stout rachis or
petiole, frequently thorny at the base, the thorns being ‘metamor-
phosed’ leaflets. Upon its upper side are two grooves, from which
spring the leaflets, which may or may not be opposite to one another ;
there is usually no terminal leaflet. The leaflets may be entire or

35°

CYCADACEAE

toothed and are usually very rigid and leathery. The nervature is
important. Three types occur :

(1) midrib, no lateral nerves : Cycas.

(2) midrib and lateral nerves : Stangeria.

(3) numerous parallel or wavy, simple or forked nerves running

longitudinally : the other genera.

The firs, are dioecious and usually take the form of cones ; these
are terminal, and so the stem becomes a sympodium, except in Cycas
and some species of Encephalartos, &c., where the stem ‘grows
through’ the fir. or firs. The size of the cones varies consider-
ably. Each consists essentially of a central axis bearing a number of
fertile leaves or sporophylls ; occasionally the lowest leaves are sterile
as in Coniferae. In the <? cone, the leaves (scales) are generally of a
sort of nail shape (cf. Equisetum), and bear sort upon the lower side.
Each sorus consists of 2 — 6 sporangia (pollen-sacs), arranged with the
lines of dehiscence radiating from the common centre. In the $ cone
the scale (cpl.) is of somewhat similar shape but bears as a rule only
two sporangia (ovules), whose apices are directed towards the axis of
the cone. Cycas (q.v.) has no proper cone, but the stem bears a
whorl of cpls. in place of ordinary leaves. The ovule is of consider-
able size, orthotropous with one integument. [For details of internal
structure of ovule, fertilisation, &c., see text-books, and art. Gymno -
spermae .] The pollen is carried by the wind to the micropyle, where
it germinates.

The ovule grows into a large seed; the testa is two-layered, the
inner layer woody, the outer fleshy. There is also an endopleura on
the seed. The nucellus is reduced to a thin cap on the top of the
seed, the bulk of which consists of endosperm, with a straight embryo
in the centre. There are 2 cotyledons, usually united at the tips.

The C. are exclusively trop. and subtrop. Of the genera, 4, 7, 8,
9 (see below) are from Am., 3 and 6 Austr., 2 and 5 Afr., whilst
Cycas is found in E. Ind., Austr., and the islands of Ind. and Pacif.
Oceans.

Classification and Genera.

I. Cycadeae (cpls. with 8 — 4, rarely 2 ovules; stem growing
through the ? flr. ; leaflet with midrib only) : 1 . Cycas.

II. Zamieae (ovules 2; stem not growing through): 2. Stangeria
(pinna pinnately nerved) ; 3. Bowenia (leaf bipinnate) ; 4. Dioon;
5. Encephalartos; 6. Macrozamia; 7. Zamia; 8. Ceratozamia;
9. Microcycas.

[The above account of the order is abridged from that of Eichler
in Nat . PJl .]

Cycas Linn. Cycadaceae. 16 sp. trop. E. Ind., Austr., Polynes. For
genus characters &c., see order. The female plant does not bear a
cone, but bears a whorl of cpls. of a woolly brown appearance ; in
notches upon the margins of these are the naked ovules, usually 4 — 8

C YMB1DIUM

35i

in number. The pith of C. circinalis L. (trop. As.) and C. revoluta
Thunb. (Japan) yields a kind of sago.

Cyclamen (Tourn.) Linn. Primulaceae (iv). 10 sp. Eur. (mostly

alpine), Medit. C. europaemn L. in Brit, (sow-bread). There is a
stout corm (p. 152) due to the thickening of the hypocotyl. The
perianth-lobes are bent back and the fir. is pendulous, with a loose-
pollen mechanism (p. 98) as in Erica. After fertilisation the stalk
usually coils up spirally drawing the ripening fruit down to the soil
(cf. Vallisneria) ; in C . persicum Sibth. et Sm. it bends over and
forces the fruit into the ground (cf. Arachis).

Cyclanthaceae. Monocotyledons (Synanthae). 6 gen. with 45 sp.
trop. Am.; they help to characterise the flora of this region (p. 195).
Climbers, epiphytes, rhizome-herbs, or small shrubs, of palm-like
habit, with curious spadix infls. on which the c? and % firs, alternate
in various ways (see Carludovica and Cyclanthus). The order is
nearly related to the Palmae, Pandanaceae and Araceae; it is placed
in Spadiciflorae by Warming, in Nudiflorae by Benth.- Hooker. Chief
genera: Carludovica, Cyclanthus.

Cyclanthera Schrad. Cucurbitaceae (v). Over 30 sp. trop. Am. The
sta. are combined into a column as in section iv, but here the anther-
loculi are fused into 2 ring-shaped loculi running completely round
the top of the column. C. expiodens Naud. has an explosive fruit (cf.
Ecballium) ; the pericarp is extremely turgid on its inner surface, and
the fruit dehisces into valves, each of which rolls back on itself with
a violent jerk.

Cyclanthus Poit. Cyclanthaceae. A unique genus. 4 sp. trop. Am.
The rhizome bears large leaves, forked into two at the top. Infl.
terminal on a long stalk (figs, in Nat. PJi .), as a large cylindrical
spadix with big bracts at the base. The spadix resembles a number
of discs piled upon one another, with their edges sharpened to a thin
rim. In some sp. two parallel spirals compose the spadix, each with
a sharpened edge. In the former case every other disc bears <? firs.,
in the latter one of the spirals, the other being ? . The S firs, occupy
a groove at the edge of the rim; each has 6 sta. and no perianth.
The ? firs, are embedded in the disc and their ovaries are united
into a long continuous chamber running all round the disc and
containing numerous placentae. The perianths also are united all
round the disc; on their inner sides they bear staminodes. The fruit
is multiple, consisting of a number of seeds embedded in a general
fleshy mass formed of the ovaries and spadix. Cf. Carludovica.

Cycnocbes Lindl. Orchidaceae (17) 8 sp. trop. Am. The fir. is like
that of Catasetum in mechanism and polymorphism.

Cydonia Tourn. ex Mill. = Pyrus Toum. C. vulgaris Pers. = P. Cydonia
L. ; C. japonica Pers. = P. japonica Thunb.

Cymbalaria Medic. = Linaria Mill.

Cymbidium Sw. Orchidaceae (24). 30 sp. E. Ind., China, Austr., Afr.

352

CYNANCHUM

Cynanclium Linn, (inch Vincetoxicuni Rupp.). Asclepiadaceae (n. 2).
100 sp. trop. and temp. Many are twiners, and xerophytes with
fleshy stems and reduced leaves. The flrs. are fertilised by carrion-
flies which get the pollinia attached to their proboscides.

Cynara Vaill. ex Linn. Compositae (xi). n sp. Medit. C. Scolymns
L. is the true artichoke (see Helianthus). The young flr.-heads
enclosed in the involucral bracts form a valuable pot-herb. C. Car -
dunculus L. is the cardoon, whose leaves are blanched and eaten like
those of celery. This sp. has spread over great areas on the Pampas,
where it was introduced (p. 24).

Cynocrambaceae ( Thelygonaceae ). Dicotyledons (Archichl. Centro-

spermae). An order consisting only of the one genus Cynocrambe
(Thelygonum), which is of so anomalous a character that it has been
placed near to Urticaceae (to which it is united by Benth. -Hooker),
Phytolaccaceae (to which it is united by Warming), Chenopodiaceae,
Begoniaceae, Santalaceae, Monimiaceae, &c. (see Nat . /)#.). For
details see Thelygonum.

Cynocrambe Tourn. ex Adans = Thelygonum Linn.

Cynodon Rich. Gramineae (xi). 3 sp. Austr., the other, C. Dactylon

Pers., the dog’s-tooth or Bermuda grass, cosmop. (incl. Brit.). It
grows with creeping stems on sandy soil and is used for binding
dunes (p. 186); it forms a useful pasture on such soils. Spikes digi-
tate, spikelets 1 -flowered.

Cynog'lossum (Tourn.) Linn. Boraginaceae (iv. 1). 50 sp. temp, and

subtrop. C, officinale L. (hound’s tongue) and another in Brit.
Formerly officinal. The fruit is hooked.

Cynometra Linn. Leguminosae (11. 2). 27 sp. trop. C. cauliflora L.

is a good example of stem-fruiting (p. 156).

Cynomorium Mich, ex Linn. Balanophoraceae. 1 sp. Medit., C.
coccineum L.

Cynosurus Linn. Gramineae (x). 5 sp. Old World temp., 2 in Brit,

(dog’s-tail grass), one of which, C. cristatus L., is a valuable pasture
and fodder grass.

Cypella Herb. Iridaceae (11. 1). 5 sp. S. Am. One sp. increases its

conspicuousness by unfolding its flrs. in great numbers at definite
times (F. Muller).

Cyperaceae. Monocotyledons (Glumiflorae). 65 genera with over
2500 sp., cosmop., chiefly marsh-plants. Grass-like plants, mostly
perennials with creeping sympodial rhizomes. The new shoot of
each year is adnate (p. 30), for an internode or more, to the parent
shoot, so that the branching seems at first sight extra-axillary. The
aerial shoot is usually grass-like, but the stem is generally solid and
angular with 3 ranks of leaves. The leaf is sheathing at the base,
but the sheath is entire, not split as in a grass. The unit of infl. is
again a spikelet ; the total infl. may be a spike or panicle as in grasses.
In many sedges the spikelet is cymose — a sympodium — and should

CYPRIPEDIUM

353

perhaps be termed a pseudo-spikelet. The flr. is borne in the axil of
a glume and may be 9 or uni-
sexual ; it is usually naked but may
have a perianth of 6 (or oo ) small
scales or hairs. Sta. 3,#cpls. (3)
or (2) forming a i-loc. ovary,
with long feathery (anemophilous)
stigmas. Ovule 1, basal, anatro-
pous. In Carex &c. the ? flr. is
borne in the axil of a second
glume (the utricle ) which closely
enwraps it (in the figure it is
shown diagrammatically). The
firs, are wind-pollinated. Fruit
an achene, the testa not adhering
to the pericarp. The sedges are of little economic value; see
Cyperus.

Classification and chief genera (after Pax) :

I. SCIRPOIDEAE (spikelets with no terminal flr., always 2-
sexual; flr. almost always $ ).: Cyperus, Eriophorum, Scirpus,
Eleocharis, Fimbristylis.

II. CAR/CO/DE AE (spikelets i-sexual or andro-monoecious ;
flr. rarely g > usually monoecious ; c? and $ firs, on axes of
different orders) : Schoenus, Rhynchospora, Carex.

[C. are placed in Glumaceae by Benth. -Hooker, Glumiflorae by
Eichler.]

Cyperus Linn, (inch Mariscus Gaertn. ). Cyperaceae (1). 500 sp. trop.
and warm temp. (2 in S. England, rare). Herbs with sympodial
rhizome and leafless or leafy shoots above ground. Infl. umbel- or
head-like. The most interesting sp. is C. Papyrus L., the paper-reed,
a river-side plant with shoots 3 — 12 feet high. From the stems was
made the ancient writing paper, papyrus. The stem was split into
thin strips and these were pressed together while still wet. The
rhizome is edible, and also the root-tubers of several sp.

CyphiaBerg. Campanulaceae (il). 25 sp. Afr. [Cyphiaceae, Warming.]

Cyphokentia Brongn. Palmae (iv. 6). 10 sp. New Caled.

Cyphomandra Mart, ex Sendtn. Solanaceae (11. 5). 30 sp. S. Am.

Cypripedium Linn. Orchidaceae (2). 60 sp. N. temp, and subtrop.

(C. Calceolus L. in Brit.). Lady’s-slipper orchids. Terrestrial acran-
thous plants. The lateral sepals are completely united. The labellum
is slipper-like with inturned edge ; at its base is the column, partly
enclosed in it. The large staminode (see order) is visible outside the
labellum ; under it are the two anthers, and lower down the flat
stigma. The pollen is glutinous and not united into pollinia. Insects
(mostly bees) visiting the flr. get inside the labellum and cannot get
out by the way they entered, so have to pass out by the openings at

Diagrams of Carex (after Eichler). A,
diagram of a 2-carpelled ? flr. ; B, side
view of ? flr. a. = axis of spikelet; utr.
= utricle.

354 C YPR1PEDIUM

the base, in doing which they brush first against the stigma and then
against the anthers.

Cyrilla Garden. Cyrillaceae. i sp. Carolina to Brazil, a marsh plant
with evergreen leaves, and firs, in racemes below them.

Cyrillaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapipdales). 3 gen. with 5 sp.
Am. Evergreen shrubs with alt., exstip. leaves and racemes of $ ,
regular firs. K 5, imbricate, persistent ; C 5 or (5), imbricate ; A 5 + 5
or 5, with introrse anthers; G (5 — 2), multi-loc. with 1 (rarely 2 — 4)
pendulous anatropous ovule in each loc. ; raphe dorsal, micropyle
facing upwards and inwards. Embryo straight, in endosperm.
Genera : Cliftonia, Costaea, Cyrilla. Placed in Olacales by Benth.-
Hooker.

Cyrtandra Forst. Gesneraceae (1). 200 sp. Is. of Ind. and Pacif.

Oceans, As.

Cyrtantlius Ait. Amaryllidaceae (1). 16 sp. S. Afr.

Cyrtopodium R. Br. Orchidaceae (16). 3 sp. trop. Am.

Cyrtostylis R. Br. Orchidaceae (4). 2 sp. Austr., N.Z.

Cystopteris Bemh. Polypodiaceae. 5 sp. alpine and arctic. C.fra-
gilis Bernh. (bladder-fern) is common in Brit, and C. montana Link
occurs on a few Scottish Mts. In C. bulbifera Bernh. adventitious
buds on the petioles give rise to new plants.

Cytinaceae (Benth. -Hooker) = Rafflesiaceae + Hydnoraceae. Placed in
Multiovulatae Terrestres.

Cytinus Linn. Rafflesiaceae. 2 sp. Afr.

Cytisus Linn. (incl. Sarothamnus Wimm., excl. Laburnum L.). Legu-
minosae (III. 3). 40 sp. Eur., Medit. C. (S.) scoparius Link, the

broom, in Brit. The leaves in this sp. are reduced to scales and
assimilation is chiefly performed by the stems. The flr. has an explo-
sive mechanism; in general principle this is like that of Genista (q.v.),
but it differs in detail. The style is very long and there are two
lengths of sta., so that pollen is shed near the tip of the keel and also
about half way along its upper side. The stigma is in the extreme
tip of the keel. When an insect alights on the flr. (there is no honey),
the keel begins to split from the base towards the tip, and presently
the pollen of the short sta. is shot out upon the lower surface of the
visitor; immediately afterwards, the split having reached the tip, the
other pollen and the style spring violently out and strike the insect on
the back. As the stigma touches first there is thus a chance of a cross,
if the insect bear any pollen. After the visitor’s departure the style
bends right round and the stigma comes to occupy a position just
above the short sta., so that another chance of cross-fertilisation is
afforded if other insects visit the flr. (in most exploding firs, there
is only the one chance). Other sp. of C. have simple mechanisms like
Trifolium. The fruit explodes by a twisting of the valves.

C. Ada??ii Poit. is a curious graft-hybrid between C. purpureus
Scop, and Laburnum vulgare . The latter was used as the stock ; the

DAPHNE

355

shoots a. ove the graft exhibit hybrid characters (see Darwin, Varia-
tion under Domest. ch. xi).

Daboecia D. Don (or Dabeocia ). Ericaceae (i. 3). 1 sp. D. polifolia
D. Don (St Dabeoc’s heath), in Atl. Eur. (incl. Ireland).

Dacrydium Soland. Coniferae (Taxaceae, 3; see C. for genus cha-
racters). 12 sp. Malaya, N. Z., Tasm. Most are dioecious. Fruit
scales 1 or 2 or more. Seed arillate.

Dactylis Linn. Gramineae (x). 1 sp. Eur. (incl. Brit.), Medit., As.,

D. glomerata L., the cock’s-foot, a valuable pasture grass.

Dahlia Cav. Compositae (v). 9 sp. Mexico. Perennial herbs with

tuberous roots. Many varieties of D. variabilis Desf. and other sp.
are in cultivation; the double forms have the disc florets ligulate as
well as the ray (cf. Chrysanthemum).

Dalbergia Linn. f. Leguminosae (in. 8). 120 sp. trop. Several are
lianes. D . variabilis Vog. is a shrub with pendulous twigs when
growing in the open, but in the forest becomes a liane climbing by aid
of short lateral shoots which are sensitive to contact. Many sp. yield
valuable wood, e.g. the Indian sp. D. latifolia Roxb. (blackwood or
East Indian rosewood), and D. Sissoo Roxb. (Sissoo).

Dalea Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 6). 100 sp. Am.

Dalechampia Plum, ex Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 2). 60 sp. trop. D.
Roezliana Miill.-Arg. is often grown as a stove plant; it has a very

complex infh, whose construction is roughly indicated

in the diagram. The whole is enclosed in two large ^ N

outer bracts (the big brackets), which are coloured *

pink or white. Above these on the axis is a smaller cushion,

bract (the little bracket), in whose axil is a 3-flowered * male firs. *

cyme of ? firs. (F). Above this is the <? part of the *

infl., starting with 4 bracts (in the positions repre- F F F

sented by the asterisks). Above these, anteriorly ' 1 ^

are 9 — 14 c? firs, and posteriorly a curious yellow ^ — ^

cushion, consisting of rudimentary <? firs. In a sp.

described by F. Muller the cushion secretes resin, which is used by

bees for nest making, and attracts them to the fir.

Dalibarda Linn. = Rubus Tourn. D, repens L. =R. Dalibarda L.

Damasonium Mill. Alismaceae. 3 sp. Eur., Austr.

Dammara (Rumph) Lam. = Agathis Salisb.

Dampiera R. Br. Goodeniaceae. 34 sp. Austr.

Danaea Sm. Marattiaceae (in), n sp. Am. The stem branches, a
rare character in M. The synangia are very long, sometimes reaching
from midrib to margin of the leaf. They open by a terminal pore.

Danthonia DC. Gramineae (ix). 150 sp. trop. and temp., esp. S. Afr.

Daphnales (Benth. -Hooker). The 5th series of Monochlamydeae.

Daphne Tourn. ex Linn. Thymelaeaceae. 40 sp. Eur., temp, and sub -
trop. As.; D. Mezereu?n L., the Mezereon and D. Laureola L., the
spurge-laurel, in Brit. Honey is secreted by the base of the ovary,

< 23—2

3 56

DAPHNE

and the depth of the tube preserves it for long-tongued insects.
Several sp. are cultivated.

Daphniphyllum Blume. Euphorbiaceae (A. I. 3). 12 sp. trop. Afr.,

Indo-mal., China, &c.

Daphnopsis Mart, et Zucc. Thymelaeaceae. 25 sp. S. Am., Mexico,
W. Ind.

Darlingtonia Torr. Sarraceniaceae. 1 sp. Calif. , a pitcher plant like
Sarracenia, but with the top of the tube bent over and with a fish-tail-
shaped flap in front of the opening.

Darwinia Rudge. Myrtaceae (3). 25 sp. Austr. Heath-like shrubs.

Dasylirion Zucc. Liliaceae (vi). 10 sp. Texas, Mexico. Xerophytes

of Aloe-like habit with woody, often tuberous, stems, and hard
leaves. Firs, dioecious, in gigantic infl.

Datisca Linn. Datiscaceae. 2 sp. N. Am., W. As.

Datiscaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 3 gen. with 4 sp.,
trop. and temp. Trees or herbs with exstip. leaves and racemes or
spikes of regular, usually dioecious, sometimes apetalous flrs. In the
^ flr. : K 4 — 9, free or united; C 4 — 9 or o; A 4 — 9 or 00 ._ In the
? : K 3 — 8, united to one another and to the ovary; C o; G (3 — 8),
with free styles. Ovary i-loc. with parietal placentae and 00 anatro-
pous ovules. Capsule. No endosperm. Genera: Datisca, Tetra-
meles, Octomeles. The affinities of D. are doubtful (see Nat. PjG) ;
they are probably most nearly allied to Begoniaceae. Benth. -Hooker
place them in Passiflorales, Warming in Passiflorinae.

Datura Linn. Solanaceae (in. 6). 15 sp. trop. and warm temp. D.

Stramonium L., the thorn-apple, is sometimes found as an escape in
Brit. It has a 4-loc. ovary (see order) giving a 4-valved capsule
covered with spines. The leaves and seeds are used in medicine.

Daucus (Tourn.) Linn. Umbelliferae (8). 50 sp. Eur., As., Afr., Am.

D. Carota L. the carrot, in Brit. The cultivated form has much
more fleshy roots than the wild. In the centre of the umbel is usually
a red terminal flr. After fertilisation the peduncles all bend inwards
until the fruits are ripe and then spread out again to allow the burred
mericarps to adhere to animals.

Davallia Sm. Polypodiaceae. 80 sp. mostly trop. Sori marginal.

Daviesia Sm. Leguminosae (111. 2). 55 sp. Austr.

Davilla Vand. Dilleniaceae. 25 sp. trop. Am. The two inner sepals
are larger than the rest and grow straight upwards. After fertilisa-
tion they grow woody or leathery and enclose the fruit.

Debregeasia Gaud. Urticaceae (3). 5 sp. Abyss., S. and E. As. D .
edulis Wedd. is the Janatsi of Japan, yielding edible fruit and useful
fibre (cf. Boehmeria).

Decaisnea Hook. f. et Thoms. Lardizabalaceae. 1 sp. Himal., D .
insignis H. f. et T., with edible fruit (see Hooker’s Himal. Journal ,
chap. xxv.).

Deguelia Aubl. = Derris Lour.

DEYEUXIA

357

Deherainia Dene. Myrsinaceae (i). i sp. Mex., D. smaragrfina Dene,
with large green flrs. (coloured by chlorophyll).

Delima Linn. = Tetracera Linn.

DelpMnium Tourn. ex Linn. Ranunculaceae (2). 150 sp. N. Temp.

D. Ajacis L. (larkspur) in Brit. Several sp. are cult, for their flrs.
Firs, zygomorphic in racemes ; the posterior sepal is drawn out into
a spur containing the spurs of the two posterior petals, in which the
honey is secreted. [Cf. this mode of protection with that in Aconitum,
which is far more frequently robbed by humble-bees.] The flr. is
protandrous with movement of the sta., and is fertilised by humble-
bees. The open flr. projects horizontally, but subsequently the stalk
bends upwards and the follicles stand erect so that the seeds can only
escape if they are shaken, e.g. by strong wind.

Dendrobium Sw. Orchidaceae (21). 360 sp. trop. As., Japan, Austr.,
Polynes. Epiphytes. Many are favourites in cultivation. For floral
mechanism see Darwin’s Orchids , p. 138.

Dendrocalamus Nees. Gramineae (xm). 10 sp. Indo-mal., China.

D. giganleus Munro is the giant bamboo, the largest known bamboo
(cf. Bambusa). It grows with great rapidity (see Lock in Ann .
Perad., II. 1904, p. 211), even as much as 46 cm. a day (cf. also
Smith in Ann . Perad. , III. 303).

Dendrochilum Blume. Orchidaceae (22). 3 sp. Indo-mal.

Demistaedtia Bernh. Polypodiaceae. 60 sp. trop., S. Am., Austr.

Dentaria (Tourn.) Linn. = Cardamine Linn.

Derris Lour. [Deguelia Aubl.). Leguminosae (in. 8). 40 sp. trop.

Deschampsia Beauv. Gramineae (ix). 20 sp. temp, and frigid. D.

caespitosa Beauv. (Aira) and D . flexuosa Trin. are common in Brit,
(hair grass). They are of tufted growth and are rough fodder grasses.

Desfontainia Ruiz et Pav. Loganiaceae. 1 sp. Andes, D. spinosa R.
e< P., a pretty holly-like shrub. Its position in the order is doubtful.
The ovary has 5 loculi.

Desmanthus Willd. Leguminosae (1. 3). 9 sp. sub-trop. N. Am., 1

Madag.

Desmodium Desv. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 150 sp. trop. and sub-trop.

The most interesting sp. is D . gyrans DC. the telegraph plant (the
name dates from the days of semaphore telegraphy). During the
day, provided the temperature be not below 720 F. the two small
lateral leaflets of each leaf move steadily round in elliptical orbits.
The meaning of this phenomenon is unknown. See Darwin’s Move -
7nents of Plants . At night the leaves sleep, drooping downwards.
Several sp. are useful as fodder plants, and are cultivated like clover.

Desmoncus Mart. Palmae (iv. 7). 20 sp. trop. Am. Climbing palms
with reedy stems, and hooks like those of Calamus.

Deutzia Thunb. Saxifragaceae (ill). 10 sp. N. temp. Ovary imerior
3 — 4-loc. The fruit splits septicidally into its cpls. which open each
at its apex. The seed is provided with a winged testa, very light.

Deyeuxia Clar. = Calamagrostis Adans.

358

DIACALPE

Diacalpe Blume. Polypodiaceae. i sp. trop. As.

Dialium Linn. Leguminosae (n. 5). 9 sp. trop. Petals 2, 1, or o;

sta. 2, or rarely 3. D. guineense Willd. (trop. Afr.) is the velvet
tamarind; the pod is covered with a velvety down and contains an
edible pulp. Its wood is useful and resists the action of salt water
well. D. indum L. (Java) the tamarind plum, and others have also
edible fruit.

Dianella Lam. Liliaceae (ill). 11 sp. trop. As., Austr.

Dianthera Gronov. Acanthaceae (iv. B). 70 sp. trop. Am. Included
in Justicia in Nat. PJi.

Dianthus Linn. Caryophyllaceae (1. 2). About 300 sp. Eur., As.,
Afr., N. Am., but esp. Medit., mostly in dry sunny situations (4 in
Brit. — the Pinks). The genus is readily known by the bracts under
the calyx. The firs, are very protandrous, and adapted to butterflies.
D. barbatus L. is the Sweet William, and D. Caryophyllus L. is the
parent form of the cultivated Carnation (p. 101).

Diapensia Linn. Diapensiaceae. 2 sp., one Himal., the other, D.
lapponica L., circumpolar boreal. It has a tufted habit, like so many
alpine and arctic plants. The firs, are protogynous.

Diapensiaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Ericales). 6 gen. with 9 sp.,
N. Hemisph., chiefly alpine and arctic. They are evergreen under-
shrubs, with rosettes of leaves ; the firs, solitary or in racemes, with two
bracteoles, g , actinomorphic, without a disc. K (5) or 5, C (5) nearly
polypetalous, A 5, epipetalous, opposite sepals, with frequently 5
staminodes opp. petals; anthers transverse, each lobe opening by
longitudinal slit ; pollen simple. G (3) with axile placentae bearing
00 anatropous or amphitropous ovules; style simple with 3-lobed
capitate stigma. Fruit a loculicidal capsule. Embryo cylindrical,
endosperm fleshy. Chief genei'a: Diapensia, Shortia, Galax. Placed
in Ericales by Benth. -Hooker, in Bicornes by Warming.

Diascia Link et Otto. Scrophulariaceae (11. 3). 22 sp. S. Afr.

Dicentra Bernh. Papaveraceae (ill). 15 sp. As., N. Am. D. Cucul -
laria Bernh. (Dutchman’s breeches) and other sp. are favourites
in cultivation. The rhizome of many sp. (§ Cucullaria) resembles a
succession of bulbs, on account of the fleshiness of the scale leaves and
of the sheathing bases of the foliage leaves. The materials formed in
the leaf during the growing season are stored up in the fleshy base,
which survives the winter, while the rest of the leaf dies. The firs,
are in racemes and pendulous. Each of the outer petals is developed
into a large pouch at its base, and the sta. (here branched from the
very base) follow the outer curve of the pouch. The inner petals are
spoon-shaped and cohere at the tip, forming a hood which completely
covers the anthers and stigma. The pendulous position and complex
structure of the fir. render it specially suited to bees, which hang on
to it and probe for honey first one side, then the other (the honey is in
the pouches of the petals). In so doing they push aside the hood and

DIEFFENBA CHI A

359

touch the stigma, on which there is usually pollen from its own sta.

Dichaea Lindl. Orchidaceae (30). 5 sp. trop. Am. Monopodial

creeping epiphytes with sheathing leaves.

Dichapetalaceae = Chailletiaceae.

Dichapetalum Thou. = Chailletia DC.

Dichilus DC. Leguminosae (ill. 3). 3 sp. S. Afr.

Dichondra Forst. Convolvulaceae (1. 1). 5 sp. trop., some amphicarpic.

Dichopogon Kunth. Liliaceae (hi). 2 sp. Austr.

Dichopsis Thw. = Palaquium Blanco.

Dichorisandra Mikan. Commelinaceae. 30 sp. trop. Am. Infl.
racemose (cf order); its branches often pierce the leaf- sheath.

Dichroa Lour. Saxifragaceae (ill). 1 sp. Himal. and China to Java.

Dichromena Michx. Cyperaceae (1). 8 sp. Am.

Dichrostachys Wight et Arn. Leguminosae (1. 4). 7 sp. trop. As.,

Afr., Austr. Stipules often thorny. Upper firs, of infl. $, yellow,
lower neuter and white, rose, or purple.

Dicksonia L’Herit. (incl. Cibotium Kaulf.) Cyatheaceae. 30 sp. trop.
and S. Hemisph. Most are tree ferns, eg. D. antarctica Lahill. (Austr.,
N. Z.) Sori marginal. The famous Tartarian lamb of early travellers
was the rhizome of a sp. of D. See Treas. of Bot. art. Cibotium.

Dicliptera Juss. Acanthaceae (iv. B). 60 sp. trop.

Diclytra Borckh. = Dicentra Bernh.

Dicoma Cass. Compositae (xn). 24 sp. Afr., Madag. , trop. As.

Dicoryphe Thou. Hamamelidaceae. 13 sp. Madag., Comoro Is.

Dicotyledones. One of the two great divisions of Angiospermae (^.z/.).

Dicrsea (Du Pet. Th.) Tul. Podostemaceae. 7 sp. Madag., Ceylon,
India. Thallus (root) drifting from attached base, exogenously
branched, with marginal secondary shoots. Fruit isolobous.

Dicranostyles Benth. Convolvulaceae (1. 2). 2 sp. trop. S. Am.

Dictamnus Linn. Rutaceae (11). 1 sp. Eur. As., D. albus L. ( D . Fraxi-
nella Pers.), the dittany or candle-plant. The ethereal oil secreted
by the plant is very volatile and inflammable, so that on hot calm days
the air round it may sometimes be ignited by a flame and the plant
itself burnt. The fir. is zygomorphic ; the unripe sta. are curved
downwards, and bend upwards to dehisce. The fruit opens elastically.

Dictyoloma DC. Rutaceae (vi). 2 sp. Brazil.

Dictyosperma Wendl. et Drude. Palmae (iv. 6). 3 sp. Mascarenes.

Didierea Baill. Sapindaceae (?) 2 sp. Madag. Anomalous plants with
the habit of cactus-like Euphorbias, and of doubtful affinity. See
Nat. PJi. in. 5, p. 461, Kew Bull. 1898, p. 97.

Didymo carpus Wall. ( Rottlera Vahl). Gesneriaceae (1). 80 sp. Indo-

mal., China, Madag., Austr.

Didymochlaena Desv. Polypodiaceae. 2 sp. trop. Am., Malaya.

Didymosperma H. Wendl. et Drude. Palmae (iv. 6). 8 sp. Indo-mal.

Dieffenbachia Schott. Araceae (v). 12 sp. trop. Am. Firs, monoe-

cious, naked ; the S is a synandrium of 4 or 5 sta. D. Seguine Schott

DIEFFENBA CHI A

360

is the ‘dumb cane’ of the W. Ind.; its juice is very acrid and renders
speechless a person who chews a piece of the stem. It was formerly
used in torturing slaves.

Dielytra Cham, et Schlecht. = Dicentra Bernh.

Diervilla Tourn. ex Linn. ( Weigelia Thunb.). Caprifoliaceae (4).
8 sp. E. As., N. Am. D. florida Sieb. et Zucc., and others, are
favourite garden shrubs. The fir. is adapted to bees and changes
colour after fertilisation (? only the effect of age); see Ribes, Fu-
maria, &c.

Dietes Salisb. = Moraea Linn.

Digitalis (Tourn.) Linn. Scrophulariaceae (ill. 10). 22 sp. Eur., W.

As., Canary Is. D. purpurea L., the foxglove, is common in Brit.
The firs, are in racemes, which become one-sided by twisting of the
peduncles. They are adapted to fertilisation by bees. The leaves
are officinal, containing the poisonous alkaloid digitalin.

Digitaria Heist, ex Adans. = Panicum Linn.

Digraphis Trin. = Phalaris Linn.

Dillenia Linn. (excl. Wormia Rottb.) Dilleniaceae. 25 sp. trop. As.
to Austr.

Dilleniaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 12 gen. with 180
sp., trop. They are especially well represented in the Australian
‘ scrub ’ vegetation. Most are trees and shrubs (many lianes) with
alt. usually leathery leaves and cymose infl. Fir. £ . K 5, or 3, 4 or
even 00, spiral, persistent after flowering; C usually 5; A 00 , hypo-
gynous, free or united at base. Cpls. 00 — 1, free or more or less
united; styles usually free. Ovules 00 — 1, erect, anatropous, with
ventral raphe. Placentae usually inconspicuous, unthickened. Seed
always with a funicular aril united to the testa. Endosperm copious ;
embryo small, straight. Chief genera : Hibbertia, Dillenia. Placed
in Ranales, with which they have much in common, by Benth.-
Hooker, in Cistiflorae by Warming. For details of the interesting
floral morphology see Nat, Pf.

Dimorphandra Schott. Leguminosae (11. 1). 10 sp. trop. Am.

Dimorphanthus Miq. =Aralia Tourn.

Dimorphotheca Vaill. ex Linn. Compositae (x). 20 sp. S. Afr.

There are two kinds of fruit on the head (cf. Calendula).

Dionaea Ellis. Droseraceae. 1 sp. Carolina. D. muscipula Ellis, well
known under the name of Venus’ fly-trap. It grows in damp mossy
places on the ‘pine-barrens.’ There is a short rhizome bearing a
rosette of leaves, which lie close to the soil. Each has a lower and
an upper blade ; the former may be regarded as a winged petiole, the
latter has a quadrangular shape and the margins project as long teeth
close together like those of a comb. The two halves of this part of
the leaf are bent upwards so as to present a flat V-form in section.
The edge of each half is green, the inner part of the surface is covered
with reddish dots, which under the microscope are seen to be diges*

DIOSPYROS

36 1

tive glands; unless stimulated, no secretion is carried on by them.
On each half of the leaf are three long hairs — the trigger-hairs — jointed
at the base so that they fold downwards when the leaf closes. The
slightest touch given to one of these hairs, or a more vigorous stimulus
applied to the surface of the leaf, causes an immediate closing of the
two halves of the blade. The teeth cross one another, and if an insect
cause the movement, it is thus captured. The closing of the leaf still
continues till the two halves are tightly squeezed together. Then the
digestive glands commence to secrete a ferment which acts upon the
proteids of the prey and renders them soluble, when they are absorbed
by the leaf (cf. Drosera and see p. 178). When the process is com-
plete the leaf opens out again. [For further details, see Macfarlane
in Contrib . from Bot. Lab. Pennsylv. Univ. I. 1892.]

Dionysia Fenzl. Primulaceae (1). 12 sp. alpine Persia, Afghanistan.

Dioon Lindl. Cycadaceae. 2 sp. Mexico. The seeds are ground into
meal, which contains much starch.

Dioscorea Plum, ex Linn. Dioscoreaceae. 150 sp. trop. and sub-trop.
They have twining annual stems arising from tubers which in different
sp. are of different morphological nature. In D. Batatas Dene. , &c. the
tuber arises by a lateral hypertrophy of the hypocotyl, and is variously
regarded as a rhizome or a root; in D . sinuata Vel., &c. it arises by
lateral hypertrophy of the internodes above the cotyledon; in D.
pentaphylla L., &c. it arises from the internode just above the coty-
ledon together with the hypocotyl, whilst in D . mllosa L., D. quin-
queloba Thunb., &c., there is a fleshy rhizome. The tubers are known
as yams; they contain much starch and are largely cultivated for food
in tropical countries. They are propagated by cutting out the ‘eyes’
as in potatoes. Small axillary tubers often form on the main stem
and may also be used for propagation.

Dioscoreaceae. Monocotyledons (Liliiflorae). 9 gen. with 170 sp.
trop. and warm temp. Climbing herbs or shrubs with tubers or
rhizomes at the base (the morphology of these is very varied ; see chief
genera). Leaves alt., net-veined, often arrow-shaped. Infl. race-
mose. Firs, regular, usually dioecious, inconspicuous. P (6), tubular
at base; A 6, or 3 and 3 staminodes; G (3) usually 3-loc. with axile,
rarely i-loc. with parietal, placentae. Ovules usually 2 in each loc.,
anatropous, one above the other. Capsule or berry. Embryo in
horny endosperm. The tubers of Dioscorea are valuable as food
stuffs; those of Testudinaria are also used. Chief genera: Dioscorea,
Testudinaria, Tamus. Placed in Epigynae by Benth. -Hooker, in
Liliiflorae by Warming. [See Queva, Rech. sur Panat. deVapp. veget .
d. Taccacees et d. Dioscorees , Lille. 1894.]

Diosma Linn. Rutaceae (iv). n sp. S. Afr. Heath-like xerophytes.

Diospyrinae (Warming). The 2nd cohort of Sympetalae (p. 138).

Diospyros Linn. Ebenaceae. 180 sp. trop. Many sp. yield the
valuable wood ebony. The sapwood is white and soft, the heart-

DIOSPYROS

362

wood hard and black. D. reticulata Willd. (Mauritius) and D .
Ebenum Koen. (Ceylon) yield the finest ebony. D. Embryopteris
Pers. is the gaub tree of India; its fruit contains a sticky pulp, used
for caulking seams in boats. D. Kaki L. f. is the Chinese date
plum, or persimmon, whose fruit is used as a sweetmeat when dried,
D. Lotus L. (temp. As.) the common date-plum. D. virginiana L.
(U.S.) is the N. Am. ebony or persimmon, cultivated for both wood
and fruit.

Diotis Desf. Compositae (vn). 1 sp. D. candidissima Desf. ( D . mart-

tinia Sm.), the cotton- weed, on the coasts of Brit., W. Eur., and the
Medit. A hairy perennial (p. 186).

Dipcadi Medic. Liliaceae (v). 12 sp. Afr. , Medit., trop. As.

Diphylleia Michx. Berberidaceae. 2 sp. N. Am., Japan.

Diphysa Jacq. Leguminosae (ill. 6). 10 sp. Mexico, Cent. Am.

Diplachne Beauv. Gramineae (x). 14 sp. trop. and sub-trop.

Diplacus Nutt. = Mimulus Linn.

Dipladenia A. DC. Apocynaceae (11. 4). 20 sp. S. Am. Most are

lianes climbing by hooks — “a circle of blunt spines at the bases of the
leaves.”

Diplarrhena Labill. Iridaceae (11). 2 sp. S. Austr., Tasm.

Diplazium Sw. Polypodiaceae. 210 sp. trop., Chi., Jap.

Diplotaxis DC. Cruciferae (11. 10). 20 sp. Eur., Medit. (2 in Brit.).

Diplusodon Pohl. Lythraceae. 42 sp. Brazil.

Dipsaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Aggregatae). About 150 sp. placed
in 5 to 10 genera by different authors; chiefly N. temp., Old World.
Most are herbs with opp. exstip. leaves (connate in Dipsacus), and
cymes (Triplostegia, Morina) or heads of flowers. That the heads
are also cymose (p. 65) is indicated by the fact that the firs, do not
open in strictly centripetal order. The outer firs, have the corolla
more or less drawn out on one side (cf. Compositae, Cruciferae &c.).
Bracteoles of the ordinary kind are rare (Triplostegia). Most genera
have an epicalyx, a cup- shaped organ springing from the base of the
ovary, and usually regarded as composed of the two united bracteoles.
K and C 5-merous, or 4-merous by union of two members. Sta. 4,
epipetalous. G (2), i-loc. with one pendulous anatropous ovule.
Firs, usually protandrous, of the floral class B' (p. 91). Fruit an
achene (see Compositae) usually enclosed in the epicalyx. Seed with
endosperm. Several are cultivated as ornamental plants; Dipsacus
yields teasels. Chief genera: Morina, Dipsacus, Scabiosa. Placed
in Asterales by Ben th.- Hooker, in Dipsacales by Warming. (See
Sambucus for relationships.)

Dipsacales (Warming). The 7th cohort of Sympetalae.

Dipsacus Linn. Dipsaceae. 12 sp. Medit., Eur., Afr. D. sylvestris
Mill., the common teasel, in Brit. The connate leaves form troughs
round the stem in which rain-water collects ; it is very probable that
some of this is absorbed by the plant. The protandrous firs, are

DISCHIDIA

363

chiefly visited by bees. D. fullonum L. is the fuller’s teasel. The
bracts are hooked ; the fruit-heads are largely used for raising the
nap upon cloth.

Dipteracanthus Nees = Ruellia Linn.

Dipterocarpaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 1 6 gen. with
313 sp., Seychelles to New Guinea, chiefly in India. They are mostly
trees with entire leathery stipulate leaves, and racemose infls. of $ ,
regular, pentamerous firs. Receptacle flat or slightly concave. K 5;
C 5 convolute; A 5, 10, 15 or more; G (3), 3-loc., with 2 ovules in
each loc. Fruit usually a 1 -seeded nut, enclosed in the calyx, some
of whose leaves grow out into wings serving as an aid in wind-car-
riage of the seeds. No endosperm. All contain resin-passages.
Many are very valuable as timber trees, and in other ways. Chief
genera : Dipterocarpus, Dryobalanops, Shorea, Vatica, Vateria.
Placed in Guttiferales by Benth. -Hooker, in Cistiflorae by Warming.

Dipterocarpus Gaertn. Dipterocarpaceae. 65 sp. India, Ceylon to
Philipp. Is. The large amplexicaul stipules protect the young bud
(cf. Magnolia, &c.). Several sp. yield wood-oil or Gurjun balsam, a
resinous juice obtained by tapping the base of the trunk, and used as
a varnish, &c. Many yield useful timber.

Dipteryx Schreb. ( Coumarouna Aubl.). Leguminosae (ill. 8). 8 sp.

trop. Am. D. odorata Willd. furnishes the fragrant Tonka or Ton-
quin beans (the seeds) used in snuff, perfumery &c. The fruit is one-
seeded and indehiscent.

Disa Berg. Orchidaceae (3). 60 sp. S. and trop. Afr. The median

sepal is hood-shaped with a long spur at the back ; the labellum is
usually small. “In order that insects may reach the copiously stored
nectar, they must insert their proboscides on either side of the
column; and in accordance with this fact the viscid discs are turned
outwards in an extraordinary manner. The pollinia are crooked, and
when removed bend downwards by their own weight so that no move-
ment is necessary” (Darwin).

Dischidia R. Br. (incl. Conchophyllum Blume). Asclepiadaceae (11. 4).
46 sp. Indo-mal., Polynes., Austr. Epiphytes (p. 173), climbing by
adventitious roots, and with fleshy leaves which have a covering of
wax. The most interesting sp. is the curious pitcher-plant, D. Raffle-
siana Wall., which besides the ordinary leaves, has “pitcher-leaves.”
Each of these is a pitcher with incurved margin, about 10 cm. deep.
Into the pitcher grows an adventitious root developed from the stem
or petiole just beside it. The pitcher may hang with its mouth up-
wards or may stand horizontally or upside down. No final explana-
tion of its meaning has yet been made. It usually contains a lot of
debris , apparently largely carried into it by nesting ants. Most of
the pitchers contain more or less rain water, so that very likely they
act as humus collectors and water reservoirs for the plant. The inner
surface is coated with wax, so that the water cannot be absorbed by

364

DISCHIDIA

the pitcher itself, but must be taken up by the roots. It is also sup-
posed that the pitchers are useful in condensing for re-absorption the
vapour transpired by the numerous stomata upon their inner walls.

Developmental study shows the pitcher to be a leaf with its lower
side invaginated. The existing sp. of D. illustrate all stages in the
process. Many, eg. D. bengalensis Colebr., have bi-convex leaves;
others have the under surface concave, eg. D. (C.) Collyris Wall.,
and the roots are developed under and sheltered by the concave
leaves. From this stage a further invagination would lead to D.
Rafflesianci . For further details of this interesting genus, see Treub
in Ann. Buitenz . III. 1883, Haberlandt’s Tropenreise , p. 168, and two
papers in Ann. of Bot. 1893.

Dischisma Choisy. Scrophulariaceae (11. 9). 9 sp. S. Afr.

Disciflorae (Benth. -Hooker). The 2nd series of Polypetalae (p. 133).

Disporum Salisb. Liliaceae (vn). 12 sp. N. temp. As. and Am.

Dissochaeta Blume. Melastomaceae (1). 25 sp. Indo-mal., Philippines.

Disteganthus Lem. Bromeliaceae (1). 1 sp. Cayenne.

Distichlis Rafin. Gramineae (x). 4 sp. in salt places, Am. D . mari-

time* Rafin. is also found in Austr. and is used for binding sandy soil
(cf. Ammophila, Carex).

Ditassa R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (11). 60 sp. S. Am.

Dodartia (Tourn.) Linn. Scrophulariaceae (11. 8). 1 sp. S. Russia,

W. As.

Dodecatheon Linn. Primulaceae (iv). 5 sp. N. Am., N.E. As. Like

Cyclamen.

Dodonaea Linn. Sapindaceae (11). 46 sp. Austr., Indo-mal., Madag.

Dolichandrone Fenzl. Bignoniaceae (11). 7 sp. Madag. to Malaya.

Dolichos Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 10). 30 sp. trop. D. Lablab L. is

largely cultivated in the tropics for its edible pods, which are cooked
like kidney beans. D . bijlorus L. the Horse-gram, is cultivated in
India, &c. for feeding horses and cattle.

Dombeya Cav. Sterculiaceae. 40 sp. Afr. Madag.

Dondia Spreng. = Hacquetia Neck.

Donia G. et D. Don = Clianthus Soland.

Doodia R. Br. Polypodiaceae. 5 sp. Ceylon to Austr.

Dorema D. Don. Umbelliferae (7). 4 sp. W. Centr. As. D. ammo-

niacum D. Don is the source of the gum-ammoniacum used in medicine ;
it is obtained by puncturing the stem.

Doronicum Toum. ex Linn. Compositae (vm). 25 sp. N. temp. Two
sp. are naturalised in parts of Britain.

Dorstenia Plum, ex Linn. Moraceae (1). 50 sp. trop. Am., Afr., 1 As.,
often grown in hot-houses. Herbs or shrubs with peculiar cymose infl.
The common receptacle of the firs, is a flat or hollowed fleshy structure,
often more than an inch wide. The flrs. are unisexual, sometimes all
of one sex on one receptacle, sometimes intermingled with several
males round one female. They are sunk in the receptacle, round

DROSERA

365

whose edge project a number of bracts. The perianth-segments are
completely united to one another. Sta. in thee? fir. usually 2. The
fruit when ripe is shot out of the receptacle; the latter becomes very
turgid and presses on the fruit and at length ejects it as one might fillip
away a bit of soap between finger and thumb.

Doryalis = Dovyalis E. Mey.

Doryanthes Correa. Amaryllidaceae (11). 3 sp. Austr.

Dorycnium Linn. Leguminosae (111. 5). 10 sp. Medit.

Douglasia Lindl. Primulaceae (1). 3 sp. arctic N. Am., 1 Spain to

Italy (alpine, see p. 147)*

Dovyalis E. Mey. Flacourtiaceae. 3 sp. S. Afr., Madag. See Aberia.
Placed in Bixineae by Benth. -Hooker.

Downingia Torr. (inch Clintonia Dough). Campanulaceae (ill.). 3 sp.
Oregon, Calif., Chili. D. pulchella Torr. has no twisting of the
floral axis, or not more than qo°.

Draba Dill, ex Linn. Cruciferae (iv. 14). 150 sp. N. temp, and

arctic, and south-west. N. Am., 5 in Brit, (whitlow-grass). Most are
tufted xerophytes with hairy or fleshy leaves.

Dracaena Vand. Liliaceae (vi). 40 sp. Old World trop. Mostly

trees, whose stems branch and grow in thickness (by a peculiar ‘ extra-
fascicular ’ cambium, see text-books of anatomy). The famous dragon-
tree of Teneriffe (D. Draco L.), which was blown down in 1868, was
70 ft. high and 45 ft. in girth and was supposed to be 6000 years old.
A resin exudes from the trunk of this sp., known as dragon’s blood.

Dracocephalum Linn. Labiatae (vi. 3). About 40 sp. Eur., Medit.,
As., and 1 in N. Am.

Dracontium Linn. Araceae (iv). 6 sp. trop. Am. The sympodial

rhizome gives rise yearly to one enormous leaf and an infl. The leaf
has 3 chief divisions, and the lateral ones develope dichotomously at
first. Fir. $ with perianth.

Dracophyllum Labill. (inch Sphenotoma R. Br.). Epacridaceae. 26 sp.
N. Z. , Austr. , New Caled. The sheathing leaves leave ring-scars when
they fall.

Dracnnculus (Tourn ) Adans. Araceae (vn). 2 sp. Medit. Fertilised
like Arum.

Drimia Jacq. Liliaceae (v). 15 sp. Afr.

Drimiopsis Lindl. et Paxt. Liliaceae (v). 5 sp. S. and trop. Afr.

Drimys Forst. Magnoliaceae (3). 10 sp. S. Am., and N. Z. to Borneo.
There is a distinction between calyx and corolla (cf. Illicium). The
bark of D. Winteri Forst. (Winter’s bark) is medicinal.

Drosera Linn. Droseraceae. 90 sp. trop. and temp. 3 in Brit, of
which D. rotundifolia L., the sundew, is abundant in bogs. They are
herbs usually with creeping rhizomes and rosettes of leaves. The blade
of the leaf is circular in some sp., elongated in others, and is set with
curious tentacles; these are emergences (p. 114) containing vascular
bundles and ending in swollen reddish heads which secrete a sticky

DROSERA

366

fluid that glistens in the sun like dew. Flies and other insects mis-
taking it for honey are held by it. The tentacles are exceedingly
sensitive to continued pressure even by the lightest bodies ; the result
is to cause an inward and downward movement of the head of the
tentacle, finally placing the fly upon the blade of the leaf. At the
same time the stimulus passes to the surrounding tentacles causing
them also to bend downwards to the same point. The victim is thus
smothered and now the glandular heads of the tentacles secrete a
ferment which acts upon the proteids of the insect and brings them
into solution, when they are taken up by the leaf. Afterwards the
tentacles expand once more and recommence the secretion of the
sticky fluid. It has been shown by direct experiment that the food
thus obtained is of great benefit to the plant, though it can live without
it. By this means D. is able to live in very poor soil where no other
flowering plants can live. It is noteworthy that the extra materials
thus obtained are devoted chiefly to seed-production. If the stimulus
produced by the capture of an insect be very powerful, the leaf itself
may bend into a cup form, and this feature is very marked in some sp.,
the leaves bending almost double over the prey. [See p. 178-]

The firs, of the Brit. sp. rarely open, but pollinate themselves in
the bud. The stigmas are branched each into two lobes.

Droseraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sarraceniales) . 6 gen. with 100
sp. Drosera is a cosmopolitan genus, the rest are more local in distri-
bution. Herbaceous plants, usually with perennial rhizome and
rosettes of leaves. Aldro vanda is a water-plant. All are insectivorous
plants; Dionaea and Aldrovanda have sensitive leaves which shut up
when touched, the others catch their prey by means of sticky tentacles
upon the leaves. For details see individual genera. Firs, usually in
cincinni, rarely in racemes or solitary, £ , regular, 5 — 4-merous, usually
hypogynous. K (5) ; C 5, imbricate or convolute ; A usually 5, pollen
in tetrads (cf. Ericaceae). Cpls. 2, 3 or 5, united; placentae usually
parietal, rarely axile or free-central; style long; stigmas simple or
branched. Ovules 3 — 00 , anatropous. Loculicidal capsule. Seed
with endosperm and small basal embryo. Genera : Dionaea, Aldro-
vanda, Drosophyllum, Drosera, Byblis, Roridula. Placed in Rosales
by Benth.-Hooker, in Cistiflorae by Warming.

Drosophyllum Link. Droseraceae. 1 sp., D . lusitanicum Link, Morocco,
Portugal, S. Spain. The long narrow leaves are provided with
glands of two kinds— stalked glands secreting a sticky fluid (cf.
Drosera), and sessile ones which only secrete when stimulated by
nitrogenous matter, and then secrete a digestive ferment. Insects
alight on the glands and are entangled by the sticky secretion ; they
struggle for a while and finally sink down and die upon the leaf and
are digested by the ferment. The taller glands have no power of
movement, but are able to secrete a ferment as well as the sessile ones.
[See p. 178 and Bot. Cent . 60, p. 33 ]

EBENACEAE

367

Drupaceae (Warming) = Rosaceae (sub-order v).

Dryandra R. Br. Proteaceae (11). 50 sp. Austr. Like Banksia.

Dryas Linn. Rosaceae (in. 6). 2 sp. arctic. B. odopetata L. alpine

in Brit. It is androdioecious in the Alps, but probably the c? plants
are due to poor nourishment (p. 68). The style becomes feathery
after fertilisation (cf. Clematis, Geum).

Drymaria Willd. Caryophyllaceae (11. 3). 30 sp. trop. and S. temp.

Drymoglossum Presl. Polypodiaceae. 10 sp. trop., Jap., Chi. D.
carnosum Hk. has succulent leaves.

Drymonia Mart. Gesneriaceae (1). 15 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind.

Dryobalanops Gaertn. f. Dipterocarpaceae. 4 sp. Borneo, Sumatra.
D. aromatica Gaertn. and other sp. yield Borneo or Sumatra cam-
phor; it is found in the cracks of the wood and is obtained by cutting
up the trunk into pieces. It is rarely seen in Europe, being used
chiefly in China, where it commands a high price. The young leaves
are red, and hang downwards (p. 157).

Duguetia A. St. Hil. Anonaceae (3). 20 sp. trop. S. Am. D. quita-
rensis Benth. and other sp. furnish, it is said, some of the lancewood
of commerce. The fruit is formed of the individual berries or achenes
united to the fleshy receptacle.

Duranta Linn. Verbenaceae (11). 8 sp. S. Am.

Durio Adans. Bombacaceae. 7 sp. Indo-mal. D. zibetkinus Murr.
produces the durian fruit, well known for its delicate flavour and
disagreeable smell.

Duroia Linn. f. Rubiaceae (1. 8). 10 sp. S. Am. The chief interest

is the myrmecophilous habit (p.114). D. petiolaris Hk. f. and D.
hirsuta K. Sch. have stems swollen just below the infl. The swollen
part is hollow and entrance is obtained by two longitudinal slits. This
curious organ seems to arise spontaneously and is inhabited by ants,
which bite through the thin parenchymatous tissue of the slits. D.sacci-
fera Benth. et. Hk. f., on the other hand, has its ‘ant-houses’ on the
leaves. At the base, upon the under side of each leaf, are two pear-
shaped organs formed by outgrowth of the leaf. The entrance is upon
the upper side of the leaf, and protected from the rain by a little flap.

Duvaua Kunth = Schinus Linn.

Dyclda Schult. f. Bromeliaceae (3). 6 sp. Brazil.

Dypsis Noronha. Palmae (tv. 6). 6 sp. Madag. (p. 158).

Dysodia Cav. Compositae (vi). 34 sp. Am.

Dysoxylum Blume. Meliaceae. 100 sp. Indo-mal.

Ebenaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Ebenales). 5 gen. with 280 sp.
trop. (especially Indo-mal.). Trees and shrubs with alt., opp. or
whorled, simple, leathery, usually entire leaves. Firs, axillary, soli-
tary or in small cymes, regular, usually dioecious, bracteolate, 3 — 7-
merous. K persistent, gamosepalous ; C convolute, gamopetalous.
Sta. epipetalous at base of tube, usually in 2 whorls but frequently 00
by branching; staminodes usually present in % firs., ovary syncarpous,

368

EBENACEAE

superior, 2 — 16-loc., with 1 — 2 anatropous ovules pendulous in each
loc. Styles 2 — 8, free or united below. Fruit usually a berry with
fewer seeds than there were formerly ovules, sometimes dehiscent.
Embryo straight or slightly curved, in abundant cartilaginous endo-
sperm. Many of these trees yield valuable wood, eg. Diospyros.
Genera : Royena, Euclea, Maba, Diospyros, Tetraclis. Placed in
Ebenales by Benth. -Hooker, in Diospyrinae by Warming.

Ebenales. The 3rd cohort of Sympetalae in Engler’s system, the 6th
in Bentham and Hooker’s system (pp. 131, 134).

Ebenus Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 14 sp. Medit.

Ecballium A. Rich. Cucurbitaceae (ill). 1 sp. Medit., E. Elaterinm
A. Rich., the squirting cucumber. When ripe the fruit is highly
turgid. As it drops from the stalk, a hole is made in its lower end,
and through this the contraction of the pericarp squirts the seeds,
mixed with a watery fluid. A powerful purgative (elaterium) is pre-
pared from the fruit.

Eccremocarpus Ruiz et Pav. Bignoniaceae (ill). 3 sp. Peru. See
order. The valves of the fruit hang together at the top.

Echeveria DC. = Cotyledon Linn.

Echidnopsis Hook. f. Asclepiadaceae (11. 4). 4 sp. E. Afr. Xero-

phytes with succulent stems.

Echinocactus Link et Otto. Cactaceae (1. 1). 200 sp. Texas to Chili.

Ribbed cacti (see order).

Echinocereus Engel m. =Cereus Haw.

Echinocystis Torr. et Gray. Cucurbitaceae (iv). 25 sp. Am. Tuber-
ous climbing herbs. E. lobata Torr. et Gray is often cultivated.
Its tendrils are very sensitive and nutate very rapidly. The tendril
becomes straight and erect as it comes round towards the main axis,
thus avoiding contact.

Echinopiiora Tourn. ex Linn. Umbelliferae (4). 8 sp. Medit. One

cpl. is aborted. The umbel has one ? flr. in the centre, surrounded
by c? firs. The spiny stalks of the latter enclose the fruit.

Echinops Linn. Compositae (xi). 75 sp. E. Eur., Afr., As. The

spherical head is really compound, formed of a great number of small
1 -flowered heads, each with its own involucre. The firs, are largely
visited by bees.

Echinopsis Zucc. = Cereus Haw.

Echinopterys A. Juss. Malpighiaceae (1, but forming a link between
1 and 2, as it has a flat torus). 1 sp. Mexico. Mericarp spiny.

EcMnospermum Sw. Boraginaceae (iv. 2). 50 sp. temp. E. Lappula
Lehm. is often cultivated. The firs, change colour from white to red
and blue (see order). Fruit hooked.

Echites P. Br. Apocynaceae (11. 4). 40 sp. Am.

Echium Tourn. ex Linn. Boraginaceae (iv. 5). 30 sp. Eur., Medit.
E. vulgare L. , viper’s bugloss, in Brit. Fir. zygomorphic, protand-
rous, visited by bees.

ELAEOCARPACEAE

369

Edwardsia Salisb. = Sophora Linn.

Ehretia Linn. Boraginaceae (11). 40 sp. trop., chiefly Old World.

Trees and shrubs.

Ehrharta Thunb. Gramineae (vn). 20 sp. S. Afr., 2 Mascar., 2

N. Z. Useful pasture grasses for sandy soil.

Eichhornia Kunth. Pontederiaceae. 5 sp. S. Am. The sympodium
is very complex (see Nat . PJl.). Each shoot in turn is pushed to one
side by the axillary shoot of its last leaf but one ; with this shoot it is
combined, however, up to the first leaf of the axillary shoot. After
leaving the axillary shoot, each shoot bears another leaf, and then
ends in the infl., which is enclosed in a spathe, and which at first
glance appears to spring from the stalk of the last leaf. In E . azurea
Kunth. the firs, are dimorphic, in E . crassipes Solms trimorphic
heterostyled. This last sp. has, when floating freely in water, large
bladder-like swollen petioles, but if it be grown in soil, these are not
nearly so large. They cause the plant to float high in the water and
it is easily blown about by wind, and has become a very troublesome
weed (water hyacinth) in Florida, Java, Australia, <Scc.

Elaeagnaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Thymelaeales). 3 gen. with
17 sp. found chiefly on steppes and coasts of the N. Hemisph. They
are much branched shrubs, often with leathery leaves, which are
entire, opp. or alt., and covered, as are all parts of the plants, with
scaly hairs. There are frequently thorns on the surface (reduced
shoots). Infl. racemose. Firs, g or unisexual, 2 - or 4-merous. In
the <? the receptacle is often flat, but in the £ or ? flower it is tubular
as in Thymelaeaceae, and may be fused with the ovary. No petals.
Sta. as many, or twice as many as sepals. Cpl. 1 with one erect
anatropous ovule. Fruit a pseudo-drupe. Seed with little or no
endosperm. Chief genera : Hippophae, Elaeagnus. Placed in Daph-
nales by Benth. -Hooker, in Thymelaeinae by Warming.

Elaeagnus (Tourn.) Linn. Elaeagnaceae. 12 sp. As., Eur., N. Am.
(the oleaster). The fruit of some sp. is edible, and the plants are
grown in shrubberies.

Elaeis Jacq. Palmae (iv. 7)* 2 sp., one *n trop. Am., the other, E .

guineensis J acq. in trop. Afr. The latter is the oil-palm, from whose
fruits the palm-oil, so largely used for railway axles &c., is obtained
by boiling.

Elaeocarpaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Malvales). 7 gen. with 120
sp. trop. and sub-trop. Trees and shrubs with alt. or opp., stipulate
leaves, and racemes, panicles or dichasia of firs. Disc usually present.
K 4 or 5, free or united, valvate; C 4 or 5, rarely united, the petals
often much divided at the ends, valvate or imbricate but never convo-
lute. Fir. often apetalous. Sta. 00 , free, on the disc, which is some-
times developed to an androphore; anthers 2-loc., usually opening
by two pores (sometimes confluent) at the apex. Ovary sessile, with
2 — 00 (rarely 1) loc. Ovules in each loc. 00 or 2, anatropous, pendu-

24

W.

37o

ELAEOCARPACEAE

Ions with ventral raphe. Style simple, sometimes lobed at apex.
Fruit a capsule or drupe. Embryo straight, in abundant endosperm.
Chief genera: Elaeocarpus, Sloanea, Aristotelia. The E. are united
to Tiliaceae by Benth.- Hooker and Warming; the grounds upon
which they are separated in Nat, PJi . are chiefly anatomical.

Elaeocarpus Burm. ex Linn. Elaeocarpaceae. 60 sp. trop.

Elaeodendron Jacq. f. Celastraceae. 30 sp. As., Austr., S. Afr., trop.
Am. Included in Cassine in Nat. PJi .

Elaphoglossum Schott. Polypodiaceae. 250 sp. trop. Included in
Acrostichum L. by Hooker. [Christ, Monographie> Zurich, 1899.]

Elaterium Jacq. Cucurbitaceae (iv). 12 sp. trop. Am. The fruit is

explosive like that of Ecballium.

Elatinaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 2 gen. with 30 sp.
trop. and temp. Undershrubs, herbs, or annual water-plants; the
latter are able to live on land, altering their structure to suit the
changed conditions (see p. 20 and cf. Littorella, &c.). Leaves opp.
or whorled, simple with interpetiolar stipules. Firs. £ , regular,
solitary or in dichasia, 2 — 6-merous. Calyx hypog., free or united.
Corolla imbricate. Sta. in 2 whorls, or inner aborted. Ovary syn-
carpous, superior, multiloc.,with simple style. Placentae axile. Ovules
00 , anatropous. Capsule septifragal. Seed straight or curved.
Endosperm thin or none. Genera: Bergia, Elatine. Placed in
Guttiferales by Benth. -Hooker, in Cistiflorae by Warming.

Elatine Linn. Elatinaceae. 14 sp. trop. and temp. E . hexandra DC.
and E . Hydropiper L., the water peppers or pipe- worts, in Brit. (rare).

Elatineae (Benth. -Hooker) = Elatinaceae.

Elatostema Forst. Urticaceae. 90 sp. trop. As. E. acuminatum
Brongn. is apogamous (cf. Angiospermae). Some sp. show good
water secretion from the leaves (p. 1 14).

Eleocharis R. Br. Cyperaceae (1). 130 sp. cosmop. E. palustris

R. Br. (spike-rush) is common on turfy moors in Brit. The green
tissue is centric (p. 182). The tubers of E. tuberosa Schult. (E. As.)
are used as food.

Elephantopus Linn. Compositae (1). 20 sp. trop.

Elettaria Maton. Zingiberaceae. 1 sp. Indo-mal., E. Cardamomum
Maton. The firs, are borne on leafless shoots from the rhizome. The
plant is commonly cult, in the mountains of Ceylon and S. India,
under the name of cardamoms. The ripe fruits are picked and dried;
the seeds form a strongly flavoured spice, mainly used in India, but
also to some extent elsewhere, especially of late.

Eleusine Gaertn. Gramineae (xi). 6 sp. trop. and sub-trop. E.

coracana Gaertn. (kurakkan or ragi) is extensively cult, as a cereal
in Ceylon, India, Africa, &c., and others are useful fodders.

Elisma Buchen. Alismaceae. 1 sp. Eur. (incl. Brit.), Syria, E. natans
Buchen.

Elleanthus Presl. Orchidaceae (14). 50 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind.

EM PETR UM

37i

EUipantims Hook. f. Connaraceae. 4 sp. Indo-mal.

Ellipeia Hook. f. et Thoms. Anonaceae (2). 8 sp. Malaya.

Ellisia Linn. Hydrophyllaceae. 4 sp. N. Am.

Elodea Michx. Hydrocharitaceae. 6 sp. Am., of which the chief is
E . canadensis Michx., the American water-weed, which arrived in
Brit, about 1842 and rapidly spread over almost all the inland waters
of western Europe. Only the ? plant is known in Europe, and all the
spreading is therefore due to vegetative multiplication chiefly by the
breaking off of twigs. It is a submerged plant, slightly rooted, with
whorls of leaves, in whose axils are found the squamulae usual in
this group of plants. The <? flower has P 6, A 9 ; it breaks off as a
bud and comes to the surface (cf. Vallisneria), where it opens. The
ovary of the $ fir. grows to such a length as to bring the fir. to the
surface, where it is pollinated. It has P 6, staminodes 3, G (3), and
is enclosed below in a 2-leaved spathe. The plant is very hardy and
does not form a true winter bud ; the leaves are merely a little more
closely grouped together.

Elsholtzia Willd. Labiatae (vi. 12). 20 sp. As., Eur., Abyss.

Elymus Linn. Gramineae (xn). 50 sp. temp. E. arenarius L. the

lyme grass, occurs on sand-dunes in Brit. (cf. Ammophila, and see
p. 186) ; its leaves are coated with wax, but do not roll up in dry air.

Elytraria Michx. ( Tubijiora Gmel.) Acanthaceae (1). 15 sp. trop.

and sub-trop.

Embelia Burm. f. Myrsinaceae (11). 60 sp. trop.

Embothrium Forst. Proteaceae (11). 5 sp. Andes, Chili, E. Austr.

Emex Neck. Polygonaceae (1. 2). 1 sp. Medit., S. Afr., Austr. The

fruit is surrounded by the perianth, 3 of whose leaves are spiny.

Emilia Cass. (incl. in Senecio Tourn. in Nat. PJi .). Compositae (vm).
25 sp. trop., China, Madag.

Emmenanthe Benth. Hydrophyllaceae. 10 sp. N.W. N. Am.

Empetraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). 3 gen. with 4 sp.,
widely scattered over the N. Hemisph. and in the Andes. They
occupy similar positions to the Ericaceae, and have a heath-like habit.
The leaves are incurved backwards, forming a cavity on the under
side, into which the stomata open, and which is partly filled up by
hairs. The infl. is racemose and usually dioecious. In all but Corema
the firs, are on ‘ short shoots ’ which arise laterally irom the main
axis and bear only scales below the infl. K 3, C 3, A3, G(2 — 9).
Loculi = cpls. ; ovules 1 in each, anatropous or nearly campylotropous,
erect on axile placenta, with ventral raphe. Fruit a drupe with 2 — 9
stones. Seed albuminous with no caruncle. The nearest related
orders are Euphorbiaceae and Celastraceae or Buxaceae, but the
family has been placed in various positions by different authors, e.g.
by Benth. -Hooker (p. 136). Genera: Corema, Empetrum, Ceratiola.

Empetrum (Tourn.) Linn. Empetraceae. The only sp., E. nigrum
L., the crow-berry, is found on moors in the N. temp, zone (incl.

372

EMPETRUM

Brit.) and in the Andine chain. For habit, flr., &c. see order. The
flr. is dioecious and anemophilous, but is sometimes $ and protandrous,
and is said to be visited by flies.

Empleurum Ait. Rutaceae (iv). i sp. S. Afr.

Enantioblastae (Warming). The 4th cohort of Monocotyledons.

Encelia Adans. Compositae (v). 30 sp. Chili to Calif.

Encephalartos Lehm. Cycadaceae. 25 sp. Afr. The Kaffirs prepare
a meal from the pith (cf. Cycas).

Endiandra R. Br. Lauraceae (11). 20 sp. Indo-mal., Austr.

Engelliardtia Leschen. Juglandaceae. 10 sp. Indo-mal., China.

Engelmannia Torr. et Gray. Compositae (v). 1 sp. S.W. U. S., Mex.

Enhalus Rich. Hydrocharitaceae. r sp. Indo-mal., living in salt
water. The $ firs, float horizontally at low water, and catch the
<? firs., which (as in Vallisneria) break off and float. As the tide
rises, the ? firs, stand vertically, and the pollen, which is heavier
than water, sinks down upon the stigmas. The testa bursts when
the seed is ripe, and the young embryo is freed (Svedelius, Ann .
Perad ., II. 267).

Enicostema Blume. Gentianaceae (1. 2). 1 sp. trop.

Entada Adans. Leguminosae (1. 5). 12 sp. trop. The seeds of E.

scandens , a common trop. climber, are carried to Eur. by the Gulf
Stream.

Entelia R. Br. Tiliaceae. 1 sp. N. Z. (p. 148). Wood very light.

Enterolobium Mart. Leguminosae (1. 1). 5 sp. trop. Am.

Eomecon Hance. Papaveraceae (11). 1 sp. China.

Epacridaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Ericales). 21 gen. with about
320 sp., found chiefly in Austr. and Tasmania, where they represent
the Ericaceae of other continents, but extending also to India, N. Z.,
and S. Am. They resemble the Ericaceae (sect. IV.) closely in habit
and appearance, being mostly small shrubs, sparingly branched, with
narrow, entire, rigid leaves, usually alternate. Sometimes the leaves
are sheathing, in which cases either no scar is left on the stem when
the leaf falls, or a ring mark is left, as in Dracophyllum. The firs, are
usually in terminal racemes or spikes, g > actinomorphic. K5, C (5),
A 5, hypogynous at edge of disc, or more often epipetalous; the anthers
opening by one central longitudinal slit and without horns or other
appendages; pollen simple or in tetrads. G(5) cpls. opposite petals,
placentae axile; ovules in each loc. 1 — co , anatropous, usually pendu-
lous. Style simple, sometimes in depression of top of ovary, with a
capitate stigma. Fruit a capsule or stony drupe. Embryo straight, in
copious endosperm. Chief genera : Sprengelia, Richea, Draco-
phyllum, Epacris, Styphelia. Placed in Ericales by Benth. -Hooker,
in Bicornes by Warming.

Epacrideae (Benth. -Hooker) = Epacridaceae.

Epacris Forst. Epacridaceae. 30 sp. S.E. Austr., N.Z., New Caled.
They are much cultivated in greenhouses for their firs.

EPIMEDIUM

373

Epaltes Cass. Compositae (iv). 12 sp. trop.

Ephedra Tourn. ex Linn. Gnetaceae. 20 sp. warm temp. Shrubs,
much branched, with opp. connate leaves reduced to scales, so that
the stem performs the work of assimilation (p. 1 66). Firs, diclinous,
with no trace of cpls. in S , or of sta. in $ . $ firs, in spikes, the ? in

pairs or solitary, usually bracteate. The <? fir. has a perianth of
2 antero-posterior united leaves, beyond which the axis is prolonged
and bears 2 — 8 sessile 2-locular anthers. The ? has a tubular perianth
and one erect orthotropous ovule with a long micropyle projecting at
the top of the fir. ; the fir. or firs, are enclosed by bracts which become
red and fleshy after fertilisation and enclose the fruit. The seed is
enclosed in the perianth, which becomes woody, and the fleshy bracts
cover this again. There are two cotyledons in the embryo ; the seed
is albuminous. For further details see Nat . PJi ., and art. Gymno-
spermae.

Epidendrum Linn. Orchid aceae (13). Over 500 sp. trop. Am., many
epiphytic. The labellum is often more or less united to the column,
and a canal runs from the junction right down into the ovary.

Epigaea Linn. Ericaceae (11. 4). 2 sp., E. asiatica Maxim, in Japan,

E. repens L., the trailing arbutus or mavflower, in the atlantic
U.S. (p. 146). The firs, are tetramorphic (Darwin,' Forms of Firs .
p. 297).

Epigynae (Benth. -Hooker). The 2nd series of Monocotyledons.

Epilobium Dill, ex Linn. Onagraceae (ti). 160 sp. temp, and arctic;

9 in Brit, (willow-herbs). The fir. is regular, but in some sp. slightly
zygomorphic by the bending of sta. and style (p. 74), which project
so as to make a landing-place for insects. Of the Brit. sp. several may
be noticed, as the firs, form an interesting series in regard to cross-
pollination, &c. (cf. Phacelia, Geranium, &c.). In E. angnstifolium
L. the firs, are large and autogamy almost impossible. Honey is
secreted by the upper surface of the ovary. The sta. are ripe when
the fir. opens, and project horizontally, whilst the style, with its
stigmas closed, is bent downwards. Afterwards the sta. bend down
and the style up, and the stigmas open. This is the plant in which
C. K. Sprengel (1793, see biography in Nat . Science , 1893) made the
first discovery of dichogamy. In E. hirsutum L. sta. and stigma are
ripe together, but the stigma projects beyond the sta. ; if not polli-
nated it bends back and touches the anthers. E. parviflornm Schreb.
is a small-flowered sp., rarely visited by insects ; 4 sta. are shorter,
4 longer, than the style ; the former are only useful for cross-pol-
lination, the latter self-pollinate the fir. Sta. and stigma ripen
simultaneously. The seed of E. is provided with a tuft of hairs
for wind-carriage.

Epimedium (Tourn.) Linn. (excl. Vancouveria C. Morr. et Dene.).
Berberidaceae. 10 sp. N. temp. Old World. E . alpinum L. is
naturalised in Brit. It has, like most E., a 2-merous fir., which is

374

E PJ MEDIUM

pendulous, with glandular hairs on the stalk. It is protogynous, and
after a time the valves of the anthers bend upwards and roof over the
stigma, and the male stage begins. Finally self-pollination occurs by
the elongation of the style carrying the stigma among the valves.
The nectaries are of a curious shoe-like pattern. The seeds have
a membranous aril.

Epipactis Adans. Orchidaceae (4). 10 sp. N. temp.; 2 in Brit., E. lati-
folta All., and E. palustris Crantz (helleborine). There are two
staminodes at the sides of the column ; the anther is acrotonic. The
labellum has a hinged terminal portion, which by its rebound causes
the insect to fly somewhat upwards in leaving the fir. In so doing it
rubs the rostellum, which instantly becomes very viscid and cements
the pollinia (which have no true caudicles) to the insect. The chief
visitors are wasps (p. 92). See Darwin’s Orchids , p. 93.

Epiphyllum Haw. Cactaceae (1. 1). 4 sp. Brazil, often epiphytic.

Epipogum S. G. Gmel. Orchidaceae (4). 1 sp. Eur. (incl. Brit.), As.,
E. aphyllum Sw. a leafless saprophyte (p. 177) with a branched
rhizome and no roots ; it has an endotropic mycorhiza (p. 39). Fir.
as in Epipactis, but without any twisting of the receptacle.

Epipremnum Schott. Araceae (11). 8 sp. Indo-mal.

Epirrhizantlies Blume=Salomonia Lour.

Episcia Mart. Gesneriaceae (1). 30 sp. trop. Am.

Epithema Blume. Gesneriaceae (1). 10 sp. Indo-mal., trop. Afr.

Equisetaceae. Pteridophyta (Equisetineae). An order with only one
surviving genus (Equisetum, q.v .), but formerly well represented upon
the earth. Many large fossil forms (Calamites, &c.) are known.

Equisetineae. One of the main divisions of Pteridophyta (q.v.), con-
taining the single order Equisetaceae.

Equisetum Linn. Equisetaceae (the only genus). 25 sp. temp, and
arctic ; 9 in Brit, (horsetails), chiefly in swampy places. They are
perennial herbs with sympodial rhizomes, which send up aerial shoots
each year. These may be of one or two kinds ; in some sp. the
ordinary green shoot bears the reproductive spike at the end, while in
others there is a special reproductive shoot, usually appearing early
in the year, and often without chlorophyll, the ordinary shoots per-
forming assimilating work only. The stem is very distinctly jointed,
and at the nodes are borne whorls of united leaves, closely pressed
against the stem, and of little or no use in assimilation. The branches
emerge through the leaf-sheath and thus appear at first sight endo-
genous in origin (p. 38) ; in reality they are exogenous, but formed
so much later than the leaves that their points of origin are already
covered by the leaf-sheath, and so they are compelled to burrow
through it. Stages in this process may easily be observed. The
surface of the stem is grooved; the ridges are occupied by mechanical
tissue, whilst the green tissue and stomata are at the base of the
furrows. This is a marked xerophytic structure (p. 166) and is

ERIACHNE

375

repeated very closely in Casuarina. In several sp. the internodes of
the rhizome are swollen into tubers, which serve for hibernation and
vegetative propagation.

The spike is very like the c? fir. of a Conifer, and has as much right
to the title of flower. It consists of an axis with short internodes,
bearing a densely packed mass of sporophylls. Each is shield-shaped
and bears a number of sporangia upon the under side of the head
(i.e. towards the stem), arranged like the horses of a ‘ merry-go-
round.’ The spores are of one kind only; each has, running round
it, two spiral cuticularised bands of membrane, formed from the outer
wall and termed elaters. These are hygroscopic, unfolding in damp
air. In the rolling up again on drying, the elaters of one spore
become entangled with those of others and cause them to adhere
together, so that several prothalli may be formed near to one another
when they germinate upon the soil. This is very necessary, for the
prothalli are dioecious, though so far as we can tell the spores are all
alike. The prothallus is fairly large, the male being smaller than the
female.

The stems of E. hyemale L. are used for polishing under the name
of Dutch rushes; the cell-walls of the mechanical tissues contain much
silica, as do also those of most sp.

For further details, see Pteridophyta, and Campbell’s Mosses and
Fe?'ns.

Eragrostis Host. Gramineae (x). 150 sp. mostly subtrop.

Eranthemum Linn. (excl. Pseuderanthemum Radlkf.). Acanthaceae
(iv. a). 17 sp. trop. As.

Eranthis Salisb. Ranunculaceae (2). 7 sp. N. temp. E . hyemalis

Salisb., the winter aconite, is naturalised in Brit. It has a thick
rhizome or row of tubers, one formed each year. The firs, appear in
February, before the leaves, and are solitary and terminal. Each has
an involucre of three green leaves, a ‘calyx’ of 6 segments, and
several honey-leaves or petals.

Ercilla A. Juss. Phytolaccaceae. 1 sp. Chili, Peru. E. volubilis A.
Juss., climbing by adhesive discs, endogenously developed just above
the leaf-axils.

Erechtites Rafin. Compositae (vm). 15 sp. Am., Austr., N.Z.

Eremanthus Less. Compositae (1). 20 sp. Brazil.

Eremia D. Don. Ericaceae (iv. 10). 30 sp. S. Afr.

Eremophila R. Br. Myoporaceae. 30 sp. Austr.

Eremostachys Bunge. Labiatae (vi. 4). 40 sp. mid. and W. As.

Eremurus Bieb. Liliaceae (1 11). 20 sp. Alpine W. and Cent. As. The
fir. is protogynous ; the petals crumple up before the essential organs
are ripe. The leaves of E. auranUacits Baker are eaten in Afghan-
istan.

Eria Lindl. Orchidaceae (21). 120 sp. trop. As. Epiphytes.

Eriaclme R. Br. Gramineae (ix). 22 sp. trop. As., Austr.

376

ERIANTHUS

Erianthus Michx. Gramineae (ii). 17 sp. trop.

Erica (Tourn.) Linn. Ericaceae (iv. 9). 420 sp. Eur. (esp. Medit.) and
S. Afr. (see order). 5 sp. occur in Brit. The two common heaths,
E. cinerea L. and E. Tetralix L., cover great areas of moor; the
others are rarities of Cornwall and Ireland. In habit E. resembles
Calluna. The fir. is bell-shaped and pendulous, visited and fertilised
mainly by bees. Honey is secreted by the disc, and insects hanging
on to the fir. and probing for it, must shake the sta. and receive a
shower of the loose powdery pollen from the pores in the tips of the
anthers. In the wider mouthed sp. the anthers have horn-like pro-
jections at the back, which ensure contact with the insect’s proboscis.
The stigma projects beyond the sta. so as to be touched first.

Many S. Afr. sp. are cultivated in greenhouses. E. scoparia L. is
the common heath of S. France, &c., growing several feet high. It is
known as Bruyere and its rootstocks furnish ‘briar’ wood pipes.
The roots of heaths possess an endotropic mycorhiza.

Ericaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Ericales). A family of about 50
gen. and 1350 sp. Owing to their numbers and their social habit of
growth the E. form very characteristic
parts of the vegetation in many portions
of the globe. They are found in most
parts of the world except in deserts and
in hot damp tropical regions. The Eri-
coideae are confined to Africa, Medit. and
Europe, the two great masses of them
being however separated by the Sahara,
though sp. of Erica, &c. occur in each.

Another peculiar phenomenon is that
those sp. of Andromedeae with north
circumpolar distribution (e.g. Andromeda
polifolia) have their nearest allies in trop.
and sub-trop. floras (see Drude in Nat. PJl. or PJianzengeog. for a full
discussion of the interesting distribution of E. See also the genera,
esp. Rhododendron, Vaccinium, Calluna, Erica).

The distribution of E. on arctic moors and swamps and on dry
moors in warmer regions (almost all of them grow in peaty soil) would
lead us to expect the presence of xerophytic characters in them ; and
such is indeed the case, especially in Ericoideae . The family consists
of woody plants varying in size from small undershrubs to large shrubs
or even trees. Two types of habit may be distinguished — that of
Ericoideae and that of the remaining tribes. In the latter there are
usually true winter-buds formed (e.g. Rhododendron), even though
the leaves may last over the winter. The bud is covered with scale
leaves, and when its elongation occurs these drop off and a gap is left
on the stem ; the foliage leaves tend to form rosettes at the ends of the
twigs. The leaves themselves are generally elliptical, entire or nearly

ERICACEAE

377

so, and leathery, frequently hairy. The upper epidermis is stoutly
cuticularised, and there is very often water storage tissue between it
and the green tissue. In the Ericoideae there are no true winter-buds
or scale-leaves; the plants are evergreen, and the whorled leaves
needle-like, often through being rolled back on themselves to form a
groove or even a chamber on the under side (cf. Empetrum, and see
p. 1 66).

The infl. commonly terminates a strongly growing shoot, and a
sympodial growth tends to be formed. The firs, may be solitary, but
are more often in racemose groupings, each with a bract and two
bracteoles, 5 , actinomorphic or slightly zygomorphic. K 4 — 5 ; C
(4 — 5) or 4 — 5 ( Lcdeae ), usually bell-shaped; A 8 — 10, obdiploste-
monous, hypogynous or rarely slightly epipetalous; anthers introrse,
often with projecting appendages, the thecae often spreading at top,
and opening by apical pores; pollen grains in tetrads. Below the
gynoeceum is a fleshy disc secreting honey. G (4 — 5) superior or
inferior, 4 — 5-locular, with axile placentae; ovules in each loc. 1 — 00 ,
anatropous; style simple with capitate stigma. Fruit a capsule,
drupe or berry. Embryo cylindrical, in copious endosperm.

The firs, of the Brit. sp. are mostly bee-firs, with a ‘loose-pollen’
mechanism. The hanging position and the size of the flower are
suited to bees. The stigma projects so as to be first touched, and in
probing for the honey at the base of the fir. the bee touches the sta.
or their projecting. horns, and by thus shaking them causes a shower of
pollen to fall upon itself from the tips of the anthers. Calluna is
partly anemophilous ; Kalmia has a curious explosive mechanism (see
C., K., and Erica, &c.).

Bentham and Hooker separate Vaccinioideae from the E. and make
of them an independent order, on account chiefly of the inferior
ovary. They add to the E. as here defined, the Pyrola group of
Pyrolaceae (q.v-).

Classification and chief genera (after Drude).

I. RHODODENDROIDEAE (septicidal capsule; seed with
ribbed loose coat, often winged; corolla falling after flowering;
sta. with upright or long adnate anthers, with no append-
ages) :

1. Ledeae (polypet.): Ledum.

2. Rhododendreae (zygomorphic) : Rhododendron, Menziesia.

3. Phyllodoceae (actinomorphic): Loiseleuria, Kalmia, Phyllo-
doce, Daboecia.

II. ARBUTOIDEAE (berry or loculicidal capsule; seed tri-
angular or ovate, not winged ; corolla falling; anthers much folded,
with peg-like appendages, or prolonged into tubes, shedding
the pollen upwards ; ovary superior) :

4. Andromedeae (dry capsule with small calyx at base) : Cas-
siope, Andromeda, Epigaea.

378

ERICACEAE

5. Gaultherieae (fruit a capsule or berry; calyx fleshy round
capsule, or leafy; anthers blunt at tip or with two short
processes): Gaultheria, Pernettya.

6. A?'buteae (calyx as small disc at base of berry; anthers with
two long processes) : Arbutus, Arctostaphylos.

III. VACC1NIOIDEAE (as II., but ovary inferior):

7. Vaccinieae (ovary sharply defined from peduncle) : Gaylus-
sacia, Vaccinium.

8. Thibaudieae (calyx decurrent on ovary and going over into
peduncle) : Pentapterygium, Agapetes, Paphia, Macleania,
Thibaudia.

IV. ERICOIDEAE (fruit usually a loculicidal capsule or a
nut; seeds round, not winged; corolla persistent after flowering;
anther with short connective, thecae spreading above, frequently
appendaged) :

9. Ericeae (> 1 seed in each loc.) : Calluna, Erica.

10. Salaxideae (1 seed in each loc., capsule or nut): Eremia,
Salaxis.

[The E. belong to the cohort termed Ericales by Be nth. -Hooker
and Engler, Bicornes by Warming.]

Ericales. The 1st cohort (Engler) of Sympetalae (p. 129). The 4th
cohort (Benth. -Hooker) of Gamopetalae (p. 135).

Erigeron Linn. Compositae (ill). 200 sp. cosmop., chiefly N. Am.;
2 in Brit, (flea-bane).

Erinus Linn. Scrophulariaceae (ill. 10). 1 sp. Pyrenees, Alps (p. 149).

Eriobotrya Lindl. Rosaceae (11. 4). 10 sp. sub-trop. As. The fruit

of E. japonica Lindl. is a favourite dessert fruit in the East (loquat).

Eriocauiaceae. Monocotyledons (Farinosae). 6 gen. with 340 sp.
mostly trop. and sub-trop. (see Eriocaulon). Perennial herbs
with grass-like leaves. Firs, in heads (involucrate), inconspicuous,
unisexual, 2- or 3-merous, regular or zygomorphic. Perianth usually
sepaloid, in 2 whorls. <? flr. with 4 or 6 sta. (3 or 2 in Paepalanthus) ;
anthers di- or mono-thecous. % flr. with superior ovary of (2 — 3) cpls.,
with one orthotropous pendulous ovule in each loc. Fruit a capsule.
Endosperm. Chief genera: Eriocaulon, Paepalanthus. [Placed in
Enantioblastae by Warming, in Glumaceae by Benth. -Hooker.]

Eriocauleae (Benth. -Hooker) = preceding.

Eriocaulon Linn. Eriocauiaceae. 1 10 sp. trop. and sub-trop. E. sep~
tangulare With, occurs in the eastern U.S. and also in the Scottish
Hebrides and the west coast of Ireland (the only representative of the
order in Eur.).

Eriocephalus Linn. Compositae (vn). 19 sp. S. W. Afr.

Eriocliloa H. B. et K. Gramineae (v). 5 sp. trop. and sub-trop.

Fodder-grasses.

Eriodendron DC. (Ceiba Medic, q.v.). Bombacaceae. 9 sp. trop.,
chiefly Am. E. anfractuosum DC., the silk-cotton tree, has its seeds

ER YTIIRAEA

379

enveloped in silky hairs, which are used for stuffing cushions, &c.
[See Kingsley’s Westward Ho , c. xxi.]

Eriogonum Michx. Polygonaceae (I. i). 170 sp. N. Am., chiefly

western U.S. The genus differs much from most of the order, having
no ocreae, and having cymose umbels or heads of firs. The partial
infl. consists of a few or many firs, surrounded by a special involucre
formed of united bracts. The partial infls. are combined in various
ways into heads &c.

Eriolaena DC. Sterculiaceae. 8 sp. E. Ind.

Eriophorum Linn. Cyperaceae (1). 12 sp. N. temp, chiefly on turf

moors (p. 182). 4 sp. in Brit, (cotton-grass or cotton-sedge). The

g firs, are massed together ; each has a perianth of bristles which after
fertilisation grow out into long hairs surrounding the fruit and acting
as a means of distribution. The hairs are sometimes used in stuffing
pillows &c.

Eriophyllum Lag. Compositae (vi). 12 sp. N. W. Am.

Eriosema DC. Leguminosae (in. 10). 70 sp. trop. and sub-trop.

Eriospermum Jacq. Liliaceae (ill). 50 sp. chiefly Cape Colony.

Eriostemon Sm. Rutaceae (in). 16 sp. Austr., New Caled.

Eritrichium Schrad. (incl. Cryptantha Lehm.). Boraginaceae (iv. 2).
90 sp. temp.

Erodium L’Herit. Geraniaceae. 50 sp. temp. (2 in Brit. — Stork’s-bill).
Like Geranium. The awn twists into a corkscrew-form with a free
end and is very hygroscopic. The mericarp has a sharp point with
backward pointing hairs. It falls on the ground, frequently point
downwards, and the free end of the awn catches against surrounding
objects. If dampness supervene, the awn untwists and so lengthens:
the free end being entangled, the fruit is driven into the soil. When
dry the awn once more curls up, and the process may be repeated
(cf. Stipa).

Erophila DC. Cruciferae (iv. 14). 4 sp. Eur., Medit. (1 Brit. E.

vulgai'is DC.). Included in Draba in Nat. PJi.

Eruca Tourn. ex Adans. Cruciferae (11. 10). 10 sp. Medit. Oil is

obtained from the seed of E. sativa Mill.

Erucastrum Presl = Brassica Tourn.

Ervum Tourn. ex Linn.=Vicia Tourn. For E. Lens L. see Lens.

Eryngium (Tourn.) Linn. Umbelliferae (3). About 150 sp. trop. and
temp. (exc. S. Afr.). 2 sp. in Brit. (Eryngo or sea-holly) on the sea-
shores. They are prickly herbs with thick roots and fleshy leaves
coated with wax (p. 186). Firs, in cymose heads, blue and largely
visited by bees. Fibre (Caraguata fibre) is obtained from the leaves
of E. pandanifolium Cham, et Schlecht.

Erysimum (Tourn.) Linn. Cruciferae (iv. 16). 80 sp. Medit., Eur.,

As. (E. cheiranthoides L., treacle mustard, in Brit.)

Erythraea Renealm. Gentianaceae (1. 2). 30 sp. temp. E. Centauriujn
Pers., the common centaury, occurs in Brit, in many varieties.

ER YTHRINA

380

Erythrina Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 10). 30 sp. trop. and subtrop.

E. crista-galli L. is a favourite in cultivation. Its bright red firs, are
inverted ; the wings are nearly aborted ; the keel forms at its base a
honey sac. Probably humming-birds are the visitors. E. indica
Lam. is largely planted as a shade for coffee and other plants, and as
a support for pepper. E. caffra Thunb., the Kaffir-boom, furnishes
a very light timber.

ErythrocMton Nees et Mart. Rutaceae (v). 5 sp. trop. Am. The

infl. springs from the surface of a leaf, owing to adnation (p. 30).

Erythronium Linn. Liliaceae (v). 7 sp. N. temp.

Erythrophleum Afzel. Leguminosae (11. 1). 5 sp. Afr., China,

N. Austr. E . guineense G. Don is the red-water tree of Sierra Leone.
“The bark is a powerful poison and is used by the native tribes as
an ordeal. A red juice flows from the tree, which is used for the
same purpose.,,

Erythroxylaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). 2 gen. with
90 sp. trop. Nearly allied to Linaceae, in which they are placed by
Benth. -Hooker. Fir. regular, $ ; K 5, C 5, A 5+5 united at base,
G (3 or 4), usually i-loc. Ovules 1 or 2, pendulous. Drupe. Endo-
sperm. Chief genus : Erythroxylum.

Erythroxylum P. Br. Erythroxylaceae. 90 sp. trop. and subtrop.,
chiefly Am. E. Coca Lam. (Peru), the coca, is the chief sp. The
leaves are infused like tea or chewed with lime and enable the person
using them to undergo great fatigue. Cocaine, used as a local
anaesthetic, is prepared from them. Many sp. have heterostyled firs.

Escallonia Mutis. Saxifragaceae (v). 50 sp. S. Amer., chiefly Andine.
Shrubs with alternate, leathery, gland-dotted leaves. Ovary inferior,
2 — 3-loc., with twice as many placentae and 00 ovules.

Escalloniaceae (Warming). An order of Saxifraginae, included in
Saxifragaceae by other authors.

Esclischolzia Cham. Papaveraceae (2). 10 sp. western U.S., often

cultivated as border flowers. The receptacle is concave, so that the flr.
is perigynous. In dull weather each petal rolls up on itself, enclosing
and protecting some of the sta. The ripe fruit explodes and scatters
the seeds ; each valve as it dries has a tendency to roll up spirally,
and thus a great tension is set up (p. in).

Esenbeckia H. B. et K. Rutaceae (v). 10 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind.

Espeletia Mutis. Compositae (v). 1 1 sp. Andes. Characteristic plants
of the alpine region (Paramo). Aloe-like xerophytes with dense
covering of hairs (see Goebel, Pfianzenbiol. Schild.).

Eucalyptus L’Herit. Myrtaceae (2). 200 sp. Austr., 2 or 3 Indo-mal.
One of the most characteristic genera of the Austr. flora (blue-gum,
iron-bark, stringy bark, blood-wood, &c.). Some sp. reach an enor-
mous size, e.g. E. amygdalina Labill. which has been found 300 ft.
high and 22 ft. in girth. The leaves at first formed are opposite and
dorsiventral, the later ones alternate and isobilateral, and thus more

EUPHORBIA

38i

suited to the climate. The floral receptacle is hollow and becomes
woody in the fruit. The calyx is thrown off as a lid when the flr.
opens.

On account of their rapid growth and economic value, these trees
are now largely cultivated in India, Algeria, &c. Many sp. yield
valuable timber ; E. Globulus Labill. (blue-gum) yields oil of euca-
lyptus ; others yield oils, kino, &c.

Eucharis Planch, et Linden. Amaryllidaceae (1). 6 sp. Columbia. The
sta. spring from the margin of the corona (see order).

Euchlaena Schrad. Gramineae (1). 1 sp. Mex., E. mexicana Schrad.
Very like Zea in habit and infl. The ? spikelets are free from one
another and do not form a ‘cob.’ It is used as a cereal in Cent. Am.

Eucnide Zucc.= Mentzelia Linn.

Eucomis L’Herit. Liliaceae (v). 5 sp. S. Afr. The dense spike of

firs, is crowned by a tuft of bracts.

Eucryphiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietal es). 1 gen., Eu-
cryphia, with 4 sp. S. Am., Austr. Placed in Rosaceae, near to
Quillaja, by Benth.-Hooker. See Nat. PJl.

Eugenia Mich, ex Linn. (incl. Jambosa DC., Syzygiitm Gaertn.).
Myrtaceae (l). 625 sp. trop. Many sp. have edible fruit, e.g. E.
malaccensis L., the rose-apple or Malay apple. The dried flr.-buds
of E. caryophyllata Thunb. form the well-known spice cloves.

Eulophia R. Br. Orchidaceae (16). 50 sp. trop.

Eunomia DC. = Aethionema R. Br.

Euonymus Linn. Celastraceae. 60 sp. N. temp., and S.E. As.
E. europaeus L., the spindle-tree, in Brit. Several sp. have curious
outgrowths of cork upon their stems. The firs, are polygamous and
protandrous. On the ripe seed is a bright red fleshy aril, serving in
bird-dispersal. The development of the aril may easily be studied
by examining seeds of various ages. The wood is used for spindles,
pegs, &c., and furnishes good charcoal.

Eupatorium (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Conoclinium DC.). Compositae (11).
400 sp. mostly Am., a few in Eur., As., trop. Afr. E. cannabinum
L., hemp-agrimony, in Brit. Its firs, are largely visited by butterflies.

Euphorbia Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 8). 700 sp. chiefly sub-trop.
and warm temp. (12 in Brit.). They differ very much in vegetative
habit. The British sp. of spurge are herbs and so are many others,
but shrubs are also frequent. The chief interest centres in those sp.
that inhabit very dry places and have consequently a xerophytic habit.
Most of these forms closely resemble Cactaceae (q.v.), and sometimes
when not in flr. it is very difficult to decide from the outside appear-
ance whether one has to do with a Euphorbia or a Cactus. The
presence of latex of course distinguishes the former. It is very
interesting to see how similar conditions of life have called forth,
in three different orders not nearly allied to one another, such
a similarity of habit as is seen in Euphorbia, the Cactaceae, and

EUPHORBIA

382

Stapelia (Asclepiadaceae). As in the cacti, we get almost spherical
forms, ridged forms, cylindrical forms, & c. Many are armed with
thorns. In all cases it is the stem which is fleshy. The outer
tissue is green and does the assimilating work of the plant ; the inner
portion of the stem consists mainly of parenchymatous storage tissue.

The best accessible account of the morphology of E. is that of
Goebel (. PflanzenbioL Schild . p. 56), from which the following is
abstracted. He divides the plants roughly into the following groups :

I. Leaves normal, well developed, serving a long time as assi-
milative organs. (1) Shoot not water-storing: e.g. the British sp.

(2) Storage in tubers below ground : E. tuberosa L. (3) Stem as
reserve for water, &c., but not green: E. bupleurifolia Jacq. (cylin-
drical stem covered with corky scales = leaf bases. Leaves borne in
wet season, drop off in dry). (4) Stem fleshy, green, leafy in wet
season only-: E. neriifolia L., &c.

II. Leaves abortive, dropping off early. Assimilation and
storage carried on in stem. Various types occur here (cf. Cactaceae)
approaching more or less nearly to a perfectly spherical form. Some
common ones are (1) E. Tirucalli L. (Zanzibar), with thin cylin-
drical shoots. E. pendula Link is very similar and closely resembles
Rhipsalis in the Cactaceae. (2) E. xylophylloides Brongn. has flattened
shoots (cf. Phyllanthus § Xylophytla , and Epiphyllum in Cactaceae).

(3) E. Caput-Medusae L. has a stout stock giving off a number
of thinner branches at the top. These are covered with little cushion-
like papillae, closely crowded, which are really leaf bases ; the leaf
proper is undeveloped. Many sp. show this structure. (4) E. ma-
millaris'L. has a thorn injthe axil of each cushion ( = a metamorphosed
infl.-axis). If the cushions, as in the cacti, become ‘fused,’ we get
a ridged stem, as is seen in (5) E. polygona Haw. (cf. Echinopsis cerei-
formis in Cactaceae), E. gra?idicornis and many others. Most of these
sp. exhibit pairs of stout thorns which are the stipules of the abortive
leaves. By the two horizontal thorns one can tell one of these plants
from a cactus, which has a group of thorns. (6) E. meloformis Ait.
is nearly spherical but ribbed, whilst in (7) E . globosa Sims (cf.
Echinocactus) we have an almost perfect sphere. [The student should
read at the same time the art. Cactaceae, and Stapelia, and compare
all these succulent forms with one another. See also Goebel, loc. cit .]

Besides the above, mention may be made of E. splendens Boj. and
E. Bojeri Hook., plants with thick stems and green leaves, the latter
being dropped in the dry season.

The other chief point of interest in E. is the cyathium , or infl.
condensed to simulate a single flr. The resemblance is almost perfect.
The general branching of the plant is cymose (dichasial). The partial
infl. forms a cyathium by the non-development of its internodes, the
absence of the perianths of the individual firs, and the reduction of
each S flr. to one sta. There is a perianth-like organ of 5 leaves.

E UPHORBIA CEAE

383

really bracts, and between these are 4 curious horn-like bodies
(U-shaped in fig.), which are the combined stipules of the bracts. Then
follow a number of sta. arranged with the
oldest nearest to the centre and each with a
peculiar joint half-way up the stalk. In the
middle of the cyathium is a 3-carpelled
ovary on a long stalk. This is usually ripe
for pollination before any of the sta. ripen.

That this cyathium is an infl. and not
a fir., consisting of a lot of c? firs., each of
1 sta., round a single ? fir., is shown by
several facts, eg. the centrifugal (cymose)
order of ripening of the organs, and the
joint on the sta.; at this point in the
allied genus Anthostema, there is a peri-
anth, Vyhich shows that the sta. is really a
reduced S fir.

In E. § Poinsettia the infl. is rendered conspicuous by the bright
red colour of the larger upper bracts. These sp. are often cultivated
as showy conservatory plants.

The fruit explodes when ripe; the carpels split off from the central
axis and open at the same moment.

Euphorbiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). 220 gen. with
4000 sp., cosmop., except in the arctic regions. Few sp. have a very
wide range; the most widely-ranging genus is Euphorbia itself.
Benth. -Hooker place E. in Incompletae, but it is closely related to
Geraniales by the structure of the gynoeceum, &c., although separated
a good deal from the other orders of the cohort by the amount of
reduction that has occurred in most of its firs.

Most E. are shrubs or trees, a few herbaceous [e.g. the Brit. sp.).
Many are xerophytes; a number of Australian sp. are of ericoid habit
(p. 166); the S. Afr. sp. of Euphorbia are cactus-like; others
resemble Lauraceae, or possess phylloclades [eg. Phyllanthus sp.).
A few are lianes. The leaves are usually alternate ; some have
opposite leaves, some opposite leaves above and alternate below.
Stipules are usually present, but may be represented by branched
hair-like bodies (Jatropha), glands, or thorns. Nearly all E. contain
latex in special laticiferous cells.

The infl. is usually complex ; almost every type occurs. Often
the first branching is racemose and all subsequent ones cymose. In
some cases, eg. Dalechampia and Euphorbia (^.z/.), the partial infls.
are so condensed as to give the appearance of single firs. The firs, are
always unisexual, monoecious or dioecious, regular, hypogynous. The
perianth may be present as two whorls ; more often there is only one
(calyx) and frequently the fir. is naked. The perianth is usually
5-merous. Sta. 1 — 00, free or united in various ways. Ricinus has

Diagram of central cya-
thium of infl. of E uphorbia
Peplus L. (after Eichler,
modified).

384

E UP HO RBI A CEAE

branched sta. Phyllanihus cyclanthera has the sta. united, with a
ring-like common anther. G usually (3), with axile placentae, and 3
loc. Styles usually 2-lobed. The ovules are constant throughout the
family and form its best distinctive feature; they are 1 or 2 in eacli
loc., collateral, pendulous, anatropous, with ventral raphe. The micro-
pyle is usually covered by a caruncle, which is also found on the seed.
The fruit is almost invariably a ‘ schizocarp-capsule., It splits into
cpls. often elastically, and at the same time each cpl. opens ventrally,
letting the seed escape. Seed albuminous.

Most E. are poisoneus. Several are important economic plants,
e.g. Manihot (rubber, cassava), Hevea (rubber), Croton, Ricinus, &c.

Classification and chief genera (after Pax) :

A. PLATYLOBEAE (cotyledons much broader than radicle):

I. PHYLLANTHOIDEAE (ovules 2 per loc.; no latex):

1. Phyllantheae (embryo large, little shorter than endosperm; $

calyx imbricate) : Phyllanthus.

2. Bridelieae (do., but <? calyx valvate) : Bridelia.

3. Daph}iiphylleae (embryo short, 4 — 6 times shorter than endo-

sperm) : Daphniphyllum.

II. CROTONOIDEAE (ovules 1 per loc.; latex usually present):

1. Crotoneae (sta. bent inwards in bud): Croton.

2. Acalypheae (sta. erect in bud; fir. usually apetalous; <? calyx

valvate ; infl. a raceme, spike, or panicle, axillary or termi-
nal): Mercurialis, Acalypha, Ricinus, Dalechampia.

3. Jatropheae (do.; infl. a dichasial panicle): Hevea, Jatropha.

4. Manihoteae (do.; infl. a simple terminal spike or raceme):

Manihot.

5. Cluytieae ( <? calyx imbricate; S firs, with petals, in groups or

cymes, these partial infls. axillary or in complex infls.):

Codiaeum.

6. Gelonieae (do. but apetalous): Gelonium.

7. Hippomaneae (do. ; apetalous; infl. axillary or terminal, spike-

like, the partial infls. cymes): Stillingia, Hura.

8. Euphorbieae (cyathium): Anthostema, Euphorbia.

B. STENOLOBEAE (cotyledons as wide as radicle):

I. PORANTHEROIDEAE (ovules 2 per loc.): Poranthera.

II. RICINOCARPOIDEAE (ovules 1 per loc.): Ricinocarpus.

[E. are placed in Unisexuales by Benth. -Hooker, in Tricoccae by

Warming.]

Euphrasia Linn. Scrophulariaceae (in. 12). 50 sp. extra-trop. E .

officinalis L. (eyebright) is common in Brit. Semi-parasites with
loose-pollen firs, (see order). The 4 anthers lie close under the upper
lip of the fir. ; the two upper cohere together and also the upper on
each side to the lower on the same side ; the lower lobe of each anther
has a projecting spine. Insects probing for honey shake these spines
and receive upon their heads a shower of pollen from among the

FAGACEAE

385

anthers. The stigma protrudes beyond the sta. in most firs, so as to
be touched first, but every stage can be found from highly protogy-
nous firs, with very protruding stigmas to almost homogamous firs,
whose stigma does not protrude and where self-fertilisation is the rule.

Eurya Thunb. Theaceae. 36 sp. Mexico, S. Am., W. and E. Ind.

Euryale Salisb. Nymphaeaceae (in). 1 sp. S. E. As. Fir. epigy-

nous. The seeds and roots are eaten in China.

Eurybia Cass. = 01earia Moench.

Eurycles Salisb. Amaryllidaceae (1). 2 sp. N. Austr., Malaya.

Eusporangiatae. See Filicineae.

Euterpe Gaertn. Palmae (iv. 6). 10 sp. trop. Am. E . edulis Mart.,

the Assai palm, yields an edible fruit ; a nutritious beverage is pre-
pared from it by soaking the fruit in water.

Eutoca R. Br. =Phacelia Juss.

Evodia P'orst. Rutaceae (1). 45 sp. trop., exc. Am.

Evolvulus Linn. Convolvulaceae (I. 2). 80 sp. trop. and sub-trop.

Exacum Linn. Gentianaceae (1. 1). 30 sp. Old World trop. The

style is bent to one side or other of the fir. ; both arrangements occur
on the same plant (see p. 75).

Exccecaria Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. II. 7). 30 sp. trop., exc. Am.

For E. sebifera Muell.-Arg. see Sapium.

Exogonium Choisy = Ipomoea Linn.

Faba (Tourn.) Linn. =Vicia Linn.

Fadyenia Hook. Polypodiaceae. 1 sp. F. prolifera Plook., W. Ind.
The sterile leaves produce buds at the tips.

Fagaceae. Dicotyledons (Arehichl. Fagales). 5 gen. with 350 sp. ;
there are three chief centres of distribution — Fagus, Castanea § Eu -
castanea and Quercus in N. extra-trop. regions, Pasania and Casta-
nopsis in trop. As. and Calif., Fagus § Nothofagus in S. Am., N. Z.,

Floral diagrams of Castanea vulgaris , after Eichler. A, diagram of c? cyme n axil
of catkin-leaf, the sta. and rudimentary gynoeceum only shown in the first fir.
The sequence of the firs, is indicated by the figures 1, 2, 3. B, diagram of ? par-
tial infl. b— bract, a jS = bracteoles, a! jS' a, 0, = bracteoles of second order.

and S. Austr. Most are trees with simple leaves and scaly stipules
that drop off as the leaves expand. The firs, come out in the axils

W. 25

FAG ACE AE

386

of the leaves of the current year and are diclinous and anemophilous.
They are arranged in catkins or small spikes (exc. Fagus c?). In
general there is a close resemblance to Betulaceae, and, as in that
order, the firs, are usually in dichasial cymes in the axils of the
catkin-leaves ; there are often, however, more than three firs.

Perianth bract-like, (4 — 7). $ fir. with as many to twice as many
or 00 sta. undivided, with or without rudimentary style. ? firs, usually
in dichasia of 3 in Castanea, 2 in Fagus, 1 in Quercus &c. G usually
(3) with 3 styles (exc. sp. of Castanea) ; loculi 3, usually visible before
fertilisation. Placentae axile, each bearing 2 pendulous anatropous
ovules with 2 integuments. Fruit a 1 -seeded nut. Seeds without
endosperm.

The group of nuts is surrounded by a cup-like organ termed a
cupule\ in the oak there is one nut in each cupule, in the beech two,
in the chestnut three. About the morphology of this organ there has
been much discussion. Eicliler (see diagram above, fig. B, and Blii -
thendiagr.) regards it as the combined bracteoles a' ft a, (3, Prantl
(Engler’s Bot. yahrb . VIII. 1887) as an axial outgrowth. See also
Celakovsky in Pringsheim' s yahrb. xxi. 1890, and cf. Betulaceae.
The cupule only becomes clearly visible after fertilisation.

Some of the F. show signs of peculiar development of the embryo-
sac, and other interesting features (see Chalazogamae).

The order includes several important economic plants, chiefly
valuable for their timber, eg. oak (Quercus), beech (Fagus), chestnut
(Castanea), &c.

Classification and genera (after Prantl):

1. Fageae (firs, in dichasia, rarely solitary in axils of foliage-

leaves; lateral and single fruits 3 -angled): Fagus (inch

Nothofagus).

2. Castaneae ( ? firs, in dichasia or single in the axils of catkin-

leaves ; fruit rounded at sides) : Castanea, Pasania, Quercus.

[Bentli. -Hooker unite F. with Betulaceae, as Cupuliferae, placing
them in Unisexuales; Warming places them in Querciflorae.]

Fagara Linn. = Zanthoxylum Linn. *

Fagopyrum Tourn. ex Hall. Polygonaceae (11. 4). 4 sp. As. The

firs, resemble those of Polygonum, but are heterostyled, with long and
short-styled forms (p. 95). F. esculentum Moench is the buckwheat,
largely cultivated, especially in N. Am., for its fruit (seed), in which
there is a floury endosperm. The plant is also used as green fodder,
and is a good honey-plant.

Fagraea Thunb. Loganiaceae. 20 sp. E. Ind. to Austr. , often epiphytic.
Some sp. have nectaries at the outside of the base of the fir. These
attract ants which are said to prevent bees from boring holes in the
fir. to rob the honey (p. 92).

Fagus (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Nothofagus Blume). Fagaceae(i). The
genus forms 2 sections, § Eufagus with 4 sp. N. temp, and § Nothofagus

FESTUCA

387

with T2 sp. antarctic S. Am., N. Z. and S. Austr. F. sylvatica L.,
the beech, is found in Brit, and over large parts of Eur. It often
forms homogeneous forests, and is accompanied by a peculiar under-
growth, eg. Aspcrula odorata , Lathrea sqiiamciria> &c. (see Hock in
Bot. Centr. 52, p. 353, 1892). Thee? firs, are in pendulous cymose
heads, the ? in pairs ; each cupule encloses two nuts. The wood
of the beech is hard, and is much used in the arts ; an oil is expressed
from the nuts. It forms hedges in many districts; when growing low
it does not drop its leaves, as it does when it takes the tree form,
and thus a beech-hedge affords good shelter in winter for gardens &c.
A variety with red sap in the cells of the epidermis is often cultivated
in parks under the name copper-beech. The beech only flowers every
few years, and saves up material in the interval (cf. Agave). F \ (A7.)
Cunninghami Hook., the myrtle-tree (Austr.) is an evergreen sp.
largely cultivated in Austr. &c.

Falcaria Riv. ex Rupp. Umbel] iferae (5). 1 sp. Eur., As.

Falkia Linn. f. Convolvulaceae (1. 1). 4 sp. Afr.

Faradaya F. Muell. Verbenaceae (iv. 4). 5 sp. Austr., Polynes.

Faramea Aubl. Rubiaceae (11. 18). 100 sp. trop. S. Am., W. Ind

See Muller’s Fert . of Firs. p. 304 (dimorphic pollen).

Farinosae (Engler). The 7th cohort of Monocotyledons (p. 125).

Farsetia Turra (inch Fibigia Medic.). Cruciferae (iv. 18). 19 sp.

Medit.

Fatsia Dene, et Planch, (incl. Echinopanax Dene, et Planch., and
Tetrapanax C. Koch). Araliaceae. 3 sp. China, N. W. Am. F.
papyrifera Benth. et Hook. f. is the rice-paper tree of China. The
paper is made from the pith, which is split into thin sheets and
pressed (cf. Cy perus).

Fedia Gaertn. Valerianaceae. 1 sp. Medit., F. Cornucopiae Gaertn.
For other sp. see Valerianella.

Feronia Correa. Rutaceae (x). 1 sp. India to Java, F. elephanium

Correa, the Elephant-apple or Wood-apple. The wood is useful, and
the tree yields a gum, used instead of gum-arabic. The fruit is edible.

Ferula Tourn. ex Linn. Umbelliferae (7). 80 sp. Medit., Cent. As.

F. communis L. is often cultivated in shrubberies under the name of
giant-fennel. It only flowers after storing up materials for some years
(cf. Fagus, Agave). F. Narthex Boiss. and F. Assa-foetida Linn,
are the sources of the drug Asafoetida, obtained by notching the
roots and collecting the escaping juice. It is used as a condiment fn
Persia &c. under the name ‘food of the gods,’ and as a stimulant in
medicine. F. galbaniflua Boiss. et Buhse and F. rubricaulis Boiss.
are the sources of the gum galbanum, used in medicine.

Festuca (Tourn.) Linn. Gramineae (x). 90 sp. cosmop.; 5 in Brit,

(fescue-grass). The leaves roll up inwards in dry air like those of
Stipa. Many are good pasture-grasses. The sp. when growing on
mountains are commonly viviparous (see order).

25—2

FEUILLEA

388

Feuillea Gled.= Fevillea Linn.

Fevillea Linn. Cucurbitaceae (1). 6 sp. trop. Am. The 5sla. are all

alike.

Fibigia Medic. = Farsetia Turra.

Ficaria (Dill.) Hall = Ranunculus Linn.

Ficoidales (Benth. -Hooker). The 14th cohort of Polypetalae (p. 135).

Ficoideae (Benth. -Hooker) = Aizoaceae.

Ficus Tourn. ex Linn. Moraceae (11). 600 sp. trop., chiefly in E. Ind.

and Polynes., &c. A very important genus of trees and shrubs of
the most various habit. In general they possess alternate entire leaves,
with stipules which envelope the bud (acting as a protection to it
against heat, &c.) and soon after their unfolding drop off altogether.
Adventitious roots are very common. The simplest way, perhaps,
of dealing with the great variety of form will be to consider one by
one some of the commonest sp.

F. elastica Roxb., the indiarubber tree, usually grows as a stout
independent tree, but sometimes epiphytically like F, benjaminci ,
reaching often very considerable dimensions. At its base (see figs, in
Nat. Pji.) are developed buttress-roots, radiating out in all directions;
their depth is often several feet, while their thickness is only a few
inches. From the branches are given off adventitious roots which
grow downwards, enter the soil, branch out, and suck up nourish-
ment. These grow in thickness and form great pillars supporting the
branches. The leaves are entire, and leathery in texture, with a
glossy surface which refuses to be wetted ; their apex is not provided
with a ‘drip-tip’ (see F. religiosa , below). The stipules protect the
bud. Caoutchouc is obtained from the latex by cutting notches in
the tree bark after it is at least 25 years old.

F. indica L. and F. benghalensis L. show similar habit. The latter
is the famous banyan tree. Its aerial roots form supporting pillars,
and, if allowed to establish them freely, the tree may reach immense
size, covering a great area. (It is sacred in India, and the roots are
provided with tubes of bamboo to protect them, and the ground is
prepared for them.) See plate in Nat . Pji.

F. religiosa L. (the Peepul or Bo-tree) is similar, but its leaves have
a long acuminate apex, combined with an easily wetted surface.
From the apex the rain drips off rapidly after a shower and the leaf is
soon dry. In the very wet tropical forests of E. India, &c., this pro-
perty is of some importance to the plant (see Stahl, Regenfall und
Blattgestalt, Ann. Buitenz. 1893, or abstract by Miss Lorrain Smith
in Nat. Science, 1893).

F. Sycomorus L., the true sycomore or mulberry fig, and F. Ca?'ica
L. the fig, are also erect trees.

F. repens Rottl. is a small climbing sp. which takes hold of its
support by aerial roots (as in ivy) ; these secrete a gummy substance
containing caoutchouc, and then absorb the fluid constituents, leaving

FI LI Cl NEA E

389

the caoutchouc as a cement, fastening the roots to their support
(Darwin, Climbing Plants, p. 185).

F . Thwaitesii Miq. and other climbing sp. are heterophyllous, the
leaves on the climbing shoots being small and of different shape to
those on the erect shoots.

F. Benjamina L. and other sp. climb up other trees giving off aerial
clasping (negatively heliotropic) roots which surround the trunk of the
support. These roots thicken and unite into a network and finally
often strangle the £ host ’ altogether. These sp. often become epiphytic
by the dying away of their lower portions, but, like the Aroids they
maintain their communication with the ground by long aerial roots.
Sometimes they commence as epiphytes and send down aerial roots
to the soil.

The infl. is hollowed out, and consists of a number of firs, inside
a pear-shaped common receptacle, which opens by a narrow mouth at
the top. Within the mouth, in most sp., are the £ firs., while the rest
of the cavity is filled with ? firs, (see Sachs, Physiol, p. 434, and figs,
in Nat. PJE). The S has a perianth and 1 or 2 sta., the ? a smaller
perianth. The infl. as a whole is protogynous. The mode of
pollination is very extraordinary (cf. Yucca), there being a special
insect (Blastophaga, a small wasp) adapted to Ficus firs. The gravid
female enters a fig infl. and lays eggs in the ovaries; the male wasps
thus, formed fertilise the females and these as they emerge are polli-
nated by the S firs, and carry the pollen to new figs. For further
details and an account of the peculiar process of ‘ caprification,’ see
Muller’s Fert. of Firs. p. 521, Nat. Pfi., Cunningham on F. Rox-
burghii (rev. in Bot. Centr. 45, p. 344b and papers in Bot. Jahrb.
II. 1890, p. 245.

Many sp. bear the firs, on old parts of the stem (p. 156). The
fruit is a multiple fruit, composed of a lot of drupes inside the common
fleshy receptacle ; that of F. Carica L. is the common fig.

Lac (shellac, &c.) is produced on several sp. by the punctures of
a small hemipterous insect (cf. Butea). Several sp. yield caoutchouc,
obtained by notching the stems. The buttress-roots are used as planks
by the natives.

Filago Linn. Compositae (iv). 12 sp. Eur., As., Am., N. Afr.; 3 in

Brit.

Filices. The Ferns proper or Homosporous Leptosporangiate Fili-
cineae (see below).

Filicineae. One of the main divisions of Pteridophyta. They are
characterised by well-developed leaves, with vigorous growth, often
of large size and much branched. The stem is usually short in pro-
portion to the leaf area, and is not much branched. The sporangia
are borne on the leaves and are usually very numerous.

Classification :

A. EUSPORANGIAT AE (sporangium derived from a group

FI LI Cl NEA E

39°

of superficial cells ; homosporous ; stem simple ; spo-
rangia usually sunk in tissue of sporophyll, or in
synangia on its surface):

N. O. i. Ophioglossaceae. 2. Marattiaceae.

B. LEPTOSPORANGIATAE (sporangium derived from
single superficial cell) :

a. Homosporous ( Filices ):

N. O. 1. Osmundaceae. 2. Gleicheniaceae.

3. Hymenophyllaceae. 4. Schizaeaceae.

5. Cyatheaceae. 6. Polypodiaceae.

b. Heterosporous ( Hydropterideae ).

N. O. 1. Marsiliaceae. 2. Salviniaceae.

Bower detaches the Ophioglossaceae to form a separate class,
Ophioglossales, and divides Filicales thus :

Simplices (sporangia of simultaneous origin, large sessile, with
usually 128 or more spores): Marattiaceae, Osmundaceae, Schizaea-
ceae, Gleicheniaceae, Matoniaceae.

Gradatae (sporangia in basipetal succession on ± elongated re-
ceptacle, sessile or stalked, spores typically 64) : Loxsomaceae,
Hymenophyllaceae, Cyatheaceae, Dicksoniaceae, Dennstaedtiaceae,
Hydropterideae (?).

Mixtae (sporangia of various ages intermixed, small, stalked ;
spores 64 or less) : Davalliaceae, Lindsayaceae, Polypodiaceae.

For further details see the next two articles, Pteridophyta, &c., and
the orders. Cf. also Nat. PJl. ; Hooker and Baker, Synopsis Filicum ;
Christ, Die Farnkrauier der Erde, 1897; Bower, Studies in the Morph-
ology of Spore- producing members , Phil. Trans. , recent years;
Campbell, Mosses and Ferns ; anatomical papers in recent years of
Ann. of Bot. ; Scott, Fossil Botany, &c.

Filicineae Eusporangiatae. The two families (Ophioglossaceae and
Marattiaceae) which form this section differ much in detail, but agree
in the mode of formation of the sporangia from a group of epidermal
cells. Formerly they were classed as higher and more specialised
than the Leptosporangiatae, but it is now agreed that they are really
the older group (Campbell, Mosses and Ferns , pp. 295, 516).

Their exact relationships to one another and to the other members
of the vegetable kingdom are difficult to discover, for we have to deal
with a few surviving branches of a stock whose maximum develop-
ment occurred ages ago, and these branches are widely separated in
character both from each other and from other groups of plants.

The prothallus in the M. is green and resembles that of the
Leptosporangiatae, while in the O. it is subterranean, only exception-
ally reaching the surface and turning green (cf. Lang in Ann. of Bot.
XVI, 1902). It lives for a long time. The antheridia and arclie-
gonia are sunk in the tissue of the prothallus. The two orders show

FILICINEAE LEFT OSPORA NGIA TA E 391

great differences in the habit and structure of the sporophyte. The
stem is sometimes a creeping rhizome, sometimes a stock which is
closely covered by the bases of the leaves. Upon these the sporangia
are borne. In the M. they are formed on the under side of ordinary
foliage leaves, but in the O. the leaf divides some way above the base
into a ventral spike bearing sporangia, and a dorsal ‘ sterile ’ portion
or green blade. The sporangia also differ in the two orders (y.z>.).
Both are homosporous.

Classification :

Order i. Ophioglossaceae: sporangia on special spike, borne on
ventral side of leaf.

2. Marattiaceae : sporangia on ordinary foliage leaves,
usually combined into synangia.

To these various authors, e.g. Campbell (loc. cit.)} add the Isoe-
taceae as a heterosporous group. In this work they are treated as
belonging to Lycopodineae, but their systematic position is exceed-
ingly doubtful.

Filicineae Leptosporanglatae. [See above for relationship to other F.]
We shall deal with the two groups separately.

1. Homosporous F. L. These plants are generally known as
Ferns; only a few of the other groups of F. come in popular estima-
tion under this title. An outline of the general life history will be
found under Pteridophyta, but a few details must be added here.

The fertilised ovum on the prothallus developes directly and with-
out any resting period into a fern-plant. There is no intermediate
period of rest as there is in flowering plants when the seed is ripe.
The prothallus continues to assimilate food and supply the young fern
until the latter is able to do so for itself. The primary root remains
small or withers away, and new ones are adventitiously formed from
the stem or from the leaf bases, as the plant continues to grow. The
mature plant may be of almost any size from the tiny filmy ferns
(Hymenophyllum) to the large tree ferns (eg. Cyathea, Alsophila).
The stem grows by an apical cell, 2- or 3-sided, cutting off segments
on each face alternately. From these segments by further divisions
arise the tissues and members of the plant. The leaves form a little
way behind the growing apex as in flowering plants. One segment
(but not every one) gives one leaf : the leaf grows by an apical cell
also. The stem may be erect, or may climb (as in many epiphytes), or
creep on the surface, or below it as a rhizome. Its growth is slow
and branching infrequent. The leaves are borne upon it, the inter-
nodes being as a rule short in erect, long in creeping stems. The
phyllotaxy is not so definite as in flowering plants, but the leaves are
very commonly in ranks or straight lines dependent on the position
of the segments cut off from the apical cell of the stem. The lateral
buds arise either on the leaf (as in Nephrodium) or on the stem; in
the latter case they are rarely axillary, but usually beside the leaf.

392 FILICINEAE LEPTOSPORA NGIA TA E

The growing tips of stem and leaf are often protected by brown
scales, which are mere trichomes or superficial outgrowths.

The leaf is usually large, with apical growth and circinate (coiled)
vernation. The growth often lasts for a long time, or even perma-
nently (Lygodium). The leaf blade is usually branched pinnately.

The reproductive organs are borne upon the leaves. The unit is
the sporangium or spore capsule, a small rounded body, stalked in
orders 5 and 6 (below) but sessile in the others. The capsule has a
wall one cell thick, and in this is a group of cells with peculiarly
thickened cell-walls, termed the annulus , by whose agency (its cells
being hygroscopic) the opening of the sporangium is effected. Some-
times, as in many Polypodiaceae, the opening is explosive, and the
contained spores are violently ejected. The mechanism is in prin-
ciple similar to that by which anthers dehisce or certain seed- capsules
open. The annulus may have various forms (see the orders, below)
but the commonest is that of a row of cells running round the sporan-
gium for about f of its circumference.

The sporangia are usually collected into groups termed sori. The
sorus may be naked, but is more usually covered by an indusium.
In some cases, e.g. Pteris, this is merely a fold of the leaf itself, but
more commonly it is a special outgrowth from the leaf, either epider-
mal or derived from the more deeply placed layers of tissue as well.
The sori are usually found on the veins of a leaf, often in the angle
where a vein forks. They do not as a rule occur on all the leaves.
Very often certain leaves are fertile, the others not. In this case the
fertile leaves have usually no green tissue at all, their pinnae being
entirely covered with sori, e.g. Osmunda sp. In other cases, e.g.
Aneimia sp., one part of a leaf is sterile, the other fertile. Or again
the sori, and this is most common, may be borne simply on the
ordinary leaves. They are almost always on the lower surface only;
they may entirely cover it, but more often are localised. Into the
vexed question of the evolutionary origin of sporangia we cannot enter
here.

The spores are all of one kind and if sown under suitable condi-
tions give rise to prothalli\ these are flat green expansions living
for a short or long period independently upon the soil (numbers of
them may be seen wherever ferns are growing). On the under surface
are borne the reproductive organs of both sexes, antheridia (male) and
circhegonia (female). The spermatozoids swim to the ova in the
water which collects under the prothali during rain. The fertilised
ovum developes directly into a new fern-plant.

Two interesting modifications of the life cycle as above described
are known. In Pteris cretica, Nephrodium Filix-mas , Aspidiinn
falcatum and Todea africana , there occurs apogamy or the omission
of the sexual process from the life-history (see diagram in art. Pteri-
dophyla). The new fern-plant is produced from the prothallus by a

FIL1CINEAE LEPTOSPORANGIATAE 393

process of budding ; a growing point developes from the cells of the
prothallus. The cycle thus runs :

Fern-plant ->• sporophylls -► sporangia

t I

prothallus

The other case, apospory , is found in A thyrium Filix-fcemina var.
claris sima, and in Polystichuni angulare var. pulcherrimum , &c.
Here spore-formation is replaced by a process of budding, which gives
rise to prothalli on the backs of the leaves, so that the life-cycle runs

Fern plant

t j

fertilised ovum — spermatozoid — antheridium | _ thallus
(ovum archegomum)

This latter case must not be confused with the ‘vivipary* of
Asplenium bulbiferum , &c., where the leaf-tissue buds out directly
into new plants, which for a time remain attached to the parent, but
ultimately drop off and grow independently. This case is analogous
to that of many phanerogams (see p. 113, and cf. Bryophyllum &c.).

Natural History of Ferns. A very large number of ferns are
shade- and moisture-loving plants. This is comprehensible enough
when we remember how dependent they are on water for their fertili-
sation. Many however are xerophytes and alpine forms with reduced
transpiration. These exhibit the familiar characters (see p. 163) of
such plants — reduced surface, thick cuticle, hairiness, incurving of
leaves (cf. Ericaceae), and even, though but rarely, succulence ( Poly -
podium adnascens , Drymoglossum carnosum , &c.). The tree ferns and
many others have water storage tissue in the stem.

Many sp. are epiphytic, especially in the tropics, though wherever
the air is sufficiently damp they may be found growing in this way,
even in Britain (p. 173). The most interesting epiphyte is Platy-
cerium ; see also Polypodium &c.

The spores of ferns, consisting only of one cell, are of course much
lighter than is possible for a seed, and may be carried by wind to
enormous distances. Owing to this the ferns of to-day are much
more widely distributed than the flowering plants — species for species ;
and further, owing’ to the greater age of the family in geological time,
it is as a family more widely distributed than the families of flowering
plants.

Classification (after Campbell) : there are 6 orders :

1. Osmundaceae (sporangia shortly stalked with a group of pecu-
liarly shaped cells at one side of the apex; they open by a
longitudinal fissure on the other side; fertile and sterile
pinnae).

a. Gleichcniaceae (sporangia sessile, 3 or more in a sorus without

394

FILICINEA E LEPTO SPORANGIA TAE

indusium, with complete transverse annulus and longitudinal
dehiscence; creeping rhizome; leaves dichotomous).

3. Hymenophyllaceae (sporangia with oblique or transverse com-

plete annulus, opening by longitudinal fissure; they are
marginal with a cup-shaped indusium; stem slender, often
creeping; mesophyll usually one cell thick).

4. Schizaeaceae (sporangia sessile with cap of thick-walled cells at

apex instead of a ring-like annulus, and with longitudinal
dehiscence; indusium or none; sporangiferous pinnae usually
in spikes or panicles).

5. Cyatheaceae (sporangia shortly stalked with complete oblique

excentric annulus; sorus naked or with cup-like indusium ;
mostly tree-ferns).

6. Polypodiaceae (sporangia stalked with vertical incomplete annu-

lus, and dehiscing transversely).

For relationship, see art. Filicineae.

2. Heterosporous F. L. ( Hydropterideae or Rhizocarpae). The
two orders of which this group is composed, though they have much
in common, are almost certainly derived from different stocks amongst
the ferns. For details reference should be made to the orders.

As in the homosporus forms, so here the embryo gives rise
directly to a new leafy plant. This is usually aquatic in habit, and
exhibits a creeping stem with a dorsiventral arrangement of the leaves.
Roots may or may not be formed. The stem grows by means of an
apical cell. The sporangia are enclosed in capsular structures termed
sporocarps. In the Salviniaceae this body contains one sorus only, in
the Marsiliaceae more than one. The sorus in the former is composed
of one kind of sporangium only, in the latter usually of both. The
spores germinate in water ; the megaspore gives rise to a small green
female prothallus which remains enclosed in the burst spore. Its free
surface bears a few archegonia. The microspore gives rise (some-
times without escaping from the sporangium) to a rudimentary male
prothallus and an antheridium. From the latter the spermatozoids
escape and swim to the female organ.

Classification:

Order 1. Salviniaceae (sporocarps unilocular).

2. Marsiliaceae (sporocarps plurilocular).

For general relationships, see Filicineae.

Fimbristylis Vahl. Cyperaceae (1). 200 sp. chiefly trop.

Fistularia Linn. = Rhinanthus Linn.

Fitzroya Hook. f. Coniferae (Arauc. 2a; see C. for genus characters).
2 sp. Chili, Tasm.

Flacourtia (Comm.) L’Herit. Flacourtiaceae. 15 sp. trop. As., Afr.
F. Ramontchi L’Herit., the Madagascar plum, and others have
edible drupes.

FRAG ART A

395

Flacourtiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 70 gen. with 500
sp. of trop. (a few subtrop.) trees and shrubs. They have mostly alt.
stip. leathery leaves, frequently more or less two ranked. The firs,
are solitary or in racemose, cymose, or mixed infls., and are very
commonly unisexual. The axis is convex, and between petals and
sta. it forms a disc or gives rise to various e figurations, commonly
glands or scales. The fir. is 4 — 5- (or more) merous, usually regular,
sometimes apetalous. Sta. 00, sometimes united into ante-petalous
groups, the anthers almost always opening by lateral slits. Ovary
superior or semi-inferior, i-loc., with 2 — 8 (usually 3 — 5) parietal pla-
centae, which often project far into the cavity. Ovules 00 , always
anatropous. Styles as many as placentae, or united. Fruit usually a cap-
sule or berry. Embryo straight, in copious endosperm. Chief genera:
Erythrospermum, Oncoba, Homalium, Myroxylon, Azara, Flacourtia,
Casearia. Benth.-Hooker and Warming unite F. to Bixineae.

Flagellaria Linn. Flagellariaceae. 2 sp. trop. Afr., As., Fiji.

Flagellariaceae. Monocotyledons (Farinosae). 3 gen. (Flagellaria, &c.)
with 8 sp., trop. Afr., As., Indo-mal., &c. See Nat. PJi.

Fleurya Gaudich. Urticaceae (1). 8 sp. trop.

Flindersia R. Br. Rutaceae (vn). 12 sp. E. Austr., New Caled.,

Amboina. Placed in Meliaceae by Benth.-Hooker.

Foeniculum Tourn. ex Linn. Umbelliferae (6). 3 sp. Medit., Eur. F.
vulgar e Mill, (fennel) on sea-cliffs in Brit. The fruit of F. officinale
All. is used as a condiment and the young leaves are eaten as a
vegetable.

Fontanesia Labill. Oleaceae (1. 1). 1 sp. Sicily to Palestine.

Forestiera Poir. Oleaceae (1. 3). 14 sp. Am.

Forskohlea Linn. Urticaceae (5). 5 sp. Medit., Afr., E. Ind.

Forsythia Vahl. Oleaceae (1. 2). 2 sp. China, often cultivated against
walls.

Fothergilla Murr. Hamamelidaceae. 2 sp. Kashmir and atlantic N.
Am. Firs, apetalous ; sta. numerous.

Fouquieria H. B. et K. Tamaricaceae. 3 sp. Mex., Calif., Texas.
Shrubs with deciduous leaves, whose midrib persists and forms a
thorn (cf. Caesalpinia, Combretaceae, &c.). Gamopetalous. F.
splendens Engelm., the ocotilla or coach-whip, is used in hedge
making. Sometimes given a separate order.

Fourcroya Spreng. = Furcraea Vent.

Fragaria (Tourn.) Linn. Rosaceae (ill. 6 b). 8 sp. N. temp, and Andes.
F. vesca L., the wild strawberry in Brit. Vegetative propagation
by runners (p. 153) is well shown in this plant. The fir. is proto-
gynous, and has an epicalyx. The fruit is composed of a number of
achenes (the so-called seeds of the strawberry) borne upon a fleshy
receptacle. The fir. bends downwards after fertilisation to ripen the
fruit. Several sp. are in cultivation for the sake of the fruit. In
America the cultivated forms become dioecious or polygamous.

396

FRANCOA

Francoa Cav. Saxifragaceae (n). 2 sp. Chili. See order.

Frangnlinae (Warming). The 16th cohort of Choripetalae.

Frankenia Linn. Frankeniaceae. 31 sp. sea-coasts, temp, and sub-
trop. F. laevis L. , sea-heath, in Brit. They are halophytes (see p.
169) with inrolled hairy leaves (cf. Empetrum, &c.).

Frankeniaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 4 gen. with 34
sp. of salt-loving plants, trop. and temp. Herbs with jointed stems;
leaves opp., inrolled, exstipulate (?). Flrs/in dichasia, $ , regular. K
(4 — 7), C 4 — 7, A usually 6 in two whorls, sta. slightly united at base.
G usually (3), i-loc. with parietal placentae, only the lower parts of
which bear ovules. Ovules 00 , anatropous, ascending. Style forked.
Capsule loculicidal. Mealy endosperm. Embryo straight. Chief
genera : Frankenia, Niederleinia. The order is closely related to
Tamaricaceae and Guttiferae; the agreement with Caryophyllaceae,
near to which it is sometimes placed, e.g. by Benth.-Hooker, is more
in habit than in structure. It is placed in Cistiflorae by Warming.

Fraxinus Tourn. ex Linn. Oleaceae (1. 1). About 40 sp. esp. N. Am.,

E. As., and Medit. F. excelsior L., the common ash, is found in
Brit. It has large pinnate leaves, with grooved petioles. Water is
said to enter this groove and be absorbed by the leaf ; the hollow is
usually inhabited by acarids, thus forming a ‘domatium’ (see p. 115
and Ludwig, Biologie , p. 273, &c.). The llrs. appear before the leaves
in densely crowded short racemes. Each $ hr. consists merely of 2
sta. at right angles to 2 cpls., and is anemophilous ; but polygamy is
the rule in this sp. and every possible combination of the three types
of flr. ( 5 , cf , %) occurs in various places, sometimes all on one tree,
or two on one and one on another, and so on. The fruit is a samara
or one-seeded nut with terminal wing aiding in wind distribution.

F. Ornus L., the ‘flowering ash’ of S. Eur., has calyx and corolla.

The wood of the ash is valuable on account of its firm elastic

nature.

The weeping ash is a variety propagated vegetatively from a single
tree which appeared as a sport at Wimpole in Cambridgeshire.

Freesia Klatt. Iridaceae (ill). 2 sp. Cape Col. Favourite greenhouse
flrs. on account of their delicious scent.

Frenela Mirb. = Callitris Vent.

Freycinetia Gaudich. Pandanaceae. 30 sp. E. Ind., Polynes. Most
are climbing shrubs with infl. and fir. like those of Pandanus. The
bracts are fleshy and usually brightly coloured. In Java, Burck ob-
served in one sp. pollination effected by a bat ( Pteropus ednlis) which
devoured the coloured bracts; in so doing it received pollen upon its
head and carried it to the female flr. Fruit a berry, not, as in Pan-
danus, a drupe.

Freylinia Colla. Scrophulariaceae (11. 6). 2 sp. S. Afr.

Fritillaria (Tourn.) Linn. Liliaceae (v). 40 sp. N. temp. F. Melea-

gris L. , snake’s head, in Brit. Honey is secreted by large nectaries at

GALEANDRA

397

the base of the perianth. The bud stands erect and so does the
capsule, but the open fir. is pendulous (p. 104).

Froelichia Moench. Amarantaceae (4). 10 sp. temp. Am. Fruit en-

closed in the perianth, which forms two wings.

Fuchsia (Plum.) Linn. Onagraceae (vi). 60 sp. Cent, and S. Am.,

N. Z. Many are cultivated for their firs. Many sp. show two buds
in each leaf-axil, one above the other (p. 42). The flr. is adapted to
bees, humming-birds, & c. The berry is edible.

Fuirena Rottb. Cyperaceae (1). 20 sp. trop. and sub-trop.

Fumaria Tourn. ex Linn. Papaveraceae (in). 40 sp. Eur., As., Afr.,
chiefly Medit. 2 in Brit, (fumitory). Many climb by aid of sensitive
petioles (cf. Clematis). The flr. is like that of Corydalis. F. capreolata
L. var. pallidijiora Jord. (Brit.) shows an interesting colour-change in
its flr. ; before pollination it is white, and then it gradually turns
pink or even carmine (cf. Ribes, Diervilla).

Fumariaceae (Warming) = sub-order ill of Papaveraceae.

Funkia Spreng. ( Hosta Tratt.). Liliaceae (in). 5 sp. Japan, China.

Embryos are formed in the seeds by outgrowth of the nucellus-tissue
round the embryo-sac (cf. Alchornea). Seeds winged.

Funtumia Stapf (Kickxia Blume p.p.). Apocynaceae (11. 4). 5 sp.

trop. Afr. F. elastica Stapf is the chief source of Lagos rubber.

Furcraea Vent. Amaryllidaceae (11). 15 sp. trop. Am. Like Agave;

the infl. is even more gigantic. F. gigantea Vent, yields the fibre
known as Mauritius hemp.

Gagea Salisb. Liliaceae (iv). 25 sp. temp. Old World. G. lutea

Ker-Gawl. in Brit. Flr. protogynous. In the leaf-axils of some sp.
are buds which, if fertilisation does not occur, develope into bulbils
and drop off (p. 113).

Gahnia Forst. Cyperaceae (11). 32 sp. N.Z., Austr. to China, Polynes.

Gaillardia Fouger. Compositae (vi). 12 sp. Am.

Galactia P. Br. Leguminosae (ill. 10). 50 sp. trop. Latex, which

is rare in the order, is found in this plant; nothing. however seems to
be known about the anatomy, &c.

Galactodendron Rchb. =Brosimum Sw.

Galanthus Linn. Amaryllidaceae (1). 6 sp. Eur. G. nivalis L., the

snowdrop, in Brit. Bulb with 1 -flowered scape. Perianth in two
whorls. On the inner surface of the inner perianth-leaves are green
grooves secreting honey. The bud is erect, but the open flr. is pen-
dulous (p. 104), and adapted to bees. The sta. dehisce by apical
slits and lie close against the style. Each has a process going out-
wards from the anther. The stigma projects beyond the anther-cone
and is first touched by an insect. In probing for honey the insect
shakes the sta. and receives a shower of pollen (p. 98, and cf. Erica).
Autogamy may occur in old firs. The flr. remains open a long time.

Galax Linn. Diapensiaceae. 1 sp. Virginia, Georgia.

Galeandra Lindl. Orchidaceae (9). 6 sp. trop. Am. Epiphytes,

398

GALEGA

Galega Tourn. ex Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 6). 3 sp. S. Eur., W. As.

G. officinalis L. is sometimes cultivated as a fodder-plant (goat’s rue).

Galeobdolon Adans. =Lamium Tourn.

Galeopsis Linn. Labiatae (vi. 4). 7 sp. N. temp. 3 in Brit., in-

cluding G. Tetrahit L., the hemp-nettle, noteworthy for the swollen
upper ends of the internodes; these act as pulvini (p. 49). See
Briquet’s monograph of G., Mem. cour. Acad. roy. Belg. LII. 1893.

Galinsoga Ruiz et Pav. Compositae (v). 4 sp. Mexico to Argentina.

G. parviflora Cav. is now a common weed on the continent, and is
established near Kew.

Galipea Aubl. Rutaceae (v). 6 sp. S. Am.

Galium Linn. Rubiaceae (11. 21). Over 200 sp. mostly temp., 10 in
Brit, (bed-straw, &c.). Herbs with whorls of leaves and stipules (see
order), and firs, in dichasial panicles. Fir. small with honey freely
exposed (p. 89) on the epigynous disc; in most sp. it is protandrous
with ultimate self-pollination. Of the Brit, sp., G. verum L. and
G. Aparine L. (goose-grass or cleavers) are the most frequent. The
latter is a feeble hook-climber (p. 172), with small reflexed hooks on
the stem. The schizocarp is also provided with hooks.

Galtonia Dene. Liliaceae (11). 2 sp. S. Afr.

Gamopetalae (Benth. -Hooker) = Sympetalae (p. 134).

Garcinia Linn. Guttiferae (v). 200 sp. trop. Old World. Trees or
shrubs with leathery leaves. Sta. free or united into bundles or into
a common mass. Fruit a berry. Seed arillate. The resin of G.
Morelia Desr. and other sp. , obtained by cutting notches in the stem,
forms gamboge. The fruit of many sp. is edible, especially that of G.
Mangostana L., the mangosteen; it is the aril of the seed of this
which is esteemed as a delicacy. Some sp. yield useful timber.

Gardenia Ellis. Rubiacae (1. 8). 60 sp. trop. Old World. They are

largely cultivated for their showy strongly-scented firs. Some sp.
have apparently whorls of leaves, 3 in each. This is really a case of
condensation of two whorls of 2 into one with extreme anisophylly
(p. 47) of one whorl; the fourth leaf is reduced to a minute scale.
The stipules of many sp. secrete a resinous fluid.

Garidella Tourn. ex Linn. =Nigella Linn.

Garrya Dougl. ex Lindl. Cornaceae. 8 sp. Calif., Mexico, W. Ind.
G. elliptica Dougl. is often found in shrubberies. The firs, are in
catkins ; 3 firs, occur in the axil of each bract.

Gasteria Duval. Liliaceae (ill). 35 sp. S. Afr. Xerophytes with
succulent leaves closely packed together (p. 167), but living in the
shade of long grass, &c.

Gastrochilus Wall. Zingiberaceae. 2 sp. Himal., Burmah.

Gastrolobium R. Br. Leguminosae (in. 2). 32 sp. W. Austr.

Gaudichaudia H. B. et K. Malpighiaceae (1). 12 sp. Mexico to Vene-

zuela. Mericarp elevated on carpophore formed from wing of cpl.

Gaultheria Kalm. Ericaceae (11. 5). 100 sp. Am., Japan to Himal.

GENTTANA

399

and Tasmania. G. procumbens L. is the winter green, checker-berry or
partridge-berry of the U.S. The fruit resembles a berry, but is really
a capsule, enclosed in the fleshy calyx but not adhering to it. G.
Shallon Pursh is the Sallal or shallon of N.W. Am., whose edible
fruit deserves to be more widely known and cultivated. An oil is
distilled from the plant of some sp.

Gaura Linn. Onagraceae (v). 20 sp. N. Am. The anthers are

chambered up by horizontal septa in each loc. (cf. Circaea). Nut.

Gaya H. B. et K. Malvaceae (11). 6 sp. trop. Am.

Gaylussacia H. B. et Iv. Ericaceae (111. 7). Over 40 sp. Am. (huckle-
berry). The 5 loc. of the ovary are made into 10 by partitions
growing out from the midribs of the cpls., as in Linum.

Gazania Gaertn. Compositae (x). 24 sp. Cape Colony.

Geissoloma Lindl. ex Kunth. G. marginatum Kunth, Cape Col., a
small xerophytic shrub, is the only sp. The genus forms the order
Geissolomaceae.

Geissolomaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Thymelaeales). 1 gen.
Geissoloma. A monotypic order united to Penaeaceae by Benth.-
Hooker.

Gelsemium Juss. Loganiaceae. 2 sp. N. Am., As. G. sempervirens
Ait. is known as Carolina jasmine. The peduncle bears a large
number of bracteoles.

Genista Linn. Leguminosae (in. 3). 80 sp. Eur., N. Afr., W. As.;
3 in Brit. G. anglica L. (needle-gorse or petty whin) has large thorns
(branches). The fir. has an explosive mechanism, typical of many of
the order (see Leguminosae). In G. iinctoria L., the dyer’s green-
weed (see Muller’s Fert. of Firs. p. 189), there is no honey; the style
and tube of sta. are enclosed in the keel, which is united along the top
seam as well as the bottom. The sta. shed their pollen almost in the
apex of the keel, but not so near it as to pollinate the stigma. When
the fir. opens there is a tension of the sta. -tube on the lower side
tending to bend it upwards ; this is resisted by an opposite one in the
keel and wings, but if an insect alight on the wings and press them
down, the upper seam of the keel gives way and an explosion follows.
In it the style flies out, striking the under side of the insect, thus
probably becoming cross-pollinated, and is followed by a shower of
pollen which gives the insect a fresh coating to take to another fir.

A yellow dye is obtained from the firs, of this sp., which when
mixed with woad gives a fine green (Kendal green).

Gentiana Tourn. ex Linn. Gentianaceae (1. 3). 300 sp. chiefly alpine,
Eur., As., N. Am., Andes, Austr., N.Z. ; 5 sp. of gentian in Brit.
Most are alpine plants of tufted growth (p. 181). The firs, are of
much interest (see Nat. Pfl . , Muller’s Fert. of Firs., A Ipenblumen,
&c.). The genus divides into two subgenera, according to the position
of the nectaries — in Eugentiana on the base of the ovary, in Gentian-
tlla on the; base of the corolla. In each section we find an ascending

400

GENTIANA

series of flrs., adapted to higher and higher types of insects. The more
common sp. may be thus grouped (biologically and to a large extent
morphologically) :

Ancestral type.

G. lutea L. Eugentiana Gentianella.

I 1

§ Coelanthe (humble- § Crossopetalum

bee firs.). (humble-bee flrs.).

1 I

§ Cyclostigma (Lepi-
doptera flrs.).

§ Endotricha (Lepid.
and humble-bee flrs.).

In G. lutea L. the honey is freely exposed (p. 89), the corolla being
rotate ; the visitors are mostly short-tongued. The colour too is yellow
(p. 100) and the flr. is homogamous. To § Coelanthe belong G. pur-
purea L., G. Pneumonanthe L ., &c. The latter sp. (Brit.) has a blue
corolla with a long tube, is protandrous and visited by humble-bees
(class H, p. 92). To § Cyclostigma belong G. bavarica L. , G. verna L.,
G. nivalis L., &c.; G . verna (Brit.) resembles G. Pneumonanthe but has
a still longer and narrower tube and is visited by Lepidoptera. Turning
to the other division, we find similar phenomena. G. ciliata L.
(§ Crossopetalum ) is a protandrous bee-fir., G. Amarella L. (Brit.;
§ Endotricha ) a homogamous bee- and Lepidoptera-flr. G. campestris
L. (Brit.) is similar. This sketch of the probable course of evolution
of the gentians is of course hypothetical, but not more so than most
hypotheses of the evolution of existing forms of life. It is a good
illustration of the general argument of the Theory of Flowers set forth
on pp. 87 — 94, which should be carefully read in connection with
this article.

The gentians form one of the most striking features of the flora
of the Alps, occurring in large masses and with very conspicuous
flrs. ; G. acaulis L. is the most beautiful. In the Brit. Mts. they are
rare. The root of G. lutea furnishes a tonic.

Gentianaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Contortae). 64 gen. with 7 50 sp.
The order has representatives in every part of the globe and in a great
variety of situations — arctic and alpine plants, halophytes, sapro-
phytes (Voyria, &c.), marsh plants (Menyanthes, &c.), water plants
(Limnanthemum), &c. They are mostly herbaceous plants (often
perennial), but a few shrubs occur. The perennial herbs have
usually a rhizome. Leaves opp., exstip., usually entire. The infl.
is usually a dichasial cyme like that of Caryophyllaceae ; as in
that order, the lateral branches often become monochasial. Other
cymose infls. also occur. Bracts and bracteoles present or not.
Firs, regular, 5? , 4— 5-merous (rarely more). K usually (5), imbri-

GERANIAI.ES

4oi

cate; C (5), bell- or funnel-shaped, or sometimes salver-shaped,
convolute (exc. Bartonia, Obolaria, &c. , and sub-order 11). Sta. as
many as petals, alternate with them, epipetalous; anthers various,
usually introrse. Gynoeceum with a glandular disc at the base, of
(2) cpls., syncarpous, superior, placed in the antero-posterior plane.
Placentae usually parietal, but they commonly project far into the
cavity and spread out at their ends; occasionally the ovary is 2-loc.
with axile placentation. Ovules usually 00 , anatropous. Style
simple; stigma simple or 2-lobed. Fruit usually a septicidal capsule
with 00 seeds, rarely a berry (Chironia, &c.). Seeds small. Embryo
small, in abundant endosperm.

The flowers of G. are insect-fertilised. The genus Gentiana has
been very fully studied; see also Menyanthes (dimorphic).

Classification and chief genera: The grouping of the order by Gilg
in Nat. Pfi. is largely based on the characters of the pollen, and is
thus of little use for the purposes of this book ; Engler classifies the
G. thus.

I. GENTIAN01DEAE (leaves opp. : corolla convol. or imbric.):

1. Exaceae (ov. 2-loc.): Exacum.

2. Chironieae (ov. i-loc. with projecting plac.): Erythraea,

Chlora.

3. Swertieae (do. plac. not projecting): Gentiana, Swertia.

II. MENYANTH01DEAE (leaves alt.; corolla induplicate-

valvate): Menyanthes, Limnanthemum.

[Placed in Gentianales by Benth. -Hooker, in Contortae by Warming.]

Gentianales (Benth-Hooker). The 7th cohort of Gamopetalae (p. 136).

Geonoma Willd. Palmae (iv. 6). 80 sp. trop. Am.

Geraniaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). n gen. with 430
sp., cosmop. Mostly herbs, often hairy; Sarcocaulon has a fleshy
habit. Fir. usually regular, $ , 5-merous. K 5, imbricate with
valvate tips, persistent ; C 5, imbricate or convolute ; Sta. as many or
2 or 3 times as many as petals, united at base, obdiplostemonous
when more than one whorl. Cpls. (5) or (2 — 3) or (3 — 5), with 1 — 2 or
2 — 00 ovules in each on axile placentae. Ovules usually pendulous,
with ventral raphe and micropyle facing upwards; style long with
5 stigmas. The firs, are usually protandrous. Fruit usually aschizo-
carp, the cpls. splitting off from a central beak (the persistent style).
Each takes with it a strip of the tissue of the style, forming an awn,
which is usually hygroscopic (see Geranium, Erodium). Embryo
straight or folded, in endosperm. Chief genera : Geranium, Erodium,
Pelargonium, Sarcocaulon. Benth.-Hooker unite to G. the Oxali-
daceae, Limnanthaceae, Tropaeolaceae and Balsaminaceae, but there
is good reason for separating these from G. , especially the last named.
They place G. in Geraniales; Warming places the order, defined as
by Engler, in Gruinales.

Geraniales. The 19th cohort (Engler) of Dicotyledons (Archichl.).

w. 26

402

GERANIALES

See p. 128. The 7th cohort (Benth. -Hooker) of Polypetalae (p.
133)-

Geranium (Tourn.) Linn. Geraniaceae. 160 sp. temp. (12 in Brit, of
which G. pratense L., meadow cranesbill, and G. Robertianum L.,
herb Robert, are the most noteworthy). The infl. is cymose, either
dichasial with a cincinnus-tendency (by preference of the /3-bracteole),
or a cincinnus alone, which is straightened out into a sympodium.
The nectaries are at the base of the sta. These stand at first round
the undeveloped style ; after dehiscence they move away, and finally
the stigmas open. The fruit explodes, the awn twisting up so that
the cpls. are carried upwards and outwards. In many sp. they open
at the same time and the seeds are shot out. The G. of greenhouses
is really a Pelargonium.

Gerardia Linn. Scrophulariaceae (in. n). 30 sp. Am.

Gerbera Gronov. Compositae (xn). 30 sp. Afr., As.

Gerrardiana Oliver. Samydaceae. 1 sp. S. Afr.

Gesneria Linn. Gesneriaceae (11). About 60 sp. trop. Am.

Gesneriaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). About 85 gen.
with 700 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Most are herbaceous or slightly
woody plants ; shrubs and trees are rare. Leaves usually opp., rarely
whorled or alt., entire or toothed, never divided, exstip. Some are
root-climbers, and amongst these are a few epiphytes, e.g. Aeschy-
nanthus, usually with fleshy water-storing leaves. Many are tuberous
plants, e.g. the familiar Sinningia (Gloxinia) of our greenhouses. A
number of sp. reproduce vegetatively by means of curious runners or
suckers, covered with scale-leaves ; these are usually formed below
ground; instances are Naegelia, Isoloma, &c. A very peculiar mor-
phology and life-history is found in Streptocarpus (q.v.).

Firs, solitary or in cymose infls. of various types, £ , usually
markedly zygomorphic. K (5), usually with very short teeth, gene-
rally valvate; C (5), often 2-lipped, im-
bricate (in Ramondia, &c. it is nearly
rotate and regular) ; A usually 4, didyna-
mous, sometimes 2, sometimes 5 (Ra-
mondia, &c.), alt. with corolla-lobes ;
staminodes are often found. At the base
of the flower-tube is a disc, whose various
shapes form important marks in distin-
guishing the genera ; it may be ring-shaped
(thin or thick), 5-angled, 5-lobed, or re-
duced to 5 or fewer glands. The ovary
may be superior, or more or less inferior
(see below); it is always of (2) cpls., i-loc.
with parietal placentae which sometimes
project inwards so far that it becomes
imperfectly 2-loc. Ovules 00, anatropous. Style simple; stigma

GILLIESIA

403

often bilobed. Fruit usually a capsule, splitting loculicidally into
2 valves, each of which may again split into 2 ; sometimes (Ramondia)
the capsule is septicidal, or opens only at the tip, or the fruit may be
more or less fleshy or berry-like. Seeds small and numerous, with
endosperm (§ 11) or without (most of § 1). Embryo straight.

The flrs. are mostly protandrous ; their large size and bright colours
indicate insect-fertilisation, but nothing is known about the details.
Saintpaulia (y.z>.), Klugia, and others exhibit two types of floral
symmetry on the same plant, the flrs. on the left side of the infl.
being like the reflections of those on the right.

The germination is interesting, especially in Streptocarpus
The cotyledons are epigeal, and are usually thin, one being larger
than the other and often growing subsequently to a considerable size :
buds are often found in their axils. Anisophylly (p. 47) is very
common, and usually alternately on one side and the other.

None of the G. are economic plants; many are hothouse favourites.
Classification and chief genera (after Fritsch) :

“The relationships to allied orders, especially Scrophulariaceae,
Orobanchaceae and Bignoniaceae, are so close that it is almost im-
possible to draw the dividing lines. The B. are most sharply marked
off by the structure and formation of their fruit and seed, and often
by their divided leaves. The O. might very well be placed in G. as
a parasitic sub-order. The placentation and structure of the ovary is
the chief mark of distinction between the G., O., and S.”

I. CYRTANDROIDEAE (ovary free, superior): Ramondia,

Saintpaulia, Didymocarpus, Streptocarpus, Aeschynanthus,

Besleria, Cyrtandra, Columnea.

II. GESNERIOIDEAE (ovary more or less inferior) : Achi-

menes, Isoloma, Gesneria.

[Placed in Personales by Benth. -Hooker, in Personatae by Warming.]

Gethyllis Plum, ex Linn. Amaryllidaceae (1). 9 sp. Cape Col.

Geum Linn. Rosaceae (ill. 6 c). 36 sp. N. and S. temp., arctic. G . rivale
L., the water avens, with a thick rhizome and large protogynous flrs. is
frequent, and G. urbanum L., wood avens, with smaller nearly homoga-
mous flrs., abundant in Brit. Both sp. with many others of the genus,
have a hook on each achene of the fruit to aid in distribution. If
the style be examined in a newly opened fir. it will be found to have a
Z-like link in it. The lower half of this after fertilisation gets larger
and more woody, while the upper half finally drops off (cf. p. 20).

Ghiesbreghtia A. Gray. Scrophulariaceae (1. 1). 1 sp. Mexico.

Gigantochloa Kurz. Gramineae (xm). 5 sp. Indo-mal. Giant bam-

boos, used in Java, &c. for building.

Gilia Ruiz et Pav. Polemoniaceae. 90 sp. temp, and subtrop. Am.

Gilibertia Ruiz et Pav. Araliaceae. 20 sp. trop. Am., As., Japan, Chi.

Gillenia Moench. Rosaceae (1. 1). 2 sp. N. Am.

Gilliesia Lindl. Liliaceae (iv). 3 sp. Chili.

26 — 2

404

GINALLOA

Ginalloa Korth. Loranthaceae (n). 4 sp. Indo-mal. Shrubby

parasites like Viscum.

Ginkgo Linn. Ginkgoaceae (formerly placed in Coniferae, and still
mentioned there in this book). 1 sp. G. biloba L. {Salisburia adian-
tifolia Sm.), the maidenhair tree, perhaps found wild in Western
China, but carefully preserved as sacred in temple gardens. It is
a comparatively hardy tree, growing in the open in Europe, reaching
100 feet in height, with leaves deciduous in autumn, resembling those
of the maidenhair fern, and very often with a deep median division.
The leaves are forked in venation (cf. ferns and cycads). The leaves
are scattered on long shoots, or crowded at the apex of short shoots,
which sometimes elongate into long shoots. Below the leaves on the
short shoot are a few scale leaves. Firs, dioecious, in the axils of the
uppermost scales or lowest green leaves on a short shoot (so that their
position differs from that usual in Coniferae with long and short
shoots). The <? consists of a stalked central axis, bearing scattered
rather loosely disposed sta., each of which is a slender filament ending
in an apical scale and two or more pollen-sacs with longitudinal
opening. The pollen grain forms a rudimentary prothallus of a few
cells, and the generative nuclei produce two large spirally coiled
spermatozoids (cf. cycads). The ? flr. has the form of a long stalk
with two terminal elliptical ovules enclosed at the base by a collar-
like envelope representing a reduced carpellary leaf. Each ovule
consists of a nucellus surrounded by one integument, which in the
ripe seed forms a thick fleshy aril-like covering round a hard woody
shell. In the mature ovule the greater part of the nucellus tissue is
reduced to a thin papery layer enclosing a large embryo-sac with
usually 2 archegonia. Fertilisation occurs before or after the ovule
has fallen from the tree. The embryo has 2 cotyledons.

The seed is edible, and yields an oil, and the timber is useful.

Ginkgo thus represents, or rather is, a very old type, with re-
lationships to the Cycadeae and the Filicineae. The genus is “in
all probability a very ancient type, which may have been merged
into the Cordaitales in the palaeozoic era.” Fossil species of G. are
found in the Carboniferous, the Permian, the Triassic, and Jurassic.
Species occur in the Tertiary strata of England.

For details see Fujii on floral morphology in Bot. Mag. Tokio,
1895 ; Seward and Gowan in Ann. Bot. 1900, p. 108 ; Ikeno on
fertilisation in Ann. Sci. Nat ., Bot. xm. 1901, p. 303 ; Lyon on
embryology in Minn. Bot . Stud. ill. p. 275, and other literature
referred to in these papers.

Ginkgoaceae. The only order of Ginkgoales (see p. 124), comprising
the one very ancient and isolated genus Ginkgo (q.v-) , formerly placed
in Coniferae.

Ginkgoales. The 2nd class of Gymnosperms (p. 124).

Ginora Linn. Lythraceae. 7 sp. Mex., W, Ind.

GLOBULARTA 405

Girardinia Gaudich. Urticaceae (1). 6 sp. trop. As., Afr. Many are
provided with virulent stinging hairs.

Gisekia Linn. Aizoaceae. 6 sp. trop. Afr. and As.

Githago Adans. = Lychnis Linn.

Gladiolus (Tourn.) Linn. Iridaceae (ill). 90 sp. S. Afr., trop. Afr.,
Eur., As. Favourites in horticulture. Firs, in many sp. protandrous.
Leaves isobilateral.

Glaucium Tourn. ex Hall. Papaveraceae (11). 12 sp. Eur., As. G .

flavitm Crantz, yellow horned-poppy, on sea-shores in Brit. (p. 186).
Glaux (Tourn.) Linn. Primulaceae (ill). G. maritima L., sea milk-
wort, the only sp. , N. temp, maritime (inch Brit.). A halophyte
(p. 169) with fleshy leaves. The seedling plant dies after producing
in the axil of one cotyledon a hibernating shoot, with a root of its
own. From this new plant fresh plants arise vegetatively, the process
being repeated for several years before flowering. Runners with scale
leaves in whose axils renewal-shoots form, appear before the flowering
period (see Pax in Nat. PJl. for details). The flr. has no corolla, but
a coloured calyx.

Glaziovia Benth. et Hook. f. Bignoniaceae (1). 1 sp. Brazil. The

tendrils have flat discs at the tip, which adhere like those of the
Virginian creeper (Vitis, q.v.).

Glechoma Linn. =Nepeta Linn.

Gleditschia Clayton. Leguminosae (11. 7). n sp. sub-trop. Am., As.
The stems are usually provided with stout branched thorns (stem
structures, arising in leaf axils). The thorn comes from the upper-
most of a whole series of buds arranged one above the other in the
leaf axil. No winter buds are formed, and the young apex of each
twig dies off in winter, the next year’s growth starting laterally.
Some sp. are used for hedges ; some yield useful timber.

Gleichenia Sm. Gleicheniaceae. 30 sp. trop. and S. Plemisph. They
have creeping rhizomes ; the leaves are repeatedly branched in an
apparently dichotomous way.

Gleicheniaceae. Filicineae Leptosporangiatae (Homosporous). 2 genera
with 40 sp., trop., sub-trop. and S. temp. They are small ferns with
creeping rhizomes and dichotomously branched leaves. Sorus of
2 — 8 sessile sporangia, without indusium, with a complete transverse
annulus, and dehiscing longitudinally. Chief genus : Gleichenia.
Globba Linn. Zingiberaceae. 24 sp. E. Ind. and Malaya. The flr. is
rather complex. There is a short calyx; above this is the corolla
tube, from the end of which spring 3 petals, a large labellum and 2
staminodes, also the slightly petaloid fertile sta., projecting beyond
which is the style. The ovary is i-loc. with parietal placentae. The
lower cymes are usually replaced by bulbils; the mass of one of these
consists (see fig. in Nat. PJl.) of a root, springing laterally from the
axis.

Globularia Tourn. ex Linn. Globulariaceae. 17 sp. Medit., Eur.

406

GLOBULARIA

G . vulgaris L., &c., occur in the Alps; “the only instance in the
German and Swiss flora of a blue colour produced by the selective
agency of Lepidoptera” (Muller).

Globulariaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). 3 gen. with 20
sp., Eur., Medit., Afr. Herbs or shrubs with alt., exstip., simple
leaves and heads or spikes of firs, with or without involucres of bracts.
Fir. $ . K (5), persistent; C (5), median-zygomorphic ; the upper lip
of 2 petals is shorter than the 3-petalled lower lip; A 4, didynamous,
epipetalous. Ovary superior, i-loc., with 1 pendulous anatropous
ovule. Fruit a one-seeded nut, free in base of calyx. Embryo
straight, in endosperm. Chief genus: Globularia. Benth. -Hooker
unite the order to Selagineae (see Scrophulariaceae) ; Warming places
it in Nuculiferae.

Glochidion Forst. Euphorbiaceae (A. 1. 1). 135 sp. trop. As., Polynes.

Gloriosa Linn. Liliaceae (1). 3 sp. trop. As., Afr. Favourite greenhouse
plants. They climb by aid of the leaves, whose tips twine like ten-
drils (p. 172). Fir. pendulous, with the sta. and style projecting
horizontally.

Glossocomia Rchb. = Codonopsis Wall.

Glossodia R. Br. Orchidaceae (4). 5 sp. Austr. At the base of the

labellum are two more or less joined projections, which are perhaps
equivalent to the divided staminode of the median sta. of the inner
whorl (see order).

Glossostigma Wight et Arn. Scrophulariaceae (11. 8). 3 sp. Austr.,

N. Z., trop. As., Afr.

Gloxinia L’Herit. Gesneriaceae (11). 6 sp. trop. Am. For G. speciosa

Lodd., &c., so often cultivated in hot-houses, see Sinningia.

Glumaceae (Benth.- Hooker). The 7th series of Monocotyledons (p.
i36)-

Glumiflorae. The 4th cohort (Engler) or 2nd (Warming) of Monocoty-
ledons (pp. 126, 137).

Glyceria R. Br. Gramineae (x). 16 sp. cosmop., esp. N. Am. 2 in

Brit. Pasture grasses in wet meadows.

Glycine Linn. (incl. Soja Moench.). Leguminosae (in. 10). 16 sp.

trop. Afr., As., Austr. G. Soja Sieb. et Zucc. and G. hispida Maxim,
yield Soja beans, eaten in Japan, &c. and used as green fodder.
An oil is obtained from the seeds.

Glycosmis Correa. Rutaceae (x). 6 sp. trop. Afr., Ind., Austr. Fruit

edible.

Glycyrrhiza Tourn. ex Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 6). 12 sp. temp, and

sub-trop. An extract of the rhizome of G. glabra L. forms Spanish
liquorice.

Glyptostrobus Endl. Coniferae (Arauc. 1 c.; see C. for genus cha-
racters). 2 sp. China, G. pendulus Endl. and G. heterophyllus Endl.
United to Taxodium by Benth. -Hooker.

Gnaphalium Linn. Compositae (iv). 120 sp. cosmop. \ 4 in Brit.

G OMPHOL OBIUM

407

(cudweed). G. supinum L., found in alpine regions in Scotland, is a
tufted hairy xerophyte (p. 181). [For G. dioicum L. see Antennaria,
for G. Leontopodium L. see Leontopodium.]

Gnetaceae. The only order in the third and highest class of the Gym-
nosperms, comprising 3 very distinct genera with about 40 sp. trop.
and sub-trop. These agree in very few points, and ought perhaps to
form separate natural orders. They are distinguished from the Coni-
ferae by the absence of resin, by the presence of vessels in the second-
ary wood, and by the occurrence of a perianth. For details of
structure reference must be made to the genera; see also Gymno-
spermae.

Genera: Ephedra, Gnetum, Welwitschia.

Gnetum Linn. Gnetaceae. 15 sp. trop. Most are climbing shrubs, a
few erect shrubs or small trees. Leaves decussate, exstip., simple,
evergreen, leathery. Firs, dioecious, in spikes which are frequently
grouped into more complex infls. The spike bears decussate bracts,
in whose axils are condensed partial infls. of a large number of
firs. (cf. Labiatae), about 3 — 8 in the ? , but more (up to 40)
in the <? . These firs, form whorls round the stem, and are inter-
mingled with numerous hair-structures. At the top of the c? infl. are
sterile ? firs. The cT has a tubular (2-leafed) perianth, from the top
of which the axis projects; at the tip of the axis, right and left, are
two sessile i-loc. anthers. The ? has a tubular perianth like that of
Ephedra, surrounding a single orthotropous erect ovule with two inte-
guments; the inner of these projects at the apex of the fir. After
fertilisation the perianth becomes fleshy, the outer integument woody,
forming a drupe-like fruit. G. Gnemoti L. (Malay) and other sp. are
cultivated for the edible fruit. [See Gymnospermae, and Karsten in
Cohn’s Beitrdge VI., Bot. Zeit. 1892, Ann. Buitenz . xi. &c.]

Gnidia Linn. Thymelaeaceae. 90 sp. Afr., Madag., E. Ind.

Godetia Spach = Oenothera Linn.

Goethea Nees. Malvaceae (m). 2 sp. Brazil. Closely allied to

Pavonia, some sp. of which are often placed in G. There are several
buds in each leaf-axil, some of which give rise years later to firs.,
borne on the old wood (p. 156). The epicalyx is brightly coloured.
The corolla does not spread out, but the styles first emerge and after-
wards the sta. (the reverse of the usual behaviour in Malvaceae).
Honey is secreted at the base of the calyx. The styles are twice as
numerous as the cpls. (see Pavonia).

Goldfussia Nees = Strobilanthes Blume.

Gomphia Schreb. ( Ouratea Aubl.). Ochnaceae. 120 sp. trop. Am.,
As., Afr. Like Ochna, but sta. 10 only.

Gomphocarpus R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (11. 2). 100 sp. trop. and South
Afr., and S. Am. G. fruticosus R. Br. is wild on the shores of nearly
all trop. lands, having spread from Afr.

Gompholobium Sm. Leguminosae (in. 2). 24 sp. Austr.

408

GOMPHRENA

Gomphrena Linn. Amarantaceae (4). 90 sp. S. Am., Austr. Herbs

with cymose heads of firs. Fir. £ with 5 hairy perianth-leaves and
5 sta. united into a tube.

Gonatanthus Klotzsch. Araceae (vi). 2 sp. Himal.

Gongora Ruiz et Pav. ( Acropera Lindl.). Orchidaceae (19). 20 sp.trop.
Am. Epiphytes with hanging firs, whose ovary is so bent that the
labellum comes to stand above the column. The sepals and petals
spring from the column (an argument for its axial nature). See
Darwin, Orchids , p. 166.

Goniolimon Boiss. = Statice Tourn.

Gonolobus Michx. Asclepiadaceae (11. 5). 70 sp. Am.

Goodenia Sm. Goodeniaceae (1). 70 sp. Austr.

Goodeniaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Campanulatae). 12 gen. with
210 sp , chiefly Austr., a few N.Z., Polynes., and trop. coasts. Herbs
and shrubs with alt. exstip. leaves and no latex. Firs. $ , zygo-
morphic, solitary in the leaf-axils or in cymes, racemes, or spikes.
K usually 5, small; C (5); A 5, alt. with the petals, epipetalous or
not, with introrse sometimes syngenesious anthers ; G (2), inferior or
semi-inferior, rarely superior, 1- or 2-loc. ; style simple with ‘pollen-
cup ’ close under the stigma. Into this the pollen is shed in the bud ;
“the cup then closes up, leaving only a narrow opening for the most
part covered by hairs. At the same time the style bends down to
stand in the mouth of the almost horizontal flr., so that insect-visitors
come in contact with the hairs and dust themselves with a little of the
powdery pollen. As the stigmatic lobes grow up in the cup they
keep forcing fresh pollen into the narrow slit, and finally emerge by it
themselves and then receive the pollen of younger firs, from insect-
visitors (Muller). The mechanism should be carefully compared
with that of Campanulaceae and Compositae. Ovules usually ascend-
ing, anatropous. Fruit usually capsular, sometimes a nut or drupe.
Embryo straight, in fleshy endosperm.

Classification and chief genera (after Schonland): The G. are very
closely allied to Campanulaceae, differing chiefly in the absence of
latex and the presence of the pollen-cup. They resemble Gentian-
aceae in a few points.

I. GOODENIOIDEAE (firs, rarely in heads; corolla folded
in bud; ovary inf. or J-inf., with usually 2 or more ovules ;
endosperm): Velleia, Goodenia, Leschenaultia, Selliera,
Scaevola, Dampiera.

II. BRUNONIOIDEAE (firs, in heads; corolla valvate; ovary
sup., i-ovuled; no endosperm): Brunonia (only genus).

[Placed in Campanales by Benth. -Hooker, in Campanulinae by
Warming.]

Goodenovieae (Benth.- Hooker) = Goodeniaceae.

Goodia Salisb. Leguminosae (in. 3). 2 sp. S. Austr.

Goodyera R. Br. Orchidaceae (4). 25 sp. N. temp., trop. As., New

GRA MINEAE

409

Caled., Mascarenes ; G. repens R. Br. in Brit. Fir. as in Epipactis
(Darwin, Orchids , p. 103).

Gordonia Ellis. Theaceae. 16 sp. Indo-mal., China, N. Am. Seeds
winged. The bark of G. Lasianthus Linn, (loblolly-bay, south U.S.)
is employed for tanning. Sta. opp. to petals.

Gossypium Linn. Malvaceae (iv). 9 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Epicalyx
of 3 leaves. G (5). Loculicidal capsule. The seeds are covered
with long hairs for wind-dispersal ; these hairs form the material
known as cotton. The cultivated forms are apparently reducible to
3 sp., G. barbadense L. (trop. Am.), G. arboreum L. (Old World), and
G. herbaceum L. (ditto). The cotton separates easily from the seed
in the first sp., which is the Sea Island cotton of the U.S. ; in
Egypt, India, &c. the other sp..are most used. From the seeds an
oil is obtained by crushing (cotton-seed oil), and the oil-cake left
behind is largely used for feeding cattle, &c. The firs, are visited by
bees and (in Am.) by humming-birds. For details see Mueller’s Select
Extratrop. Plants .

Gouanla Jacq. Rhamnaceae. 40 sp. trop. Some have 'watch-spring
tendrils (p. 172). The stalks of some sp. contain saponin.

Gramineae. Monocotyledons (Glumiflorae). One of the largest orders
of flowering plants, with about 310 gen. and 3600 sp. found in all
regions of the globe. In the temp, zones especially they are a most
important feature in the vegetation, forming prairies, steppes, &c.
(p. 188). Most grasses are herbaceous, but a few, chiefly the bamboos,
reach a large size, even as much as 100 ft. in height. Many are
annual, but many are perennial; the latter commonly branch largely
from their lower nodes and thus often give rise to a tufted habit (as
seen in many common sp.) ; many sp. possess rhizomes. The stem
has well-marked nodes, composed chiefly of softer tissues. If a stem
be bent downwards (as occurs when wheat is ‘laid’) these nodes
recommence growth, growing more rapidly upon the lower side, so
that the stem is once more brought to the vertical position. . The
stem is usually hollow (exc. Zea, Saccharum, &c.) and circular in
section. The leaves are alt., and with few exceptions, in 2-ranked
phyllotaxy (p. 46); they have a sheathing base, the edges of the
sheath overlapping one another upon the side of the stem opp. to
the blade (cf. Cyperaceae) ; there is no petiole (exc. in a few bamboos,
&c.), and at the junction of blade and sheath there is a little mem-
branous outgrowth, termed the ligule , upon the upper side of the leaf.
The blade is usually linear. Many xero phytic grasses have grooves
along the upper side of the leaf, with the stomata at the bases of the
grooves (p. 165); in most of these cases the leaf rolls up upwards in
dry air, so as to enclose the stomata completely and check transpira-
tion; the lower surface which thus becomes the outer one, is covered
with thick-walled cells and has no stomata. When the air again
becomes moist the leaf unrolls.

4io

GRAMINEAE

inf. palea
inf. palea -
inner Hume -

- inf. palea

- inf. palea
outer glume

The infl. is rather complex; the unit of inti, is not the individual
fir. but a spikelet , or small spike of firs. These are well seen in oats,
where the spikelets are arranged in a panicle ; in wheat the spikelets
are sessile upon the main axis, forming a compound spike, usually
termed simply a spike (p. 63) ; this is more clearly seen in rye-grass.
Each of these spikelets consists of one or more (usually not more than
5) firs, one above the other on opp. sides of a very short axis, the whole
enclosed in one or two or more larger leaves at the base of the axis, the
glumes. The first diagram gives a rough
representation of the construction of a
spikelet. The central line represents the
axis (supposed elongated), which bears
at the base usually two leaves with no-
thing in their axils ; these are the glumes.

Above them stand one or more leaves, the inferior paleae , in whose axils
occur firs, (sometimes aborted). The fir. is very reduced (or primi-
tive, see p. 75). Upon its axis, opposite to the inferior palea, stands
another leaf, the superior palea. Between the paleae the fir. itself is
enclosed. The superior palea, being upon the same axis as the fir.,
is evidently its bracteole. Owing to the shortness of the floral axis,
it appears to be in the axil of the inferior palea, or even upon the
main axis of the spikelet. Above the superior palea are two very
small scales, the lodicules ; they are
opposite to the superior palea (1 in
fig.) and insignificant in size. They
are sometimes supposed to represent
two of the three leaves of a reduced
perianth, but it seems more probable
that they really represent a second
bracteole and that the flr. is per-
fectly naked. The flr. itself has
usually 3 sta. with long filaments
and versatile anthers, and 1 cpl.
forming a i-loc. ovary, with 1 basal
erect anatropous ovule, and 1 or
more (usually 2) stigmas, which are
much branched. This ovary has
sometimes been regarded as formed of more than 1 cpl., but the suture
of the posterior side of the ovary (cf. Prunus) seems to point clearly
to its being of 1 cpl. only. The two stigmas may then be regarded
as developments of the lateral parts of the cpl. whilst the central
part (which usually forms the stigma) remains undeveloped; this also
is the explanation of the two lodicules placed right and left of the
proper position for an upper bracteole.

All the firs, in the spikelet are enclosed as a rule within the
glumes until ready to open. Then the glumes separate, and the hygro-

Floral diagram of a grass (after
Eichler). b, inferior palea;
v, superior palea ; 1, lodicule ;
st., stigma.

GRAMINEAE

411

scopic lodicules force apart the paleae of the individual firs. Most
sp. in Eur. are protogynous ; the sta. grow very rapidly in warm
weather and suspend the anthers clear of the paleae so that the loose
powdery pollen is easily blown away and may be caught by the large
stigma of another fir. (p. 86).

The fruit is a caryopsis (p. 108), i.e. an achene whose pericarp is
completely united to the seed-coat. Its construction can be well seen
in maize (or wheat) ; at the broad end is the scar of the style, and on
the under side at the pointed end is the embryo ; on the upper side is
the hilum or point where the ovule was attached to the wall of the
cpl. (the form of this scar is important in classification); the bulk
of the seed consists of flowery endosperm. The embryo is straight,
with its one cotyledon ( scutellum ) completely enwrapping the radicle
and plumule (this can be easily made out by dissecting soaked mate-
rial). The radicle is towards the lower end of the fruit. In germination
the cotyledon remains within the seed and extracts the nourishment
from the endosperm; afterwards it merely withers away (p. 112).
Most grass fruits are sufficiently light to be dispersed by wind, espe-
cially as the paleae often remain attached to them and become dry
and chaffy. Others have hooks or other adaptations for dispersal. Of
special interest is the self-burying arrangement in Stipa ( q.v .), effected
by aid of the awn (this term is applied to any long thread-like out-
growth of glume or palea). Many grasses, e.g. sp. of Poa and
Festuca, are viviparous , especially on mountains. The spikelets are
replaced by leafy shoots with adventitious roots at their bases. These
drop off and grow upon the soil (cf. Agave, Allium, &c.).

From the economic point of view the G. are only rivalled in
importance, if at all, by the Palmae and Leguminosae. The cereal
grasses, e.g. Oryza, Triticum, Zea, Avena, Hordeum, &c . (see p. 204),
afford food to a large proportion of the earth’s inhabitants. Many
grasses are valuable as fodder for domestic animals (see p. 203), or
for hay. The bamboos supply many of the wants of the natives of
trop. countries.

Classification and chief genera (after Hackel) : the G. show near
relationship only to Cyperaceae and perhaps Juncaceae, and are easily
distinguished from these either by their vegetative or floral characters.

A. Spikelets 1 -flowered without elongation of the axis beyond the
fir., or 2-flowered with the lower fh. imperfect; without mea-
surable internode between the individual glumes or paleae,
and when ripe falling off from the stalk as a whole or together
with certain parts of the axis of the spike,
a. Hilum point-like ; spikelets not compressed laterally, but
usually dorsally compressed or cylindrical.

I. Maydeae (inf. palea and, when present, sup. palea thin and
membranous ; glumes firm, even leathery or cartilaginous,
the lowest one the largest and overlapping the rest; spike-

412

GRAMINEAE

lets usually in racemes or spikes which become jointed
when ripe ; S and % spikelets in separate inlls. or in separate
parts of the same infl.): Euchlaena, Zea, Coix.

II. Andropogoneae (as I, but spikelets g , or <? and ? side by side
in the same infl.): Saccharum, Andropogon, Sorghum.

III. Zoysieae (paleae membranous; glumes herbaceous, papery

or leathery, the lowest usually the largest; spikelets fall-
ing singly or in groups from an unjointed spike-axis):
Zoysia.

IV. Tristegineae (paleae membranous; glumes herbaceous or

firm and papery, the lowest smaller or narrower than the
rest; spikelets falling singly from the twigs of a panicle):
Arundinella.

V. Paniceae (paleae usually cartilaginous, leathery or papery;
glumes more delicate, usually herbaceous, the lowest
usually smaller ; spikelets falling singly from the twigs of
a panicle or unjointed spike-axis) : Paspalum, fPanicum,
fSetaria, Cenchrus, Pennisetum, Spinifex.

b. Hilum linear ; spikelets laterally compressed.

VI. Oryzeae: Zizania, Oryza, Lygeum, fLeersia.

B. Spikelets i — many-flowered ; when i-flowered often with a pro-
longation of the axis above the fir., their stalks usually jointed
above the glumes, so that they fall off leaving these on the
axis; when 2- or more-flowered, always with distinct inter-
nodes between the firs.

a. Stem herbaceous, annual. No petiole, or joint between blade
and sheath.

VII. Phalarideae (spikelets in panicles, spikelike panicles or
racemes, on distinct stalks — sometimes very short, not
set in notches on the main axis ; 1 -flowered, with 4 glumes
and 1 -nerved sup. palea): fPhalaris, fAnthoxanthum,
t Hierochloe.

VIII. Agrostideae (as VII, but spikelets with two or no glumes
and 2-nerved sup. palea): Aristida, Stipa, t Milium,
fPhleum, fAlopecurus, tMibora, Sporobolus, tPoly-
pogon, f Agrostis, fGastridium, fCalamagrostis, t Ammo-
phila, fApera, tLagurus.

IX. Aveneae (infl. as VII, but spikelets 2— many-flowered; inf.

paleae usually shorter than glumes, with twisted awn upon
the dorsal side, more rarely with no awn or with an awn
upon the; tip as X, but then always with 2 almost opp.
firs, and no prolongation of the axis beyond them) :
tHolcus, fAira, t Corynephorus, t Deschampsia, tTri-
setum, t Avena, + Arrhenatherum, Danthonia.

X. Festuceae (as IX, but inf. palea usually longer than glume,
without awn or with untwisted awn at tip) : tSesleria,

GRIFFITHELLA

4i 3

Gynerium, Arundo, fPhragmites, iTriodia, fMolinia,
Eragrostis, fKoeleria, fCatabrosa, tMelica, fBriza,
fDactylis, fCynosurus, fPoa, fGlyceria, fFestuca,
t Bromus, + Brachypodium.

XI. Chlorideae (spikelets in 2 rows approximated to one
another, forming a one-sided spike or raceme with un-
jointed axis): tCynodon, fSpartina, Chloris, Bouteloua,
Eleusine.

XII. Hordeeae (spikelets in 2, or rarely more, opp. rows, form-
ing a symmetrical, rarely one-sided, spike): fNardus,
fLolium, fLepturus, tAgropyrum, Secale, Triticum,
tHordeum, fElymus.

b. Stem woody, at least below ; leaf often petiolate, finally
separating from its sheath by a joint.

XIII. Bambuseae : Arundinaria, Bambusa, Dendrocalamus.

The genera marked with a dagger (+) are those of the British
flora. Many are rare and unimportant. Space will not permit of
giving a key to the genera ; the student should work through the
commoner ones with a flora, or with Ward or Hutchinson’s British
Grasses. G. are placed in Glumaceae by Bentham-Hooker, in Glurni-
florae by Warming.

Grammanthes DC. Crassulaceae. 1 sp. S. Afr.

Grammatophyllum Blume. Orchidaceae (24). 4 sp. Malaya. G.

speciosu?7i Bl. is about the largest known orchid.

Graphephorum Desv. Gramineae (x). 1 sp. N. Am.

Graptophyllum Nees. Acanthaceae (iv. b). 5 sp. Austr., Polynesia.

G. hortense Nees ( G.pictutn Griff.) is cultivated for its prettily marked
leaves.

Gratiola (Rupp.) Linn. Scrophulariaceae (11. 8). 25 sp. cosmop.

Sta. 2. The dried plant of G. cfficiiwlis L. was formerly officinal.

Grevillea R. Br. Proteaceae (11). 160 sp. Austr. Trees and shrubs

with leaves of various kinds and racemose infls., with 2 firs, in each
axil. The style projects from the bud as a long loop, the stigma
being held by the perianth until the pollen is shed upon it. Then
the style straightens out, and the pollen may be removed by visiting
insects, the stigma not being yet receptive ; presently the female stage
supervenes, and if all the pollen has not been removed, autogamy
may occur. Some sp. yield useful timber, and G. robusta A. Cunn.
(silky oak) and other sp. are now very extensively employed as shade
and limber trees in Ceylon and elsewhere.

Grewia Linn. Tiliaceae. 90 sp. As., Afr., Austr., esp. trop.

Grias Linn. Lecythidaceae. 4 sp. S. Am., W. Ind. G. caulijlora L.,
the anchovy pear, is cult, in the W. Ind., &c.

Griffithella Warming. Podostemaceae. 1 sp. W. Ghats of India.
Plants with the general vegetative structure of Dicraea, but remark-
able for the extraordinary polymorphism of their shoots, which may

4M

GRIFFITHELLA

be cup or wineglass shaped, creeping or erect, and of many different
forms and shapes and sizes (cf. Willis in Ann. Perad ., I., 1902, p. 364).
They are of root nature.

Grindelia Willd. Compositae (ill). 25 sp. Am.

Grisebachia Klotzsch {Eremia Don). Ericaceae (iv. 10). 10 sp. S. Afr.

Griselinia Forst. f. Cornaceae. 2 sp. N.Z.

Griselinia Scop. = Pterocarpus Linn.

Gronovia Houst. ex. Linn. Loasaceae (1). 2 sp. trop. Am. Sta. 5,

and no staminodes. Cpl. 1.

Grossularia Tourn. ex Adans. = Ribes Linn.

Grubbia Berg. Grubbiaceae (the only genus). 3 sp. S. Afr.

Grubbiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Santalales). Only genus Grubbia.
United to Santalaceae by Bentham-Hooker. (See Nat. PJl.)

Grumilea Gaertn. = Psycho tria Linn.

Guaiacum Plum, ex Linn. Zygophyllaceae. 4 sp. N. and trop. Am.
G. officinale L. yields the valuable lignum -vitae wood, from which is
also obtained the medicinal resin guaiacum.

Guarea Allem. ex Linn. Meliaceae. 80 sp. trop. Am., Afr. The
disc forms a gynophore, and the sta. are completely united into a tube.

Guatteria Ruiz et Pav. Anonaceae (2). 50 sp. trop. Am.

Guazuma Plum, ex Adans. Sterculiaceae. 10 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind.

Gueldenstaedtia Fisch. Leguminosae (in. 6). 8 sp. Centr. As., China.

Guettarda Linn. Rubiaceae (11. 12). 40 sp. trop. all but 1 (G. speciosa
L., which is common on trop. coasts) Am.

Guilandina Linn. = Caesalpinia Linn.

Guilleminea H.B. et K. Amarantaceae (3). 3 sp. Am.

Guioa Cav. = Cupania Linn.

Guizotia Cass. Compositae (v). 5 sp. Afr. G. abyssinica Cass., the

rantil or niger-seed, is cultivated in India and elsewhere for its oily
seeds, from which an oil is expressed.

Gundelia (Tourn.) Linn. Compositae (x). 1 sp. As. Min., Persia.

Gunnera Linn. Haloragidaceae. 17 sp. S. Am., N.Z., Tasm., Sandw.
Is., Java, S. Afr., Costa Rica. Several sp. are enormous herbs
with very handsome leaves several feet across. They grow by the
side of water and deserve more attention as ornamental plants than
they have hitherto received. Fir. 2-merous. Ovary i-loc. Stem
polystelic. In the leaf-axils are ‘squamulae intravaginales ’ (cf.
Potamogetonaceae). [See Jonas’ Inaug. Diss., abstr. in Beihefte z.
Bot. Cent . 1894, p. 32.]

Gurania Cogn. Cucurbitaceae (11). 49 sp. trop. Am.

Gustavia Linn. ( Japarandiba Adans.). Lecythidaceae. 20 sp. trop.
Am. G. augusta L. is the stink-wood ; the wood has a foetid smell.

Gutierrezia Lag. Compositae (hi). 20 sp. Am.

Guttiferae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 42 gen. with 450 sp.
chiefly trop. As defined by Engler, the order includes the Hyperi-
caceae of Bentham and Hooker (and other authors) as well as a few

GUTT1FERAE

4i5

of the Ternstroemiaceae. They are (exc. Hypericum) trees or shrubs
with simple entire opp. exstip. leaves. Oil glands or passages are
always present, often showing as translucent dots upon the leaves.
The infl. is cymose, frequently umbellate. The firs, show consider-
able variety in structure. The bracteoles are frequently close up to
the calyx, and hardly to be distinguished from it. The axis is usually
convex, but exhibits many forms. The flr. may be cyclic or partly
spiral, and is usually regular, £ , hypogynous. Calyx imbricate.
Corolla imbricate or convolute. Sta. co , free or united in various
ways, frequently in bundles (usually
regarded as due to branching of origin-
ally simple papillae) ; very commonly
the outer ones or even all of the sta.
are staminodial. G usually (5) or (3),
multi- or i-loc.; ovules 00, few, or 1,
anatropous; styles free or united. Fruit
often capsular, sometimes a berry or
drupe. Seed exalbuminous. [For de-
tails of the great variety in floral
structure, see Engler in Nat. Pfi.~\

Many yield useful timber ; the resins
of Clusia, Garcinia, Calophyllum, &c.,
and the fruits of Garcinia and others
are valuable.

Classification and chief genera (after
Engler) : the G. are closely allied to Theaceae, the only constant
distinction being the presence of oil-glands, and to Dipterocarpaceae,
which are chiefly distinguished by their alt. stip. leaves. The
characters of the sub-orders would occupy too much space, and
we give therefore only those of the Hypericoideae and Endo-
desmioideae, which are often united and made into an independent
order (Hypericaceae).

I. KIELME YEROIDEAE : Kielmeyera, Caraipa.

II. HYPERICOIDEAE (leaves opp.; flr. $ ; sta. usually 00,

usually in 5 or 3 — 8 bundles before the petals ; styles 3 — 5,
usually free; fruit a 1- or 3-loc. septi- or loculi-cidal capsule,
or indehiscent; embryo usually straight with not very thick
cotyledons) : Hypericum, Vismia.

III. ENDODESMIOIDEAE (placed in Hypericaceae by Benth.-

Hooker ; sta. united into a tube above, in 5 bundles below ;
cpl. 1; drupe; cotyledons fleshy) : Endodesmia (only genus).

IV. CALOPHYLLOIDEAE : Mesua, Mammea, Calophyllum.

V. CLUSIOIDEAE: Clusia, Garcinia.

VI. MORONOBOIDEAE: Symphonia.

[Placed in Guttiferales by Benth. -Hooker, in Cisliflorae by
Warming.]

9

Floral diagram of Hypericum ;
after Eichler, ovary cut at
base. S the “Schraubel”
branch (p. 65).

4i 6 QUZMANIA

Guzmania Ruiz et Pav. Eromeliaceae (4). 5 sp. trop. S. Am. Epi-

phytes.

Gymnadenla R. Br. = Habenaria Willd. (specific names mostly the
same).

Gymnanthes Sw. Euphorbiaceae (a, 11. 7). 10 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind.

Gymnema R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (n. 4). 25 sp. W. Afr. to Austr.

The leaves of G. sylvestre R. Br. contain gymnemic acid, and when
chewed temporarily destroy the capacity of tasting sugar.

Gymnocladus Lam. Leguminosae (11. 7). 2 sp. China and N. Am.

Gymnogramme Desv. Polypodiaceae. 90 sp., esp. trop. G. lepto -
phylla Desv., an annual fern, occurs in Jersey.

Gymnospermae. One of the two great divisions of Spermaphyta or
seed- plants. They are distinguished from the Angiospermae by the
fact that the cpls. are not so infolded or united as to form an ovary
round the ovules ; also the endosperm (female prothallus) is formed
before fertilisation. The existing G. are divided into four great
classes, Cycads, Ginkgoales, Conifers, and Gnetales. These differ
very much from one another, so much so that it is by no means
impossible that the class of Gymnosperms is polyphyletic (p. 30).
The Cycads if traced backwards show a maximum in the Jurassic
period with the great class of Cycadophyta, decreasing until about
the end of the Eocene they had shrunk to their present size. They
begin about the Permian period, about which time the great class of
the Pteridospermeae, or seed-bearing ferns (the bulk of what used to
be regarded as true ferns in the coal-measures, &c.) was dying out,
and show considerable relationship to the latter. Some of the fossil
forms have actual hermaphrodite firs, with numerous sta., and it is
quite possible that these are on the direct line of ascent to the
Angiosperms. From what the Coniferae and Ginkgoales, which
are first found about the beginning of the Permian period, took
their rise, is as yet quite uncertain, while we do not know enough
about the Gnetaceae to draw many conclusions about them.

The firs, in most Cycads and Conifers take the form of cones, and
whether each cone represents a fir. or an infl. is still a disputed point.
The sta. is of simple structure; in the Cycads there are several pollen-
sacs, looking like the sporangia of Marattiaceae, on the lower side of
a leaf-like organ ; in the Conifers the sta. has usually fewer pollen-sacs
and is more leaf-like, while in the Gnetaceae the anthers are sessile.
The ovules are always naked in the sense of not being enclosed in an
ovary formed of one or more hollow cpls., but they are usually pro-
tected in some way from the weather. Wind-pollination occurs.

In the Cycads a considerable mass of sporogenous tissue is formed
in the ovule (mega-sporangium) ; one of the cells of this tissue gives
rise to the embryo-sac (mega-spore). This behaviour is closely com-
parable to that of the higher Pteridophyta. In the embryo-sac the
female prothallus (endosperm) forms by cell-division, and arcliegonia

HAASTIA

4i7

in which the ova are contained develope at the micropylar end. The
ovule is now mature and consists of an integument, nucellus, and
embryo-sac and its contents.

In most Conifers the sporogenous tissue consists only of the cell
which goes to form the embryo-sac. In the sac the same process
goes on as in Cycads.

In Ephedra the phenomena are very similar to those in Conifers ;
in Gnetum several embryo-sacs are formed, and the division of the
nucleus of the sac gives rise, not to a prothallus as in the cases above
described, but to a number of free nuclei lying on the wall of the sac,
and the male nuclei fuse with these, and from one of the fusions the
endosperm arises.

The whole question of the relationships of the G. is one of much
difficulty. They are probably, unless the Cycads, offshoots from the
main line of descent of the Angiosperms. (See Angiospermae, Cha-
lazogamae, Pteridophyta, Cycadaceae, Coniferae, Ginkgo, and refer
also to Chap. I. and to Campbell’s Mosses and Ferns , Nawaschin in
Mini* de V Acad, des sc. de St Petersbourg, XLII. 1894 (reviewed in
Bot. Centr . 62, p. 324), Coulter in Bot. Gaz. 26, 1898, p. 153, and
other papers referred to in the articles quoted.)

Gymnosporia Benth. et Hook. f. Celastraceae. 60 sp. trop. and sub-
trop. esp. Afr. Many have branches modified into thorns.

Gymnostachyum Nees. (Cryptophragmium Nees.) Acanthaceae (iv, b).
15 sp. trop. As.

Gymnostephium Less. Compositae (111). 6 sp. S. Afr.

Gynandropsis DC. ( Pedicellaria Schrank.) Capparidaceae (i). 15 sp.
trop. The seeds of G. pentaphylla DC. are used like mustard.

Gynerium Humb. et Bonpl. Gramineae (x). 3 sp. trop. and warm

temp. G. argenteum Nees is the Pampas grass, often cultivated as
a show plant (commercially in Calif.). It is dioecious.

Gynocardia R. Br. Flacourtiaceae. 1 sp. India, G. odorata Br.,
yielding Chaulmoogra oil, used medicinally, &c., in India.

Gynostemma Blume. Cucurbitaceae (iv). 5 sp. trop. As., Polynes.

Gynoxys Cass. Compositae (vm). 15 sp. Andes of trop.

Gynura Cass. Compositae (vm). 25 sp. trop. As. and Afr.

Gypsophila Linn. Caryophyllaceae (1. 2). 50 sp. Eur., As., esp. in

E. Medit. region. The firs, are shorter in the tube than those of
most Silenoideae, and are in consequence visited by a greater variety
of insects.

Gyrinops Gaertn. Thymelaeaceae. 2 sp. Indo-mal.

Gyrocarpus Jacq. Hemandiaceae (Combretaceae, Bentham- Hooker).
1 sp. trop. formerly placed in Lauraceae, to which its sta. are remark-
ably similar. The fruit is often mistaken for that of one of the
Dipterocarpaceae.

Gyrostemon Desf. Phytolaccaceae. 6 sp. Austr.

Haastia Hook. f. Compositae (ill). 3 sp. N. Z., growing closely

27

w.

418

HAASTIA

together on the ground, and forming cushions (cf. Raoulia, Azorella,
and p.165).

Habenaria Willd. (inch Bonatea Willd. , Coeloglossum Hartm., Gymna -
denia R. Br., Neotinea Rchb. f., Nigmiella Rich., Platanthera
Rich., and other gen. often regarded as separate, e.g. by Pfitzer in
Nat. Pfl .) Orchidaceae (3). 400 sp. temp, and trop. ; 5 in Brit.,

H. (C.) viridis R. Br. (frog-orchis), H . (G.) conopsea Benth. (scented
orchis), H. ( P .) bifolia R. Br. (butterfly orchis), &c. See Darwin’s
Orchids.

Hablitzia Bieb. Chenopodiaceae (2). 1 sp. Caucasus. A climbing

shoot is given off each year from the perennial underground stem
(cf. Bowiea).

Habranthus Herb. = Hippeastrum Herb.

Habrothamnus Endl. = Cestrum Linn.

Hacquetia Neck. Umbelliferae (3). 1 sp. S. Eur.

Haemanthus (Tourn.) Linn. Amaryllidaceae (1). 60 sp. S. Afr. Firs,
in cymose heads or umbels.

Haematoxylon Linn. Leguminosae (11. 7). 1 sp. trop. Am. H. cam -

pechianum L., the logwood. The young foliage is red (p. 157). In
the leaf-axils are thorns. The heart-wood contains the dye-stuff
haematoxylin and is largely used in dyeing ; it is broken into chips
before use.

Haemodoraceae. Monocotyledons (Liliiflorae). 9 gen. with 33 sp.,
Austr., S. Afr., trop. Am. Herbs with panicled infl., consisting of
a number of cymes arranged in a racemose way (cf. Aesculus). Fir.
regular or transversely zygomorphic (cf. Anigozanthos), g , 3-merous.
Sta. 3, inserted on inner perianth-leaves, with introrse anthers.
G (3), sup. or inf.; ovules few in each loc., semi-anatropous. Stigma
capitate. Capsule. Chief genera: Haemanthus, Lachnanthes, Wach-
endorfia. [As defined by Benth.-Hooker, the order includes sub-
orders viii, IX of Liliaceae, and part of sub-order in of Amaryllidaceae
(Anigozanthos, &c.). It is placed in Epigynae by Benth.-Hooker,
in Liliiflorae by Warming.]

Haemodorum Sm. Haemodoraceae. 17 sp. Austr.

Hakea Schrad. Proteaceae (11). 100 sp. Austr. Xerophytes with

hard woody fruit. The seedlings show interesting transition stages
(p. 29, and cf. Acacia) from entire leaves to the much divided leaves
usually seen in the genus.

Halenia Borckh. Gentianaceae (1. 3). 25 sp. As., Am.; alpine and

arctic. Cleistogamic firs, are frequent.

Halesia Linn. Styracaceae. 7 sp. Japan, China, and S.E. oi N. Am.
(cf. Epigaea, &c.). The Snowdrop-tree. Fruit winged.

Halimocnemis C. A. Mey. Chenopodiaceae (10). 10 sp. Cent. As.

Halimodendron Fisch. ex DC. Leguminosae (in. 6). 1 sp. N. and W,
As. on salt-steppes. The outer leaflets are often thorny (p. 167).

Halleria Linn. Scrophulariaceae (11. 6). 8 sp. Afr., Madag.

HAMAMELIDA CEAE

419

Hallia Thunb. Leguminosae (m. 7). 6 sp. S. Afr.

Halocnexnum Bieb. Chenopodiaceae (7). 1 sp. Medit., Centr. As.

Halogeton C. A. Mey. Chenopodiaceae (10). 5 sp. Medit., Centr. As.

H . sativus Moq. the barilla, used to be burnt in Spain, &c. for soda.

Halopeplis Bunge. Chenopodiaceae (7). 3 sp. Medit., &c.

Halophila Thou. Hydrocharitaceae. 10 sp. trop.

Haloragidaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Myrtiflorae). 8 gen. with
90 sp., cosmop., but chiefly Austr. Land, marsh, or water plants,
herbaceous, of very various habit (see gen.), and with inconspicuous
firs., solitary or in infl. The anatomy of the water forms is of interest,
and also that of Gunnera, whose stem is polystelic. Fir. g or uni-
sexual, usually bracteolate, regular, epigynous, usually 4-merous.
Perianth in two whorls, or one, or absent. Sta. 8, obdiplostemonous,
or fewer (down to 1 in Hippuris). Cpls. (1 — 4); ovary inf., multi-
loc., with usually 1 pendulous anatropous ovule in each loc.; styles
free. Nut or drupe. Embryo straight, in endosperm. Chief genera:
Haloragis, Myriophyllum, Gunnera, Hippuris. The H. are undoubt-
edly related to Onagraceae, as reduced forms. A gradual series may
be traced, from the very complete fir. of Myriophyllum or Haloragis,
down to that of Hippuris. Eichler and Warming also place the order
in Myrtiflorae, whilst Benth. -Hooker add to it the Callitrichaceae and
place it in Rosales. [Cf. Engler,Jahrb. 34, BeibL 79.]

Halorageae (Benth. -Hooker) = Haloragidaceae.

Haloragis Foist. Haloragidaceae. 50 sp. Austr., N. Z., Tasm., S.E.
As., N. Am. Large herbs living in damp places. Firs. 4-merous
throughout, obdiplostemonous.

Haloxylon Bunge. Chenopodiaceae (10). 10 sp. N. temp, and sub-trop.
Steppe plants of curious habit (rig. in Nat . PJl .).

Hamamelidaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). 18 gen. with
50 sp. chiefly sub-trop. (N. and S.). The distribution areas of the
genera (q.v.) are extremely disjointed, a fact probably due to the
influence of the glacial period (p. 146 and Nat . />#.). They are
closely allied to Cunoniaceae, and hence to Saxifragaceae. Trees
and shrubs with alt., simple or palmate, stip. leaves. Infl. racemose,
often a spike or head, frequently with an involucre of coloured bracts.
Fir. g or unisexual, often apetalous, rarely naked, hypo- peri- or epi-
gynous, usually without a disc. K 4 — 5, usually imbricate ; C 4 — 5,
open or valvate, the petals often long and rolled up like a watch-
spring in bud ; A 4 — 5 or rarely fewer ; G (2), usually median, rarely
obliquely placed, with 2 styles, 2-loc. ; ovules 1 or more in each loc.,
pendulous, anatropous, with ventral or lateral raphe. Loculicidal or
septicidal capsule. Exocarp woody, endocarp horny. Seed albu-
minous, with straight embryo. Some sp. yield useful wood, resins,
&c. Chief genera: Bucklandia, Liquidambar, Altingia, Fothergilla,
Hamamelis. [Placed in Saxifraginae by Warming, in Rosales by
Benth. -Hooker.]

27—2

420

HAMAMELIDEAE

Hamamelideae (Benth.-Hooker) = Hamamelidaceae.

Hamamelis Gronov. ex Linn. Hamamelidaceae. 3 sp., two in China
and Japan, the other, H. virginiana L., the witch-hazel, in east N.
Am. This sp. is common in gardens. It flowers in late autumn and
ripens its fruit (which is said to be explosive) in the following year.

Hamelia Jacq. Rubiaceae (1. B, 8). 6 sp. Am.

Hamlltonia Roxb. Rubiaceae (11. B, 16). 4 sp. Indo-mal., China.

Hanburia Seem. Cucurbitaceae (iv). 1 sp. Mexico. Fruit explosive.

Hancomia Gomez. Apocunaceae (1. 1). 1 sp. Brazil, H. speciosa

Gomez, the source of Mangabeira rubber ( New Bull . 1899, p.

185)-

Haplopappus Endl. = Aplopappus Cass.

Hardenbergia Benth. Leguminosae (in. 10). 3 sp. Austr. Included

in Kennedya in Nat . PJl .

Hardwickia Roxb. Leguminosae (11. 2). 5 sp. trop. As. and Afr.

Harpagophytum DC. Pedaliaceae. 3 sp. S. Afr. H. procumbens DC.
is the grapple-plant; its fruit is beset with large woody grapples
about an inch long, pointed and barbed. It is thus well adapted to
animal distribution, and is troublesome to wool growers (cf. Xan-
thium).

Harpephyllum Bernh. ex Krauss. Anacardiaceae (11). i sp. S. Afr.

Harpullia Roxb. Sapindaceae (11). 25 sp. palaeotrop.

Hartwegia Lindl. Orchidaceae (13). 2 sp. Centr. Am.

Harveya Hook. Scrophulariaceae (ill. n). 14 sp. S. Afr. Some are

root parasites, like Euphrasia.

Hauya (Moc. et Sesse) ex DC. Onagraceae (ill). 4 sp. Mexico, Calif.

Haworthia Duval. Liliaceae (ill). 100 sp. S. Afr. Xerophytes with
fleshy leaves, similar in habit to Crassulaceae.

Haylockia Herb. Amaryllidaceae (1). 1 sp. S. Am. Plants like

Crocus, with the firs, projecting from the soil.

Hebenstretia Linn. Scrophulariaceae (11. 9). 20 sp. S. Afr. The

corolla is slit open along the anterior side, and the style and sta.
project through the slit. [Selagineae Benth.-Hooker.]

Hechtia Klotzsch. Bromeliaceae. 3 sp. Mexico.

Hedeoma Pers. Labiatae (vi. 11). 12 sp. Am.

Hedera Tourn. ex Linn. Araliaceae. 3 sp. temp. Old World. H .
Helix L. is the ivy. It is a root climber on trees and rocks. The
leaves are dimorphic, those on the climbing shoots being lobed, whilst
those on the freely projecting shoots that bear the infl. are not. The
former form leaf-mosaics better (see pp. 46 and 173). The firs, are
not very conspicuous, but coming out late in the year are largely
visited for the freely exposed honey by flies and wasps.

Hedraeanthus Griseb. = Wahlenbergia Schrab. (n sp. S.E. Eur.,
W. As.)

Hedwigia Sw. Burseraceae. 3 sp. trop. Am. H. balsamifera Sw.
(Antilles) is known as pig’s balsam, on account of a legend that

HEL I C O DICER OS 421

wounded pigs rub themselves against the trees to heal their wounds
with the resin.

Hedycapnos Planch. = Dicentra Bernh.

Hedycaria Forst. Monimiaceae. 10 sp. Austr. to Fiji.

Hedychium Koen. Zingiberaceae. About 30 sp. chiefly trop. As.
The rhizome is often tuberous. The flr. has a long tube, at the end
of which spring the very narrow free parts of the petals and the
larger staminodes and labellum. The stigma projects just beyond the
anther. According to F. Muller and others the flr. is adapted for
fertilisation by the wings of butterflies.

Eedyotis Linn. Rubiaceae (1. 2). About 120 sp. trop. Incl. in
Oldenlandia in Nat . PJi.

Hedypnois Schreb. = Rhagadiolus Tourn.

Hedypnois (Tourn.) Scop. =Leontodon Linn.

Hedysarum (Tourn.) Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 60 sp. N. temp.

Heeria Schlecht. (. Heterocentron Hook, et Arn.) Melastomaceae (1).
6 sp. Cent. Am. Some of the sta. attract insects, the others pollinate
them (cf. Commelina).

Helenium Linn. Compositae (vi). 30 sp. W. Am.

Heleocharis Lestib. = Eleocharis R. Br.

Heliamphora Benth. Sarraceniaceae. 1 sp. Guiana, a pitcher plant
(p. 178 and cf. Sarracenia), not yet thoroughly studied.

Helianthemum Tourn. ex Hall. Cistaceae. 120 sp. Eur., Medit.,
N. Am. H. vulgare Gaertn. and 3 others in Brit, (rock-rose). Infl.
a cincinnus. The flr. contains no honey and is homogamous, with
sensitive sta., which move outwards when touched.

Helianthus Linn. Compositae (v). 55 sp. Am. Several sp. are

widely cultivated. H . animus L. is the sunflower; the number
of firs, upon the head is often enormous and they show very
regular spiral arrangement, probably due (largely) to pressure in
the bud. The ray florets are neuter. H . tuberosus L. is the

Jerusalem artichoke. It has subterranean tuberous stems, like
potatoes, with well marked ‘eyes’ (buds in axils of scale-leaves).

Helichrysum Vaill. ex Linn. Compositae (iv). 300 sp. Eur., As.,

Afr., Austr. About 150 occur in S. Afr. Many are xerophytes with
hairy surface, decurrent leaves, &c. The dried flower-heads of some
sp. are sold as ‘ everlastings.’

Helicia Lour. Proteaceae (11). 25 sp. Indo-mal. &c.

Helicodiceros Schott. Araceae (vn). 1 sp. Corsica, Sardinia, H . cri -

nitus Schott ( H . muscivorus Engl.). The development of the pedate
leaf is cymose ; the later formed branches grow more slowly than the
earlier. The specific name muscivorus is due to the number of flies
captured ; they are attracted by the foul smell of the infl. (cf. Arum)
and collect inside the spathe in enormous numbers (in the Bot. Gdn.
Cambridge, the whole spathe may often be seen tightly packed with
them) ; when it withers the top closes and they are caught.

422

HELICONIA

Heliconia Linn. Musaceae. 30 sp. trop. Am. Firs, in cincinni. The
odd sepal is posterior.

Helicteres Pluk. ex Linn. Sterculiaceae. 40 sp. trop. (exc. Afr.). The
firs, become zygomorphic if they happen to be in a horizontal position.

Heliophila Burm. f. ex Linn. Cruciferae (1. 3). 60 sp. S. Afr.

Heliopsis Pers. Compositae (v). 7 sp. Am.

Heliotropium (Tourn.) Linn. Boraginaceae (ill). 220 sp. trop. temp.
H . peruvianum L. (cherry pie) and other sp. of heliotrope are culti-
vated for their scented firs.

Helipterum DC. Compositae (iv). 48 sp. Austr., S. Afr. Xerophytes
with persistent involucre of white scaly bracts; the dried flower-heads
are sold as ‘everlastings’ (cf. Helichrysum, &c.).

Helleborus (Tourn.) Linn. Ranunculaceae (2). 45 sp. Eur. ; 2 in Brit,
(hellebore). The plants are woody below, each shoot from the
stock taking several years to reach maturity and flower. Fir. proto-
gynous, opening very early in the year. Cpls. slightly coherent at
base. In H. niger L., the Christmas rose, the perianth turns green
after the fir. has been fertilised.

Helminthia Juss. = Picris Linn.

Helminthostachys Kaulf. Ophioglossaceae. 1 sp. H. zeylanica
Hk. f., Ceylon, Himal. to Queensland. Rhizome dorsiventral with
2-ranked leaves on the upper side, and roots below. The roots do
not bear any definite relation to the leaves. Sporangia peltate, on
sporangiophores from the sides of the fertile spike. [Cf. Farmer and
Freeman, in Atm. of Bot. xm. 1899, p. 421; Lang on prothallus,
do. xvi. 1902, p. 23.]

Helobieae. The 2nd cohort of Monocotyledons (1st of Warming).

Helonias Linn. Liliaceae (1). 1 sp. east N. Am.

Helosciadium Koch = Apium Tourn.

Helosis Rich. Balanophoraceae. 3 sp. trop. Am.

Hemerocallis Linn. Liliaceae (in). 5 sp. temp. Eur., As. Infl. a

double bostryx. The firs, of H. fulva L. are self-sterile.

Hemicyclia Wight et Arn. Euphorbiaceae (a, II. 10). 10 sp. Indo-mal.

Hemidesmus R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (1. 1). 1 sp. India.

Hemigenia R. Br. Labiatae (11). 25 sp. Austr.

Hemionitis Linn. Polypodiaceae. 8 sp. trop.

Hemitelia Br. Cyatheaceae. About 20 sp. trop. and S. temp. Tree-
ferns.

Hemizonia DC. Compositae (v). 25 sp. west N. Am.

Hepatica Dill. = Anemone Linn.

Heptapleurum Gaertn. Araliaceae. About 50 sp. trop. Afr., As.,
Austr. Included in Schefflera in Nat. PJi.

Heracleum Linn. Umbelliferae (7). 70 sp. N. temp., and trop. Mts.

(H. Sphondylium L., cow-parsnip, in Brit.).

Herbertia Sweet ( Alophia Herb.). Iridaceae (11). 3 sp. trop. and

sub-trop. Am.

HEVEA

423

Heritiera (Dryand.) Ait. Sterculiaceae. 4 sp. palaeotrop. coasts.

Hermannia Linn. (excl. Mahernia Linn.). Sterculiaceae. 120 sp. trop.
and sub-trop., chiefly Afr.

Herminiera Guill. et Perr. Leguminosae (in. 7). 1 sp. trop. Afr.,

H '. elaphroxylon G. et P. The wood is as light as elder pith and is
used for floats, canoes, &c. This phenomenon seems to be related to
the development of aerenchyma seen in other marsh plants (cf. Lyco-
pus, Jussieua, &c., and see p. 161). H. is united to Aeschynomene
in Nat. PJi.

Eerminium Linn. Orchidaceae (3). 4 sp. temp. Eur., As. ( H \

Monorchis R. Br., musk-orchis, in Brit.) Fir. like that of orchis,
but smaller, and fertilised by small flies which get the pollinia stuck
to their legs.

Hemandia Plum, ex Linn. Hernandiaceae. 8 sp. trop. (Laurineae
Benth. -Hooker).

Hernandiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Ranales). 4 gen. with 24 sp.
trop. Like Lauraceae, to which they are united by Benth. -Hooker
and Warming, but with epigynous fir. Ovary inf., i-loc., with 1
pendulous anatropous ovule. See Nat. PJI. for details.

Herniaria (Tourn.) Linn. Caryophyllaceae (11. 4). 15 sp. Medit.,

Eur., S. Afr. ( H . glabra L., rupture- wort, in S.W. England.) Fir.
apetalous.

Herpestis Gaertn. (Bacopa Aubl.) Scrophulariaceae (11. 8). 50 sp.

trop. and sub-trop., chiefly Am.

Eesperantha Ker-Gawl. Iridaceae (ill). 20 sp. S. Afr.

Hesperis Linn. Cruciferae (iv. 19). 24 sp. Eur., Medit.; (1 Brit.).

Heteranthera Ruiz et Pav. Pontederiaceae. 10 sp. trop. and sub-trop.
Am., Afr. Leaves of two types — linear submerged and orbicular
floating. Some have cleistogamic flrs.

Heterocentron Hook, et Arn. = Heeria Schlecht.

Heteromerae (Benth.-Hooker). The 2nd series of Gamopetalae (p. 135).

Heteropteris H. B. et K. Malpighiaceae (1). 90 sp. trop. Am., 1 in
trop. Afr. Fruit a samara (cf. Acer, Banisteria).

Heterotoma Zucc. Campanulaceae (ill). 4 sp. Mexico.

Heterotropa Morr. et Dcne. = Asarum Linn.

Heuchera Linn. Saxifragaceae (1). 24 sp. N. Am. Firs, sometimes

apetalous.

Hevea Aubl. Euphorbiaceae (a, ii. 3). 10 sp. or more trop. Am.

H. brasiliensis Miill.-Arg. is the source of the best caoutchouc (Para
rubber), largely exported from Brazil. The tree was introduced into
Ceylon and the east in 1876, and in recent years a very large planting
industry has grown up in it, and it bids fair to supplant the wild
rubber, as was the case with cinchona. Incisions, either herring-
bone-like, spiral, or in large Ys at the base of the tree, are made in
the bark, and the latex flows from them. The wound is renewed at
intervals of a week or so by shaving off a thin slice from the lower

424

HEVEA

side, when, as was shown some years ago, there is a larger flow of
milk than at first. The milk is usually coagulated with the aid of
enough acid to neutralise its alkalinity, and the resulting “ biscuits”
are dried, or (more lately) pressed together into a block containing
about io % of water, which appears to strengthen the rubber.

Hexaptera Hook. Cruciferae (i. 2). 6 sp. temp. S. Am. Fruit winged.

Hibbertia Andr. (incl. Candollea Labill. 1806). Dilleniaceae. 100 sp.
Austr., New Caled. &c. Mostly shrubs of ericoid or climbing habit.
Some sp. have phylloclades. Infl. dichasial, but often, by reduction,
coming to look like a raceme. The sta. &c. vary much in number in
different sp. (see Nat. PJi. ).

Hibiscus Linn. (incl. Abelmoschus Medic.). Malvaceae (iv). 150 sp.

trop. and sub-trop. The 5 ante-sepalous sta. are represented by teeth
at the top of the stamen-tube. Several sp. are cultivated, especially
H. Rosa-sinensis L. (firs, showy), H. Sabdariffa L. (Rozelle, fruit for
jelly, &c.), H. (A.) esculentus L. (Okra or Bandakai, mucilaginous
young fruit in soups, &c.).

Hieracium (Tourn.) Linn. Compositae (xm). 400 sp. N. Hemisph.,

S. Afr., Andes. There are several sp. in Brit, (hawk-weeds), which,
especially in Scotland, vary very much ; innumerable varieties have
been raised by various botanists to specific rank (see London Cat, of
Brit. Plants , 9th ed.). Some are parthenogenetic.

Hierochloe S. G. Gmel. Gramineae (vn). 13 sp. temp, and frigid.

(1 Brit., rare.)

Higginsia Pers. = Hofifmannia Sw.

Hildebrandtia Vatke. Convolvulaceae (1. 3). 2 sp. Afr.

Himantoglossum Spreng. = Orchis Tourn.

Hinterhubera Sch. Bip. Compositae (ill). 3 sp. Andes.

Hippeastrum Herb. Amaryllidaceae (1). 50 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Am.
Favourites in cultivation.

Hippia Linn. Compositae (vii). 4 sp. S. Afr.

Hippocastanaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). Only genus
Aesculus (q-v.). United to Sapindaceae by Benth.-Hooker.

Hippocratea Linn. Hippocrateaceae. 70 sp. trop. Twining shrubs.

Hippocrateaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). 3 gen. with
1 50 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Shrubs, mostly lianes, with opp. or alt.
simple leaves. Firs, in cymes, g > regular, with disc. K 5, C 5, A3
(rarely 5, 4, 2), G (3), with 2 — 10 anatropous ovules in each loc.
Berry or schizocarp. No endosperm. Genera: Campylostemon,
Hippocratea, Salacia. [United to Celastraceae by Benth.-Hooker;
placed in Frangulinae by Warming.]

Hippocrepis Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 12 sp. Medit. fJ. comosa

L. extends to Scotland. The mechanism of the fir. is like that of
Lotus, but on the claw of the standard is a triangular flap closing the
entrance to the honey. Bees must lift the standard to reach the honey
and so cannot avoid making the mechanism work properly.

HOSTA 425

Hippomane Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. II. 7). 1 sp. Cent. Am., W. Ind.,
Columbia (the manchineel). The latex is highly poisonous.

Hippopliae Linn. Elaeagnaceae. 2 sp., one Himal. , the other, H.
rhamnoides L., the sea buckthorn, from Brit, to Altai Mts. In the
<T fir. the bracteoles form a hood over the sta. in wet weather; when
the air is drier, they separate at the sides, and the pollen may be
blown away by wind.

Hippuris Linn. Haloragidaceae. 1 sp., H . vulgaris L. the mare’s-tail,
Eur. (incl. Brit.), As., Austr., Am. A water plant, with creeping
rhizome and erect shoots, whose upper parts usually project above the
water. Leaves linear, in whorls, the submerged ones longer and
more flaccid than the aerial. Fir. sessile in axil of leaf, $ (or some-
times ? on some stocks; cf. Labiatae), consisting of 1 epigynous sta.
and 1 cpl., with a slight seam representing the calyx ; wind fertilised.

Hiraea Jacq. ( Mascagnia Bert.). Malpighiaceae (1). 40 sp. trop. Am.

Hirtella Linn. Rosaceae (vi. 13). 40 sp. S. and Cent. Am., 1 Madag.
Fir. zygomorphic. The axis is deeply hollowed on one side, but the
sta. and cpl. are not in the hollow, but on the other side of the surface
of the axis.

Hodgsonia Hook. f. et Thoms. Cucurbitaceae (ill), r sp. Indo-mal.

Hoffmannia Sw. Rubiaceae (1. 8). 20 sp. trop. Am.

Holboellia Wall. Lardizabalaceae. 2 sp. Himal.

Holcus Linn. Gramineae (ix). 8 sp. Eur., N. and S. Afr. 2 in Brit.,
H. mollis L., and H. lanatus L., Yorkshire fog or soft-grass, a
common weed.

Holosteum Dill, ex Linn. Caryophyllaceae (11. 1). 6 sp. N. temp.

(1 Brit.).

Homalium Jacq. Flacourtiaceae. 35 sp. trop. After fertilisation the
sepals or petals, or both, grow large and form wings (often hairy) to
the fruit. (Samydaceae Benth. -Hooker.)

Homalomena Schott. Araceae (v). 20 sp. trop. As. and S. Am.

Homogyne Cass. Compositae (vm). 3 sp. Mts. of Eur.

Honckenya Ehrh. = Arenaria Rupp, (same spec. name).

Hordeum (Tourn.) Linn. Gramineae (xu). 16 sp. temp. Eur., As.,

N. Afr., Am. 4 in Brit, (barley-grass). The spikelets are arranged
in groups of 3 on the main axis, forming a dense spike. Each is
1 -flowered when perfect, but commonly either the central or the two
lateral firs, are aborted. Glumes awned. The cultivated barley is //.
vulgare L. (H. sativum Pers.). The most common form is the var.
distichum or 2-rowed barley, where the central flr. of each group is
fertile, but 6-rowed barley (var. hexastichum ), and 4-rowed barley or
bere, are also grown. The last is the most hardy and is cultivated
as far as 70° N. (in Norway).

Horminum (Tourn.) Linn. Labiatae (vi. 9). \ sp. Mts. of S. Eur.

Hosackia Dougl. Leguminosae (in. 4). 30 sp. west N. Am.

Hosta Tratt. =Funkia Spreng.

426

HOTEIA

Hoteia C. Morr. et Dcne = Astilbe Buch.-Ham.

Hottonia Boerh.ex Linn. Primulaceae (1). 2 sp., one in N. Am., the

other, H . palustris L. (water* violet), in Siberia and Eur. (incl. Brit.).
Floating water-plants (p. 158) with finely-divided submerged leaves.
The firs, project above the water; they are dimorphic like those of
Primula. Winter buds form as in Utricularia, &c.

Houstonia Gronov. ex Linn. Rubiaceae (1. 2). 20 sp. west N. Am.

Firs, heterostyled as in Primula, with similar differences in stigma
and pollen.

Houttuynia Thunb. Saururaceae. 2 sp. N.W. Am. and E. As.

Howea Becc. Palmae (iv. 6). 2 sp. Lord Howe’s Island.

Hoya R.Br. Asclepiadaceae (11. 4). 70 sp. Indo-mal., Austr. Twiners
and root-climbers with fleshy leaves. Hothouse favourites on account
of their handsome firs, (wax-flowers).

Hudsonia Linn. Cistaceae. 3 sp. N. Am.

Huernia R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (11. 4). 20 sp. Cape Col. to Arabia.

Like Stapelia, but stem 4- to 6-angled.

Hug’onia Linn. Linaceae. n sp. trop. Old World. The lower twigs
of the infl. are modified into hooks for climbing (p. 172).

Humboldtia Vahl ( Batschia Vahl). Leguminosae (11. 3). 4 sp.

Ceylon and Further Ind. H. laurifolia Vahl is myrmecophilous
(p. 1 14). The non-flowering twigs are normal, but those that bear
firs, have hollow obconical internodes. In each of these, at the top,
opposite the leaf, is a slit leading to the cavity which is inhabited by
ants.

Humea Sm. Compositae (iv). 4 sp. S. Austr.

Humiria Jaume St. Hil. Humiriaceae. 3 sp. trop. Am.

Humiriaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). 3 gen. with 18 sp.,
trop. Am., Afr. Separated from Linaceae by the bilocular anthers
and usually 00 sta. (See Nat. PJi .) Chief genera: Humiria, Sacco-
glottis.

Eumulus Linn. Moraceae (iv). 2 sp. N. temp. Perennial climbing

herbs. Infl. cymose, dioecious, the <? a much-branched pseudo-
panicle, the ? a few-flowered pseudo-catkin with 2 firs, in the axil of
each scale. Fir. protogynous and wind fertilised. Fruit an achene.
H. Lupulus L. is the hop, largely cultivated in Kent and elsewhere ;
the fruit is used in brewing, &c.

Hunnemannia Sweet. Papaveraceae (1). 1 sp. Mexico.

Eura Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 7). 2 or 3 sp. trop. Am., of which

the best known is H. crepitans L., the sand box tree. The fruit is
as big as an orange with numerous hard woody cpls. Each, as the
ripe fruit dries, tries to expand from the A shape to a U shape.
Presently a violent explosion occurs and the seeds are shot out,
sometimes to a distance of 30 yards. The fruits used to be wired
together and used as sand boxes before the era of blotting-paper.

Hutchinsia R. Br. Cruciferae (iv. 14). 8 sp. N. temp. (1 in Brit.)

EYDROCLEYS

427

Hyacinthus (Tourn.) Linn. Liliaceae (v). 30 sp. Medit., Afr. Many

forms of hyacinth (derived from H. orientalis L.) are cultivated.
[For the wild hyacinth of Brit., see Scilla.]

Hydnophytum Jack. Rubiaceae (11. 15). 30 sp. E. As., New Guinea,

Fiji, &c. Epiphytes with ant-inhabited tubers, like Myrmecodia (q.v.).

Hydnora Thunb. Hydnoraceae. 7 sp. Afr.

Hydnoraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Aristolochiales). 2 gen. with
7 sp., Afr., S. Am. Parasites like Rafflesiaceae. See Nat. Pfl. or
Kerner’s Nat. Hist, of Pits.

Hydrangea Gronov. ex Linn. Saxifragaceae (hi). 20 sp. N. Hemisph.
Shrubs with opp. leaves, some climbing. Firs, in cymose corymbs,
the outer (or in cultivated forms all the firs.) neuter with petaloid calyx,
giving conspicuousness to the infl. (cf. Compositae, Umbelliferae).

Hydrangeaceae (Warming) = Saxifragaceae (suborder ill).

Hydrastis Ellis. Ranunculaceae (1). 2 sp., 1 in Japan, 1 in N. Am.

{H. canadensis L., golden-seal). The latter is used as a tonic &c.

Eydrocaryaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Myrtiflorae). Only genus
Trapa (q.v.). Often placed in Onagraceae.

Hydrocharideae (Benth.- Hooker) = Hydrocharitaceae.

Hydrocharis Linn. Hydrocharitaceae. 1 sp. Eur. (incl. Brit.), As.,
H. Morsus-ranae L., the frog-bit, a rootless water plant with orbicular
floating leaves. Firs, dioecious, produced upon the surface of the
water. During summer the plant multiplies much by horizontal
stolons, which form new plants at the ends. In autumn large buds
are formed on the stolons and drop off to spend the winter at the
bottom of the pond. In spring they float up and develope into new
plants.

Hydrocharitaceae. Monocotyledons (Helobieae). 13 gen. with about
55 sp. trop. and temp., all water plants, some marine (Halophila,
Enalus, Thalassia). Most have ribbon-like submerged leaves, a
few only have floating leaves (Hydrocharis &c.); some have leaves
projecting above the water. In the leaf- axils are ‘squamulae intra-
vaginales ’ (cf. Potamogetonaceae). Several buds are frequently found
in one leaf-axil.

Sexes usually in different firs., commonly on different plants. Infl.
axillary, usually 1 -flowered when ? , often more than 1 if S , enclosed at
first in a spathe of two or more (1 in Hydrocharis ? ) fused leaves. Fir.
usually regular, 3-merous. Perianth usually in two whorls, the
outer sepaloid, the inner petaloid; sta. in 1 — 5 whorls, the innermost
often staminodial; cpls. (2 — 15), forming an inf. ovary, i-loc. with
parietal placentation ; ovules 00, ortho- to ana-tropous, erect to
pendulous; stigmas as many as cpls. Fruit irregularly dehiscent,
containing 00 exalbuminous seeds. [Placed in Microspermae by Benth.-
Hooker.] Chief genera: Halophila, Elodea, Vallisneria, Stratiotes,
Hydrocharis.

Hydrocleys Rich. Butomaceae. 1 sp. Brazil, H. 7iymphoides Buchenau

HYDROCLEYS

428

(=H. Commersonii Y\ch. = Limnoc kar is Humboldti Rich.), often
cultivated; it is a water plant with a striking resemblance in habit to
Nymphaea or Limnanthemum.

Hydrocotyle (Toum.) Linn. Umbelliferae (1). 70 sp. trop. and temp.

1 in Brit., H. vulgaris L., the white-rot or pennywort, easily
recognised among our native U. by its peltate leaves.

Hydrolea Linn. Hydrophyllaceae. 12 sp. trop. Several have axillary
thorns (branches). Fir. self-fertilising (cf. Phacelia).

Hydromystria G. F. W. Mey. = Limnobium Rich. (H. stolonifera
G. F. W. Mey. =Z. Boscii Rich.).

Hydrophyllaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). 17 gen. with
170 sp., chiefly in N. Am. where some of the gen. are in vigorous
development; in S. Am., trop. As., Afr., &c. a few sp. occur,
apparently the remnants of formerly wide-spread gen. Herbs or
undershrubs with simple or compound exstip. leaves, radical, alt.
or opp. Plant usually hairy. Firs, scattered or in cincinni like those
of Boraginaceae, usually without bracteoles, $ , regular, usually 5-
merous. K (5), imbricate, the odd sepal posterior; C (5), rotate,
or bell- or funnel-shaped, usually imbricate; A 5, epipetalous and
alternate with pets., often with scale-like appendages at base (see
below); G (2), 1 — 2- loc., with 1 or 2 styles. Ovules on each cpl.
00 — 2, sessile or pendulous, anatropous. Fruit usually a loculicidal
capsule. Embryo small, in rich endosperm. The firs, in most
investigated sp. are visited chiefly by bees ; honey is secreted below
the ovary and protected by the appendages of the sta., which are
frequently united to the corolla, sometimes (Hydrophyllum) form-
ing tubes leading down to the honey. Fir. usually protandrous. See
Phacelia. Chief genera: Hydrophyllum, Nemophila, Phacelia, Nama,
Hydrolea. [Placed in Polemoniales by Benth. -Hooker, in Tubiflorae
by Warming.]

Hydrophyllum Linn. Hydrophyllaceae. 6 sp. N. Am. Fir. prot-
androus, with the staminal appendages united to the corolla so as
to form tubes through which alone the honey is accessible.

Hydropyrum Link = Zizania Gronov.

Hygrophila R. Br. Acanthaceae (iv. b). 30 sp. trop., in marshes.

Hymenaea Linn. Leguminosae (11. 3). 8 sp. trop. Am. H. Courbaril

L. is the West Indian Locust tree, a large tree with buttress roots
(p. 40). The wood is valuable. From the stem exudes a resin (copal
or anime) which is often found in lumps underground near the trees
(cf. Agathis, Trachylobium) ; it is used in varnish, &c.

Hymenocallis Salisb. Amaryllidaceae (1). 30 sp. trop. Am. The

stipular appendages of the sta. are here united into a tube, on the
summit of which the filaments stand, and which surpasses the perianth
in conspicuousness (cf. Eucharis).

Hymenopappus L’Herit. Compositae (vi). n sp. N. Am.

Hymenophyilaceae. Filicineae Leptosporangiatae (Homosporous).

HYPERICUM

429

3 gen. with 200 sp. trop. and temp. The filmy ferns are found chiefly
in damp woods. Stem very slender, often creeping ; sometimes it
bears roots, in other cases only root hairs. It grows more rapidly
than the leaves, so that its leafless tip appears naked like a root. Leaves
pinnate, filmy in texture (being only one cell thick, except at the veins),
with no stomata. The placenta is at the leaf-edge, a continuation of
the vein ; it bears sporangia and is surrounded by a cup-shaped indu-
sium. Sporangia sessile, with oblique or transverse complete annulus,
and opening by a longitudinal fissure. The prothalli are capable of
long life ; in some sp. they produce gemmae or buds on the margin,
and may thus multiply vegetatively to a considerable extent. Chief
genera: Hymenophyllum, Trichomanes.

Hymenophyllum Linn. Hymenophyllaceae. Over 80 sp. trop. and
temp. 2 in Brit, (filmy ferns), H. tunbridgense Sm. and H . Wilsoni
Hook, moss-like plants growing in damp, shady places.

Hymenophysa C. A. Mey. Cruciferae ; position in the order doubtful.
2 sp. Cent. As. See Nat. PJi .

Hyophorbe Gaertn. Palmae (iv. 6). 3 sp. Mascarenes.

Hyoscyamus (Tourn.) Linn. Solanaceae (11. 3). n sp. N. Afr. , Eur.,
As. H . niger L. (henbane) is found in Brit., but probably is only an
escape, it having formerly been largely cultivated as a narcotic. The
firs, are in cincinni. The capsule stands erect enclosed in the calyx,
and opens by a lid ; the seeds can thus only escape in strong winds, &c.

Hyoseris Linn. Compositae (xm). 3 sp. Medit.

Hypecoum Tourn. ex Linn. Papaveraceae (1). 12 sp. Medit., Cent. As.
Fir. 2-merous throughout. The inner petals are 3-sect, and the middle
lobe stands erect and encloses the sta. Eichler (. Bluthendiag .) and
others regard the androeceum as derived from the Fumaria type by
union in pairs of the lateral branches of the outer whorl of sta., so as
to form an apparent inner whorl of sta., but it is quite probable that
the 2 inner sta. are really a true inner whorl. As in other cases, the
evidence cuts both ways, and may be used as proof of the derivation
of the Fumaria type from Hypecoum by splitting of the two inner
sta. and the union of the halves to the outer ones. In H. procumbens
L. the pollen is shed in the bud into pockets on the inner surface of
the inner petals, which close up before the stigma developes. When
pressed by an insect the pockets open and dust it with pollen. The
stigma only ripens after it has grown above the level of the pollen.

Hypericaceae (Warming: Cistiflorae) = Hypericineae (Benth. -Hooker :
Guttiferales). Chief genus Hypericum; merged in Guttiferae (q.v.).

Hypericum Tourn. ex Linn. Guttiferae (11). 200 sp. temp, (n Brit.,

St John’s wort, tutsan, &c.). They are nearly all perennial herbs with
opp., often gland-dotted leaves and cymes of firs., often forming pseudo-
racemes or -umbels. Sta. 00 , but united into 3 or 5 groups. Develop-
mental study shows that each of these groups arises as a simple
papilla from the growing point, and afterwards branches; a com-

43°

HYPERICUM

parison with other Guttiferae however shows that in H. we have
more probably to do with a union of originally free sta. (see Nat .
PJl ., or Pax, Morphol. p. -238). The firs, contain no honey, but offer
abundant pollen to insects, and the larger-flowered sp. are frequently
visited. They are homogamous, but the stigmas stick out through
the sta. and there is thus a chance of a cross when insects alight on
the petals.

Hyphaene Gaertn. Palmae (it. 3). 9 sp. trop. Afr. The stem is
frequently branched, a rare occurrence in Palms.

Hypochoeris Linn. Compositae (xm). 50 sp. N. temp, and S. Am.

(3 in Brit.).

Hypoderris Br. Polypodiaceae. 1 sp. W. Ind.

Hypoestes Soland. Acanthaceae (iv. B). 85 sp. trop. Old World,

esp. Madag.

Hypolepis Bernh. Polypodiaceae. 12 sp. trop. and S. temp. 1 in Calif.

Hypopitys Dill, ex Adans. = Monotropa Linn.

Hypoxis Linn. Amaryllidaceae (ill). 50 sp. S. Afr.

Eyptis Jacq. Labiatae (vn). 250 sp. trop., chiefly Am.

Hyssopus (Toum.) Linn. Labiatae (vi. 11). 1 sp. Eur., Medit., As.,

H ' officinalis L., the hyssop, formerly used in medicine.

Hysterophyta (Warming). The last cohort of Choripetalae (p. 137).

Iberis Dill, ex Linn. Cruciferae (11. 6). 30 sp. Eur., As. /. amara L.

is the candytuft. The outer petals of the firs, of the corymb are
longer than the rest, thus adding to the conspicuousness of the whole
(cf. Umbelliferae).

Icacinaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). 38 gen. with 200
sp., trop. Trees and shrubs (often lianes) or rarely herbs, with. alt.
exstip. leaves, usually entire and often leathery. Firs, in compound
panicled infl., regular, usually $ . K (5) or (4), not enlarged when the
fruit is ripe; C 5 or 4, rarely united, valvate or imbricate; A 5 or 4,
alt. with petals, with usually introrse anthers; disc rarely developed;
G (3) or rarely (5) or (2), rarely multi-loc., usually i-loc. by abortion
of the remaining cavities. Ovules 2 per loc., pendulous from its
apex, anatropous, with dorsal raphe and micropyle facing upwards;
funicle usually thickened above the micropyle. Style simple with
3 stigmas (or 5 — 2). Fruit i-loc., i-seeded, usually a drupe, some-
times a samara. Endosperm usually present; embryo straight or
curved. Chief genera : Lasianthera, Phytocrene. [This order was
formerly sunk in Olacaceae ( e.g . by Benth.- Hooker), but differs in
several points ; the placenta is never free, the fir. has only one whorl
of sta., &c. It is placed in Terebinthinae by Warming.]

Idesia Maxim. Flacourtiaceae. 1 sp. China, Japan. [Bixineae,
Benth.-Hooker.]

Ilex (Tourn.) Linn. Aquifoliaceae. 170 sp. Cent, and S. Am., As.,
Afr., Austr., Eur. I. Aquifolium L., the holly, in Brit. Firs,
dioecious, but in the ? fir. the sterile sta. are so large that the fir.

IPOMOEA

43i

appears 5? . Truly $ firs, sometimes occur. /. paraguensis A. St Hil.
is the Mate or Paraguay tea, largely used in S. Am. The leaves
contain caffeine ; they are dried, broken up and used like tea.

Ilicineae (Benth. -Hooker) = Aquifoliaceao*

Illecebraceae (Benth. -Hooker) = Paronychiaceae of other authors. Now
placed in Caryophyllaceae (q.v.).

Illecebrum Rupp, ex Linn. Caryophyllaceae (11. 4). 1 sp. W. Eui.

(incl. Devon and Cornwall), Medit., W. Afr.

Illicium Linn. Magnoliaceae (3). 7 sp. Am., As. T. verum Hook. fil.
the star-anise (China), is used for flavouring on account of the aromatic
oil it contains, especially in the fruit. There is a gradual transition
in the spiral perianth from sepaloid to petaloid structure (cf. Nym-
phaea). The fruit is an aggregate of follicles.

Illipe F. Muell. = Bassia Koenig.

Impatiens Riv. ex Linn. Balsaminaceae. 140 sp. trop. and N. temp.
Many sp. of balsam are in cultivation, eg. I. Noli-tangere L., the touch-
me-not. The name is derived from the explosive fruit. It is a capsule
with fleshy pericarp ; the outer layers of cells are highly turgid and thus
a great strain is put upon the whole, dehiscence is septifragal and is
started by the least touch when the fruit is ripe. The valves roll up
inwards with great violence (starting at the base) and the seeds are
scattered in all directions.

Incarvillea Juss. Bignoniaceae (11). 5 sp. E. and Cent. As. Leaves alt.

Incompletae (Benth. -Hooker) = Monochlamydeae (seep. 135).

Indigofera Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 6). 250 sp. trop. /. tinctoria

L. and I. Anil L. furnish indigo. The plant is mown just before
flowering, and soaked in water, whereby a yellowish solution is
obtained. This on stirring and exposure to the air oxidises, and an
insoluble precipitate of indigo is formed. The flrs. are slightly explo-
sive (cf. Genista).

Inferae (Benth. -Hooker). The 1st series of Gamopetalae.

Inga Scop. Leguminosae (1. 1). 140 sp. trop. and sub- trop. Am.

Inula Linn. Compositae (iv). 90 sp. Eur., As., Afr. (4 in Brit.). The
root of /. Hclenium L., the elecampane, is officinal.

Iochroma Benth. Solanaceae (11. 2). 15 sp. trop. Am. /. i?iacrocalyx
Miers shows a mode of protection of the flower-buds, similar to that in
Spathodea, by watery secretion between calyx and corolla.

Ionidium Vent. Violaceae. 50 sp. trop. and sub-trop. The roots of
/. Ipecacuanha Vent, are used in medicine under the name of white
Ipecacuanha, in the same way as the true drug (see Psychotria).

Ionopsidium Rchb. = Cochlearia Toum. 1 sp. Portugal, I. acaule Rchb.
with solitary flrs. in the axils of radical leaves.

Ionopsis H. B. et K. Orchidaceae (28). 10 sp. trop. Am., epiphytes.

Ipecacuanha Arruda = Psychotria Linn.

Ipomoea Linn. (incl. Aniseia Choisy, Batatas Choisy, Calonyction
Choisy, Exogonium Choisy, Mina Cerv., Operculina Silva Manso,

43 2

IPOMOEA

Pharbitis Choisy, and Qua?7ioclit Moench, all treated as separate
genera in Nat. PJi .). Convolvulaceae (i. 4). About 410 sp. trop.
and warm temp. Chiefly climbing herbs or shrubs ; many are
cultivated for their handsome firs. ( eg . /. purpurea Roth, the
morning glory). /. Batatas Lam. ( B . edulis Choisy) is the sweet
potato, largely cultivated in warm countries for its tuberous roots,
which are used like potatoes. /. (Exogonium) Purga Hayne is the
Jalap. The rhizome gives off turnip-like roots about the size of
apples ; they possess purgative properties on account of a resin which
they contain.

Iresine P. Br. Amarantaceae (4). 20 sp. Am., Afr.

Iriartea Ruiz et Pav. Palmae (iv. 6). 10 sp. trop. S. Am. The stem

is supported on aerial roots (cf. Pandanus), often to a height of 8 feet
above the soil. Some of the branches of these roots are thorny (cf.
Acanthorhiza). In /. ventricosa Mart., the Paxiuba palm, the stem
has a peculiar egg-like thickening about half-way up (cf. Bomba-
caceae, Jatropha).

Iridaceae. Monocotyledons (Liliiflorae). 57 gen. with about 800
sp. trop. and temp.; the chief centres of distribution are S. Afr. and
trop. Am. Chiefly herbs with a sympodial tuber or rhizome below
ground. Leaves usually equitant in two ranks. Infl. terminal, cymose
(1 fir. only in Crocoideae). Fir. $ , regular or zygomorphic. Perianth
3 + 3, petaloid, united below into a long or short tube. Sta. 3 (the
outer whorl), with extrorse anthers, q (3), 3-loc., with axile pla-
centae (rarely i-loc. with parietal placentae). Style usually trifid and
frequently more or less petaloid. Ovules usually 00 , anatropous.
Loculicidal capsule. Embryo small, in hard endosperm.

Classification and chief genera (after Pax) :

I. Crocoideae (fir. solitary, or several developed centrifugally
round a central one ; plant small ; leaves not exactly in
\ phyllotaxy) : Crocus, Romulea.

II. Iridoideae (firs, numerous, in spathes, several in each,
usually regular ; stem distinct ; leaves equitant) : Iris,
Moraea, Tigridia, Sisyrinchium.

III. Ixioideae (similar, but spathes i-flowered; fir. often zygo-
morphic): Ixia, Tritonia, Gladiolus, Freesia.

[Placed in Epigynae by Benth. -Hooker; Liliiflorae by Warming.]

Irideae (Benth. -Hooker) = Iridaceae.

Iris Tourn. ex Linn. Iridaceae (11). About 100 sp. N. temp. 2 in Brit.,
/. Pseudacorus L., the yellow flag, and I. foetidissima L., the gladdon.
Many sp. are cultivated. Most sp. have a sympodial rhizome with
equitant isobilateral leaves, and small cymes of firs, in spathes.
Perianth petaloid, the sepals usually bending downwards at the outer
ends ; opposite to them and almost resting on them are the petaloid
styles, under which are the sta. with their extrorse anthers. Just
above the anther, on the outer side of the style, is a little flap, whose

1X0RA

433

upper surface is the stigma. Bees entering the flr. to get the honey
secreted by the ovary rub off their load of pollen upon the stigma ;
going farther in they get a fresh supply of pollen; and when they
come out close the stigma flap, which prevents self-fertilisation (cf.
Viola). The flat seeds are suited to wind-distribution.

The dried rhizome of /. jlorentinci L. smells like violets, it is
known as Orris root, and is largely used in perfumery; ‘essence of
violets * is made from it.

Isatis Tourn. ex Linn. Cruciferae (n. 8). 50 sp. Medit., Eur., As. /.

tinctoria L. is the woad, largely used as a dye before the introduc-
tion of indigo. It is prepared by grinding the leaves to a paste
and fermenting them. [Nature, 55, pp. 36, 79; 61, pp. 331, 563.]

Isnardia Linn. = Ludwigia Linn.

Isoetaceae. Lycopodinae (Heterosporous). Only genus Isoetes (q.v.).

Isoetes Linn. Isoetaceae. 50 sp. temp, and trop. /. lacustris L. is
the quill-wort of Brit, lakes, and /. echinospora Dur. is also found.
Most sp. are aquatics with short stout rhizomes and awl-shaped
leaves, the habit being very like that of Littorella, with which I. is
frequently confused. The stem grows in thickness, but very slowly.
The leaves spread out at the base and sheath the stem. There are a
number of roots, which branch dichotomously. Above the base of
each leaf, on the inner side, is a large sporangium sunk in the tissue.
The outer leaves have micro- the inner mega- sporangia, whilst the
innermost leaves of all are usually small and not sporangiferous.
The sporangia are imperfectly chambered up by strands of tissue
(i trabeculae ) running across them from front to back. The germination
of the spoies and the development of the embryo resemble the corre-
sponding processes in Selaginella.

I. is frequently placed with the Eusporangiate Filicineae (see
Campbell, Mosses and Ferns). It differs so much from all other
Pteridophyta that the determination of its relationships is a matter of
great difficulty.

Isolepis R. Br. = Scirpus Linn.

Isoloma Dene. ( Kohleria Regel). Gesneraceae (11). 40 sp. trop. Am.
Several sp. form runners above ground, thickly covered with scaly leaves.

Isonandra Wight. Sapotaceae (1). 6 sp. Ceylon to Sumatra. [/.

Gutta Hook. = Die hopsis Gutta .]

Isopogon R. Br. Proteaceae (i). 29 sp. Austr.

Isopyrum Linn. Ranunculaceae (2). 17 sp. temp. As.

Isotoma Lindl. Campanulaceae (in). 6 sp. Austr., 1 W. Ind., 1
Society Is.

Ixia Linn. Iridaceae (in). 25 sp. S. Afr.

Ixiolirion Fisch. Amaryllidaceae (1). 2 sp. W. As.

Ixora Linn. Rubiaceae (11. 14). 100 sp. trop. The flr. is commonly

red with a long narrow tube, and probably, therefore, butterfly-
visited (p. 91). The mechanism is like that of Campanula.

W.

28

434

JABOROSA

Jaborosa Juss. Solanaceae (n. 5). 8 sp. Mexico, temp. S. Am.

Jacaranda Juss. Bignoniaceae (11). 30 sp. trop. Am.

Jacksonia R. Br. Leguminosae (in. 2). 37 sp. Austr.

Jacobinia Moric. Acanthaceae (iv. B). 20 sp. trop. Am.

Jacquemontia Choisy. Convolvulaceae (1. 4). 40 sp. trop. Am., Afr.,

Sandw. Is.

Jacquinia Linn. Myrsinaceae (1). 6 sp. trop. Am.

Jambosa DC. = Eugenia Mich.

Jasione Linn. Campanulaceae (1. 1). 5 sp. Medit., Eur. J. montana
L., the sheep’s-bit scabious, is common in Brit., especially in hilly
districts. The fir. is of interest as affording — like Phyteuma, but in a
slightly different way — an intermediate step between Campanula and
the Compositae, in the floral mechanism. The tube is formed by the
anthers, which cohere at their base, while the petals spread out as
soon as the bud opens.

Jasminaceae (Warming) =01eaceae (suborder II.).

Jasminum (Tourn.) Linn. Oleaceae (11). 160 sp. trop. and sub-trop.

Erect or twining shrubs, often cultivated for their sweet scented firs.
(Jasmine). The fruit is vertically constricted into two lobes.

Jasonia Cass. Compositae (iv). 2 sp. Medit.

Jateorhiza Miers. Menispermaceae. 2 sp. trop. Afr. J. Columba
Miers {J. palmata Miers) furnishes Radix Columba, used as a tonic.

Jatropha Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 3). 70 sp. trop. and sub-trop.

y. podagrica Hook., frequently cultivated, is a xerophyte with egg-
shaped swollen stem, consisting mainly of water-storing tissue; the
leaves fall in the dry season (p. 168). The axis of the infl. is red, as
well as the firs. The first branches of the dichasium end in ? the
later in <? firs. (cf. Begonia).

Jatrorrhiza Prantl= Jateorhiza Miers.

Jeffersonia Bart. Berberidaceae. 2 sp. N. Am., E. As.

Juanulloa Ruiz et Pav. Solanaceae (iv. 7). 10 sp. trop. Am. J.

parasitica R. et P. is not a parasite, but an epiphyte.

Jubaea H. B. et K. Palmae (v. 7). 1 sp. Chili, J, speciabilis H. B.

et K., the Coquito-palm. Palin-honey is prepared by evaporation of
the sap, and the tree is useful in other ways.

Juglandaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Juglandales). 6 gen. with 40
sp., N. temp., and trop. As. Trees with alt. stip. leaves, with brown
hairy winter buds : the buds arise rather high up in the leaf axils, and
sometimes several appear in descending order. Infl. monoecious, the
<? appearing as catkins on the twigs of the previous year, the ? as
sessile firs, on the stems of the current year. Perianth typically 4-
leaved, but often fewer by abortion. <? fir. with 3 — 40 sta. (more in
the lower firs.) ; ? fir. with epigynous perianth, and 2 cpls. Ovary
syncarpous, i-loc.,with 1 erect orthotropous ovule ; style short with 2
stigmas. Fir. wind-fertilised; Juglans (q. v.) is chalazogamic. Fruit
a drupe or nut. Testa thin; seed exalbuminous. Chief genera:

/UNCUS 435

Pterocarya, Juglans, Carya. [Placed in Unisexuales by Benth. -
Hooker, in Juglandiflorae by Warming.]

Juglandales. The 7th cohort of Dicotyledons (Archichl.). See p. 126.

Juglandeae (Benth. -Hooker) =Juglandaceae.

Juglandiflorae (Warming). The 3rd cohort of Choripetalae. Seep. 137.

Juglans Linn. Juglandaceae. 8 sp. N. temp. f. regia L. is the
walnut. The S hr. is ‘adnate’ to the bract and bracteoles and has 5,
4, 3, or 2 perianth leaves; the lowest firs, have as many as 20 sta.,
the upper as few as 6. The fruit is a drupe, with a green fleshy
exocarp, and a hard endocarp (the shell). The ‘boats’ into which
the shell splits do not represent each a cpl. ; the splitting is down the
midribs of the cpls. Within is the seed with its thin brown seed-coat.
It is exalbuminous with a basal radicle and two large cotyledons,
which are rendered irregular in shape by the presence of partial septa
in the ovary. The flr. of J. has lately been shown to be chalazogamic
(Nawaschin in Bot. Centr. 6 3, 1895; see art. Chalazogamae).

The wood of the walnut is valued in cabinet-making, &c. ; the
seeds yield an oil. Many varieties are cultivated for their fruit.

Julocroton Mart. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 1). 20 sp. trop. Am. Firs,

in spikes, the ? below, the above.

Juncaceae. Monocotyledons (Liliiflorae). 7 gen. with 200 sp. in
damp and cold places, temp, and frigid zones. They have usually a
creeping sympodial rhizome, one joint of the sympodium appearing
above ground each year as a leafy shoot. The stem does not often
lengthen out above ground, except to bear the infl. The leaves are
usually narrow, and occasionally centric in structure (Juncus). Infl.
usually a crowded mass of firs, borne in cymes of various types,
usually monochasial. Fir. £ , regular, wind-fertilised. Perianth 3 + 3,
sepaloid, with the odd leaf of the inner whorl posterior; sta. 3 + 3 (or
the inner wanting), anthers dehiscing laterally, pollen in tetrads; cpls.
(3), forming a sup. ovary; placentae axile or parietal, with 00 or few
anatropous ovules. Style simple, with 3 brush-like stigmas. Locu-
licidal capsule. Embryo straight, in starchy endosperm. Chief
genera: Prionium, Juncus, Luzula. [Placed in Calycinae by Benth.-
Hooker, in Glumiflorae by Warming.]

Juncaginaceae. Monocotyledons (Helobieae). 4 gen. with 10 sp.,
temp. Perennial marsh herbs of grass-like habit ; in the axils of the
sheathing leaves are ‘ squamulae intravaginales ’ (cf. Potamogetona-
ceae). Firs. g , in racemes, regular, greenish, wind-fertilised, protogy-
nous. P 3 + 3, A 3 + 3, anthers extrorse; G 3 + 3 sometimes united,
but the outer whorl is often abortive ; stigmas sessile ; 1 anatropous
ovule in each cpl. Achenes or schizocarp. Seed exalbuminous;
embryo straight. Chief genera: Triglochin, Scheuchzeria, Lilaea.
The order is joined to Naiadaceae by Benth. -Hooker.

Juncus (Tourn.) Linn. Juncaceae. 160 sp. cosmop. but chiefly in cold,
wet places. 18 sp. of rush are found in Brit. Most sp. have a sym-

J UNCUS

436

podial rhizome giving off one leafy shoot each year. The leaves are
of various types, with large sheathing bases. Some are flat and
grass-like, others needle-like, and still others centric in structure and
standing erect. These last are chiefly found in the sp. inhabiting
level plateaus in northern regions, where the light in summer comes
from almost every direction in turn, and it has been suggested (see
p. 1 81) that the erect position and centric structure is due to this;
probably there is some correlation between the two phenomena.
The infl. is a dense head or panicle, of cymose construction (usually
rhipidia or drepania; see p. 64). In some sp. it appears to be
lateral on a leaf-like cylindrical stem, but is really only pushed to one
side by the bract of the infl. Fir. protogynous and wind-fertilised.

Rushes are largely used for making baskets, chair bottoms, &c.
J, squarrosus L. is common on hill pastures in Brit. ; it is eaten by
sheep and forms a valuable part of their fodder when grass is scarce.

Juniperas Tourn. ex Linn. Coniferae (Arauc. 2 d ; see C. for genus
characters). 30 sp. N. Hemisp. The common Juniper, y. commu-
nis L. (Asia and Eur. inch Britain), and y. Oxycedrus L., &c. have
needle leaves throughout life; others, such as y. Sabina L., the
Savin (Eur. As.), have small leaves closely appressed, as in Cupressus.
Seedling forms of these are known (see Retinospora). The cone
consists of 1 — 4 whorls of scales, one only being fertile, as a rule. In
ripening the whole becomes a fleshy mass enclosing the hard seeds,
and forming a good imitation of a true berry. The fruit is eaten by
birds. That of y. communis is used in making gin. The wood of
y. yirginiana L. is the red cedar used for pencils.

Jurinea Cass. Compositae (xi). 50 sp. Medit., Eur., As.

Jussieua Linn. (Jussiaea). Onagraceae (1). 36 sp. trop. ; water and

marsh plants. Aerating tissue is well developed (cf. Sonneratia,
Sesbania, and see p. 161). In y. repens L. (y. diffusa Forsk.),
when growing in water, two forms of root develope, ordinary anchor-
age roots and erect spongy roots which grow upwards, often till they
reach the surface of the water. The bulk of the tissue consists of
aerenchyma. In y. suffy'uticosa L. (y. salicifolia H. B. et K.) there is
an erect stem, whose lower part is covered with aerenchyma if grow-
ing in water (cf. Lycopus). If the plants be grown on land none of
these phenomena appear. [Figs., &c. in Goebel’s PJianzenbioL
Schild. 11. 256.]

Justicia Houst. ex Linn. Acanthaceae (iv. B). 250 sp. trop.

Kadsura Kaempf. Magnoliaceae (2). 7 sp. trop. As. and Japan. Firs,
unisexual, spiral throughout. Climbing shrubs with no stipules.

Kaempferia Linn. Zingiberaceae. 18 sp. trop. Afr., E. Ind.

Kalanchoe Adans. Crassulaceae. 55 sp. trop. Like Bryophyllum.

Kalmia Linn. Ericaceae (1. 3). 6 sp. N. Am. The anthers are held in
pockets of the corolla, and thus, when the flr. is open, the filaments
are bent like bows. An insect probing on the outer side of the

KORTHALSIA 437

filaments for honey, releases the anthers, which fly up, shooting the
pollen out upon the under side of the visitor.

Karatas (Plum.) Mill, (inch Nidularium Lam.). Bromeliaceae (i).
1 8 sp. W. Ind., Brazil.

Kaufmannia Regel. Primulaceae (i). i sp. Turkestan.

Kaulfussia Blume. Marattiaceae (n). i sp. S. E. As. The palmate
leaf has large pores on the under side, due to the tearing apart of
guard cells of stomata.

Kennedya Vent, (excl . Hardenbergia Benth.). Leguminosae (in. 10).
12 sp. Austr. The firs, of some sp. are almost black.

Kentia Blume. Palmae (iv. 6). io sp. Moluccas to N. Z. (not in
Austr.). Firs, in groups of 3 (2 male) on the spadix.

Kernera Medic. = Cochlearia Linn.. (5 sp. Alps.)

Kerria DC. Rosaceae (ill. 5). 1 sp. E. As. K \ japonica DC., often

cultivated, especially in the double-flowered form.

Kibara Endl. Monimiaceae. 10 sp. E. Ind. to Austr.

Kickxia Blume. Apocynaceae (11. 4). 2 sp. Java.

Kielmeyera Mart. Guttiferae. 17 sp. Campos of Brazil. [Ternstroe-
miaceae, Benth. -Hooker.]

Kigelia DC. Bignoniaceae (iv). 3 sp. trop. Afr., Madag. The infls.

are borne on old wood (p. 42), hanging down on very long stalks.

Kingia R. Br. Liliaceae (ill). 1 sp. W. Austr., a characteristic plant
of the district. Placed in Juncaceae by Benth.-Hooker.

Kitaibelia Willd. Malvaceae (1). 1 sp. lower Danube.

Kleinia Linn. = Senecio Tourn.

Knappia Sm. =Mibora Adans.

Knautia Linn. = Scabiosa Tourn.

Kniphofla Moench. Liliaceae (ill). 16 sp. S. Afr., often cultivated
for their handsome spikes of firs. Bees sometimes force their way
into the firs, and are unable to return.

Kobresia Willd. Cyperaceae (11). 4 sp. As., Eur. (1 Brit.).

Kochia Roth. Chenopodiaceae (5). 30 sp. cosmop.

Koeberlinia Zucc. Koeberliniaceae. 1 sp. Texas, Mexico. A leafless
xerophyte with thorny twigs.

Koeberliniaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). Only genus
Koeberlinia (q. v.), placed in Simarubaceae by Benth.-Hooker. See
Nat. PJl.

Koeleria Pers. Gramineae (x). 15 sp. temp. (1 Brit.).

Koelreuteria Laxm. Sapindaceae (10). 2 sp. China. The capsule is

large and bladdery and may be blown about by wind (cf. Colutea).

Koenigia Linn. = Polygonum Tourn.

Kobleria Regel = Isoloma Dene.

Koniga R. Br. = Alyssum Tourn.

Korthalsia Blume. Palmae (ill). 20 sp. E. Ind. Some, e.g. K. hor-
rida Becc., are said to be myrmecophilous (cf. Cecropia), the ants living
in the sheaths of the leaves.

KRAMERIA

433

Krameria Loefl. Leguminosae (11. 6). 13 sp. Mexico to Chili. It is

placed in Polygalaceae by Benth. -Hooker, but has a petal, not a
sepal, posterior. K and C 4 — 5; A 4, anthers opening by pores.
See Eichler, Bliithendiag. p. 522.

Kraunhia Rafin.= Wistaria Nutt.

Krokeria Moench = Lotus Linn.

Krynitzkya Fisch. et Mey. Boraginaceae (iv. 2). 40 sp. W. Am.

Kuhnistera Lam. = Petalostemon Michx.

Kyllinga Rottb. Cyperaceae (11). 40 sp. trop.

Labiatae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). About 150 gen. with
2800 sp., cosmop. The chief centre is the Medit. region. Some of
the small sub-orders are localised in their distribution, e.g. II. in
Austr. and Tasmania, III. in India, Malaya, China, &c., VIII. in
Centr. Am., whereas the large ones, such as I. and IV., are cosmop.
Most L. are land-plants, and herbs or undershrubs, exhibiting much
similarity in habit and structure. Stem usually square, with decus-
sate simple exstip. leaves, often hairy and with epidermal glands
secreting volatile oils, which give characteristic scents to many plants
of the order. There are a few marsh-plants (Mentha, Lycopus, &c.),
a few climbers (sp. of Stenogyne, Scutellaria, &c.), and a few small
trees (Hyptis sp.). Many are xerophytes with reduced, sometimes
infolded, leaves, hairiness, thick cuticles, &c., e.g . Rosmarinus.

The axis of the first order is not closed by a fir. but only those of
later orders ; thus the primary form of the infl. is racemose, and a
simple raceme actually occurs in Scutellaria, &c. Usually however a
dichasial cyme, becoming cincinnal in its later branchings (p. 64),
occurs in the axil of each leaf upon the upper part of the main axis.
In Teucrium, Nepeta sp., &c., the
construction of this cyme is easily seen ;
but in most L. it is closely ‘condensed*
into the axil, so that all the firs, are
sessile ; even here, however, it is easily
seen that the central fir. opens first and
then those on either side of it (see
diagram). The two condensed cymes
at each node overlap the leaf-axils and
often form what looks like a whorl of
firs.; this infl. is often called a verticil-
laster or false whorl.

Fir. £ or gynodioecious, zygomor-
phic, hypogynous, 5-merous with sup-
pression in some whorls. The common formula is K (5), C (5), A 4,
G (2). Calyx hypogynous, tubular, bell- or funnel-shaped, some-
times 2 -lipped, persistent in fruit. Corolla usually 2-lipped with no
clear indication of the individual petals. Sta. 4, didynamous, or of
nearly equal length, sometimes 2, epipetalous with introrse anthers.

Floral diagram of Lamium album
with indication of the dichasial
double cincinnus at the sides.
(After Eichler.) The asterisk
represents the missing posterior
sta.

LAB I AT AE

439

Ovary on a nectariferous disc (often developed on anterior side only),
of (2) cpls. placed antero-posteriorly. Early in its development a
constriction appears in the ovary in the antero-posterior line, dividing
each cpl. into 2 loculi, so that the ovary becomes 4-loc. as it matures.
Each of the 4 portions is nearly independent of the rest, and the style
springs between them from the base of the ovary (i.e. is gynobasic);
stigma 2-lobed. Placentae axile, each with 1 basal erect anatropous
ovule with ventral raphe. The fruit is usually a group of 4 achenes or
nutlets , each containing one seed ; sometimes it is a drupe. Seed with
no endosperm or very little ; the radicle of the embryo points down-
wards (cf. Boraginaceae).

The firs, of L. belong in general to the classes H. and F. (pp. 92,
91). The 2 -lipped corolla ensures that the visiting insect shall take a
definite position in regard to the anthers and stigma whilst probing for
the honey at the base of the fir. The lower lip acts as a flag to
attract insects, and also as a landing-place, whilst the upper lip
shelters the essential organs, which are usually placed so as to touch
the insect’s back. The length of the corolla-tube varies very much, and
with it the kind of visitors. Most Brit. sp. are bee firs., the long-tubed
red firs, of Monarda &c. are butterfly firs., and a few sp. of Salvia &c.
are humming-bird firs. (p. 99). The pollination-mechanism is usually
simple ; in Lamium, &c. the fir. is homogamous, the stigma merely
projecting beyond the anthers so as to be touched first, but usually
the fir. is dichogamous (protandrous), often with movements of the
essential organs, e.g. in Teucrium, &c. The lever-mechanism of
Salvia is almost unique. Thymus, Origanum, and their allies, have
nearly regular firs, visited by a more miscellaneous selection of insects.
In many L., especially § VI., interesting distributions of sex appear,
especially gynodioecism (p. 68).

A few L. disperse their fruits by aid of the persistent bladdery
calyx, which acts as a sail; a few have hooks formed from the calyx-
teeth. The stalks are very often hygroscopic and move in such a
way as to favour the dispersal of the fruits in wet weather (see Miss
Pertz in Nat. Science , Oct. 1894).

The L. are useful on account of the volatile oils which they con-
tain ; many, e.g . Thymus, Ocimum, Origanum, Salvia, &c., are used
as condiments. Oils and perfumes are obtained by distillation from
Rosmarinus, Pogostemon, Lavandula, &c. Food-products are ob-
tained from Stachys sp.

Classification and chief genera (after Briquet, from whose account
much of the above is condensed) : the L. are closely allied to Verbe-
naceae ; from Boraginaceae the position of the radicle sharply separates
them, whilst the similarity to Scrophulariaceae, &c. is largely in minor
characters.

A. Style not gynobasic. Nutlets with lateral-ventral attachment and
usually large surface of contact (often > \ as high as ovary).

440

LAB TATAR

I. AJUGOIDEAE (seed exalbuminous) :

1. Ajugeae (corolla various ; upper lip if present rarely concave ;

sta. 4 or 2 ; anther 2-loc. ; nutlets ± wrinkled) : Ajuga,

Teucrium.

2. Rosmarineae (corolla strongly 2-lipped; upper lip very con-

cave and arched; sta. 2; anthers i-loc. ; nutlets smooth) :

Rosmarinus (only genus).

II. PROSTANTHEROIDEAE (seed albuminous): Prostan-
thera.

B. Style perfectly gynobasic. Nutlets with basal attachment and
usually small surface of contact, rarely with ± basal-dorsal
attachment.

III. PRASIOIDEAE (nutlet drupaceous with fleshy or very

thick exocarp and hard endocarp): Stenogyne, Gompho-
stemma.

IV. SCUTELLARIOIDEAE (nutlet dry; seed ± transversal;

embryo with curved radicle lying on one cotyledon) : Scutel-
laria.

V. LA VANDULOIDEAE (nutlet dry; seed erect; embryo with
short straight superior radicle; disc-lobes opp. to ovary-lobes;
nutlets with =fc distinct dorsal-basal attachment; sta. 4 in-
cluded; anthers i-loc. at tip through union of thecae) : Lavan-
dula (only genus).

VI. S'PACHYDOIDEAE (ditto, but disc-lobes, when distinct,
alt. with ovary-lobes ; nut with small basal attachment ; sta.
ascending or spreading and projecting straight forwards) :

1. Marrubieae : Marrubium, Sideritis.

2. Perilomieae : Perilomia (only genus).

3. Nepeteac: Nepeta, Dracocephalum.

4. Stachydeae : Prunella, Phlomis, Galeopsis, Lamium, Ballota,

Stachys.

5 . Glechoneae : Glechon.

6. Salvieae: Salvia.

7. Meriandreae: Meriandra.

8. Monardeae : Monarda, Ziziphora.

9. Hormineae: Horminum.

10. Lepechinieae: Lepechinia.

11. Satureieae : Calamintha, Satureia, Origanum, Thymus,

Mentha.

12. Pogostemoneae : Pogostemon.

VII. OCIMOIDEAE (as VI., but sta. descending, lying upon
under lip or enclosed by it) : Hyptis, Ocimum.

VIII. CATOPHERIOIDEAE (nutlet dry; seed erect; embryo
with curved radicle lying against the cotyledons) : Catopheria.

[L. are placed in Lamiales by Benth.-Hooker, in Nuculiferae by

Warming.]

LAMIUM

441

Laburnum Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 3). 3 sp. Eur., W. As., of which

Z. vulgare J. Presl. is the common laburnum of shrubberies. The
flr. has a simple Trifolium-mechanism. There is no free honey; bees
pierce the swelling at the base of the vexillum (cf. Orchis). All parts
are poisonous.

Lachenalia Jacq. Liliaceae (v). 30 sp. S. Afr. Z. tricolor Jacq. a

pretty little bulbous plant with two leaves, is in cultivation.

Lachnanthes Ell. Haemodoraceae. 1 sp. Z. tinctoria Ell., N. Am.,
the paint-root. The roots yield a red dye. See Orig. of Species , 6th
ed., p. 9.

Lacistema Sw. Lacistemaceae. 16 sp. trop. Am.

Lacistemaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Piperales). Only genus
Lacistema. Closely allied to Piperaceae. See Nat . PJl .

Lactoridaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Ranales). An order composed
of the single sp. Lactoris fernandeziana Phil, from Juan Fernandez
(p. 148). See Nat. PJl . Placed in Piperaceae by Benth.-Hooker.

Lactoris Phil. Lactoridaceae. See order.

Lactuca (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Mulgedium Cass.). Compositae (xm).
90 sp. chiefly N. temp. Old World; 4 in Brit. Z. Scariola L., the
prickly lettuce, is a compass-plant when growing in dry exposed
places (see Silphium). Z. sativa L. is the common lettuce used in
salads. Its value depends on the latex. Fir. like Hieracium. The
former is rapidly spreading in the U. S. as a weed (p. 141).

Ladenbergia Klotzsch (zxc\.Cascarilla Wedd.). Rubiaceae (1. 4). 10

sp. S. Am.

Laelia Lindl. Orchidaceae (13). 20 sp. trop. Am. Often epiphytic.

Like Cattleya.

Lagenandra Dalz. Araceae (vn). 4 sp. Ceylon.

Lagenaria Ser. Cucurbitaceae (ill). 1 sp. trop. Old World, Z. vul-
garis Ser., the calabash-cucumber. The outer woody pericarp of the
fruit makes an excellent flask.

Lagerstroemia Linn. Lythraceae. 23 sp. Madag. to E. As. and
Austr. Some are heterostyled like Lythrum.

Lagetta Juss. Thymelaeaceae. 3 sp. W. Ind. Z. Lintearia Lam. is
the lace tree. Its bast-fibres on removal from the stem (by macera-
tion, &c.) form a network used for making dresses, &c.

Lagoecia Linn. Umbelliferae (3). 1 sp. Medit. One of the usual

two loc. of the ovary is aborted.

Lagurus Linn. Gramineae (vm). 1 sp. Medit., Z. ovatus L., cultivated
as an ornamental grass and for use in bouquets.

Lamarckia Moench. Gramineae (x). 1 sp. Medit.

Lamiales (Benth.-Hooker). The 10th cohort of Gamopetalae (p. 135).

Lamium (Tourn.) Linn. Labiatae (vi. 4). 40 sp. Eur., As., extratrop.
Afr. 5 in Brit., of which the chief are Z. album L. (white dead-
nettle), Z. a?nplexicaule L. (henbit), L. purpureuvi L. (purple dead-
nettle) and Z. Galeobdolon Crantz (yellow archangel). Z. album has

442

LAMIUM

sympodial rhizomes and large white homogamous humble-bee firs.
Z. amplexicaule has cleistogamic firs, in spring and autumn; they
look like ordinary buds with a small corolla, and are pollinated with-
out opening (p. 98).

Lampsana (Tourn.) Rupp. = Lapsana Linn.

Landolphia Beauv. Apocynaceae (1. 1). 16 sp. trop. and S. Afr.

Several are lianes with curious hook tendrils like those of Strychnos.
The fruit is a large berry full of an acid pulp composed of the hair-
structures on the seeds. Several sp. , eg . Z. Kirkii Dyer, Z. como-
rensis Benth. et Hook, f., &c., yield indian-rubber, the latex,
coagulated, which exudes from a wound. It is known in trade as
African rubber.

Langsdorffia Mart. Balanophoraceae. 1 sp. Z. hypogaea Mart., trop.
Am.

Lankesteria Lindl. Acanthaceae (iv. A). 4 sp. trop. W. Afr.

Lantana Linn. Verbenaceae (11). 50 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Shrubs,

often used for making hedges. Some have edible fruit.

Lapageria Ruiz et Pav. Liliaceae (x). 1 sp. Chili, Z. rosea Ruiz et

Pav., a climbing shrub with handsome firs, and edible fruit, often
grown in greenhouses.

Lapeyrousia Pourr. Iridaceae (ill). 22 sp. S. and trop. Afr.

Laportea Gaudich. Urticaceae (1). 25 sp. trop. Many sting violently.

Lappa (Toum.) Rupp. = Arctium Linn.

Lapsana Linn. Compositae (xn). 9 sp. N. temp. Old World. Z.

communis L., the nipplewort, is common in Brit. The firs, are
inconspicuous and pollinate themselves regularly. There is no pappus.

Lardizabala Ruiz et Pav. Lardizabalaceae. 2 sp. Chili. A tough
fibre is got from the stems of Z. biternata Ruiz et Pav.

Lardizabalaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Ranales). 7 gen. with 12
sp. Himal. to Japan, and Chili. Mostly climbing shrubs with palmate
leaves. Firs, in racemes, usually in the axils of the scale-leaves at
the bases of the branches, polygamous or diclinous. The usual
formula is P 3 + 3, A 3 + 3, G 3 or more. 2 whorls of small honey-
leaves (see Ranunculaceae) often occur between perianth and sta.
Sta. sometimes united; anthers extrorse. Ovules 00 in longitudinal
rows on the lateral walls (cf. Nymphaeaceae), anatropous. The fir.
of either sex shows rudiments of the organs of the other sex. Fruit a
berry. Embryo small and straight, in copious endosperm. Chief
genera: Decaisnea, Akebia, Lardizabala. Benth.-Hooker unite L. to
Berberidaceae, to which and to Menispermaceae they are closely
allied. Warming places L. in Polycarpicae.

Larix Tourn. ex Adans. Coniferae (Arauc. ib; see C. for genus
characters). 8 sp., five in Eur. and N. As., three in N. Am. The
general characters are those of Cedrus, but the leaves are deciduous
p. 154), and the cones ripen in a single year. Z. europaea DC. (Z.
iecidua Mill.) is the common larch, cultivated on a large scale for its

LATHYRUS

443

wood, bark (used in tanning) and turpentine (Venice t.). Z. pendula
Salisb. (Z. americana Michx.) is a common N. Am. sp.

Larrea Cav. Zygophyllaceae. 4 sp. sub-trop. Am. Xerophytes. Z.
mexicana Moric. (Mexico, &c.) is the creosote plant, which forms a
dense scrub-vegetation and binds the drifting sand together. Its
strong smell prevents it from being eaten by animals.

Laserpitium Linn. Umbelliferae (9). 20 sp. Eur., N. Afr., As.

Lasiandra DC. = Tibouchina Aubl.

Lasianthera Beauv. Icacinaceae. 1 sp. trop. W. Afr. (Olacineae,
Benth- Hooker).

Lasianthus Jack. Rubiaceae (11. 15). 80 sp. E. As., Indo-mal.,

N. Austr.

Lasiopetalum Sm. Sterculiaceae. 25 sp. Austr.

Lasthenia Cass. Compositae (vi). 5 sp. W. Am.

Lastrea Presl = Nephrodium Rich, (usually same spec, names).

Latania Comm, ex Juss. Palmae (11. 3). 3 sp. E. Afr., Mascarenes.

Lathraea Linn. Orobanchaceae. 5 sp. temp., Eur., As. Z. Sqita -
maria L. in Brit, (tooth-wort). This sp. is a curious parasite living
upon the roots of hazel, beech, &c. It has a thick rhizome bearing
4 rows of tooth-like scaly leaves. The flowering shoot comes above
ground and bears a raceme of purplish firs. The firs, are all bent
round to the same side of the infl. (p. 66), and are protogynous. The
scales upon the rhizome are curiously hollowed,' each containing a
branched cavity opening to the outside by a narrow slit at the base of
the back of the leaf. This arises by a development similar to that
which forms the chambers in the leaves of Empetrum, Cassiope,
&c. In the small lateral cavities opening out of the main one
there are found peculiar glandular organs, resembling those of in-
sectivorous plants (p. 177). Some are of two cells, forming a small
head, upon a one-celled stalk; others are sessile, of 2 — 4 cells. From
the surface of both kinds radiate hyaline threads, whose nature has
caused much discussion. Some affirm them to be protoplasmic,
others of waxy or even bacterial nature. Small insects &c. are often
found in these leaves (cf. bladders of Utricularia, &c.) and it has been
supposed that these organs absorb their proteid materials after the
manner of the glands of Drosera, &c. This however is very doubtful,
but it is quite possible that the plant may absorb the products of their
decay. It seems probable that L. is able to some extent to nourish
itself saprophytically. Another common sp. in Eur. is Z. Clandestina
L., parasitic upon willows. The capsule of L. splits explosively.
[For details see Heinricher in Site. k. Akad. Wien, Cl. 1892, Berichte
D. Bot. Ges. 1893, 1895, and Cohn's Beitr . vii. (reviewed in Bot .
Centr . 65, p. 307).]

Lathyrus (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Orobus Linn.). Leguminosae (in. 9).
100 sp. N. temp., and Mts. of trop. Afr. and S. Am. 10 sp. in Brit,
(pea), including Z. Aphaca L. and Z. Nissolia L. The former has

444

LATHYRUS

large green stipules performing assimilatory functions, whilst the leaf
is transformed into a tendril ; the latter has its petioles flattened into
phyllodes and has no leaf blade at all (see Acacia). Z . macrorrhizus
Wimm. has tuberous roots which may be eaten like potatoes. Z.
sativus L. (Jarosse) and Z . Cicera L. are cultivated in S. Eur. as
fodder and are also eaten like chick-pea (Cicer). Z. odorcitus L. is
the sweet-pea. The flr. is like that of Vicia; on the style is a tuft
of hairs that brushes the pollen out of the apex of the keel, where it
is shed by the anthers.

Lauraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Ranales). 40 gen. with 1000 sp.
trop. and sub-trop. ; the chief centres of distribution are S.E. As. and
Brazil. Trees and shrubs with leathery evergreen alt. exstip. leaves.
The tissues contain numerous oil-cavities. Cassytha is an interesting
parasite. Infl. racemose, cymose, or mixed. Fir. actinomorphic,
apetalous, usually 3-merous, $ or monoecious. The formula is
usually P2rl, A4n, Gn. Perianth in two whorls, perigynous. Sta. peri-
gynous or epigynous, in 3 or 4 whorls, some of which are commonly
reduced to staminodes; anther usually 4-loc. opening by valves (cf.
Berberidaceae). The anthers are usually introrse, but in many cases
those of the third whorl are extrorse. The axis is more or less con-
cave, and the ovary is free from it at the sides. Cpls. 1 (Payer,
Baillon) or more probably 3 (Eichler), forming a i-loc. ovary, with
1 pendulous anatropous ovule. Fruit a berry, often more or less
enclosed by the cup-like receptacle, which also becomes fleshy in
these cases. Embryo straight ; seed exalbuminous. The position of
the L. in the system is doubtful ; they apparently form the connecting
link between the Ranales (to the more typical families of which they
are linked by Monimiaceae and Calycanthaceae) and the Thymelae-
ales. They are placed in Daphnales by Benth.- Hooker, in Polycarpicae
by Warming. Important economic plants are found in nearly all the
genera mentioned below. [See Nat . PJl. and Mez in Bot . Jahresb.
1889, p. 459, and Bot. Centr. 54, p. -275 (abstracts).]

Classification and chief genera (after Pax) :

I. PERSOIDEAE (anther 4-loc.) : Cinnamomum, Persea, Sas-
safras, Litsea.

II. LAUROIDEAE (anther 2-loc.): Cryptocarya, Lindera,
Laurus, Cassytha.

Laurelia Juss. Monimiaceae. 1 sp. N.Z., 1 sp. Chili. The former,
Z. Ncrvae-Zelandiae A. Cunn., supplies a useful timber. The fruits
of the latter, Z. aromatica Juss., are used as a spice under the name of
Peruvian nutmegs.

Laurus (Tourn.) Linn. Lauraceae (11). 2 sp., Z. nobilis L. the true

Laurel or Sweet Bay, Medit., and Z. canaricnsis Webb et Berth.,
Canaries and Madeira. The leaves of the Bay are aromatic and are
used in condiments &c.; the berries are employed in veterinary
medicine. Firs, unisexual by abortion.

LEGUMINOSAE

445

Lavandula Tourn. ex Linn. Labiatae (v, q.v. for genus characters).
20 sp. Medit. region, from Canaries to India. Z. vera DC. is the
common lavender. From it is obtained oil of lavender, by distillation
of the firs. The oil is used in painting, &c. , and in the manufacture
of lavender water. Z. Spica Cav. and Z. Stoechas L. are also used.
The protandrous firs, are visited by bees and form a good source
of honey.

Lavatera Linn. Malvaceae (ii). 20 sp. chiefly Medit.; 2 in Canaries,
1 Austr., 1 mid-As. Z. arborea L., tree-mallow, on rocks on the
Brit, coast.

Lavoisiera DC. Melastomaceae (1). 50 sp. Brazil.

Lawsonia Linn. Lythraceae. Z. inermis L., the only sp., everywhere
cultivated in the tropics, originally E. Afr. to N. Austr. The powdered
leaves form the well-known cosmetic, henna, used in the East to
stain the finger-nails, &c. red.

Layia Hook, et Am. Compositae (v). 14 sp. west N. Am.

Leandra Raddi. Melastomaceae (1). 200 sp. trop. Am.

Lebeckia Thunb. Leguminosae (ill. 3). 24 sp. S. Afr.

Lecanopteris Blume. Polypodiaceae. 1 sp. Indo-mal., often placed
in Polypodium.

Lechea Kalm. Cistaceae. 4 sp. Am.

Lecythidaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Myrtiflorae). 18 gen. with 220
sp. of trop. trees. The leaves are generally in bunches at the ends of
the twigs, simple, exstipulate. Firs, single or in racemose infls., $ ,
perigynous or epigynous, with complete fusion of receptacle and
ovary. K 4 — 6, C 4 — 6, A 00 in several whorls, the sta. more or less
united at base. Ovary with 2 — 6 or more loc., in each 1 — 00 ana-
tropous ovules. There is usually an intra-staminal disc as well as one
under petals and sta. Berry or capsule. No endosperm. Berthol-
letia and others are economic plants. Chief genera : Barringtonia,
Napoleona, Couroupita, Lecythis, Bertholletia. United to Myrtaceae
by Benth. -Hooker and Warming.

Lecythis Loefl. Lecythidaceae. 30 sp. trop. S. Am. The fruit is a
huge wooden capsule, opening by a lid. The oily seeds are eaten as
Sapucaia nuts. The empty fruit is termed a ‘monkey-pot’ from its
use in catching monkeys. It is filled with sugar, the monkey inserts
its hand, clasps it, and then cannot withdraw it.

Ledum Rupp, ex Linn. Ericaceae (1. 1). 3 sp., two in N. Am., Z.

palustre L. circumpolar. The leaves are rolled back (cf. Empetrum).
This sp. is used in Labrador as tea. Seeds winged at ends.

Leea Royen. Vitaceae (11). 45 sp. trop. Old World.

Leersia Soland. ex Sw. Gramineae (vi). 5 sp. N. temp, and trop. Marsh
grasses similar to Oryza, and used as fodder in As. Z. oryzoides Sw.
(Eur.) has cleistogamic firs. (Darwin, Forms of Firs. , p. 335).

Leguminosae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). The second largest
family of flowering plants, with about 440 gen. and 7000 sp.,

446

LEG UMINOSA E

cosmop. Mimosoideae and Caesalpinioideae are mostly trop., Pv
pilionatae mostly temp, (abundant on steppes, &c.). The account here
given is largely condensed from that of Taubert in Nat. PJi .

Living in every kind of soil and climate, the L. show great
variety in habit — trees, shrubs, herbs, water-plants, xerophytes,
climbers, &c. The roots of most sp. exhibit peculiar tubercles — meta-
morphosed lateral roots containing the peculiar bacterial organisms
(Rhizobium sp.) about which there has been so much discussion in
late years. Plants provided with these are able to take up much more
atmospheric nitrogen than those not so provided. The plant appears
actually to consume the ‘bacteroids’ which live in its cells, after they
have stored up in themselves a considerable amount of nitrogenous
material. Hence the great value of the L. as a crop on poor soil, or
as preceding wheat in the rotation of crops; for instead of im-
poverishing the soil they rather enrich it, either by the nitrogen
contained in their roots and liberated as these decay, or by that of the
whole plant if ploughed in as ‘green manure.’

The stem is commonly erect, but many climbers occur. Some,
e.g. Vicia, climb by leaf-tendrils, some, e.g. Bauhinia, by stem-tendrils,
some by hooks (modified leaves in Caesalpinia, &c., emergences in
Acacia, &c.), some by twining, and so on. Creeping stems, rooting at
the nodes, also occur. Thorns, usually modified branches (eg. Gle-
ditschia) or stipules (eg. Acacia), are common. The stems of the
erect trop. sp. often branch in such a way that the branches run
parallel and erect, and bear crowns of leaves at the top (p. 155). The
stems of many lianes are peculiarly shaped, often flat, or corrugated in
various ways, owing to peculiar methods of growth in thickness.

The leaves are usually alt., stipulate, and nearly always com-
pound. Many sp. have very small leaves, e.g. Ulex, or scaly leaves
and flat stems, e.g. Carmichaelia. The stipules vary much in size
&c. (see Acacia, Lathyrus, Vicia). The leaves usually perform
sleep-movements (p. 49) at night; the direction of motion varies,
some moving upwards, some downwards, or in other ways, but the
final result is usually to place the leaflet edgewise to the sky. In
Mimosa and Neptunia the leaves are sensitive to a touch and at once
assume the sleep-position, recovering after a time. In Desmodium
gyrans the lateral leaflets execute continuous spontaneous movements
as long as the temperature is high enough.

The infl. is apparently always racemose, but with much variety.
The simple raceme is very common, also the panicle and spike.
Dorsiventral racemes, resembling the cymes of Boraginaceae, also
occur (eg. Dalbergia). The firs, are regular (and then frequently
polygamous) or irregular (and then usually 5 ). The receptacle is
usually convex or flat, so that at most the flr. is slightly perigynous.
The calyx developes in ascending order and is usually 5-merous, the
odd (oldest) sepal being anterior. The sepals are more or less united.

LEG UM1N0SAE

447

The corolla is polypetalous, alternating with the calyx ; its aestiva-
tion may be valvate (Mimosoideae), ascending imbricate (Caesalpinioi-
deae), or descending (Papilionatae). In many cases it is zygomorphic
to a high degree, having a large petal posterior (vexillum or standard),

Floral diagrams of Vicia Faba (Papilionatae) and Acacia latifolia
(Mimosoideae), after Eichler (modified).

two lateral (alae or wings), and two anterior more or less joined
to form a keel or carina. The androeceum consists typically of
io sta., free or united into a tube ; in the latter case the tenth
sta. (the posterior one) often remains free, so as to leave a slit
in the tube, only covered loosely by this sta. Many variations from
the typical androeceum are found. In cases where a keel is present,
the sta. are enclosed in it.

The gynoeceum consists typically of one cpl. with its ventral side
directly posterior; it has a long style and terminal stigma. There
are two rows of ovules (they alternate with one another so as to stand
in one vertical rank), anatropous or amphitropous, ascending or
pendulous.

Fertilisation . Only the Papilionatae have as yet been at all
thoroughly studied (and only the European genera of these). The
keel encloses the essential organs, protecting them from rain, &c. and
rendering the fir. so complex that only the cleverer insects can make
much of it. Honey is secreted by the inner sides of the sta. near
their base, and accumulates in the stamen-tube round the base of the
ovary. In order to render the honey accessible, the tenth sta. is
free of the tube, and at the base, on either side of it, are two open-
ings leading to the honey. The honey is thus concealed and at some
depth, so that a clever insect with a tongue of moderate length is
required. All this points to the P. being bee-flowers, as in fact is the
case. Insects visiting the firs, alight upon the wings and depress
them by their weight, whilst they probe for honey under the standard.
The wings are always joined to the keel, usually by a protuberance in
the former fitting into a suitable hollow in the latter, so that the keel
is thus depressed likewise. This causes the emergence of the essential
organs, the stigma usually coming first, so that a fair chance of cross-

448

LEG UMINOSA E

fertilisation exists. Self-pollination usually occurs when the insect
flies off^ leaving the keel to return to its former position.

“Four different types of structure may be distinguished (in Papilio-
natae) according to the manner in which the pollen is applied to
the bee: (i) P. in which the sta. and stigma emerge from the carina
and again return within it. They admit repeated visits ; e.g. Tri-
folium, Onobrychis. (2) P. whose essential organs are confined under
tension and explode. In these only one insect’s visit is effective ;
e.g. Medicago, Genista, Ulex. (3) P. with a piston mechanism
which squeezes the pollen in small quantities out of the apex
of the carina, and not only permits but requires numerous insect
visits ; e.g. Lotus, Ononis, Lupinus. (4) P. with a brush of hairs
upon the style which sweeps the pollen in small portions out of the
apex of the carina. They for the most part require repeated insect
visits ; e.g. Lathyrus, Vicia.” (Muller.) Cleistogamy is fairly common
in the order. In several cases the stigma in the unvisited flr. lies in
the keel among the pollen, but it has been shown that it only becomes
receptive (if young) when rubbed, so that autogamy does not neces-
sarily occur in these cases. The first visitor will rub the stigma and
autogamy will of course occur then, but if there were any other pollen
on the insect, a cross will happen. For the peculiar phenomenon of
enantiostyly (right- and left-styled firs.) see Cassia. Some sp. have
firs, which after fertilisation bury themselves in the earth and there
ripen their fruit; e.g. Arachis, Voandzeia, Trifolium, Vicia, La-
thyrus, &c.

The fruit of the L. is typically a legume or pod opening by both
sutures. In some the pod is constricted between the seeds, forming
a lomentum which breaks up into indehiscent one-seeded portions.
The pods frequently open explosively, the valves twisting up spirally,
eg. in Ulex, Cytisus sp., &c. In Colutea, &c. the pods are inflated
and so catch the wind. Others are winged. Some are eaten by
animals, but the seed-coats are hard enough to preserve the seeds
from injury. Some have a coloured fleshy aril (Acacia sp., &c.).
Still others have hooked pods, eg. Medicago, Mimosa. [See Buch-
wald in Engler’s Bot. Jahrb. xix. 1894.]

The seed is exalbuminous and contains as a rule a very large
store of reserve-materials in the cotyledons. This is of great import-
ance to the young plant (p. 112), and in this respect the L. are better
provided than most other families.

Economically the L, is a most important order. The seeds of
many sp. form important food -stuffs, e.g. of Arachis, Cajanus, Cicer,
Dolichos, Glycine, Lathyrus, Lens, Lotus, Lupinus, Phaseolus, Pi-
sum, Vicia, Voandzeia, &c. The pods of Ceratonia, Tamarindus,
Phaseolus, Prosopis, &c. are also eaten. A great number are valuable
as fodder plants, e.g. Trifolium, Medicago, Onobrychis, Lotus, Vicia,
&c. Many tropical sp. yield valuable timber ; Crotalaria and others

LE G ZJM I NOS AE

449

are sources of fibre; Haematoxylon, Genista, Indigofera, Acacia, &c.
yield dyes; gums and resins are obtained from Acacia, Copaifera,
Astragalus, Hymenaea, &c.; oil is expressed from the seeds of
Arachis and Voandzeia; kino is obtained from Pterocarpus, and
so on. See Chap. iv. and genera.

Classification and chief genera (after Taubert): the L. are nearly
related to Rosaceae (especially Chrysobalaneae) and Connaraceae.
Benth. -Hooker place them in Rosales, Warming erects L. into a
separate cohort, and considers each of the three chief sub-orders as an
independent order.

The primary division is :

I. MIMOSOIDEAE. Firs, regular, corolla valvate.

II. CAESALPINIOIDEAE . Zygomorphic; corolla-aestiva-
tion imbricate ascending.

III. PAPILIONATAE. Zygomorphic papilionaceous ; corolla-
aestivation imbricate descending.

These are again subdivided: the following key enables one to
ascertain to which of the subdivisions any Leguminous plant belongs.

I. MIMOSOIDEAE.

A. Calyx valvate.

a. Sta. more than xo.

1. Ingeae ( sta. united): Inga, Calliandra.

2. Acacieae (sta. free) : Acacia (only gen.).

b. Sta. twice as many as petals.

3. Eumunoseae (anther glandless) : Mimosa.

4. Adenanthereae (anther in bud crowned by a gland; endo-

sperm) : Neptunia, Prosopis.

5. Piptadenieae (ditto, no endosperm) : Piptadenia.

B. Calyx imbricate.

6. Parkieae: Parkia.

II. CAESALPINIOIDEAE.

A. Calyx in bud quite undivided or tubular below.

a. Leaves simple or one pair of leaflets. Sta. 10 or fewer.

4. Bauhinieae : Bauhinia, Cercis.

b. Leaves once pinnate (exceptions). Sta. 00 or rarely 9 — 13.

9. Tounateae : Tounatea.

c. Leaves bipinnate, or once pinnate; sta. 5.

1. Dimorphandreae : Dimorphandra.

B. Calyx in bud quite polysepalous or very nearly so.

a. Two anterior petals modified to large glands, anthers opening

by pores.

6. Kramerieae : Krameria.

b. Two anterior petals developed or not, but not glandular.
a. Leaves some or all bipinnate.

7. Eucaesalpinieae : Caesalpinia, Haematoxylon, Gleditschia.

W.

29

LEGUM1N0SAE

45°

/9. Leaves once pinnate.

5. Cassieae (anthers basifixed, opening by terminal pores):

Cassia, Ceratonia.

3. Amherstieae (dorsifixed, no pores; ovary adnate behind to
torus): Hymenaea, Tamarindus.

8. Sclerolobieae (ovary free, ovules more than 3).

2. Cynometreae (ovules 1 or 2) : Copaiba.

III. PA PI LION A TA E.

A. Sta. free.

1. Sophoreae (pinnate leaf) : Sophora, Toluifera.

2. Podalyrieae (simple or palmate) : Anagyris.

B. Sta. united.

a. Lomentum.

7. Hedysareae : Coronilla, Onobrychis, Arachis, Desmodium.

b. Legume or indehiscent pod.
a. Leaves absent.

6. Galegeae : Amorpha, Robinia, Colutea.

/3. Leaves present.

I. Leaf or leaflets without stipels .

(1) Lf. simple or palmate.

* Lf. with 3 entire leaflets.

3. Genisteae : (shrubs) Genista, Lupinus, Ulex, Cytisus.

6. Galegeae : (herbs) as above.

** Lf. with 5 entire leaflets.

5. Loteae : Anthyllis, Lotus.

*** Lf. with 3 toothed leaflets.

4. Trifolieae : Ononis, Medicago, Trifolium.

(2) Leaf pinnate.

* Leaf-stalk ending in bristle or tendril.

9. Vicieae: Abrus, Vicia, Lathyrus.

** Leaf-stalk not ending so.

t Pod dehiscing in 2 valves.

§ Sta. filamentous.

10. Phaseoleae: (ovary surrounded by disc) Apios, Phaseolus.
6. Galegeae : (no disc) as before.

§§ Some or all sta. broadened at apex.

5. Loteae: as before.

+t Pod indehiscent.

8. Dalbergieae : Dalbergia, Pterocarpus.

11. Leaves or leadets with stipels.

10. Phaseoleae : (pod dehiscent) as before.

8. Dalbe7‘gieae : (pod indehiscent) as before.

Leitneria Chapm. Leitneriaceae. 2 sp. N. Am.

Iieitneriaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Leitneriales). Only genus

LENTIB ULARIA CEA E

451

Leitneria. Shrubs with spikes of dioecious firs. <? flr. naked with
3 — 12 sta. ? with scaly perianth and i cpl. and long style. Ovary
i-loc., with i amphitropous ovule. Fruit drupaceous. Seed albu-
minous. Embryo straight. Placed in Unisexuales by Benth. -Hooker.

Leitnerieae (Benth. -Hooker) = Leitneriaceae.

Lemna Linn. Lemnaceae. 6 sp. cosmop. ; 4 in Brit, (duckweed).
The plant consists in most sp., e.g. L. minor L., of a flat green blade,
floating upon the water; this is the stem, which performs leaf-
functions. From the under side hangs down a long adventitious root,
with a well-marked root-cap. There are no leaves. The stems are
oval and slightly turned up at the ends, so that if two are placed near
together in water, they will run against one another and adhere by
the tips. In the posterior portion on either side is a groove under
the edge. In this arise branches which may either (as in Z. trisulca
L., &c.) remain in union with the parent shoot, or become detached
and give rise to new plants. In autumn a number of these are formed
ready to start growth in the next spring, whilst the mother plants
sink to the bottom. The firs, are also borne in these grooves. There
is a very reduced spathe, with 2 male firs, (each reduced to 1 sta.) and
1 female (1 cpl.).

Lemnaceae. Monocotyledons (Spathiflorae). 3 gen. with 18 sp. of
free-swimming perennial water-plants with no leaves. The descrip-
tion of Lemna applies to the other genera also. Firs, unisexual,
monoecious; of 1 sta., $ of 1 cpl., with 1 — 6 basal, erect, ortho-
to ana-tropous ovules. The micropylar end of the inner integument
forms a kind of lid upon the seed. Endosperm slight. The L. are
regarded as very reduced Araceae (q.v.). Benth. -Hooker place them
in Nudiflorae, Warming in Spadiciflorae. Genera : Spirodela, Lemna,
Wolffla. See Nat. PJi . for full details.

Lennoaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Ericales). A small order (3 gen.
5 sp.) of S. Californian and Mexican plants, parasitic by their roots
on roots of Clematis, &c. For details see Drude in Nat. PJI. Genera :
Pholisma, Ammobroma, Lennoa.

Lens (Tourn.) Linn. Leguminosae (in. 9). 6 sp. Medit., W. As. Z.

escnlenta Moench (Ei'vum Lens L.) is the lentil, a food-plant of great
antiquity. The seeds furnish a flour which is often sold at high
prices as food for infants &c. under fancy names.

Lentibulariaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). 5 gen. with
250 sp. cosmop. All belong to the group of insectivorous plants and
show many interesting features in their vegetative organs ; for details
see p. 177 and genera. The infl. is usually a raceme or spike; firs,
solitary in Pinguicula &c. Fir. £ , zygomorphic, 5-merous. K 2 — 5-
lobed, the odd sepal posterior, often 2-lipped, persistent on the fruit;
C (5), 2-lipped, the lower lip more or less spurred; A 2 (the anterior
pair), epipetalous, with i-loc. anthers; £(2) i-loc. with free-central
placenta and sessile 2-lobed stigma (the posterior lobe abortive) ;

29 2

452

LENTIB ULARIA CEAE

ovules oo or 2, anatropous, often more or less sunk in the placenta.
Capsule with 00 seeds, opening by 2 — 4 valves, or with 1 seed in-
dehiscent. Seed exalbuminous. Genera : Pinguicula, Genlisea,
Polypompholyx, Utricularia, Biovularia. Placed in Personales by
Benth. -Hooker, in Personatae by Warming. [See Nat . PJl . and
literature of Insectivorous plants (p. 177) for details.]

Leonotis R. Br. Labiatae (vi. 4)% 12 sp. trop. and S. Afr.

Leontice Linn. Berberidaceae. 12 sp. N. temp. The base of the
stem is tuberous.

Leontodon Linn. (incl. Thrincia Roth). Compositae (xm). 45 sp.

temp., Eur., As.; 3 in Brit, (hawkbit). Very like Taraxacum. In
Z. hirtus L. the outer fruits have no pappus.

Leontopodium R. Br. Compositae (iv). 4 sp. Mts. of Eur., As. and

S. Am. Z. alpinum Cass, is the Edelweiss. It is a xerophyte
growing in dense tufts, and covered with woolly hairs. The heads of
firs, are small, but are massed together and surrounded by hairy
bracts which add to their conspicuousness. The central florets are
male, the style remaining, however, to act as pollen-presenter, though
it has no stigmas. The outer florets are female.

Leonurus Linn. Labiatae (vi. 4). 8 sp. Eur., As., and trop. Z.

Cardiaca L. in Brit, (mother-wort).

Leopoldinia Mart. Palmae (iv. 6). 4 sp. trop. Brazil. Z. Piassaba

Wallace yields the best Piassaba fibre (Wallace, Amazon , ch. IX.).

Lepacliys Rafin. Compositae (v). 4 sp. N. Am. Included in Rud-

beckia in Nat . PJl.

Lepidium Linn. Cruciferae (11. 5). 100 sp. cosmop. 5 in Brit, (cress).

Z. sativum L. (Orient) is the garden cress.

Lepidocaryum Mart. Palmae (in. 4). 5 sp. Brazil.

Lepidosperma Labill. Cyperaceae (11). 40 sp. Austr., N. Z., trop.

As. Z. gladiatum Labill. is the sword-sedge, used to bind sand-dunes
in Austr., and as a material for paper-making.

Lepigonum Wahlb. = Spergularia J. et C. Presl.

Lepironia Rich. Cyperaceae (11). 1 sp., Z. mucronata Rich., Madag.,

trop. As., Austr., Polynes., largely cultivated in China. The stems
are beaten flat and woven into mats, sails (for junks), &c.

Leptospermum Forst. Myrtaceae (2). 25 sp. Malaya, Austr., N. Z.

Leptosporangiatae (Filicineae). See Filicineae Leptosporangiatae.

Leptotes Lindl. = Tetramicra Lindl.

Leschenaultia R. Br. Goodeniaceae. 16 sp. Austr. “In L.for?tiosa
R. Br. , the insect’s proboscis comes in contact with the lower lip of
the pollen-cup (see order), thus opening it and dusting itself with
pollen ; in the next flower it places this pollen on the stigmatic surface
which lies outside the pollen-cup.” (Muller.)

Lespedeza Michx. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 33 sp. temp. N. Am., As.,

and in Mts. of trop. As., Austr. The firs, are sometimes apetalous,
and cleistogamic. Z. striata Hook, et Am., an Asiatic sp., is being

LILIA CEAE

4^3

spread over N. Am. very rapidly by animal agency (p. 141). It is a
useful fodder-plant.

Lesquerella Wats. = Vesicaria Tourn.

Lessertia DC. Leguminosae (in. 6). 40 sp. Afr.

Leucadendron Berg. Proteaceae (1). 70 sp. S. Afr. L. argenteum

R. Br., the silver-tree, is well known; its leaves are covered with
fine silky hairs, and may even be used for painting upon. It has
been nearly extirpated by being largely used for firewood. Fir. like
that of Protea. The perianth, when the fruit is ripe, splits into 4
segments, united together round the stigma, and acts as a wing for the
fruit.

Leucanthemum (Tourn.) Linn. = Chrysanthemum Tourn.

Leucas Burm. Labiatae (vi. 4). 60 sp. trop., Afr., As.

Leuceria Lag. Compositae (xn). 50 sp. S. Am. Xerophytes.

Leuchtenbergla (Fisch.) Hook. Cactaceae (1). 1 sp. Mexico. See
order.

Leucocoryne Lindl. Liliaceae (iv). 3 sp. Chili.

Leucojum Linn. Amaryllidaceae (1). 10 sp. S. Eur. (snow-flake).

Leucopogon R. Br. Epacridaceae. 130 sp. Austr., Malaya. Included
in Styphelia Sol. in Nat . PJi.

Leucospermum R. Br. Proteaceae (1). 20 sp. Afr.

Leucothoe D. Don. Ericaceae (11. 4). 32 sp. Am. Like Andromeda.

Levenhookia R. Br. Candolleaceae. 7 sp. Austr. The label! um is
shoe-shaped and at first embraces the column, but if touched it springs
downwards.

Levisticum Riv. ex Linn. Umbelliferae (6). 1 sp. Eur.

Lewisia Pursh. Portulacaceae. 2 sp. California. Z. rediviva Pursh
(bitter-root) with its thick rhizome, fleshy roots and leaves, is one of
the most xerophytic plants known. Two years’ drying will hardly
kill it. K 4 — 8, C 8 — 16 ; sta. numerous.

Leycesteria Wall. Caprifoliaceae (iv). 3 sp. Himalaya.

Liabum Adans. Compositae (vm). 40 sp. Am. and W. Ind.

Liatris Schreb. Compositae (11). 15 sp. N. Am.

Libertia Spreng. Iridaceae (11). 8 sp. Chili, Austr., N. Z.

Libocedrus Endl. Coniferae (Arauc. 2b; see C. for genus characters).
8 sp., 2 in Chili, 2 in N. Z., 1 each in New Caled., Japan, China, Calif.
Z. Doniana Endl. (N. Z.), Z. tetragona Endl. (Chili) and Z. decur-
rens Torr. (Calif. — the white cedar) yield valuable timber.

Licania Aubl. Rosaceae (vi. 13). 36 sp. S. Am.

Licuala Thunb. Palmae (1. 2). 36 sp. Indo-mal.

Ligularia Cass. =Senecio Tourn.

Ligusticum Linn. Umbelliferae (6). 25 sp. N. Hemisph. Z. scoticum
L. (lovage) occurs in Brit. ; it is sometimes used as a pot-herb.

Ligustrum (Tourn.) Linn. Oleaceae (1. 3). 35 sp., esp. E. As. In
Eur. (incl. Brit.) Z. vulgare L., the privet, is common.

Liliaceae. Monocotyledons (Liliiflorae). One of the largest families

454

LI LI ACE AE

of flowering plants; 200 gen. with 2500 sp., cosmop. The smaller
groups are often confined to definite floral regions. Most are herbs
with sympodial rhizomes or bulbs; a few trop. and warm temp, forms,
e.g. Yucca, Dracaena, &c., are shrubs or trees, often with an unusual
mode of growth in thickness. Many are xerophytes; some, e.g . Aloe
and Gasteria, are succulent ; others, e.g. Phormium, have hard iso-
bilateral leaves ; others, e.g. Dasylirion, have tuberous stems and
narrow leaves ; Bowiea only produces leafy shoots in the wet season.
Smilax, Gloriosa, &c., are climbing plants, the former with peculiar
stipular tendrils. Ruscus exhibits phylloclades.

Infl. most commonly racemose; firs, with no bracteoles ; when the
latter occur, the further branching from their axils usually takes a
cymose form, especially that of a bostryx (p. 65), as in Hemerocallis.
The apparent umbels or heads of Allium, Agapanthus, &c. are really
cymose (p. 65). Solitary terminal firs, occur in tulip, &e. Firs,
usually $ , regular, pentacyclic, 3-merous (rarely 2, 4, or 5), hypo-
gynous. P 3 + 3, free or united, petaloid or sometimes sepaloid ;
A 3 + 3 or fewer, rarely more, usually
with introrse anthers ; G (3) usually
superior, rarely inferior or semi-inferior,

3-loc. with axile, or rarely i-loc. with
parietal placentae ; ovules usually 00 ,
in two rows in each loc., anatropous.

Fruit usually capsular, loculicidal or
septicidal, sometimes a berry. Seed
with straight or curved embryo, in
abundant fleshy or cartilaginous, never
floury, endosperm.

Firs. usually insect-pollinated.

Honey in Scilla, Allium, &c., is se-
creted by glands in the ovary-wall
between the cpls. ; in other cases by
glands on the bases of the perianth-
leaves (see Muller’s Fert. of Firs, and
Alpenblumen). Yucca (q.v.) has a
unique pollination-method.

Economically the L. are of no great value. The chief food plants
are Allium and Asparagus; Phormium, Yucca, and Sansevieria yield
useful fibre; Smilax, Urginea, Aloe, Colchicum, Veratrum, &c., are
medicinal. Xanthorrhoea and Dracaena yield resins; Chlorogalum
is used as soap. Many are favourite garden and greenhouse plants,
e.g. Convallaria, Tulipa, Fritillaria, Lilium, Agapanthus, Kniphofia,
Funkia, Hyacinthus, Gloriosa, and many more.

Classification and chief genera (after Engler) : the L. are closely
allied to Juncaceae ; usually they can be distinguished by their peta-
loid perianth, but many L. have a sepaloid perianth, e.g. Xanthor-

o

Diagram of Convallaria
(after Eichler).

LILIACEAE

455

rhoea, Kingia, &c., and in these cases almost the only distinction is
the absence in L. of the long thread-like twisted stigmas of J. Benth.-
Hooker unite these genera, and some others, to Juncaceae, and place
sub-orders VIII and IX in Haemodoraceae. Warming splits up the
family into Colchicaceae, Liliaceae, and Convallariaceae.

I. MELANTHIOIDEAE (rhizome, or bulb covered with scale-
leaves and with terminal infl. ; anthers extrorse or introrse ; capsule
loculicidal or septicidal; fruit never a berry): Tofieldia, Narthecium,
Veratrum, Gloriosa, Colchicum.

II. HERRERIOIDEAE (tuber, with climbing stem; leaves in
tufts ; small-flowered racemes at base of these or in panicles at ends
of twigs; septicidal capsule): Herreria (only genus).

III. ASPHODELOIDEAE (rhizome with radical leaves, rarely
stem with crown of leaves or leafy branched stem or bulb ; infl. usually
terminal, a simple or compound raceme or spike ; P or (P) ; anthers
introrse ; capsule, rarely berry) : Asphodelus, Chlorogalum, Bowiea,
Funkia, Hemerocallis, Phormium, Kniphofia, Aloe, Gasteria, Ha-
worthia, Aphyllanthes, Lomandra, Xanthorrhoea, Kingia.

IV. ALLIOIDEAE (bulb or short rhizome; cymose umbel
± enclosed by two broad or rarely narrow leaves, sometimes joined ;
infl. rarely of i fir.): Agapanthus, Gagea, Allium, Brodiaea.

V. LILIOIDEAE (bulb ; infl. terminal, racemose ; P or (P) ;
anthers introrse ; capsule loculicidal, except in Calochortus) : Lilium,
Fritillaria, Tulipa, Scilla, Ornithogalum, Hyacinthus, Muscari.

VI. DRA CAENOIDEAE (stem erect with leafy crown, except
in Astelia; leaves sometimes leathery, never fleshy; P free or united
at base; anthers introrse; berry or capsule): Yucca, Dasylirion,
Dracaena.

VII. ASPARAGOIDEAE (rhizome subterranean, sympodial;
berry) : Asparagus, Ruscus, Polygonatum, Convallaria, Trillium.

VIII. OPHIOPOGONOIDEAE (short rhizome, sometimes
with suckers, with narrow or lanceolate radical leaves; P or (P);
anthers introrse or semi-introrse ; ovary sup. or J-inf. ; fruit with thin
pericarp and i — 3 seeds with fleshy coats) : Sansevieria, Ophiopogon.

IX. ALETROIDEAE (short rhizome with narrowr or lanceo-
late radical leaves; (P) ; anthers semi-introrse; capsule loculicidal;
seeds 00 , with thin testa) : Aletris (only genus).

X. LUZUR1AGOIDEAE (shrubs or undershrubs with erect
or climbing twigs ; infl. -twigs usually many-flowered, cymose, rarely
1 -flowered, with scaly bract at base ; both whorls of P. alike or not ;
berry with spherical seeds) : Luzuriaga, Lapageria.

XI. SMI LA COIDEAE (climbing shrubs with net-veined leaves ;
firs, small in axillary umbels or racemes or terminal panicles; loc.
with 1 or 2 orthotropous or semi-anatropous ovules) : Smilax.

[Coronarieae (Benth.-Hooker), Liliiflorae (Warming).]

456

LILIIFLORAE

Liliiflorae. The 9th cohort (Engler) of Monocotyledons (p. 125). The
5th cohort (Warming) of Monocotyledons (p. 138).

Lilium Toum. ex Linn. Liliaceae (v). 45 sp. N. temp. Herbs with

scaly bulbs (p. 152), leafy stems and firs, in racemes. The honey is
secreted in long grooves at the bases of the perianth-leaves. The
firs, of many sp. are adapted to Lepidoptera. Z. Martagon L. gives
off its scent at night (cf. Oenothera). Z. bulbiferum L. is reproduced
vegetatively by bulbils in the leaf-axils. In most sp. with hanging
firs, the capsule when ripe stands vertically upwards, so that the
seeds can only escape when it is shaken. Many sp. of lily are garden
favourites.

Limnanthaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). A very small
order (2 gen. with 5 sp. N. Am.) sometimes united to Geraniaceae,
but with the ovules as in coh. Sapindales. Herbs with exstip. alt.
leaves and regular $ firs., 3 — 5-merous, with two whorls of sta.
Ovary 3 — 5-loc., ovules 1 in each loc., ascending, the micropyle facing
outwards and downwards. Fruit a schizocarp. Seeds exalbuminous.
Genera: Llmnanthes, Floerkea. Placed in Geraniaceae by Benth.-
Hooker, in Gruinales by Warming.

Limnanthemum S. P. Gmel. Gentianaceae (11). 20 sp. trop, and

temp. Z. ( Villarsia ) nymphaeoides Hoffmgg. et Link, S. England,
is a water-plant with habit of Nymphaea, and so are several others.
The infl. appears to spring from the top of the leaf-stalk, but really
the floating leaf springs from the infl. axis. As Goebel points out,
this is an advance upon the Nymphaea construction, as the materials
going from leaf to seeds have not to travel to the bottom of the pond
and up again.

Limnanthes R. Br. Limnanthaceae. 4 sp. Pacific N. Am.

Limnobium Rich. (Hydro my stria G. F. W. Mey., Trianea Karst.).
Hydrocharitaceae. 3 sp. Am. Z. (H) sto loniferum Griseb. (T. bogo -
tensis Karst.) is a small floating plant often cultivated. It reproduces
vegetatively by ‘runners’ (cf. Hydrocharis). Its root-hairs are used
to show circulation of protoplasm. Only the $ plant is known
in Eur.

Limnocharis Humb. et Bonpl. Butomaceae. 1 sp. trop. Am. [Z.
Humboldtii Rich. = Hydroc leys Commersonii Rich.]

Limodorum (Tourn.) Linn. Orchidaceae (4). 1 sp. S. Eur. A leaf-

less saprophyte with no chlorophyll (cf. Epipogum). The 4 lateral
sta. are sometimes fertile.

Limonia Linn. Rutaceae (x). 6 sp. trop. Afr. and As. Some sp.

in the leaf-axils have thorns (leaves of branch, as in Cactaceae).
The fruit of Z. acidissima L. is used in Japan as a substitute for soap.

Limoniastrum Moench. Plumbaginaceae. 3 sp. Medit.

Limosella Linn. Scrophulariaceae (11. 8). 7 sp. cosmop. Z. aquatica

L., mud -wort, in Brit, (rare), a small plant growing on the banks of
ponds. It multiplies by runners.

LINUM

457

Linaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). 9 gen. with 120 sp.,
cosmop. Most are herbs and shrubs with alt. entire often stip.
leaves. Infl. cymose, a dichasium or cincinnus, the latter usually
straightening out very much and looking like a raceme (p. 65). Fir.

regular, usually 5-merous. K5, quincuncial; C 5, imbricate or
convolute; A 5, 10 or more, often with staminodes, united at base
into a ring; G (2 — 3 — 5), multi-loc., often with extra partitions
projecting from the midribs of the cpls., but not united to the axile
placentae; ovules 1 or 2 per loc., pendulous, anatropous, with the
micropyle facing outwards and upwards. Septicidal capsule, or drupe.
Embryo usually straight, in fleshy endosperm. Linum (flax, linseed)
is economically important. Chief genera: Radiola, Linum, Hugonia.
[Placed in Geraniales by Benth. -Hooker (who unite Erythroxylaceae
to L.), in Gruinales by Warming.]

Linaria Tourn. ex Mill. (incl. Cymbalaria Medic., Elatine Rupp., Ela -
tinoides Wettst.). Scrophulariaceae (11. 5). 125 sp. N. Hemisph.

and S. Am., chiefly extra-trop. 7 in Brit, (toad-flax): L. vulgaris
Mill, is the commonest (yellow toad-flax). The plant is a perennial,
each year’s growth arising from an adventitious bud upon the summit
of the root. The flr. is closed at the mouth ; honey is secreted by
the nectary at the base of the ovary and collects in the spur. The
only visitors are the larger bees, which are able to open the flr., ancL
whose tongues are long enough to reach the honey. Peloria of the*-
flr. is frequently observed; a terminal flr. appears upon the raceme
and is symmetrical in structure, with 5 spurs upon the corolla and
a tubular mouth. Sometimes firs, of this type occur all down the
raceme. Another interesting sp. is Z. Cymbalaria Mill., the ivy-
leaved toad-flax, found on walls in many parts of Brit. Before fertili-
sation the firs, are positively heliotropic and stand erect; after it
they become negatively heliotropic and bend downwards, seeking put
the dark crannies in the substratum, where the seeds ripen.

Lindelofia Lehm. Boraginaceae (iv. 1). 2 sp. Himal.

Lindera Thunb. Lauraceae (11). 60 sp. Japan to Java and N. Am.

Z. Benzoin Meissn. has aromatic bark (antifebrile).

Lindemia All. =Vandellia Linn.

Lindheimera A. Gray et Engelm. Compositae (v). 1 sp. Texas.

Lindsaya Dryand. Polypodiaceae. 50 sp. chiefly trop.

Lineae (Benth. - Hooker) = Linaceae.

Linnaea Gronov. (excl. Abelia R. Br.) Caprifoliaceae (in). 1 sp. Eur.

N. Am., Z. borealis L., which occurs in a few localities in Scotland.
The ovary is covered with glandular hairs. Sta. 4, didynamous.
Two loculi are 00 -ovulate and sterile, the other 1 -ovulate and fertile.

Linociera Sw. ( Mayepea Aubl.). Oleaceae (1. 3). 50 sp. trop.

Linum Tourn. ex Linn. Linaceae. 90 sp. temp, and sub-trop., esp.
Medit. 4 in Brit., of which Z. catharticum L. (purging flax) is
common, while Z. usitatissimum L. (common flax or linseed) is an

LINUM

458

introduction, it being very largely cultivated in Ireland and elsewhere.
The firs, are in sympodial cincinni. Several sp. are heterostyled
(dimorphic), e.g. the common red one of gardens, Z. grandiflorum
Desf. Illegitimate pollination in this species produces absolutely
no seed at all (p. 95). The seed has a mucilaginous testa which
swells on wetting (p. 105).

Flax is the fibre of Linum usitatissimum L., obtained by rotting
off the softer tissues in water. The seeds (linseed) yield an oil
by pressure, and the remaining ‘cake* (cf. Gossypium) is used for
cattle-feeding, & c.

Liparis Rich, (inch Cestichis Thou.). Orchidaceae (8). 100 sp. trop.

and temp. (1 in Brit., rare).

Lippia Houst. ex Linn. Verbenaceae (11). 100 sp. trop. Am., Afr. The
leaves of Z. citriodora H. B. et K. yield an aromatic oil used in per-
fumery under the name Verbena-oil. Some sp. have axillary thorns.

Liquidambar Linn. Hamamelidaceae. 4 sp. As., N. Am. Firs,
monoecious, apetalous, the male in upright spikes, the female in heads
on pendulous stalks. The seeds are easily shaken out in strong winds.
Storax (a fragrant balsam) is obtained from all the sp., but chiefly
from Z. orieiitalis Mill. (As. min.). Z. styracijiua L. is the Sweet
Gum of N. Am. Its wood is useful.

Liriodendron Linn. Magnoliaceae (1). 1 sp. N. Am., Z. tnlipifera

L., the tulip-tree, often cultivated in parks for its handsome firs.
The leaf is polymorphic ( Bot . Jahresb. 1890, p. 414)- The fruit is a
samara; the aggregate of samaras upon the receptacle looks much
like a pine-cone. The wood is very useful.

Lisianthus Linn. Gentianaceae (1. 2). 10 sp. W. Ind., Cent. Am.

Lissochilus R. Br. Orchidaceae (16). 30 sp. trop. Afr.

Listera R. Br. Orchidaceae (4). 10 sp. N. temp. Z. ovata R. Br.

(tway-blade) and Z. cordata R. Br. in Brit. The labellum is bent
downwards and forked into two. The rostellum on being touched
ruptures violently and ejects a viscid fluid which cements the pollinia
to the insect as in Epipactis (see Darwin, Orchids p. 115).

Litchi Sonner. Sapindaceae (1). 1 sp. China, Z. chinensis Sonner.,
the Litchi or Leechee, largely cultivated for its edible fruit, a nut
containing one seed surrounded by a fleshy aril. [Included in Nephe-
lium (q.v.) by Benth.- Hooker.]

Lithophragina Torr. et Gray = Tellima R. Br.

Lithospermum (Tourn.) Linn. Boraginaceae (iv. 4). 40 sp. temp. ;

3 in Brit, (gromwell.).

Litsea Lam. Lauraceae (11). 100 sp. trop. As. Austr.

Littonia Hook. Liliaceae (1). 2 sp. S. Afr. Like Gloriosa.

Littorella Berg. Plantaginaceae. 2 sp., 1 in S. Am., and Z. lacusiris
L. (shore-weed) in Eur. (inch Brit.). This plant exhibits two forms,
one in water, another on land (p. 162). The land form has a rosette
of narrow leaves about 3 cm. long, which spread out upon the ground

LOASACEAE

459

and show distinct dorsiventral structure. The firs, are borne in
groups of 3, one $ on a long stalk between two sessile ? llrs. The
stigmas of the latter are ripe before the sta. emerge from the former.
Both sta. and style are very long and the firs, are wind-pollinated. Fruit
a nut. The water form has much larger leaves which grow erect and
are cylindrical (centric) in form and internal structure ; no firs, are
produced, but the plant multiplies largely by the formation of runners.
It is common on the shores of lakes in Brit, and is often mistaken for
Isoetes.

Livistona R. Br. Palmae (i. 2). 12 sp. Indo-mal., Austr. Tall trees

with fan leaves and panicles of g fhs, Fruit a berry.

Lloydia Salisb. Liliaceae (v). 5 sp. N. temp. Z. serotina Sweet

(Z. alpina Salisb.) on Snowdon. See Muller’s Alpenblumen .

Loasa Adans. Loasaceae. 81 sp. Mexico and S. Am., chiefly Mts. of
Chili and Peru. Several sp. are cultivated for their handsome firs. ;
they possess, however, stinging hairs. The firs, are generally yellow
and face downwards. The nectaries, formed of combined staminodes
(see order), are large and conspicuous. The petals are boat-shaped
and conceal the groups of sta. The firs, are visited by many insects.
L. triloba Juss. has, according to Gilg, cleistogamic firs, on the lower
branches.

Loasaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 13 gen. with 120 sp.
Andine plants, many of which are favourites in gardens. They are
mostly herbs, frequently twining, with opp. or alt., rarely stip., leaves.
The epidermis bears hairs of various kinds; especially common are
grapple-hairs and stinging-hairs, the latter frequently rather formid-
able. The firs, are usually in cymes, often sympodial, yellow (rarely
white or red), g , usually 5-merous. The receptacle is deeply hollowed
out, so that the fir. is epigynous. K 5, imbricate; C 5, free or united;
A 5 — 00. In the genera with co sta. there is much difference as to
the arrangement. In Mentzelia they are evenly distributed round the
style, the outermost in some sp. being sterile. In other genera it is
the ante-sepalous sta. that are sterile, and in some, e.g. Loasa,
Blumenbachia, 3 or more of the staminodes are united to form a
large coloured nectary, whose mouth is towards the centre of the fir.
and partly obstructed by the other staminodes. Ovary inferior, of 1
or more commonly 3 — 5 cpls., with parietal placentation ; ovules 1,
several, or 00, anatropous, with one integument; style simple. Fruit
various, often a capsule, sometimes spirally twisted. Endosperm
or not.

Classification and chief genera (after Gilg) :

I. GRONO VIOIDEAE (ovary of 1 cpl.) : Gronovia.

II. MENTZELIOIDEAE (> 1 cpl. ; no staminodes, or at least
not nectariferous scales) : Mentzelia.

III. LOASOIDEAE (> 1 cpl.; staminodes present, often united
to form nectariferous scales) : Loasa, Blumenbachia.

460

LOISELEURIA

[Placed in Passiflorales by Benth. -Hooker, in Passiflorinae by
Warming.]

Loaseae (Benth. - Hooker) = Loasaceae.

Lobelia Plum, ex Linn. Campanulaceae (ill). 200 sp. trop. and
temp. ; 2 in Brit., one in lakes (Z. Dortmanna L.). Several are
commonly grown in gardens. The flr. (see order) is twisted upon its
axis through 1800, and is zygomorphic. The anthers are syngene-
sious as in Compositae and the style pushes through the tube thus
formed, driving the pollen out at the top. Finally the style emerges,
the stigmas separate, and the female stage begins. Not uncommonly
the style is unable to push through the tube, or at least does not do
so, and self-fertilisation occurs when the stigmas open. [See order,
and compare Campanula, Phyteuma, Jasione and Compositae.]

Lockhartia Hook. Orchidaceae (28). 20 sp. trop. Am. No tubers;

leaves crowded together.

Lodoicea Comm. Palmae (11. 3). 1 sp. Z. Sechellaram Labill.,

Seychelles (p. 148), the double coco-nut or Coco de mer. Dioecious,
with enormous spadices. The fruit is the largest known and takes
10 years to ripen. The nut is bilobed. The fruits used to be found
floating in the Indian Ocean long before the tree was discovered
(see Treas . of Bot.).

Loeflingia Linn. Caryophyllaceae (11. 3). 5 sp. Medit., Cent. As.,

N. Am.

Logania R. Br. Loganiaceae. 21 sp. Austr., N.Z.

Loganiaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Contortae). 32 gen. with about
350 sp. of trop. plants. A few occur in warm temp, regions (Am.,
As., N. Z., but none in Eur.). They include trees, shrubs, and herbs
with opp. stip. leaves; the stipules are often very much reduced.
Many are climbing plants, of which Strychnos is especially interesting.
The infl. is as a rule cymose, of very various types; the firs, with
bracts and bracteoles, usually regular, $ , and 4 — 5-merous, with
occasional increase in number in corolla and androeceum. Disc small
or absent. K (4 — 5), imbricate; C (4 — 5), valvate, imbricate, or con-
volute ; A 4 — 5, rarely 1, epipetalous; G (2), anteroposterior, 2-loc.,
or rarely imperfectly so, or 1- or more-loc. ; style simple; ovules
usually cc, amphi- or ana-tropous. Capsule, berry, or drupe.
Endosperm. The L. are nearly allied to Apocynaceae, Gentianaceae,
Solanaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Rubiaceae. See full discussion by
Solereder in Nat. PJl . Chief genera: Logania, Spigelia, Strychnos,
Fagraea, Buddleia, Desfontainea. [Placed in Gentianales by Benth.-
Hooker, in Contortae by Warming.]

Loiseleuria Desv. Ericaceae (1. 3). 1 sp. Z. procumbens Desv. [Azalea
procumbenslu), the trailing Azalea, north circumpolar. It is found in the
Highlands of Scotland, where in parts the flat hill tops are carpeted
with it (p. 182). The leaves are very wiry, and rolled back at the
margins, thus protecting the stomata from too free transpiration. The

LO NICER A

461

petioles of the topmost pair of open leaves are grooved and closely ap«
pressed to one another, thus protecting the bud. In its native habitat
the plant lies close on the ground, but in gardens becomes erect in
habit. The firs, are regular (this distinguishes L. from the true Azalea;
see A. and classification of order) ; they are protogynous and come
out very shortly after the melting of the snow. In Scotland they
are self-pollinated, the sta. bending inwards to touch the stigma;
this is not the case in the Alps.

Lolium Linn. Gramineae (xn). 6 sp. Eur., N. Afr., temp. As. Z.

pereniie L. in Brit, (rye-grass). The spikelets are arranged in a 2-
ranked spike, and placed edgewise (this distinguishes the sub-tribe
Lolieae from the Leptureae , to which Triticum and Hordeum belong).
The rye-grasses are valuable pasture and fodder grasses.

Lomandra Labill. (Xerotes R. Br.) Liliaceae (ill). 30 sp. Austr.
Dioecious. Placed in Juncaceae by Benth.-Hooker.

Lomaria Willd. Polypodiaceae. 40 sp. cosmop., chiefly S. temp. Z.
Spicant Desv. (. Blechnum boreale Sw.) is the hard-fern or northern fern,
common on hills in Brit. There are fertile and barren leaves, the
latter larger.

Lomatia R. Br. Proteaceae (11). 9 sp. E. Austr., Tasm., Chili.

Lomatophyllum Willd. Liliaceae (in). 3 sp. Mauritius, Bourbon (p.

148).

Lonas Adans. Compositae (vn). 1 sp. South-west Medit.

Lonchitis Linn. Polypodiaceae. 2 sp. S. Hemisph.

Lonchocarpus H. B. et K. Leguminosae (in. 8). 60 sp. trop. Am.

Afr. Austr.

Lonicera Linn. Caprifoliaceae (iv). 100 sp. N. Hemisph. Z. Peri -

clymenum L. (honeysuckle or woodbine), and others, in Brit. They
are mostly erect shrubs, a few twining, with opp. frequently connate
leaves. In the axils of the leaves are found in many sp. (e.g. Z.
tatarica L.) serial buds, of which the lowest gives rise to the firs.
These are usually in pairs, the central fir. of the small dichasium not
being developed. The fir. is frequently zygomorphic, and gives rise to
a berry. In some sp. the pair of firs, produces two independent berries,
in others the berries fuse into one as they form. Some sp. exhibit
the ‘fusion’ even earlier; and one finds two corollas seated upon what
at first glance appears a single inferior ovary. Dissection of this
shows, however, that in most cases the two ovaries are side by side,
free from one another, in a common hollow axis ; in a few cases, how-
ever, the union is more complete. The flr. of the honeysuckle is visited
chiefly by hawk-moths (at night). The flr. opens in the evening, the
anthers having dehisced shortly before this. The style projects
beyond the anthers. The flr. moves into a horizontal position at the
same time. At first the style is bent downwards and the sta. form
the alighting place for insects. Later on the style moves up to a
horizontal position, the sta. shrivel and bend down, and this is com-

462

LO NICER A

plete by the second evening when the next crop of buds is opening.
At the same time the fir. has changed from white to yellow in colour.
The length of the tube prevents any but very long-tongued insects
from obtaining honey.

Lopezia Cav. Onagraceae (vn). 12 sp. Cent. Am. The fir. is zygo-

morphic. The two upper petals are bent upwards a little way from
their base, and at the bend there seems to be a drop of honey. In
reality this is a dry glossy piece of hard tissue; like the similar
bodies in Parnassia it deceives flies. There are real nectaries however
at the base of the fir. There are two sta., of which the posterior only
is fertile ; it is enclosed at first in the anterior one, which is a spoon-
shaped petaloid staminode. In the early stage of the fir., while the
style is still quite short and undeveloped, insects alight on the sta.,
later the style grows out into the place at first occupied by the sta.,
which now bends upwards out of the way. Self-fertilisation seems
almost impossible. In L. coronata Andr. and other sp. there is an
upward tension in the sta., a downward in the staminode, and an
explosion occurs when an insect alights.

Lophantlius Benth. Labiatae (vi. 3). 2 sp. Centr. As., China. Fir.

stalk sometimes resupinate like that of Lobelia.

Lophophytum Schott et Endl. Balanophoraceae. 4 sp. trop. S. Am.

Loranthaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Santalales). 21 gen. with
520 sp. trop. and temp. The only genus in Brit, is Viscum, the
mistletoe, but many occur in warmer climates. An extremely in-
teresting order of parasitic plants, possessing green leaves (p. 176).

They are mostly semi-parasitic shrubs of small size, attached to
their host plants by means of suckers or haustoria — usually regarded
as modified adventitious roots (p. 39). A few root in the earth,
e.g. the West Australian Nuytsia, which grows into a small tree
30 feet high. Most species are fairly omnivorous in their choice of
hosts, but a few are restricted to one or two. Where the parasitic
root joins the host, there is not uncommonly an outgrowth, often of
considerable size and complicated in shape. The parasitic root often
branches within the tissues of the host, as in the mistletoe. The stem
is sympodial, often dichasial, e.g. in Viscum, and the leaves usually
evergreen and of leathery texture.

The infl. is cymose, the firs, usually occurring in little groups of 3
(or 2, by abortion of the central fir.). When the firs, are stalked, the
bracts of the lateral firs, are always united to their stalks, up to the
point of origin of the fir. (see Viscum and Loranthus). The infl. is
sometimes in spikes, with the firs, on the internodes as well as on the
nodes.

The receptacle is hollowed out, and the perianth springs from its
margin. In the Loranthoideae there is below the perianth an out-
growth of the axis in the form of a small fringe — the caly cuius — about
whose morphology there has been some discussion. On the ground

LOTUS

463

that it is sometimes toothed, some people look upon it as a calyx,
but on the ground that it also appears in the ? llr. of Viscum — the
Viscoideae being otherwise without it — many people look upon it
as an outgrowth of the axis, and this is perhaps the safest view. The
perianth may be either sepaloid or petaloid. Firs, g or unisexual.
Sta. as many as, and (as in Proteaceae) united with, the perianth-
leaves. The pollen is often developed in a great number of loculi,
separate from one another, though often becoming continuous when
mature. Ovary i-loc., sunk in, and united with, the receptacle, the
ovules not differentiated from the placenta. Embryo-sacs more than
one, curiously lengthened (cf. Casuarina). The fruit is a pseudo-
berry or -drupe, the fleshy part being really the receptacle. Round
the seed is a layer of viscin, a very sticky substance. [For full details
of the many interesting features of this order, the infl., fir., pollen,
development and structure of ovule and embryo-sac, fruit, seed,
germination, haustoria, &c. , see Engler in Nat. PJl. and papers by
Wiesner in Sitz. k. Akad. Wien, cm. 1894, and Keeble in Trans .
Linn. Soc. v. 1896.]

Classification and chief genera (after Engler) :

I. LORANTHOIDEAE (with calyculus): Struthanthus, Lor-
anthus, Psittacanthus.

II. VISCOIDEAE (without calyc.): Arceuthobium, Viscum.

Diagram of Loranthus (after Eichler). c, calyculus.

Loranthus Linn. Loranthaceae (1). 200 sp. trop. Semi- parasites.

The g or unisexual firs, are in small cymes, the bracts adnate to the
peduncles. Fruit like that of Viscum. See Nat. Pfi ., Eichler’s
Bliithendiag. and papers by Wiesner and Keeble (see order).
Loreya DC. Melastomaceae (1). 10 sp. S. Am.

Loropetalum R. Br. Hamamelidaceae. 1 sp. Khasias, S. China.
Lotononis Eckl. et Zeyh. Leguminosae (ill. 3). 60 sp. Afr., Medit.

Lotus (Tourn.) Linn. Leguminosae (in. 5). 80 sp. temp. Eur., As., S.
Afr., Austr. L. corniculatus L., bird’s foot trefoil, and others, in Brit.
The floral mechanism is of interest, being typical of many of the order
(q.v.). The keel is united above and below, leaving only a small

464

LOTUS

opening at the apex. The pollen is shed in the bud into the tip of
the keel, and the filaments of five of the sta. thicken out below the
anthers, forming together a piston, which, when the keel is depressed,
forces the pollen out in a little stream at the apex. The style is
immersed in the pollen, but only becomes receptive on being rubbed,
so that the flower has a good chance of cross-fertilisation. The
plant is useful for pasturage. [Brand in Engl . Jb . XXV. p. 166.]

Loudonia Lindl. Haloragidaceae. 3 sp. Austr.

Lourea Neck. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 4 sp. trop. As. and Austr.

Loxococcus H. Wendl. et Drude. Palmae (iv. 6). 1 sp. Ceylon.

Loxsoma Br. Ilymenophyllaceae. 1 sp. N. Z. better placed in a
separate order; cf. G wynne- Vaughan, Ann. Bot . xiv. 1901, p. 71.

Loxsomaceae. Cf. Filicineae, and Loxsoma.

Lucilia Cass. Compositae (iv). 25 sp. S. Am.

Luculia Sweet. Rubiaceae (1. 4). 2 sp. Himal., Khasias.

Lucuma Molina (excl. Vitellaria Gaertn. f.). Sapotaceae (1). 4 sp.

S. Am., Austr., New Caled. The fruit of L . bifera Molina is edible.

Ludovia Brongn. Cyclanthaceae. 2 sp. S. Am. 3 flrs. as in Carludovica,
? sunk to stigmas, with rudimentary P. Climbers.

Ludwigia Linn. Onagraceae (1). 20 sp. N. Am. and trop. ; also one

(Z. palustris Ell.) in Eur. (incl. Brit.).

Luehea Willd. Tiliaceae. 15 sp. Am.

Luffa (Tourn.) Linn. Cucurbitaceae (ill). 7 sp. trop., all but one in
Old World. Z. cylindrica M. Roem. (Z. aegyptiaca Mill.) furnishes
the well-known loofah or bath sponge, which consists of the vascular
bundle net of the pericarp. The fruit of most sp. is edible.

Luisia Gaudich. Orchidaceae (31). 10 sp. trop. As. to Japan.

Lumnitzera Willd. Combretaceae. 2 sp. palaeotrop., in mangrove
swamps. Fruits floated by ocean currents.

Lunaria Toum. ex Linn. Cruciferae (11. 11). 2 sp. Eur., Z. rediviva L.
and Z. biennis Moench (Z. annua L.) ; the latter is the honesty of
gardens.

Lupinus (Tourn.) Linn. Leguminosae (in. 3). 100 sp. Am., Medit.

Floral mechanism like that of Lotus. The fruit explodes, its valves
twisting spirally. Several sp. of lupin are cultivated for their flrs., or
used as fodder plants.

Luvunga Buch.-Ham. Rutaceae (x). 4 sp. Indo-mal.

Luziola Juss. Gramineae (vi). 6 sp. Brazil to Alabama.

Luzula DC. Juncaceae. 40 sp. temp., chiefly Old World ; 6 in Brit,
(wood-rush). Rhizome as in Juncus ; leaves usually flat.

Luzuriaga Ruiz et Pav. (Enargea Banks). Liliaceae (x). 3 sp. S. Am.,
N. Z., &c.

Lycaste Lindl. Orchidaceae (18). 30 sp. trop. Am. Epiphytes.

A chin is formed by an axial outgrowth from the column.

Lychnis (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Agrostemma Linn., Githago Adans.,
Melandrium Roehl., Vise aria Riv.). Caryophyllaceae (1. 1). A genus

L YCOPODINEAE

465

of ill-defined limits, divided in Nat. Pjl. under several of the genera
named. 40 sp. N. temp.; 6 in Brit., including Z. Flos-cuculi L.
(ragged robin), Z. dioica L. (red campion), Z. Viscaria L. (catch -
fly) and Z. Githago Scop, (corn-cockle). The firs, are protandrous,
and adapted to bees and Lepidoptera. The catch-fly gets its name
from the glandular hairs upon the stalks. Z. dioica is dioecious, and
the female plant is much stouter and of coarser growth than the male
(a parallel, but not a homologue, of the usual state of things in
animals). The firs, often show the sta. filled with a black or brown
powder, instead of pollen; this consists of the spores of the fungus
Ustilago antherarum, which are thus distributed from plant to plant,
like pollen, by the visiting insects.

Lycium Linn. Solanaceae (11). 70 sp. temp. Many have thorny twigs ;
Z. afru??i L. (Kaffir thorn) is used for hedges in S. Afr. Z. barbarum
L. is often cultivated under the name tea-plant.

Lycopersicum Hill. Solanaceae (11). 10 sp. S. Am. Z. esculentum

Mill. (Solatium Lycopersicum L.) is the tomato or love-apple, culti-
vated for its fruit. Included in Solanum in Nat . Pjl.

Lycopodiaceae. Lycopodinae (Homosporous). 2 genera (Lycopodium,
Phylloglossum) with 95 sp., trop. and temp. Of these all but one
belong to Lycopodium itself. The fertilised ovum gives rise directly
to the leafy plant ; the embryo has a suspensor and a foot ; and its
upper part at first forms a tuber-like organ, the protocorm , from which
the leaves and stem develope. In P. the stem is short and un-
branched, in L. long and much branched, bearing small simple
leaves, and roots developed in acropetal succession. The sporangia
are axillary, and form as a rule a dense terminal cone or strobilus.
The spores are all of one kind and give rise on germination to fairly
large monoecious prothalli.

Lycopodineae. One of the main divisions of Pteridophyta. They are
mostly leafy plants, with well developed stems and small unbranched
leaves. The sporophylls are usually massed together into cones,
recalling to mind those of the Gymnosperms. They are classified as
follows.

A. Homosporous.

1. Lycopodiaceae : Roots present; sporangia simple, in axils
of leaves which are more or less modified.

2. Psilotaceae: No roots; sporangia plurilocular, sunk in
tissue of bilobed sporophylls.

B. Heterosporous.

3. Selaginellaceae : Stem long, leaves small ; sporangia in
leaf axils.

4. Isoetaceae : Stem tuberous, leaves awl-shaped, with spo-
rangia sunk in their bases.

The position of order 4 is very doubtful, and it is often placed
in Filicineae Eusporangiatae.

3°

w.

466

L YCO PODIUM

Lycopodium Linn. Lycopodiaceae. 94 sp. trop. and temp. 5 occur in
Brit., chiefly in mountain districts, where they are known as club-
mosses. The commonest is L. clavatum L. (often called stag-horn moss) ;
the others are Z. Selago L., Z. alpinum L., Z. annotinum L., and Z.
inundatum L. All but the last are xerophytic evergreen plants with
hard wiry leaves. The stem branches frequently, apparently dichoto-
mously, but in reality usually in a inonopodial manner. Upon it are borne
the roots, which branch dichotomously, and are developed in acropetal
succession. The leaves, narrow and unbranched, are usually placed
spirally upon the stem, but in some sp. form four ranks, as in most
Selaginellas. Many sp. have vegetative reproduction by aid of small
bulbils in the leaf axils. [Prothalli see Bruchmann in Bot. Zeit . 1 899 p. 6. ]
The sporangia are all alike in structure, containing spores of one
kind only. They are placed upon the bases of leaves which are
usually crowded together to form a terminal spike or strobilus. In
Z. Selago some or all of the sporangia are often replaced by small
bulbils (cf. Polygonum viviparum, Allium sp., Globba, &c.).

Lyccpsis Linn. Boraginaceae (iv. 3). 3 sp. Eur., As. Z. arvensis L.,
small bugloss, in Brit.

Lycopus Tourn. ex Linn. Labiatae (vi. n). 10 sp. N. temp. Z. eu-

ropaeus L., gipsy wort, in Brit.

Lygeum Linn. Gramineae (vi). 1 sp. Medit. Z. Spartum Loefl., one
of the esparto-furnishing grasses (see Stipa and Ampelodesma).

Lygodium Sw. Schizaeaceae. 25 sp. trop. and temp. They are of
interest as twining ferns. The stem remains comparatively unde-
veloped, but the leaf has unlimited apical growth, and the long
midrib twines around supports like the stem of the hop, bearing
pinnae at intervals. The leaves are borne on the stem in one dorsal
row. The sporangia are in a double row on the back of the fertile
pinnae, and each is surrounded by a cup-like indusium.

Lyonia Nutt. Ericaceae (11. 4). 16 sp. E. As., N. Am., 1 circumpolar.

Like Andromeda, into which some sp. are sometimes placed.

Lyperia Benth. Scrophulariaceae (11. 7). 33 sp. S. Afr. United to

Chaenostoma in Nat. Pfl .

Lysimachia (Tourn.) Linn. Primulaceae (ill). 90sp. temp, and sub-trop.,
esp. N. Hemisph.; 4 sp. in Brit. Z. vulgaris L., yellow loosestrife, is
said by Muller ( Fert . of Firs.) to occur in two forms, one in sunny
places with large firs, suited to crossing, and one in shady spots with
small self-fertilised firs. Z. nemorum L., yellow pimpernel is common,
and Z. Nummzilaria L., moneywort, is frequent, though it is said
never to set seed in Brit.

Lysipomia H. B. et K. Campanulaceae (ill). 7 sp. Andes.

Lytliraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Myrtiflorae) . 21 gen. with 360

sp., in all zones but the frigid. Herbs, shrubs, or trees ; leaves
usually opp. , entire, simple, with very small stipules. Firs, in racemes,
panicles, or dichasial cymes, $ » regular or zygomorphic, usually 4- or

LY THRUM

467

6-merous. The axis (‘calyx-tube’) is hollow, generally tubular. The
sepals are valvate, and frequently possess an epicalyx, formed, as in
Potentilla, of combined stipules. Petals crumpled in bud, sometimes
absent. Sta. inserted (often very low down) on calyx-tube, typically
twice as many as sepals, but sometimes fewer or 00 . Ovary superior,
with simple style and usually capitate stigma ; it is 2 — 6-loc., at the
base at least, rarely i-loc. with parietal placenta. Ovules usually 00 ,
anatropous, ascending. The firs, of Lythrum (q.v.) and others are
heterostyled. Dry fruit, usually capsular. No endosperm. Chief
genera: Peplis, Lythrum, Cuphea, Lagerstroemia. Benth. -Hooker
include Oliniaceae, and place it in Myrtales ; by Warming it is
placed in Myrtiflorae.

Lythrum Linn. Lythraceae. 23 sp. temp., in damp places; 2 in Brit.,
Z. Salicaria L. (purple loosestrife) and another. The 6-merous firs,
are solitary or in small axillary dichasia like those of Labiatae. Each
has 12 sta. in two whorls of different length, and the style again is of
different length to any of the sta. Three forms of fir. occur, each on
a separate plant; they are distinguished as long- mid- and short-
styled firs., according to the length of the styles. The diagram illus-
trates the arrangement of parts (S = stigma,

A = anthers, B = base of fir.), as seen in

Ss

A3

A3

side view of the fir. Darwin (Forms of

A2

S2

A,

Firs.) was the first to show the meaning

A,

Aj

Si

of this trimorphism. It is evident that an

B

B

B

insect visiting the firs, will tend on the

long-

mid-

short-

whole to transfer pollen from A3 to S3,

styled

styled

styled

A2 to S2, Ax to S1? rather than from sta.

of one length to style of another, for the insect will always enter
these zygomorphic firs, in the same way and to the same depth. The
sta. and style project so far that an insect can alight directly upon
them. Darwin showed by a long series of experiments that the best
results are obtained by pollinating S3 from A3, or Sx from Ax, &c.,
i.e. by crossing two plants. The number of seeds thus obtained
is much greater and their fertility higher than if S2 or Sx be fertilised
from A3, or any other such union be made. Fertilisation of a stigma
by sta. of corresponding length Darwin terms legitimate , by sta. of a
different length illegitimate fertilisation. The offspring of illegiti-
mate fertilisation are few in number and have the sterility and other
sexual characters of hybrids.

A curious point, as yet entirely unexplained, is that here, as in
nearly all other heterostyled plants, the longer the sta. the larger the
pollen grains, and the longer the style the larger are the papillae of
the stigma.

The whole subject of heterostylism is still much in the dark. We
know nothing beyond the facts, and the cause, even the advantage, of
the phenomenon remains obscure. We can only class it as one of

3° — 2

468

LY THRUM

the general methods favouring cross-fertilisation. [See Darwin, loe.
cit., Loew, Einfiihrung in die Bliitenbiologie , and p. 95.]

Maba Forst. Ebenaceae. 63 sp. trop. and subtrop. The wood of
some sp. is used as a substitute for ebony. Fruit of some sp. edible.

Macadamia F. Muell. Proteaceae (11). 3 sp. Austr. (nut-tree). The

seeds are edible, tasting like filberts.

Macaranga Thou. Euphorbiaceae (A. II. 2). 120 sp. Old World trop.
M. caladifolia Becc. has hollow peduncles inhabited by ants (p. 114).

Macfadyena A. DC. Bignoniaceae (1). 8 sp. S. Am.

Machaerium Pers. Leguminosae (ill. 8). 60 sp. trop. Am. Resem-

bles Dalbergia. Many are lianes, climbing by sensitive lateral shoots,
and provided with recurved stipular thorns (see p. 172).

Mackaya Harv. = Asystasia Blume.

Macleania Hook. Ericaceae (ill. 8). 12 sp. W. trop. Am.

Macleya Rchb. = Bocconia Linn.

Maclura Nutt. Moraceae (1). 1 sp. South-west U.S., M. aurantiaca

Nutt., the bow-wood or Osage orange. The tree bears thorns
(branches). Firs, dioecious, the S in pseudo-racemes, the $ in pseudo-
heads. The individual firs, are like those of Morus. After fertilisation
each ? fir. produces an achene enclosed in the fleshy perianth, and at
the same time the common receptacle swells up into a fleshy mass, so
that a large yellow multiple fruit is formed. The wood is used for
bows, carriage-poles, &c. The leaves are used for feeding silkworms.
[For M. tinctoria D. Don, &c., see Chlorophora.]

Macroplectrum Pfitz. = Angraecum Bory.

Macrozamia Miq. Cycadaceae. 14 sp. Austr.

Madia Molina. Compositae (v). 12 sp. W. Am.

Maerua Forsk. Capparidaceae (ill). 20 sp. trop. Afr., As. The
fruit is a berry, constricted between the seeds like a lomentum.

Maesa Forsk. Myrsinaceae (ill). 35 sp. trop., except Am.

Magnolia Linn. Magnoliaceae (1). 21 sp. As., N. Am. (esp. trop.).

Trees with sheathing stipules covering the bud, and terminal firs.
The perianth is petaloid, except sometimes the outermost leaves, and
is in whorls. The sta. and cpls. are 00 , on a lengthened torus. The
fir. is protogynous, and in the sp. usually grown in England is said to
act as a ‘ trap flower ’ (p. 98). The petals at first, while the stigmas
are ripe, stand vertically, leaving only a small opening into the fir.
Insects resort to it (? beetles) for honey and shelter, and are unable to
escape until the second stage supervenes, when, the anthers having
shed their pollen, the fir. opens widely. The fruit is an aggregate of
follicles; each dehisces by its dorsal suture, and the seed dangles
out of it on a long thread formed by the unravelling of the spiral
vessels of the funicle. The outer integument of the ovule becomes
fleshy as it ripens, and the seeds may thus be distributed by birds.
Several sp. are cultivated for their magnificent firs.

Magnoliaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Ranales). 9 gen. with 70 sp.

MALPIGHI A

469

of trop. and sub-trop. trees and shrubs (some climbing). They have
alt. leaves, which in the Magnolieae have big stipules, united to form
a thimble-like hood, covering in the bud all the younger leaves. As each
leaf expands it throws off the hood of the next older leaf. The firs, are
terminal (in most sp.) or axillary, usually solitary, 5 or unisexual. In the
Magnolieae the perianth is cyclic, in the rest of the order it is spiral,
as are the sta. and cpls. throughout. The perianth is usually petaloid.
Sta. 00 , hypogynous. Cpls. usually 00 , on a long torus. Fruit a
follicle, berry, or samara. Seed albuminous, the endosperm not
ruminate. The timber of most M. is good. Illicium, &c., furnish
economic products. Magnolia and Liriodendron are cultivated for
their firs. &c.

Classification and chief genera (after Prantl).

A. Leaves with stipular hoods :

1. Magnolieae : Magnolia, Liriodendron.

B. Leaves without hoods :

2. Schizandreae (climbing): Kadsura, Schizandra.

3. Illicieae (erect) : Illicium, Drimys.

Mahemia Linn. Sterculiaceae. 50 sp. S. Afr. Included in Her-
mannia in Nat . Pfl.

Mahonia Nutt. =Berberis Linn.

Maianthemum Weber. Liliaceae (vn). 1 sp. N. temp. (incl. Brit.),

M. Bifoliam DC. (M. Convallaria Weber). Fir. 2-merous, proto-
gynous.

Maieta Aubl. Melastomaceae (1). 8sp. trop. Am. Some have bladdery
outgrowths of the leaves inhabited by ants (cf. Duroia).

MalacMum Fries = Stellaria Linn.

Malachra Linn. Malvaceae (ill). 5 sp. trop. Am.

Malacocarpus Salm-Dyck = Echinocactus Link et Otto.

Malacothrix DC. Compositae (xm). 15 sp. Calif.

Malaxis Soland. ex Sw. Orchidaceae (8). 1 sp. N. temp. (incl. Brit.),
M. paludosa Sw. The fir. is twisted through 360°, so that the la-
bellum is again uppermost. Perhaps some ancestral form exhibited
the usual orchid pattern. See Darwin’s Orchids , p. 130.

Malcomia R. Br. (Malcolmia Spreng). Cruciferae (IV. 18). 3c sp. Medit.

Malesherbia Ruiz et Pav. Malesherbiaceae. 18 sp. west S. Am.

Maleslierbiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 1 gen., Males-
herbia. United to Passifloraceae by Benth. -Hooker; it differs from
P. in having no aril and in having the styles more deeply inserted and
widely separated. It differs from Turneraceae in having no aril, in
the aestivation of the corolla, and in the persistent receptacle.

Mallotus Lour. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 2). 80 sp. Old World trop.

Malope. Linn. Malvaceae (1). 3 sp. Medit. The 3 leaves of the

epicalyx are very large. Cpls. 00 , in vertical rows (see order).

Malpighia Plum, ex Linn. Malpighiaceae (11). 20 sp. trop. Am. Not
climbers. Some sp. have stinging hairs ; some have cleistogamic firs.

47°

MA LPIGHIA CEAE

Malpighiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). 55 gen. with
650 sp., trop., esp. S. Am. Shrubs or small trees, usually climbing,
forming a marked feature among the trop. lianes. The stem-anatomy
is peculiar (p. 173). Leaves usually opp., entire, stip., frequently
gland-dotted. The plants are usually covered with peculiar branched
unicellular hairs. Infl. racemose. Fir. g , obliquely zygomorphic.
K (5), imbricate, often with large glands at the base of (outside) the
sepals; C 5, petals usually clawed, imbricate; A 5 + 5, obdiploste-
monous, often fewer, joined in a ring at the base ; anthers opening
introrsely by longitudinal splits; G (3), obliquely placed in the fir.,
3-loc. with axile placentae. One ovule in each loc., pendulous, semi-
anatropous, with ventral raphe. Fruit typically a schizocarp breaking
into 3 mericarps, but frequently one or more of the loc. abort. The
mericarps are often winged, in some cases, e.g. Banisteria, like those
of Acer. Seed exalbuminous.

Classification and chief genera (after Niedenzu) :

I. Pyramidotorae (torus pyramidal ; mericarps usually winged):

Tetrapteris, Banisteria, Acridocarpus.

II, Planitorae (torus flat or concave; mericarps not winged):

Malpighia, Bunchosia, Byrsonima.

[Placed in Geraniales by Benth.-PIooker, in Aesculinae by
Warming.]

Malus Toum. ex Linn. = Pyrus Tourn.

Malva (Tourn.) Linn. (excl. Callirhoe Nutt.). Malvaceae (11). 25 sp.

N. temp.; 3 in Brit. Fir. of the ordinary type of the order, with 00
cpls. Two Brit. sp. M. sylvestris L. and M. rotundifolia L. (large
and small mallow) afford an interesting contrast in floral mechanism,
&c. Honey is secreted in little pockets in the receptacle, covered
with hairs which exclude rain and very short-tongued insects. The
large mallow is very protandrous; the sta. stand up at first in the
middle of the fir., and afterwards bend outwards and downwards
whilst the styles lengthen and occupy the original positions of the
sta. The small mallow has much smaller firs, which are much less
visited by insects (see lists of visitors in Muller’s Fert. of Firs.) ; they
go through stages similar to those described above, but at the end of
the female stage the styles bend downwards, twist in among the
anthers and pollinate themselves (see p. 58).

The leaves in autumn may usually be seen covered with brown
spots caused by the fungus Puccinia malvacearum (cf. Berberis).

Malvaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Mai vales). About 35 gen. with
700 sp. trop. and temp. Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with stip. leaves.
Firs, solitary or in compound cymose infls. made up of cincinni, 5 ,
regular, usually 5-merous. Very often an epicalyx is present ; it is
probably an aggregation of bracteoles, but has been regarded as
stipular like that of some Rosaceae (q.v.). K 5 or (5), valvate; C 5,
convolute, the petals usually asymmetrical; A usually 00, owing to

MANGIFERA

47i

branching of the inner whorl of sta. (the outer is usually absent), all
united below into a tube which is joined to the petals and at first sight
makes the corolla appear gamopetalous ; the anthers are monothecous
(i.e. each = half an anther), the pollen grains spiny. G (1 — 00) fre-
quently (5), multi-loc., with axile placentae. In sub-order I a division
of the cpls. by horizontal transverse walls occurs, producing vertical
rows of one-ovuled portions. Ovules 1 — 00 in each cpl., anatropous,
usually ascending, sometimes pendulous. Malvaviscus has a berry,
the rest of the order dry fruits, either capsules or schizocarps. Em-
bryo usually curved, surrounded by endosperm. The firs, are generally
protandrous (see Malvaand Goethea). Gossypium (cotton), Hibiscus,
and others are of economic value. Many are garden favourites.

Classification and chief genera (after Schumann): Bentham and
Hooker unite Bombacaceae to Malvaceae and place them in cohort
Malvales. Warming places M. in Columniferae.

A. Cpls. in vertical rows.

I. Malopeae: Malope, Kitaibelia.

B. Cpls. in one plane.

II. Malveae (schizocarp; styles as many as cpls.): Abu-
tilon, Lavatera, Althaea, Malva, Anoda.

III. Ureneae (schizocarp ; styles twice as many as cpls.) :

Urena, Goethea, Pavonia.

IV. Hibisceae (capsule) : Hibiscus, Gossypium.

Malvales. The 22nd. cohort (Engler) of Archichlamydeae (p. [29),

The 6th cohort (Benth.-Hooker) of Polypetalae (p. 134).

Malvastrum A. Gray. Malvaceae (11). 70 sp. Am. and S. Afr.

Malvaviscus Dill, ex Adans. Malvaceae (ill). 10 sp. trop. Am.

Mammea Linn. Guttiferae (iv). 1 sp. W. Ind., M. a?nericana L.,

largely cultivated for its edible fruit, the Mammee or St. Domingo
apricot. The firs, are used in preparing a liqueur (eau de Creole).

Mammillaria Haw. (incl. Anhalonium Lem.). Cactaceae (1. 2). 400

sp. trop. Am. Mostly small plants of very condensed form, often
almost spherical in outline, with well-marked mammillae (see order).
There is a division of the growing point into two in the course of
formation of the mammilla, and the part at, the base of the mammilla
(i.e. in the axil) gives rise to the fir. The gynoeceum elongates after
fertilisation so that the tip of the long red berry is raised clear of the
thorns. In some sp. vegetative reproduction and dispersal occurs
by the mammillae breaking off and blowing about or adhering to
animals. The fruit is edible.

Mandevilla Lindl. Apocynaceae (11. 4). 30 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Am.

Mandragora (Tourn.) Linn. Solanaceae (11). 3 sp. Medit., Himal.

(mandrake). For the superstitions connected with this plant, see
Treas . of Bot.

Manettia Mutis. Rubiaceae (1. 4). 24 sp. trop. Am.

Mangifera Linn. Anacardiaceae (1). 27 sp. Indo-mal. M. indica L.

472

MANGIFERA

is the mango, everywhere cultivated in the tropics for its fruit, which
is a large drupe derived from the r cpl. of the fir.

Manihot Tourn. ex Adans. Euphorbiaceae (A n. 4). 80 sp. S. Am.

Shrubs and herbs with monoecious firs. M. Glaziovii Miill.-Arg. and
other sp. show bud-protection well. The petiole of the young leaf
curves upwards and inwards, so that the leaf is brought above the bud,
thus protecting it from radiation &c. M. utilissima Pohl is the bitter,
M. Aipi Pohl (M. palviata Miill.-Arg.) the sweet cassava or mandioc;
both are extensively cultivated in the tropics for their large tuberous
roots, which contain much starch, &c., and form a valuable food-stuff.
The bitter cassava is the one usually cultivated : its poisonous juice is
squeezed out, and finally dissipated in the drying. The ground roots
form mandioc or cassava meal, sometimes called Brazilian arrowroot.
By a special mode of preparation, tapioca is prepared from the root.
The poisonous juice, evaporated to a syrup and thus rendered harm-
less, forms an antiseptic, known as cassareep, used in preserving meat
&c. M. Glaziovii is the Ceara rubber ; indian-rubber is obtained by
tapping the stem of the tree in the usual way.

Manna D. Don = Alhagi Tourn.

Mantisia Sims. Zingiberaceae. 2 sp. E. Ind. M. saltatoria Sims
(dancing girls) is often grown in hot-houses for its curious firs. They
are borne on separate shoots springing from the rhizome. At the base
is the calyx, then 3 broad petals, a curiously shaped labellum and
2 filamentous staminodes, and beyond all the fertile sta. and style.

Manulea Linn. Scrophulariaceae (11. 7). 26 sp. S. Afr.

Maoutia Wedd. Urticaceae (3). 8 sp. trop. As. and Polynes. There

is no perianth in the ? fir. M. Puya Wedd. is the source of a valuable
fibre.

Mapouria Aubl. Rubiaceae (11. 15). 80 sp. E. Ind., S. Am. Included
in Psychotria by Benth. -Hooker.

Mappa A. Juss. = Macaranga Thou.

Maranta Plum, ex Linn. Marantaceae. 15 sp. trop. Am. The stami-
nodes 7 (see order) are present in many sp. The rhizome of M.
arundinacea L. furnishes West Indian arrowroot, prepared by grind-
ing and washing to free the starch.

Marantaceae. Monocotyledons (Scitamineae). 12 gen. with 150 sp.
trop., chiefly Am. Herbaceous perennials of various habit, resem-
bling Zingiberaceae, but at once distinguishable by the presence of a
swollen pulvinus or joint at the junction of petiole and leaf-blade.
Leaves 2 -ranked, sheathing; one side of the leaf is larger than the
other and is covered by it when the leaf is rolled up in the bud. Firs,
usually upon the leafy shoots, in pairs in the axils of the bracts, either
one pair or many (cymose, drepania). The fir. is asymmetric, but
in each pair the one is complementary to the other (i.e, like its reflec-
tion in a glass). Fir. £ , pentacyclic, 3-merous. P 3 + 3, clearly dis-
tinguished in most cases into calyx and corolla. As in the allied

MARATTIACEAE

473

orders, the androeceum is united to the corolla. There is one fertile
sta., often petaloid, and round it various
petaloid structures (cf. carefully Canna and
Zingiberaceae). The labellum of Canna is
represented by a hood-shaped leaf covering
the style (Kapuzenblatt). The staminode a
is represented by a more or less leathery
or callous leaf (Schwielenblatt) ; /3 and y
are not always present, but are petaloid
when they do occur. The same views as
to the morphology of these structures have
been proposed as in the case of Canna (q.v. ).

The inferior ovary is of (3) cpls., typically
3-loc. 3-ovuled, but commonly 2 of the loc.
are abortive (as in fig.) and the third con-
tains one ovule ; ovule ana-campylo-tropous :
style curved and at first enclosed in the
‘Kapuzenblatt’ or hood. The fir. often has an explosive mechanism.
The pollen is shed upon the style, which remains held in the hood.
Insects enter upon the staminode a, and in sucking honey (secreted
by glands in the septa of the ovary) set free the style, which descends
with a sudden shock, touching the insect’s back and at the same time
showering the pollen upon it (cf. Genista). The fruit is usually a
loculicidal capsule. Embryo curved, in perisperm. Seed often arillate.
Maranta and others furnish arrowroot, &c. Chief genera: Calathea,
Maranta, Thalia. [Benth. -Hooker unite M. to Cannaceae, Musaceae,
and Zingiberaceae to form the order Scitamineae, placed in Epigynae.
Warming places it in coh. Scitamineae.]

Marattia Sw. Marattiaceae (11). 30 sp. trop. The synangium is oval
and the compartments open by slits into a central space.

Marattiaceae. Filicineae Eusporangiatae. 5 gen. with 50 sp., trop.
They are large ferns, with a stout stem rarely more than a couple of
feet long, not branched (exc. Danaea), and large pinnate leaves (pal-
mate in Kaulfussia). At the base of the leaf, which shows circinate
vernation, occur a pair of stipules, which aid in bud-protection. The
roots arise at the growing point, one or more to each leaf ; they
burrow obliquely outwards emerging some distance from the apex.

The sporangia are very numerous, and occur upon the veins on
the lower side of ordinary foliage leaves. The sorus stands on a
swollen placenta; in Angiopteris the component sporangia are free
from one another, in the other genera they combine to form a synan -
gium , with as many chambers as there are sporangia. The mode of
opening varies (see classification, below). The spores are all of one
kind (except that they vary in shape), and give rise to monoecious pro-
thalli, resembling those of the ordinary ferns. These are large and
may live for some years.

Floral diagram of Maranta
bicolor (modified from
Eichler). a)3y, stamin-
odes; L., labellum (Ka-
puzen blatt).

474

MARATTIACEAE

Classifi ration and genera:

I. Angiopterideae (sporangia free) : Angiopteris (sori of to — 20
sporangia), Archangiopteris (sori linear, of 80 — 160 sporangia).

II. Marattieae (synangia oval) : Marattia (leaf pinnate) ; Kaulfussia

(leaf palmate with curious chambers on lower side).

III. Danaeeae (synangia long, opening by terminal pore) : Danaea.

Marcgravia Plum, ex Linn. Marcgraviaceae. 16 sp. trop. Am. They
are climbing epiphytic shrubs, with two kinds of shoots — vegetative,
with two-ranked sessile leaves and clasping roots, and flowering,
with stalked leaves, spirally arranged, and ending in a cymose umbel
of flrs. The central firs, are abortive and their bracts are transformed
into curious pocket-like coloured nectaries with stalks. The fertile
flrs. stand upside down, the infl. being pendulous, and humming-
birds rub against them with their backs, while drinking honey.

Marcgraviaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietal es). 5 gen. with
40 sp. trop. Am. Trees or shrubs, often epiphytic, usually with
pendulous infls. whose bracts are brightly coloured and transformed
into nectaries. Firs, g . K 4 — 5; C (4 — 5), dropping off as a cap;
A 3 — 00 , free or united to one another and to the corolla. Ovary
superior, originally i-loc. with 2 parietal placentae; ovules 00, ana-
tropous; style simple. Capsule. Endosperm thin. Chief genera :
Marcgravia, Norantea. Benth. -Hooker unite M. to Theaceae (Tern-
stroemiaceae) ; Warming places it in Cistiflorae.

Margyricarpus Ruiz et Pav. Rosaceae (ill. 9). 1 sp. Andes.

Marica Ker-Gawl. Iridaceae (n). 9 sp. trop. Am., Afr.

Mariscus Gaertn. = Cyperus Linn.

Marlea Roxb. Comaceae. 10 sp. Indo-mal.

Marlierea Cambess. Myrtaceae (1). 50 sp. Brazil. The fruits of

M. tomenlosa Cambess. (Guapuronga) and M. edulis Ndz. (M. glome -
rata Berg) are eaten.

Marrubium Tourn. ex Linn. Labiatae (vi. 1). 30 sp. Eur., N. Afr.,

temp. As. M. vulgare L., white horehound, in Brit, (rare), formerly
officinal.

Marsdenia R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (11. 4). 70 sp. trop. and sub-trop.

Marsilea Linn. Marsileaceae. 30 sp. trop. and temp. The stem is a
rhizome bearing leaves at the nodes, and roots on the lower side.
The leaves are petiolate with four lobes, resembling those of ‘ 4-leaved
clover.’ They ‘sleep’ at night like those of Oxalis. In some sp. they
are floating, on delicate petioles. Others grow in shallow water, the
leaves standing erect. Some sp. , e.g . M. vestita Hook, et Grev., vege-
tate during the wet season, and pass the dry in the form of sporocarps.

The sporocarp is a bean-like structure, attached to the petiole of
the leaf by a stalk. It contains a number of sori, each forming a
chamber reaching from the ventral to the dorsal edge of the sporocarp.
In each sorus on the outer side is a placenta in the form of a ridge
bearing micro-sporangia on its sides and mega- sporangia on the top.

MARTYNIACEAE

475

The latter contain one spore each. The sporocarp is very hard and may
remain in water a long time without showing any effect. Ultimately
however, or at once if the hard shell be injured, a swelling of the
mucilaginous interior tissue bursts it. “As more water is absorbed,
this gelatinous inner tissue continues to expand, and forms a long
worm-shaped body to which are attached a number of sori, each sur-
rounded by a sac-shaped indusium in which the sporangia are closely
packed” (Campbell). The spores are finally set free by the dissolu-
tion both of indusium and sporangium wall. The protlialli are similar
to those of Salviniaceae.

The sporocarps of M. salvatrix Hans. (M. Dru?nmondii A.Br.)
are eaten by the natives of Austr., under the name nardoo.

Marsileaceae. Filicineae Leptosporangiatae (Heterosporous). A family
composed of 2 genera (Marsilea, Pilularia) with 40 sp. trop. and
temp. The mature plant is aquatic or amphibious and has a thin
creeping stem, growing by an apical cell, and bearing leaves at
distinct nodes. The leaves are circinate in vernation like those of
the ordinary ferns, but vary much in type (see genera). Roots are
formed from the lower side of the stem.

The sporangia are contained in sporocarps, which are complex
structures not homologous with those of the Salviniaceae. Each is
the equivalent of a leaf-segment and encloses several sori, the latter
composed both of micro- and mega-sporangia. Each spore is fur-
nished with an epispore of hardened frothy mucilage. The spores
pass the winter (or dry season) inside the sporangia. The subsequent
stages in the life history resemble those of Salviniaceae. See genera
for details.

Martynia Houst. ex Linn. (incl. Proboscidea Schmid.). Martyniaceae.
6 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Am. Firs, with sensitive stigmas like those
of Mimulus. The fruit has 2 long curved horns, admirably adapted
for animal-distribution ; for either it is carried off bodily, or else the
hooks, like those of the burr of Arctium, catching passing animals
cause a jerk which scatters the seeds out of the capsule.

Martyniaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). 2 gen. with 10 sp.
trop. and sub-trop. Am., in dry or coast regions (p. 169). Herbs,
often with tuberous roots, with opp. or alt. leaves, and terminal
racemes of g, 5-merous, zygomorphic firs. K(s); 0(5); A 4 with
a staminode, epipetalous, didynamous; G (2), i-loc. with parietal
placentae, and 00 or few anatropous ovules. Capsule loculicidal, the
outer pericarp soft and falling off, the inner woody; it is rendered
more or less 4-loc. by the union of the T-shaped placentae together
and to the endocarp. The tissue at the top of the midrib of each cpl.
also becomes woody and forms a projecting spur, usually hooked at
the end or curved, and serving for animal distribution. Seeds with
little endosperm. Genera : Martynia, Craniolaria. United to Pedalia-
ceae by Benth.-Hooker and Warming.

476

MASCAGNI A

Mascagnia Bert. = IIiraea Jacq.

Mascarenhasia A. DC. Apocynaceae (il. 4). 12 sp. Madag., E. Afr.

M. elastica K. Sch. yields rubber.

Masdevallia Ruiz et Pav. Orchidaceae (12). 100 sp. trop. Am., Mexico.

Petals small; sepals with long processes (Darwin, Orchids , p. 135).
Massonia Thunb. ex Linn. f. Liliaceae (vj. 20 sp. S. Afr.

Matayba Aubl. = Ratonia DC.

Mathiola R. Br. = Matthiola R . Br.

Matonia R. Br. Cyatheaceae. 2 sp. Borneo and Malay Penins. better
placed in a separate family. Cf. Filicineae, and Seward in Phil .
Trans . B. 19 1 and Nature , Mar. 1899, p. 525.

Matricaria (Tourn.) Linn. Compositae (vn). 50 sp. S. Afr., Eur.,

Medit., Orient ; 2 in Brit, (wild chamomile or feverfew), inch M.
Chamomilla L. (officinal).

Matthiola R. Br. Cruciferae (iv. 19). 50 sp. Medit., Eur., S. Afr.

2 in Brit, (stock) on the coasts, incl. M. incana R. Br., the parent sp.
of the garden stock (see p. 10 1).

Maurandia Orteg. Scrophulariaceae (n. 5). 6 sp. Mexico. Leaf-

climbers with sensitive petioles (p. 172), cultivated for their firs.
Mauritia Linn. f. Palmae (in. 4). 9 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind. (Moriche,
see Kingsley’s At Last), They furnish wood, wine, fruit, fibre, &c.
Maxillaria Ruiz et Pav. Orchidaceae (27). 100 sp. trop. Am.

Maximiliana Mart. Palmae (iv. 7). 3 sp. trop. Brazil.

Mayaca Aubl. Mayacaceae. 7 sp. Am.

Mayacaceae. Monocotyledons (Farinosae). Only genus Mayaca.
Placed in Coronarieae by Benth. -Hooker, in Enantioblastae by
Warming. See Nat. PJl. for details.

Mayepea Aubl. =Linociera Sw.

Maytenus Molina. Celastraceae. 70 sp. S. Am. M. Boaria Molina
is used as a fodder-plant, the tree being cut down.

Mazus Lour. Scrophulariaceae (11. 8). 6 sp. China to Austr.

Meconopsis Vig. Papaveraceae (11). 27 sp. N. temp. M. ca?nbrica

Vig., the Welsh poppy, in Brit.

Medicago Tourn. ex Linn. Leguminosae (in. 4). 50 sp. Eur., Medit.,
S. Afr.; 6 in Brit, (medick, nonsuch, burweed). The fir. has an
explosive mechanism like Genista (q.v. and see Burkill in Proc .
Camb. Phil. Soc. 1894). The fruit is usually twisted, often spirally
coiled up into a ball or disc, and frequently provided with hooks for
animal-distribution. M. sativa L. (lucerne or alfalfa), M . lupulina
L., and others, are useful fodder-plants.

Medinilla Gaudich. Melastomaceae (1). 150 sp. palaeotrop.

Megacarpaea DC. Cruciferae (11. 5). 5 sp. Steppes. Sta. >6 in

some sp.

Melaleuca Linn. Myrtaceae (2). 100 sp. Austr. The leaves of M.

Leucadendron L. (Austr., Indo-mal.) yield Cajeput oil. Sta. in
antepet. bundles. Several sp. yield oil ; timber useful.

MELASTOMA CEAE

477

Melampodium Linn. Compositae (v). 25 sp. Am.

Melampyrum (Toum.) Linn, Scrophulariaceae (ill. 12). 25 sp. N.

Hemisph.; 4 in Brit, (cow-wheat). Semi-parasites (see order). The
fir. has a loose-pollen mechanism (p. 98 and order) ; the 4 anthers lie
close together and form a pollen-box; the filaments of the sta. are
covered with sharp teeth which ensure that a bee shall insert its pro-
boscis down the middle line of the fir.

Melandrium Roehl. = Lychnis Linn. [M. rubrum Garcke = Z. dioica.\

Melanorrhoea Wall. Anacardiaceae (1). 6 sp. Malay. M. usitata

Wall. (Theetsee) yields a valuable black varnish, obtained by tap-
ping the stem ; the sap turns black on exposure to air.

Melanoxylon Schott. Leguminosae (11. 8). 1 sp. Brazil, M. Brauna

Schott (Brauna). The timber is useful.

Melanthium Clayt. ex Linn. Liliaceae (1). 3 sp. N. Am.

Melastoma Burm. ex Linn. Melastomaceae (1). 40 sp. trop., exc. Afr.,
Am.

Melastomaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Myrtiflorae). 148 gen. with
2500 sp. of trop. and sub-trop. plants, forming a very natural family,
easy to recognize in most cases, even when not in fir., on account of
the peculiar leaf-veining &c. The habit of the various genera differs
much, as they inhabit very various soils and exist under varied
conditions. Some are herbs, others trees or shrubs; some climb,
usually by roots; some are epiphytes, water or marsh plants. The
leaves are nearly always decussate (the stem is often 4-angled), but
one leaf is generally much larger than the other (p. 47) ; the lesser in
some cases withers away as it grows older, and drops off. The veins
of the leaf, which is usually simple and entire or nearly so, diverge
from the base and converge again at the apex, as in many mono-
cotyledonous leaves, so that there is no true midrib. This peculiarity
is possibly correlated with the fact that most of these plants live in
rainy tropical regions, and this arrangement of the veins aids in
conveying away the water from the surface of the leaf (see Ficus
religiosa and p. 143). Many M. are myrmecophilous plants, e.g
Tococa, Maieta, &c. (q.v.).

The infl. is cymose, but exhibits great variety. The fir. is usually
very characteristic and easily recognized by the curious appendages of
the anthers. The receptacle (‘calyx-tube’) is tubular or bell-shaped,
commonly more or less united with the ovary, and very often brightly
coloured. K 4 or 5 ; C 4 or 5, perigynous. The perianth is usually
regular, but irregularity often occurs in the androeceum. Sta. usually
twice as many as petals, standing (when mature) in one whorl, bent
down in bud so that the anthers come between the ovary and the
receptacle. The anther-loculi open by a common apical pore. The
connective is developed in various ways and usually provided with
curious appendages, frequently of sickle-like form, giving a character-
istic aspect to the fir. Ovary superior or inferior, usually 4 — 5-loc.,

MELA STOMA CEAE

478

with a simple style and stigma; ovules 00, anatropous, on axile
placentae. Fruit a berry or loculicidal capsule. Seed exalbuminous ;
one cotyledon larger than the other. The M. are of little economic
importance ; a few yield colouring matters.

Classification and chief gene}' a (after Krasser) :

A. Fruit many-seeded. Embryo very small.

I. MELASTOMATOIDEAE (ovules on slightly projecting
placentae in inner angle of loc.): Tibouchina, Centra-
denia, Melastoma, Monochaetum, Medinilla, Leandra,
Miconia, Tococa, Maieta.

II. ASTRONIOIDEAE (ovules on a placenta at base or on
wall of loc.) : Kibessia.

B. Fruit 1 — 5-seeded. Embryo large.

III. MEM EC YLOIDEAE : Memecylon.

[Placed in Myrtales by Benth.- Hooker, in Myrtiflorae by
Warming.]

Meiia Linn, (inch Azadirachta A. Juss.). Meliaceae. 12 sp. trop.,
except Am. Some are useful for their timber. M. Azedarach L., the
beadtree, is cultivated for its firs. The bark of M. Azadirachta L.
(A. itidica A. Juss.) is astringent and yields the medicinal Nim or
Margosa oil.

Meliaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). 40 gen. with 600 sp.
trop. and sub-trop. Most are trees and shrubs, with alt. exstip.
pinnate leaves, and cymose panicles of 5 regular firs. K (4 — 5) or

4 — 5 ; C 4 — 5 ; A 8 — 10 usually united below into a tube, or some-
times united all their length, in which case the anthers are sessile on the
tube; disc present or not; G 2 — 5-loc. or rarely i-loc. or more than

5- loc. ; style present or not; ovules in each loc. 1, 2, or more, usually
pendulous and anatropous, with ventral raphe. Capsule, berry, or
drupe; seeds often winged, with endosperm. Many, e.g. Swietenia
(mahogany), Cedrela, & c., yield valuable timber ; the seeds of several
are used as sources of oils; others have edible fruit. Chief genera:
Cedrela, Pteroxylon, Swietenia, Carapa, Meiia, Aglaia, Trichilia.
Placed in Geraniales by Benth.-Hooker, in Terebinthinae by Warming.
[See Flindersia.]

Melianthaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). 3 gen. with
17 sp., Afr. (trop. and S.). Trees and shrubs with alt. usually stip.
leaves, and racemes of $ , median-zygomorphic firs., whose stalks
twist through 1800 at the time of flowering. K 5 or (5), sometimes 4
by union of two sepals ; C 4 or 5 ; disc extra-staminal ; A 5 or 4 or
10, free or united at base; G (4 — 5), 4 — 5-loc. with one basal or
many axile ovules in each loc. ; ovules erect or pendulous, anatropous,
with ventral or dorsal raphe according as they are erect or pendulous
respectively. Capsule ; seed sometimes with aril ; endosperm fleshy
or horny. Chief genus : Melianthus. United to Sapindaceae by
Benth.-Hooker, placed in Aesculinae by Warming.

MENTZELIA

479

Melianthus Linn. Melianthaceae. 5 sp. S. Afr. The firs, are very
rich in honey.

Melica Linn. Gramineae (x). 30 sp. temp., except Austr. ; 2 in Brit,

(melic-grass).

Melilotus Tourn. ex Hall. Leguminosae (ill. 4). 20 sp. temp, and

sub-trop. Old World. 3 in Brit, (melilot). The firs, contain much
honey, and are adapted to bees.

Meliosma Blume. Sabiaceae. 45 sp. trop. As. and Am. [See Urban
in Ber. D. Bot. Ges. xm. 1895.]

Melissa Tourn. ex Linn. Labiatae (vi. 11). 4 sp. Eur., W. As. M.

officinalis L. is the common balm.

Melittis Linn. Labiatae (vi. 4). 1 sp. Eur. (incl. Brit.), M. Alelisso-

phyllum L., the bastard-balm.

Melocactus (Tourn.) Link etOtto. Cactaceae (1. 1). 90 sp. (?) W. Ind.,
S. Am. Ribbed plants, like Cereus. Firs, produced at the top.

Melocanna Trin. Gramineae (xm). 1 sp. Indo-mal. Exalbuminous.

Melochia Dill, ex Linn. Sterculiaceae. 60 sp. trop.

Melodorum Hook. f. et Thoms. Anonaceae (4). 30 sp. Old World

trop.

Melothria Linn. Cucurbitaceae (11). 60 sp. trop. and sub-trop.

Memecylon Linn. Melastomaceae (ill). 100 sp. trop.

Mendoncia Veil. Acanthaceae (11). 24 sp. trop. Am., Madagascar.

Meniscium Schreb. Polypodiaceae. 10 sp. trop.

Menispermaceae. Dicotyledones (Archichl. Ranales). 58 gen. with
200 sp. trop. and warm temp. Mostly climbing shrubs with alt.
simple leaves, in whose axils are usually serial buds (p. 42). The
stem-anatomy is of interest. Firs, in axillary racemes (except Cissam-
pelos, &c.), unisexual, usually dioecious. The general formula is
K 3 + 3, C 3 + 3, A 3 + 3, G 3, but there are many exceptions. The
calyx and sta. are often more than 6, and sometimes there is only
1 cpl. Ovules 1 in each cpl., ventral, pendulous, semi-anatropous.
Achene ; seed albuminous. The classification of the genera is largely
based on the structure of the seed. A few are or have been medicinal,
on account of the bitter principle in the roots. Chief genera; Meni-
spermum, Cocculus, Cissampelos, Jateorhiza, Tinospora, Anamirta.
Placed in Ranales by Benth. -Hooker, in Polycarpicae by Warming.

Menispermum (Tourn.) Linn. Menispermaceae. 3 sp. N. temp, (moon-
seed).

Mentha (Tourn.) Linn. Labiatae (vi. 11). 40 sp. temp, and trop.

A very variable genus. 6 in Brit, (mint), of which M. piperita L.
is the peppermint, M. Pulegium L. the penny-royal. From the
former an oil is obtained by distillation and used in medicine &c.
M. viridis L. is cultivated as a pot-herb for flavouring.

Mentzelia Plum, ex Linn. (incl. Eucnida Zucc.) Loasaceae. 46 sp. trop.
and sub-trop. Am. They have no stinging hairs. In some sp. the
outer sta. are sterile.

480

ME NY A NTHES.

Menyanthes (Tourn.) Linn. Gentianaceae (11). i sp. M. trifoliata L.,
the buck- or bog-bean, Eur. (inch Brit.), As., N. Am. It is a bog
plant with creeping rhizome and alt. leaves. The firs, are dimorphic
heterostyled (cf. Primula). The rhizome has bitter tonic properties
and was much used in former times (and is to this day in the Cam-
bridgeshire fens).

Menziesia Sm. Ericaceae (1. a). 7 sp. E. As., N. Am. [M. polifolia
Juss. of some Brit, floras — Daboecia polifolia , and M. caerulea Sw. =
Bryanthus taxifolius. ]

Mercurialis (Tourn.) Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 2). 7 sp. Medit.,

Eur., E. As. 2 in Brit., M. perennis L. and M. anmia L. (mercury).
Dioecious anemophilous firs. Vegetative propagation in perennial sp.
by rhizomes. Corolla absent. Cpls. (2).

Merendera Ram. Liliaceae (1). 10 sp. Medit.

Mertensia Roth. Boraginaceae (iv. 4). 15 sp. N. temp. 1 in Brit.,

M. viaritima , S. F. Gray (gromwell), on sea-coasts (p. 186).

Mesembryanthemum Dill, ex Linn. Aizoaceae (11. 3). 350 sp.,

almost all S. Afr. They are xerophytes of the most pronounced kind
with very succulent leaves, usually closely packed together ; the young
leaves stand face to face at the growing apex till well grown, and thus
protect the young bud. In M. obconellwn Haw. the pairs of leaves are
congenitally united into a fleshy body with a little slit in the centre.
Several sp. have thorns, sometimes flr.-stalks hardened after the fall
of the fir., sometimes branches, as in M. spinosum L. (the leafy
branches appear below these in the next year, in the same axils).
The firs, are usually terminal on the stems, solitary or in dichasia or
cincinni. The outer sta. (due to branching) are represented by
numerous petaloid staminodes, having the appearance of a corolla.
The mature ovary is 5-loc. with parietal placentae; this peculiar
feature is due to an excessive growth of the peripheral tissue during
the development, which gradually turns the loculi completely over
(cf. Punica). The fruit is a capsule which opens only in moist air,
contrary to the usual wont of capsules (p. 168). Some, e.g. M. edule
L. (hottentot fig), contain an edible pulp. M. crystallinum L. is the
ice-plant, so-called because its leaves are covered with small glistening
bladder- shaped hairs.

Mesospinidium Rchb. f. = Odontoglossum H. B. et K.

Mespilodaphne Nees = Ocotea Aubl.

Mespilus (Tourn.) Linn. = Pyrus Tourn. [Af. germanica L,. = Pyrus
germanica ; M. Oxycantha Crantz= Crataegus Oxyacantha. ]

Mesua Linn. Guttiferae (iv). 3 sp. India, Java. M. ferrea L. (Nagas

or iron- wood) yields a valuable timber; its firs, are used in perfumery.

Metrosideros Banks. Myrtaceae (11. 2). 20 sp. S. Afr., Sunda Is.,

Austr., Polynes. Some sp. furnish useful timber.

Metroxylon Rottb. Palmae (in. 5). Siam to New Guinea. M. Rumphii
Mart, and Af. laeve Mart, are the sago palms, cultivated all over the

MILLING TONI A

481

Malay region. Small trees whose stems die after producing their
large terminal monoecious infls. (cf. Corypha, &c.), but form rhizome
branches below. The fruit takes 3 years to ripen. The tree is cut
down when the infl. appears, and the sago is obtained from the pith
by crushing and washing.

Meum (Tourn,) Adans. Umbelliferae (6). 1 sp. AT. athamanticum

Jacq. (meu or bald-money) in Eur. (incl. Brit., where it is sub-
alpine).

Meyenia Nees = Thunbergia Retz.

Mibora Adans. Gramineae (vm). 1 sp. W. Eur. (incl. Brit.)

Michauxia L’Herit. Campanulaceae (1). 6 sp. Orient. Fir. 7 — 10-

merous throughout.

Michelia Linn. Magnoliaceae (1). 13 sp. trop. As., China. There is

a gynophore between sta. and cpls. AT. Champaca L. is cultivated
for its perfumed firs. Several sp. yield useful timber.

Miconia Ruiz et Pav. ( Tamonea Aubl.). Melastomaceae (r). 600 sp.

trop. Am.

Micrembryae (Benth. -Hooker). The 4th series of Incompletae (p. 136).

Microcachrys Hook. f. Coniferae (Taxac. 3; see C. for genus cha-
racters). 1 sp. Tasmania. Dioecious. Fruit-scales fleshy but not
united. Seed arillate.

Microcala Hoffmgg. et Link. Gentianaceae (1. 2). 2 sp., 1 Am., the

other Medit. and W. Eur. (incl. south-west England and Ireland).

Microglossa DC. Compositae (ill). 9 sp. trop. As. and Afr. The
leaves of M. volubilis DC. are used as a vegetable and in salad.

Microlepis Miq. Melastomaceae (1). 4 sp. S. Brazil.

Microlicia D. Don. Melastomaceae (1). 100 sp. trop. Am.

Micromeria Benth. Labiatae (vi. n). 60 sp. Medit., trop. Afr., Eur.,
W. As., Am. M. Douglasii Benth. (Calif. &c.) is the Yerba buena
(medicinal).

Microseris D. Don. Compositae (xm). 32 sp. N. Am., S. Am.,

Austr., N. Z.

Microspermae. The 10th cohort (Engler) of Monocotyledons (p. 126).
The 1st series (Benth. -Hooker) of Monocotyledons (p. 136).

Microstylis Nutt. Orchidaceae (8). 90 sp. As., Am. Fir. twisted

through 360° (cf. Malaxis).

Mikania Willd. Compositae (11). 150 sp. trop., all but one (AT. scan -

dens Willd.) confined to Am. Twining herbs or shrubs, with opp.
leaves.

Milium Linn. Gramineae (vm). 6 sp. N. Temp. AT. effusum L.

(millet-grass) in Brit. The leaf-blade is turned over on itself (cf.
Alstroemeria).

Miliusa Leschen. Anonaceae (1). 24 sp. trop. As.

Millettia Wight et Arn. Leguminosae (ill. 6). 60 sp. trop. and

sub-trop. Old World.

Millingtonia Linn. f. Bignoniaceae (1). 1 sp. Further India.

\V.

3T

482

MILTONIA

Miltonia Lindl. Orchidaceae (28). 17 sp. trop. Am. Epiphytes.

Mimosa Linn. Leguminosae (1. 3). 350 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Am.,

a few in Afr. and As. M. pudica L., the sensitive plant, is now a
common weed in many trop. lands and is universally cultivated in
hot houses. The genus consists mainly of herbs and undershrubs,
frequently with stipular thorns. M. pudica has a bipinnate leaf with
four secondary petioles. It is exceedingly sensitive, and a touch or
shake will make it move rapidly into the position which it assumes at
night. The leaflets move upwards in pairs, closing against one
another, the secondary petioles close up against ome another and the
main petiole drops through about 6o°. After a short time the move-
ments are slowly reversed. They are effected by the aid of a pulvinus
or swollen joint at each point of movement. Each pulvinus can be
made to work independently of the rest by gentle stimulation, and
the propagation of the stimulus from pulvinus to pulvinus may also be
seen. [For physiology of the process see text-books.] The ribs of
the fruit are frequently thorny and are usually dropped on dehiscence.

Mimulus Linn. Scrophulariaceae (11. 8). 80 sp. extra- trop. Am., S.

and E. As., Austr., E. Afr. Several are favourite garden plants and
one of these, M. luteus L., the yellow monkey-flower, has become
naturalised in Brit, on river-banks &c. M. moschatus Dougl. is the
common musk-plant of cottage windows. Insects entering the flr.
touch first the stigma, which is sensitive to contact and closes up, so
that self-pollination by the retreating insect is prevented (cf. Martynia).

Mimusops Linn. Sapotaceae (11). 65 sp. trop. M. Balata Crueg.

(M. globosa Gaertn.; Guiana) yields a gutta-percha (Balata). M.elata
Allem. is the Brazilian milk tree or Masseranduba. The timber is
hard and durable, the fruit edible, “ but strangest of all is the vege-
table milk, which exudes in abundance when the bark is cut ; it has
about the consistence of thick cream... also used for glue... as it
hardens by exposure to air it becomes a tough substance resembling
gutta-percha ” (Wallace, A?nazon , ch. II.).

Mina Cerv. = Ipomoea Linn. [M. lobata Cer v. = /. versicolor .]

Mirabilis Riv. ex Linn. (excl. Oxybaphus L’Herit.). Nyctaginaceae (1).
10 sp. trop. Am. At the base of the flr. is an involucre of 5 leaves
resembling a calyx; it is really the bracts of a 3-flowered dichasial
cyme, of which in most sp. only the central flr. is developed. In some
sp., however, e.g . M, . coccinea Benth. et Hook, f., the involucre encloses
more than 1 flr. The flr. opens in the evening and is protogynous
(in M . Jalapa L. and other common garden sp.), with ultimate auto-
gamy on withering. The involucre often forms a parachute on the
fruit. The tuberous roots of M. Jalapa L. (false jalap, four-o’clock,
marvel of Peru) were formerly used as jalap.

Mirbelia Sm. Leguminosae (ill. 2). 16 sp. Austr.

Mitchella Linn. Rubiaceae (11. 17). 2 sp. N. Am. (M. repens L.) and
Japan. Dimorphic heterostyled. The firs, are in pairs with united

MONIMIA CEA E

483

ovaries. Occasionally the calyx and corolla also fuse and we have a
double ovary surmounted by a 10-lobed calyx and corolla (cf.
Lonicera).

Mitella Tourn. ex Linn. Saxifragaceae (1). 7 sp. N. Am., Japan. The
inconspicuous greenish firs, stand in unilateral racemes.

Mitraria Cav. Gesneriaceae (1). 1 sp. Chili.

Mitrasacme Labill. Loganiaceae. 28 sp. Austr., trop. As.

Modecca Lam. (Adenia Forsk.). Passifloraceae. 30 sp. trop. exc. Am.

Modiola Moench. Malvaceae (11). 1 sp. Amer., S. Afr.

Moehringia Linn. = Arenaria Rupp.

Moenchia Ehrh. = Cerastium Dill.

Mogiphanes Mart. Amarantaceae (4). 10 sp. trop. Am. Included in

Alternanthera in A Tat. PJi .

Mohria Sw. Schizaeaceae. 1 sp. S. Afr., Madag. The sporangia are
on the under side of ordinary leaves, and the margins are turned
back over them (cf. Pteris).

Molinia Schrank. Gramineae (x). 1 sp. M. ccieralea Moench, Eur.

(inch Brit.), As.

Mollugo Linn. Aizoaceae (1). 13 sp. trop., and N. Am.

Moluccella Linn. Labiatae (vi. 4). 2 sp. Medit.

Momordica (Tourn.) Linn. Cucurbitaceae (ill). 25 sp. trop. [M.
Elaterium L. = Ecballium Elaterium\.

Monachantkus Lindl. = Catasetum Rich.

Monanthes Haw. Crassulaceae. 3 sp. Morocco, Canaries.

Monarda Linn. Labiatae (vi. 8). 6 sp. N. Am. Sta. 2. Fir. protan*
drous and visited by bees (and humming-birds in the red sp.). The
leaves of some sp. are used medicinally in the form of tea (Oswego-
tea).

Moneses Salisb. = Pyrola Tourn. [M. grandifiora S. F. Gray — P.
uniflora .]

Monimia Thou. Monimiaceae. 3 sp. Madag., Mascarenes.

Monimiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Ranales). 24 gen. with 150 sp.,
chiefly S. trop., and esp. in the ‘ oceanic ’ floral regions (Madag., Austr.,
Polynes.). Shrubs and trees, with leathery evergreen leaves, usually
opp., exstip., and firs, solitary or in cymes. The axis is hollowed
so that the fir. is perigynous; the firs, are commonly unisexual and
often the two sexes differ in the hollowing of the axis. Frequently
the bud opens by throwing off the outer ends of the perianth-leaves
as a sort of lid. Perianth simple; sta. 00, the anthers introrse or
extrorse, opening by slits or valves; cpls. usually 00, each with 1
usually basal erect anatropous ovule. Fruit of achenes, often more
or less enclosed in or borne on a fleshy receptacle. The order forms
a connecting link between Lauraceae and the other Ranales, being
closely allied on one side to L., on the other to Calycanthaceae.
Chief genera: Hedycaria, Peumus, Tambourissa, Laurelia. Placed
in Micrembryae by Benth. -Hooker, in Polycarpicae by Warming.

31 — 2

MONIZTA

Monizia Lowe = Thapsia Linn.

Monnina Ruiz et Pav. Polygalaceae. 60 sp. Mexico to Chili. One of
the two cpls. is usually rudimentary. Fruit indehiscent.
Monochaetum Naud. Melastomaceae (i). 30 sp. W. trop. Am. Sta.

dimorphous. The style, at first bent downwards, moves slowly up
till horizontal.

Monochlamydeae (Benth. -Hooker). One of the chief divisions of Dico-
tyledons (p. 135).

Monocosmia Fenzl. Portulacaceae. 1 sp. Chili.

Monocotyledones. One of the two great divisions of Angiospermae.
Their classification is less difficult than that of the Dicotyledons, and
a comparison should be made of the ways in which it is done in the
various systems (Ch. II.). Engler’s system is based on the following
genealogical tree (see his paper in Abh. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin,

1892, reviewed in Beih . z. Bot. Cent. 1893, p. 29, and in Bot. Gazette

1893, p. 191):

Pandanales

Synanthae

Principes

Helobieae

Spathiflorae

Glumiflorae

Farinosae

Liliiflorae

Scitamineae

Microspermae

[See also Prantl, in 70 Jahresb. d. Schles. Gesell. fiir vat . Cultur .]
On the origin of M., one of the great unsolved problems in
phylogeny, cf. Seward, Geological History , in Ann. of Bot. x, 1896,
p. 205 ; Miss Sargant, Theory of Origin of M., in do. xvn, 1903, p. 1.

Monodora Dun. Anonaceae (7). Fruit a berry with woody epicarp.
The seeds of M. Myristica Dun. are sometimes used as nutmegs.

Monotropa Linn. (incl. Hypopitys Dill.). Pyrolaceae. 3 sp. N. temp.
M. Hypopitys Walt., the yellow bird’s-nest, is found in fir, birch and
beech woods in Brit, as a yellowish saprophyte (p. 177) with scaly
leaves and a short terminal raceme of firs. Below the soil is found a
very much branched root system, the roots being covered with a
superficial mycorhiza by whose aid absorption takes place. Buds are
formed adventitiously upon the roots and lengthen into the flowering
shoots. The firs, are homogamous, without self-fertilisation. [Mono-
tropeae Benth. -Hooker.]

Monotropeae (Benth. -Hooker). An order in cohort Ericales, including
Monotropa and its allies; placed in Pyrolaceae by Drudein Nat. Pfl .

Monsonia Linn. Geraniaceae. 12 sp. Afr.

MORACEAE

485

Monstera Adans. Araceae (11). 15 sp. trop. Am. Climbing shrubs

with curious leaves, pinnate and full of round holes. When very
young the leaf is entire ; then the tissue between the veins ceases to
grow rapidly, becomes dry and tears away, thus leaving holes between
the ribs ; at the edge the marginal part usually breaks, and thus the
outermost hole gives rise to a notch in the leaf, which becomes pin-
nated. Beginning as a climber the plant usually ends as an epiphyte
with aerial roots going down to the soil. Firs. 2 , The fruit of M.
deliciosa Liebm. is edible.

Montbretia DC. = Tritonia Ker-Gawl.

Montia Mich, ex Linn. Portulacaceae. 1 sp. M. fontana L. (blinks)
cosmop., exhibiting many varieties. It is an annual herb, usually found
in wet places, with small cymes of firs. These are inconspicuous and
homogamous, and are probably as a rule self-fertilised. In bad
weather or when submerged they become cleistogamic. The stalk
goes through similai movements to that of Claytonia, and the fruit
explodes in the same way. The plant is eaten as salad.

Moquilea Aubl. Rosaceae (vi. 13a). 20 sp. S. Am. Some apetalous.

Moquinia DC. Compositae (xn). 9 sp. S. Am. Dioecious shrubs.

Moraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Urticales). 55 gen. with 800 sp.
trop. and sub-trop., a few temp. Most are trees or shrubs with stip.
leaves, and with latex. [See Ficus, Cecropia, Maclura, Humulus.]
Infl. cymose, usually taking the form of (pseudo-) racemes, spikes,
umbels or heads (cf. Urticaceae, and paper there cited). Firs, uni-
sexual. P usually 4 or (4), persistent ; sta. in <? as many as perianth-
leaves and opp. to them, bent inwards or straight in the bud, not
exploding like those of Urticaceae; G in ? of (2) cpls. of which one is
usually aborted all but the style; ovary i-loc. superior to inferior;
ovule 1, pendulous, amphitropous with micropyle facing upwards, or
rarely basal and erect. Fruit an achene or drupe-like; but commonly
a multiple fruit arises by union of the fruits of different firs., often
complicated by addition of the fleshy common receptacle (see Morus,
Ficus, Artocarpus). Seed with or without endosperm; embryo
usually curved. Many yield useful fruits, e.g. Morus, Artocarpus,
Ficus, Brosimum, &c. ; other important economic plants are Brous-
sonetia (paper), Castilloa (rubber), Brosimum (milk), Ficus (caout-
chouc, lac, timber, &c.), Cannabis (hemp, churrus), Humulus (hop)
and others.

Classification and chief genera (after Engler) :

I. MOROIDEAE (sta. incurved in bud ; ovule apical, ana- or
amphi-tropous ; leaves folded in bud; stipules small and not
leaving an amplexicaul scar on falling): Morus, Maclura,
Broussonetia, Dorstenia.

II. ARTOCARPOIDEAE (sta. straight; ovule as in I.; leaves
convolute; stipules leaving an amplexicaul scar): Arto-
carpus, Castilloa, Antiaris, Brosimum, Ficus.

486

III.

MORACEAE

CONOCEPHALOIDEAE (sta. straight; ovule at base or
apex, orthotropous or slightly curved; leaves &c. as in II.) :
Cecropia.

IV. CA NNABOIDEAE (sta. short and straight; ovule apical,
anatropous; acliene; endosperm; herbs with free stipules):
Humulus, Cannabis.

[Benth. -Hooker unite M. to Urticaceae (q.v.). Warming splits off
sub-order IV. as an independent order Cannabaceae, placing both it
and M. in Urticiflorae.]

Moraea Mill, ex Linn. Iridaceae (n). 60 sp. Afr., Austr. The outer

integument of the ovule becomes fleshy as it ripens to a seed.

Moricandia DC. Cruciferae (iv. 20). 10 sp. Medit.

Morina Tourn. ex Linn. Dipsacaceae. 9 sp. E. Eur., As. Thistle-
like herbs, with an infl. like that of Labiatae.

Morinda Linn. Rubiaceae (n. 19). 40 sp. trop. Firs, in heads; the

ovaries united. Several yield dye-stuffs.

Moringa Burm. The only genus of Moringaceae. 3 sp. trop. Afr., As.
Trees with deciduous leaves; firs, in racemes, zygomorphic, 5-merous.
There is a cupule-like disc bearing the sta. and perianth. Ovary on
a gynophore, i-loc. with 3 parietal placentae. Capsule pod-like.
Seeds winged, exalbuminous. M. oleifera Lam. is largely cultivated
for the sake of the oil (ben-oil) obtained from the seeds.

Moringaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rhoeadales). Only genus
Moringa (q.v.). It forms a connecting link to the Rosales (Legumi-
nosae). Benth. -Hooker place it as an anomalous order at the end of
Disciflorae.

Moringeae (Benth. -Hooker) = Moringaceae.

Mormodes Lindl. Orchidaceae (17). 20 sp. trop. Am., epiphytic.

The fir. presents a very complex structure ; the column is bent to one
side, the labellum to the other. The pollinia, with their viscid disc,
are violently shot out if an insect touches the articulation of the anther
to the column. For details see Darwin’s Orchids p. 208. Cf. Cata-
setum and Cycnoches, the other two genera of § 17.

Morus (Tourn.) Linn. Moraceae (1). 10 sp. N. temp. Firs, mon-

oecious or dioecious, the in catkins, the ? in pseudo-spikes, wind-
pollinated. Each ovary gives an achene enclosed in the perianth
whose leaves become completely united and fleshy. The whole mass
of fruits thus produced on the one spike is closely packed together,
giving a multiple fruit very like a black -berry (Rubus), but of very
different morphological nature. The fruit (mulberry) is edible. The
leaves of M. alba L. (white mulberry), M. nigra L. (black mul-
berry), and others are used for feeding silkworms.

Mucuna Adans. Leguminosae (in. 10). 30 sp. trop. and sub-trop.

Some sp. have stinging hairs on the pods.

Muehlenbeckia Meissn. Polygonaceae (ill. 5). 15 sp. Austr. to S.

Am. M. platy clados Meissn. has phyiloclades (p. 166), flat and green,

MUSACEAE

487

with transverse bands at the nodes, and green leaves which drop ofi
early. Firs, polygamous or dioecious.

Muehlenbergia Schreb. Gramineae (vm). 60 sp. N. Am., Andes,

Japan, Himal. Some are useful fodder-grasses.

Mulgedium Cass. = Lactuca Tourn.

Multiovuiatae Aquaticae and M. Terrestres (Benth.- Hooker). The
2nd and 3rd series of Incompletae (p. 136)*

Muraltia Neck. Polygalaceae. 40 sp. S. Afr.

Murraya Koen. ex Linn. Rutaceae (x). 4 sp. Indo-mal. The timber
is useful, and the leaves are used as a condiment by the Hindoos.

Musa Linn. Musaceae. About 20 sp. trop., exc. Am. Large herbs
with rhizomes and ‘false’ aerial stems (see order). The infl. springs
from the rhizome and emerges at the top of the aerial ‘stem.’ Firs. 00 ,
in the axils of leathery, often reddish-coloured bracts, the fruit-forming
$ firs, at the base of the infl. The sepals and two anterior petals
are joined into a tube, the posterior petal is free ; there are 5 fertile
sta., except in M. Ensete J. F. Gmel. where the posterior sta. is also
fertile; the ovary is 3-loc., with 00 anatropous ovules. Fruit alongish
berry. Seeds with mealy perisperm. M. Sapientum L., the banana,
with its subsp. M. paradisiaca L., the plantain or pisang, is one of the
most important food-plants in existence, and is everywhere cultivated
in the tropics, yielding 40 times as much food per acre as even the
potato. The cultivated forms are propagated entirely from the
rhizomes and produce no seeds (cf. Citrus). The dried fruits are
ground to form plantain-meal. The stalk of the infl. of M. Ensete
(Abyss.) is cooked and eaten. The leaf-stalks of M. textilis Nee
(Philippines &c) furnish a useful fibre, known as Manilla hemp.
[For details of economic uses, &c., see Kew Bulletin , Aug. 1894.]

Musaceae. Monocotyledons (Scitamineae). 4 gen. with 60 sp. trop.
They are (except Ravenala) gigantic herbs with rhizomes from which
the leaves spring; the sheaths of the leaves are rolled round one
another below, and form what looks like an aerial stem, attaining in
the banana many yards in height. The leaf is large and oval, with a
stout midrib, and parallel veins running from it to the edge. The
edge is easily torn between the bundles, as they do not join in the
same way as in a Dicotyledon; and so the wind and rain soon reduce
the leaf to a very ragged condition. The firs, are in cymes or racemes
with large brightly coloured bracts or spathes ; they are usually £ and
zygomorphic, but come much nearer to the usual type of Monocoty-
ledonous fir. than do those of the other orders of Scitamineae (q.v.).
P 3 + 3, free or united in various ways, both whorls petaloid; A 3 + 2,
the posterior sta. of the inner whorl being represented by a stami-
node; G (3), 3-loc., With 1 — 00 ovules in each loc. Fruit a berry,
capsule, or schizocarp. Seed with straight embryo and mealy peri-
sperm. The firs, are rich in honey, and are visited by bees and birds.
Musa is an important economic genus.

488

MUSACEAE

Classification and genera : the M. are closely related to the other
Scitamineae to which they are joined by Benth. -Hooker, and less
closely to the Liliiflorae on one hand and the Orchids on the other.

1 . Museae (odd sepal anterior ; ovules oo in each loc. ) : Ravenala,

Strelitzia, Musa. Old World (exc. i sp. of Ravenala).

2. Heliconieae (odd sepal posterior; ovules i per loc.): Heliconia.

Confined to America.

Muscari Tourn. ex Mill. Liliaceae (V). 40 sp. Medit., Eur., As. M.

racemosum Mill, (grape-hyacinth) in Brit. The upper firs, of the
raceme are neuter, serving only to give extra conspicuousness to the
infl. (cf. Centaurea Cyanus) ; the lower are homogamous and bee-
visited.

Mussaenda Burm. ex Linn. Rubiaceae (1. 7). 30 sp. trop. (exc. Am.).
One sepal is large, leafy, and brightly coloured, and helps to make the
fir. conspicuous (cf. Euphorbia, Salvia).

Musschia Dum. Campanulaceae (1. 1). 2 sp. Madeira (p. 148). The
capsule opens by many transverse slits betwen the ribs.

Mutisia Linn. f. Compositae (xii). 50 sp. S. Am. Many are climbers
(a rare habit in C.) with the ends of the leaf-midribs prolonged into
tendrils. All are shrubs with large heads of firs.

Myanthus Lindl. = Catasetum Rich.

Myoporaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). 5 gen. with 86 sp.
chiefly Austr. and neighbouring Is. (1 sp. in each of the following
areas: — Sandw. Is., E. As., Mauritius, Afr., W. Ind.). Most are trees
or shrubs, with alt. or opp. entire exstip. leaves, which are often
covered with woolly or glandular hairs, and frequently very reduced
in size. Firs, solitary, or in cymose groups, axillary, $ , regular or
zygomorphic. K (5), C (5), A 4, didynamous; anther loculi confluent.
G (2), 2 -loc. or by segmentation 3 — io-loc., in the former case with
1 — 8, in the latter with 1, ovule in each loc. Ovule pendulous,
anatropous. Drupe. Endosperm. Chief genera: Pholidia, Myoporum.
Placed in Lamiales by Benth.- Hooker, in Labiatiflorae by Eichler (see
Bliithendiag.).

Myoporineae (Benth. -Hooker) = Myoporaceae.

Myoporum Banks et Soland. Myoporaceae. 25 sp. Austr., E. As.,
Sandw. Is. , Mauritius. M. laetwn Forst. f. (N. Z.) yields useful timber.

Myosotidium Hook. Boraginaceae (iv. 1). 1 sp. Chatham Is. (p. 148).

Myosotis Linn. Boraginaceae (iv. 4). 30 sp. Old World temp. 8 in

Brit, (scorpion-grass, forget-me-not). The corolla-mouth is nearly
closed by scales, and in some sp. there is a coloured ring at the en-
trance forming a honey guide (see Life of Sprengel, in Nat. Science
Apr. 1893). The colour of the corolla changes as it grows older (see
order).

Myosurus Linn. Ranunculaceae (3). 5 sp. temp. M. minimus L.

(mouse-tail) in Brit. The receptacle is much elongated,

Myrcia DC. Myrtaceae (1). 190 sp. trop. Am.

MYRMECODIA

48g

Myrica Linn. Myricaceae. 40 sp. Eur., As., Afr., Am., esp. sub-trop.
M. Gale L., the sweet gale or bog-myrtle, is frequent in Brit, in
mountain bogs. Its leaves have a pleasant resinous smell when
rubbed or on hot days. The firs, are in short catkins, achlamydeous.
The^ has usually 2 bracteoles and 4 sta. (2 — 16); the ? 2 — 4 brac-
teoles and 2 syncarpous cpls. with one erect orthotropous ovule. The
fruit is a nut, the exocarp secreting wax. M. cerifera L. (N. Am.,
wax-myrtle or bay-berry) and other sp. are used as sources of wax,
to procure which the fruits are boiled.

Myricaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Myricales). Only genus
Myrica (q.v.). Placed in Unisexual es by Benth. -Hooker, injuglandi-
florae by Warming.

Myricaria Desv. Tamaricaceae. 10 sp. Scandinavia to China.

Myriocarpa Benth. Urticaceae. 6 sp. trop. Am. Firs. 00, in catkins.

Myriophyllum Ponted. ex Linn. Haloragidaceae. 18 sp. cosmop.; 2 in
Brit, (water milfoil). Water plants, submerged, with usually whorled
much-divided leaves, borne on shoots that spring from the rhizome-
like stems creeping on the ground. Land forms are occasionally
produced in some sp. The infl. projects above water; and the firs, are
wind-fertilised. Hibernation by winter-buds as in Utricularia. [See
P- X59-]

Myristica Linn. Myristicaceae. 150 sp. trop., esp. As. Trees with
2 -ranked exstip. evergreen leaves and dioecious regular firs. P (3),
simple (cf. Monodora); A (3 — 18), extrorse; G 1, with 1 basal
anatropous ovule. The fruit is a berry, but splits by both sutures,
disclosing a large seed — the nutmeg — with a curious branched red
aril — the mace — around it. Endosperm ruminate. The nutmeg of
commerce is the seed of M. fragrans Houtt. (M. moschata Thunb.),
a native of the Moluccas.

Myristicaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Ranales). Only genus Myris-
tica (q.v.). Placed in Micrembryae by Benth. -Hooker, in Polycar-
picae by Warming. [See Warburg in Bot. Cent. 64, p. 204.]

Myrmecodia Jack. Rubiaceae (11. 15). 18 sp. Indo-mal. Epiphytes

with leafy stems. The base of the stem forms a large tuber fastened
to the support by adventitious roots. The tuber presents a very
remarkable structure, being composed of a large mass of tissue, chiefly
cork, penetrated by numerous communicating galleries and chambers,
which are inhabited by ants. These galleries are formed in a peculiar
way ; after germination the hypocotyl swells into a small parenchy-
matous tuber, and in this, in an axial direction, there appears a hollow
cylinder of phellogen (p. 158) which proceeds to form cork on its
inner side and parenchyma on the outer, thus adding to the bulk of
the tuber and at the same time forming in it a hollow space (for
the tissue within the cylinder of cork dies and dries up) open to the
surface. Near the outer surface of the tuber is a phellogen layer
acting in the ordinary way, forming a bark. As the tuber grows

490

MYRMECODIA

more phellogens appear like the first, adding more parenchyma and
forming new cavities which are always in communication with the
old. It has not been proved that the ants are of any service to the
plant, so that it remains very doubtful whether M. is a truly myrme-
cophilous plant (see Acacia, Cecropia). The tuber seems rather
to be a water-storage apparatus (p. 175). [See Goebel’s Pflanzenbiol.
Schild ., Treub in Ann. Buitenz. in. and VII., Karsten, in do. xn.]

Myrothamnaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). An order allied
to Cunoniaceae, chiefly noteworthy for the dioecious achlamydeous
firs., which are apparently wind-fertilised. The only genus is Myro-
thamnus. Placed in Hamamelidaceae by Benth.- Hooker.

Myrothamnus Welw. Myrothamnaceae. 2 sp. S. Afr. and Madag.

Myroxylon Forst. ( Xylosma Forst. f.). Flacourtiaceae. 45 sp. trop.
(exc. Afr.).

Myroxylon Linn. f. = Toluifera Linn, (same specific names).

Myrrhis (Toum.) Linn. Umbelliferae (5). 4 sp. Eur., W. As., N.

Am. M. odorata Scop, in Brit, (sweet cicely or myrrh), sometimes
used as a pot-herb.

Myrsinaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Primulales). 23 gen. with 550
sp. , chiefly trop. and subtrop. ; a few sp. reach Cape Col., N. Z. and
Florida. They are shrubs and trees with alt. leaves, often in rosettes.
In some (e.g. Theophrasta, q.v.) the young twigs are covered with
thorny scales. The leaves are usually leathery, entire, exstip., with
resin-passages in their tissues. Firs, solitary (Deherainea) or in race-
mose infls., with 2 bracteoles, £ or unisexual, actinomorphic, 4- or 5-
merous. K (5); C (5); A 5, epipetalous and opp. to the petals ; anthers
introrse or extrorse; staminodes sometimes present, alt. with petals.
G superior, rarely inf. or semi-inferior, i-loc. ; placenta basal or free-
central with few or 00 ovules, semi-anatropous or semi-campylotro-
pous, sunk in placentar tissue. Style and stigma simple. As the
fruit ripens, most of the ovules usually abort, and there results a one-
or few-seeded drupe. Embryo straight or slightly curved ; endosperm
fleshy or horny.

Classification and chief genera (after Pax) : the M. are closely allied
to Primulaceae, being distinguished chiefly by the habit and the fruit.
They also approach Sapotaceae, but the latter have a chambered
ovary. [§ 1 is sometimes made into a separate order.]

A. Anther loculaments not chambered :

I. THE OP HR A ST OIDEA E (Ovary sup. Staminodes): Theo-
phrasta, Jacquinia, Clavija, Deherainea.

II. MYRSINOIDEAE (Ovary sup. No staminodes) : Embelia,
Myrsine, Ardisia.

III. MAESOIDEAE (Ovary inf. or semi-inf.) : Maesa.

B. Anther loculaments transversely chambered.

IV. AEG/CERA TOIDEAE : Aegiceras.

[Placed in Primulales by Benth. -Hooker, in Primulinae by Warming.]

M YZODENDR ON

491

Myrsine Linn. Myrsinaceae (11). 80 sp. trop. As. Afr.

Myrsiphyllum Willd.= Asparagus Tourn.

Myrtaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Myrtiflorae). 72 gen. with about
2000 sp., trop. and sub-trop. ; the chief centres of distribution are
Austr. (. Leptospermoideae ) and trop. Am. (Myrtoideae). They are
trees and shrubs, varying in size from a small creeper to the giant
Eucalyptus, with oil-glands in leaves &c. Leaves usually opp.,
exstip. , evergreen, entire. Firs, generally in cymes, £ , regular. The
receptacle is more or less hollow and united to the ovary. In Metro-
sideros and most of its allies the union is not very complete, but in
the rest of the order it is complete, and the
fir. is epigynous. K (4 — 5) or 4 — 5, in some
genera not opening when the fir. opens, but
thrown off as a lid, usually quincuncial, with
the second leaf posterior; C 4 — 5, the petals
often nearly circular; Aoo , free, rarely definite
usually bent inwards in bud; Goo — i-loc.,
with 2 — co anatropous or campylotropous
ovules in each loc. ; style and stigma simple ;
placentae usually axile, rarely parietal. Fruit
a berry, drupe, capsule, or nut. Seeds with Floral diagram of Myrtus
no endosperm. Several M. are economically communis (after Eichler).
important, e.g. Eucalyptus (timber, kino, oil), Eugenia (cloves &c.),
Psidium (guava), &c.

Classification and chief genera:

I. MYRTOIDEAE (berry, rarely drupe) :

1. Myrteae\ Myrtus, Psidium, Pimenta, Eugenia, Syzygium.

II. LEPTOSPERMOIDEAE (dry fruit) :

2. Leptospermeae (ovary multi-loc.) : Metrosideros, Eucalyptus,

Callistemon, Melaleuca.

3. Chamaelaucieae (i-loc. ; i-seeded nut) : Darwinia.

[Benth.-Hooker unite Lecythidaceae to M. and place it in Myr-

tales; Warming adds to M. both L. and Punicaceae, placing it in
Myrtiflorae.]

Myrtales (Benth.-Hooker). The 12th cohort of Polypetal ae (p. 135).

Myrtiflorae. The 25th cohort (Engler) of Archichlamydeae (p. 130).
The 22nd cohort (Warming) of Choripetalae (p. 138).

Myrtus (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Ugni Turcz.). Myrtaceae (1). 70 sp. trop.
and subtrop. M. communis L., the myrtle, is a W. As. shrub, long
naturalised in Eur. The Chilian sp. (§ Ugni ) have edible fruits.

Mystacidium Lindl. Orchidaceae (31). 35 sp. Afr.

Myzodendraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Santalales). Only genus
Myzodendron. United to Santalaceae by Benth.-Hooker and Warm-
ing. See Nat. PJl .

Myzodendron (Banks) Soland. Myzodendraceae. 7 sp. Chili, Pata-
gonia. Semi-parasitic green shrubs (p. 176), like Loranthaceae.

492

NAEGELIA

Naegelia Regel ( Smithiantha O. Ktze.). Gesneriaceae (n). 6 sp.

Mexico ; several are favourite stove plants. They form subterranean
runners, covered with scaly leaves.

Nageia Gaertn. = Podocarpus L’Herit.

Naiadaceae. Monocotyledons (Helobieae). Only genus Naias (q.v.).
As defined by Benth. -Hooker the order includes a number of plants
here placed in different orders, viz. Potamogetonaceae, Naiadaceae,
Aponogetonaceae, and Juncaginaceae.

Najas Linn. Naiadaceae. 15 sp. cosmop.; 2 in Brit. Freshwater
annual plants, submerged, with slender stems and opp. usually toothed
linear leaves. Firs, diclinous ; the S consists of a single anther,
which is terminal on the axis (see Goebel’s Entwicklungsgeschichte der
Planzenorgane p. 278) and 1- or 4-loc., enclosed in two sheathing
perianths ; the ¥ fir. consists of an ovary of one cpl., naked or sur-
rounded by a perianth-like organ. Pollination occurs under water as
in Zostera, but the pollen is spherical. Ovule 1 , anatropous, terminal
on the axis. Embryo straight ; no endosperm. [See Nat. PJi. and
Eichler’s Bliithcndiag. ]

Nama Linn. Hydrophyllaceae. 27 sp. Am., Sandwich Is.

Nandina Thunb. Berberidaceae. 1 sp., N. domestica Thunb., China,
Japan. The perianth (including 2 whorls of honey leaves) is in 9
whorls, showing a more petaloid structure as they near the centre.

Napaea Linn. Malvaceae (11). 1 sp. N. Am. Dioecious.

Napoleona Beauv. Lecythidaceae. 7 sp. W. trop. Afr. The fir. has a
certain resemblance to that of Passiflora, owing to the corona of
staminodes. Ovary 5 — 20- loc. Berry.

Narcissus (Tourn.) Linn. Amaryllidaceae (1). 40 sp., Eur., Medit.,

As. Several are favourites in horticulture, e.g. N. Pseudo-narcissus
L. , the daffodil, N. poeticus L. the poet’s Narcissus, N. Jonquilla L.,
the jonquil, N Tazetta L., and others. The corona is well de-
veloped, and free from the stamens (see order).

Nardostachys DC. Valerianaceae. 2 sp. Himal. N. Jatamansi DC.,
the spikenard, has very fragrant rhizomes.

Nardus Linn. Gramineae (xn). 1 sp. Eur., W. As., N. stricta L.,
the nard or mat-grass, common on moors in Brit. The infl. is
markedly unilateral (an unusual feature in § xii). The grass is of no
feeding value.

Narthecium Moehr. Liliaceae (1). 4 sp. N. temp.; N. ossifragum

Huds. (bog-asphodel), abundant on wet moors in Brit. It has a
sympodial rhizome and isobilateral leaves (the xerophytic structure is
rendered necessary by the coldness of the soil, which checks absorp-
tion). The fir. is conspicuous, but contains no honey (p. 88).

Narthex Falc. = Ferula Tourn. N. Asafoetida Falc. = F. Narthex.

Nassauvia Comm. ex. Juss. Compositae (xii). 50- sp. Andes.

Nasturtium Linn. Cruciferae (11. n). 50 sp. cosmop.; 4 in Brit.,

including N. officinale R.Br., the water- cress. In the perennial sp.

NENUPHAR

493

buds arise at the base of the year’s shoot, and take root while still
attached to the parent shoot. The adventitious roots are said to arise
exogenously (p. 38). [The N. of gardens is really Tropaeolum.]

Nauclea Linn. Rubiaceae (1. 6). 30 sp. trop. As., Polynes. Firs, in

spherical heads. In N. lanceolaia Blume ( N . purpurea Roxb.) there
are hollow swollen portions of the stem, just below the infls., inhabited
by ants (cf. Acacia).

Nectandra Roland. Lauraceae (1). 70 sp. trop. and subtrop. Am.

Neea Ruiz et Pav. Nyctaginaceae (2). 30 sp. trop. S. Am. The

leaves of N. theifera Oerst. (Caparrosa) are used as tea, and also yield
a black dye.

Negundo Moench. Aceraceae. 4 sp. N. temp. Like Acer (q.v.), to
which it is united in Nat. Pfl.

Neillia D. Don. Rosaceae (1. 1). 3 sp. Himal., S. China.

Nelsonia R. Br. Acanthaceae (1). 1 sp. trop. Old World.

Nelumbium Juss. Nymphaeaceae (1). 2 sp., N.luteum Willd., Penn-

sylvania to Columbia, and N. speciosum Willd. (N. nuciferum Gaertn.)
Japan to Caspian and N.E. Austr. The latter sp. is the sacred Lotus,
no longer however found in the Nile. Sculptures of it are common
in Egyptian temples, and it is still regarded as sacred in India, Tibet,
China, &c. Bothsp. are marsh plants; the fls., which are very large
and handsome, and the big peltate slightly hairy leaves stand above
the water (do not float upon it, as from analogy we should expect).
The rhizome bears ‘triads’ of leaves; after a long internode
comes a scaly-leaf on the lower side, then one on the upper side,
immediately followed by a foliage-leaf with ochreate stipule, then a
long internode again, and so on. This peculiar leaf-arrangement
is quite unique. From the axil of the second scale-leaf springs
the fir., from that of the foliage-leaf a branch. The fir. has no
bracteoles. The first perianth-leaf is anterior, the second posterior,
then follow 2 lateral ; these 4 are sometimes regarded as a calyx.
They are followed by numerous petals and sta., acyclically arranged.
In the centre of the fir. stands the curious obconical gynoeceum, con-
sisting of a large number of cpls. embedded separately in the top of
the swollen receptacle. Each cpl. contains 1 pendulous ovule. The
receptacle becomes dry and very light, and the achenes separate from
it, as the fruit ripens. It breaks off bodily from the stalk and floats
about until decay sets free the fruits, which sink to Hie bottom of the
pond. There is no endosperm or perisperm. The seeds of N. specio-
sum are used as food in Cashmere &c.

Nelumbo (Tourn.) Adans. = Nelumbium Juss.

Nemastylis Nutt. Iridaceae (11). 10 sp. Am.

Nemesia Vent. Scrophulariaceae (11. 5). 24 sp. S. Afr.

Nemophila Nutt. Hydrophyllaceae. n sp. N. Am., often cultivated.
Floral mechanism &c. as in Phacelia.

Nenuphar Link = Nuphar Sm.

494

NEOTINEA

Neotinea Rchb. f. = Habenaria Willd.

Neottia Linn. Orchidaceae (4). 3 sp. temp. Eur. and As. ; N. Nidus -

ams Rich, (bird’s-nest orchis) in Brit. It is a leafless saprophyte
(p. 177), the rhizome giving off a great number of roots which form a
nest-like mass in the humus, and have endotropic mycorhiza. The
older roots may throw off their root-caps and develope into shoots (cf.
Anthurium). Fir. as in Listera (Darwin’s Orchids, p. 125).

Nepenthaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sarraceniales). Only genus
Nepenthes (q.v.). Placed in Multiovulatae Terrestres by Benth.-
Hooker, in Cistiflorae by Warming.

Nepenthes Linn. Nepenthaceae. 40 sp. Indo-mal., Madag. (pitcher
plants). Most are herbs growing in boggy places and climbing over
other plants by aid of tendrils, which form prolongations of the leaf-
midribs. The end of the tendril developes as a rule into a pitcher,
with a lid projecting forwards over the mouth, but not closing it
except in the young state. The pitcher developes by an invagination
of the upper surface of the tip of the leaf ; the tip takes no part in
the development, and the lid grows out below it. The edge of the
pitcher is curved inwards ; at the entrance there are numerous honey-
glands, and for some distance below it are other glands, sunk in little
pits on the inner surface of the pitcher. Insects attracted by the
honey (and often by the bright colour of the pitcher) gradually work
their way downwards among the glands, and presently get upon the
slippery lower part and ultimately into the water in the bottom of the
pitcher, where they are drowned. The plant absorbs the products of
their decay, but whether it secretes a ferment that acts upon the
proteids, as that of Drosera does, is still an open question.

Many sp. are epiphytic. In N. ampullaria Jack there are two
kinds of leaves (cf. Cephalotus), some with tendrils and no pitchers ;
others, as stalked pitchers arranged in a radical rosette.

Firs, dioecious, regular, in racemes or with the secondary branch-
ing cincinnal; there are no bracts. P 2 + 2; in the $ fir. sta. (4 — 16)
in a column; in the ? fir. G (4), 4-loc. ; ovules 00, anatropous, in
many rows. Capsule leathery, loculicidal. Seeds light with long
hair-like processes at the ends ; embryo straight, in fleshy endosperm.
Many sp. and hybrids are in cultivation. [See Goebel’s Pflanzenbiol.
Sell., Macfarlane in Ann. of Bot. III. and VII., and cf. p. 177 and
Sarracenia, Cephalotus.]

Nepeta Riv. ex Linn. (incl. Glechoma Linn). Labiatae (vi. 3). 100

sp. extratrop., Old World. N. Glechoma Benth. (ground-ivy) and N
Cataria L. (cat-mint) in Brit. The firs, are markedly gynodioecious

(p. 68).

Nephelium Linn. (excl. Litchi Sonner.). Sapindaceae (1). 22 sp. Indo-
mal. N. lappaceum L., the Rambutan, is largely cultivated for its
fruit (like that of Litchi, q.v.). N. Longana Cambess., the Longan,
and others, are also used. [For N. Litchi Cambess. see Litchi.]

NIGELLA

495

Neplirodium Rich. Polypodiaceae. 250 sp. cosmop. There are 7
Brit, sp., often classed under Aspidium or Lastrea. N. has kidney-
shaped indusia, while A. has peltate. The best known is N. Filix-
mas Rich., the common shield-fern. It has a stout, nearly erect
rhizome with large pinnate leaves. Branches arise on the leaf bases,
but rarely. N. Filix-mas var. cristatum Moore exhibits apospory,
(see Filicineae Leptosporangiatae).

Neplirolepis Schott. Polypodiaceae. 7 sp. trop. They produce
runners like Strawberry, but not axillary, which take root and give
rise to new plants.

Nephthytis Schott. Araceae (vi). 2 sp. trop. W. Afr.

Neptunia Lour. Leguminosae (1. 4). 8 sp. trop. and subtrop. N.

oleracea Lour, is found in hot-houses. It has a floating stem, rooting
at the nodes, and covered by a curious aerenchyma tissue (p. 161).
The leaves are sensitive like those of Mimosa. The firs, are in heads,
the lower ones being $ , or neuter with petaloid staminodes.

Nerine Herb. Amaryllidaceae (1). 10 sp. Cape Colony.

Nerium Linn. Apocynaceae (11. 4). 3 sp. Medit. to Japan. N% Ole-

ander L. is the oleander. It has curious pits on the lower surface
of the evergreen leaves, in which the stomata are sunk (several in
each) and covered with hairs, thus reducing transpiration. The firs,
are suited to long-tongued moths.

Nertera Banks et Soland. Rubiaceae (11. 17). 6 sp. Andes, N. Z.,

Austr., Sandw. Is., Malaya.

Nesaea Comm, ex Juss. Lythraceae. 27 sp. Afr., Austr., As., N. Am,

Neslia Desv. Cruciferae (iv. 14). 1 sp. Eur., As.

Nestlera Spreng. Compositae (iv). 10 sp. Cape Colony.

Neurada Linn. Rosaceae (iv. 11). 1 sp. Medit. to E. Ind.

Nicandra Adans. Solanaceae (1). 1 sp. Peru, N. physaloides Gaertn.

Ovary divided in an irregular way by the placentae. Berry nearly
juiceless and with co seeds, enclosed in the enlarged calyx.

Nicotiana Linn. Solanaceae (iv). 40 sp. Am., Polynes., 1 Austr.

N. Tabacum L., cult, in warm countries, is the tobacco; the leaves
are gathered and slowly dried, then packed in heaps and fermented
slightly. N. rustica L. and others, are also used.

Nidularium Lem. = Karatas Adans.

Nierembergia Ruiz et Pav. Solanaceae (iv). 20 sp. extratrop. Am.

Nigella (Tourn.) Linn. Ranunculaceae (2). 16 sp. Medit., often culti-
vated as ornamental plants (love-in-a-mist, devil-in-a-bush). Annual
herbs. Alternating with the calyx is an involucre of 5 leaves. Within
the coloured calyx are 5 — 8 nectaries, curious pocket-like structures
with lids which prevent small insects from reaching the honey. The
cpls. are more or less completely united but have separate styles ;
they give rise to a capsular fruit. The fir. is protandrous ; the styles
at first stand straight up out of reach of the sta., but later on bend
downwards over the nectaries.

NIGRITELLA

496

Nigritella Rich. = Habenaria Willd. [See Alpenblumen , p. 66.]

Nipa Thunb. Palmae (v). 1 sp., N. fruticans Thunb., trop. Old

World, a low-growing palm with monoecious infl. Fruits woody,
combined into a dense head ; each contains one seed. It grows
in brackish water and is a very characteristic plant upon large areas
of the trop. coasts (p. 191). [See Phytelephas.]

Nivenia Vent. = Aristea Soland.

Nolana Linn. Nolanaceae. 20 sp. Chili, Peru. Many are shore
plants (p. 169) with fleshy leaves. The length of the sta. and style
varies considerably in different firs, (see Darwin’s Forms of Firs .
p. 261).

Nolanaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). 3 gen. with 30 sp.,
W. coast of S. Am. Herbs or low shrubs with simple leaves, often
covered with glandular hairs. The leaves in the vegetative region are
alt., but in the infl. portion they become paired in the same way as in
Solanaceae (q.v.). Many of the order are sea-shore plants with
fleshy leaves (p. 169). Firs, solitary in the leaf-axils, regular.
K (5); C (5); A 5, alt. with petals. Cpls. typically 5, only united in
Alona, usually free and divided by irregular longitudinal constrictions
into 5 or 10 portions standing in a row, or by longitudinal and trans-
verse constrictions into 10 — 30 portions in 2 or 3 rows. The fruit
consists of a corresponding number of 1 — 7-seeded nutlets. Stipe 1.
Seed albuminous. Genera : Nolana, Alona, Dolia. United to Con-
volvulaceae by Benth-Hooker ; placed in Personatae by Warming.

Nolina Michx. Liliaceae (vi). 10 sp. South-west of N. Am. Xero-

phytes with the habit of Dasylirion.

Nonnea Medic. Boraginaceae (iv. 3). 30 sp. Medit.

Nopalea Salm-Dyck. Cactaceae (11). 3 sp. Cent. Am. Very similar

to Opuntia. N. coccinellifera Salm-Dyck is the plant upon which the
cochineal insect ( Coccus cacti ) is cultivated, chiefly in the Canaries &c.
It has no thorns.

Norantea Aubl. Marcgraviaceae. 14 sp. trop. Amer. All the firs,
are fertile, and have saccate nectariferous bracts. The plant re-
sembles Philodendron in habit. Placed in Ternstroemiaceae by
Benth.-Hooker.

Nothochlaena R. Br. Polypodiaceae. 30 sp. trop. and temp.

Nothofagns Blume = Fagus Toum.

Nothopanax Miq. = Panax Linn.

Nothoscordum Kunth. Liliaceae (iv). 10 sp. China, Am. Adventi-

tious embryos are formed by budding of the nucellus tissue round the
embryo-sac (cf. Funkia).

Nuculiferae (Warming). The 6th cohort of Sympetalae (p. 138).

Nudiflorae (Benth-Hooker). The 5th series of Monocotyledons (p.

137)-

Nuphar Sibth. et Sm. Nymphaeaceae (in). 7. sp. N. Hemisph. AT.

luteum Sibth. et Sm. is the common yellow water-lily or brandy-

NYMPHAEA

497

bottle; N. pwnilum DC. is also found in Brit. The vegetative habit
is that of Nymphaea (q.v.). The fir. projects a little above the water,
and is fully hypogynous. At the base of the peduncle is a rudimen-
tary bract. There are 5 large coloured outer perianth" leaves, quin-
cuncial, the fourth being anterior. Within these are the ‘petals,’ 13
in number arranged in a 5/13 spiral. Then follow 00 sta., the outer 13
alternating with the petals, the next 13 with them, and so on in a
spiral. In the centre is the superior gynoeceum, syncarpous, with
10 — 16 loculi. Stigmas, ovules, &c., as in Nymphaea. The fruit is a
large berry ; it breaks off from the stalk and splits up into separate
cpls. The seeds have no aril like those of Nymphaea, but the slimy
pericarp contains air bubbles : the seeds are set free by its gradual
decay, and sink to the bottom.

Nuttallia Torr. et Gray. Rosaceae (v. 12). 1 sp. N. W. Am. Like

Prunus, but with 5 free cpls.

Nyctaginaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Centrospermae). 20 gen.
with 160 sp., mostly trop. and esp. Am. Trees, shrubs or herbs with
opp. (often unequal) leaves and no stipules. Firs, in cymes, $ or
unisexual, and presenting much variety in structure. At the base of
the firs, are usually several bracts, often large and coloured. In
Bougainvillaea 3 large conspicuous bracts enclose a group of 3 firs.
In Abronia the number of bracts and firs, is larger, while in Mirabilis
there is only one fir. and the involucre resembles a calyx. P usually
(5), petaloid, persistent upon the ripe fruit; usually the upper part
drops away and the fruit remains in the lower part, which is termed the
anthocarp, and may become glandular, or form an umbrella-like wing,
or otherwise serve for seed-dispersal. Sta. typically 5, alt. with the
perianth, but often 3, 8, 10 or other numbers, or raised to 20 or 30
by branching ; filaments often of unequal length. Ovary of 1 cpl.,
superior, with a long style and 1 basal erect ana-campylotropous
ovule. Fruit an achene enclosed in the perianth. The N. are of
slight economic value; see Mirabilis, Neea, &c.

Classification and ch ief genera (aft er Heimerl) :

A. Ovary glabrous : style present; sta. 1 — 30.

1. Mirabileae (perianth enlarging after fertilisation; shrubs and
herbs ; $ ) : Mirabilis, Allionia, Bougainvillaea, Abronia.

2. Pisonieae (as 1 but shrubs and trees; 1 -sexual) : Pisonia, Neea.

3. Boldoeae (perianth not enlarging ; herbs; 5): Boldoa.

B. Ovary hairy; no style : sta. 2 — 3.

4. Leucastereae : Leucaster, Reichenbachia.

[Placed in Curvembryae by Benth.- Hooker and Warming. See
art. Caryophyllaceae for relationships.]

Nyctagineae (Benth. -Hooker) = Nyctaginaceae.

Nycterinia D. Don = Zaluzianskya F. W. Schmidt.

Nymphaea (Tourn.) Linn. ( Castalia Salisb.). Nymphaeaceae (ill). 32
sp. trop. and temp. N. alba L., the white water-lily, in Brit. Many

32

w.

498

NYMPHAEA

sp. are cultivated in our water-lily houses, e.g. N. Lotus L. sometimes
supposed to be the sacred lotus of Egypt (see Nelumbium). They
grow in shallow water. There is a stout rhizome creeping on the
earth, with roots on the underside. At the tip it is bent upwards,
and bears stipulate leaves and firs, on long stalks. The peduncle
occupies the position of one of the leaves of the spiral, and there is no
bract at its base. The leaf is large and floats on the surface of the
water; as is usual in such cases it is nearly circular, entire, and leathery,
with stomata and cuticle and palisade tissue on the upper side. In
very deep water ribbon-like submerged leaves are sometimes formed,
and seedlings always produce such leaves at first (see p. 160).

The fir. is $ , regular, acyclic, and floats on the surface of the
water*; where it is visited by insects. The outermost floral leaves, 4
in number, exhibit a peculiar aestivation, the anterior being entirely
outside, the posterior inside the lateral leaves. According to Caspary
(Eichler, Bliithendiag. II. 184) the anterior leaf represents the bract
(‘adnate’ to the peduncle; cf. Solanaceae), the two lateral leaves the
bracteoles, the posterior a true sepal. Most authors regard the 4 leaves
as a calyx, but the morphology is, in either case, very peculiar. The
corolla is well developed ; there are 4 outer petals alternating with
the sepals, and 4 inner alternating with the outer. These 8 form
the starting points of as many spirals of petals, usually 4 in each,
alternating approximately with the outer 8 and with one another.
As we pass inwards the petals become narrower and show transition
forms to the sta., which to the number of 50 or 100 continue
the fir. inwards. Whilst the calyx is hypogynous the petals and
sta. are inserted up the sides of the gynoeceum, which is syn-
carpous, with jo- 20 loculi, each containing 00 ovules scattered
over the whole carpellary surface (cf. Butomus). The sessile stigmas
form a number of rays upon the upper surface of the gynoeceum, as in
a poppy. The fruit is a large berry containing numerous seeds, each
of which is covered by a spongy aril. Between the aril and the seed
are air-bubbles. The fruit ripens under water and when it dehisces
the mass of seeds floats up to the surface; there the individual seeds
part company, each drifting about until the air escapes (by decay of
the aril or otherwise), when it sinks to the bottom of the pond.
There is a large perisperm round the endosperm proper.

Nymphaeaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Ranales). 8 genera with
about 60 sp. cosmop. Water or marsh plants usually with rhizomes,
and with submerged, floating, and aerial leaves (see p. 160 and cf. the
genera) and solitary usually large firs. These show a great variety
of pattern. Cabomba is most simple and agrees in type with the other
orders of Ranales; whilst in Nuphar, Nymphaea, Victoria, Nelum-
bium, &c., great modification appears, especially in the gynoeceum. In
N elumbium the ovary is still apocarpous, though the cpls. are connected
by the curious torus, whilst in the other genera it is syncarpous; in

OCOTEA

499

Nuphar it is superior, in Nymphaea semi-inferior, in Victoria inferior.
The perianth too shows much variety, from the simple Cabomba-type
to Nuphar, &c. The ovules are usually anatropous. The seed has
both endosperm and perisperm (exc. Nelumbium), and is often aril-
late. For full details of the floral structure see the chief genera, and
Eichler’s Bliithendiag.

Classification and genera (after Caspary) :

I. NELOMBONOIDEAE (seed exalbuminous ; cpls. free in
obconical receptacle) : Nelumbium (only genus).

II. CABOMBOIDEAE (endosperm and perisperm; cpls. free):
Cabomba, Brasenia.

III. NYMPH A E OIDEAE (do., but cpls. united): Victoria,
Euryale, Nymphaea, Nuphar, Barclaya.

[Placed in Ranales by Benth. -Hooker, in Polycarpicae by Warming.]

Nyssa Gronov. ex Linn. Cornaceae. 6 sp. N. Am., Himal., Malaya.
N, niultiflora Wangenb. and others in N. Am. (Tupelo, Pepperidge,
Gum-tree) yield timber and edible fruit.

Oberonia Lindl. Orchidaceae (8). 50 sp. trop., exc. Am.

Obione Gaertn. = Atriplex Linn.

Obolaria Linn. Gentianaceae (1, 2). 1 sp. N. Am. Saprophyte (cf.

Bartonia) of a purplish green colour with scaly leaves (p. 177)-

Ochna Linn. Ochnaceae. 30 sp. trop. As., Afr., Cape Col. The
calyx is coloured. Cpls. 3 — 15, free below, but with a common style.
After fertilisation the style falls off and each cpl. gives rise to a drupe,
while at the same time the receptacle becomes fleshy underneath
them. The leaf is a good one for showing veining.

Ochnaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 17 gen. with 210 sp.,
trop. Most are trees or shrubs with alt. usually simple stip. leaves, and
panicles, racemes or cymes (Sauvagesia, &c.) of £ , usually regular firs.
K 5, free or united at base, imbricate; C 5, rarely io, contorted; A
5, 10, or 00 , hypogynous or on an elongated axis ; G (2 — 5), rarely (10 —
15), often free below with common style (cf. Apocynaceae). Ovules
1 — 2 — 00 in each cpl., erect or rarely pendulous, always with ventral
raphe. The axis swells and becomes fleshy under the fruit, which is
usually a cluster of drupes, but sometimes a berry or capsule. Endo-
sperm or not. Chief genera: Ochna, Gomphia, Sauvagesia. Benth. -
Hooker place Ochnaceae in Geraniales, but unite Sauvagesia and its
allies to Violaceae. Warming places O. in Terebinthinae, also placing
the Sauvagesieae in Violaceae.

Ochroma Sw. Bombacaceae. 1 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind., <9. Lagopus
Sw. the Balsa or corkwood. The wood is very light and is used for
floats, canoes, &c. The seeds are embedded in hairs.

Ocimum Linn. Labiatae (vn). 45 sp. trop. and warm temp. O.

Basilicum L. is the basil.

Ocotea Aubl. Lauraceae (r). 200 sp. trop. and subtrop. O. bullata

E. Mey. (S. Afr.) yields a useful timber.

32—2

5 oo

ODONTITES

Odontites (Riv.) Hall. = Bartsia Linn. O. serotina Dum. ( 0 . vulgaris
Moench) = B. Odontites .

Odontoglossum H. B. et K. Orchidaceae (28). 100 sp. Mts. of trop.

Am. Epiphytes. Many are hot-house favourites.

Odontospermum Neck. (incl. Asteriscus Moench). Compositae (iv).
12 sp. Medit. O. (A.) pygmaeum O. Hoffm. is a curious little xero-
phyte whose fruit-heads close in dry weather (cf. Anastatica, Mesem-
bryanthemum) ; the seeds only escape in damp weather suitable for
germination.

Oenanthe (Toum.) Linn. Umbelliferae (6). 35 sp. N. Hemisph.,

S- Air., Austr. 7 in Brit, (water drop-wort).

Oenothera Linn. (incl. Godetia Spach, Onagra Tourn., Xylopleurum
Spach). Onagraceae (iv). 60 sp. Am. O . biennis L., the evening

primrose, and many others, are favourite garden plants. The firs, of
0. biennis emit their scent in the evening and are visited by nocturnal
moths, to which they are adapted by their long tubes (p. 91).

Oenotheraceae (Warming) = Onagraceae.

Olacaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Santalales). 25 gen. with 120 sp.,
trop. Most are shrubs or trees with small g firs. There is a distinct
calyx, resembling the calyculus of Loranthaceae, but probably not
equivalent to it. Petals 4 — 6. Sta. as many or 2 or 3 times as many.
Ovary partly sunk in the disc, or free, 7.— 5-loc. at base, i-loc. above,
with free placenta and 1 ovule hanging down into each loc. (occa-
sionally it is 1 -loc. i-ovuled). Drupe or nut, one-seeded. Seed with
testa and endosperm. Chief genera: Ximenia, Olax. Benth.-Hooker
unite Icacinaceae to O. and place the order in Olacales ; Warming
places it in Hysterophyta.

Olacales (Benth.-Hooker). The 8th cohort of Polypetalae (p. 134).

Olacineae (Benth.-Hooker) = Olacaceae + Icacinaceae.

Olax Linn. Olacaceae. 30 sp. trop. Old World.

Oldenlandia Linn. (excl. Hedyotis Linn.). Rubiaceae (1. 2). 80 sp.

trop. Some are heterostyled (dimorphic).

Olea (Tourn. )*Linn. Oleaceae (1. 3). 30 sp. Medit., S. Afr., E. Ind.,

Austr. , Polynes. O. europaea L. is the olive tree, cultivated in the
Medit. region from early ages. The wild form has thorny twigs and
a small fruit, the cultivated form (var. sativa DC.) is smooth and has
a large drupe with oily flesh. The oil is obtained by a process of
bruising and pressing the fruit. Olive oil is now largely adulterated
with cotton-seed oil, the oils of Arachis, Sesamum, Juglans, &c.,
imported into Italy for the purpose.

Oleaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Contortae). 21 gen. with 390 sp.
trop. and warm temp., esp. E. Ind. They are shrubs and trees
usually with opp. leaves, which are exstip., simple or pinnate, often
entire. Serial accessory buds occur in the leaf-axils of many sp. ( e.g .
Syringa) in both flowering and vegetative parts. The infl. is race-
mose or cymose, often bracteolate. Firs. £ , rarely unisexual, regular,

ONAGRACEAE

5OT

2— 6-merous, sometimes poly- or a-petalous (Fraxinus, &c.). K typi-
cally (4), valvate; C (4) valvate or imbricate, rarely convolute. Sta.
2, epipetalous usually transversely placed, and alt. with cpls. No
disc. G (2); stigma 2-lobed on simple style; ovary 2-loc. with 2
anatropous ovules in each loc. Fruit a berry, drupe, or capsule, or
schizocarp, with 1 — 4 seeds. Endosperm or none, embryo straight.
Olea, Fraxinus, &c. , are of economic value.

Classification and chief genera (after Knoblauch) :

I. OLEOIDEAE (seeds pendulous; fruit not constricted) :

1. Fraxineae (samara) : Fraxinus.

2. Syringeae (loculicidal capsule): Forsythia, Syringa.

3. Oleineae (drupe or berry) : Phillyrea, Olea, Ligustrum.

II. JASMINOIDEAE (seeds usually erect; fruit constricted ver-
tically) : Jasminum.

[fi asminoideae are sometimes classed as a separate family, but their
characters are not very constant, and all of them occur occasionally
in Oleoideae. Benth. -Hooker place O. in Gentianales, Warming in
Contortae.]

Oleandra Cav. Polypodiaceae. 6 sp. trop.

Olearia Moench. Compositae (ill). 90 sp. Austr., N. Z., Auckland
Is. The genus replaces Aster in these regions, and closely resembles
it. They are, however, all trees or shrubs.

Olinia Thunb. Oliniaceae. 6 sp. Afr.

Oliniaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Thymelaeales). Only genus Olinia.

See Nat. Pfl. for details. Placed in Lythraceae by Benth. -Hooker.
Omphalea Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. II. 7). 10 sp. trop. Am., 1 Madag.

Omphalodes Tourn. ex Moench. Boraginaceae (iv. 1). 24 sp. Eur.,

As., Mexico. The borders of the achenes are inrolled, so that each
fruit is boat-shaped.

Onagra (Tourn.) Adans. = Oenothera Linn.

Onagraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Myrtiflorae). 36 gen. with 470
sp., chiefly N. temp, (see Epilobium). Most are perennial herbs, a
few shrubs or trees. Leaves alt., opp., or whorled, simple, rarely stip.
Firs, solitary in the leaf-axils or in spikes, racemes or panicles, $ > regu-
lar or zygomorphic, usually 4-merous (sometimes 2 — 5). The ovary is
inferior and the axis is prolonged beyond it into a tube (‘calyx-tube’).
K4, valvate; C 4, usually convolute; A 4 + 4, or 4, 2, or 1. G (4),
4-loc. with axile placentae and 00 anatropous ovules; the septa are
commonly imperfect below ; style simple. The firs, are mostly adapted
to bees or Lepidoptera and are often markedly protandrous; those
of sp. of Lopezia are explosive. Fruit usually a loculicidal capsule,
sometimes a nut or berry. Seeds exalbuminous. Many are cultivated
as ornamental flowers.

Classification and chief genera (after Raimann) :

A. Fruit an co -seeded capsule. Axis not prolonged above ovary.
Bracteoles present.

5°2

ONAGRACEAE

I. Jussieneae : Jussieua, Ludwigia.

B. Capsule as above. Axis prolonged. No bracteoles.

II. Epilobieae (seed with hairy tuft) : Zauschneria, Epi-

lobium.

III. Hauyeae (seed with flat wing) : Hauya (only genus).

IV. Onagreae (seed naked or with membranous edge or with

small crown): Clarkia, Oenothera

C. Nut. i — 4 seeds. Axis prolonged. No bracteoles.

V. Gaureae: Gaura.

D. Berry. Axis as in C. No bracteoles.

VI. Fuchsiecie: Fuchsia (only genus).

E. Capsule. Sta. i or 2. No bracteoles.

VII. Lopezieae : Lopezia.

F. Nut, hooked. Fir. dimerous.

VIII. Circaeeae: Circaea (only genus).

[Benth.-Hooker unite Trapa to O. and place the order in Myrtales;

Warming places it in Myrtiflorae.]

Oncidium Sw. Orchidaceae (28). 300 sp. trop. Am. Epiphytes

(p. i73)* Some sp., e.g. O. Papilio Lindl., have flat tubers which
make humus-collecting niches against the support ; others have fleshy
leaves and no tubers.

Onobrychis Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 80 sp. temp. Eur., As. Floral
mechanism as in Trifolium. O. sativa Lam. is the sainfoin, one of
the best forage plants for a chalky soil.

Onoclea Linn. Polypodiaceae. 3 sp. N. Hemisph.

Ononis Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 4). About 80 sp. Medit., Eur. (3 in
Brit. — rest-harrow). Shrubs and herbs, sometimes with thorny
lateral branches. The mechanism of the firs, is intermediate between
that of Lotus and that of Trifolium. At first the upper edges of
the keel cohere, and the pollen is squeezed out at the tip as in Lotus ;
afterwards the keel splits and the anthers emerge as in Trifolium.
Cleistogamic firs, occur in some sp.

Onopordon Linn. Compositae (xi). 20 sp. Eur., N. Afr., W. As.

O. Acanthium L., the cotton thistle, in Brit. Leaves decurrent.
Fir. as in Cnicus.

Onosma Linn. Boraginaceae (iv. 4). 70 sp. Medit., Himal.

Onychium Kaulf. Polypodiaceae. 4 sp. subtrop.

Ophelia D. Don = Swertia Linn.

Ophioglossaceae. Filicineae Eusporangiatae. 3 gen. with 17 sp. trop.
and temp. They are all small herbaceous plants, some tropical
species being epiphytic; there is a root-stock or rhizome bearing
roots in acropetal succession, and giving off leaves which project
above the soil. The leaf bases are usually fleshy and fit closely
together concealing the stem. The leaf splits into a dorsal and a
ventral part, the former being the ‘sterile’ green blade, the latter the
‘fertile’ sporangiferous spike, often much branched and containing

0PUNT1A

5°,

the sporangia sunk in its tissues. The spores are all of one kind and
give rise, as far as known, to subterranean colourless prothalli, living
saprophytically. Genera: Ophioglossum (sporangia sessile, in two
rows, forming a narrow close spike), Botrychium (sporangia in small
crested clusters forming a long loose spike), Helminthostachys (spo-
rangia peltate, borne on sporangiophores which arise from the two
sides of the fertile spike). [Lang in Ann. Bot. 1902, p. 23.]

Ophioglossum Linn. Ophioglossaceae. 9 sp. trop. and temp. O.
vulgatum L., adder’s-tongue, is found in Brit. The leaves are
developed very slowly, one appearing above the soil each year.
Adventitious buds are formed on the roots and thus the plant multi-
plies vegetatively. The sporangiferous spike is usually unbranched,
except in O. palmatum L., where “instead of a single spike there are
a number arranged in two rows along the sides of the upper part of
the petiole and the base of the lamina.” (This sp. and O. pendulum L.
are epiphytic.) The roots most often arise in relation to the leaves,
one appearing at the base of each ; they are commonly unbranched.

Ophiopogon Ker-Gawl. Liliaceae (vm). 4 sp. Japan, China. The

mucilaginous tubers of O. japonictis Ker-Gawl. are edible. [Haemo-
doraceae Benth. -Hooker.]

Ophiorrhiza Linn. Rubiaceae (1. 2). 50 sp. trop. As., Indo-mal.

Ophiurus Gaertn. f. Gramineae (11). 4 sp. trop. Included in Rott-

boellia in Nat. PJl.

Ophrys Linn. Orchidaceae (3). 30 sp. Eur., W. As., N. Afr.

(O. apifera Huds., bee-orchis, O. aranifera Huds., spider-orchis,
O. muscifera Huds., fly-orchis, in Brit.). Terrestrial herbs with the
habit and floral characters of Orchis. O. apifera is one of the few
self-fertilising orchids. If the pollinia are not removed by insects (as
in Orchis) they drop out of the anther and dangle on their long
caudicles in front of the stigma, against which they get blown or
knocked (see Darwin).

Oplismenus Beauv. Gramineae (v). 5 sp. trop. and subtrop.

Opopanax Koch. Umbelliferae (7). 2 sp. Medit. Gum opopanax is

obtained from incisions in the roots. It is used in perfumery.

Opuntia Tourn. ex Mill. Cactaceae (11). 200 sp. Am. Fleshy

stemmed plants, usually with small fleshy leaves, which drop off very
early (see order). In O. snbulata Engelm. the leaves are large and do
a good deal of assimilation. Some, eg. O. Stapeliae DC., have mam-
milla-like cushions ; O. brasiliensis Haw. has the main stem cylindrical
and the lateral ones flat ; most sp. have all the stems flattened, e.g.
O . vulgaris Mill, (prickly pear), O. Ficus-indica Mill. (Indian fig), &c.
(see Goebel’s Pflanzenbiol. Sch. 1. p. 73 seq.). The leaves of the
lateral shoots usually form groups of thorns, but in O. diademata
Lem. are ribbon-like and scaly. Many are vegetatively propagated
by the detachment of branches, eg. O. fragilis Haw., which rarely
flowers at all. The fruits of prickly pear &e. are edible ; some are

504

OPUNTIA

used for hedge-making, others as food for cochineal-insects (see
Nopalea). [For O. coccinellifera Steud. see Nopalea.]

Opuntiales. The 20th cohort of Archichlamydeae (p. 130).

Orchidaceae. Monocotyledons (Microspermae). Over 400 gen. with
5000 sp. cosmop., abundant in trop., rare in arctic regions. They
agree in some general features of habit, &c., e.g. they are all perennial
herbs, but differ widely in detail, owing to the diversity of conditions
in which they exist — land-plants, epiphytes, saprophytes, &c. Within
the tropics they form an important feature of the vegetation, living
chiefly as epiphytes (p. 173). Most of the temperate forms are
terrestrial.

The plant as a whole may be built up in one of three ways.
It may be (1) a monopodium, the main axis growing steadily
on, year after year, and bearing the flrs. on lateral branches ; (2) an
acranthous sympodium, the main axis being composed of annual por-
tions of successive axes, each of which begins with scale leaves and
ends in an infl. ; (3) a pletiranthous sympodium, where the infls. are
borne on lateral axes, the shoot which for the current year continues
the main axis, simply stopping short at the end of its growing period,
and not ending in an infl. [see p. 43]. These three types of construc-
tion are used in the classification of the order (see below).

The saprophytic orchids are but few; they have no green leaves;
below the soil, in the humus, is a fleshy rhizome, with (Neottia) or
without roots. The rhizome is much branched, and does part or all of
the work of absorption. Mycorhiza (p. 39) occurs in most or all.
The terrestrial forms are all sympodial, and have usually a rhizome;
each annual shoot bends up into the leafy shoot of the current year.
Many being xerophytic, and all perennial, it becomes a necessity that
there should be a storage reservoir to last over the non-vegetative
period of the year. In a great many sp. this reservoir takes the form of
a thickened internode of the stem : in many sp. again, among which
the Brit, orchids are included, the bud for the next year’s growth, i.e.
the next part of the sympodium, is laid down at the base of the stem,
and from it is developed a thick and fleshy adventitious root, forming
a large tuber, which lasts over the winter.

Coming lastly to the epiphytic orchids, which occur in great num-
bers in the tropics, we find a great variety of forms. [See Schimper,
Die epiphytische Vegetation Amerikas.} They are mostly of sympodial
structure, but the few monopodial orchids also belong to this group.
The exceedingly light seeds and the xerophytic habit of many orchids
fit them to become epiphytes. The roots of the epiphytic forms are
of some interest. In the first place, to fasten the plant to its support
there are ‘clinging’ roots, insensitive to gravity, but negatively helio-
tropic. The niche between the plant and its support and the network
formed by the roots act as reservoirs for humus, and into this project
‘absorbing’ roots, branches from the others; these are usually,

ORCHTDACEAE

5°S

Schimpcr asserts, negatively geotropic. Finally there are the true
aerial roots which hang down in long festoons. The outer layers of
cells (the epidermis and velamen ) are dead and perforated, and act as
a sponge to absorb water trickling down over them. Their internal
tissue is green (as may be seen on wetting a root) and assimilates.
During the dry season a great proportion of the orchids drop their
leaves (though they may flower), and ‘hibernate’ in the condition of
fleshy pseudobulbs. One pseudobulb, which is a thickened stem-
internode, is usually formed each year. In this, water and other
reserves are stored. Those epiphytic orchids which do not form these
tubers have fleshy leaves which serve the same end. It may be noted
that the fleshy leaved orchids, e.g. Vanilla, have usually a very feebly
developed velamen. Lastly in this connection may be mentioned
some of the monopodial forms which have no green leaves at all,
assimilating either by the surface of the stem, or by the long dangling
aerial roots (Polyrrhiza, &c.).

The infls. are of racemose construction, very often spikes, which
look like racemes, the long inferior ovary resembling a stalk. The
flr. is irregular and departs very far from the ordinary Monocotyledon
type. There are two chief divisions of O., with different firs., the
Monandrae and the Diandrae , with i and 2 sta. respectively ; the
great majority are monandrous. Perianth in 2
whorls, epigynous, petaloid. The posterior
petal is usually larger than the rest, and is
termed the labellum ; by the twisting ( resupina-
tion) of the ovary through 180° it comes round
to the anterior side of the flr. and forms a land-
ing place for insects. In many O. its structure
is exceedingly complex in connection with the
pollination-mechanism of the flr. The essential
organs of the flr. are all comprised in a central
structure by which the O. can be recognised at
a glance, viz. the column , which consists in the
simpler cases of the combined style and sta. (to
use the old-fashioned expression ; in reality it
is very probably an outgrowth of the axis, bear-
ing the anthers and stigmas at the top). In the
monandrous forms the column exhibits one anther and two fertile
stigmas (ofteu ± confluent), together with a special organ, the rostel-
lum , which represents the third stigma. The single anther is the
anterior one of the outer whorl (if we imagine the flr. of O. derived
from a typical 3-merous flr.); the other two of this whorl are entirely
absent, and also all those of the inner whorl, though in some genera,
e.g. Orchis, the anterior two are represented by staminodes upon the
sides of the column. The two fertile stigmas are the posterior pair,
and the third (anterior) is represented by the rostellum (in using the

e

Floral diagram of Or-
chis, before resupination
(after Eichler, modi-
fied) ; lab = labellum,
STD=staminode.

ORCHIDACEAE

terms anterior and posterior, the resupination is supposed not to have
occurred) .

The various organs face the labellum, and, if the fir. of a simple
O., e.g. Orchis, be examined, they can easily be made out. A little
above the base may be seen the two stigmas, then above these a pro-
jecting point, the rostellum, and above this again, and behind it,
forming the apex of the column, is the anther, which shows two lobes.
Each of these is occupied by a pollinium, or mass of pollen. Under
the microscope the grains of pollen are seen to be tied together in
packets by elastic threads ; the threads unite at the base of the
pollinium and form a cord, the caudicle , which runs down into, and is
attached to part of the rostellum.

The simple construction found in Orchis &c., as thus described, is
replaced by much more complex arrangements in many sp. The
labellum itself may be rendered very complex, by the addition of
spurs and other outgrowths; very often outgrowths of the summit of
the receptacle take place, displacing some of the organs, thus for
example in Drymoda and others, the labellum and the sepals on
either side of it are carried forward on an axial protuberance in such
a way that the sepals appear to spring from the labellum, the axial
growth (chin) appearing like the basal part of this organ. Some of
these constructions are very complex. Several are described in con-
nection with the genera to which they belong, but for details refer-
ence must be made to Nat. PJi.

Similarly the column shows great variety in structure, for details
of which refer as above. One point may be mentioned specially as of
importance in classification. In the simple case of Orchis &c.,
described above, the base of the anther loculi is against the rostellum ;
such cases are called basitonic ; in others it is the apex that is next the
rostellum (Oncidium, &c.), and these are acrotonic .

[Diandrae. So far only monandrous forms have been con-
sidered. In Cypripedium and its allies the column has 2 anthers, no
rostellum, and a simple stigma, composed of the 3 carpellary stigmas.
The two sta. belong to the inner whorl, and the sta. which in
Monandrae is fertile, is here represented by a large staminode. The
stigma is not sticky, but the pollen is, and it is not combined into
pollinia.]

The ovary is inferior in all O., unilocular with 3 parietal placentae
(exc. Apostasia), and very numerous ovules, which do not develope
until fertilisation of the fir. occurs.

The adaptations of orchid flowers to fertilisation by insects are
endless, and many very complicated. Reference must be made to text-
books for the details. No student should omit to read Darwin’s
Fertilisation of Orchids , at least the first two and the last chap-
ters. In it will be found accounts of the mechanism of most of
the common genera. A few general points only can be mentioned

ORCHIDACEAE

5°7

here ; in the description of the individual genera other more detailed
features are treated. Very few of the order secrete free honey ; in
most cases the insect has to bite into or drill the tissue for the juice
therein contained ; this tissue is usually part of the labellum — often a
spur at the base — or the basal part of the column. The pollinia are
removed as a rule when the insect is going out of the Hr. In most
cases the insect in entering displaces the rostellum or some portion of
it, and thereby exposes and comes into contact with a sticky mass
(due to disorganisation of cells formerly living). This becomes
cemented to the insect while it is drilling for honey, and as the insect
goes out again it takes with it the viscid lump, together with the
pollinia, either merely glued to it, or attached by caudicles. In
many cases the pollinia are in such a position that when the insect
enters the next fir. they will touch the stigmas. In others this is not
so, e.g. Orchis, where the anthers and stigma are far apart on the
column, and in such cases the pollinia, on getting out of the anther,
execute a hygroscopic movement which brings them into the proper
position on the insect’s body to strike the stigmas. Such is the
general principle of the orchid mechanism, but the variety in detail
is endless. Many firs, have the most extraordinary devices, e.g.
Coryanthes, Stanhopea, Vanda, &c. See under individual genera.

The fruit is a capsule, containing usually a gigantic number of
exceedingly small and light seeds, which are well suited to wind
distribution (hence, among other causes, the epiphytic habit of so
many of the order). It may be noted that, as Darwin has pointed
out, this production of immense numbers of seeds is an evidence of
lowness of organisation, and contradicts the impression that would
otherwise be derived from the floral complications.

The O. are favourites in horticulture, but Vanilla is the only one
of economic importance.

Classification and chief genera (after Pfitzer) : —

A. DIANDRAE (two stamens).

r. Apostasiinae : Apostasia.

2. Cypripedilinae: Cypripedium.

B. MONANDRAE (one stamen).

a. BASITONAE (basitonic, anther not falling off) :

3. Ophrydinae : Ophrys, Orchis, Habenaria, Disa.

b. ACROTONAE (acrotonic, anther usually falling easily):
a. Acranthae (acranthous sympodial) :

I. Convolutae (leaves convolute in bud, with no dis-
tinction between blade and sheath) :

4. Neottiinae: Vanilla, Epipactis, Neottia.

II. Articulatae (as I., but with a joint between blade
and sheath) :

5. Thuniinae : Thunia, Trichosma.

6. Coelogyninae : Coelogyne, Pholidota.

5 08

ORCHIDACEAE

7. Collabiinae: Collabium.

III. Duplicatae (leaves folded in bud) :

8. Liparidinae : Liparis, Corallorhiza.

9. Polystachyinae : Galeandra.

10. Podochilinae : Podochilus.

11. Glomerinae: Ceratostylis.

12. Pleurothallidinae: Masdevallia, Pleurothallis.

13. Laeliinae: Epidendrum, Cattleya, Laelia.

14. Sobraliinae: Sobralia.

p. Pleuranthae (pleuranthous sympodial) :

I. Convolutae (leaves convolute in bud ) :

15. Phajinae: Phajus, Calanthe.

16. Cyrtopodiinae : Lissochilus.

17. Catasetinae: Mormodes, Catasetum.

18. Lycastinae: Lycaste.

19. Gongorinae: Coryanthes, Stanhopea, Gongora.

20. Zygopetalinae : Zygopetalum.

II. Duplicatae (leaves folded in bud) :

1. Sympodiales (sympodial).

21. Dendrobiinae : Dendrobium, Eria.

22. Bolbophyllinae : Drymoda, Bolbophyllum.

23. Thelasinae : Thelasis.

24. Cymbidiinae : Cymbidium.

25. Thecostelinae : Thecostele.

26. Steniinae : Stenia.

27. Maxillariinae : Maxillaria, Scuticaria.

28. Oncidiinae: Ada, Odontoglossum, Oncidium.

20. Huntleyinae : Pescatorea.

2. Monopodiales (monopodial).

30. Dichaeinae: Dichaea.

31. Sarcanthinae : Phalaenopsis, Vanda, Angraecum, Polyrrhiza,

Aerides.

[Placed in Microspermae by Benth-Hooker, in Gynandrae by
Warming].

Orchideae (Benth. -Hooker) = Orchidaceae.

Orchis (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Anacamptis Rich., Him antoglossu m
Spreng.). Orchidaceae (3). 70 sp. Eur., temp. As., N. Afr., Am.

(10 sp. in Britain, of which the most familiar are O. mascula L., the
early purple orchis, and O. maculata L., the spotted orchis). They
are sympodial perennials forming one tuber each year (see Orchida-
ceae for description). The firs, stand in a dense spike and have an
ingenious mechanism for insect fertilisation. The anther is basitonic
and well above the stigmas. The rostellum has an outer firm pouch,
inside which is the viscid substance to which are firmly attached the
caudicles of the pollinia. An insect entering the fir. probes the spur
of the labellum and its back comes into contact with the rostellum and

OROBANCHE

5°9

depresses the pouch. This causes the viscid substance to adhere to
the insect. The tissue of the spur has to be drilled for honey, and
while this is being done the cement rapidly sets, so that, as the insect
leaves the fir., it takes with it the pollinia, standing upright on their
caudicles. If they remained in this position they would evidently never
touch the stigmas of another flr., but as soon as the caudicles are
exposed to air, they contract on the side towards the base of the flr.
(i.e. towards the insect’s head) and move the pollinia downwards
from ! to — . In this position, when the insect enters another flr.,
they pass under the rostellum and strike the stigmas. [See Dar-
win’s Orchids for details of the different sp.]

Oreodoxa Willd. Palmae (iv. 6). 6 sp. trop. Am. Monoecious; firs,

in groups of 3, a ? between two <? . O. oleracea Mart, is the cabbage
palm ; the young head of leaves is cut out and eaten. The fruit yields
an oil, and a form of sago is obtained from the stem (see Metroxylon).
O. regia H. B. et K. is the royal palm.

Oreopanax Dene, et Planch. Araliaceae. 40 sp. trop. Am.

Origanum Toum. ex Linn. Labiatae (vi. n). 30 sp. Eur., As.,

Medit. 0. vulgare L. (marjoram) in Brit., used as a flavouring herb.
O. Majorana L. yields oil of marjoram by distillation.

Orlaya Hoffm. = Daucus Toum.

Ornithidium Salisb. Orchidaceae (27). 20 sp. trop. Am.

Ornithoceplialus Hook. Orchidaceae (28). 20 sp. trop. Am.

Omithogalum (Tourn.) Linn. Liliaceae (v). 70 sp. temp. Old World.
O. umbellatUm L. (star-of-Bethlehem) in Brit.

Ornithopus Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 8 sp. Medit., W. As., trop.

Afr., S. Brazil. O. perpusillus L. in Brit, (bird’s foot). O. sativus
Brot. (Seradella, Serratella) affords good fodder.

Ornus Neck. = Fraxinus Tourn.

Orobanchaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). 12 gen. with 125
sp. chiefly N. temp. Old World; a few Am. and trop. All are para-
sitic herbs with little or no chlorophyll, attached by suckers formed upon
their roots to the roots of other plants (the seeds of Orobanche only
germinate when in contact with a root of a host). For details see
genera and cf. p. 176. Infl. terminal, a raceme or spike (exc. Pheli-
paea, which has a solitary terminal flr.). Flr. g , zygomorphic. Calyx
hypogynous, gamosepalous, with 2 — 5 teeth. Corolla (5), imbricate,
2-lipped. Sta. 4, didynamous, epipetalous ; anthers opening longitu-
dinally. G usually (2), rarely (3), i-loc. Placentae parietal, often
T-shaped in section or branched. Ovules 00, anatropous. Style 1.
Loculicidal capsule. Seeds small, with minute undifferentiated
embryo in oily endosperm. Chief genera: Orobanche, Christisonia,
Lathraea, Phelipaea. Placed in Personales by Benth. -Hooker;
Warming unites O. to Gesneraceae, with which they have much in
common.

Orobanclie (Tourn.) Linn. Orobanchaceae. 90 sp. temp, and subtrop.;

OROBANCHE

5io

7 in Brit, (broom-rape). They are parasitic by their roots upon the
roots of other plants, and have no green tissue of their own (p. 176).
O. ramesa L. is common on hemp. 0. major L. ( O . elatior Sutton)
on Centaurea &c. (in Brit.), O. 7ninor Sutton on Clover. Some are
confined to one host, e.g. O. Hederae Duby to ivy, others are more
general in their attacks.

Orobus (Tourn.) Linn. = Lathyrus Tourn. O. hirsutus L. = Z. hirsutusy
O. niger L. = Z. niger , O. pratensis Stokes -=^L. pratensis ; 0. sylvati-
cus Baumg. ( O. vernus L.) = Z. vernus ; O. tuberosus L. = Z. montanus .

Orontium Linn. Araceae (hi). 1 sp. Atlantic N. Am.

Oryza Linn. Gramineae (vi). 6 sp. trop., the most important of

which is O. sativa L., the rice plant, the chief food plant of the
world. It is an annual about 1 — 6 feet high. The common rice is
cultivated in hot steamy lowlands, and the fields are covered with
water; the mountain form is cultivated up to 6000 feet without irri-
gation. The grain in the husk is known as paddy.

Osbeckia Linn. Melastomaceae (1). 50 sp. Old World trop.

Osmantbus Lour. Oleaceae (1. 3). 10 sp. E. and S. As., Polynes.,

N. Am. O. fragrans Lour. (Olea fragrans Thunb.) is often cultivated
in hot-houses ; it has an edible fruit, and its leaves are used to perfume
tea.

Osmunda Linn. Osmundaceae. 6 sp. temp, and trop. O. regalis L.,
the royal fern, is found in Brit. It has a root-stock bearing scale
leaves below the soil and ordinary leaves above. The stock may
sometimes be found a foot high, like the stem of a tree fern. The
fronds are large (1 — 10 feet); the lower pinnae are vegetative, the
upper are reproductive only and form a sort of panicle. They are
densely covered with sori, which have no indusium and have a pecu-
liar annulus consisting of a round group of cells at one side of the
apex. The sporangium dehisces longitudinally. Other sp. have the
fertile pinnae on the lower part of the leaf, others again have separate
vegetative and reproductive leaves.

Osmundaceae. Filicineae Leptosporangiatae (Homosporous). 2 gen.
with 10 sp. trop. and temp. Short-stemmed ferns, with naked sori.
The sporangia are shortly stalked and have an annulus, consisting of
a roundish group of cells at one side of the apex ; they open by a
longitudinal fissure. Genera: Osmunda (sori on special pinnae),
Todea (sori on backs of ordinary pinnae).

Osteomeles Lindl. Rosaceae (11. 4). 10 sp. Andes, Sandwich Is., &c.

Osteospermum Linn. Compositae (ix). 38 sp. S. Afr.

Ostrowskia Regel. Campanulaceae (1. 1). 1 sp. Turkestan.

Ostrya Mich, ex Linn. Betulaceae. 2 sp. N. temp. Like Carpinus.

O. virginica Willd. (lever-wood) furnishes a hard wood.

Othonna Linn. Compositae (vm). 80 sp. S. Afr. Xerophytes (p. 163)
with swollen roots and often fleshy leaves.

Ouratea Aubl. = Gomphia Sclireb.

OXYCOCCUS

5ii

Ourisia Comm, ex Juss. Scrophulariaceae (in. 10). 19 sp. S. temp.

Ourouparia AubL = Uncaria Schreb.

Ouvirandra Thou. = Aponogeton Thunb.

Oxalidaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). 7 gen. with 250
sp. mostly trop. and subtrop. Most are perennial herbs with alt.
often compound exstip. leaves and large firs., usually in cymes. Fir.
% , regular. K 5, imbricate, persistent; C 5, twisted or imbricate, free
or slightly united ; A 10, obdiplostemonous (i.e. the outer whorl opp.
to the petals, the inner to the sepals, and thus the cpls. opp. to the
petals, instead of to the sepals, as in diplostemonous firs, with two
whorls of sta. in proper alternation), united below, with introrse
anthers; G (5), with free styles, 5-loc., with axile placentae; ovules in
1 or 2 rows in each loc., or few, anatropous, with micropyle facing
upwards and outwards. Fruit a capsule or berry; embryo straight, in
fleshy endosperm. Chief genera : Oxalis, Biophytum, Averrhoa.
The order is closely allied to Geraniaceae, to which it is united by
Benth.- Hooker. The chief difference is in the fruit. Warming places
it in Gruinales.

Oxalis Linn. Oxalidaceae. 220 sp. cosmop. chiefly S. Afr. , Am.
O. Acetosella L. (wood-sorrel) in Brit. It is a small herb with mono*
poaial rhizome and ternate leaves, which sleep at night and in cold
weather, the leaflets bending downwards. The fir. is protandrous;
the stalk bends downwards and the fir. closes in dull or cold weather.
Cleistogamic firs. (cf. Viola, and see p. 98) occur, sometimes, it is
said, below ground. The fruit is a loculicidal capsule. The seed has
a fleshy aril springing from the base. When ripe the cells of the
inner layers are extremely turgid, and a small disturbance causes the
aril to turn inside out, as one might turn a glove-finger, from U to
p. This is done instantaneously and the seed is shot off to some
distance.

Many sp. have bulbous or tuberous stems. Some, e.g. O. bupleuri -
folia A. St. Hil. have phyllodes in place of the ordinary leaves (cf.
Acacia). The firs, are solitary or in cymose infls. Many sp. exhibit
trimorphic heterostyled firs, (see Darwin Forms of Firs.) ; there are
three stocks of plants, one bearing firs, with long styles, and mid- and
short-length sta., the others with mid or short styles and correspond-
ingly long and short or long and mid sta. (cf. Lythrum). Some sp.
produce axillary bulbils: others reproduce vegetatively by under-
ground offshoots. [See Hildebrand’s Lebe7isverhaltnisse d. O.-arten ,
Jena, 1884.] The tubers of O. Defpci Lodd. (S. Am., Mex.), and
others, are used as food.

Oxera Labill. Verbenaceae (iv). 12 sp. New Caled.

Oxybaphus L’Herit. Nyctaginaceae. 12 sp. W. Am., Himal. United
to Mirabilis in Nat. Pfl.

Oxycoccus Tourn. ex Adans. = Vaccinium Linn. O. palusti'is Be is. =
V. Oxycoccus.

512

OXYGRAPHIS

Oxygraphis Bunge. Ranunculaceae (3). 9 sp. N. temp.

Oxylobium Andr. ( Callistachys Vent.). Leguminosae (in. 2). 27 sp.

Austr.

Oxymitra Hook. f. et Thoms. Anonaceae (4). 50 sp. Old World trop.

Oxypetalum R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (11. 2). 80 sp. Brazil, Mexico,
W. Indies.

Oxyria Hill. Polygonaceae (1. 2). O. digyna Hill, the only sp., in
N. Arctic and subarctic regions (in Brit, an alpine plant). Like
Rumex, but dimerous, and with ‘dedoublement’ of the outer sta.

Oxytropis DC. Leguminosae (ill. 6). 150 sp. N. temp. ; 2 in Brit.

Pachira Aubl. Bombacaceae. 4 sp. trop. Am. United to Bombax in
Nat. PJl.

Pachyrhizus Rich. Leguminosae (in. 10). 2 sp. trop. Am., As.,

largely cultivated for the edible tuberous root (Yam -bean).

Pachysandra Michx. Buxaceae. 2 sp. Japan, Alleghanies (cf. Epigaea).

Padus Linn. = Prunus Toum.

Paederota Linn. Scrophulariaceae (ill. 10). 2 sp. Mts. of Eur.

(p- 14.9)-

Paeonia (Tourn.) Linn. Ranunculaceae (1). 15 sp. Eur., As., west

N. Am. P. officinalis L. is the common Paeony, noteworthy for its
tuberous roots, large firs, with great secretion of honey, slight cohesion
of cpls., and follicle with red seeds. The protogynous firs, close at
night.

Paepalanthus Mart. Eriocaulaceae. 215 sp. S. Am., 1 N. Am.,
1 S. Afr.

Palafoxia Lag. Compositae (vi). 7 sp. U.S.

Palaquium Blanco (. Dichopsis Thw.). Sapotaceae (1). 50 sp. Indo-

mal. P. Gutta Burck was formerly the chief source of gutta-percha,
but it is now quite extinct except in cultivation, and the commercial
article is obtained from other sp. and from Payena Leerii , &c. The
trees are cut down or ringed and the milky latex coagulates, forming
gutta percha (cf. caoutchouc).

Palava Juss. ( Palaua Cav.). Malvaceae (1). 3 sp. Chili, Peru.

Palicourea Aubl. Rubiaceae (11. 15). 100 sp. trop. Am.

Palisota Rchb. Commelinaceae. 8 sp. trop. W. Afr.

Paliurus Tourn. ex Mill. Rhamnaceae. 2 sp., one, P. aculeatus Lam.
(Christ’s thorn, cf. Zizyphus), S. Eur. to China, the other, P. ramo-
sissimus Poir. in China and Japan. The former has stipular thorns,
one straight, the other recurved ; the latter has both thorns straight.
The fruit has a horizontal wing, developed at the base of the style
after fertilisation.

Palmae. Monocotyledons (Principes). 128 gen. with 1100 sp. trop.
and subtrop. ; most of the genera are well localised in the various
floral regions, the chief exceptions being Cocos nucifera , Elaeis gui-
neensis and Raphia vinifera. The palms form a characteristic feature
of the vegetation of the tropics (pp. 155, 190). The vegetative habit

PALMAE

Sr3

its familiar — a crown of leaves at the end of an unbranched stem
(Hyphaene is branched). The stem exhibits various forms; some
palms, eg. Nipa, Phytelephas, have a short stock bearing ‘radical*
leaves ; some, eg. Geonoma, Calamus, Desmoncus, have a thin reed-
like stem with long internodes (the two latter genera are climbers);
others again have a tall stem with a crown of leaves at the top. The
stem is often covered with the remains of old leaf-sheaths, or is
thorny. Its height reaches 150 feet in some sp., and it grows slowly
in thickness, by a method which requires investigation. At the base
the stem is usually conically thickened or else provided with buttress
roots; this gives the necessary mechanical rigidity and is a con-
sequence of the fact that the stem does not curve in a gale but bends
from the base, from a position like | to one like /. The stems of
Cocos and other palms are curved instead of straight ; the meaning of
this is unknown, but it appears to be due to light.

The leaf is very characteristic ; the only closely similar leaf is that
of Carludovica, though those of Cycads and some tree ferns have a
superficial likeness to palm-leaves. Some genera have palmate (fan)
leaves, some pinnate (feather) leaves, but this structure arises by a
development unlike that which gives rise to these forms in Dicoty-
ledons and more like that which occurs in Araceae (see Nat. PJi .).
The leaf is usually very large, and at the base of the petiole is a
sheath, which makes a firmer attachment to the stem than a mere
articulation. The sheath contains many bundles of fibres, which
remain after the decay of the softer tissues. The pinnae are folded
where they meet the main stalk of the leaf, sometimes upwards
( induplicate , V in section), sometimes downwards ( reduplicate , /\ in
section); these characters are important in classification. The leaf
emerges from the bud in an almost vertical line and thus, placing its
apex to the sky, escapes excessive radiation and transpiration. The
palms are pronounced sun-plants (p. 142), and show xerophytic cha-
racters in their leaves. The leaf-surface is glossy with a thick cuticle,
and is rarely arranged perpendicularly to the incident rays. Often
the leaf is corrugated, or placed at an angle by the twisting of the
stalk or by the upward slope of the stalk; sometimes the leaflets slope
upwards, and so on.

The infl. is usually very large and much branched. In Corypha
and others it is terminal, its production being a mark of the end of
the life of the plant (cf. Agave), but usually it is axillary ; sometimes
the infls. are in the axils of the current leaves, sometimes lower on
the stem. The branching is racemose and the firs, are often em-
bedded in the axis, so that the whole is often termed a spadix. It is
enclosed in a spathe of several leaves and emerges from it when the
firs, are ready to open. Some Palms are dioecious, some monoecious,
in the latter case often with the firs, in groups (small dichasia) of 3,
one % between two d .

W.

33

5 x4

PALMAE

The flr. has usually the formula P 3 + 3, A 3 + 3, G 3 or (3).
The perianth has both whorls alike and varies in texture. The cpls.
when united may form a i-loc. or 3-loc. ovary, with 3 or sometimes r,
anatropous ovules (rarely semi-anatropous, or orthotropous). The pol-
lination-methods of the Palms want investigation ; some, e.g . Cocos,
are wind-pollinated, others are doubtless entomophilous.

The fruit is a berry or drupe ; in the latter case the endocarp
is usually united to the seed. The fruit in Lepidocaryinae is covered
with dry woody scales. The seed has a large endosperm ; in date,
vegetable ivory, &c., it is very hard, the non-nitrogenous storage-
material taking the form of cellulose, which is deposited upon the
cell w'alls. In germination the cotyledon lengthens and pushes out
the radicle, and then the plumule grows out of the sheathing cotyledon
(see Nat. PJi .).

Economically, the P. are very important, furnishing many of the
necessaries of life in the tropics, &c. Many have edible fruit or seed,
e.g. date (Phoenix) and coco-nut (Cocos) ; the stems contain much
starch as reserve food, especially in those sp. which save up for a great
terminal infl., e.g. Metroxylon (sago), Caryota, &c. ; the rush of sap
to the infl., especially in the cases just mentioned, is great; and by
tapping the stem great quantities of sugar-containing fluid may be

Diagrams of Raphia (after Eichler). Above, the arrangement of the last branches
of infl. a , b , two of the sterile sheathing bracts, above them bracts with branches in
their axils, a little out of the median line. Below, arrangement of the flowers on
branches of upper figure : bracts 2-ranked ; each flr. has a a-keeled bracteole v.

PALMAE

5*5

obtained and utilised, either directly as a source of sugar or indirectly
to make intoxicating drinks by fermentation. The bud of leaves at
the top of the stem is sometimes used as cabbage, but of course its
removal kills the tree. The stems are used in building, but do not
yield plank-timber; the leaves are used in thatching and basket-
making, and for hats, mats, &c. ; the fibres of the leaf-sheaths or
sometimes of the pericarp ( e.g . Cocos) are used for ropes, &c. ; other
P. furnish oil [e.g. Elaeis, Cocos), wax (Copernicia), vegetable ivory
(Phytelephas, &c.), betel-nuts (Areca), &c.

Classification and chief genera (after Drude) :

A. Perianth 6-partite, enclosing the fruit after fertilisation.

I. COR YPH1NAE (spadix loosely branched, often a prolix

panicle; firs, single or in long rows flowering from above;
cpls. 3, or loosely united, separating after fertilisation ;
berry; fan or feather leaves, induplicate) :

1 . Phoeniceae : Phoenix.

2. Sabaleae: Chamaerops, Rhapis, Corypha, Livistona,

Sabal, Copernicia.

II. BORASSINAE (spadix simple or little branched with

thick cylindrical twigs ; firs, markedly diclinous dimorphic,
invested with bracts, the <? in 1— 00 cincinni in grooves
of the twigs; cpls. (3), fully united, producing a one-seeded
drupe ; fan leaves, induplicate) :

3. Borasseae: Borassus, Lodoicea.

III. LEPIDOCARYINAE (spadix branched once or more in

a 2-ranked arrangement ; firs, in cincinni or 2-ranked
spikes with bracts and bracteoles round them ; cpls. (3),
fast united, covered with scales; fruit 1 -seeded, covered
with hard scales ; feather or fan leaves, reduplicate) :

4. Mauritieae : Mauritia.

5. Metroxyleae : Raphia, Metroxvlon, Calamus.

IV. CEROXYLINAE (spadix simple or one or several times

branched ; firs, diclinous, usually dimorphic ; when dioe-
cious, solitary with rudimentary bracts, when monoecious
usually in cymes of 3 firs., 2 being S and 1 $ , or rarely
00 c? and 1 at the end of the row being $ ; cpls. (3), 3- 2-
i-loc.; fruit smooth, not scaly; feather leaves):

6. Arecineae: Caryota, Arenga, Leopoldinia, Iriartea, Cero-

xylon, Chamaedorea, Oreodoxa, Euterpe, Kentia,
Areca.

7. Cocoineae : Elaeis, Attalea, Cocos, Bactris, Desmoncus.

B. Perianth rudimentary in $ or ? . Fruit in dense heads.

V. PHYTELEPHANTINAE: Phytelephas, Nipa (only

genera).

[Placed in Calycinae by Benth.- Hooker, in Spadiciflorae by
Warming.]

33—2

PALMAE

5*6

For further details of P. see Nat. PJl . , Haberlandt’s Tropenreise ,
pp. 62 seq., Seemann’s History of the Palms , and Treas. of Bot.

Panax Linn. (incl. Cheirodendron Nutt., Nothopanax Seem.). Ara-
liaceae. 30 sp. As., Afr., Polynes., Austr., N. Z.

Pancratium Dill, ex Linn. Amaryllidaceae (1). 1 2 sp. Medit., trop. As.

Pandanaceae. Monocotyledons (Pandanales). 3 gen. with 225 sp.,
characteristic plants of the Old World tropics (p. 191), but also
extending a little into the warm temperate zone. They are mostly
sea-coast or marsh plants with tall stems supported upon aerial roots,
and are frequently branched ; buds are found in all axils, and the
branching appears dichotomous ; some are climbers. The aerial
roots have marked root-caps of membranous texture. The leaves
are in 3-ranked phyllotaxy, but the stem is usually twisted so that
they appear to run in well marked spirals, whence the name of screw-
pines. The leaf is parallel-veined, long, and narrow, with an open
sheath and usually thorny margin ; it is generally sharply bent down-
wards at the middle, and is corrugated like a palm leaf.

The infl. is terminal, with a few bract-like leaves at the base going
gradually over into the foliage leaves, and is usually a racemose spadix
with neither bracts nor bracteoles to the individual flowers, which are
somewhat difficult to make out. The S firs, in sp. of Freycinetia
have a rudimentary gynoeceum, but in the rest of the order they
have not. The floral axis of the S flr. bears a number of sta.,
arranged in a raceme or umbel-like manner upon it. The gynoeceum
in the ? flr. consists of 00 cpls. in a ring, i-loc. or 00 -loc., the union
being more or less complete, or it may be reduced, even to 1 cpl., or
to a row of cpls. arranged transversely. Stigmas sessile. Ovules
anatropous. Fruit a berry or a multi-loc. drupe, often containing
hollow spaces which aid it in swimming. Seed with oily endosperm.
The plants yield thatch, &c.

Genera : Sararanga (infl. paniculate ; firs, pedicelled ; drupe),
Freycinetia (infl. capitulate or spicate; firs, sessile; berry), Pandanus
(infl. as last ; firs, sessile ; drupe). Placed in Nudiflorae by Bentham-
Hooker, in Spadiciflorae by Warming.

Pandanales. The 1st cohort of Monocotyledons (p. 125).

Pandaneae (Benth. -Hooker) = Pandanaceae.

Pandanus Rumph. ex Linn. f. Pandanaceae. 150 sp. trop. As. and Afr.
(the screw-pines). Trees with flying-buttress roots. The firs, are in
large heads, enclosed in spathes. The J consists of 00 sta., arranged
in various ways upon the axis, the ? of 1 — 00 cpls., free or united.
Each gives a drupe containing as many seeds as there were cpls.
Seeds albuminous. The pericarp is rich in fibres. The fruits of
some sp. are cooked and eaten, e.g. P. leram Jones, the Nicobar
bread-fruit. The leaves of many are used for weaving, e.g . P. tectorius
Sol., which is actually cultivated in Java for this purpose. Several,
again, have sweetly scented firs, or leaves which are a good deal used
for ornament and otherwise in the East.

PAPAVERACEAE

5l7

Pangium Reinw. Flacourtiaceae. 2 sp. Indo-mal. The seeds of
P. edule Reinw. are eaten after long soaking to dissipate the hydro-
cyanic acid which they, like all parts of the plant, contain (see Treub
in Ann. Buit . XIII. 1).

Panicum Linn. Gramineae (v). 450 sp. trop. and warm temp. The

spikelets are 1- or 2-flowered. Many P., known as millets, are im-
portant cereals, extensively cultivated in India, S. Europe, &c.,
eg P. miliaceum L., the common millet, P. miliare Lamk., the
little millet, and other minor sp. Many are important fodder plants,
eg. P. maximum Jacq. (trop. ; Guinea grass), P. molle Sw. (trop.
Am. ; Mauritius grass), P. Crusgalli L. (Am., nat. in Brit. ; the
barnyard grass of the U.S.), P. sanguinale L. and others (crab or
panic grasses of U.S.). Many are distributed by animals for the
joints of the stem will grow after passing the alimentary canal.

Papaver Tourn. ex Linn. Papaveraceae (11). 40 sp. Eur., As.,

S. Afr., Austr. P. Rhoeas L. and 3 others (poppy) in Brit. The
firs, nod in bud, not by their own weight, but by more rapid growth
of one side of the stalk. The ovary is crowned by a sessile rayed
stigma, each lobe of which stands over a placenta instead of as usual
over a midrib. This is commonly explained by supposing each actual
ray of the stigma to be formed of one half of each of two adjacent
stigmas. The fir. of most sp. contains no honey, and is homogamous;
both cross- and self-pollination usually occur with insect visits. The
fruit is a round capsule, opening by pores under the eaves of the roof
formed by the dry stigmas, so that the seeds are well protected from
rain and can^only escape when the capsule is shaken by strong winds
or other agencies. P. somniferum L. is the opium poppy; the drug is
obtained by cutting notches in the half ripened capsules, from which
the latex exudes and hardens. The seeds of this and other sp. yield
an oil on pressure.

Papaveraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rhoeadales). 28 gen. with
210 sp., chiefly N. temp. Most are
herbs with alt. leaves, and sub-orders
I. and II. contain latex. Corydalis
and Fumaria are climbers, Bocconia
a shrub. The firs, are solitary or in
racemes, or in dichasia with cincin-
nal tendency, regular or irregular, £ ,
hypogynous (exc. Eschscholtzia). K 2
(united in Eschscholtzia), caducous ;

C2 + 2, rolled or crumpled in bud
(see Hypecoum) ; A 4 or 00 or 2 (see
sub-orders) ; in the last case each sta.
branches into 3 parts (see fig.), the
centre one bearing an entire anther, Floral diagram of Corydalis cava
the lateral ones each half an anther ; (after Eichler).

PAPAVERACEAE

5i8

G (2 — 8), i-loc. with parietal placentae, which in Papaver, & c. project
into the loc. Ovules generally 00, anatropous or slightly campylotro-
pous. Fruit a septicidal capsule, or one opening by pores, or a nut;
seeds with oily endosperm, and small embryo. The firs, are mostly
large and conspicuous, but many contain no honey and are visited
by pollen-seeking insects ; they are often protandrous. Those of sub-
order III. are irregular, and adapted to bees in a way somewhat like
that found in Leguminosae. The order is of little economic value ;
see Papaver.

Classification and chief genera :

I. HYPECOIDEAE (petals without spur; sta. 4; cpls. 2) :
Hypecoum.

II. PAPAVEROIDEAE (as I., but sta. 00 ; cpls. 2 — co):
Eschscholtzia, Chelidonium, Glaucium, Papaver.

III. FUMARIOIDEAE (petals with spur ; sta. 2, each branched
into 3): Dicentra, Corydalis, Fumaria.

Many authors, e.g. Warming, split off III. as a separate order,
Fumariaceae. Benth. -Hooker place P. in Parietales; Warming places
it in Rhoeadinae.

Papayaceae (Warming) = Caricaceae.

Pappea Eckl. et Zeyh. Sapindaceae (1). 2 sp. trop. and S. Afr.

P • capensis E. et Z. is the ‘Wilde Preume* of S. Afr., with an edible
fruit ; oil is obtained from the seeds, and the timber is useful.

Papyrus Willd. = Cyperus Mich. P. antiquorum Willd.= C. Papyrus .

Paracaryum Boiss. Boraginaceae (iv. 1). 35 sp. Medit. Orient.

Paradisia Mazzuc. Liliaceae (in). 1 sp. Mts. of Eur. (p. 149),

P. Liliastrum Bertol. The fir. is adapted to nocturnal moths.

Paramignya Wight. Rutaceae (x). 6 sp. Indo-mal.

Parietales. The 23rd. cohort (Engler) of Archichlamydeae (p. 130).
The 2nd cohort (Benth. -Hooker) of Polypetalae (p. 133).

Parietaria (Tourn.) Linn. Urticaceae. 7 sp. temp. (P. officinalis
L ., pellitory, in Brit.). The firs, are mostly 5 (unlike most of the
order), and stand in little cymes in the leaf axils. According to
Eichler the first fir. is % , the bulk of the cyme $ , and the last firs. $ .
The 5 firs, are exceedingly protogynous, the style protruding from the
bud; the sta. develope later, exploding when ripe like those of the
nettle, but by this time the stigma is incapable of fertilisation, and
usually the style has dropped off altogether, so that at first glance the
fir. looks as if it were male.

Paris (Rupp.) Linn. Liliaceae (vii). 6 sp. temp., Old World. P.
quadrifolia L. (herb-Paris) in Brit. There is a monopodial rhizome
and an aerial stem with a whorl of 4 or more net-veined leaves ; the
aerial stems are formed, not annually, but at irregular periods. Peri-
anth 4- (or more) merous, as well as the other whorls; in herb-Paris
the sepals alternate with the foliage-leaves. The firs, of this sp. are
very protogynous, and their colours and scent attract flies.

PA SSI FLORA 5T9

Parkia R. Br. Leguminosae (i. 6). 19 sp. trop. The firs, are in

heads, of which either the upper or lower firs, are male or neuter.

Parnassia (Tourn.) Linn. Saxifragaceae (1). 19 sp. N. temp., chiefly

in mountain bogs; 1 in Brit. — P . palustris L. (grass of Parnassus).
The floral axis is hollowed out and united to the base of the ovary.
K 5 ; C 5 ; A 5, and alternating with them 5 staminodes ; G (4) or
half-inferior, i-loc., with large projecting parietal placentae. The
fir. is protandrous, the anthers in turn dehiscing just above the pistil
and then moving outwards. The staminodes are opposite to the
petals. Each has a solid nectar-secreting base, and ends above in
a candelabra-like structure, each twig of which is terminated by a
yellow knob, glistening in the sun and looking like a drop of honey.
Flies are deceived by this appearance, and have been seen licking
the knobs. [See Eichler’s Bliithendiag .]

Parochetus Buch.-Ham. Leguminosae (ill. 4). 1 sp. Mts. of trop.

As. and Afr. It has cleistogamic and open flrs.

Paronychia (Tourn.) Linn. Caryophyllaceae (11. 4). 40 sp. temp, and

sub-trop. The small axillary flrs. are concealed by the stipules. In
P. Kapela A. Kern, the head of fruits breaks off as a whole and is
rolled about by the wind.

Paronychiaceae. See Caryophyllaceae (11. 4).

Parrotia C. A. Mey. Hamamelidaceae. 1 sp. Persia, P. persica C. A.
Mey. Firs. $ , apetalous.

Parsonsia R. Br. Apocynaceae (11. 5). 10 sp. Malaya, Austr.,

Polynes., N.Z.

Parthenium Linn. Compositae (v). 9 sp. N. Am., W. Ind.

Pasania Oerst. =Quercus Tourn.

Paspalum Linn. Gramineae (v). 200 sp. trop., also in temp. Am.,

where they form a large proportion of the pasture of the Campos,
Pampas, &c. Good fodder grasses.

Passerina Linn. Thymelaeaceae. 4 sp. Cape Colony.

Passiflora Linn. (excl. Tacsonia Juss. ). Passifloraceae. 250 sp. chiefly
Am. ; a few in As. and Austr., 1 in Madag. They are climbing
plants with axillary tendrils. Some sp. have curious bilobed leaves
(crescentic or swallow-tailed in shape), the centre lobe not developing.
At the base of the leaf-stalk there are usually extra-floral nectaries.
The flrs. spring from the same leaf-axils as the tendrils, solitary or in
small cymes; the bract is usually ‘adnate’ to the peduncle. The
receptacle is hollowed into a cup, bearing on its margin 5 sepals,
5 petals, and a number of effigurations of the axis — thread-like peta-
loid bodies, forming a dense mass (the corona) round the central
androphore, at whose apex is borne the ovary. Five sta. spring from
the androphore at the base of the ovary, and are bent downwards at
first; afterwards the styles bend down also. Honey is secreted at
the base of the androphore. The fruit is a berry; the seed is
enveloped in a fleshy aril. Many passion-flowers are cultivated as

520

PA SSI FLORA

ornamental plants. Several have edible fruit, e.g. P. quadrangularis
L., the Granadilla (trop. Am.), P. maliformis L., the sweet calabash
(W. Ind.), P. laurifolia L., the water-lemon, & c.

Passifloraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 18 gen. with 280
sp. trop. and warm temp. Shrubs and herbs, mostly climbers with
axillary tendrils, and with alt. stip. leaves. Firs. £ or unisexual,
regular. Receptacle of various shapes, often hollowed and frequently
with a central andro- or gyno-phore; it is usually terminated by out-
growths, often of petaloid or staminodial appearance, forming the
corona. K 3 — 5; C 3 — 5 or o; A 3 — 5; G (3), i-loc. with parietal
placentae and several or 00 anatropous ovules; style 1, simple or
branched, or 3 — 5 separate styles. Capsule or berry. Seed with fleshy
aril and endosperm. Chief genera: Modecca, Passiflora. Benth.-
Hooker include Caricaceae and Malesherbiaceae in P. and place the
order in Passiflorales ; Warming excludes Caricaceae and places P. in
Passiflorinae. [Cf. Acharia.]

Passiflorales (Benth. -Hooker). The 13th cohort of Polypetalae (p.
135)-

Passiflorinae (Warming). The 21st cohort of Choripetalae (p. 138).

Pastinaca Linn. = Peucedanum Tourn. P. sativa L. = Peuced. sativum.

Patagonium Schrank = Adesmia DC.

Patrinia Juss. Valerianaceae. 13 sp. E. As.

Paullinia Linn. Sapindaceae (1). 120 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Am.,

1 in Madag. and Afr. Lianes with watch-spring tendrils (p. 172).
Fruit a capsule, often winged.

Paulowilhelmia Hochst. Acanthaceae (iv. A.). 5 sp. trop. Afr. Seeds
often with toothed scales, spreading when wetted.

Paulownia Sieb. et Zucc. Scrophulariaceae (11. 6). 2 sp. Chi., Jap.

Trees (rare in S.). P. imperialis S. et Z. is often cult, in parks.

Pavetta Linn. Rubiaceae (11. 14). 70 sp. palaeotrop. The leaves of

many sp. have little warts inhabited by bacterial colonies (Zimmer-
mann in Prings. Jahrb. 37, 1901, p. 1).

Pavia Boerh. = Aesculus Linn.

Pavonia Cav. Malvaceae (ill). 70 sp. trop. and sub-trop. There are
5 cpls. and 10 styles, 5 of these corresponding to cpls. which abort in
development. The cpls. are hooked in fruit.

Pavonia Ruiz et Pav. = Laurelia Juss.

Payena A. DC. Sapotaceae (1). 16 sp. Malaya. P. Leerii Kurz

yields a good gutta percha (see Palaquium), known as Gutta Sundek.

Pectis Linn. Compositae (vi). 50 sp. Arizona to Brazil.

Pedaliaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). 14 gen. with 45 sp.
trop. and S. Afr., Madag., Indo-mal., mostly shore and desert plants.
Herbs or rarely shrubs with opp. leaves and glandular hairs. Firs,
solitary or in cymes (usually 3-flowered), with glands (metamorphosed
flrs.) at the base of the stalks, $ , zygomorphic. K (5) ; C (5) ; A 4,
didynamous, with a posterior staminode ; G (2) [G in Trapella], with

PENAEACEAE

521

long style and 2 stigmas, 2 — 4-loc. or apparently i-loc., often with
false septa; ovules 1 — 00 per loc., on axile placentae. Capsule or
nut, often with hooks. Embryo straight; endosperm thin. Sesamum
is economically important. Chief genera : Pedalium, Sesamum,
Harpagophytum. Benth. -Hooker and Warming unite Martyniaceae
to P., placing it in Personales and Personatae respectively. The
chief distinctions from M. lie in the placentation, the fruit, calyx, and
glandular hairs.

Pedalineae (Benth.- Hooker) = Pedaliaceae.

Pedalium Royen ex Linn. Pedaliaceae. 1 sp. trop. Afr. and As.

Pedicellaria Schrank = Gynandropsis DC.

Pedicularis (Tourn.) Linn. Scrophulariaceae (ill. 12). 350 sp. N.

Hemisph. and S. Am., especially on Mts.; 2 in Brit., P. palustris L.
and P. sylvatica L. (louse-wort), in marshes and moist places. Semi-
parasites with loose-pollen firs., fertilised by humble-bees, &c. In a
few places in the Arctic regions, P. extends beyond the limit of humble-
bees (Bombus) and the fir. has a shorter tube, suiting it to flies.

Pedilanthus Neck. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 8). 15 sp. trop. Am.

Peganum Linn. Zygophyllaceae. 4 sp. Medit., As., N. Am. The
seeds of P. Harmala L. yield turkey-red. [Rutaceae, B. & H.]

Peireskia Steud. = Pereskia Plum.

Pelargonium L’Herit. Geraniaceae. 175 sp., chiefly S. Afr., a few
Medit., Austr. Many varieties are cultivated as ornamental plants,
of which one is the so-called Geranium of greenhouses, &c. In many
sp. the base of the stem is tuberous. An oil, used as a substitute for
attar of roses, is distilled in Algeria from P . odoralissimnm Ait.

Pelea A. Gray = Melicope Forst.

Peliosanthes Andr. Liliaceae (vm). 10 sp. Indo-mal.

Peliostomum E. Mey. Scrophulariaceae (1. 2). 5 sp. S. Afr.

Pellaea Link. Polypodiaceae. 60 sp. trop. and subtrop.

Peliionia Gaudich. Urticaceae. 15 sp. trop. As., Polynes. Like
Urtica. P. nmbellata Wedd. has the bracts of the d flrs. united to
form an involucre.

Peltandra Rafin. Araceae (v). 2 sp. atl. N. Am.

Peltaria Jacq. Cruciferae (11. 6). 3 sp. S.E. Eur., Medit.

Peltophorum Walp. Leguminosae (11. 7). 8 sp. trop.

Pemphis Forst. Lythraceae. 1 sp. P. acidula Forst. on palaeotrop.
coasts, esp. on beaches that are washing away (p. 19 1).

Penaea Linn. Penaeaceae. 10 sp. Cape Colony.

Penaeaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Thymelaeales). 5 gen. with 22 sp.
S.W. Cape Col. Shrubby xerophytes of ericoid habit, with opposite
evergreen leaves. Flowers axillary, solitary or in pairs, the bracts
often coloured. Fir. $ , regular, 4-merous. Receptacle hollow,
tubular. No petals. Ovary 4-loc. ; style simple. Ovules 2 in each
loc., anatropous. Capsule. No endosperm. Chief genera: Penaea,
Sarcocolla. Placed in Daphnales by Benth. -Hooker.

522

PENNISETUM

Pennisetum Rich. Gramineae (v). 40 sp. trop. and subtrop. Afr., S.

Eur., As., Am. Involucre as in Cenchrus. P. typhoideum Rich., the
bulrush, spiked, or pearl millet, is extensively cult, in India.

Pentachaeta Nutt. Compositae (111). 6 sp. Calif.

Fentaclethra Benth. Leguminosae (1. 6). 2 sp. trop. Am. and Afr.

Pentadesma Sabine. Guttiferae (vi). 1 sp., P. butyracea Sabine, the

tallow or butter tree, in Sierra Leone. The fruit yields a greasy juice
used as butter.

Pentapetes Linn. Sterculiaceae. 1 sp. Indo-mal.

Pentaphylacaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). A small
order comprising the genus Pentaphylax, formerly placed in Theaceae.
See Nat . PJi . for details.

Pentaphylax Gardn. et Champ. Pentaphylacaceae. 1 sp. Hong-kong.

Pentapterygium Klotzsch. Ericaceae (in. 8). 5 sp. E. Himal. to

Khasia. Fruit a five- winged berry.

Pentarhaphia Lindl. Gesneraceae (11). 15 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind.

Pentas Benth. Rubiaceae (1. 2). 10 sp. Afr., Madag.

Penthorum Gronov. ex Linn. Crassulaceae. 1 sp. N.E. Am., Chi.,
Japan.

Pentstemon Mitch. Scrophulariaceae (11. 6). 80 sp. N. Am., E. As.
Several sp. are cultivated. The posterior sta. is represented by a
large staminode which is bent down and lies upon the lower side of
the corolla, out of the way of insect- visitors (cf. Scrophularia).

Pentzia Thunb. Compositae (vn). 10 sp. S. Afr.

Peperomia Ruiz et Pav. Piperaceae. 400 sp. trop., esp. Am. Many
are epiphytes with creeping stems, adventitious roots and fleshy leaves
(water-tissue under the upper epidermis, see pp. 167, 175). Firs. 2 ,
with 2 sta., arranged in terminal spikes, which may, as in Piper, give
rise to a sympodium. (See Ann. Bot. xx. p. 395, and xxi. p. 139.)

Peplis Linn. Lythraceae. 3 sp. wet places, N. temp. P, Portula L.
occurs in Brit. It is a little annual herb, very like Montia fontana
with minute hexamerous firs. Self-fertilisation occurs by the bend-
ing inwards of the sta. over the stigma. The fruit is bilocular (the
partition does not come up to the very apex) with many seeds, but
indehiscent. When submerged the plant has a more etiolated structure
and becomes perennial.

Pera Mutis. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 2). 25 sp. trop. Am.

Perebea Aubl. Moraceae (11). 10 sp. trop. Am.

Pereskia Plum, ex Linn. Cactaceae (ill). 13 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind.
Leafy plants (see order). Some, e.g. P. aculeata Mill., climb like
Rubus wTith recurved thorns.

Perezia Lag. Compositae (xn). 70 sp. Texas to Patagonia.

Pergularia Linn. Asclepiadaceae (11. 4). 10 sp. Afr. and trop. As.

Pericopsis Thw. Leguminosae (in. 1). 1 sp. Ceylon, yielding a pretty
cabinet wood (nedun).

Perilla Linn. Labiatae (vi. 11). 2 sp. E. Ind., China.

PEUCEDANUM

523

Perilomia H. B. et K. Labiatae (vi. 2). 8 sp. Andes.

Periploca Tourn. ex Linn. Asclepiadaceae (1. 1). 12 sp. As., Afr.,

S. Eur.

Peristeria Hook. Orchidaceae (19). 5 sp. Cent. Am. Epiphytic.

P. elata Hook. (‘ el spirito santo,' so called by the natives of Panama
because of its resemblance to a dove) is best known. Its mechanism
requires investigation.

Peristrophe Nees. Acanthaceae (iv. B). 20 sp. palaeotrop.

Peristylus Blume = Habenaria Willd.

Pernettya Gaudich. Ericaceae (11. 5). 26 sp., one Tasmania and

N. Z., the rest S. Am. and Mexico.

Perotis Ait. Gramineae (ill). 5 sp. palaeotrop.

Persea Plum, ex Linn. Lauraceae (1). 25 sp. trop. Am. The fruit of

P. gratissuna Gaertn. f. is eaten under the names Aguacate, Avocado,
Alligator pear, Palta, &c., in most trop. countries.

Persicaria (Tourn.) Linn. = Polygonum Tourn.

Personales (Benth. -Hooker). The 9th cohort of Gamopetalae (p. 135).

Personatae (Warming). The 5th cohort of Sympetalae (p. 137).

Persoonia Sm. Proteaceae (1). 60 sp. Austr., N. Z.

Pescatorea Rchb. f. = Zygopetalum Hook.

Petalostemon Michx. ( Kuhnistera Lam.) Leguminosae (111. 6).
20 sp. N. Am.

Petasites (Tourn.) Linn. Compositae (vm). 14 sp. N. temp. P.

officinalis Moench, the butter-bur, is common in Brit, on the banks
of streams, &c. It spreads very largely by rhizomes. It is dioecious
(cf. Tussilago, its close ally). The male head has about 30 firs, with
the usual mechanism of Compositae, the style acting as the pollen-
presenter, though the ovary is no longer fertile. Occasionally a few
5 firs, are found. The female head consists of about 150? firs, sur-
rounding 1 — 3 <? firs. Only the male firs, secrete honey. Under the
name of winter heliotrope, P. fragrans Presl is cultivated for its
scented firs., which appear in February.

Petiveria Plum, ex Linn. Phytolaccaceae. 1 sp. Am.

Petrea Houst. ex Linn. Verbenaceae (11). 12 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind.

Petrophila R. Br. Proteaceae (1). 35 sp. Austr.

Petrophyes Webb et Berth. = Monanthes Plaw.

Petroselinum Hoffm. = Carum Linn.

Petunia Juss. Solanaceae (iv). 14 sp. S. Am. P. violacea Lindl.

and others are often cultivated in gardens.

Peucedanum (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Anethum Tourn., Imperaioria Linn.
Paslinaca Linn.). Umbelliferae (7). 120 sp. Eur., As., Air., Am.;

4 in Brit., of which P. (Past.) sativwii Benth. et Hook. f. is the
parsnip, often cultivated for its fleshy roots. P. (A.) g)'aveole7is
Benth. et Hook. f. (Medit.) is the dill, whose fruits are used as a
condiment ; P. officinale L. (Brit.) is the sulphur-root, used in veteri-
nary practice ; P. (/.) Ostruthiu7n Koch (Brit.) is also used.

524

PEUMUS

Peumus Molina. Monimiaceae. i sp. Chili, P. Boldus Molina, the
Boldo. The wood is hard, the bark yields a dye and the fruit is
edible.

Phaca Linn. = Astragalus Linn.

Phacelia Juss. (incl. Cosmanthus Nolte, Entoca R. Br., Whitlavia
Harv.). Hydrophyllaceae. 120 sp. N. Am., Andes. Often cultivated
as border plants and for bee-feeding. The flr. is a bee-flower with
honey secreted below the ovary and guarded by stipule-like flaps at
the base of the sta. The large-flowered sp. are highly protandrous,
and are not self-fertilised ; the smaller less protandrous and with
self-fertilisation. The anther as it dehisces turns inside out, and
changes its shape from ellipsoidal to spherical ( Linn . Soc. Journ .,
1893, p. 53)-

Phaedranassa Herb. Amaryllidaceae (1). 4 sp. S. Am.

Phaenocoma D. Don. Compositae (iv). 1 sp. Cape Colony.

Phagnalon Cass. Compositae (iv). 20 sp. Eur., Afr., W. As.

Phaius Lour. (Phajus Hassk.). Orchidaceae (15). 15 sp. trop. As.,

Malaya, Austr., &c. Terrestrial plants.

Phalaenopsis Blume. Orchidaceae (31). 50 sp. Indo-mal. Epiphytes
with flattened aerial roots.

Phalangium (Tourn.) Adans. = Anthericum Linn.

Phalaris Linn. Gramineae (vn). 10 sp. Eur., Am. P. canariensis L.

is the canary grass, whose seeds are used for cage-birds. P. arundi -
nacea L. (reed-grass) is common in Brit.

Phaleria Jack. Thymelaeaceae. 12 sp. Indo-mal., &c.

Phanera Lour. = Bauhinia Linn.

Phanerogamae see Spermaphyta.

Pharbitis Choisy = Ipomoea Linn.

Pharnaceum Linn. Aizoaceae (1). 20 sp. S. Afr.

Pharus P. Br. Gramineae (vi). 5 sp. trop. Am.

Phaseolus (Tourn.) Linn. Leguminosae (111. 10). 150 sp. trop. and

warm temp. The floral mechanism is like that of Vicia, but compli-
cated by the spiral coiling of the keel with the inclosed style. P.
multifloriis Willd. (Mexico) is the scarlet-runner, P. vulgaris L. the
French or kidney bean, P . lunatus L. the Lima or duffin bean
similarly used in the trop., P. Mungo L. (P. Max L.) the ‘ green
gram 5 of India, used like kidney beans, or roasted, and as horse lood.
The var. radiatus of the last, with darker beans (black gram) is a
highly valued pulse and horse food in India.

Phebalium Vent. Rutaceae (ill). 35 sp. Austr., N. Z.

Pliegopteris Fee = Polypodium Linn. P. Dryopteris Fee = Polyp.
Dryopteris; P. polypodioides Fee = Polyp. Phegopteris.

Phellandrium (Tourn.) Linn. Oenanthe Tourn.

Phelypaea Tourn. ex Linn. Orobanchaceae. 2 sp. Cent. As.

Philadelphus (Riv.) Linn. Saxifragaceae (111). 13 sp. N. temp., &c.

PHRAGM1TES

525

Shrubs with opp. leaves ; the buds arise closely protected by the leaf-
bases through which in many sp. they have to break. The firs, are
conspicuous and strongly scented. Sta. 20 — 40 ; ovary inferior, usu-
ally 4-loc. Fir. protogynous. Several sp. are grown in shrubberies
under the name Syringa.

Philesia Comm, ex Juss. Liliaceae (x). 1 sp. S. Chili.

Philibertia H. B. K. Asclepiadaceae (11. 2). 35 sp. Am.

Philippia Klotzsch. Ericaceae (iv. 9). 20 sp. S. Afr., Madag., &c.

Phillyrea Linn. Oleaceae (1. 3). 6 sp. Medit.

Philodendron Schott. Araceae (v). 150 sp. trop. Am. Most are

shrubs, usually climbing and often epiphytic, with both clasping roots
and aerial roots reaching the soil (see order). The latter sometimes
twine as they descend. The pinnation of the leaf is due to a delayed
development of the portions between the ribs, and not to a process
such as occurs in Monstera (y.z/.). Monoecious.

Philotheca Rudge. Rutaceae (ill). 15 sp. Austr.

Philydraceae. Monocotyledons (Farinosae). 3 gen. with 4 sp. Indo-
mal., Austr. See Nat . Pfl. Placed in Coronarieae by Benth. -Hooker,
in Liliiflorae by Warming.

Piileum Linn. Gramineae (vm). 10 sp. temp, except Austr. P . pra-
tense L. the timothy-grass (Brit.) is a valuable fodder.

Phlogacanthus Nees. Acanthaceae (iv. B). 15 sp. Indo-mal.

Phlomis Linn. Labiatae (vi. 4). 65 sp. Medit. to China. The upper

lip of the fir. is raised by an entering insect.

Phlox Linn, rolemoniaceae. 50 sp. N. Am., Siberia. Favourites in
horticulture.

Phoehe Nees. Lauraceae (1). 90 sp. trop.

Phoenicophorium H. Wendl. =Stevensonia Dune.

Phoenix Linn. Palmae (1. 1). 12 sp. trop. Afr., As. The chief is

P. dactylifera L., the date palm of Afr. and S.W. As. It has a
columnar stem covered with old leaf-bases ; the leaves are pinnate.
Firs, dioecious ; the Arabs fertilise the ? spadix by hanging a <? over it.
Fruit a berry ; seeds with hard (cellulose) endosperm. The date-
palm yields fruit, wine, sugar, hats, mats, thatch, &c.

Pholidia R. Br. Myoporaceae. 57 sp. Austr.

Pholidota Lindl. Orchidaceae (7). 20 sp. Indo-mal., S. China.

Phoradendron Nutt. Loranthaceae (11). 80 sp. Am.

Phormium Forst. Liliaceae (11 1 ). 2 sp. N. Z. Leaves isobilateral.

The leaf of P . tenax Forst. furnishes the valuable fibre called New
Zealand flax.

Photinia Lindl. Rosaceae (11. 4). 17 sp. S.E. As., N. Am. [P. japonica
Thunb. = Eriobotrya japonica.~\

Phragmites Trin. Gramineae (x). 3 sp., r Argentine, 1 trop. As.

and 1 cosmop. (inch Brit.), P. communis L. the common reed. It
has a creeping rhizome and tall upright stem with a dense panicle of
spikelets. The lowest flr. of the spikelet is S , the rest are 5 . A few

PHRAGM1TES

526

cm. above the leaf-sheath are three transverse dents in the leaf
(Teufelsbiss) ; these are due to pressure at the time when the rolled
up blade is still 'in the sheaths of older leaves.

Phryma Linn. Phrymaceae. 1 sp. As., N. Am.

Phrymaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). Only genus
Phryma; placed in Verbenaceae by Benth. -Hooker, but separated
by Briquet in Nat. PJl . ; the chief distinction is the erect orthotropous
ovule of P. ; no transitions occur between this and other Verbenaceae.

Phrynium Loefl. Marantaceae. 20 sp. trop. As. and Afr.

Phuopsis Benth. et Hook. f. Rubiaceae (n. 21). 1 sp. Caucasus.

Firs, in heads, suited to Lepidoptera and bees. They are said to
be explosive, the bud remaining closed and the style bursting out
on contact with an insect.

Phygelius E. Mey. Scrophulariaceae (11. 6). 1 sp. S. Afr.

Phylica Linn. Rhamnaceae. 65 sp. S. Afr. and neighbouring Is.
Mostly xerophytic shrubs, often of heath-like habit with leaves rolled
back (cf. Empetrum).

Phyllachne Forst. Candolleaceae. 9 sp. Austr., N. Z., S. Am.

Phyllanthus Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. 1. 1). 460 sp. temp, and trop.,
exc. Eur. and N. As. The sp. of the trop. Am. sub-genus Xylophylla
have flat green phylloclades bearing the firs, on their margins. The
ultimate shoots in the sub-genus Euphyllanthus look like pinnate
leaves. In P. cyclanthera Baill. the S flr. has its 3 sta. united into a
synandrium with a ring-like anther at the top.

Phyllarthron DC. Bignoniaceae (iv). 6 sp. Madag., Mascarenes.

The leaf is reduced to a jointed winged petiole.

Phyllis Linn. Rubiaceae (11. 17). 1 sp. Canaries, Madeira (p. 148).

Phyllocactns Link. Cactaceae (1). 13 sp. trop. Am., often epiphytic.

Flat-stemmed plants (see order).

Phyllocladus Rich. Coniferae (Taxaceae, 4; see C. for genus charac-
ters). 3 sp. Tasm., N. Z., Borneo (celery pine). The ‘short shoots’
are represented by flat green leaf-like structures — phylloclades —
whose stem-nature is easily recognised by their position in the axils
of the scale leaves on the ‘long shoots.’ The edges of the phyllo-
clades also bear scales. The firs, (mon- or di-cecious) occupy the
position of phylloclades. Each cpl. has one axillary erect ovule.
The seed has a small basal aril. The timber is useful : the bark of
P. trichomanoides D. Don is used for tanning.

Fhyllodoce Salisb. = Bryanthus S. G. Gmel. P. coerulea Bab. =B.
taxifolius.

Phylloglossum Kunze. Lycopodiaceae. 1 sp. P. Drummondii Kunze,
Austr. and N. Z. The embryo forms a protocorm (see order), which
produces a crown of sterile leaves and a short unbranched stem,
bearing at its apex a single cone of sporangia, like the cone of Lyco-
podium. “At the end of the growing season a new protocorm is
formed. This arises directly from the apex of the old one where no

PHYTOLACCA

527

strobilus is developed, but in the latter case grows out upon a sort of
peduncle from near the base of one of the leaves’’ (Campbell). The
prothallus is subterranean.

Phyllospadix Hook. Potamogetonaceae. 2 sp. W. coast of N. Am.
Dioecious.

Physalis Linn. Solanaceae (11). 45 sp. Am. P . Alkekengi L. (winter
cherry) in Eur. and As. The berry of this sp. is edible, also that of
P. peruviana L. (strawberry or gooseberry tomato, or cape goose-
berry). It is enclosed in the bladdery persistent calyx, which becomes
red.

Physospermum Cusson. Umbelliferae (5). 5 sp. Eur., W. As.

Physostegia Benth. Labiatae (vi. 4). 3 sp. N. Am.

Physostigma Balf. Leguminosae (ill. 10). 2 sp. trop. Afr. P, vene -

nosum Balf. is the ordeal bean of Calabar. The floral structure is
peculiar; the keel is spurred.

Phytelephas Ruiz et Pav. Palmae (v). 4 sp. trop. Am. This genus

and Nipa are widely different from the other palms, exhibiting affini-
ties to Pandanaceae and Cyclanthaceae (see Nai. Pfl .). P. is a short-
stemmed palm with large pinnate radical leaves, and dioecious infls.
The <? infl. is a sausage-shaped spadix ; the fir. has an irregular perianth
and 00 sta. with long filaments. The ? spadix is simple, with a spathe
of several leaves, and about 6 firs. ; the fir. has an irregular perianth
(an outer whorl of 3 and an inner of 5 — 10 longer leaves), numerous
staminodes and usually a 5-loc. ovary with long style and stigmas.
Each fir. gives a berry, and the actual fruit consists of 6 or more of
these united together. The outer coat is hard, with woody protuber-
ances. Each partial fruit contains several seeds; the endosperm (cel-
lulose) is very hard (vegetable-ivory) and is used for turning into
billiard balls &c. (Compare this fruit with those of Pandanus and
Carludovica.]

Phyteuma Linn. Campanulaceae (1. 1). 40 sp. Medit., Eur., As.

Two sp. of rampion, P. orbiculare L. and P. spicatum L. occur in
the south of England. The floral mechanism is interesting (see
order). The firs, are comparatively small, and are massed together
in heads. A tube is formed by the coherence of the tips of the long
thin petals, within which the anthers are held. The style pushes up
through this and drives the pollen gradually out at the end, where it
is exposed to insects. Finally the style emerges, the stigmas open
and the petals separate and fall back. [Compare carefully with
Campanula, Jasione and Compositae.]

Phytocrene Wall. Icacinaceae. 7 sp. India to New Guinea. They
are twining shrubs, with very large vessels in the stem. If the stem
be cut a considerable quantity of water escapes, which is drunk by the
Malabar natives. The firs, are dioecious.

Phytolacca Tourn. ex Linn, (inch Pircunia Bert.). Phytolaccaceae.

1 1 sp. Am., Afr. Herbs with fleshy roots, or shrubs or trees. Firs.

PHYTOLACCA

528

regular; P 5, A 10 — 20, G 7 — 10 or (7—10); in the latter case
the fruit is a berry, in the former an aggregate of achenes or
drupes.

Phytolaccaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Centrospermae). 20 gen.
with 55 sp. chiefly trop. Am. and S. Afr. Herbs, shrubs, or
trees, with racemose or cymose infls. of regular inconspicuous 2 firs.
P 4 — 5, A 4 — 5 or more (to 00), G 1 — 00 or (1 — 00). Ovules 1 in
each cpl., am phi- or campylo-tropous. Drupe or nut, rarely capsule.
Seed with perisperm, often arillate. The firs, exhibit great variety
in structure, owing to branching of sta. and different numbers and
arrangements of cpls. (see Nat . PJl .). Chief genera: Seguiera,
Rivina, Phytolacca. Placed in Curvembryae by Benth.- Hooker and
Warming. For relationships see Caryophyllaceae.

Picea Link. Synonymy : P. vulgaris Link (Pinus A dies L .) = P. ex-
celsa Link ; P. canadensis Link = 7’suga canadensis ; P. Pinsapo Loud.
— Abies Pinsapo ; P. rubra A. Dietr. =P. nigra Link.

Coniferae (Arauc. 1 b; see C. for genus characters). 12 sp. N.
temp. Long shoots only with needle leaves. Firs, single. Cones
ripening in one year. P. excelsa is the Norway spruce or spruce-fir,
found in Eur. from the Pyrenees to 68° N. It furnishes valuable
wood, resin, and turpentine. P. alba Link (silver fir, N. Am.) and
others are also valuable.

Picris Linn. Compositae (xm). 36 sp. Medit., N. temp., Abyss. 2 in
Brit. Like Leontodon.

Pilea Lindl. Urticaceae (2). 100 sp. trop., several cultivated under

the name artillery plant, given to them on account of the little smoke-
like puffs of pollen ejected by the exploding sta. (cf. Urtica).

Pilocarpus Vahl. Rutaceae (v). 12 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind. The

leaves of P. pennatifolius Lem. are the officinal ‘ folia Jaborandi.’

Pilocereus Lem. = Cereus Mill.

Pilostyles Guill. Rafflesiaceae. 8 sp., esp. trop. Am. Parasites on
Leguminosae.

Filularia Linn. Marsiliaceae. 6 sp. N. and S. temp. P. globulifera
L., the pill-wort, is found on the margins of lakes in Brit. There is
a creeping rhizome bearing roots on the lower surface and linear erect
leaves on the upper. The sporocarp is a pea-shaped structure, borne
on the ventral side of a leaf-stalk. It has a hard outer coat and con-
sists of four sori, each containing both micro- and mega-sporangia.
The life history is like that of Marsilia.

Pimelea Banks et Soland. Thymelaeaceae. 80 sp. Austr., Tasm.,
N. Z., Timor. The firs, are in heads and are, in some sp. at least,
protandrous with movement of sta. outwards.

Pimenta Lindl. Myrtaceae (1). 5 sp. trop. Am. The unripe fruits of

P. officinalis Lindl., rapidly dried, form allspice.

Fimpinella (Riv.) Linn. Umbelliferae (5). 75 sp. cosmop. (exc.

Austr.). 2 in Brit. ; P. Saxifraga L. (burnet-saxifrage) is very

PINUS

529

common. P. Anisum L. (Medit.) is the Anise, whose fruits (aniseed)
are largely used in flavouring.

Pinanga Blume. Palmae (iv. 6). 40 sp. Indo-mal.

Pinguicula Tourn. ex Linn. Lentibulariaceae. 30 sp. N. extra-trop.,
Andes, Antarctic zone; 3 in Brit, (butterwort), of which P. vulgaris
L. is common. It has a rhizome with a rosette of radical leaves
arranged in f phyllotaxy. The leaves are covered with glands, some
sessile, some on stalks, secreting a sticky fluid to which small insects
adhere. Rain washes them against the edge of the leaf, which is
slightly upturned : when stimulated by the presence of proteid bodies
it rolls over upon itself and encloses them, and then the sessile glands
secrete a ferment, digest the prey, and absorb the products (see p.
178), after which the leaf unrolls again. P. lusitanica L. is found on
the western shores of Brit, and is one of a few sp. which have
migrated thus far up the Atl. coasts (its home is Portugal).

Pinus (Tourn.) Linn. Synonymy: P. Abies L. (P. excelsa Lam.) = Picea
excelsa; P. alba Ait. = Picea alba; P. balsam ea L. = Abies balsamea;
P. Cedrus L. = Cedrus Libani ; P. Douglasii Lamb. = Tsuga Doug -
lasii; P. Larix V,. — Larix europaea; P. maritima Lam . = P. Pinaster;
P. nigra Ait = Picea nigra; P. Picea L. = Abies pectinata .

Coniferae (Arauc. ib: see C. for genus characters). 70 sp. N.
temp, and on Mts. in the N. tropics. They are evergreen, resinous
trees with both long and short shoots (sec Coniferae). If a tree be
examined in winter the main axes will be found each with a group of
buds at the end, one terminal, the rest lateral. They are covered
with resinous scale leaves. Each gives rise in spring to a ‘long
shoot * or shoot of unlimited growth ; if it be the main axis of all, we
see the terminal bud continue it, forming a year’s growth before
branching in a similar way again. The large branches thus form
rough whorls marking each year’s growth. On the stem of a long
shoot no green leaves are directly borne, but only scales, first the bud
scales above mentioned and then others in whose axils arise the
‘short shoots’, or shoots of limited growth. Each of these has a few
scale leaves at the base of a very short stem and ends with 2 or more
green leaves of needle shape. When there are two, their upper flat
sides face one another. These needle leaves exhibit xerophile charac-
ters in a high degree ; they are thick in proportion to surface exposed,
they have a very stout epidermis with a hypoderm of thick walled
tisue under it, and the stomata are placed at the bottom of deep pits ;
the intercellular spaces too are very small.

The firs, take the form of the familiar cones, the <? being grouped
together in spikes. Each fir. whether g or ? , occupies the position of
a short shoot and is of limited growth — an axis with a few scale-leaves
below bearing a number of sporophylls. In the <? there are many sta.,
each with two pollen-sacs on the under side; the pollen is loose and
powdery, and each grain has two bladdery expansions of the cuticle

34

w.

PINUS

530

helping it to float in the air. In the ? , the cpls. themselves are very
small, but the ovuliferous scales, which show at the outside of the
cone, are very large, and each bears two ovules at its base, with the
micropyles facing the axis. The ? cones take 2 to 3 years before the
seeds are ripe. In May of the first year, the first stage may be seen —
young cones, about 1 cm. long, in the position of short shoots near
the tip of the lengthening axis. Microscopic examination of these
(see text-books) shows that the ovules are not ripe for fertilisation.
In June (the time varies from year to year according to season) polli-
nation takes place. The c? cones shed their pollen in great quantities,
so that in a pine forest the air is often full of it (if it rain, the pheno-
menon of ‘showers of sulphur’ may occur), and the wind carries it
about. At the same time the ovuliferous scales spread apart. If a
grain fall between two of them it slips down to the micropyle of
an ovule, where it becomes held by the sticky fluid then exuding.
After a short time the ? cones close up again. The pollen grain is
brought into contact with the nucellus by the drying up of the mucil-
age; it forms a short pollen-tube, and then a resting period comes
on. Next year in May or June the ? cone has become a fat green
body about 3 cm. long, with the ovules ready for fertilisation; the
pollen-tubes now recommence growth and reach the ova. Then in
the third year the cone is mature — a hard woody cone containing the
seeds between the scales. Each seed contains an embryo with a
whorl of cotyledons, embedded in rich endosperm, and has a hard
testa. To the end of this is attached a thin membranous wing,
derived from the ovuliferous scale. In dry weather the cone opens
and the seeds are blown away by the wind. In germination the
seed is lifted up above the earth by the growing plant and the coty-
ledons remain inside the testa till all the reserves are exhausted. It
is noteworthy that they are green whilst in the seed, though in dark-
ness— an exception to the rule that chlorophyll requires light for its
formation. During the first year no short shoots are formed, and the
seedling has green leaves borne directly on the main stem.

The pines are amongst the most valuable of all plants and are
cultivated on an enormous scale, chiefly for their timber, which is
easily worked, and resinous products. The resin renders the timber
very resistent to decay, &c.

Some of the more important sp. will now be mentioned.

I. PINASTER Endl. Visible part of fruit scale more or less
pyramidal with central boss.

§ 1. Pinea (short shoot with 2 or rarely 1 needles) : 20 sp.
P. sylvestris L., the Scotch fir, the only British sp., occurs
in Eur. to 68° N., in Asia to 66° N., and as far south as
Spain and Italy (alpine). The wood (yellow deal) is largely
used in the arts ; turpentine is obtained by tapping the tree.
The resin exudes and is distilled; the distillate is oil of

PIPERALES

53i

turpentine, the remainder rosin. Tar and pitch are corre-
spondingly the products of destructive distillation in closed
chambers. P. Pumilio Haenke (P. montana Mill.) is a
shrubby decumbent sp., Pyrenees to Caucasus. P. Pinea L.
(Medit.), the stone pine, furnishes edible seeds (‘pignons’).
P. Laricio Poir. (S. Eur.) is the Corsican pine. P. Pinaster
Ait., the cluster pine or pinaster (Medit.) is a valuable
tree. It grows well near the sea, and large areas of the
Landes of S. France are planted with it. It furnishes much
of the turpentine &c. in use. P. echinata Mill, the short
leaved or yellow pine is a valuable N. Am. sp.

§ 2. Taeda (needles 3, triangular in section) : 16 sp. P. Taeda L.,
is the loblolly or frankincense pine of the southern U. S.
It yields turpentine. P. palustris Mill. [P. australis
Michx.) is the pitch-pine of the U. S. It yields timber
and turpentine. Other sp., e.g. P. ponderosa Dougl. and
P. rigida Mill., are also known by the name of pitch-pine.
II. STROBES Spach. Visible part of fruit scale with terminal
boss. Needles usually 5 in each short shoot. 20 sp.

§ 1. Eustrobus (cones hanging, seeds winged): P. Strobus L., the
Weymouth pine (East N. Am.), a timber tree; P. Lamber-
tiana Dougl., the giant sugar pine of the Western States;
P. excelsa Wall., the Bhotan pine (E. India).

§ 2. Cembra (cones erect or drooping, seeds not winged) ; P. Ce?n-
bra L. the Siberian cedar (Alps, Carpathians, Ural, Siber.)
has edible seeds and valuable wood; P. fiexilis James
(N. Am.) &c. [For further details see Nat. PJl ., Veitch’s
Manual of Coniferae, Muller’s Select Extratrop. Plants ,
&c.]

Piper Linn, (inch Chavica Miq.). Piperaceae. 700 sp. trop. mostly
climbing shrubs. Firs, in sympodial spikes, the bracts closely
appressed to the axis. The fruit is a berry. That of P. nigrum L.
gathered before it is ripe and dried, forms a black peppercorn ; or if
the outside be removed by maceration, a white one. P. Cubeba L.
f. is the cubebs, P. Betle L. the Betel pepper (see Areca). See Treas .
of Bot.

Piperaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Piperales). 7 gen. with 1150SP.
trop. Plants of low organisation. Herbs or shrubs with undivided
leaves with or without stipules ; the leaves have a pungent taste. Firs,
naked, in spikes. Sta. 1 — ro. Cpls. (1 — 4); ovary i-loc. with 1 basal
orthotropous ovule. Seeds with dense perisperm round the endo-
sperm; embryo small. The stem-anatomy is interesting. Piper is
economically useful. Chief genera: Piper, Peperomia. Placed in
Micrembryae by Benth. -Hooker (who include Saururaceae in P.), in
Polygoniflorae by Warming.

Piperales. The 2nd cohort of Archichlamydeae (p. 126)

34—2

532

PIPTADENIA

Piptadenia Benth. Leguminosae (i. 5). 40 sp. trop., esp, Am. P.

rigida Benth. (Brazil) yields Angico gum used like gum-arabic.

Piptanthus Sweet. Leguminosae (in. 2). 1 sp. Himalaya.

Pircunia Bert. = Phytolacca Linn.

Pirola Neck. = Pyrola Tourn.

Pirns Hall. =Pyrus Tourn.

Pisonia Plum, ex Linn. Nyctaginaceae (2). 40 sp., chiefly trop. The
firs, are generally unisexual. The anthocarp is glandular and is one
of the few fruits which are able to cling to feathers. Forbes states
that on Keeling Island the fruits adhere to the feathers of herons in
such quantities as sometimes absolutely to cripple them, or even to
cause their death.

Pistacia Linn. Anacardiaceae (ill). 5 sp. Medit., 3 E. As., 1 Mexico.
Firs, dioecious, apetalous or naked. Fruit a drupe. P. Terebinthus
L. yields Chian turpentine, P. Lentiscus L. the resin called mastic.
The fruits of P. vera L. are eaten under the name Pistachio nuts.

Pistia Linn. Araceae (vm). 1 sp. trop. Am., Afr., As., P. Stratiotes

L., a floating water-plant, but rarely anchored by its roots to the soil,
and therefore often blown about by wind. It is of sympodial structure,
but the intemodes remain short and bear a rosette of large leaves ; these
sleep at night, moving upwards from the nearly horizontal position
which they occupy by day. The continuation shoots of the sympo-
dium are axillary, but beside each leaf arises a stolon which grows
out along the water and gives rise to a new plant. The infl. is small
and monoecious ; above is a whorl of <? firs. , each with a synandrium
of 2 sta. ; below is a ? fir. of 1 cpl. Both are naked. P. is a link
between Lemnaceae and Araceae (q.v.).

Pisum (Tourn.) Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 9). 6 sp. Medit. W. As.

P. sativum L. is the common pea. The floral mechanism resembles
that of Lathyrus, but differs much in detail (see Muller).

Pitcairnia L’Herit. Bromeliaceae (2). 70 sp. S. Am. Most are

terrestrial ; many form stolons at the base.

Pithecolobium Mart. Leguminosae (1. 1). no sp. trop. Stipules
often thorny. Fruit often coiled up like that of Medicago. P. Saman
Benth. (trop. S. Am.) is the rain tree, so called because of a legend
that it was always raining under its branches. The ejections of juice
by the Cicadas are responsible for this (cf. Acer, Andira).

Pittosporaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). 10 gen. with 90 sp.,
confined (exc. Pittosporum) to Austr. Trees or shrubs, often climb-
ing, with alt., leathery, evergreen, usually entire, exstip. leaves. Resin
is present in large quantity in passages at the outer side of the bast.
Firs. 2 , regular, 5-merous; sta. hypogynous; cpls. 2 or more, forming
a i-loc. or multi-loc. ovary with parietal or axile placentation, and
2-ranked 00 anatropous ovules ; style simple. Fruit a capsule or
berry with albuminous seeds. Chief genera: Pittosporum, Billardiera,
Sollya. The relationships are very obscure (see Nat . Pfl-)\ it is

PLANTAGO

533

placed in Polygalinae by Benth. -Hooker, and in Saxifraginae by
Warming.

Pittosporum Banks. Pittosporaceae. 70 sp. trop. and subtrop., Cana-
ries to Japan and Sandwich Is. The seeds of some sp. are sticky.
Some yield useful timber.

Plagianthus Forst. Malvaceae (11). 10 sp. Austr. , N. Z.

Plagiocheilus Arn. Compositae (vn). 7 sp. S. Am.

Planera J. F. Gmel. Ulmaceae. 1 sp. U. S. P. aqualica J. F. Gmel.,
a useful timber tree.

Plantaginaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Plantaginales). 3 gen. with
200 sp. cosmop. (See genera.) Annual or perennial hefbs; leaves
without distinction into stalk and blade, exstip. Firs, usually in
heads or spikes, inconspicuous, usually g , regular, without bracteoles,
wind- or partly insect-fertilised. K (4), diagonally placed; C usually
(4), membranous; A 4, with very long filaments and versatile anthers
containing much powdery pollen; G usually (2), 2-loc., with 1 — 00
semi-anatropous ovules on axile placentae. Fruit a membranous
capsule, opening with a lid cut off by a peripheral dehiscence, or
sometimes, a nut surrounded by the persistent calyx. Embryo straight,
in fleshy endosperm. Genera: Plantago, Littorella, Bougueria. See
P. and L. for details. The relationships of the P. are difficult to make
out. The flr. is usually regarded as derived from a 5-merous type in
the same way as that of Veronica, and most authors agree in regarding
the P. as degraded forms allied to Scrophulariaceae, Labiatae, &c. The
wind-pollination of the flr. is also an evidence of this. Benth.- Hooker
place the P. as an anomalous order after Labiatae, Warming places
them in Personatae.

Plantaginales. The 6th cohort of Sympetalae (p. 140).

Plantagineae. (Benth. -Hooker) = Plantaginaceae.

Plantago (Tourn.) Linn. Plantaginaceae. About 200 sp. cosmop.;
5 in Brit. The Brit. sp. will serve as good illustrations of the genus.
P . major L. (greater plantain) is a perennial with a thick root and
a rosette of large erect leaves. In the axils of these arise the infls.
(spikes). The flr. is markedly protogynous, the stigmas protruding
from the bud; the sta. appear later. Wind-pollination is the rule, as
the structure of the firs, indicates (p. 85), but insects sometimes visit
them for pollen. The fruit-spikes are often given as food to cage-
birds. P. media L. (hoary plantain) shows similar general features,
but the leaves lie flat on the ground (hence it is a most troublesome
weed in lawns, &c.); they exhibit the 3/8 phyllotaxy (p. 45) very clearly.
The flr. is more conspicuous than that of P. major and has a pleasant
scent, and though primarily wind-pollinated, is largely visited for pollen
in fine weather by drone-flies and bees. It is sometimes gynodioecious
(cf. Labiatae). P. lanceolata L. (rib-wort plantain) has narrow erect
leaves, and firs., like those of the last sp., also gynodioecious. P. Coro -
nopus L. (buck’s-horn plantain) is a xerophytic sp. with hairy leaves,

534

PL ANT A GO

growing in sandy places. Many S. Am. sp. show very marked xero-
philous characters — dense tufting, small hairy leaves, often grooved on
the lower surface (cf. Ericaceae), &c. P. maritima L. (the sea-side
plantain) has linear fleshy leaves (p. 169): it is frequently found at
high levels in the Scottish Mts. (p. 187), though rarely in the inter-
mediate regions.

The seeds of many sp. swell up when wetted and become muci-
laginous (cf. Linum). Those of P. Psyllium L. (Medit.) are used in
various ways in silk and cotton manufactures on account of this
property ; they have also been used in medicine.

If the young growing mfl. of a P. be vigorously shaken, the spike
when left to itself droops and only becomes erect again after a con-
siderable time. This is due to the fact that the strain stretches the
young cell walls beyond their limit of elasticity (see Sachs’ Lectures
on the Physiology of PI ants , p. 220).

Platanaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). Only genus Plata-
nus (q.v.). The relationships of P. are obscure; it is placed in
Unisexuales by Benth. -Hooker, in Saxifraginae by Warming, and
apparently comes nearest to Rosaceae and Hamamelidaceae.

Platanthera Rich. = Habenaria Willd.

Platanus (Toum.) Linn. Platanaceae. 4 sp. N. temp. The plane-
tree, P. orientalis L., is well known. The bark scales off every year,
leaving a smooth surface. The axillary bud is developed under the
base of the petiole, which fits over it like an extinguisher. The stipules
are united round the stem. Firs, monoecious in pendulous heads, wind-
fertilised. K 4 or 3. Sta. 4 or 3, opposite sepals. Cpls. 4 or 3, apo-
carpous. Ovules orthotropous, pendulous. Multiple fruit, each cpl.
giving a caryopsis, often winged. Seed albuminous. The wood of
the plane is useful, and also that of the buttonwood of N. Am. P.
occidentalis L.

Platycerium Desv. Polypodiaceae. 5 sp. Afr., Malaya, Austr. They
are epiphytic, but sometimes grow on steep rock surfaces, and exhibit
a very interesting structure. The rhizome is short and bears alter-
nately leaves of two kinds. The young leaves are protected by hairs.
Of the two kinds of leaves, the one stands more or less erect (the
‘mantle’ leaf) the other is pendulous, usually much branched and
bears the sporangia in irregular areas on its lower surface. Assimi-
lation is chiefly carried on by the pendulous leaves. Two types of
mantle leaf occur, represented in P. grande J. Sm. and P. alcicorne
Desv., the two common sp. In the former the base of the leaf,
which is unbranched, clings closely to the supporting trunk, whilst
the upper part spreads out and makes a niche in which humus collects;
in this the roots ramify and absorb food. This plant grows to a great
size. In P. alcicorne on the other hand the whole of the mantle leaf
clings to the support, and the only humus-supply the roots have is that
furnished by the decay of old mantle leaves and perhaps of the tree

PODOCARPUS

535

bark. This sp. is comparatively small, but grows in great colonies,
owing to adventitious budding from the roots. In both sp. the bases
of the leaves are rather fleshy and act as water stores.

The stag-horn ferns are favourites in hot-houses. Beside the two
mentioned, P, Wallichii Hook, and P. Willinckii Moore are also
grown. They have the habit of P. grande.

Platycodon A. DC. Campanulaceae (i. i). i sp. E. As.

Platylobium Sm. Leguminosae (ill. 3). 3 sp. Austr. Pods flat.

Platystemon Benth. Papaveraceae (11). 1 sp. W. N. Am., P. cali-

fornicus Benth. Leaves in apparent whorls (see order).

Platystigma Benth. Papaveraceae (11). 3 sp. California, Oregon.

Leaves as in Platystemon.

Plectocomia Mart, et Blume. Palmae (ill. 5). 6 sp. Indo-mal.

Climbers like Calamus with hooked leaves.

Plectranthus L’Herit. Labiatae (vn). 70 sp. trop. Old World.

Plectritis DC. = Valerianella Tourn.

Plectronia Linn. Rubiaceae (11. n). 80 sp. trop. Old World. Some

have axillary thorns.

Pleione D. Don = Coelogyne Lindl.

Pleroma D. Don = Tibouchina Aubl.

Pleurothallis R. Br. Orchidaceae (12). 400 sp. trop. Am.

Pluchea Cass. Compositae (iv). 30 sp. trop. and subtrop.

Plumbaglnaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Primulales). 10 gen. with
280 sp. cosmop., but esp. on salt steppes and sea-coast. 2 Brit, genera.
Perennial herbs or shrubs with narrow leaves, on whose surface water
glands occur, or sometimes chalk glands (cf. Saxifraga). The infl. is
of various types, racemose and cymose (see Plumbago, Ceratostigma,
Statice, Armeria), bracteolate. Firs, regular, $ , 5-merous, the odd
sepal posterior. Calyx persistent. Corolla often nearly polypeta-
lous, convolute. Sta. 5, epipetalous and opposite the petals. Ovary
superior, i-loc., with basal placenta. One anatropous ovule, whose
stalk projects up to the top of the loc. and thus causes the micropyle
to be directed upwards. Styles or stigmas 5. Fruit a nut ; embryo
straight, in floury endosperm. The order is distinguished from Pri-
mulaceae by the ovary and styles. Chief genera: Plumbago, Cerato-
stigma, Acantholimon, Armeria, Statice, Limoniastrum. Placed in
Primulales by Benth. -Hooker, in Primulinae by Warming.

Plumbag’O Tourn. ex Linn. Plumbaginaceae. 10 sp. Medit. and trop.
Racemose infl. Calyx with glandular hairs, aiding seed-dispersal.

Plumeria Tourn. ex Linn. Apocynaceae (1. 3). 40 sp. trop. Am.

Several are cultivated for the beauty and sweetness of the firs.

Poa Linn. Gramineae (x). 100 sp. temp.; 8 in Brit, (meadow grass)

Many are useful pasture-grasses.

Pocockia Ser. = Trigonella Linn.

Podalyria Lam. Leguminosae (ill. 2). 20 sp. S. Afr.

Podocarpus (L’Herit.) Pers. Coniferae (Taxac. 3; see C. for genus

536

PODOCARPUS

characters). 40 sp. E. As. and S. temp, and trop. Dioecious. The
? has a peculiar structure. There are usually three pairs of scales,
decussate. One of the middle pair projects above all the rest, bear-
ing an anatropous ovule. The other 5 are sometimes united to form
the so-called receptacle. The fruit usually consists of a fleshy mass
(the ‘receptacle’) bearing an arillate seed. In some sp. the sterile
scales do not become fleshy. The timber is valuable.

Podochilus Blume. Orchidaceae (10). 12 sp. Indo-mal. Epiphytes.

Podolepis Labill. Compositae (iv). 13 sp. Austr.

Podophyllum Linn. Berberidaceae. 5 sp. N. temp. In P. peltatum L.
the rhizome sends up yearly a shoot bearing two large peltate leaves,
which hang down in the young condition like a closed umbrella.
A drug is prepared from the rhizome. Fruit a berry, whose flesh
consists chiefly of the placenta which grows up round the seeds
(wrongly termed an aril).

Podostemaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). 22 gen. with 100
sp. trop. A remarkable order of plants (p. 163) adapted to life in
rushing (i.e. also generally rising and falling) water; they grow on
rocks in rivers and are very local in distribution, contrary to the usual
rule in water-plants. The morphology of the vegetative organs is
extremely varied and complex. The seeds are shed on the rocks
during the drier season of the year, and germinate when the rains
cause them to be submerged. The primary axis is usually small, and
from the base there buds out a green thallus, usually of adventitious
root nature (pp. 30, 39). In Tristicha, Podostemon, &c. it is ± fila-
mentous, creeping on the rock, and attached to it by hairs or exogenous
projections termed haptera. In Dicraea it is ± freely swimming and
often ribbon-like or sea- weed-like. In Hydrobryum it is =t= flattened,
creeping, lichen-like. In Lawia there is a flat creeping thallus of
shoot nature, and other complications occur in Castelnavia and others.
From the thallus in most cases endogenous secondary shoots arise,
and remain vegetative (leaves alt., simple or much divided) till
the latter part of the rainy season, when they form firs, which open
when exposed by the fall of the water. The plants die after shedding
their seed, unless an early rise of water occurs. Their outer tissues
are usually very siliceous. Firs, simple, g (dioecious in Hydro-
stachys, which is better placed in a separate order), regular or not,
hypogynous; P3-5 or 00, or (3-5), Ai-2-00, G usually (2)
2-loc. with thick axile placenta. The more dorsi ventral the vege-
tative organs, the more dorsi ventral in general is the fir., the
phenomenon showing progressively in perianth, androeceum, gynoe-
ceum, fruit, seed, and embryo. Ovules 00 (exc. Farmeria), anatropous.
Capsule; exalbuminous seeds. Chief genera ; Tristicha, Lawia,
Rhyncholacis, Mourera, Podostemon, Dicraea, Hydrobryum, Cas-
telnavia. Placed in Multiovulatae Aquaticae by Benth.-IIooker,
Saxifraginae by Warming. [For full details see Willis in Ann . Peraa.
I, 1902 and literature there quoted.]

POLYGALACEAE

S3 7

Fogostemon Desf. Labiatae (vi. 12). 32 sp. Indo-mal., Japan. P.

Patchouly Pellet yields the well-known perfume by distillation.

Poinciana Tourn. ex Linn. Leguminosae (11. 7). 3 sp. trop. Afr., Am.,
As. P. regia Boj. is cultivated as an ornamental tree (Flamboyante).

Poinsettia R. Grah. = Euphorbia Linn.

Polanisia Rafin. = Cleome Linn.

Polemoniaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). 8 gen. with about
200 sp., chiefly N. Am.; a few in Chili, Peru, Eur., N. As. Herbs
(rarely shrubby below), glabrous or shortly hairy, with usually opp.
exstip. leaves. Firs, in cymes (sometimes condensed into involucrate
heads), $ > regular or slightly zygomorphic, with or without bracteoles.
K (5), valvate or imbricate, persistent; C (5), bell- funnel- or plate-
shaped, usually convolute; A 5, epipetalous, alt. with petals; G (3) or
rarely (2 — 5), on a disc, multiloc. , with simple style more or less
lobed at tip. Ovules 1 — 00 in each loc., anatropous, sessile. Fruit
usually a loculicidal capsule. Embryo straight, in endosperm. Chief
genera: Cobaea, Cantua, Phlox, Collomia, Gilia, Polemonium
(mostly favourite border plants). Placed in Polemoniales by Benth.-
Hooker, in Tubiflorae by Warming.

Polemoniales (Benth. -Hooker). The 8th cohort of Gamopetalae (p.

136)-

Polemonium (Tourn.) Linn. Polemoniaceae. 14 sp. Eur., N. As.,
N. Am. P. caeruleum L. (Jacob’s ladder) in Brit., but rare. The
honey is protected by hairs at the base of the sta. (cf. Hydrophylla-
ceae).

Polianthes Linn. Amaryllidaceae (11). 3 sp. Mexico. P. tuberosa L.

(tuberose) is largely cultivated for its scented firs.

Polyalthia Blume. Anonaceae (3). 70 sp. Old World trop.

Polycarpicae (Warming). The 8th cohort of Choripetalae (p. 138)*

Polycarpon Loefl. Caryophyllaceae (II. 3). 7 sp. temp, and subtrop.

P. tetraphyllum L. (poly carp or allseed) in Brit.

Folycnemum Linn. ChenopodHceae (i). 5 sp. Eur. The structure of
the fruit is curious, a ridge developing at its apex after fertilisation.

Polygala (Tourn.) Linn. Polygalaceae. 450 sp. cosmop. exc. N. Z.,
Polynes., and Arctic zone. A few have stipular thorns. P. vulgaris
L. (milk-wort) is common on moors in Brit. The firs, owe their
conspicuousness to the two coloured sepals; they occur in three
colours, red, white, and blue, usually on different plants but sometimes
on the same one. The essential organs in most sp. are contained in
the keel and emerge from it, as in Leguminosae, when it is depressed
by a visiting insect. P . Senega L. (Senega snake-root) in N. Am. is
medicinal.

Polygalaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). 10 gen. with
700 sp., cosmop. exc. N. Z., Polynes., and Arctic zone. Herbs,
shrubs, or small trees with simple entire alt. opp. or whorled usually
exstip. leaves ; the stipules when present are usually thorny or scaly.

538

POLYGALACEAE

Floral diagram of Poly gala myr-
tifolia (after Eichler) ; the gland d
as in P. Chamaebuxus. Petals
and bracts black ; the missing petals
represented by dotted lines, the
missing sta. by *.

Infl. a raceme, spike, or panicle, with bracts and bracteoles. Hr. di-
plochlam., medially zygomorphic. K ^

usually 5, rarely (5), the 2 inner sepals
(alae) often large and petaloid; C 5,
rarely all present usually only 3 — the
lowest and two upper — more or less
joined to sta.-tube, the median anterior
petal keel-like and often with a ter-
minal brush ; A in two 5-merous
whorls, usually only 8, or 7, 5, 4 or
3, usually united below into an open
tube; G (5 — 2), usually (2), antero-
posterior; ovary 2-loc. with 1 anatro-
pous pendulous ovule in each loc.

(rarely i-loc. with go ovules). Cap-
sule, nut or drupe. Endosperm or
not. The floral mechanism, like the
structure, resembles that found in
many Leguminosae. Chief genera :

Polygala, Securidaca, Xanthophyl-
lum. Placed in Polygalinae by Benth. -Hooker, in Aesculinae by
Warming. [See Krameria.]

Polygaleae (Benth. -Hooker) = Polygalaceae.

Polygalinae (Benth. -Hooker). The 3rd cohort of Polypetalae (p. 132).

Polygonaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Polygonales). 30 gen. with
750 sp. chiefly N. temp. ; a few trop., arctic, and S- hemisph. Most
are herbs whose leaves (exc. Eriogoneae) possess a peculiar sheathing
stipule or ochrea (ocrea) clasping the stem above the leaf-base. This
forms a characteristic feature of the order. The infl. is primarily
racemose, but the partial infls. are usually cymose. [See Eriogonum.]
The firs, are 5 , regular, cyclic or acyclic. The former have usually
the formula P 3 + 3, homochlamydeous ; A 3 + 3, G (3); but many
vary from this type. Oxyria is 2-merous; others, e.g. Eriogonum,
Rheum, have ‘ dedoublement* of the outer sta. The acyclic firs, have
P 5, arranged according to the 2/5 phyllotaxy (e.g. Polygonum),
A 5 — 8, G (3). Ovary i-loc. with 1 erect orthotropous ovule and 3
styles. The firs, are pollinated by wind or by insects. The fruit is
almost always a triangular nut, with smooth exterior. The seed con-
tains an excentric curved or straight embryo surrounded by mealy
endosperm, sometimes ruminate. The fruits are usually wind-distri-
buted; the commonest type of mechanism is that the persistent
perianth forms a membraneous wing round the fruit. Other fruits
are provided with hooks for carriage by animals. See individual
genera or Dammer in Nat. PJi.

Classification and chief genera (after Dammer) :

A. Flower cyclic, endosperm not ruminate.

POL YGONUM

539

I. RUMICOIDEAE.

1. Enogoneae (no ochrea) : Chorizanthe, Eriogonum.

2. Rumiceae (ochreate) : Rumex, Rheum, Oxyria.

B. Acyclic (except a few Coccoloboideae)

II. POL YGONOIDEAE (endosperm not ruminate).

3. Atraphaxideae (shrubs) : Calligonum.

4. Polygoneae (herbs) : Polygonum, Fagopyrum.

III. COCCOLOBOIDEAE (ruminate).

5. Coccolobeae (usually £ ) : Muehlenbeckia, Coccoloba.

6. Triplarideae (usually dioecious) : Triplaris.

[Placed in Curvembryae by Benth. -Hooker, in Polygoniflorae by
Warming.]

Floral diagrams (after Eichler). A , Rheum; B, Polygonum tataricum\ C.
Rumex; D. Polygonum lapathifolium. Bracts and bracteoles are omitted, and in
C and D the axis also. Glands in B shaded. The asterisks represent missing sta.

Polygonales. The 13th cohort of Archichlamydeae (p. 127).

Polygonatum (Tourn.) Adans. Liliaceae (vn). 25 sp. N. temp.; 3 in
Brit. (Solomon’s seal). There is a sympodial fleshy rhizome, upon
which the annual shoots leave curious seal-like marks when they die
away. Infl. unilateral; flr. homogamous, bee-pollinated.

Polygoniflorae (Warming). The 5th cohort of Choripetalae (p. 138).

Polygonum (Tourn.) Linn. Polygonaceae (11. 4). 150 sp. universal,

but esp. temp. (11 in Brit., knot-grass, bistort, &c.). In habit the
genus varies much, though all are herbaceous. Some are xerophytes,
some water plants (e.g. our common P. amphibiwii L., which may
however be found almost as often on land where its leaves have not
the stalks of the water form). The firs, are in spikes and panicles
(the partial infl. is cymose). Firs, g , acyclic, usually with a coloured
5 -leaved perianth and about 8 sta. Honey is secreted at the base of

540

POL YGONUAT

the sta., and the firs, are visited by insects, but in very varying degree
(see the interesting series of sp. described by Muller in Fert. of Firs .
p. 509). Cleistogamic firs, are found under the ochrea in P . avicu -
lare L. &c., and this sp. also is said to possess subterranean cleisto-
gamic firs. In P. viviparum L. (an alpine Brit. sp. ) many of the firs,
are replaced by bulbils in the lower part of the infl. (cf. Lilium,
Allium). [For A*. Fagopyrum L. see Fagopyrum.]

Polypetalae (Benth. -Hooker). A division of Dicotyledons (p. 133).

Polypodiaceae. Filicineae Leptosporangiatae (Homosporous). 55 gen.
with 3300 sp. , cosmop. Mostly herbaceous perennials with a creeping
rhizome or erect root-stock ; many are epiphytic. Leaves usually large
and pinnate, with sori on the lower sides. Each sorus consists usually
of a large number of stalked sporangia, each with a vertical incomplete
annulus and dehiscing transversely. An indusium may or may not
be present. Chief genera : Acrostichunx, Davallia, Pteris, Polypo-
dium, Platycerium, Adiantum, Asplenium, Aspidium, Nephrodium.

Polypodium Linn. Polypodiaceae. 600 sp. cosmop. Several occur in
Brit., viz. P. alpestre Hoppe, P. Dryopteris L. (oak-fern), P. Phego -
pteris L. (beech-fern), P. vulgare L. (common polypody). They
have circular naked sori. Many trop. sp. are epiphytic and show
interesting features. The rhizomes creep over the supporting tree,
and humus is collected in niches formed between it and the leaves.
An ordinary P. leaf with its bare petiole below would be useless,
but these sp. have leaves whose blade reaches down to the base. P.
Heracleum Kze. is a good example. P. quercifolium L. and others
are still more interesting, as they exhibit two kinds of leaves, the one
of the ordinary branched type, projecting out from the support and
serving for assimilation and spore-bearing, the others small leaves like
those of the oak, close to the rhizome, forming humus-collecting niches
(cf. Platycerium, and see Goebel Pflanzenbiol . Sch. I. p. 216).

Polypogon Desf. Gramineae (vm). 10 sp. warm temp, and trop.; 2

in Brit, rare (beard-grass).

Polystachya Hook. Orchidaceae (9). 40 sp. trop., esp. Afr.

Pomaceae (Warming). = Rosaceae (sub-order II).

Pomaderris Labill. Rhamnaceae. 20 sp. Austr., N. Z.

Pontederia Linn. Pontederiaceae. 2 sp. Am. Firs, trimorphic, hetero-
styled (cf. Ly thrum). P. crassipes Mart. — Eichhornia eras sipes.

Pontederiaceae. Monocotyledons (Farinosae). 6 gen. with 21 sp.
trop. Water plants (p. 158), floating or rooted, of sympodial struc-
ture, the successive axes ending in infls. (sympodial cymose pseudo-
racemes). Often, e.g. in Eichhornia, the axillary shoot is adnate to
the main shoot from which it springs (p. 42). Sometimes extra
branches are formed, and the axis of the infl. is often pushed to one side
so that it appears to spring from a leaf-sheath. FIs. zygomorphic.
P (3 + 3), persistent; A 3 + 3, epiphyllous, G (3), 3-loc. with 00 ana-
tropous ovules, or i-loc. with 1 ovule; style long, stigma entire or

POTAMOGETON

54i

slightly lobed. Capsule or nut. Embryo central in the seed, scarcely,
or not, shorter than the rich mealy endosperm. Chief genera: Eich-
hornia, Pontederia. Placed in Coronarieae by Benth. -Hooker, in
Liliiflorae by Warming.

Populus Linn. Salicaceae. 1 8 sp. N. temp. P. alba L. (white poplar)
and P . tremula L. (aspen) in Brit. Like Salix in most features, but
the firs, are wind-pollinated and have no honey; correlated with this
is the fact that they have usually more sta. than those of Salix. The
wood of P . alba is useful, and also that of P. nigra L. (black poplar)
with its variety pyramidalis Spach [P. fastigiata Desf.), the Lombardy
poplar, often grown in parks &c., P. canadensis Michx. (cotton-wood
tree, N. Am.) and others. P. balsamifera L. is the balsam poplar,
and yields a resin known as Tacamahac (see Calophyllum).

Porana Burm. f. Convolvulaceae (1. 4). 10 sp. Indo-mal., Austr.

Porlieria Ruiz et Pav. Zygophyllaceae. 3 sp. Mexico and Andes. The
leaflets of P. hygrometrica Ruiz et Pav. spread out horizontally at night,
but during the day are folded up in pairs against one another, avoid-
ing excessive transpiration.

Porrum (Tourn.) Linn. = Allium Tourn.

Portulaca Linn. Portulacaceae. 20 sp. trop. and subtrop. The flr.
has a semi-inferior ovary and 4 — 00 sta. It is homogamous with self-
fertilisation on withering, and remains closed in bad weather. The
sta. of P. oleracea L. are sensitive to contact and move toward the
side touched.

Portulacaceae. Dicotyledons (A rchichl. Centrospermae). 17 gen. with
144 sp., cosmop., but esp. Am. Most are annual herbs, often with
fleshy leaves, and with stipules (sometimes represented by axillary
bundles of hairs). Firs, usually in cymes (often dichasia with tendency
to cincinni), regular, $ • K 2, the lower sepal (usually anterior) over-
lapping the upper (the two are often regarded as bracteoles) ; C 5 ;
A 5 + 5, or 5 opp. the petals, or some other number ; G (2 — 8) usually
(3), superior exc. in Portulaca, i-loc. with several stigmas and 2 — co
campylotropous ovules on a central basal placenta. The firs, secrete
honey and are mostly insect-pollinated. Fruit a capsule with albu-
minous seeds; that of Claytonia and Montia is explosive; embryo
more or less curved round the perisperm. Chief genera: Calandrinia,
Spraguea, Claytonia, Montia, Portulaca, Lewisia. Placed in Caryo-
phyllinae by Benth. -Hooker, in Curvembryae by Warming.

Portulaceae (Benth. -Hooker) = Portulacaceae.

Portulacaria Jacq. Portulacaceae. 2 sp. S. Afr.

Posidonia Kon. Potamogetonaceae. 2 sp. Austr., Medit.

Posoqueria Aubl. Rubiaceae (1. 8). 5 sp. S. Am.

Potamogeton (Tourn.) Linn. Potamogetonaceae. 70 sp. cosmop.
11 or more (cf. Rubus) in Brit, (pond-weed). Water plants with
creeping sympodial rhizomes and erect leafy branches; leaves all
submerged or some floating. A whole series of types occurs, begin-

542

POTAMOGETON

ning with the floating sp. and ending with the narrow-leafed sub*
merged ones (see p. 160). There can be no doubt of the origin of
the P. from land plants, and Schenck looks upon P. natans L. as the
sp. least modified to suit a water existence, i.e. the nearest to the
ancestral type. The upper leaves are ovate, leathery, and float on the
water; the lower are submerged, and sometimes reduced to a linear
form. Then come such sp. as P. heterophyllus Schreb. where the
submerged leaves are all narrow. Next P. lucens L., P. crispus L.,
&c. with all the leaves lanceolate and submerged. Then in P. ob -
tusifolius Mert. et Koch, P. pusillus L., &c., the leaves are narrow
and of a long ribbon shape. P. trichoides Cham, et Schlecht. repre-
sents the most highly modified type of all. [All the above are Brit,
sp. ; they are best studied at first in a herbarium, for P. is as variable
a genus as Rubus or Hieracium, and the sp. are exceedingly difficult
to determine. The fact is that probably the genus is still in a condition
of rapid evolution of which the sp. above mentioned represent various
stages.] Interesting phenomena connected with the above are to be
seen in the germination of the seeds. The internal anatomy also
shows interesting features in the series of types mentioned.

Hibernation occurs in different ways; some sp. remain green all
winter ; P. natans , &c. die down and leave only the rhizome ; P. pec -
tinatus L. forms peculiar tubers on special branches (Schenk, Wasser -
gewachse , p. 86) ; P. crispus and others form winter buds with broad
leaves (not closely packed as in Utricularia &c., but wavy, like holly
leaves) ; P. obtusifolius forms winter buds of the ordinary kind. The
firs, are of simple structure, arranged in spikes which project above
the water. Each has 4 sta. in two whorls, and 4 cpls. From the
connective of each sessile anther there grows out a cup-shaped ex-
pansion simulating a perianth leaf. The fir. is protogynous and wind-
fertilised. The outer layer of the pericarp contains air, so that the
fruit, which is an achene, floats on the water and may thus be carried
to a distance, finally sinking when the air escapes. [For further details
see p. 158 and Literature.]

Potamogetonaceae. Monocotyledons (Helobieae). 9 gen. with 70 sp.
cosmop. All are water plants, several of them being marine. There
is in most a creeping stem or rhizome, mono- or sym-podial, attached
to the soil by adventitious roots, and sending off erect branches up-
wards into the water. These usually have ribbon leaves, submerged
(exceptions occur in Potamogeton), arranged in \ phyllotaxy. The
base is sheathing, and within the sheath are the small scales ( squamulae
intravaginales ) which occur in most of the orders of Helobieae. The
infl. is a spike or cyme, or the firs, solitary. The firs, possess no true
perianth (exc. Zannichellia ? ), but Potamogeton shows leaf-like out-
growths from the sta. which perform the perianth functions ; similar
structures occur in Zostera and Ruppia. In several genera it is not
easy to decide what is to be regarded as the fir. (see Zostera).

PRIMULA

543

Fir. ? or unisex., regular, i — 4-merous. Cpls. free or only 1.
Ovules 1 in each epl., pendulous, orthotropous. Fruit one-seeded.
No endosperm. Embryo with well developed hypocotyl. For details
see genera.

Chief genera :

A. Firs, in spikes :

1. salt water: Zostera, Phyllospadix, Posidonia, Ruppia.

2. fresh or brackish : Potamogeton.

B. Firs, in cymes or solitary: Cymodocea, Zannichellia.

[Benth. -Hooker unite P. to Aponogetonaceae, Juncaginaceae and

Naiadaceae, and place the whole order (Naiadeae) in Apocarpae.
Warming places it in Helobieae.]

PotentiUa Linn. (incl. Comarum Linn., Sibbaldia Linn., Tormentilla
Linn.). Rosaceae (in. 6 b). 200 sp. chiefly N. temp, and arctic, a

few S. temp, and Andes; 9 in Brit., incl. P. Anserina L. (silver-
weed), P. reptans L. (cinquefoil), P. Comarum Nestl., P. Tor?nentilla
NecK. (tormentil), &c. Herbs, usually with creeping stems which root
at the nodes and thus multiply the plant vegetatively. There is a
well-marked epicalyx of small green leaves outside and alt. with
the sepals. These are the stipules of the sepals united in pairs; often
one or more of them may be seen with two lobes or even completely
divided. Firs, homogamous, fly- visited ; honey is secreted by a ring-
shaped nectary within the sta.

Poterium Linn. (incl. Sanguisoi'ba Rupp, ex Linn.). Rosaceae (in. 9).
30 sp. N. temp. ; 2 in Brit, (burnet). P. Sanguisorba L. is anemo-
philous with long pendulous sta. (cf. Thalictrum, Artemisia); it is
also gynomonoecious, the ? firs, at the top of the spike opening first,
and afterwards the £ firs, below. P. (S.) officinale A. Gray shows
more trace of its entomophilous ancestry; the sta. are rigid and of
a reddish colour, the stigma is less branched, and there is a nectary
round the style (cf. Rumex and Rheum).

Pothos Linn. Araceae (1). 30 sp. trop. As., Madagascar. Mono-

podial (see order). Stem climbing, with adventitious roots. The
buds break through the leaf-axils, so that the branching seems
infra-axillary. Fir. g. P 3 + 3.

Pourthiaea Dene. Rosaceae (11. 4). 5 sp. E. As.

Pouzolzia Gaudich. Urticaceae (3). 35 sp. Old World trop. The

root of P. tuberosa Wight is eaten in India.

Prangos Lindl. Umbelliferae (6). 30 sp. Medit., Cent. As.

Prasium Linn. Labiatae (ill). 1 sp. Medit.

Pratia Gaudich. Campanulaceae (in). 16 sp. S. Am., Austr., trop. As.

Premna Linn. Verbenaceae (iv). 40 sp. trop. and subtrop. (exc. Am.).

Prenanthes Vaill. ex Linn. Compositae (xm). 27 sp. N. temp, and

Afr.

Priestleya DC. Leguminosae (111. 3). 15 sp. S. Afr.

Primula Linn. Primulaceae (1). 146 sp., N. hemisph. chiefly in hilly

544

PRIMULA

districts. A few occur elsewhere, e.g. P. farinosa L., var. rnagellanica
Hook, at the Str. of Magelhaen. The rhizome is a sympodium, each
joint terminating in an infl. In some sp. this consists of successive
whorls of firs, arranged up a long stalk, e.g. P. japonica A. Gray.
The genus has been monographed by Pax (see Nat. PJl .). A few of
the more important sp. are : P. sinensis Sabine, the Chinese prim-
rose, P. elatior Hill, the oxlip (Brit.), P. vulgaris Huds. [P. acaulis
Hill), the primrose (Brit.), P. veris Lehm. (P. ojficinalis Jacq.), the
cowslip (Brit.), P. farinosa L. (Brit.), P. japonica A. Gray, a most
beautiful plant, not as often cultivated as it deserves to be, P. Au-
ricula L., the auricula with its many forms. A great many hybrids
also occur, and garden varieties. An interesting one is the double
crowned cowslip, in which the calyx has become petaloid, so that the
fir. looks as if it had two corollas, one within the other.

The firs, of P. are dimorphic, heterostyled. On one plant are
found long-styled firs., with sta. halfway up the tube of the corolla
and the stigma at its mouth ; on another plant are short-styled firs.,
with stigma halfway up and anthers at the mouth. The depth and
narrowness of the tube render the fir. adapted to bees or butterflies,
and these will tend to carry pollen from long sta. to long style or
from short sta. to short style. These ‘legitimate’ pollinations (see
Lythrum and p. 95) which are at the same time crossings, are the
only ones which produce a full complement of fertile seed.

The flower stalks in the umbellate forms, e.g . cowslip, stand close
and erect till the firs, open, then they spread out, and close up again
as the fruit ripens ; thus the capsule is held erect and the seeds must
be shaken out.

Primulaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Primulales). 28 gen. with 350
sp. cosmop., but esp. N. temp. There
are 9 Brit, genera, representing all but
one of the suborders. They are herb-
aceous plants, commonly perennial,
with rhizomes or tubers ; leaves opp.
or alt., exstip. The firs, are often
borne on scapes, which when more
than one flowered are terminal ; they
are usually actinomorphic, £ , often
heterostyled, and 5-merous, without
bracteoles, the odd (4th) sepal poste-
rior. K (5) persistent; C (5), regular
(exc. Coris), or 5, or o (Glaux); A 5,
epipetalous and opposite the petals;
occasionally 5 staminodes alternate
with the petals ; anthers introrse.

The presence of the staminodes here
as in Myrsinaceae, explains the antepetalous position of the sta. as due

Floral diagram of Primula
acaulis (after Eichler).

PRINGLEA

545

to the abortion of the originally outer whorl. Much discussion took
place on this subject in former times, especially after Pfeifer’s discovery
of the peculiar development of the corolla from the backs of the
sta. (see Eichler, Biiithendiag. or Asa Gray, Struct . Bot. p. 197).
Ovary superior or half-inferior (Samolus), syncarpous with free
central placenta, typically of 5 cpls., but this is not easily proved,
as no partitions (cf. Caryophyllaceae) are found in the ovary and the
style and stigma are simple. The capsule splits into 5 valves, and
monstrous firs, with 5 leaves in place of the ovary occur ; hence we
may perhaps assume 5 cpls. Ovules 00 , spirally or in whorls on the
placenta, semi-anatropous. The morphology of the free-central
placenta has also been a subject of dispute (see Pax in Nat. PJi ., or
Eichler , Bl iithendiag. ) .

A great number of the P. have heterostyled flowers (Primula,
Hottonia, Glaux, Androsace, &c., q.v. for details).

The fruit is a capsule, dehiscing in various ways, but usually by
teeth at the tip, one opposite to each sepal. Seeds few or many;
embryo small, in fleshy endosperm.

Classification and chief genera (after Pax) :

A. Flowers regular. Calyx not spiny.

a. Limb of corolla never bent back on tube,
a. Corolla aestivation quincuncial.

I. Prunuleae (ovary sup.): Primula, Androsace, Solda-
nella, Hottonia.

II. Samoleae (ovary semi-inf.): Samolus (only genus).

1 8 . Aestivation convolute.

III. Lysimachieae : Lysimachia, Steironema, Trientalis,

Glaux, Anagallis, Centunculus.

b. Limb of corolla bent back.

IV. Cyclamineae : Cyclamen, Dodecatheon (only genera).

B. Flowers medially zygomorphic. Calyx spiny.

V. Corideae: Coris (only genus).

[Placed in Primulales by Benth.- Hooker, in Primulinae by
Warming.]

Primulales. The 2nd cohort (Engler) of Sympetalae (p. 131). The 5th
cohort (Benth.- Hooker) of Gamopetalae (p. 135).

Primulinae (Warming). The 3rd cohort of Sympetalae (p. 138).

Principes. The 5th cohort of Monocotyledons (p. 125).

Pringlea Anders. Cruciferae (1. 1). P. anti scorbutic a R. Br., the
Kerguelen cabbage, is the only sp. It has the habit of a cabbage,
with the firs, borne on lateral axes, and is a valuable remedy against
scurvy on account of its essential oil. It grows only “on the tem-
pestuous shores of Kerguelen’s I., where winged insects cannot exist,
because at every flight they run the risk of being drowned. Under
these circumstances the plant has become modified for fertilisation by
the wind, acquiring exserted anthers and long filiform stigmatic

w. 35

PR1NGLEA

546

papillae. It still retains traces of its descent from entomophilous
ancestors; for while on the great part of the island it is devoid of
petals, it occurs abundantly in shaded places with petals” (Muller).

Prinos Gronov. ex Linn. = Ilex Tourn.

Prionium E. Mey. Juncaceae. 1 sp. Cape Col., P. Palmita E. Mey.
(P. serratum Buchen.), the Palmiet, a shrubby aloe-like plant with a
stem 1 — 2 metres high, covered with the fibrous remains of old leaves.
It grows on the edges of streams, sometimes almost blocking them up.
Vegetative propagation takes place by the formation of runners. Ad-
ventitious roots are formed between the leaves. [See Buchenau in
Bibliotheca Botanica , No. 27.]

Pritchardia Seem, et H. Wendl. (excl. Washingtonia H. Wendl.).
Palmae (1. 2). 5 sp. west U.S., Sandwich Is.

Priva Adans. Verbenaceae (11). 10 sp. trop. and subtrop. The leaves

of P. echinata Juss. are used in Am. as tea. The tubers of P. laevis
Juss. are edible.

Proboscidea Schmid. - Martynia Houst.

Procris Comm, ex Juss. Urticaceae (2). 5 sp. trop.

Prosopis L. Leguminosae (1. 4). 25 sp. trop. and subtrop. Some are

xerophytes, without leaves. Many are thorny, the thorns being
epidermal, or metamorphosed branches or stipules. P. julijlora DC.
is the mezquit tree. P. alba Griseb. has sweet succulent pods (Alga-
roba blanca), used as food.

Prostanthera Labill. Labiatae (11). 40 sp. Austr.

Protea Linn. Proteaceae (1). 60 sp. Cape Colony. Firs, in showy

heads, often with coloured bracts.

Proteaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Proteales). 50 gen. with 960 sp.
“which have a very characteristic distribution; there are in Austr.
591, trop. E. As. 25, New Caled. 27, N. Z. 2, Chili 7, trop. S. Am. 36,
south-west Cape Col. 262, Madag. 2, Mts. of trop. Afr. 5 ” (Engler).
A consideration of the above figures will show that the great majority
of the order lives in regions where there is annually a long dry season.
Correlated with this is the fact that these plants are mostly of xero-
phytic habit (p. 163). They are nearly all shrubs and trees with
entire or much-divided exstip. leaves, which have commonly a thick
cuticle and often a covering of hairs further to check transpiration.
They also exhibit in their internal anatomy various xerophytic
characters (see Nat . /)?.). The firs, are borne in racemes, spikes,
heads &c., and are often very showy; it is noteworthy that many
have their pollen freely exposed, though they are not wind-fertilised
— another peculiarity connected with their life in a dry climate
(compare the Acacias of Australia).

The firs, are usually g , often zygomorphic. Perianth (4), corol-
line, valvate ; the leaves commonly bent or rolled back when open ;
sta. 4, inserted on the tepals, and usually with only the anthers free;
G i» ovules many or few or one, pendulous or not, the micropyle

PSTLOTACEAE

547

facing the base of the ovary. The style is terminal, long, often
bent inwards. Fruit a follicle, capsule, drupe or nut. Seed ex-
albuminous. The ovary is sometimes borne on a gynophore and at
its base are commonly nectarial outgrowths. The firs, are protandrous
and adapted to insect-fertilisation.

Classification and chief genera (see discussion in Nat. Pfl. ).

I. PERSOONIOIDEAE (firs, single in axils of bracts;
ovules seldom few or 2 ; drupe or nut, one seeded): Persoonia,
Protea, Leucadendron.

II. GREVILLOIDEAE (firs, in pairs ; ovules several or 2;
fruit usually dehiscent and many seeded) : Grevillea, Hakea,
Banksia.

[Placed in Daphnales by Benth.-Hooker, in Thymelaeinae by
Warming.]

Proteales. The 10th cohort of Archichlamydeae (p. 127).

Protium Burm. f. Burseraceae. 50 sp. trop. Am. Some yield
resins.

Prunella Linn. {Prunella Tourn.) Labiatae (vi. 4). P. vulgaris L.
(self-heal) is cosmop. (incl. Brit.), the other 5 sp. Medit. Eur. The
fruiting calyx is closed and points upwards in dry air, but opens and
stands horizontally in damp.

Prunus (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Amygdaltis Tourn., Cerasus Tourn.).
Rosaceae (v. 12). 75 sp. N. temp.; a few trop. P. msititia L.

(bullace), P. spinosa L. (sloe or blackthorn), P. Avium L. (gean),
P. Padus L. (bird-cherry), in Brit. The fir. -buds are laid down in
August or September of the preceding year. There is 1 cpl., which
gives rise to a drupe, while the hollow receptacle usually falls away.
Many sp. are cultivated for their fruit, e.g. P. Armeniaca L. (apricot),
P. domestica L. (plum, prune), P. A??iygdalus Stokes (almond), P.
Persica Stokes (peach, with its smooth-fruited variety the nectarine),
P. Cerasus L. (cherry), &c. P. Laurocerasus L. is the cherry laurel;
it has extra-floral nectaries (p. 114) on the backs of the leaves, showing
as brownish patches against the midribs. The spines of some sp. are
axillary, as in Crataegus.

Psamma Beauv. = Ammophila Host.

Pseuderanthemum Radlkf. Acanthaceae (iv. B). 60 sp. trop.

Pseudolarix Gord. Coniferae (1. 1 b). 1 sp. P. Kaempferi Gord.,

the golden pine, China. Like Larix, but distinguished chiefly by the
deciduous fruit-scales.

Pseudotsuga Carr. = Tsuga Carr.

Psidium Linn. Myrtaceae (1). 100 sp. trop. Am. Many yield edible

fruit, e.g. P. Guajava L., the guava.

Psilotaceae. Lycopodinae (Homosporous). Two genera (Psilotum,
Tmesipteris) with 3 sp. trop. and subtrop. The mature sporophyte
has no roots, their functions being performed by the branched rhi-
zomes. The aerial branches bear crily scale-leaves in Psilotum. The

35—2

PSILOTACEAE

548

sporangia are 2- or 3-loc., borne on small two-lobed sporopliylls.
“There lias been much disagreement as to the morphological nature
of the sporangiophores of the Psilotaceae. The two chief views are
the following: (1) that the whole sporangiophore is a single foliar
member ; (2) that it is a reduced axis bearing a terminal synangium
and two leaves. The recent very careful researches of Bower upon
the origin of the sporangiophore and synangium confirm the former
view” (Campbell; see also Bower in Phil, Trans . clxxxv, 1894,
P- 473)-

“The fully-developed synangium (2-loc. in Tmesipteris, 3-loc. in
Psilotum) has the outer walls of the loculi composed of a superficial
layer of large cells, beneath which are several layers of smaller ones.
The cells composing the septa are narrow tabular ones ; occasionally
the septum is partially absent.... Bower regards the whole synangium
as homologous with the single sporangium of Lycopodium ” (Camp-
bell). The prothallus has not been seen.

Psilotum Sw. Psilotaceae. 2 sp. trop. They are probably saprophytic
in their habit, and have neither roots nor green leaves, but only green
stems. See order for details of sporangia &c. Vegetative reproduction
is common, small gemmae being formed upon the rhizomes. At first
no structural differentiation is visible in these, but apical cells are
formed later.

Psoralea Linn. Leguminosae (in. 6). 100 sp. Afr., As., Austr.

P. esculenta Pursh (N. Am.) is the prairie turnip, with an edible
tuberous root.

Psychotria Linn. (excl. Mapourea Aubl.). Rubiaceae (11. 15). 360 sp.

trop. Some are heterostyled. Many have the infl.-axis brightly
coloured. See Cephaelis. [For P. Ipecacuanha Stokes see Ura-
goga-]

Ptelea Linn. Rutaceae (ix). 7 sp. N. Am. P. trifoliata L. is often

grown in parks (shrubby trefoil). Firs* monoecious. Fruit winged
(cf. Ulmus).

Pteridophyta. Vascular Cryptogams, one of the four chief divisions
of the Vegetable Kingdom. They have a well marked alternation of
generations, the oophyte (gametophyte or sexual generation) being
insignificant in size compared to the sporophyte (asexual generation),
but still capable of independent growth. The life history of a typical
Pteridophyte may be shown diagrammatically as follows, taking the
fern as an example:

Fern-plant -»■ sporophylls sporangia spores

t \

fertilised ovum — 5 spermatozoid - antheridia j othallus.

( ovum archegoma ) 17

The ‘plant’ or asexual generation alternates with the prothallus or
sexual generation. In many P. there are male and female prothalli.
The prothallus corresponds to the ‘ plant ’ in a moss or liverwort,

PTERID O PHYTA

549

whilst the sporogonium of these latter is the equivalent of the * plant *
in a fern or lycopod.

The plant itself takes various forms in the different groups. Except
in the tree ferns and in fossil forms it does not attain any great size.
There is an erect stem in many ferns &c. ; others have creeping stems
(e.g. Lycopodium and Selaginella), rhizomes (many Ferns), or floating
stems (Hydropterideae). The leaves are simple, except in many ferns.
There is no primary tap-root, but roots are formed as required from
the stem or leaves. Internally there are well marked vascular bundles
in both stem and leaf, and many of the anatomical features of Phanero-
gams may be found here also.

The sporangia arise upon the leaves, either on the ordinary foliage
as in most ferns, or on specially differentiated leaves as in Osmund a,
Equisetum, Lycopodineae, Hydropterideae, &c. They may be solitary
or in groups (sort) ; in the latter case they are often protected by a
special outgrowth of the leaf, the indnsium. The spores are formed
by a complicated process from a single cell or row or layer of cells —
the archesporium — inside the sporangium : each has a thick waterproof
outside wall. The spores may be of one kind only, in which case the
plant is termed homo - or iso-sporous, or of two kinds ( heterosporous ).
In this case the smaller spore is termed the microspore , the larger the
mega- or macro-spore \ the former gives rise to a male prothallus, the
latter to a female.

Polling upon the soil (or into the water, in the case of the
Hydropterideae) the spores germinate under suitable conditions,
giving rise to the sexual plants or prothalli . The prothallus is a
small body without distinction into stem and leaf; it absorbs materials
from the soil (usually by rhizoids) and, being green, assimilates in the
ordinary way. It bears the sexual organs — antheridia (male) and
archegonia (female). In the homosporous forms these are both found
on the same prothallus, except in Equisetum, where, though the
spores are absolutely similar so far as we can tell, there are separate
male and female prothalli, as in the heterosporous forms. In the
antheridia are developed the motile male cells or antherozoids (often
called spermatozoids as they are equivalent to the spermatozoa of
animals). Fertilisation takes place by aid of water. The mucilage
contained in the neck of the archegonium is attractive to the sperma-
tozoids (p. 56), which swim up the neck of the archegonium. One
of them finally fuses with the ovum or female cell at the base of the
archegonium, and the fertilised ovum (zygote) then developes into a
new ‘plant’ or asexual generation, being nourished by the prothallus
until it can assimilate for itself.

Classification :

I. Filicineae : Mostly homosporous, with monoecious prothalli
(Hydropterideae are heterosporous, with dioecious prothalli).
Stem with few or no branches ; leaves usually large and

55o

PTERTDOPHYTA

branched. Sporangia numerous, on ordinary or on meta-
morphosed leaves, commonly collected into sori. See F. for
further classification.

II. Equisetineae : Homosporous (some fossil forms are hetero-
sporous), with dioecious prothalli. Stem much branched with
jointed internodes and small sheathing whorls of leaves (not
green). Sporangia on peltate sporangiophores, forming a
terminal spike.

[III. Sphenophylleae : fossil plants only.]

IV. Lycopodineae : Homosporous or heterosporous ; in the latter
case the female prothallus remains enclosed in the spore till
fertilisation. Stem simple or branched ; leaves many, small,
entire. Sporangia singly on upper side of leaf-bases, or in
their axils, or on a sporangiophore.

Pteridium Gleditsch = Pteris Linn.

Pteris Linn. Polypodiaceae. ioo sp. cosmop. P. aquilina L. the
bracken, is best known, and is common in Brit. It has a creeping
rhizome, bearing two ranks of leaves. At the base of the leaf is a
nectary whose use is unknown ; ants may be seen visiting it. The
sori are confluent along the leaf-margin which is curved over them.
The bracken is sometimes placed in a genus Pteridium distinct from
all the other sp. on account of its having a true indusium on the inner
side of the sorus, in addition to the ‘false’ indusium formed by the
curving over of the leaf blade. Adventitious buds appear on the
back of the leaf stalk, near the base (cf. Aspidium). Apogamy occurs
in P. cretica L. (see Filicineae Leptosporangiatae).

Pterocarpus Linn. Leguminosae (in. 8). 20 sp. trop. Several sp.,

esp. P. Marsupium Roxb., furnish Kino, an astringent resin. P.
santalinus L. f. yields red sandal-wood. The fruit is winged.

Pterocarya Kunth. Juglandaceae. 4 sp. N. temp.

Pterocephalus Vaill. = Scabiosa Tourn.

Pteronia Linn. Compositae (in). 52 sp. S. Afr.

Pterostylis R. Br. Orchidaceae (4). 40 sp. Austr., N. Z., New Caled.
The median sepal, with the petals, forms a hood over the rest of the
fir. The flap of the labellum hangs out below and is irritable. If
an insect land on it, it instantly moves up and imprisons the visitor
against the column ; the only mode of escape is by squeezing past the
stigma and anther. After half-an-hour the lip goes down again and
is ready for another capture (Darwin, Orchids, p. 86).

Ptychosperma Labill. Palmae (iv. 6). 15 sp. Indo-mal. Firs, in

threes, 2 c? and 1 $. P. ( Seaforthia ) elegans Blume is a favourite
ornamental palm.

Pugionium Gaertn. Cruciferae (iv. 18). 2 sp. Mongolia.

Pulicaria Gaertn. Compositae (iv). 30 sp. Eur., As., Afr. P. dysen -
terica Gaertn. {Inula dysenterica L. ) in Brit, (flea-bane).

Pulmonaria (Tourn.) Linn. Boraginaceae (iv. 3). 10 sp. Eur. P.

PYROLACEAE

55*

officinalis L. (lung-wort, formerly officinal) and P. angustifolia L. in
Brit. Both have dimorphic heterostyled firs, which change from red
to blue as they grow older (see order).

Pulsatilla (Tourn.) Linn. = Anemone Toum.

Pultenaea Sm. Leguminosae (111. 2). 76 sp. Austr.

Punica (Tourn.) Linn. The only genus of Punicaceae. 2 sp., one in
Socotra, the other, P. Granatum L., the pomegranate, from the
Balkans to the Himalayas, and cultivated in most trop. lands. The
young twigs of the tree have four wings, composed simply of epidermis
and cortical parenchyma ; these are early thrown off. The flr. is $ ,
regular, perigynous. K 5 — 8, valvate ; C 5 — 8, imbricate. Sta. 00 .
Ovary adnate to receptacle. The mature ovary has a peculiar struc-
ture, due to a development like that in Mesembryanthemum. Two
whorls of cpls. with basal placentae are laid down, and then a peri-
pheral growth tilts them up from || • (j to = . = so that two layers of
loculi are formed and the placentation appears to be parietal. Ovules
00 , anatropous. The arrangement is also seen in the fruit, commonly
termed a berry, but not strictly so. The pericarp (axial in part) is
leathery, and the fleshy inner part round the seeds is really the outer
layers of the seed coats.

Punicaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Myrtiflorae). Only genus Punica
(q.v.). Placed in Lythraceae by Benth. -Hooker and in Myrtaceae
by Warming.

Pupalia Juss. Amarantaceae (2). 5 sp. Afr., As.

Purshia DC. Rosaceae (ill. 7). 1 sp. West U.S.

Pusaetha Linn. = Entada Adans.

Puschkinia Adams. Liliaceae (v). 2 sp. W. As.

Pycnanthemum Michx. Labiatae (vi. n). 13 sp. N. Am.

Pyrethrum Hall. = Chrysanthemum Tourn.

Pyrola (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Afoneses Salisb.). Pyrolaceae. 15 sp. N.
Temp. (5 Brit, wintergreen). Evergreens with creeping stocks. P.
(Afoneses) uniflora L. has adventitious buds on the roots, and a solitary
terminal flower. P. minor L. is the most frequent in Brit. The firs,
are in racemes, pendulous, without discs. There is no honey ; the
stigma projects beyond the anthers, but pollen may at last fall upon it
from them. P. rotundifolia L. is similar. The seeds of P. are very
light and are distributed by wind. Many sp. prefer shady places.

Pyrolaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Ericales). 10 gen. with 30 sp.,
cold N. temp, and arctic. The two Brit, genera represent the two
types of habit found in the order — evergreen plants with sympodial
growth from rhizomes (Pyrola), and saprophytes (Monotropa). The
infl. is terminal; it may be a true raceme (Pyrola), or a cyme, leafless
or with scaly bracts. Fir. £ actinomorphic. K 4 — 5 ; C (4 — 5) or
4 — 5; A 8 — 10, obdiplostemonous ; G (4 — 5). The petals and sta.
are often at the edge of a nectariferous disc. Anthers introrse, opening
by apical pores or transverse valves ; pollen simple or in tetrads

552

PYROLACEAE

Cpls. opp. petals; ovary imperfectly 4— 5-loc. Style simple. Ovules
minute, 00 , anatropous, on thick fleshy placentae. Fruit a capsule.
Seeds 00 , small, in loose testa. Embryo of few cells, without differ-
entiation of cotyledons. Chief genei'a : Pyrola, Chimaphila, Mono-
tropa, Sarcodes. Benth.- Hooker united Pyrola and the similar green -
leaved forms to Ericaceae, making an order Monotropeae for the
saprophytes ; they place both in Ericales ; they are placed in
Bicornes by Warming.

Tyrus (Tourn.) Linn, (inch Cydonia Tourn., Mespilus Tourn. ). Rosa-
ceae (II. 4). 50 or 60 sp. N. temp. ; 6 in Brit., incl. P. Aucuparia

Ehrh., the rowan or mountain ash, P. Malus L. the apple, &c. The
receptacle is hollowed out and united to the syncarpous ovary. The
firs, are protogynous, and are visited by bees and many other insects.
Several varieties of pear (P. communis L.) are self-sterile (see Waite
in Bull U.S. Agric. Dept . 1894). After fertilisation the fruit becomes
a large fleshy pseudocarp ( po?ne)i the flesh consisting of the enlarged
receptacle, while the gynoeceum forms the core. Several sp. are
cultivated for their fruit, e.g. P. Malus L. (apple), P. communis L.
(pear), P. Cydonia L. (quince), P. germanica Hook. f. (medlar). P.
japonica Thunb. is often grown upon walls.

Quamoclit Tourn. ex Moench = Ipomoea Linn.

Quercus (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Pasania Oerst.). Fagaceae. 300 sp. N.
temp., Indo-mal., Pacific coasts, &c. The oaks are evergreen or
deciduous trees, in the latter case especially with well-developed
winter buds. The cupule contains 1 ? flr. only (see order), and forms
the acorn-cup at the base of the nut in fruit. Some sp. of the subgenus
Pasania have 3 ? firs. The d firs, are solitary in pendulous catkins.
Anemophilous. Many sp. are important economic plants. Among
the most noteworthy are: Q. Aegilops L. (E. Eur., Orient), whose
cupules and unripe acorns, known as Valonia, are used in tanning,
Q. alba L. (N. Am.), the white or Quebec oak (timber), Q. Cerris L.
(Eur., Orient), the Turkey oak (timber), Q. Ilex L. (Medit.), the
holly oak (timber, bark for tanning), Q. Robur L. (Eur., W. As.),
the British oak (it has two forms, sessiliflora Salisb., and pedunculata
Ehrh.), yielding timber and tan-bark, Q. Suber L. (Medit.) the cork
oak, whose bark, stripped off in thick layers and flattened, forms
ordinary cork, Q. tinctoria Bartr. (N. Am.), whose bark (Quercitron
bark) forms a yellow dye, and many others.

Quiina Aubl. Quiinaceae. 16 sp. trop. S. Am.

Quiinaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 2 gen. with 19 sp.
trop. S. Am. Placed in Guttiferae by Benth. -Hooker.

Quillaja Molina. Rosaceae (1. 2). 3 sp. S. Am. Q. Saponaria Molina
is the soap-tree of Chili ; the powdered bark gives a lather with water.

Quinaria Rafin. = Vitis Tourn.

Quisqualis Linn. Combretaceae. 4 sp. trop. Afr., As. Q. indica L.
is best known. “ Up to a height of 1 m. this shrub grows erect with

RANUNCULA CEAE

553

alt. leaves, and then emits long... often twining twigs, also with alt.
leaves whose petiole is jointed some way from the base. After the
leaf-fall the lower part forms a thorn. The flowering twigs have opp.
leaves.” (Brandis.) Fruit winged.

Radiola (Dill.) Roth. Linaceae. i sp. Eur. (incl. Brit.), N. Afr., temp.
As., R. linoides Roth (all-seed). Infl. a dichasial cyme.

Rafflesia R. Br. Rafflesiaceae. 5 sp. Java, Sumatra, &c. ; parasitic on
Vitis roots. R. Arnoldi R. Br. has a colossal flr. a yard across and
weighing 15 lbs. It smells like putrid meat, and is visited and polli-
nated by carrion flies (p. 92).

RaSiesiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Aristolochialcs). 7 gen. with
22 sp. trop. An extremely interesting order of parasitic herbs, whose
vegetative organs are reduced to what is practically a ?nycelium like
that of a true Fungus, viz. a network of fine cellular threads ramifying
in the tissues of the host (p. 176). The firs, appear above ground,
developing as adventitious shoots upon the mycelium. They are uni-
sexual, and sometimes of enormous size. Chief genera : Rafflesia,
Brugmansia, Pilostyles, Cytinus. Benth. -Hooker term the order
Cytinaceae, and include in it the Hydnoraceae, placing the whole
in Multiovulatae Terrestres, Warming places it in Hysterophyta.

Rafnia Thunb. Leguminosae (in. 3). 22 sp. S. Afr.

Ramondia Rich. Gesneriaceae (1). 4 sp. endemic on Mts. of S. Eur.

(1 Pyrenees, 1 Olympus, 2 Servia; see p. 149). Fir. almost regular
with 5 sta. and rotate corolla.

Ranales. The 15th cohort (Engler) of Archichlamydeae (p. 127).
The first cohort (Benth. -Hooker) of Polypetalae (p. 133).

Randia Houst. ex Linn. Rubiaceae (1. 8). roo sp. trop. The two
leaves at a node are often unequal (p. 47) and one frequently aborts
early. Thorns often occur. In R. dumetorum Lam. the thorn arises
in the axil of a leaf above the ordinary bud, and is carried up by
intercalary growth.

Ranunculaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Ranales). 27 gen. with 700
sp., chiefly N. temp, and well represented in Brit. Most are herba-
ceous perennials with rhizomes, usually of condensed (root-stock)
form, and always of sympodial construction. Each year’s shoot ends
in an infl. and a bud is formed in the axil of one of the leaves at the
base, which forms the next year’s growth. In most sp. the primary
root soon dies away, and adventitious roots are formed from the stem ;
often (e.g. Aconitum, Ranunculus sp.) these swell up into tubers
holding reserve materials. The leaves are usually alt., with sheath-
ing bases and often very much divided. The chief exceptions to the
above general statements, and special cases of interest, are described
under the genera, e.g. Helleborus, Eranthis, Clematis, Ranunculus.

The infl. is typically determinate; in Anemone sp., Eranthis, &c.,
a single terminal flr. is produced. More often a cymose branching
occurs, the buds in the axils of the leaves below the terminal flr.

554

RANUNCULA CEAE

developing in descending order. In Nigella sp. and others, after the
terminal fir. is formed, the buds below develope in ascending order,
so that a raceme with an end fir. is formed ; in Aconitum &c. the
same thing occurs, but the terminal fir. rarely developes. In Nigella,

Ranunculus acris. Floral diagram of axillary dichasial cyme, with details of
primary flr. Sta. according to the A phyllotaxy. a j8 bracteoles of primary,
* 0', a, j8/ of later, firs. After Eichler.

Anemone, &c., there is an involucre of green leaves below the flr.,
usually alternating with the calyx.

The flr. itself is typically spiral upon a more or less elongated
receptacle, but frequently the leaves of the perianth are in whorls. It
is usually regular and g . The perianth is usually petaloid and rarely
(eg. Ranunculus) shows a true calyx and corolla. Frequently there
occur nectaries of various patterns between the perianth proper and
the sta. ; these are usually considered as modified petals, but it is as
probable that they are derived directly from sta. without having passed
through the petal stage. An interesting series of transitions may be
seen by comparing the following firs. : — Caltha (honey secreted by
cpls., ‘calyx’ present, nothing between it and sta.), Helleborus or
Eranthis (honey secreted in little tubular ‘petals’), Nigella (ditto, but
‘petals’ with a small leafy end), Ranunculus auricomus (‘petals’
distinct and coloured, with pocket-like nectary at base), R. acris &c.
(petals large, nectary at base). In Aconitum and Delphinium there
is a zygomorphic flr. The sta. are usually oo and spiral, the anthers
extrorse; the cpls. oo, apocarpous, spiral, with either one basal or
several ventral anatropous ovules. In Nigella the cpls. are united;
there is only i in Actaea, which thus forms a link to Berberidaceae.

As a rule the firs, are protandrous and the sta. , as their anthers
open, bend outwards from the centre of the flr. A good series of firs,
showing various grades of adaptation to insects may be found in R.
(cf. pp. 87 seq.), e.g . Clematis (pollen flr.), Ranunculus (actino-
morphic, honey scarcely concealed at all), Nigella (honey in little
closed cavities), Aquilegia (honey in long spurs), Delphinium (ditto,
but zygomorphic also, and blue in colour), & c.

RAPHIA

555

The fruit is a group of achenes or follicles (capsule in Nigella,
berry in Actaea) ; seeds with minute embryo and oily endosperm.
The R. are mostly poisonous ; a few, e.g. Aconitum, are or have been
medicinal.

Classification and chief genera (after Prantl) :

A. Ovules many : fruit a follicle, berry or capsule.

1. Paeonieae (no honey leaves; firs, usually solitary: ovary wall

fleshy; stigma broadened) : Paeonia.

2. Helleboreae (usually honey-leaves; ovary wall rarely fleshy and

then firs, in racemes ; firs, solitary or in cymes or racemes) :

Caltha, Trollius, Helleborus, Nigella, Eranthis, Actaea,

Aquilegia, Delphinium, Aconitum.

B. Ovule one ; fruit an achene.

3. Anemoneae: Anemone, Clematis, Ranunculus, Thalictrum.

[Placed in Ranales by Benth.- Hooker, in Polycarpicae by Warm-
ing.]

Ranunculus (Toum.) Linn. Ranunculaceae (3). 250 sp. cosmop., esp.
N. temp.; 15 in Brit., several of interest. R. Ficaria L. (pilewort
or celandine) has tuberous roots, one formed at the base of each
axillary bud; these may give rise by separation to new plants.
R. aquatilis L. (water crowfoot) is often divided into a large number
of so-called species (see pp. 119, 159); it has a floating stem bearing
leaves which in many forms are of two kinds {heterofhylly , p. 163),
the submerged leaves being much divided into linear segments, whilst
the floating leaves are merely lobed. R. repens L. (creeping butter-
cup or crowfoot) has creeping runners (p. 1 53) which root at the nodes
and give rise to new plants. R. acris L. and R. bulbosus L. are
other common buttercups ; the latter has the base of the stem thick-
ened for storage. The firs, of R. are in cymes, regular, with well-
marked calyx and corolla (see order for diagram). Honey is secreted
in little pockets a* the base of the petals. The firs, are protandrous
and visited by a miscellaneous lot of insects (p. 88).

Raoulia Hook. f. Compositae (iv). 18 sp. N. Z., Austr. Woolly

herbs forming dense tufted masses (p. 165), easily mistaken at a
distance for sheep; hence they aie known as ‘vegetable sheep.*

Rapatea Aubl. Rapateaceae. 5 sp. S. Am.

Rapateaceae. Monocotyledons (Farinosae). 6 gen. with 25 sp. S. Am.
Placed in Coronarieae by Benth. -Hooker, in Liliiflorae by Warming.
For details see Nat. Pfi.

Raphanus (Tourn.) Linn. Cruciferae (11. 10). 10 sp. Medit., Eur.,

Java. R. Rapha7iistrnm L. in Brit.; its pods are jointed between
the seeds (lomentose). R. sativus L. is the radish, a biennial with
root-storage (p. 151).

Raphia Beauv. Palmae (in. 5). 6 sp. trop. Air., R. vinifera Beauv.

(the wine palm) occurring also on the Amazon (see order). Spadix
monoecious ; the bracts have a curious sheathing form. Berry

55^

RAPHIA

enclosed in large sheathing scales. In R. Ruffia Mart, roots are
developed between the dead leaf-bases; they curve upwards and are
said to act as respiratory organs.

Ratonia DC. ( Matayba Aubl.). Sapindaceae (i). 36 sp. trop. and

subtrop. Am.

Ravenala Adans. Musaceae. 2 sp. Madag. and S. Am. They have
a true sub-aerial stem, which bears large leaves in 2-ranked phyllo-
taxy, giving the plant a peculiar fan-like appearance. R. guyanensis
Steud. is the only Am. sp. of the suborder Museae. R. madagasca -
riensis J. F. Gmel. is the traveller’s tree, so-called because the water
that accumulates in the leaf-bases has been used for drinking in cases
of necessity.

Reaumuria Linn. Tamaricaceae. 13 sp. E. Medit., Cent. As. Halo-
phytes (p. 169). [See Volkens Flora d. aegyptisch-arabische JViiste,]

Reineckia Kunth. Liliaceae (vri). 1 sp. China, Japan.

Reinwardtia Dum. Linaceae. 1 sp. N. India.

Relhania L’Herit. Compositae (iv). iS sp. S. Afr.

Remusatia Schott. Araceae (vi). 2 sp. E. Ind., Java. R. vivipara

Schott has a tuberous stem which gives off upright shoots bearing
scale-leaves : in their axils are little tubers, each of which is provided
with a terminal hook by which it may be carried away by an animal.

Renanthera Lour. Orchidaceae (31). 12 sp. Malaya, Cochin China.

Climbers.

Renealmia Linn. f. Zingiberaceae. 1 5 sp. trop. Am., W. Afr.

Reseda Tourn. ex Linn. Resedaceae. 53 sp. Medit., Eur. ; R. lutea
L. and R. Luteola L. in Brit. R. odorata L. is the garden migno-
nette. There is a large posterior disc. The ovary and fruit are open
at the apex. R. lutea is the dyer’s weld; it yields a yellow dye.

Resedaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rhoeadales). 6 gen. with 45
sp. chiefly Medit., also in Eur., As., S. Afr., Calif. Most are xero-
phytic herbs with alt. stip. leaves and racemes of zygomorphic $ firs.,
with bracts but without bracteoles. The axis developes posteriorly
into a large disc, and upon this side the petals &c. are usually better
developed than upon the anterior side of the flr. K 4 — 8 ; C o — 8 ;
A 3 — 40; G (2 — 6) or 2 — 6, in the former case i-loc. with parietal
placentae. Ovary open at the top; ovules 1 — 00 percpl., anatropous.
Fruit capsular; embryo curved; no endosperm. Chief genera:
Reseda, Oligomeris. Placed in Parietales by Benth. -Hooker, in
Cistiflorae by Warming.

Restiaceae (Benth. -Hooker) = Restionaceae.

Restio Linn. Restionaceae. 100 sp. S. Afr., Austr. R, tetraphyllus
Labill. is often grown in botanic gardens. Assimilation is performed
by the green stems, the leaves being reduced to sheaths.

Restionaceae. Monocotyledons (Farinosae). 19 gen. with about 250
sp., mostly in S. Afr. and Austr., a few in N. Z., Chili and Cochin
China. Xerophytes (p. 163), usually of tufted growth, with the general

RHAMNACEAE

557

habit of a Juncus; below ground is a rhizome with scaly leaves, giving
off erect cylindrical shoots bearing sheathing leaves (rarely with
ligules), which have a short blade, or sometimes none at all, in which
case assimilation is performed by the stem. Firs, dioecious (rarely
monoecious or $ ), regular, in spikelets. Perianth in two whorls, but
single members are often absent. Sta. 3 or 2, opp. to the inner
perianth-leaves. Ovary superior, 1 — 3-loc., with 1 pendulous ortho-
tropous ovule in each loc. Capsule or nut. Embryo lens-shaped, in
mealy endosperm. Chief genus: Restio. Placed in Glumaceae by
Benth. -Hooker, in Enantioblastae by Warming. See Nat . Pfl. for
further details.

Restrepia H. B. et K. Orchidaceae (12). 12 sp. trop. Am.

Retinispora Sieb. et Zucc. = Thuya Linn., &c. Seedlings of many sp.
of the genera Chamaecyparis, Cupressus, Thuya, &c., exhibit, instead
of the decussate appressed leaves of the mature plant, spreading
needle-leaves (often in whorls of 4) like those of Abies &c. (see p. 112
and cf. Pinus, Acacia, &c.). If now these young seedlings be used as
offsets, the new plants thus formed retain throughout life this form of
foliage ; and plants are thus obtained of totally different habit from the
ordinary habit of these genera. To these ‘seedling forms ’ the name R.
was given. Many are found in gardens. The synonymy of the chief
of these is as follows : R. decussata hort. = Thuya orientalis ; R. fili-
fera F owles = Cupressus obtusa ; R. juniper oides Carr.= Thuya orien-
talis; R. obtusa Sieb. et Zucc. = Cupressus obtusa; R. pisifera Sieb.
et Zucc. = Cupressus pisifera ; R. recurvata hort. and R. rigida Carr.
= Thuya orientalis ; R. squarrosa Sieb. et Zucc. and R. stricta hort.
= Cupressus pisifera. For further synonymy see Index Kewensis .

Rhagadiolus Tourn. ex Scop. (incl. Hedypnois Schreb. and Garhadiolus
Jaub. et Spach). Compositae (xm). 8 sp. Medit., Orient. The

fruit is linear and has no pappus, being completely enwrapped in an
involucral bract.

Rhamnaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rhamnales). About 40 gen.
with 500 sp., found in all districts suited to the growth of trees.
Nearly all are trees or shrubs, often climbing (by aid of hooks in
Ventilago, tendrils in Gouania &c., twining stems in Berchemia) :
thorns occur in some, and especially in Colletia and its allies, to
which a most peculiar habit is thereby imparted. In these plants too,
serial buds occur in the leaf-axils. Leaves simple, usually with stipules,
never lobed or divided. Infl. cymose, usually a corymb.

Fir. inconspicuous, £ or rarely unisexual, regular, sometimes apeta-
lous. Receptacle hollow, free from or united to the ovary. K 5 — 4,
valvate; C 5 — 4, usually small, often strongly concave, frequently
clawed at base. Sta. 5 — 4, alt. with sepals, usually enclosed by the
petals, at any rate at first. Disc usually well developed, intra-stami-
nal. Ovary free or more or less united to receptacle, 3 — 2- (rarely by
abortion 1-) loc. (sometimes 4- or typically i-loc.); in each loc. 1

RHAMNACEAE

553

(rarely 2) basal ovule with downwardly-directed micropylc. Style
simple or divided. Fruit dry, splitting into dehiscent or indehiscent
mericarps, or a drupe with 1 or several stones, or a nut. Endosperm
little or none. Many of the dry fruits show special adaptations for
wind-carriage, e.g. Paliurus, Ventilago. The order is closely related
to Vitaceae, from which it is chiefly distinguished by the small petals,
the receptacle, the endocarp and simple leaves; it also approaches
Celastraceae, the chief distinction being the antepetalous sta. Chief
genera: Ventilago, Paliurus, Zizyphus, Rhamnus, Hovenia, Ceano-
thus, Phylica, Colletia, Gouania. Few are of economic value; see
Zizyphus, Rhamnus, Hovenia. Benth. -Hooker place the order in
Celastrales, Warming in Frangulinae.

Rhamnales. The 21st cohort of Archichlamydeae (p. 129).

Rhamneae (Benth. -Hooker) = Rhamnaceae.

Rhamnus Tourn. ex Linn. Rhamnaceae. 70 sp. N. temp., a few trop.
and S. temp., 2 in Brit., R. cathartica L. the common or purging
buckthorn, and R. Frangula L., the Alder buckthorn. The R. are
shrubs with alt. or opp. leaves and small cymose clusters of firs.
The genus is divided into two sections. To § 1, Eurhamnus (firs,
usually 4-merous, polygamous or dioecious), belong R. Alaternus L.
(Medit.) and R. cathartica (Eur., As., Medit.), whose berries possess
active purgative properties ; the juice of the fruit is mixed with alum
and evaporated, thus forming the paint known as sap-green; also
R. infectoria L. (Mts. of S. Eur.) whose berries are known as Graines
d’ Avignon or ‘yellow berries’ and yield useful green and yellow
dye-stuffs, and R. chlorophora Dene, from whose bark the Chinese
prepare the dye known as ‘ Chinese green indigo * used in dyeing silk
(R. utilis Dene, is also employed). To § 2, Frangula (firs, usually
5-merous, $ ), belong R. Frangula (Eur., As., N. Afr.) whose bark is
officinal (cathartic) and whose wood forms one of the best charcoals
for gunpowder, R. Purshiana DC. in N. Am., whose bark (Cascara
sagrada) is largely used as a cathartic.

Rhaphidophora Hassk. Araceae (11). 25 sp. E. Ind. Plants with

sympodial climbing stems with clasping roots and pendulous aerial
roots. The pinnation of the leaves arises by a process similar to that
which occurs in Monstera, i. e. by long holes arising between the ribs,
and the margin finally breaking. Firs. $ .

Rhapis Linn. f. Palmae (1. 2). 5 sp. E. As.

Rheum Linn. Polygonaceae (1. 2). 20 sp. temp, and subtrop. As.

The firs, are like those of Rumex, but are coloured and entomo-
philous, though they exhibit traces of anemophilous nature in their
very large stigmas (cf. Poterium &c.). R. officinale Baill. furnishes
medicinal rhubarb; R. Rhaponticum L. is the rhubarb used as a
vegetable.

Rhexia Linn. Melastomaceae (1). 7 sp. East U.S.

Rhinanthus Linn. (incl. Fistularia Linn.). Scrophulariaceae (ill. 12).

RHODOTYPOS

559

u sp. Eur., Medit.; 2 in Brit, (yellow-rattle), common in damp
pastures. Semi-parasites with loose pollen firs, (see order).

Rliipsalis Gaertn. Cactaceae (1. 3). 50 sp. trop. Am., Madag., Ceylon
(see order). Epiphytes, rarely thorny, sometimes of Cereus-like
structure, sometimes Phyllocactus-like, or with cylindrical stems
(compare sp. of Euphorbia). Fruit fleshy.

Rliizotoleae = Caryocaraceae.

Rhizophora Linn. Rhizophoraceae. 3 sp., R. Mangle L. in Am.,
R. mucronata Lam. and another, Japan to E. Afr. These mangroves
(p. 19 1) are moderate-sized trees with a great development of roots
from the stem and branches. On the sub-aerial parts of the roots are
large lenticels, probably serving in the same way as the aerenchyma
of Bruguiera &c. The seed germinates upon the tree, the hypocotyl
projects at the micropyle and grows rapidly. The bark is used for
tanning, yielding a substance known as cutch (cf. Acacia).

Rhizophoraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Myrtiflorae). 12 gen. with
50 sp. trop., mostly Old World. The general habit of the mangroves
is described on p. 188. They are trees with opp. stip. leaves; firs,
solitary or in cymes &c., $ , hypo- to epi-gynous. K usually 4 — 8;
C 4 — 8 ; A 8 — 00 , inserted on outer edge of perigynous or epigynous
disc; G (2 — 5), 2 — 5-loc. with usually 2 anatropous pendulous ovules
in each loc. Fruit a slightly soft berry. Chief genera : Rhizophora,
Bruguiera. Placed in Myrtales by Benth. -Hooker, in Myrtiflorae by
Warming.

Rhodea Endl. = Rohdea Roth.

Rhodochiton Zucc. Scrophulariaceae (11. 5). 1 sp. Mexico, R. volu-

bile Zucc., a favourite greenhouse twiner with sensitive petioles (cf.
Clematis).

Rhododendron Linn. (incl. Azalea Linn., q.v.). Ericaceae (1. 2). 200 sp.
“ One sp. (R. Lochae F. Muell.) is found in trop. Austral., the greatest
richness of sp. is in E. Asia, from S. China to the Himalaya and
Japan; a second and lesser abundance is found in temp. N. Am.,
and a few sp. in the arctic regions. 4 sp. in Mid. and S. Eur., 5 in
Caucasus. The alpine sp. are called ‘alpine roses. (Drude.) Many
sp. and hybrids are cultivated. They are shrubs and small trees with
leathery leaves ; the leaves of § Azalea last one year, those of the other
subgenera usually more. Large winter buds are formed covered with
scale leaves; the larger and stouter ones contain infls., the slender
ones merely leaves. The branch bearing an infl. is continued by the
formation of a bud in one of the upper leaf axils. Some of the Indian
sp. are epiphytic. The corolla is slightly zygomorphic, and the sta.
and style bend upwards to touch the under surface of a visiting insect.
R. ferrugineum L., the alpine rose, is protandrous and visited by
humble-bees.

Rliodotypos Sieb. et Zucc. Rosaceae (ill. 5). R. kerrioides S. et Z.,
the only sp. (Japan), is a favourite garden shrub. It has opp. leaves,

RHODOTYPOS

560

found in no other plant of the order, except in seedlings of Prunns.
There is an epicalyx (see Potentilla).

Rlioeadales. The 1 6th cohort of Archichlamydeae (p. 128).

Rhoeadinae (Warming). The 9th cohort of Choripetalae (p. 137).

Rhus (Tourn.) Linn, (inch Cotinus Tourn. and Toxicodendron Tourn.).
Anacardiaceae (in). 120 sp. subtrop. and warm temp. R. Coriaria

L. is the Sumac (S. Eur.); its leaves, ground fine, are used for
tanning and dyeing. R . Toxicodejidron L. (N. Am.) is the poison-
ivy, climbing with roots like ivy. Its juice produces ulcerations or
erysipelas. R. Cotinus L. (Medit. to China) is the wig-tree, often
cultivated in shrubberies. The firs, are polygamous. The fruits are
dispersed in a curious way. The stalk of each drupe remains smooth,
but the sterile parts of the panicle lengthen and become very hairy.
Then when ripe the stalks become detached at their joints, and the
whole infh, with the fruits on it, falls to the ground and may be blown
about by the wind, it being exceedingly light in proportion to its size.
The wood yields the yellow dye known as ‘young fustic.’ R. verni-
cifera DC. is the lacquer-tree. Japan lacquer is obtained from notches
in the stem. R. succedanea L. is the wax- tree of Japan; its crushed
berries yield wax.

Rhynchospora Willd. = Rynchospora Vahl.

Ribes Linn. Saxifragaceae (vi). 50 sp. N. temp, and Andine ; 4 in

Brit. Shrubs, often with spines (emergences), and -with racemes of
firs, on ‘ short shoots.’ Ovary inferior, with two parietal placentae.
Firs, usually homogamous, with self-pollination in default of insect-
visits. R. alpinum L. is dioecious. In R. sanguineum Pursh
(common in shrubberies, and known as flowering currant) the petals
change from white to pink as the firs, grow older, and in R. atireum
Pursh from yellow to carmine (see Fumaria, Boraginaceae). R.
mbrum L. is the red, R. nigrum L. the black currant, R. Grossularia
L. the gooseberry, all largely cultivated for their fruits.

Richardia Kunth. ( Zantedeschia Spreng.). Araceae (v). 6 sp. S. Afr.,
including R. africana Kunth, the common ‘Arum lily’ of green-
houses.

Richea R. Br. Epacridaceae. 8 sp. Tasmania, Victoria.

Ricinus (Tourn.) Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 1). 1 sp. Afr., R.

communis L. the castor- oil plant, a shrub in tropical countries, a
herbaceous plant in our gardens. Monoecious. The flr. has much-
branched sta. The fruit explodes into the separate cpls., which at
the same time open and drop the seeds. The seed is rich in oil,
which is used medicinally and as a lubricant.

Rindera Pall. Boraginaceae (iv. 1). 10 sp. Medit., Eur., As.

Rinorea Aubl. = Alsodeia Thou.

Rivina Plum, ex Linn. Phytolaccaceae. 5 sp. trop. Am. P 4, A 4
or 8, G 1. Berry.

Robinia Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 6). 6 sp. N. Am. R. Pseud-acacia L.

ROSACEAE

5 61

(false Acacia, locust) is cultivated in S. Brit. Stipules thorny. The
leaflets move upwards in hot or dry air. The horizontal shoots
branch in one plane, while the upright show radial symmetry (p. 47).
The base of the petiole forms a cap protecting a series of axillary buds.

Rochea DC. Crassulaceae. 4 sp. S. Afr. [For R. falcata DC. see
Crassula.]

Rodgersia A. Gray. Saxifragaceae (1). 1 sp. China, Japan.

Rodriguezia Ruiz et Pav. Orchidaceae (28). 25 sp., epiphytic, in

trop. Am. Between successive tubers there is often a long stretch of
rhizome.

Roella Linn. Campanulaceae (1. 1). n sp. S. Afr.

Roemeria Medic. Papaveraceae (11). 3 sp. Medit. to Afghanistan.

R. hybrida DC. has become established as a cornfield weed in Norfolk
and Cambridgeshire.

Roettlera Vahl = Didymocarpus Wall.

Rohdea Roth. Liliaceae (vn). 1 sp . R. japonica Roth, Japan. “It

is, according to Delpino, a link between the Asparagoideae and the
Araceae. It possesses a kind of spadix, on which the firs, are
arranged in a close uninterrupted spiral. The fact that the limb
of the perianth is spread out exactly on a level with the points of the
anthers and stigma led D. to think that fertilisation was effected by
small animals crawling over the firs. He observed snails {Helix
aspersa &c.) greedily eating the perianth, which is yellow and fleshy;
after devouring about 10 firs, they crawled to another spadix. Only
those firs, on which the snails had crawled proved fertile; the firs,
were found to be barren to their own pollen. These observations
leave no doubt that snails are really efficient fertilising agents.”
(Muller.)

Romulea Maratti. Iridaceae (1). 50 sp. Eur., Medit. (1 Brit., rare).

Rondeletia Linn. Rubiaceae (1. 3). 60 sp. trop. Am.

Roridula Linn. Droseraceae. 2 sp. S. Afr. Like Drosera, but with
no movement of the leaf-tentacles.

Rosa Tourn. ex Linn. Rosaceae (ill. 10). 100 sp. N. temp, and on

trop. mts. ; 6 in Brit., inch R. canina L., the dog-rose. A variable
genus like Rubus (pp. 117, 119). The fir. of R. canina is a pollen
fir. (p. 88). The fruit (hip) consists of a number of achenes enclosed
in the fleshy receptacle which closes over them after fertilisation.
R. centifolia L. is the form from which the cabbage rose is derived ;
and numerous forms of this and other sp. are cultivated (see Nat. PJl-)»
The thorns of roses are mere epidermal appendages.

Rosaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). 90 gen. with 2000 sp.
cosmop. Trees, shrubs and herbs, usually perennial; leaves alt. (exc.
Rhodotypos), simple or compound, usually stip., the stipules often
adnate to the petiole. Vegetative multiplication occurs in various
ways, but especially by creeping stems — runners as in strawberry,
or suckers as in raspberry. The firs, are terminal, in racemose or

36

W.

562

ROSACEAE

cymose infls. of various types, and show a great variety of forms.
The receptacle is generally hollowed to a greater or less extent, so
that various degrees of perigyny occur. Frequently there is a central
protuberance bearing the cpls., even in the forms with very much
hollowed receptacle. In a few cases (suborders II, IV) the cpls. are
united to the receptacle and fully inferior,
a part of the fruit. The dr. is usually $
and actinomorphic. K 5, often with
an epicalyx of outer and smaller leaves
(see Potentilla), usually imbricate; C 5,
usually imbricate ; A 2, 3 or 4 times
as many as petals, or 00 , bent inwards
in bud ; G usually apocarpous and
superior, rarely syncarpous or inferior ;
cpls. as many or 2 or 3 times as many
as petals or 00 or 1 — 4. Ovules ana-
tropous, usually 2 in each cpl. Style
often lateral or basal. Fruit various,
dry or fleshy; often an aggregate of
achenes (Potentilla) or drupes (Rubus),
or a single drupe (Prunus), or pome
(Pyrus), and so on (see p. 108 and genera, esp. those mentioned, and
Fragaria, Geum, Rosa, Poterium). Seed usually exalbuminous.

The firs, in general are of simple type, with but slightly concealed
honey (p. 90) and 00 sta. (p. 123). They are usually protandrous.
Poterium sp. are anemophilous.

Few are of economic value (see Pyrus, Rubus, Fragaria, Prunus),
but many are favourites as garden plants and shrubs.

Classification and chief genera (after Focke in Nat. P/l., q.v.).
R. are very closely related to Saxifragaceae, some genera being
almost arbitrarily placed in one order or the other; they are also
nearly allied to Calycanthaceae, Combretaceae, Myrtaceae (the floral
diagram of M. is practically the same as that of suborder II), Thyme-
laeaceae, and Leguminosae (through suborder VI).

I. SPIRAEOIDEAE (cpls. 12 — 1, usually 5 — 2, whorled,
neither on special carpophore nor sunk in receptacle, with 2
or more ovules in each ; fruit usually dehiscent ; sta. on broad
base, tapering upwards ; stipules often absent) :

1. Spiraeeac (follicle, seeds not winged): Spiraea.

2. Quillajeae (follicle, seeds winged) : Quillaja.

3. Holodisceae (achene) : Holodiscus.

II. POMOIDEAE (cpls. 5 — 2, united to inner wall of receptacle,
usually syncarpous; axis fleshy in fruit, stipules) :

4. Pomarieae : Pyrus.

III. ROSOIDEAE (cpls. 00 or rarely 1 on carpophore, sometimes
enclosed in axis in fruit; fruit 1 -seeded indehiscent) :

The receptacle often forms

©

Floral Diagram of Potentilla
fruticosa (after Eichler). ep.
= epicalyx, st. = stipules of
bracts and bracteoles.

ROTTBOELLIA

563

5. Kerrieae (stips. distinct; axis not forming part of fruit; sta.

tapering upwards from broad base ; cpls. few, whorled;
sta. 00): Rhodotypos, Kerria.

6. Potentilleae (as 5, but cpls. usually 00 , in a head, or rarely

few and then sta. also few) :

6 a. Rubinae (drupes, no epicalyx) : Rubus.

6 b. Potentillinae (achenes ; seed pendulous; usually epicalyx):
Fragaria, Potentilla.

6 c. Dryadinae (as b, but seed erect) : Geum, Dryas.

7. Cercocarpcae (stipules slightly developed; torus tubular; cpl.

1; achene): Adenostoma, Purshia.

8. Ulmarieae (torus flat or nearly so; sta. with narrow base) :

Ulmaria.

9. Sanguisorbeae (torus cup-like enclosing cpls., hardening in

fruit ; cpls. 2 or more) : Alchemilla, Agrimonia, Poterium.

10. Roseae (torus cup-like or tubular, enclosing 00 cpls., and

fleshy in fruit) : Rosa.

IV. NEURADOIDEAE (cpls. 5 — 10 syncarpous and united to
torus, which is dry in fruit; herbs).

11. Neuradeae: Neurada.

V. PRUNOIDEAE (cpl. 1, rarely 2 — 5, free of torus; drupe;
trees with simple leaves ; style almost terminal ; ovules pendu-
lous ; firs, regular).

12. Pruneae: Nuttallia, Prunus.

VI. CHRYSOBALANOIDEAE (as V, but style basal and ovules
erect) :

13 a. Chrysobalaninae (nearly regular) : Chrysobalanus.

13 b. Hirtellinae (zygomorphic) : Hirtella.

[Placed in Rosales by Benth. -Hooker, in Rosiflorae by Warming,
who splits up the order considerably.]

Rosales. The 18th cohort (Engler) of Archichlamydeae (p. 128).

The 1 ith cohort (Benth. -Hooker) of Polypetalae (p. 134).

Rosiflorae (Warming). The 19th cohort of Choripetalae (p. 13$).
Roscoea Sm. Zingiberaceae. 4 sp. Himal. R. purpurea Sm. is often
cultivated. It has a zygomorphic flr. with two lips. Insects landing
on the lower and probing for honey find their way obstructed by two
projecting spikes from the lower end of the anther ; pressure on these
brings the anther (with the stigma, which projects beyond it) down
upon the insect’s back. The flr. is protandrous. [Cf. Salvia.]
Rosmarinus (Tourn.) Linn. Labiatae (1. 2). 1 sp. Medit., R. offici-

nalis L. , the rosemary, a xerophytic shrub with leaves rolled back
and stomata in hairy grooves on lower side (cf. Ericaceae, Empetrum).
Oil of rosemary is employed in perfumery &c.

Rotala Linn. Lytfiraceae. 32 sp. trop. and subtrop., in wet places.
Rottboellia Linn. f. (excl. Ophiurus Gaertn. f.). Gramineae (11). 30
sp. trop.

36—2

564

ROUP ALA

Roupala Alibi. Proteaceae (n). 39 sp., 1 in Austr., 2 in New Caled.,

the rest in trop. Am.

Rourea Aubl. Connaraceae. 40 sp. trop.

Roxburghia Banks = Stemona Lour.

Roxburgbiaceae (Benth. -Hooker) = Stemonaceae.

Roydsia Roxb. Capparidaceae (iv). 3 sp. Indo-mal.

Royena Linn. Ebenaceae. 13 sp. Afr. R . lucida L. yields useful
timber.

Rubia (Tourn.) Linn. Rubiaceae (11. 21). 5 sp. Eur., As., Afr., S.

Am. (1 in Brit.). R. tinctorum Ii is the madder, formerly largely
cultivated for its dye (alizarin), which is now prepared artificially.

Rubiaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Rubiales). 350 gen. with 4500 sp.
forming one of the largest orders of plants. Most are trop., but a
number (esp. of the Galieae ) are temp., and Galium itself has a few
arctic sp. Trees, shrubs and herbs with decussate stip. entire or
rarely toothed leaves. The stipules exhibit great variety of form;
they stand either between the petioles (inter petiolar) or between the
petiole and the axis (intrapetiolar). They are frequently united to
one another and to the petioles, so that a sheath is formed round the
stem. The two stipules — one from each leaf — that stand side by side
are usually united, and in the Galieae, to which the Brit. sp. belong,
are leaf-like, and often as large as the ordinary leaves; a character-
istic appearance is thus produced, the plants seeming to have whorls
of leaves ; and it is only by noting the axillary buds that a clue is
obtained to the real state of affairs. The number of organs — leaves
and stipules — in a whorl varies from 4 upwards, according to the
amount of ‘fusion’ or ‘branching’ of the stipules. The simplest case
is a whorl of 6, each leaf having 2 separate stipules ; if the stipules be
united in pairs, a whorl of 4 results ; if each stipule be branched into
two, we get a whorl of 10, and, if the centre pair of half-stipules on
either side be united, a whorl of 8, and so on.

Several R. are myrmecophilous (p. 115, and cf. Cecropia, Acacia),
e.g. Myrmecodia, Cuviera, Duroia, 0

Hydnophytum.

The infl. is typically cymose. Soli-
tary terminal firs, are rare ; small
dichasia are more frequent ; the most
common case is a much branched
cymose panicle.

The fir. is usually $ , regular,
epigynous, 4- or 5-merous. K 4 — 5,
epigynous, often almost absent, usually
open in aestivation, sometimes with
one sepal larger than the rest and
brightly coloured (Mussaenda, &c.) ;

Floral diagram of Asperula,
after Eichler.

RUBIACEAE

5^5

C (4 — 5), epigynous, valvate, convolute, or imbricate ; A 4 — 5,
alt. with petals, epipetalous ; G (2) rarely (1 — 00), 2-loc. with
1 — 00 anatropous ovules in each loc. ; ovules erect, pendulous, or
horizontal; style simple ; stigma capitate or lobed. Fruit a capsule
(septi- or loculi-cidal), berry or schizocarp. Embryo small, in rich
endosperm.

Most R. have conspicuous insect-pollinated firs. The Brit. sp.
have small firs, with freely exposed or but slightly concealed honey,
and are chiefly visited by flies (see p. 89) ; of the trop. sp. many have
bee- and Lepidoptera-flrs. with long tubes. Honey is usually secreted
by an epigynous nectary round the base of the style. Heterostylism
is common, and dicecism sometimes occurs. [See Burck in Ann.
Buitenz. III. 1883, and iv. 1884.]

Several R. are of economic importance, eg. Cinchona, Coflea,
Uragoga, Rubia, &c.

Classification and chief genera (after Schumann). The R. are
closely allied to Caprifoliaceae (q.v.) and less nearly to Compositae, &c.

I. CINCHONOIDEAE (ovules 00 in each loculus).

A. Cinchoninae (fruit dry) :

a. Firs, solitary or in decussate panicles.

a. Fir. regular ; seed not winged ; corolla valvate.

1. Condamineeae : Condaminea.

2. Oldenlandieae : Oldenlandia, Houstonia, Pentas.

b. As a, but corolla imbricate or convolute.

3. Rondeletieae : Rondeletia.

c. As b, but seed winged.

4. Cinchoneae: Cinchona, Bouvardia, Cosmibuena.

d. As a, but corolla 2-lipped.

5. Henriquezieae : Henriquezia.

/3. Firs, in heads.

6. Naucleeae : Uncaria, Nauclea.

B. Gardeninae (fruit fleshy) :

7. Mussaendeae (corolla valvate) : Mussaenda.

8. Gardenieae (corolla imbricate or convolute) : Randia, Gar-

denia, Posoqueria, Duroia.

II. COFFEOIDEAE (ovules 1 in each loculus).

A. Guettardinae (ovule pendulous ; micropyle facing upwards) :

9. Alberteae: Alberta.

10. Knoxieae: Knoxia.

11. Vanguerieae : Plectronia, Cuviera.

12. Gziettardeae : Guettarda.

13. Chiococceae : Chiococca.

B. Psychotriinae (ovule ascending; micropyle facing down-

wards) :

a. Corolla convolute.

14. Ixoreae : Coflea, Ixora, Pavetta.

566

RUBIACEAE

(3. Corolla valvate.

a. Ovules inserted at base of loculus.

15. Psychotrieae : Psychotria, Rudgea, Uragoga, Lasianthus, Myr-

mecodia.

16. Paederieae: Paederia.

17. Anthospenneae : Nertera, Coprosma, Mitchella.

18. Coussareeae : Faramea.

b. Ovules on septum.

19. Morindeae (stip. undivided, not leafy ; trees and shrubs) :

Morinda.

20. Spermacoceae (stip. divided ; shrubs and undershrubs) : Bor-

reria.

21. Galieae (stip. leafy ; herbs): Sherardia, Crucianella, Asperula,

Galium, Rubia.

[Placed in Rubiales by Benth. -Hooker and Warming.]

Rubiales. The 7th cohort (Engler) of Sympetalae (p. 132). The 1st
cohort (Benth.-Hooker) of Gamopetalae (p. 135). The 8th cohort
(Warming) of Sympetalae (p. 138).

Rubus (Tourn.) Linn. Rosaceae (in. 6 a). A dominant and largely
varying genus (p. 119) comprising perhaps 200 sp., most of which are
represented by a large number of varieties, often, as in the cases of
Rosa, Salix, and Hieracium, raised to specific rank in local floras, &c.
The genus occurs in almost all parts of the world, especially N. temp,
regions (5 or 6 sp. in Brit.). The firs, are conspicuous ; honey is
secreted by a ring-shaped nectary upon the hollowed axis just within
the insertion of the sta. The firs, are homogamous, and visited by
many insects, including bees. The fruit is an aggregate of drupes.
Several sp. present special points of interest. R. Chamaemorns L. is
the cloudberry, an arctic plant found in Scotland on the hills. It has
creeping underground stems by means of which a large vegetative mul-
tiplication is carried on. The firs, are solitary, terminal and unisexual.
Occasionally £ firs, occur. The plant is always described as dioecious,
but it has been stated that there is sometimes a difference in sex
between two plants, one of which appears to have sprung vegetatively
from the other. R. Idaeus L. is the raspberry. It multiplies largely
by suckers — stems which grow out horizontally beneath the soil to
some distance, then turn up and give rise to new plants which flower
in their second year. R. fruticosus L. is a general specific name for
the innumerable varieties of the common bramble or blackberry. It
is a hook-climber (the hooks being emergences) sprawling over the
surrounding vegetation. Branches which reach the soil often take
root there and grow up into new plants. R . caesius L. is the dew-
berry, whose fruits are covered with bloom (wax) like grapes. R. oc-
cidentalis L. is the black-cap raspberry or trimbleberry of N. Am.
R. australis Forst. f. is an interesting sp. with the blades of the leaves
reduced to the minimum (p. 166).

RUTACEAE

567

Recent investigations (cf. review in Bot. Centr. ioi, p. 363) seem
to show that R. is a genus in which the continual production of new
forms, by mutation and by hybridisation, is going on (p. 115).

Rudbeckia Linn. (excl. Lepachys Rafin.). Compositae (v). 30 sp. N. Am.

Rudgea Salisb. Rubiaceae (11. 15). 100 sp. trop. Am. Some are

heterostyled.

Ruellia Plum, ex Linn. Acanthaceae (iv. A). 200 sp. trop. arid sub-

trop. The capsule explodes. The seeds possess surface hairs which,
when wetted, swell and adhere to the soil.

Rumex Linn. Polygonaceae (1. 2). 100 sp. esp. in N. Temp, zone (12
British, of which several, known as docks and sorrels, are among our
commonest plants). Firs, of the type usual in the order, wind-fertilised,
with large stigmas (see order for diagram, and cf. Rheum). R. Hydro-
lapathum Huds. is said to produce aerating roots like a mangrove
(p. 1 61). The roots of R. hymcnosepalus Torr. (N.W. Am.), the
Canaigre, are used for tanning.

Rungia Nees. Acanthaceae (iv. 13). 20 sp. trop. As. and Afr.

Ruppia Linn. Potamogetonaceae. 1 sp., R. mciritima L., in salt or
brackish water, temp, and subtrop. A slender swimming plant, with
the habit of a small-leafed Potamogeton. The flrs. are borne just
at the surface of the water, where fertilisation occurs by pollen
floating upon the surface. Each spike consists of 2 flrs. not enclosed
in the spathe at the flowering time. The flr. has 2 sta. with small
outgrowths from the connectives, and four cpls.

Ruprechtia C. A. Mey. Polygonaceae (ill. 6). 20 sp. S. Am.

Ruscus (Tourn.) Linn. Liliaceae (vn). 3 sp. Medit., Eur. R. acn -

leatus L. , butcher’s broom, in Brit., a small shrub. In the axils of
scaly leaves stand leaf- like phylloclades ; half-way up each is another
scaly leaf, in whose axil stands the flr. Fruit a berry. [Cf. Asparagus
and Semele.]

Russelia Jacq. Scrophulariaceae (11. 6). 6 sp. Mexico, Chili. R.juncea
Zucc. is often cultivated in greenhouses. It is a xerophyte with
much reduced leaves and pendulous green stems. Shoots sometimes
appear under cultivation with broad leaves (perhaps a reversion to an
ancestral type).

Ruta (Tourn.) Linn. Rutaceae (11). 50 sp. Medit., As. R. graveolens

L., the rue, is commonly cultivated in Brit. It is a strongly smelling
shrub owing to the presence in the leaves, &c., of an ethereal oil.
The terminal flr. of the infl. is 5-merous, the lateral flrs. 4-merous. The
sta. lie in pairs in the boat-like petals; one by one they bend up-
wards over the stigma, dehisce and fall back ; when all have done
this, the stigma ripens, and finally the sta. again move up and effect
self- fertilisation. The dirty-yellow strongly-scented flrs. are chiefly
visited by small flies. Rue is employed in medicine as a narcotic and
stimulant.

Rutaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). 100 gen. with 800 sp.

568

RUTACEAE

trop. and temp., esp. S. Afr. and Austr. Most are shrubs and trees,
often xerophytic and frequently of heath-like habit (e.g. Diosma).
Leaves alt. or opp., exstip., usually compound, with glandular dots,
often aromatic. In many Aurantieae there are short shoots whose
leaves are reduced to thorns (cf. Cactaceae). Infl. of various forms,
usually cymose. Fir. g , rarely unisexual, regular or zygomorphic,
5 — 4-merous (see Ruta), with a large disc below the gynoeceum.
K 5 or 4, the odd sepal posterior; C 5 or 4, imbricate; A 10 or 8,
obdiplostemonous, or 5, 3, 2, or 00, with introrse anthers; G (5 or 4),
rarely (3 — 1) or (00 ), often free at base and united above by the style
(cf. Apocynaceae), multiloc.; ovules 2 — 00 in each loc., anatropous
with ventral raphe and micropyle facing upwards. Fruit various;
schizocarps, drupes, berries, &c. Seeds with or without endosperm.

A

B

Floral diagrams of Rutaceae, after Eichler. A, Ruta graveolens (d=disc) ; B, Citrus
Aurantium , single case showing variable numbers in stamen-bundles.

Several R. are or have been used in medicine, chiefly on account
of the oils they contain, e.g. Ruta, Galipea, Toddalia, &c. Citrus
yields important fruits, and Chloroxylon a dye-stuff.

Classification and chief genera (after Engler) : The groups of R.
differ considerably among themselves, and several of them were
formerly regarded as independent orders. The relationships to allied
orders are thus given by Engler :

Zygophyllaceae

Cneoraceae

f Meliaceae
Burseraceae
| tSimarubaceae

Rutaceae

The characters of the chief sub-orders only are given here.

RLJTOIDEAE. Cpls. usually 4 — 5, rarely 3 — 1, or more than
5, often only united by the style, and ± divided when ripe; loculicidal
dehiscence usually with separation of the endocarp ; rarely 4 — 1 fleshy
drupes.

I. Zanthoxyleae (woody plants, usually with small greenish,
regular, often unisexual firs. ; cpl. rarely with > 2 ovules; embryo
with flat cotyledons in endosperm) : Zanthoxylum, Fagara, Choisya.

SABIACEAE

569

II. Ruteae (herbs or undershrubs, rarely shrubs, with moderate
sized $ firs., sometimes slightly zygomorphic; cpls. usually with > 2
ovules ; endosperm) : Ruta, Dictamnus.

III. Boronieae (undershrubs and shrubs, with regular usually
5 firs.; endosperm fleshy, otherwise as II): Boronia, Eriostemon,
Correa.

IV. Diosmeae (undershrubs and shrubs, rarely trees with simple
leaves ; exalbuminous, embryo usually straight with fleshy cotyledons) :
Calodendron, Adenandra, Diosma.

V. Cusparieae (shrubs and trees with regular or zygomorphic
firs. ; endosperm little or o ; embryo curved, with radicle between the
cotyledons) : Almeidea, Galipea, Cusparia.

VI. Dictyolomeae (firs, regular, haplostemonous ; sta. with
scales at base ; cpls. with oo ovules, only united at the base ; trees
with double pinnate leaves) : Dictyoloma.

FLINDERSIOIDEAE. Cpls. (5 — 3), each with 2 — 8 2-ranked
erect ovules ; capsule loculicidal or septicidal with persistent endocarp ;
seed winged, exalbuminous; woody plants with lysigenous glands.

VII. Flindersieae : Flindersia, Chloroxylon.

SPATHELIOIDEAE. Cpls. (3) each with 2 hanging ovules;

drupe winged ; secretory cells and lysigenous oil-glands at margins of
leaves.

VIII. Spathelieae : Spathelia.

TODDALIOIDEAE. Cpls. (5 — 2) or 1, each with 2 — 1
ovules ; drupe or dry winged fruit ; endosperm or o ; leaves and bark
with lysigenous oil-glands.

IX. Toddalieae : Ptelea, Toddalia, Skimmia.

A URANTIOIDEAE . Berry, often with periderm, and wTith pulp
derived from sappy emergences of cpl. wall. Seeds exalbuminous,
often with 2 or more embryos. Lysigenous oil-glands.

X. Aurantieae: Glycosmis, Limonia, Atalantia, Feronia,
Aegle, Citrus.

(Bentham-Hooker place the order in Geraniales, but add sub-order
VII to Meliaceae. Warming places it in Terebinthinae.)

Ryncospora Vahl. Cyperaceae (11). 150 sp. N. temp.; 2 in Brit, in

wet bogs (beak rush).

Sabal Adans. Palmae (1. 2). 10 sp. warmer Am. and W. Ind.

S. Palmetto Lodd. and other species are the palmettos or thatch palms,
the leaves of which are used for thatching.

Sabbatia Adans. Gentianaceae (1. 2). 12 sp. N. Am.

Sabia Colebr. Sabiaceae. 17 sp. S. and E. As.

Sabiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). 4 gen. with 65 sp.,
trop. and E. As. Trees, shrubs or lianes with alt. exstip. impari-
pinnate or simple leaves. Infl. a panicle or cymose panicle, with
bracts and bracteoles. Firs, usually $ . K (3 — 5), imbricate or free;

57°

SABTACEAE

C 4 — 5, sometimes united at base, imbricate, the inner 2 much reduced ;
A 5, opp. petals, all or only 2 fertile, the rest being staminoaial ; ovary
superior 2-loc. ; in each loc. usually 2 axilc pendulous or horizontal
semi-anatropous ovules with micropyle upwards. Indehiscent fruit
with exalbuminous seeds. Chief genera : Sabia, Meliosma. Placed
in Sapindales by Benth. -Hooker.

Saccharum Linn. Gramineae (n). 12 sp. trop., esp. Old World.

The most important is S. officinarum L., the sugar cane, a native (?)
of trop. E. As., now cultivated in most trop. regions. From the
rhizome there spring each year shoots which may reach a height of
12 — 15 feet and a thickness of 2 inches; the outer tissues have much
silica in their cell-walls. The infl. is a dense woolly spike, the first
and second glumes of each spikelet being covered with long hairs.
The cultivated form has always been vegetatively propagated (pieces
of the halm, each bearing a bud, are planted), but recently a more
vigorous race has been raised from seed (cf. pp. 56 seq.). The sugar
is contained in the soft central tissues of the stem; the canes are cut
before flowering and crushed between rollers to extract the juice,
which undergoes various subsequent processes.

Saccoglottis Endl. Humiriaceae. 10 sp. trop. Am., Afr.

Saccolabium Blume. Orchidaceae (31). 20 sp. Indo-mal. Epiphytes.

Sadleria Kaulf. Polypodiaceae. 2 sp. Sumatra, Sandwich Is.

Sagina Linn. Caryophyllaceae (11. 1). 20 sp. N. temp.; 4 in Brit,

(pearl- wort). Small herbs with inconspicuous, sometimes apetalous
firs. ; these are homogamous and pollinate themselves.

Sagittaria Rupp, ex Linn. Alismaceae. 12 sp., 11 in Am., the other,
S. sagittifolia L. (arrow-head) in Eur. (incl. Brit.). It is a water-
plant with a short rhizome bearing leaves of various types, the number
of each kind depending on the depth of the water, &c. (see p. 160,
and Goebel’s Pjlanzenbiol. Sch. II. p. 290). The fully submerged
leaves are ribbon-shaped, the floating ones have an ovate blade, whilst
those (usually the majority) that project above water are arrow-shaped
(sagittate). In the leaf-axils are formed the ‘renewal’ shoots which
last over the winter ; these are short branches which burrow into the
mud and swell up at the ends each into a large bud whose central
axis is swollen with reserve-materials; in spring this developes into a
new plant. The diclinous racemose infl. projects above water ; the
$ firs, are lower down than the c? . The <? contains co sta., the ? 00 cpls.
The firs, contain honey, and are visited by flies.

Sagus Rumph ex Gaertn. = Metroxylon Rottb.

Saintpaulia H. Wendl. Gesneriaceae (1). 1 sp. E. Afr., S. ionantha

ii. Wendl., a recent discovery, but already cultivated in botanic gardens
and likely to become popular. The flr. resembles in appearance that
of Exacum, and exhibits a similar dimorphic symmetry. In some of
the firs, the style projects to the left over the corolla, in others to the
right (cf. Exacum, Cassia).

SALVADOR A

57i

Saiacia Linn. Ilippocrateaceae. 80 sp. trop. S. Am., a few in trop.
Afr., As., Austr. Many are lianes with dimorphic branches, one form
being adapted for climbing (p. 172).

Salaxis Salisb. Ericaceae (iv. 10). 22 sp. Cape Colony.

Salicaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Salicales). 2 gen. with 180 sp.
N. temp., trop. and subtrop. Shrubs or trees with stip. leaves and
much vegetative propagation by suckers. Firs, naked, in catkins or
spikes, dioecious (many hybrids exist). The catkins arise in autumn
and remain as buds through the winter, developing in early spring.
The <? fir. consists of 2 — 30 sta. in the axil of a bract, the ? usually of
(2) cpls. transversely placed, syncarpous with parietal placentation ;
ovules 00 , anatropous. Seeds exalbuminous with basal tufts of hairs.
Placed in Saliciflorae by Warming, as an anomalous order at the end
of Incompletae by Benth. -Hooker. Genera: Salix, Populus.

Salicales. The 3rd cohort of Archichlamydeae (p. 126).

Saliciflorae (Warming). The 1st cohort of Choripetalae (p. 138).

Salicornia (Tourn.) Linn. Chenopodiaceae (7). 9 sp. on sea-coasts.

S. herbacea L. (saltwort) cosmop., inch Brit. (p. 187). Succulent
herbs, with the habit of a cactus, leafless and with jointed nodes.
Firs, in groups of 3 or more, one group sunk in the tissue on either
side of each intemode. Perianth fleshy; sta. 1 or 2.

Salisburia Sm. = Ginkgo Linn.

Salix (Toum.) Linn. Salicaceae. 160 sp., chiefly N. temp. The sp. are
very variable and there are many hybrids (cf. Rubus, Rosa, and see
Ch. II.). 12 in Brit, (willow, sallow, &c). The branching is mono-

podial, but the terminal bud usually dies, and the next lateral bud
continues the axis. There is extensive vegetative propagation by
suckers. Some sp. e.g. S. alba L. are often pollarded, or cut off at a
height of 8 feet or so ; from the callus formed upon the wounds new
shoots spring, and thus the ‘crown5 of shoots is produced (p. 156).
Among the Brit. sp. are S. herbacea L., the dwarf or arctic willow, a
creeping alpine and arctic form (p. 183), and S. lanata L. &c. alpine
forms with very woolly leaves. The firs, contain honey, and as they
appear in early spring, before the leaves, and when they have but few
competitors, they receive a great many visits from insects, especially
from bees. S. viminalis L. is the osier, whose twigs are used in
making baskets &c. S. babylonica L. is the weeping willow. [See
p. 1 74-]

Salpiglossis Ruiz et Pav. Solanaceae (v). 8 sp. S. Am.

Salsola Linn. Chenopodiaceae (10). 40 sp. chiefly Eur., As., maritime
or on salt steppes (p. 169). S. Kali L. (glass- wort) in Brit., a very
fleshy plant with leaves ending in spines. A variety tragus Moq.
of this sp. (Russian thistle) has in recent years become a pest of
agriculture in Dakota and other parts of N. Am. (Bot. Gaz. 1895,
p. 501).

Salvadora Garcin. ex Linn. Salvadoraceae. 2 sp. W. As., Afr. S.

572

SAL VA DORA

persica L. is said to be the mustard of the New Testament. Its leaves
taste like mustard.

Salvadoraceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Contortae). 3 gen. with 6 sp.
As., Afr. Shrubs and trees with opp. entire stip. leaves and racemose
infls. Firs. 5 or unisexual, regular. K (2 — 4) ; C (4 — 5) or 4 — 5,
with teeth or glands on the inner side ; A 4 — 5, epipetalous or not.
Ovary superior, 1 — 2-loc. with 1 — 2 erect anatropous ovules in each
loc. Fruit a 1 -seeded berry or drupe. Seed exalbuminous. Genera:
Azima, Dobera, Salvadora. The relationships are doubtful, for we
do not know if the polypetaly of A. and D. is original or secondary.
If the former, the order must perhaps be placed near Celastraceae.
Benth.-Hooker place it in Gentianales, Warming in Contortae.

Salvia (Tourn.) Linn. Labiatae (vi. 6). 500 sp. trop. and temp. S. Ver-
benaca L. (sage) and S. pratensis L. (clary) in Brit. The sta. are reduced
to 2 (the anterior), each of which has a sort of T-shape, the connective
of the versatile anther being greatly elongated. The stalks of the sta.
stand up close together across the mouth of the fir., and a bee, in
pushing its head or tongue down towards the honey, comes into
contact with the inner end of the anther, and raising it causes the outer
to descend upon its back and to rub it with pollen. In the lower forms
of S. both ends of the lever bear fertile anthers; but in all the higher
forms the useless half-anther at the inner end is aborted, and the outer
half of the connective is much longer than the inner (compare S. offi-
cinalis with S. pratensis ). The fir. is protandrous, and in the later
stage the style bends downwards and places the stigma in a position
to be touched first by an entering insect. Some sp. have coloured
bracts at the top of the infl., adding to its conspicuousness. S. offici-
nalis L. (Medit. ) is the garden sage.

Salvinia (Mich.) Schreb. Salviniaceae. 5 sp. trop. and warm temp., of
which S. natans Hoffm. is best known. The plant floats freely on the
water; at each node is a whorl of three leaves, and the whorls alter-
nate with one another. There are two floating leaves derived from
the upper half of a segment of the apical cell (see order), and a sub-
merged leaf derived from the lower. There are no roots, their func-
tion being performed by the finely divided submerged leaves (see
p. 160, and compare Trapa, Ranunculus, Cabomba). The sporocarps
are borne several together as outgrowths from the base of a submerged
leaf. The microspores germinate inside the sporangium, the prothalli
emerging through its wall as fine tubes, at the end of which the
antheridia form.

Salviniaceae. Filicineae Leptosporangiatae (Heterosporous). A small
family, composed of two genera, Salvinia and Azolla, comprising about
9 sp., trop. and temp. They are water plants, with a stem floating
upon the water, and growing by a two-sided apical cell (3-sided in
the young embryo, as in other Filicineae). A dorsiventral construc-
tion thus arises ; segments are cut off right and left from the two-sided

SA NG U IN A RIA

573

apical cell, and the first division of each of these segments divides it
into a dorsal and a ventral half. In S. the dorsal halves give rise to
the floating, the ventral to the submerged leaves; in A. the former
give rise to the leaves, the latter to the branches and roots. The
sporangia are grouped into sori ; the sorus is enclosed in a highly de-
veloped indusium, forming a sporocarp. Each sorus contains only one
kind of sporangium (micro- or mega-sporangia). The sporocarp is an
outgrowth of a leaf, — in S. of a submerged leaf, in A. of the ventral
lobe of an ordinary leaf. The spore is covered with an epispore , con-
sisting of hardened frothy mucilage. It sinks, when set free from the
sporangium. On germination the microspore forms a rudimentary <?
prothallus consisting of one (? more) vegetative cell and an antheridium.
The megaspore forms a $ prothallus, which remains enclosed in the
burst spore. This prothallus has two parts, an upper small-celled
green part on which are borne the archegonia, and a lower colourless
part (of one or more large cells), in which reserves are stored up for
the use of the young plant which will be formed from a fertilised ovum
(compare Selaginella and Phanerogams).

Sambucus (Tourn.) Linn. Caprifoliaceae (i). 20 sp. N. temp., S. Am.,
As. to Austr. S. nigra L. is the common elder. S. Ebulus L. is
also found in Brit. The genus differs from the rest of the order in
having compound leaves and extrorse anthers. It also possesses well-
marked stipules. There has of late been some discussion about the
proper position to be assigned to it. Fritsch (Nat. PJl .) assigns it a
separate sub-order. Later he proposed (Bot. Cent. 50, 1892, p. 137,
168) to fuse Caprifoliaceae with Rubiaceae, but to add S. itself to
Valerianaceae. Hock (Bot. Cent. 50, 1892, p. 233) thinks this hardly
justifiable and proposes to erect a new family, Sambucaceae , forming a
link between the cohorts Rubiales and Aggregatae. He gives a scheme
showing probable relationships of these orders to the other Sympetalae
with inferior ovary, and to Umbelliferae &c. A wine is prepared
from elder berries.

Samolus (Tourn.) Linn. Primulaceae (11). 8 sp. ; S. Valerandi L., the
brook-weed, is cosmop., the rest S. Plemisph. The whole plant dies
down in autumn, but young shoots form in summer and take root, so
that the parent plant is replaced. The bracts of the firs, are ‘adnate’
to the axes, so as to look like solitary bracteoles; this is due to a
process of growth carrying both bract and axis up together (see p. 30
and cf. Solanaceae).

Samyda Linn. Flacourtiaceae. 4 sp. W. Ind. , Mexico.

Samydaceae (Benth. -Hooker). An order in cohort Passiflorales, com-
prising the genera Samyda, Casearia. &c. ; placed in Flacourtiaceae by
Engler.

Sanguinaria Dill, ex Linn. Papaveraceae (11). 1 sp. Atlantic N. Am.,

S. canadensis L., the blood-root. It has a thick rhizome giving oft’ an-
nually one leaf and a 1 -flowered scape. The rhizome is used in medicine.

574

SANGUISORBA

Sanguisorba Rupp, ex Linn. = Poterium Linn. S. minor Scop.=
P. Sanguisorba ; S. officinalis L. = P. officinale.

Sanicula (Tourn.) Linn. Umbelliferae (3). 12 sp. Eur., As., Afr.,

Am. S. europaea L. (sanicle) in Brit. Firs, in cymose umbels, them-
selves arranged in dichasia. Fruit hooked for animal-distribution.

Sansevieria Thunb. Liliaceae (vm). 10 sp. trop. Afr. to E. Ind.

Xerophytes with fleshy leaves. S . zeylanica Willd. is sometimes used
in the tropics as a source of fibre (bow-string hemp).

Santalaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Santalales). 26 gen. with 150
sp. of semi-parasitic shrubs, trees and herbs, resembling the Loran-
thaceae in many ways. Some are stem-parasites like mistletoe,
others root-parasites like Rbinanthus (e.g. Thesium). [See A rat, PJl.
for details of anatomy &c. of the suckers.] The total infl. may be a
raceme, spike, head, &c., but often, instead of the single flr. in each
axil, there is a little cyme of 3, as in Loranthaceae. The firs, are $
or unisexual. They have a perigynous or epigynous disc and a simple
perianth (sepaloid or petaloid). The sta. are equal in number to,
and inserted on, the perianth-leaves. Ovary inferior, i-loc., with a
central placenta bearing 1 — 3 ovules. Fruit a nut or drupe. Seed 1,
with no testa, and with much endosperm. [For details of embryo-sac
and other interesting features see Hieronymus, in Nat . PJl .] Chief
genera : Santalum, Thesium. Placed in Achlamydosporeae by Benth.-
Hooker, who unite Grubbiaceae and Myzodendraceae to S.; in
Hysterophyta by Warming.

Santalales. The nth cohort of Archichlamydeae (p. 127).

Santalum Linn. Santalaceae. 8 sp. E. Ind. Parasitic trees. S.
album L. furnishes the true sandal-wood (yellow or white).

Santolina Tourn. ex Linn. Compositae (vn). 8 sp. South-west Eur.

S. Chamaecyparissus L. is officinal.

Sanvitalia Gualt. Compositae (v). 8 sp. Am.

Sapindaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). About 120 gen.
with 1000 sp. trop. and subtrop. 5 gen. (Serjania, Paullinia, &c.)
with 300 sp. are lianes, the rest erect trees or shrubs. The lianes
climb by aid of tendrils, which are metamorphosed infl. -axes and are
usually branched or sometimes watch-spring-like (p. 172); their stems
often show peculiar internal anatomy. Leaves alt., stip. in the
climbing sp., usually compound, pinnate; in the climbing sp. there
is usually a true terminal leaflet, but not in the erect sp. ; in these
one of the last pair of leaflets often becomes terminal, so that the leaf
is asymmetric. The tissues of the plants usually contain resinous or
latex-like secretions in special cells. The infl. is cymose, usually a
cincinnus, with bracts and bracteoles.

Fir. unisexual (the sta. are apparently well developed in the % so
that it is easily mistaken for £ , but the pollen is useless, and the
anthers do not open) , generally monoecious, regular or often obliquely
zygomorphic, 5- or 4-merous. K usually 5, rarely (5), imbricate or

SAPOTACEAE

575

rarely valvate or open, sometimes apparently 4-merous by union of
2 sepals; C usually 5, imbricate, with well-marked disc between it
and the sta. ; A usually 5 + 5 in one whorl, often with 2 absent, more
rarely 5, 4, or 00, inserted within or rarely upon the disc round the
rudimentary ovary. G in ? fir. usually (3), 3-loc. with terminal style;
ovules usually 1 in each loc., ascending, with ventral raphe. Fruit a
capsule, nut, berry, drupe, schizocarp, or samara, usually large, often
red; seed often arillate, with no endosperm; embryo usually curved.

Many S. are of economic value ; several yield valuable timber;
Nephelium, Litchi, and others furnish edible fruits.

Classification and chief genera (after Radlkofer) :

I. EUSAPINDACEAE (ovules solitary in loculi, erect or as-

cending, with micropyle downwards) : Serjania, Paullinia,
Sapindus, Talisia, Schleichera, Litchi, Nephelium, Pappea,
Cupania, Blighia.

II. DYSSAPINDACEAE (ovules usually 2 or several in each

loc., in the first case erect or pendulous, in the second
horizontal, rarely 1 pendulous with micropyle upwards) :
Koelreuteria, Dodonaea.

[Benth. -Hooker unite to S. the Aceraceae, Staphyleaceae and
Hippocastanaceae, placing the order in Sapindales; Warming places
it in Aesculinae.]

Sapindales. The 20th cohort (Engler) of Archichlamydeae (p. 129).
The 10th cohort (Benth. -Hooker) of Polypetalae (p. 134).

Sapindus Tourn. ex Linn. Sapindaceae (1). n sp. trop. and subtrop.
exc. Afr. and Austr. The berries of S. Saponaria L. (Am.) form
a lather with water, and are sometimes used as soap; they contain
saponin.

Sapium P. Br. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 7). 25 sp. trop. Seeds of S.

sebiferum Roxb., the tallow-tree of China, are coated with fat; they
also yield an oil by pressure.

Saponaria Linn. Caryophyllaceae (1. 2). 20 sp. N. temp., chiefly

Medit. S. officinalis L. (soapwort) in Brit. Its leaves lather if rubbed
with water. Firs, protandrous, butterfly-visited.

Sapota Plum, ex Mill. = Achras Linn.

Sapotaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Ebenales). 31 gen. with 370 sp.
in all trop. lands. They are mostly trees with entire leathery leaves,
sometimes stipulate. They are commonly hairy with 2-shanked hairs,
and contain secretory passages in pith, cortex and leaves. The firs,
are solitary or in cymose bunches in the leaf-axils or on old stems,
bracteolate, 5 , regular or not. K 2 + 2, 3 + 3, 4 + 4, or 5; C usually
equal in number to sepals, and alternating with the calyx as a whole,
as in Cruciferae, rarely in 2 whorls. In Alimusofeae the petals have
dorsal appendages like themselves, giving the appearance of more
than one whorl. Sta. in 2 or 3 whorls, but frequently the outer ones
are staminodial or absent; anthers commonly extrorse. G superior,

576

SAPOTACEAE

syncarpous, multiloc. ; cpls. as many or twice as many as the number
of sta. in a whorl, or more ; ovules inserted at base of axile placenta,
one in each loc., anatropous with micropyle facing downwards; style
simple. Fruit a berry, the flesh sometimes sclerenchymatous near
the surface. Seeds few or one, usually albuminous; endosperm oily;
testa hard and rich in tannin.

Many S. furnish useful products, especially gutta-percha ; see the
genera below.

Classification and chief genera (after Engler) :

I. Palaquieae (petals without appendages) : Bassia, Payena, Pala-

quium, Achras, Butyrospermum, Sideroxylon, Chryso-
phyllum.

II. Mimusopeae (petals with appendages — see above) : Mimusops.

[Placed in Ebenales by Benth.- Hooker, in Diospyrinae by

Warming.]

Sarcocalyx Walp. = Aspalathus Linn.

Sarcocapnos DC. Papaveraceae (hi). 3 sp. Medit.

Sarcocaulon Sweet. Geraniaceae. 4 sp. S. Afr. Xerophytes with
fleshy stems. When the leaf falls it leaves behind the base of the
petiole which hardens into a thorn (p. 20).

Sarcococca Lindl. Buxaceae. 4 sp. E. Ind., Malaya.

Sarcocolla Linn. Penaeaceae. 4 sp. Cape Colony.

Sarcodes Torr. Pyrolaceae. 1 sp. California.

Sarcoglottis Presl = Spiranthes Rich.

Sarcostemma R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (11. 2). 12 sp. Afr., E. Ind.,

Austr. Leafless xerophytes with slightly fleshy stems.

Sarothamnus Wimm. = Cytisus Linn.

Sarracenia Linn. Sarraceniaceae. 6 sp. Atlantic N. Am. (side-saddle
flowers), in sunny marshy places. Low herbs with rosettes of radical
leaves ; each leaf is represented by a long narrow pitcher with a flat
green wing of tissue on the ventral side, serving chiefly for assimila-
tion. The general structure of the pitcher is closely similar^ to that
found in Nepenthes; it has a fixed lid projecting over the mouth, and
the lip is usually turned down inwards. The mouth of the pitcher
bears numerous honey-glands; below these comes the ‘slide-zone,’
then the zone of hairs (cf. Nepenthes), and at the bottom is water in
which the insects are drowned (see p. 178). The pitchers are often
brightly coloured. It should be noted that in S. the entire leaf is
transformed into a pitcher, while in Nepenthes it is only part of the
leaf, and in Cephalotus only certain leaves. [See literature quoted on
P- !77-]

Sarraceniaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sarraceniales). 3 gen. with
8 sp. Am. Insectivorous pitcher-plants (see gen.) with rosettes of
radical leaves and £ regular firs. K 9 — 8 — 5, spiral, if > 5 the outer 3
small ; C as many as inner sepals and alt. with them, or o ; A 00 ;
G (6 — 5 — 3) with go anatropous ovules on inrolled cpl.- walls.

SAXIFRAGA

577

Loculicidal capsule with oo seeds; endosperm fleshy. Genera :
Heliamphora (raceme; ovary 3-loc.), Sarracenia (flr. solitary; ovary
5-loc., the top of the pitcher simple), Darlingtonia (ditto, but the top
of the pitcher is fish-tail-shaped). Placed in Parietal es by Benth.-
I looker, in Cistiflorae by Warming.

Sarraceniales. The 17th cohort of Dicotyledons (p. 128).

Sassafras Linn. Lauraceae. 1 sp. Canada to Florida, S. officinale
Nees et Eberm. (Laurus Sassafras L.). The wood and bark yield oil
of sassafras, used in medicine.

Satureia Linn. Labiatae (vi. 11.) 130 sp., trop., subtrop. and warm

temperate regions. The firs, are gynodioecious. S. hortensis L. and
S. montana L., the summer and winter savories respectively, are often
grown as flavouring herbs.

Sat-yrium Linn. Orchidaceae (3). 60 sp. Cape Col., trop. Afr., E. Ind.
The flr. is not twisted, so that the labellum stands uppermost ; it is
prolonged backwards into two spurs. The actual summit of the
column is occupied by the stigma, the anther being bent round at
right angles to it.

Saurauia Willd. Dilleniaceae. 60 sp. trop. As., Am.

Sauromatum Schott. Araceae (vn). 5 sp. trop. Afr., Plimal. Leaves
pedate (cymosely branched).

Saururaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Piperales). 3 gen. with 4 sp.
E. As. and N. Am. Herbaceous plants with g firs., which are ap-
parently primitively naked (see p. 75). Sta. 6 or fewer; cpls. 3 — 4
or (3 — 4), in the latter case with parietal placentae. Ovules ortho-
tropous. Seeds with endo- and peri-sperm. Chief genera : Saururus,
Houttuynia. United to Piperaceae by Benth. -Hooker.

Saururus Plum, ex Linn. Saururaceae. 1 sp. Japan to Philippine Is.,
1 in U. S. Bog plants with spikes of firs., the bract usually adnate to
the axis of its flr.

Saussurea DC. Compositae (xi). 125 sp. N. temp. S. alpina DC. is
an alpine sp. in Brit., with hairy leaves (p. 182); its firs, are blue,
with sweet scent (the latter unusual in the order). Many firs, have
3 cpls.

Sauvagesia Linn. Ochnaceae. 10 sp. Brazil and 1 in all trop. regions.
There are 5 fertile sta., surrounded by 00 staminodes. Cpls. 3. This
genus and a few others are sometimes formed into a separate order, or
placed (e.g. by Bentham and Hooker) in Violaceae.

Savia Willd. Euphorbiaceae (A. 1. 1) 4 sp. W. Ind.

Saxegothaea Lindl. Coniferae (Taxac. 3 ; see C. for genus characters).
1 sp. Andes of Patagonia. Fruit a many-seeded ‘berry5 like that of
Juniperus.

Saxifraga Linn. Saxifragaceae (1). 200 sp. N. temp., Arctic, Andes,

chiefly alpine (p. 180). 13 sp. in Brit, (saxifrage). Most sp. show

xerophytic characters, such as tufted growth, close packing of leaves
(especially well shown in S. oppositifolia L.), succulence, hairiness, &c.

w. 37

SAX I FRAG A

578

Many sp. are vegetatively propagated by offsets, or (e.g. S. granulata
L.) by bulbils produced in the lower leaf-axils. Many exhibit chalk-
glands at the tips or edges of the leaves (e.g. S. oppositifolia at the
tip); these are water-pores (p. 114) with nectary-like tissue beneath,
secreting water containing chalk in solution. As the water evapo-
rates, the chalk forms an incrustation. The firs, are usually in
dichasial cymes with a cincinnus tendency. Every stage occurs in
various sp. from hypogyny to epigyny (p. 71). The honey is only
partially concealed, and the firs, are visited by a miscellaneous lot of
insects. Most sp. are protandrous. A few, e.g. S. sarmentosa Linn, f.,
have zygomorphic firs. [For leaf-forms, see Jungner in Bot. Notiser ,
1894 — 1895, reviewed in Bot. Centr. 62, 1895, p. 244.]

Saxifragaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). 70 gen. with 600
sp. cosmop., chiefly temp. Most are perennial herbs, a few shrubs or
trees, with usually alt., rarely stip. leaves. Many are alpine and
arctic forms of xerophytic habit (p. 180). The infl. is of various
kinds, both racemose and cymose.

Fir. usually g , regular, cyclic, 5-merous (except cpls.). The re-
ceptacle is flat or hollowed to various depths, so that the sta. and
perianth may be peri- or epi-gynous. K usually 5; C 5, imbricate or
valvate, sometimes (5) or o ; A usually 5 + 5, obdiplostemonous ; cpls.
rarely free and as many as petals, usually fewer and joined below,
often 2 ; placentae parietal or axile, with several rows of anatropous
ovules ; styles as many as cpls. The firs, are mostly protandrous.
Fruit a capsule or berry. Seed with rich endosperm round a small
embryo.

The S. are of little economic importance ; Ribes yields valuable
fruit. Many are favourites in horticulture, e.g. Saxifraga, Francoa.
Philadelphus, Deutzia, Hydrangea, Escallonia.

Classification and chief genera :

I. SAXIFRAGOIDEAE (herbs of various habit; leaves alt.;
firs, with 5- or rarely 4-merous perianth ; cpls. usually 2 ; ovary
hypo- or epi-gynous, 1- or 2-loc.) : Saxifraga, Tellima, Chrysos-
plenium, Parnassia.

II. FRANCOIDEAE (perennial herbs with radical leaves and firs,
in spikes or racemes on naked scapes ; fir. 4-merous ; ovary

4- loc.): Francoa.

III. HYDRANGEOIDEAE (shrubs or trees ; leaves usually opp.,
simple ; perianth usually 5-merous ; sta. epigynous ; ovary 3 —

5- loc.) : Philadelphus, Deutzia, Hydrangea.

IV. PTER OS TEMONOIDEA E (shrubs with alt. stip. simple
leaves; sta. 10; ovary inferior, 5-loc; ovules 4 — 6, on axile
placentae) : Pterostemon.

V. ESCALLONIOIDEAE (shrubs or trees, rarely herbs; with
simple alt. exstip. often leathery and gland-dotted leaves ; sta.=
petals; ovary superior to inferior; ovules 00): Brexia, Escallonia.

SCHIZANDRA

579

VI. RIBESIOIDEAE (shrubs with alt. simple exstip. leaves and
racemes of firs. ; ovary inferior, i-loc. with 2 parietal placentae ;
berry) : Ribes.

VII. BAUEROIDEAE (shrubs with opp. 3-foliate exstip. leaves
and simple axillary firs. ; ovary semi-inferior with 2 parietal
placentae ; loculicidal capsule) : Bauera.

[Placed in Rosales by Benth. -Hooker, in Saxifraginae by Warming.]

Saxifrageae (Benth. -Hooker) = Saxifragaceae.

Saxifraginae (Warming). The 18th cohort of Choripetalae (p. 138).

Scabiosa (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Knciutia Linn., Ptei'ocephalus Vaill., Sue -
cisa Neck.). Dipsacaceae. 86 sp. Eur., As., Afr., esp. Medit. ; 3 in
Brit., of which S. (JC.) ai'vensis L. (scabious) and S. Succisa L.
(devil’s-bit scabious) are common. The former has a large head of
firs. ; the corolla of these is drawn out upon the outer side (cf. Com-
positae), and this the more the further they are from the centre of the
head. Honey is secreted by the upper surface of the ovary, and
protected from rain by hairs in the tube. The sta. are ripe first, while
the style with immature stigmas is quite enclosed in the corolla; later
the sta. wither and the style occupies their place. The stigmas of the
various flowers upon the head ripen nearly simultaneously.

Scaevola Linn. Goodeniaceae. 60 sp. Austr. , Polynes., coasts of trop.
Afr., As., Am. S. Koenigii Vahl furnishes a kind of rice paper ; its
pith is squeezed flat like that of Fatsia.

Scandix Tourn. ex Linn. Umbelliferae (5). 12 sp. Eur., As., N. Afr.

S. Pecten- Veneris L. (Venus’ comb) in Brit. The ripe mericarps
separate with a violent jerk.

Scheuchzeria Linn. Juncaginaceae. 1 sp., S. palustris L., N. temp
and arctic, incl. Brit. ; a marsh plant.

Schinus Linn. Anacardiaceae (ill). 4 sp. Mexico to Argentina.
S. Molle L. yields American mastic (resin).

Schismatoglottis Zoll. et Mor. Araceae (v). 10 sp. Malaya. At

the top of the spadix, above the 3 firs., are sterile firs, consisting of
staminodes.

Schivereckia Andrz. = Alyssum Tourn.

Schizaea Sm. Schizaeaceae. 16 sp. trop. and subtrop. The sporangia
form a double row on the lower surface of each of the reduced fertile
pinnae.

Schizaeaceae. Filicineae Leptosporangiatae (Homosporous). 5 gen.
with 70 sp., chiefly trop. Am.; a few subtrop. or temp. They are
mostly small ferns with but little stem. Lygodium is a curious leaf-
climber. As in Osmunda, the sporangia are borne (exc. in Mohria)
on special pinnae of the leaf, distinct from the ordinary vegetative
pinnae. The sporangia are sessile, usually without indusium ; at the
apex is a cap-like annulus, and the sporangium dehisces longitudinally.
Chief genera: Schizaea, Aneimia, Lygodium, Mohria.

Schizandra Michx. Magnoliaceae (2). 7 sp. trop. and warm temp. As.;

37—2

580 SCHIZANDRA

S. coccinea Michx. in Atlantic N. Am. Climbing shrubs with exstip.
leaves and spiral firs.

Schizanthus Ruiz et Pav. Solanaceae (v). n sp. Chili. The fir. is
zygomorphic; the stalk is curved, and the two really upper petals
form the lower lip which is 3 — 4-lobed, while the lateral petals are
4-lobed and the lowest petal forms the simple or slightly 2-lobed
upper lip. Sta. 4, 2 fertile and 2 staminodial. The fir. has a good
general likeness to that of the papilionate Leguminosae (cf. Collinsia),
and is fertilised in a very similar way, usually by an explosive move-
ment of its parts (cf. Genista).

Schizopetalon Sims. Cruciferae (ill. 12). 5 sp. Chili.

Schizostigma Am. Rubiaceae (1. 7). 1 sp. Ceylon. Ovary 5 — 7-loc.

Schizostylis Backh. et Plarv. Iridaceae (in). 2 sp. S. Afr. S. coccinea
Backh. et Harv. is often cultivated for its handsome firs.

Schkuhria Roth. Compositae (vi). 11 sp. W. Am.

Schlechtendalia Less. Compositae (xn). 1 sp. Brazil. A plant of very
unusual habit (for this order), and with peculiar anatomy (see Ber%
D. Bot . Ges. 11. 1884, P- I0°)-

Schleichera Willd. Sapindaceae (1). 1 sp. trop. As., S. trijuga Willd.
It furnishes a useful timber ; the aril of the seed is edible, and an oil
is expressed from the seed itself.

Schoenocaulon A. Gray. Liliaceae (1). 5 sp. Am. Veratrin is made

from the seeds.

Schoenus Linn. Cyperaceae (11). 70 sp. Austr., a few in Afr., Am.,

Eur.; S. nigricans L. in Brit.

Schollera Roth = Vaccinium Linn.

Schomburgkia Lindl. Orchidaceae (13). 12 sp. trop. Am.

Schotia Jacq. ( Theodora Medic.). Leguminosae (11. 3). 6 sp. trop.

and S. Afr.

Schubertia Mart. = Araujia Brot.

Sciadopitys Sieb. et Zucc. Coniferae (Arauc. 1 c ; see C. for genus
characters). 1 sp. Japan, S. verticillata Sieb. et Zucc., the parasol-
pine or umbrella-fir, planted round the temples. The short shoots
are crowded together at the ends of the annual long shoots. Each
short shoot resembles that or Pinus except that the two green needle-
leaves are * fused ’ together into a single needle grooved down the centre,
so that at first glance in S. the short shoots seem to be whorls of ordinary
leaves at the tip of each year’s growth. The cones take two years to
ripen. The wood is useful for waterworks &c.

Scilla Linn. Liliaceae (v). 80 sp. Old World temp. S. festalis Salisb.
(A. nutans Sm.), wild hyacinth or English bluebell, and others in Brit.
Bulbous plants with racemes of firs.

Scirpus (Tourn.) Linn. Cyperaceae (1). 200 sp. cosmop. in bogs and

marshes; 15 in Brit. The stem is usually erect and angular, bearing
3 ranks of leaves reduced to sheaths, and performs the work of
assimilation. Its base often gives rise to creeping rhizomes or to

SCROPHULARIA CEAE

58i

shoots ending in tubers like potatoes. The racemose many-flowered
spikelets are aggregated into a terminal tuft. The flr. is g , and has
6 perianth-scales in two whorls ; in many sp. it is protogynous ; in all
it is wind-pollinated. S . lacustris L., sometimes termed the bulrush,
is used for matting, chair-seats, &c.

Scitamineae. The 10th cohort (Engler) of Monocotyledons (p. 126).
An order (Benth.-Hooker) in series Epigynae, including Musaceae,
Marantaceae, Cannaceae, and Zingiberaceae of Engler. The 6th
cohort (Warming) of Monocotyledons (p. 138).

Scleranthaceae or Illecebraceae. See Caryophyllaceae.

Scleranthus Linn. Caryophyllaceae (11. 6). 10 sp. Eur., As., Afr. ;

S. annuus L. (knawel) and another in Brit. Firs, apelalous, self-
fertilising.

Scleria Berg. Cyperaceae (11). 100 sp. trop. and warm temp.

Sclerochloa Beauv. Gramineae (x). 1 sp. Eur., As.

Scolicpus Torr. Liliaceae (vn). 2 sp. West N. Am.

Scolopendrium Sm. Polypodiaceae. 10 sp. trop. and temp., esp. N.
Hemisphere. S. vnlgare Sm. (hart’s tongue fern) in Brit.

Scolymus Tourn. ex Linn. Compositae (xm). 3 sp. Medit.

Scopolia Jacq. Solanaceae (11). 4 sp. Eur., As.

Scorpiurus Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 6 sp. Medit. The pod is

twisted and indehiscent ; often it looks like a caterpillar, and it has
been suggested that birds are deceived by this and carry it to a distance
before discovering the mistake.

Scorzonera (Tourn.) linn. Compositae (xm). 100 sp. N. temp. Old

World. Like Taraxacum. The roots of S. hispanica L. and others
are eaten as vegetables.

Scrophularia Tourn. ex Linn. Scrophulariaceae (11. 6). 115 sp. N.

temp.; 3 in Brit. ; S. aquatica L. and S. nodosa L., the fig-worts, are
common. Perennial herbs with opp. leaves, which on the lateral
twigs are commonly anisophyllous (p. 47). The firs, are in tall infls.
whose primary branching is racemose ; the lateral shoots are dichasial.
The flr. has the sta. and style arranged along the lower lip of the corolla,
instead of the upper, as is usually the case in such firs. Correlated
with this is the fact that the posterior sta. , usually absent in the order,
is represented by a staminode, as it is not in the way of insects enter-
ing the flr. (it is entirely aborted in firs, which have the essential organs
under the upper lip). The flr. is markedly protogynous, and is largely
visited by wasps and but rarely by other insects. The peculiar brown
colour may perhaps be due to the selection of wasps; but there are so
few wasp-flowers that it is impossible to draw any conclusions upon
the subject (see Cotoneaster and Epipactis).

Scrophulariaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). About 180
gen. with 2000 sp., cosmop. Most are herbs and undershrubs, a few
shrubs or trees (e.g. Paulownia), with alt., opp., or whorled exstip.
leaves. Many exhibit interesting features in the vegetative organs.

582

S CR OP HU. LARI A CEAE

Several are climbers (e.g. Maurandia, Rhodochiton, & c.). The
Veronicas of N. Z. are interesting xerophytes with remarkable re-
semblance in habit to certain Coniferae. A considerable number of
sp. in tribes n and 12 (below), e.g. Euphrasia, Bartsia, Pedicularis
&c., are semi-parasitic (p. 176). They mostly grow in swampy grass-
land and are parasitic by their roots upon the roots of the grasses.
Suckers are formed at the points of contact. “The formation of the
suckers occurs in spring; the absorption of organic food by their
means from living parts of plants lasts into the summer; at this
period the haustoria contain but little starch. In late summer and
autumn an absorption of organic compounds from the dead parts
of the host takes place. At this period, and later, the haustoria
function as places for storage of reserve-materials ” (von Wettstein).
The plants possess green leaves of their own, and so are able to as-
similate.

The infl. may be racemose or cymose. In the former case it is
usually a spike or raceme, axillary or terminal (every variety may be

o o 0

Floral diagrams of A, Verbascum nigrum , B, Linar ia vulgaris, C, Veronica
Ckamaedrys ; after Eichler.

found in sp. of Veronica). Solitary axillary firs, occur in many S.,
e.g. Linaria. The cymose infls. are usually dichasia, often united into
complex corymbs &c. Bracts and bracteoles are usually present. In
Castilleja the upper leaves and bracts are brightly coloured.

The fir. is $ > zygomorphic, sometimes nearly regular (Verbascum
&c.), and shows considerable variety in structure, as is illustrated by
the floral diagrams given. The bulk of the order show the Linaria
type. K (5), of various aestivations; C (5), median-zygomorphic,
often 2-lipped; A 4 (sometimes 2), didynamous, epipetalous, the
posterior sta. sometimes represented by a staminode (e.g. in Scrophu-
laria and Pentstemon). Verbascum and its allies have an actino-
morphic corolla and 5 sta.; Veronica (q.v.) shows 4 sepals (the
posterior one of the typical 5 being absent), 4 petals (the posterior pair
of the 5 united), and 2 sta., the corolla being rotate in form. Other
variations occur in the Selagineae &c. Below the ovary is a honey-

SCROPHULARIA CEAE

583

secreting disc. G (2), medianly placed (not obliquely as in Solanaceae),
2-loc., with axile placentae. Ovules usually 00 , less commonly few
(e.g. Veronica &c.), anatropous. Style simple or bilobed. Fruit
surrounded below by the persistent calyx, usually a capsule (dehiscent
in various ways) or a berry. Seeds usually numerous, small, with
endosperm. Embryo straight or slightly curved.

Most of the order have firs, more or less adapted to insect-visits.
Muller divides them into 4 types: (1) the Verbascum or Veronica
type (see genera) with open fir. and short tube (bees and flies),
(2) the Scrophularia type (wasps), (3) the Digitalis and Linaria type
with long wide tubes and the essential organs so placed as to touch
the back of the insect (bees), and (4) the Euphrasia type or ‘loose-
pollen’ fir. (p. 98), where the pollen is loose and powdery, and the
anthers (protected by the upper lip of the fir.) are provided with
spines &c., so that they may be shaken upon the entrance of the insect,
which thus receives a shower of pollen on its head. The firs, are
seldom markedly dichogamous, but the stigma usually projects beyond
the sta. so as to be first touched by a visitor. Most of the firs, are
capable of self-fertilisation in default of insect-visits. For further
details see genera.

In Linaria &c. (q.v.) there sometimes appears a terminal fir. to the
raceme, and this exhibits the phenomenon of peloria , having a sym-
metrical corolla with spurs to all the petals (cf. Ruta, or compare
Aquilegia with Delphinium).

A number of the S. are or have been ofhcinal e.g. Digitalis; most
of them are poisonous. Many are favourite garden and greenhouse
plants, e.g. Calceolaria, Mimulus, Pentstemon, Antirrhinum, Linaria,
Veronica, Collinsia &c.

Classification and chief genera (after von Wettstein) :

A. The two posterior corolla-teeth (or the upper lip) cover the
lateral teeth in bud.

I. PSEUDOSOLANEAE (all leaves usually alt. ; 5 sta. often
present) :

1. Verbasceae (corolla with very short tube or none, rotate or

shortly campanulate) : Verbascum, Celsia.

2. Aptosi?neae (corolla with long tube) : Aptosimum.

II. ANTIRRHINOIDEAE (lower leaves at least opp. ; the 5th
sta. wanting or staminodial) :
a. Corolla 2-lipped; lower lip concave, bladder-like.

4. Calceolarieae: Calceolaria.

/3. Corolla almost actinomorphic, or 2 dipped with flat or

convex lips.

3. Hemimerideae (dehiscent capsule; corolla spurred or saccate

at base, with no tube) : Alonsoa.

5. Antirrhineae (as 3, but with tube): Linaria, Antirrhinum,

Maurandia, Rhodochiton.

5«4

SCR G PH U LARI A CEAE

6. Cheloneae (dehiscent capsule or many-seeded berry; corolla

not spurred or saccate ; infl. cymose, compound) : Russelia,
Wightia, Collinsia, Scrophularia, Chelone, Pentstemon,
Paulownia.

7. Manuleae (dehiscent capsule; corolla as in 6; infl. not

cymose, usually simple; anthers finally i-loc.): Zalu-
zianskia, Lyperia.

8. Gratioleae (as 7, but anthers finally 2-loc.): Mimulus, Gra-

tiola, Torenia.

9. Selagineae (fruit a drupe or an indehiscent fevv-seeded cap-

sule): Hebenstretia, Selago.

B. The two posterior teeth (or the upper lip) of the corolla
covered in bud by one or both of the lateral teeth.

III. R HINA NTH OIDEA E.

a. Corolla-teeth all flat and divergent, or the 2 upper erect.

10. Digitaleae (anther-loc. finally united at tip; the 2 upper
corolla-lobes often erect; not parasitic): Veronica, Digi-
talis.

ir. Gerardieae (anther-loc. always separate, one often reduced;
corolla-lobes all flat, divergent ; often parasitic) : Gerardia.

b. The 2 upper corolla-teeth form a helmet-like upper lip. Often

parasitic.

12. Rhinantheae : Castilleja, Melampyrum, Tozzia, Euphrasia,
Bartsia, Pedicularis, Rhinanthus.

[Benth. -Hooker exclude from S. the 9th tribe, which they unite
with Globulariaceae to form a separate order Selagineae, placed in
Lamiales; the rest of the order they place in Personales. Warming
following Eichler places the order in Personatae, excluding the Sela-
gineae, which are placed as a separate order (Selaginaceae, not united
to Globulariaceae), in Nuculiferae.]

Scrophularineae (Benth. -Hooker) = Scrophulariaceae.

Scutellaria Riv. ex Linn. Labiatae (iv). 180 sp. cosmop. exc. S. Afr

2 in Brit., S. galericulata L. and S. minor Huds. (skull-cap).

Scuticaria Lindl. Orchidaceae (27). 2 sp. trop. Am. Epiphytes, wit!
no tubers, but long pendulous fleshy cylindrical stems.

Scybalium Schott et Endl. Balanophoraceae. 4 sp. trop. Am.

Seaforthia R. Br. = Ptychosperma Labill.

Secale (Tourn.) Linn. Gramineae (xii). 2 sp. Medit., Eur., As.
S. cereale L., the rye, is largely cultivated in Germany, Russia, &c.,
as a cereal, forming a staple food.

Secamone R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (11. 3). 24 sp. trop. Afr., As., Austr.

SecMum P. Br. Cucurbitaceae (iv). 1 sp. trop. Am., S. eciule Sw.,

largely cultivated for its edible fruit (choco), containing one enormous
seed which germinates within the fruit.

Securidaca Linn. Polygalaceae. 30 sp. trop., except Austr.

Securigera DC. Leguminosae (in. 5). 1 sp. Medit.

SEMELE 585

Securinega Comm, ex Juss. Euphorbiaceae (A. 1. 1). 10 sp. temp, and
subtrop.

Sedum Tourn. ex Linn. Crassulaceae. 140 sp. N. temp., 1 in Peru;
9 in Brit., incl. 6*. Telephiiun L. (orpine or livelong), S. Rhodiola DC.
(rose-root), S. anglicum Huds. and S. acre L. (stonecrop or wall-
pepper). Fleshy-leaved xerophytes.

Seguieria Loefl. Phytolaccaceae. 8 sp. S. Am. Leaves leathery;
stipules thorny. The plants have a powerful odour of garlic. Cpl. 1.
The fruit is a samara, closely resembling one half of that of Acer or
many Malpighiaceae.

Selagineae (Benth. -Hooker). See Scrophulariaceae.

Selaginella Spring. The only genus of Selaginellaceae. 400 sp. chiefly
trop. A few are temp. e.g. S. selaginoides Link on boggy hill sides in
Brit. Most of the sp. live in damp places, especially in forests, but
there are a few xerophytes. The embryo is provided with a suspensor,
and grows directly into the leafy plant, which shows a habit very
similar to that of Lycopodium — much-branched stem, often creeping,
bearing roots on the lower side and leaves on the upper, with
terminal cones of sporangia. The leaves may be spirally arranged as
in most sp. of Lycopodium (e.g. in S. selaginoides) , or more commonly
they form 4 ranks, two outer ones of large, two inner of small leaves,
thus giving the stem a dorsiventral structure. The roots in some sp.,
e.g. S. Kraussiana A. Br. and S. Alartensii Spring, are borne on
rhizophores , anomalous stem branches developed at the nodes and
exhibiting a sort of intermediate structure between stem and root.
The sporangia are placed at the bases of the leaves in terminal cones,
which exhibit radial symmetry. The mega-sporangia contain 4 large
spores and can easily be distinguished by the naked eye from the
micro-sporangia. On germination a microspore produces a rudimen-
tary male prothallus bearing an antheridium. The megaspore forms a
female prothallus, which remains enclosed in the burst spore, and has
an upper small -celled green portion and a lower large-celled storage
portion as in Salviniaceae &c.

S. lepidophylla Spring is a curious little xerophyte which curls up
into a ball in the dry season, and may be rolled about by the wind
(compare Anastatica).

Selaginellaceae. Lycopodinae (Heterosporous). Only genus Selagi-
nella (q.v.).

Selago Linn. Scrophulariaceae (11. 9). 80 sp. S. Afr., Madagascar.

Selenipedium Rchb. f. Orchidaceae (2). 2 sp. Panama, Guiana. Like
Cypripedium, but ovary 3-loc.

Selinum Linn. Umbelliferae (6). 25 sp. N. Hemisph., S. Afr.

Selliera Cav. Goodeniaceae. 2 sp. Austr.

Semecarpus Linn. f. Anacardiaceae (iv). 40 sp. Ceylon to Austr.

Semele Kunth. Liliaceae (vii). 1 sp. Canaries, S. androgyna Kunth
( Ruscns androgynus L.). A climbing shrub with leaf- like phylloclades

586

SEMELE

in the axils of scale-leaves. Firs, in little cymes (cf. Asparagus) on the
edges of the phylloclades. The new shoots rise from the soil, and grow
to a considerable length before the lateral branches, bearing the phyl-
loclades, begin to unfold.

Sempervivum Rupp, ex Linn. Crassulaceae. 50 sp. mts. of S. Eur.,
Himal., Abyss., &c. S. tectorum L., the houseleek, often planted on
cottages to keep the slates in position, is a xerophyte with fleshy
leaves and much vegetative multiplication by offsets.

Senebiera DC. ( Coronopus Rupp.). Cruciferae (11. 5). 12 sp. sub-

trop. ; one naturalised in Brit. .S’, didyma Pers.

Senecio (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Cacalia Linn., Cineraria Linn., Klehiia
Haw., Ligularia Cass., &c.). Compositae (vm). 1250 sp. cosmop.

9 in Brit, (ragwort, groundsel, &c.). The genus includes plants of
the most various habit. Some are climbers, e.g. S. macroglossus DC.
(S. Afr.), which is remarkably like ivy in habit. Many are xero-
phytes, some with fleshy leaves, others with fleshy stems, others with
hairy or inrolled leaves (cf. Empetrum). The firs, of S. vulgaris L.
(groundsel) are regularly self-fertilised, and are very inconspicuous ;
there are no ray-florets. In S. Jacobaea L. (rag- wort) there are
ray- florets, and the conspicuous firs, are largely visited by insects.
A very interesting sp. is S. (K.) articulatus Sch. Bip. (S. Afr.),
whose fleshy stems easily separate at the joints and grow into new
plants.

Sequoia Endl. ( Wellingtonia Lindl.) Coniferae (Arauc. 1 c.; see C. for
genus characters). 2 sp. N. W. Am. S. giga?itea Lindl. et Gord is the
mammoth tree of Calif., discovered in the Sierra Nevada in 1850.
Some specimens are more than 300 feet high and 36 feet thick, larger
even in size than Eucalyptus ; the age of the largest is about 1 500
years. In some museums in Brit, there are sections of a tree cut down
in 1882 and showing 1335 annual rings. S. sempe7~uirens Endl., the
redwood, is also a gigantic tree, and is valued for its timber &c.

Serapias Linn. Orchidaceae (3). 5 sp. Medit.

Sericocarpus Nees. Compositae (in). 5 sp. U. S.

Serjania Plum, ex Schum. Sapindaceae (1). 172 sp. trop. and subtrop.
Am. Lianes with watch-spring tendrils and stip. leaves. Fruit a
3-winged schizocarp.

Serratula Dill, ex Linn. Compositae (xi). 40 sp. Eur. to Japan. S.

tinctoria L. (saw-wort) in Brit. ; it is dioecious.

Serruria Salisb. Proteaceae (1). 50 sp. S. Afr.

Sesamum Linn. Pedaliaceae. 12 sp. trop. Afr., As. S.indicum L.
is largely cultivated in India &c. for the oil expressed from its seeds
(gingili, gingelly, sesame, &c.).

Sesbania Scop. Leguminosae (111. 6). 20 sp. trop. and subtrop. S.

aculeata Poir. is a marsh plant, giving off floating roots from the base
of the stem, covered with a spongy aerenchyma (p. 161, and cf.
Neptunia).

SILYBUM 587

Seseli Linn. Umbelliferae (6). 60 sp. Eur., N. Afr., As. S. Libatiotis
Koch in Brit.

Sesleria Scop. Gramineae (x). 10 sp. Eur., W. As., mostly alpine.

S. coerulea Arduin. in Brit.

Sesuvium Linn. Aizoaceae (11. 1). 5 sp. trop. and subtrop. Halo-

phytes (p. 169).

Setaria Beauv. Gramineae (v). 12 sp. trop. and warm temp. S.

italica Beauv. (Italian millet) is cultivated as a cereal in E. As.

Shepherdia Nutt. Elaeagnaceae. 3 sp. N. Am. The receptacle
becomes fleshy in fruit. The fruit of S. argentea Nutt, (buffalo-berry)
is edible.

Sherardia Dill, ex Linn. Rubiaceae (11. 21). 1 sp. Eur. (inch Brit.),

W. As., N. Afr., S. arvensis L., the field madder.

Shorea Roxb. Dipterocarpaceae. 87 sp. Ceylon to Philippine Is. S.
robusta Gaertn. f. (sal) is a most valuable timber tree, with wood like
that of teak, and is largely grown in India.

Shortia Torr. et Gray. Diapensiaceae. 1 sp. N. Carolina, 1 sp. Japan
(cf. Epigaea).

Sibbaldia Linn. = Potentilla Linn. S. procumbens h. = P. Sibbaldi.

Sibthorpia Linn. Scrophulariaceae (in. 10). 6 sp. Eur., Medit.,

Nepal, Andes. S. enropaea L. (Cornish money-wort) in S. England.

Sicyos Linn. Cucurbitaceae (lv). 30 sp. trop. Am., Polynes., Austr.

Some sp. have hooked fruits.

Sida Linn. Malvaceae (11). 70 sp. Am., Austr., 1 Eur., several in

all trop. lands.

Sidalcea A. Gray. Malvaceae (11). 10 sp. N.W. Am.

Sideritis Tourn. ex Linn. Labiatae (vi. 1). 45 sp. Medit., Orient.

Sideroxylon (Dill.) Linn. Sapotaceae (1). 80 sp. trop.

Siegesbeclda Linn. Compositae (v). 4 sp. trop. and warm temp.

The heads are small, with an involucre of 5 bracts, covered with
very sticky glandular hairs. The secretion continues till after the
fruit is ripe, and aids in its distribution, the whole head breaking off
and clinging to a passing animal.

Silaus Bernh. Umbelliferae (6). 2 sp. Eur., Siberia (1 Brit.).

Silene Linn. Caryophyllaceae (1. 1). 300 sp. N. temp., esp. Medit.

(7 in Brit.). The firs, of many sp. are adapted to pollination by
butterflies, e.g. those of S. acaulis L. (moss-campion, a tufted alpine
plant); others are pollinated by moths, e.g. S. infiata Sm. (bladder
campion), which emits its scent at night (p. 92).

Siler Crantz. Umbelliferae (6). 2 sp. Eur., Siberia.

Silpliium Linn. Compositae (v). 12 sp. eastern U.S. S. laciniatum

L. is the famous ‘compass-plant’ of the prairies. If growing in an
exposed position its leaves turn their edges to north and south.
They thus avoid the excessive mid-day radiation, and get the full benefit
of the morning and evening sun. (Cf. Lactuca.)

Silybum Vaill. ex Adans. Compositae (xi). 2 sp. Medit. S. Maria -

583

SILYBUM

nttm Gaertn. (milk-thistle) in Brit. It is now widely distributed over
the Pampas, where it was introduced.

Simaruba Aubl. Simarubaceae. 6 sp. trop. Am.

Simarubaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). -28 gen. with
124 sp. trop. and subtrop. Shrubs and trees with alt. pinnate or
simple leaves, never gland-dotted. Firs, small, regular, g > often 00,
in axillary compound panicles or cymose spikes. Fir. with K and C
3 — 7-merous. K free or more often united; C imbricate or rarely
valvate; disc between sta. and ovary ring- or cup-like, sometimes
enlarged into a gynophore; sta. twice as many as petals, obdiplo-
stemonous, often with scales at the base; cpls. (4 — 5) or less, often
free below and united by the style or stigma; ovules usually 1 in
each loc. as in Rutaceae. Schizocarp or capsule; endosperm thin or
none ; embryo with thick cotyledons. A few yield useful timber.
Chief genera: Simaruba, Ailanthus. Placed in Geraniales by Benth.-
Hooker, in Terebinthinae by Warming.

Simarubsae (Benth. -Hooker) = Simarubaceae.

Simethis Kunth. Liliaceae (ill), i sp. Brit., W. and S. Eur., S.
bicolor Kunth.

Sinapis Linn. =Brassica Tourn.

Sinningia Nees. Gesneriaceae (11). 20 sp. Brazil. S. speciosa Hiern

and others are favourite hot-house plants (generally known as
Gloxinias). They are tuberous plants. The usual method of pro-
pagation is by planting leaves on the soil ; from the base of the petiole
a new plant arises by budding (cf. Begonia and Streptocarpus).

Siphocampylus Pohl. Campanulaceae (in). 100 sp. trop. Am.

Siphonia Rich. = Hevea Aubl.

Sison Linn. Umbelliferae (5). 1 sp. Eur., incl. Brit.

Sisymbrium (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Alliaria Adans.). Cruciferae (11. 8).
50 sp. N. temp. ; 3 in Brit., incl. S . officinale Scop, (hedge-
mustard).

Sisyrinchium Linn. Iridaceae (11). 50 sp. Am.

Sium (Tourn.) Linn. Umbelliferae (5). 6 sp. N. Hemisph., S. Afr.

2 in Brit, (water-parsnip). S . Sisarum L. (skirret) is sometimes
cultivated for its tuberous roots, which are boiled and eaten.

Skimmia Thunb. Rutaceae (ix). 4 sp. Himal., Japan. S. japonica

Thunb. is often cultivated for its handsome foliage and red berries.

Sloanea Linn.. Elaeocarpaceae. 44 sp. trop.

Smilacina Desf. Liliaceae (vn). 20 sp. N. temp.

Smilax (Tourn.) Linn. Liliaceae (xi). 200 sp. chiefly trop. ; also in

E. As., N. Am., Medit. Most are climbing shrubs with net- veined
leaves. At the base of the leaf spring two tendrils, one on either
side, usually regarded as modified stipules, though these organs
scarcely occur in Monocotyledons. The stems are often furnished
with recurved hooks which aid in climbing. Firs, dioecious, in um-
bels. The dried roots of several S. Am. sp. form sarsaparilla.

SOLANACEAE

589

Smithia Ait. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 30 sp. trop. As. Afr.

Smithiantha O. Ktze. = Naegelia Regel.

Smyrnium (Tourn.) Linn. Umbelliferae (5). 1 sp. Meclit., Eur., Brit.,

S. Olusatrum L. (Alexanders), formerly used like celery.

Sobralia Ruiz et Pav. Orchidaceae (14). 30 sp. trop. Am.

Soja Moench = Glycine Linn.

Solanaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). 72 gen. with 1500
sp. trop. and temp.; the chief centre is Cent, and S. Am., where
there are 36 local genera; in Eur. and As. ©nly sub-order II. is
represented. Herbs shrubs or small trees; leaves in the non-flowering
part usually alt., but in the infl. -portion alt. or in pairs; the arrange-
ment in pairs is due to the mode of branching and adnation (p. 30), as
illustrated in the figure. In Datura the branching is dichasial, and the
bracts are adnate to their axillary shoots up to the point at which the

Branching in Solanaceae (after Eichler); Datura Stramonium (left) and Atro^a
Belladonna (right) i, 2, 3, firs, or infls. of successive orders; b, bract of 1,
a {S bracts of 2, and so on.

llext branches arise, so that a looks like the bracteole of 2, rather than
its bract. In Atropa the branching is cincinnal, one of the two branches
at a node remaining undeveloped, and the bract is again adnate to
its axillary branch. Of the pair of leaves thus found at any node,
one is usually smaller than the other. In Solanum and others further
complications occur (see Eichler’s Bliithendicig .).

Firs, solitary or in cymes, g, sometimes zygomorphic. K (5),
persistent; C (5), of various forms, rarely 2-lipped, usually folded
and convolute ; A 5, alt. with petals, epipetalous, or fewer in zygo-
morphic firs. ; G (2), obliquely placed in the fir. (the posterior cpl.
to the right, the anterior to the left, when shown in a floral diagram),
2-loc., sometimes with secondary divisions (e.g. Datura), upon a
hypogynous disc ; ovules 1 — 00 in each loc., anatropous or slightly
amphitropous, on axile placentae (most often the placentae are swollen
and the ovules numerous) ; style simple, with 2-lobed stigma. Berry

59°

SOLANACEAE

or capsule. Embryo curved or straight, in endosperm. The firs, are
conspicuous and insect-visited ; some, e.g. Nicotiana, are adapted to
Lepidoptera. A few are economically important, e.g. Solanum
(potato), Nicotiana (tobacco), Lycopersicum, Capsicum, &c. ; Datura,
Atropa, &c. are medicinal ; several are favourites in horticulture.

Classification and chief genera (after von Wettstein): the S. are
nearly related to Scrophulariaceae, the most general distinction being
the oblique ovary ; this however is by no means easily made out, and
the zygomorphism* of the fir. is most often used as a distinction.
Certain genera of S. are nearly related to various Boraginaceac,
Gesneriaceae, Nolanaceae, &c., and it is quite possible that the S. are
not really a simple family (see Nat. PJl.); they occupy a middle place
between the Tubuliflorae with actinomorphic, and those with zygo-
morphic firs.

A. Embryo clearly curved, through more than a semicircle. All
5 sta. fertile, equal or only slightly different in length.

I. NICANDREAE (ovary 3 — 5-loc., the walls of the loc.
dividing the placentae irregularly) : Nicandra (only genus).

II. SOLANEAE (ovary 2-loc.) : Lycium, Atropa, Hyoscya-
mus, Physalis, Capsicum, Solanum, Lycopersicum, Mandra-
gora.

III. DATUREAE (ovary 4-loc., the walls dividing the pla-
centae equally) : Datura, Solandra (only genera).

B. Embryo straight or slightly curved (less than a semicircle).

IV. CESTREAE (all 5 sta. fertile); Cestrum, Nicotiana,
Petunia.

V. SALPIGLOSSIDEAE (2 or 4 sta. fertile, of different
lengths): Salpiglossis, Schizanthus.

[Placed in Polemoniales by Benth. -Hooker, who unite Nolanaceae to
S. ; in Personatae by Warming.]

Solanum (Tourn.) Linn. (excl. Lycopersicuni Hill). Solanaceae (11).
900 sp. trop. and temp. S. Dulca?}iara L. (bittersweet, nightshade)
and S. nigrum L. in Brit. The firs, are small, with a cone of
anthers opening at the tip as in Borago. S. tuberosum L. (S. Am.) is
the potato. From the axils of the lowest leaves there spring branches
which grow horizontally underground and swell up at the ends into
tubers (potatoes). That these are stem structures and not roots is
shown by their origin and by their possession of buds — the ‘ eyes.’
Each eye is a small bud in the axil of an aborted leaf (represented by
a semicircular rim). When the parent plant dies down in autumn
the tubers become detached, and in the next season they form new
plants by the development of the eyes, at the expense of the starch
and other reserves stored in the tuber (see p. 1*2). By heaping earth
against the stem, so as to cover more of the leaf-axils, more of the
axillary shoots are made to become tuber-bearing ; hence the value of
ridging potatoes. S. Melongena L., the egg-fruit, is cultivated in the

SPARMANNIA

59i

tropics for its edible fruit. [For S. Lycopersicum L. (tomato) see
Lycopersicum.]

Soldanella Linn. Primulaceae (1). 4 sp. Alps of Eur. (p. 149). The

firs, expand at very low temperatures, often coming up through the
snow ; they have a mechanism like that of Erica.

Solenanthus Ledeb. Boraginaceae (iv. 1). 15 sp. Medit., As.

Solidago (Vaill.) Linn. Compositae (ill). 80 sp. Am.; 1 in Eur.
(inch Brit.), S, Virgaurea L., the golden rod.

Sollya Lindl. Pittosporaceae. 2 sp. W. Austr. Twiners.

Sonchus (Tourn.) Linn. Compositae (xm). 45 sp. Old World ; 3 in

Brit, (sow-thistle). Like Hieracium.

Sonerila Roxb. ( Cassebeeria Dennst.) Melastomaceae (1). 60 sp.

Indo-mal. , China.

Sonneratia Linn. f. [Blatti Adans.). Blattiaceae. 6 sp. Indo-mal.
Mangroves (p. 191), with the general habit of Rhizophoraceae.
Aerial roots spring vertically out of the mud, arising as lateral, nega-
tively geotropic branches upon the ordinary roots ; they are provided
with aerenchyma (p. 19 1), and appear to be respiratory organs (see
Goebel, Ber . D . Bot. Ges. IV, 1886, p. 249 and Pflanzenbiol. Sch. 1,
p. 139).

Sopliora Linn. Leguminosae (ill. i). 25 sp. trop. and warm temp.

Winter-buds naked. The wood is very hard.

Sophronitis Lindl. Orchidaceae (13). 4 sp. Brazil, epiphytic.

Sorbus (Tourn.) Linn. = Pyrus Tourn.

Sorghum Linn. (incl. in Andropogon in Nat. Pfl.). Gramineae (11).
13 sp. trop. and subtrop. The chief is S. vulgare Pers., the millet
or guinea corn, largely cultivated in the Medit. region &c. as a
cereal. From the halm of the var. saccharatum Koern. sugar is
sometimes prepared.

Spadiciflorae (Warming). The 3rd cohort of Monocotyledons (p. 138).

Sparganiaceae. Monocotyledons (Pandanales). Only genus Spar-
ganium (q.v.). United to Typhaceae by Benth. -Hooker and
Warming.

Sparganium (Tourn.) Linn. Sparganiaceae. 9 sp. N. temp., Austr.,
N.Z. ; 3 in Brit, (bur-weed), in shallow ponds. There is a creeping
rhizome and a stem projecting above water with the leaves and firs.
These are in spherical heads, the S heads usually higher up the axis
than the ? . Each fir. has P 3 — 6, scaly, sepaloid ; the <? has 3—6
sta., alt. with P. when equal in number ; the ? has 1 or (2) cpls. ;
ovule 1, pendulous near base of ovary, with micropyle upwards. Fruit
drupaceous, with albuminous seed. Fir. protogynous, anemophilous.

Sparmannia Linn. f. Tiliaceae. 3 sp. trop. and S. Afr. S. africana
Linn. f. is often grown in hot-houses. Firs, in cymose umbels (as is
easily recognised by their centrifugal order of opening). The sta. are
sensitive to contact, moving outwards when touched (cf. Helianthe-
mum).

592

SPAR TINA

Spartina Schreb. Gramineae (xi). 7 sp. temp, in salt soil ; 1 Brit.

(S. strictci Roth, cord-grass).

Spartium Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 3). 1 sp. Medit., S. junceum L.,

the Spanish broom, resembling the common broom in habit. Firs,
explosive like those of Genista. They yield a yellow dye, and the
plant is also used as a source of fibre.

Spathicarpa Hook. Araceae (vn). 4 sp. Brazil and Paraguay. The

spadix is adnate to the spathe, and monoecious. Down the centre
run 1 — 3 rows of $ firs., consisting each of a stalked synandrium,
rather like a sporophyll of Equisetum ; at the sides are the $ firs.,
consisting each of a bottle-shaped ovary, surrounded by staminodes.

Spathiflorae. The 7th cohort of Monocotyledons (p. 125).

Spathlphyllum Schott. Araceae (11). 20 sp. trop. Am., 1 Phil. Is.,

Celebes. Spathe partly adnate to spadix. Fir. g , with perianth.

Spathodea Beauv. Bignoniaceae (11). 3 sp. trop. Afr. There are

large water-pores on the backs of the leaflets near the midrib. In
S. campcinulata Beauv. the fir. -buds have an interesting protection-
mechanism, the calyx being inflated and water secreted between it
and the corolla (see Treub in Ann . Buitenz . vm).

Specularia Heist. Campanulaceae (1. 1). 10 sp. Medit., Eur., N. Amer.
S. hybrida A. DC. ( Campanula hybrida L.) is a cornfield weed in
England, and S. Speculum A. DC., Venus’ looking-glass, is common
in gardens. In general the fir. is like that of Campanula.

Spergula Linn. Caryophyllaceae (11. 2). 3 sp. temp. S. cirvensis L.,

the spurry, occurs in most parts of the world on arable land. The
axillary shoots do not lengthen their internodes, so that the leaves at
first glance seem to be tufted. Firs, in cymes, gynomoncecious or
gynodioecious, homogamous, visited by insects, but self-fertilising in
their absence. This plant is sometimes used as fodder.

Spergularia J. et C. Presl ( Buda Adans., Lepigonum Wahlb., Tissa
Adans.). Caryophyllaceae (11. 2). 20 sp. cosmop., mostly halophytes
with fleshy leaves (p. 169). 1 in Brit.

Spermacoce Dill, ex Linn. (Borreria G. F. W. Mey.). Rubiaceae
(11. 20). 80 sp. trop., esp. Am.

Spermaphyta or Phanerogamae. One of the 4 great divisions of the
Vegetable Kingdom, comprising all those plants which produce seeds.
The megaspore (embryo-sac) does not fall out of the sporangium
(ovule), and the latter ripens, after fertilisation of the ovum, into a
seed. In Cryptogamae the spore falls out of its sporangium and
germinates upon the soil, so that a seed is not formed. The S.
are divided into Gymnospermae and Angiospermae (q.v. and see
Ch. II.).

Sphaeralcea A. St. Hil. Malvaceae (11). 21 sp. Cape Col., 4 Am.

Sphaerolobium Sm. Leguminosae (in. 2). 12 sp. Austr.

Sphenotoma Sweet = Dracophyllum Labill.

Spigelia Linn. Loganiaceae. 30 sp. Am. Some sp., e.g. S. Anthelmia

cA

ST A CKHO USIA CEAE

593

L. and S. marilandica L. (Indian pink, or pink-root), have apparent
whorls of 4 leaves close under the infl.; in reality the internode
between the two pairs is very short. Infl. a cyme like that of Bora-
ginaceae. The fruit is a capsule rather like that of Veronica and falls
away leaving a sort of cupule. The style is jointed.

Spilanthes Jacq. Compositae (v). 30 sp. Am., 1 cosmop. trop.

Spinacia (Tourn.) Linn. Chenopodiaceae (4). 2 sp. Orient. S.oleracea
L. is the common spinach. Annual herbs with cymes of dioecious
firs., anemophilous. The bracteoles harden and surround the fruit as
a membranous wing.

Spinifex Linn. Gramineae (v). 4 sp. Austr., Ceylon to Japan. Dioecious.
The ? spikelets are 1 -flowered with long spiny bracts, and are massed
together into a head. This breaks off when the fruits are ripe, and
blows about (cf. Anastatica), finally sticking in the sand and breaking
up (Goebel, PJlanzenliol. Sch. 1. p. 135).

Spiraea Linn. (excl. Ulmaria Tourn.). Rosaceae (1. 1). 40 sp. N.

temp.; S. Ulmaria L. = Ulmaria palustris.

Spiranthes Rich. (incl. Sarcogloltis Presl, Stenorhynchus Rich.).
Orchidaceae (4). 60 sp. N. temp, and trop.; 3 in Brit., incl. S.
autumnalis Rich, (lady’s tresses). S. Romanzoffiana Cham, et
Schlecht., a native of N. Am. and Kamtschatka, occurs in meadows
at Bantry Bay, Ireland, and has caused much discussion among
geographical botanists. The infl. is twisted, so that the firs, form a
spiral. For mechanism of fir. see Darwin, Orchids , p. 106.

Spondias Linn. Anacardiaceae (11). 6 sp. trop. The 1 — 5-seeded

drupe is edible (hog-plum).

Sporobolus R. Br. Gramineae (vm). 80 sp. N. Am., Afr., As.,

S. Eur.

Spraguea Torr. Portulacaceae. 2 sp. West U.S.

Sprekelia Heist. Amaryllidaceae (1). 1 sp. Mexico, S. formosissima

Herb., a greenhouse favourite.

Sprengelia Sm. Epacridaceae. 23 sp. Austr., Tasmania.

Stachys (Tourn.) Linn. Labiatae (vi. 4). 200 sp. cosmop., exc.

Austr., N. Z. ; 5 in Brit., incl. S. Betonica Benth. (wound-wort),
S. palustris L. (marsh betony), &c. The tubers of S. Sieboldi Miq.
are largely consumed in France &c. under the name of ‘crosnes. ’

Stachytarpheta Vahl. Verbenaceae (11). 45 sp. trop. and subtrop.

(all but one Am.). The leaves of S. dichotovia Vahl ( S . jamaicensis
Gardn.) are sometimes used as tea.

Stachyuraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). Only genus
Stachyurus. See Nat. Pfl.

Stachyurus Sieb. et Zucc. Stachyuraceae. 2 sp. Japan, Himal.

Stackhousia Sm. Stackhousiaceae. 13 sp. Austr., N. Z.

Stackhousiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). 2 gen. with
15 sp., Austr., N. Z. Herbs, more or less xerophytic with racemose
or cymose infis. of $ firs. K (5); C 5, perigynous; disc present;

594

ST A CKHO US/A CEAE

A 5; G (2 — 5), 2 — 5-loc., with 1 erect anatropous ovule in each loc. ;
raphe ventral. Schizocarp. Seed with endosperm. Genera : Stack -
housia, Macgregoria. Closely allied to Celastraceae. Placed in
Celastrales by Benth. -Hooker.

Stackhousieae (Benth. -Hooker) = Stackhousiaceae.

Stangeria T. Moore. Cycadaceae. 1 sp. Port Natal, S. paradoxa
T. Moore. See order.

Stanhopea Frost. Orchidaceae (19). 20 sp. trop. Am. Epiphytes

with large pendulous firs. The labellum is of a very complex shape
(compare its near relative, Coryanthes), forming together with the
column, a sort of cage. The mechanism of these firs, is probably
rather complex, and they require careful study in their native districts.
In S. tigrina Batem., the handsomest of all, whose firs, are 8 inches
across, the labellum and column form a cage narrowing towards the
mouth, and of a most extraordinary slipperiness, which leads to the
supposition that fertilisation is effected by bees sliding down inside it.
The base of the labellum is a bucket-like organ, covered with juicy
hairs. Between it and the column are wide openings which enable
insects to fly into the bucket. When they come out, finding the
opening too narrow to spread their wings, they attempt to crawl
out, and reaching the slippery surface where they can get no grip,
slide down the cage and so out at the mouth. [For details see Linn .
Soc. Journ . XXX. 1894, p. -286.]

Stapelia Linn. Asclepiadaceae (II. 4). 80 sp. S. Afr. — the carrion-

flower. The chief interest of these plants centres in the fleshy stems.
Like the Cacti and the fleshy Euphorbias they inhabit arid regions,
and exhibit similar swollen stems, the leaves reduced to thorns or
scales, standing in 4 ranks corresponding to the usual leaf arrange-
ment in the order. The green tissue occupies the periphery of the
stem, and the centre is full of water storage cells (see p. 167, and
compare other succulents). The firs, are large, with a dull red
colour and carrion smell, attracting flies to their aid in fertilisation.
The corona is double.

Staphylea Linn. Staphyleaceae. 7 sp. N. temp. Often grown in
shrubberies. The capsule is large and bladdery.

Staphyleaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). 6 gen. with
20 sp., chiefly N. Hemisph. Shrubs or trees with alt. or opp. leaves,
usually unequally pinnate, stipulate. Firs, in panicles, regular, 5-
merous, with the axis forming a cupule and intra-staminal disc. K 5 ;
C 5; A 5 ; G (3), 3-loc. with 00 anatropous ovules, usually ascending,
with ventral raphe. Capsule. Embryo straight, in rich endosperm.
For details see Nat. PJi. Chief genera : Staphylea, Turpinia.
United to Sapindaceae by Benth. -Hooker, placed in Aesculinae by
Warming.

Statice Tourn. ex Linn. (incl. Gonioli/non Boiss. ). Plumbaginaceae.
130 sp. cosmop., chiefly in steppes and salt marshes (p. 169). .S’.

STERCULIA CEAE

595

Limonium L. (sea-lavender) and 2 others, on the coast of Brit.
Infl. compound, mixed, the total infl. being a spike, the partial a
drepanium. The firs, of many sp., eg. S. Limonium , are heterostyled
like those of Primula.

Stauntonia DC. Lardizabalaceae. 2 sp. China, Japan.

Staurostigma Scheidvv. Araceae (vn). 5 sp. Brazil.

Steironema Rafin. Primulaceae (ill). 4 sp. N. Am.

Stelis Sw. Orchidaceae (12). 150 sp. trop. Am.

Stellaria Linn. (incl. Malachium Fries). Caryophyllaceae (11. 1). 80 sp.
cosmop. ; 7 in Brit, (chickweed, stitchwort). Of the Brit, sp., S. media
Cyrill. has small homogamous firs, that fertilise themselves in absence
of insects; it flowers all the year round, and in winter (apparently on
account of weak light, cold, &c.) the firs, are often cleistogamic
(p. 98). The number of sta. is most often 3, but varies a good deal
(see Burkill, Linn. Soc. Journ . xxxi. 1895). The flrs. of S. gra -
minea L. are larger and protandrous, but with autogamy, whilst in
S. Rolostea L. the flrs. are still larger and very protandrous with but
little self-fertilisation.

In S. media there is a double row of hairs on each internode.
Water poured on the plant runs down these, and Stahl explains them
as adaptations similar to drip-tips (cf. Ficus), for drying the plant
after rain; Lindman thinks they convey the water to the leaf-axils,
where it is absorbed by the plant.

Stemonaceae. Monocotyledons (Liliiflorae). 3 gen. with 8 sp.,E. Ind.,
Am., Austr., &c. The chief genus is Stemona Lour. See Nat . Pfl .,
and Lachner-Sandoval in Bot. Centr. 50, p. 65, 1892.

Stenophragma Celak. Cruciferae (iv. 15). 1 sp. Spain.

Stenorhynchus Rich. = Spiranthes Rich.

Stenospermation Schott. Araceae (11). 4 sp. trop. Am., sub-andine.

Stenotaphrum Trin. Gramineae (v). 4 sp. Polynes., Am. .S', ameri-
canum Schrank is useful for binding drift-sand (cf. Ammophila).

Stephanotis Thou. Asclepiadaceae (11. 4). 15 sp. Madag., Malaya,

Cuba. Largely cultivated for their scented flrs.

Sterculia Linn. Sterculiaceae. 90 sp. trop. Firs, unisexual, apetalous.

Sterculiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Malvales). 48 gen. with 660
sp. chiefly trop. Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with alt. stip. leaves; some
are lianes. Firs, in complex cymes, $ , usually regular, 5-merous.
K (5), valvate, with no epicalyx ; C often absent or small, convolute;
A in 2 whorls, the outer staminodial or o, the inner often branched,
all more or less united into a tube, anthers 2-loc.; G usually (5), with
2 — 00 anatropous ovules in each, with the micropyle outwards; style
simple, lobed. Fruit various, often a schizocarp. Endosperm. Cola
and Theobroma (cacao) are economically important. Chief genera :
Dombeya, Hermannia, Melochia, Buettneria, Theobroma, Helicteres,
Sterculia, Cola. Placed in Malvales by Benth. -Hooker, in Columni-
ferae by Warming.

3s— 2

STEREOSPERMUM

596

Stereospermum Cham. Bignoniaceae (n). 12 sp. trop. Afr. As.

Stembergia Waldst. et Kit. Amaryllidaceae (1). 12 sp. Medit.

Stevia Cav. Compositae (11). 100 sp. trop. and subtrop. Am.

Stifftia Mikan (Augusta Leandr.). Compositae (xn). 4 sp. Brazil.

Shrubs.

Stillingia Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 7). 15 sp. Am., Polynes.

Mascarenes. [For S. sebifera Michx. see Sapium. ]

Stipa Linn. Gramineae (vm). 100 sp. trop. and temp., usually xero-

phytes. A. pennata L., the feather grass of the Steppes, and many
others have leaves which roll inwards when the air is dry, covering up
the stomata and green tissue (which are on the upper side only) and
exposing only the woody lower surface to the atmosphere. The awn
of the fruit is very long, ending in a long feather. It is hygroscopic,
curling up when dry and uncurling when damp. The fruit is thin and
sharply pointed, with backward-pointing hairs on the tip. As in
Erodium, the awn when damped uncurls, and, if the point of the fruit
be on the soil and the feather be entangled with other objects, drives
the fruit into the soil. When the air dries the feather is drawn down,
not the fruit upwards. S. tenacissima L. (N. Afr.) is the esparto
grass, from which paper is extensively made.

Stokesia L’Herit. Compositae (1). 1 sp. South-east U.S.

Stratiotes Linn. Hydrocharitaceae. 1 sp., S. aloidss L. (water soldier),
Eur. (incl. Brit.). It has a short stem bearing roots and a number of
aloe-like leaves with toothed edges. In the summer it floats up to
the surface and bears the (dioecious) firs. It then sinks again, and
once more comes up in August or later. Whilst down it gives off
numerous axillary shoots with big buds at the ends, and when it floats
again these grow into young plants, which soon become free and sink
to the bottom, where they remain over the winter. [See p. 158.]

Strelitsia (Banks) Ait. Musaceae. 5 sp. Afr. S. augusta Thunb.
and S. Reginae Banks are often grown in hothouses. Firs, in a cin-
cinnus in the axil of a large spathe. Sepals free ; the lateral petals
united, irregular, enclosing the 5 sta. Fertilised by birds (Ber, D.
Bot. Ges. 1894, p. 53).

Streptanthus Nutt. Cruciferae (1. 1). 22 sp. Pacific N. Am.

Streptocarpus Lindl. Gesneriaceae (1). 30 sp. Afr. The life-history

is peculiar. In S. polyanthus Hook, (see Hielscher, in Cohn’s Beitr .
z. Biol . d. PJl ., vol. Hi) the embryo in the exalbuminous seed has
1 cotyledons and a hypocotyl, but no plumule or radicle ; the hypocotyl
enters the soil, swells up at the end and developes absorbent hairs;
presently however roots (adventitious) form above the swelling, which
dies off. In the meanwhile one of the cotyledons continues to grow,
while the other dies. Thus the young plant presently consists of a
large green cotyledon with few adventitious roots. The cotyledon
continues to grow, and reaches a considerable size. Finally the infl.
arises as a bud from the base of the petiole, and leafy shoots may also

STYRACACEAE 597

arise. (Compare the artificial propagation of Sinningia.) Other sp.
show somewhat similar phenomena.

Streptocaulon Wight et Arn. Asclepiadaceae (1. 1). 7 sp. E. Ind. to
Philippine Is.

Streptochaeta Schrad. Gramineae (vi). 1 sp. Brazil. The awns lever
out the fruits in a peculiar way (see F. Muller in Kosmos , 1885).

Streptopus Michx. Liliaceae (vn). 4 sp. N. temp.

Streptosolen Miers. Solanaceae (v). 1 sp. trop. S. Am.

Strobilanthes Blume ( Goldfussia Nees). Acanthaceae (iv. A). 180 sp.
trop. As., Madag. Some, e.g. S. anisophyllus T. Anders., show marked
anisophylly (p. 47). The stigma is sensitive to contact (cf. Mimulus);
when touched it moves downwards, and becomes pressed against the
lower lip of the fir.

C'tromantlie Sond. Marantaceae. 5 sp. trop. Am.

&trophanthus DC. Apocynaceae (11. 5). 28 sp. Cape Col. to China.

The free parts of the petals are long and threadlike ; the two follicles
often stand in a straight line when ripe. The seeds of S. hispidns DC.
(S. Afr.) furnish the drug strophanthin.

Struthiola Linn. Thymelaeaceae. 24 sp. Cape Col. and trop. Afr.

Strychnos Linn. Loganiaceae. 65 sp. trop. Some sp., e.g. S. Nux-vomica
L., are erect trees, others are climbing shrubs, with curious hook-ten-
drils. The hook consists of a modified axillary shoot, and it is note-
worthy that the leaf in whose axil it arises does not as a rule develope
normally like the one opposite to it on the stem, but becomes a scale
leaf. If the hook catch upon a support it twines close round it and
thickens and lignifies (cf. Clematis and see p. 170). Other sp. have
axillary thorns. A few sp. have a i-loc. ovary with free-central placenta.
The fruit is a berry; the flesh is harmless, but the seeds are exceed-
ingly poisonous, owing to the presence of strychnine in the seed-coats.
From these seeds the alkaloid is chiefly obtained. S. toxifcra Schomb.
(S. Am.) yields the famous Wourali or curare poison, with which the
S. Am. Indians poison their arrows ; it is obtained from the bark by
scraping and maceration in water.

Sturmia Rchb. = Liparis Rich.

Stylidieae (Benth. - Hooker) = Candolleaceae.

Stylidium Sw. = Candollea Labill.

Stylochiton Lepr. Araceae (vn). 2 sp. Cent. Afr. The monoecious

infl. remains below the ground, only the tip protruding; the spathe
opens at the top, and by this opening the pollinating agents enter.

Stylophorum Nutt. Papaveraceae (11). 1 sp. Atlantic N. Am.

Stylosanthes Sw. Leguminosae (ill. 7). 25 sp. trop. and subtrop.

Styphelia Sm. (incl. Cyathodes Labill., excl. Leucopogon R. Br.). Epa-
cridaceae. 30 sp. Austr., N. Z., New Caled., Sandwich Is.

Styracaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Ebenales). 6 gen. with 73 sp.
There are 3 centres of distribution — Brazil to Peru and Mexico,
Virginia to Texas, Japan to Java. A single sp., Styrax officinalis ,

STYRACACEAE

598

is Mediterranean, and its presence there may perhaps be referred to
Tertiary times, from whose strata various fossil S. have been obtained.
Shrubs and trees with alt. simple leaves, usually entire and often
leathery. Infl. usually racemose, with no bracteoles. Fir. g , regular.
K (5 — 4); C (5 — 4), often nearly polypetalous ; A twice as many as
petals, in one whorl, united at base or into a tube, with narrow or
linear, rarely round anthers; G (3 — 5), 3 — 5-loc. below, i-loc. above,
with 1 or few pendulous anatropous ovules in each loc. ; style simple,
stigma capitate or lobed. Fruit drupaceous, with fleshy or dry
dehiscent pericarp, and one or few seeds. Embryo straight, in
endosperm. Chief genera : Halesia, Styrax. For distinction between
S. and Symplocaceae, see the latter order. The absence of latex
distinguishes S. from Sapotaceae, the $ firs, from Ebenaceae. Placed
in Ebenales by Benth. -Hooker, in Diospyrinae by Warming.

Styrax (Tourn.) Linn. Styracaceae. 60 sp. with distribution of order.
S. officinale L. yields storax, a resin much used in ancient times. S.
Benzoin Dryand. (Sumatra, &c.) yields the fragrant resin gum-ben-
zoin, obtained by cutting notches in the bark. It is used medicinally
and for incense.

Suaeda Forsk. Chenopodiaceae (9). 40 sp. universal, on the sea-
coast, and in salt steppes (p. 169). Herbs with fleshy leaves and
dense cymes of firs. S. maritima Dum., the sea-blite, is common on
the Brit, coast, and S. fruticosa Forsk. is also found.

Subularia Ray ex Linn. Cruciferae (11. 5). r sp. Abyss, and 1 sp. in
Eur. (incl. Brit.), As., N. Am., S. aquatica L., the awl-wort. It
grows at the margin of lakes, usually submerged, and has long narrow
leaves, nearly circular in section (p. 160.) The firs, may project
above the water and open, or may remain submerged, in which case
they fertilise themselves in the bud. This plant is one of the few
aquatic annuals.

Succisa Neck. = Scabiosa Tourn. S. pratensis Moench = Scabiosa Succisa.

Succowia Medic. Cruciferae (11. 9). 1 sp. W. Medit., Teneriffe.

Swainsona Salisb. Leguminosae (ill. 6). 30 sp. Austr., N. Z.,

Siberia.

Swartzia Schreb. ( Tounatea Aubl.). Leguminosae (11. 9). 60 sp.

trop. Am., 1 trop. Afr.

Swertia Linn. Gentianaceae (1. 3). 70 sp. Eur., As., Afr., Am.

S, perennis L. is often cultivated. The corolla-segments bear each
2 nectaries on the upper side, consisting of little pits covered with
hairs.

Swietenia Jacq. Meliaceae. 3 sp. trop. Am., incl. S. Mahogoni Jacq.,
the mahogany, a valuable timber tree.

Sympetalae (Engler, Warming). The higher division of Dicotyledons
(pp. 130, 137 and cf. 91).

Symphoricarpos Dill, ex Juss, Caprifoliaceae (ill). 8 sp. N. Am.
S. racemosns Michx. is the snowberry of shrubberies. The pendulous

SYZYGTUM

599

fir. is fertilised chiefly by wasps (cf. Scrophularia). The honey,
secreted at the base of the style, is protected from rain, and prevented
from flowing out, by the hairs on the corolla. The anthers are to-
wards the outer side of the hairy mass. The wasp, being short
tongued (see p. 92), thrusts its whole head into the flr. and touches
stigma and sta. ; pollen adheres to it as it withdraws its head sticky
with honey.

Symphyandra A. DC. Campanulaceae (1. 1). 7 sp. E. Medit. Like

Campanula. The pendulous capsule opens at the base (cf. Cam-
panula).

Symphytum Tourn. ex Linn. Boraginaceae (iv. 3). 15 sp. Medit.,

Eur. S. officinale L. (comfrey) is common in Brit, and 61. tuberosum
L., with tubers like those of potato, also occurs. The pendulous flr.
is bee- visited ; the entrance to the honey is narrowed by the corolla-
scales, whose margins are prickly. Mechanism of flr. as in Borago.
Some sp. of S. are grown as fodder plants, eg. S. asperrimum Donn.

Symplocaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Ebenales). Only genus Sym-
plocos (q.v.). The genus is placed in Styracaceae by Benth. -Hooker
&c. The chief distinction is the inferior ovary of Symplocos and its
complete division into loculi; the shape of the anthers is also different,
and the sta. are often more numerous.

Symplocarpus Salisb. Araceae (ill). 1 sp., S. foetidus Nutt., the
skunk-cabbage, Japan, E. As., Atlantic N. Am.

Symplocos Jacq. The only genus of Symplocaceae (q.v.). 150 sp.

trop. and subtrop. Shrubs and trees with alt. simple exstip. leathery
leaves, and racemed bracteolate $ regular firs. K (5), imbricate;
C (5) or (5 + 5), imbricate; A 5 or 5 + 5 or 5 + 5 + 5 or more, epi-
petalous or free of corolla; anthers round or ovate; G (2 — 5), inferior
or semi-inferior, with 2 — 4 anatropous pendulous ovules on an axile
placenta in each loc. Style simple, stigma capitate or lobed. Fruit
drupaceous, one seed in each loc. of the stone. Embryo straight or
curved, in endosperm.

Synanthae. The 5th cohort of Monocotyledons (p. 125).

Synechanthus H. Wendl. Palmae (iv. 6). 3 sp. trop. Am.

Synedrella Gaertn. Compositae (v). 2 sp. trop. Am.

Syngonium Schott. Araceae (vi). 10 sp. W. Ind., Brazil. Climbers

with cymes of monoecious spadices. Synandrous.

Syringa Linn. Oleaceae (1. 2). 10 sp. Eur., As. S. vulgaris L. is

the common lilac, largely cultivated in Brit, (not native). It has
well-marked false dichotomy ; the terminal bud usually fails to develope
each spring and the two nearest lateral buds continue the growth.
The winter buds are scaly, and the scales secrete a gummy substance
as the bud elongates. The firs, are in panicles, each branch with a
terminal flr. The seeds are flat and slightly winged.

Syringa Tourn. ex Adans. = Philadelphus Riv.

Syzygium Gaertn. = Eugenia Mich.

6oo

TAB E BUI A

Tabebuia Gomez. Bignoniaceae (n). 6 sp. trop. Am.

Tabernaemontana Plum, ex Linn. Apocynaceae (i. 3). no sp.
trop.

Tacca Forst. Taccaceae. 9 sp. trop. As., S. Am. There is a creeping
tuberous rhizome bearing large branched leaves on long stalks, and
cymose umbels of firs, on scapes. P 3 + 3, regular ; A 3 + 3 ; q (3),
i-loc. with parietal placentae and co anatropous ovules. Style short,
with 3 branches petaloid above, each 2-lobed with the stigmas on
their under sides. Fruit a berry. East Indian arrowroot is made
from the rhizomes of T. pinnatifida Forst. and other sp.

Taccaceae. Monocotyledons (Lilii florae). 2 gen., Tacca (q.v.) and
Schizocapsa (fruit a capsule). The order has been placed in many
positions in the natural system by various writers (see Nat.

Benth. -Hooker place it in Epigynae.

Taccarum Brongn. Araceae (vn). 3 sp. Brazil.

Tacsonia Juss. Passifloraceae. 25 sp. trop. Am. United to Passiflora
in Nat. PJl .

Tagetes Linn. Compositae (vi). 20 sp. Arizona to Argentina. T.

signata Bartl. is a favourite border plant.

Talauma Juss. Magnoliaceae (1). 8 sp. trop. E. As. and 4 sp. trop.

Am. Like Magnolia, but fruit indehiscent or breaking off from a
persistent base.

Talinum Adans. Portulacaceae. 15 sp. Afr., Am.

Talisia Aubl. Sapindaceae (1). 33 sp. S. Am.

Tamaricaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 5 gen. with 90
sp. temp, and subtrop. Desert, shore, and steppe plants (p. 169 &c.).
Shrubs or herbs with alt. exstip. leaves, often heath-like. Firs,
solitary or in racemose infls., ebracteolate, £ , regular, hypogynous.
K 4 — 5; C 4 — 5 (except Fouquieria); A 4 — 5, 8 — 10 or 00, on a
disc; G (4 — 5 or 2), i-loc. Styles usually free. Ovules 00 or few,
on basal-parietal placenta, ascending, anatropous. Capsule. Seeds
hairy. Embryo straight; endosperm or not. Chief genera: Reau-
muria, Tamarix, Myricaria, Fouquieria. Placed in Caryophyllinae
by Benth. -Hooker, in Cistiflorae by Warming.

Tamarindus Tourn. ex Linn. Leguminosae (11. 3). 1 sp. trop. Afr.,

T. indica L., the tamarind, largely cultivated in the tropics for its
valuable fruit (the part eaten is the pulp round the seeds ; it is also
officinal). The 2 anterior petals are reduced to bristles, and the
3 fertile sta. united below to form a tube. The wood is useful, not
being attacked by insects.

Tamariscineao ( Benth. -Hooker) = T amaricaceae.

Tamarix Linn. Tamaricaceae. 64 sp. Eur., As., Medit. T. gallica L.
(tamarisk) is a doubtful native on the S. and E. coasts of England.
T. mannifera Ehrenb. (Egypt to Afghanistan) produces, owing to the
punctures of the insect Coccus ??ianniparusi the manna of the Bedouins,
a white substance which falls from the twigs.

TAXUS

601

Tambourissa Sonner. Monimiaceae. 14 sp. Java, Mascarenes.

Tamonea Aubl. Melastomaceae (1). 550 sp. trop. Am.

Tamus Linn. Dioscoreaceae. 2 sp. Eur., Medit. T. communis L.
(black bryony) in Brit. Climbing plants, hibernating by tubers
formed by a lateral outgrowth of the first two internodes of the stem,

Tanacetum Toum. ex Linn. Compositae (vn). 50 sp. N. Hemisph.

T. vulgare L. (tansy) is often cultivated as a popular remedy in colds
&c. Included in Chrysanthemum in Nat. Pfi.

Taonabo Aubl. = Ternstroemia Mutis.

Taraxacum Linn. Compositae (xm). 25 sp. temp. T. officinale

Weber (dandelion) is almost cosmop. The thick primary root is
perennial and is crowned by a very short sympodial stem ; each year
a new bud is formed on the leafy axis, to come into active growth in
the following year. The roots as they grow to maturity contract and
thus drag the stem downwards so that it never rises much above the
soil. If the root be cut through, a callus forms over the wound, and
from this adventitious shoots develope. The floral mechanism &c.
are of the usual type of the order, and show the final autogamy very
clearly.

Tarchonanthus Linn. Compositae (iv). 3 sp. S. Afr.

Taxaceae. An order of Coniferae (q.v.).

Taxodium Rich. (excl. Glyptostrobus Endl.). Coniferae (Arauc. 1 c;
see C. for genus characters). 2 sp. N. Am. (swamp-cypresses), T.
distichum Rich, and T . mexicanum Carr. In the former, and especially
in swampy ground, curious ‘ knees ’ are formed, which are hollow
spherical branches projecting upwards from the roots ; they are sup-
posed to be aerating organs (cf. Sonneratia).

Taxus (Tourn.) Linn. Coniferae (Taxaceae, 4 ; see C. for genus
characters). About 8 sp. N. temp., of which T. baccata L., the yew,
is best known. There are no short shoots, but the leaves of the
spreading branches arrange themselves more or less closely in two
rows with their upper surfaces nearly in one plane, giving a dorsi-
ventral structure to the shoot. The firs, are dioecious, solitary in the
axils of the leaves of the preceding year. The c? has a few scale-leaves
below and about 8 or 10 sta., each of which is shield-shaped with a
number of pollen-sacs on the axial side of the shield arranged round
its stalk like the sporangia in Equisetum. The ? has a rather com-
plex structure. The primary axis bears scale-leaves only. In the
axil of one of the uppermost of these arises a shoot, continuing the
line of the first axis and bearing 3 pairs of scales and a terminal
ovule. This is orthotropous with one integument, and developes into
a seed surrounded by a cup-shaped red and fleshy aril.

The wood of the yew is valuable ; in the middle ages it was the
chief material used in making bows. The leaves are very poisonous,
but the aril is harmless. Birds swallow it, and thus distribute the
seeds.

602

TECOMA

Tecoma Juss. (incl. Tecomaria Spach, Campsis Lour., Campsidium
Seem., Pandorea Endl.* and other genera retained by Schumann in
Nat. PJI-). Bignoniaceae (il). 90 sp. trop. and warm temp. T.

radicans Juss., which climbs like ivy, is often grown in gardens.

Tectona Linn. f. Verbenaceae (iv). 3 sp. Indo-mal. 7\ grandis L. f.
is the teak-tree, largely cultivated in Java, India, &c., for its timber,
which is very hard and durable ; enormous quantities of it are used
for ship-building, &c. The wood sinks in water unless thoroughly
dried; this is effected in India by the process of ‘girdling,’ which
consists in removing a ring of bark and sap-wood from the tree
near the base. It of course soon dies, and is then left standing for
two years. *

Teesdalia R. Br. Cruciferae (11. 5). 2 sp. Eur., Medit. ; 1 in Brit.

The firs, are arranged in a corymb, which gradually draws out into a
raceme as flowering progresses.

Telfairia Hook. Cucurbitaceae (11). 2 sp. trop. Afr., Mascarenes.

T. pedata Hook, is cultivated for its seeds, which are edible and also
yield oil.

Tellima R. Br. Saxifragaceae (1). 7 sp. N.W. Am.

Templetonia R. Br. Leguminosae (ill. 3). 7 sp. Austr. Like Bossiaea.

Tephrosia Pers. Leguminosae (hi. 6). 120 sp. trop. and subtrop.,

esp. Afr., Austr.

Terminalia Linn. Combretaceae. 105 sp. trop. The fruits of many
sp. are winged (see order). Those of T. Chebula Retz. and others
(myrobalans) are used in dyeing and tanning, and also in medicine.

Temstroemia Mutis ex Linn. f. (Taonabo Aubl.). Theaceae. 20 sp.
S. Am., 8 As.

Ternstroemiaceae. An order in Bentham and Hooker’s 5th cohort
(Guttiferales) divided into several orders in Engler’s system. The
bulk of the genera are placed in Theaceae , the rest in Caryocaraceae ,
Marcgraviaceae, Stachyuraceae , Dilleniaceae , &c.

Testudinaria Salisb. Dioscoreaceae. 2 sp. Cape Col. T. Elephantipes
Salisb. (Hottentot bread) is common in hothouses. It has the general
habit of a Dioscorea, but has an enormous tuber projecting out of the
soil, with a thick outer coating of cork. This tuber is the swollen
first internode of the stem. From it yearly, during the wet season,
there springs by adventitious budding the year’s shoot, a long thin
climbing stem with large leaves and small flrs. This dies down in the
dry season, and the corky covering protects the mass of the plant
from drought (p. 168).

Tetracera Linn. Dilleniaceae. 45 sp. trop., esp. Am.

Tetragonia Linn. Aizoaceae (11. 3). 50 sp. Cape Col., Austr., N.Z.,

&c. Sometimes 2 flrs. stand one above the other in the same axil.
From the fruit thorny projections grow out which may bear flrs. (a
proof of the axial nature of the inferior ovary). T. expansa Murr. is
often used as a vegetable (New Zealand spinach).

THELYGONUM

603

Tctragonolobus Scop. = Lotus Tourn.

Tetramicra Lindl. {Leptotes Lindl.). Orchidaceae (13). 1 sp. Brazil.

Tetranthera Jacq. = Litsea Lam.

Tetrapanax C. Koch=Fatsia Dene.

Tetrapleura Benth. Leguminosae (1. 4). 3 sp. trop. W. Afr.

Tetrapteris Cav. Malpighiaceae. 60 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind. Lianes.

Teuerium (Tourn.) Linn. Labiatae (1. 1). 100 sp. cosmop. ; 4 in

Brit, (wood sage or germander), incl. T. scorodonia L. Fir. with
small upper lip, protandrous with movement of style and sta.

Thalia Linn. Marantaceae. 7 sp. trop. and sub*trop. Am. The
staminode f3 (see order) is present.

Thalictrum Tourn. ex Linn. Ranunculaceae (3). 76 sp. N. Temp.

( 7'. Jiavum L., the meadow-rue, and 2 others in Brit.). The firs, are
small; the perianth sepaloid or only slightly coloured and soon
dropping off. Some sp. are visited by pollen-seeking insects, but
T. minus L. and others have become wind-fertilised and protogynous,
retaining however traces of their entomophilous ancestry in a slight
cohesiveness of the pollen and the fact that as in the rest of the order
the anthers dehisce successively (p. 85).

Thapsia Linn. Umbelliferae (9). 4 sp. Medit.

Thea Linn. (excl. Camellia Linn.). Theaceae. 8 sp. India to Japan.
Often united to Camellia; T. has stalked nodding firs., C. sessile up-
right ones. The chief sp. is T. sinensis La, the tea plant, largely culti-
vated in China, India, Ceylon, &c. When growing wild it forms a tree,
but in cultivation it is kept pruned into a small bush. The young
shoots are nipped off, withered, rolled, fermented (except for green
tea), dried, and sorted into grades (pekoe, souchong, congou, &c.).
Cf. Bald, Indian Tea ; Watt, Diet . {Synonymy : T. Bohea L. and T.
viridis L. = 1\ sinensis ; T. Camellia Hoffmgg.— Camellia japonica .]

Theaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 16 gen. with 175 sp.
trop. and subtrop. Trees or shrubs with simple alt. leathery leaves.
Firs, usually solitary, g , often partly spiral. K 5, 6 or 7, imbricate,
persistent; C 5, rarely 4, 9 or 00, imbricate; A 00 , rarely 5, 10 or 15,
free or in bundles or united into a tube ; ovary superior, 2- 3- 5- io-loc.,
with 2, 4 or 00 anatropous ovules in each loc. Capsule or drupe.
Embryo usually curved ; endosperm little or none. The only im-
portant economic plant is Thea ; Camellia is a favourite in green-
houses. Chief ge?iera : Thea, Camellia, Gordonia, Ternstroemia,
Eurya. Benth. -Hooker unite to T. several other genera to form the
order Ternstroemiaceae (q.v.). Warming places T. in Cistiflorae.

Thelygonaceae. See Cynocrambaceae.

Thelygonum Linn. {Cynocrambe Tourn.). Cynocrambaceae (only genus).
2 sp. Medit., Orient., incl. T, Cynocrambe L. (C. prostrata Gaertn.).
The lower part has opp. leaves, the upper is sympodial with alt.
leaves. Opposite each leaf in this part is a group of $ firs, without
bracts, while in the axil of the leaf is a branch ending in ? firs. The

TIIEL YGONUM

604

theoretical explanation (see Eichler’s Bliithendiag .) is that each limb
of the sympodium ends blindly, bearing 2 leaves, only one of which
developes. In the axil of the other stands the <? infl., while in the
axil of the developed leaf arises the ‘continuation’ shoot of the sym-
podium, and below this, as an accessory bud, the shoot bearing the ?
fir. P 2 — 5, A 10 — 30; in the ? an inferior ovary of 1 cpl. with basal
style; ovule campylotropous. Fruit a drupe. The plant is used as
spinach, but has an aperient action.

Thelymitra Forst. Orchidaceae (4). 20 sp. Austr. The fir. is almost

regular. Some sp. fertilise themselves in the bud, the fir. however
afterwards expanding.

Thelypodium Endl. Cruciferae (1. 1). 15 sp. U. S.

Theobroma Linn. Sterculiaceae. 12 sp. trop. Am., of which T. Cacao
L. is the most important. Its firs, are borne on the old wood, and
give large tough berry-fruits, containing exalbuminous seeds, which
after roasting &c., yield cocoa or chocolate. The young leaves are
red and pendulous (p. 190).

Theodora Medic. = Schotia Jacq.

Theophrasta Linn. Myrsinaceae (1). 4 sp. W. Ind. The upper part

of the stem bears thorny scales. Serial buds occur in the leaf-axils
and ultimately cause the phenomenon of stem-flowering (p. 190), for
firs, arise in the axils of scale-leaves on these compressed shoots.

Thermopsis R. Br. Leguminosae (ill. 2). 15 sp. Himal. to Carolina.

Thesium Linn. Santalaceae. 1 1 5 sp. chiefly N. temp. Old World.
T. humifusum DC. in Brit, (bastard toad-flax). Herbaceous root-
parasites with green leaves (see Scrophulariaceae, and p. 176). Firs.
$ , in racemes. The bract is adnate -to the peduncle, and with the
2 bracteoles forms a sort of involucre. P (3 — 5), tubular. Ovary
inferior.

Thespesia Soland. Malvaceae (iv). 4 sp. trop. As., Polynes.

Thevetia Linn. Apocynaceae (1. 3). 8 sp. trop. Am.

Thibaudia Ruiz et Pav. (excl. Ceratostema Juss.). Ericaceae (in. 8).
30 sp. trop. Am., often cultivated for their firs.

Thinouia Planch, et Triana = Thouinia Poit.

Thismia Griff. Burmanniaceae. 6 sp. Indo-mal. Saprophytes. See
Groom in Ann. of Bot., June 1895.

Thladiantha Bunge. Cucurbitaceae (1). 8 sp. E. As. to Java. Climb-
ing herbs with root-tubers.

Thlaspi (Tourn.) Linn. Cruciferae (11. 6). 60 sp. Medit., As., N.

Am.; 3 in Brit, (penny-cress).

Thouinia Poit. (incl. Thinouia Planch, et Triana). Sapindaceae (1).
25 sp. trop. Am., W. Ind. Lianes.

Thrinax Linn. f. Palmae (1. 2). 10 sp. W. Ind. (thatch-palm). The

leaves are used for roofing, and the plants also yield useful fibre.

Thrincia Roth = Leontodon Linn.

Thuja Linn. (Thuya Linn.). Coniferae (Arauc. 2 b; see C. for genus

TIBOUCHINA

605

characters). 4 sp. China, Japan, N. Am., T. Occident alis L. is the
American, T. orie7italis L. the Chinese Arbor-vitae. The leaves are
small and closely appressed to the stems, which show dorsi-ventral
symmetry. Cones of 3 or 4 pairs of scales, the uppermost sterile and
often united to form the columella , the lowest also often sterile.

[Synonymy: T. dolabrata Thunb.= Thujopsis dolabrata; T. chi -
lensis Don = Libocedrus chilensis ; T. Doniana Hook. = Z. Doniana ;
T. tetragona Hook. — L. tetragona ; T. gigantea Carr. = Libocedrus
decurrensl]

Thujopsis Sieb. et Zucc. Coniferae (Arauc. 2 b; see C. for genus
characters). 1 sp. Japan, T. dolabrata Sieb. et Zucc.

Thunbergia Retz. (incl. Meyenia Nees). Acanthaceae (ill). 72 sp.
trop. Old World. Many are hothouse favourites. A large number
are twiners. The bracteoles enclose the calyx and tube of the fir.
and are often united posteriorly.

Thuya Linn. = Thuja Linn.

Thymelaea Tourn. ex Scop. Thymelaeaceae. 20 sp. Medit., W. As.

Thymelaeaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Thymelaeales). 38 gen. with
550 sp., temp, and trop., esp. in Afr. Most are shrubs with entire
alt. stip. leaves and racemose infls. Fir. usually $ , regular 4 — 5-
merous. The receptacle is much hollowed, usually forming a deep
tube of leafy consistence (‘calyx-tube’); outgrowths of the axis are
sometimes found at the base of the tube round the ovary. K peta-
loid, like the tube, usually imbricate ; C conspicuous or small or o ;
A as many or twice or half as many as sepals, inserted on the edge of
the tube; ovary 1- or rarely 2-loc., each loc. with 1 pendulous ana-
tropous ovule with ventral raphe; style simple. Fruit an achene,
berry, or drupe, often enclosed in the persistent receptacle; a few
genera have capsules. Embryo straight; endosperm little or none.

Chief genera * Gnidia, Thymelaea, Daphne, Pimelea. The family
is a very natural one, but with no very close affinities. Many authors,
eg. Benth. -Hooker, place it near Santalaceae, but it is not a typically
apetalous family, and seems nearer to Myrtiflorae or Parietales (see
Nat. PJl.). Warming places it in Thymelaeinae.

Thymelaeales. The 21st cohort of Archichlamydeae (p. 130).

Thymelaeinae (Warming). The 17th cohort of Choripetalae (p. 138).

Thymus Tourn. ex Linn. Labiatae (vi. 11). 80 sp. Medit., Abyss.,

Eur. T. Serpyllum L. (thyme) in Brit. The firs, are gynodicecious
(p. 68) with marked protandry. T. vulgaris L., the garden thyme,
is used in flavouring.

Thyrsacanthus Nees. Acanthaceae (iv. B). 20 sp. trop. Ain.

Thyrsopteris Kze. Polypodiaceae. 1 sp. Juan Fernandez.

Thysanocarpus Hook. Cruciferae (iv. 14). 6 sp. Calif.

Thysanotus R. Br. Liliaceae (ill). 22 sp. Austr., S.E. As.

Tiarella Linn. Saxifragaceae (1). 4 sp. N. temp.

Tibouchina Aubl. Melastomaceae (1). 190 sp. trop. Am.

6 o6

TIGRIDIA

Tigridia Juss. Iridaceae (n). 7 sp. Mexico, Cent. Am. T. Pavottia

Ker-Gawl. (tiger-flower) is common in gardens. The firs, only last
8 — 12 hours.

Tilia (Tourn.) Linn. Tiliaceae. 10 sp. N. Temp. T. platyphyllos
Scop, and other sp. of lime are found, native or planted, in Brit.
Note the leaf-mosaic (see order). The firs, are arranged in little
cymes, arising from the axils of the leaves of the current year; the
axillary growing point elongates transversely, giving rise to two buds,
one of which forms the infl., the other the bud for the next year’s
growth. The further development of the infl. is too complex for
description without figures, but throughout it there occurs ‘adnation’
of bracts to the axes arising in their axils, a peculiarity particularly
noticeable in the first leaf of the infl. -axis, which forms a wing, cover-
ing the firs, from rain and serving to distribute the fruits. [For details
see Nat. PJl .] Honey is secreted at the base of the sepals. The firs,
are protandrous and dependent upon insects for their fertilisation; they
are largely visited by bees &c., and form a valuable source of honey.
The fruit is a nut. The endosperm is very oily, and it has recently
been proposed to utilise it commercially. The wood of lime and of
T. americana L. (bass-wood) is useful. The leaves are usually covered
with honey-dew (see Acer).

Tiliaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Malvales). 35 gen. with 380 sp.
trop. and temp., chiefly in S.E. As. and Brazil. Trees or shrubs,
rarely herbs, with alt. stip. leaves, often showing a well-marked
2-ranked arrangement. In the trees the shoots spread out horizontally
and the insertions of the leaves are upon the upper half, so that the
divergence is not The end bud of the branch does not develope
in the next year. Frequently the leaf is asymmetrical, with the
smaller side towards the branch. In the herbaceous forms the leaves
are in two ranks diverging at a right angle; torsion of the leaves
occurs later on and produces a dorsiventrality. [See pp. 46, 47.] The
infl. is always, at least after the first branching, cymose, and often
very complex, eg. in Tilia and Triumfetta (q.v,).

Fir. usually $ , regular, 5 — 4-merous. K 5 or (5), valvate; C 5,
rarely o, often glandular at base ; A usually 00 , free or united in
groups, inserted at base of petals or on androphore, with dithecous
anthers; G (2 — 00), 2 — oo-loc.,with 1 — 00 ovules in each loc.; ovules
usually ascending, ± anatropous ; style simple, with capitate or lobed
stigma. Seeds albuminous. The T. yield useful timber, jute (Cor-
chorus) and other fibre. Chief genera: Corchorus, Sparmannia, Tilia,
Grewia, Triumfetta. Benth. -Hooker unite Elaeocarpaceae to T. and
place the order in Malvales; Warming places it in Columniferae. The
most constant distinction from Malvaceae is in the dithecous anthers,
from Theaceae in the valvate calyx, &c.

Tillaea Mich, ex Linn. Crassulaceae. 26 sp. temp, and trop. (1 Brit.).
United to Crassula in Nat . PJl.

TORNELIA

607

Tillandsia Linn. (incl. Vriesia Lindl.). Bromeliaceae (4). 160 sp.

trop. Am. Some resemble the rest of the order — epiphytes with
pitchers — while others, and especially T. usneoides L. (long moss,
old man’s beard, vegetable horsehair), show a different habit. This
plant hangs in long grey festoons from the branches of trees, looking
rather like a lichen (especially Usnea). At the base, each of the pendent
stems is wound round its support, and as the apex grows on down-
wards the older parts die away, leaving nothing but the axil strand of
sclerenchyma (the ‘ horsehair ’). The whole plant is thickly covered
with the usual scaly hairs for absorbing the water trickling over it. It
has no storage reservoir for water at all. The firs, when they appear,
which is but rarely, are of the usual type. The plant is largely
distributed from tree to tree by the wind, small bits breaking off and
blowing about. Birds also use it for nesting and thus carry it about.
[See p. 173 and Schimper Die epiph . Vegetat. Amerikas , p. 67 and
Plate II.] It is used like horsehair.

Tinantia Schiedw. Commelinaceae. 3 sp. trop. Am.

Tinospora Miers. Menispermaceae. 14 sp. trop. Old World.

Tissa Adans. = Spergularia J. et C. Presl.

Tithonia Desf. ex Juss. Compositae (v). 10 sp. Cent. Am., W. Ind.

Tithymalus Tourn. ex Hall. = Euphorbia Linn.

Tmesipteris Bernh. Psilotaceae. 1 sp., T. tannensis Bernh., Austr.,
N. Z., Polynes. (rare). It grows as an epiphyte (Pparasite) on the
trunks of tree ferns. The rhizome bears large lanceolate green
leaves.

Tococa Aubl. Melastomaceae (1). 40 sp. trop. S. Am.

Toddalia Juss. Rutaceae (ix). 8 sp. trop. As. Afr.

Todea Willd. Osmundaceae. 4 sp. S. Hemisph. T. africana Willd.
(7\ barbara Moore), is apogamous (see Filicineae Leptosporangiatae).

Tofieldia Huds. Liliaceae (1). 15 sp. N. temp. T. palustris Huds.

(Scottish asphodel) in Brit. Like Narthecium. The fir. has a 3-lobed
involucre (caly cuius) beneath the calyx.

Tolmiea Torr. et Gray. Saxifragaceae (1). 1 sp., T. Menziesii Torr.

et Gray, N.W. Am. Adventitious buds are formed on the upper
part of the petiole. The axial cup is split down the anterior side.
Petals thread-like; only the 3 posterior sta. occur.

Toluifera Linn. ( Myroxylon Forst). Leguminosae (ill. 1). 6 sp. trop.
S. Am. T. Pereirae Baill. yields Balsam of Peru, and T. punctata
Baill. Balsam of Tolu, from incisions in the bark; these substances
are medicinal.

Tordylium Tourn. ex Linn. Umbelliferae (7). 12 sp. Eur. (1 Brit.),

N. Afr., As.

Torenia Linn. Scrophulariaceae (11. 8). 20 sp. trop. As., Afr., Am.

Torilis Adans. = Caucalis Linn.

Tormentilla (Tourn.) Linn. = Potentilla Linn.

Tornelia Gutierrez = Monstera Adans.

6o3

TORRE YA

Torreya Am. Coniferae (Taxaceae 4 ; see C. for genus characters).
4 sp. N. Am., China, Japan. Like Taxus. The timber is useful.

Tounatea Aubl. =Swartzia Schreb.

Tournefortia Linn. Boraginaceae (ill). 120 sp. trop. Trees and
shrubs.

Tovaria Ruiz et Pav. Tovariaceae. 1 sp. W. Ind., S. Am.

Tovariaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rhoeadales). Only genus
Tovaria. United to Capparidaceae by Benth. -Hooker. See Nat.

pfi •

Tovomita Aubl. Guttiferae (v). 30 sp. trop. Am.

Townsendia Hook. Compositae (ill). 17 sp. Rocky Mts.

Toxicodendrum Thunb. Euphorbiaceae (A 1. 1). 1 sp. Cape Colony.

The fruit is used for poisoning hyaenas.

Toxicophlaea Harv. = Acokanthera G. Don.

Tozzia Linn. Scrophulariaceae (in. 12). 1 sp. Alps, 1 Carpathians

(p. 149). Semi-parasites, with loose-pollen firs, (see order).

Trachelium Tourn. ex Linn. Campanulaceae (1. 1). 7 sp. Medit.

Trachelospermum Lem. Apocynaceae (11. 4). 6 sp. E. As.

Trachylobium Hayne. Leguminosae (11. 3). 3 sp. trop. As., E. Afr.

These trees yield copal, which is dug up from the soil near their roots
or in a half-fossilised condition from places where trees formerly
existed.

Trachymene Rudge. Umbelliferae (1). 14 sp. Austr. to Borneo.

Tradescantia Rupp, ex Linn. Commelinaceae. 30 sp. trop. and N. Am.
T. virginiana L. (spider- wort) and others are garden favourites. There
are 6 perfect sta. covered with hairs. Fir. protandrous.

Tragia Plum, ex Linn. Euphorbiaceae (A. 11. 2). 50 sp. trop.

Tragoceros H. B. et K. Compositae (v). 4 sp. Mexico. The corolla

of the ? fir. becomes rigid after fertilisation has occurred, and forms a
double hook upon the fruit.

Tragopogon (Tourn.) Linn. Compositae (13). 35 sp. Old World, N.

temp. ( T. pratensis L., the goat’s beard, in Brit.). The flower-heads
of the Brit. sp. close up at midday, whence its common name of
* John-go-to-bed-at-noon.’ T. po7'rifolius L. is the salsify, sometimes
grown as a vegetable.

Trapa Linn. Hydrocaryaceae. 3 sp. Old World (horn-nut), incl. T.
7iatans L. and T. bispmosa Roxb. Water plants with submerged and
floating leaves of different form (p. 160). Fir. £, 4-merous, peri-
gynous, with a disc, above the sta. Ovary 2-loc., with one anatropous
pendulous ovule in each loc. ; raphe ventral. Seed large, exalbu-
minous, in a horned nut. The seeds are used as food in China, &c.
For their remarkable germination see Goebel’s or Schenk’s works,
quoted on p. 158.

Tremandra R. Br. Tremandraceae. 2 sp. Austr.

Tremandraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). 2 gen. with 26
sp. Austr. (p. 195). Herbs with whorled, alt. or opp., exstip. leaves.

TRIFOLIUM

609

Firs, dichlamydeous, regular. K 4 — 5, rarely (4 — 5), valvate; C
4 — 5, valvate; A 8, ro, or rarely 6; G (2), medianly placed; style
and stigma simple; ovules 1 or 2 in each loc., anatropous. Capsule,
loculicidal or also septicidal. Albuminous seed, with or without aril.
Genera : Tetratheca, Tremandra. Placed in Polygalinae by Benth.-
Hooker, in Aesculinae by Warming.

Tremandreae (Benth. -Hooker) = Tremandraceae.

Trentepohlia Roth = Heliophila Burm. f.

Trianea Karst. = Limnobium Rich.

Tribulus Tourn. ex Linn. Zygophyllaceae. 12 sp. Afr., As., Am.,
Medit. (caltrops). The mericarps are provided with sharp rigid
spines which stick into the foot of any animal treading on the fruit, or
may catch in its fur, thus getting distributed. Each mericarp contains
3 — 5 seeds, and is divided by cross walls which develope after fer-
tilisation.

Trichilia P. Br. Meliaceae. 150 sp. trop.

Trichocline Cass. Compositae (xii). 28 sp. S. Am.

Tricholaena Schrad. Gramineae (v). 10 sp. Afr.. T. rosea Nees is

cultivated for bouquets.

Tricholepis DC. Compositae (xi). 12 sp. Asia.

Trichomanes L. Hymenophyllaceae. 150 sp. with the distribution
# of the order; T. radicans Sw., the bristle fern, in Ireland.

Trichonema Ker-Gawl. = Romulea Maratti.

Trichopilia Lindl. Orchidaceae (28). 18 sp. trop. Am.

Trichosanthes Linn. Cucurbitaceae (in). 42 sp. E. Ind. to Austr.

Trichosma Lindl. Orchidaceae (5). 1 sp. Himal. The axis is

lengthened at the top and carries the lateral sepals forward, forming
a chin.

Trichosporum D. Don = Aeschynanthus Jack.

Tricyrtis Wall. Liliaceae (1). 5 sp. Himal., E. Asia.

Tridax Linn. Compositae (v). 15 sp. trop. Am.

Trientalis Rupp, ex Linn. Primulaceae (in). 2 sp. N. temp. T%

europaea L. (chickweed winter-green) sub-alpine in Brit. There is
a rhizome with erect stem bearing about 4 — 7 leaves in a tuft and
a few 7-merous firs.

Trifolium (Tourn.) Linn. Leguminosae (in. 4). 290 sp. temp, and

subtrop. ; 20 in Brit, (clover, trefoil, shamrock). The fir. has the
simplest of the various mechanisms found in the order, the sta. and
style emerging as the keel is depressed by an insect resting on the
wings, and returning into it when it is released. The firs, of white
clover are an important source of honey ; those of red clover are too
long-tubed for hive-bees and are visited by humble-bees. T. sub-
terranenm L. has two kinds of infl., one normal, the other becoming
subterranean. Only 3 or 4 of its firs, develope, the rest forming
grapnels (each sepal forming a reflexed hook) ; the stalk of the infl.
bends downwards and gradually forces the firs, under the earth,

W.

39

6io

TRIFOLIUM

where the fruits ripen (cf. Arachis). T. badinm Schreb. has a wing
upon the fruit formed by the persistent corolla, T. fragiferum L. a
bladdery ‘wing’ formed by the calyx. The clovers are important
pasture and hay plants ; among the chief sp. are T. repens L. (white
or Dutch clover). T. pratense L. (red clover), T, hybridum L.
(alsike), &c.

Triglocliin Riv. ex Linn. Juncaginaceae. 12 sp. cosmop.; 2 in Brit,
(arrow-grass), in fresh water- or salt-marshes (T. palustre L. and
T. maritimum L.). Tufted herbs with leafless flowering stems (scapes)
ending in spikes or racemes. Leaves linear, fleshy in the maritime
sp. (p. 187). P 3 + 3, A 3 + 3, G (3 + 3), or sometimes 3 with 3
abortive cpls. between the fertile. By a process of secondary growth
the inner whorl, of perianth comes to stand higher on the axis than
the outer sta. Fir. protogynous, wind-pollinated. The pollen collects
in the hollowed bases of the perianth-leaves. The ripened cpls. sur-
round a central beak (cf. Geranium), and are prolonged outwards at
the base into long sharp spines, by whose means, breaking away from
the beak, they are animal-distributed.

Trigonella Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 4). 70 sp. Medit., Eur. (1 Brit.),

As., S. Afr., Austr. T. Foenam-graccum L. (fenugreek) is sometimes
cultivated ; its seeds are used in veterinary medicine. The firs, of T .
Aschersoniana Urban bury themselves like those of Arachis. •

Trigonia Aubl. Trigoniaceae. 26 sp. trop. Am.

Trigoniaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). 2 gen. with 28 sp.,
placed in Vochysiaceae by Benth.-FIooker. See Nat. Pfl.

Trillium Linn. Liliaceae (vn). 15 sp. E. As., N. Am. Like Paris.

Trinia Hoffm. Umbelliferae (5). 7 sp. Eur., As., Medit. (1 Brit.).

Triodia R. Br. Gramineae (x). 20 sp. temp. (T. decu?nbens Beauv. in

Brit.).

Triopteris Linn. Malpighiaceae. 3 sp. Caribbean Sea.

Triosteum Linn. Caprifoliaceae (11). 5 sp. Himal., E. As., N. Am.

Triphasia Lour. Rutaceae (x). 1 sp. China.

Triplaris Loefl. Polygonaceae (111. 6). 10 sp. trop. S. Am. All are

said to harbour ants in their hollow stems (cf. Cecropia). Fir. cyclic
(see order), dioecious. The 3 outer perianth-leaves grow into long
wings which project beyond the fruit and aid in distribution.

Tripsacum Linn. Gramineae (1). 3 sp. trop. and subtrop. N. Am.
T. dactyloides L. is a fodder grass. It is like Euchlaena, but with
cT and ? firs, in the same infl.

Tripteris Less. Compositae (ix). 32 sp. S. Afr. to Arabia. The fruit

has three wings.

Trisetum Pers. Gramineae (ix). 50 sp. temp. 7’. Jlavescens Beauv.

in Brit., a good forage grass.

Triteieia Dougl. = Brodiaea Sm.

Triticum Linn. Gramineae (xii). 15 sp. Medit., W. As. The spike-
lets are 2 — 5 -flowered and arranged in a dense spike. T. vulgare

TUBIFLORAE

61 1

Vill. is the wheat, of which numerous subspecies are cultivated, e.g .
T. polonicum L. (Polish wheat), T. durum Desf., 7’. Spelta L. (spelt),
T. dicoccum Schrank, T. monococcum L., &c. (see Kornicke and
Werner, Handb. d. Getreidcbaues , Bonn, 1885, or Nat. PJl.', also
Mueller’s Select Extratrop. Plants). [For T. repens L. see Agro-
pyrum.]

Wheat is subject to many diseases ; one of the most interesting is
rust, which shows as rusty streaks of spores upon the leaves (see
Berberis).

TritomiaKer-Gawl. = Kniphofia Moench.

Triumfetta Plum ex Linn. Tiliaceae. 60 sp. trop. Herbs or shrubs,
often with extrafloral nectaries at the base of the leaves. The infl. is
peculiar. On each internode there are usually at least three 3-flowered
dichasial cymes. The first and oldest is opposite to the leaf ; the rest
stand alternately right and left between the first and the leaf. [See
Nat. Pfl.\ The fruit is armed with hooked spines for animal- distri-
bution.

Triuridaceae. Monocotyledons (Triuridales). 2 gen. with about 8 sp.
trop. As. and Am. Saprophytes. See Nat. PJl. Placed in Apo-
carpae by Benth. -Hooker.

Trochodendraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Ranales). 3 gen. E. As.
Placed in Magnoliaceae by Benth.- FI ooker. See Nat. Pfl.

Trollius Linn. Ranunculaceae (2). 12 sp. N. temp, and Arctic. (T.eu-
ropaeus L., the globe-flower, in Brit.) The ‘ sepals ’ completely cover
in the flr., protecting the pollen from injury. The fir. is homogamous,
and regularly fertilises itself, though cross-fertilisation may occur.

Tropaeolaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). Only genus
Tropaeolum (q.v.). Placed in Geraniaceae by Benth. -Hooker, in
Columniferae by Warming.

Tropaeolum Linn. Tropaeolaceae. 35 sp. S. Am., Mexico (Nasturtium
or Indian cress of gardens). Most are herbs climbing by sensitive
petioles (cf. Clematis), with compound or peltate leaves ; some have
tubers at the base of the stem. Fir. zygomorphic with a posterior
spur formed by the axis under the posterior sepal. K 5, imbricate;
C 5; A 4 + 4; G (3), 3-loc. with 1 ovule in each, anatropous, pen-
dulous with micropyle facing upwards and outwards ; style simple.
Fruit a schizocarp, with no beak. Seed exalbuminous.

Troximon Nutt. Compositae (xm). 24 sp. W. Am.

Tsuga Carr. Coniferae (Arauc. 1 b; see C. for genus characters). 6 sp.
As. N. Am. : evergreen trees with the habit of Picea. T. canadensis
Carr, is the Hemlock spruce, found in a large part of N. Am. and
valued for its wood, bark (used in tanning), pitch (canada pitch), &c.
T. (Pseudotsuga) Douglasii Carr, is the Douglas fir, forming large
forests in the Rocky Mts. &c.

Tubiflorae. The 5th cohort (Engler) of Sympetalae (p. 132). The 4th
cohort (Warming) of Sympetalae (p. 138).

39 2

6l2

TULBAGHIA

Tulbaghia Linn. Liliaceae (iv). io sp. trop. and S. Afr.

Tulipa Linn. Liliaceae (v). 50 sp. N. temp, (tulip) , esp. on the steppes
of Cent. As. The seeds are flat, and the capsule, even when the fir.
is pendulous, stands erect to prevent their escape except when shaken.
Many are garden favourites.

Tunica Hall. Caryophyllaceae (1. 2). 20 sp. E. Medit.

Turnera Plum, ex Linn. Turneraceae. 57 sp. trop. and subtrop. Am.,
1 Bourbon and Mauritius.

Turneraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 6 gen. with 88 sp.
chiefly trop. Am. and Afr. Trees, shrubs and herbs, with alt. usually
exstip. leaves, whose teeth are sometimes glandular. Firs, usually
solitary in the leaf-axils, $ , regular, perigynous. K 5, imbricate,
usually with a hemispherical swelling on inner side; C 5 ; A 5 ; G (3),
i-loc. with parietal placentae; styles 3; ovules 3 — oo , anatropous.
Fruit a capsule, loculicidal. Seed with funicular aril, and copious
endosperm. Nearly all the T. have dimorphic heterostyled flowers
(cf. Primula). Many have extrafloral nectaries. Self-fertilisation occurs,
in absence of insect visits, by the corolla withering and pressing the
anthers and stigmas together. Chief genus : Turnera. Placed in Passi-
florales by Benth. -Hooker, in Passiflorinae by Warming.

Turraea Linn. Meliaceae. 40 sp. trop., except Am.

Turritis Toum. ex Linn. = Arabis Linn.

Tussilago (Tourn.). Linn. Compositae (vm). 1 sp. Eur., N. Afr.,

As., 7\ Farfara L., colt’s foot, common in Brit. The firs, appear
in spring before the leaves ; the plant multiplies and hibernates by aid
of underground offshoots. The flower-head is monoecious ; in the
centre are about 40 <? flrs., surrounded by about 300 % flrs. The males
retain the style, as usual, to act as pollen-presenter, but it has no
stigmas. Honey is secreted in the S flrs., but not in the ? , so that
the head altogether presents a very interesting example of division of
labour. The ? flrs. being the outer ones are ripe before the <? , and
self-fertilisation is almost impossible.

Tylophora R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (11 4). 40 sp. Indo-mal., Austr.,

Afr.

Typha Linn. Typhaceae. 12 sp. temp, and trop., in marshes; 2 in
Brit, (reed-mace, cat’s-tail, bulrush). The lower part of the stem is a
thick rhizome ; the upper part projects high out of the water and bears
the infl., which is a dense spike, divided into two parts, the upper c?
(usually yellow), the lower ? (brown). S flr. of 2 — 5 sta., the con-
nective projecting beyond the anthers; the flr. is enclosed in a number
of hairs : the $ flr. is similarly enclosed, and is of 1 cpl. with 1 pen-
dulous ovule, the micropyle towards the base or ventral side of the
ovary. Flr. anemophilous. The truits are achenes covered by the
long downy hairs above mentioned, which aid in distribution. Seed
albuminous; embryo straight.

Typhaceae. Monocotyledons (Pandanales). Only genus Typha (q.v.).

ULMUS 613

Placed (united to Sparganiaceae) in Nudiflorae by Benth. -Hooker, in
Spadiciflorae by Warming.

Typhonium Schott. Araceae (vn). 15 sp., E. Ind., Austr.

Ugni Turcz. = Myrtus Tourn.

Ulex Linn. Leguminosae (ill. 3). 20 sp. W. Eur., N. Afr. ; 3 in Brit.,

(J. enropaeus L ., U ’. nanus Forst., and U. Gallii Planch., the gorse,
furze, or whin. These plants cover large areas of ground, especially
on heaths (p. 185). The leaves are reduced in size, and many of the
branches are reduced to green spines, so that the xerophytism is
clearly marked. The firs, explode like those of Genista, and the fruit
explodes by the twisting up of its valves in dry air. The seeds in
germination show interesting transition-stages from the usual com-
pound leaf seen in the order to the needle-leaf of the mature plant
(p. 29, and cf. Acacia).

Ullucus Caldas. Basellaceae. 1 sp. Andes, U. tuberosus Caldas. The
lateral branches of the rhizome swell up into tubers like potatoes, and
are used as food.

Ulmaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Urticales). 13 gen. with 130 sp.,
trop. and temp. Trees with sympodial stems, bearing 2-ranked
simple often asymmetrical leaves with stipules. Firs, usually in cymose
clusters, generally unisexual. P 4 — 5, free or united, sepaloid, theo-
retically belonging to two whorls ; A 4 — 5, opp. the perianth-leaves,
in two whorls ; G rudimentary in $ fir., in the ? of (2) cpls., sometimes
2-loc. but usually i-loc., the second loc. aborting. Ovules 1 per loc.,
anatropous or amphitropous, pendulous. Style linear or bifid. Nut,
samara or drupe. Seed usually with no endosperm. The wood of many
Ulmaceae is useful. Chief genera : Ulmus, Celtis. United to Urtica-
ceae by Benth.-Hooker, placed in Urticiflorae by Warming.

Ulmaria (Tourn.) Hill. Rosaceae (in. 8). 8 or 9 herbaceous species of
the N. Hemisphere are sometimes separated from Spiraea under this
name. They possess 2 seeds in each cpl., 1 only maturing, the fruits
being achenes, while most sp. of the genus Spiraea have slightly
adherent follicles and are shrubby (cf. Rosaceae). Holodiscus discolor
Maxim. (S. ariaefolia Pursh) links U. to Spiraea. U. palustris
Moench is S. Ulmaria, and U. Filipendula Hill is S. Filipendula of
British Floras. The former is the meadow-sweet.

Ulmus (Tourn.) Linn. Ulmaceae. 16 sp. N. temp, and Mts. of trop.
Asia. U. montana With, (wych elm) and U. campestris L. (elm) in Brit.
The leaves are asymmetrical, one side being larger than the other (cf.
Begonia). The firs, are $ and come out before the leaves as little
reddish tufts. If one of these tufts be examined, it will be found to
be a short axis with a number of leaves, beginning 2-ranked at the
base and going over to 5-ranked above. There are 110 firs, in the
axils of the lowest 10 or 12 ; in the axils of the upper leaves are firs,
arranged in small dichasial cymes (cf. Betulaceae), which are reduced,
in U campestris and others, to the one central fir. Each fir. has

614

ULMUS

P 4 — 8 and as many sta. with a i-loc. ovary. [See Chalazogamae.]
Fruit a samara. The elm supplies a valuable timber. [See Lubbock
in Linn. Soc. Journ. 33, p. 236.]

Umbellales (Benth. -Hooker). The 15th cohort of Polypetalae (p. 135).

Umbelliferae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Umbelliflorae). About t8o
gen. with 1400 sp., cosmop., but chiefly N. temp. Many in Brit.
Most can be recognized by their habit; they are herbs with stout
stems whose internodes are hollow, and alt. exstip. sheathing leaves
with their blades much divided in a pinnate manner. A few,
e.g. Hydrocotyle and Bupleurum, have entire leaves. Infl. usually
a compound umbel. At the top of the stalk of each partial umbel,
an involucre of bracts is often found (the bracts of the outer firs.), and
a similar larger involucre often occurs at the top of the main stalk
bearing the compound umbel; the latter is sometimes termed the
involucre in contradistinction to the involucels of the partial umbels.
A terminal flr. often occurs, e.g. in Daucus. In a number of genera
belonging to § A simple umbels occur {e.g. Astrantia, Hydrocotyle),
cymose in type (as the non-centripetal order of opening of the firs,
clearly shows) and often arranged in cymose groupings, e.g. in
Sanicula. Eryngium has a cymose head. Some sp. of Xanthosia
and Azorella have such cymose infls. reduced to single firs., and
these infls. have commonly involucres of bracts.

Fir. usually £ and regular (see below), epigynous. K 5, usually
very small, the odd sepal posterior ; C 5 (rarely o), usually white or
yellow; A 5, introrse. On top of the ovary is an epigynous disc
prolonged upwards into two short styles. G (2), antero-posterior,
2-loc. ; in each loc. one pendulous ovule, anatropous, with ventral
raphe.

The massing of the firs, into dense infls. makes them conspicuous
(cf. Compositae), and this is aided by the zygo-
morphism of the corolla often seen; the outer
petals of the outer firs, are drawn out (cf. Cru-
ciferae) so as to form a sort of ray. Honey is
secreted by the disc ; it is accessible to all insects,
and the order must be placed in class A (p. 89).

The chief visitors are flies ; firs, very protandrous,
the male stage being most commonly over before
the female begins.

The ovary ripens into a very characteristic
fruit, a dry schizocarp, which splits down the
septum between the cpls. into 2 mericarps,
each containing one seed. The two are gener-
ally held together at first by a thin stalk {carpophore) running up
between them. The structure of the pericarp is of great importance
in determining the genera. It is nearly always necessary to have ripe
fruit in order to identify one of the U. The shape is often important;

Floral diagram.

UM BE LL1FERA E

615

the outer surface of each mericarp has generally 5 projecting primary
ridges, two of which (the lateral ridges ) are at the edges where the
splitting takes place. Between these are sometimes found secondary
ridges , 4 to each mericarp. In the furrows there are often found oil-
cavities (seen as small openings in cross-section) known as vittae.
The seed is often united to the pericarp ; it is albuminous with a small
embryo in the oily endosperm, which is usually cartilaginous in texture.
The shape of the endosperm as seen in cross-section is another
character of importance ; it may be crescentic, or ventrally grooved,
or concave on the ventral side. The fruits often show adaptations for
distribution; in many genera (e.g. Heracleum and its allies) the
mericarp is thin and flat, suited to wind-carriage ; in others (e.g. Daucus)
it is provided with hooks. See also Scanaix.

Many U. are economically useful, but as a rule they are poisonous
plants. See Daucus (carrot), Pastinaca (parsnip), Apium (celery),
Crithmum (samphire), Foeniculum, Archangelica, Carum, Ferula,
Pimpinella, Coriandrum, Petroselinum, &c.

Classification and chief genera :

A. HETEROSCIADIEAE (simple or irregularly compound

umbels; no vittae).

1. Hydrocotyleae (fruit compressed laterally, or constricted at the

narrow surface of junction) : Hydrocotyle, Azorella.

2. Mulineae (fruit with narrow surface of junction; mericarps

sharp-angled at edge or almost winged) : Bowlesia.

3. Sanicnleae (fruit with broad surface of junction, almost cylin-

drical or antero-posteriorly compressed) : Eryngium, As-
trantia, Sanicula.

B. HAPLOZYGIEAE (umbels usually compound; furrows of

fruit usually with vittae ; primary ridges only).

4. Echinophoreae (umbel with 1 sessile ? fir. in the centre, whose

fruit is enclosed by the hardened stalks of the S firs. ; 1 cpl.
sterile) : Echinophora.

5. Ammineae (fruit laterally compressed, or constricted or grooved

at both sides of surface of junction) : Conium, Bupleurum,
Apium, Cicuta, Ammi, Carum, Sium, Pimpinella, Cono-
podium, Myrrh is, Chaerophyllum, Anthriscus.

6. Seselineae (fruit cylindrical or antero-posteriorly compressed,

with broad surface of junction, the lateral ridges distinct
or united to form a nerve-like corky margin which is not
winged): Seseli, Foeniculum, Crithmum, Oenanthe, Aethusa,
Meum, Selinum, Levisticum, Angelica, Archangelica.

7. Peucedaneae (fruit strongly compressed antero-posteriorly, the

lateral ridges broadened into a wing or into a ridge which
before separation of the mericarps is undivided): Ferula,
Porema* Peucedanum, Heracleum.

6i6

U MB ELLI FERAE

C. DIPLOZYGIEAE (umbels compound; fruit with primary
and secondary ridges, the latter often the more strongly de-
veloped ; vittae in the furrows or under the secondary ridges).

8. Caucalineae (ribs not winged or with deeply lobed wings or

spines) : Coriandrum, Cuminum, Daucus, Caucalis.

9. Laserpitieae (secondary ridges very marked and often extended

into broad undivided or wavy wings) : Laserpitium.

“Surface of junction” in the above characters refers to the surface
by which the mericarps are united to one another.

[Placed in Umbellales by Benth.- Hooker, in Umbelliflorae oy
Warming.]

Umbelliflorae. The 26th cohort (Engler) of Archichlamydeae (p. 131).
The 23rd cohort (Warming) of Choripetalae (p. 138).

Umbilicus DC. = Cotyledon Tourn.

Uncaria Schreb. ( Ourouparia Aubl.). Rubiaceae (l. 6). 30 sp. trop.

They climb by hooks, which are metamorphosed infl.-axes, and are
sensitive to continued contact ; after clasping they enlarge and become
woody (p. 172).

Uncinia Pers. Cyperaceae (11). 30 sp. Austr., S. Am. The axis of

origin of the fir. projects beyond the utricle in the form of a long
hook, serving as a means of dispersal for the fruit.

Uniola Linn. Gramineae (x). 5 sp. Am. Useful as pasture.

Unlsexuales (Benth.-Hooker). The 7th series of Incompletae (p. 137).

Unona Linn. f. Anonaceae (3). 40 sp. trop., As., Afr., Austr. Trees

or shrubs, the latter climbing by recurved hooks which are infl.-axes
(see p. 172). The fruit is an aggregate of stalked berries, which are
constricted between the seeds like a lomentum.

Uragoga Linn. (incl. Cephaelis Sw. The boundaries of U ., Psychotria
and allied genera are badly-defined. The grouping given by Schumann
in Nat. PJl . is followed in this book.) Rubiaceae (II. 15). 150 sp.

trop. U. ( C .) Ipecacuanha Baill. {P. Ipecacuanha Stokes) is the
Ipecacuanha plant of Brazil ; it is a herb with decumbent stem, and
roots thickened somewhat like rows of beads. The root is used in
medicine.

Urena Dill, ex Linn. Malvaceae (iit). 3 sp. trop. Fruit a schizocarp,
the individual cpls. provided with hooks.

Urera Gaudich. Urticaceae (1). 18 sp. trop. The stinging hairs are

very powerful. The achene is enclosed in the persistent fleshy
perianth, forming a pseudo- berry.

Urginea Steinh. Liliaceae (v). 24 sp. Eur., As., Medit., Afr. U.

Scilla Steinh. (U. maritima Baker) is the squill, with very large
bulbs. It is used in medicine.

Uropappus Nutt. = Microseris D. Don.

Urospermum Scop. Compositae (xm). 2 sp. Medit.

Urostigma Gasp. = Ficus Tourn.

Ursinia Gaertn. Compositae (x). 54 sp. S. Afr., 1 sp. Abyssinia.

UR VILLEA

617

Urtica (Tourn.) Linn. Urticaceae (1). 30 sp. temp, (nettles). Herbs

with opp. leaves and stipules (sometimes united in pairs between the
petioles, as in Rubiaceae). The whole plant is usually covered with
stinging hairs. All the various types of inti, are well illustrated by
the 3 Brit. sp. In general the infl. is a dichasial cyme with tendency
to a cincinnus by preference of the /3-bracteole (p. 64). In U . pilu-
lifera L. (Roman nettle) the and ? infls. spring side by side from each
node, the 0 catkin-like, the ? a pseudo-head. In U u?‘ens L. (small
nettle) a panicle is formed containing both S and ? firs. In U. dioica
L. (large or common nettle) there is a panicle, but each sex is con-
fined to its own plant. P 4; A 4, opp. to perianth leaves. The
sta. are bent down inwards in the bud, and when ripe spring violently
upwards and bend out of the fir., the anther at the same moment
turning inside out, so that the loose powdery pollen is ejected as a
little cloud, and may be borne by the wind to the stigma. The ? fir.
has a i-loc., i-ovuled ovary with a large brush-like stigma. Achene
enclosed in the persistent perianth. The young tops are sometimes
eaten like spinach. Useful fibre can be obtained from the stems of
the common nettle by maceration.

Urticaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Urticales). 41 gen. with 460 sp.
trop. and temp. Most are herbs or undershrubs, with no latex, and with
alt. or opp. stip. leaves. Infl. cymose often ‘condensed’ into pseudo-
heads &c. (see Golenkin in Floi'a , 1894). Firs, usually unisexual
and regular. P 4 — 5, free or united, sepaloid; sta. as many, bent
down inwards in bud and exploding when ripe. Ovary i-loc. with
1 erect basal orthotropous ovule. Fruit an achene. Seed usually
with rich oily endosperm; embryo straight. Boehmeria, Urtica,
Maoutia and others are used as sources of fibre.

Classification and chief genera (after Engler) :

A. With stinging hairs. P (4 — 5) in ? . Leaves alt. or opp.

1. Urereae : Urtica, Urera, Laportea.

B. No stinging hairs.

2. Procrideae (stigma paint-brush-like) : Pilea, Pellionia, Ela-
tostema.

3. Boehmerieae : Boehmeria, Maoutia.

4. Parietarieae : Parietaria.

5. Forskohleeae : Forskohlea.

[Benth. -Hooker unite Ulmaceae (distinguished by infl., aestivation
of sta., and ovule) and Moraceae (distinguished by presence of latex,
and also usually by ovule, embryo, &c.) to Urticaceae, placing the
order m Unisexuales. Wanning places these 3 orders, separated, in
Urticiflorae.]

Urticales. The 9th cohort of Archiclilamydeae (p. 127).

Urticiflorae (Warming). The 4th cohort of Choripetalae (p. 138).

Urvillea H. B. et K. Sapindaceae (1). 10 sp. trop. and sub-trop. Am.

Lianes like Serjania.

6i8

U'lRICULARIA

Utricularia Linn. Lentibulariaceae. 200 sp. trop. and temp., the latter
all aquatic. 3 in Brit. ; the commonest is U. vulgaris L., the
bladder-wort. The morphology of U. is very interesting, for the usual
distinctions drawn between root, stem and leaf cannot be applied here.
The common bladder-wort is a submerged water plant with finely-
divided leaves ; it never has any roots, even in the embryo. The
firs, project above the water on short shoots, and there are also short
shoots with small leaves, which arise from the main axis and grow
upwards to the water surface. Upon the ordinary submerged leaves
are borne the bladders, curious hollow structures with trap-door
entrances. Small Crustacea and other animals push their way into
the bladders and are not able to escape, for the doors only open from
outside. The plant takes up the products of the decay of the
organisms thus captured ; it is very doubtful whether any special
ferment is secreted (p. 177). Other sp. of U. are land plants with
peculiar runners, which develope in the moss or other substratum, on
which they grow, and there bear the bladders. Others again, e.g. U.
montana Poir., are epiphytes with water storage in tuberous branches.
The leaves of all these forms are simple. Goebel (Pdanzendiol. Sch.)
has investigated the development of U. and finds that all these parts —
leaves, bladders, runners, water-shoots, erect shoots, &c. — are practically
equivalent to one another, and that the same rudiment at the growing
point may give rise to any one of them, or that they may themselves
change from one to another type. Similarly on germination a lot of
spirally- arranged primary leaves are produced, and then one or two
water-shoots appear laterally on the growing point, bearing no direct
relation to the leaves in position, but apparently homologous with
them. “Like Genlisea, U. possessed originally a leaf-rosette, ending
with an infl., and consisting partly of bladders. Then were added
the swimming water-shoots or (in land forms) runners, which though
externally unlike leaves (since they develope indefinitely and produce
leaves and infls.) yet are originally homologous with them.” For
further details see Goebel, loc . cit.

Uvaria Linn. Anonaceae (2). 60 sp. Indo-mal. Mostly lianes with re-
curved hooks (infl. -axes). The connective of the anther is usually leafy.

Vaccaria Medic. = Saponaria Linn.

Vacciniaceae (Benth. -Hooker) = Ericaceae (§ in Vaccinioideae).

Vaccinium Linn. (incl. Oxycoccus Tourn.). Ericaceae (in. 7). 120 sp.
N. Hemisph. There are 4 sp. in Brit. V. Myrtillus L. the Whortle-,
Bil- or Blae-berry, is extremely common in hilly districts. V. uligi-
nosum L. is like it, but is found only at high levels. Both these have
deciduous leaves and blue berries. V. Vitis-Idaea L., the Cow- or
Whimberry (often called Cranberry by error), is also a mountain sp.
and evergreen. V. Oxycoccus L., the Cranberry, is found in moun-
tain bogs and is a trailing evergreen with leaf edges rolled back
(p. 183). The firs, resemble those of Erica, both in structure and

VANDELLIA

619

mechanism, except that the ovary is inferior. They are largely visited
by bumble-bees. The fleshy fruit is edible (used for jams, &c.) and
is much distributed by birds. That of the N. Am. sp. V. pennsylva-
nicum Lam. is called blue huckleberry.

Vahea Lam. = Landolphia Beauv.

Vahlia Thunb. Saxifragaceae (1). 4 sp. Afr., As., trop. and subtrop.

The firs, are in pairs (cymes) ; ovary inferior.

Vaillantia Tourn. ex Linn. Rubiaceae (11. 21). 2 sp. Medit.

Valeriana Tourn. ex Linn. Valerian aceae. 180 sp. Eur., As., Afr.,
Am. V. officinalis L. and V. dioica L. in Brit, (valerian). The firs,
are protandrous. The calyx forms a pappus upon the fruit. The
root of V. edulis Nutt. (N.W. Am.) is edible when cooked.

Valerianaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Aggregatae). 8 gen. with 215
sp. Eur., As., Afr., Am. Herbs with exstip. leaves and dichasial
branching. Firs, in cymose panicles &c., £ or unisexual, asymmetric,
usually 5-merous. Calyx superior, little developed at the time of
flowering, afterwards often forming a pappus as in Compositae.
Corolla (5), often spurred at the base. Sta. 1 — 4, epipetalous, alt.
with petals ; anthers introrse. G (3) ; only 1 loc. is fertile, and con-
tains 1 pendulous anatropous ovule. Achene. Seed exalbuminous.
Chief genera : Valerianella, Valeriana, Centranthus. Placed in
Asterales by Benth.- Hooker, in Rubiales by Warming.

Valerianella Tourn. ex Hall. (incl. Plectritis DC.) Valerianaceae. 51 sp.
N. temp, and S. Am. ; 4 in Brit, (corn-salad or lamb’s lettuce). The
seed -dispersal mechanisms show considerable variety. In V. Auricula
DC. the sterile loculi of the fruit are inflated, in V. vesicaria Moench
the calyx is inflated, in V. discoidea Loisel. it forms a parachute,
whilst in V. ha7nata DC., V. echinata DC., and others it is provided
with hooks.

Vallisneria Mich, ex Linn. Hydrocharitaceae. 2 sp. trop. and sub-
trop. V. spiralis L. in Eur. is a dioecious submerged water-plant
with ribbon leaves (p. 171). The <? firs, are borne in dense spikes
enclosed in spathes ; when ready to open the flrs. break off and float
up to the surface, where they open. The ? flr. is solitary on a very
long stalk, which brings it to the surface of the water. It has a
green perianth, an inferior ovary and 3 large stigmas. Pollination
occurs on the surface of the water (cf. Elodea) ; and after it the
stalk curls up into a close spiral, dragging the young fruit to the
bottom of the pond to ripen. Vegetative propagation is effected by
means of runners, rooting at the ends.

Vancouveria C. Morr. et Dene. Berberidaceae. 2 sp. N.W. Am.
United* to Epimedium in Nat. Pfl .

Vanda Jones. Orchidaceae (31). 20 sp. Indo-mal. Epiphytes with

fleshy leaves, sometimes cylindrical.

Vandellia Linn. ( Lindernia All.) Scrophulariaceae (11. 8). 26 sp.

trop. and subtrop.

620

VANGUERIA

Vangueria Juss. Rubiaceae (n. n). 30 sp. trop. Afr. and As.

Vanilla Plum, ex Linn. Orchidaceae (4). 20 sp. trop. Climbers with
fleshy leaves and thin velamen (see order). V. planifolia Andr.
(Mex.) is cult. ; its pods form the spice vanilla.

Vateria Linn. Dipterocarpaceae. 28 sp. Indo-mal., Seychelles. V,
indica L. yields a gum-resin (Indian copal, white dammar).

Vatica Linn. Dipterocarpaceae. 12 sp. trop. As., Afr. Several yield
resins and useful timbers.

Vella Linn. Cruciferae (11. 9). 3 sp. Spain and Algeria. Some are

thorny, the thorns being stem structures.

Velleia Sm. Goodeniaceae. 12 sp. Austr. Ovary ± superior.

Vellozia Vand. Velloziaceae. 40 sp. Brazil.

Velloziaceae. Monocotyledons (Liliiflorae). 2 gen. with 70 sp. Brazil,
Afr., Madag. Xerophytes, chiefly of rocky places or dry Campos.
Perennials with dichotomously branched stems and leaves in rosettes
(cf. Aloe). The upper parts of the stems are clothed with the fibrous
sheaths of old leaves, the lower parts with adventitious roots. The
stem itself is thin, but its coating of roots may be several inches deep.
Water poured over the roots disappears as if into a sponge, and the
plant is thus able to supply itself from the dew, &c. during the dry
season. The leaves also are xerophytic (Warming, reviewed in Bot.
Centr. 5 6, p. 94). F?rs. solitary, terminal, regular. P 3 + 3; A 3 + 3,
or 00, in bundles. Ovary inferior, 3-loc., with placenta in the form
of lamellae, more or less peltately widened or thickened at the outer
side. Ovules 00. Capsule. Endosperm. Genera: Vellozia, Barba-
cenia. United to Amaryllidaceae by Benth.- Hooker and Warming
(chief differences in androeceum and placentae).

Veltheimia Gleditsch. Liliaceae (v). 3 sp. S. Afr.

Ventilago Gaertn. Rhamnaceae. 10 sp. palaeotrop. Some climb by
aid of hooks. Fruit like Fraxinus, having a wing for wind-distribution
on its upper end, developed from the style after fertilisation.

Veratrum (Tourn.) Linn. Liliaceae (1). 10 sp. N. temp. Rhizome

with leafy stem and racemes of firs., the low^er $ , but the upper
commonly <? by abortion (andromonoecism ; p. 68). Sometimes plants
occur with <? firs. only. Firs, protandrous. Seeds with a membranous
border. Veratrin is obtained from the rhizome ; that of V. album L.
is known as white hellebore root.

Verbascum Tourn. ex Linn. Scrophulariaceae (1. 1). 210 sp. Eur.,

W. and Cent. As., N. Afr. ; 6 Brit. sp. (mullein). Large perennial
herbs writh stout tap-roots, wrinkled like those of Taraxacum. Infl.
primarily racemose, but the lateral firs, often replaced by condensed
dichasia (cf. Labiatae). For floral structure and diagram see order.
Firs, chiefly visited for pollen by bees and drone-flies. Those of
several sp. were formerly officinal (flores Verbasci).

Verbena Linn. Verbenaceae (11). 130 sp. trop. and temp. V. officinalis
L., the vervain, occurs in Brit. It was formerly in great repute as a

VERBENACEAE

621

remedy in eve-diseases, its bright-eyed corolla, like that of Euphrasia,
being supposed, under the old doctrine of signatures, to indicate its
virtues in that direction. Several sp. are cultivated for their handsome
and sweetly-scented firs.

Verbenaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympet. Tubiflorae). About 67 gen.
with 750 sp., almost all trop. and subtrop. Herbs, shrubs or trees.
A number are lianes (p. 170), e.g. sp. of Lantana, Clerodendron,
Vitex ; xerophytes also, often armed with thorns, are frequent in the
order. Leaves usually opp., rarely whorled or alt., entire or divided,
exstip. The infl. may be racemose or cymose. In the former case
it is most often a spike or head, often with an involucre of coloured
bracts. The cymes are usually dichasia with a cincinnus tendency (cf.
Caryophyllaceae) ; sometimes they also form heads.

Fir. usually $ , zygomorphic, usually 5-merous. K (5) [or (4 — 8)],
hypogynous ; C (5), usually with narrow tube, rarely campanulate,
often 2 -lipped ; A 4, didynamous, rarely 5 or 2, or of equal length,
alt. with corolla-lobes, with introrse anthers; G usually (2), rarely (4)
or (5). Ovary superior, usually 4-lobed, originally 2- (or more) loc.,
but very early divided into 4 (or more) loc. by the formation of a ‘ false’
septum in each loc. (cf. Labiatae) ; placentae axile, with 2 ovules per
cpl. (i.e. 1 in each loc. after septation); ovules ana- to ortho- tropous,
basal, lateral or pendulous, but always with the micropyle directed
downwards. Style terminal, rarely more or less sunk between the
lobes of the ovary (contrast Labiatae); stigma usually lobed. Fruit
generally a drupe, more rarely a capsule or a schizocarp. Seed usually
exalbuminous.

Several of the V. are useful as sources of timber, e.g. Tectona.
See also Lippia, Priva, Clerodendron, &c., for other economic uses.

Classification and chief genera (after Briquet) :

A. Infl. spicate or racemose. Ovule usually basal, erect, ana-

tropous.

I. S TILBOIDEA E (endosperm): Stilbe.

II. VERBENOIDEAE (no endosperm) : Verbena, Lantana,

Lippia, Priva, Petraea, Citharexylum.

B. Infl. of cymose type. Cymes often united into panicles,

corymbs &c. ; if axillary, often reduced to 1 flr.

a. Ovule lateral (sometimes very high up) semi-anatropous.

Ovary fully or imperfectly 4 — io-loc.

III. CHLOANTHOIDEAE (fruit usually drupaceous, never
capsular; endosperm): Chloanthes.

IV. V1TICOIDEAE (as III, but no endosperm) : Callicarpa,
Tectona, Vitex, Clerodendron.

V. CAR YOPTERID OIDEA E (fruit capsule-like, 4-valved ;

the valves fall taking the stones with them or loosen them
from the placental axis) : Caryopteris.

b. Ovule apical, pendulous, orthotropous.

622

VERBENACEAE

VI. SYMPHOREMOTDEAE (ovary 2-loc. to centre; fruit

dry, i- seeded) : Symphorema.

VII. AV1CENNIOIDEAE (ovary imperfectly 4-loc. ; fruit
capsular, 2-valved, 1 -seeded; mangroves): Avicennia
(only genus).

[Placed in Lamiales by Benth. -Hooker, in Nuculiferae by
Warming.]

Verbesina Linn. Compositae (v). 100 sp. Am.

Vernonia Schreb. Compositae (1). 600 sp. Am., Afr., As. The style

should be carefully examined, as it is one of the typical styles of the
order (see classification of C.).

Veronica (Tourn.) Linn. (excl. Pciederotci L.). Scrophulariaceae (in.
10). 250 sp. extra-trop., many alpine. About 75 in Eur., 17 in

Brit, (speedwell). The Brit. sp. are herbaceous (often woody below) ;
the firs, are in terminal or lateral racemes. The posterior sepal of
the 5 typical of this order is absent, and the two posterior petals are
united into one large one, so that the perianth is 4-merous (see order
for floral diagram). The 2 sta. and style project horizontally from the
rotate corolla. A small percentage of firs, exhibit a different number
of parts ( e.g . 5 petals); see Bateson in Linn . Soc. Journ. xxvili,
1891, p. 386. The fertilisation of the fir. in V. Chamaedrys L., the
commonest Brit, sp., is performed chiefly by drone-flies. The style
projects over the lower petal, while the two sta. project laterally.
Honey is secreted at the base of the ovary and concealed by the hairs at
the mouth of the short corolla-tube. Insects in alighting on the lower
petal touch the style and then grasp the bases of the sta., thus causing
the anthers to move inwards and dust the visitors’ lower surface
with pollen. Other sp. show similar mechanisms, but with more
and more tendency to, and arrangements for, self-fertilisation, as
the fir. is less conspicuous (Muller, Fert. of Firs.). The peduncles
stand close up against the main stem of the raceme whilst the firs,
are in bud, diverge as the firs, open, and again close up as they
wither (p. 104). The fruit is a capsule with a few flattened seeds
suited to wind-distribution. In V. arvensis L. and other sp. that
live in damp places, the capsule merely cracks as it dries and only
opens so far as to allow the seeds to escape when thoroughly wetted ;
the seeds then become slimy (cf. Linum) and can only be distributed
to a distance by water (see Macleod in Bot. Jaarb. I. p. 91).

Many exotic sp. of V. are shrubby, with handsome spikes
of firs, and are often cultivated. In N. Z. the genus is one of the
characteristic alpine plants; 64 sp. occur, of which 59 are endemic
(p. 149). Some of these are small trees; most are shrubby (often
dwarf). Many of these sp., e.g. V. cupressoides Hook, f., are xero-
phytes with reduced leaves closely appressed to the stem, so that the
twigs closely resemble those of Cupressus and other Coniferae ; in fact
they have been described as Coniferae in systematic works.

VIOLA

623

Vesicaria Tourn. ex Adans. Cruciferae (iv. 17). 32 sp. Eur., Am.

Viburnum Linn. Caprifoliaceae (11). 100 sp. temp, and subtrop.,

chiefly As., and N. Am. The winter buds of some sp. are naked,
i.e. have no scale-leaves. The outer flrs. of the cymose corymb are
neuter in some sp., e.g. V. Opulus L., the guelder-rose, having a large
corolla, but at the cost of the essential organs. In the cultivated
guelder-rose all the flrs. are neuter.

Vicia Tourn. ex Linn. Leguminosae (in. 9). 150 sp. N. temp., and

S. Am.; 10 in Brit, (vetch, tare). Most are climbers with leaf-
tendrils. The floral mechanism is typical of many L. The pollen
is early shed by the anthers into the apex of the keel ; upon the style,
below the stigma, is a brush of hairs which carries out the pollen
when the keel is depressed (see order). V. sativa L. and many other
vetches are valuable fodder plants ; V. Faba L. is the broad bean, with
its many varieties.

Victoria Lindl. Nymphaeaceae (in). 2 sp. trop. Am. V. regia Lindl.
is the giant water-lily of the Amazon. The plant has the habit of a
Nymphaea, but is of enormous size. The floating leaves may be 2 m.
or more across ; the edge is turned up to a height of several cm., and
on the lower side the ribs project very far and are armed with formidable
spines, perhaps of use as a protection against animals. The flr. resembles
that of Nymphaea but is fully epigynous. The fruit also is similar and
the seeds contain both endo- and peri-sperm. They are roasted and
eaten in Brazil, under the name of Mais del aqua (water-maize).
The plant is now cultivated in several gardens, e.g. Kew; it was
discovered in 1801, but was not brought into general notice till 1837.

Vigna Savi. Leguminosae (ill. 10). 50 sp. trop. V. sinensis Endl. is

the cherry-bean or cow-pea (trop. As.), whose pods are eaten like
French beans.

Vilfa Beauv. = Sporobolus R. Br.

Villarsia Vent. Gentianaceae (n). 1 sp. Cape Col. and 9 Austr. The
water plant often known under this name is a Limnanthemum.

Vinca Linn, (inch Lochnera Rchb.). Apocynaceae (1. 3). 5 sp. Eur.
and Orient (Vinca proper; sta. and stylar head hairy) and 3 sp.
E. Ind., Madag., Am. (Lochnera; sta. and stylar head not hairy). Of
the latter V. rosea L. is a favourite in conservatories. Vinca minor L.
and V. major L., the periwinkles, occur in England, but are not true
natives. The anthers stand above the stigmatic disc, but the stigma
itself is on the under surface of the disc, so that self-fertilisation is not
caused as the insect’s tongue enters the flr.

Vincetoxicum Rupp. =:Cynanchum Linn.

Viola Tourn. ex Linn. Violaceae. 280 sp. cosmop., chiefly N. temp.
Several are common in Brit. V. odorata L. and V. canina L. are
the sweet and dog violets, V. tricolor L. the pansy or heart’s-ease, and
others are also well known. Many sp. and varieties are in cultiva-
tion. They are herbaceous plants with large stipules, on which glands

VIOLA

sometimes occur. The firs, stand usually one in each axil; sometimes
(c.g. V. tricolor) a vegetative shoot arises above the Hr. in the same
axil. The chief interest centres in the firs. The introrse anthers
form a close ring round the ovary, below the style, which ends in a
variously shaped head on whose anterior surface is the stigma, often
a hollow pocket. The lower petal forms a landing-place and is often
prolonged backwards into a spur, in which collects honey, secreted by
processes projecting into it from the lower sta. These firs, are as a rule
incapable of self-fertilisation. In V. tricolor the pollen is shed on to
the anterior petal, and the lower edge of the stigma is guarded by a
flap which the insect, when withdrawing, closes ; and thus the flower’s
own pollen is prevented from reaching the stigma. The small-flowered
subspecies V. arvensis Murr. has not this flap and fertilises itself. In
V. odorata the stigma is merely the bent-over end of the style, and is
first touched as the insect enters. The size, colour, &c., of the flower
of this sp. and of V. ccinina render them adapted to bees.

In many sp., e.g. V. canina , V. odorata, V. sylvestris Lam., the firs,
are but rarely visited, and very little seed is set. They usually flower early
in the season; later on appears a second form of fir. on the same plant.
These are the cleistogamic firs., which never open, but set seed by
self-fertilisation (see p. 98). In V. canina this flr. looks like a bud;
the sepals remain shut, there are 5 very minute petals, 2 anterior sta.
with anthers containing a little pollen (only just enough for fertilisa-
tion— there is no waste as in open firs.), and 3 other abortive sta. ; the
pistil is much as usual. The anthers are closely appressed to the
stigma; the pollen-grains germinate within them, and the tubes burrow
through the anther-walls into the stigma. V. odorata has very similar
firs., but with all 5 sta. fertile. The production of these firs, ensures
the setting of a fair amount of seed. Their appearance is partly
dependent on shade (they are always well shaded by the leaves &c.),
for a reduction of the intensity of the light causes the plant to produce
cleistogamic firs, only (see Vochting in Prings. Jahrb. 1893). It is
however likely that other factors (cold, degree of moisture, soil &c.)
also affect the result; and the prduction of these firs, is apparently
hereditary though very variable.

The fruit is a 3-valved capsule ; the seeds are very hard and slip-
pery. One placenta with its seeds remains attached to each valve ;
as this dries it bends upwards into a U-shape, squeezing the seeds
against one another and shooting them out (see p. in, and cf. Clay-
tonia, Buxus).

Violaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). 15 gen. with 300 sp.
cosmop. Annual or perennial herbs, or shrubs. Leaves alt., stipu-
late, usually undivided. Firs. 1 or 2 in each axil, in usually racemose
infls., bracteolate, $ , usually zygomorphic. K 5, persistent ; C 5, hypo-
gynous, usually zygomorphic, the anterior petal often spurred to hold
the honey, with descending aestivation ; A 5, alt. with petals, hypo-

VITIS

G25

gynous, forming a ring round the ovary; filament very short, anther
introrse, connective usually with membranous prolongation. G (3),
i-loc. with 1 — 00 anatropous ovules on each of the parietal placentae.
Style simple. Fruit a 3-valved loculicidal capsule. Endosperm.
Chief genera : Alsodeia, Viola. Placed in Parietales by Benth. -Hooker,
in Cistiflorae by Warming.

Violarieae (Benth. -Hooker) includes Violaceae and the Sauvagesieae
of Ochnaceae.

Viscaria Riv. ex Rupp. = Lychnis Tourn. V. viscosa Aschers. = Z. Vis-
car ia.

Viscum Tourn. ex Linn. Loranthaceae (2). About 20 sp. universal in
the Old World. V. album L. in Brit, (mistletoe). It is a semipara-
sitic shrubby evergreen, growing on apple, hawthorn, oak, & c., and
drawing nourishment from its host by suckers. It is repeatedly
branched in a dichasial manner, the central stalk usually ending in
an infl. Each branch bears two green leathery leaves, and represents
a year’s growth. The unisexual dioecious firs, are in groups of three.
There is no calyculus. The sta. is completely fused to the perianth-
leaf. Pollen-sacs very numerous. Ovary as usual in the order. The
firs, secrete honey and are visited by flies. Fruit a pseudo-berry.
The layer of viscin prevents the bird that eats the berry from swal-
lowing the seed, which it scrapes off its bill onto a branch, where it
adheres and germinates. [See Nat. PJl . or Treas . of Bot.]

Vitaceae (Ampelidaceae). Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rhamnales). n
gen. with 450 sp. mostly trop. and subtrop. Climbing or rarely erect
shrubs, with alt. stip. leaves. Infl. cymose, usually complex ; brac-
teoles present. Fir. regular, 5 or not. K (4 — 5), small and cup-like,
very slightly lobed; C 4 — 5, valvate, often united at the tips and
falling off as a hood upon the opening of the bud; A 4 — 5, opp. to
the petals, at the base of a hypogynous disc, with introrse anthers. G
usually (2), rarely 3 — 6, multi-loc. with usually 2 collateral anatropous
ovules, which are erect with ventral raphe. Berry. Endosperm;
embryo straight. Vitis is economically important. Chief genera:
Vitis, Leea. Placed in Celastrales by Benth. -Hooker, in Frangu-
linae by Warming.

Vitellaria Gaertn. f. Sapotaceae (1). 15 sp. trop. Am. V. mammosa

Radlkf. is the marmalade tree, cultivated in the tropics for its fruit.

Vitex Tourn. ex Linn. Verbenaceae (iv). 60 sp. trop. and temp.

Vitis (Tourn.) Linn. (incl. Ampelopsis Michx., Cissus Linn., Quina-
ria Rafin.). Vitaceae. 400 sp. trop. and warm temp. The vines
are climbing plants, with tendrils which represent modified infls. ;
the stem is usually regarded as a sympodium (p. 42), each axis in
turn ending in a tendril, but there has been much argument upon
the subject (see Nat. Pfl-). The tendril may attach itself by the
ordinary coiling method, or may be negatively heliotropic and
thus force its way into the crevices of the support; in these

W.

40

626

VITIS

crevices the tips of the tendrils form large balls of tissue, the outer
parts of which become mucilaginous and cement the tendril to its
support. V. vinifera L. (Orient, N.W. India) is the cultivated grape;
when dried the fruits form raisins. The currants of commerce are
the fruit of the Corinthian variety (currant is a corruption of Corinth).
V. aestivalis Michx. (summer-grape) and V. Labrusca L. (fox-grape)
are N. Am. sp. which have been largely introduced into Eur., as they
resist the attacks of the dreaded insect, Phylloxera, better than the
Eur. sp. V. ( A .) hederacea Ehrh. (N. Am.) and V. inconstans Miq.
(A. Veitchii hort. ; Japan) are the Virginian creepers so often culti-
vated.

Vittadinia A. Rich. Compositae (ill). 8 sp. New Guinea, Austr.,
New Caled., N. Z., S. Am.

Vittaria Sm. Polypodiaceae. 10 sp. trop. and subtrop.

Voandzeia Thou. Leguminosae (in. 10). V. subterranea Thou, is the
only sp. (trop. Afr.); it buries its young fruits like Arachis. The
seed is edible and the plant is largely cultivated.

Vochisia Juss. ( Vochysia Poir.). Vochysiaceae. 54 sp. trop. Am.

Vochysiaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). 5 gen. with 80
sp. trop. Am. Trees and shrubs, rarely herbs, with opp. or whorled
simple leaves, with or without stipules. Firs. $ , typically 5-merous,
obliquely zygomorphic; K united at base, deciduous, one sepal often
spurred ; C usually 3 — 1, perigynous or epigynous ; 1 fertile sta. and
staminodes; cpls. (3) each with 00 — 2 ovules with 2 integuments.
Fruit indehiscent or a loculicidal capsule; no endosperm. Chief
genus Vochisia. Placed in Polygalineae by Bentham- Hooker.

Vouacapoua Aubl. = Andira Lam.

Voyria Aubl. (incl. Leiphaiinos Cham, et Schlecht., Voyriella Miq.).
Gentianaceae (1). 23 sp. trop. Am. and Afr.

Vriesia Lindl. = Tillandsia Linn.

Wachendorfia Burm. Haemodoraceae. 7 sp. Cape Colony. Trans-
verse zygomorphism is found in the flr. but is not obvious on account
of the twisting of the stalk.

Wahlenhergia Schrad. (incl. Hedraeanthus Griseb.). Campanulaceae
(1. 1). 80 sp. chiefly S. temp., where the genus to some extent

replaces Campanula. 12 sp. are found in Eur. and As. Minor, one of
which, W. hederacea Rchb. ( Campanula hederacea L.), the ivy-
leaved bell-flower, occurs in Brit. Fir. like that of Campanula.
Capsule loculicidal (the chief difference between these two genera).

Waldsteinia Willd. Rosaceae (in. 6 c). 4 sp. N. temp.

Walllchia Roxb. Palmae (iv. 6). 3 sp. Himal. to Malaya.

Walsura Roxb. Meliaceae. 15 sp. Indo-mal.

Waltheria L. Sterculiaceae. 30 sp. trop. Am.

Warea Nutt. Cruciferae (1. 1). 2 sp. Florida.

Washingtonia H. Wendl. Palmae (1. 2). 2 sp. S. Calif., Arizona.

Included in Pritchardia in Nat. PJl .

WEL WITSCHIA

627

Washingtonia Winsl. = Sequoia Endl.

Watsonia Mill. Iridaceae (ill). 11 sp. Afr. , Madag.

Weddellina Tul. Podostemaceae. 1 sp. W. squamulosa Tul., S. Am.
The roots are more or less flattened, with haptera, and the shoots are
borne at their edges. There are two kinds of shoots, vegetative to 2 \
feet long and much branched, and short unbranched flowering ones.
Between the branches of the long shoots are branches of limited
growth, as in Tristicha.

Wedelia Jacq. Compositae (v). 60 sp. trop. and warm temp.

Weigelia Pers. = Diervilla Tourn.

Weihea Spreng. Rhizophoraceae. 10 sp. Ceylon, Madag., W. trop.
Afr. Firs, fully hypogynous. The genus has sometimes been placed
near to Elaeocarpus on this account.

Weimnannia Linn. Cunoniaceae. 80 sp. S. Am., Madag., N. Z.,
Austr., Polynes.

Wellingtonia Lindl. = Sequoia Endl.

Welwitschia Hook. f. ( Tumboa Welw.). Gnetaceae. 1 sp., W.
mirabilis Hook. f. (T. Bainesii Welw.), a very remarkable plant
discovered by Baines in Damaraland in W. trop. Afr., and shortly
afterwards by Welwitsch in Mossamedes, and described by Hooker in
Trans. Linn. Soc. 1863 (q.v.). Specimens may be seen in most
museums. The plant has a very peculiar habit, and grows for at least
a century, and probably much longer. Its native climate is a markedly
desert one, with a mere trifle of rainfall, the bulk of the moisture
being derived from sea fogs, which cause a heavy deposit of dew.
Seeds are produced in large quantities, and being enclosed in the
winged perianth are blown about, and germinate in the occasional
wet years. The stem is stout, with a two-lobed form and almost
circular in section. It narrows downwards into a stout tap-root.
At the edges of the two lobes are two grooves, from each of which
springs a leaf. These leaves are the first pair after the cotyledons
and are the only leaves the plant ever has; they go on growing at the
base throughout its life, wearing away at the tips and often becoming
torn down to the base. The stem continues to grow in thickness, and
exhibits concentric grooves upon the top surface. In the outer
(younger) of these grooves the firs, appear, in panicles of small spikes :
they are covered by bracts which become bright red after fertilisation.
The firs, are dioecious, and are produced annually. In the J ,
there is a perianth of 2 + 2 leaves, the outer whorl transverse to
the bract; sta. 6, united below, with 3-loc. anthers; gynceceum rudi-
mentary, but with the integument of the ovule looking like a style
and stigma. In the ? , the perianth-leaves are fused into a tube, and
are equivalent to the two outer leaves of the S ; there is no trace of
sta. Ovule 1, erect, with the integument drawn out beyond it. Seed
with endosperm and perisperm, enclosed in the perianth which becomes
winged. [See Gymnospermae and Pearson in Phil . Trans. 198, 1906.]

628

WENDLANDIA

WendlandiaBartl. Rubiaceae (i. 3). 20 sp. Indo-mal., China. Leaves

sometimes whorled.

Werneria H. B. et K. Compositae (vm). 30 sp. Andes, Himal.,

Abyssinia.

Westringia Sm. Labiatae (11). 12 sp. Austr.

Wbipplea Torr. Saxifragaceae (m)- 2 sp. West U.S.

Whitlavia Harv. = Phacelia Juss.

Widdringtonia Endl. = Callitris Vent. Cf. Masters, Notes on W., in
Linn. Soc. Journ. 37, p. 267.

Wigandia H. B. et K. Hydrophyllaceae. 6 sp. Mts. of trop. Am.

Wikstroemia Endl. Thymelaeaceae. 20 sp. Indo-mal., China, Austr.,
Polyn. Some are parthenogenetic.

Willdenowia Thunb. Restionaceae. 10 sp. S. Afr. The stems of
some sp. are used in making brooms.

Willisia Wmg. Podostemaceae. r sp. S. India. There is a small
thallus, with closely crowded erect shoots with 4 closely packed ranks
of scaly leaves, and ribbon-like leaves at the tips. Each shoot bears
one flr. (cf. Willis in Ann. Perad. I, p. 369, 1902).

Willughbeia Roxb. Apocynaceae (1. 1). 10 sp. Indo-mal. Some

e.g. W. edulis Roxb. (Assam — Borneo), and W.Jirma Bl. (Java, &c.)
contain rubber in their latex, and are used as sources of rubber.

Winterana L. = Canella P. Br.

Winteranaceae = Canellaceae.

Wissadula Medic. Malvaceae (11). 10 sp. trop. Am., 1 palaeotrop.

Hardly distinct from Abutilon.

Wistaria Nutt. (. Bradburya Rafin. in part, Kraunhia Rafin.). Legu-
minosae (ill. 6). 5 sp. China, Japan, N. Am. IV. chinensis DC.

(China) is a climbing shrub often grown on houses in Brit, for its
beautiful and sweet-scented firs. The floral mechanism is like that
of Trifolium. The pods explode violently.

Withania Pauq. Solanaceae (11). 5 sp. palaeotrop. and subtrop.

W. coagtdans Dun. is used in India in preparing cheese.

Witsenia Thunb. Iridaceae (11). 1 sp. Cape Colony. Several sp.,

cultivated as W., belong to Aristea and other genera.

Wolflia Horkel. Lemnaceae. 6 sp. trop. and temp. W. arrhiza
Wimm. in Brit, (the smallest of flowering plants).

Woodfordia Salisb. Lythraceae. 2 sp., one Abyss., and 1 (W. flori-
btinda Salisb.) Madag., Ind., Ceyl., China, Timor.

Woodsia R. Br. Polypodiaceae. 1 5 sp. alpine and arctic. W. ilvensis
Br. and W. hyperborea Br. are rare alpine ferns in Brit.

Woodwardia Sm. Polypodiaceae. 6 sp. N. Hemisph.

Wormia Rottb. Dilleniaceae. 20 sp. trop. As., Afr. Included in
Dillenia in Nat. PJl. The bud is enclosed in a sheathing petiole,
from which it emerges as the leaf becomes more mature.

Wrightia R. Br. Apocynaceae (11. 5). 10 sp. trop., Afr., As., Austr.

Wulfenia Jacq. Scrophulariaceae (ill. 10). 3 sp. Eur., As.

XYLOMELUM

62Q

Wyethia Nutt. Compositae (v). 12 sp. western N. Am.

Xanthium (Tourn.) Linn, Compositae (v). 4sp. temp, and trop. They
have been so widely distributed by man (unintentionally) that it is hard
to discover their native place. The firs, are in unisexual heads, which
are single or in axillary cymes, the c? at the ends of the branches. The
? head has 2 firs. , enclosed in a prickly gamophyllous involucre, only
the styles projecting from it through openings in the two horns of
the involucre. The fruits are enclosed in the hard woody involucre,
which is covered with hooks and is admirably suited to animal-distri-
bution. One sp. has gradually spread in this way from the East of
Europe. “In 1828 it was brought into Wallachia by the Cossack
horses, whose manes and tails were covered with the burrs. It tra-
velled in Hungarian wool, and in cattle from the same region, to
Regensburg, and on to Hamburg, appearing here and there on the
way.” Strenuous laws for its extirpation have been enforced in South
Africa, where at one time it had become so common as seriously to
impair the value of the wool.

Xanthochymus Roxb. = Garcinia Linn.

Xanthophyllum Roxb. Polygalaceae. 40 sp. Indo-mal. Ovary i-loc.
with parietal placentae. Nut one-seeded.

Xanthorrhiza Marshall = Zanthorhiza L’Herit.

Xanthorrhoea Sm. Liliaceae (ill). 11 sp. Austr. The best known is
X . hastilis R. Br., the grass-tree or black -boy, a characteristic plant
of the Austr. vegetation (p. 196). It has the habit of an Aloe or
Dasylirion, with a long bulrush-like spike of firs, (really cymose as
may be seen from the many bracts on the individual fir. -stalks).
Perianth sepaloid (X. is placed in Juncaceae by Benth.- Hooker).
From the bases of the old leaves trickles a resin, used in making
varnish, sealing-wax, &c.

Xanthosia Rudge. Umbelliferae (1). 17 sp. Austr. The umbels in

some sp. are reduced to single firs.

Xanthosoma Schott. Araceae (vi). 20 sp. trop. Am. Large herbs

(fig. in Kerner’s Nat. Hist.), X. appendiculatum Schott has a second
blade at the back of the leaf, united with the chief one along the mid-
rib, and much smaller than it. A pocket is thus formed whose use is
unknown. The phenomenon is due to a tangential division of the
embryonic leaf. Firs, monoecious, naked ; sta. in synandria.

Xanthoxylum J. F. Gmel. = Zanthoxylum Linn.

Xeranthemum Tourn. ex Linn. Compositae (xl). 6 sp. Medit., Orient.

Xiphion Tourn. ex Mill. = Iris Tourn.

Xylomelum Sm. Proteaceae (11). 4 sp. Austr. The fruits are known as
wooden pears, being of the size of a large pear, and looking at first
glance as if they were edible. Inside is found a thick wall of woody
tissue enveloping the winged seeds. It splits open along the posterior
side. This sort of fruit is found in several Proteaceae and is looked on
as an arrangement for protection of the seeds from the drought (p. 168).

630

XYLOPHYLLA

Xylophylla Linn. = Phyllanthus Linn, (the sp. with phylloclades).

Xylopia Linn. Anonaceae (6). 60 sp. trop.

Xylopleurum Spach = Oenothera Linn.

Xylosma Forst. f. = Myroxylon Foist.

Xyridaceae. Monocotyledons (Farinosae). 2 gen. (Xyris, Abolboda)
with 50 sp. trop. and subtrop., mostly Am. Mostly marsh plants,
herbaceous, tufted, with radical sheathing leaves and spikes or heads
of 5 firs. Perianth heterochlamydeous. K 3, the lateral sepals small,
the anterior large, enclosing the cprolla; C (3). Sta. 3, epipetalous,
the outer whorl absent or represented by staminodes. Ovary i-loc.
or imperfectly 3-loc., with parietal or free basal placentation and 00
orthotropous ovules. Embryo small, in mealy endosperm. Placed in
Coronarieae by Benth. -Hooker, in Enantioblastae by Warming. [See
review in Bot. Gaz. 1893, p. 313-]

Xyrideae (Benth. - Hooker) = Xyridaceae.

Xyris Gronov. ex Linn. Xyridaceae. roo sp. trop. and subtrop.

Yucca Dill, ex Linn. Liliaceae (vi). 20 sp. Southern U.S., Mexico,
&c. Many are hardy in this country (Adam’s needle). The stem is
short, growing in thickness, and branching occasionally (cf. Dra-
caena) ; at the end is a rosette of leaves, the old ones dying off below.
The leaves are fleshy and pointed. The firs, are large and white and
form a big panicle. Their chief interest is the very remarkable mode
of pollination (for details and figures see Riley in 3 rd Ann. Rep.
Missouri Bot. Gdn. 1892). This is one of the few cases of mutual
dependence and adaptation of a single flr. and a single insect — Pro-
nuba, a moth. The white flr. emits its perfume especially at night,
and is then visited by the moths. The female has a long ovipositor
with which she can penetrate the tissue of the ovary of the flr., and
possesses peculiar maxillary tentacles confined to the genus, which are
prehensile and spinous. “ Her activity begins soon after dark, but
consists, at first, in assiduously collecting a load of pollen. She may
be seen running up to the top of one of the stamens.... The maxillary
palpi are used in this act very much as the ordinary mandibles are
used in other insects, removing or scraping the pollen from the
anthers towards the tentacles. After thus gathering the pollen she
raises her head and commences to shape it into a little mass or
pellet....” She repeats the operation on several firs., until she has a
pellet about thrice as large as her head. The moth then flies to
another flr. and proceeds to deposit a few eggs in the ovary, piercing
its wall with her ovipositor. Having done this she climbs to the top
and presses the ball of pollen that she has gathered into the stigma.
The result is that the ovules are fertilised, but they are so numerous
that there are plenty for the larvae to feed upon and also to reproduce
the plant.

The leaves of Y. filamentosa L. and other sp. furnish an excellent
fibre (cf. Agave).

ZEA

631

Zahlbrucknera Rchb. Saxifragaceae (1). i sp. Europe.

Zalacca Rumph. Palmae (in. 5). 10 sp. Indo-mal.

Zaluzania Pers. Compositae (v). 8 sp. Cent. Am.

Zaluzianskya F. W. Schmidt. Scrophulariaceae (11. 7). 16 sp. S. Afr.

Zamia Linn. Cycadaceae. 30 sp. trop. Am.

Zamioculcas Schott. Araceae (1). 1 sp. trop. Afr., Bourbon. Leaves

pinnate.

Zannichellia Mich. ex. Linn. Potamogetonaceae. 1 sp. Z.palustris L.,
cosmop. It grows in fresh or brackish water, and has the habit of
a small-leafed Potamogeton. Firs, monoecious ; the ? is terminal,
and from the axil of its lower bracteole springs the $ . From the
axil of the upper a new branch may arise, bearing % and $ firs,
again. The $ fir. consists of 1 or 2 sta. , the $ of usually 4 cpls.,
surrounded by a small cup-like perianth. Pollination occurs under
water as in Zostera, but the pollen is spherical.

Zanonia Linn. Cucurbitaceae (1). 2 sp., Z. indica L. (E. Ind. to New
Guinea) and Z. macrocarpa Blume (Sunda Is.). The latter has
enormous flat winged seeds which float very well in the air, and are
remarkably like the seeds of many Bignoniaceae.

Zantedeschia Spreng. = Richardia Kunth.

Zanthorhiza L’Herit. Ranunculaceae (2). 1 sp. Atlantic N. Am.

Firs. 5-merous throughout, and polygamous.

Zanthoxylum Linn. (incl. Fagara Linn.). Rutaceae (5). 170 sp. trop.

and N. Am., As. Several are cultivated in shrubberies. Z. piperitum
DC., the Japan pepper, yields fruits used as a condiment. The bark
of Z. fraxineum Willd. (prickly ash or toothache-tree) is used in Am.
as a remedy for toothache. The prickly stems of Z. Clava-Herculis
L. are used as walking sticks.

Zauschneria Presl. Onagraceae (11). 1 sp. Calif., Mexico.

Zea Linn. Gramineae (1). 1 sp., Zea Mays L., the maize or Indian

corn, apparently originally a Mexican sp., but now cultivated in most
trop. and subtrop. regions. It is a tall annual grass, with terminal
$ infl. and ? infls. in the axils of the foliage-leaves. The <? spikelets
are borne in pairs, and are 2-flowered. The ? infl. forms a * cob’ with
long filamentous stigmas hanging out at the end (the firs, are polli-
nated by wind). The cob is enveloped when young by large spathe-
leaves, and consists of combined spikes ; each two rows of firs, visible
on its surface correspond to one spike of firs. The cultivated forms
are 8-, 10-, 12-, or 24-rowed. This should be compared with
Euchlaena, in which the spikes are distinct and form a tuft. Each
spike consists of one-flowered spikelets. The fruit is the familiar
maize-seed, in which the structure of a grass-fruit can easily be made
out ; the embryo occupies the white portion near the pointed end.

Next to rice, maize is the most important cereal ; it is termed corn
in the U.S., like wheat in England, oats in Scotland. The grain is
made into flour (Indian meal) or cooked without grinding ; green corji

6$ 2

ZEA

(unripe cobs) forms a favourite vegetable ; the leaves are useful as
fodder, the dry cobs as firing ; the spathes are used in paper-making,
and so on. [See Harshberger’s monograph (botanical and economic)
in Contrib. from the Bot. Laboratory of the Univ. of Pennsylvania

I. 1893.]

Zelkova Spach. Ulmaceae (11). 4 sp., 1 each in Crete, Caucasus,

China, Japan. The timber of the last two is valuable for turning &c.
[Urticaceae, Ben th. -Hooker ; see Ulmaceae.]

Zephyranthes Herb. Amaryllidaceae (1). 30 sp. trop. Am.

Zeuxine Lindl. Orchidaceae (4). 20 sp. trop. Afr. to E. Ind.

Zingiber Adans. Zingiberaceae. 20 sp. E. Ind., Malay Arch., China,
Japan, Polynes., Mascarenes. The labellum is large; opp. to it are
the style and the petaloid fertile sta. The stigma has many rays.
Z . officinale Rose, is the ginger ; it is always reproduced by vegetative
methods, and is now quite sterile (cf. Musa). It is largely culti-
vated ; the rhizomes are dug up and killed by immersion in boiling
water. According to whether the rind is or is not scraped off, the
product is known as ‘coated 5 or ‘scraped’ ginger.

Zingiberaceae. Monocotyledons (Scitamineae). 24 gen. with 275 sp.
trop., chiefly Indo-mal. Perennial herbs usually with sympodial
fleshy rhizomes and often with tuberous roots. The aerial stem, if
any, is short ; sometimes an apparent stem is formed as in Musa by
the rolled-up leaf-sheaths. Leaves 2 -ranked,
sheathing bases. At the top of the sheath is
a characteristic ligule (cf. Gramineae). Firs,
in racemes, heads, or cymes. Their mor-
phology has been much discussed (see Eichler’s
Bliithendiag . or Nat. Pfl .). The bracteole is
often sheathing (as in fig.). K (3), the odd
one anterior, C 3, usually different in colour
and texture from the outer perianth-leaves.

Of the possible 6 members of the androeceum
(two whorls), the posterior one of the inner
whorl is present as a fertile stamen, and the
other two of this whorl are united to form the
petaloid labellum (not equivalent to that of nealmia, modified from

Orchids) ; the anterior sta. of the outer whorl ^lchlJ;!:’ bract>

. ' 9 sheathing bracteole, calyx,

is always absent ; the other two may be absent corolla, labellum (lab), &c.
(as in Renealmia) or may be present as large

leafy staminodes right and left of the fertile sta. (compare carefully with
Cannaceae and Marantaceae). G (3)5 3-loc., with 00 anatropous or
semi-anatropous ovules. Fruit usually a loculicidal capsule. Seeds
with perisperm. The order contains several economic plants ; see
Curcuma, Costus, Alpinia, Zingiber, Amomum, Elettaria.

Chief genera: Curcuma, Hedychium, Costus, Alpinia, Renealmia,
Zingiber, Amomum, Elettaria, Globba, Mantisia. Placed in Sci-

with short stalks and

ZOSTERA

633

tamineae by Warming ; Benth. -Hooker unite all the orders — Z. ,
Musaceae, Cannaceae, and Marantaceae into one order under the
name of Scitamineae.

Zinnia Linn. Compositae (v). 12 sp. N. Am., favourite border plants.

Leaves opp. or whorled. Fruit winged.

Zizania Gronov. ex Linn. Gramineae (vi). 2 sp. Am., N.E. As.,

Z. aquatica L. ( Hydropyru m esculentum Link), Canada rice, is used
as a cereal by the N. Am. Indians.

Ziziphora Linn. Labiatae (vi. 8). 12 sp. Medit., Asia.

Zizyphus Toum. ex Linn. Rhamnaceae. 40 sp. Indo-mal., trop. Am.,
Afr., Austr., Medit. The stipules are often represented by thorns,
one of which is sometimes recurved whilst the other is straight (cf.
Paliums) ; occasionally only one is developed. Z . chloroxylon Oliv.
(cogwood ; Jamaica) yields a hard tough wood, used for cogs in
machinery. The fruits of many sp. are edible ; those of Z. Lotus
Lam. (Medit.) are said to be the Lotus fruits of antiquity ; those of
Z. vulgaris Lam. (Orient &c.) are known as French jujubes ; those of
Z . Joazeiro Mart, are used in Brazil as fodder for cattle during the
dry season. Z. Spina-Christi Willd. is said to have furnished the
crown of thorns (cf. Paliurus).

Zostera Linn. Potamogetonaceae. 5 sp. temp., subarct., subtrop.,
growing in salt water on gently sloping shores (p. 187). Z. marina L.
and Z. nana Roth in Brit, (eel-grass or grass-wrack). The lower part
of the stem creeps, rooting as it advances along the ground, and has
ordinary monopodial branching ; the branches grow upwards into the
water and exhibit sympodial branching, complicated by union of the
axillary shoot to the main shoot for some distance above its point of
origin. This is most easily seen in the infl. region ; the branching is
that of a rhipidium (p. 65), but the shoot II, which springs from the
axil of a leaf on shoot I, is adnate to I up to the point at which the
first leaf is borne on II ; this leaf occupies the angle between the two
shoots where they separate. Shoot I (and 11, 111, &c. successively) is
pushed aside and bears an infl. (See Eichler’s Bluthendiag . or Nat.
Pfl . for details and figs.) The leaves are long, linear, and sheathing
at the base.

The infl. is a flattened spadix, enclosed at flowering time in a
spathe (the sheath of the uppermost leaf). This is open down one
side, and on the corresponding side of the spadix the flrs. are borne,
the essential organs forming two vertical rows, each composed of a
cpl. and a sta. alternately. On the outer side of the spadix next the
sta. is often a small leaf (the retinaculum of
systematic works). The midrib of the cpl. CP1* sta* ret-

faces outwards. Each cpl. contains one ovule
and has two flat stigmas. The sta. consists of
two half anthers, joined by a small connective. It is difficult to
decide what is the actual ‘flower’ in this plant; the usual view is that

ret. sta.
cpl.

cpl.

sta. ret.

634

ZOSTERA

each sta. with the cpl. on the same level with it forms a fir., the
retinaculum representing the bract.

Fertilisation occurs in a peculiar way, Z. being one of the water
plants most completely modified from the ancestral land -plant type
(see p. 158). The fir. is submerged like the rest of the plant. The
pollen grains are long threads, of the same specific gravity as salt
water, so that when they are discharged they float freely at any
depth. The stigmas are very large, and thus have a good chance of
catching some of the grains. The whole mechanism is very similar in
principle to that of a wind-fertilised plant. The fruit is an achene.
Delpino looks upon Z. as an Aroid, adapted to a submerged exist-
ence. In winter it hibernates without any special modification. The
plant is largely used for packing glass, stuffing cushions, &c., especially
in Venice. [For further details see order, also p. 158 and Schenk’s
Wassergewdckse. ]

Zygadenus Michx. Liliaceae (1). 10 sp. N. Am., Siberia.

Zygopetalum Hook, (inch Pescatorea Rchb. f.). Orchidaceae (20).
20 sp. trop. Am., epiphytic. The base of the column forms a chin.

Zygophyllaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Geraniales). 22 gen. with
140 sp. xero- or halo-phytes, trop. and subtrop. Most are woody
perennials ; leaves opp., stip., usually hairy, fleshy or leathery. Firs,
in cymes, regular, 5. K 5; C 5; A 5 + 5; obdiplostemonous and with
ligular appendages ; G (5). Ovary 5-loc. with 1 or more pendulous
ovules in each loc. Fruit usually a capsule. Seeds with or without
endosperm. Guaiacum, Peganum, &c. furnish useful products.
Chief genera : Zygophyllum, Guaiacum, Porlieria, Larrea, Peganum,
Tribulus. Placed in Geraniales by Benth. -Hooker, in Terebinthinae
by Warming. Closely related to Rutaceae.

Zygophyllum Linn. Zygophyllaceae. 60 sp. Old World, deserts and
steppes. Leaves and twigs fleshy.

SUPPLEMENT TO PART II.

CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

Allophylus L. Sapindaceae (i). ioo sp. trop.

Alternanthera : insert (excl. Mogiphanes Mart.).

Alseodaphne Nees. Lauraceae (i). io sp. trop. As. Included in
Persea in Nat. PJl.

Altingia Noronha. Hamamelidaceae. 2 sp. E. trop. As. A. excelsa
Noronha is the Rasamala of Java, one of the largest trees in the tropics.

Alyssum: after Tourn. read ex L. [Koniga R. Br.).

Alyssicarpus Neck. ( Fabricia Scop.). Leguminosae (ill. 7). 16 sp.

palaeotrop.

Alyxia Banks (Gj/nopogon Foist.). Apocynaceae (1. 3). 50 sp. S. hemi-
sphere.

Amherstia : insert (see Keeble in Ann. Bot. ix. 59).

Amphicarpaea : after Japan insert China.

Anacampseros : insert L. after name of genus.

Anguillaria R. Br. Liliaceae (1). 3 sp. Austr., Tasm.

Anisacantha R. Br. Chenopodiaceae (v). 6 sp. Austr. Inch in
Bassia in Nat. Pfi.

Anisacanthus Nees. Acanthaceae (iv b). 6 sp. Am.

Anisadenia Wall. Linaceae. 2 sp. N. India.

Anisochilus Wall. Labiatae (vn). 15 sp. Indo-mal.

Anisomeles R. Br. Labiatae (vi. 4). 7 sp. trop. As., Austr.

Anisophyllea R. Br. ex Sabine. Rhizophoraceae. 5 sp. palaeotrop.
Fruit a drupe; endosperm o; leaves alt., exstip.

Anisotoma Fenzl. Asclepiadaceae (11. 4). 1 sp. Cape Col.

Anodendron A. DC. Apocynaceae (II. 4). 10 sp. Ceylon to China.

Anoectochilus Blume. Orchidaceae (4). 10 sp. Indo-mal. cultivated

on account of their exquisite dark-coloured leaves, veined with red
or gold.

Anogeissus Wall. Combretaceae. 5 sp. trop. Afr. and As.

Apluda L. Gramineae (11). 1 sp. Indo-mal.

Archangiopteris Christ et Giesenh. Marattiaceae (1). 1 sp. S.W.

China. Leaves once pinnate; sori linear, of 80 — 160 sporangia.

Ardisia : after 200 sp. insert trop.

636

ARENGA

Arenga : for flowers once read flowers when mature, infls. appearing in
descending order, till the tree dies after the last is ripe.

Arracacia Bauer. Umbelliferae (vi). 20 sp. Mexico to Peru in the

mountains. The roots of A. xanthorhiza Bauer and others are eaten.

Artemisia: insert A. Abr'otanum L. is the old man or southernwood of
gardens, A. tridentata Nutt, and others form the sage-brush of the
western U. S. (p. 188).

Arundinella Raddi. Gramineae (iv). 25 sp. trop.

Capparidaceae : at end, after Benth. -Hooker insert (see Tovaria).

Carallia Roxb. ex R. Br. Rhizophoraceae. 10 sp. Madag., trop. As.,
Austr. Disc usually double.

Caralluma R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (11. 4). 60 sp. Medit. to E. Ind.

Caryocar : after seeds insert of C. nuciferum L.

Cassandra I). Don. Ericaceae (11. 4). 1 sp. N. temp. Incl. in Lyonia

in Nat . PJi.

Centratherum Cass. Compositae (1). 12 sp. trop.

Cephalanthus L. Rubiaceae (1. 6). 6 sp. Am., As., Afr.

Cephalophora Cav. Compositae (vi). ( Helenium L. in Nat. Pfl.)

20 sp. S. Am.

Ceriops Arn. Rhizophoraceae. 2 sp. palaeotrop.

Chamagrostis Borkh. = Mibora Adans.

Chamaepeuce DC. = Cnicus Tourn.

Chasalia Comm, ex DC. Rubiaceae (ir. 15). 15 sp. trop. As. and Afr.

Cheirostemon : after the bracket insert Sterculiaceae.

Chlidanthus : after Herb, omit App.

Cipadessa Blume. Meliaceae. 4 sp. Indo-mal., Madag.

Cleome : insert (incl. Polanisia Rafin.).

Clitandra Benth. Apocynaceae (1. 1). 3 sp. trop. Afr. Rubber is

obtained from the roots of C. Henriqueziana K. Sch. (cf. Carpodinus).

Cochlospermaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). An order
now separated by Engler from the Bixaceae on the ground of the
oily endosperm, and comprising Cochlospermum.

Congea Roxb. Verbenaceae (vi). 4 sp. Burma, Malaya.

Connaraceae: after 160 sp. add trop.

Conopholis Wallr. Orobanchaceae. 1 sp. Carolina to Mexico. See
Contr. Bot. Lab . Penn. n. 1.

Conostegia D. Don. Melastomaceae (1). 50 sp. trop. Am.

Conringia Heist ex L. Cruciferae (iv. 20). 6 sp. Medit., Eur.

Contortae (Engler) the third, (Warming) the seventh, cohort of Sym-
petalae.

Cortaderia Stapf. Gramineae (x). A genus of Andean sp., removed
by Stapf from Gynerium, and including G . argenteum Nees, &c. See
Gard. Chron. 1897, ii. 396, Bot. Mag. t. 7607, 1898.

Corynocarpaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Sapindales). Only genus
Corynocarpus.

Corynocarpus Foist. 1 sp. N. Z. placed in Anacardiaceae by Bentham

E U CO MM I A 637

and Hooker. See Ann . Bot. xvn. 1903, p. 743, and xvm. 1904,
p. 179.

Crawfurdia Wall. Gentianaceae (1-3). 10 sp. warmer Asia.

Crossosoma Nutt. Crossosomataceae. 2 sp. S.W. U. S., placed in
Dilleniaceae by Bentham and Hooker.

Crossosomataceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). Only genus
Crossosoma.

Croton: after Cascarilla add (Florida, W. I.) and at end add The
ornamental Crotons of trop. gardens are sp. of.Codiaeum.
Cryptolepis R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (1. 1). 15 sp. trop. As. and Afr.

Cryptostegia R. Br. Asclepiadaceae (1. 1). 2 sp. trop. As. and Afr.

Cyanastraceae. Monocotyledons (Farinosae). Only genus Cyanastrum
(4 sp. trop. Afr.).

Cyathocalyx Champ, ex Hook. f. et Thoms. Anonaceae (6). 10 sp.

Indo-mal.

Cymodocea Kon. Potamog^tonaceae (Naiadaceae, Bentham- Hooker).
7 sp. mostly trop.

Cynomoriaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Santalales). An order now
separated from Balanophoraceae, and containing Cynomorium.
Cyperus: read (Mich.) L. (incl. Mariscus Gaertn., Pycreus Beauv.)
and add C. rotundus L., which has a creeping tuberous rhizome, is
a troublesome weed in trop. and subtrop. countries.

Cyphomandra : add C. betacea Sendt. is the tree tomato, cult, in trop.
Mts. for its edible fruit.

Dacryodes Vahl. Burseraceae. 2 sp. W. Ind. D. hexandra Griseb.,
the gommier, yields an incense.

Daemonorops Blume = Calamus L.

Decaisnea : after Himal. insert China.

Dennstaedtia Bern. Polypodiaceae. 60 sp. trop., S. Am., Austr.
Diplazium Sw. Polypodiaceae. 210 sp. trop., Chi., Japan.
Diplospora DC. Rubiaceae (1. 8). 15 sp. trop. As., China.

Dipteris Reinw. Polypodiaceae. Incl. in Polypodium by Hooker,
but very distinct. Cf. Seward and Dale in Phil . Trans. 194.
Disperis Sw. Orchidaceae (3). 20 sp. trop. As., trop. and S. Afr.

Doona Thw. Dipterocarpaceae. n sp. Ceylon.

Dregea E. Mey. Asclepiadaceae (11. 4). 5 sp. Afr., As.

Drynaria (Bory) J. Sm. Polypodiaceae. 15 sp. trop. As., Masc. &c.
Duabanga Buch.-Ham. Blattiaceae (Lythraceae Bentham-Hooker).
2 sp. Indo-mal.

Elaphoglossum Schott. Polypodiaceae. 250 sp. trop. Added to
Acrostichum by Hooker.

Erycibe Roxb. Convolvulaceae (1. 5). 12 sp. Indo-mal., Polynesia.

Eucommia Oliv. Trochodendraceae. 1 sp. China, E. ulmoides Oliv.,
yielding a medicinal bark used in China, and caoutchouc. Sometimes
placed (e.g. by Engler in his last edition) in a monotypic order
Eucommiaceae beside Trochodendraceae.

638

E USIDER OXYL ON

Eusideroxylon Teijs. et Binn. Lauraceae (i). i sp. Malay Arch.

Evax Gaertn. Compositae (iv). 15 sp. N. Am., Medit.

Fabiana Ruiz, et Pav. Solanaceae (iv). 15 sp. S. Am.

Fagales. The 8th cohort of Archichlamydeae (p. 127).

Filicium Thw. Sapindaceae (il). (Burseraceae, Bentham-Hooker.)
3 sp. As., Afr.

Fittonia E. Coem. Acanthaceae (iv. b). 2 sp. Peru, cult, for their

prettily veined leaves.

Flemingia Roxb. ex Ait. Leguminosae (ill. to). 20 sp. palaeotrop.
From glands on the pods of F. congesta Roxb. is obtained an orange
dye, waras.

Forsteronia G. F. W. Mey. Apocynaceae (11. 5). 30 sp. trop. Am.

Fouquieraceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Parietales). An order now
separated from Tamaricaceae by Engler.

Gaertnera Lam. Rubiaceae (11. B. 15). (Loganiaceae, Bentham-
Hooker.) 25 sp. trop. As. and Afr.

Galphimia Cav. Malpighiaceae (11). 12 sp. trop. and subtrop. Am.

Garnotia Brongn. Gramineae (vm). 10 sp. As.

Genlisea A. St. Hil. Lentibulariaceae. 10 sp. trop. Am., Afr.

Gmelina L. Verbenaceae (iv). 8 sp. Indo-mal.

Gomortegaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Ranales). Only genus
Gomortega, S. Am.

Gonystylaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Malvales). Only genus
Gonystylus, Malaya.

Hippuridaceae. An order composed of the genus Hippuris, separated
from Haloragidaceae by Engler in his last edition.

Hiptage Gaertn. Malpighiaceae (1). 10 sp. W. Afr., trop. As. to Fiji.

Hoheria A. Cunn. Malvaceae (11). 3 sp. N.Z.

Holarrhena R. Br. Apocynaceae (1. 3). 5 sp. trop. As. and Afr.

Holmskioldia Retz. Verbenaceae (iv). 5 sp. trop. As., Afr., Madag.

Hopea Roxb. Dipterocarpaceae. 50 sp. Indo-mal.

Hydnocarpus Gaertn. Flacourtiaceae. 25 sp. Indo-mal.

Hydrilla Rich. Hydrocharitaceae. 1 sp. Eur., As., Afr., Austr.

Hydrobryum Endl. Podostemaceae. 5 sp. India, Ceylon. Thallus
of root nature, creeping, often lichen-like with growing margin.

Hydrostachyaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Rosales). An order now
separated from Podostemaceae (< q.v .).

Hydrostachys Thou. Hydrostachyaceae. 10 sp. Madag., S. Afr.

Imperata Cyrilli. Gramineae (11). 5 sp. trop. and subtrop. /. arun -

dinacea Cyrilli, the lalang of Malaya, illuk of Ceylon, is a very
troublesome weed in those countries.

Inocarpus Forst. Leguminosae (ill. 8). 2 sp. S. Am. The seeds of

/. edulis Forst. are eaten, and it is sometimes cult.

Ipomaea: add /. biloba Forst. (/. pes-caprae Sw.) is a characteristic
creeping plant of trop. beaches (p. 1 9 1 )-

Ischaemum L. Gramineae (11). 40 sp. trop.

MILLA

639

Julianiaceae. An order recently created by Hemsley {Phil. Trans .
B. 199, 7907), and given a separate cohort Julianiales by Engler
between Juglandales and Fagales, for Juliania (4 sp. Mexico) and
Orthopterygium (1 sp. Peru), doubtfully placed in Anacardiaceae by
Bentham- Hooker.

Kendrickia Hook. f. Melastomaceae (1). 1 sp. Ceylon, S. Ind.,

climbing like ivy, with magnificent flowers.

Klugia Schlecht. Gesneraceae (1). 4 sp. trop. As. and Am. The

plants are markedly anisophyllous, and the flowers of right- or left-
handed symmetry according to which side of the infl. they are on
(cf. Saintpaulia, Cassia, &c.).

Knoxia L. Rubiaceae (11. 10). 10 sp. Indo-mal.

Kopsia Blume. Apocynaceae (1. 3). 6 sp. Indo-mal.

Laggera Sch. Bip. Compositae (iv). 10 sp. palaeotrop.

Lansium Rumph. Meliaceae. 4 sp. Indo-mal. L. domesticum Jack
is sometimes cult, for its edible fruit.

Lantana : add L. aculeata L. is one of the commonest weeds in the trop.

Launaea Cass. Compositae (xm). 30 sp. trop. L. pinnatijida Cass,

is very common on trop. beaches (p. 191).

Lawia Tul. Podostemaceae. 1 sp. Ceylon to Bombay. Thallus of
shoot nature, creeping, with endogenous shoots on the upper side.

Leitneriales. The 6th cohort of Archichlamydeae (p. 126).

Lilaea Humb. et Bonpl. Juncaginaceae (Naiadaceae, Bentham-
Hooker). 1 sp. Am. Mts. (see Ann. Bot . XII. p. 98).

Limonium Tourn. ex Mill. =Statice L.

Liriope Lour. Liliaceae (vm) (Haemodoraceae Bentham-Hooker).
1 sp. Cochin-china to Japan.

Lodoicea : after largest read simple fruit.

Machilus Nees. Lauraceae (1). 20 sp. As. Persea L. is sometimes

merged in this genus.

Macodes Lindl. Orchidaceae (4). t sp. Java.

Magnoliaceae : add Bentham-Hooker add Trochodendraceae and in-
clude the order in Ranales.

Manglietia Blume. Magnoliaceae. 3 sp. Indo-mal., inch in Magnolia
in Nat . Pfl.

Maniltoa Scheff. Leguminosae (11. 2). 3 sp. Fiji, N. Guinea. Incl.

in Cynometra L. in Nat. Pft . Some have hanging foliage (cf. Am-
herstia).

Marantaceae: add The leaves sleep at night and in dull weather by
bending upwards at the pulvini.

Martinezia Ruiz, et Pav. Palmae (iv. 7). 7 sp. trop. S. Am.

Melodinus Forst. Apocynaceae (1. 1). 20 sp. Indo-mal., Polynesia.

Metachlamydeae = Sympetalae.

Microcycas A. DC. Cycadaceae. 1 sp. Cuba.

Micromelum Blume. Rutaceae (x). 6 sp. Indo-mal.

Milla Cav. Liliaceae (iv). 1 sp. Mex.

640

MIMOSA

Mimosa: add See Ewart in Ann. Bot. xi. p. 448; Neme9, Die
Reizleiliuig und die reizleitenden Sirukiuren bei den Pjianzen , Jena,
1901.

Mitrephora Hook. f. et Thoms. Anonaceae (v). 20 sp. trop. As.

Mniopsis Mart. Podostemaceae. 4 sp. Brazil.

Mollinedia Ruiz, et Pav. Monimiaceae. 60 sp. Mex., S. Am., Austr.

Montanoa Cerv. Compositae (v). 20 sp. trop. Am., some cult, in the

trop. under the name daisy-tree.

Montrichardia Crueg. Araceae (iv). 3 sp. trop. Am.

Mouriria Juss. Melastomaceae (111). 40 sp. trop. Am.

Mucuna : add M. pruriens DC. is the cowage or cowitch, a var. of
which is the Florida velvet bean, a useful fodder.

Myrieales. The 4th cohort of Archichlamydeae (p. 126).

Naravelia DC. Ranunculaceae (ill). 10 sp. trop. As., inch in
Clematis L. in Nat. PJi.

Niphobolus Kaulf. = Polypodium L. Cf. Giesenhagen, Die Gattung N.

Noltea Rchb. Rhamnaceae. 1 sp. S. Afr.

Nuytsia R. Br. Loranthaceae. 1 sp. W. Austr., a tree 10 — 12 m.
high, doubtfully parasitic on roots. Cotyledons 3.

Nyctanthes L. Oleaceae. 1 sp. E. Ind.

Ochlandra Thw. Gramineae (xm). 3 sp. India, Ceylon.

Odina Roxb. ( Calesium Adans.) Anacardiaceae (11). 15 sp. trop.

Afr. and As.

Oncosperma Blume. Palmae (iv. 6). 5 sp. Indo-mal.

Opilia Roxb. Opiliaceae. 7 sp. palaeotrop.

Opiliaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Santalales). Cf. Opilia.

Oreodaphne Nees et Mart. = Ocotea Aubl.

Oroxylon Vent. Bignoniaceae (1). 1 sp. Indo-mal.

Osyris L. Santalaceae. 6 sp. S. Eur., As., Afr.

Ottelia Pers. Hydrochavitaceae. 10 sp. trop.

Papaveraceae : for G (2 — 8) read G (2 — 00 ).

Parameria Benth. Apocynaceae (11. 4). 3 sp. Indo-mal. Some yield

a rubber.

Parinarium Aubl. Rosaceae (vi. 13 b). 40 sp. trop. some with

edible seed.

Parmentiera DC. Bignoniaceae (iv). 2 sp. trop. Am. P. cerifera

Seem, is the candle tree, its long fruits, borne on the old wood,
resembling tallow candles ; it also has a water-holding calyx like
Spathodea.

Phyllitis Ludwig. Polypodiaceae. 8 sp. cosmop.

Phytolaccaceae : read G (rarely G).

Picraena Lindi. Simarubaceae. 8 sp. trop. P. excelsa Lindl. yields
the bitterwood or Jamaica quassia.

Plecospermum Tree. Moraceae (1). 1 sp. India, Ceylon.

Pleopeltis Humb. ex Bonpl. = Polypodium L.

Podostemon Michx. Podostemaceae. 15 sp. S. Am., Ind., Ceylon.

SAURAUTA

641

Pogonatherum Beauv. Gramineae (n). 2 sp. As. Sta. 2.

Pollinia Trin. Gramineae (11). 30 sp. trop. and subtrop.

Pongamia Vent. Leguminosae (in. 8). 1 sp. trop. As., Austr.

Porogamae, see Chalazogamae.

Prosopis : after name of genus add L.

Proserpinaca L. Haloragidaceae. 2 sp. N. Am. Trimerous. See
Ann. Bot. xvm. p. 579.

Psilotaceae : after (Homosporous) add (Bower regards P. as belonging
to the Sphenophyllales).

Psophocarpus Neck. Leguminosae (ill. 10). 5 sp. trop. As. and Afr.

P . tetragonolobus DC. is cult, for the beans (eaten like kidney beans)
and the tuberous roots.

Pterisanthes Blume. Vitaceae. 12 sp. Indo-mal.

Pterospermum Schreb. Sterculiaceae. 20 sp. trop. As.

Pueraria DC. Leguminosae (ill. 10). 12 sp. trop. As., China, Japan,

New Guinea.

Putranjiva Wall. Euphorbiaceae (a. 1. 1). 5 sp. Indo-mal.

Putterlickia Endl. Celastraceae. 2 sp. S. Afr.

Puya Molina. Bromeliaceae (3). 5 sp. Chili, Peru.

Pycreus Beauv. = Cyperus L.

Pygeum Gaertn. Rosaceae (v. 12). 20 sp. trop. As. and Afr.

Quassia L. Simarubaceae. 2 sp. trop. Am. and Afr., the former,

Q . amara L ., the source of Quassia wood.

Rauwolfia Plum, ex L. Apocynaceae (1. 3). 45 sp. trop. Leaves

often in whorls of 3 or 4.

Ravensara Sonner. Lauraceae (11). 4 sp. Madag. R . aromatica J. F.

Gmel. is the Madagascar clove.

Rhinanthus : add Cf. Sterneck, Monogr . d. Gait. A lector ol )ph us, in
Abh . d. k. k. z . b. Ges., Wien, I. 1901.

Rhodoleia Champ, ex Hook. Hamamelidaceae. 2 sp. Java, China.
Rhodomyrtus Rchb. Myrtaceae (1). 5 sp. As., Austr.

Rhynchosia Lour. Leguminosae (ill. 10). 100 sp. trop. and subtrop.

Ribes : add The dried currants of commerce are really small grapes.
Rivea Choisy. Convolvulaceae (1. 4). 10 sp. trop. As. and Am.

Rothia Pers. Leguminosae (ill. 3). 2 sp. Indo-mal.

Roupellia Wall, et Hook. Apocynaceae (11. 4). 1 sp. W. Afr. Incl.

in Strophanthus DC. in Nat. PJi .

Ruttya Haw. Acanthaceae (iv. b). 3 sp. S. and trop. Afr.

Sandoricum Cav. Meliaceae. 6 sp. Indo-mal.

Saprosma Blume. Rubiaceae (11. 15). 10 sp. Indo-mal., Polynes.

Saraca L. Leguminosae (11. 3). 10 sp. trop. As. The young shoots

are pendulous, as in Amherstia, Brownea, &c. The firs., which
smell very sweetly at night, are offered in temples.

Sarcocephalus Atzel ex R. Br. Rubiaceae (1. 6). 10 sp. palaeotrop.

Sarcochilus R. Br. Orchidaceae (31). 30 sp. Indo-mal., Austr.

Saurauia: add (Ternstroemiaceae, Bentham-Hooker).

W.

41

642

SAUROPUS

Sauropus Blume. Euphorbiaceae (a. i. i). 20 sp. Indo-mal.

Scheelea Karst. Palmae (iv. 7). 3 sp. trop. Am.

Scheuclizeriaceae=Juncaginaceae.

Schinus: after (resin) add and is largely cult, in S. Calif, for shade and
ornament (pepper tree).

Schizolobium Vog. Leguminosae (11. 7). 2 sp. S. Am.

Schrebera Roxb. Oleaceae. 4 sp. trop. Afr. and As.

Schumaclieria Vahl. Dilleniaceae. 3 sp. Ceylon.

Sciadophyllum R. Br. Araliaceae. 20 sp. S. Am. Incl. in Schefilera
Forst. in Nat. PJl.

SciapMla Blume. Triuridaceae. 6 sp. trop.

Scindapsus Schott. Araceae (11). io sp. Indo-mal.

Scolopia Schreb. Flacourtiaceae. 20 sp. Old World.

Scutia Comm, ex Brongn. Rhamnaceae. 3 sp. trop.

Scytopetalaceae. Dicotyledons (Archichl. Malvales). Only genus
Scytopetalum (W. Afr.).

Selaginella: add Cf. Gibson in Amt. Bot. 1894, 1896, 1897, 1902.
Serenoa Hook. f. Palmae (1. 2). 1 sp. S.E. U. S.

Serissa Comm, ex Juss. Rubiaceae (11. 17). 1 sp. E. As.

Serpicula L. Haloragidaceae. 3 sp. trop. Land or marsh plants.
Shuteria Wight et Arn. Leguminosae (ill. 10). 5 sp. trop. As. and

Afr.

Siphonia: add S. elastica Pers. = H. guianensis.

Solandra Sw. Solanaceae (in). 6 sp. trop. Am.

Sonneratiaceae = Blattiaceae.

Soymida A. Juss. Meliaceae. 1 sp. Indo-mal. The bark is used in
fevers.

Sparmannia: add Cf. Mrs Scott in Ann. Bot. xvn. 1903, p. 761.
Spathoglottis Blume. Orchidaceae (15). 10 sp. trop. As., Austr.

Speirantha Baker. Liliaceae (vn). 1 sp. China.

Spbenoclea Gaertn. Campanulaceae (1. 3). 1 sp. trop. Capsule

circumscissile.

Splienodesme Jack. Verbenaceae (vi). 10 sp. Indo-mal.

Stacliyuraceae : add (Placed in Ternstroemiaceae by Bentham- Hooker).
Statice (Toum.) Hill. = Armeria L.

Stemodia L. Scrophulariaceae (11. 8). 30 sp. trop.

Stemona Lour. Stemonaceae. 8 sp. As., Austr.

Sterculiaceae: add Cf. Prain in Linn. Soc . fount., xxxvn. 1905,
p. 250.

Steriphoma Spreng. Capparidaceae (ill). 3 sp. S. Am.
Stigmaphyllum A. Juss. Malpighiaceae (1). 50 sp. trop. Am.

Stilbe Berg. Verbenaceae (1). 4 sp. S. Afr.

Streblus Lour. Moraceae (1). 1 sp. Indo-mal., used for making paper

in Siam.

Striga Lour. Scrophulariaceae (ill. 11). 20 sp. palaeotrop. Semi-

parasitic.

XIMENIA

643

Strobilantb.es : add Many sp. occur gregariously in vast masses in the
undergrowth of mountain forests in S. As., usually flowering simul-
taneously over large areas and then dying.

Stylidium Lour. (Mar lea Roxb.). Comaceae. 10 sp. As., Afr., Austr.

Suriana Plum, ex L. Simarubaceae. 1 sp., S. maritima L., on trop.
coasts.

Tamonea: for Melastomaceae, &c. raz</=Miconia Ruiz, et Pav.

Terniola Tul. = Lawia Tul.

Theophrastaceae. Dicotyledons (Sympetalae, Primulales). The first
sub-order of Myrsinaceae, now raised to ordinal rank by Engler.

Thuarea Pers. Gramineae (v). 1 sp., T. sar?nentosa Pers. on Indo-

mal. coasts.

Thurniaceae. Only genus Thurnia (2 sp. Brit. Guiana) sometimes
placed in Juncaceae, now placed by Engler in a separate order in
Monocotyledons (Farinosae).

Trapella Oliv. Pedaliaceae. 2 sp. China, Japan.

Tristania R. Br. Myrtaceae (11. 2). 20 sp. Mai., N. Caled., Austr.

Tristicha Thou. Podostemaceae. 3 sp. trop. The least peculiar of
this order, with the habit of an “ordinary ” water plant (p. 158).

Triuridales. The 3rd cohort of Monocotyledons (p. 125).

Tumboa Welw. = Welwitschia Hook. f. T. Bainesii Welw. = W. mira-
bilis.

Turpinia Vent. Staphyleaceae. 20 sp. trop.

Tydaea Dene. = Isoloma Dene.

Uncaria: add U. Gambler Roxb. (gambir) is a valuable source of tan
in the Straits Settlements (Kew Bull . 1889, p. 247).

Urceola Roxb. Apocynaceae (11. 4). 8 sp. Malaya. U.elastica Roxb.
yields caoutchouc.

Vallota Herb. Amaryllidaceae (1). 1 sp. S. Afr.

Vangueria Juss. Rubiaceae (11. 11). 30 sp. trop. Afr. and As.

Verschaffeltia H. Wendl. Palmae (iv. 6). 1 sp. Seychelles.

Verticillatae. The 1st cohort of Archichlamydeae (p. 126).

Villebrunea Gaudich. Urticaceae (3). 8 sp. Ceylon to Japan, V. in-

tegrifolia Gaudich. yields a good fibre.

Wikstroemia Endl. Thymelaeaceae. 20 sp. As., Polynesia.

Willughbeia: add IV. firma Blume (Borneo) yields rubber.

Wissadula Medic. Malvaceae (11). 10 sp. Am., r trop. Afr. and As.

Withania Pauq. Solanaceae (11). 5 sp. palaeotrop. and subtrop.

Wormia : add several sp. show bud-protection by sheathing petioles.

Ximenia Plum. Olacaceae. 5 sp. trop.

41 2

'

PART III.

GLOSSARIAL INDEX OF ENGLISH NAMES,
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS, TECHNICAL TERMS,
SPECIFIC NAMES, ABBREVIATIONS, PRE-
FIXES, ETC.

647

GLOSSARIAL INDEX OF ENGLISH AND OTHER
NAMES, ECONOMIC PRODUCTS, TECHNICAL
TERMS, SPECIFIC NAMES, ABBREVIATIONS,
GREEK AND LATIN PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES,
ETC.

All references to Part I. quote the page, the fuller reference being
mentioned first, e.g. absciss-layer, 156, 53; all to Part II. quote the
article, e.g. Acorn, Quercus.

A number of English and other names for plants are incorporated
in the Index, though not mentioned in the text of Part II. Most of
the technical terms commonly met with are explained in Part I.,
but a large number of less common ones are incorporated here and
briefly explained. The book being popular in the colonies, we have
added a large number of colonial names, with the colony in brackets
(W. I., Can., Austr., S. Afr. &c.) and many American (Am.) names.
Many of the terms given by Clements (Cl.) in his “ Research Methods
in Ecology” have also been included, and an attempt made to make
this Index as complete and generally useful as possible.

Genera and species often receive their names on account of some
very marked character, e.g. Eriodendron (wool-tree) or Acanthophyllum
(thorn-leaf), littoralis (growing on the beach) or pusillus (dwarf). The
chief prefixes and suffixes used in compounding names, and the commonest
specific names have therefore been included. In many cases the meaning
of the Latin name is obvious from its resemblance to an English one,
and such cases have been omitted.

Abbreviations are included in the Index, including the standard
abbreviations of authors5 names placed as authorities after genera and
species, e.g. Adans. (Adanson). Abbreviated titles of periodicals and
other literature are intelligible by reference to pp. 648, 649.

Descriptions of floral morphology in Part II. are largely given in the
terms of Floral Formulae, explained on p. 84.

When the name of a genus or order is repeated in the article dealing
with it, it is represented by the initial letter only, e.g. A. for Abies.

The following mathematical and other symbols are largely used
throughout the book :

2 , hermaphrodite ± , more or less than

c? , male > , more than

? , female

( ) enclosing P, K, C, A, or G,

< , less than

± , at right angles to

II, parallel to

= , equal to, merged in

!, seen by author

/4, micromillimeter, mm.

united or concrescent
00 , indefinite, numerous
x , hybrid

section (of sp. or genus)

648

GENERAL WORKS OF REFERENCE QUOTED.

The following are the chief sources used in the compilation of
Part II., and are usually quoted by abbreviated titles, of which the
less obvious are given in brackets below.

Bentham and Hooker, GeneraPlan -
tariim : London

Campbell, D. H., Mosses and
Ferns : London

Darwin, C., Origin of Species ,
Naturalist' s Voyage , and other
works

De Candolle, Origin of Cultivated
Plants, Engl. ed.

Drude, Pflanzengeographie : Leip-
zig

Durand, Index Generum Phanero-
gamarum

Eichler, Bliithendiagramme : Leip-
zig

Engler, Das PJlanzenreich (PJl.R.) ;
Leipzig (in course of publica-
tion) : Syllabus der Vorlesungen

Engler and Prantl, Die Natiir-
lichen Pflanzenfamilien (Nat.
PJl .) : Leipzig

Goebel , Entwicklungsgeschichte

der Pflanzenorgane , in Schenk’s
Handbuch ; Organography of
Plants , Engl. ed. ; Pflanzenbio-
logische Schilderungen

Gray, Asa, Structural Botany :
London

Hooker, J. D., Himalayan Jour-
nals

Hooker, J. D. and Jackson, Index

Kewensis , and the two supple-
ments

Hooker, W. J. , Synopsis Filicum
Jackson, Dictionary of Botanical
Terms

Knuth, Handbuch der Bluten-
biologie

Ludwig, Biologie der PJlanzen
Muller, H., Fertilisation of Flow
ers , Engl. ed. ; Alpenblumen :
Leipzig

Muller, F. von, Select Extra-
tropical Plants

Sachs, Lectures on Physiology of
Plants , Engl, ed., Oxford
Schenck, Die Wassergeivachse
Schimper, Die epiphytische Vege-
tation Amerikas , Jena ; Plant
Geography , Engl. ed.
Schumann , MorphologischeStudien
The Treasury of Botany
Wallace, Travels on the Amazon ,
Island Life , Darwinism , Malay
Archipelago , &c.

Warming, Oekologische Pflanzen-
geographie, Systematic Botany ,
Engl. ed.

Watt, Dictionary of the Economic
Products of India
Wiesner, Die Rohstoffe des Pflan-
zenreichs : Leipzig

649

BOTANICAL JOURNALS.

There are numerous abbreviated references to the following among
other leading Botanical and Agricultural Periodicals.

Agricultural Ledger, Calcutta
Annales des Sciences Naturelles ;
Botanique, Paris

Annales du Jardin Botanique de
Buitenzorg, Leyden
Annals of Botany, London
Annals of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Calcutta
Annals of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Peradeniya
Berichte der deutschen Botan-
ischen Gesellschaft, Berlin
Botanical Gazette, Chicago
Botanical Magazine, Curtis’,
London

Botanisch Jaarboek, Gent
Botanische Jahrbuch, Engler’s,
Berlin

Botanische Jahresbericht, Just’s,
Berlin

Botanische Zeitung, Leipzig
Botanisches Centralblatt, Leyden
Bulletins, U.S. Dept. Agr., Wash-
ington

Cohn’s Beitrage zur Biologie der
Pflanzen
Flora, Marburg
Gardeners’ Chronicle, London
Jahrbuch fur wissenschaftliche Bo*
tanik, Pringsheim’s, Berlin
Journal de Botanique, Paris
Journal of Botany, London
JCew Bulletin, London
Linnean Society’s Journal and
Transactions, London
Malpighia, Genoa
Minnesota Botanical Studies, Min-
neapolis

Nature, London

Notizblatt des Botanischen Gar-
tens, Berlin

Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society, London
Revue des Cultures Coloniales,
Paris

Revue general e de Botanique, Paris
Tropenpflanzer, Berlin
Tropical Agriculturist, Colombo

650

INDEX

A., Androeceum
A (flower class), 89
A- (Gr. pref.), not
AB (flower class), 90
Abaca, Manila hemp, Musa
Abaxial (side), away from axis
Abbreviated, shortened
Aberrant, differing from type
Abnormal thickening, 173
Abiogenesis, spontaneous genera-
tion

Abortion, 31, 70; (bud), 155
Abrupt, terminating suddenly
Absciss-layer, 156, 53
Absinthe (Fr.), Artemisia
Absorption, 33, 38, 47, 144, 159,
164, 169, 176
Abt., about

Abundance (Cl.), the total number
of individuals in an area
Acacia, false, Robinia
Acajou (W. I.), Guarea trichi-
lioides L.

Acaju = Cashew
Acantho- (Gr. pref.), thorny
Acanthocarpous, spiny-fruited
Acarodomatia, mite-domatia, 114,
Anamirta

Acaulescent, almost stemless
Acaulis (Lat.) stemless
Accessory branch, 42 ; buds, Ara-
ceae ; organs, 67
Accidental transport, 146
Acclimatisation, 144
Accrescent, 77
Accumbent, Cruciferae
Aceituna, Symplocos
Acerose, needle-shaped
-aceus (Lat. suff), -like
Ach., achene, 107, 108, no
Achlamydeous, 76
Acicular, needle-shaped, 52
Acies, the edge
Acinaciform, scimitar-shaped
Acorn (W. I.), Dioscorea bulbifera
L.

Aconite, Aconiturn ; winter-,
Eranthis

Aconitin, Aconiturn
Acorn, Quercus

Acquired characters, non-heredi-

tary, arising in the life-time of
the organism
Acranthous, Orchidaceae
Acrocarpous, with terminal fruit
Acrogens, ferns and mosses
Acrogamic fertilisation, 81
Acotyledons, cryptogams
Acropetal, produced in succession
towards the apex
Acrophytium (Cl.), alpine plant
formation

Acroscopic, facing the apex
Acrotonic, Orchidaceae
Actad (Cl.), plant of a rocky sea
shore

Actinomorphic, 31, 73, 74, 76
Actium (Cl.), rocky sea-shore for-
mation

Aculeate, aculeatus (Lat.), prickly
Acuminate (leaf), 53
Acute (leaf-apex), 53
Acutifolius (Lat.), with pointed
leaf

Acyclic, not in whorls, 69
-ad (Cl.), suffix denoting an ecad
Adam’s needle, Yucca
Adans., Adanson
Adaptable (Cl.), able -to originate
ecads

Adaptation, 25, 26
Adaxial (side), towards the axis
Adder’s tongue, Ophiogiossutn
Aden- (Gr. pref.), a gland
Adenoid, gland-like
Adenophore, stalk supporting a
gland

Adhesion, 70, 123
Adjustment (Cl.), functional re-
sponse to stimuli
Adnascens (Lat.), growing on
something

Aanate, united by whole surface ;

-anthers, 78; -stipule, 51
Adnation, 42, 65, Araceae, So-
lanaceae

Adpressed, appressed
Adruc (W. I. j, Cyperus articulatus
L.

Aduncate, bent like a hook
Adventitious (Cl.), invading from
distant formations ; -embryos,

INDEX 651

106, Alchornea, Funkia, Nothos -
cordum ; -roots, 39, 40, 152,
174 ; -shoots, 44

Adventive (Cl.), established tem-
porarily

Adverse, facing the main axis
Adynamandry, self-sterility
Aeneus (Lat.), brass-coloured
Aequalis (Lat. ), similar in size
Aerating roots, 16 1, 40, 191,

Brugiiiera , Jussieua , Rumex
Aerenchyma, 1 61, Neptunia
Aerial roots, 40
Aerophytes, epiphytes
Aerotropism, influence of gases
on growth and curvature
Aeruginous, verdigris- coloured
Aestivalis (Lat.), of summer
Aestivation, 75, 77, 84
Aetaerio, etaerio
Affinity, 121
Affixed, fixed upon
Agad (Cl.), a beach plant
Agamogenesis, asexual reproduc-
tion by buds

Agents effecting geographical dis-
tribution, 142 ; -pollination, 58
Agglomerate, collected into a head
Aggregate fruit, 107, 109
Aggregation (Cl.), coming together
of plants into groups
Agium (Cl.), a beach formation
Agrad (CL), a cultivated plant
Agrestis (Lat.), agrestal. growing
in fields

Agrimony, A grimonia ; hemp-,
Eupatorium

Agrium (Cl.), a culture formation
Agrostology, study of grasses
Aguacate, avocado, Persea
Ai-camphor, Blumea
Aiphytium, an ultimate formation
Air-plants, epiphytes
Air-spaces, 182
Ait., Aiton
Akee, Blighia
Akene, achene

Alabastrum (Lat.), flower-bud
Alae, Leguminosae , Poly gal aceae
Alatus (Lat.), winged
Albidus (Lat.), whitish

Albinism, disease from absence of
normal colour
Albino, plant with albinism
Album., albuminous
Albumen, 105
Albuminoids, proteids
Albuminous seeds, 105
Alburnum, 158
Albus (Lat.), white
Alder, Alims ; -buckthorn, Rham-
nus ; West Indian-, Conocarpus
erectus L.

Alehoof, ground-ivy, Nepeta
Aleurone, proteid in seeds
Alexanders, Smyrnium
Alfa, esparto, Stipa
Alfalfa, Medicago
Alfilaria, Erodium cicutarium
L’Herit.

Algae, sea and pond weeds, 1 24
Algaroba, Ceratonia , Prosopis
Alien, an introduced plant which
has become naturalised
-alis (Lat. suff.), belonging to
Alizarin, Rubia
Alkali grass, Distichhs
Alkaloids, 202, 34, Aconitum ,
Atropa

Alkanet, Alkanna
Alkannin, Alkanna
Allantodioid, applied to ferns re-
sembling Allantodia
Allantoid, sausage-shaped
Allgood, Good King Henry,
Chenopodium

Allheal, Valeriana officinalis \ West
Indian-, Micromeria obovala
Benth.

Alliaceous, onion-like
Alligator apple, Anona palustris
L. ; -pear, Persea ; wood (W. I. ),
Guarea trichilioides L.
Allocarpy, fruiting from cross-
fertilised flowers
Allogamy, cross-fertilisation
Allotropous, 93
Allseed, Polycarpon , Radiola
Allspice, Pimenta ; Carolina-,
Calycanthus

Almond, Prunus ; country-, I'er-
minalia Catappa L. ; Java-,

652

INDEX

Canarium commune L. ; -tree
(W.L), Terminalia Catappa J^.
Aloes, Aloe

Aloe- wood, Cordia Sebestana ;

Aloes-wood, Eagle wood
Alpestris, alpinus (Lat.), alpine,
growing at high elevations
Alpine flora, 180, 148 ; -rose, Rho-
dodendron ; -snow-leaves, 183 ;
-zone, 180

Alsad (Cl.), a grove plant
Alsike, Trifolium
Alsium (Cl.), a grove formation
Alt., alternate ; -leaves, 45, 51 ;

-members of whorls, 70
Alternation of Generations, 56,
Pteridophyta

Altemifolius (Lat.), with alternate
leaves

Alternipinnate, leaflets of pinnate
leaf not exactly opposite
Alum-root, Heuchera
Alveolate, honey-combed
Am., America
Amarus (Lat.), bitter
Amathad (Cl.), a sand-hill plant
Amathium (Cl.), sand-hill or sand-
plain formation

Ambiguous, of uncertain origin or
doubtful position

Amboyna wood, Pterospermum
indicum

Amentaceous, catkin-bearing
Amentum (Lat.), a catkin, 63
American aloe, Agave ; -ebony,
Brya ; -Elemi, Bur sera ; -fly-
trap, Apocynum ; -mastic, Schi-
nus ; -water- weed, Elodea
Amides, 33, 34

Ammochthad (Cl.), a sandbank
plant

Ammochthium (Cl.), a sandbank
formation

Amoenus (Lat.), sweet, pleasant
Ammoniacum, gum-, Dorema
Amorphous, shapeless
Amphibious plants, 162
Amphicarpic, with two kinds of
fruit, Aethionema^ Cardamine ,
Dimorphotheca

Amphimixis, sexual reproduction

Amphitrop., amphitropous, 83, 105
Amplectens (Lat.), embracing
Amplexicaul leaves, 51
Amylaceous, starchy
Amyloid, starch-like
Anabaena, Bowenia
Anabolism, 33
Analogous organs, 30
Ananas (W. I.), pine-apple
Anandrous, with no stamens
Anastomosis, 48
Anatomy, 2

Anat., anatropous, 82, 105
Ancad, a canon plant
Anceps (Lat.), ancipitous, two-
edged

Anchovy pear, Grias
Andes rose, Befaria
Andiroba, Carapa
Andro- (Gr. pref.), male
Androdioecism, 68
Androeceum, 77, and see stamens
Androgynous, monoecious in one
infl.

Andromonoecism, 68
Androphore, 72, Capparidaceae ,
Passiflora

Anemo- (Gr. pref.), wind-
Anemophilous flowers, 85, 86, 60,
96, 101, 184

Anfractuosus (Lat.), sinuous
Angeleen tree (W. I.), Andira
inermis H. B. et K.

Angelica, Archangelica
Angico gum, Piptadenia
Angostura bark, Ctisparia
Angustifolius (Lat. ) , narrow-leaved
Angustiseptal, with narrow septum
Animals, seed dispersal by, no
Anime resin, Hymenaea
Animes, 199, Agathis
Anise, Pwipinella ; star-, Illicium
Aniseed, Pimpinella
Anisolobous, with unequal lobes
Anisomerous, 69

Anisophylly, 47, Centradenia , Col-
umnea , Gardenia
Anlage (German), the rudimentary
beginning
Annatto, 201, Bixa
Annexed, adnate

INDEX 653

Annotinus (Lat.), applied to
branches of last year’s growth
Annual plants, 150, 168; -rings,
157 ; -stem, 44
Annulate, marked with rings
Annulus, Filicineae Leptosp.
Annuus (Lat.), annual
Anodal, in the upward direction
on the genetic spiral
Ante- (Lat. pref.), before
Antepetalous, 70
Anteposition, 70, 78
Anterior, 73
Anteroposterior, median
Anther, 77, 78 (fig.), 98, 123
Anther-lobe, 77

Antheridium, 55, Filicineae Lep-
tosp., Pteridophyta
Antherozoid, 55, Pteridophyta
Anthesis, flower-opening, 103
Antho- (Gr. pref.), flower-
Anthocarp, Nyctaginaceae
Antholysis, retrograde metamor-
phosis of flower
Anthophilous, flower-visiting
Anthophore, a stalk between calyx
and petals

Anthotaxy, arrangement of the
flower

-anthus (Gr. suff.), -flowered
Anti- (Lat. pref.), against
Anticous, on anterior side
Antidote-cocoon (W. I.), Fevillea
cor difolia L.

Antidromous, right- and left-
handed

Antipetalous, opposite to a petal
Antipodal cells, 81,^/ ngiospermae
Antisepalous, opposite a sepal
Antiseptic, preventing putrefaction
Antithetic, not homologous
Apetalous, 71, 76
Apex of leaf, 53

Apheliotropism, negative helio-
tropism
Aphotic, dark
Aphylly, absence of leaves
Apical placentation, 79, 82
Apiculate, 53
Apo- (Gr. pref.), from
Apocp., apocarpous, 70, 79, 82

Apogamy, Asplenium , Balano-
phora , Filicineae Leptosp.
Apogeotropic, 36, Bowenia
Apoheliotropic, 36
Apopetalous, polypetalous
Apospory, Filicineae Leptosp.
Apotropous, anatropous with
ventral raphe
Appendages (stamens), 78
Appendiculate, with appendages
Apple, Pyrus ; alligator-, Anona
palustris L. ; custard-, Anona ;
elephant-, Feronia\ Kei-, Abe-
ria\ love-, Ly coper sicum ; Ma-
lay-, Eugenia ; May-, Podo-
phyllum ; pine-, Ananas ; rose-,
Eugenia ; star-, Chrysophyllum\
sugar-, Anona ; thorn-, Datura ;
wood-, Feronia
Appressed hairs, 53
Approximate, close together
Apricot, Prunus ; San Domingo-,
Mammea

Apterous, wingless
Aquaticus (Lat.), living in water
Arabian coffee, Coffea
Arabin, 198

Arachnoid, cobweb-like
Arar wood, Callitris
Arborescens, arboreus (Lat.), tree-
like

Arboretum, collection of trees,

8, 6

Arbor-judae, Cercis
Arbour- vine, Spanish (W. I.),
Ipomoea tuberosa L.
Arbor-vitae, Thuja
Arbutus, trailing (Am.), Epigaea
Arch., archipelago
Archaic genus, 120
Archangel, Archangelica ; yellow-,
Lamium

Archegonium, 55, 80, Archegoni -
atae, Filicineae Leptosp ., Pteri-
dophyta

Archesporium, Pteridophyta
Archichl., Archichlamydeae , 126
Arctic plants, 180, 147, 148
Arctic zone (Watson), above the
cultivated limit
Arcuate, bow-like

654

INDEX

Areas, specific, 147
Areca-nut, Areca
Arenaceous, arenarius (Lat.),
growing in sandy places
Areole, Cactaceae
Areschoug, F. W. C., 150, 154
Argan oil, Argania
Argentate, argenteus (Lat.), sil-
very

Argillaceus (Lat. ), growing on clay
Aril, 106, hi, Euonymus , My -
ristica

Arillate, with an aril
Arillode, a false aril, not arising
from the placenta
Aristate, awned (dim. aristulate)
Armed, thorny
Arn., Amott
Amotto, Bixa
Aroid house, 7
Arrack, Cocos

Arrangement (leaves), 51 ; (floral
leaves), 69

Arrow-grass, Triglochin
Arrow-head, Sagittaria
Arrow-root, Maranta ; Brazilian-,
Manihot ; East Indian-, Cur --
cuma , Tacca \ Portland-, A rum ;
West Indian -, Maranta
Art., article

Artichoke, Cynara\ Jerusalem-,
Helianthus

Articulate (leaf), 156, 53
Articulated, jointed
Artificial system of classification,
121

Artillery plant, Pilea
Arum lily, Richardia
Arundinaceous, reed -like
Arvensis (Lat.), of arable land
As., Asia

Asafoetida, Ferula
Asarabacca, As arum
Ascending aestivation, 75 ; ovule,
82 ; stem, 44

-ascens (Lat. suff.), tending to-
wards

Ascidium (Lat.), a pitcher
Aseptate, without partitions
Asexual, sexless; -generation, 56;
-reproductive cells, 54

Ash, Fraxinus ; mountain-, Pyrus ;
prickly-, Zanthoxylum\ -pump-
kin, Benincasa
Asparagin, 34
Aspen, Populus
Asper (Lat.), rough
Asperifolius (Lat.), rough-leafed
Aspermous, seedless
Asphodel, Aspkodelus; bog-, Nar-
thecium\ Scottish-, Tofieldia
Assai palm, Euterpe
Assegai-wood, Curtisia
Assimilation, 33, 169
Associations, plant, 179
Assurgent, ascending
Aster, China, Callistephus
Asteroid, star-shaped
Astichous, not in rows
Astrophiolate, with no strophiole
Asymmetrical flower, 73, 74, 77 ;
leaf, 52

Asymmetry, 31
Atavism, 29

Ater, atro- (Lat. pref.), black
Atl., Atlantic
Atlantic cedar, Cedrus
Atmospheric moisture and plant
distribution, 143
Atratus (Lat.), blackened
Atropin, Atropa
Atropous ovule, 82
Atropurpureus (Lat.), dark purple
Atrovirens (Lat.), dark green
Attar of roses, Rosay Pelargonium
Attenuate, tapering
-atus (Lat. suff.), provided with
Aubl., Aublet
Aureus (Lat.), golden
Auricled leaf, 51
Auricula, Primula
Austere, astringent
Austr., Australia
Austral regions, 95
Australian blackwood, Acacia\
-chestnut, Castanospermum ;
-currant, Leucopogon ; -red cedar,
Cedrela

Australis (Lat.), southern
Authority for name, 2 1 1
Autogamy, 97 seq., 59, 103, 181
Autumn crocus, Colchicum

INDEX

655

Autochthonous, native
Avens, Geum
Averse, turned back
Avocado, Persea
Awl- wort, Subularia
Awn, 109, Geraniaceae, Grami-
neae

Axial, axile, belonging to the axis
Axil, axilla, 41
Axile placentation, 79, 82
Axillary branches, 41
Axis, the stem; (floral), 83
Ayapana, Eupatorium Ayapana
Vent.

Azores, flora of, 148
Azureus (Lat.), sky-blue

B (flower-class), 90
B' (ditto), 91

B. and H., Bentham and Hooker
Bab., Babington
Babul, Acacia
Bacca (Lat.), a berry
Baccate, bacciferous, berried
Bacciform, berry-like
Bachelor’s button, double flowered
Ranunculus , Lychnis , Cen-

taur ea^ & c. ; Jasioney &c., &c. ;
(W. I.) Gomphrena
Bacillar, rod-shaped
Bacteroids, Legumhiosae
Badius (Lat.), chestnut-brown
Badinjan (W. I.), Solanuin Melon
gena L.

Bael, Aegle

Bahamas hemp, Agave rigida ,
var. ; -grass (W. I.), Cynodon
Dadylon , Pers.

Bahia piassaba, Attalea
Bailey, L. H., 197
Balata, 200, Mimusops ; -tree
(W. I.), Bumelia
Bald -money, Meum
Balf., Balfour

Balm, Melissa ; bastard-, Melittis ;

-of Gilead, Commiphora
Balsa, Ochroma

Balsam, hnpatiens ; (resin), 2T2;
-apple (W. I.), Momordica Bal-
samina L. ; -bog, Azorella ;
broad-leaved- (W. I.), Oreo -

panax capitotum D. et PI. .
Canada-, Abies; -fig (W. I.),
Clusia rosea Jacq. ; -hr, Abies ,
Gurjun-, Dipterocarpus ; of
Copaiba, Copaifera ; of Peru,
Toluifera ; of Tamacoari, Cara-
ipa ; of Tolu, Toluifera ; pig’s-,
Hedwigia ; -poplar, Populus ;
-tree, Commiphora ; yellow-
(W. I.), Croton jlavens
Bamboo, Bambusa , Dendrocala-
mus , Gramineae
Banana, Musa
Bandakai, Hibiscus
Baneberry, Actaea
Ban Rhea, Villebrunea
Banyan tree, Ficus
Baobab, Adansonia
Barbadoes pride (W. I.), Caesal-
pinia pulcherrima Sw., Adenan-
thera pavonina L.

Barbatus (Lat.), bearded
Barberry, Berberis
Barilla, Halogeton ; (W. I.), Bat is
Bark, 43, 158; Angostura, Cus-
paria ; brown Peru-, Cinchona ;
Canella-, Canella ; Cartagena-,
Cinchona ; Cascarilla-, Croton ;
Cassia-, Cinnamomum ; crown-,
Cinchona ; iron-, Eucalyptus ;
Jesuits’-, Cinchona ; Peruvian-,
Cinchona ; red Peru-, Cinchona ;
Quercitron-, Quercus ; stringy-,
Eucalyptus; West Indian (W.
I.), Exostemma; Winter’s-,
Drimys ; yellow-, Cinchona
Barley, Hordeum ; -grass, Hordeu?n
Barnyard grass (Am.), Panicum
Crus-galli L.

Barren (flower), male
Bar us camphor, Dryobalanops
Basal placentation, 80, 82
Basifixed, 78

Basifugal, from base upwards
Basil, Calamintha, Ocimum
Basilar, basal

Basi petal, towards base down-
wards

Basiscopic, facing the base
Basitonic, Orchidaceae
Basket-hoop (W. I.), Croton luci -

656

INDEX

dus L.; -withe (W. I.), Tourne-
fortia

Baskets, Bambusa , Borassus, Cocos
Bass, inner fibrous bark (Tilia)
Bass-wood, Tilia
Bassora gum, a mixture of Indian
bassorin gums
Bassorin, 198
Bast, 33

Bastard balm, Melittis ; -cedar,
Chickrassia\ -teak, Bulea ; - toad-
flax, Thesium

Bat-pollination, Freycinetia
Bat flowers, 99

Bateson, W., 23, 197, Veronica
Bath-sponge, Lnffa
Bathyphytium (Cl.), lowland plant
formation

Bawchan seed, Psoralea corylifolia

L.

Bay, Laurus\ -bean (Bermuda),
Canavalia obtusifolia DC. ;
-berry, Myrica\ loblolly-, Gor-
donia ; -rum, Pimenta ; sweet-
Magnolia , Laurus
Bdellium , Com tniphora
Beach-jungle, 191; -grass (Am.),
Ammophila ; -pea (Am.), Lathy -
rus maritimus Bigelow
Bead-tree, Melia , (W. I.) Ormo-
sia\ -vine (W. I.), Rhynchosia
Beads, 207

Beak, a pointed outgrowth
Beak-rush, Rynchospora
Beam-tree, Pyrus Aria
Bean, Vicia\ asparagus- (W. I.),
Dolichos sesquipedalis L. ; bog-
Menyanthes ; Calabar-, Physo-
stigma ; cherry-, Vigna\ duffin-,
Phaseolus ; French- or haricot-,
Phaseolus ; Hibbert- (W. I.),
Phaseolus lunatus L. ; horse-
(W. I.), Canavalia ensiformis
DC.; horse-eye- (W. l.),Mucuna
urens Medic.; kidney-, Phase-
olus; Lima-, Phaseolus lunatus
L. ; ordeal-, Physostigma; red-
(W. I.), Vigna catjang Walp. ;
sacred-, Nelu7nbium\ seaside-
(W. I.), Canavalia obtusifolia
DC. ; Vigna glabra savi ; soja-,

Glycine ; sugar- (W. I.), Phase-
olus lunatus L. ; St Ignatius’-,
Strychnos Ignatii Berg. ; sword-
(W. I.), Canavalia ensiformis
DC. ; Tonka-, Dipteryx ; Ton-
quin-, Dipteryx\ -tree, Castano-
spermum , (W. I.) Erythrina\
yam-, Pachyrhizus , Dolichos ;
year- (W. I.), Phaseolus vulgaris
L*

Bearberry, Arctostaphylos (Am.),
Rhamnus Purshiana DC.
Beard, an awn
Beard-grass, Polypogon
Bear grass (Am.), Yucca
Bear’s-foot, Helleborus foetidus L.
Beauv., Beauvois
Beaver poison (Am.), Cicuta
maculata L.

Beda nut, Terminalia belerica
Roxb.

Bed-straw, Galium
Bee-flowers, 92, Antirrhinum ,
Begonia , Boragot Coryanthes ,
&c.

Bee-hives, Bambusa
Bee-orchis, Ophrys', -tree (Am.),
Tilia

Beech, Fagus ; -fern, Polypodium\
seaside- (W. I.), Exostemma
Beef-apple (W. I.), Sapota \ -wood,
Casuarina

Beet-root, Beta% sugar-, Beta
Behen-oil, Ben-oil, Moringa
Bell-apple (W. I.), Passiflora

laurifolia L. ; -flower, Campan-
ula, Wahlenbergia
Belladonna, Atropa
Belly-ache bush (W. I.), Jatropha
gossypifolia L.

Beni seed, Poly gala butyracea
Heckel (W. Afr.)

Ben-nut (W. I.), Moringa ptery-
gosperma Gaertn. ; -oil, Moringa
Bengal kino, Butea
Benjamin, gum-, Sty rax ; -bush
(Am.), Lindera Benzoin Meisn.
Bent-grass, Agrostis , Apera
Benth., Bentham
Benth.-Hook, Bentham and
Hooker

INDEX 657

Bentham and Hooker’s system,

125

Benzoin, gum-, Sty rax
Berberry, Berberis
Bere, Hordeum
Bergamot orange, Citrus
Berger, 187

Bermuda-grass, Cynodon
Berries, yellow, Rhamnus
Berry, 108; bay-, Myrica ; bil-,
Vaccinium ; black-, Rubus ;

blae-, Vaccinium ; buffalo-,
Shepherdia ; cloud-, Rubus ;

cow-, Vacciniutn ; dew-, Rubus ;
partridge-, Gault heria\ rasp-,
Rubus ; straw-, Fragaria ; trim-
ble-, Rubus\ whortle-, Vacciniutn
Betel-nut, Areca\ -pepper, Piper
Betony, Stachys
Bhang, Cannabis
Bhotan pine, Pinus
Bi-, bis- (Lat. pref.), two
Biauriculate, with two auricles
Bicarpellary, two carpelled
Biceps (Lat.), two-headed
Bicolor (Lat.), of two colours
Bicuspidate, with two sharp points
Bidentate, with two teeth
Biennial plants, 151; stem, 44
Biennis (Lat.), biennial
Bifarious, distichous
Bifidhairs53; petals, 77; stigma, 82
Bifoliate, two-leaved
Big, 4-rowed barley
Bigeminate, in two pairs
Big tree, Sequoia
Bikh poison, Aconitum
Bilabiate corolla, 77
Bilateral symmetry, 31
Bilberry, Vaccinium
Bilimbi, Averrhoa
Billiard- balls, Phytelephas
Bilobus (Lat.), two-lobed
Bilocular, with two loculi, 82
Binary, of two members
Binate (leaf), of two leaflets
Bindweed, Convolvulus ; black-,
Polygonum Convolvulus L.
Binomial curve, 22; nomencla-
ture, 211

Biogenesis, life from life

W.

Biological agents and plant distri-
bution, 145

Biological classes of flowers, 87
Biology, in the narrower sense,
ecology

Biometry, statistical measurement
of living beings

Bion, an independent individual
Biparous, dichasial
Bipartite, divided into two
Bipinnate (leaf), 51
Birch, Betula\ West Indian,
Bursera

Bird-cherry, Prunus\ -pepper,
Capsicum minimum Roxb.
Birds and plant distribution, 109,
no, 148

Bird’s-foot, Ornithopus ; -nest
fern, Asplenium\ -nest orchis,
Neottia ; -foot trefoil, Lotus
Birth wort, Aristolochia
Biseriate, in two rows
Biserrate, twice serrate
Bisexual flowers, 68
Bishop’s cap (Am.), Mitella;

-weed, Aegopodium
Bispinose, with two spines
Bistort, Polygonum
Bisulcate, with two grooves
Bissy nuts, kola nuts, Cola
Biternate leaf, 51
Bitchwood (W. I.), Lonchocarpus
Bitter-ash (W. I.), Picraena ex -
celsa Lindl. ; -cress, Cardami?ie\
-nut, Cary a ; -orange, Citrus',
-root, Lezuisia; -sweet, Sola -
num; -wood, Picraena , (W. I.)
Picramna , Simaruba , Trichilia ,
Xylopia

Black bead shrub (W. I.), Pithe-
colobium Unguis-cati Benth. ;
-berry, Rubus ; -bindweed,
Polygonum Convolvulus L. ;
-boy, Xanthorrhoea\ -bryony,
Tamus ; -butt, Eticalyptus pilu-
laris Sm. &c. ; -cap raspberry,
Rubus ; -dammar, Canarium ;
-gram, Phaseolus ; -grass (Am.),
J uncus Gerardi Loisel. ; -gum
tree (Am.), Nyssa; -jack (Am.),
Quercus nigra L. ; -moss (Am.),

42

658

INDEX

Tillandsia usneoides L. ; -mus-
tard, Brassica; -oil, Celastrus ;
-snake-root, Cimicifuga ; -spleen-
wort, Asplenium ; -thorn,
Primus ; -wattle, Acacia ; - wood,
Acacia , Dalbergia
Bladder -campion, Silent; -fern,
Cy stop ter is ; -nut, Staphylea
pinnata L. ; -seed, Physosper-
mum; -senna, Colutea ; -wort,
Utricularia
Blaeberry, Vaccinium
Blastema, the axis of an embryo
Blastochore (Cl.), a plant dis-
tributed by offshoots
Blazing star, Liatris squarrosa
Willd.

Bleeding heart, Dicentra ; (W. I.)

Colocasia antiquorum Schott.
Blimting, Averrhoa
Blinding tree (Ceyl.), Excoecaria
Agallocha L.

Blinks, Montia

Blood-flower (W. I.), Asclepias
curassavica L. ; -root, Sanguin-
aria; -wood, Eucalyptus, (W.
I.) Laplacea

Blue- bell, Campanula, Scilla ;
-berry (Am.), Vaccinium spp. ;
-bottle, Centaurea; -flag (Am.),
Iris; -grass (Am.), Poa pratensis
L. ; -gum, Eucalyptus; -lettuce
(Am.), Mulgedium ; -tangle
(Am.), Gaylussacia f rondos a
Torr. et Gray; -weed (Am.),
Echium

Bluet, Vaccinium pennsylvanicum

Lam.

Blunt, with rounded end
Bo, Ficus

Bog-asphodel, Narthecium ; -bean,
Menyanthes; -garden, 8, 6;

-myrtle, Myrica ; -rush (Am.),
Juncus

Bois fidele, Citharexylum; -im-
mortelle, Erythrina umbrosa
Ii. B. K.

Boiss., Boissier
Boldo, Peumus
Bole, straight main trunk
Boil, a capsule (esp. cotton)

Bombay aloe, Agave; -hemp,
Crotalaria, Agave
Bombycinus (Lat.), silky
Bonace (W. I.), Daphnopsis
Bonavist(W. I.), Dolichos LablabB.
Boneset (Am.), Eupatorium
Borage, Bor ago
Boragoid, Boraginaceae
Boreal regions, 193
Borecole, Brassica
Borneo camphor, Dryobalanops ;

-rubber, Willughbeia
Boss, a protuberance
Bostryx, 64 (fig.), 65
Botanic gardens, uses, 6; mu-
seums, 8

Botany, economic, 197, 1 ; fossil,
120; systematic, 2, 1 15; tropical,
3

Botryose, racemose
Bottle-brush, Callistemon ; -cod-
root (W. I.), Capparis; -gourd,
Lagenaria; -grass (Am.), Se-
taria viridis Beauv.

Bourgeon, to bud or sprout
Bowstring hemp, Sansevieria
Bow-wood, Maclura
Bowrer, F. O., 30, 68, Filicineae
Box, Buxus, (Austr.) Eucalyptus;
Maracaibo or West Indian-,
Tabebuia pentaphylla Hems.;
-wood (W. I.), Vitex umbrosa
Sw.

P. Br., Patrick Browne
R. Br., Robert Brown
Brachialis (Lat.), a cubit long
Brachiate, with spreading branches
Brachy- (Gr. pref.), short
Bracken, Pteris

Bract, 62, 83, 89; as wing, no;
in fruit, 107

Bracteate, bearing bracts
Bracteole, bractlet, 62, 83
Brake, Pteris ; curled rock-,
Cryptogram me
Bramble, Rubus

Branching, 41, 42, 62, 70, 153;
(carpels), 70, 82; (stamens), 70,
86

Branda (W. I. ), Chione glabraB)Q,
Brandy-bottle, Nuphar

INDEX

659

Brauna, Melanoxylon
Braz., Brazil; -cherry, Eugenia
spp\ -nut, Bertholletia\ -wood,
Caesalpinia

Braziletto (W. I.), Caesalpinia ,
Peltophorum , Sciadophyllum ,
Weinmannia

Brazilian arrowroot, Manihot ;

-nutmeg, Cryptocarya
Bread-fruit, Artocarpus', Nicobar-
Pandanus ; -nut, Brosimum,
(Barbados) Artocarpus
Brevi- (Lat. pref.), short
Briar, Rosa
Briarwood, Erica
Brinjal, egg-fruit, Solatium
Bristle-fern, Trichomanes
Brit., Britain, British
Broad bean, Vida ; -leaf-tree
(W. I.), Terminatia latifolia
Sw.

Brocoli, Brassica
Brome- grass, Bromus ; false-,
Brachypodium
Brongniart’s system, 123
Brooklime, Veronica Beccabunga
L. ; -weed, Samolus
Broom, Cytisus ; -bush (W. I.),
Parthenium ; -corn, Sorghum ;
butcher’s-, Ruscus ; -rape, Oro -
banche; Spanish-, Spar Hum ;
-root, Epicampes', -tree (W. I.),
Baccharis ; -weed (W. I.),

Cocchorus , Scoparia
Broussa tea, Vaccinium A rctosla-
phylos L.

Brown Peru bark, Cinchona
Brumalis (Lat.), winter-
Brunneus (Lat.), brown
Brussels sprouts, Brassica
Bruyere, Erica
Bryo- (Gr. pref.), moss
Bryony, bastard (W. I.), Cissus ;

black-, Tamus ; white-, Bryonia
Bryophyta, 123

Buaze fibre, Securidaca longepe -
dunculata Fres. (E. Trop. Afr.)
Buchu, Barosma

Buck- bean, Menyanthes', -eye,
Aesculus ; -’s horn plantain,
Plantago ; -thorn, Rhamnus ,

(W. I.), Rosa laezigala Michx. ;
sea- -thorn, Hippophae\ -wheat,
Fagopyrum

Bud, 40, 41, 155, 15 6; dormant-,
42; flower-, 74, 104; winter-,
>55. >56, >59

Bud-protection, 50, 103, 104, 153,
>57. 167

Bud-scales, 20, 50
Buffalo-berry, Shepherdin', -grass,
Buchloe

Bugbane, Cimicifuga
Bugle, Ajuga

Bugloss, Lycopsis ; viper’s-, Echium
Bulb, 113, 152, 168
Bulbil, 1 13, 153, Agave , Allium ,
Lycopodium , Saxifraga
Bullace, Prunus

Bull-apple tree (W. I.), Sapota
rugosa Griseb.

Bullate, puckered
Bull-hoof (W. I.), Passiflora

Murucuja L.

Bullock’s heart, Anona
Bull pine, Pinus
Bull’s horn thorn, Acacia
Bully-tree (W. I.), Dipholis ,

My r sine, Sapota , &c.

Bulrush, Scirpus , Typha ; -millet,
Pennisetum

Bunch berry (Am.), Cornus
canadensis L.

Bunya-bunya pine, Araucaria
Buplever, Bupleurum
Bur, in

Bur-bark (W. I.), Triumfetta',
-dock, Arctium ; -grass (Am.),
Cenchrus', -marigold, Bidens\
-reed (Am.), Sparganium ;
-weed, Medicago, Sparganium
Burkill, I. H., 93, 173, 180,
Medicago, Stellaria
Burnet, Poterium\ -saxifrage,
Pimpinella

Burning bush (Am), Euonymus
atropurpureus Jacq.

Burn-nose (W. I.), Daphnopsis
Burtt Davy, 187
Bush (Australian), 192
Bush-wood, a forest in which the
shrubs are so abundant as to

42 — 2

66o

INDEX

keep the crowns of the trees
from touching

Bush-clover (Am.), Lespedeza
Bushy stigma, 86
Butcher’s broom, Ruscus
Butter, Bassia; -bur, Petasites ;
-and eggs (Am.), Linar m vul-
garis Mill. ; -cup, Ranunculus;
-nut, Caryocar; shea-, Butyro -
spermum ; -tree, Pentadesma ;
-wort, Pinguicula
Butterfly flowers, 91, Globularia ,
Hedychium

Butterfly orchis, Habenaria
Button-bush (Am.), Cephalanthus ;
-tree (W. I.), Conocarpus;

-weed (W. I.), Spermacoce ,

Borreria ; -wood, Plata n us

C., corolla, central
Cabbage, Brassica ; -bark tree
(W. I.), Andira inermis H.
B. K.; Kerguelen-, Pringlea;
-palm, Oreodoxa , (mountain,
W. L), Euterpe; -rose, Rosa;
skunk-, Symplocarpus; -tree,
Sabal , (W. I.) Oreodoxa , An-
dira

Cacao, Theobroma
Cachibou, Burs era
Cacoon (W. I.), Entada scandens
Bth.

Cactus, Cactaceae ; giant-, Cereus ;
-house, 7; night-flowering-,
Cereus ; old man-, Cereus
Cadjans, Cocos

Caducous, dropping early, 77
Caecum, a prolongation of the
embryo sac in Casuarina &c.
Caeruleus (Lat.), pale sky blue
Caesius (Lat. ), lavender coloured,
or pale green and grey
Caespitose, in tufts, 44
Caffein, Cola , Ilex , ( Coffea )

Cafta, Catha
Cajeput oil, Melaleuca
Cal., Caled., Caledonia
Calabar bean, Physostigma veneno-
sum Balf.

Calabash, Crescentia; -cucumber,
Lagenaria; -nutmeg (W. Afr.),

Monodora gran di flora Benth.,
(W. 1.) M. myristica Dun.
Calalu (W. I.), Phytolacca
Calamander, Diospyros quaesita

Thw.

Calamiferous, with hollow stem
Calamint, Calamintha
Calcaratus (Lat.), spurred
Calceolate, slipper-shaped
Calcicolous, living on chalk
Calciphilous, chalk-loving
Calico bush (Am.), Kalrnia lati-
folia L.

Calif., California; -lilac, Ceanothus
Calisaya bark, Cinchona
Calli- (Gr. pref.), beautiful
Calliature wood, Red Sanders
Callus, 156
Caltrops, Tribtilus
Calumba root, Jateorhiza; false-
(Ceyl.), Coscinium fenestratum
Colebr.

Calyc- (Gr. pref.), cup
Calycanthemy, a monstrosity of
the calyx imitating a corolla
Calyciflorae, 71
Calycine, belonging to calyx
Calycoid, like a calyx
Calyculus, Loranthaceae , Tofieldia
Calyptrate, capped
Calyx, 76, 67, 71, 88, 89, 91, 107
Calyx-tube, Thymelaeaceae
Cambium, 34, 156, 157, 158
Camelinus (Lat.), tawny
Camel-thorn, Alhagi maurorum
Medic.

Camellia, Theaceae
Camnium (Cl.), a succession due
to cultivation
Camomile, Chamomile
Campanulate corolla, 77
Campbell, D. H., 214
Campeachy wood (W. I.), Haema -
toxylon campechianum L.
Campestris (Lat.), growing in
fields

Camphor, 200, 203, Cinnamo-
mum ; ai-, Blumea; Barus-,
Borneo-, Dryobalanops ; Ngai-,
Blumea ; Sumatra-, Dryobala-
nops

INDEX

661

Campion, Lychnis , Silene ; blad-
der-, Silene \ moss-, Silene
Campylotropous, 83
Camwood, Baphia
Canada balsam, Abies ; -pitch,
Tsuga; -rice, Zizania
Canaigre, Rumex
Canary creeper, Tropaeolum pere -
grinum L. (7'. canariensis
Hort.) ; -grass, Phalaris ; -seed,
Phalaris

Cancellate, latticed
Candidus (Lat.), pure white
Candle- nut, Aleurites ; -plant,
Dictamnus ; -tree, Parmentiera ;
-wood (W. I.), Sciadophyl lum ,
Amy r is

Candy-tuft, Iberis
Cane, 207; dumb-, Dieffenbachia\
rattan-, Calamus \ sugar-, 34,
Saccharum\ wild- (W. I.),

Arundo

Canella bark, Canella
Canescent, grey or hoary
Canker-berry (W. I.), Solanu?n
bahamense L.

Cannon-ball tree, Couroupita
Cantaloupe, melon
Canterbury bell, Campanula
Canus (Lat.), grey- white
Caoutchouc, 114, 199, Castilloa ,
Ficus , Hevea, Moraceae, Wil -
lughbeia , &c., and see Rubber
Caparrosa, Neea

Cape gooseberry, Physalis ; -pond
weed, Aponogeton
Caper, Capparis

Capet tree (W. I.), Capparis
verrucosa Jacq.

Capillary, hair-like
Capitalist plants, 59
Capitate stigma, 82
Capitellate, dim. of capitate
Capitulum, 63, Compositae
Capreolatus (Lat.), tendrilled
Caprification, Ficus
Caps., capsule, 1 08
Caraguata fibre, Eryngiu?n, Bro-
melia, Furcrea , &c.

Caramba. carambola, Averrhoa
Carambola L.

Carapa, Carapa
Carat, Ceratonia
Caraway seed, Carum
Carbohydrates, 34
Cardamoms, 203, Amomum ,
Elettaria

Cardinal flower, Lobelia cardiua-
lis L.

Cardoon, Cynara
Caricature plant (Ceyl.), Grapto-
phyllum hor tense Nees
Caries, decay
Carina, Leguminosae
Carinate, keeled
Carline thistle, Carlina
Carnation, Dianthus
Carnauba, Copernicia
Carneus (Lat.), flesh-coloured
Carnivorous plants, 178
Carnosus (Lat.), fleshy
Carob-tree, Ceratonia
Carolina allspice, Calycanthus ;

-jasmine, Gelsemium
Carp- (-0, -a, -um, Gr.), fruit
Carpel, 79, 55, 66, 88
Carpet- weed (Am.), Mollugo
Carpid, dim. of carpel
Carpophore, Rosaccae , Umbelli-
ferae

Carpophyll, carpel
Carpostrote (Cl.), plant migrating
by means of fruits
Carpotropic movements, 104
Carrion-flower (Am.), Smilax
herbacea L. ; -flowers, 92, 87,
89, J02, Amorphophallusi Slo-
pe l ia

Carrot, Daucus
Cartagena bark, Cinchona
Cartilaginous, firm and tough, 53
Caruncle, 106

Caryophyllatus (Lat.), with long
claw

Caryopsis, 108, Gramineae
Cascara sagrada, Rha7)inus
Cascarilla bark, Croton
Cashaw (W. I.), Prosopis
Cashew-nut, Anacardiian
Cass., Cassini
Cassareep, Mi inihot
Cassava, Euphorbiaceae , Manihot

662

INDEX

Cassia bark, Cinnamomum ;

-broom (W. I.), Cassia
Cassie flowers, Acacia , 219
Castaneous, chestnut coloured
Castor-oil, 200, Ricinus
Casual, an occasional weed of
cultivation, not naturalised
Cataphyllary leaves, scales
Cat-brier (Am.), Smilax
Catch-fly, Lychnis , Silene
Cat-claw (W. I.), Bignonia Un-
gniscati L.

Catechu, Acacia
Catinga forests, 168, 189
Catjang, dhal, Cajanus
Catkin, 63, Corylus
Cat-mint, cat-nip, Nepeta
Cat’s ear, Hypochoeris\ -foot,
A ntennaria ; -tail, Typha
Cauda, a tail-like appendage
Caudatus (Lat.), tailed
Caudex, a trunk or stock
Caudicle, Orchidaceae
Caulescens (Lat.), with obvious
stem

Caulicle, a diminutive stalk
Cauliflory, production of flowers
from the old wood, Artocarpus ,
A v err ho a

Cauliflower, Brassica
Cauline leaf, 51
-caulis (Lat. suff.), -stemmed
Caulocarpic, fruiting repeatedly
Caulome, organ of stem nature
Cayenne pepper, Capsicum
Ceara rubber, Manihot
Cebu hemp, Manila hemp, Musa
Cedar, Atlantic, Cedrus ; Aus-
tralian red-, Cedrela ; bastard-,
Chickrassia , (W. I.) Guazuma
tomentosa H. B. K. ; Bermuda-
(W. I.), Juniperus bermudiana
L. ; Japanese-, Cryptomeria ; of
Lebanon, Cedrus ; Oregon-,
Cupressus Lawsoniana A.
Murr. ; pencil-, Juniperus red-,
Junipertis', Siberian-, Pinus ;
West Indian-, Cedrela\ white-,
Chatnaecyparis, Chickrassia ,

Libocedrus ; yellow-, Chamaecy-
paris; -wood, Cedrela

Ceiba, Eriodendron
Celakovsky, L., Coni ferae
Celandine, Ranunculus ; greater-,
Chelidonium\ West Indian-,
Bocconia

Celery, Apium\ -pine, Phyllocladus
Cellulose, 34, 203
Censer-mechanism, ito, Aconitum
Cent., Central
Centaury, Erythraea
Central nucleus, 80
Centric leaf, 49, 18 1, Junctis
Centrifugal, away from centre
Centripetal, towards centre, 63
Century, set of 100 dry plants
Century-plant, Agave
Cephalo- (Gr. pref.), head-
Cerasin, 198

Cerasee (W. I.), Momordica
Cerato- (Gr. pref.), horn-
Cereals, 204, Gramineae
Ceriferous, wax-producing
Cernuus (Lat.), nodding
Ceterach, Ceterach
Ceylon oak, Schleichera trijuga
Willd.

Cf., compare

Chaffweed, Centunculus minimus

L.

Chain-fern (Am.), Woodivardia
Chalaza, 80, 81, Chalazogamae
Chalazogamic, 81, Chalazogamae
Chalicium (Cl.), a gravel-slide
formation

Chamisal, Adenostoma
Chamise, 188

Chamomile, Anthemis\ wild-,
Matricaria
Champak, Michelia
Change of colour in flowers, 100,
Brunfelsia , Lonicera
Chaparral, 188, Adenostoma
Characters in classification, 122
Charas, Catmabis
Charcoal, Betula
Chard, artichoke
Charlock, Brassica
Chartaceous, of papery texture
Chasmogamic, open, not cleisto-
gamic

Chaulmoogra, Gynocardia

INDEX

663

Chawstick (W. I.), Gouania
Chayote, chocho, Sechium
Chayotilla, Hanburia
Chay-root, Oldenlandia umbellata

L.

Che (W. I.), ditto
Cheatgrass (Am.), Broinus
Checker-berry (Am.), Gaultheria
Chemotaxis, 36, 56
Chemotropism, 36, 56
Chena (Ceyl.), burning off forest
for a couple of crops
Cherimolia, cherimoyer, Anona
Cherry, Prunus\ Barbados-, Mal-
pighia ; bastard (W. I.), Ehretta',
-bean, Vigna ; broad-leaved
(W. I.), Cordia macrophylla L. ;
clammy- (W. I.), Cordia Col -
lococca L. ; Cornelian-, Cornus\
Jamaica- (W. I.), Ficus pedun-
culata Ait. ; -laurel, Prumis ;
-pie, Heliotr opium ; West In-
dian-, Malpighia , Bunchosia ;
winter-, Physalis
Chersium (Cl.), a dry waste
formation

Chervil, Anthriscus , Chaero-
phyllum

Chess (Am.), Bromus
Chestnut, Castanea ; Australian-,
Castanospermum\ horse-, Aes-
culus

Chi., China

Chian turpentine, Pistacia
Chibou, Bursera
Chick-pea, Cicer; (Ceyl.), Cajanus
indicus Spr.

Chick weed, Stellaria ; (W. I.),
Dry maria cor data Willd. ;
African- (W. I.), Mollugo ;

mouse-ear-, Cerastium\ -winter
green, Trientalis
Chicle gum, Achras
Chicory, Cichorium
Chillies, Capsicum
Chin, Orchidaceae
China-aster, Aster , Callistephus ;
-grass, Boehmeria ; -jute, Abuti-
lon\ -root (W. I.), Vitis

sicyoides Mig. ; -wythe (W. I.),
Smilax Balbisiana Kunth.

Chinese date-plum, Diospyros ;
-grass-cloth, Boehmeria\ -green
indigo, Rhamnus
Chinquapin (Am.), Castanea
pumila Michx.

Chionium (Cl.), a snow formation
Chiquito, Combretum
Chiretta, Swertia Chirata Ham.
Chirimoya, cherimoyer, Anona
Chittagong wood, Chickrassia
Chive, Allium
Chlamydeous, 76
Chledium (Cl.), a ruderal formation
Chloro- (Gr. pref.), green, yellow
Chlorophyll, 33, 100, 176
Chloroplastids, 100
Chocho, Choco, Sechium
Chocolate, Theobroma
Choke-berry (Am.), Pyrus arbuti -
folia L.

Cholum (Tamil), Guinea corn
Choripetalous, polypetalous
Chorisis, 70

Chowlee (Ind.), Vigna Catiang
Walp.

Christmas gambol (W. I.), Ipomoea
sidifolia Choisy ; -pride (W. I.),
Ruellia paniculata L. ; -rose,
Helleborus

Christophine (W. I.), chocho,

Sechium

Christ’s thorn, Paliurus
Chromoplastids, 100
Chryseus (Lat.), yellow as gold
Chryso- (Gr. pref.), golden-yellow
Churrus, charas, Cannabis
Chylocauly, stem succulence
Chylophylly, leaf succulence
Cicatrix, a scar
Cicely, Myrrhis
Cilia, hair-like bodies
Ciliate (dim. ciliolate) leaf, 53
Cinchonidine, Cinchona
Cincinnus, 64 (fig.), 6 5
Cinereus (Lat), ash-grey
Cinnamomeous, light yellowish
brown

Cinnamon, Cinnamomum , Canella
(Am.) ; wild- (Ceyl.) litsea zey-
lanica Nees, (W. I.) Canella alba
Murr., Pimenta acris Kostel.

664

INDEX

Cinquefoil, Poientilla
Cipre (W. I.), Cordia Gerascan-
thus L.

Circinate, 75

Circumpolar light, 18 1, J uncus ;

-plants, 147
Circumscissile, 108
Cirrhiferous, tendril-bearing
Cirrhose, 53
Citron, Citrus
Citronella oil, Andropogon
CL, Clements (Research methods
in Ecology)

Cladode, phylloclade
Clary, Salvia ; wild- (W. I.),
Heliotropium

Classification, 115, 31, 122
Clathrate, latticed
Clavate, club-shaped
Claw (petal), 77

Clearing-nut, Strychnos potatorum
L. f.

Clearweed (Am.), Pilea
Cleavers, Galium
Cleft, cut halfway down
Cleistogamy, 98, Viola , Com -

melina

Cliff brake (Am.), Pellaea
Climbing fern (Am.), Lygodium\
-plants, 170, 36, 44, 146; roots,
Araceae\ vine (W. I.), Psycho-
tria parasitica Sw.

Clinandrium (orchids), anther-bed
Closed bundles, with no cambium
Clotbur (Am.), Xanthium
Cloudberry, Rubus
Clove gilliflower, var. of carna-
tion

Clover, Trifolium
Cloves, Eugenia ; (W. I.) Pimenta
acris Kostel. ; Madagascar,
R averts ar a aromatic a Sonn.
Clovenberry bush (W. I.), Sarny da
sefrulata L.

Club-moss, Lycopodium', -rush,
Scirpus

Cluster pine, Pinus
Clypeate, shield- shaped
Cm., centimeter
Coach-whip, Fouquieria
Coadunate, adnate, connate

Coarctate, crowded together
Coast-flora, 186, 188, 191
Cob-nut, Corylus , (W. I.) Om-
phalea triandra L.

Coca, Erythroxylum
Cocaine, 203, Erythroxylum
Coccineus (Lat.), scarlet
Coccule, portion of a divided
coccus

Cocculus indicus, Anamirta
Coccus, a mericarp
Cochineal, 201, Cactaceae , Nopa -
lea, Opuntia

Cochlea, a closely coiled legume
Cochlear, spoon-shaped
Cochleate, coiled shell-shaped
Cock’s comb, Celosia ; -head
(W. I.), Desmodium tortuosum
DC. ; -foot grass, Dactylis ; -spur
(W. I.), Pisonia aculeata L. ;
-spur thorn (Ceyl.), Acacia
eburnea Willd.

Cockle (Am.), Lychnis ; -bur
(Am.), Xanthium
Coco, Colocasia antiquorum
Schott ; -de mer, Lodoicea ; -nut,
Cocos, Lodoicea ; -plum, Chryso-
balanus', water -nut, Nipa\
-wood (W. I.), Ingavera Willd.
Cocoa, Theobroma
Cocos or cocus wood, Brya
Codlins and cream, Epilobium
hirsutum L.

Coelospermous, with boat-shaped
seeds

Coffee, Coffea

Cogwood, Zizyphus , (W. I.)

Ceanothus sp .

Coh., cohort, 120
Cohesion, 70, 84, [23
Cohosh (Am.), Cimicifuga\ blue-,
Caulophyllum

Cohune-nut (W. I.), Attalea

cohune Mart.

Coir, Cocos

Cokernut, coconut, Cocos
Col., colony
Cola, Cola
Cold-leaves, 182
Coleoptera, 87
Colic-root (Am.), Aletris

INDEX

Collar, junction of root and shoot
Collards (Am.), form of cabbage
Collateral branches, 42
Collecting, 13; -tins, 11
Collective fruit, 107
Collet, collar
Colleters, glandular hairs
Collinus (Lat.), on low hills
Colocynth, Citrullus
Colonist, weed of cultivated land,
rare elsewhere
Colophony, 199

Colour (flower), 100-103, 89, 184,
Boraginaceae

Colt’s foot, Tussilago , (W, I.)

Pothomorpha
Columbine, Aquilegia
Columella, central axis of fruit, as
in Geranium , Thuja
Column, Orchidaceae
Colza, 20c, Brassica
Coma, a tuft of hairs
Comfrey, Syniphytum
Commensalism, living together of
two beings, for mutual benefit
Commissure (Umbelliferae), face
by which carpels cohere
Common receptacle, 63
Communis (Lat.), social, general
Community (Cl.), a mixture of
individuals of two or more species
Comose, hairy in tufts
Comparison in morphology, 27
Compass-plants, 49, Lactuca , Sil-
phium

Compital, when veins intersect
at an angle
Complanate, flattened
Complete flower, 76
Complicate, folded on itself
Compound leaf, 51
Compressed, flattened
Concealment of honey, 90 seq.
Conceptacle, reproductive cavity
Concinnus (Lat.), neat
Concolor (Lat.), of uniform colour
Concrescence, 30, 42, 70, 76, 80
Concrete, growing together
Condensed stem, 44
Condiments, 205
Conduplicate, 53, Crucifer ae

665

Cone, 55, 61, Coniferae ; -flower
(Am.), Rudbeckia
Confertus (Lat.), crowded
Confluent, blending
Congenital, grown to
Congo pea, Cajanus
Conifer, Coniferae
Conjugate, coupled
Connate, 51
Connective, 77
Connivent, converging
Contabescent (anther), shrivelling
Continuation shoot, Thelygonum
Contorted aestivation, 75
Contortoduplicate, twisted and
folded

Contrayerva (W. I.), Aristolochia
Convol., convolute, 53, 75
Convolvulus, Calystegia
Coondi, Carapa

Copaiva tree (W. I.), Copaifera
Copal, 199, Agathis, Copaifera ,
Hymenaea , Trachylobiu?n \

Indian-, Vateria\ Manila-,
Agathis ; Kauri-, Agathis
Copper-beech, Fagus
Copra, Cocos
Copse, 185, 188
Coquito-palm, Jubaea
Cor., corolla

Coral-berry (Am.), Symphoricar-
pus ; -root, Corallorhiza\ -tree,
Erythrina
Coratto, keratto
Cord-grass, Spartina
Cordate, heart-shaped, 52
Cordifolius (Lat.), cordate-leaved
Coriaceous, leathery, 53
Coriander seed, Coriandrum
Cork, 43, Quercus ; -tree, Indian,
Millingtonia hortensis L. f. ;
-wood, Ochroma , (Am.) Leit-
neria , (W. I.) Anona palustris ,
&c.

Corm, 152, 153, Bowiea
Cormophyte, Phanerogam or
Vascular Cryptogam
Corn, in England, wheat, in
America, Indian corn ; broom-,
Sorohum ; Chinese (W. I.),

Setaria italica Beauv. ; -cockle,

666

INDEX

Lychnis ; -flower, Centaur ea\
guinea-, Sorghum ; Indian-, Zea\
Kaffir-, Sorghum ; -marigold,
Chrysanthemum ; -salad, Val-
erianella
Cornel, Cornus
Cornelian cherry, Cornus
Cornish moneywort, Sibthorpia
Corolla, 7 6, 67, 71, 88, in
Corolline, belonging to corolla
Coromandel wood, Calamander
Corona, Amaryllidareae , Asclepia -
daceae , Passifloraceae
Corpse-plant (Am.), Monotropa
Corpusculum, Asclepiadaceae
Correlated variation, 23, 69
Corsican pine, Pinus
Cortex, tissue between vascular
bundles and epidermis
Corymb, 63

Coryphium (Cl.), alpine meadow
formation

Cosmop., cosmopolitan
Costate (dim. costulate), ribbed
Cotton, 202, Gossypium, Mal-
vaceae', -grass, Eriophorum ;
-rose (Am.), Filago\ -sedge,
Eriophorum ; -seed cake, Gos-
sypium ; silk-, Eriodendron ;
-thistle, Onopordon\ -tree, Bom-
bax ; -weed, Diotis\ -wood tree,
Populus

Cottony, with long soft hairs
Cotyledon, 36, 105, 112, 123
Cotyliform, dish or wheel shaped
Couch-grass, Agropyron
Coulter, J. M., Gymnospermae
Coumarin, Anthoxanthum
Country almond (Ceyl.), Termi-
nalia Catappa L. ; -walnut,
Aleurites triloba Forst.
Cover-scale, Coniferae
Cowage, Mucuna
Cow-bane, Cicuta; -berry, Vacci -
nium \ -itch, Mucuna ; parsnip,
Heracleum\ -pea, Vigna ; -tree,
Brosium', -wheat, Melampyrum
Cowrie pine, Agat/iis
Cowslip, Primula
Cpl., carple

Crab grass (Am.), Panic um,

Eleusine*, -*s eyes, Abrus ;
-wood (W. I.), Carapa guia -
nensis Aubl.

Cranberry, Vaccinium
Crane’s bill, Geraniu?n
Crassus (Lat.), thick
Crateriform, cup-shaped
Creeper, Canary, Tropaeolum
peregrinum L. ; trumpet-, Tecoma
radicans Juss. ; Virginian-, Vitis
Creeping plants, 153 ; stem 44
Cremnium (Cl.), a cliff formation
Cremocarp, a mericarp
Crenate leaf, 53

Crenium (Cl.), a spring formation
Creosote plant, Larrea
Cress, Lepidium ; Indian-, Tro-
paeolum', penny-, Thlaspi',
rock-, Arabis; water-, Nastur-
tium ; winter-, Barbarea ; yel-
low-, Nasturtium, Barbarea
Crest, a ridge or outgrowth
Cretaceous, chalky
Cribriform, sieve-like
Crinitus (Lat.), with soft hairs
Crisp, crispate, crisped, curled, 53
Cristatus (Lat.), crested
Crocus, autumn-, Colchicum
Crosnes, Stachys
Cross-fertilisation, 56 ; -pollination,
94

Cross-wort, Galium
Croton of trop. gardens, Codiaeum
variegatum Bl.

Croton-oil, Croton
Crow-berry, Empetrum ; -foot,
Ranunculus ; -foot grass, Dacty-
loctenium

Crown-bark, Cinchona ; -beard
(Am.), Verbesina ; -Imperial,
Fritillaria imperialis L.; -palm
(W. I.), Maximiliana
Cruciate, cross-shaped
Cruentus (Lat.), blood colour
Crustaceous, hard and brittle
Crymium (Cl.), a polar-barren
formation

Cryptogam, Cryptogamae
Cuba bark (W. I.), -bast, Hibis-
cus elatus Sw. ; -hemp (Austr.),
Furcrea

INDEX

667

Cubebs, Piper

Cuckoo-flower, Cardamine\ -pint,
Arum

Cucullate, hooded, cowled
Cucullus, Asclepiadaceae
Cucumber, Cucumis; calabash-,
Lagenaria; squirting-, Ecbal-
lium ; -tree (Am.), Magnolia
Cucurbitaceous, gourd -like
Cudweed, Gnaphalium
Culm, stem of a grass
Cult., cultivated
Cultivation, effects of, 60
Culver’s physic, Culver’s root,
Veronica virginica L.

Cumbu, Pennisetum typhoideum
Rich.

Cumin seed, Cuminum
Cuneal, cuneate, cuneiform,
wedge-shaped, 52
Cup (of flower), 71; -plant (Am.),
Silphium perfoliatu7n L.
Cuprea bark, Remijia
Cupreous, copper- coloured
Cupule, Fagaceae
Curare, Strychnos
Curled rockbrake, Cryptogramme
Curly-greens, Brassica
Currant, Rides , Vitis ; Indian
-bush ( W. I .) , Miconia , Clide?nia,
&c.; -tree (W. I.), jacquinia,
Beureria

Curry-leaf (Ceyl. Ind.), Murraya
Koenigii Spreng.

Curve, binomial, Galtonian, New-
tonian, 22 ; of frequency of
error, 22

Cuscus, Khuskhus, Andropogon
Cushion- plants, with cushion-like
growth to reduce transpiration
Cusparia bark, Cusparia
Cuspidate, with rigid point
Custard apple, Anona
Cutch, Acacia , Rhizophora
Cuticle, 47, 161, 165
Cutting-grass (W. I.), Scleria

flagellum-nigrorum Berg.
Cyaneus (Lat.), full blue
Cyathium, 66, Euphorbia
Cybele, a flora
Cyclic, 69

Cyclo- (Gr. pref.), circle-
Cyclospermous, with embryo coiled
round endosperm
Cymbiform, boat-shaped
Cyme, 63; cymose, 63
Cyno- (Gr. pref.), dog-
Cyphel, Arenaria
Cypress, Cupressus ; Stika-,
Chamaecy paris ; -pine (Austr.),
Callitris ; swamp-, Taxodium
Cystolith, a concretion in cells of
Urticaceae, &c.

Dactyloid, finger-like
Dadap, Erythrina
Daffodil, Narcissus
Dagger-plant (W. I.), Yucca
Daisy, Beilis ; Australian-, Vitta-
dinia ; dog-, Chrysanthemum ;
Michaelmas-, Aster ; ox-eye-,
Chrysanthemum ; -tree, Mon-
tanoa bipinnatifida C. Koch.
Dal, pigeon-pea, Cajanus
Dalmatian insect powder, Chrys-
anthe7nu?n

Dame’s violet, Hesperis
Dammar, 199, Agathis ; black-,
Cana7'iu7n ; white-, Vateria
Dammer, U., 16
Damson, Prunus ; bitter- (W. I.),
Simaruba amara Aubl. ; -plum
(W. I.), Chry sophy llum
Dancing girls, Mantisia
Dandelion, Taraxacum
Dangleberry (Am.), Gaylussacia
Darnel, Lolium te7nulentum L.
Darwin, C., 23, 56, 58, 95, hi,
170, 177, 189; Lyth7'U7?i, Orchi-
daceae

Darwin, F., 58

Date, Phoenix ; -plum, Diospy-
ros

Davenport, C., 23

David’s root (W. I.), Chiococca

Dayflower (Am.), Com7nelina ;

-lily (Am.), He7nerocallis
DC., A. P. de Candolle
Dene., Decaisne

Deadly dwale (W. I.), Acnistus;

-nightshade, Atropa
Dead-finish (Austr.), Acacia

668

INDEX

tetragonophylla F. Muell. ;
-nettle, Lamium
Deal, Pinus
Dealbate, whitened
Deca- (Gr. pref.), ten-
De Candolle, A., 140, 197
Decandrous, with ten stamens
Deciduous (leaf), 53, 154, (peri-
anth), 77

Declinate, bent down or forward
Decompound, several times
divided

Decumbent, 44
Decurrent, 51
Decussate, 51
Dedoublement, 70
Deer-berry (Am.), Vaccinium
stamineum L. ; -grass (Am.),
Rhexia

Definite growth of stem, 155
Definite infloresence, 63
Deflexed, bent sharply out
Defoliation, leaf-casting
Degenerate flowers, 85
Dehiscence (anther), 78, (fruit)
108

Deliquescent stem, 154
Deltoid, A-shaped
Demersus (Lat.), sub-aqueous
Dendroid, tree-like
Dendron (Gr.), a tree
Denizen, a plant probably foreign,
but maintaining its place
Dentate (dim. denticulate), 53
Deodar, Cedrus
Depauperate, diminutive
Dependent, hanging down
Descending aestivation, 75
Description of flower, 85, of leaf,
54

Detmer on size of seeds, 112
Development of organs, 28, 37
Devil-in-a-bush, Nigella
Devil’s bean (W. I.), Capparis
jamaicenis Jacq. ; -bit-scabious,
Scabiosa,', -cotton, Abroma
augits ta L.

De Vries, H., 22, 23, 46
Dewberry, Rubus
Dew-leaves, 144
Dextrorse, to the right

Dhak, Butea
Dhal, Cajanus
Di- (Gr. pref.), two
Diadelphous, 78
Diagram, floral, 80, 83
Diaheliotropism, 36
Dialypetalous, polypetalous
Diandrous, with two stamens, 78
Diaphragm, a dividing membrane
Diatropism, a placing of organs
transversely to a stimulus
Dicarpellary, 82
Dichasial cyme, 63
Dichlamydeous, 76
Dichogamy, 96, 86, 98
Dichotomy, 41
Diclinism, diclinous, 94, 68
Dicot., Dicotyledons
Dicyclic, 70
Didymous, twinned
Didynamous, 78
Diffuse, loosely spreading
Digitalin, Digitalis
Digitate leaf, 51

Dildo (W. I.), Cereus Swartzii
Griseb.

Dill, Peucedanum
Dill., Dillenius
Dimeric, dimerous, 70
Dimidiate, halved
Dimorphism, 29, 95, Chenopo -
dium

Dioecious, dioecism, 68, 97
Dioicus (Lat.), dioecious
Diphotic (Cl.), with two surfaces
unequally lighted
Diplecolobous, Cruciferae
Diplochlam., diplochlamydeous,
76

Diplostemonous, 77, Oxalidaceae
Diptera, 87

Disarticulate, to separate at a
joint

Disc (flower), 71, 72, (tendril), 172
Disc- flower, Compositae
Discoid, like a Greek quoit
Discolor (Lat.), with two surfaces
of unlike colour

Discontinuous distribution, 146,
Canarina , &c. ; -variation, 22,
1 18

INDEX

669

Discrete, separate
Dissected, deeply divided
Dissepiment, septum, 82
Distal, furthest from axis
Distichous, in two ranks, 47, 51
Distribution, discontinuous, 1 46 ;
geographical, 140, 3; of

seeds, 109; of sexes, 68,
Compositae ; of species, 14 1
Dita bark, Alstonia scholaris R.
Br.

Ditch grass (Am.), Ruppia
Dithecous, with two thecae
Dittander, Lepidium latifolium L.
Divaricate, very divergent
Divi-divi, Caesalpinia
Division of labour, 20, 88; among
stamens, Cassia , Commelina ,
Heeria

Dock, Rumex
Dodder, Cuscuta
Dodge, 197

Dog-bane (Am.), Apocynum ;
-daisy, Chrysanthemum ; -rose,
Rosa ; -’s tail grass, Cynosurus;
-’s tooth grass, Cynodon ; -wood,
Cornus , (W. I.) Piscidia
Dollee-wood (W. I.), Myristica
surinamensis Roland.

Domatia, 114, Fraxinus
Domba (Ceyl.), Calophyllum
Inophyllum L.

Dominant species, 179
Doob grass, Bermuda grass,
Cynodon

Doon (Ceyl.), Doona
Door weed (Am.), Polyg07ium

aviculare L.

Dormant buds, 42
Dorsal (leaf surface), 31, 49, 73,
(suture), 82
Dorsifixed anther, 78
Dorsiventral leaf, 49
Dorsiventrality, 31, 74, 163,

Podostemaceae

Double coconut, Lodoicea ; -flower,
22, 208; -needles, Coniferae
Douglas fir, Tsuga
Doum palm, Hyphaene
Dove- wood (W. I.), Alchoriiea
Down-tree (W. I.), Ochroma

Downy leaf, 53
Dragendorff, 197
Dragon-root (Am.), Arisaema;
-tree, Dracaena ; -’s blood,

Dracaena

Drepanium, 64, 65
Drinks prepared from plants, 206
Driodium (Cl.), a dry thicket
formation

Drip-tip, 143, 190, A eery Arto-
carpiiSy Begonia , Boehmeria ,
Ficus

Drooping of young shoot, 157 ; of
young leaves, Amherstiay Bau-
hinia , &c.

Dropper, young immature bulb
Dropseed grass (Am.), Sporobolus ,
Muhlenbergia

Drop wort, water, Oenanthe
Drude, O., 140, 179; floral regions,
190; zones of vegetation, 180
Drugs, 202

Drupaceous, drupe-like
Drupe, 108
Dry fruit, 107
Dry season, 151, 154, 155
Drying plants, 13
Ducksmeat (Am.), duckweed,
Lem7ia

Duffin bean, Phaseolus
Dulcis (Lat.), sweet
Dumb-cane, Dieffenbachia
Dumose, shrubby
Dunes, 186
Duramen, 158
Durian, Durio

Dutch clover, Trifolium\ -grass
(W. I.), Panicum 7nolle Sw. ;
-rushes, Equisetum
Dutchman’s breeches, Dicentra\
-pipe, Aristolochia
Dwale, Atropa
Dye stuffs, 201

Dyer’s green-weed, Genista ;
-weld, Reseda

E., East

E- (Lat. pref.), without
Eagle- wood, Aquilaria Agallocha
Roxb. (Burma)

Early purple orchis, 0?rhis

670

INDEX

Earth-nut, A rack is, Conopodium
East Indian arrowroot, Curcuma ,
Tacca ; -hemp, Crotalaria\
-rosewood, Dalbergia\ -walnut,
Albizzia Lebbek Benth.

Eau de Creole, Mammea
Ebeneous, black as ebony
Ebony, Diospyros , Maba ; Ameri-
can-, green-, Jamaican-, West
Indian-, Brya

Ebracteate, 62, without bracts
Ebracteolate, without bracteoles
Ecad (Cl.), a habitat form due to
origin by adaptation
Ecalcarate, spurless
Echino- (Gr. pref.), spiny-
Ecology, 2, 25, 26, 85
Economic Botany, 1, 197
Ecostate, ribless
Ectotrophic, 39
Ed., edition

Edaphic (soil) influences, 145
Eddoes (W. I.), Colocasia anti-
quorum Schott.

Edelweiss, Leontopodium
Edentate, toothless
Edible products, 203
Edulis (Lat.), edible
Eel-grass, Zostera
Eel-trap plants, 178
Effete, functionless from age
Effigurations, 72, Capparidaceae ,
Orchidaceae , Passiflora
Effuse, expanded
Egg-apparatus, 81, Angiospermae
Egg-fruit, -plant, Solanum
Eglandulose, without glands
Eglantine, Rosa Eglanteria L.
Egyptian Lotus, Nelumbiuni
Eich., A. W. Eichler, 68, 214,
Coniferae\ -system, 137, 123
E. Ind., East Indies
El spirito santo, Peristeria
Elater, Equisetum
Elaterium, Ecballium
Elatus (Lat.), tall
Elder, Sambucus\ dwarf- (W. I.),
Pilea grandis Wedd.
Elecampane, Inula
Elemi, 199; American-, Bursera ;
Manila-, Canarium

Elephant-apple, Feronia ; -*s ear,
Begonia ; -’s foot (Am.), Ele-
phantopus

Eleutheropetalous, polypetalous
Elevation of land, 147
Elk-horn fern, Platycerium
Ell., Elliott
Elliptical leaf, 52
Elm, Ulmus ; Spanish- (W. I.),
Cordia , Hamelia
Elongate, drawn out
Emarginate, 53

Emblic myrobalan, Phyllanthus
Emblica

Embryo, 105, 123; -sac, 80, 79,
A ngiospemnae , Gym nospermae ,
Spermaphyta
Emergences, 114
Enantiostyly, Klugia , Legumi-
nosae , Saintpaulia
Enchanter’s nightshade, Circaea
Endemic genus, 141; plants, 148;

species 149
Endive, Cichorium
Endl., Endlicher
Endo- (Gr. pref.), within; -carp,
108 ; -chylous, with internal
water-storing tissue ; -gamy,
fusion of ? gametes ; -genous,
38; -gens, Monocotyledons;
-parasite, plant living within
the tissues of the host ; -phytic,
living within another; -pleura,
inner seed coat, Cycadaceae ;
-rhizal, monocotyledonous ;
-sperm, 80, 81, 105, 106, 112,
123, Gymnospermae ; -tropic,
39

Eng., English

Engler, A., 149, 184,214; -system,
124

Engram, record produced on the
organism ; cf. New Phyt . v.

200

Ensate, ensiform, sword-shaped
Entire leaf, 52
Entomophily, 87, 61
Enzyme, an unorganised or soluble
ferment

Ephemeral, lasting a day, 150
Epi- (Gr. pref.), upon; -basal, in

INDEX

671

front of basal wall ; -calyx, 77,
Dipsacaceae , Lythraceae , Mal-
vaceae, Potent ilia, Rosaceae ;
-carp, ro8; -chil, end of an
orchid labellum, when distinct
from base ; -cotyl, stem of
seedling above cotyledons ;
-dermis, 47; -geal (germination),
with cotyledons above ground ;
-gynous, epigyny, 71, 72, 76,
80; -petalous, 70, 77; -phyl-
lous, 70, 77; -inflorescence,

Chailletia , Erythrochiton ; -phy-
sis, a protuberance round the
hilum of a seed ; -phyte, epi-
phytism, 173, 185, 187, Araceae ,
Bromeliaceae, Orchidaceae, Pla-
ty cerium. Poly podium , &c. ;

-sepalous, 70, 77; -sperm, outer
coat of seed ; -spore, Marsilia -
ceae, Salviniaceae ; -tropous
(ovule), with raphe towards
axis

Equitant aestivation, 53
Erect ovule, 82 ; stem, 44
Eremium (Cl.), a desert forma-
tion

Ericaceous, heath-like
Ericoid, 166
Erio- (Gr. pref.), woolly
Eriophorous, very cottony
Eroded, erose, slightly, irregularly
toothed, as though gnawed
Erostrate, not beaked
Erubescens (Lat.), blush-red
Eryngo, Eryngium
Erythro- (Gr. pref.), red
-escens (Lat. suff.), -ish
Esculentus (Lat.), edible
Esp., especially

Esparto, Ampelodesma , Lygeum,
Stipa

Espinal (formation), spiny wood-
land in S. America
Essence of violets, Iris
Essential oils, ethereal oils, 200;
organs, 66

Estival, pertaining to summer
Estrophiolate, with no strophiole
Etaerio, aggregate of lruits
Etiolation, 35, 161, 170

Etiolin, 35

Etiology, study of causes
Ettovv (W. I.), Cordia Sebestena

L.

Eu- (Gr. pref.), true, typical
Eucyclic, 69

Eugeogenous, weathering readily
to form soil
Eur., Europe
Eutropous, 93

Evalvis (Lat.), without valves
Evening primrose, Oenothera
Evergreens, 53, 154, 155, 185, 188,
190, 192

Everlasting, Ammobium , Anten-
naria, Gnaphalium (Am., W.
I.), Hclichrysum , Helipterum ;
-grass (Am.), Eriochloa\ moun-
tain-, Antennaria ; -pea (Am.),
Lathy r us

Evolution, 115; of flower, 69,

85

Ex- (Lat. pref.), not, without
Exalb., exalbuminous, 105, 112
Exc., except
Excelsus (Lat.), lofty
Excentric, out of the centre
Excl., excluding
Excluded, exserted
Excurrent, 154

Exine, extine, outer coat of pollen
grain

Exogamy, tendency of allied
gametes to avoid pairing
Exogenous, 38, 41
Exogens, Dicotyledons and Coni-
fers

Exotropism, 38
Exploding anthers, 86
Explosive pollen, 97
Exserted, protruding
Exstip., exstipulate, 27
Extinction of species, 118
Extra- (Lat. pref.), beyond
Extrafloral nectaries, Acacia,
Aleurites, Prunus
Extratropical, outside the tropics
Extrorse, 78
Eye-bright, Euphrasia
Eyes (buds), 152, Helianthus,
Solanum

672

INDEX

F (flower-class), 91
Fachel, 64, 65
Facies, external appearance
Facultative, incidental
Falcate, sickle-shaped
False acacia, Robinia ; -asphodel
(Am.), Tofieldia; -bromegrass,
Br achy podium ; -fruit, 106 ;

-hellebore (Am.), Veratrum ;
-indigo (Am.), Amorpha , Bap-
tisia; -jalap, Mirabilis ; -lettuce
(Am.), Mulgedium ; -mallow
(Am.), Malvastrum ; -nettle
(Am.), Boehmeria ; -oat-grass,
Arrhenatherum ; -septa, 82,
Cruciferae, Linaceae ; -whorl,
Labiatae

Family, natural order
Fan-palm (W. I.), Sabal , Thrinax
Farinaceous seed, 106
Farinosus (Lat.), covered with
mealy powder

Farkleberry (Am.), Vaccinium
arborem Marshall
Farmer, J. B., Hehninthostachys
Fasciation, 23

Fascicles (adj. fasciculate), 44
Fastigiate, 44
Fats, 34, 200

Feather-foil (Am.), Hottonia ;
-grass, Stipa , (Am.) Lepto-

chloa

Female flower, 68
Fennel, Foeniculum ; -flower-
seeds, Nigel la sativa L.; giant-,
Ferula

Fenugreek, Tngonella
-fer (Lat. sufif.), bearing
Feral, wild

Ferment, fermentation, 178, 206
Fern, Filicineae ; beech-, Polypo-
dium ; bird’s nest-, Asplenium ;
bladder- Cystopteris ; bristle-,
Trichomanes ; elk-horn-, Pla-
tycerium ; filmy-, Hymenophyl -
lum ; hard-, Lomaria ; harts
tongue-, Scolopendrium ; holly-,
Aspidium ; lady-, Asple -
nium ; maiden-hair-, Adi-
antum ; northern-, Lomaria ;
oak-, Poly podium ; parsley-,

Cryptogramme ; prickly shield-,
Aspidium ; royal-, Osmunda ;
shield-, Nephrodium \ staghorn-,
Platycerium ; tree-, Cyathea
&c. ; walking-, Asplenium
Ferrugineus (Lat.), rust-coloured
Fert., fertilisation, 81 ; cross- and
self-, 56

Fertile, capable of giving fruit
Fescue-grass, Festuca
Fever-bush (Am.),Z/«^ra; -few,
Chrysanthemum , Matricaria ;
bastard -few (W. I.), Parthe-
nium ; -wort (Am.), Triosteum
Fibres, 48, 'io\iAbroma, Abutilon,
Boehmeria , Maoutia , Cocos,

Mauritia , Yucca , &c.; Cara-
guata-, Eryngium ; Piassaba-,
Attalea

Fibrillose, with fibres
Fibrous root, 40
-fid, -fidus (Lat.), cleft, 53
Fiddle-wood, Citharexylum
Field botanists, notes for, 1 1
Field madder, Sherardia
Field work, 9

Fig, Ficus ; Hottentot-, Mesem -
bryanthemum ; Indian-, Opun-
tia ; mulberry-, Ficus ; -wort,
Scrophularia
Filament, 77
Filbert, Corylus
Filicinean, related to ferns
Filiform, thread-like, 82
Filmy ferns, Hymenophyllaceae
Fimbriate, 52, 77
Finger-grass (Am.), Panicum
Fingrigo (W. I.), Pisonia aculeata
L.

Fiorin-grass, Agrostis
Fir, Abies; Douglas-, Tsuga;
silver-, Picea ; spruce-, Picea ;
umbrella-, Sciadopitys
Firepink (Am.), Silene
Fissi parous, splitting
Fistular stem, 45
Five-finger (Am.), Potentilla ;

(W. I.) Syngoniwn
Fixed light position, 49
Fixed oils, 200

Flabellate, flabelliform, fan-shaped

INDEX

673

Flag, yellow-, Iris\ sweet-, Acorns
Flagellate, with whip-like runners
Flahault, A., 184
Flamboyante, Poinciana
Flame tree (Austr.), Nuytsia
Flavescent, becoming yellow
Flavus (Lat.), pure yellow
Flax, Linum ; New Zealand-,
Phor?niu??i ; spurge-, Daphne
Gnidium L.

Flea-bane, Erigeron , Pulicaria ;
(W. I.) Per nonia arbor escens
Sw.

Fleshy fruits, 107, iro, 204
Fleur de lis, Iris
Flexuose stem, 45
Flixweed, Sisymbrium Sophia L.
Floating heart (Am.), Limnan-
themum

Floral diagram, 83 ; -envelope,
perianth ; -formula, 84 ; -leaves,
69; -mechanisms, 94; -regions,
192 ; -symmetry, 73
Floras, 141

Flores verbasci, Verbascum
Floret, small flower of cluster
Fioribundus, producing many flrs.
Florida velvet bean, Mucuna
Floridus (Lat.), showy
-florus (Lat. suff.), flowered
Flos (Lat.), a flower
Flower, 66, 61, 74 ; -and insects,
66, 73, 76, 87, 93, 102, 184;
-axis, 66 ; -buds, 74, 156 ;

classes of-, 87, and see A, AB,
B, B', F, H, Po, W ; colours of-,
100, 89, 184; -cup, 71 ; -de
luce. Iris ; description of-, 85 ;
descriptive terms, 74 ; doubling
of-, 22, 208 ; -ecology, 85 ; -fence
(Barbados), Caesalpinia pulcher-
rima Sw. ; -evolution, 67 ; -me-
chanism, 94; -movements, 104,
96; -of xerophytes, 168; -pride
(W. I.), Caesalpinia pulcher-
rima Sw. ; -tube, 89 ; -with
exposed honey, 89
Flowering ash, Fraxinus\ -cur-
rant, Ribes ; -rush, Butomus
FI. pi., flore pleno, double
flowered

Fir., flower

Fluitans (Lat.), floating
Fluviatilis (Lat.), growing in
stream^.

Fly- flowers, Amorphophallus ,
Araceae , Arum , Asarum , Co-
boea, Stapelia\ -orchis, Ophrys ;
-trap, American, Apocynum ;
- -, Venus’, Dionaea
Flying buttress roots, 191
Fodder-plants, 203
Foerste, 156

Foetid horehound, Ballota
Folia Jaborandi, Pilocarpus
Foliaceous, leaf-like, leaf-bearing
Foliage leaves, 32, plants, 208
Folium (Lat.), a leaf
-folius (Lat. suff.), -leaved
Follicle, 108

Fontanus (Lat.), growing in or
near a spring

Food bodies, Acacia ; for animals,
203; for man, 203; of the gods,
Ferula

Fool’s parsley, Aethusa
Foot, 56

Foramen, an aperture
Forbidden fruit (W. I.), Citrus
Aurantium , var. Paradisi
Forest oak, Casuarina
Forests, 185, 190
F orget - me- not , Myosotis
Fork- veined, 51
Forms of vegetation, 150
Formula, floral, 84
Forsk., Forskal
Forst., Forster
Fossil botany, 120
Four-o’clock, Mirabilis
Fowl-meadow- grass (Am.), Poa ,
Glyceria

Fox-glove, Digitalis ; -grape,
Vitis ; -tail-grass, Alopecurus ,
(Am.) Spartina patens Muhl.
Frangipani, Plumiei'ia
Frankincense, 199, Boswellia ;
-pine, Pinus

Free, not ad- nor con-nate
Free-central placentation, 80, 82
Freidenfeldt, 150
French bean, Phaseolus\ -jujubes,

W.

43

674

INDEX

Zizyphus ; -rye-grass, Arrhena -
therum ; -weed (W. I.), Com-
vielina

Frijole (Mexico), Phaseolus vul-
garis L.

Frijolite, Sophora
Fringe-tree (Am.), Chionanthus
Fritillary, Fritillaria
Frog-bit, Hydrocharis ; -orchis,
Habenaria

Frondous, frondose, leafy
Frostweed (Am.), Hdianthemum
Frt., fruit, 106, 162, 204 ; of
xerophytes, 168
Frutex, a shrub
Frutescent, fruticose, shrubby
Fugacious, falling early
Fuliginous, sooty
Fuller’s teasel, Dipsacus
Fulvous, tawny, 53
Fumitory, Fumaria
Funereal cypress, Cupressus
Funicle 80, 81, Alchemilla
Funiculate, 82
Funnel-shaped corolla, 77
Furcate, forked
Furfuraceous, with soft scales
Furze, Ulex
Fuscous, dusky
Fusiform, spindle-shaped
Fustic, Chlorophora (W. I.),

Maclura , Xanthoxylum ; young-
Rhus

G., gynoeceum, G superior, G
inferior

Gad-bush (W. I.), Arceuthobium
gracile Engelm.

Gaertn., J. Gaertner
Galapagos Is., flora of, 148
Galapee tree (W. I.), SciadophyU
lum

Galba (W. I.), Calophyllum

Cal aba Jacq.

Galbanum, gum, Ferula
Gale, sweet, Myrica
Galeate, helmet-shaped
Galingale (Am.), Cyperus
Gallnuts, myrobalans
Galton, F., 23
Galtonian curve, 22

Gama grass (Am.), Tripsacum
Gambir, Uncaria
Gamble, 197
Gamboge, 199, Garcinia
Gamete, 54
Gametophyte, 55
Gamo- (Gr. pref.), united; gamo-
pet. , gamopetalous, 70, 76 ;
-phyllous, 70, 76 ; -sepalous,
70, 76 ; -tropic, 104
Ganja, Cannabis
Garden, bog-, 8, 6 ; botanic, 6 ;
rock-, 8, 6

Garget (Am.), Phytolacca
Gar j an oil, Dipterocarpus
Garlic, Allium; -pear-tree (W. I.),
Crataeva gynandra L. ; -shrub
(W. I.), Bignonia alliacea Lam.
Gasparillo (W. I.), Esenbcckia
Gaub tree, Diospyros
Gaudich., Gaudichaud
Gauze tree (W. I.), Lagetta
Gean, Prunus

Geitonogamy, pollination from
another flr. on same plant
Geminate, in pairs
Gemmae, buds, Hymenophyllaceae
Gen., genus

General, opposed to partial
Generations, alternation of, 56
Generic name, 21 1
Geniculate, bent sharply (kneed)
Genip tree (W. I.), Melicocca , &c.
Gentian, Gentiana
Genus, 120
Geocarpic, 107

Geographical distribution, 3, 140
Geology, 142, 146, 147
Geophilous, geocarpic
Geotropism, 36, 37, 40, 171
Geranium, Pelargonitim ; -grass,
Andropogon ; -oil, Andropogon
German pellitory, Anacyclus
Germander, Teucrium
Germen, ovary
Gerontogaeous, Old World
Getah (Malay), Gutta
Giant-bamboo, Dendrocalamus ;
-cactus, Cereus ; -fennel, Fet'ula ;
-pumpkin, Cucurbita ; -sugar
pine Pinus

INDEX 675

Gibbous, 77

Gifdoorn (S. Afr.), Sarcocauton
Gill (Am.), ground-ivy, Nepeta
Gilliflower, clove-, Dianthus
Caryophyllus L. ; wall- wall-
flower

Gin, Juniperus
Gingelly, Sesamum
Ginger, Zingiber
Gingili, Sesamum
Ginseng, Aralia
Gipsywort, Lycopus
Glaber (Lat.), glabrous, 53
Glacial era, 147, 149
Gladdon, Iris
Gladiate, sword-shaped
Gland, 115, 178
Glandular hairs, 53
Gians (Lat.), a nut
Glareal, growing on dry exposed
ground

Glass-wort, Salsola, (Am., W. I.)
Salic ornia

Glastonbury thorn, var. of haw-
thorn

Glaucescent, becoming sea-green
Glaucous, with waxy bloom, 53,
or sea-green
Globe-flower, Trollius
Globose, almost spherical
Glochidia, Azolla
Glomerate, collected into heads
Glomerule, cluster of short-stalked
flrs.

Glory-of-the-snow, Chionodoxa
Glucose, 34

Glumaceous, glume-like
Glume, Cyperaceae , Gramineae
Goa bean, Psophocarpus tetrago -
nolobus DC.

Goat’s beard, Tragopogont (Am.)
Spiraea Aruncus L. ; -rue,
Galega, (W. I.) Tephrosia

cinerea Pers.

Goatweed, Aegopodium , (Ceyl.)
Ageratum , (W. I.) Capraria ,
Stemodia

Gobbo, bandakai, Hibiscus
Goebel, K., 21, 27, 29, 31, 46,
47> 74. 150. 163. 173. «!4.

Euphorbia , Sonneratia , Utri-
cular ia

Gold-of-pleasure, Camelina
Golden club (Am.), Orontium ;
-pine, Pseudolarix ; -rod, Soli-
dago ; -saxifrage, Chryso-
splenium ; -seal, Hydrastis ;
-thread (Am.), Coptis tri folia
Salisb. ; -spoon (W. I.), Byrso -
ttitna ; -top (Am.), Lamarckia
aurea Moench. ; -tuft (W. I.),
Pterocaulon ; -wattle, Acacia
Gomier, Bursera
Gombo, okra, bandakai, Hibiscus
Gooseberry, Ribes ; American-
(W. I.), Heterotrichum ; Bar-
badoes (W. I.), Peireskia

aculeata Mil. ; cape-, Physalis ;
Otaheite-, Physalis distichus
Mlill.-Arg. ; -tomato, Physalis
Goosefoot, Chenopodium ; -grass,
Galium , (Am.) Eleusine indica
Gaertn.

Gorse, Ulex ; needle-, Genista
Gourd, Cticurbita ; bitter-, Citrul-
lus; bottle-, Lagenaria\ snake-,
Trichosanthes
Go wan, daisy
Gr., Greek

Gracilis (Lat.), slender
Graebner, P., 184
Graft-hybrid, Cytisus
Graines d’ Avignon, Rhamnus
Gram, Cicer ; black and green,
Phaseolus ; horse-, Dolichos
Grama or gramma grass, Bouteloua
Gramineous, relating to grasses
Granadilla, Passijlora ; -tree (W.

I.), Brya Ebenus DC.
Grandiflorus (Lat.), large-flowered
Grandis (Lat.), large
Grape, Vitis ; -fruit, Citrus ;
-hyacinth, Muscari ; seaside-,
-tree, wild- (W. I.), Coccoloba
Grapple- plant, Harpagophytum
Grass, Gramineae ; alkali-, Di-
stichlis ; arrow-, Triglochin ;
barley-, Hordeum ; barnyard-,
Panicum ; beard-, Polypogon ;
bent-, Agrostis , Apcra ; Ber-

43—2

6 76

INDEX

muda-, Cynodon ; blue-, see
Kentucky blue ; brome-,
Bromus ; canary-, Phalaris ;
cat’s tail-, Phleum ; China-,
Boehfneria', citronella-, Andro-
pogon ; cock’s foot, Dactylis ;
cord-, Spartina ; cotton-, Erio-
phorum ; couch-, Agropyron ;
crab- (Am.), Panicum ; darnel-,
Lolium ; ditch- (Am.), Ruppia;
dog’s tail-, Cynosurus ; dog’s
tooth-, Cynodon ; eel-, Zostera ;
esparto-, Lygeum , Stipa\ false
brome-, Brachypodium ; false
oat-, Arrhenatherum ; feather-,
Siipa ; fiorin-, Agrostis ; fowl-
meadow- (Am.), Poa, Glyceria ;
fox-tail-, Alopecii7’us\ French
rye-, Arrhenatherum ; goose-,
Galium ; Geranium-, Andro -
pogon ; Guinea-, Panicum ; hair-,
Deschampsia , Aira\ hedgehog-
(Am.), Cenchrus\ herd’s- (Am.),
timothy-, Phleum ; holy- (Am.),
Hierochloe ; Indian- ( Am . ) ,
Sorghum ; kangaroo-, Ant his -
tiria\ Kentucky blue-, Poa
pralensis L. ; knot-, Polygonum ,
Agropyron repens Beauv., (Am.)
Paspalum distichum L. ; lemon-,
Andropogon ; lyme-, Elynms ;
marram-, A mm op hi la ; mat-
Nardus ; Mauritius-, Panicum ;
meadow-, Poa ; melic-, Melica\
mesquite- (Am.), Boutelona ;
millet-, Milium ; oat-, Avena ;
-of Parnassus, Parnassia ;
Pampas-, Gynerium ; panic-,
Panicum ; quake-, Briza ;
reed-, Phalaris ; Rusa-, Andro-
pogon ; rush- (Am.), Vilfa ; rye-,
Lolium ; scorpion-, Myosotis ;
scurvy-, Cochlearia ; soft-,
Holcus ; sparrow-, Asparagus;
sweet vernal-, Anthoxanthum ;
timothy-, Phleum ; -tree, Juaw-
thorrhoea ; twitch-, Agropyron ;
wheat-, Agropyron ; white bent-,
Agrostis ; whitlow-, Dr aba ;
-wrack, Zoster a

Grass-cloth, Chinese, Boehmeria ;

-hemp (Austr.), Agave rigida
Graveolens (Lat.), strongly scented
Gravity, effects of, 74
Gray, Asa, 16, 21, 46
Grazing animals and vegetation, 179
Greater celandine, Chelidonium
Greek valerian (Am.), Polemonium
Green brier (Am.), Smilax ;
-gram, Phaseolus ; -heart,
Nectandra Rodioei Hook. ;
Kendal-, Genista ; -manure,
Leguminosae ; -weed, dyer’s,
Genista ; - withe (W. I.), Vanilla
claviculata Sw.

Gregarious, growing in company
Grenadilla, Passiflora
Grigri palm (W. I.), Martinezia
corallina Mart.

Griseb., Grisebach, A., 140
Gromwell, Lithospermum , Mer-
tensia

Groom, P., 154

Ground-cherry (Am.), Phy sails ;
-hemlock (Am.), Taxus ; -ivy,
Nepeta ; -laurel (Am.), Epigaea ;
-nut, Arachis , (Am.) 5

-pine, Ajuga , (Am.) Lycopodium
dendroideum Michx. ; -pink
(Am.), Phlox subulata L.
Groundsel, Senecio ; -tree (Am.),
Baccharis

Growing tissue, 34, 35
Growth, 34, 35 ; in thickness, 39,
43> 44> 1 5 7> G3

Gruinalis (Lat.), crane’s-bill
shaped

Guaco, Mikania amara Willd.
Guaiacum, Guaiacum
Guapuronga, Marlierea
Guar, Cyamopsis
Guava, Psidiu?n ; black- (W. I.),
Guet tarda argentea Lam.
Guayule, Parihenium argentatum ,
A. Gray
Guaza, ganja
Guelder rose, Viburnum
Guild, a group of plants resem-
bling one another ecologically
Guimauve, marsh-mallow

INDEX

677

Guinea corn, Sorghum ; -grass,
Panicum ; -hen’s weed (W. I.),
Petiveria alliacea L.

Gum, 198, Chloroxylon ; -ammo-
niacum, Dorema ; Angico-,
Piptadenia ; -arabic, Acacia ;
-benzoin, Siyrax ; blue-,
Eucalyptus ; chicle-, Achras ;
-cistus, Cistus ; doctor’s- (W. I.),
Rhus Met opium L. ; -elemi tree
(W. I.), Dacryodes hexandra
Griseb. ; -euphorbium, Euphor-
bia resinifera Berg. (Morocco) ;
-galbanum, Ferula ; -kino, see
kino ; -lac, see lac ; -ladanum,
Cistus ; -olibanum, Boswellia ;
-opopanax, Opopanax ; -sanda-
rach, Callilris', sweet-, Liquid -
a?7ibar\ -tragacanth, Astra-
galus', -tree, Nyssa , (W, I.)
Sapium

Gum-resins, 199
Gumbo, okra, Hibiscus
Gunjah, Cannabis
Gunny, Corchorus
Gunpowder plant, Pilea
Gurjun balsam, Dipterocarpus
Gutta-percha, 200, Bassia , Mimu-
sops , Palaquium , Payena ;
-jelutong, Dyei'a ; -puteh,
Palaquium ; -ram bong, Ficus ;
-sundek, Payena
Gymnemic acid, Gymnema
Gymno- (Gr. pref.), naked
Gynandrous, 70, 78
Gyno- (Gr. pref.), female ; -basic,
82, Labiatae\ -dicecism, 68;
gynoeceum, 79, 82, 86, 123 ;
-monoecism, 68, Composiiae ;
-phore, 72, Capparidaceae ;
-stegium, Asclepiadaceae ; -ste-
mium, Candolleaceae , Aristo-
lochiaceae

Gypsy- wort, Lycopus
Gyrate, curved into a circle

H (flower-class), qi
II. B. K., Humboldt, Bonpland,
and K unth
Hab., habitat

Haberlandt, G., 189
Habit, 44

Hackberry (Am.), Ccltis
Hackmatack (Am.), Larix
Haematoxylin, Haematoxylon
Hair bell, Campanula ; -grass,

A ira , Deschampsia , ( Am . )

Agrostis, Muhlenbergia
Hairs, 114, 53, 165
Iialmilla (Ceyl.), Berrya Ajjwio-
nilla Roxb.

Halo- (Gr. pref.), salt
Halophilous, salt-loving
Halophytes^ 145, 169, 193, Cheno-
podiaceae
Hannan, 197

Hansgirg on protective move-
ments 104

Hapaxanthie, with single flowering
Haplochlamydeous, 76 ; -stemo-
nous, 78

Haptera, 163, Podostemaceae
Hard-fern, Blechnum , Lomaria ;
-hack (Am. ), Spiraea ; -wood
tree (W. I.), Ixora ferrea

Benth.

Hare-bell, Campanula ; -’s ear
Bupleurum

Haricot bean, French bean

Harshberger, J., Zea

Hart’s tongue fern, Scolopendrium

Harv., Harvey

Hashish, Cannabis

Hastate, 52

Hats, Panama, Carludovica
Haulm, stem
Haustoria, 176
Haw., Haworth

Hawk-bit, Leo7itodon ; -’s beard,
C7'epis ; -weed, Hieraciwn
Hawthorn, Crataegus
Hazel-nut, Corylus ; witch-,
Hama77ielis
Head, flower-, 63
Headache-weed (W. I.), Hedyos-
77mm nutans S\v.

Heart-pea (W. I.), Cardiosper-
77iu7n ; -wood, 158
Heart’s ease, Viola
Heat, effects of, 142

678

INDEX

Heath, 185, Erica ; St Dabeoc’s-,
Daboecia ; sea-, Frankenia
Heather, Calluna , Erica
Heaven, tree of, Ailanthus
Hedgehog-grass (Am.), Cenchrus
Hedge-hyssop (Am.), Gratiola',
-mustard, Sisymbrium , (W. I.)
Chenopodium ; -nettle (Am.),
Stachys\ -parsley, Caucalis
Hedges, Acacia , &c.

Helicoid, 65
Helio- (Gr. pref.), sun-
Heliotrope, Heliotropium ; winter-,
Petasites

Heliotropism, 36, 37, 40, 173
Hellebore, Helleborus ; white-,
Veratrum

Helleborine, Epipactis
Helmet-shaped corolla, 77
Helodrium (Cl.), a thicket forma-
tion

Hemi- (Gr. pref.), half, partial
Hemicyclic, 69 ; -parasite, a
facultative saprophyte, a parasite
which can exist as a saprophyte ;
-tropous, 93
Hemiptera, 87
Hemisph., hemisphere
Hemlock, Conium , (Am.) Tsuga ,
Pseudotsuga ; -spruce, Tsuga ;
water-, Cicuta

Hemp, Cannabis , Moraceae ;
-agrimony, Eupatorium ; bas-
tard-agrimony (W. I.), Agera-
tum cony zo ides L. ; Bombay-,
Crotalaria ; bow-string- Sanse-
vieria ; China-, Abutilon ;
Deccan-, Hibiscus cannabinus
L. ; Madras-, Crotalaria ;
Manilla-, Musa ; Mauritius-,
Furcrea ; -nettle, Galeopsis ;
New Zealand-, Phormium ;
sisal-, Agave ; Sunn-, Crota-
laria

Hemsley, W. B., 148, 176
Hen-and- chickens, Calendiila
Hen-bane, Hyoscyamus ; -bit,
Lamium

Henequen, Agave
Henna, Lawsonia

Hepatica, Anemone
Heptandrous, with 7 stamens
Herb, 150 ; -Christopher, Actaea ;
-Paris, Paris ; -Robert, Gera-
nium

Herbaceous ground, 8, 6 ; leaf,
53; stem, 45

Herbarium, a collection of dried
plants, 15

Hercules’ club (Am.), Aralia
s pinos a L.

Herd’s grass (Am.), timothy
Herkogamous, $ , but incapable
of self-fertilisation
Hermaphrodite flowrer, 68
Hesperidium, berry of Citrus
Hetero (Gr. pref.), diverse;
-carpous, producing more than
one kind of fruit, Cardamuie ;
-chlam. , -chlamydeous, 76 ;
-cylic, 69;-dromus, 75; -gamous,
-styled, also cf. Compositae ;
-merous, 69 ; -phylly, 50, 163,
Bidens , Ficusf Ranunculus ,
Salvinia ; -sporous, 54, Pterido-
pliyta ; -stylism, 95, Boragina-
ceae> Bouvardia , Ly thrum ,
Oxalis , Primula , Turneraceae
Hex- (Gr. pref.), six; -androus,
with 6 stamens
Hians (Lat.), gaping
Hibernation, 151-2, 159-6
Hickory, Carya
Hiemalis (Lat.), winter
Hildebrand, F., 103, in
Hilum, 106, Gra7nineae
Hind., Hindustani
Hing (Hind.), asafoetida, Ferula
Hip, the fruit of Rosa
Hircinus (Lat.), with goaty smell
Hirsute, with long distinct hairs
Hirtus (Lat.), hirsute
Hispid, 53
Histology, 2

Hk., Hook., Sir Wm Hooker
Hk. f., Hook, f., Sir Joseph
Hooker

Hoary, grey with fine pubescence
Hobble-bush (Am.), Viburnum
Hochst., Hochstetter

INDEX

679

Hoffm., Hoffmann
Hog-gum (W. I.), Moronobea ;
false- -gum (W. I.), Rhus

Metopium L.; -plum, Spondias;
-weed (W. I.), Boerhaavia ;
poisoned- -meat or - -weed (W.
1»),A ristolochia grandiflora Sw.,
(Am.) Ambrosia artemisiaefolia
L.

Holly, Ilex', -fern, Aspidium',
-hock, Althaea ; -oak, Quercus ;
-rose (W. I.), Turnera ; sea-,
Eryngium

Holo- (Gr. pref.), complete
Holy grass (Am.), Hierochloe
Hominy, maize meal
Homoio-, homo- (Gr. pref.), alike,
similar; -chlam., -chlamydeous,
76 ; -dromous, 75 ; -gamous, 97 ;
-geneous, uniform ; -logous, 27 ;
-morphous, uniform in shape ;
-nym, the same specific name of
the same plant, in another
genus; -plastic, 30; -sporous,
54, Pteridophyta

Honey, 88, 74, 206; -dew, 115,
Acer , Tilia ; -guides, 102 ;
-leaves, Berberidaceae ; -locust,
Gleditschia ; -palm, Jubaea ;
sham-, Cleome , Lopezia , Par -
nassia ; -suckle, Lonicera ,
(W. I.) Desmodium, Tecoma,
(Austr.) Banksia
Hook., Sir W. J. Hooker
Hook, f., Sir J. D. Hooker
Hook-climbers, 172, Uncaria ,
Unona , Uvaria

Hooker, J. D., 119, 140, 191,
214; system, see Bentham
Hooks (on fruit), 109, i 1 1 ; (on
stem), 172

Hoop-tree (W. I.), Melia ; -withe
(W. I.), Rivina, Colubrina
Hop, Humulus , Moraceae
Horehound, Marrubium ; foetid-,
Ballota ; white-, Marrubium
Horiz., horizontal, -ovule, 82
Hornbeam, Carpinus ; -nut,
Trapa ; -wort, Ceratophyllum
Horned poppy, Glauciu7n
Horse-Cassia (W. I.), Cassia

polyphylla Jacq. ; -chestnut,
Aesculus ; -gram, Dolichos ;
-hair, vegetable, Tilla?idsia ;
-mint (Am.), Monarda ; -pur-
slane (W. I.), Trianthema ;
-radish, Cochlearia ; -radish-
tree, Moringa pterygosperma
Gaertn. ; -tail, Equisetum ;
-wood (W. I.), Calliandra
Hort. (as authority to names), a
garden name, not authenticated
Hortensis (Lat.), of gardens
Hortus siccus, a herbarium
Host (parasites), 176
Hottentot bread, Testudinaria ;

-fig, Mesembryanthemum
Hound’s tongue, Cynoglossum
Houseleek, Semperviviun
Huckleberry, Gaylussacia ; blue-,
* Vaccinium
Huds., Hudson
Humble-bees, 87, 92
Humifusus (Lat.), spreading on
surface

Humilis (Lat.), dwarf
Humming-bird flowers, 99, 190,
Marcgravia
Humus, 38, 145, 175
Huon pine, Dacrydium Frank-
linii Hook. f.

Hyacinth, Hy acini hus ; grape-,
Muscari ; wild-, Scilla
Hyaline, transparent
Hybrid, 119; graft-, Cytisus
Hybridisation, 95, 100
Hydathodes, 114
Hydro- (Gr. pref.), water ; -chore,
plant distributed by water ;
-philous, 61 ; -phytes, 150, 158 ;
-phytium (Cl.), a water-plant
formation ; -tropism, 36
Hygrochastic (fruit), opening by
water-absorption
Hygrophytic, 168
Hylium (Cl.), a forest formation
Hylodium (Cl.), a dry open wood-
land

Hymenoptera, 87
Hyperborean, northern
Hypo- (Gr. pref.), under; -cotyl,
36, 105, hi; -crateriform salver-

68o

INDEX

shaped ; -dermal, beneath the
epidermis ; -geal (germination),
with cotyledons below ground ;
-gynous, 71, 72, 76 77
Hypsophyllary leaves, bracts
Hyssop, Hyssopus

I., island
Ic., icon, figure

Icaque (W. I.), Chrysobalanus
Icaco L.

Ice-plant, Mesembryanthemum
Identification of natural orders, 138
Ilang-ilang, Cananga
Illegitimate fertilisation, Ly thrum,
Primula ; -pollination, 95
Illuk (Ceyl.), Imperata arundi-
nacea Cyrilli
Illupi, mi, Bassia
Imbricate aestivation, 75
Immersed (venation), below sur-
face

Immobilis (Lat.), immovable
Immortelles, everlastings
Imparipinnate leaf, 51
Imphee, Sorghum vulgare Pers.,
var.

Inarticulate, not jointed
Incanus (Lat.), hoary- white
Incense, Styrax
Incised leaf, 52
Inch, including
Included, not projecting
Incomplete flower, wanting one
or more kinds of organs, 7 6
Increase, rate of, 23
Incumbent, Cruciferae
Incurved, bending inwards
Ind., India

Indefinite growth, 155, 70, 78;

inflorescence, 63
Indehiscent fruit, 107
Indeterminate inflorescence, 63
Indian almond, Terminalia
Catappa L. ; -bean (Ann),
Catalpa ; -butter tree, Bassia ;
-chickweed (Am.), Mollugo ;
-copal, white dammar, Vateria ;
-cork-tree, Millingtonia hor-
tensis L. f. ; -corn, Zea ; -cress,
Tropaeolum ; -fig, Opuntia ;

-grass (Am.), Sorghum ; -hemp
(Am.), A pocynum ; -lilac, Melia ;
-liquorice, Abrus ; -madder,
Rubia cor difolia L. ; -mallow
(Am.), Abutilon ; -meal, Zea ;
-millet, Panicum ; -mulberry,
Morinda citrifolia L. ; -physic
(Am.), Gillenia ; -pink, Spigelia\
-pipe (Am.), Monolropa ; -red-
wood, Chickrassia ; -rice,
Zizania ; -rubber, 199, and see
Rubber ; -tobacco (Am.), Lo-
belia injlata L. ; -turnip (Am.),
Arisaema
Indigenous, native
Indigo, Indigofera ; China green-,
Rhamnus] Chinese-, Polygonum
tinctorium Ait.

Indo-mal., Indo-malayan region,

*95

Induplicate aestivation, 75 ; ver-
nation, Pahnae

Indusium, Filicineae Leptosporan-
giatae , Pieridophyta
lned., unpublished
Inermis (Lat.), unarmed, thornless
Inf., inferior
Inferior ovary, 72, 82
Infl., inflorescence, 61, 32, 55, 86,
205

Infundibuliform, funnel-shaped
Ink-berry (W. I.), Randia aculeata
L. ; -nut, Semecarpus Anacar-
diu?n L. f., Terttiinalia
Innate anther, 78
Insect-powders, 203, Chrysanthe-
mum

Insectivorous plants, 177, Byblis ,
Cephalotus , Drosera, &c.
Insects, 87 ; and flowers, 66, 73,
76, 87, 93, 102 .

Insertion of leaf, 51
Insignis (Lat.), notable
Insolation, exposure to sun, 145
Integrifolius (La.t.), simple-leaved
Integuments of ovule, 80
Inter- (Lat. pref.), between ;
-calary (growth), at a point
between apex and base ; -cellu-
lar spaces, 47, 182 ; -node, 40 ;
-petiolar stipules, 5 1 Rubiaceae

INDEX

68 1

Internal structure of organs, 28
Interruptedly pinnate, 51
Intine, inner coat of pollen grain
Intrapetiolar stipules, 51 Rubi-
aceae

Introrse, 78
Inulin, 34

Involucel, secondary involucre,
Umbelliferae

Involucre, 62, 66, Compositae ,
Eranthis , Umbelliferae
Involute, 53

Ipecacuanha, Uragoga ; bastard-
(W. I.), Asclepias curassavica
L. ; white-, Ionidium
Ire rubber, Funtumia
Iron-bark, Eucalyptus ; -shrub
(W. I.), Sauvagesia erecta L. ;
-weed (Am.), Vernonia ; -wood,
Mesua , &c., applied to different
trees in different lands
Irreg., irregular, 73, 74, 123
Irritability, 36
Island-floras, 148
Iso- (Gr. pref.), equal, especially
in number ; -bilateral leaf, 49,
167; -diametric, of equal
diameters ; -merous, 69, 82 ;
-spory, 54, Pteridophyta ;
-stemonous, 78
Isolation, 14S
Istle, Agave

Ispaghul seed, Plant ago ovata
Forst.

Italian millet, Setaria
Ivory, vegetable, 207, Palmae,
Phytelephas

Ivy, Hedera ; ground-, Nepeta ;
-leaved bell-flower, IVahlen-
bergia ; -leaved toad-flax, Li-
naria ; poison-, Rhus
Ixtle, Agave

faborandi, Pilocarpus
Jaccard, M., 149, 180
Jack tree, Artocarpus
Jacob’s ladder, Pole?noniuni
Jacq., N. F. Jacquin
Jaculator, Acanthaceae
Jaggery, Arenga , Borassus , Cocos,
&c.

Jak, Artocarpus

Jalap, Ipo?noea ; false-, Mirabilis
Jamaica bark (W. I.), Exostemma ;
-ebony, Brya ; -sorrel, Hibiscus
Sabdarijfa L.

Jambolana, Jambu, Eugenia
Jamestown weed (Am.), Datura
Janatsi, Debregeasia
Jap., Japan; -lacquer, Rhus ;
-laurel, Aucuba ; -pepper, Zan -
thoxylum ; -wax, Rhus
Japanese cedar, Cryptomeria
Jarosse, Lathyrus
Jarrah, Eucalyptus marginata
Sm.

Jarul, Lagerslroemia Flos-reginae
Retz. (Ind., Ceyl.)

Jasmine, Jasminum ; bastard-
(W. I.), Cestrum\ Cape-,

Gardenia ; Carolina-, Gclse-
mium ; French- (W. I.),

Caloti'opis\ -tree (VV. I),
Plumiera

Jericho, rose of, Anastatica
Jerusalem artichoke, Helianthus
jessamine, jasmine
Jewel-weed (Am.), Phlomis
Jew’s mallow (W. I.), Corchorus
olitorius L.

Jimson weed, Jamestown weed
Job’s tears, Coix
Joe-pye weed (Am.), Eupatorium
puipureum L.

John Crow’s nose (W. I.),

Phyllocoryne

John-go-to-bed-at-noon, Trago-
pogon

Joint-grass (Am.), Panicwn
distichum L.

Jolly, brown (W. I.), Solanum
Melongena L.

Jonquil, Narcissus
Jordan’s species, 118
Jowar (Hind.), Guinea corn
Judas’ bag, Adansonia\ -tree,
Cercis

Jujube, Zizyphus
Junceus (Lat.), rush-like
June-berry (Am.), Amelanchier
Jungner, F., 144, 182, Saxifraga
Juniper, Junipcrus

682

INDEX

Juss., A. L. Jussieu
Jute, Corchorus, Tiliaceae ;
China-, Abutilon

K., Calyx

Kaffir-boom, Erythrina ; -corn,
Sorghum ; -thorn, Lycium
Kale, Brassica ; sea-, Craiube
Kaniata, Mallotus
Kangaroo-grass, Anthistiria ;

-thorn, Acacia
Kapa-cloth, Broussonetia
Kapok, Bombax , Eriodendron
Kapuzenblatt, Mar ant a
Karsten, G., Gnetum , Gymno -
spermae

Karite, Butyrospermum Park’d
Kotschy

Karri, Eucalyptus diversicolor F.
Muell.

Katabolism, 33

Kauri, Agathis ; -copal, Agathis
Keeble, F. W., 154, Loranthaceae
Keel, Leguminosae
Kei-apple, Aberia
Kendal green, Genista
Kenguel seeds, Silybum Maria-
num Gaertn.

Kerguelen cabbage, Pringlea
Kerner, A., 46
Khat, Catha
Khus-khus, Andropogon
Kidney- bean, Phaseolus\ -vetch,
Anthyllis
King-cup, Caltha
Kinnikinnik (Am.), Cornus sericea
L.

Kino, 199, Eucalyptus , Myrtaceae ,
Pterocarpus ; Bengal-, Butea
Kitul (Ceyl. ), Caryota urens L.
Knapweed, Centaurea
Knawel, Scleranthus
Knees, Taxodium
Knife-grass (W. I.), Scleria lati-
folia Sw.

Knol-kohl, Brassica
Knotgrass, Polygonum , (Am.)

Paspalum distichum L. ; -weed
(Am.), Polygonum
Knuth, P., 58
Kohl-rabi, Brassica

Kola nut, 203, Cola
Koppen, F. W., 140
Koso, Brayera
Krakatoa, flora of, 148
Kumquat, Citrus japonica Thunb.
Kuraka nut (N. Z.), Coryno-
carptis

Kurakkan (Ceyl.), Elm sine
Kurdee seeds, Carthamus tine-
tor ius L.

Kurz, S. , 189

Kuteera gum, Cochlospermum ,
Sterculia

L., Linnaeus

Labellum, Candolleaceae , Canna-
ceae , Orchidaceae , Zingiberaceae
Labiate corolla, 77
Labile, plastic
Labill., La Billardiere
Labour, division of, 20, 88
Labrador tea (Am.), Ledum
Laburnum, Laburnum
Lac, 199, Butea , Croton , Ficus
Lace-bark (W. I.), -tree, Lagetta
Lacerate, deeply and irregularly
divided

Laciniate petals, 77
Lacquer, Japan, Rhus ; -tree,
Rhus

Lacuna, an air space in tissue
Lacustris (Lat.), living in lakes
Ladang (Malay), chena
Ladanum, Cistus
Ladders, Bambusa
Lady-fern, Asplenium
Lady’s-fingers, Anthyllis ; -mantle,
Alchcmilla\ -slipper orchis,
Cy pripedium ; -thumb (Am.),
Polygonwn Persicaria L. ;
-tresses, Spiranthes
Laevigatus, laevis (Lat.), smooth
Lag., Lagasca
Lagos rubber, Funtumia
Lalang (Malay), illuk
Lam., Lamarck
Lamb., Lambert

Lambkill (Am.), Kabnia angusti-
folia L. ; -lettuce (Am.), Fedia
Lamb’s lettuce, Valerianella ;
-quarters, Chenopodium

INDEX 683

Lamina, 50
Lanatus (Lat.), woolly
Lanceolate, 52

Lance, Bambusa\ -wood, Dugu-
etia , (W. I.) Oxandra , Cananga,
Tournefortia

Lang, W. H., Helminthostachys
Lanose, lanuginose, woolly
Lapatero (W. I.), Copaifera

officinalis L.

Larch, Larix
Larkspur, Delphinium
Larrea scrub, 188
Lat., Latin, lateral
Latent, dormant

Lateral branching, 41, 42, 62;

style, 82
Latex, 1 14, 199

Lati- (Lat. pref.), broad; -folius,
broad-leaved; -septal, with
broad septum
Laticiferous tissues, 114
Laurel, Laurus', Alexandrian-,
Calophyllum Inophyllum , L. ;
bay-, Laurus ; cherry-, Prunus',
Japan-, Aucuba; seaside-
(W. I.), Phyllanthus ; spurge-,
Daphne ; West Indian- (W. I.),
Prunus occidentalis Sw.
Laurestinus (Am.), Viburnum
Laurium (Cl.), a drain formation
Laxus (Lat.), loose
l.c., loco citato, in the place
mentioned
Leader, Abies

Lead tree (W. I.), Leucaena

glauca Benth. ; -wort (W. I.),
Plumbago

Leaf, 40, 47, 144, 154, 157, 160,
161, 165, 176, 178, 181, 182,
190; arrangement of, 45;
-apex, 53; -base, 49; -blade,
50; -cutting ants, Acacia;
-climbers, 172; description, 52,
51; dew-, 144; . -fall, 156;
foliage-, 32; -mosaic, 46; move-
ments of, 49, 166; rain-, 144;
-scar, 156; snow- 144; -stalk,
49; -succulents, 167; -surface,
53; -texture, 53
Leaflets, 51

Leather- leaf (Am.), Cassandra ;

-wood, Cyrilla
Lechuguilla, Agave
Ledeb., Ledebour
Leechee, Lite hi
Leek, Allium

Legitimate pollination, 95, Ly-
thrum , Primula
Legume, 108, Leguminosae
Lehm., Lehmann
Lem., Lemaire

Lemon, Citrus', -grass, Andro-
pogon; -tree, bastard (W. I.),
Fagara', water-, Passiflora
Lenticel, 43
Lenticular, lens-shaped
Lentiginose, minutely dotted
Lentil, Lens

Leopard’s bane, Doronicu?n ;
-wood, Brosimum Aubletii,

Poepp.

Lepidoptera, 88

Lepidote, with small scurfy scales
Lettuce, Lactuca ; lamb’s-, Vale-
rianella ; prickly-, Lactuca\

-tree (Ceyl.), Pisonia morindi-
folia Br. ; water-, Pistia
Leuco- (Gr. pref.), white; -an-
thous, white-flowered
Lever- wood, Ostrya
Levigatus (Lat.), smooth, slip-
pery
Lf., leaf

L’Herit., L’Heritier
Lianes, 173, 189
Liber, phloem
Liberian coffee, Coffea
Life-history, 56

Light, and cleistogamy, 99; and
water plants, 161; the circum-
polar-, 1 8 1 ; effect on spores,
10 1 ; -, - on geographical

distribution, 142; -, - on

vegetative reproduction, 113
Lignaloes, eagle-wood
Ligneus (Lat.), woody
Lignification, becoming woody
Lignum vitae, Guaiacum
Ligulate corolla, 77, Co?npositae
Ligule, 51, Gramineae
Liguliflorate, with ligulate flowers

684

INDEX

Lilac, Syringa ; Californian-,
Ceanothus\ Indian-, Melia ;
West Indian (W. I.), Melia
Lily, Lilium ; often used of any
Liliaceae &c.; arum -^Richardia',

- of the valley, Convallaria ;
swamp-, Zephyranthes ; -thorn
(W. I.), Catesbaea ; water-,

Nuphar , Nymphaea
Lima bean, Phaseolus
Limb (of flower), 70, 76; (of
sympodium), 43

Lime, Citrus , Tilia ; -myrtle
(W. I.), Triphasia
Limit of trees, 180
Limitations of area, 14 1
Limnium (Cl.), a lake formation
Limnodium (CL), a salt marsh
formation

Lin-a-loa, Bur sera delpechiana
Poiss

Linden, Tilia
Lindl., Lindley
Linear, 52

Lineate, marked with lines
Lineolate, with fine lines
Lines of dehiscence, 77
Ling, Calluna
Linn., Linnaeus
Linn, f., C. Linnaeus (son)
Linnaeus’ system, 12 1
Linnean species, u8
Linseed, Linum
Lip (of corolla), 77
Lip-fern (Am.), Cheilanthes
Liq uorice, Glycyrrhiza\ -vine
(W. I.), Abrus
Litchi, Lit chi

Literature, botanical, 214; econo-
mic, 197; and see author’s
names

Littoralis (Lat.), growing on the
beach

Live-long, Sedum
Liveus (Lat.), pale lead colour
Liverworts, 124
Lizard’s tail (Am.), Saururus
Lobed stigma, 82
Lobes of perianth, 53, 70
Loblolly-bay, Gordonia ; -pine,
Pinus; -sweetwood (W. I.),

Sciadophyllum ; -tree (W. I.),
Pisonia , Cupania
Lobule, a small lobe
-loc. , -loculus, -locular
Locellate, divided into small
compartments

Lochmium (CL), a thicket form-
ation

Loculament, loculus
Loculicidal, 108
Loculus, 79, 107

Locust, honey-, Gleditschia\ -tree,
Robinia ; -tree. West Indian,
Byrsonima , Hy?nenaea
Lodh bark, Symplocos racemosa
Roxb.

Lodicule, Gramineae
LoefL, Loefling

Log- wood, Haematoxy Ion; (W. I.)
Ceanothus Chloroxylon Nees ;
Campeachy- (W. I.), Haema-
toxylon Camfiechianum L ;
bastard- (W. I.), Acacia Ber-
teriana Spreng.

Lombardy poplar, Populus
Lomentose, like a lomentum
Lomentum, 108, Leguminosae
London pride, Saxifraga umbrosa
L.

Long and short shoots, 42,
Berberis , Coniferae , Ginkgo ,
Phyllocladus , Pinus
Longan, Nephelium
Longi- (Lat. pref.), long
Longitudinal dehiscence of an-
ther, 78

Long moss, Tillandsia
Long-tongued insects, 67
Loofah, Luffa

Loose pollen mechanism, 98,
Scrophulariaccae , Ba?'tsia, &c.
Loose-strife, purple, Ly thrum ;

yellow-, Lysimachia
Lophium (CL), a hill formation
Lopseed (Am.), Phryma
Loquat, Eriobotrya
Lorate, strap-shaped
Lords-and-ladies, Arum
Loriform, strap-like
Lote fruit, Zizyphus Lotus Lam.
(Medit.)

INDEX

685

Lotus, Zhyphus ; -berry (W. I.),
Byrsonima ; sacred-, Nymphaea ,
Nelumbium

Louisiana grass (Am.), Paspalum
platycaule Poir
Louse-wort, Pedicularis
Lovage, Ligusticum
Love-apple, Lycopersicum', -grass
(Ceyl.), Andropogon acictilatus
Retz. ; -in-a-mist, Nigella ,
(W. I.) Passiflora foetida L. ;
-lies-bleeding, A maranthns
Lubbock, J., 46, 1 12
Lucens (Lat.), lucidus (Lat. ),
with shining surface
Lucerne, Medicago
Lunate, half-moon-shaped
Lung- wort, Pulmonaria , (Am.)

Mertensia
Lupin, Lupinus

Luridus (Lat.), dingy brown or
yellow

Luteus (Lat.), yellow
Lyme-grass, Elymus
Lyrate leaf, 53

Mabee bark (W. I.), Ceanothus
reclinatus L’Herit.
Macary-butter (W. I.), Picramnia
Antidesma Sw.

Macassar oil, Cananga
Macaw -bush (W. I.), Solamim
mammosum L. ; -tree, Acro-
comia

Macchie, 188
Mace, Myristica
Macfarlane, J. M., Nepenthes
Mackay bean, Entada scan dens
Bth.

MacLeod, J., 58, r 1 1
Macmillan, C., 184
Macpalxochitlquahuitl, Cheirosie-
mon

Macqui berry, Aristolochia Mctqui
L’Herit.

Macro- (Gr. pref.), long, large;
-podous (embryo), without coty-
ledons; -sporangium, 54;

-spores, 54, Pteridophyta ;

-sporophyll, 54
Maculatus (Lat.), spotted

Mad-apple (W. I.), egg-fruit
Madag., Madagascar ; -clove,
Ravensara aromatic a J. F.
Gmel. ; -plum, Flacourtia ;
-rubber, Landolphia , &c.
Madar fibre, Calotropis
Madder, Rubia ; field-, Sherardia;
Indian- (W. I.), Oldenlandia
nmbellata L.

Madras hemp, Crotalaria
Madre de cacao (W. I.), Eryth -
rina umbrosa H. B. K.
Mafootoo- withe (W. I.), Entada
scandens Benth.

Maguey, Agave

Mahoe (W. I.), Paritium , Thes-
pesia , Hibiscus

Mahogany, Meliaceae , Swie tenia
Mahua, mahwa, Bassia
Maiden-hair-fern, Adiantum ;

-tree, Ginkgo
Mais del aqua, Victoria
Maize, Zea ; water-, Victoria
Majoe-bitter (W. I.), Picramnia
Antidesma Sw.

Malacophilous, 99
Malay apple, Ezigenia
Male bamboo, Dendrocalamus
str ictus Nees; -flower, 68
Mallee (scrub), Eucalyptus
dumosa A. Cunn., &c.

Mallow, Malva and other
Malvaceae ; marsh-, Althaea ;
tree-, Lavatez’a

Mammee, Mammea ; -sapote
(W. I.), Lucuma mammosa

Gaertn. f.

Mammilla, Cactaceae
Mammoth tree, Sequoia
Man-orchis, Acer as
Mana grass (Ceyl.), Andropogon
Nardus L.

Manatu-grass (W. I.), Thalassia
Manchineel, Hippomane
Mandioca, Manihot
Mandrake, Mandragora , (Am.)
Podophyllum

Mangabeira rubber, Hancomia
speciosa Gomez
Mangel-wurzel, Beta
Mango, Mangifera

686

INDEX

Mangold- wurzel, Beta
Mangosteen, Garcinia
Mangroves, 161, 19 1, Acanthus ,
Aegiceras , A vicennia, Bru-
guiera , Conocarpus , Laguncu-
laria , Rhizophora, Sonneratia
Mani£oba rubber, Ceara, Manihot
Manila-copal, Agathis ; -elemi,
Canarium
Manioca, Manihot
Manjack (W. I.), Cordia mac-
rophylla L.

Manna, Alhagi, Tama7'ix; -grass
(Am.), Glyceria
Mannite, 34

Man-of-the-earth (Am.), Ipomoea
pandurata Meyer
Mantle-leaf, Platycerium
Manzanita, 188
Maple, Acer ; -sugar,

Maquis, 188
Marcescent perianth, 77
Mare’s tail, Hippuris
Marginal placentation, 82
Margosa, Melia

Marigold, Calendula, (W. I.)

Wedelia ; bur-, Bidens ; corn-,
Chrysanthemum ; French -

(W. I.), Pectis ; marsh-, Caltha
Maritimus (Lat.), belonging to the
sea

Marjoram, Origanum
Marking nut, Semecarpus
Marmalade-plum (W. I.), Lu -
cuma mammosa Gaertn. ; -tree,
Vitellaria

Marmoratus (Lat.), with veins of
colour

Marram grass, Ammophila
Marrow, vegetable, Cucurbita ,
Blighia

Marsh betony, Stachys ; -grass
(Am. ), Spartina ; -mallow,

Althaea ; -marigold, Caltha ;
-rosemary (Am.), Statice
Mart., Martius

Martagon lily, Liliuni martagon

L

Marvel of Peru, Mirabilis
Maryland pink root, Spigelia
Masc., Mascarene Islands

Masked, personate
Masseranduba, Mimusops
Massulae, Azolla

Mastic, Pistacia ; American-,

Schinus ; -tree (W. I.), Bur sera
gummifera L.

Mat-grass, Nardus
Matara tea (Ceyl.), Cassia

auriculata L.

Mate, Ilex

Matico, Piper angustifolium R. &
P. (Peru)

Matrimony vine (Am.), Lycium
Mattipal (Ind.), Ailanthus mala-
baric a DC.

Mauritius hemp, Furcrea
Maw seed, opium seed
Maximus (Lat.), very large
May, Crataegus ; -apple (Am.),
Podophyllu?n ; -flower, Epigaea
Meadow beauty (Am.), Rhexia ;
-crane’s bill, Geranium ; -grass,
Poa ; -rue, Thalictru?7i ; -saffron,
Colchicum ; -sweet, Ulmaria
Mechanical tissue, 160, 170
Mechanisms, floral, 94
Medial, middle
Medic., Medicus
Medick, Medicago
Medit., Mediterranean region, 194
Medlar, Pyrus
Medulla, pith

Mega- (Gr. pref.), large; -sporan-
gium, 55, 79; -spores, 55,
Pteridophyta, Selaginella ; -spo-
rophyll, 55, 79, 80
Mela-, melano- (Gr. pref.), black
Mel-grass, Ammophila
Melic grass, Melica
Melilot, Melilotus
Melleus (Lat.), honey colour or
taste

Melon, Cucu7nis\ -thick (W. I.),
Melocactus ; water-, Citrullus ;
white gourd-, Be7ii7tcasa
Membranous leaf, 53
Meniscoid, watch-glass-shaped
Mercury, Mercurialis
Mericarp, 107

Merism, repetition of parts to
form a symmetry or pattern

INDEX 687

Merismatic, meristematic, of
dividing and growing cells
Mermaid-weed (Am.), Proser -
pinaca

Meso- (Gr. pref.), middle ; -carp,
108 ; -chil, intermediate part of
lip; -phyll, 47 ; -phytes, 150, 169
Mesquite-grass, Bouteloua ; -tree,
Prosopis
Metabolism, 33
Metamorphosis, 20
Meu, Meiun
Mex., Mexico

Mexican-aloe, Agave ; -fibre,
Agave ; -poppy, Argemone',
-rubber, Castilloa ; -sunflower,
Tithonia ; -tea, Chenopodium
Mezcal, Agave
Mezereon, Daphne
Mezquit, see Mesquite
Mi, Bassia longifolia L.

Miall, L. C., 179
Michaelmas daisy, Aster
Michx., Michaux
Micranthus (Lat.), small-flowered
Micro- (Gr. pref. ), small
Micromillimeter, 1/1000 part of
a millimeter, denoted by the
symbol /x

Micropyle, 80, 81, 105, in ;
-sporangium, 54, 77 ; -spore, 54,
77, Pteridophyta , Selaginella ;
-sporophyll, 54, 77
Midrib, 51
Mig., Miguel

Mignonette, Reseda ; -tree, Law-
sonia

Mihi, as authority, accepted by
author

Milfoil, Achillea ; water-, Myrio-
phyllum

Milk, Moraceae', -thistle, Silybum ;
-tree, Brosimum, Mimusops ;
-vetch, Astragalus ; -wort, Poly-
gala\ -weed, A sclepias ; -wort,
sea, Glaux

Millet, Panicum , Sorghum ; bul-
rush-, Pennisetum ; -grass,
Milium ; great-, Sorghum ;
Indian-, Panicum ; Italian-,
Setaria ; little-, Panicum ;

pearl-, Pennisetum ; Samoa-,
Panicum

Mint, Mentha ; cat-, Nepeta ;
pepper-, Mentha, (Am.) Mira -
bilis

Miscellaneous useful products, 207
Mission grass, Stenotaphrum
Mistletoe, Loranthaceae , Viscwn ,
(Am.) Phoradendron
Mistus, mixtus (Lat.), cross-bred
Mitre-wort (Am.), Mitreola
Mixed inflorescence, 65
mm., millimeter
Moa, Bassia

Moccasin-flower (Am.), Cypri-
pedium

Mocker-nut (Am.), Carya to?nen-
tosa Nutt.

Mock-orange (Am.), Philadelphus
Mode of origin of organs, 28
Mollis (Lat.), soft, pubescent
Moluc., Moluccas
Moly, Allium RIoly L.
Monadelphous, 70, 78
Monandrous, with one stamen, 78
Money wort, Lysimachia ; Corn-
ish-, Sibthorpia
Moniliform, necklace-like
Monkey-apple (W. I.), Anona
palustris L. ; -bread, Adansonia ;
-flower, Mimulus ; -pot, Lecy-
this ; -puzzle, Araucaria
Monkshood, Aconitum
Mono- (Gr. pref.), one- ; -carpel-
lary, 82 ; -carpic, once-fruiting ;
-chasialcyme, 63, 65 ; -chlamy-
deous, 76 ; -clinous, hermaphro-
dite, 68 ; -necious, oicus (Lat.),
68 ; -graph, a systematic account
of a group ; -petalous, sym-
petalous ; -podial branching;
-podium, 42, 62, 153, 154;

-spermous, oneseeded ; -symme-
trical, zygomorphic ; -thecal,
Malvaceae ; -tocous, fruiting
once only ; -typic (genus), with
one species
Monstrosities, 22, 29
Montanus (Lat.), mountain
Moon-seed, Menispermum\ -wort,
Botrychium

688

INDEX

Morass weed (W. I.), Cerato -
phyllum

Moreton Bay chestnut, Castano -
spermum

Moriche, Mauritia
Morning glory, Ipomoea
Morphine, an alkaloid from opium
Morphological methods, 27
Morphology, 1, 20; of flower, 66
-morphous (suff.), shaped
Morr. , Morren
Morris, D., 197
Moschatel, Adoxa
Moss, 124; -campion, Silene\
club-, staghorn-, Lycopodium ;
-pink (Am.), Polemonium subu-
lata L.

Moth- flowers, Angraecum , Caly-
stegia, Lilium , Oenothera , Site tie.
Yucca

Motherwort, Leonurus
Moulmein cedar, Cedrela Toona
Roxb.

Mountain ash, Pyrus ; -damson
(W. I.), Simaruba\ -everlast-
ing, Antennaria ; -floras, 149;
-grape (W. I.), Guettarda ,

Coccoloba ; -papaw, Carica ;
-plum (W. I.), Ximenia ; -sorrel
(Am.), Oxyria

Mountains and geographical dis-
tribution, 145, 147
Mouse-ear (Am.), Myosotis ; -ear-
chickweed, Cerastium ; -tail,
Myosurus

Movements, flower-, 104; leaf-,
49, 166 ; shoot-, 36; stamen-,96
Mowa, Bassia
Mts., mountains
Mucilage, 106, 162
Mucro, a sharp terminal point, 53
Mud-wort, Limosella
Muell.-Arg., J. Mueller (Argau)
F. Muell., F. von Mueller, 197
H. Muller, 58, 88, 180, 214; on
flrs. and insects, 87
Mug- wort, Galium ; (Am.) Arte-
misia

Mulberry, Morus ; -fig, Ficus ;

Indian-, Morinda citrifolia L.
Mullein, Verbascum

Multi- (Lat. pref.), many ; -fari-
ous, many ranked ; -fid stigma,
82 ; -jugate, with many pairs ;
-lateral symmetry, 31 ; -loc.,
-locular, 79, 82 ; -parous, pleio-
chasial ; -partite, much cut;
-pie fruit, 107, 109 ; -plication
in flr., 70, 80
Mung (Hind.), green gram
Muralis (Lat.), growing on walls
Muricate (dim. muriculate), rough
with short firm outgrowths
Museums, botanical, 8
Muskit, see Mesquite
Musk-orchis, Her minium ; -melon,
Cucumis Melo L. ; -plant, Mi-
mulus

Musquash root (Am.), Cicuta
maculata L.

Mustard, Brassica ; hedge-, Si-
symbrium ; treacle-, Erysimum ;
-tree, Salvador a

Mutabilis (Lat.), changeable (in
colour, &c.)

Mutant, form arising by mutation
Mutation, 22, Coleus , Rubus
Muticous, blunt
Myall, Acacia
Mycelium, Rafflesiaceae
Mycorhiza, 39, 145, 177, Botry-
chium

Myrmecophily, 114, Acacia , Ce-
cropia , Duroia , Cuvier a, Maca-
ranga , Maiela , Myrmecodia ,
Nauclea , Rubiaceae , Triplaris
Myrobalans, Terminalia \ emblic-,
Phyllanthus Emblica L.

Myrrh, Commiphora , Myrrhis
Myrtle, Myrtus ; bog-, Myrica ;
-scrub (Austr.), Banksia ; Tas-
manian-, Fagus Cunninghamii
Hook. ; -tree, Fagus ; wax-,
Myrica

N., north
Na, Mesua
Nageli’s law, 58
Naked flower, 71, 75, 76
Namatium (Cl.), a brook forma-
tion

Nanny-berry, Viburnum

INDEX

68 9

Nanus (Lat.), dwarf
Napiform, turnip-shaped
Narcotics, 206
Nard, Nardus
Nardoo, RIarsilea
N arras, Acanthosicyos
Naseberry tree, Achras Sapota L.
Nasturtium, Tropaeolum
Nat., naturalised

Nat. Pfl., Natiirliche Pflanzen-
familien

Natans (Lat.), swimming (under
water)

Natural history, 2; -orders, 120,
138; -selection, 24; -system of
classification, 121
Naturalised plants, 149
Navicular, boat-shaped
Nearctic, American Arctic
Neckweed (Am.), Veronica pere-
grina L.

Nectaries, 79, 88, 114; extra-
floral-, 1 14, Convolvulaceae \
sham-, Chorne, Lopezia , Par-
nassia

Nectarine, Primus
Needle, Adam’s, Yucca ; double,
Coniferae , Sciadopitys ; -gorse,
Genista ; -leaf, Coniferae , 52,
1 66

Neem, nim, Media
Ncmoralis (Lat.), living in woods
Neotrop., neotropical, New World
tropical

Nerves of leaf, 33, 48
Net-veined, 51

Nettle, CJrtica ; dead-, Lamium ;
devil- or fever-, Laportea ;
hemp-, Galeopsis ; Spanish -
(W. I.), Bidens ; -tree, Celtis ,
(W. I.) Pilea urera
Neuter, without fertile sporo-
phylls, cf. Viburnum , &c.

New Caled., New Caledonia
New Jersey tea, Ceanothus
New Zealand flax, hemp, Phor -
niium ; -pincushion, Raoulia ;
-spinach, Tetragonia
Newtonian curve, 22
Ngai camphor, Blumea
Nicholls, 197

W.

Nicholson, 197

Nicker bean (VV. I.), Caesalpinia
bonducella Flem.

Nicobar breadfruit, Pandanus le-
ram Jones
Niger (Lat.), black
Niger seed, Guizotia abyssinica
Cass.

Night-flowering cactus, Cereus
Nightshade, Solanum ; deadly-,
Atropa ; enchanter’s-, Circaea
Nigrescens, nigricans (Lat.),
blackish

Nilgiri nettle, Girardinia
Nim (oil), Melia

Nimble Will (Am), Muehlenbergia
diffusa Schreb.

Niopo tree (W. I.), Piptadenia
Nipplewort, Lapsana
Nitidus (Lat.), lustrous, smooth
and shining

Nivalis (Lat.), growing near snow
Niveus (Lat.), snow-white
N. O., natural order
Nodes, 40

No-eye- pea (W. I.), Cajanus in-
dicus Spreng.

Nomium (Cl.), a pasture formation
Non-articulate leaves, 53, 156
Non-such, Medicago
Noogoora burr, Xanthium
Norfolk island pine, Araucaria
Northern fern, Lotnaria ; -glacial
zone, 180 ; -zone of cold winters,
184; -zone of hot summers, 187
Norway spruce, Picea
Notorhizal, Cruciferae
Nototribe, with essential organs
striking a visitor on the back
Nucellus, 80, 105

Nudiflorus (Lat.), with naked
flower

Nut, 107; Areca-, Areca ; betel-,
Areca ; bladder-, Staphylea ;
Brazil-, Bertholleiia ; bread-,
Brosimum ; butter-, Caryocar ;
candle-, Aleurites ; Cashew-,
Anacardium ; cob-, Corylus ;
earth-, Arachis , Conopodium ;
-grass (Am.), Cy perns ; ground-,
Arachis (Am.), Apios ; hazel-,

44

690

INDEX

Corylus ; horn-, Trapa ; kola-,
Cola ; marking-, Semecarpus ;
pea-, Arachis ; Pistachio-, Pis -
tacia ; -rush (Am.), Scleria ;
Sapucaia-, Lecythis ; Souari-,
Caryocar ; -tree (Austr.), Maca-
damia

Nutans (Lat.), nodding
Nutation, 35, 170
Nutlets, Labiatae
Nutmeg, Myristica , Monodora ;
Brazilian-, Cryptocarya ; cala-
bash-, Monodora ; Peruvian-,
Laurelia

Nutrition phenomena, 33, 103,
113, 169
Nutt., Nuttall
Nym., Nyman
N.Z., New Zealand

Oak, Quercus ; Ceylon-, Schlei-
chera\ Dominica- (W. I.), Ilex
sideroxyloides Griseb. ; -fern,
Polypodium ; forest-, Casua-
rina ; patana- (Ceyl.), Careya ;
she-, Casuarina ; silky-, Gre-
villea

Ob- (Lat. pref.), inverted; -diplo-
stemonous, 78, Caryophyllaceae ,
Oxalidaceae ; -lanceolate, 52 ;
-lique, 52 ; -long, 52 ; -ovate,
52 ; -solete, aborted ; -tuse apex,
53

Obach, 197

Occidentalis (Lat.), western
Oceanium (Cl.), an ocean forma-
tion

Ochra, okra
Ochrea, Polygonaceae
Ocotilla, Fouquieria
Ocrea, Polygonaceae
Odonto- (Gr. pref.), tooth
(Ecology, ecology
Officinalis (Lat.), medicinal
Offset, 153

-oides (Gr. suff.), like
Ogeechee lime (Am.), Nyssa
Oil, 34, 200, Palmae , Pappea ,
Papaveraceae ; argan-, Argania\
ben-, Moringa ; birch-, Betula ;
cajeput-, Melaleuca ; castor-,

Ricinus ; -cavities, 1 1 5 ; citro-
nella-, Andropogon ; coconut-,
Cocos ; colza-, Bras sic a ; croton-,
Croton ; geranium-, Andropo-
gon ; gingili-, Sesamum ; ke-
kuna-, Aleurites ; linseed-,
Linu7ti ; Macassar-, Cananga ;
margosa-, Melia ; mustard-,
Brassica ; neroli-, Citrus Au -
rantitwi L. ; nim-, Melia ; -of
lavender, Lavandula ; -of mar-
joram, Origanum', olive-, Olea\
palm-, Elaeis ; pea-nut-, Ara-
chis ; -plant (W. I.), Sesa?num ;
Rantil-, Guizotia ; rape-, Bras-
sica ; rosemary-, Rosmarinus ;
rusa-, Andropogon ; Sassafras-,
Sassafras ; turpentine-, igg, Fi-
nns ; verbena-, Lippia ; wood-,
Dipterocarpus

Okra, Hibiscus esculentus L.

Olas (Ceyl.), Borassus , &c
Old maid (VV. I.), Vinca rosea L.
Old man, Artemisia Abrotanum
L. ; -’s beard, Tillandsia ;

-cactus, Cereus

Old- woman’s bitter (W. I.), Pi -

cramnia

Old witch grass (Am.), Panicum
capillar e L.

Oleander, Nerium
Oleaster, Elaeagnus
Oleiferus (Lat.), oil-bearing
Oleine, Cocos
Oleraceus (Lat.), esculent
Olibanum, Boswellia
Oligo- (Gr. pref.), few-; -merous,
82

Olive, Olea

Oliver, F. W., Gymnospemtiae
Ombrophiles, 143
Ombrophobes, 143
Onion, Allium
Ontogeny, 28
Oophyte, gametophyte
Oosphere, ovum

Open (aestivation), 75; (vascular
bundles), with cambium
Operculum (Lat.), a lid
Ophio- (Gr. pref.), snake-
Opium, Papaver

INDEX

691

Opoponax, gum, Opoponax
Opp., opposite, 45, 51
Oppositifolius (Lat.), with oppo-
site leaves

-opsis (Gr. suffi.), like
Optimum temperature, 35
Orache, Alriplex
Orange, Citrus ; -grass (Am.),
Hypericum Sarothra Michx. ;
Jamaica mandarin-, Glycosmis ;
Osage-, Maclura\ -root (Am.),
Hydrastis ; wild- (W. I.), Dry-
petes

Orbicular, 52

Orchard grass (Am.), Dactylis
Orchid tree, Amherstia
Orchis, Orchidaceae ; bee-, Ophrys ;
bird’s nest-, Neottia ; butterfly-,
Habenaria ; early purple-,
Orchis ; fly-, Ophrys ; frog-,
Habenaria*, lady’s slipper-,
Cypripediu m ; man-, A ceras ;
musk-, Herminium ; scented-,
Habenaria', spider-, Ophrys ;
spotted, Orchis

Ordeal, Erythrophlaeum', -bean,
Physostigma

Orgadium (Cl.), an open woodland
formation

Organs, 19; abortion of, 315
accessory, 67 ; analogous, 30 ;
classification, 31; concrescence,
70; development, 28; essential,
66; homologous, 27, 28; in-
ternal structure, 28 ; mode of
origin, 28 ; multiplication, 70 ;
orientation, 36; position, 28;
reproductive, 32, 54; rudi-

mentary, 31, 68; suppression,
31; symmetry, 31 ; vegetative,
32; vestigial, 31, 123
Orientation of organs, 36
Ornamental plants, 207, Acalypha ,
Acer , &c.

Ornitho- (Gr. pref.), bird- ; -phily,

99

Orophytium (Cl.), a sub-alpine
plant formation
Orpine, Sedum
Orris-root, Iris

Ortho- (Gr.pref.), upright, straight;

-plocous, Cruciferae ; -stichies,
straight ranks ; -trop. , -tropous,
82 ; -tropic, 36
Osage orange, Maclura
Osier, Salix
Ostiolate, with a mouth
Oswego tea, Monarda
Otaheite-apple (W. I.), Malay

apple; -gooseberry (W. I.),

Phyllanthus distichus Muell.-
Arg.

Otto of roses, Rosa

Outfit for collecting, 1 1

Ov., ovule, ovary, 79,' 80, 81, 82,

55> 59
Oval, 52
Ovate, 52
Ovoid, solid oval
Ovuliferous scale, Coniferae
Ovum, 55, 81, 104 , Angiospermae,
Pteridophyta

Ox-eye daisy, Chrysanthemum ;
-lip, Primula

Oxodium (Cl.), a humus marsh
formation

Oyster-plant, salsify

P., perianth
p., page
Pac., Pacific

Pachycarpous, with thick pericarp
Padauk, Ptero carpus
Paddy (rice) Oryza
Paeony, Paeonia
Paigle, cowslip

Paint-brush, Castilleja ; -root,
Lachnanthes

Painted cup, Castilleja ; -lady,
Castilleja

Palaearctic, Old World Arctic
Palaeobotany, 2 ; -trop., tropical,
Old World tropical
Pale, palea, palet, Gramineae
Paleaceous, chaff-like
Palisade tissue, 48, 142, 161
Pallens (Lat.), pale-coloured
Palm, Palrnae', Assai-, EiUerpe',
cabbage-, Oreodoxa ; -cabbages,
Cocos ; Carbauba-, Copemicia ;
coconut-, Cocos ; Coquito-, Ju-
baea; date-, Phoenix', doum-,

44—2

692

INDEX

Hyphaene\ Gomuti-, Arenga;
-honey, Jubaea ; -house, 7 ; -oil,
Elaeis ; peach-, Bactris ; Pal-
metto-, Sabal-, Palmyra-, Boras-
sus ; Paxiuba-, Iriartea\ royal-,
Oreodoxa ; sago-, Metroxylon ;
stemless-, 191 ; -sugar, Arenga ,
Caryota , Cocos, Borassus, &c. ;
Talipot-, Corypha ; thatch-,
Sabal , Thrinax , &c. ; -wax,

Copernicia ; wine-, Raphia ;
-wine, Borassus , Cocos
Palmate, 51

Palmati-fid, -partite, -sect, 53
Palmetto (W. I.), Thrinax , Sabah,
small, Carludovica
Palmiet, Prionium
Palmirah, Palmyra palm, Borassus
Palmiste, Oreodoxa
Palta, avocado

Paludose, palustris (Lat.), of
marshes

Pampas, 192 ; -grass, Gynerium
Pampelmousse, shaddock
Panama hats, Carludovica ; -rubber,
Castilloa

Pandurate, fiddle-shaped
Panic-grass (Am.), Panicum
Panicle, 63

Pannosus (Lat.), felt-like
Pansy, Viola
Papain, Carica
Papaw, Carica

Taper, 202, Moraceae ; -for drying
and mounting, 11 ; -mulberry,
Broussonetia ; -reed, Cy penis
Pappus, 77, Compositae, Valerian-
aceae

Papyrus, Cy penis
Parachute mechanism, no
Paracorolla, appendage of a corolla,
corona

Paraguay tea, Ilex
Parallel descent, 29; -veined, 51
Paramo region, Espeletia
Para-rubber, Hevea
Parasites, 145, 176
Parasol pine, Sciadopitys
Parastichy, a secondary spiral in
phyllotaxy

Pareira brava, Chondodendron

tomentosum R. et P. ; false- -,
Cissampelos Pareira L. ; -root,
white, Abut a

Parietal placentation, 79, 82
Pari pinnate, 51
Park-land, 189
Pari., Parlatore

Pam grass (W. I.), Panicum molle
Sw.

Parrot-weed (W. I.), Bocconia
frutescens L.

Parsley, Carum ; -fern, Crypto-
gramme ; fool’s-, Aethusa ;
hedge-, Caucalis ; -piert, Al-
chemilla, (W. I.) Petroselinum
Parsnip, Peucedanum ; cow-, Her-
acleum ; water- Slum
Parthenogenesis, Alchemilla , An-
tennaria , A ngiospennae
Partial, opposed to general ; -para-
sites, 176
Partim, partly

Partridge berry (Am.), Gaultheria ,
Mitchella ; -pea (Am.), Cassia
Chamaecrista L.

Parviflorus (Lat.), small-flowered
Pascual, growing in pastures
Pasque flower, Anemone
Passion flower, Passiflora
Pasture, 203

Patana oak (Ceyl.), Carey a
Patchouli, Pogostemon
Patens (Lat.), spreading
Path-finders, 102
Pathology, 3

Patience ( Am .),RiwiexPatientia L.
Patulous, slightly spreading
Pauciflorus (Lat.), few-flowered
Pav., Pavon

Pawpaw, papaw ; in Am., Asi-
mina triloba Dun
Paxiuba palm, Iriartea
Payer, J. , 68

Pea, Lathy n/s , Pisum ; blackeyed-
(W. I.), Dolichos ; chick-, Cicer\
Congo- (W. I.), Cajanus; cow-,
Vigna; dry- (W. I.), Cajanus’,
-flower (VV. I.), Centrosema,
Clitoria ; -nut, Arachis
Peach, Primus ; -palm, Bactris ;
-wood, Caesalpinia

INDEX 693

Peacock flower, Cciesalpinia
Pear, Pyrus ; alligator-, Per sea ;
anchovy-, Grias ; Avocado- Per-
sea; prickly-, Gpuntia; wooden-,
Xylomelum

Pearl millet, Pennisetum ; -wort,
Sagina

Pearson, H. H. W., 189, Welwit-
schia

Pecan, Cary a
Pectinate, comb-like
Pedalis, a foot long or high
Pedate, 53
Pedicel, 62

Pediophytium (Cl.), an upland
plant formation
Peduncle, 62
Peepul, Ficus
Pekoe, Thea

Pelagium (Cl.), a surface sea
formation

Pelican flower, Aristolochia
Pellitory, Parieiaria
Pellucid, transparent
Peloria, 74, 23, Scrophulariaceae,
Lin aria
Peltate leaf, 52

Pencil cedar, Jnniperus ; -flower
(Am.), Stylosanthes
Pendulous, drooping ; -infloresc-
ence, 86; -ovule, 82; -shoots, 157
Penicillate, brush-shaped
Penny-cress, Thlaspi ; -royal,

Mentha ; -wort, Cotyledon , Hy -
drocotyle

Penta- (Gr. pref.), five ; -cyclic,
70 ; -merous, 70 ; -gynous, with
5 pistils

Penzig, O., 148
Pepo, 108, Cucurbit aceae
Pepper, Piper ; African- (W. I.),
Xylopia ; betel-, Piper ; Cay-
enne-, Capsicum ; -bush (Am.),
Clethra ; -elder (W. I.), Pepero -
mia9 & c. ; -grass (Am., W. I.),
Lepidium ; Guinea- (W. I.),
Xylopia , Capsicum ; Japan-,
Z,anthoxylum ; -mint, Mentha ;
negro- (W. I.), Xylopia ; red-,
Capsicum ; -rod (W. I.), Croton
humilis L. ; -root (Am.), Den-

taria ; -tree, Schinus ; wall-,
Sedutn; water-, Elatine ; -wort-
(Am.), Lepidium
Pepperidge, Nyssa
Percurrent, extending throughout
entire length

Perennial, 15 1, 60, 168, 44
Perfoliate leaf, 51
Perforate, pierced through, or with
translucent dots
Perfumes, 200, Acacia
Peri- (Gr. pref.), around; -anth,
75*67, 70, in; -carp, 109, no;
-chylous, aqueous tissue outside
green tissue ; -derm, bark ;
-gone, perianth; -gyny, 71, 72,
76, 77 ; -sperm, 105, 106
Periodicity in life history of plants,
144, 151, Agave, Fagus
Periwinkle, Vinca
Pernambuco rubber, Hancornia
speciosa Gomez
Perpusillus (Lat.), very small
Pers., Persoon

Persian berries, yellow berries ;
-insect powder, Chrysanthe-
mum ; -lilac, Indian lilac
Persimmon, Diospyros
Persistent perianth, 77
Personate corolla, 77
Pertusate, with slits
Peru-bark, Cinchona ; balsam of,
Toluifera

Peruvian bark, Cinchona ; -nut-
megs, Lauretia
Pet., petal, 67, 77
Petalody, change of stamens to
petals

Petaloid perianth, 77 ; staminodes,
79

Petalomania, abnormal increase of
petals

Petiole, 46, 50, 51
Petraeus (Lat.), growing on rocks
Petrium (Cl.), a rock formation
Petrodium (Cl.), a boulder-field
formation

Petty whin, Genista
Pfl. R. , das Pllanzenreich
Phaenogams, Phanerogams
Phaenology, 1 44

694

INDEX

Phanerogams, Spermaphyta
Pheasant’s eye, Adonis
Phellium (Cl.), a rock field forma-
tion

Phellogen, 158
Phil. Is., Philippine Islands
-philous (suff.), loving, dwelling in
Phloem, 33, 157, 158
Phoeniceus (Lat.), scarlet
-phorus (Gr. suff.), stalk, bearer
Photography, 12, 15
Phretium (Cl.), a tank formation
Phyla, 30

Phyllo- (Gr. pref.), -phyllum (Gr.
suff.), leaf ; -clades, 166, As-
paragus, Phyllocladus , &c. ;

-des, 166, 167, 49, Acacia ;

-dy, change of floral organs to
leaves ; -mes, leaf structures ;
-taxy, 45, 51
Phylogeny, 2, 20
Physical barriers to migration,
145

Physic-nut, Jatropha Curcas L.
Physiological division of labour,
20, 88

Physiology, 2, 20, 32, 56
Phyto- (Gr. pref.), plant-; -graphy,
description of plants ; -logy,
botany

Piassaba fibre, Attalea , Leopold-
inia

Pickerel weed (Am.), Pontederia
Picotee, var. of carnation
Pictus (Lat.), coloured
Pigeon-berry (Am. ) , Phytolacca ;

-pea, Cajanus
Pignons, Pinus

Pig-lily (Afr.), Arum ; -nut (Am.),
Cary a porcina Nutt., (W. I.)
Omphalea; -weed (Am.), Cheno -
podium

Pig’s balsam, Hedwigia
Pile- wort, Ranunculus
Piliferous, hair-bearing
Pill-wort, Pihilaria
Pillar-root, 40, 191
Pilose, 53
Pimento, Pime?ita
Pimpernel, Anagallis ; yellow-,
Lysimachia

Pinaster, Pinus

Pin-eyed (in Primula), long-styled
Pine, Pinus ; -apple, Ananas ;
Bunya-Bunya-, Araucaria; cel-
ery-, Phyllocladus ; cluster-,
Pinus ; frankincense-, Pinus ;
golden-, Pseudolarix ; loblolly-,
Pinus ; Norfolk Island-, Arau-
caria ; Oregon-, Douglas Fir ;
parasol-, Sciadopitys ; pitch-,
Pinus; -sap (Am.), Monotropa ;
screw -,Pandanus; stone-, Pinus;
Weymouth-, Pinus; sugar-,
Pinus ; wild- (W. I.), Tilland-
sia ; yellow-, Pinus
Pinder (W. I.), ground-nut
Piney varnish, Vateria indica L.
Pin-eyed (Primula), short-styled
Pingerin, pinguin (W. I.), Bromelia
Pinguin L

Pink, Dianthus ; India n-, Spigelia ;

-root, Spigelia ; sea-, A rmeria
Pinna, leaflet of a pinnate leaf
Pinnate, 51

Pinnati-fid, -partite, -sect, 53
Pin weed, Lechea
Pinxter-flower (Am.), Azalea nudi-
flora L.

Pipe-vine (Am.), Aristolochia
Sipho L’Herit. ; -wort, Elatine ,
Eriocaulon
Pipul, bo, Ficus
Pisang, Musa
Pisiform, pea-shaped
Pistachio nut, Pistacia
Pistil, 82 ; -late flower, 68 ; -ode,
an aborted pistil
Piston mechanism, 97, Lotus
Pita, Agave

Pitch, Canada, Tsuga ; -pine,
Pimis

Pitcher- plant, 178, Cephalotus ,
Darlingtonia , Dischidia , Heli-
amphora , Nepenthes , Sarracenia
Pith -tree, Herminiera
Pituri, Duboisia Hopwoodi F.

Muell. (W. Austr.)

Plac., placenta, 79, 82, 84, r23
Plagiotropic, 36
Plane tree, Platanus
Plant-associations, 179, 185 ; -dis-

INDEX

695

persion, 109; -formations, 179;
-societies, 179

Plantain, Musa , Plantago ; bas-
tard-(W. I Heliconian water-,
Alisma

Plants and insects, 115, 146, and
cf. Flowers ; -, insectivorous,

177; -, ornamental, 207
Platy-(Gr. pref.), broad; -carpous,
broad-fruited

Pleio- pleo- (Gr. pref.), several ;
-chasial cyme, 63 ; -mery, with
more whorls than normal
Plenus (Lat.), full
Pleur- (Gr. pref.), side-; -anthous,
Orchidaceae ; -orhizal, Cruet-
ferae

Plicate, 53
Pit., plant

Plum, Primus ; coco-, Ckryso-
balanus ; date-, Diospyros; hog-,
Spondias ; Madagascar-, Fla -
courtia\ marmalade- (W. I.),
mammee sapote ; Sapodilla,
Achras ; tamarind-, Dialium ;
-tree, seaside (W. I.), Ximenia
Plum., Plumier
Plumbeus (Lat.), lead-coloured
Plumose, feathered
Plumule, 36, 105, 1 12
Pluri- (Lat. pref.), many-
Pluss, 156

Pneumatophores, 16 1
Po (flower-class), 88
Pockwood tree (W. I.), Guaiacum
Podo- (Gr. pref.), stalk-
-pogon (Gr. suff.), a beard of hairs
Poir., Poiret

Poison, 203, Abuta , Acokanthera ,
Aconitum , Toxicodendron ;
-berry (W. I.), Cestrum ; bikh-,
Aconitum ; curare-, Strychnos ;
-dogwood (Am.), Rhus vene-
nata DC. ; -hemlock (Am.),
Conium ; -ivy, Rhus ; -oak,
Rhus ; -sumach (Am.), Rhus ;
wourali-, Strychnos
Poisoning plants, 12, 14
Poium (Cl.), a meadow formation
Pokeweed, Phytolacca
Polish wheat, Triticum

Politus (Lat.), polished
Pollards, Salix ; flora of, 174
Pollen, 79, 61, 86; as food, 6r,
88; -cup, 97, Goodeniaceae\ -di-
morphism, Faramea', -grains,
56, 77; insects collecting-, 88;
plants providing-, 206; pre-
potency of-, 95 ; protection of-,
73, 86; -sacs, 55, 77; -tube,
81

Pollinating agents, 58
Pollination, 58, 56, 85, 86, 87,
162 ; legitimate and illegitimate,
95 .

Pollinia, 79, Asclepiadaceae, Orchi-
daceae

Poly- (Gr. pref.), many; -adelph-
ous, 78; -androus, 70, 78;
-carp, Polycarpon ; -carpellary,
with many carpels, 82 ; -carpic,
fruiting many times; -embryony,
formation of > 1 embryo in ovule;
-gamy, 68; -morphism, 29, (of
fir.) 74; -pet., Polypetalae\
-petalous, 70, 76; -phyletic, 30,
146; -phyllous, 70, 76; -phyly,
122 ; -pody, Poly podium ; -sepal -
ous, 70, 76; -spermous, with
many seeds; -stely, Gunnera
Pome, 108, Pyrus
Pomegranate, Punica
Pomelo, Citrus
Pomiform, apple-like
Pomona, account of fruits
Pompion, pumpkin
Pond, 8, 6; -weed, Potamogeton\
Cape - weed, Aponogeton
Pony (W. I.), Tecoma serratifolia
G. Don

Poonac, crushed seeds, after oil
extraction

Poor man’s weather glass, Ana-
gallis

Poplar, Populus

Poppy, Papaver\ opium-, Papa-
ver\ Welsh-, Meconopsis ; yel-
low horned-, Glaucium
Porcupine grass (Am.), Stipa ;
-wood, Cocos

Pores, dehiscence by, 108; -in
anther, 78

696

INDEX

Porogamic fertilisation, 8i, Chala -
zogamae

Portfolio for pressing, 1 1
Portland arrowroot, Anun
Position of organs, 28
Posterior, 73

Posticous, on the posterior side
Potamium (CL), a river formation
Potato, Solanum ; sweet-, Ipomoea
Potter, M. C. , 154
Pounce, Callitris
Pound and Clement, 184
Poverty grass (Am.), Aristida
dichotomci Michx.
p.p., pro parte, partly
Praecox (Lat.), appearing early
Praemorse, as if bitten off, 53
Prairie, 188 ; -clover (Am.),
Petalostemon ; - grass (Am.),

Sporobolus asper Kunth ; -tur-
nip, Psoralea

Pratal, growing in meadows
Pratensis (Lat.), of meadows
Pref., prefix
Prefoliation, vernation
Preserving, 11, 12, 13, 14
Pressing plants, 11, 13
Prickles, 53, 114
Prickly ash, Zanthoxylum ; . -let-
tuce, Lactuca ; -pear, Opuntia ;
-pole (W. I.), Badris ; -poppy
(Am.), Argemone\ -shield fern,
Aspidium\ -withe (W. I.),

Cereus triangularis Mill.

Prim (Am.), privet
Primine, outer coat of ovule
Primrose, Primula ; evening-,
Oenothera ; -willow (W. 1.),
Jussieua

Prince wood bark (W. I.), Exo-
stemma

Principles of classification, 12 1
Privet, Ligustrum
Procerus (Lat.), lofty
Process, a projecting appendage
Procumbent, 144
Proletarians, 59, 151
Proliferous, bearing offshoots
Prolification, 23
Promotion nuts, cashew nuts
Pronuba moth, Yucca

Propulsive mechanism (seed dis-
persal), hi
Prostrate stem, 44
Protandry, 96, 98
Protection against grazing animals,
153; -of buds, see Bud; -of
honey, 88; -of pollen, 73, 86;
-of young leaves, 157
Protective movements of flowers,
104 ; -of leaves, 49
Proteids, 34

Proterandry, protandry ; -gyny,
protogyny

Prothallus, 55, 79 ; Filin' neae

Lepto . , Pteridophyta , Botry-

chium , Selaginella
Proto- (Gr. pref.), first, earliest ;
. -corm, Lycopodiaceae\ -gyny, 86,
96 ; -plasm, 33
Proximal, nearest to axis
Pruinose, with waxy powdery
secretion on the surface
Prune, Prunus

Pruriens (Lat.), causing itching
Psammophilous, sand-loving
Pseud- (Gr. pref.), false ; -axis, a
sympodium ; -obulbs, Orchida -
ceae\ -ocarp, 106
Psilium (Cl.), a prairie formation
Pt., point
Pteridophyta, 124
Ptero- (Gr. pref.), wing-
Puberulous, minutely pubescent
Pubescent, 53
Puccinia, Malva

Puccoon (Am.), lithospermum ,
Sa?iguinaria ; yellow-, Hydras-
tis

Pudding pipe tree, Cassia
Pulas, Butea

Pulchellus (Lat.), beautiful
Pulque, Agave
Pulvinate, cushion-shaped
Pulvinus, 49, Mimosa
Pumelo, Citrus
Pumilus (Lat.), low, small
Pumpkin, Cucurbita
Punctate, dotted
Pungens (Lat.), sharp-pointed
Punctum vegetationis, growing
point

INDEX

697

Puniceus (Lat.), bright carmine
Pupunha, Badris
Purging cassia, Cassia ; -flax,
Linum

Purple-heart (W. I.), Copaifera ;
-lip (W. I.), Vanilla ; -loose-
strife, Lythrum
Pupureus (Lat.), purple
Purslane, Portulaca\ sea-, Are-
7iaria

Pusillus(Lat.), small, weak, slender
Pustule, a pimple or blister
Putamen, stone of a drupe
Pygmaeus (Lat.), dwarf
Pyrene, single stone of a drupe
Pyriform, pear-shaped
Pyxis, 108

Quadri- (Lat. pref.), four-
Quaquaversal, bending every way
Quaternate, arranged in fours
Quake-grass, Briza
Quamash, Camas sia
Quassia bark, Picraena
Quebec oak, Quercus
Queen-of-the-meadow, Ulmaria
Queensland nut, Macadamia
Quercitron bark, Quercus
Quill- wort, Isoetes
Quinary, in fives

Quince, Pyrus ; Bengal-, Aegle
Marmelos Corr.

Quincuncial aestivation, 75
Quinine, Cinchona
Quinoa, Chenopodium
Quinque- (Lat. pref.), five-
q. v., quod vide, which see

Raceme, 62

Racemose, of racemes, or of race-
mose type
Rachis, 51

Radial symmetry, 31, 73, 82
Radiate stigma, 82
Radical leaves, 5 1
Radicans (Lat.), rooting
Radicle, 36, 105, 111
Radish, Raphanus ; horse- Coch-
learia

Radix Columba, Jateorhiza ; -Pa-
reirae bravae Chondodendron

Raf., Rafinesque
Ragged robin, Lychnis
Ragi, kurakkan, Eleusine
Ragweed (Am.), Ambrosia\ -wort,
Senecio

Rain and plant distribution, 143 ;
-leaves, 144 ; -tree, Andira^
Pithecolobium
Rainy season, 151, 152
Raisins, Vitis

Rambong, Ficus elastica Roxb.
Rambutan, Nephelium
Ramenta, chaffy scales
Ramie, rhea, Boehmeria
Ramose, freely branching
Rampion, Phyteuma
Ramsons, Allium ursinum L.
Ramsted (Am.), toadflax
Ramtil (Hind.), Guizotia
Range of houses, 7
Rapaceus (Lat.), turnip-shaped
Rape, Bras sic a ; broom-, Oro-
banche\ -oil, Brassica
Raphe, 82
Raphides, 114

Raspberry, Rubus ; blackcap-,
Rubus

Rate of increase, 23
Rattan canes, Calamus , &c.
Rattle-box (Am.), Crotalaria ;
-wort (W. I.), Crotalaria ;

yellow-, Rhmanthus
Rattlesnake-grass (Am.), Glyceria
canadensis Trin. ; -plantain
(Am.), Goody era\ -weed (Am.),
Hieracium venosum L.

Ray flowers, Compositae , Umbelli-
ferae

Razor grass (W. I.), Scieria pterota
Presl.

Rchb., Reichenbach
Recept., receptacle ; -of flower,
66, 71, 88-91, in, 123; -of
infl., 63

Reclinate, bent downwards, 53
Recording information, 15
Rectipetality, tendency to grow in
a straight line

Recurrent (venation), veins return-
ing towards midrib
Recurved, bent back or down

698

INDEX

Red bay (Am.), Per sea caroli-
nensis Nees. ; -bud (Am.),
Cercis ; -campion, Lychnis ;
-cedar, Juniper is, (Austr.)
Cedrela ; -head (W. I.), Ascle -
pias curassavica L. ; -hot poker,
Kniphofia ; -pepper, Capsicum ;
-Peru bark, Cinchona ; -root
(Am.), Ceanothus , Lachnan-
thes ; -sandalwood, or sanders,
Pterocarpus ; -sorrel, rozelle;
-spur - valerian, Centranthus ;
-top-grass (Am.), Agrostis ;
-water tree, Erythrophloeum ;
-wood, Sequoia , (Indian) Chick-
rassia , &c. ; -weed (W. I.),
Phytolacca

Reduction of complex inflor-
escence, 65 ; of leaf surface,
166 ; of sporophylls, 69
Reduplicate aestivation, 75 ; ver-
nation, Palmae

Reed, Phragmites ; -bent grass
(Am.), Calamagrostis ; -grass,
Phalaris (W. I.), Arundo ;
-mace, Typlia ; paper-, Cyperus
Reflexed, bent abruptly down-
wards or backwards
Refracted, bent sharply backward
from the base

Reg., regular; (flower), 73, 74, 76
Regions, floral, 192
Regression, reversion
Rein-orchis (Am.), Habenaria
Reinw., Reinwardt
Rejuvenescence, renewal of growth
from old or injured parts
Renewal shoots, Sagittaria
Reniform, 52
Repand, slightly sinuate
Repens, reptans (Lat.), prostrate
and rooting
Re plum, Crucifer ae
Reproduction, true, 54 ; vegeta-
tive, 54, 1 12, 15 1, 153, 160,
1 81 , 184

Reproductive organs, 54
Rescue grass (Am.), Bromus
unioloides H. B. K.

Reserves, 33, 39, 44, 103, 105,
112, T56, 205

Resin, 34, 89, 198, Agathis ,

Cannabis, Coni ferae, Dracaena ,
Picea , Pinus , Xanthorrhoea ;
anime-, Hymenaea ; mastic-,
Schinus ; Sandarach-, Callitris
Resin passages, 1 1 5
Respiration, 33, 34, 161
Restans (Lat.), persistent
Rest-harrow, Ononis
Resupination, Orchidaceae , Lo-
belia, Lophanthus
Reticulate, netted, 53
Retiform, apparently netted
Retinacula, Acanthaceae , Asclepia-
daceae , Zostera

Retrorse, directed back or down-
wards

Retting, 202
Retuse, 53

Reversed, upside down
Reversion to type, 29, Acacia
Bossiaea , Cactaceae
Revolute, 53
Rhachis, rachis
Rhaphe, raphe
Rhatany root, Krameria
Rhea, Boehmeria
Rheotropism, 36
Rhipidium, 64, 65
Rhizanthous, flowering from root
Rhizo- (Gr. pref.), root- ; -carp,
plant with sporangia on rootlike
processes as in Marsileaceae ;
-anthous, flowering from the
root; -me, 153, 113; -phore,
Selaginella

Rhodo- (Gr. pref.), rose red
Rhoium (Cl.), a creek formation
Rhomboidal, of rhomboid shape
Rhubarb, Rheum
Rhynchosporous (fruit), ending in
a beak

Rib of leaf, 51

Rib-grass, Plantago ; -wort plan-
tain, Plantago

Rice, Oryza ; Canada-, Zizania ;
Indian- , Zizania ; -paper, Fastia ;
Scaevola ; Tuscarora-, Zizania
Rich., L. C. Richard
Rich weed (Am.), Pilea
Ridges on fruit, Umbelliferae

INDEX

699

Rigens (Lat.), rigid
Riley, C., Yucca
Ringens (Lat.), gaping
Rings of growth, 157
Ringworm shrub (W. I.), Cassia
alata L.

Riparius (Lat.), of river banks
Ripple grass (Am.), rib-grass
Riv., Rivinus

Rivalis (Lat.), growing by brooks
Riverweed (Am.), Podostemon
Rivularis (Lat.), growing beside
rivulets

Roast beef plant, gladdon
Robertson, 74

Robin -run-in-the-hedge, ground
ivy

Rocambole (Am.), Allium Scoro-
doprasum L.

Rock - brake, curled , Crypto-
gramme ; -cress, Arabis ; - gar-
den, 8, 6 ; -rose, Helianthemum
Rocket, Hesperis ; sea-, Cakile ;

yellow-, Barbarea
Rod, golden, Solidago
Rod way, 189
Roem., J. J. Roemer
Rogue, a sport or variation from
type

Roman nettle, Urtica
Root, 32, 36, 40; adventitious-,
39, 40, 152, 174 ; aerating, 161,
40 ; aerial-, 40 ; -apex, 105 ;
- as suckers, 40 ; - as tendrils,
172; - as thorns, 40 ; - as tubers,
152 ; bitter-, Leivisia ; buttress-,
39, 40, 190, 191; -cap, 37;
clasping-, 174; -climbers, 173;
fibrous-, 40 ; -hairs, 38 ; lateral,
38 ; paint-, Lachnanthes ; para-
sitic-, 39, 176; Pareira-, white,
Abuta ; -rubber, Carpodimis ,
Clitandra ; -stock, 153 ; tap-,
38 ; true-, 36 ; water-plant-, 160
Rose, Rosa ; alpine-, Rhododen-
dron ; Andes-, Befaria ; -apple,
Eugenia ; -, attar of, Rosa ; -bay
(Am.), Rhododendron ; Christ-
mas-, Helleborus\ guelder-, Vi-
burnum ; Jamaica- (W. I.),

Blakea trinervia L. ; -mallow

(Am.), Hibiscus ; -mary, Ros-
marinus ; - of Jericho, Anasta-
tica ; rock-, Helianthemum ;
-root, Sedum ; -wood, East
Indian, Dalbergia
Rosin, Pinus ; -plant (Am.), Sit -
phium

Rostellate, beaked
Rost ellu m , Orch idaceae
Rostrate, beaked
Rosulate, rosetted
Rotaceus (Lat.), rotate, wheel-
shaped, 77
Rotang, rattan
Rottb., Rottboell
Rotund, orbicular-oblong
Roucou, annatto
Rouge, Carthamus
Rowan, Pyrus
Roxb., Roxburgh
Royal fern, Osmunda ; - palm,
Oreodoxa
Rozelle, Hibiscus
Rubber, 199, Euphorbiaceae ,
Moraceae , &c. ; African-, Lan-
dolphia , Funtumia , &c. ; Bo-
livian-, Sapium ; Borneo-, Wil-
lughbeia ; Ceara-, Manihot ;
Central American-, Castilloa ;
Colombian-, Sapium ; Indian-,
Ficus ; Ire-, Funtumia ; Lagos-,
Funtumia ; Madagascar-, Lan-
dolphia , &c. ; Mangabeira-,

Hancornia speciosa Gomez ;
Manicoba-, Ceara ; Mexican-,
Castilloa ; Para-, Hevea ; Per-
nambuco-, Mangabeira ; silk-,
Funtumia ; virgen-, Sapium ;
West Indian-, Castilloa
Rubens (Lat.), blush-red
Ruber (Lat.), red
Rubiginose, rust-coloured, 53
Ruderalis (Lat.), of waste places
Rudimentary organs, 31, 68
Rue, Ruta ; goat’s-, Galega ;

meadow- , T halidrum
Rufescens (Lat.), becoming red-
dish

Rufous, reddish

Rugose, wrinkled (dim. rugulose),
53

700

INDEX

Ruminate endosperm, 106
Runcinate, 53
Runner, 113, 153
Rupestris, rupicolus (Lat.), grow-
ing on banks
Rupture -wort, Herniaria
Ruralis (Lat.), in rustic places
Rusa grass, Andropogon
Rush, Juncus ; Dutch-, Equise-
tum ; flowering-, Butomus ;
-grass (Am.), Sporobolus ; wood-,
Luzula

Russian thistle, Salsola
Rust, Berber is, Triticum
Rutabaga, Brassica campestris L.
Rutilans (Lat.), with glowing
flowers

Rye, Secale\ -grass, Lolium
S., South

Sabrebean, Canavalia
Sac, a pouch ; -cate, 77
Sachs, J., 21, 46, 58
Sack tree (Ceyl.), Antiaris
Sacred bean or lotus, Nelumbium
Safflower, Carthamus
Saffron, 201, Crocus ; meadow-,
Colchicum

Sage, Salvia ; -brush, 188, Arte-
misia ; -rose (W. I.), Turnera ;
wild- (W. I.), Lantana , Salvia ;
wood-, Teucrium
Sagittate, 52

Sago, Arenga , Caryota , Cycas ,
Metro xy Ion ^ Oreodoxa
Sainfoin, Onobrychis
Saint Dabeoc’s heath, Daboecia ;
- Ignatius’ beans, Strychnos
Ignatii Berg. ; - John’s bread,
Ceratonia ; - John’s wort, Hype-
ricum
Sal, Shorea
Salisb., Salisbury
Sallal, Gaultheria
Sallow, Salix
Salsify, Tragopogon
Salsuginosus (Lat.), growing in
places inundated by salt water
Salt-steppe plants, 169
Salt-bush, Atriplex , &c.

Saltwort, Salicornia (Am.), Salsola

Salvador tea, Gaidtheria
Salver-shaped, 77
Saman, Pithecolobium Sam an

Benth.

Samara, 108
Samoa millet, Panicum
Samphire, Crithmum , (Am.) Sali-
cornia

San Domingo apricot, Mammea
Sandbinders, Acacia ; -bur, Cen-
chrus tribuloides L. ; -box tree,
Hura ; -dunes, vegetation on,
186; -spurrey (Am.), Spergu-
laria ; - wort, Arenaria
Sandal-wood, red, Pterocarpus ;

true -, Santalum
Sandarach resin, Callitris
Sanders wood, sandal-wood
Sandw. Is., Sandwich Islands
Sanguineus (Lat.), blood coloured
Sanicle, Sanicula
Sap-green, Rhamnus ; thick -, 165 ;
-wood, 158

Sapidus (Lat.), with pleasant taste
Sapodilla plum, Achras
Saponin, Gouania, Sapindus
Sapote, Lucuma mammosa
Gaertn. f.

Sappan-wood, Caesalpinia
Saprophytes, 177, 38, 145
Sapu (Ceyl.), Michelia Cham-
paca L.

Sapucaia nut, Lecythis
Sarcocarp, the fleshy part of a
drupe ; -testa, the fleshy part of
a seed coat

Sargant, E., Monocotyledons
Sarmentose, forming long runners
Sarsaparilla, S?nilax
Sassafras, oil of, Sassafras
Satinwood, Chloroxylon
Sativus (Lat.), grown or planted
Sauerkraut, Brassica
Savannah, 175, 189; -flower (W.
I.), Echites ; -wattle (W. I.),
Citharexylum
Savin, Juniperus
Savoury, Satureia
Saw-wort, Serratula
Saxatilis (Lat.), growing on rocks
Saxifrage, Saxifraga ; burnet-,

INDEX

701

Pi?npinella ; golden-, Chryso-
splenium

Scabious, Scabiosa ; sheep’s bit-,
Jasione

Scabrous (dim. scabrid, scaberu-
lous), scurfy, 53
Scald, Cuscuta

Scale-leaves, 50 ; - and bud pro-
tection, 153, 155
Scalloped, crenate
Scaly bulb, 152
Scammony, Convolvulus
Scandens (Lat.), climbing
Scape, 45, Triglochin
Scaphoid, boat-shaped, 77
Scapigerous, scape- bearing
Scarious, 53

Scarlet runner, Phaseolus
Scent of flowers, 89
Scented orchis, Habenaria
Schenk, H., 158, 170
Schimper, A. F. W., 140, 148,
*58, 163, 169, 173, 176, 177,
179, 180, 184

Schizo- (Gr. pref.), split-; -carp,
107, 108, Euphorbiaceae\ -gen-
ous, formed by splitting
Sclerocauly, dry hard stem
Schneider, 156
Schrad., Schrader
Schraubel, 64, 65
Schreb., Schreber
Schult., Schultes
Schumann, K., 46, 68
Schwielenblatt, Marantaceae
Scion, young shoot, twig used for
grafting

Sciophytium (Cl.), a shade forma-
tion

Sclerenchyma, tissue with thick
hard walls

Sclero-phyllous, with hard stiff
leaves ; -sis, hardening by ligni-
fication ; -testa, woody layer of
seed coat

Scoke (Am.), Phytolacca
Scorpioid, 65
Scorpion-grass, Myosotis
Scotch attorney (W. I.), Clusia ;
-fir, Pinus ; -grass (W. I.),

Panicum ?nolle Sw.

Scottish asphodel, Tofieldia
Scouring rush (Am.), Equisetum
Scratch coco (W. I.), Colocasia
Screw-pine, Pandanaceae ; -tree
(W. I.), Helicteres
Scrobiculatus (Lat.), pitted
Scrub, 192 ; -myrtle (Austr.),
Backhousia

Scurvy grass, Cochlearia
Scutate, scutiform, buckler-shaped
Scutch grass (Am.), Cynodon
Scutellum, Gramineae
Scyphiphorous, cup-bearing
Sea, and seed migration, 109,
Crinum ; -bean, Entada scan -
dens Benth. ; -beet, Beta\ -blite,
Suaeda ; -coast and salt-steppe
plants, 169; -buckthorn, Hip -
pophae ; -grape, Coccoloba ;
-heath, Frankenia ; -holly, Eryn-
gium ; -Island cotton, Gos-
sypium ; -kale, Crambe\ -laven-
der, Stalice\ -milk-wort, Glatix',
-pink, Armeria ; -purslane,
Arenaria , (Am.) Sesuvium ;

-sidegrape, Coccoloba ; -rocket,
Cakile

Sebaceus (Lat.), like lumps of
tallow

Sabestens, fruit of Cordia Myxa
L.

Secondary shoots, 44 ; -thickening,

-sect, divided to the base
Secund, all directed to one side
Secundine, inner coat of ovule
Sedge, Carex , Cyperaceae ; cotton-,
Eriophorum

Seed, 104, 79, 81 ; -box (Am.),
Ludwigia ; -coat, 105 ; -dis-
persal, 109, 174; -leaves, 36;
- of xerophytes, 168 ; -plants,
Spermaphyta
Seedling, 36, 37, 29
Segetalis (Lat.), growing in grain
fields

Segments, 70, 7 6
Segregate, kept separate
.Segregation of sporophylls, 68
Self-coloured, of uniform tint ;
-fertilisation, 56, 151 ; -heal,

702

INDEX

Prunella', -pollination, 59, 98;
-sterility, 95, Abutilon
Seligmann, Lamy & Falconnet,
197

Semaphore plant (Ceyl.), Desmo-
dium gyrans DC.

Seminiferous, seed-bearing
Semler, 197

Sempervirens (Lat.), evergreen
Senega, snake root, Polygala
Senna, Cassia ; Alexandrian
Cassia ; Arabian Cassia ;
bladder Colutea ; Italian -,
Cassia

Sensitive fern (Am.), Onoclea ;
-leaves, 49, 178; -organs, 1 7 1 ,
172; -plant, 49, Mimosa',
-stamens, Berber is
Sepal, 67, 76, 77
Sepaloid perianth, 77
Septal, of hedgerows
Septate, divided by a partition
wall, 78

Septemfid, in 7 divisions
Septicidal, septifragal, 108
Septifragal, 108
Septum, 80, 82
Seradella, Ornithopus
Serial branches, 42
Sericeous, silky
Series, 120
Sernander, 184

Serotinus (Lat.), late in the season
Serrate, 53

Serratella, Ornithopus
Service berry, Amelanchier
Sesame, Sesamum ; -grass (Am.),
Tripsacum

Sesban (W. I.), Sesbania
Sesqui- (Lat. pref.), one and a
half

Sessile anther, 78 ; -leaf, 46, 51 ;

-stigma, 82
Seta, a bristle
Seville orange, Citrus
Seven-year vine (W. I.), Ipomoea
tuberosa L.

Seward, A. C., Ginkgo , Monoco-
tyledons

Sex, 54 ; -distribution, 68
Sexual cells, 54 ; -generations, 56

Shad bush (Am.), Amelanchier
Shaddock, Citrus
Shallon, Gault heria
Shallot, Allm?n

Sham honey, Cleome , Lopezia ,
Parnassia

Shamrock, Trifolium
Shavegrass (Am.), Equisetum
hyemale L.

She-oak, Casuarina
Shea butter, Butyrospermum
Sheathing, 51

Sheep- berry (Am.), Viburnum
Lentago L. ; -bane (W. I.),
Hydrocotyle ; -sorrel, Rumex ;
vegetable-, Raoulia ; -bit scabi-
ous, Jasione
Shellac, Ficus
Shepherd’s purse, Capsella
Shield fern, Nephrodium', prickly

- -, Aspidium
Shin-leaf (Am.), Pyrola
Shingle wood (W. I.), Nectandra
Shittim wood, Dalbergia
Shoe-flower, Hibiscus Rosa-sinen-

sis L. ; -maker’s bark (W. I.),
Byrsonima
Shoes, Betula
Shola, sola

Shoot, 32, 42 ; adventitious, 44 ;

- of limited and unlimited growth,
42, 61, Conifer ae ; short-, 42,

63

Shore plants on mountains, 187
Shore- weed, Littorella
Short-leaved pine, Pinus
Short shoots, 42, 63, Coniferae
Showers of sulphur, Pinus
Shrubby trefoil, Ptelea
Shrubs, 154
Siberian cedar, Pinus
Siccus (Lat.), dry, juiceless
Sichel, 64, 65

Sicklepod (Am.), Arabis canaden-
sis L.

Side-oats, Bouteloua ; -saddle
flower Sarracenia
Sigmoid, S-shaped
Silica, 165
Silicula, Cruciferae
Siliqua, 108, Cruciferae

INDEX

7 03

Silk-cotton tree, Eriodendron ;
-grass (W. I.), Nidularium ;
-weed, Asclepias
Silkworms, plants useful to, 206
Silky oak (Austr.), Grevillea
Silver-bell tree (Am.), Halesia ;
-berry (Am.), Elaeagnus argen-
teus Pursh. ; -fir, Abies , Picea ;
-tree, Leucadendron ; -wattle,
Acacia ; -weed, Potentilla
Simple fruit, 107; -leaf, 51
Sinistrorse, turned to left
Sinuate leaf, 53

Sinus, bay, re-entrant angle, 82
Siphonogamy, fertilisation by pol-
len tube

Sisal hemp, Agave

Sissoo, Dalbergia

Sitka cypress, Chamaecyparis

Sketching, 15

Skirret, Sium

Skull-cap, Scutellaria

Skunk-cabbage, Symplocarpus

Sleep-movements, 49

Slide zone, Nepenthes , Sarracenia

Slime formation, 161

Sloe, Prunus

Small-reed, Calamagrostis

Smart weed (Am.), Polygonum

Smell of flower, 102

Smith, 178

Snail flowers, 99, Alocasia, Ari-
saema , Aspidistra, Rohdea
Snake gourd, Trichosanthes an-
guinaY. ; -head (Am.), Chelone\
-’s head, Fritillaria ; -wood
(Ceyl.), Ophioxylon
Snakeroot, Cimicifuga ; black -
(Am.), Sanicula ; button-
(Am.j, Liatris ; Senega-, Poly-
gala

Snapdragon, Antirrhinum , (W.
I.) Ruellia

Sneeze-weed (Am.), Helenium ;
-wort, Achillea

Snow, and plant distribution, 143 ;
-ball tree, Guelder-rose ; -berry,
Symphoricarpus ; -drop, Galan-
thus ; -drop tree, Chionanthus,
Halesia ; -flake, Leucojum ;
-leaves, 144

Soap, 203, Chlorogalum , Liliaceae,
Limonia , Sapindus, Saponaria ;
-berry-tree (W. I.), Sapindus ;
-tree, Quillaja\ -wood (W. I.),
Clethra', -wort, Saponaria
Sobole, shoot from the ground
Social habit of trees, 185
Societies, plant, 179
Soft-grass, Holcus
Soil, effects of, 145
Soja beans, Glycine
Sola, wood of, Aeschynomene
Soldier-plant (W. I.), Calliandra
Solitary flower, 66 ; -ovule, 82
Solomon’s seal, Polygonu?n
Sorauer, 197

Sordidus (Lat.), dirty white
Sorgho, Andropogon Sorghum
Brot.

Soriferous, bearing sori
Sorosis, fleshy multiple fruit
Sorrel, Rumex ; wood-, Oxalis
Soros, 54, Cycadaceae , Filicineae
Leptosporangiatae , Pteridophyta
Souari nut, Caryocar
Souchong, Thea

Sour-grass, Panicum conjugatum
Berg. ; -sop, Anona
Southern cold zone, 192
Southernwood, Artemisia
Sow-bread, Cyclamen ; -thistle,
Sonchus

Soybean, Glycine
Sp., species

Spadiceus (Lat.), chestnut-colour-
ed, or bearing a spadix
Spadix, 62, Palmae
Spanish-bayonet, Yucca ; -berries,
yellow berries ; -broom, Spar-
tium ; -dagger, Yucca ; -liquorice,
Glycyrrhiza ; -needle, Bidens ;
-plum (W. I.), Spondias
Sparrow-grass, Asparagus
Sparsus (Lat.), scattered
Spathe, 62, Palmae
Spatterdock (Am.), Nuphar
Spatulate, 52

Spear-grass (Ceyl.), Andropogon
contortus L., (Am.) Poa; -mint,
Mentha ; -wort (Am.), Ranun-
culus

704

INDEX

Spec., specific
Species, 118

Specific areas, 147; - names, 21 1
Speciosus (Lat.), handsome
Spectabilis (Lat.), remarkable
Spectans (Lat.), opposite
Speedwell, Veronica
Spelt, Triticum

Sperm- (Gr. pref.), seed- or male- ;
-aphyta, 124; -atozoid, 55, Gym-
nospermae , Pteridophyta
Spicate, in spikes, or spike-

formed

Spice, 205 ; -bush (Am.), Lindera
Spicule, a small spike
Spider-orchis, Ophrys ; -wort,

Tradescantia
Spignel, Meui7i

Spike, 63 ; -grass (Am.), Uniola ;
-let, Cyperaceae , Gramineae ;
-nard, Nardostachys , (Am.)

Aialia racemosa L. ; -nel,

Meum ; -rush, Eleocharis
Spinach, Spinacia , Thelygonum ;

New Zealand -, Tetragonia
Spindle tree, Euonymus
Spinks, Cardamine pratensis L.
Spinose, spiny
Spiral (flower), 69
Spirolobous, Cruciferae
Spleen wort, A splenium
Splendens (Lat.), glittering
Spogel seed, Ispaghul
Spoon wood (Am.), Kelmia lati-
folia L. ; -wort, Cochlearia
Spongy tissue of leaf, 47
Spontaneous movements of leaf,
49, Desmodiutn
Sporadic, widely scattered
Sporangia, 54, 61, Filicineae

Leptosp.

Sporangiophore, sporangium
bearer

Spore, 54, jot, 104, no
Sporocarp, Filicineae Leptosp .,
Mar si lea, Salviniaceae
Sporophore, placenta, sporophyte
Sporophyll, 54, 66 ; reduction in,
69 ; segregation of, 68
Sporophyte, 54
Sports, 22

Spotted orchis, Orchis
Spreading, 53

Spreng, Sprengel, 102, Epilohium,
Myosotis

Spring-beauty (Am.), Claytonia
Spruce fir, Picea ; hemlock-,
Tsuga ; Norway-, Picea
Spur, 74, 77, Centranthus, Coni -
ferae , Valeriana

Spurge, Euphorbia ; -flax, Daphne ;
-laurel, Daphne

Spurious dissepiment, false septum,
82

Spurry, Spergula
Squamate, scaly

Squamulae intravaginales, Pota -
mogelonaceae

Squarrosus (Lat.), roughly scurfy
with spreading processes, 53
Squash, Cuctirbila
Squaw root (Am.), Conopholis ;

-weed (Am.), Senecio aureus L.
Squill, Urginea
Squinancy wort, Asperula
Squirrel tail grass, Hordeum juba-
turn L.

Squirting cucumber, Ecballiutn
Squitch grass, couchgrass
St Hil., St Hilaire
Sta., stamen

Staff tree (Am.), Celastrus
Stagger bush (Am.), Andromeda
Mariana L.

Stag-horn fern, Platycerium ; -moss,
Lycopodium

Stahl, H., 144, 154, Ficus , Stel-
laria

Stamen, 77, 55, 66, 71, 88; - and
stigma, relative positions, 94
Staminate flower, 68
Staminodes, 70, 79
Standard, Legummosae
Star-anise, Illicium ; -apple, Chry-
sophyllum ; -cucumber (Am.),
Sicyos ; -grass (Am.), Hypoxis ,
Alelris; -of-Bethlehem, Orni-
thogalum ; -of-night (W. I.),
Clusia rosea Jacq. ; -thistle,
Centaurea\ -wort (Am.), Stel-
lar ia, Aster ; -wort, water,
Callitriche

INDEX 705

Starch, 34

Starr-grass, Ammophila , &c.
Stasium (Cl.), a stagnant nool
formation
Stearine, Cocos
Stellate, star-shaped
Stem, 40, 44; - as tendril, 172;

-succulents, 167
Stemless palm, 191
Stenocarpus (Lat.), narrow fruited
Steppes, 188

Sternotribe (firs.), dusting pollen
on under side of visitor
Sterrhium (Cl.), a moor formation
Stimulants, 206

Stinging hairs, 153, Loasaceae ,
Urticaceae

Stink wood, Gustavia , &c., &c.
Stip., stipule, stipulate
Stipe, a stalk or leafstalk
Stipel, 51, Leguminosae
Stipitate, on a special stalk
Stipule, 50, 153, 155, 157, 172;
interpetiolar, intrapetiolar, Ru-
biaceae

Stitchwort, Stellaria -
Stock, Matthiola
Stolon, 153

Stomata, 47, 43, 153, 165
Stone crop, Sedum ; -pine, Pinus
Stool, plant from which offsets
may be taken, or with several
stems arising together
Stopper (Am.), Eugenia
Storage of reserves, 33, 40, 150,
159

Storax, Liquidambar , Storax
Stork’s bill, Er odium
Stove, 7

Stramineus (Lat.), straw-coloured
Strapwort, Corrigiola
Strasburg turpentine, Abies
Strawberry, Eragaria ; -tomato,
Physalis ; -tree. Arbutus
Strengthening tissues, 43, 160
Striate, with fine || lines
Strictus (Lat.), very straight
Strigose, with appressed stiff hairs
or bristles

Stringy bark, Eucalyptus
Strobile, strobilus, 55, Lycopodium

Strong man’s weed (W. I.), Peti-
veria

Strophanthin, Strophantkus
Strophiole, caruncle
Struggle for existence, 24, 149
Strychnine, Strychnos
Style, 82, 79, 97

Stylopodium, enlarged base of
style

Suaveolens (Lat.), fragrant
Sub- (Lat. pref.), under, below,
nearly (cf. p. 53) ; -dominant
species, 1 79 ; -genus, a group of
species within a genus, cf.
Gentiana ; -order, a group of
genera within an order ; -sid-
ence of land, 147 ; -terranean
fruits, Amphicarpaea, Arachis,
Trifolium ; -trop., tropical
Suberization, conversion into cork
Subulate, awl-shaped
Succineus (Lat.), amber coloured
Succisus (Lat.), abruptly broken off
Succory, chicory
Succulence, 167, 169
Succulent house, 7 ; -leaf, 53 ;

-stem, 45 ; -plants, 167
Sucker, a shoot arising below
ground, a new shoot on an old
stem, 153, 113, [76 ; - of para-
sites, 40, 176
Suff., suffix
Suffruticose, 150, 154
Sugar, 33, 34, 205, Beta , Saccha-
rum, Sorghu??i ; -apple, Anona ;
-bean, Lima bean; -beet, Beta ;
-berry (Am.), Celtis\ -cane,
Saccharum ; -maple, Acer ;
palm-, Arenga , Caryota , Cocos ;
-pine, Pinus

Suggestions to students, 4
Sulcate, furrowed
Sulphur-root, Peucedanum
Sumac, Rhus ; West Indian - (W.
I.), Brunellia

Sumatra camphor, Dryobalanops
Summer grape, Vitis
Sun-dew, Drosera ; -drops (Am.),
Oenothera fruticosa L. ; -flower,
Helianthus\ Mexican - flower,
Tithonia\ -plants, 142, 167

W.

45

706

INDEX

Sunn hemp, Crotalaria
Sup., superior, 71, 72, 82
Super, supra (Lat. pref.), over,
above ; -posed, vertically over,
70 ; -volute, convolute
Supinus (Lat.), lying face upwards
Supple-jack (W. I.), Paullinia
Suppression of organs, 31 ; - of
members of whorl, 70
Surculus (Lat.), a sucker
Surette (W. I.), Byrsonima
Surface of leaf, 53
Surinam poison (W. I.), Tephrosia
Suriya (Ceyl.), Thespesia popninea
Soland.

Survival of the fittest, 24
Suspensor, Selaginella
Suture, line of junction, 82
Sw., Swartz

Swamp-cypress, Tcixodium
Swede, a var. of turnip
Sweet-bark, Cascarilla bark ; -bay,
Laurus ; -calabash, Passiflora ;
-cicely, Myrrhis\ - -clover (Am.),
Melilotus ; -cup, Passiflora edn-
lis Sims ; -fern, Myrica aspleni -
folia L. ; -flag, Acorus ; -gale,
Myrica ; -gum, Liquidambar ;
-leaf (Am.), Symplocos ; -lime,
Citrus ; -pea, Lat hyrus ; -potato,
Ipomoea\ -sop, Anona\ -vernal
grasSyAnthoxanthum ; -William,
Dianthus ; -wood (W. I.), Nec-
andra , &c.

Swine-cress (Am.), Senebiera
Sword-bean, Canavalia ; -sedge,
Lepidosperma
Sycamore, Acer
Sycomore fig, Ficus
Syconium, a fig-fruit
Sylvestris (Lat.), growing in
woods

Symbiosis, 177 , Crecopia
Symmetry, 31 ; in flr., 73 ; in
shoot, 46, 47
Sympet., Sympetalae
Sympetalous, 70, 76
Symphysis, coalescence
Sympodial branching, 153, 154
Sympodium, 42, 63, 65
Synandrium, 78, Araceae , Ariopsis

Synandrodium, a union of stamin-
odes, Araceae
Synandrous, 68
Synangium, Marattiaceae
Syncp., syncarpous, 70, 79, 82
Synergidae, 81, Angiospet'mae
Syngenesious, 78, Compo sitae
Synonym, 21 1
Syringa, Philadelphia
Syrtidium (Cl.), a dry sandbar
formation

Systematic botany, 2

Systems of classification, 121, 124

Tabashir, Bambusa
Tabescent, wasting, shrivelling
Tabular, flattened horizontally
Tacamahac, Calophyllum , Populus
Taccada pith, Scaevola
Tagasaste, Cytisus proliferus L. f.
Talipot palm, Corypha
Tallicona, Carapa
Tallow-tree, Pcntadesma , Sapium
Tamacoari, Caraipa
Tamarack, Larix americana
Michx.

Tamarind, Tamarindus ; -plum,
Dialium ; velvet-, Dialium
Tamarisk, Tamarix
Tampico fibre, Agave
Tan, 201, Acacia , Betula , Quercus ,
Rumexy &c.

Tania, Xanthosovia
Tank, 8, 6

Tannin, 34, 201, Geum
Tansy, Tanacetum
Tap-root, 38
Tapa cloth, Broussonetia
Tape-grass (Am.), Vallisneria
Taphrium (Cl.), a ditch formation
Tapioca, Manihot
Tar, Coniferae, Pinus
Tare, Vicia
Taro, Colocasia
Tartarian lamb, Dicksonia
Tasm., Tasmania; -n myrtle,
Fagus Cunninghamii Hook.
Taxonomy, 2

Tea, 7hea , Cat ha, Ledum , Neea>
Priva , Stachytarpheta ; Alge-
rian-, Paronychia ; Australian-

INDEX

707

tree, Melaleuca ; Mexican-,
Chenopodium ; Oswego-, Mo-
narda ; Paraguay-, Ilex\ -plant,
Lycium\ West Indian- (W. I.),
Capraria

Teak, Tectona ; bastard-, Butea
Tear thumb (Am.), Polygonum
Teasels, 207, Dipsacus
Teeth, small marginal lobes
Tegmen, inner coat of testa
Telegraph plant, Desmodium
Teleology, doctrine of final causes
Telmatium (Cl.), a wet meadow
formation

Temp., temperate; -house, 7
Temperature and cleistogamy, 99;

- and plant distribution, 143
Tendril, 171, 51, Bignoniaceae
Tengah bark, Ceriops
Tentacles, 114

Tenuifolius (Lat.), thin-leaved
Teosinte, Euchlaena mexicana
Schrad.

Tepals, 76
Teratology, 22
Terete, cylindrical tapering
Terminal style, 82
Ternary, trimerous
Ternate, 51

Tertiary period, 147, 149
Tessellate, chequer- worked
Testa, 105, hi
Testaceus (Lat.), brick-red
Tetra- (Gr. pref.), four- ; -cyclic,
with 4 whorls, 70 ; -delphous,
in 4 bundles ; -dynamous, 78,
Cruciferae\ -merous, 70; -mor-
phic, of 4 forms ; -ndrous, 78 ;
-pterous, 4-winged
Tetrad, group of 4, 79, Ericaceae
T eufelsbi ss , Ph ragm iles
Thalamus, floral receptacle, 66
Thalassium (Cl.), a sea formation
Thalloid, of thallus-form
Thallophyta, 124
Thallus, 163, Podostemaceae
Thatch-palm, Sabal, Thrinax , &c.
Theca, a sporangium, anther-
loculus, 77

Theetsee, Melanorrhoea
Thermium (CL), a hot spring
formation

Thermotropism, curvature depen-
dent on temperature
Thickening of root, 39 ; of stem,

43> 173 . . , .

Thigmotropism, curvature induced
by rough surface

Thimble berry (Am.), Rubus Occi-
dentalis L.

Thinium (CL), a dune formation
Thistle, Carduus , Cnicus ; blessed-,
Cnicus\ carline-, Carlina ; cot-
ton-, Onopordon\ globe-, Echi-
nops ; milk-, Silybum ; - on

pampas, 24 ; Russian-, Salsola ;
Scotch-, Onopordon ; sow-, Son-
chus ; star- , Centaurea ; weather-,
Carlina ; yellow- (W. I.), Arge-
mone

Thoms., T. Thomson
Thorn, Crataegus ; black-, Primus ;
-apple, Datura ; Glastonbury,
see G. ; Kaffir-, Lycium\ kan-
garoo-, Acacia

Thoms, bracts as, 62 ; on ovary,
72; roots as, 40; stipules as, 51
Thoroughwort (Am .),Eupatorium
Thorow-wax, Bupleurum
Thrift, Armeria
Throw-wax, Bupleurum
Thmm-eyed, short-styled (Pri-
mula)

Thunb., Thunberg
Thyme, Thymus
Thyroid, shield-like
Thyrsus, an ovate panicle
Tick-seed (Am.), Coreopsis ; -tre-
foil (Am.), Desmodium
Tigellum, plumule
Tiger-flower, Tigridia
Tiles, Bambusa

Tiller, a sucker from base of stem
Timber, 207; -line, limit oftrees, 18 1
Time of flowering, 103
Timothy grass, Phleum
Tinctorius (Lat.), used for dyeing
Tiphium (CL), a pool formation
Tirium (CL), a bad land formation
Toad -flax, Linar ia; bastard-,

Thesium ; ivy-leaved-, Linaria
Tobacco, Nicotian a
Toddy, Cocos , Borassus , &c.
Tolu, balsam of, Tolu if era

708

INDEX

Tomato, Lycopersicum ; goose-
berry-, Phy salts', strawberry-,
Phy sails \ tree-, Cyphomandra
Tomentose, 53
Tonka bean, Dipteryx
Tonquin bean, Dipteryx
Toon, Cedrela Toona Roxb.
Toothache-grass (Am.), Ctenium ;
-tree, Zanthoxylum ; -wort
(Am.), Dentaria
Toothwort, Lathraea
Topee tampo, Calathea
Topiary, ornamental gardening
Topographical agents, 142
Tormentil, Potentilla
Torr. , Torrey

Torulose, cylindrical with slight
contractions

Torus, floral receptacle, 66, 89
Total parasites, 177
Touch-me-not, Impatiens
Touloucouna, Caraipa
Toum., Tournefort
Tournesol, Chrozophora
Tous-les-mois, Canna edulis Ker-
Gawl.

Towel gourd, Luff a
Trabeculae, Isoetes
Tragacanth, Astragalus
Trailing arbutus, Epigaea ; -azalea,
Loiseleuria

Transition stages, seedling, 112
Translator, Asclepiadaceae
Transpiration, 33, 47, 49, 143,

144, 164, 167, 169, 175
Transverse dehiscence, 78
Trapeziform, of unsymmetrical 4-
sided shape

Trap-flowers, 98, Ceropegia , Mag-
nolia

Traveller’s joy, Clematis ; -tree,
Ravenala

Travellers, notes for, 1 1
Treacle mustard, Erysimum
Tread-softly (Am.), /atr op ha
Tree-fern, Cyathea , &c. ; -mallow,
Lavatera ; -, of heaven, Ailan-
thus ; -tomato, Cyphomandra
Trees, 154, 157, 205, 208
Trefoil, Trifolium ; bird’s foot-,
Lotus', shrubby-, Ptelea
Treub, M., 148, Chalazogamae ,

Dischidia , Myrmecodia , Spa-
thodea

Tri- (Gr. Lat. pref.), three- ; -adel-
phous, 78; -androus, 78; -car-
pellary, 82 ; -chotomous, forking
into three ,* -cyclic, with 3 whorls,
70 ; -farious, facing three ways ;
-fid petals, 77; -fid stigma, 82;
-foliate, ternate, 51 ; -gonous, 3-
angled, A in section; -lobous,
3-lobed; -locular, with 3-loculi,
82 ; -merous, 70 ; -morphism, 95 ;
-oecism, 68; -pterous, 3-winged;
-quetrous, 3-edged, with hollow
faces; -stichous, in 3 ranks, 51;
-ternate, thrice ternate
Trich- (Gr. pref.), hair-; -omes,
hair structures

Trincomalee wood, Berrya Am-
monilla Roxb.

Tristis (Lat.), dull coloured
Trivial (name), specific
Trochlear, pulley-shaped
Trop. , tropical, -botany, 3 ; regions,
194; vegetation, 189; zone, 188
Tropophytes, 168
True fruit, 106
True reproduction, 54
Trumpet-flower, Bignonia, Datura,
&c. ; -reed (W. I.), Arundo\
-tree, Cecropia\ -weed (Am.),
Etipatorium purpurenm L.
Trumpets (Am.), Sarracenia flava
L.

Truncate, 33
Tube, 70, 72 76, 89
Tuber, 152, 113, 159, 168
Tubercles, 39, Legummosae
Tuberculate, with knobby projec-
tions

Tuberose, Polianthes
Tuberous root, 40
Tubular corolla, 77, Compositae\
-leaf, 52

Tufted growth, 165
Tulip, Tulipa ; -tree, Lirioden-
dron , (Ceyl.) Thespesia , (W. I.)
Paritium

Tumescent, somewhat tumid
Tumid, swollen
Tundras, 180
Tunicated bulbs, 152

INDEX 709

Tupelo, Nyssa
Turbinate, cone-shaped
Turf, 185
Turgidity, 35, hi
Turion, a scaly sucker or shoot
from the ground

Turkey-berry (W. I.), Solanum
spp. ; -oak, Quercus ; -red,
Peganum

Turmeric, Curcuma
Turnip, Brassica ; prairie-, Psoralea
Turnsole, Chrozophora
Turpentine, T99, Coniferae, Abies ,
Pice a, Pinus ; Chian-, Pistacia ;
oilof -, Pinus \ Strasburg-, Abies;
-tree, Bursera; Venice-, Larix
Turtlehead (Am.), Chelone; -grass
(W. I.), Thalassia
Tuscarora rice, Zizania
Tutsan, Hypericum
Tway blade, Lister a
Twig-rush (Am.), Cladium
Twin flower (Am.), Linnaea; -leaf,
Jeffer sonia

Twining plants, 170; stem, 44
Twisted stalk (Am.), Streptopus
Twisting (flower stalk), 74 ; (leaf),
47, 49; (stem), 17 1 ; (theca of
anther), 78

Twitch grass, Agropyron
Tyle berry (W. I Jatropha multi-
fida L.

Type of species, 117
Ule, Castilloa

Uliginosus (Lat.), growing in
swamps
Umbel, 63

Umbilicate, peltate, or depressed
in the centre

Umbonate, with central boss
Umbraculiferous, like an expanded
umbrella

Umbrella fir, Sciadopitys ; -grass
(Am.), Fuirena; -leaf (Am.),
Diphylleia ; -tree, Acacia , Mag-
nolia

Umbrinus (Lat.), umber coloured
Umbrosus (Lat.), of shady places
Uncate, uncinate, hooked
Undershrubs, 154
Undulate, wavy, 53

Unguiculate, ungulate, clawed,

77

Uni- (Lat. pref.), one-; -corn
plant (Am.), Martynia ; -folio-
late, with one leaflet, Berberis ,
Citrus ; -lateral, one-sided ;
-loc., -locular, 79, 82; -parous,
monochasial ; -sex., -sexual, 68
Upas tree, Antiaris
Urceolate, urn-shaped, 77
Urens (Lat.), stinging
Urucury nut, Maximiliana
U.S., United States
Ustilago antherarum, Lychnis
Utricle, Cyperaceae
Uvarius (Lat.), like a bunch of
grapes

Vaginate, sheathed
Vahy, LandoLphia m a dagasca rien -
sis Benth. et Hook. f.

Vaill., Vaillant

Valerian, Valeriana ; red-spur-,
Centranihus

Vallecula (Lat.), grooves in fruit
Valonia, Quercus
Valvate aestivation, 75
Valve, 108

Valvular, dehiscence (anther), 78;

(fruit), 108
Vandevelde, A., 112
Vanilla, Vanilla; -grass (Am.),
Hierochloe
Var., variety

Variation, 21, 2, 159; accumu-
lated-, 25; correlated-, 23,26;
discontinuous -, 22, 118; - in
colour, 100; step -,22
Varieties, 116

Varnish, 199, Melanorrhoea;
Chinese - tree, A leurites Fordii
Hemsl.

Vascular bundles, 33 ; -cryptogams,
124, Pteridophyta
Vasculum, 11, 13
Vegetable horsehair, Tillandsia;
-ivory, 207, Palmae , Phytele-
phas ; -marrow, Cucurbita,
Blighia ; -oyster, salsify ; -patho-
logy, 3 ; -sheep, Raoulia
Vegetation, forms of, 150; zones
of, 178

yio

INDEX

Vegetative growth, 103, 112, 159;

- organs, 32 ; - reproduction, 54,
112, 151, 153, 160, 181, 184
Veins of leaf, 33, 48
Velamen, Araceae , Orchidaceae
Velutinus (Lat.), velvety
Velvet-bean, Mucuna ; -bur (W.
I.), Priva\ -grass (Am.), Nol-
ens lanatus L. ; -leaf (W. I.),
Cissampelos Pareira L. ; -seed
(W. I.), Guettarda ; tamarind,
Dialium
Venation, 51

Venenatus (Lat.), poisonous
Venice turpentine, Larix
Venose, with veins
Ventral, 31, 49, 73, 82
Ventricose corolla, 77
Venulose, thickly veined
Venus’ comb, Scandix ; -fly-trap,
Dionaea ; -looking-glass, Specu-
laria

Verat r i n , Schoenocaulon , Veratrum
Verbena oil, Lippia , Andropogon
Vermiform, worm-shaped
Vernal-grass, sweet, Anthoxan-
thuvi

Vernalis (Lat.), of spring
Vernation, 53, 41
Vernon, H. M., 23
Verrucose, warty
Versatile, 78, 86
Versicolor (Lat.), changing colour
Verticil, a whorl ; -laster ,Labiatae\
-late, 51

Vervain, Verbena
Vesicular, as if of small bladders
Vestigial organs, 31, 79, 123
Vetch, Vicia ; kidney-, Ant hy Ills;

milk-, Astragalus
Viable, capable of germination
Vetiver, khus-khus
Vexillum, Leguminosae
Villose, villous, with long weak
hairs

Vimineous, with long flexible twigs
Vine, Vitis ; (in U.S.) any climb-
ing or running stem
Vinegar, Borassus , Cocos
Violet, Viola ; Dame's-, Hes peris ;
essence of-, Iris; water-, Hot -
tonia

Viper’s bugloss, Echium
Virens (Lat.), green
Virgatus (Lat.), twiggy
Virginian cowslip (Am.), Merten-
sia virginica DC. ; -creeper,
Vitis ; - snake-root (Am.), Ari-
s to lochia Serpent aria L.

Virgin’s bower (Am.), Clematis
Viridescens (Lat.), greenish
Viscid, sticky

Viscin, Loranthaceae , Viscum
Viscosus (Lat. ), viscid
Vittae, Umbelliferae
Vittate, striped lengthwise
Vivipary, 19 1, Ardisia , Avicennia ,
Asplenium , Cryptocoryne , Fesiu-
ca, Filicineae Leptosp ., Grami-
neae

Vochting, 74, 99, 1 13, 150, Viola
Volatile oils, 201
Volkens, G., 163
Volubilis (Lat.), twining
Vulcanisation of rubber, 200
Vulgaris (Lat.), common

W (flower class), 87
W., West; W. Ind., West Indies
Waahoo (Am.), Fuonymus atro -
purpitreus Jacq.

Wake robin, Arum , (Am.) Tril-
lium

Walking fern, Asplenium ; -sticks,
Bambusa
Wall., Wallich

Wall-flower, Cheiranthus\ -pep-
per, Sedum ; -spleen wort, A sple-
nium

Wallace, A. R., <23, 99, 103, 148,
189

Walnut, Juglans ; country-, Aleu-
rites ; East Indian-, Albizzia
Lebbek Benth. ; Otaheite- (W.
I. ), Aleurites ; satin-, Liquidam-
bar styracijlua L.

Wampi, Clausena Wampi Oliv.
War a, Calotropis
Warming, E., 27, 140, 158, 163,
169, 179, 180, 184, Velloziaceae ;
- system of classification, 124,
<37

Wart-cress (Am.) , Senebiera ; -herb
(W. I.), Rhynchosia

INDEX

Wasp-flowers, 92, Cotoneaster ,
Epipactis , Ficus , Scrophularia ,
zw phoricarpus

Water- arum (Am.), Calla\ -avens,
Geum ; -carriage of seeds, 1 10 ;
-chestnut, Trapa\ -chinquepin
(Am.), Nelumbiiwi ; -nut , Wz/a ;
-cress, Nasturtium ; -crowfoot,
Ranunculus ; -drop wort,
nanthe ; -grass, Panicum ; -hem-
lock, Cicuta', -hyacinth, Eichor-
nia ; -hyssop (W. I. ), Herpestis ;
-leaf, Hydrophyllum\ -lemon,
Passiflora ; -lettuce, Pistia ;
-lily, Nymphaea , Nuphar , PzV-
toria ; -lily-house, 7 ; -maize,
Victoria ; -melon, Citrullus ;
-milfoil, Myriophyllu?n ; -nymph
(Am.), Nymphaea\ -parsnip,
Sium; -pennywort (Am.), Hy-
drocotyle ; -pepper, Elatine ;
-pimpernel (Am.), Samolus ;
-pipes, Bambusa ; -plantain,
Alisma ; -plants, 158; -pores,
1 14, Saxifraga ; -rice, Zizania ;
-soldier, Stratiotes ; -starwort,
Callitriche', -storage, 167, 175;
-thyme, Elodea\ -vine (W. I.),
Doliocarpus , &c.; -violet, Hot-
tonia\ -weed, Elodea ; -willow
(Am.), Diant/iera ; -wort (Am,),
Elatine
Watt, G., 197
Wattle, Acacia

Wax, 34, 165, 201, Ceroxylon,
Copernicia , Myrica , Palmae ;
-flower, Angraecum, Hoy a ;

-gourd, Chinese, Benincasa\
Japan-, Rhus', -myrtle, Myrica ;
-palm, Copernicia ; -tree, Rhus
Wayfaring tree, Viburnum
Weather-plant, Abrus ; -thistle,
Carlina

Weeping willow, .SVz/z>

Weights, 207, Abrus
Weld, Reseda
Welsh poppy, Mecanopsis
Welw., Welwitsch
Wendl., Wendland
West Indian arrowroot, Maranta ;
-bark (W. I.), Exostemma ;

-birch, Bur sera gummifera L. ;

711

-boxwood, Tabebuia pentaphylla
Hemsl. ; -cedar, Cedrela\ -Lo-
cust tree, Hymenaea
Weymouth pine, Pmus
Wheat, THticum ; cow-, Melam-
pyrunr, -grass, Agropyron
Whim -berry, Vacciniu?n
Whin, Ulex ; petty-, Genista
White bryony, Bryonia ; -bent-
grass, Agrostis; -cedar, Chamae-
cy paris, Chickrassia, Libocedrus ,
&c. ; -dammar, Vateria ; -grass
(Am ), Leersia; -head (W. I.),
Parthenium\ -hellebore, Vera-
trum ; -horehound, Marrubium ;
-horse (W. I.), Portlandia\

-ipecacuanha, Ionidium ; -mus-
tard, Brassica', -Pareira root,
Abuta\ -pitch, 199; -rot, Hy-
drocotyle', - water-lily, Nymphaea\
-weed, Ageratum, (Am.) ox-eye
daisy; -wood, Oreodaphne, Te-
coma, &c., and tulip-tree
Whitlow-grass, Dr aba ; -wort
(Am.), Paronychia
Whorls, arrangement in, 45, 51,
69, 83 ; false-, Labiatae
Whortle-berry, Vaccinium
Wickel, 64, 65
Wiesner, J., 47, 144, 197
Wig-tree, Rhus

Wild allspice (Am.), Lindera\
-bean (Am.), ^zW; -chamomile
(Am.), Matricaria ; -ginger
(Am.), Asaru?n ; -hyacinth,
Sc ilia

Wilde preume (S. Afr.), Pappea
Willd., Willdenow
Willis, J. C.,27, 30,31, 69, 74, 93,
99, 146, 148, 158, 173, 1 80,
197, Brodiaea , Phacelia, Podo-
stemaceae, Stanhopea
Willow, Salix ; -herb, Epilobium
Wind, effect on geographical dis-
tribution, 1 44 ; -fertilisation, 60 ;
-flower, Ane?none\ -pollination,
60, 86, 96 ; seed-distribution by,
no

Windsor bean, broad bean
Wine palm, Borassus , Raphia
Wings on fruit, 110; on ovary, 72
Leguminosae

712

INDEX

Winter aconite, Eranthis ; -berry
(Am., W. I.), Ilex\ -buds, 155,
156, J59; -cherry, Phy sails ;

-cress, Barbarea\ -green, Gaul-
theria , Pyrola', -green, chick-
weed, Trientalis ; -heliotrope,
Petasites ; trees in, 156
Winter’s bark, Drimys
Wire-grass, Paspalum , Poa, Eleu-
sine, &c.

Witch-hazel, Hamamelis
Witches’ brooms, 20, 156
Woad, Isalis ; -waxen (Am.),
Genista

Wolfs-bane, monkshood; -milk,
Euphorbia

Wood, 33, 43, 154, 157, 158, 167;
-anemone, Anemone ; -apple,
Feronia ; Arar-, Callitris ; as-
segai-, Curtisia ; -avens, Geum \
bass-, Tilia ; -betony, Betonica\
-bine, Lonicera ; bow-, Maclura ;
Chittagong-, Chickrassia\ iron-,
Mesua , &c. ; -fern (Am.), As-
pidium ; lever-, Ostrya\ -nettle
(Am.) , Laportea ; -oil, A leurites ,
Dipterocarpus,<k c. ; porcupine-,
Cocos', -ruff, Asperula', -rush,
Luzula ; -sage, Teucrium ; san-
dal-, Santalum ; -sorrel, Oxalis ;
yellow-, Cladrastis
Wooden pears, Xylomelum
Worm-grass (Am., W. I. ), Spigelia\
-seed, Chenopodium\ -wood,
Artemisia

Wound- wort, Stachys
Wourali, Strychnos
Wrack -grass, Zoster a
Wych-elm, Ulmus

Xantho- (Gr. pref.), yellow
Xenia, direct influence of foreign
pollen on the mother plant
Xenogamy, pollination from an-
other plant

Xero- (Gr. pref.), dry-; -chastic,
opening by drying; -hylium
(Cl.), a dry forest formation ;
-phile, -phytic, -phytes, 163,

26, 103, 107, 150, 153, 175,
181-9, I9I» r92> *94> Cactaceae
Xylem, 33

Yacca tree (W. I.), Podocarpus
Yam, Dioscorea\ -bean, Pachyrhi-
zus , Dolichos

Yard grass (Am.), Eleusine
Yarrow, Achillea
Yate, Eucalyptus cornuta Labill.
Yaupon (Am.), Ilex Cassine L. ;

-grass (Am.), Eleusine
Yautia, Xanthosoma
Yaw-weed (W. I.), Morinda um-
bellata L,

Yellow archangel, Lamium ; -bark,
Cinchona ; -berries, Rhamnus ;
-bird’s nest, Monotropa ; -bugle,
Ajuga ; -cedar, Chamaecyparis ;
-cress, Barbarea\ -deal, Pinus ;
-flag, Iris; -horned poppy,
Glaucium ; -loose-strife, Ly si-
mac hia\ - pimpernel, Lysimachia\
-pine, Pinus ; -puccoon, Hy-
drastis ; -rattle, Rhmanthus ;
-rocket, Barbarea', -seal, Hy-
drastis ; -toad-flax, Linaria ;
-water-lily, Nuphar ; -wood,
Cladrastis ; -wort, Chlora
Yerba buena, Micromeria; -mate,
Ilex

Yew, Taxus
Ylang-ylang, Cananga
Yorkshire-fog, Holcus
Young fustic, Rhus
Yuca, cassava

Zedoary, Curcuma
Zezegany (W. I.), sesame
Zoidiogamy, fertilisation by sper-
matozoids

Zones of vegetation, 178, 180
Zoophily, 99

Zygom., zygomorphic, zygomor-
phism, 31, 73, 74, 77, 82; di-
agonal, right- and left-handed,
transverse, 74, Anigozanthos ,
Helicteres , Saintpaulia , &c.
Zygote, 54, 81, Pteridophyta

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8 1 figures. Crown 8vo. 6y.

Field. The work is essentially suited to the requirements of those
desirous of studying the grasses commonly grown in this country, and
it can fairly be said that it furnishes an amount of information seldom
obtained in more pretentious volumes.

A Treatise on the British Freshwater Algae. By

G. S. West, M.A., A.R.C.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural History
at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. Demy 8vo. ios. 6d. net.
Nature. Its aim is stated as “to give the student a concise account
of the structure, habits and life-histories of Freshwater Algae, and also
to enable him to place within the prescribed limits of a genus any Algae
he may find in the freshwater of the British Islands.” To do this within
the limits of an octavo volume of less than 400 pages, in which are
numerous illustrations, is a task possible of accomplishment only by one
very familiar with the subject and skilled in concise expression ; but that
it has been successfully done will, we think, be the verdict after testing the
book thoroughly. ... Prof. West’s treatment of his subject is instructive and
stimulating.

A Manual and Dictionary of the Flowering Plants

and Ferns. By J. C. Willis, M.A., Director of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Ceylon. Second Edition. Complete in one volume. Crown
8vo. ios. 6d.

Field. Taking this handy volume and a local flora, the traveller or
student may do an enormous amount of practical field work without any

other botanical literature whatever The result is a work that ought to be

included in every library of botany and horticulture or agriculture, and it is
certainly one that the nomadic botanist cannot afford to leave at home....
We have used the original edition of this work since its publication, and
have found it to be one of the most useful and comprehensive works on
plants ever produced.

Athenceum. The whole is well abreast of modern research, and a
thoroughly business-like volume, lucid though compact.

Elementary Palaeontology — Invertebrate. By Henry

Woods, M.A., F.G.S., University Lecturer in Pakeozoology. Crown
8vo. Third Edition. Revised and enlarged, with 112 Illustrations.
6s.

Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology for students

of Zoology. By Arthur Smith Woodward, M.A., F.R.S.,
Keeper of the Department of Geology in the British Museum. Demy
8vo. With numerous Illustrations. 14^.

Athenceum. The author is to be congratulated on having produced a
work of exceptional value, dealing with a difficult subject in a thoroughly
sound manner.

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,
C. F. CLAY, Manager,

ILonDon: FETTER LANE, E.C.,

® Iasgott) : 50, WELLINGTON STREET
^ ALSO

-SLonUon: H. K. LEWIS, 136, GOWER STREET, W.C.

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